I E) RA R. Y 
 OF THE 
 
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 Of ILLINOIS 
 
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 Uh33 ^Ii 
 
 no.277-2S2) 
 
 cop. 2 
 
 AGRiCULTURg 
 
mE DIRCULATING 
 
 fPHECK FOR UNBOUND 
 PIRCULAIING CJM 
 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2018 with funding from 
 
 University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates 
 
 https://archive.org/details/usualplantinghar2772unse 
 

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 .X 
 
 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The authors gratefully express their appreciation to employees of 
 the Bureau of Land Management, Soil Conservation Service, Bureau 
 of Indian Affairs, Forest Service, Agricultural Research Service, State 
 agricultural experiment stations. State fish and game departments and 
 extension services, and to many private individuals for their coopera¬ 
 tion in setting out demonstrations of sagebrush eradication and seed¬ 
 ing, and for information on equipment design and procedures in 
 sagebrush control and seeding. So many individuals have contributed 
 material that it is impossible to make specific acknowledgment. 
 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 February 1965 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 20 cents 
 
fiv-R^nn OF ,.u„g,. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction_ 1 
 
 Where to control sagebrush_ 4 
 
 When to control sagebrush_ 8 
 
 Choosing a method of sagebrush control_ 10 
 
 Methods for sagebrush control_ 11 
 
 Planned burning_ 12 
 
 Spraying with herbicides_ 16 
 
 Plowing or disking_ 19 
 
 Anchor chaining_ 25 
 
 Cutting, beating, or shredding_ 27 
 
 Harrowing_ 29 
 
 Other methods_ 31 
 
 Regrassing after sagebrush control_ 34 
 
 Management of ranges after sagebrush control_ 36 
 
 Common and scientific names of plant species mentioned_ 39 
 
 Much of the material in this handbook, in an earlier form, was in Farmers’ 
 Bulletin No. 2072, Controlling Sagebrush on Range Lands, issued October 1954. 
 
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 ^06 .3^74-5 F/ .' 
 
 ■ " 2 ^ 
 
 SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 By Joseph F. Pechanec, Director, A. Peeey Plummee, Joseph H. 
 
 Robeetson,^ and A. C. Hull, Jr.,' Range Conservationists, 
 Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Sagebrush control brings about major increases in grass production 
 on millions of acres of western range. Getting rid of competing sage¬ 
 brush and restoring a good stand of forage plants through natural 
 or artificial seeding enables ranges to supply forage for more sheep 
 and cattle, and is helpful in improving watersheds. In effect, new 
 range is created on large areas, making possible a superior plant cover 
 on adjoining ranges by better grazing management. 
 
 Innumerable examples have demonstrated that sagebrush eradica¬ 
 tion can more than repay its cost on many ranges in the West; double 
 to 25 times greater grazing capacities have been obtained. 
 
 There are approximately 96 million acres of western range in the 
 sagebrush type. On a large part of this rangeland, sagebrush is 
 overly dense and must be reduced before increased forage yields can 
 be obtained. This overly dense sagebrush is largely the result of over- 
 grazing, together with drought. Sagebrush control is recommended 
 primarilv for ranges used by livestock in the spring, fall, and summer 
 but not for those grazed chiefly in the winter. Here sagebrush, espe¬ 
 cially black sagebrush,^ is often a desirable forage. 
 
 Likewise, control on ranges used by big game in the winter is not 
 advocated where sagebrush is an important source of browse. A bal¬ 
 anced mixture of broad-leaved herbs, grasses, and shrubs is considered 
 desirable for most wildlife of these sagebrush ranges. 
 
 In tall, dense stands sagebrush is definitely undesirable (fig. 1, A). 
 It is relatively unpalatable to sheep and cattle, and it uses moisture 
 and nutrients that should be producing good forage (figs. 1, 5 ,’ 2). 
 
 Sagebrush prevents grazing of grasses hidden under its woody stems 
 and crown. It hampers movement of livestock, especially sheep. The 
 brush snags wool from fleeces. It causes lambs and calves to stray and 
 become lost, and heavy brush makes conditions ideal for predators 
 such as coyotes. As a result of the increasing preponderance of sage¬ 
 brush over valuable herbs and grasses, western ranges now carry far 
 fewer livestock than they should. 
 
 ^ The authors were all staff members of the Intermountain Station when the 
 original manuscript was prepared. Mr. Robertson is now Chairman, Depart¬ 
 ment of Plant Science, University of Nevada; Mr. Hull is with the Agricultural 
 Research Service of the USDA. 
 
 Scientific names of all plant sj^ecies mentioned are given at the end of this 
 handbook. 
 
 1 
 
2 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 77 
 
 F-428740, 428736 
 
 I^GUKE 1—Dense stands of big sagebrush must be reduced before a range can 
 be improved. A, Heavy stands of sagebrush such as this cover up the grass, 
 hinder livestock movement, cause wool pulling and lamb straying, use 
 moisture needed to produce good grasses. B, Where dense stands of sagebrush 
 have a fair understory of good native grasses, killing the sagebrush by burning, 
 spraying with herbicides, or using some mechanical method will release the 
 grasses from competition for moisture. With good grazing managem^t, the 
 grass can then increase and produce a good stand. Planned burning 3 years 
 before this photo was taken has doubled the grazing capacity. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 3 
 
 F-431209 
 
 Figuee 2. —Where there is only a scattered understory of grass, the range must 
 be seeded following sagebrush removal. This area supported a dense stand of 
 sagebrush, like that shown in figure 1, hut had no grass understory. The 
 sagebrush was burned and the area drilled to crested wheatgrass. Three 
 years later it could carry 15 times as many cattle as it could before treatment. 
 
 Without removal of sagebrush only slight improvement in forage 
 yield can be expected on many ranges even after good grazing manage¬ 
 ment has been practiced for 15 to 30 years. Where there is little or 
 no understory of herbs and grasses, it may take much longer. Seeding 
 should not be attempted until most of the sagebrush has been elimi¬ 
 nated. Young grass seedlings cannot compete successfully for soil 
 moisture with established sagebrush plants. 
 
 There are many shrubby species of sagebrush, all of which are often 
 called just “sagebrush.” Big sagebrush is by far the most common. 
 Associated species are silver sagebrush, threetip sagebrush, low sage¬ 
 brush, and black sagebrush. Black sagebrush is an excellent browse 
 on winter range, but on spring-fall and summer ranges it may not be 
 considered valuable. These associated species may be locally more 
 abundant than big sagebrush, and methods of control may need to 
 be altered to fit them. This publicatiton includes the best available 
 information on methods that could be used for these species, where 
 the methods differ from those recommended for big sagebrush. 
 Methods for the control of sand sagebrush, a Southern Great Plains 
 shrub, are described in other U.S. Department of Agriculture publica¬ 
 tions, which may be obtained by writing to the Southern Great Plains 
 Field Station, Woodward, Okla. 
 
 In the past 30 years sagebrush has been controlled successfully on 
 5 to 6 million acres. More than half this acreage has been treated dur¬ 
 ing the past 5 years. It is evident that the practice is gaining momen- 
 
4 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 turn and will be applied to many more millions of acres in the West. 
 
 Most of the completed control work has been strikingly successiul; 
 some has not. Research and experience through these successes and 
 failures throughout the West have shown that in planning for sage¬ 
 brush control, the following items should be considered: (1) Where, 
 (2) when, (3) how, (4) grazing management afterward, and (5) the 
 need for regrassing afterward. The purpose of this bulletin is to make 
 information on these items available for use by ranchers, public land 
 administrators, and other land managers. By applying this informa¬ 
 tion, they can eradicate sagebrush on large tracts more quickly and 
 
 efficiently. 
 
 WHERE TO CONTROL SAGEBRUSH 
 
 Two conditions of sagebrush range may warrant control work. In 
 the first, a dense stand of sagebrush suppresses the understory of 
 desirable forage plants and interferes with grazing by livestock (hg. 
 S, A). In the second condition, desirable understory is lacking or is 
 so sparse that seeding will be necessary following eradication of 
 
 sagebrush (fig. 3, R). . . , i i i 
 
 On sagebrush ranges in either condition the probable returns in tne 
 
 form of increased forage and meat production, improved livestock 
 management, and reduced danger of erosion determine the areas where 
 sagebrush should be removed. Certainly it is not desirable or nece^ 
 sary to remove sagebrush on all of the 96 million acres of the sagebrush 
 type. The following guides will help to determine where sagebrush 
 control should be undertaken: 
 
 1. Where sagebrush stands are dense and tall. —Such stands of sage¬ 
 brush (fig. 4, A) usually indicate fertile, productive soils and favor¬ 
 able soil moisture. High yields of grass can be expected; costs of 
 sagebrush control will be quickly repaid. On the other hand, ranges 
 with short or scattered sagebrush (fig. 4, B) generally do not warrant 
 the expense unless they fill an important place in the seasonal livestock 
 operation or unless livestock management may iDe simplified. Scat¬ 
 tered tall sagebrush likewise is reason for caution. Widely spaced 
 or short mature sagebrush often indicates poor soil or low precipita¬ 
 tion. Hence, it pays to make sure precipitation and soil fertility are 
 adequate for good forage production before control is undertaken. 
 
 2. Where sagebrush makes up more than one-half of the plant 
 cover. —Such sagebrush stands definitely reduce forage production and 
 hinder livestock movement, and should be controlled. Since the in¬ 
 crease in grazing capacity will be related to the amount of sagebrush 
 removed, investments in control work will bring best returns where 
 sagebrush is thickest. 
 
 3. Where other undesirable plants are not important parts of the 
 plant cover., or will be controlled. —Other undesirable plants such as 
 rabbitbrush, horsebrush, cheatgrass, or halogeton often make up more 
 than one-tenth of the plant cover. Unless these plants are effectively 
 killed at the same time as sagebrush, they may increase sharply and 
 become even more troublesome than the sagebrush. If undesirable 
 plants can be eradicated only at an increased cost, this makes the lands 
 they occupy secondary choices for control work. Care must be taken 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 5 
 
 F-428382, 407838 
 
 Figure 3. —The amount of desirable forage species in the understory det-ermines 
 the need of seeding after sagebrush control. A, Desirable forage plants are 
 suppressed. With removal of the competition by big sagebrush and with good 
 grazing management the desirable plants would develop a satisfactory stand. 
 B, The desirable forage plants are lacking or make up less than one-fifth of 
 the plant cover. Here seeding is needed after sagebrush eradication to restore 
 a grass cover, prevent reinvasion by sagebrush, and keep out other undesirable 
 plants. 
 
 747-298 O—64 
 
 -2 
 
6 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 F-475372, 454248 
 
 Figure 4. —The density and volume of sagebrush growth is a good indication of 
 the productivity of the site. A, Dense, tall stands of sagebrush such as this 
 indicate sites that will produce an abundance of grass and easily repay the 
 costs of sagebrush control. B, Scattered stands of short sagebrush usually indi¬ 
 cate poor soil or low precipitation. Low forage production can be expected. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 7 
 
 in sagebrush control work to avoid exchanging one problem for a more 
 difficult one. 
 
 4. Where good grazing management will he provided. —Good graz¬ 
 ing management will perpetuate increases in grazing capacity and 
 continued freedom from sagebrush; poor management often kills grass 
 plants and encourages the rapid return of sagebrush and other unde¬ 
 sirables. Thus, to be sure that the expense of sagebrush control is 
 repaid by increased forage yield, it is necessary to plan and carry out 
 good grazing management as a part of the control program. 
 
 5. Where seeding will he done 'prom'ptly^ if needed. —Removing the 
 sagebrush is of little value unless a satisfactory stand of grasses can be 
 established by natural or artificial means. Seeding is usually needed 
 where less than one-fifth of the total plant cover is composed of de¬ 
 sirable plants. Many sagebrush ranges in this category, however, 
 should not be cleared because their steepness of slope, rockiness, ex¬ 
 tremely poor soils, or arid conditions do not permit seeding by known 
 methods. It is seldom desirable to remove sagebrush from more range 
 than can be seeded within the first year afterward. If seeding is de¬ 
 layed, undesirable plants become established and reduce seeding 
 success. 
 
 6. Where soils do not erode easily. —^Where danger from wind or 
 water erosion is high, the damage done as a result of sagebrush re¬ 
 moval (fig. 5) may more than outweigh the expected improvement in 
 grazing capacity unless a method of sagebrush control is used which 
 
 F-448454 
 
 Figure 5. —Sagebrush control should be applied with caution on light soils such 
 as this, where wind erosion may be serious. Here an accidental burn has 
 removed the protective sagebrush cover and allowed the sandy loam soil to 
 blow and form dunes 3 feet high. On adjacent areas, up to 8 inches of soil 
 has been removed by wdnd. 
 
8 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 will not expose the soil dangerously. Practices such as spraying with 
 herbicides, leaving debris on the soil surface, and removal of sage¬ 
 brush in strips 200 to 500 feet wide along the contour or at right angles 
 to the prevailing wind may be used as safeguards against water or 
 wind erosion. After a good grass cover has been developed on these 
 strips, the brush between should be removed. It should be remenu 
 bered, however, that sagebrush plants, alone or in strips, are a seed 
 
 source for potential reinvasion. j t j. i. 
 
 7 Where sagebrush is not needed as forage for livestock and big 
 qcvme, or as upland bird Livestock, especially sheep, depend 
 
 on sagebrush for browse during the winter and to a smaller ext^ 
 during spring and fall on ranges where little other browse exists Un 
 some late winter and early spring lambing ranges, the sagebmsh also 
 provides protection against blizzards and high, cold winds. Un other 
 ranges sagebrush is often a major ration for deer or antelope, ^peciafly 
 in winter. On still other ranges, the sage grouse need sagebrush tor 
 food and cover. In these places control should not be undertaken 
 except by methods that will only thin the stand, leaving enough sage¬ 
 brush for the desired balance with grasses and other herbs. 
 
 WHEN TO CONTROL SAGEBRUSH 
 
 It is extremely important to choose the right season of the year for 
 doing the work. This influences the percentage of sagebrush killed, 
 the length of time that the range remains free of sagebrush, the sur¬ 
 vival of desirable grasses, the success of seeding, and the (^st of the 
 operation. The best season varies with the method used. Following 
 are points to consider in regard to season for control • , 
 
 1. Control work should not be done during late fall^ winter^ a/rm 
 early spring after sagebrush seed starts to ripen and before it germi¬ 
 nates .—Operations during this period may effectively scatter and 
 plant the sagebrush seed. Then the young sagebrush plants will come 
 up before native forage plants have had a chance to thicken up, or at 
 the same time as the seeded species (fig- b). Studies in eastern Idaho 
 have shown that young sagebrush that comes up the same spring as 
 seeded grass may be initially suppressed but eventually becomes 
 prominent in the stand. Consequently, to increase the chances of 
 keeping the range relatively free of sagebrush for many years, it is 
 desirable to avoid sagebrush control work from the time sagebrush 
 seed starts to ripen until early spring when it has germinated. At 
 the higher elevations at which big sagebrush grows, seed begins to 
 ripen about the middle of September. At lower elevations, it may 
 ripen as late as the last of November. Low sagebrush ripens seed 
 about a month earlier than big sagebrush. 
 
 2. Late summer and early fall is best for such methods as rading, 
 chaining.^ harroicingor rolling tluit uproot^ crush^ or break off the 
 sagebrush .—Sagebrush is usually brittle at these seasons and the soil 
 is firm and dry. Under these conditions the kill is more complete 
 than w^hen the same methods are applied while sagebrush plants are 
 willowy and tough. 
 
 3. Late spring and early summer is best for such methods as i^ow- 
 ing^ disking., or root cutting that tear up or cut off the sagebrush below 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 9 
 
 F-433401 
 
 Figube 6.—Thick stands of young big sagebrush such as this frequently result 
 when control follows sagebrush seed ripening. Such stands will eventually 
 dominate the range, and sagebrush control will again be necessary. 
 
 tKe ground level .—Although these methods will kill sagebrush at any 
 time, the equipment works most efficiently and with less breakage when 
 there is still some moisture in the ground. Among other advantages 
 of early season control, moisture in the soil is conserved, the loose soil 
 becomes firmer, and dead roots start the process of decay and conver¬ 
 sion into soil organic matter. All of this stimulates better growth of 
 grass following sagebrush control. 
 
 A Sagehrum is most susceptible to herbicides when it is growing 
 rapidly .—This closely corresponds to the date when bluegrasses are 
 blooming and wheatgrasses are heading out. This and other points 
 are explained in more detail in subsequent sections. 
 
 5. The period wh&n associated undesirable plants will also be killed 
 is best for reducing overall competition .—In much of the sagebrush 
 range, associated undesirable plants such as cheatgrass and halogeton 
 are present in substantial amounts. The best time for control of these 
 may differ somewhat from that for sagebrush. For example, where 
 cheatgrass forms a major part of the understory on sagebrush range, 
 plowing should be completed before cheatgrass heads lose their green 
 color. In this case, successful control work cannot be continued as late 
 in the summer as if cheatgrass were absent. Where halogeton occurs, 
 the appropriate period for plowing is after halogeton germinates in 
 May and before it begins to mature in early September. 
 
10 U.s. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 77 
 
 CHOOSING A METHOD OF SAGEBRUSH CONTROL 
 
 Many methods have been used to kill sagebrush. No one method is 
 universally the best because sagebrush grows under widely different 
 conditions and the sagebrush species differ. Suitability of methods 
 varies with density, height, and age of the sagebrush stand, associated 
 shrub species, amount of grass understory, topography, amount of rock 
 on the area, type of soil and its susceptibility to erosion, facilities 
 available for doing the work, size of the area to be treated, personal 
 preference, and many other factors. ... 
 
 In choosing a method the following eight points are important. 
 
 1. Use a method that kills most of the sagebrush—As a general 
 rule, the more extensive the kill the better the method. Wh^en all 
 sagebrush is killed, its return to the range is very slow because the seed 
 source has been largely eliminated. However, control that .leaves 
 fewer than three sagebrush plants per 100 square feet is considered 
 successful. 
 
 Exceptions to the general rule of killing as much of the sagebrush 
 as possible occur where some sagebrush on the range has value for pro¬ 
 tection of or grazing use by domestic livestock or game, or in control¬ 
 ling wind erosion. 7 . x 7 
 
 2. Use a method that also hills associated umdestrable specres .— 
 
 IVhere the associated undesirables are so abundant as to become 
 troublesome after sagebrush control, the method chosen should effec¬ 
 tively control them also. Kabbitbrush or horsebrush not killed durmg 
 sagebrush removal may increase so sharply as to prevent range im¬ 
 provement. Undesirable annuals present on the range such as cheat- 
 grass and halogeton may become a serious barrier to the establishment 
 
 of seeded grasses following sagebrush removal. ■, n -ui 
 
 The definitions of undesirable and desirable plants must be flexible 
 enough to allow for differences in species of plants on the range, 
 season of use, class of livestock or game using the range, and other 
 factors. Palatable perennial grasses, broad-leaved herbs, and shrubs 
 such as bitterbrush and fourwing saltbush are generally accepted as 
 desirable. Snowberry, black sagebrush, rubber rabbitbrush, and simi¬ 
 lar plants may be desirable or not, depending on season, type of use, 
 and location. 
 
 3. Use a method that does little damage to perennial grass remmxints 
 and other desirable plants if artificial seeding is not necessary^ but if 
 seeding is planned^ use a method that kills most of the vegetation. On 
 many ranges, enough desirable grasses remain to revegetate the area 
 after sagebrush is removed. They may need only release from sage¬ 
 brush competition. Seeding will be necessary if these remnants are 
 destroyed; this nearly doubles the cost of treatment. There is also the 
 uncertainty of getting stands from seeding. Therefore, where enough 
 desirable plants are present to produce a good stand, they should be 
 saved if possible. 
 
 If the aim is to improve forage quality through seeding, then partic¬ 
 ular attention should be paid to killing all plants including scattered 
 desirable native plants that might compete with the seeded species. 
 Past efforts to supplement seeded species by leaving desirable natives 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 11 
 
 have often resulted in poor seedbed preparation and in too much com¬ 
 petition for successful establishment of seeded species. 
 
 4. IJse a method that leaves the land suitable for seeding^ where 
 seeding U necessary.—In dense stands of sagebrush, such methods 
 as spraying with herbicides or undercutting with root planes leave 
 a barrier of dead woody material that makes it difficult to use grain 
 drills. Additional operations are often necessary to break down or 
 windrow this woody material before drilling. 
 
 5. Use a method that is widely applicable .—Where extensive tracts 
 of range are to be treated, a method that is effective for killing young 
 and old brush of various size, and on terrain varying in slope and 
 stoniness, is much more useful than a method applicable only to re¬ 
 stricted conditions. 
 
 6. Use a method that utilizes readily available eguipment adapted 
 to other uses. Unless a large amount of sagebrush control work is 
 to be done, purchase or construction of expensive equipment for this 
 purpose alone may not be warranted. Often, however, the cost of 
 recommended inachinery is more than repaid by the more efficient 
 eradication achieved. In many instances several individuals can 
 purchase more costly machinery cooperatively, thereby reducing cost 
 per acre and securing better sagebrush control. Contracting for sage¬ 
 brush control by experienced operators with efficient equipment is 
 often most economical for the landowner. This is particularly true 
 for spraying operations. 
 
 7. Use a method that will not increase erosion hazards .—Some 
 methods destroy all w(X)dy material and litter or cover it with soil to 
 such an extent that wind and water erosion become serious hazards. 
 Where soils are light and subject to drifting, or on slopes where water 
 erosion is likely to occur, it is advisable to choose methods that will 
 leave litter and plant material as a protective covering on the soil 
 surface. In addition, a method that helps fill gullies and break down 
 existing erosion patterns is desirable. 
 
 8. Choose a method that is economical but also satisf.es any of the 
 seven points above that may apply to the area to be treated. —Super¬ 
 vision and labor; transportation of men, equipment, and materials; 
 interest on investment; initial costs of new equipment; and equipment 
 operation, repair, and depreciation are all to be considered in calcu¬ 
 lating costs. 
 
 Costs vary with method. However, costs of applying a single 
 method can vary more widely as a result of differences in experience, 
 care in planning the job, and size of area treated. 
 
 Other values of rangeland must be examined when considering 
 relative costs of different methods. For example, where watershed 
 values are high and danger of erosion is present, it may be desirable 
 fo choose a method that leaves sagebrush litter on the soil surface, 
 even though it costs more than some other adaptable method. 
 
 METHODS FOR SAGEBRUSH CONTROL 
 
 Both mechanical and nonmechanical methods have been used for 
 the control of sagebrush. Most methods are mechanical. Some em¬ 
 ploy equipment such as the one-way disk (wheatland type), plow 
 
12 U-S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 and the offset disk, the anchor chain or the road ripper, all of which 
 were built for other purposes; some employ equipment such as the 
 brush cutter and beater that were built for other t;^pes of brush; and a 
 few employ such equipment as the sagebrush rail, pipe ha^ow, an 
 brushland plow that were designed specifically for sagebrush control. 
 Some methods, including burning, flooding, and spraying with herbi¬ 
 cides, are essentially nonmechanical. In recent years, spaying Das 
 become the most popular method for control of big sagebrush where 
 
 seeding is not planned. ■, « i i 
 
 The most widely used methods for control of sagebrush on range- 
 
 lands include burning, spraying, plowing or disking, chaining, cut¬ 
 ting, and harrowing. A summary of their advantages and limitpons 
 is presented in table 1. These six methods are fully d^cribed and 
 seven other methods are briefly considered in the following sections. 
 
 Planned Burning 
 
 Fire is one of the oldest, most widely adaptable, and least expensive 
 methods for controlling sagebrush. It is also the most frequently 
 misused. To insure range improvement it must be used plliully. 
 Proper precautions must be taken in selecting the area to be burned 
 and the time of burning, and in controlling the fire; otherwise, range 
 
 deterioration may easily result. j ^ 
 
 Simple, practical rules and guides on where, when, and how to bum 
 and the grazing management to use after burning are pre^nted m 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1948, Sage¬ 
 brush Burning—Grood and Bad.” This bulletin will be helpful tor 
 anyone considering the use of fire for sagebrush control. 
 
 Thousands of acres of sagebrush range are burned over by acci¬ 
 dental fires each year. Proper grazing management and seeding, 
 where needed, may be effective methods for restoring a good torage 
 
 cover to these areas. . j. u 
 
 The advantages and limitations of planned burning for sagebrush 
 control are evaluated under the eight points previously listed under 
 “Choosing a Method of Sagebrush Control,” as follows: 
 
 Kill of sagehrush—li burning is done properly, it gives a complete 
 kill of young and old plants of big, low, and black sagebrush. 
 of threetip sagebrush is high, but a small percentage of the bushes 
 may sprout from the base. Kill of silver sagebrush, which sprouts 
 readily from the stem base and roots, is generally low. 
 
 Kili of associated undesiralles.—K^socmt^A sprouting shrubs such 
 as rabbitbrush, horsebrush, and snowberry are usually not killed by 
 planned burning. Good kills of rubber rabbitbrush have been ob¬ 
 tained from late summer burning, but this result is not consistent. 
 Early or midsummer burning of cheatgrass will bring out a much 
 reduced stand in the following spring; burning in the late summer 
 
 or early fall is less effective. , 
 
 Effect on desirable forage Damage to most d^irable torage 
 
 plants is fairly low. If burning is done after the principal perennial 
 grasses mature seed, reduction in their vigor the following year is not 
 likely to exceed 30 or 40 percent. On the other hand, Idaho fescue 
 and bitterbrush (at some locations) have been severely damaged by 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 13 
 
 burning, regardless of the season. In eastern Idaho and parts of Utah, 
 high percentages of bitterbrush have later sprouted from the stem 
 base, particularly with light burning or on moist soil. 
 
 E ase of seeding afterward .—Where seeding is necessary afterward— 
 except on rough and rocky areas or on slopes over 30 percent—seed is 
 easily planted by use of a grain drill (fig. 7). Wliere land is too 
 rocky or steep for drilling, the seed can be broadcast and covered by 
 anchor chains or a heavy pipe harrow with fair success. Sagebrush 
 ashes alone are not deep enough to adequately cover seed. 
 
 F-466812 
 
 Figure 7.— Planned burning on this area removed a dense stand of sagebrush 
 that had little value for grazing. After burning, the more level, relatively 
 rock-free areas were drilled without further preparation. Good stands of 
 grasses resulted. 
 
 Adaptahility to terrain and soil .—Excluding hazard of erosion, 
 burning is widely applicable regardless of rockiness of soil, steepness 
 of slope, or irregularity of terrain. It must be possible, however, to 
 construct a wide, safe fireline. 
 
 A'vailability of eguipment .—Bulldozers or graders for clearing fire¬ 
 lines and torches for setting fires are readily available. 
 
 Effect on erosion hazard .—^Debris and litter are largely consumed 
 by the fire, and the soil is seriously exposed to erosion. Consequently, 
 burning should not ordinarily be used on steep slopes or on soils that 
 blow or wash readilv. 
 
 Cost of control .—For tracts of 1,000 acres or more, the cost of sage¬ 
 brush control by planned burning is $1 to $4 per acre, on the basis of 
 1962 wages and equipment rental rates. This includes up to $200 per 
 mile for constructing firelines, the direct cost of burning the area, and 
 the cost of leasing additional range for 1 or 2 years to permit protec¬ 
 tion of the burned area. 
 
 General adaptability of planned burning for sagebrush control .— 
 Planned burning is most useful on fairly level tracts of 1,000 acres 
 or more, either to permit the increase of perennial grasses and broad¬ 
 leaved herbs already present or to prepare the land for seeding. Many 
 
 747-298 O—64-3 
 
14 U-S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
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Table 1.—Nummary of limitations and advantages of the six most common methods of big sagebrush con^roi—Continued 
 
 SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
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16 IT.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 stands of sagebrush, however, can be burned only under conditions of 
 extreme fire hazara. Under weather conditions that make burning 
 relatively safe, such stands cannot be burned because they are too 
 open and lack an understory of grasses to carry the fire. Where the 
 erosion hazard is high or the dominant perennial grasses are subject 
 
 to serious damage, burning should not be used. ^ a 
 
 Although burning sounds simple, it is one of the most aimcult ana 
 dangerous methods. To use fire properly and safely, it is necessary 
 to have experience in the behavior oi fire, the conditions suitable tor 
 ignition, and methods of fire control. Moreover, ample equipment and 
 men with some experience must be on hand to insure keeping the lire 
 under control. All burning operations should comply strictly with 
 State and county laws regarding burning. Fire is a dcmgerous tool 
 for the inexperienced person to handle^ is a valuable one when 
 intelligently used. 
 
 Spraying With Herbicides 
 
 Herbicides should be applied only when needed, and should be han¬ 
 dled with care. Follow the directions and heed all precautions on the 
 container label. If herbicides are handled or applied improperly, or 
 if unused portions are disposed of improperly, they may be injurious 
 to humans, domestic animals^ desirable plants, fish, and wildlife, and 
 
 may contaminate water supplies. . , ^ . T^ a a k rr 
 
 Both experimental and practical spraying with 2,4^D and ^4,5-1 
 have produced good kills of big, low, black, and silver sagebrush. 
 Kills of 50 to 99 percent of big sagebrush plants have been reported 
 
 from most Western States. , i i. i 
 
 The recommended procedure varies somewhat from place to place 
 and with different species of sagebrush. In general, results show that 
 spraying should be done when sagebrush is actively growing and there 
 is still ample soil moisture for growth. Usually this is when native 
 understory bluegrasses are flowering and the wheatgrasses are just 
 heading out. The effective spraying season begins when small blue- 
 grasses are heading out and ends when they are losing green color 
 rapidly and the surface foot of soil is dry. , 
 
 One or two pounds (acid equivalent rates) of ester formulations of 
 2,4_D or one pound of 2,4,5—T in 5 to 10 gallons of water or 3 to 5 
 gallons of diesel oil per acre are the rates of herbicide and carrier 
 ordinarily used. Early in the season 1 pound of 2,4,5—T is equal to 2 
 pounds of 2,4—1) on big sagebrush. Later in the season both are equally 
 effective. At present prices, 2,4-D gives cheaper control of big sage¬ 
 brush than 2,4,5-T. If water is used as the carrier, a wetting agent 
 at 0.1 to 0.5 percent by volume is needed to improve the wetting prop¬ 
 erties. An oil-water emulsion at 1: 5 to 1:10 ratio can also be used. 
 Low-volatile esters are recommended because they are less dangerous 
 to use near valuable timber and cultivated crops. 
 
 Since the chemicals do not appear to be translocated radially in 
 woody portions of sagebrush branches and stems, degree of kill depends 
 largely upon how well the spray solution covers the herbage. The 
 more dense the brush, the greater the volume of spray material needed. 
 Application of the spray solution is by ground rigs, airplanes, or heli¬ 
 copters (fig. 8). 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 17 
 
 F-B04845, 465828^ 465822 
 
 Figure 8. —Herbicides may be sprayed by air or ground applicators. A, Helicop¬ 
 ter spraying in Utah. B, Airplane spraying herbicide on sagebrush in Wyo¬ 
 ming. C, Ground spray outfit mounted on a crawler tractor. This outfit 
 covers a 30-foot swath and travels 3 miles per hour. 
 
18 U.S. DEPAKTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 The advantages and limitations of spraying with herbicides for sage¬ 
 brush control are as follows: 
 
 Kill of sagebrush. —While results are variable, satisfactory kills of 
 big, low, black, and silver sagebrush of all age classes have been re- 
 
 g orted. In stands of mixed ages the younger plants are least injured. 
 
 ilver sagebrush is best killed near the end of the effective season for 
 spraying Dig sagebrush. 
 
 Kill of associated undesirables. —Rabbitbrush and broom snakeweed 
 can be killed along with sagebrush by increasing the 2,4-D ester to 
 ?> pounds per acre and spraying towards the last of the season that is 
 effective for killing big sagebrush, and when soil moisture is still 
 adequate for growtli of rabbitbrush. This is when new twig growth 
 on rabbitbrush exceeds 3 inches in length and when wheatgrasses are 
 heading out. Earlier application w^ould kill the tops only and en¬ 
 courage sprouting. One to two pounds per acre is sufficient on rabbit¬ 
 brush sprouts the year following burning. This spray kills prickly- 
 pear on some areas but not on others; it does not damage spineless 
 horsebrush. 
 
 Effect on desirable forage plants. —Perennial grasses are not dam¬ 
 aged by spraying with 2,4-D although grass seedlings are damaged 
 with heavy rates. Damage to broad-leaved herbs varies from light 
 to heavy. Important forage species that are damaged moderately to 
 severely include arrowleaf balsamroot, milkvetch, oneflower helian- 
 thella, bluebell, and tailcup lupine. Important forage plants un¬ 
 harmed or slightly damaged are tapertip hawksbeard, penstemon, 
 geranium, and groundsel. Spraying is not recommended where many 
 desirable broad-leaved herbs are present that will be damaged by 
 2,4-D. 
 
 Associated desirable shrubs on arid sites such as shadscale, winter- 
 fat, and Gardner saltbush are readily killed by 2,4—D. 
 
 On mountains and foothills, aerial portions of most shrubs are 
 killed, but most of them resprout vigorously. Serviceberry and choke- 
 cherry are among the most susceptible shrubs. Damage to bitterbrush 
 from spraying is light to moderate. Damage to bitterbrush growing 
 in sagebrush is reduced by spraying 2,4—D at low rates early in the 
 effective season for spraying big sagebrush. Douglas-fir is little 
 damaged, whereas lodgepole pine shows more damage. 2,4^D kills 
 aspen tops, but there is abundant sprouting following spraying. 
 
 Ease of seeding aftenoard. —Where sagebrush is short or stands are 
 open, drilling has been successful after spraying. Ordinarily, dense 
 tall stands of big sagebrush must be knocked down by an anchor chain, 
 rail, or harrow before drilling. The newly developed, rugged Range- 
 land drill will effectively plant following spraying on all sagebrush 
 areas except those having exceptionally large and dense brush. In¬ 
 formation regarding the purchase of this drill may be obtained from 
 the U.S. Forest Service Equipment Development and Testing Center, 
 Arcadia, Calif. 
 
 Adaptability to terrain and soil. —Spraying is widely applicable. 
 Use of ground rigs is limited to relatively level areas, but airplanes 
 and helicopters permit application of spray to nearly all sites. There 
 are rather clear indications that big sagebrush control by spraying 
 may be more effective in swales or on level bottom lands than on ex- 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 19 
 
 posed slopes or ridgetops, because of variations of soil moisture. Care 
 should be taken to avoid letting the spray reach valuable timber or 
 cultivated crops near the areas being treated, especially with high- 
 volatile esters. 
 
 Availability of equipment. —Many companies specialize in spraying 
 with ground rigs, airplanes, or helicopters. Several types of equip¬ 
 ment for ground application are readily available. Ground sprayers 
 usually need reinforcement of the booms for use on rough and rocky 
 ground. 
 
 Effect on erosion hazard. —The erosion hazard usually is not in¬ 
 creased by spraying. The dead standing brush, undisturbed litter 
 cover, and undisturbed soil and grasses normally check erosion. Care 
 should be taken in spraying streambanks and slopes where erosion 
 may increase as the result of the loss of plant cover. 
 
 Cost of control. —Costs of spraying are about the same as for plow¬ 
 ing or disking. Based on present prices of 2,4—D and 2,4,5-T or 
 mixtures of the two, and the present cost of the carrier and of appli¬ 
 cation by airplane, the total cost of spraying sagebrush from aircraft 
 ranges from $2.50 to $6 per acre. Application by ground rigs is likely 
 to cost about $2 more. 
 
 General adaptability of spraying for sagebrush control. —Present 
 indications are that spraying is most useful either on ranges that have 
 a good understory of native grass to thicken up and replace sage¬ 
 brush, or on seeded areas that have been invaded by sagebrush (fig. 9). 
 It may also be useful for killing sagebrush preparatory to seeding on 
 areas where sagebrush is short or sparse. Spraying is sometimes used 
 to prepare perimeters of areas for burning. Sometimes spraying in 
 May or June can be followed by burning the next March or April 
 when the fire hazard is low. The interior may then be burned more 
 safely in July or August. 
 
 Widespread spraying of sagebrush should be undertaken with cau¬ 
 tion. Numerous large-scale spraying jobs have been failures or poor 
 successes. Lack of knowledge about effects of herbicides on the associ¬ 
 ated desirable broad-leaved forage plants and shrubs, and on animal 
 life depending upon this vegetation, gives further reason for caution. 
 Since new information on chemicals and methods is constantly be¬ 
 coming available, anyone considering this method should get the latest 
 information from county agricultural agents. State agricultural col¬ 
 leges, or representatives of Federal agencies acquainted with range- 
 improvement work. Most States have laws governing the use of 
 herbicides for plant control. Consequently, anyone planning to use 
 herbicides for sagebrush control should check his county and State 
 laws. 
 
 Plowing or Disking 
 
 Despite the improvement in herbicides, plowing and disking con¬ 
 tinue to be the most valuable methods of sagebrush clearing where 
 seeding is to be done—especially by drilling. The three implements 
 used widely are the brushland plow, the one-way disk plow (wheat- 
 land type), and the heavy offset disk (figs. 10, 11, and 12). 
 
20 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 P-S04843, 504844 
 
 Figure 9.—A, Sagebrush range with a good grass understory just before it was 
 sprayed with 2,4-D in 1960. B, Two years later grass production had in¬ 
 creased severalfold as the result of spraying and suspension of grazing. 
 
 .a,*.. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 21 
 
 F-4B3854 
 
 Figure 10.—The brushland plow is especially useful for the control of big 
 sagebrush preparatory to seeding where some rock is present. The pair of 
 disks on the left side is rising over a rock. Sturdy construction and the sep¬ 
 arate mounting of each pair of disks permit this implement to be used on 
 moderately rocky land without excessive breakage. 
 
 F-425026 
 
 Figure 11. —One-way disk plow being used on rock-free ground to eradicate big 
 
 sagebrush in preparation for seeding. 
 
22 TJ.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 F-468074 
 
 Figure. 12.— Heavy offset disks effectively kill sagebrush and prepare a good but 
 loose seedbed. They cut well in hard-packed soils. They should be used only 
 on relatively rock-free areas. 
 
 A 40- to 45-horsepower tractor and a plow or disk with a 10-foot 
 cutting width form a convenient unit for killing sagebrush under 
 most conditions. The plow or disk should weigh at least 300 pounds 
 per foot of cutting width and be equipped with disks preferably 28 
 inches in diameter. However, implements with 24- and 26-inch disks 
 have done good jobs. Use of a tractor with 3 to 5 horsepower per foot 
 of cutting width is ordinarily advisable, but the power requirement 
 varies widely with soil conditions, amount of soil moved, density of 
 brush, and topography. 
 
 The heavy offset disk, especially one weighing 500 pounds or more 
 per foot of cutting width, requires more draft power than either the 
 one-\yay or the brushland plow because, lacking adequate depth con¬ 
 trol, it usually moves more soil and moves it twice. This heavy disk 
 is practically the only implement that is effective in killing sagebrush 
 on heavy, compact, crusted soils, such as those in the dry-lake bottoms 
 of northeastern California. Such lands are much more easily plowed 
 when moisture is present near the soil surface than at other times. 
 Crawler-type tractors are the most satisfactory, but wheel tractors of 
 equivalent power—especially if their traction is augmented by wheel 
 weights, large tires, or solution in the tires—may be substituted where 
 the ground is fairly level and the soil is firm. Though smaller trac¬ 
 tors can be used on level or moderately sloping ground, the greater 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 23 
 
 speed and power of larger tractors usually more than offset their 
 higher operation costs. 
 
 In order to save power, the plow or disk should cut to the least depth 
 that will provide an adequate kill. Three to four inches deep is usu¬ 
 ally sufficient. Allowing disks to cut too deeply should be avoided on 
 heavy land where a clay subsoil may be turned up and cause surface 
 crusting, or on sites where a shallow soil lies over coarse sand or gravel. 
 Moreover, deep plowing or disking loosens the seedbed too much. 
 Grass seedlings root themselves better in firm seedbeds. Deep plowing 
 followed by packing may be advisable where mineral soil can be 
 brought up to cover fluffy, organic surface soil sometimes found in 
 valley bottoms where sagebrush has replaced native meadows. 
 
 All plows and disks cut better, require less power, and give better 
 brush kills in the late spring and early summer, or at other times when 
 the ground contains moisture than when it is dry. Spring plowing 
 also allows loose soils to settle to some extent and part of the plant 
 material to decay before seeding is done later in the year. 
 
 Since the one-way disk plow, offset disk, and brushland plow are in 
 general similar, their advantages and limitations will be described 
 together. 
 
 KUl of sagebrush. —Plowing or disking, correctly done, will kill 70 
 to 99 percent of all except silver sagebrush. The bigger the sagebrush 
 and the softer the ground, the better the kill. This applies even to 
 stands 8 to 10 feet in average height. Unless plowing is deeper than 
 is recommended for ordinary work, thick stands of young plants and 
 silver sagebrush will not be satisfactorily eradicated. If plows and 
 disks are properly adjusted, one plowing effectively kills young and 
 old sagebrush alike, except on heavy, compact, dry soil where these 
 plows do not cut, and many of the younger plants are skipped. It 
 may be necessary to plow such areas twice. Light-colored, heavy-tex¬ 
 tured soils, however, tend to puddle and crust when tilled excessively. 
 
 The brushland plow gives a slightly higher kill of brush than the 
 one-way disk plow or ordinary offset disk. However, the heavy offset 
 disk, weighing 500 pounds or more per foot of cutting width, often 
 equals the brushland plow in brush control. Heavy disk plows now 
 available also equal the brushland plow in effectiveness unless rocks 
 prohibit their use. 
 
 Kill of associated undesirables. —Associated sprouting shrubs such 
 as rabbitbrush are not killed unless the disks cut much deeper than 
 the customary 3 to 4 inches. In some instances, fairly effective rabbit¬ 
 brush control has resulted from plowing an area twice. This doubles 
 ihe cost, but is usually justified where rabbitbrush covers small areas 
 in extensive sagebrush stands. Cheatgrass and other undesirable an¬ 
 nuals generally are effectively thinned if the work is done in the spring 
 after seed germination but well before seed ripening; control will be 
 ineffective if work is done after seed starts to ripen. Cheatgrass can 
 a]^ be satisfactorily controlled by plowing after fall germination, but 
 this is usually too late for sagebrush control because its seed is ripe 
 by then. 
 
 Effect on desirable forage plants. —Nearly all perennial plants ex¬ 
 cept those that spread by rootstocks or sprout from roots, are killed by 
 plowing or disking at a depth adequate for effective control of sage- 
 
24 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 brush. These methods should be limited, therefore, to ranges that are 
 to be seeded. 
 
 Ease of seeding aftenoard. —Grain drills can be used after plowing 
 or disking, especially on rock-free or slightly rocky soils where the 
 cover of big sagebrush was not extremely dense before the plowing. 
 Considerable difficulty in drilling may be experienced where the brush 
 was big and dense; here it may be necessary to broadcast the seed. 
 There may also be some difficulty in controlling depth of drilling 
 seed on areas plowed in summer and early fall because the soil may 
 be rather loose. Compaction by heavy rollers when the soil is damp 
 greatly improves such seedbeds. Efforts at compaction when the soil 
 is perfectly dry not only fail but damage soil structure and encourage 
 wind erosion. Spring plowing helps to overcome this difficulty. 
 
 Adaptahility to terrain and soil. —Plowing or disking with conven¬ 
 tional farm implements is limited to rock-free or slightly rocky sites 
 on slopes of less than 20 percent. Otherwise breakage will be unduly 
 high. The brushland plow permits treatment of more rocky sites 
 without undue breakage. Plowing or disking effectively reduces the 
 existing stand of sagebrush during any season of the year when 
 weather and soil conditions permit the work. 
 
 Availability of equipment. —Heavy one-way offset disks equipped 
 with large-sized disks are made by several companies and are readily 
 available. The brushland plow was developed by the U.S. Forest 
 Service, after the design of an Australian stump-jump plow, for 
 brush control on rough, rocky lands. It is now available on a custom- 
 made basis. Addresses of suppliers of this plow may be obtained 
 from the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washing¬ 
 ton, D.C., 20250. 
 
 Effect on erosion hazard. —Part of the debris may best be left on the 
 surface to protect the soil. This and loose, absorbent soil ordinarily 
 decrease the erosion hazard. In some situations, on the other hand, 
 the hazard of wind or water erosion is high because of slope or 
 lightness of soil; here the use of other methods should be considered. 
 
 Cost of control. —^Usually the cost is moderate. One well-trained 
 operator with a 40- to 45-horsepower crawler tractor and a 10-foot 
 disk or plow can average U/o to 2 acres per hour, with a minimum 
 of 1 and a maximum of slightly more than 3 acres. Accomplishment 
 is at its lowest where the sagebrush range is in tracts of 10 acres or 
 less, or the terrain is rough with steep slopes. Maximum acreages 
 per hour are possible on large tracts of 1,000 acres or more where the 
 ground is only slightly rocky, practically level, and not gullied. 
 
 Costs are slightly different for the three implements and must in¬ 
 clude original purchase price, power required to pull the disks or 
 plows, and costs of maintenance and depreciation. The purchase 
 price of the heavier, noncommercial brushland plow is at least twice 
 that of offset disks or one-way disk plows of equivalent cutting width. 
 Extremely low breakage, maintenance, and depreciation largely offset 
 the greater initial cost and difficulty of transportation. The greater 
 adaptability of the brushland plow to rough and rocky rangelands sets 
 it apart as the most widely useful machine for plowing rocky land. 
 Maintenance and depreciation costs are much low^er for the heavy-duty 
 offset disk than for the one-way, if rocky land is treated. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 25 
 
 Careful operation and frequent maintenance are important in keep- 
 i ing breakage of all implements at a minimum. 
 
 I Average costs for plowing or disking under ordinary conditions, 
 I based on 1962 wages and rates for equipment rental, range from $4 
 to $7 per acre. Costs are generally least with the brushland and high¬ 
 est with the one-way disk plow because of ditferences in amounts of 
 breakage and maintenance. Because it requires approximately one- 
 third greater draft power, the offset disk costs more to operate than 
 the one-way disk plow or the brushland plow. On large tracts, use 
 of two or three implements pulled by a single 60- to 130-horsepower 
 tractor can reduce plowing costs by one-fourth to one-third. 
 
 General adaptahility of plowing or dishing for sagebrush control .— 
 i Plowing is primarily useful on rock-free to slightly rocky ranges 
 I where seeding is to be done afterward. The heavy offset disk and 
 I one-way disk plow have proved effective in eradicating all types and 
 I ages of sagebrush, except silver sagebrush, on soils that are rock-free 
 ( or have only a little rock. An extra heavy offset disk has proved the 
 ; best implement for use on heavy, crusted soils. The brushland plow 
 I has proved effective not only on rock-free sagebrush lands but also 
 : where scattered large rocks are likely to cause breakage of one-way 
 i disk plows and offset disks. 
 
 In order to obtain satisfactory control of tenacious brush under 
 ; difficult soil conditions, it is sometimes desirable to allow the ground 
 I to lie fallow for a year between plowings. 
 
 Is 
 
 Anchor Chaining 
 
 J 
 
 ; Anchor chaining, a common method of controlling juniper and 
 pinyon in the West, has proved to be a rapid, low-cost method for 
 i; reducing competition of big sagebrush (fig. 13). It provides only 
 
 I 
 
 F-606461 
 
 Figure 13. —Heavy anchor chains looped between large tractors readily uproot 
 or break off brittle sagebrush. However, for young flexible sagebrush two to 
 three times over may be needed to remove satisfactory amounts of the brush. 
 
26 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 partial control, but costs less than other methods. It is especially use¬ 
 ful where a mere thinning of the brush stand is desired, and for the 
 removal of juniper and pinyon trees as well. 
 
 Chains weighing from 25 to 90 pounds per link have been used. 
 Chains with links heavier than 70 pounds eliminate more sagebrush 
 than lighter chains. Twice over is usually desirable. The second 
 chaining not only removes additional brush, but also facilitates seed¬ 
 ing operations by covering seed broadcast between the two chainings 
 or by breaking down the brush to ease subsequent drilling. 
 
 Two crawler tractors of at least 40 horsepower each, with a 200-foot 
 heavy chain looped between them, can cover a swath about 150 feet 
 wide. Up to 600-foot lengths of lighter chain, with links weighing 
 50 pounds or less, have been used successfully to thin and break down 
 sagebrush and make more forage available. The lighter chains per¬ 
 mit more rapid treatment, but heavy chains remove more brush. 
 
 Advantages and disadvantages of chaining follow: 
 
 Kill of sagebrush. —Up to 90 percent control of big sagebrush has 
 been obtained from once-over treatment using heavy chains on even- 
 aged, old, brittle brush, but 50 to 70 percent is more common. On 
 younger, flexible stands of sagebrush, from 10 to 40 percent kills are 
 accomplished with once-over chaining. Two or three times over gen¬ 
 erally are required to control more than 50 percent of flexible sage¬ 
 brush ; the second and third times over, in opposite directions, usually 
 increase control 10 to 20 percent. Chaining generally is more effec¬ 
 tive on rocky ground than on rock-free ground. 
 
 Kill of associated undesirables. —Low kills result on woody species 
 that sprout from the crown such as snowberry, horsebrush, broom 
 snakeweed, and rabbitbrush. However, these shrubs are usually 
 broken down enough to permit herbaceous perennials or seeded grasses 
 to establish and gradually increase. Annuals increase markedly im¬ 
 mediately after sagebrush competition is reduced, but within a 3- to 
 5-year period perennial herbs usually increase enough to largely sup¬ 
 press the annuals. Where desirable perennials are scarce, seeding of 
 adapted perennials should be a part of the restoration operation in 
 conjunction with chaining. 
 
 Effects on desirable forage 'plants. —Damage to the desirable her¬ 
 baceous plants is negligible, but varies on desirable browse species. 
 Damage to tall bitterbrush plants appears to be high the first year, 
 but these shrubs recover rapidly and within 2 to 3 years usually are 
 more vigorous and productive than before. Chaining can be highly 
 destructive to tall-growing single-trunk cliff rose and curlleaf moun¬ 
 tain mahogany. But bushy plants of these shrubs show little damage 
 after a year’s growth; in fact, they usually respond with greater 
 growth and seed crops that compensate for the loss of the larger up¬ 
 right plants. True mountain mahogany, fourwing saltbush, and 
 saskatoon serviceberry are knocked down but usually recover. 
 
 Ease of seeding afterward. —Broadcasting, by either airplane or 
 mechanical broadcasters, is the most practical method of seeding in 
 conjunction with chaining. Good stands usually result from broad¬ 
 cast seeding between two chainings. The second chaining, in the direc¬ 
 tion opposite to the first, is helpful in getting a desirable amount of 
 seed coverage. Drilling is usually possible following twice-over with 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 27 
 
 a heavy chain. Where brush is exceptionally heavy, a third time over 
 may be necessary to prepare for effective operation of a drill. 
 
 Adaptability of terrain and soil. —Chaining is adapted to wide varia¬ 
 tion in terrain, and is useful on areas too rocky and sloping for other 
 mechanical methods. It has been found feasible on slopes exceeding 
 30 percent. Chaining that approximately follows the contour is 
 preferable. One tractor often can work on a ridgetop and the other 
 m the canyon bottom, so that the chain is pulled across the slope. 
 IVliere the slope is steep and too long for this maneuver, a tractor 
 with a bulldozer can cut out a trail for the uphill track. 
 
 Availability of equipment. —Anchor chains of various weights can 
 be readily purchased from coastal salvage companies at much lower 
 prices than new chains, which are available from steel companies. 
 
 Effect on erosion hazard. —Chaining usually decreases erosion, espe¬ 
 cially where treatment is at right angles to the prevailing drainage 
 and gully patterns. Considerable brush and debris are usually 
 dragged into the gullies; this checks erosion. 
 
 Cost of control. —On large areas, costs of $0.75 to $2.50 per acre are 
 usual for once-over chaining where swaths 100 to 150 feet wide are 
 possible. Twice-over treatment approximately doubles this amount. 
 Actually, chaining is the least costly mechanical treatment for large 
 areas. 
 
 General adaptability for sagebrush control. —Chaining is a satis¬ 
 factory, low-cost method of removing old, mature, brittle stands of 
 sagebrush from extensive areas. Adapted to a wide range of terrain 
 conditions, chaining can be applied to areas where mechanical treat¬ 
 ment previously has been considered uneconomical because of rocks 
 and steep slopes. The method also is useful for knocking down and 
 scattering dense brush killed by herbicides, and for covering seed 
 broadca^ into such areas. It is not an efficient method for controlling 
 young, flexible sagebrush. 
 
 Cutting, Beating, or Shredding 
 
 In recent years the cutter, beater, or “shredder” type of implement 
 has been widely used in sagebrush control. Tliese machines cut and 
 shred the woody and herbaceous top growth. Tliey leave a coarse 
 litter layer on the soil surface. 
 
 Cutters and beaters or “shredders” are mainly of two types. The 
 type most widely used works like a rotary lawnmower. It consists of 
 horizontal cutting blades fastened to the lower end of one or more 
 vertical shafts (fig. 14). The second type of machine is a beater 
 consisting of a rapidly revolving drum or shaft, mounted between 
 two wheels. To the drum are attached flexible arms or flails of chain, 
 cable, or metal bars that swing straight out from the rapidly revolv¬ 
 ing drum. Both machines are driven from the power takeoff on the 
 tractor or by separate motor. 
 
 For killing sagebrush these implements are adjusted so that blades 
 or flails just miss hummocks or projecting rocks. Occasional contact 
 with the soil surface is unavoidable on uneven ground, but it should 
 be kept to a minimum. The machines operate most efficiently and 
 with the least maintenance and repair if the ground clearance averages 
 3 inches. Setting blades or flails too high results in a poor kill of 
 
28 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 F-602457 
 
 Figure 14. — Brush cutters give a good kill of old, large plants of big sagebrush 
 without injuring herbaceous plants. Small or low-growing sagebrush is little 
 damaged. 
 
 small plants; setting too low results in high breakage costs. One trip 
 over an area is ordinarily sufficient. 
 
 Advantages and limitations of the method are as follows: 
 
 Kill of sagebrush. —Cutting is effective in tall old stands of big sage¬ 
 brush; kills of 90 percent or more of old brush are often obtained. 
 Highest kills are on rock-free level ground. Young plants of big sage¬ 
 brush are usually missed or little damaged by cutters and flails. Con¬ 
 trol of threetip, low, and black sagebrush is only partially satisfacto^ 
 because of their low, spreading branches and the tendency of threetip 
 sagebrush to sprout from the base. Kills of silver sagebrush are un¬ 
 satisfactory because of strong sprouting from the stem base and roots. 
 
 Kill of associated undesirables. —Sprouting shrubs such as rabbit¬ 
 brush and horsebrush and annual grasses such as cheatgrass are not 
 controlled. 
 
 Effect on desiraible forage 'plants. —^Grrasses and broad-leaved herbs 
 growing beneath the sagebrush are not damaged. Bitterbrush is badly 
 damaged, but in some localities it is stimulated into vigorous sprouting 
 from the root crown. 
 
 Eoise of seeding aftenoard. —Grain drills may be successfully used 
 for seeding grasses following the cutter on sites where the brush is not 
 heavy, but furrow openers do not penetrate an unusually heavy layer 
 of woody litter. In some trials seed broadcast before brush treatment 
 lias been covered by the mulch, and good seeded stands have resulted; 
 but this method is not reliable. 
 
 Adaptability to terrain and soil. —Cutters should not ordinarily be 
 used on soils where rocks protrude more than 3 inches above the soil 
 surface. Maintenance and repair costs are high if the blades or flails 
 come into frequent contact with rocks. Moreover, cutters must be 
 operated carefully where the soil surface is uneven or is cut up by small 
 gullies. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 29 
 
 Availability of equipment. —Implements of this type are commer¬ 
 cially available. Only machines of sturdy construction can be pur¬ 
 chased for range use. Cutters with their own power units are 
 preferred for heavy brush. 
 
 Effect on erosion hazard. —The woody plant material left as a pro¬ 
 tective mulch on the soil surface should decrease the erosion hazard. 
 Thus, cutting is a good method of sagebrush control where the proba¬ 
 bility of wind and water erosion is fairly high and watershed values 
 must be guarded. 
 
 Cost of control. —Tlie cost of sagebrush control with cutters is at 
 least $1 more per acre than with plows or disks. Using a 40-horse¬ 
 power wheel tractor, as much as 2 acres per hour have been covered, 
 but 1 to li/J acr^ per hour is average. Higher rates of travel are pos¬ 
 sible, but it is important that speed not exceed 3 miles per hour if 
 maintenance costs are to remain low and efficiency of control high. 
 Actual costs on several operations during 1962 were $4 to $10 per acre. 
 
 General adaptability of cutting for sagebrush control. —Brush 
 cutters work well on stands of big sagebrush that are uniformly old 
 and large, and where rocks are absent or protrude less than 3 inches 
 above the soil surface. They are especially useful for the release of 
 native perennial grasses growing beneath the sagebrush or of seeded 
 stands being suppressed by sagebrush, or where hazard of wind or 
 water erosion is high. 
 
 Harrowing 
 
 Self-clearing pipe or log harrows, sometimes called Dixie drags, 
 have occasionally been used for sagebrush control, but are most useful 
 for covering grass seed on burned rangelands that are too rocky or 
 rough for the use of other types of implements. They have been used 
 to cover seed on weedy alpine areas and to control rather open stands 
 of old, brittle sagebrush on uneven ground, especially on ranges with 
 numerous rock outcrops. 
 
 A 40- to 45-horsepower crawler tractor and a 14-foot pipe harrow 
 make a convenient unit for harrowing. The pipe harrow is simply a 
 series of spiked iron pipes, usually 4 inches in diameter, trailing be¬ 
 hind a spreader bar. The pipes, l^ing swiveled, can rotate freely and 
 thus clear themselves of trash (fig. 15). Pipe troughs, fitted over the 
 lead end, prevent the pipes from jumping across one another, especially 
 on sloping ground. 
 
 Green logs 6 to 10 inches in diameter can be substituted for the iron 
 pipes, but will last only one season. The fore ends of the logs are 
 notched for holding the chain and swivel. Discarded drill steel or 
 similar bar steel can be used for teeth. The bars are driven through 
 holes of slightly smaller diameter bored in the log. The teeth are held 
 tightly until the log dries. 
 
 Harrowing the area once usually suffices to cover the grass seed. 
 Harrowing twice will increase sagebrush kill. 
 
 Advantages and limitations of pipe harrowing are as follows: 
 
 Kill of sagebrush. —Only 30 to 70 percent of old, brittle big sage¬ 
 brush and a much lower percentage of younger plants are killed. 
 Higher kills are usually obtained on rocky ground. On rocky sites. 
 
30 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 OREGON EXTENSION SERVICE PHOTO 
 
 Figure 15.—The self-clearing pipe harrow is useful for thinning sagebrush and 
 covering grass seed on sagebrush ranges that are so rocky or rough that other 
 implements cannot be used. 
 
 harrowing gives a much poorer control of low sagebrush than of big 
 sagebrush, and negligible kills of threetip and silver sagebrush. 
 
 Kill of associated undesirables. —There is little eradication of such 
 associated sprouting woody species as rabbitbrush and horsebrush. 
 Fall treatment, after seed has germinated, results in fair control of 
 cheatgrass. 
 
 Effect on desirable forage 'plants. —About 10 to 20 percent of the 
 bunchgrasses will be uprooted by the pipe harrow. Damage to bitter¬ 
 brush is low unless it is tall and brittle. Few plants are killed. 
 Bitterbrush plants examined 2 or more years after treatment showed 
 stimulated sprouting and twig growth, particularly on low, spreading 
 bushes. 
 
 Ease of seeding afterward. —Grass seed broadcast ahead of the har¬ 
 row used for sagebrush control is covered rather effectively in the same 
 operation. Sites where the pipe harrow is necessary are usually too 
 rocky for the grain drill. 
 
 Adaptability to terrain and soil. —Pipe harrowing is a practical 
 method on areas where rocks protrude. The harrow clogs badly when 
 used on rock-free or slightly rocky sites and becomes quite ineffective. 
 It is readily usable on sites that are badly cut up by small gullies. 
 
 Availability of equipment. —Pipe harrows are not commercially 
 available, but can be constructed in any fairly well equipped machine 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 31 
 
 shop at a reasonable cost. In areas not reached by roads, log harrows 
 can be readily constructed in the field at low cost with logs cut from 
 green trees nearby; and teeth, swivels, and cable can be brought in by 
 packhorse. Designs and specifications for the pipe harrow can be 
 obtained from the U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 Ejfect on erosion hazard. —Harrowing usually decreases erosion. 
 Litter and debris from uprooted and broken sagebrush left on the 
 loosened ground surface and deposited in gullies, along with the stand¬ 
 ing brush, protects the soil better than standing brush on untreated 
 areas. 
 
 Cost of control. —Harrowing and plowing, on sites to which they are 
 adapted, should cover about the same number of acres per hour at a 
 similar cost. On 125 acres of the Manti-LaSal National Forest in 
 Utah, an average of 1.8 acres per hour was treated with a 28-horse¬ 
 power tractor and a 10-foot pipe harrow. Computed at 1962 rates, 
 the cost would be $4 to $7 per acre, or about the same as for plowing. 
 Breakage and maintenance costs for harrowing are negligible. 
 
 General adaptability of harrowing for sagebrush control. —This im¬ 
 plement was devised for soil disturbance, seed covering, and control of 
 open stands of mature sagebrush on moderately to extremely rocky 
 ground. It does a better job on rocky than on rock-free areas. The 
 ripping and gouging action caused by the toothed pipes bouncing along 
 among the rocks tears out some of the sagebrush, loosens rocks, and 
 disturbs the soil enough for seed coverage. The harrow is useful for 
 covering broadcast seed on rocky alpine areas, sagebrush burns, or on 
 areas where sagebrush has been killed by herbicides. 
 
 The pipe harrow is an excellent complement to a plow or disk for 
 treating interspersed areas that are too rocky for the plow or disk. 
 By the alternate use of the two implements, all of the area that requires 
 seeding can be treated at one time. The harrow is misused for sage¬ 
 brush eradication if other machinery gives better results without undue 
 breakage. 
 
 Other Methods 
 
 Many other methods have been tried in clearing sagebrush for 
 farming or range improvement. Because some of these methods may 
 be useful for sagebrush control, especially if the equipment is readily 
 available, they are briefly described here together with their advan¬ 
 tages, limitations, and possible application. 
 
 Railing or dragging. —Uprooting or breaking off sagebrush by 
 dragging a heavy rail across it is one of the oldest and cheapest 
 methods of control (fig. 16). This method, widely used in the early 
 days to clear land for farming, has been used for range improve¬ 
 ment. The average power requirement for several areas was 1 to 1.8 
 drawbar horsepower per foot of rail at 2 to 21/2 miles per hour. 
 
 Even though kill of mature big sagebrush is 30 to 80 percent, the 
 kill of willowy bushes seldom exceeds 50 percent and may be as low 
 as 10 percent. It is usually necessary to rail twice in opposite direc¬ 
 tions to obtain satisfactory control. Railing has little effect upon 
 crown-sprouting slirubs such as rabbitbrush or horsebrush, and on 
 most grasses and broad-leaved herbs. 
 
 Burning is often feasible after one railing where it was not possible 
 
32 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 77 
 
 F-448496 
 
 Figure 16.—Rails are useful in breaking off old, mature, and brittle stands of 
 sagebrush. An “A” sagebrush rail which throws the brush in windrows around 
 the ends of the rail is shown here. Later models have been equipped with 
 serrated edges on the side members and two rolling coulters on the cross mem¬ 
 ber to keep the rail from swinging from side to side. Designs and specifications 
 for several types of sagebrush rails can be obtained from the Forest Service, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 before, and can improve control of uneven-aged stands and make 
 subsequent drilling easier. The piles or windrows of broken and 
 uprooted brush left by railing bum readily. 
 
 Breakage of the drag is sometimes excessive on areas that have 
 occasional boulders or rock outcrops. 
 
 Railing usually provides poor covering of prebroadcast seed. Drill¬ 
 ing is difficult unless the piles of debris are burned beforehand. 
 
 Root cutters .—Many types of root cutters, also called planes, blades, 
 grubbers, or cultivators, are available commercially. Root cutters 
 have been widely used for clearing sagebrush land preparatory to 
 farming. The heavier types should be used on rangelands. They 
 consist of from one to five straight or V-shaped blades, mounted on a 
 heavy frame suspended between two wheels or mounted at the rear 
 of a tractor (fig. 17). The blades can be raised or lowered by either 
 a lever or a hydraulic lift, and are set to cut all roots at 4 to 5 inches 
 below the soil surface. 
 
 Nearly a complete kill of big, low, and threetip sagebrush of all 
 ages and a fair kill of silver sagebrush can be obtained when cutters 
 are carefully operated. Perennial grasses, broad-leaved herbs, and 
 shrubs that do not spread by rootstocks are almost completely killed. 
 Sprouting shrubs such as rabbitbrush and horsebrush are effectively 
 controlled. Unless sprouting shrubs are mixed with sagebrush, 
 other methods of control may be more suitable. Brush is normally 
 left standing. In heavy rabbitbrush, a chain or cable pulled in a 
 U-shaped loop behind the root cutters overturns the plants. This 
 makes drilling easier and prevents the rerooting of rabbitbrush plants. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 33 
 
 BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT PHOTO 
 
 Figure 17. —Rear view of one type of implement that cuts sagebrush roots effec¬ 
 tively on roek-free land. This implement has been particularly effective for 
 controlling rabbitbrush or horsebrush and the clearing of brush preparatory to 
 farming. The blades are usually set to cut 4 to 5 inches below the soil surface. 
 
 Root cutters are useful mainly on relatively level and rock-free 
 areas that have deep soils and where the potential production of seeded 
 grass justifies the cost. They are also useful where there is a heavy 
 clay subsoil. They loosen the surface soil but do not turn up the heavy 
 subsoil to form a surface crust, as sometimes occurs with plowing. 
 
 With most machines, breakage is excessive w^herever large rocks 
 are embedded near the soil surface. It is difficult to keep the blades 
 cutting at a satisfactory depth on uneven ground. 
 
 Mowing .—An ordinary power-takeoff mower having a heavy cut¬ 
 ter bar, snub-nosed guards, heavy-smooth sections, and a double set 
 of clips to hold the sections snugly against the blunt guards has been 
 found successful for sand sagebrush control in the southern Great 
 Plains. Mowing must be done in June or early July. It has not, 
 however, proved useful for other sagebrush species. Stems of mature 
 big sagebrush are too thick, while small plants and most other species 
 liave too many branches near the soil surface that are missed by the 
 mower. It cannot, moreover, be used without excessive breakage if 
 there is much rock lying on the soil surface. The only application 
 Uiat mowing seems likely to have, other than for sand sagebrush, is 
 in the control of young plants that have invaded seeded ranges. For 
 this purpose, herbicides would generally be more satisfactory. 
 
 Ripping .—A heavy self-clearing road ripper with teeth spaced 14 
 to 16 inches apart, pulled by a 30- to 45-horsepower crawler tractor, 
 has been used for thinning sagebrush. With ripper teeth digging 4 to 
 6 inches, it breaks down or tears up much of the large and old sage- 
 
34 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 brush, but kills only about one-third or less of the young plants. 
 About a third of the perennial bunchgrasses are killed. Though some 
 successful stands of crested wheatgrass have resulted from broadcast¬ 
 ing on ripped areas, usually not enough of the sagebrush is killed for 
 successful seeding. The ripper can be used with very little breakage 
 on sites that are too rough and rocky to plow, or for loosening up 
 the surface of heavy, tight soils. Ripping is too costly for more than 
 limited use. 
 
 Rolling brush cutter .—The heavy type of rolling brush cutter has j 
 been tried for sagebrush control. It crushes and cuts up the larger and ’ 
 older bushes of big sagebrush, but kills only a few of the younger 
 plants. Associated sprouting shrubs such as rabbitbrush and horse¬ 
 brush and annual grasses are not killed. The blades on the rollers j 
 are dulled quickly, especially if there is much rock. The rolling brush 
 cutter does, not prepare the site adequately for seeding. The roller j 
 with spiked teeth instead of cutters appears to be even less effective in i 
 killing sagebrush. It is doubtful that these rolling implements have [ 
 any real value for eliminating sagebrush. j 
 
 Road graders or bulldozers .—These implements have been used j 
 widely on small tracts of land, primarily for clearing sagebrush pre- | 
 paratory to farming. Ordinarily, almost all sagebrush is killed, but i 
 the plants are mixed with dirt in windrows and subsequent disposal is i 
 difficult. Shrubs, perennial grasses, and other plants, except those i 
 that sprout from the roots or spread by rootstocks, are completely de¬ 
 stroyed. The method is not effective on rocky ground or rough terrain 
 unless much time is expended. In general, the use of these implements 
 is too costly except on very limited tracts where other more suitable 
 equipment is not available. Both are widely used in constructing fire¬ 
 lines before burning. 
 
 Flooding .—This is one of the oldest but least widely applicable ' 
 methods of sagebrush control. It is limited to areas where high ( 
 spring runoff waters are available. Good kills of big and low sage¬ 
 brush have been obtained and excellent stands of grass restored by the 
 use of spreader ditches or similar methods for keeping the ground 
 covered or saturated with water for 2 weeks or longer in the spring. 
 Where spring runoff is readily available, this can be done through 
 efficient spreading systems. Silver sagebrush is relatively resistant ; 
 to flooding. Seed broadcast just before flooding sometimes produces 
 good stands. 
 
 REGRASSING AFTER SAGEBRUSH CONTROL 
 
 Eradicating sagebrush for range improvement is of little avail unless i 
 a good stand of desirable forage plants promptly reoccupies the area, i 
 There is great need to get such a stand as soon as possible to protect ' 
 the soil from erosion, prevent the early return of sagebrush in large ; 
 quantity, prevent invasion by other undesirable plants, and repay the i 
 costs of sagebrush control through a rapid increase in grazing capac- ; 
 
 ... . . ! 
 
 Rapid revegetation is needed especially where burning or other i 
 
 methods have destroyed or buried most of the litter. The longer the i 
 soil remains exposed, the greater the difficulty to be expected in getting j 
 a stand of reseeded grass, and the greater the likelihood of serious | 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 35 
 
 erosion, especially if the soil is somewhat sandy or light or the slopes 
 moderate to steep. 
 
 A good stand of perennial grasses is necessary to prevent the early 
 return of heavy stands of sagebrush. Eradication of sagebrush is 
 seldom complete. Plants left alive produce seed that will reinfest ad¬ 
 joining areas unless enough grasses are present in the understory, or 
 are established by seeding, to control the sagebrush seedlings (fig. 18). 
 
 P-444692 
 
 Figure 18.—Good stands of grass reduce reinvasion by sagebrush. This range 
 was accidentally burned. The area on the left was seeded immediately to 
 crested wheatgrass. The area on the right remained unseeded; and the next 
 spring it bore an abundant crop of sagebrush seedlings. The unseeded area 
 had over 16,000 plants per acre 11 years later compared with about 4,000 
 sagebrush plants on the seeded range. 
 
 Good stands of perennial grasses also prevent serious invasion by 
 other undesirable plants after sagebrush control. Halogeton, an in¬ 
 troduced poisonous annual weed, often invades areas that have been 
 cleared of sagebrush for range improvement or burned. Cheatgrass, 
 an aggressive annual grass, is also quick to occupy areas that have 
 been disturbed by mechanical means or by fire. Successful seeding 
 to perennial grasses may not entirely prevent establishment of unde¬ 
 sirable annuals, but these are likely to be so sparse as to provide little 
 competition to perennials. By the second or third year native or 
 seeded perennials should fully occupy the site. 
 
 Where there are sufficient undesirable native plants in the under¬ 
 story to reoccupy the land quickly, a sagebrush control method should 
 be used that either selectively controls the undesirable species or 
 destroys most of the understory and permits establishment of seeded 
 grass. 
 
 On ranges near irrigated farmlands of Idaho, Utah, and other 
 States, sagebrush control on lands lacking an adequate perennial grass 
 understory may permit invasion of Russian-thistle, tumblemustard, 
 and tansymustard halogeton. These are alternate breeding hosts for 
 the beet leafhopper {CircuUfer teneUus), an insect that spreads curly 
 top disease to nearby sugarbeet, tomato, and bean crops. 
 
 Some ranges have enough desirable perennial grasses and other 
 forage plants growing beneath the sagebrush to revegetate the area 
 (luickly after the sagebrush is killed. If these are not destroyed 
 by control operations, and if good grazing management is used after- 
 
36 XJ.S. DEPAETMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 277 
 
 ward, there is little need for range seeding. As a general rule seeding 
 is not needed where more than one-fifth of the total plant cover is 
 made up of desirable plants, provided they are fairly well distributed 
 (fig. 3, A). 
 
 There are extensive areas of sagebrush range without enough de¬ 
 sirable plants beneath the sagebrush to revegetate the area quickly 
 (fig. 3, ^). In these areas, it is advisable to make seeding a part of 
 the sagebrush control job. 
 
 Seeding to desirable forage plants should also be planned where 
 sagebrush eradication methods such as plowing or disking, root cutting, 
 ripping, scraping, or burning destroy a high percentage of the stand 
 of perennial grasses. 
 
 Seeding may also be desirable to improve forage quality. Where 
 perennial grasses and other forage plants furnish forage of inferior 
 quality or are low in production, more valuable species should be 
 planted after eradicating the sagebrush. Wliere earlier spring graz¬ 
 ing is needed than would be provided by the native grasses, it may also 
 be desirable to seed early-growing grasses. In both these cases, sage¬ 
 brush control methods that destroy a large part of the understory 
 grasses will be needed to permit establishment of the seeded species. 
 
 Information on where seeding is likely to succeed, what species to 
 use, how and when to plant, and what equipment to use in planting 
 can be obtained from several State and Federal publications such as 
 USDA Agriculture Handbook 71, “Seeding Rangelands in Utah, 
 Nevada, Southern Idaho, and Western Wyoming,” or from county 
 agricultural agents, State colleges, local Federal officials, or neighbor¬ 
 ing ranchers who are acquainted with seeding work. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF RANGES AFTER 
 SAGEBRUSH CONTROL 
 
 The major aim of management of ranges after sagebrush control 
 should be to encourage continued maximum production of forage con¬ 
 sistent with soil protection. This requires that grazing use discourage 
 rather than favor the return of sagebrush, and thus avoid the need 
 of frequent sagebrush removal. Careful management of grazing and 
 the judicious recontrol of sagebrush where objectionable stands recur 
 are the principal means of achieving this aim. 
 
 Historical records reveal that a large part of the present sagebrush 
 type had sagebrush as a part of the natural plant cover. Although 
 sagebrush plants were not as thick as at present, their presence indi¬ 
 cates their adaptability to the site. Therefore, unless the climate 
 changes, or man alters the site or puts in more competitive plants, 
 the sagebrush will gradually return. Studies to date show that when 
 sagebrush is removed, usually it will again form a sparse to dense 
 stand of brush in from 5 to 20 years after control. The speed and 
 amount of sagebrush reestablishment depends upon the completeness 
 of the stands of native or seeded forage plants, grazing management, 
 and the percentage of the sagebrush that was destroyed. The chances 
 for reinvasion are lessened considerably if the source of sagebrush seed 
 is eliminated over vast areas. This is seldom accomplished with avail* 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 37 
 
 able methods; burning is virtually the only method that may give 
 complete initial eradication. 
 
 Even where initial eradication is complete and good stands of grass 
 develop, sagebrush sometimes returns. This sagebrush may originate 
 from seed stored in the soil or on its surface, or from seeds windblown 
 or carried in by animals. Usually the reestablished sagebrush stands 
 are sparse and not objectionable; but in about 1 year out of 5, condi¬ 
 tions favor a dense stand. Poor grazing management, of course, per¬ 
 mits the sparse stands to thicken and gradually form dense stands 
 again. 
 
 Eradication of newly established sparse or dense sagebrush stands is 
 a major problem. In some cases it pays to get rid of even the sparse 
 seedling stands within 3 to 7 years, before the young sagebrush plants 
 have produced a crop of seed, thereby discouraging establishment of a 
 still thicker stand. Where a good grass understory is present, it is 
 advisable to use spraying, burning, cutting, or other methods that do 
 not seriously damage the grass. 
 
 Good grazing management is indispensable after sagebrush eradi¬ 
 cation, regardless of the method of control or the method of regrassing. 
 The hind of grazing management practiced is the most important 
 single factor determining whether sagebrush control results in range 
 improvement or deterioration^ and how long the range remains free 
 of dense sagebrush (fig. 19). 
 
 In grazing ranges after sagebrush control the following three recom¬ 
 mendations have proved worthwhile: 
 
 1. Avoid trailing livestock the first fall and winter across areas 
 where sagebrush has been eradicated. Trailing the first fall stirs 
 up the soil and speeds erosion. After sagebrush seed has ripened, live¬ 
 stock are likely to carry sagebrush seed from uncleared areas, mostly 
 in their fleece or hair, and scatter it over the cleared areas. Sagebrush 
 seedlings that come up early the following spring will be firmly estab¬ 
 lished before the perennial grasses are big enough to prevent it. Thus, 
 trailing alone can be responsible for the early return of sagebrush. 
 
 2. Delay grazing until native grasses are vigorous and seeded forage 
 plants are well established., as evidenced by seed production. Where 
 the natural increase of native grasses is being relied upon, it is advis¬ 
 able to delay grazing for at least a full year. An appearance of 
 abundant green growth the first spring is misleading. The dense 
 sagebrush formerly screening the grass and weed understory from 
 view has been broken down or removed, and most of the herbaceous 
 plants on the area are now visible at a glance. Thus there appears 
 to have been a striking increase in forage production, when actually 
 there may have been a decrease. Grazing the first spring usually delays 
 an increase in size and abundance of the perennial grass remnants and 
 keeps the plant cover so open that sagebrush can successfully return. 
 Furthermore, grazing the sparse plant cover disturbs the inadequately 
 protected soil and may speed wind and water erosion. 
 
 It is advisable to delay grazing of a seeded range until the first grass 
 seed crop is cast. Earlier grazing may severely damage or even pull 
 out many of the young and weakly rooted grass seedlings. Two full 
 years are usually required for young plants to become firmly rooted. 
 
38 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 77 
 
 F-436948, 444643 
 
 Figure 19.—A complete sagebrush kill, a good cover of native or seeded forage 
 plants, and good grazing management all prevent or help delay reinvasion hy 
 sagebrush. A, This area of former sagebrush range seeded to crested wheat- 
 grass is still sagebrush free, largely as result of good grazing management. B, , 
 A good stand of seeded grasses was established on this range, but extremely ; 
 heavy grazing for 5 years weakened the grasses. Sagebrush is invading and 
 increasing rapidly. 
 
SAGEBRUSH CONTROL ON RANGELANDS 
 
 39 
 
 make vigorous top growth, and produce their first seed crop. In 
 rare instances this stage may be reached and grazing permitted by the 
 end of the first year, but more often it takes at least 3 or more years 
 for seeded grass to attain this stage of development. 
 
 3. Practice good grazing management after the new forage stand 
 is loell established. Whether seeded or native, the stand can easily be 
 damaged by improper grazing practices, especially in drought years. 
 Good grazing management will lengthen the period of good forage 
 production following sagebrush control. To obtain proper grazing 
 intensity, to insure grasses being grazed at the proper season, and to 
 help secure proper distribution of livestock, it may be necessary to 
 fence the seeded and improved areas and to provide better stockwater 
 facilities. Adequate water may be provided by the development of 
 springs, drilling wells, or hauling water by truck to portable troughs. 
 Other recommended practices include open herding, proper location of 
 salt grounds, and rotation grazing. These and all other practices that 
 further good range use should be employed to help maintain the in¬ 
 creased grazing capacity and maximum usability of the range resulting 
 from sagebrush control. 
 
 Season of grazing use can help maintain a desirable balance between 
 herbaceous and woody plants on sagebrush ranges. Grazing during 
 the fall and winter, when herbaceous species are dormant, does little 
 damage to these species. Sagebrush and other browse species are 
 more readily eaten during this period and are reduced in volume and 
 vigor. Concentrates are often fed to encourage animals to eat browse 
 and dry forage. Care must be taken to avoid trampling wet soil by 
 livestock. 
 
 "What constitutes good grazing management will vary somewhat 
 throughout the broad range of the sagebrush type with the different 
 classes of livestock being grazed and different seasons of grazing. 
 Additional information can be obtained from county agricultural 
 agents, range extension specialists. State colleges, local Federal of¬ 
 ficials, or neighboring ranchers who are familiar with good grazing 
 management. 
 
 COMMON AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF 
 PLANT SPECIES MENTIONED ‘ 
 
 Grasses cmd Grasslike Pla/nts 
 
 Brome, cheatgrass_ Bromus tectorvm 
 
 Fescue, Idaho_ Festuca idahoensis 
 
 Wheatgrass, crested_ Agropyron desertorum 
 
 Wlieatgrass, fairway_ A. cristatum 
 
 ^ Nomenclature according to “Standardized Plant Names,” Ed. 2, by Harlan 
 P. Kelsey and Wm. A. Dayton, McFarland Co., Harrisburg, Pa., 1M2 (except 
 halogeton, recognized later) ; or “Check List of Native and Naturalized Trees of 
 the United States (including Alaska),” by Elbert L. Little, Jr., Agr. Handb. No. 
 41, Forest Service, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture, 1953. 
 
40 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 2 77 
 
 Annual and Perennial Herhs 
 
 Balsamroot, arrowleaf. 
 
 Bluebells_ 
 
 Geranium, sticky- 
 
 Groundsel_ 
 
 Halogeton--— 
 
 Hawksbeard, tapertip.. 
 Helianthella, oneflower 
 
 Lupine, tailcup- 
 
 Milkvetch_ 
 
 Penstemon- 
 
 Russian-thistle- 
 
 Tansymustard- 
 
 Tumblemustard- 
 
 . Balsamorhiza sagittata 
 . Mertensias^^. 
 
 . Geraniv/m viscosissimum 
 _ Senecio integerrimus 
 . Halogeton glomeratus 
 .. Crevis acuminata 
 _ Helianthella uni-flora 
 . Lupinus caudatus 
 _ Astragalus spp. 
 
 . Penstemon spp. 
 
 .. Salsola kali var. tenuifolia 
 _ Descurainia sovhia 
 . Sisymbrium attissvrrmm 
 
 Shrubs and Trees 
 
 Aspen, quaking 2- 
 
 Bitterbrush, antelope- 
 
 Chokecherry ^- 
 
 Cliffrose, Stansbury- 
 
 Douglas-fir- 
 
 Horsebrush, spineless gray ^- 
 
 Juniper, Utah- 
 
 Mountain mahogany, curlleaf- 
 
 Mountain mahogany, true- 
 
 Pine, lodgepole- 
 
 Pricklypear- 
 
 Rabbitbrush--- 
 
 Rabbitbrush, rubber ^- 
 
 Sagebrush_ 
 
 Sagebrush, big- 
 
 Sagebrush, black- 
 
 Sagebrush, fringed- 
 
 Sagebrush, low- 
 
 Sagebrush, sand- 
 
 Sagebrush, silver ^- 
 
 Sagebrush, threetip- 
 
 Saltbush, fourwing- 
 
 Saltbush, Gardner- 
 
 Shadscale_ 
 
 Serviceberry, saskatoon ^_ 
 
 Snakeweed, broom_ 
 
 Snowberry ^_ 
 
 Winterfat_ 
 
 Populus tremuloides 
 Purshia tridentata 
 Prunus spp. 
 
 Oowania stansburina 
 Pseudotsuga menziesii 
 Tetradymia canescens var. inermis 
 Juniperus osteosperma 
 Cercocarpus ledifolius 
 C. montanus 
 Pinus contorta 
 Opuntia engelmannii 
 Chrysothamnus spp. 
 
 G. nauseosus and several variants 
 Artemisia spp. 
 
 A. tridentata 
 A. nova 
 A. frigida 
 A. arbuscula 
 A. filifolia 
 A. cana 
 A. tripartita 
 Atriplex canescens 
 A. gardneri 
 A. confertifolia 
 Amelanchier alnifolia 
 Gutierrezia sarothrae 
 Symphoricarpos spp. 
 
 Eurotia lanata 
 
 Plants sprout heavily from stem base and roots. 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1965 O—747-298 
 
THE NATIONAL COOPERATIVE 
 DAIRY HERD IMPROVEMENT 
 PROGRAM HANDBOOK 
 
 
 
 uwreo 
 
 ■'’''ss-cu, 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 278 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 
The Supervisor's Job 
 
 As an employee of a dairy herd improvement association, the supervisor 
 is largely responsible for the accuracy and completeness of herd records. His 
 position can be looked upon as that of operating manager. His ability will 
 help the members of his association. In turn, his doing a successful job will 
 
 bring credit to himself. .... 
 
 To be successful, the supervisor must be enthusiastic about dairymg, and 
 he should have a knowledge of up-to-date methods of breeding, feeding, and 
 managing a dairy herd. He should be trained thoroughly for his work, because 
 most of it requires special knowledge and skill. 
 
 The supervisor must report milk production and concentrate consurnption 
 for each cow in the herd, report milk price and forage amount and quality on 
 a herd basis, and keep complete records so the dairyman can use the informa¬ 
 tion as a guide in feeding and culling the herd for more efficient milk produc¬ 
 tion. He must also keep complete, up-to-date identification records on all 
 animals in the herd, so the dairyman can use the production records in a pro¬ 
 gressive breeding program. • i- • j 
 
 The supervisor’s records and reports are used not only by the individual 
 dairyman and by the association, but also by the State extension services and 
 the Dairy Cattle Research Branch at Beltsville, Md. They are used in re¬ 
 search and educational programs and are a vital part of the USDA Sire Eval¬ 
 uation Program. It is most important that the supervisor fill out completely 
 and properly the forms used in the association work. He should understand 
 thoroughly the information wanted about each item in these forms and how to 
 
 record it properly. ^ • i -j -c 
 
 Because of the accuracy required in collecting and reportmg the identifica¬ 
 tion, production, and feed records, well-trained supervisors are of vital impor¬ 
 tance to the successful operation of the whole dairy herd improvement asso¬ 
 ciation program. • , i 
 
 The purpose of this handbook is to provide the supervisor with the rules 
 to follow in conducting DHIA work, general instructions for obtaining the pro¬ 
 duction and feed records required, instructions for making the necessary iden¬ 
 tification of animals, and general instructions for preparing the various reports. 
 This handbook, along with materials furnished by computing centers and State 
 extension workers, provides the necessary reference material for the supervisor 
 and instructor. 
 
 The supervisor should study the handbook carefully and refer to it fre¬ 
 quently to insure that his work in the association always conforms to the high 
 standards of the dairy herd improvement association program. 
 
THE NATIONAL COOPERATIVE 
 DAIRY HERD IMPROVEMENT 
 PROGRAM HANDBOOK 
 
 Gerald J. King and Robert H. Miller 
 Animal Husbandry Research Division 
 
 Agriculture HancJbook No. 278 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 
Acknowledgment 
 
 Acknowledgment is made of the many suggestions received from State 
 extension workers in the preparation of this handbook. Special acknowledg¬ 
 ment is made to Dr. J. F. Kendrick, Statistical Reporting Service, USDA, 
 and Dr. E. L. Corley, DHI Section, Animal Husbandry Research Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, for guidance on general content and format; 
 to Prof. J. D. Burke (New York), Chairman, 1962 American Dairy Science 
 Association Records Committee; and to the members of that committee who 
 reviewed the manuscript. 
 
 Trade names are used in this publication solely to provide specific informa¬ 
 tion. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty 
 of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or an endorsement by 
 the Department over other products not mentioned. 
 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 Issued April 1965 
 
Contents 
 
 ry Pag* 
 
 Chapter I. The National Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement Program_ i 
 
 Chapter II. Outline of Supervisor’s Work_ 4 
 
 Chapter III. Equipment for Weighing, Sampling, and Testing Milk_ 6 
 
 Chapter IV. Weighing and Sampling Milk_ 9 
 
 Chapter V. Testing Milk_ U 
 
 Chapter VI. Interpreting the Testing Period_ 14 
 
 Chapter VII. Reporting Data for the Testing Period and Special Situations_ 16 
 
 Chapter VIII. Calculating Records_ I 9 
 
 Chapter IX. Feed Reports_ 21 
 
 Chapter X. Identification Records_ 22 
 
 Chapter XI. Herd Improvement Through Breeding_ 24 
 
 Appendix 
 
 Memorandum of Understanding_ 27 
 
 DHIA Rules_ 29 
 
 Rules Applying to DHIR Testing_ 32 
 
 Table 1. Centering Date Table—Monthly_ 33 
 
 Table 2. Centering Date Table—Bimonthly_ 34 
 
 Table 3. Estimating Missing Monthly Test-Day Records_ 34 
 
 Table 4. Monthly Test-Day Record To Be Estimated_ 36 
 
 Table 5. Calculating Age in Months_ 37 
 
 Table 6 . Year-Day Table and Examples_ 38 
 
 Explanation of Sire Summary Record 1202_ 39 
 
 Figure 1. USDA-DHIA Sire Summary Record, DHIA-1202_ 41 
 
 Figure 2. Supervisor’s Work Sheet for Calculating Lactation Records_ 42 
 
 Interpretation and Use of Error Codes for Lactation Records on Form DHIA-1060- 43 
 
 Interpretation and Use of Error Codes for Yearly Herd Data on Form DHIA-1080. 44 
 

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Chapter I. The National Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement 
 
 Program 
 
 The primary purpose of the national cooperative 
 dairy herd improvement program is to afford the indi¬ 
 vidual dairyman an economical method of obtaining 
 information he can use to improve the producing effi¬ 
 ciency of his herd. The records of identification, 
 production, feed cost, and income enable the dairyman 
 to cull the least profitable cows, to feed the rest accord¬ 
 ing to their production requirements, and to select the 
 most suitable animals for breeding up the inherent 
 producing ability of his herd. Thus, keeping accurate 
 feed and income records is an important part of the 
 recordkeeping program. 
 
 Dairy herd improvement associations are important 
 as a service to the dairyman, as agricultural extension 
 demonstration projects, as a source of information for 
 sire evaluation, and for research studies. They are 
 operated under the supervision of State extension work¬ 
 ers and county agricultural agents, in cooperation with 
 the Federal Extension Service and the Dairy Cattle 
 Research Branch of the U.S. Department of Agricul¬ 
 ture. The records from associations are used by ex¬ 
 tension personnel to demonstrate to nonmembers the 
 value of the program. 
 
 Dairymen join an association, however, for the serv¬ 
 ice it offers; and a group of dairymen—once convinced 
 of the value of the dairy herd improvement program— 
 organizes an association and employs one or more 
 supervisors to provide a service, cooperatively for 
 themselves. 
 
 A Dairy Herd Improvement 
 Association 
 
 A dairy herd improvement association is an organi¬ 
 zation of dairy farmers who keep records by one of the 
 following recordkeeping plans: the Standard DHIA 
 plan, the Owner-Sampler plan, the Weigh-a-Day-a- 
 Month plan, or any combination of the three. The 
 members of the association elect a board of directors, 
 and officers are elected either by the total membership 
 or by the directors. The directors and officers conduct 
 the business affairs of the association. They employ 
 the supervisor, establish the testing charges, enforce the 
 DHIA rules, and conduct such other business as may 
 be required. 
 
 The supervisor determines the production of each 
 cow in the herd and maintains animal identification 
 and other records as required by the DHIA rules, the 
 association board of directors, the county agent, the 
 State extension dairyman, the computing center, and 
 the USD A. 
 
 The association employs as many supervisors as are 
 needed to conduct the testing work in the herds enrolled. 
 Some associations operate a central testing laboratory 
 where the milk samples are tested. 
 
 Statewide Organizations 
 
 In some States, the local associations have formed 
 statewide organizations, or federations, which usually 
 are financed by assessing member associations on a per- 
 cow basis. The locals elect a board of directors for 
 the State association, usually through delegates at the 
 annual meeting. A State organization, in cooperation 
 with the State agricultural college or university, can 
 render valuable service to the dairy herd improvement 
 program in the State in the following ways: 
 
 (1) Establish State DHIA policies and rules; (2) 
 coordinate the programs of the local associations; (3) 
 interpret and enforce all DHIA rules uniformly 
 throughout the State; (4) establish standards of per¬ 
 formance for supervisors; (5) determine the status of 
 the local associations for income tax purposes; and (6) 
 arrange on a statewide basis such things as compensa¬ 
 tion and liability insurance for the supervisors and 
 social security payments. 
 
 The Standard DHIA Plan 
 
 Regardless of the type of organization and method 
 of operation, recordkeeping in herds under Standard 
 DHIA is conducted as outlined in this handbook and 
 according to the rules given in the appendix. Records 
 obtained from herds on the Standard plan are used in 
 the USD A sire evaluation and research program and 
 by colleges and universities for research and educa¬ 
 tional purposes. 
 
 Usually a supervisor schedules 1 standard herd per 
 working day, although on the average he will service 
 17 herds a month. The remainder of his time he will 
 work with Owner-Sampler herds. 
 
 The Owner-Sampler Plan 
 
 As the name implies, in the Owner-Sampler plan, 
 the herd owner records milk weights and takes samples 
 for each cow in his herd. The samples are tested 
 either by the supervisor when he visits the farm or in 
 the central laboratory if one is operated. The records 
 are processed at the computing center and are used by 
 the dairyman for herd improvement purposes. The 
 records are not used in the USDA sire evaluation pro¬ 
 gram or for research, since the milk weights and samples 
 were not obtained by the association supervisor. 
 
 In addition to Standard herds, it is usually benefi¬ 
 cial for supervisors to service as many Owner-Sampler 
 herds as possible. Many alert supervisors service more 
 than 70 Owner-Sampler herds. 
 
 1 
 
The Weigh-a-Day-a-Month Plan 
 
 The Weigh-a-Day-a-Month (WADAM) plan is very 
 simple, requiring as little time and effort of a dairyman 
 as is consistent with helpful recordkeeping. It is 
 intended to supplement, stimulate, and complement the 
 Standard DHIA and the Owner-Sampler plans. 
 WADAM is usually handled through the county 
 agent’s office or the computing center, or both. It 
 consists of the dairyman’s weighing the milk produced 
 by each cow on one day each month and reporting to 
 the county agent or a computing center the milk 
 weight; the plant butterfat test for the month; 
 freshening, dry, purchase, selling, and death dates; 
 and feed records (if desired). The computing service 
 agency returns the calculated records to the dairyman 
 who uses them as a guide to feeding, culling, and 
 breeding. Although the records are unofficial, as are 
 the Owner-Sampler records, they are of great value to 
 the dairyman. This plan costs less than either the 
 Standard or Owner-Sampler plans. 
 
 Dairy Herd Improvement Registry 
 
 The Dairy Herd Improvement Registry (DHIR) 
 record is an electronically computed Standard Plan 
 DHIA record intended to eliminate much of the duph- 
 cation of cost and effort caused by the use of both 
 the DHIA and the Herd Improvement Registry (HIR) 
 testing programs, but with some additional require¬ 
 ments to meet the needs of the dairy breed 
 organizations. 
 
 DHIR and Standard DHIA records are processed in 
 the same manner at the State or regional computing 
 center. A dairyman who wishes to enroll in the DHIR 
 plan must apply to his breed association on appropriate 
 forms, pay the required fee as established by the breed 
 association, notify his extension dairyman, and agree to 
 follow the rules applying to both Standard DHIA and 
 DHIR. (The rules are included in the appendix.) 
 The DHIR records processed by the State or regional 
 computing center are forwarded to the respective breed 
 association. 
 
 Broad Program of Herd Improvement 
 
 Since the beginning of cow testing associations in 
 1906, DHIA has grown to include, in 1964, a total of 
 2,822,522 cows in 67,664 herds located in the 50 
 cooperating States and Puerto Rico. This membership 
 is serviced by 1,420 local associations and 2,474 super¬ 
 visors. The total program is carried out through the 
 cooperative efforts of DHIA members, local association 
 directors and officers, central testing laboratories, 
 coimty agricultural agents. State extension workers. 
 State associations. State or regional computing centers, 
 and the Federal Extension Service and the Animal Hus¬ 
 bandry Research Division of the U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture. The broad purposes, objectives, and 
 responsibihties relating to the National Cooperative 
 Dairy Herd Improvement and Sire Evaluation 
 Programs are provided in a memorandum of under¬ 
 standing between the State Cooperative Extension 
 Service, and the Federal Extension Service and the 
 Animal Husbandry Research Division of the USDA. 
 The memorandum is included in the appendix. This 
 memorandmn of understanding is also applicable to 
 working relations between State DHIA organizations 
 and local associations. 
 
 Records for Sire Evaluation 
 and Research 
 
 Although each DHIA benefits its individual members, 
 the information obtained from these associations is 
 extensively used also on a nationwide basis. Produc¬ 
 tion records from Standard DHIA and DHIR herds 
 are provided by State or regional computing centers to 
 the USDA in the form of either punched cards or 
 magnetic tapes. In 1963, 1,320,423 lactation records 
 were provided. These records are screened for 
 accuracy, and by use of high-speed magnetic tape 
 equipment, they are added to existing files and used for 
 sire evaluation and research piu-poses. 
 
 The sire evaluation program, which provides sire 
 evaluation services on a nationwide basis, is based on 
 production differences between the daughters of a bull 
 and their contemporary herdmates. 
 
 Because the use of superior sires is the surest and 
 quickest way to improve the inherent producing ability 
 of dairy herds, the Dai^ Cattle Research Branch and 
 the State extension services are cooperating in a nation¬ 
 wide program to evaluate all sires used in association 
 herds and to aid in disseminating and perpetuating the 
 hereditary influences of the outstanding sires. The 
 herds from which these good sires come can become 
 sources of breeding stock for improving the Nation’s 
 dairy cattle. 
 
 The records obtained in the Standard plan are also 
 used to develop educational programs and research to 
 aid the dairyman in improving the productivity and 
 income from his herd tffiough better breeding, feeding, 
 and management practices. 
 
 Importance of Recordkeeping 
 
 Profitable dairying is realized through sound breed¬ 
 ing, feeding, and management, each of which may be 
 the limiting factor. High levels of production cannot 
 be obtained from cows of inferior breeding no matter 
 how well they are fed and managed. Likewise, cows 
 of excellent breeding will not produce well in the ab¬ 
 sence of sound feeding and management. 
 
 Sound breeding emphasizes cuUing and selection of 
 both cows and bulls. The low-producing cows must be 
 recognized and culled as soon as possible to increase 
 the productivity and profitableness of the herd. Low- 
 producing cows usually can be detected after one lac¬ 
 tation or, by alert dairymen, after only 3 to 4 months 
 of lactation. It is important also that dairymen recog¬ 
 nize and use the best bulls available, since this is the 
 surest and most rapid way to bring about genetic im¬ 
 provement. The information needed in selecting buUs, 
 especially those available in artificial breeding, is pro¬ 
 vided by the USDA Sire Evaluation Pro^am. 
 
 Sound feeding and management consists of feeding 
 good quality feed to each cow according to her current 
 level of production and care as needed to insure opti¬ 
 mum performance. The feeding program should be 
 fiexible, so that the relative amount of grain and forage 
 fed may vary according to feed available and market 
 
 demands. , . 
 
 Recordkeeping is not only desirable but essential for 
 profitable herd performance. It requires that each co\v 
 in the herd be production tested to permit sound 
 breeding, feeding, and management. In this way, in¬ 
 dividual cows can be cuUed or fed according to known 
 producing ability and bulls can be selected with greater 
 
 2 
 
reliability. This can be realized through membership 
 in a dairy herd improvement association. 
 
 Cows enrolled in Standard DHIA have in the past 
 produced from 60 to 80 percent more milk and butterfat 
 than all other cows in the United States. Shown below 
 are these production comparisons for selected years 
 from 1930 to 1963. 
 
 Year 
 
 Standard 
 
 DHIA cows 
 
 All other cows 
 
 IN THE U.S. 
 
 Milk 
 
 fib.) 
 
 Butterfat 
 
 (lb.) 
 
 Milk 
 
 (lb.) 
 
 Butterfat 
 
 (lb.) 
 
 1930_ 
 
 7, 642 
 
 303 
 
 4, 435 
 
 174 
 
 1940_ 
 
 8 , 133 
 
 331 
 
 4, 519 
 
 175 
 
 1950 _ 
 
 9, 172 
 
 370 
 
 5, 118 
 
 202 
 
 1962_ 
 
 11, 032 
 
 426 
 
 6 , 919 
 
 256 
 
 1963_ 
 
 11 , 286 
 
 434 
 
 7, 029 
 
 260 
 
 Use of production records has been largely respon¬ 
 sible for the superior performance of cows and herds 
 being production tested. The following results, which 
 represent Standard DHIA herds in the United States 
 in 1964, show how these records enable the participating 
 dairyman to increase not only production but also herd 
 efficiency. 
 
 Low Fat Production (3.6-3.8 percent) 
 
 Milk 
 
 production 
 
 (pounds) 
 
 Value 
 
 Feed cost 
 
 Income over 
 feed cost 
 
 6,000_ 
 
 $276 
 
 $155 
 
 $121 
 
 8,000_ 
 
 351 
 
 177 
 
 174 
 
 10,000_ 
 
 424 
 
 203 
 
 221 
 
 12,000_ 
 
 506 
 
 232 
 
 274 
 
 14,000_ 
 
 601 
 
 267 
 
 334 
 
 16,000_ 
 
 688 
 
 293 
 
 395 
 
 High Fat 
 
 Production 
 
 (5.0-5.2 percent) 
 
 6,000_ 
 
 $320 
 
 $151 
 
 $169 
 
 8,000_ 
 
 430 
 
 187 
 
 243 
 
 9,900_ 
 
 552 
 
 235 
 
 317 
 
 A dairyman can increase his net profit and help con¬ 
 trol the milk surplus by selling improfitable cows for 
 
 beef. To be profitable, a cow should produce at least 
 $2 worth of milk for each $1 worth of feed she con¬ 
 sumes. By disposing of unprofitable cows, a dairyman 
 increases his net income and at the same time removes 
 their milk from the market. 
 
 Proper and complete identification records coupled 
 with impartial recordkeeping not only can provide in¬ 
 formation needed to cull intelligently but also can add 
 to income. Grade and registered heifer calves, young 
 heifers, and cows all bring more when a dairyman has 
 records to prove the animal’s worth. Anything above 
 cost is more return on investment—a result of the use 
 of a good recordkeeping system. 
 
 Accuracy of Records 
 
 High-speed electronic computers are being widely 
 used to process DHIA records. As a result, greater 
 accuracy is obtained in the overall recordkeeping sys¬ 
 tem. However, no amount of data processing will re¬ 
 place the importance and need of accuracy by 
 supervisors in recording data on the farm. Especially 
 important is the accurate and prompt identification of 
 calves, heifers, cows, dams, and sires and the proper 
 recording of change of status codes and dates as they 
 affect advancing lactations of cows. Also important is 
 the accuracy of feeding and related management infor¬ 
 mation, which is essential to the dairyman. 
 
 Kecordkeeping data from Standard DHIA herds are 
 used more and more extensively for the important work 
 of research and sire evaluation. The reliability of these 
 efforts, along with their usefulness to dairymen, depends 
 largely on how completely and accurately the data are 
 recorded by each supervisor. 
 
 Making DHI Information Public 
 
 Local publicity is valuable to association work in the 
 community. The supervisor should cooperate with the 
 board of directors and the county agent in preparing 
 news articles. Stories that illustrate a recommended 
 practice should be used in preference to mere statistical 
 accounts. The real purpose of the testing work is to 
 improve each individual herd. Stories of outstanding 
 sires summarized in the association are of interest to all 
 dairjunen in the community. Herds in which unusual 
 improvement has been made through association work 
 are also good material for news stores. 
 
 3 
 
Chapter II. Outline of Supervisor's Work 
 
 The daily routine of supervisors varies widely 
 because of the use of automated data processing (ADP) 
 procedures, the inclusion of Owner-Sampler testing in 
 the routine of some supervisors having herds on the 
 Standard plan, and bimonthly testing and the use of 
 a central testing laboratory in some areas. 
 
 Regardless of the operating plan of the association, 
 the DHIA supervisor’s work is essentially as outlined 
 in this handbook. 
 
 Although use of ADP procedmes has reduced the 
 calculating work required of supervisors, complete and 
 accurate reports are absolutely necessary. It is vital^ to 
 follow exactly the instructions given by the computing 
 center for reporting the various components of the 
 record. Follow carefully the instructions in this hand¬ 
 book for reporting names, code numbers, and other 
 figures in the record, and for the proper forming of letters 
 and numbers to make them readable. When incorrect 
 data are used for any purpose, the published informa¬ 
 tion loses its value. 
 
 To assist in maintaining uniformity and reliab ity 
 in the Standard DHIA recordkeeping plan, rules .ave 
 been established by the American Dairy S'..ence 
 Association and are shown in the appendix. The 
 principal points of the rules are: (1) In each herd all 
 weighing and samphng of milk must be done by the 
 supervisor; (2) the testing of milk must be done either 
 by the supervisor or by personnel of a central testing 
 laboratory; (3) all cows of milking age in the herd, 
 including dry cows, must be on test, regardless of 
 ownership; (4) all cows, including dry cows, that have 
 been on test in the herd during the year must be in¬ 
 cluded in the yearly herd average; and (5) the super¬ 
 visor (the term “supervisor” may include personnel of 
 a central testing laboratory) must use or report the 
 data obtained on the testing day as the basis for com¬ 
 puting the production for the corresponding testing 
 period. 
 
 These rules must not be modified. It is the super¬ 
 visor’s responsibility to see that the rules are followed. 
 If any basic rule is not followed, records should not be 
 reported or compiled as Standard DHIA records. Gen¬ 
 eral confidence in DHIA records is maintained and 
 enhanced when all Standard DHIA testing work con¬ 
 forms with DHIA rules. Any supervisor who makes 
 exceptions to the rules, or permits any association 
 member to make exceptions, loses the confidence of 
 that member and all other members of the association. 
 Questions about interpretation of the rules should be 
 referred to your board of directors. 
 
 Duties of the DHIA supervisor, while on the farm, 
 are outlined generally as follows: 
 
 Evening Work 
 
 1. Arrive at the farm early enough to avoid causing 
 any delay in the evening milking. 
 
 2. Before milking time, fill in all items not completed 
 in the heading of the prelisted barn sheet. 
 
 4 
 
 3. Eartag all calves that have entered the herd since 
 the last testing day unless they are otherwise suitably 
 identified. Record the identification on appropriate 
 forms. (See ch. X for eartagging procedures.) 
 
 4. Fill in aU dates and change-of-status codes required 
 by the computing center. 
 
 5. Positively identify each cow in the herd as the 
 day’s feed and milk records are obtained by comparing 
 her markings, eartag number, or other identification 
 with data in the herd-record book. 
 
 6. Weigh or measure the grain fed to each cow and 
 determine on a herd basis the amount of forage con¬ 
 sumed. Usually with the help of the dairyman you 
 can estimate in the evening the quantity of feed to be 
 fed in the morning. The amount of any feed refused 
 must be subtracted from feed fed, to obtain feed con¬ 
 sumed, which is the amount to report. 
 
 7. Weigh the milk of each cow in the herd and record 
 weights on the barn sheet. 
 
 8. If the milking is done with a bucket mUker, mix 
 the milk from each cow thoroughly by pouring it three 
 times from one pail to another; then take the sample. 
 If a pipeline milker and meter are used, take the sample 
 from the sampling device. If there is a weigh bucket 
 or bell jar in the line, allow air to bubble through the 
 milk for 1 second per pound of milk before taking the 
 sample, to insure thorough mixing of the milk. 
 
 9. See that numbers on the sample jars of milk 
 correspond with the numbers of the cows in the sanaple 
 column on the barn sheet. Keep the sample jars 
 tightly closed and securely locked while they are not 
 under your supervision. 
 
 10. Immediately after each newly purchased cow is 
 milked, eartag her if she does not have suitable 
 identification and record the identification on 
 appropriate forms. 
 
 11. Immediately after each cow that freshened or 
 was purchased since the last visit is milked, use an 
 approved heart-girth measuring tape to estimate live 
 weight and record it in the proper column of the barn 
 sheet and on the cow’s individual record sheet. 
 
 12. Record the prices of concentrates and good- 
 quality hay in your area. Some computing centers 
 figure prices of all forages from the price of good hay. 
 Record prices of other specific feeds and quality of the 
 various forages if your center requires it. 
 
 13. Record the price of milk and butterfat and, if 
 required by the local association, the price of protein 
 and solids-not-fat. 
 
 14. Get as much of the required information as 
 possible in the evening. The dairyman is likely to be 
 too busy in the morning to have time to give you the 
 data you need to complete your report. It is probably 
 best to schedule a time to obtain data from the 
 dairyman in order to insure that no item is missed. 
 
 15. Strive to assist the dairyman by discussing with 
 him his breeding, feeding, and management program. 
 Feel free to obtain assistance and materials from the 
 county agent, computing center, and extension special- 
 
ist. Become thoroughly familiar with the total 
 recordkeeping system so that you can answer the 
 dairyman’s questions. 
 
 Morning Work 
 
 1. Be on the job before milking time. Weigh or 
 measure the grain fed each cow (if you did not do so 
 the previous evening). Check for feed refusals. 
 
 2. Weigh and sample the milk from each cow as at 
 the evening milking. 
 
 3. Obtain a composite sample of the evening’s and 
 morning’s milk of each cow for the butterfat test and, 
 if required by the association, for protein and solids- 
 not-fat test. Greater accuracy is obtained by using 
 proportionate quantities from each milking to collect 
 
 the composite sample. If your testing work is done by 
 a central laboratory, be sure that the composite 
 samples are packed so as to prevent breakage during 
 the trip to the laboratory. Otherwise, test the 
 composite samples as required. 
 
 4. Transfer data from the barn sheet to the 
 individual cow-record forms as needed. 
 
 5. Be sure that all entries for which you are 
 responsible are complete in the dairyman’s herd-record 
 book. 
 
 6. Before you leave the farm, recheck all phases of 
 the work to be certain that all items on the barn sheet 
 are filled out properly, all individual cow records are 
 brought up to date, and all necessary new identifications 
 have been made. If you do not complete this work prop¬ 
 erly, the dairjrman may justifiably think that you are 
 not capable of handling the job. 
 
 5 
 
Chapter III- Equipment for Weighing, Sampling, and 
 
 Testing Milk 
 
 The procedures outlined in this chapter and in chap¬ 
 ter V are in line with good recordkeeping practices. 
 The equipment described is approved for use if no 
 specific State regulations exist. 
 
 Weighing and Sampling Equipment 
 
 1. Two seamless large-capacity milk pails. 
 
 2. Field case with padlock for the following equip¬ 
 ment: 
 
 a. Scales. —A special milk scale is required. It must 
 have a capacity of 60 pounds, an adjustable hand, and 
 a legible dial graduated in pounds and tenths of pounds; 
 and it must be accurate within the limits set by the 
 American Dairy Science Association (appendix, DHIA 
 rule lb). 
 
 b. MUk-sample jars of 3- or 4--ounce capacity for each 
 cow in the herd. —They must be fitted with watertight 
 lids or stoppers. Each sample jar and lid must be 
 permanently numbered or have a place for recording 
 the assigned sample number. 
 
 c. Trays to hold sample jars. —A wire mesh lid for 
 each tray makes it possible to dump and wash a tray 
 of jars at a time. 
 
 d. Sampling device. —A 30-ml. sample dipper (heavy 
 type with roimded bottom), syringe, or milk-thief. 
 
 e. Preservatives. —Suitable preservative tablets, such 
 as bichloride of mercury or sodium dichromate, must 
 be used to preserve samples when they cannot be tested 
 on the day they are taken or cannot be maintained 
 between 30° and 40° F. 
 
 Testing Equipment for the 
 Babcock Test 
 
 1. Electric centrifuge (24 or 36 bottles) with speed 
 and heat control.—The heat control must maintain an 
 operating temperature of 135° to 150° F. The operat¬ 
 ing temperature of the centrifuge should permit no 
 appreciable rising or lowering of the fat columns when 
 test bottles are transferred to the water bath. The 
 operating speed must be controlled within the following 
 (tolerance ±25 r.p.m.): 
 
 Diameter of wheel (inches): R.p.m. 
 
 18_ 800 
 
 20_ 759 
 
 22_ 724 
 
 24_ 693 
 
 Diameter of wheel is the distance between the bottom 
 of the opposite cups, measured through the center of 
 rotation when the cups are extended horizontally. 
 Check the speed of the centrifuge at least monthly 
 with the door of the centrifuge closed. An accurate 
 tachometer permanently attached to the centrifuge is 
 desirable. 
 
 2. Field case with padlock for the following equip- 
 
 ment. ^ • 
 
 a. Approved Babcock test bottles.—Specifications: 8- 
 percent, 18-gram, 6-inch milk test bottles, with 0.1 
 percent graduation. Test bottles must be unbroken, 
 clean, and numbered consecutively or to correspond 
 with the numbered sample jars. 
 
 b. Approved pipettes.—Each laboratory or place of 
 testing must be equipped with three or more approved 
 pipettes, calibrated to contain 17.6 ml. of water at 
 
 68° F. . 
 
 c. Acid measuring devices.—Burettes, dippem, or 
 other satisfactory acid measuring devices that will de¬ 
 liver 17.5 ml. of acid into the test bottle without spill- 
 age. 
 
 d. Acid bowl.—^Approximately 5 inches in diameter 
 and 4 inches deep, if a dipper is used. 
 
 e. Electric heater for water bath (small hotplate) if 
 an electrically heated and controlled water bath is not 
 used. 
 
 f. Water bath.—The water bath must maintain water 
 at 135° to 140° F. The tank should be copper or other 
 rustproof material marked with indentations to indi¬ 
 cate the proper water level (top of fat columns for 
 either 12, 18, or 24 test bottles). 
 
 g. Bottle rack to go in water bath.—The rack should 
 have partitions between bottles and holes in the bottom 
 of rack. The holes should not be directly underneath 
 the bottles. 
 
 h. Shield to hold test bottles in position in rack and 
 some device to hold the rack and bottles in position 
 when they are submerged for washing. 
 
 i. Thermometers.—Two or more accurate milk ther¬ 
 mometers (floating, 20° to 220° F.). 
 
 j. Calipers or other approved reading devices for 
 measuring the fat columns.—Calipers must have par¬ 
 allel needle points and adjustable tension. 
 
 K. Acid hydrometer.—A sulfuric acid hydrometer 
 (1.80 to 1.85 sp. gr. at 68° F.) must be available to check 
 the specific gravity of the acid. If acid is too strong 
 (above 1.825 at 68° F.), the following adjustments can 
 be made: 
 
 (1) Use a suitable acid bottle, polyethylene, or 
 stainless-steel container. An ordinary glass 
 jug may break from heat. 
 
 (2) Add one pipette (17.5 ml.) of water per quart 
 of acid for each 0.005 drop in specific gravity 
 required. 
 
 (3) Add slowly a small amount of acid, and mix. 
 When the container has been uniformly heated, 
 add additional acid until required specific grav¬ 
 ity has been attained. 
 
 l. Three brushes.—1 test-bottle brush; 1 sample-jar 
 brush; 1 pipette brush. 
 
 m. Small oil can and oil. 
 
 n. Cow marking crayons. 
 
 o. Dixon 352 white pencil. 
 
 6 
 
p. Weight tape measure. 
 
 q. DHIA eartagging outfit. 
 
 r. Extension cord with a 3-prong plug-in socket or 
 2-prong socket with grounding wire. 
 
 3. Sulfuric acid.—Sulfuric acid for the Babcock test, 
 having a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.825 at 68° F., 
 must be plainly labeled and stored in safe containers 
 with tight stoppers or lids. 
 
 4. Carrying case with padlock for acid jug. 
 
 5. Water.—A supply of clean water must be available 
 for washing equipment and making the tests. Water 
 at 150° F. or above must be available to add to the 
 test bottles while the test is being made. 
 
 6. Heading light.—^Each laboratory or place of testing 
 must be equipped with a suitable diffused light located 
 at eye level height so as to give a clear outline of the 
 fat column. 
 
 Other Recommended Equipment 
 
 1. A case for record forms. 
 
 2. Moisture tester.—^A moistm*e tester is a very useful 
 tool for determining the actual moisture content of green 
 feed and silages. Actual moisture values will likely be 
 more accurate than values on coding charts. 
 
 3. Test bottle shaker. 
 
 4. Test bottle washer. 
 
 5. Acid pump. 
 
 6. Automatic timing device. 
 
 7. Double wash sinks. 
 
 8. Acid disposal sink. 
 
 Equipment For TeSa Test 
 
 Equipment for the TeSa test is assembled into a kit 
 bv the manufacturer and should be ordered as such. 
 The amount of glassware included in the kits varies, in 
 order to serve herds of different sizes. The manufac¬ 
 turer is Technical Industries, Inc., 2711 SW. 2d Ave., 
 Fort Lauderdale, Fla. 
 
 Equipment for Protein and Solids- 
 Not-Fat Determinations 
 
 The procedm’es for determining protein and solids- 
 not-fat (SNF) are relatively new. If such procedures 
 and equipment are needed, consult your local board of 
 directors or State extension dairyman and include any 
 printed material about these tests with this handbook. 
 
 Equipment for a Central Laboratory 
 
 The standards for equipment are the same for central 
 laboratory testing as for field testing. The only dif¬ 
 ferences are the number of each item stocked and the 
 storage facilities needed. 
 
 Care of Testing Equipment 
 
 The condition and appearance of the testing equip¬ 
 ment often indicate the quality of work being done. 
 Keep equipment clean and in good operating condition 
 at all times. While most of the equipment listed is for 
 the Babcock test, other equipment requires the same 
 general care and cleaning procedures. 
 
 CentrSfuge 
 
 Keep the centrifuge clean. Oil it frequently with 
 a high-grade lubricant. Keep it adjusted properly 
 and m repair. For repairs, see your board of directors 
 Operate the centrifuge only on a level, firm foundation! 
 Start and stop the machine slowly. 
 
 Scales 
 
 Keep the scales clean and free from rust. Do not 
 drop or overload them. Wrap the scales in a dry 
 cloth and keep them in a kit or dry box when not in use. 
 Check the accuracy of the scales frequently, especially 
 if they are old. Methods for checlang accuracy are 
 described in chapter IV. With inaccurate scales, you 
 can obtain only worthless, misleading records, and you 
 are wasting your time and the dairyman’s money. 
 
 Glassware 
 
 Glassware is expensive. Use, store, and carry it 
 with care. If your supervisor’s kit does not provide 
 a specific place for the glassware, wrap it separately 
 and carry it so jarring or shifting of equipment will 
 not cause breakage. 
 
 Acid 
 
 Acid will burn holes in clothes and will burn the 
 skin. In fact, it wUl burn or damage practically 
 everything (except rubber or glass) with which it comes 
 in contact. You must regard the acid as dangerous 
 and handle it accordingly. 
 
 If you accidentally spill acid on your skin, wash it off 
 immediately. It is good practice to keep your hands 
 wet while pouring the acid. Keep baking soda in 
 your kit, handy for use in neutralizing spilled acid. 
 To bring acid to the proper temperature, place it in a 
 warm room in the evening, if possible. If the acid 
 must be warmed in the morning, place the jug in a 
 warm-water bath. If the acid and jug are cold, warm 
 the jug in a lukewarm-water bath. Never place the 
 jug in hot water or on a stove to warm it; the heat may 
 crack the jug and permit the acid and water to mix, 
 which woidd cause an explosion with probably disas¬ 
 trous results. 
 
 Always keep acid away from children. After you 
 have completed the test, empty the test bottle and 
 any milk to which you added preservative on an ash 
 pile or some place where children or animals cannot 
 get to it. Do not empty test bottles down a drain; 
 the acid will damage the plumbing and may interfere 
 with the bacterial action where septic tanks are used. 
 
 Carrying Case for Acid Jug 
 
 Carry acid in a strong, glass jug with a hard-rubber 
 stopper. Carry the jug in a strong, locked, wood case. 
 The case should be made of not less than %-inch mate¬ 
 rial, and it should be padded on the sides and bottom 
 to fit the jug snugly. It should be just deep enough 
 so that when the lid is closed and locked, it automati¬ 
 cally holds the jug stopper firmly in place. Keep the 
 jug in the case at all times except when warming the 
 
 7 
 
acid in a water bath. When carrying the acid in a 
 car, place it so that it will not tip over and so that in 
 case of a traffic accident it cannot spill on the occupants 
 of the car. 
 
 Cleaning Equipment 
 
 Test Bottles 
 
 1. While they are still hot, empty the test bottles 
 in a safe place where acid will do no damage. Shake 
 the bottles whUe emptying them, to keep sediment 
 from sticking to the glass. 
 
 2. Rinse the bottles with cold or lukewarm water. 
 
 3. Replace the bottles in the water bath. Add a 
 good dairy cleaner (not soap); put a little cleaner in 
 the neck of each bottle. 
 
 4. Add hot water to the water bath until water fills 
 the test bottles. 
 
 5. Wash the bottles thoroughly; use a stiff brush 
 on the necks of the bottles. If dirt has accumulated 
 inside the bottles, add BB shot with the cleaner, and 
 rotate the bottles vigorously. 
 
 6. Empty the bottles; rinse with warm water; and 
 invert to drain. 
 
 7. Rinse with hot water and invert to drain and dry. 
 
 Other Equipment 
 
 1. As soon as possible after use, rinse the sample 
 bottles, pails, dippers, and other equipment with cold 
 or lukewarm water. 
 
 2. After rinsing, scrub thoroughly with a stiff brush, 
 using hot water and a good dairy cleaner. 
 
 3. FoUow the washing operation with a hot-water 
 rinse—the hotter the water, the better. 
 
 4. A final rinse in a chlorine solution (200 parts per 
 million) or quaternary ammonium compound solution 
 will destroy bacteria on the equipment and help to 
 keep future milk samples from souring. 
 
 5. Invert and air-dry the equipment to prevent rust. 
 
 Source of Supplies 
 
 Your board of directors will advise you as to where 
 and how to obtain supplies, equipment, glassware, acid, 
 alcohol, TeSa reagent concentrate, and other materials. 
 
 8 
 
Chapter IV. Weighins ond Sampling Milk 
 
 Responsibility of Supervisor 
 
 The cows being milked must be located so that you 
 can observe the milking at all times. It is your responsi¬ 
 bility to check the weighing device for accuracy before 
 milking, to weigh all milk or observe the weight being 
 accumulated for all cows, to record the weights on the 
 barn sheet, and to take and preserve the milk samples 
 for testing. 
 
 Weighing and Sampling When a 
 Bucket-Type Milker Is Used 
 
 It is preferable to use varying standard weights, 
 which you can obtain from your board of directors, to 
 check the accuracy of a dairy scale. A scale should 
 meet the standards set by the American Dairy Science 
 Association (appendix, DHIA rule lb) or the standards 
 in your State, whichever are higher. A bucket of 
 known weight and various measures of water (8.3 
 pounds equals 1 gallon) can also be used. 
 
 Weighing 
 
 Hang your scales at eye-level height at a place in the 
 barn where you can observe all milking operations at 
 all times. Adjust one hand on the milk scale so that it 
 will rest on zero with the empty, but wet, pail. Always 
 read the adjusted hand and record the milk weight to 
 the nearest “tenth” of a pound. 
 
 Sampling 
 
 At each milking, pour the milk of each cow from one 
 pail to another three times to insure that the milk is 
 mixed thoroughly before you take a sample. The test 
 will be more accurate if you use proportionate quantities 
 from each milking to make up a composite sample for 
 each cow. This is best done by placing a full sample 
 dipper of milk from the first milking in the sample 
 bottles and then varying the amount of milk added 
 from the next milking according to the weight of the 
 milk obtained from that milking. For example, if the 
 second milking is heavier than the first, add a full dipper 
 plus a little additional milk. If the second milking is 
 lighter, add less than a full dipper of milk from that 
 milking. The composite sample should always be large 
 enough to run two tests if necessary. Also, the sample 
 should be large enough to provide milk for other tests 
 if it is being tested for more than one factor. 
 
 Weighing and Sampling When 
 Pipeline Milkers Are Used 
 
 Various systems of weighing and sampling milk from 
 individual cows have been developed for use with pipe¬ 
 line milkers. One weighing and samphng device—the 
 
 Milk-O-Meter—has been approve.! by the American 
 Dairy Science Association and the Stat' regulatory 
 agencies for use in the Standard DHIA program. See 
 appendix, DHIA rule 1, for the requirements to be met 
 by any equipment used in the Standard program. 
 
 Proper Installation and Use 
 
 Proper installation and use of any weighing and 
 sampling device is important for accurate results. You 
 are responsible for the accurate weighing and sampling 
 of each cow’s milk. You should become familiar with 
 the operation of the device before using it in the 
 Standard DHIA plan. Most manufacturers provide 
 instructions for the correct installation and operation 
 of weighing and sampling devices. You should study 
 them carefully. 
 
 Procedure for Using Weighing and Sampling 
 Devices 
 
 Collection Containers in Milkline From Cow 
 
 Attach collection containers in the milkline between 
 the cow and the pipeline to collect each cow’s milk 
 separately. The containers may be milker pails, milk 
 cans, or sunilar vessels with special covers for trapping 
 the milk. Check to see that the container is empty 
 before each cow is milked. When the milking for each 
 cow is complete, cut off the vacuum from the milkline, 
 and empty the milk into your weigh pad. Weigh and 
 sample the milk in the usual manner. 
 
 Milker Pail or Bell Jar With Scales 
 
 1. Checking for accuracy .—Remove the pail or jar 
 from the scales, and test the scales as described earlier 
 in the chapter. 
 
 2. Weighing .—Weigh according to the following 
 procedure: 
 
 a. Be sure that the adjusted hand on the scale 
 points to zero before the unit is attached to the cow, 
 
 b. Be sure that all connecting hoses are long enough 
 to permit free movement of the container. 
 
 c. Be sure that all connecting hoses are in the same 
 position when you read the milk weights as they were 
 when you made the zero reading. 
 
 d. See that the valves of the pipeline are turned so 
 as to prevent any milk from one unit entering another 
 during the first unit’s emptying. 
 
 e. Take all weights before any milk is released. If 
 the container will not hold all of the milk from one cow, 
 drain the milk into a weigh pail and weigh it in the 
 usual manner. 
 
 3. Sampling .— Proper sampling is essential to the 
 conduct of the test. 
 
 a. After weighing the milk and before releasing any 
 of it into the milkhne, mix it thoroughly by opening a 
 
 9 
 
sampling valve at the bottom of the container to let 
 air bubble through the milk. To assure adequate 
 mi xin g, continue air agitation for 1 second per pound 
 of milk. 
 
 b. Mixing by other methods, such as shaking, 
 rolling, and tipping, should be adequate to assure 
 sufficient agitation. 
 
 c. Take the sample. The amount should be 
 proportionate to production as explained in chapter IV, 
 under “Sampling.” 
 
 d. If the container will not hold all of the milk from 
 one cow, drain all the milk into pails for mixing before 
 taking a sample. 
 
 The Milk-O-Meter 
 
 The Milk-O-Meter is a metering device that is 
 installed in the milkline from the cow to the pipeline 
 for automatic weighing and sampling of the milk while 
 the cow is being milked. The meter should be prop¬ 
 erly assembled before each milking. Holding clamps 
 should be permanently installed for each location 
 where the meter is to be used. Care should be taken 
 to see that the clamps will hold the MiIk-0-Meter 
 firmly in a level position. The vacuum must be main¬ 
 tained at the proper level. 
 
 1. Field test jor accuracy. —Check the Milk-O-Meter 
 monthly for accuracy, as follows: 
 
 a. Place the Milk-O-Meter, without the Sampler 
 but with the shell stopper in place, in a level position 
 and on a soUd base. A pipe clamp may be used or a 
 vat edge stand adjusted to hold the meter level. 
 
 b. Connect a hose from a water tap to the upper 
 spout. 
 
 c. Let 2 or 3 pounds of water run through the meter 
 and then shut off the water. 
 
 d. Place an empty clean pail, previously weighed, 
 under the meter to catch water so that none is spilled. 
 
 e. Set the dial pointer at zero. 
 
 f. Slowly open the water valve or tap until water 
 is flowing through the meter at the rate of 4 pounds or 
 16 “clicks” per minute—NO FASTER. 
 
 g. Shut off the water when 17 pounds is registered 
 on the meter dial. 
 
 h. Weigh the pail and water on a scale known to 
 be accurate. 
 
 i. Deduct the weight of the pail and compare the net 
 weight of water to the Milk-O-Meter dial reading. 
 
 j. With a meter reading of 17 pounds, a scale reading 
 of 16}i to 17}^ pounds is within accuracy requirements. 
 If the reading is outside these limits, repeat the check. 
 
 k. If the same results are obtained on the second 
 check, the meter probably needs to be recalibrated; 
 
 it should be returned either to the factory or to an 
 authorized service center. 
 
 2. Weighing .—The steps for weighing are as follows: 
 
 a. Before using the Milk-O-Meter and with the 
 vacuum on, check the shaft attached to the pointer to 
 see that it moves freely. 
 
 b. Set the pointer on zero before each cow is milked. 
 
 c. After milking is completed for each cow, reach 
 behind the dial and trip the rocker shaft once before 
 reading the weight. This allows for the small amount 
 of milk that may be left in the meter when milking 
 stops. 
 
 3. Sampling .—A small amount of milk accumulates 
 in the sampling chamber during the milking process. 
 After each cow is milked and the milk weight has been 
 taken, remove the outlet cover of the sampling chamber 
 while the vacuum is still on. This mixes the milk 
 sample and removes the excess milk in the sampling 
 chamber. Cut off the vacuum through the meter to 
 let the milk drain into the sample jar. 
 
 Be sure all the milk has drained from the sampling 
 chamber before the next cow is milked. 
 
 Other Methods 
 
 Check with your board of directors before using 
 other weighing and sampling devices. 
 
 Care of Milk Samples 
 
 Keep each cow's milk sample in a clean, tightly 
 closed, numbered milk-sample jar. The number of 
 each sample jar might well be painted on the lid with 
 enamel paint to insure greater permanence. The 
 number should correspond with the sample number 
 listed for the cow in the “sample” column on the 
 bam-book sheet. Keep the sample jar in a locked 
 box or case. 
 
 Do not test sour or frozen samples of milk. In 
 freezing weather, keep the samples in a warm place. 
 In extremely hot weather, keep the samples in a cool 
 place or use a preservative. Corrosive sublimate or 
 potassium dichromate tablets may be used according 
 to the directions of the manufacturer, to keep the 
 samples from souring. CAUTION: Preservatives are 
 very poisonous and must be kept away from children 
 and animals. Milk samples that have been treated 
 with pi:eservatives and that are not used in making 
 the test must be disposed of where children or animals 
 cannot get to them. 
 
 To insure reliable records and to prevent outside 
 criticism, you must keep aU milk samples, glassware, 
 and any blank forms you carry under lock and key at 
 all times except when you are actually using them. 
 
 10 
 
Chapter V. Testing Milk 
 
 The Babcock test and the TeSa test are used for 
 butterfat determinations in dairy herd improvement 
 associations. 
 
 Testing Whole MNk by the Babcock 
 
 Method 
 
 If yoim State regulatory agency has issued rules for 
 conducting the Babcock test, follow them; otherwise, 
 the test should be conducted as follows: 
 
 Heating the Centrifuge 
 
 Start the electric centrifuge heating, so that it will 
 be at 135° to 150° F. 
 
 Tempering 
 
 1. If the test is to be run on fresh, individual milk 
 samples, adjust the temperature of these samples to 
 between 60° and 70° F. in a water bath just before 
 mbdng them and taking the pipetted sample for the 
 test. 
 
 2. Place the jars holding the composite milk samples 
 in a water bath with the surface of the water slightly 
 above the level of the milk in the bottles. 
 
 3. The temperature of the bath should not exceed 
 100° F. at the tune you place the cold samples in it. 
 Composite samples and those with preservatives must 
 be tempered to between 95° and 100° F. Do not shake 
 or mix the milk in the sample jar until the milk has 
 reached 90° F. 
 
 4. n any sample becomes diluted with water, dis¬ 
 card it, and make a permanent record of the date of 
 the accident and identity of the sample. 
 
 Mixing Before Pipetting 
 
 After the composite sample of mUk reaches 95° to 
 100° F., mix it as follows: 
 
 1. Pour the sample into a mixing container and back 
 into the original sample jar three times. Drain the 
 mixing container for at least 15 seconds before using it 
 again. Rotate the jar to loosen any cream; use a spat¬ 
 ula if necessary. Be sure that cream does not stick to 
 the cap or stopper. Overheating or rough shaking may 
 cause the sample to churn and oil off. 
 
 2. Pipette the sample immediately after mixing. 
 
 Temperature of Milk for Pipetting 
 
 When you pipette the sample, the temperature of 
 the milk should be between 90° and 100° F. 
 
 Pipetting 
 
 1. Rinse the pipette with milk before working with 
 the first sample. 
 
 2. Place the tip of the pipette into about one-half 
 the depth of the milk in the sample bottle. Fill the 
 pipette and adjust the topmost surface of the milk to 
 the graduated mark (17.6 ml.) on the suction tube. 
 Insert the entire delivery tube of the pipette into the 
 neck of the test bottle before releasing the milk. The 
 lip of the test bottle should be vented, preferably with 
 a grooved rubber gasket at the base of the bulb of the 
 pipette. 
 
 3. WTien the pipette has drained for about 10 to 15 
 seconds after free flow has stopped, blow out the last 
 drops or remove the pipette from the test bottle with 
 a quick upward movement to force the last drops from 
 the tip of the pipette. You will find it advantageous 
 to use two pipettes alternately. 
 
 4. Cool the pipetted samples to between 60° and 70° 
 F. before adding the acid. 
 
 Sulfuric Acid 
 
 1. Use sulfuric acid with a specific gravity of 1.82 
 to 1.825 at 68° F. 
 
 2. The acid should be between 60° and 70° F.—the 
 same temperature as the milk. 
 
 Adding Acid to the Milk 
 
 1. The temperature of the mUk at the time of adding 
 the acid should not exceed 70° F. 
 
 2. Add 17.5 ml. of acid slowly to each sample. Hold 
 the neck of the test bottle at an angle and rotate it as 
 you pour, so the acid will flow down the sides of the 
 bottle neck and wash all milk out of the neck. 
 
 3. Mix the sample with a smooth, rotary motion. 
 Continue to shake for one-half minute after all curd 
 has disappeared. The time of shaking is very impor¬ 
 tant in obtaining accurate tests. Rough, delayed, or 
 slow shaking will cause dirty fat columns. The same 
 is true of too little or too much acid. If you are using 
 a preservative in the milk, mixing for 3 minutes is 
 recommended. Experienced supervisors can pour acid 
 and then shake a tray of samples at one time. How¬ 
 ever, test bottles must be handled carefully to avoid 
 charring before shaking is started. Properly handled, 
 the mixed samples will have a dark chocolate color 
 with no visible curd. An automatic shaker is an 
 excellent timesaver. 
 
 Centrifuging 
 
 Transfer the test bottles immediately to a heated 
 centrifuge. Bottles must be counterbalanced by having 
 
 11 
 
the opposite cups filled. Use test bottles filled with 
 water or with dupUcate tests if necessary. 
 
 1. Centrifuge at full speed for 5 minutes. 
 
 2. Add water (150° F. or above) to within one-fourth 
 inch of the base of the neck of the test bottle. 
 
 3. Centrifuge again for 2 minutes. 
 
 4. Add water to bring the fat within the graduated 
 space in the neck of the test bottle. Do not overfill. 
 
 5. Centrifuge again for 1 minute. 
 
 6. Use water, free from oil. To soften hard water, 
 add about two drops of sulfuric acid to each quart of 
 water. Never add water to acid. 
 
 Water Bath 
 
 Transfer the test bottles immediately to a water bath 
 at 135° to 140° F. Temper for 5 minutes. Be sure 
 that the water is above the top meniscus of the fat 
 columns. (The meniscus is the saucer-shaped surface 
 at the ends of the fat column. The bottom of the 
 meniscus is the bottom of the saucer, and the top of 
 the meniscus is the outer rim of the saucer.) 
 
 Reading Tests 
 
 1. Be sure that the entire fat column is within the 
 graduations on the neck of the test bottle. 
 
 2. Remove each test bottle separately from the bath; 
 hold it perpendicularly in front of a diffused light; 
 and measure with a measuring device the length of the 
 fat colmnn from the bottom of the lower meniscus to 
 the top of the upper meniscus. 
 
 3. Measure the fat column on the ungraduated side 
 of the neck and read the test from the graduated scale. 
 
 4. Read the fat test to the nearest 0.1 percent. 
 
 5. Do not read the test if the fat column is foamy, 
 burnt, or curdy, or if the meniscus is irregular. If such 
 tests are used, inaccurate results will be obtained. 
 
 6. Do not empty the sample jars until all tests have 
 been verified and recorded. Rerun all questionable 
 tests. All tests that are abnormally high or low in re¬ 
 lation to breed, stage of lactation, or previous records 
 on the cow or herd should be verified by duplicate tests 
 of samples involved. 
 
 Defective Tests 
 
 A test is considered defective and inaccurate if the 
 fat column is milky or indistinct, or if flakes of casein 
 or charred material are in or below the fat column, and 
 you should repeat the test. The following information 
 should be helpful in correcting procedures that result 
 in defective tests. 
 
 Dark-Colored Fat Column 
 
 A dark-colored or burned fat column containing dark 
 particles near the lower meniscus is usually caused by 
 improper mixing or by one of the following: 
 
 1. The acid was too strong. 
 
 2. Too much acid was used. 
 
 3. The acid was too warm when it was added to the 
 milk (over 70° F.). 
 
 4. The milk was too warm when the acid was added 
 (over 70° F.). 
 
 5. The acid was dropped directly into the milk. 
 (The test bottle should be tilted so the acid will flow 
 down the sides.) 
 
 6. The mixing was interrupted before the solution 
 was complete. 
 
 7. The acid and the milk stood too long before being 
 mixed. 
 
 8. The action of the acid was too fast because of 
 failure to use rotary motion in mixing milk and acid. 
 
 Light-Colored Fat Column 
 
 A light-colored fat column containing white curdy 
 material or sediment near the lower meniscus may be 
 caused by one or more of the following: 
 
 1. The acid was too weak. 
 
 2. Too little acid was used. 
 
 3. The acid was too cold when it was added to the 
 milk (under 50° F.). 
 
 4. The milk was too cold when the acid was added 
 (under 50° F.). 
 
 5. The mixing was not continued long enough to 
 dissolve all the milk solids. 
 
 6. The centrifuge was operated too slowly. 
 
 Foam on Fat Column 
 
 Foam appearing on the top of the fat column in the 
 test bottles, obliterating the upper meniscus, usually is 
 caused by the use of hard water containing carbonates. 
 You can usually remove the carbonates from the water 
 before it is used by adding a few drops of sulfuric acid 
 to the water and stirring vigorously to insure that the 
 chemical reaction is completed. Never add water to 
 acid. 
 
 The TeSa Test 
 
 Preparing TeSa Reagent for Butterfat Deter¬ 
 mination of Raw Milk 
 
 TeSa reagent solution. —Dissolve TeSa reagent con¬ 
 centrate powder in any clean water. The 40-test 
 package makes 500 ml., or 1 pint of solution. The 
 160-test package makes 2,000 ml., or 2 quarts of solu¬ 
 tion. To avoid loss due to foaming, the powder should 
 be added slowly to about two-thirds of the total water 
 required. After the reaction has subsided, add water 
 to make the total volume required. MIX AT LEAST 
 6 HOURS BEFORE USE. 
 
 Milk Test Reagent 
 
 To prepare TeSa milk test reagent, add one part of 
 methanol or commercial grade wood alcohol to five 
 parts of TeSa reagent solution. The solution MUST 
 have been mixed at least 6 hours. Milk test reagent 
 may be used as soon as prepared. Use milk test 
 reagent for testing fresh or preserved raw milk. 
 
 General Precautions 
 
 TeSa TEST REAGENT SOLUTION SHOULD 
 NOT BE USED MORE THAN 2 WEEKS 
 AFTER THE SOLUTION IS PREPARED. 
 MILK TEST REAGENT CONTAINING AL¬ 
 COHOL SHOULD NOT BE USED MORE 
 THAN 3 DAYS AFTER PREPARATION. 
 
 12 
 
It is important that the time in the boiling bath be 
 at ^ full temperature. Begin timing when vigorous 
 boiling resumes. 
 
 IN READING ALL TESTS BY THE TeSa 
 METHOD, READ THE TRUE LENGTH OF THE 
 FAT COLUMN—FROM THE BOTTOM OF THE 
 UPPER MENISCUS TO THE BOTTOM OF THE 
 LOWER MENISCUS. 
 
 Note. —Boiling time for preserved samples is 15 minutes; 
 for other milk, 10 minutes. 
 
 Mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate), sodium 
 dichromate, potassium dichromate, or formalin (37 
 percent formaldehyde solution) may be used as pre¬ 
 servatives. Use the minimum amount of preservative 
 necessary for the sample size and holding time. 
 
 Testing Raw, Unpreserved Milk 
 
 1. Pipette or measure 17.6 ml. of a well-mixed 
 sample at 59° to 68° F. into the side arm tube of a 
 TeSa milk test bottle. 
 
 2. Add 15 ml. of TeSa milk test reagent through the 
 side arm of the TeSa bottle and mix at once with a 
 swirling motion to uniform color. 
 
 3. Place in a boiling water bath deep enough to 
 cover the hquid level in the test bottles. Allow the 
 test bottles to remain in the bath at least 10 minutes 
 after active boiling resumes. 
 
 4. Remove the bottles from the boiling bath and 
 place them on a table at room temperature. Add hot 
 water through the side arm tube of each TeSa bottle 
 
 until liquid entirely fills the lower bulb of the test 
 bottle. Then go back over the tray of bottles and add 
 iiotj cl6a.li water to bring the top of the fat column to 
 near zero on the reading scale. Allow bottles to stand 
 ®’t room temperature for 5 minutes. Do not use water 
 from the boiling bath. 
 
 5. Transfer the bottles to a tempering bath (132° 
 to 140°F.) deep enough to cover the fat column in the 
 neck of the bottle. Just before placing the tray of 
 bottles in the tempering bath, agitate with a rotarv 
 motion. 
 
 6. After tempering for 3 minutes, remove the bottles 
 from the bath and immediately read the fat percentage 
 indicated in the center of the column. Read from 
 the BOTTOM of the upper meniscus to the BOTTOM 
 of the lower meniscus. 
 
 Testing Composite Preserved Samples of 
 Milk 
 
 Use the same procedure as for raw, unpreserved 
 piilk EXCEPT for item 3. Boil for 15 minutes, 
 instead of 10 minutes. 
 
 Test for Protein and Solids-Not-Fat 
 
 In some States, milk is being tested for protein and 
 for solids-not-fat. If yours is one of these States, your 
 board of directors or the State extension dair 3 nnan will 
 give you material outlining the procedures to be used. 
 Include this material as a part of the handbook. 
 
 747-993 0 - 65 -2 
 
 13 
 
Chapter VI. Interpreting the Testing Period 
 
 Testing Date 
 
 The testing date is the date you finish the test on a 
 farm. If you arrive at the farm in the afternoon of 
 the 19th of the month, the day you leave—the 20th of 
 the month—is the testing date. If it takes 2 days to 
 test the herd, and you leave the farm on the 21st of the 
 month, the 21st is the testing date. 
 
 Enter the testing date (month, day, and year) in the 
 space or spaces provided in the heading of the bam 
 sheet. 
 
 Centering Date 
 
 Most cows decline in production as their lactation 
 progresses. Therefore, they must be tested approxi¬ 
 mately in the middle of each month in order to get an 
 accurate estimate of their production for that month 
 on a calendar-month basis. Since all herds cannot be 
 tested in the middle of each calendar month, a monthly 
 testing period is established for each herd. To do this, 
 a centering date is assigned to each herd the first month 
 it is tested. Usually the date on which you test the 
 herd the first month becomes the established centering 
 date for the herd. The monthly testing period begins 
 15 days before the centering date and ends 12 to 15 
 days after the centering date, depending on the number 
 of days in the month. Thus, the centering date always 
 falls about the middle of the testing period. In as¬ 
 signing centering dates you must consider your route 
 and the location of the herd in relation to other herds 
 in the circuit. 
 
 Once you have established a centering date for a 
 herd, it remains the same month after month even 
 though you do not test the herd on exactly this date 
 each month. You should vary your visits to each 
 farm so that succeeding testing dates will fall in a 
 period 3 days before to 3 days after the established 
 centering date. This is to insure that the dairyman 
 will not know the exact date of your arrival and that 
 the time of milking and feeding procedures will be the 
 same as though you had not come that day. Weighing 
 and sampling the milk will, of course, cause some 
 delay in the milking, but this is unavoidable. Unless 
 you change your route, the herd will have the same 
 centering date year after year. If you assume your duties 
 in an association already in operation, use the centering 
 date previously established for each herd. In a new 
 association without a full membership at the time 
 testing is started, leave several “open” centering dates 
 in your schedule for new members who join the 
 association at a later date. 
 
 Give large herds that cannot be tested in 1 day only 
 one centering date for the entire herd. If it takes 2 
 days to test the herd, the second day is the centering 
 date; if it takes more than 2 days, the day near the 
 
 middle of the test is the centering date. The local 
 DHIA board of directors and the State extension 
 dairyman determine the number of cows to be tested 
 daily. Generally, a supervisor should not work with 
 more cows daily than he can complete work with in 
 1 day (appendix, DHIA rule 7). 
 
 Enter the same established centering date for the 
 herd each month in the space provided on the heading 
 of the barn sheet. 
 
 New Herds Coming Into Association 
 During Testing Year 
 
 Frequently a new herd coming into an association 
 during the year is located so that, to avoid unnecessary 
 travel, you should test the herd at a time in the month 
 in which all the centering dates have been assigned. 
 However, since you have a range of 7 days (3 days 
 before and 3 days after the centering date) in which to 
 test a herd, you usually can assign a centering date to 
 a new herd even though it may result in two herds in 
 the same association having the same centering date. 
 When too many herds have the same centering date, 
 you may reassign the centering date for the various 
 herds. When this is necessary, you must make certain 
 calculations or report the situation to your computing 
 center for their special attention in order to adjust the 
 cows’ records for the resulting “overlap” or “gap.” 
 Your computing center will give you instructions on 
 how to handle this situation. 
 
 Monthly Testing Period 
 
 To report records correctly, you must understand 
 and remember that you are reporting production and 
 feed records for a testing period, not for a calender 
 month or months, and that the testing period for each 
 herd varies with each centering date. 
 
 After the centering date is established for a herd, 
 you can easily determine the testing period for each 
 monthly test by referring to the monthly table (ap¬ 
 pendix table 1). (If the association operates on the 
 bimonthly testing plan, use appendix table 2 to deter¬ 
 mine the inclusive dates of, and the number of days in, 
 the bimonthly testing period.) 
 
 Each month, after you have entered the established 
 centering date for the herd on the barn sheet, refer to 
 the appropriate table to obtain the inclusive dates for 
 the corresponding testing period. Enter the correct 
 dates (month, day, and year) in the space provided in 
 the heading of the bam sheet if your center requires 
 them. 
 
 You will refer to the inclusive dates of a testing 
 period many times even though you do not normally 
 calculate records by hand. With the dates in this 
 
 14 
 
handbook, it will not be difficult to calculate the correct 
 number of days for cows in milk or cows coming into 
 or leaving the milking herd during the testing period 
 when you are required to make corrections. 
 
 Days !n Testing Period 
 
 If the association operates on the monthly testing 
 plan, the number of days in the testing period is the 
 same as the number of days in the calender month in 
 
 which the centering date falls. (If the association op¬ 
 erates on the bimonthly testing plan, the number of 
 days in the testing period is the number of days in the 
 month in which the centering date falls plus the num¬ 
 ber of days in the preceding month.) However, it is 
 not necessary for you to calculate the number of days 
 in the testing period because this information is given 
 in appendix tables 1 and 2. You should always refer 
 to these tables rather than trust your memory as to the 
 number of days in the various testing periods. 
 
 15 
 
Chapter VII. Reportins Data for the Testing Period and 
 
 Special Situations 
 
 Reporting data on production, feeding, and income 
 of the dairy herd varies among the computing centers. 
 This is necessary and desirable for several reasons. 
 One reason is the difference in the characteristics of 
 dairy-farm operations in the various areas of the United 
 States. Another reason is the difference in the kind 
 and completeness of the records kept in the various 
 States. A third reason is the variation in capacity of 
 the several types of computers now in use. The pur¬ 
 pose of this chapter, therefore, is to enumerate the items 
 of the monthly report included on forms from one or 
 more of the computing centers that you need to check 
 to insure a complete report of data from the herds you 
 test, to emphasize proper and legible reporting, and to 
 list some special situations which will require instruc¬ 
 tions from your computing center. Each center will 
 need to issue detailed instructions for reporting data on 
 the forms it uses. 
 
 Report Full Herd Code 
 
 In order to handle and process individual dairy pro¬ 
 duction records in volume and to satisfactorily identify 
 the herd in which the record was made, each herd must 
 have a herd code number. 
 
 A uniform herd code numbering plan has been de¬ 
 veloped that will accurately identify each herd and at 
 the same time indicate the type oj record being kept in 
 the herd. 
 
 The herd code number consists of eight digits. The 
 fifth digit indicates the type of plan—Standard, Owner- 
 Sampler, Weigh-a-Day-a-Month, DHIR. Examples 
 follow : 
 
 1. For Standard Dairy-Herd-Improvement-Associa- 
 tion records, the herd code is as follows; 27-01-0001. 
 This number indicates the following: 
 
 State No. 
 
 County No. 
 
 Standard No. 
 
 Herd no. with- 
 
 
 
 in county 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 0 
 
 001 
 
 If the first digit after the county munber (the fifth 
 digit) is 0 through 6, the herd is on Standard plan rec¬ 
 ordkeeping. See item 2 below for use of 6 as the first 
 digit after county number. 
 
 Note: —Herd codes now assigned to Standard herds can con¬ 
 tinue to be used by simply placing a “zero” in front of the pres¬ 
 ent three-digit number now used to indicate the herd within 
 the county. 
 
 2. The only time 6 is used as the first number after 
 the county number in a Standard herd code is when a 
 herd is one of several owned by the same owner. If a 
 herd is to be divided into several herds, the last three 
 numbers can be in whatever sequence is determined 
 
 in the county, but the first digit after the county num¬ 
 ber should be 6 for every herd. An example follows: 
 
 
 
 Standard No. 
 
 
 State No. 
 
 County No. 
 
 (1 of several 
 
 Herd No. 
 
 
 herds of same 
 
 within county 
 
 
 
 owner) 
 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 6 
 
 001 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 6 
 
 024 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 6 
 
 025 
 
 The herds in this example were managed as one 
 herd. No. 27010001 for some time, then were divided 
 into three herds after herd codes 27010002 through 
 27010023 had been assigned in the county. 
 
 3. For Owner-Sampler records, the herd code would 
 be as follows: 27-01-7001. This number indicates 
 the following; 
 
 State No. 
 
 County No. 
 
 Owner- 
 Sampler No. 
 
 Herd No. 
 within county 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 7 
 
 001 
 
 The first digit after the county number, 7, indicates 
 Owner-Sampler recordkeeping. 
 
 4. For Weigh-a-Day-a-Month records, the herd code 
 number would be 27-01-8001. This number indicates 
 the following: 
 
 State No. 
 
 County No. 
 
 Weigh-a-Day- 
 
 Herd No. 
 
 
 a-Month No. 
 
 within county 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 8 
 
 001 
 
 The first digit after the county number, 8, indicates 
 Weigh-a-Day-a-Month recordkeeping. 
 
 5. For herds on DHIR test, a State may elect to use 
 the following system: The first digit after the county 
 number will be changed from the original number to 9. 
 For example, if a herd with a code number 27-01-0001 
 begins DHIR testing, its number would change to 
 27-01-9001. 
 
 Assignment of Herd Codes 
 
 1. By the State extension dairyman. —Herd codes both 
 for herds on Standard DHIA test and for herds on test 
 in Owner-Sampler testing should be assigned by the 
 State extension dairyman. At the time the^ State 
 extension dairyman assigns the herd codes, it is sug¬ 
 gested that he should (1) set up a ledger record m 
 which to list by county, by herd code numbers, in 
 
 16 
 
numerical order, the name and address of the dairymen, 
 thereby eliminating any possibility of assigning a herd 
 code to more than one herd; and (2) fill out thefile card 
 (DHIA 1108) listing the name of the dair 3 anan, his 
 mailing address, and herd code number for filing in 
 alphabetical order. 
 
 These two files—the ledger record and the card 
 record—will provide cross-reference files so that the 
 herd code record may be readily referred to either by 
 number or by the name of the dairyman. 
 
 Herd codes must never he reassigned if identification 
 of herds in which the records are made is to be 
 maintained. Example: John Doe is assigned herd code 
 27-02-0020. As long as John Doe is a member of a 
 Standard DHIA, his herd records and his cows’ 305-day 
 lactation records are reported and placed on file carrying 
 his herd code number, 27-02-0020. Should John Doe 
 drop out of DHIA, his code number must be dropped 
 and never reassigned to a new member. Thus, as long 
 as records from John Doe’s herd are on permanent file, 
 they will be definitely identified as having been made 
 in Herd 27-02-0020. 
 
 2. By the county agricultural agent.—It is suggested 
 that the Weigh-a-Day-a-Month herd codes be assigned 
 and recorded by the office of the county agricultural 
 agent. The office of the State extension dairyman 
 would assign each county the firstdigits of the herd 
 code number to be used in each county. 
 
 State No. 
 
 County No. 
 
 Weigh-a-Day- 
 a-Month No. 
 
 Herd No. 
 within county 
 
 27 
 
 01 
 
 8 
 
 001 
 
 To be assigned by State office 
 
 To be as¬ 
 signed by 
 county office 
 
 The county office would assign the last three digits 
 for each herd code. It is suggested that, in the county, 
 a simple ledger record of herd codes be established to 
 record in numerical order all herd codes assigned. NO 
 HERD CODE MUST EVER BE REASSIGNED TO 
 ANOTHER HERD. 
 
 Price and Value of Product 
 
 Many pricing formulas are used over the United 
 States. Use the method used by the dairyman or 
 recommended by your local board of directors. Gen¬ 
 erally, the price reported should be the plant price. 
 Examples of some pricing formulas follow: 
 
 Whole Milk 
 
 When milk is bottled and sold to the retail trade at a 
 price competitive with milk sold in stores, report about 
 50 percent of the selling price. Disregard the remain¬ 
 ing 50 percent of the retail price, which is considered 
 cost of delivery. These percentages vary, depending 
 on the price of whole milk at the dairy plant. Use 
 whatever percentages apply in your area. 
 
 Butterfat and Skim Milk 
 
 When milk is separated on the farm, and the cream 
 and skim milk are sold separately, report the hundred¬ 
 weight price of milk as the sum of prices for butterfat 
 and skim milk in the hundred pounds. 
 
 Usually, however, when milk is separated, only the 
 cream is sold, and the skim milk is fed on the farm. 
 The value of the skim milk must be included in the 
 total value of the product, or the cows will not receive 
 full credit for the product. Consult your board of 
 directors if the dairyman cannot give you details of 
 pricing butterfat and skim milk. 
 
 Protein and Solids-Not-Fat 
 
 If your association prices milk on the protein or SNF 
 basis, obtain instructions from the dairyman or your 
 board of directors for determining these values. 
 
 Report Correct Identification 
 Numbers 
 
 In reporting identification numbers, take great care 
 to be sure that you do not omit or transpose digits in 
 copying numbers. Also, be sure that you are reporting 
 the correct number, not the number of the dam or sire 
 of the cow whose record you are reporting. In report¬ 
 ing DHIA, AI, or disease-control eartag numbers, report 
 the entire number, including the prefix, as 51-WAA- 
 7814. Do not omit the “51” or the letters “WAA.” 
 
 Check each report after you have it ready to mail, 
 to be certain that the information on the report is ex¬ 
 actly as it is recorded in the herd-record book. 
 
 Breed Codes 
 
 1— Ayrshire 
 
 2— Guernsey 
 
 3— Holstein 
 
 4— Jersey 
 
 5— Brown Swiss 
 
 6 — Milking Shorthorn 
 
 7— Red Dane 
 
 8 — Mixed, Other, or Unknown 
 
 9— Red Poll 
 
 A herd should be coded as a particular breed if 75 
 percent or more of the cows are of that breed. If at 
 least 75 percent of the cows in the herd don’t belong to 
 one of the breeds listed above, the herd should be 
 coded “8” for breed. 
 
 If whole milk is sold according to butterfat content, 
 determine the price on the basis of the average price 
 received for whole milk . 
 
 If milk is sold at both base and surplus prices, calcu¬ 
 late the average price as follows: Suppose 20 percent 
 of the milk is sold at a surplus price of $3 per 100 pounds, 
 and the remaining 80 percent is sold at a base price of 
 $4.50 per 100 pounds. The average price is ($3X0.20) 
 + ($4.50X0.80), or $4.20. Report this price. 
 
 If whole milk is sold by the gallon or quart, convert 
 the gallon or quart price to price per hundred pounds. 
 This is done by dividing the price per gallon by the 
 pounds of milk per gallon (8.6) and multiplying that 
 answer by 100. 
 
 Reporting Days on Test, Days in 
 Milk, and Days Dry 
 
 Each cow must be credited with the correct number 
 of days on test, in milk, and dry in each testing period 
 if her production and feed records are to be correct for 
 the testing period, for the year, and for her lactation 
 period. Cows not in milk every day of the testing 
 period are those that freshened, dried off, aborted, 
 died, were purchased, or were sold during the period. 
 Under DHIA testing, heifers are not considered a part 
 of the herd until the fourth day after calving, counting 
 the calving day as the first day. Be sure to follow 
 
 17 
 
your computing center’s instructions for reporting this 
 information. 
 
 Report Correct Dates 
 
 Errors in reporting dates occur frequently. Check 
 the herd-record book carefully to be sure you have not 
 reported one date for another—for example, a breeding 
 date for a freshening date, or vice versa. After you have 
 recorded the dates on the report form, check to be cer¬ 
 tain that you have not confused the various dates and 
 that you have copied them correctly. 
 
 Remarks 
 
 If the form has a column or space headed “Re¬ 
 marks,” enter in this space important notes and data 
 for which no other space is allotted and which the center 
 must have to compute records. This space can also 
 be used to enter eartag numbers of calves or other in¬ 
 formation useful to the dairyman. 
 
 Reports Must Be Complete, 
 Accurate, and Neat 
 
 Read this section frequently. The seriousness of 
 reporting incomplete or inaccurate data cannot be 
 overemphasized. Not only are incomplete and inac¬ 
 curate reports worthless, but also they may actually 
 be harmful. Inaccurate data will result in an inaccu¬ 
 rate evaluation of a sire, or false conclusions from herd 
 data. The following tabulation shows the effect of 
 certain errors in reporting feed amounts and quahty 
 on Concentrates Indicated, one of the columns used 
 by some computing centers. 
 
 Effect on 
 concentrates 
 
 indicated 
 
 Errors in reporting— (pounds) 
 
 Hay (2 pounds)_ 1- 
 
 Silage (5 pounds)- 1- 
 
 Forage quality (1 grade)- 2 or more. 
 
 Forage dry matter (2 percent)- 1. 
 
 Body weight at calving (100 pounds)- 1-2. 
 
 Observe the following precautions to avoid making 
 errors in reporting data; 
 
 Write Figures Plainly 
 
 1. Write digits 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 0 plainly by 
 forming the circular parts so that there is plenty of 
 open space in the enclosed or partly enclosed space of 
 the digits. Also, see that the circular portions of 6, 
 8, and 9 are completely enclosed, but that the circular 
 portions of 2, 3, and 5 are left open. When the circular 
 portion of a 5 is closed or nearly closed, it often resem¬ 
 bles a 6. 
 
 2. Leave the 4’s open so that they will not look like 
 9’s, and close the 9’s so that they will not look like 4’s. 
 
 3. Make the digit “one” as a straight line (1) without 
 any “tick” at the top of the line. Many times the. 
 “tick” of a 1 is large enough to look like the bar at the 
 top of the 7. Similarly, make 7 distinct so it will not 
 look hke 1. 
 
 4. Write figures so plainly that anyone not familiar 
 with your writing can read the numbers correctly. 
 
 Write Names Plainly 
 
 1. Write or print names and addresses of herd owners 
 so plainly that anyone not familiar with your writing 
 can read and speU them correctly. 
 
 2. Make all letters distinct—take care to make the 
 first letter of names especially plain. Print capital 
 letters like S and L, M and W, or A, C, and O so that 
 no one will confuse one letter with another. 
 
 3. Write small letters plainly. Letters like g, y, 
 and z; h and k; m, n, and r; u and v are easily confused 
 unless they are written carefully. Unless the i’s are 
 dotted and the e’s are looped, these two letters are also 
 easily confused. Loop the I’s and cross the t’s so that 
 one letter will not be confused with the other. 
 
 4. If your handwriting is not plain, print the names 
 and addresses of herd owners. 
 
 5. Include the herd identification number on all re¬ 
 ports, and write the herd-owner’s name exactly as it 
 appears on the title page of the herd record book. 
 
 Special Situations 
 
 Special situations that require instructions from the 
 computing center are as follows: 
 
 1. Lost milk. 
 
 2. Lost samples. 
 
 3. Sick or injured cows. 
 
 4. Abnormal tests. 
 
 5. Failure to obtain milk weights or samples, or both, 
 on any cows in the last month of an association year 
 when the herd is not going to be on test again. 
 
 6. Change of centering date. 
 
 7. Nurse cows. 
 
 8. Aborting cows or other cows freshening without 
 going dry. 
 
 Retests—Owner^s Request 
 
 If for any reason a herd owner is not satisfied with 
 the test on his herd, he may caU for a retest. You may 
 stay on the farm another day to run the retest. If the 
 owner prefers another supervisor, he should notify his 
 board of directors, and a retest may be arranged as soon 
 as another supervisor is available. The herd owner 
 will be required to pay for the retest unless otherwise 
 determined by the local board of directors. All cows 
 tested on the first test must be included in the retest. 
 “The use of the requested retest and the regular test 
 shall be at the discretion of the State extension dairy¬ 
 man” (appendix, DHIA rule 16). 
 
 Surprise Test—DHIA 
 
 Surprise tests may be conducted on Standard herds 
 for verification of records of high-producing cows and 
 herds and for investigation of rule infractions. They 
 may be ordered by the State or local organization and/or 
 the State extension dairyman. 
 
 The use of the surprise test and the payment thereof 
 shall be determined by the organization requiring such 
 tests. Surprise tests shall be preceded by a prehminary 
 dry milking. 
 
 Surprise Test—DHIR 
 
 For information on how to conduct surprise tests for 
 herds on DHIR, see appendix, DHIR rule 18. 
 
 18 
 
Chapter VIII. Calculating Records 
 
 Even though records are calculated at a computing 
 center, the supervisor may be required to make some 
 of the same calculations that are necessary for hand- 
 calculated records. This chapter is included to aid the 
 supervisor in making these calculations. 
 
 Milk Weights for the Current 
 Testing Period 
 
 To obtain the total for milk, multiply the daily 
 total by the number of days the cow was in milk during 
 the testing period. Round according to instructions 
 from your computing center. 
 
 Butterfat for the Current Testing 
 
 Period 
 
 After you have found the percentage of butterfat 
 for each milk sample, multiply the total pounds of 
 milk produced during the testing period by the per¬ 
 centage of butterfat to obtain the butterfat produced 
 during the period. Round to the nearest whole pound. 
 
 Protein and Solids-Not-Fat 
 
 After the percentage of protein or SNF, or both, has 
 been determined, calculate the total pounds for the 
 testing period in the same way as for butterfat. 
 
 Fresh Cows 
 
 The record of a fresh cow begins on the fourth day 
 after calving, counting the calving day as the first day, 
 but her nailk is not tested earlier than the seventh day 
 after calving, counting the calving day as the first day. 
 For example, if a cow freshens on the 21st of the month, 
 her record begins on the 24th, but do not test her 
 miUi before the 27th. You can take the first m ilk 
 weights and samples on the evening of the sixth day 
 after calving—in this example, on the evening of the 
 26th. 
 
 If a cow has not been fresh 6 days before the testing 
 date, do not report her fresh or calculate her production 
 for that testing period until your next visit to the farm. 
 To complete her record and bring it up to date, use the 
 weight and test you obtain for her second month of 
 production to calculate her production for the previous 
 testing period. This is known as giving “back credit.” 
 
 First-calf heifers are started on test on the fourth 
 day after calving, counting the calving day as the 
 first day. A first-calf heifer would be on test and in 
 milk the same number of days in the first testing 
 period, and her production and feed records would be 
 calculated for only the number of days in the testing 
 period since her record began. 
 
 Purchased Cows or Herds Started on 
 
 Test 
 
 If a purchased cow enters a herd and has calved 
 within 90 days of the current testing period, aU her 
 production may be credited to her. The same is true 
 of cows in a herd just starting the testing program. 
 Purchased cows with DHIA records in progress should 
 have their production to the date they entered the herd 
 transferred to the computing center so that the record 
 can be completed. Purchased cows that have not been 
 in a recordkeeping program and that have been fresh 
 not more than 90 days at the end of the current test¬ 
 ing period get production credit from the date they enter 
 the herd. 
 
 You will need to get instructions from your computing 
 center for handling this situation. 
 
 Dry Cows 
 
 Charge cows that are dry on the testing date, but 
 were in milk for some of the testing period, for feed 
 consumed for the full testing period, but give them 
 production credit for only the number of days they 
 were actually in milk from the beginning of the testing 
 period up to and including the last day milked. Since 
 you cannot obtain milk weights and samples during 
 the current testing period, calculate the cow’s 
 production credit on the basis of daily weights and 
 tests obtained the previous month. This procedure is 
 often referred to as calculating “forward” credit from a 
 previous test. (See appendix table 5.) 
 
 Cows Sold and Cows Died 
 
 If a cow in milk is sold during the testing period, 
 give her production credit and charge her for feed 
 consumed for the actual number of days she was in the 
 herd within the inclusive dates of the testing period. 
 Include her production on the day she leaves the herd. 
 
 If a cow is sold before the testing date, calculate her 
 production and feed records for the number of days 
 she was in the herd on the basis of the daily weight and 
 test you obtained the previous month. 
 
 Calculate feed and production records for cows that 
 die during a testing period in the same way as for cows 
 sold. (See appendix table 5 for calculations for both 
 situations.) 
 
 Aborting Cows 
 
 Aborting cows are not tested until the seventh day 
 after aborting. If a cow aborts while dry, calculate 
 her record in the same way as for a fresh cow. 
 
 If a cow aborts while in milk after carrying a calf 
 152 days, her current record ends and a new lactation 
 begins. Calculate her production for that part of the testing 
 
 19 
 
period before the abortion on the basis of her last test 
 before the abortion. Allow a lapse of 3 days, and cal¬ 
 culate her production for the remainder of the testing 
 period on the basis of her first test after this 3-day 
 period. Note these facts in the “Remarks” column on 
 the barn sheet and on the cow’s individual record sheet. 
 
 If the cow that aborts while in milk cannot be tested 
 on the testing date, credit her on the barn sheet for 
 production to the day she aborts, based on her previous 
 test, and consider her dry for the remainder of the test¬ 
 ing period. On the next testing date, give her “back” 
 credit for production that should be included in the 
 testing period in which she aborted. 
 
 If a cow aborts after the testing date but before the 
 end of the testing period, you have already reported 
 her production for the period. When you record her 
 production for the next testing period, report this sit¬ 
 uation as a correction to the computing center. 
 
 Cows Freshening Without Going 
 
 Dry 
 
 If a cow freshens without going dry, calculate her 
 production record in the same way as for a cow that 
 aborts while in milk. 
 
 305-Day Lactation Records 
 
 Appendix figme 2, “Supervisor’s Work Sheet for Cal¬ 
 culating Lactation Records,” shows how to calculate 
 305-day lactation records. 
 
 Changing the Centering Date 
 
 When it is necessary to change the centering date 
 for a herd, an adjustment will be required for the pro¬ 
 duction of each cow in milk. Ask'-your computing 
 center for instructions on calculating the adjustment 
 in production. 
 
 Calculate Records Correctly 
 
 A study of errors made by supervisors in reporting 
 305-day lactation records revealed the following types 
 of errors: 
 
 1. Incorrect number of days in lactation. —This error 
 usually occurs in the first monthly testing period after 
 a cow freshens. Many supervisors give the fresh cow 
 credit for the total number of days in the first rnonthly 
 testing period. Usually this is incorrect. Give the 
 fresh cow production credit for only the actual number 
 of days she is in milk during the first testing period. 
 This can be done easily by following the procedure in 
 the Year-Day Table (appendix table 6) for calculatmg 
 days in milk. Similarly, when a cow goes dry, give 
 her production credit only for the number of days she 
 is in milk during the last testing period of her lactation. 
 Follow carefully the procedure outlined under “Dry 
 Cows” earlier in this chapter and use the Year-Day 
 Table for calculating “Days Dry” (appendix table 6). 
 
 2. Errors in addition. —Most errors in addition are 
 due to carelessness. Record or aline the data so the 
 columns of digits cannot be confused. Many errors 
 occur because the supervisor drops or adds a digit, or 
 switches from one column to another in adding. Al¬ 
 ways check your addition. 
 
 3. Errors in calculation. —Errors also occur in calcu¬ 
 lating the data for “Production Since Last Fresh.” 
 
 20 
 
Chapter IX. Feed Reports 
 
 Naming Feeds 
 
 Report defmite names or codes of succulent and dry 
 forages, individual grains, and feed supplements. 
 Green chop may be included either as pasture or as 
 succulent forage. Follow your computing center’s in¬ 
 structions as to how to report green chop. If a home 
 nature of grains and supplements is fed, record it as 
 “Home Mix” and give the percentage of total (crude) 
 protem. If a commercial mixture is fed, record it as 
 “Coni. Mix” and give the percentage of total (crude) 
 protem. Only one figure for amount fed should be re¬ 
 ported for each class of feed, unless your computing 
 center gives you different instructions. 
 
 Weigh or measure carefully the amount of grain and 
 concentrates fed each cow on the testing date to deter¬ 
 mine accurately the amount each cow consumes daily. 
 The amount consumed is the amount fed minus the 
 feed refused. Record the amount consumed daily (to 
 the nearest pound) in the space provided. 
 
 Forage 
 
 The^ amount of succulent and dry forage consumed 
 by individual cows in the herd is difficult to determine. 
 If it IS unpractical to obtain actual weights of forage 
 fed to mdividual cows, first determine the total amount 
 consumed (total fed minus any refused during the 24 
 ho^s covered by the testing day) by the herd, and then 
 either divide this uniformly among all the cows or pro¬ 
 rate it according to the weight of the individual cows. 
 
 By checking closely with the dairyman, you usually 
 can determine with reasonable accuracy the total 
 amount of forage consumed by the herd. Hay often is 
 baled. Multiply the number of bales fed daily by the 
 average weight of the bales to obtain the total daily 
 weight of hay fed. In the same way, multiply the 
 number of baskets, carts, or carriers of succulent forage 
 fed daily by the average weight of the baskets, etc., to 
 obtam the total daily weight of the forage. If succu¬ 
 lent forage is fed from a wagon, trailer, or truck, figure 
 20 pounds per cubic foot. The amount of forage re¬ 
 fused by the cows should be subtracted from the amount 
 fed in order to obtain forage consumed, which is the 
 figure to report. 
 
 Always indicate forage quality according to the qual¬ 
 ity codes issued for your area by your computing center 
 or the State extension dairyman. For determining 
 quahty of succulent forage, the use of a field moisture 
 
 tester is strongly urged. This equipment will aid 
 greatly m determining quality of forage. 
 
 Price and Cost of Feed 
 
 Follow the instructions of your computing center for 
 reporting prices of feed fed to the dairy herd. 
 
 Suggested Amounts of Grain To 
 
 Feed 
 
 If the barn sheet has a “Concentrates Indicated” 
 column, discuss the amount given each month with the 
 dairyman. Accipate reporting of feed fed and forage 
 quality is essential if the figures in this column are to 
 be of any use to the dairyman. If the feed reported 
 IS accurate, the concentrates indicated should have 
 real meaning. If the barn sheet does not include this 
 information, it can and should be discussed with the 
 dairyman anyway. You can recommend grain feeding 
 according to the production of the cows. The dairyman 
 should vary the recommended weights of grain to fit 
 special cases, such as cows that are in poor condition, 
 cows that are gaining weight, and cows that are off 
 feed. 
 
 Estimatins the Weight of a Cow 
 
 A dairyman must know how much his cows weigh if 
 he is to feed each cow according to her maintenance 
 and production requirements. The computing center 
 also needs this information to figure the indicated 
 concentrates, the feeding index, and the rate of forage 
 feeding. 
 
 Use the special measuring tape, which is a part of 
 yoi^ supervisor’s testing equipment, to estimate the 
 weight of a cow by her heart-girth measurement. 
 
 To take the heart-girth measurement, place the tape 
 directly back of the cow’s front legs. The cow should 
 be standing squarely on all four legs. Draw the tape 
 snug. Then read the estimated weight direct from the 
 tape. 
 
 Estimate the weight of the cow the first month she 
 is fresh, and record her weight in the space provided 
 on the barn sheet and on her individual record form. 
 Estimate the weight of purchased cows the first month 
 they are tested. 
 
 21 
 
Chapter X- Identification Records 
 
 Improvement of the Nation’s dairy cattle 
 breeding is one of the unportant objectives of the DHIA 
 program. A progressive breeding program is possible, 
 however, only when each cow and her sire and dam are 
 properly identified and production tested. 
 
 The DHIA breeding program is not confined to 
 herds or associations within a State. Family lines of 
 dairy cattle frequently extend to herds widely scattered 
 in different associations or in different States. ^ With the 
 identification record of each animal established and 
 recorded in the dairyman’s herd-record book so that it 
 can be reported accurately when production records 
 are reported, the production records can be used to 
 locate animals (both male and female) and famili^ of 
 animals that possess and transmit inheritance for 
 producing capacity. Such animals may then be used 
 as breeding stock to spread the improved hereditary 
 influence they possess throughout the dairy population. 
 
 Identification and Production 
 Records 
 
 Every dairy animal in a DHIA herd must be 
 positively identified and have her identification recorded 
 in the dairyman’s herd-record book within 60 days 
 after the animal enters the herd by birth or purchase. 
 Acceptable identification shall be (1) a registo^ion 
 number, or (2) a uniform-series eartag as used m DHIA, 
 disease eradication, and artificial breeding (State code, 
 three-letter prefix, four digits). Cows born before 
 January 1, 1957, that have the old-series eartag numbers 
 will continue to use them. 
 
 Tattoo numbers, branded numbers, or private 
 eartags are not acceptable forms of identification by 
 themselves, but they can be used for on-the-farm 
 identification if the animals also have a registration 
 number or a uniform-series eartag. (See appendix, 
 DHIA rule 3, for more complete information about 
 eartagging.) 
 
 Establlshins Identity 
 
 Identitjr is not established until a record of the 
 identification is made. 
 
 DHIA Eartags 
 
 A special DHIA eartag is used. The tag has a 
 sealing device that makes removal of the tag very 
 cljificult, if it is inserted properly. One side of the tag 
 bears the name of the State and the letters “D.H.I.A.” 
 On the other side of the tag is one of the uniform-series 
 numbers. 
 
 The manufacturer supplies each State with eartags, 
 using a numbering plan in each State that is a part of 
 the national numbering plan. This plan avoids du¬ 
 
 plication of numbers in any State or between States. 
 
 In some States, the State extension dairyman dis¬ 
 tributes the eartags to supervisors and keeps a complete 
 record of the serial numbers of all tags distributed to 
 each supervisor. In other States, this is handled by a 
 State regulatory agency. 
 
 Animals To Be Eartaggcd 
 
 You must give all unidentified animals a DHIA ear- 
 tag. All milking animals that carried a temporary 
 identification as heifers must be registered or retagged 
 with an acceptable identification. 
 
 When all the animals in a herd have been either ear- 
 tagged or registered and their identification numbers j 
 have been recorded, only newborn stock and purchased 
 replacements will need to be eartagged and recorded to 
 keep the entire herd identified. j 
 
 The Supervisor Is Responsible for 
 
 the Eartag | 
 
 All calves should be eartagged as soon as possible 
 after they are bom. Sometimes you will give a dairy- 
 man a group of eartags so that he may eartag all young | 
 stock and all replacements not registered or e^tagged 
 that are born or that otherwise enter the herd between 
 your visits. However, you are reponsible for the ear i 
 tagging of all association animals, and you must ac¬ 
 count for every tag in the identification mcord. 
 
 Affixing an eartag is a simple process, but it shouW 
 be done methodically and with great care. You or the | 
 dairyman should take the necessary time to afex the 
 tag properly and securely. Use special pliep to amx 
 the tag. The pliers cause the prong of the tag to j 
 pierce the ear and expand within the sealmg button, m 
 
 one operation. . , . <> v 
 
 Seat the eartag properly m the jaws of the Pjiers .o 
 that it is held securely. The button side of the tag, | 
 bearing the name of the State and the letters, D.H.i.A., 
 must lie flat and snug in the grooves of the jaw ot tne 
 pliers. In this position the pronged side ot the tag , 
 bearing the identification number will not he flat against i 
 the other jaw of the pliers. If seated in this manner, 
 the tag is held securely and will not move sideways in 
 
 the pliers. ^ I 
 
 You must tie the animal securely so that it cannot 
 
 move its head. It is not enough simply to have the 
 animal in a stanchion. If the animal is able to move 
 its head even slightly, the prong may be bent or the 
 tag shifted in the pliers so that it will not seal properly. 
 
 Place the tag in the top of the right ear about one- 
 third the distance from the head with the numberea | 
 side of the tag on the outside of the right ear. in this 
 position the tag is secure and may be read easily. 
 Avoid placing the tag in the curvature near the base 
 
 22 
 
of the ear, as this may result in irritation and possible 
 loss of the tag. In a mature animal, place the tag so 
 that the curved end will be flush with the edge of the 
 ear. On young stock place the tag so as to allow ap¬ 
 proximately one-fourth inch for growth of the ear. 
 
 ' After the tag has pierced the ear, you must apply 
 strong pressure to the handles of the pliers to insure 
 that it is clinched and sealed securely. If you take 
 these precautions, few tags will be lost. 
 
 Lost Tags 
 
 I If you affix eartags properly, very few will be lost. 
 
 I But if an animal does lose an eartag, you should affix 
 I a new one on your next visit to the farm. \^en you 
 j retag an animal, the original number remains her re- 
 ' porting niunber. The new munber is recorded with 
 
 I 
 
 the old number in the herd-record book to keep it up 
 to date, but the new number is used only for on-the-farm 
 identification. Follow the instructions of your com¬ 
 puting center when retagging any animal. 
 
 Recording Identification Data 
 
 The most important part of identifying animals with 
 eartags is the record of that identification. Merely 
 eartagging an animal is not in itself sufficient. To 
 complete the identification, you must make a record of 
 the eartag number together with the identification 
 number of the sire and dam of the animal. 
 
 Record in the herd-record book the identification of 
 every animal in the herd that is registered or is ear- 
 tagged (including the identification numbers of the sire 
 and dam). 
 
Chapter XI. Herd Improvement Through Breeding 
 
 Genetic improvement in herd performance is realized 
 through the recognition and use of superior sires and 
 cows. The use of sires of known genetic superiority is 
 the most effective single method because one bull may 
 leave many progeny; selection among cows is limited 
 because of such losses as injuries, mastitis, ai^ breed¬ 
 ing failure. Consequently, major emphasis should be 
 placed on recognition and use of genetically superior 
 
 Sires are now being evaluated by the method of herd- 
 mate or contemporary comparisons in the NaUonal 
 Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement and Sire Eval¬ 
 uation Program. The basic principle of the herdmate 
 comparison is that a sipe can be evaluated by comparing 
 the production of his daughters to the production m 
 other sire progeny groups that were fed and managed 
 under the same conditions. This method is superior 
 to the previously used daughter-dam comparison be¬ 
 cause it minimizes the importance of production 
 ences from year to year and from herd to herd. 
 reliability of the herdmate comparison method is further 
 increased by adjusting for the following factors for each 
 sire: ( 1 ) the number of herdmates each daughter has, 
 (2) the number of daughters of the sire, and (3) genetic 
 differences between herds. 
 
 The USDA-DHIA sire evaluation program provides 
 sire summaries representing DHIA and DHIR herds 
 on a quarterly basis. Each sire having five or more 
 production-tested progeny with production-tested herd- 
 mates qualifies for summary. Individual sire records 
 are made available to the Extension specialists in charge 
 of testing in each State in which a sire’s progeny is 
 represented, as well as to the appropriate national 
 breed association office and, in the case of bulls used m 
 artificial insemination C-^I), to the appropriate AI 
 organization. Bound copies representing summaries of 
 all sires evaluated are distributed in a similar manner. 
 
 Artificial Insemination 
 
 In AI, sires are normally used in many herds and, 
 consequently, under varying feeding and management 
 conditions. Under these conditions, sires havfiig pro¬ 
 duction-tested progeny and herdmates in more than 20 
 herds can be appraised and their future performance 
 accurately predicted. Consequently, the USDA- 
 DHIA sire evaluation program provides “predicted 
 averages” for sires in AI and is especially useful in 
 comparing these sires, which have been used in a wide 
 variety of herd conditions. 
 
 Naturally, it is not possible to predict exactly how a 
 sire will perform in a particular herd. However, bulls 
 which sire daughters that produce well above their 
 herdmates in one herd will do the same in other herds. 
 This general superiority will be evident at all levels, 
 but will be slightly less in high-producing herds than in 
 low-producing herds. The dairyman can use the 
 
 average difference between daughters and herdmates 
 as a guide in predicting how^ the daughters of a 
 particular buU may perform in his own herd. 
 
 Natural Service 
 
 Evaluation of sires used under natural service 
 conditions differs from evaluation of sires used m AI m 
 that the former are normally tested and used in a smgle 
 herd or in a relatively few herds. Bulls used m natural 
 service are also evaluated in the USDA-DHIA sire 
 evaluation program by contemporary herdmate com- i 
 parisons and the information is made available as 
 previously described. Unfortunately, sire evaluations 
 on a within-herd basis are not as accurate as those on a 
 multiherd basis. Consequently, predicted averages are | 
 
 not provided as they are for sires in AI. Herdmate j 
 comparisons are made, however, and these comparisons j 
 are very useful in evaluating natural-service^ bulls and j 
 in estimating the future performance of their progeny | 
 
 in the herd. | 
 
 Improvement Through Culling of 
 
 Females I 
 
 Genetic progress by selection of cows ^ difficult j 
 because of hmited opportunity to select on the basis ot 
 production. Selection can be made more effective by | 
 good herd management, which reduces losses of cows 
 because of injury, mastitis, disease, and failure to 
 
 DHIA production records should be studied careMly 
 to evaluate the producing ability of each cow. Con¬ 
 sideration should be given to both fortunate and 
 unfortunate circumstances that may affect the pro¬ 
 duction records of an individual cow. It is important 
 to remember that length of lactation and age may 
 influence production. When incomplete records are 
 used, it is helpful to use extension factors to adjust the 
 record to a 305-day basis. It may also be helpful to 
 use mature-equivalent (ME) factors to reduce the 
 effect of age differences between cows. These factors 
 may be obtained from your county agent or btate 
 
 dairy specialists. , i • i, - 4 . 
 
 To make rapid progress in improving the inheritance 
 
 for milk production through selection or cullmg ol 
 cows, it is important to be able to rank cows m the 
 herd with reasonable accuracy. 
 
 The following methods may be used m rankmg 
 cows according to production; j .r, . 
 
 1 . Rank according to the 305-day, ME records that 
 were initiated during the previous 12 months or 
 
 year-season. . 4 . i 
 
 2. Rank 2-year-olds according to either actual or 
 
 305-day, ME records. 
 
 
 24 
 
3. ^ With all available 305-day, ME records repre¬ 
 
 senting living cows, determine average production per 
 cow and adjust for differences in the number of records, 
 using the factors shown below. ’ 
 
 4. With all available 305-day, ME records repre¬ 
 senting living cows, determine the difference between 
 each record and those involving contemporary herd- 
 mates; average these differences (which may be plus 
 or minus) for each cow; and adjust for record number, 
 using the factors shown below. 
 
 Although methods 3 and 4 are more difficult than 
 the first two, they will provide more accurate evalu¬ 
 ations. 
 
 Number of records: to use 
 
 1- 0.500 
 
 Z - 007 
 
 6 - 750 
 
 4 - goo 
 
 5 or more_ g 33 
 
 25 
 

 
 
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Appendix 
 
 Memorandum of Understanding 
 between 
 
 The Cooperative Extension Service 
 of the 
 
 and 
 
 The Federal Extension Service 
 and 
 
 The Animal Husbandry Research Division 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 United States Department of Agriculture 
 
 Relating to the National Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement and Sire Evaluation Programs 
 
 The Cooperative Extension Service of the_ 
 
 -, hereinafter referred to as the Agency, the 
 
 Federal Extension Service, hereinafter referred to as the 
 Service, and the Animal Husbandry Research Division, 
 hereinafter referred to as the Division, recognizing that 
 cooperation is a matter of working together toward a 
 common end and is not merely one of cooperative 
 financing, desire to enter into this memorandum of 
 understanding for conducting work on the National 
 Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement and Sire 
 Evaluation Programs. 
 
 P^ticipation in this cooperation on the part of the 
 Division is under authority included in the Act estab¬ 
 lishing the Department of Agriculture, the Department 
 of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944, and the annual 
 appropriation Acts providing funds for the activities of 
 the Division. Participation by the Agency shall be in 
 accordance with applicable laws. 
 
 The National Cooperative Dauy Herd Improvement 
 and Sire Evaluation Programs, sponsored by the parties 
 to this a^eement, are cooperative undertakings 
 between dauymen, county. State and the Service, and 
 the Division. The National Cooperative Dairy Herd 
 Improvement Program consists of four production 
 recordkeeping plans: Standard Dairy Herd Improve¬ 
 ment Association, Dairy Herd Improvement Registry 
 Plan (in cooperation with the various breed registry 
 organizations), Owner-Sampler Plan, and Weigh-a-Day- 
 a-Month Plan. These plans are conducted on a 
 national basis under the general supervision of the 
 Anunal Husbandry Research Division, Agricultural 
 Research Service, USDA. The responsible supervising 
 agency in each State is the Cooperative Extension 
 Service. Participating dairymen are organized into 
 State and county cooperatives or associations that have 
 
 certain responsibilities delegated to them by the 
 supervising agency. 
 
 The National Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement 
 and Sire Evaluation Programs, as they have been de¬ 
 veloped in the United States, have been effective educa¬ 
 tional methods to promote higher production per cow 
 and more effective management of dairy cattle. The 
 results of this improvement are demonstrated by the 
 fact that all Standard Dairy Herd Improvement Asso¬ 
 ciation cows averaged 10,796 pounds of milk and 418 
 pounds of butterfat in 1961, compared to the national 
 average for non-DHIA cows of 6,780 pounds of milk 
 and 254 pounds of butterfat. The program has grown 
 to the point where almost 69,000 cooperating dairymen 
 are keeping dairy production records at their own ex¬ 
 pense on more than 2% million cows in 50 States and 
 Puerto Rico. 
 
 I. Purposes: 
 
 A. To improve the producing ability of dairy cattle 
 by providing guides for breeding, feeding, and manage¬ 
 ment practices. 
 
 B. To provide information by which it is possible to 
 measure the transmitting abilities of dairy sires to 
 the end that the meritoriously evaluated sires can be 
 selected for breeding purposes. 
 
 C. To improve the efficiency and financial position of 
 all dairymen. 
 
 D. To provide data for dairy extension workers in 
 developing and conducting effective educational dem¬ 
 onstrations and programs. 
 
 E. To provide data for research. 
 
 H. Objectives: 
 
 A. To maintain a uniform system of recordkeeping 
 to guide the cooperating dairymen in their herd im¬ 
 provement program and to supply reliable records and 
 
 27 
 
herd improvement information to the Division, the 
 agricultural colleges, and the county. State, and the 
 Service for scientific studies, result demonstrations, and 
 other educational programs. • , • 
 
 B. To establish sources of superior dairy inheritance 
 as a means of improving the producing ability of all 
 
 dairy cattle. , , ^ 
 
 C. To maintain a high standard of integrity in tne 
 
 above recordkeeping system that will give reliability 
 to scientific studies and educational demonstrations; 
 provide authentic information to dairymen who use 
 these records as a basis of breeding, sire selection, 
 feeding, and management; and provide accurate factual 
 information on production, feed costs, reproduction, 
 
 and other herd data. 1 ,• 1 ox j j 
 
 D. To summarize, analyze, and publish otanaara 
 
 Dairy Herd Improvement Association results and 
 make them available to all research, educational, and 
 extension workers; cooperating dairymen; and others. 
 No copyright shall subsist in the material published 
 
 pursuant hereto. , , 1 • 1 j 
 
 E. To demonstrate the fundamentals of dairy herd 
 improvement to the cooperating dairymen and through 
 the use of the results of this demonstration to teach 
 all interested dairymen of the Nation the value of 
 these practices. 
 
 III. The Agency will— , , , ^ j 
 
 A. Assume responsibility for the development and 
 guidance of the National Cooperative Dairy Herd 
 Improvement Program and adaptation of the details 
 of the program to fit the State needs. 
 
 B. Conduct a program to keep as many cows as 
 
 possible on production testing with adequate supervi¬ 
 sion. , , . • , 
 
 C. Through the State dairy extension specialist, 
 
 be responsible for— . , 
 
 1. General supervision of the National Cooperative 
 Dairy Herd Improvement Program in the State. 
 
 2. Distribution of all record forms, including the 
 report forms provided by the Division which may be 
 
 needed by the State. 1 • • 
 
 3. Assembling and forwarding, to the Division, 
 
 production records of all herds enrolled in Owner- 
 Sampler and Weigh-a-Day-a-Month record plans and 
 lactation and herd records of all Standard Dairy 
 Herd Improvement Association cows for use in eval¬ 
 uating sires and other analyses. tj 1 
 
 4. Summarization and analysis of Dairy Herd 
 Improvement results not supplied by the Division. 
 
 5. Making the published results available to county 
 agricultural agents, other extension workers, and other 
 interested parties. 
 
 6. Assisting county agricultural agents m the orga¬ 
 nization, development, and supervision of the National 
 Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement Program. 
 
 7. Training of Dairy Herd Improvement Association 
 supervisors, county agricultural agents, and other per¬ 
 sonnel working on the program. 
 
 D. Through the county agent or other authorized 
 person, be responsible for— 
 
 1. General supervision of the National Cooperative 
 Dairy Herd Improvement Program in the county. 
 
 2. Distribution of recordkeeping forms and infor¬ 
 mation to cooperating dairymen in the county. 
 
 3. Collection of necessary reports and forwarding 
 them to the dairy specialist in charge at the State 
 office. 
 
 4. Establishing and maintaining a responsible inem- 
 bership organization for the conduct of the National 
 Cooperative Dairy Herd Improvement Program. 
 
 5. Returning to the membership the summaries and 
 results of the testing work. 
 
 IV. The Division will — 
 
 A. Furnish the Agency the necessa^ uniform lacta¬ 
 tion and herd report forms (except EDPM monthly 
 report and State adapted forms) needed to provide es¬ 
 sential information for the dairymen and data for re¬ 
 search analysis, extension teaching, and sire evaluation. 
 
 B. Conduct a sire evaluation program based on data 
 received from the Agency and publish the results 
 thereof. Make available sire data for further study 
 and extension use in dairy cattle mprovement. 
 
 C. Compile summary information on a regional and 
 national basis on all types of dairy production record¬ 
 keeping and analyze Standard Dairy Herd Improve¬ 
 ment Association production, feed, and cost data from 
 data received from the Agency to show the value of 
 various dairy practices and make these results avail¬ 
 able to the Agency for extension teaching. 
 
 D. Assist in coordinating the State Dairy Herd Im¬ 
 provement Programs with the national program. 
 
 E. Conduct research on the various aspects of the 
 program to assure an efficient and economical operation. 
 
 F. Furnish an annual report of record forms and 
 other pertinent statistical data to the director of the 
 Agency. 
 
 V. It is mutually agreed that — 
 
 A. The Agency which will be represented by the 
 Dairy Records Committee of the American Dairy Sci¬ 
 ence Association and the Division, working through the 
 American Dairy Science Association, shall establish 
 uniform rules and policies for conducting the Dairy 
 Herd Improvement and Sire Evaluation Programs. 
 
 B. The Agency and the Division will consult in the 
 interest of effective cooperation and coordination with 
 respect to all phases of the Dairy Herd Improvement 
 and Sire Evaluation Programs. 
 
 C. A representative of the Service will serve as a 
 liaison between the Agency, the Division, and the Ex¬ 
 tension Committee on Organization and Policy. 
 
 D. The Agency and the Division will cooperate in 
 establishing and maintaining Dairy Records Processing 
 Laboratories and collaborate on other .regional na¬ 
 tional activities to improve the effectiveness of Dairy 
 Herd Improvement and Sire Evaluation Programs. 
 
 E. The Agency and the Division will pay the salaries 
 and expenses of their respective employees assigned to 
 this work. 
 
 VI. This memorandum of understanding is to define 
 in general terms the basis on which the parties concerned 
 will cooperate and does not constitute a financial obli¬ 
 gation to serve as a basis for expenditures. Each 
 
 will handle and expend its own funds. Any and all 
 expenditures by the Division made in conformity with 
 the plans outlined in this memorandum of understand¬ 
 ing must be in accord with Department rules and regu¬ 
 lations, and in each instance based upon appropriate 
 finance papers, such as lease, contract, requisition, 1^- 
 ter of authorization, etc. Expenditures made by the 
 Agency wilLbe in accord with its governing rules and 
 regulations. 
 
 VII. The responsibilities assumed by each of the 
 cooperating parties are contingent upon funds being 
 
 28 
 
available from which expenditures legally may be 
 made. 
 
 Funds of the Agency shall not be expended by any 
 employee of the Division. 
 
 yill. No member of, or delegate to, Congress or 
 resident commissioner, and no officer, agent, or 
 employee of the Government shall be admitted to any 
 share or part of this agreement or to any benefit to 
 arise therefrom. 
 
 IX. This memorandum of understanding shall be¬ 
 come effective when fully executed. It shall continue 
 in effect indefinitely but may be modified or terminated 
 at the request of either party. Requests for termina¬ 
 tion or any major modification shall be submitted to 
 the other party for consideration not less than six (6) 
 months in advance of the effective date of such termi¬ 
 nation or change. 
 
 X. Nothing herein shall be construed as interfering 
 in any way with the basic responsibilities and activities 
 of either party. 
 
 (Date) 
 
 Director, Cooperative Extension 
 Service oi the 
 
 (Date) 
 
 Administrator 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 United States Department of 
 Agriculture 
 
 (Date) 
 
 Administrator 
 
 Federal Extension Service 
 
 United States Department of 
 Agriculture 
 
 DHIA Rules 
 
 (Revised and Approved by the American Dairy Science 
 Association in June 1962) 
 
 Rule 1. Standard Equipment and Methods 
 
 All equipment and methods shall conform to the 
 standards and methods set by the American Dairy 
 Science Association and/or the State Regulatory 
 Agency. The accuracy of all equipment shall be checked 
 as frequently as necessary to insure that equipment is 
 operating within the standards estabhshed by ADSA. 
 
 The ADSA Dairy Records Committee will offer an 
 opinion of accuracy of equipment or method when they 
 have been tested and results published by three or more 
 colleges, experiment stations, or independent research 
 laboratories. The responsible supervising agency and/ 
 or the regulatory agency in each State shall have au¬ 
 thority to approve equipment or methods found to pro¬ 
 duce results within tolerances established by the 
 ADSA Dairy Records Committee. 
 
 Tolerances are as follows: 
 
 A. Butterfat test on individual cows should be within 
 plus or minus 0.2 of the fat test obtained by conven¬ 
 tional sampling methods. 
 
 B. Daily milk weights as compared to an accurate 
 scale should be withdn 3 percent or one-half pound. 
 
 whichever is the greater, and the error should be 
 random so it will cancel with repeated sampling. 
 
 90 percent of the tests and weights should fall within 
 these limits. 
 
 Rule 2. Cooperation of Owner 
 
 Owners must make available all registration cer¬ 
 tificates and other information for permanent identi¬ 
 fication of animals on test and all their offspring. 
 They must provide the supervisor with freshening and 
 dry dates, purchase and sale dates, abortion dates, and 
 death dates. When requested they must cooperate 
 and assist the supervisor in obtaining feed weights, 
 roughage quality, value of product, breeding dates, and 
 any information needed for calculation of complete 
 DHIA records. 
 
 Rule 3. Identification of Animals 
 
 Every animal in DHIA herds must be positively identified 
 and recorded in the owner’s herd book within 60 days 
 after entering the herd by birth or purchase. A herd 
 registry page is provided for this purpose. Cows on 
 test must be permanently identified with (1) registra¬ 
 tion numbers if registered, or (2) uniform series eartags 
 as used in DHIA, disease eradication, and artificial 
 breeding (State code, 1-, 2-, or 3-letter prefix, 4 digits). 
 
 The supervisor shall verify the identity of each cow 
 when entered on test, by registration certificates if 
 registered or by eartag numbers if not registered, and 
 record the information on appropriate forms. There¬ 
 after, at each milking the supervisor must assure 
 himself of the correct identity of each cow as she is 
 milked. 
 
 Tattoo numbers, branded numbers, or private eartags 
 are acceptable identification, provided that they are 
 cross-indexed to one of the above identification systems. 
 
 Supplemental Identification. —Neck chains, strap 
 numbers, or other numbering systems may be used on 
 young stock until they enter the m ilk ing herd. They 
 also may be used as secondary identification for 
 milking cows, provided that they are cross-indexed 
 with permanent identification. 
 
 Rule 4. Production Reports 
 
 DHIA lactation records shall be computed and 
 reported for every cow on test for each calving. 
 Monthly and yearly herd reports shall also be computed 
 and reported as required by the county and State 
 extension service. 
 
 Rule 5. Cows To Be Tested 
 
 DHIA records must be kept on all dairy cows in the 
 herd or on the farm that have ever calved, regardless 
 of ownership, except as specified in the rule on perma¬ 
 nent nurse cows. DHIA herds shall consist of all cows 
 that have freshened at least once located on one or 
 more farms under one management. 
 
 Members owning or operating more than one farm may 
 divide their herds into farm units, and each may be 
 tested as a separate unit when the units are maintained 
 as separate herds and there is no shifting of cows 
 between herds. In single herds involving two or more 
 distinctly individual breeds, separate herd averages or 
 a composite herd average may be calculated and 
 reported as such. 
 
 747-993 0 - 65-3 
 
 29 
 
The owner or his management is required to report 
 to the supervisor all cows added to or removed from the 
 herd since the previous test, as well as first-calf heifers 
 that have calved. 
 
 In any case involving the questionable assignment of 
 cows to a herd to influence a herd average, the decision 
 of the local or State board of directors in council with 
 the State extension dairyman in charge of production 
 testing shall be considered final. In special cases 
 involving joint operation of herds or groups of cows, the 
 local board of directors in council with the State 
 extension dairyman shall decide the poUcy. 
 
 Rule 6. Monthly and Bimonthly Testing 
 
 Associations may operate on the monthly or 
 bimonthly basis or on both, as approved by the State 
 extension dairyman. 
 
 Rule 7. Number of Cows Tested Daily 
 
 The number of cows and herds tested daily shall be 
 left to the judgment and discretion of the DHIA board 
 of directors and State extension dairyman concerned. 
 They will consider the ability of the supervisor, milking 
 facilities, and type of records being kept. 
 
 The number of cows tested shall be limited as much 
 as necessary to allow sufficient time for the supervisor 
 on each visit to the farm to properly comply with all 
 the Standard DHIA Rules, such as the identification of 
 all animals in the herd, including eartagging when 
 necessary; proper supervision of milking, including the 
 identification of the cows being milked; using the 
 proper procedures and methods of sampling, including 
 the handling of samples and the use of a locked sample 
 case; obtaining and using his own data; properly 
 recording data on the barn sheet; keeping the owner’s 
 herd book up to date; and making all required monthly, 
 yearly, and lactation reports. Sufficient tinae also 
 shall be allowed for the supervisor to check all his work 
 and reports for accuracy before leaving the farm. 
 
 Rule 8. Supervision of Milkers and Cows 
 
 The herd owner shall milk his cows in such order 
 that on the testing day cows being milked at the same 
 time will be in close proximity and full view of the 
 supervisor for observation. 
 
 The supervisor must be in position to observe the 
 milkers, machines, and cows during the entire milking 
 process. 
 
 Rule 9. Supervisor Uses Own Data 
 
 The supervisor, or a person or central processing 
 service authorized and approved by the State extension 
 dairyman and the responsible organization, shall 
 compute the production records for a testing period 
 from the data obtained on the testing date. 
 
 Rule 10. Centering the Testing Day 
 
 Production records shall be calculated by centering 
 the testing day according to the method outlined in 
 the DHIA Supervisor’s Manual. All tests shall be 
 applied to the testing period in which made. 
 
 Rule 11. Supervisor*s Route 
 
 In order that the herd owner may not know the exact 
 day the supervisor will visit a farm, the supervisor shall 
 from time to time vary his visits to each farm as much 
 as 3 days ahead of, or 3 days after, the centering day. 
 
 Rule 12. Lock Sample Cases 
 
 All milk samples, glassware, and the current monthly 
 barn sheet with recorded test day data shall be securely 
 locked by the supervisor when they are not under his 
 immediate observation. 
 
 Rule 13. Methods of Sampling 
 
 All weighing, sampling, and recording of each milking 
 of each cow for the 24-hour period must be done by 
 the supervisor or person authorized by the local DHiA 
 board of directors. Each cow’s milk must be thorough¬ 
 ly mixed immediately before sampling. 
 
 Rule 14. Lost Samples 
 
 When a sample is lost, the previous month’s butterfat 
 test shall be used. When milk weights are not 
 obtained, the pounds of milk for the current testing 
 day shall be estimated from the previous month’s 
 record by use of the nurse-cow table in the DHIA 
 Supervisor’s Manual. In either case, the record shall 
 be marked “estimated.” 
 
 Rule 15. Abnormal Tests 
 
 In cases of severe sickness or injury, except for the 
 first month of lactation, a 40-percent change in total 
 daily pounds of fat from the preceding test shall be 
 considered abnormal. Abnormal high or low records 
 due to causes such as sickness, severe injury, and off 
 feed shall be handled similarly to lost samples. 
 
 Rule 16. Retests, Owner's Request 
 
 If for any reason a herd owner is not satisfied with 
 the test on his herd, he may call for a retest. The 
 herd owner shall pay the cost of the retest unless 
 otherwise determined by the local board of directors. 
 The use of the requested retest and the regular test 
 shall be at the discretion of the State extension dairy¬ 
 man. 
 
 Rule 17. Surprise Tests—DHIA 
 
 Surprise tests may be conducted for verification of 
 records of high producing cows and herds and for 
 investigation of rule infractions. They may be ordered 
 by the State or local organization and/or the State 
 extension dairyman. 
 
 The use of the surprise test and the payment thereof 
 shall be determined by the organization requiring such 
 tests. Surprise tests shall be preceded by a preliminary 
 dry milking. 
 
 Rule 18. Surprise Tests—DHIR 
 
 The DHIR surprise test rules are as follows: 
 
 A. Production requirements 
 
 The State official in charge of DHIA testing shall 
 arrange for surprise testing of cows that meet the 
 
 30 
 
following production requirements, or when requested 
 to do so bv the breed registry organization: 
 
 1. If, after 90 days of a lactation, a cow equals or 
 exceeds the average daily butterfat production shown 
 in column A of the accompanying table, one surprise 
 test with a preliminary dry milking shall be made 
 within the next 2 months, if possible. 
 
 2. If after 90 days of a lactation, a cow equals or 
 exceeds the average daily butterfat production shown 
 in column B of the table, a second test with a prelimi¬ 
 nary dry milking shall be made before the 305th day 
 of her lactation. 
 
 B. Use of Surprise Test 
 
 The surprise test shall be used in lieu of the regular 
 test and, if possible, shall be made by a different super¬ 
 visor. Whether or not a regular test shall also be con¬ 
 ducted during the testing period is left to the discretion 
 of the local DHIA board of directors. 
 
 C. The Preliminary Milking 
 
 The preliminary milking need not be sampled or 
 tested. 
 
 D. Cows To Be Included 
 
 1. When a surprise test is made in lieu of a regular 
 test, the entire herd shall be included. 
 
 2. When a surprise test is made as an additional test 
 during a testing period, it shall include the entire herd, 
 except that in herds requiring more than 1 day’s super¬ 
 vision, only those cows meeting the surprise test 
 requirements need be included. 
 
 Surprise Test Production Requirements 
 
 Age 
 
 Col. A 
 
 Col. B 
 
 2 years__ 
 
 2.8 lbs. fat daily__ . 
 
 3.1 lbs. fat daily__ 
 
 3.4 lbs. fat daily __ _ 
 
 2.9 lbs. fat daily. 
 
 3.3 lbs. fat daily. 
 
 3.7 lbs. fat daily. 
 
 3 years__ 
 
 4 years and over_ 
 
 Rule 19. Fresh Cows—Dry Cows—Cows Sold 
 
 A cow shall not be tested until the seventh day after 
 she calves, counting the day of calving as the first day. 
 The record, however, is started on the fourth day after 
 calving, counting the calving day as the first day. 
 Cows freshening after the supervisor’s regular visit and 
 before the end of the testing period shall be given credit 
 for their production during that period, as calculated 
 on the basis of the results of the next test. Dry cows— 
 the dry date is the first day the cow is not milked. The 
 day a cow is sold and leaves the herd counts as the last 
 day in the herd, and she gets production for that full 
 day. 
 
 Rule 20. Aborting Cows or Cows Freshening 
 Without Going Dry 
 
 In case a cow aborts while dry, her record shall be 
 figured the same as for a fresh cow. If she aborts while 
 in milk and has carried a calf less than 152 days, her 
 current record shall continue without interruption. If 
 a breeding date is not available and the cow aborts 
 while in milk for less than 200 days, her current record 
 
 shall continue without interruption. Otherwise the 
 current record shall end, and a new lactation shall begin. 
 
 Rule 21. Cows Nursing Calves 
 
 Temporary nurse cow 
 
 Cows nursing calves on the testing day are considered 
 on test. Records other than production are taken as 
 usual and recorded in the herd-record book. No milk 
 samples are taken. Milk weights and tests obtained 
 on the last testing day before calves are put on cows or 
 on the first testing day after calves have been removed 
 are used in computing production for the testing period 
 in which calves are nursed, along with the nurse-cow 
 table in DHIA Supervisor’s Manual.^ The recorded 
 number of days in milk for the lactation shall include 
 the number of days the cows nursed calves during the 
 lactation period. 
 
 If records are calculated by a computing center, 
 they will be coded as required. ’ 
 
 Permanent nurse cow 
 
 At the request of the herd owner, a cow that is to be 
 used as a nurse cow throughout the entire lactation 
 period may be removed from test from the date of fresh- 
 ening until the following date of freshening, provided 
 she has at least one complete lactation record. 
 
 Permanent nurse cows are to be reentered on test 
 at the following calving unless they are requalified. 
 Cows are disqualified as permanent nurse cows if at 
 any time they are milked by machine or by hand. 
 
 Rule 22. Yearly Herd Average 
 
 The yearly herd average is calculated on a cow-year 
 basis. As outlined in the footnotes on the monthly 
 herd summary, DHIA-12, the total number of cow- 
 days on test for the year is divided by 365 (366 in a 
 leap year) to obtain the number of cow-years. The 
 totals for the year are divided by the number of cow- 
 years to obtain the herd averages for the year. 
 
 Rule 23. Yearly Association Average 
 
 The association average is found by dividing the total 
 pounds of milk and total pounds of butterfat by the 
 total cow-years. 
 
 Rule 24. Computing Fractions 
 
 The weights of milk at each milking and the day’s 
 total of milk are to be recorded to the nearest one-tenth 
 of a pound, the month’s milk to the nearest 10 pounds. 
 Butterfat tests shall be recorded to the nearest one- 
 tenth of a percent and monthly butterfat to the nearest 
 pound. The price per hundredweight of milk and feed 
 may be taken to the nearest 10 cents. The value of 
 product and cost of feed may be to the nearest whole 
 dollar. If the fraction is less than half, drop it. If 
 half or more, change to the next highest number. 
 
 Rule 25. Fraudulent Practices 
 
 Any practice that is intended to create or does create 
 any abnormal percentage of butterfat or an abnormal 
 yield of milk is a violation of DHIA rules. Fraudulent 
 practices shall be referred to the local DHIA board of 
 
 * The nurse-cow table is included in this handbook as table 3 in the appendix. 
 
 31 
 
directors for their consideration. The local board of 
 directors shall decide what action is necessary to prevent 
 or correct such practices. 
 
 Rule 26. Relation of Supervisors and Owners 
 
 As an employee of the local dairy herd improvement 
 association, the supervisor’s duty is to see that the 
 tests are honestly made, accurately recorded, and 
 completely reported. No payment, gift, or gratuity to 
 supervisor is permitted from the owner of a cow or 
 anyone interested in her. The supervisor may act as a 
 collecting agent for the association. He may collect 
 payment for dues and fees for the association, provided 
 a receipt is given the member and a carbon copy of the 
 same receipt is given to the association treasurer. 
 The supervisor shall not test his own herd nor the herd 
 of the immediate members of his family. The super¬ 
 visor is not at liberty to decide which rules are essential 
 and which are not, but is required to observe all of them 
 in detail. Owners or persons in their employ are 
 equally held responsible with the supervisor for 
 enforcement of these rules. 
 
 Rules Applying to DHIR Testing 
 
 1. Organization and Supcrvisional Authority 
 
 The DHIR production testing program shall be 
 conducted under the joint administration of the State 
 extension dairyman or other State official in charge of 
 DHIA testing within a particular State and the super¬ 
 intendent of official testing of the appropriate breed 
 registry organization. The State official in charge of 
 DHIA testing shall be responsible for supervising all 
 records in strict accordance with the rules and regula¬ 
 tions for standard DHIA testing, the additional 
 requirements set forth herein, and any additional 
 requirements of the appropriate breed registry organi¬ 
 zation. He shall assume responsibihty for the enforce¬ 
 ment of all such rules and regulations and shall withhold 
 approval of production records from a herd owner or 
 from a DHIA supervisor which are not made in strict 
 accordance with the rules and regulations. He shall 
 have the further responsibility of calling to the attention 
 of the superintendent of official testing of the 
 appropriate breed registry organization all failures by 
 herd owners to comply with the rules of the DHIR 
 testing program. 
 
 It is understood that DHIA records from any herd 
 or any DHIA where the compensation of the DHIA 
 supervisor is made directly by the herd owner will not be 
 accepted or approved under this plan. The superin¬ 
 tendent of official testing of the breed registry organiza¬ 
 tion shall be responsible for advising the State official m 
 charge of DHIA testing on all matters concerned with 
 the acceptance of DHIR records by the appropriate 
 breed registry organization. The superintendent of 
 official testing of the appropriate breed registry orga¬ 
 nization reserves the right to accept or reject any 
 records reported by the State official in charge of 
 DHIR testing within the State and assumes full re¬ 
 sponsibility for initiating any and all disciplinary action 
 
 concerned with records in progress or already accepted 
 and approved by the breed registry organization. 
 
 2. Basic Data 
 
 A. Identification of Animals .—At the time of the 
 first test of a herd for which an application has been 
 filed for the acceptance of DHIR records, the DHIA 
 supervisor must positively identify each cow in the 
 herd by comparison of the color markings or tattoo 
 mark in the ear with the registry certificate and must 
 make sure that all registered cows owned by the appli¬ 
 cant are tested. New cows entering the herd by 
 purchase or freshening must be similarly identified 
 at the time of their first test supervision. 
 
 B. Supplemental Identification .—Supplemental iden¬ 
 tification such as numbers or sealed collars or sealed 
 neck chains, numbers branded on the cows, or other 
 permanent nontransferable identification marks which 
 have been properly cross-checked with the registration 
 certificates, may be used for positive identification at 
 succeeding monthly test supervisions. Unless such 
 suitable supplemental identification is provided and 
 maintained by the owner, the registration certificates 
 must be used at each monthly test for identification of 
 all animals tested. The DHIA supervisor will be held 
 responsible for the absolute accuracy of identification 
 of all cows tested at each test period. 
 
 C. The DHIA Supervisor .—The DHIA supervisor 
 will be responsible for reporting each month any 
 change in status of each cow in the herd, such as calving 
 date, purchase date, date of sale and for what purpose, 
 or other dates affecting the production record of each 
 animal, as well as the milk production and butterfat 
 test of each cow during the test period. He shall also 
 report any unusual or abnormal conditions that may 
 affect the reliability of the test, and any violations of 
 the rules by the owner or attendants shall be reported 
 immediately by the DHIA supervisor to the State 
 official in charge of DHIR testing within the State. 
 
 D. The Herd Owmer.—The herd owner shall be 
 responsible for providing, at the time of each monthly 
 test, all basic data needed by the supervisor for a 
 complete and accurate report on each cow in the herd. 
 He shall be also responsible for supplying the supervisor 
 with complete information on cows removed from the 
 herd. 
 
 3. Surprise Tests 
 
 The State official in charge of DHIR testing shall 
 arrange for surprise tests when the conditions of Rule 
 18, DHIA rules (appendix) are met, or when requested 
 to’do so by the breed registry organization. 
 
 4. Availability of Data 
 
 Uniform production data and other data pertinent 
 to the production record shall be provided to the ap¬ 
 propriate breed registry organization from the State 
 or regional DHIA processing laboratory on all regis¬ 
 tered cows in herds enrolled in the DHIR testing pro¬ 
 gram. The processing laboratory shall make two 
 reports for each cow. The first oi these reports shall 
 include any and all production for a lactation up to 
 
 32 
 
305 days m length; reports of such lactation records 
 shall include all production from date of freshening or 
 date of entering the herd to dry date or to date of dis¬ 
 posal; reports of such records shall be forwarded at 
 intervals of not more than 90 days. These reports 
 shall be transmitted by the State or regional DHIA 
 processing laboratory to the breed registry organiza¬ 
 tions on PDCA /om 1. 
 
 In electronic processing and calculation of production 
 records, the milk weights of each milking shall be added 
 electronically to obtain daily milk weights; the days in 
 the testing period shall be electronically computed from 
 the dates reported; and 305-day and total lactation rec¬ 
 ords shall be electronically computed and reported 
 only after the cow has actually milked 305 days or has 
 completed her lactation. 
 
 5. Costs for DHIR Testing 
 
 Each breed organization shall set its own fees for 
 entering a herd on DHIR test. It shall be an annual 
 fee, payable at the time of application, and at yearly 
 intervals thereafter. Notice shall be given by the breed 
 ^gistry organization to the State official in charge of 
 pHIA testing when a breeder has made application 
 for DHIR testing. 
 
 The annual testing fee assessed by the breed registry 
 organization shall include a fee to be paid to the State 
 or regional DHIA processing laboratory to defray its 
 costs for reporting DHIR records to the breed registry 
 organization. Payment shall be made to the process¬ 
 ing laboratory on a regular basis as reports of DHIR 
 records are received by the breed registry organization. 
 
 Table 1.— Centering date table—Monthly 
 
 Centering 
 
 date 
 
 January, 
 August 
 (31 days) 
 
 February 
 (28 days) 
 
 February 
 (29 days) 
 
 1st__ 
 
 *17 to 16 
 
 *17 to 13 
 
 *17 to 14 
 
 2d_ _ _ 
 
 *18 to 17 
 
 *18 to 14 
 
 *18 to 15 
 
 3d_ 
 
 *19 to 18 
 
 *19 to 15 
 
 *19 to 16 
 
 4th_ _ 
 
 *20 to 19 
 
 *20 to 16 
 
 *20 to 17 
 
 5th__ _ _ 
 
 *21 to 20 
 
 *21 to 17 
 
 *21 to 18 
 
 6th_ 
 
 *22 to 21 
 
 *22 to 18 
 
 *22 to 19 
 
 7th_ 
 
 *23 to 22 
 
 *23 to 19 
 
 *23 to 20 
 
 8th__ _ 
 
 *24 to 23 
 
 *24 to 20 
 
 *24 to 21 
 
 9th__ _ 
 
 *25 to 24 
 
 *25 to 21 
 
 *25 to 22 
 
 10th_ 
 
 *26 to 25 
 
 *26 to 22 
 
 *26 to 23 
 
 nth _ 
 
 *27 to 26 
 
 *27 to 23 
 
 *27 to 24 
 
 12 th_ 
 
 *28 to 27 
 
 *28 to 24 
 
 *28 to 25 
 
 13th _ 
 
 *29 to 28 
 
 *29 to 25 
 
 *29 to 26 
 
 14 th_ 
 
 *30 to 29 
 
 *30 to 26 
 
 *30 to 27 
 
 15th_ 
 
 *31 to 30 
 
 *31 to 27 
 
 *31 to 28 
 
 16th_ 
 
 1 to 31 
 
 1 to 28 
 
 1 to 29 
 
 17th_ 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 18th_ 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 19th_ 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 20th_ 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 21st. _ 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 22d_ _ 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 23d_ 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 24th_ 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 25th_ _ 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 26th_ 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 27th_ 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 28th_ 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 29th_ 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 30th_ 
 
 15 to 14** 
 
 
 31st__ 
 
 16 to 15** 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 March 
 (31 days) 
 following 
 February 
 (28 days) 
 
 March 
 (31 days) 
 following 
 February 
 (29 days) 
 
 April, June, 
 September, 
 November 
 (30 days) 
 
 May, July, 
 October, 
 December 
 (31 days) 
 
 Centering 
 
 date 
 
 *14 to 16 
 
 *15 to 16 
 
 *17 to 15 
 
 *16 to 16 
 
 __ 1st 
 
 *15 to 17 
 
 *16 to 17 
 
 *18 to 16 
 
 *17 to 17 
 
 - --- - - 2d 
 
 *16 to 18 
 
 *17 to 18 
 
 *19 to 17 
 
 *18 to 18 
 
 --- 3d 
 
 *17 to 19 
 
 *18 to 19 
 
 *20 to 18 
 
 *19 to 19 
 
 - - - - 4th 
 
 *18 to 20 
 
 *19 to 20 
 
 *21 to 19 
 
 *20 to 20 
 
 5th 
 
 *19 to 21 
 
 *20 to 21 
 
 *22 to 20 
 
 *21 to 21 
 
 -- - -- 6th 
 
 *20 to 22 
 
 *21 to 22 
 
 *23 to 21 
 
 *22 to 22 
 
 --- - - 7th 
 
 *21 to 23 
 
 *22 to 23 
 
 *24 to 22 
 
 *23 to 23 
 
 - 8th 
 
 *22 to 24 
 
 *23 to 24 
 
 *25 to 23 
 
 *24 to 24 
 
 - - __ 9th 
 
 *23 to 25 
 
 *24 to 25 
 
 *26 to 24 
 
 *25 to 25 
 
 - -- ...lOth 
 
 *24 to 26 
 
 *25 to 26 
 
 *27 to 25 
 
 *26 to 26 
 
 nth 
 
 *25 to 27 
 
 *26 to 27 
 
 *28 to 26 
 
 *27 to 27 
 
 -12th 
 
 *26 to 28 
 
 *27 to 28 
 
 *29 to 27 
 
 *28 to 28 
 
 13th 
 
 *27 to 29 
 
 *28 to 29 
 
 *30 to 28 
 
 *29 to 29 
 
 -- _14th 
 
 *28 to 30 
 
 *29 to 30 
 
 *31 to 29 
 
 *30 to 30 
 
 15th 
 
 1 to 31 
 
 1 to 31 
 
 1 to 30 
 
 1 to 31 
 
 --- __16th 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 2 to 1** 
 
 -- _ .17th 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 3 to 2** 
 
 .-18th 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 4 to 3** 
 
 __19th 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 5 to 4** 
 
 __ _ _ 20th 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 6 to 5** 
 
 _ _ _.21st 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 7 to 6** 
 
 - - -22d 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 8 to 7** 
 
 _.23d 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 9 to 8** 
 
 _24th 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 10 to 9** 
 
 _ _25th 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 11 to 10** 
 
 -- - - _.-26th 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 12 to 11** 
 
 -.-27th 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 13 to 12** 
 
 - -- _. _28th 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 14 to 13** 
 
 _ -_29th 
 
 15 to 14** 
 
 15 to 14** 
 
 15 to 14** 
 
 15 to 14** 
 
 --_ _ -30th 
 
 16 to 15** 
 
 16 to 15** 
 
 
 16 to 15** 
 
 31st 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Date of previous month. 
 **Date of following month. 
 
 33 
 
Table 2. —Centering date table—Bimonthly 
 
 Centering 
 
 date 
 
 January 
 (62 days) 
 
 February 
 (59 days) 
 
 March 
 (59 days) 
 
 April, June, 
 Sept., Nov. 
 (61 days) 
 
 May, July, 
 Oct., Dec. 
 (61 days) 
 
 August 
 (62 days) 
 
 1 st __ 
 
 *1 to 31 
 
 *1 to 28 
 
 *1 to 31 
 
 *1 to 30 
 
 *1 to 31 
 *2 to 1 ** 
 
 *1 to 31 . 
 
 2 d _ 
 
 *2 to 1 ** 
 
 *2 to 1 ** 
 
 *2 to 1 ** 
 
 *2 to 1 ** 
 
 to 1 ^^ - 
 
 3d __ 
 
 *3 to 2** 
 
 *3 to 2** 
 
 *3 to 2** 
 
 *3 to 2** 
 
 *3 to 2** 
 *4 to 3** 
 
 ^6 to - 
 
 4th __ 
 
 *4 to 3** 
 
 *4 to 3** 
 
 *4 to 3** 
 
 *4 to 3** 
 
 ^4 to 
 
 5th _ 
 
 *5 to 4** 
 
 *5 to 4** 
 
 *5 to 4** 
 
 *5 to 4** 
 
 *5 to 4** 
 
 ’*^5 to 4^^ - 
 
 6 th _-_ 
 
 *6 to 5** 
 
 *6 to 5** 
 
 *6 to 5** 
 
 *6 to 5** 
 
 *6 to 5** 
 
 *6 to 5** - 
 
 7th _..... 
 
 *7 to 6 ** 
 
 *7 to 6 ** 
 
 *7 to 6 ** 
 
 *7 to 6 ** 
 
 *7 to 6 ** 
 
 ^7 to - 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 8 th - -- _ 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 *8 to 7** 
 
 9th -- -- _ 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 
 *9 to 8 ** 
 
 ioth ___ 
 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 *10 to 9** 
 
 11 th -. --- - -- - 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 
 *11 to 10 ** 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 *13 to 12** 
 *14 to 13** 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 12 th - _ 
 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 
 *12 to 11 ** 
 
 13th_ _ _ . _ 
 
 *13 to 12** 
 
 *13 to 12** 
 
 *13 to 12** 
 
 *13 to 12** 
 
 *13 to 12** 
 
 14th --- --- - -- 
 
 *14 to 13** 
 
 *14 to 13** 
 
 *14 to 13** 
 
 *14 to 13** 
 
 *14 to 13** 
 
 15th . --- _- 
 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 *15 to 14** 
 
 16th_ -- -_ 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 
 *16 to 15** 
 *17 to 16** 
 *18 to 17** 
 *19 to 18** 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 17th_-- - --- 
 
 *17 to 16** 
 
 *17 to 16** 
 
 *17 to 16** 
 
 *17 to 16** 
 
 *17 to 16** 
 
 18th ____ 
 
 *18 to 17** 
 
 *18 to 17** 
 
 *18 to 17** 
 
 *18 to 17** 
 
 *18 to 17** 
 
 19th_ --- 
 
 *19 to 18** 
 
 *19 to 18** 
 
 *19 to 18** 
 
 *19 to 18** 
 
 *19 to 18** 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 20 th _ 
 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 *20 to 19** 
 
 21 st _ _ -- 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 *23 to 22** 
 *24 to 23** 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 *23 to 22** 
 *24 to 23** 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 *21 to 20 ** 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 *23 to 22** 
 *24 to 23** 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 22 d _ _ 
 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 
 *22 to 21 ** 
 
 23d_ --- -- 
 
 *23 to 22** 
 
 *23 to 22** 
 
 *23 to 22** 
 
 24th_- -- - 
 
 *24 to 23** 
 
 *24 to 23** 
 
 *24 to 23** 
 
 25th -__ 
 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 *25 to 24** 
 
 26th -- __ - 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 *27 to 26** 
 *28 to 27** 
 *29 to 28** 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 *27 to 26** 
 *28 to 27** 
 *29 to 28** 
 
 *26 to 25** 
 *27 to 26** 
 *28 to 27** 
 *29 to 28** 
 
 27th --- 
 
 *27 to 26** 
 
 *27 to 26** 
 
 *27 to 26** 
 
 28t,h 
 
 *28 to 27** 
 
 *28 to 27** 
 
 *28 to 27** 
 
 29th. 
 
 30th. 
 
 Q1 0 , 4 - 
 
 
 *29 to 28** 
 *30 to 1 1 
 
 
 1 to 28** 
 
 
 
 2 to 29** 
 
 *30 to 29** 
 
 *30 to 29** 
 
 1 to 30** 
 
 *30 to 29** 
 *31 to 30** 
 
 
 *31 to 2 1 
 
 
 3 to 30** 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Centering 
 
 date 
 
 _lst 
 
 .2d 
 
 -3d 
 
 .4th 
 
 .5th 
 
 .6 th 
 .7th 
 .8 th 
 .9th 
 
 -loth 
 
 .nth 
 
 .12th 
 
 .13th 
 
 .14th 
 
 .15th 
 
 .16th 
 
 .17th 
 
 .18th 
 
 .19th 
 
 .20th 
 
 -21st 
 
 .22d 
 
 .23d 
 
 .24th 
 
 .25th 
 
 .26th 
 .27th 
 .28th 
 .29 th 
 .30th 
 .31st 
 
 *Date of previous month. 
 
 **Date of following month. 
 
 1 Date of 2d following month. 
 
 Estimating Missing Monthly Test- 
 
 Day Records 
 
 Table 3 provides a means for estimating test-day 
 production for months of test missed because the 
 animal was used as a nurse cow or the milk sarnple was 
 lost, or for some other reason. To use this table, 
 locate the test-day weight for the last available 
 testing period or for the first period after testing is 
 resumed, and use the test-day weight listed in the 
 
 succeeding or preceding column for that line. A testing 
 period should be counted separately only if a cow has 
 milked at least 15 days in the period. If the first 
 month is missed, find the test-day weight for the second 
 month of test in column 2 and use the corresponding 
 weight in the first column. For example: If the 
 production for month 2 is 29 pounds, the production 
 for month 1 is estimated as 28 pounds. To determine 
 butterfat credit, use the butterfat test for the last 
 (or first) available testing period. 
 
 Table ‘i—Estimating missing monthly test-day records * 
 
 Estimated 305-day production 
 
 Estimated daily production for each testing period ^ 
 
 
 1 st 
 
 2 d 
 
 3d 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 6 th 
 
 7th 
 
 8 th 
 
 9th 
 
 10 th 
 
 4 , 360 -- _ -- - 
 
 Lb. 
 
 20 
 
 Lb. 
 
 21 
 
 Lb. 
 
 20 
 
 Lb. 
 
 18 
 
 Lb. 
 
 16 
 
 Lb. 
 
 15* 
 
 15 
 
 16* 
 
 17* 
 
 17 
 
 Lb. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 14* 
 
 14 
 15* 
 
 Lb. 
 
 10 * 
 
 10 
 
 11 * 
 
 11 
 
 12 * 
 
 Lb. 
 
 6 . 6 
 
 7. 0 
 
 7. 2 
 7. 6 
 7. 9 
 
 Lb. 
 
 4. 1 
 4. 3 
 4. 5 
 4. 7 
 4. 9 
 
 4 550 - -- -- - 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 4 ’ 790 -_ - - 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 22 * 
 
 20 * 
 
 18* 
 
 19* 
 
 5 ’ 030 - - -_- 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 23 
 
 21 * 
 
 5 250 -------- 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 24* 
 
 22 * 
 
 20 * 
 
 5 430 - ____- 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 23* 
 
 21 * 
 
 18 
 
 16* 
 
 16 
 
 17* 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 13* 
 
 13 
 14* 
 
 14 
 
 8 . 3 
 
 Q a 
 
 5. 1 
 5. 3 
 5. 6 
 
 5. 7 
 
 6 . 0 
 
 5 ’ 680 - - _ - - --- 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 26* 
 
 24* 
 
 21 
 
 19* 
 
 0 . D 
 
 9. 0 
 
 Q 9 
 
 5 920 ----- -- -- -- 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 25* 
 
 22 
 
 20 * 
 
 20 
 
 6 070 --- - ------ 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 28* 
 
 25 
 
 23* 
 
 y. z 
 
 n A 
 
 6, 290_ 
 
 29 
 
 31* 
 
 1 29 
 
 26 
 
 24* 
 
 21 
 
 y. 0 
 
 See footnotes at end of table. 
 
 34 
 
Table 3. Estimating missing monthly test-day vecords ^—Continued 
 
 Estimated 305-day production 
 
 6 , 560_ 
 
 6 , 740_ 
 
 7, 010_ 
 
 7, 200_ 
 
 7, 440_ 
 
 7, 630_ 
 
 7, 840_ 
 
 8 , 080_ 
 
 8 , 330_ 
 
 8 , 480_ 
 
 8 , 720_ 
 
 8 , 900_ 
 
 9, 180_ 
 
 9, 400_ 
 
 9, 610_ 
 
 9, 820_ 
 
 10, 030_ 
 
 10, 250_ 
 
 10, 490_ 
 
 10, 650_ 
 
 10, 920_ 
 
 11 , 170_ 
 
 11, 350_ 
 
 11, 590_ 
 
 11, 780_ 
 
 11, 990_ 
 
 12, 290_ 
 
 12, 440_ 
 
 12 , 660_ 
 
 12, 870_ 
 
 13, 120_ 
 
 13, 300_ 
 
 13, 540___ 
 
 13, 730_ 
 
 13, 970_ 
 
 14, 150_ 
 
 14, 430_ 
 
 14,610,_ 
 
 14, 850_ 
 
 15, 040_ 
 
 15, 280_ 
 
 15, 560_ 
 
 15, 710_ 
 
 15, 920_ 
 
 16, 170_ 
 
 16,350 _ 
 
 16, 590_ 
 
 16, 840_ 
 
 17, 050_ 
 
 17, 230_ 
 
 17, 420_ 
 
 17, 690_ 
 
 17, 900_ 
 
 18, 090_ 
 
 18, 330_ 
 
 18, 540_ 
 
 18, 790_ 
 
 18, 970_ 
 
 19, 180_ 
 
 19, 430_II; 
 
 19, 670_ 
 
 19,860_ 
 
 20,130_ _ 
 
 20 , 280 . 
 
 20,500_IIIIi; 
 
 See footnotes at end of table. 
 
 Estimated daily production for each testing period ^ 
 
 1st 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 30 
 
 32* 
 
 30* 
 
 27 
 
 25* 
 
 31 
 
 33* 
 
 31 
 
 28* 
 
 25 
 
 32 
 
 34* 
 
 32* 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 33 
 
 35* 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 36* 
 
 34* 
 
 31* 
 
 28* 
 
 35 
 
 37* 
 
 35 
 
 32* 
 
 29* 
 
 36 
 
 38* 
 
 36* 
 
 33* 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 39* 
 
 37 
 
 34* 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 40* 
 
 38* 
 
 35* 
 
 31 
 
 39 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 36* 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 40* 
 
 36 
 
 33* 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 41* 
 
 37 
 
 34* 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 42* 
 
 38 
 
 34 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 43* 
 
 39 
 
 35 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 44* 
 
 40* 
 
 36* 
 
 45 
 
 47 
 
 45* 
 
 41* 
 
 37* 
 
 46 
 
 48 
 
 46* 
 
 42* 
 
 38* 
 
 47 
 
 49 
 
 47* 
 
 43* 
 
 38 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 48* 
 
 44* 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 52* 
 
 49* 
 
 45* 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 53* 
 
 50* 
 
 45 
 
 41* 
 
 51 
 
 54* 
 
 51* 
 
 46 
 
 42* 
 
 52 
 
 55* 
 
 52* 
 
 47 
 
 43* 
 
 53 
 
 56* 
 
 53* 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 57* 
 
 54* 
 
 49 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 58* 
 
 55* 
 
 50 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 
 59* 
 
 56* 
 
 51* 
 
 46* 
 
 57 
 
 60* 
 
 57* 
 
 52* 
 
 47* 
 
 58 
 
 61* 
 
 58* 
 
 53* 
 
 47 
 
 59 
 
 62 
 
 59* 
 
 54* 
 
 48 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 60* 
 
 55* 
 
 49 
 
 61 
 
 64 
 
 61* 
 
 55 
 
 50* 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 62* 
 
 56 
 
 51* 
 
 63 
 
 66 
 
 63* 
 
 57 
 
 52* 
 
 64 
 
 67 
 
 64* 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 65* 
 
 59 
 
 53 
 
 66 
 
 69 
 
 66* 
 
 60* 
 
 54* 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 67* 
 
 61* 
 
 55* 
 
 68 
 
 71 
 
 68* 
 
 62* 
 
 56* 
 
 69 
 
 73* 
 
 69* 
 
 63* 
 
 56 
 
 70 
 
 74* 
 
 70* 
 
 64* 
 
 57 
 
 71 
 
 75* 
 
 71* 
 
 65* 
 
 58 
 
 72 
 
 76* 
 
 72* 
 
 65 
 
 59* 
 
 73 
 
 77* 
 
 73* 
 
 66 
 
 60* 
 
 74 
 
 78* 
 
 74* 
 
 67 
 
 61* 
 
 75 
 
 79* 
 
 75* 
 
 68 
 
 61 
 
 76 
 
 80* 
 
 76* 
 
 69 
 
 62 
 
 77 
 
 81* 
 
 77* 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 82* 
 
 78* 
 
 71* 
 
 64* 
 
 79 
 
 83 
 
 79* 
 
 72* 
 
 65* 
 
 80 
 
 84 
 
 80* 
 
 73* 
 
 65 
 
 81 
 
 85 
 
 81* 
 
 74* 
 
 66 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 82* 
 
 74 
 
 67 
 
 83 
 
 87 
 
 83* 
 
 75 
 
 68* 
 
 84 
 
 88 
 
 84* 
 
 76 
 
 69* 
 
 85 
 
 89 
 
 85* 
 
 77 
 
 70* 
 
 86 
 
 90 
 
 86* 
 
 78 
 
 70 
 
 87 
 
 91 
 
 87* 
 
 79 
 
 71 
 
 88 
 
 92 
 
 88* 
 
 80* 
 
 72* 
 
 89 
 
 94* 
 
 89* 
 
 81* 
 
 73* 
 
 90 
 
 95* 
 
 90* 
 
 82* 
 
 74* 
 
 91 
 
 96* 
 
 91* 
 
 83* 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 97* 
 
 92* 
 
 84* 
 
 75 
 
 93 
 
 98* 
 
 93* 
 
 84 
 
 76 
 
 94 
 
 99* 
 
 94* 
 
 85 
 
 77* 
 
 6th 
 
 7th 
 
 8th 
 
 9th 
 
 10th 
 
 22* 
 
 19* 
 
 15* 
 
 9. 9 
 
 6. 1 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 10. 2 
 
 6. 3 
 
 - 23 
 
 20* 
 
 16* 
 
 10. 6 
 
 6. 6 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 10. 9 
 
 6. 8 
 
 25* 
 
 21 
 
 17* 
 
 11. 3 
 
 7. 0 
 
 26* 
 
 22* 
 
 17 
 
 11. 7 
 
 7. 3 
 
 26 
 
 22 
 
 18* 
 
 11. 9 
 
 7. 4 
 
 27 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 12. 3 
 
 7. 6 
 
 28* 
 
 24* 
 
 19* 
 
 12. 6 
 
 7. 8 
 
 29* 
 
 24 
 
 19 
 
 13. 0 
 
 8. 1 
 
 29 
 
 25* 
 
 20* 
 
 13. 3 
 
 8. 2 
 
 30* 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 13. 5 
 
 8. 4 
 
 31* 
 
 26* 
 
 21* 
 
 13. 9 
 
 8. 6 
 
 31 
 
 27* 
 
 21 
 
 14. 2 
 
 8. 8 
 
 32* 
 
 27 
 
 22* 
 
 14. 4 
 
 8. 9 
 
 33* 
 
 28* 
 
 22 
 
 14. 8 
 
 9. 2 
 
 34* 
 
 29* 
 
 23* 
 
 15. 3 
 
 9. 5 
 
 34 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 15. 6 
 
 9. 7 
 
 35* 
 
 30* 
 
 24* 
 
 15. 9 
 
 9. 9 
 
 36* 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 16. 2 
 
 10. 0 
 
 36 
 
 31* 
 
 25* 
 
 16. 5 
 
 10. 2 
 
 37 
 
 32* 
 
 25 
 
 16. 9 
 
 10. 5 
 
 38* 
 
 32 
 
 26* 
 
 17. 2 
 
 10. 7 
 
 39* 
 
 33* 
 
 26 
 
 17. 6 
 
 10. 9 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 27* 
 
 17. 8 
 
 11. 0 
 
 40 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 18. 3 
 
 11. 3 
 
 41* 
 
 35* 
 
 28* 
 
 18. 6 
 
 11. 5 
 
 42* 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 18. 9 
 
 11. 7 
 
 42 
 
 36* 
 
 29* 
 
 19. 2 
 
 11. 9 
 
 43* 
 
 37* 
 
 29 
 
 19. 6 
 
 12. 2 
 
 44* 
 
 37 
 
 30* 
 
 19. 9 
 
 12. 3 
 
 44 
 
 38* 
 
 30 
 
 20. 2 
 
 12. 5 
 
 45 
 
 38 
 
 31* 
 
 20. 5 
 
 12. 7 
 
 46* 
 
 39* 
 
 31 
 
 20. 8 
 
 12. 9 
 
 47* 
 
 40* 
 
 32* 
 
 21. 2 
 
 13. 1 
 
 47 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 21. 6 
 
 13. 4 
 
 48 
 
 41* 
 
 33* 
 
 21. 8 
 
 13. 5 
 
 49* 
 
 42* 
 
 33 
 
 22. 2 
 
 13. 8 
 
 49 
 
 42 
 
 34* 
 
 22. 5 
 
 14. 0 
 
 50 
 
 43* 
 
 34 
 
 22. 9 
 
 14. 2 
 
 51* 
 
 43 
 
 35* 
 
 23. 2 
 
 14. 4 
 
 52* 
 
 44* 
 
 35 
 
 23. 5 
 
 14. 6 
 
 52 
 
 45* 
 
 36* 
 
 23. 9 
 
 14. 8 
 
 53 
 
 45 
 
 36 
 
 24. 2 
 
 15. 0 
 
 54* 
 
 46* 
 
 37* 
 
 24. 5 
 
 15. 2 
 
 55* 
 
 46 
 
 37 
 
 24. 9 
 
 15. 4 
 
 55 
 
 47 
 
 38* 
 
 25. 2 
 
 15. 6 
 
 56 
 
 48* 
 
 38 
 
 25. 6 
 
 15. 9 
 
 57* 
 
 48 
 
 39* 
 
 25. 9 
 
 16. 1 
 
 58* 
 
 49* 
 
 39 
 
 26. 2 
 
 16. 2 
 
 58 
 
 49 
 
 40* 
 
 26. 5 
 
 16. 4 
 
 59* 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 26. 9 
 
 16. 7 
 
 60* 
 
 51* 
 
 41* 
 
 27. 2 
 
 16. 9 
 
 60 
 
 51 
 
 41 
 
 27. 5 
 
 17. 1 
 
 61 
 
 52* 
 
 42* 
 
 27. 8 
 
 17. 2 
 
 62* 
 
 53* 
 
 42 
 
 28. 2 
 
 17. 5 
 
 63* 
 
 53 
 
 43* 
 
 28. 5 
 
 17. 7 
 
 63 
 
 54* 
 
 43 
 
 28. 8 
 
 17. 9 
 
 64 
 
 54 
 
 44* 
 
 29. 1 
 
 18. 0 
 
 65* 
 
 55 
 
 44 
 
 29. 5 
 
 18. 3 
 
 65 
 
 56* 
 
 45* 
 
 29. 8 
 
 18. 5 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 45 
 
 30. 2 
 
 18. 7 
 
 67* 
 
 57* 
 
 46* 
 
 30. 5 
 
 18. 9 
 
 68* 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 30. 8 
 
 19. 1 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 47* 
 
 31. 2 
 
 19. 3 
 
 35 
 
Table 3. —Estimating missing monthly test-day records ^—Continued 
 
 Estimated 305-day production 
 
 Estimated daily production for each testing period * 
 
 1st 
 
 2d 
 
 3d 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 6th 
 
 7th 
 
 8th 
 
 9th 
 
 10th 
 
 20, 770_ 
 
 20, 950_ 
 
 21, 170_ 
 
 21, 410_ 
 
 21, 590_ 
 
 95 
 
 100* 
 
 95* 
 
 86 
 
 78* 
 
 69 
 
 59* 
 
 47 
 
 31. 5 
 
 19. 5 
 
 96 
 
 101* 
 
 96* 
 
 87 
 
 78 
 
 70* 
 
 59 
 
 48* 
 
 31. 8 
 
 19. 7 
 
 97 
 
 102* 
 
 97* 
 
 88 
 
 79 
 
 71* 
 
 60 
 
 48 
 
 32. 2 
 
 20. 0 
 
 98 
 
 103* 
 
 98* 
 
 89 
 
 80 
 
 71 
 
 61* 
 
 49* 
 
 32. 5 
 
 20. 2 
 
 99 
 
 104* 
 
 99 
 
 90* 
 
 81* 
 
 72 
 
 61 
 
 49 
 
 32. 8 
 
 20. 3 
 
 21, 840_ 
 
 22,910 - ------ 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 100* 
 
 91* 
 
 82* 
 
 73* 
 
 62* 
 
 50* 
 
 33. 1 
 
 20. 5 
 
 105 
 
 110 
 
 105* 
 
 95 
 
 86 
 
 76 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 34. 8 
 
 21. 6 
 
 24^ 6 o6 ___ -- 
 
 110 
 
 116 
 
 110* 
 
 100* 
 
 90* 
 
 80* 
 
 68* 
 
 54 
 
 36. 4 
 
 22. 6 
 
 25’ ioo - - - - -- - 
 
 115 
 
 121* 
 
 115* 
 
 104 
 
 94 
 
 84* 
 
 71 
 
 57* 
 
 38. 1 
 
 23. 6 
 
 26', 170_ 
 
 120 
 
 126 
 
 120* 
 
 109* 
 
 98 
 
 87 
 
 74 
 
 59 
 
 39. 7 
 
 24. 6 
 
 27, 270_ 
 
 125 
 
 131 
 
 125* 
 
 113 
 
 102 
 
 91 
 
 77 
 
 62* 
 
 41. 5 
 
 25. 7 
 
 1 Based on factors given in table 4. 
 
 2 Numbers marked with an asterisk (*) were raised to the 
 nearest whole number, and these numbers should be used if a 
 cow’s daily production was similarly increased. For example, 
 suppose in the 5th testin'g period a cow produced 22.5 to 22.9 
 pounds, the figure “23*” should be used. If her production was 
 between 22.0 and 22.4 pounds, the figure “22” should be used. 
 
 Processing centers will find it convenient to use the 
 factors presented in table 4. The factors in column 3 are 
 more accurate than table 3, since they utilize inforina- 
 tion from the months of test immediately preceding 
 and following the missed month. 
 
 Ratio factors for predicting a missing monthly test- 
 day record are given below for three possibilities; (1) 
 the preceding test-day weight is known; (2) the suc¬ 
 ceeding test-day weight is known; (3) both the pre¬ 
 ceding and succeeding test-day weights are known. 
 
 Table 4. —Factors to use in estimating monthly test-day 
 
 records ^ 
 
 Month 
 
 of 
 
 test 
 
 Preceding test- 
 day weight is 
 known ^ 
 
 Succeeding test- 
 day weight is 
 known ® 
 
 Both preceding 
 and succeeding 
 test-day weights 
 are known * 
 
 1 st, 
 
 
 0. 95 
 
 
 2d_ 
 
 1. 05 
 
 1. 05 
 
 0. 52 
 
 3d_ 
 
 . 95 
 
 1. 10 
 
 . 51 
 
 4th_ 
 
 . 91 
 
 1. 11 
 
 . 50 
 
 5th_ 
 
 . 90 
 
 1. 13 
 
 . 50 
 
 6th_ 
 
 .89 
 
 1. 18 
 
 . 51 
 
 7th_ 
 
 . 85 
 
 1. 24 
 
 . 50 
 
 8th_ 
 
 . 80 
 
 1. 50 
 
 . 52 
 
 9 th_ 
 
 10th--- 
 
 . 67 
 . 62 
 
 1. 60 
 
 . 47 
 
 
 
 1 Factors developed from New York DHIA Holstein data by 
 Dr. L. D. Van Vleck and Dr. C. R. Henderson of the Depart¬ 
 ment of Animal Husbandry, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., 
 and are used with their permission. 
 
 2 To estimate the test-day milk weight for a specific testing 
 month, multiply the factor listed under the month of test which 
 was missed by the cow’s test-day milk weight for the previous 
 testing month. 
 
 ® To estimate the test-day milk weight for a specific testing 
 month, multiply the factor listed under the month of test which 
 was missed by the cow’s test-day milk weight for the following 
 testing month. 
 
 * To estimate the test-day milk weight for a specific testing 
 month, multiply the factor listed under the month of test which 
 was missed by the sum of the test-day milk weights for the 
 month preceding the missed month and the month following the 
 missed month. 
 
 Where 1 asterisk follows another asterisk, apply the rounding 
 rule and use the production figure that results. 
 
 For testing periods 9 and 10, daily production is carried to 
 1 decimal point to make it possible to determine into which 
 line a cow’s production will fall if production in one of these 
 months is used to estimate another month’s production. 
 
 An example using the preceding test-day record 
 follows: 
 
 Assume that a cow produced 34 pounds in month 4 
 of her lactation. In month 5, her milk weight was 
 lost, or she was used as a nurse cow. To obtain her 
 milk weight for month 5, multiply 34, the milk weight 
 for month 4, by 0.90, the factor for month 5 (34X 
 0.90=30.6). Her estimated milk weight for nionth 
 5 is 30.6 pounds. If the test-day weight is not available 
 for either the fifth or sixth months, the weight for 
 month 6 can be obtained in like manner. To obtain 
 this weight, the estimate for month 5 may be employed: 
 multiply 30.6, the estimate for month 5, by 0.89, the 
 factor for the sixth month (30.6X0.89=27.2). 
 
 An example using the succeeding test-day record 
 follows: 
 
 Assume that on the first test-day a milk weight was 
 lost, or the cow was used as a nurse cow. A milk weight 
 of 62 pounds was obtained on the second test-day. 
 To obtain the milk weight for month 1, multiply 62, 
 the milk weight for month 2, by 0.95, the factor for 
 month 1 (62X0.95=58.9). Her estimated milk weight 
 for month 1 is 58.9 pounds. This procedure applies 
 to any period in the lactation when an unknown weight 
 is followed by a known weight. 
 
 An example using test-day records preceding and 
 succeeding a missed record; 
 
 Assume that a cow produces 57 pounds of milk on 
 test day in month 5, her milk weight is lost in month 6, 
 and she produces 46 pounds in month 7. The test-day 
 production for months 5 and 7 should be added and 
 the sum multiplied by the factor for month 6, column 3 
 (57+46=103; 103X0.51 = 52.5 pounds of milk esti¬ 
 mated for month 6). 
 
 Estimating Production for Months 11 and 12 
 
 It is suggested that, if production estimates are 
 desired for months 11 and 12, the production for 
 month 10 (estimated or actual) be reduced by 10 
 percent as an estimate of production for month 11. 
 The production for month 11 (estimated or actual) 
 should be reduced by 10 percent to estimate production 
 for month 12. 
 
 36 
 
Table 5. —Calculating age in months 
 
 Year 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 Mar. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 May 
 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Year 
 
 
 (1) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 (5) 
 
 (6) 
 
 (7) 
 
 (8) 
 
 (9) 
 
 (10) 
 
 (11) 
 
 (12) 
 
 75 
 
 301 
 
 302 
 
 303 
 
 304 
 
 305 
 
 306 
 
 307 
 
 308 
 
 309 
 
 310 
 
 311 
 
 .11 9 
 
 IK 
 
 74 
 
 289 
 
 290 
 
 291 
 
 292 
 
 293 
 
 294 
 
 295 
 
 296 
 
 297 
 
 298 
 
 299 
 
 300 
 
 i 0 
 
 /3 
 
 277 
 
 278 
 
 279 
 
 280 
 
 281 
 
 282 
 
 283 
 
 284 
 
 285 
 
 286 
 
 287 
 
 288 
 
 i ^ 
 7Q 
 
 72 
 
 71 
 
 265 
 
 253 
 
 266 
 
 254 
 
 267 
 
 255 
 
 268 
 
 256 
 
 269 
 
 257 
 
 270 
 
 258 
 
 271 
 
 259 
 
 272 
 
 260 
 
 273 
 
 261 
 
 274 
 
 262 
 
 275 
 
 263 
 
 276 
 
 264 
 
 / 6 
 72 
 71 
 
 70 
 
 241 
 
 242 
 
 243 
 
 244 
 
 245 
 
 246 
 
 247 
 
 248 
 
 249 
 
 250 
 
 251 
 
 2.52 
 
 7n 
 
 69 
 
 229 
 
 230 
 
 231 
 
 232 
 
 233 
 
 234 
 
 235 
 
 236 
 
 237 
 
 238 
 
 239 
 
 240 
 
 # u 
 
 AQ 
 
 68 
 
 67 
 
 217 
 
 205 
 
 218 
 
 206 
 
 219 
 
 207 
 
 220 
 
 208 
 
 221 
 
 209 
 
 222 
 
 210 
 
 223 
 
 211 
 
 224 
 
 212 
 
 225 
 
 213 
 
 226 
 
 214 
 
 227 
 
 215 
 
 228 
 
 216 
 
 68 
 
 A7 
 
 66 
 
 193 
 
 194 
 
 195 
 
 196 
 
 197 
 
 198 
 
 199 
 
 200 
 
 201 
 
 202 
 
 203 
 
 204 
 
 D / 
 66 
 
 65 
 
 181 
 
 182 
 
 183 
 
 184 
 
 185 
 
 186 
 
 187 
 
 188 
 
 189 
 
 190 
 
 191 
 
 192 
 
 
 64 
 
 169 
 
 170 
 
 171 
 
 172 
 
 173 
 
 174 
 
 175 
 
 176 
 
 177 
 
 178 
 
 179 
 
 180 
 
 OO 
 
 A4 
 
 63 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 159 
 
 160 
 
 161 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 
 164 
 
 165 
 
 166 
 
 167 
 
 168 
 
 AQ 
 
 62 
 
 145 
 
 146 
 
 147 
 
 148 
 
 149 
 
 150 
 
 151 
 
 152 
 
 153 
 
 154 
 
 155 
 
 156 
 
 A9 
 
 61 
 
 133 
 
 134 
 
 135 
 
 136 
 
 137 
 
 138 
 
 139 
 
 140 
 
 141 
 
 142 
 
 143 
 
 144 
 
 61 
 
 60 
 
 121 
 
 122 
 
 123 
 
 124 
 
 125 
 
 126 
 
 127 
 
 128 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 
 131 
 
 132 
 
 80 
 
 59 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 111 
 
 112 
 
 113 
 
 (m) 
 
 115 
 
 116 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 
 
 58 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 105 
 
 106 
 
 107 
 
 108 
 
 58 
 
 57 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 ^7 
 
 56 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 @ 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 Example: 
 
 Birth date_ 
 
 Calving date_ 
 
 Locate year-month of calving date_ 
 
 Locate year-month of birth date, and subtract 
 
 8-lb-64 
 
 6-12-69 
 
 114 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 37 
 
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Examples for Use of Table 6 
 
 In using table 6, determine the difference between 
 two dates by subtracting the year-day of the first date 
 from the year-day of the second date. If dates are to 
 be inclusive, add one day. 
 
 Examples 
 
 Calculate days on test: 
 
 Year-day end of test period_ 73 
 
 Subtract year-day entered herd_ 60 
 
 . 13 
 
 Add 1 day (inclusive dates)_ 1 
 
 Days on test_ 14 
 
 Year-day cow left herd_ 96 
 
 Subtract year-day start of test period_ 78 
 
 18 
 
 Add 1 day (inclusive dates)_ 1 
 
 Days on test_ 19 
 
 Calculate days in milk: 
 
 Year-day end of test period__ 73 
 
 Subtract year-day calving date_ 50 
 
 23 
 
 Substract 2 more days for colostrum_ 2 
 
 Days in milk_ 21 
 
 The above example more fully explained: 
 
 For a cow freshening Feb. 19, with a testing 
 period Feb. 15 through Mar. 14. 
 
 Last day of testing period (Mar. 14)_ 73 
 
 Subtract calving date (Feb. 19)_ 50 
 
 23 
 
 Since days in milk start with the 4th day after 
 calving, counting the day of calving as the 
 1st day, Feb. 21 and 22 are also dry days. 
 
 Subtract_ 2 
 
 Days in milk_ 21 
 
 Calculate days carried calf: 
 
 Year-day 305-day lactation ended_ 350 
 
 Subtract year-day last bred_ 130 
 
 Days carried calf_ 220 
 
 Calculate days dry: 
 
 Year-day calving date_ 220 
 
 Subtract year-day dry date_ 160 
 
 60 
 
 Add 1 day (inclusive dates)_ 1 
 
 Add 2 more days colostrum_ 2 
 
 Days dry- 63 
 
 The above example more fully explained: 
 
 Year-day calving date (Aug. 8)_ 220 
 
 Subtract year-day dry date (June 9)_ 160 
 
 60 
 
 Since both dry date and calving date are con¬ 
 sidered dry dates, 1 day is added for inclusive 
 dates. 
 
 Add _ 1 
 
 61 
 
 The days in milk do not start until the 4th day 
 after calving, counting the calving date as the 
 1st day; therefore, 2 more days (the 2nd and 
 3rd days after calving) are considered dry days. 
 
 63 
 
 Explanation of a DHIA Si're Record 
 Form—DHIA-f202 
 
 The USDA-DHIA Sire Summary Record may be 
 used to appraise a sire’s breeding value for production 
 by comparing his daughters’ production to that of the 
 herdmates of the daughters. Herdmates (often called 
 contemporaries or stablemates) are defined as cows 
 that calve in the same herd, year, and season as the 
 daughter in question, excluding any of her paternal 
 sisters. 
 
 The herdmates comparison is useful because it 
 removes from the evaluation of breeding value, com¬ 
 plications arising from herd, year, and season of fresh¬ 
 ening variations in production. 
 
 Herd-year-seasons are based on a 5-month moving 
 average. The appropriate average for the record of 
 a daughter of a sire is obtained by averaging the records 
 of daughters of other sires calving in the herd in the 
 same month as the daughter, in the previous 2 months, 
 and in the succeeding 2 months. For example, the 
 herdmate average for a daughter of the sire calving 
 in March would be obtained by averaging the produc¬ 
 tion of nonpaternally related cows calving in that 
 herd from January through May. 
 
 A USDA-DHIA Sire Summary Record contains 
 aU usable records reported for daughters of the sire, 
 along with the average production of aU available 
 herdmates. All records used are on a 305-day lacta¬ 
 tion, mature-equivalent, twice-a-day milking basis. 
 When production records for more than one lactation 
 are available for a daughter, her record is based on the 
 average of all her usable, standardized, 305-day lacta¬ 
 tion records. Records that are incomplete because 
 they were terminated by sale, death, abortion, or 
 discontinuance of test are extended to a 305-day basis. 
 All incomplete records are used in compiling the 
 daughter’s average production and the average produc¬ 
 tion of her herdmates. 
 
 At the top of the Sire Summary Record is the 
 identification number of the sire, together with his 
 name, birthdate, and the identification of his sire and 
 dam. When a summary record is compiled for a sire 
 for the first time, only the sire nmnber is available. 
 
 In the body of the Sire Summary Record are com¬ 
 pilations of data included in the evaluation. These 
 data are summarized to show separately non-AI 
 daughter comparisons and AI daughter comparisons. 
 A non-AI sire evaluation based on 5 to 9 comparisons 
 and an AI evaluation based on 10 to 24 comparisons 
 are considered “preliminary.” 
 
 Preliminary evaluations should be considered only 
 as an indication and not as conclusive evidence of the 
 breeding value of a sire. In general, the greater the 
 number of daughter-herdmate comparisons included 
 in an evaluation, the more reliable the evidence of the 
 sire’s breeding value. However, if a non-AI evaluation 
 contains 17 or more unselected comparisons and an 
 AI evaluation contains 50 or more unselected com¬ 
 parisons, additional data will seldom markedly affect 
 the summary. 
 
 In the use of the daughter-herdmate comparison 
 procedure, the desirable sire is that which markedly 
 increases the production of his daughters over that of 
 their herdmates. This is because the sire’s daughters 
 are compared to other cows that experienced the 
 
 39 
 
same management and feeding conditions as did the 
 daughters. In other words, the daughters and their 
 herdmates had an equal opportunity to produce. 
 The difference in production between a sire’s daughters 
 and their herdmates is roughly the same from one 
 level of herd production to another. Generally, a 
 sire with a markedly negative daughter-herdmate 
 comparison should not be expected to raise the pro¬ 
 duction level of a herd. 
 
 Additional Facts Helpful 
 
 Production data for the daughters and their herd- 
 mates should be supplemented by additional informa¬ 
 tion gathered from the herd(s) in which the daughters 
 made their records. In the column headed “CAR” 
 (Conditions Affecting Record) are listed codes for 
 conditions that have affected the records of individual 
 cows. Further information on such records should 
 be obtained from the owner’s herd record book. 
 
 In addition, a personal evaluation of the herd 
 management and feeding conditions in a herd where 
 a daughter or group of daughters made their records 
 is often useful. Also, elements of the type of the 
 sire’s daughters, such as udder attachment, feet and 
 legs, should be evaluated. 
 
 Numbered Headings on DHIA-1202 
 
 1. Al Service.—If a sire has been in AI service, the 
 code numbers of the State and stud are listed. The 
 first two digits of the code refer to the State in which 
 the stud is located. The second two digits refer to 
 the code number of the stud within the State. 
 
 2. Records from Stales.—Data under this heading 
 indicate the States from which records of daughters 
 included in the sire summary record were made, 
 together with the number of daughters from each State. 
 
 The first two digits indicate the State; the last three 
 digits indicate the number of daughters from the State. 
 
 3. Summary.—Data in the top portion of this 
 column refer to the total number of daughters with 
 records available for tabulation, and the number of 
 daughters which had one or more records with corre¬ 
 sponding herdmate data available. The bottom por¬ 
 tion of the column under the subhead “Herd Code” 
 contains the herd code number of the herd from which 
 production records of the daughters were reported. 
 
 4. Al.—The letter “A” in this column indicates the 
 daughter is an AI offspring. 
 
 5. Breed.—Breed of the daughter is indicated by one 
 of the following codes; 
 
 1— Ayrshire 4—Jersey 7—Red Dane 
 
 2— Guernsey 5—Brown Swiss 8—Other 
 
 3— Holstein 6—Milking Shorthorn 9—Red Poll 
 
 6. CAR (Conditions Affecting Record).^—Condi¬ 
 tions affecting the record are indicated by the following 
 codes: 
 
 1— Estimated 3—Incomplete; 7—Sickness 
 
 2— Incomplete; died 8—Abortion 
 
 sold 4—Injury 9—Nurse Cow 
 
 7. Adjusted herdmate average.—As mentioned 
 previously, the herdmate average is the average pro¬ 
 duction of nonpaternally related cows that calve in the 
 same herd and year and within 2 months before or 2 
 months after the daughter in question. Since the 
 reliability of this measure of herd management and 
 feeding depends on the number of herdmates, the 
 
 following procedure is required to standardize for 
 number of herdmates: 
 
 Adj. Herdmate Av. = Breed Season Av. -f M/M -j- 1 
 (Herdmate Av. — Breed Season Av.), 
 
 where M is the number of herdmates. 
 
 The breed-season averages are calculated from the 
 nationwide 305-day 2X-ME DHIA lactation averages 
 for cows of the breed in question that calved in the 
 preceding 5 years. 
 
 In the column “Records Number,” the number listed 
 is the average number of herdmates per daughter. 
 
 The first number on the column “Milk Pounds” is the 
 average of the Adjusted Herdmate Averages for milk 
 production of all daughters. The second number is the 
 average milk production of all daughters with herdmates 
 minus the Adjusted Herdmate Average. The entries 
 under the subhead “Fat pounds” apply to the 
 corresponding values for fat production. 
 
 8. Predicted average. —For aU AI sires, an addi¬ 
 tional criterion of breeding value is calculated from the 
 daughter-herdmate comparisons of their AI offspring. 
 The Predicted Average is an estimate of the producing 
 level of future AI daughters of the sire. In this 
 measure, the sire’s evaluation is adjusted for levels 
 of herds in which the daughters produce, and for the 
 number of daughters. The calculations are in two 
 steps: 
 
 1. A=Daughter Av.—0.9 (Adj. Herdmate Av. 
 —Breed Av.) 
 
 N 
 
 2. Predicted Av.=Breed Av.-f- ^^ - j^^ (A—Breed 
 Av.), where N is the number of daughters. 
 
 The breed average, calculated from nationwide 
 DHIA lactation averages of the previous 5 years, can 
 be found in the USDA-DHIA Sire Summary List. 
 
 Retabulation of Sire Data 
 
 In each sire summary tabulation, all USDA-DHIA 
 Sire Summary Records are brought up to date if 
 sufficient additional data are available to add signifi¬ 
 cantly to the reliability of the sire record. 
 
 A DHIA sire summary record is retabulated when 
 there are 50 percent more comparisons available than 
 were included in the previous siunmary. 
 
 Daughter Listings 
 
 Data for all daughters of non-AI sires are listed. 
 Registered daughters of AI sires are screened and 
 those meeting a requirement on milk production are 
 listed. 
 
 The screening process is carried out on the milk 
 entry under the subhead “WTD DIFF” (Weighted 
 Difference). This value is calculated for each daugh¬ 
 ter as follows; 
 
 WTD DIFF=j^yy4j^ 
 
 (Daughter’s Av.—Adj. Herdmate Av.) 
 
 In the example, N is the number of records that 
 the daughter has. All registered daughters of AI 
 sires whose “WTD DIFF” value for milk is greater 
 than 1% standard deviations are listed. This point 
 was chosen to allow the listing of the best 7 percent 
 of AI cows. 
 
 40 
 
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 !3 04 TABULATED 08'“63 PREVIOUS TABULATION. Ofl— 
 
 ’ll PREDICTED AVERAGE 5 
 
 FAT 
 
 POUNDS 
 
 466 
 
 u. ^ po lO jj- ir> 
 
 U. N- f>0 >0 
 
 ►HP— CM ^ ^ 
 
 a 
 
 MILK 
 
 POUNDS 
 
 12483 
 
 • 00 p- PC 00 tn 
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 h- ^ -o N- Jt eg 
 
 jf po ^ un J3- 
 
 ADJUSTED HERD-MATES average’ 
 
 FAT 
 
 POUNDS 
 
 491 
 
 20 
 
 598 
 
 N- U) O PO 00 
 fM^oegh- 
 .a' Ji- ^ irt 
 
 MILK 
 
 POUNDS 
 
 13160 
 
 298 
 
 14829 
 
 201 
 
 11442 
 
 13179 
 
 14037 
 
 11052 
 
 15195 
 
 RECORDS 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 12 
 
 DIFF. 
 
 18 
 
 DIFF. 
 
 ' - 
 
 *- O' o o o 
 
 average records of daughters of sire 
 
 6 
 
 V 
 
 CAR 
 
 
 
 FAT 
 
 POUNDS 
 
 510 
 
 511 
 
 603 
 
 603 
 
 00 00 tn N. po 
 'O'Omtn-3- 
 Uf) N- N- 
 
 FAT 
 
 PERCENT 
 
 CO 00 o o 
 
 • • • • 
 
 mm Jt 
 
 •o .a- o -3- 00 
 
 • • t • • 
 
 PO PO Jt PO PO 
 
 MILK 
 
 ’ POUNDS 
 
 00 o o 
 
 ^ in mm 
 
 Jt Jj- o o 
 
 mm to IT) 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 OO'OOOp- 
 
 oooooou^Jd- 
 
 to >0 00 'O O' 
 
 RECORDS 
 
 AVERAGEC 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 Ul P— 
 
 O' o- 
 
 p- P-. p- — p- 
 
 DAYS IN 
 
 MILK 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 I > II 
 
 II II 
 
 II It 
 
 — UI _ [_| 
 
 vf) 'O tn m 
 
 O O' o o o 
 po eg po po po 
 
 Li 
 
 q: 
 
 V) 
 
 iL 
 
 I DATE OF BIRTH 
 
 q! 
 
 >- 
 
 I 1 1 1 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 - 4 4 - 
 
 O' 00 00 00 00 
 
 tn u^ u) 
 
 < 
 
 Q 
 
 n 1 T r 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 eg eg Jt p- p- 
 eg p- CM 
 
 d 
 
 2 
 
 I T T r 
 
 II II 
 
 —!—!-1—!_ 
 
 eg eg tn N- eg 
 
 0 
 
 V) 
 
 tr 
 
 LJ 
 
 h 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 D 
 
 < 
 
 0 
 
 L. 
 
 0 
 
 z 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 1 DAM 
 
 a 
 
 BREEDV 
 
 I 1 II 
 
 II II 
 —1—}{—! 
 
 PO fO PO PO PO 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 It II 
 
 II II 
 
 II II 
 
 1 1 
 
 It/) 1 to 
 
 2988599 
 
 3454570 
 
 3788765 
 
 3926716 
 
 4324042 
 
 L. 
 
 H 
 
 z 
 
 LJ 
 
 D 
 
 DAUGHTER 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 IGHTERS - 
 
 TH HEKOMATE 
 
 DAUGHTERS 
 TH HEROMATE 
 
 4892827 
 
 4860340 
 
 4723803 
 
 5544849 
 
 5161453 
 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 j *-• PH 
 
 < 3C <3: 
 
 a 
 
 < < < < < 
 
 Al SERVICE 2 
 
 3 
 
 V 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 o z o l 
 
 ►-* < o < c 
 
 < Q Z Q C 
 
 t 
 
 ON- 
 
 O' CO c 
 
 c 
 
 nnr\u 
 
 23570060 
 
 23640023 
 
 23360293 
 
 23360446 
 
 23080058 
 
 IZ9 Zl ZOZl wuon VJHQ 
 
 Figure 1 
 
 41 
 
SUPERVISOR'S WORK SHEET FOR CALCULATING LACTATION RECORDS 
 
 Barn Name P05NI 
 
 Item 
 
 1 . Date fresh 
 
 2 . Date bom 
 
 3. Age - - - 
 
 Year kS/ 
 Year 
 
 Years ^ 
 
 7 
 
 Month X 
 Month / 
 Months 
 
 Day ^ 
 Day 
 
 Days ZS 
 
 PRODUCTION SINCE FRESH 
 
 U. Total production for testing year 
 
 5. Total-to-date before freshening - 
 
 6 . Item ^ minus item 5 ------- 
 
 7. Adjustment for change in centering 
 
 date (+or-) --------- 
 
 8. Production since fresh ------ 
 
 (items 6-7) 
 
 Days in 
 milk 
 (number 
 
 Milk 
 (pounds) 
 
 Fat 
 
 (pounds) 
 
 ^0/ 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 ^3^0 
 
 /S' 
 
 
 ^ 6? 0 
 
 
 -C- f 
 
 /Von G 
 
 — 
 
 /ff 
 
 
 / /os' 
 
 COMPLETE LACTATION RECORD 
 
 1 . Production since fresh - - - - 
 
 2 . Total-to-date before freshening 
 
 3. Complete lactation ------ 
 
 (items 1+2) 
 
 ^Z3 
 
 77?^. 
 
 JL/s- 
 
 //S' 
 
 r r 7 
 
 
 3 3 s' 
 
 70 / 70 
 
 
 FIRST 305 DAYS OF LACTATION 
 
 1 . Production since fresh ------ 
 
 2 . Last total-to-date before end of 
 
 305 days ------------ 
 
 3. Adjustment from next testing period 
 
 to make 3^5 days -------- 
 
 k. First 305 days of lactation - - - 
 
 (items 1+2+3) 
 
 Z2.3 
 
 7790 
 
 7 L/,S 
 
 (0/ 
 
 t / f 
 
 73/0 
 
 
 
 {z/ K as.o) 
 
 (490 XSJ) 
 
 /S' 
 
 3d S' 
 
 96/0 
 
 3z4 
 
 Figure 2 
 
 42 
 
DHIA-1060-A (6-64) 
 
 Interpretation and Use of Error Codes for Lactation Records on 
 
 Form DHIA-f060 
 
 Lactation records listed on Form DHIA.-1060 have been subjected to extensive auditing of DHIA lactation 
 data reported by the States. This auditmg is carried out by electronic computing equipment to assure complete 
 and thorough sCTeenmg of data to be used m sire evaluation. The records are listed in herd sequence and re¬ 
 turned to the office of the State Extension Dairyman. 
 
 It is requested that each record be checked for validity, not only on the particular field indicated by the 
 error code, but on all other fields as well. Frequently two or more errors are present, but an error code indicates 
 only the first error or conflict encountered. 
 
 . should make the appropriate corrections (or mark “correct”) on each record and return the lists 
 
 to the State Extension Dairyman for forwarding to the Dairy Cattle Research Branch, USDA. 
 
 Many records on these lists are correct. When an incoming record on a cow contains data which conflict 
 with previously received data on that animal, all records of the cow are removed and coded with the error code 
 
 mdicatmg the nature of the conflict. Records marked with an (*) in the right margin are records reported in 
 previous years. f ^ 
 
 Records verified or corrected by the State will be punched and reentered into the Master Lactation File for 
 use m sire evaluation. At the present time, for every 100 new records received, 9 new or master file records are 
 removed due to errors or conflicts. 
 
 Alphabetic codes are listed below with an explanation of the probable errors, together with a suggested action 
 for correction: 
 
 Code 
 
 A. .. 
 
 B. .. 
 
 C. 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H. 
 
 I. 
 J_ 
 M 
 0 . 
 P. 
 
 Interpretation 
 
 Registered Sire Number 
 
 1. Sire number conflicts with previous data; or 
 
 2. Sire number invalid according to Breed Association records; or 
 
 3. Registered cow—sire number lacking or coded as eartag. 
 
 Dam Number 
 
 1. Dam number conflicts with previous data; or 
 
 2. Darn number invalid according to Breed Association records; or 
 
 3. Registered cow—dam number lacking or coded eartag; or 
 
 4. Alphabetic characters in registration number. 
 
 Identification Number {Cow, Sire, or Dam) 
 
 1. Alphabetic characters or blanks present_ 
 
 Birthdate 
 
 1. Contains blanks or alphabetic characters; or 
 
 2. Registered cow-year and/or month zero; or 
 
 3. Month greater than 12, or day greater than 31; or 
 
 4. Conflict with previously reported birthdate. 
 
 Breed 
 
 1. Registered cow with breed “8” code; or 
 
 2. Breed of sire zero; or 
 
 3. Registered dam with zero breed; or 
 
 4. Registered cow, sire, and dam breeds differ. 
 
 Possible Turin 
 
 Suggested action 
 
 Give correct registration number of 
 sire or mark as correct. 
 
 Give correct identification number of 
 dam or mark as correct. 
 
 Give correct identification number or 
 mark as correct. 
 
 Give correct date of birth or mark as 
 correct. 
 
 Give correct breed code of animal. 
 
 1. Sire and dam equal for 2 different cows, birthdates less than 9 months Verify or correct cow number, dam 
 
 apart; or number, and birthdate. 
 
 2. 2 or more daughters of same dam with equal birthdates. 
 
 Herd Code 
 
 1. State code zero or invalid; or Give correct Herd Code. 
 
 2. Must not be zero if cow born after 10-59 
 
 3. Eartag cow, sire, or dam with invalid State code in identification 
 
 number. 
 
 Confiict in Identification Number {Cow, Sire, or Dam) 
 
 1. Dam number higher than cow number; or Check identification of cow, sire, and 
 
 2. Conflicting sire and/or dam numbers for 2 or more records of same dam. 
 
 cow. 
 
 Registration Number {Cow) 
 
 1. Cow number invalid according to Breed Association data; or Check all indentification data. 
 
 2. Canadian registration code for breeds higher than “4”. 
 
 Equal Identification Numbers 
 
 1. Cow number same as dam or sire; or Check all identification numbers. 
 
 2. Dam number same as sire number. 
 
 Eartag Identification 
 
 1. Private eartag number; or Verify eartag numbers. 
 
 2. Disease tag for cow born later than 1-57. 
 
 Confiicting Corrections—Identification Verified 
 
 1. Two verified records with same cow, sire, and dam differ in birthdate Verify or correct complete identifica- 
 data. tion. 
 
 Lactation Data 
 
 1. Contains alphabetic characters or blanks 
 
 Give correct lactation data. 
 
 43 
 
Interpretation 
 
 Suggested action 
 
 Code 
 
 Q _ Calving Data 
 
 1. Month zero or greater than 12; or 
 
 2. Days greater than 31; or 
 
 3. Age at calving less than 14 months; or 
 
 4. Year zero; or 
 
 5. Less than 9 months between lactations; or 
 
 6. Calving date conflicts with current date; or , , 
 
 7'. Conflicting reports — equal calving dates, unequal production. 
 
 1 . Complete lactation; test outside high and low limits for breed; or 
 
 2. Incomplete lactation: less than 2.4 or higher than 7.3. 
 
 S _ ConHictinq Corrections—Production 
 
 1 2 records submitted for same lactation—both coded as production 
 
 corrections. 
 
 T ^Conflicting reports for same calving date—equal production, 1 record 
 
 coded 3x, 1 record coded 2x; or „ , , x 4 .u 1 con 
 
 2. Zero milk or fat or milk greater than 45,000 or fat greater than 1,800 
 
 pounds. 
 
 V - _ Days in Milk j 
 
 1. Days milked 3x exceeds days milked- 
 
 W_ Identification Confiicts With Breed Association Data - 
 
 X _ More than 20 lactations for same cow- 
 
 yII _ (For use of USDA Office only)- 
 
 Verify or correct calving date. 
 
 Verify milk, butterfat, and breed. 
 
 Verify or correct production data. 
 
 Verify or correct calving date, days 
 3x, and production data. 
 
 Verify or correct days milked, days 3x. 
 Verify or correct identification data. 
 Check identification and lactation data. 
 No action required. 
 
 Interpretation and Use of Error Codes 
 for Yearly Herd Data on Form 
 DHIA-1080 
 
 Yearly herd reports (780’s, 781’s, 205 9 s, or 1105 s) 
 containing apparent errors, conflictions, or omissions 
 are listed by the computer on Form DHIA-1080 and 
 returned to the State extension dairyman. The source 
 cards and the punched cards for such reports are also 
 being returned so that all can be forwarded to the su¬ 
 pervisors for review and correction where appropriate. 
 
 Alphabetic codes listed in the remarks column indi¬ 
 cate the reason or reasons for which the record was 
 rejected. The record is listed with asterisks appearing 
 over the fields questioned. The entire record should 
 be checked, however, to see that no other errors are 
 
 present. 
 
 Please Note; 
 
 The yearly herd reports listed were rejected for 
 the “apparent” reasons indicated by the alpha¬ 
 betic codes. It is possible that the record as listed 
 may be correct. It may have been rejected be¬ 
 cause some part of the data was beyond the limits 
 estabhshed for the machine edit. 
 
 If cow-years, milk and fat, SNF, and/or protein 
 figures appear to be correct, these data have been 
 placed in file as an incomplete record (production 
 data only) and used as such in the yearly herd 
 summaries. 
 
 High Low 
 
 Code Field in question limit limit 
 
 A_ *Rate of Forage Feeding 
 
 B_ *Milk Pounds _ 
 
 **Milk Pounds (Sx)- 
 
 *Fat Pounds - 
 
 **Fat Pounds (Sx) - 
 
 *Fat Percent by Breed. 
 
 Ayrshire_ 
 
 Guernsey_ 
 
 Holstein_ 
 
 Jersey_ 
 
 Brown Swiss- 
 
 Milking Shorthorn. 
 
 Red Dane- 
 
 Mixed or unknown 
 
 Red Poll_ 
 
 *Protein Pounds _ 
 
 High 
 
 limit 
 
 Low 
 
 limit 
 
 366 
 
 Code Field in question 
 
 B^_ **Protein Pounds (Sx) - 
 
 *Protein Percent _ 
 
 *SNF Pounds - 
 
 **SNF Pounds (Sx) -- 
 
 *SNF Percent -- 
 
 C_ **CWT. Succulent Forage -- 
 
 D_ *Cost of Concentrates per CW T. . - 
 
 or 
 
 Cost of Concentrates higher than Total 
 Feed Cost 
 
 or 
 
 No Cost given for Concentrates reported 
 or 
 
 No Concentrates given for cost reported 
 
 E_ * Value of Product - 
 
 F_ *Feed Index _ 
 
 G_ **CW T. Concentrates - 
 
 H_ **CWT. Dry Forage - 
 
 J_ **Days on Pasture - 
 
 K_ Blank or nonnumeric character in 
 
 record. (May be used as incom¬ 
 plete record.) 
 
 L_ 1105 Card No. 2 only. (First part 
 
 of record missing—Card No. 1) 
 
 M _ Duplicate report (One record put in 
 file) 
 
 N_ Invalid character in herd, year, or 
 
 month 
 
 or 
 
 Invalid State Code 
 
 p_ Feed Cost exceeds Value of Product 
 
 by more than $50 
 
 --*Feed Cost Per CWT. of Milk.-. 
 
 _ Old record —testing year prior 
 
 May of current year minus 3 
 or 
 
 Testing year after April of current year ^ . 
 
 Zeros in required fields (except as Record used as 
 
 indicated by Z)_^ incomplete 
 
 _ Zero cow-days or cow-years on test — 
 
 or 
 
 Less than one cow-year 
 or 
 
 More than 7S0,000 cows-days (2,000 Record not used 
 cow-years) on 1105 
 or 
 
 Zero Milk Pounds 
 or 
 
 Zero Fat Pounds 
 ♦High and low limits are set. 
 
 ♦♦High limits are set. 
 
 Note.—H igh and low limits are subject to change, 
 be sent to you each year. (No change for item J.) 
 
 Q- 
 
 X. 
 
 to 
 
 Y. 
 
 Z. 
 
 They will 
 
 44 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1965 O—747-993 
 
 K- 
 
 1 : 
 
Ten Pomfs for DHIA Supervisors 
 
 a farm, make it a point to get acquainted. Fav- 
 orable first impressions go a long way toward obtaining the cooperation that 
 wiU help to make your services most useful. Do not talk too much. Be a 
 good listener. Be helpful, but do not put yourself forward. 
 
 . hinder. Fit yourself into the mode of living on each farm vou 
 
 visit. Yom visit should cause the least possible disturbance to the familv’s nor¬ 
 mal living habits. 
 
 evening with the dairyman and his family if it is convenient for 
 them to have you do so. If the association operates a central testing laboratorv 
 
 overnight with the dairyman, spend as much time as pos¬ 
 sible mth the dairyman while you are visiting the farm. You can learn much 
 from him and he may learn something from you. 
 
 4. Be pleasant and agreeable, but do not carry gossip. 
 
 1 with helpful criticism in such a way that the dairyman will 
 
 gladly follow your advice. The best way is to lead up to an idea in such a 
 manner that the dairyman himself will be the first to mention the need for and 
 method of improvement. 
 
 6. Keep yourself informed on the new phases of your work. Discoveries are 
 being made continually, and new methods are being developed for conducting 
 
 a dairy herd improvement program. You should have the latest information 
 at all tunes. 
 
 7. C(^plete your work and be sure that all records are up to date at each 
 visit. Kecords that are not complete or are not up to date are not of maximum 
 value to the^ owner. If your record work is in arrears, the dairyman may 
 justifiably think you are not capable of handling your job. 
 
 8. Promote cooperation among your dairymen, but do not make yourself 
 conspicuous. 
 
 9* Publish favorable results and give each dairyman and each herd as much 
 publicity as the facts will warrant. 
 
 10. Dairy herd improvement association work is an agricultural extension 
 project. It IS a part of the local county agent’s extension program. The 
 county agent can help you, and you can be of assistance to him. If at all 
 possible, visit his office and talk over your work with him at least once a month. 
 
CONIFER 
 NURSERY PRACTICE 
 
 
 in the 
 
 PRAIRIE PLAINS 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE/FOREST SERVICE/AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 279 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE 
 
 in the 
 
 PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 By J. H. Stoeckeler, principal soil scientist, Lake States 
 Forest Experiment Station (maintained by the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture in cooperation with the 
 University of Minnesota), and P. E. Slabaugh, princi¬ 
 pal silviculturist. Lake States Forest Experiment Sta¬ 
 tion (stationed at Bottineau, N. Dak.). 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDROOK 27» 
 Issned Jane 1965 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, FOREST SERVICE 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 50 cents 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENT 
 
 Forest nursery practices for the Prairie-Plains have developed through 
 research and the resourcefulness of nurserymen engaged in the production 
 of planting stock. The 50 years of experience gained in conifer propa¬ 
 gation at the Bessey Nursery in the Nebraska National Forest has provided 
 the greatest single contribution to this handbook, and special gratitude is 
 due M. K. Meines, the present superintendent. Other Federal nurseries 
 supplying material were operated by the Soil Conservation Service, by the 
 Prairie States Forestry Project (discontinued in 1942), and by the then 
 Bureau of Plant Industry (now the Agricultural Research Service). Much 
 assistance was received from State and commercial nurserymen, including 
 Albert Engstrom, Norman, Okla.; John Molberg, Bottineau, N. Dak.; Lloyd 
 Moffett and J. R. Weir, Fremont, Nebr.; and Clarence Jensen, Esmond, 
 N. Dak. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Native conifers. 
 
 History of conifer planting. 
 
 Future of conifer planting. 
 
 Collection and handling of seed. 
 
 Importance of seed source. 
 
 Seed collection zones and localities. 
 
 Selection of individual stands and trees. 
 
 Determination of seed ripeness and quality. 
 
 Seed crop frequency. 
 
 Seed yields. 
 
 Methods of seed collection. 
 
 Care of fresh seed. 
 
 Seed extraction and cleaning. 
 
 Seed storage. 
 
 Seed testing. 
 
 Seed dormancy and pretreatment. 
 
 Selection of the nursery site. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Water supply. 
 
 Availabihty of markets, utilities, and labor. 
 
 Shape, topography, and size of tract. 
 
 Crop history of land. 
 
 Development of the nursery site. 
 
 Subdividing the nursery. 
 
 Developing the irrigation system. 
 
 Seedbed preparation and sowing. 
 
 Staking out and preparing the beds. 
 
 Computing the amount of seed to sow. 
 
 Time of seeding. 
 
 Broadcast versus drill sowing. 
 
 Seeding equipment. 
 
 Covering the seed. 
 
 Seedbed care during germination and the seedling stage . 
 
 Half-shade. 
 
 Soil moisture and irrigation. 
 
 Weed control. 
 
 Mechanical and hand weeding. 
 
 Chemical control of weeds. 
 
 Mineral spirits. 
 
 Methyl bromide. 
 
 Allyl alcohol. 
 
 Miscellaneous chemicals. 
 
 Possible harmful effects of chemicals on trees and soil. . 
 
 Page 
 
 Transplanting. 36 
 
 Hand transplanting. 36 
 
 Mechanical transplanting. 37 
 
 Transplant spacing. 38 
 
 Transplant losses. 38 
 
 Season of transplanting. 40 
 
 Top and root pruning. 40 
 
 Hardening-off. 41 
 
 Digging, grading, packing, storing, and shipping. 42 
 
 Digging nursery stock. 42 
 
 Grading. 43 
 
 Packing. 44 
 
 Storing and shipping. 46 
 
 Potting and balling nursery stock. 48 
 
 Age classes of stock needed for the Plains. 50 
 
 Inventory. 55 
 
 Soil management. 57 
 
 FertiUty requirements and the determination of 
 
 nutrient needs. 57 
 
 Visual symptoms of malnutrition. 57 
 
 Fertilizer applications and their results. 59 
 
 Liquid fertilizers as topdressings. 60 
 
 Manure, compost, leaf mold, and peat. 61 
 
 Cover and soil improvement crops. 62 
 
 Maintenance of proper pH. 62 
 
 Comparison of acidification with different chemicals.. 63 
 
 Carryover effect of acidification. 66 
 
 The role of mycorrhizal fungi. 67 
 
 Nursery protection. 70 
 
 Meteorological factors. 70 
 
 Wind. 70 
 
 Heat. 71 
 
 Frost and winter damage. 73 
 
 Nursery insects and mites. 74 
 
 White grubs. 75 
 
 Nantucket pine tip moth. 75 
 
 Red spiders... 
 Wireworms.. . 
 Cutworms.. . . 
 Grasshoppers. 
 Nursery diseases 
 Damping-off.. 
 Cedar blight.. 
 Rusts. 
 
 Page 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 III 
 
rv 
 
 Nursery protection—Continued 
 Nursery diseases—Continued 
 
 Nematodes. 
 
 Dieback. 
 
 Root rots. 
 
 Mammals and birds. 
 
 Literature cited. 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 Common and scientific names of trees and shrubs 
 
 mentioned. 
 
 Safety rules and precautions for handling, mixing, and 
 applying chemicals. 
 
 Appendix—Continued PoQt 
 
 Spray formulas for insecticides and fungicides. 90 
 
 Mouse baits. 91 
 
 Sources of information on nursery problems. 92 
 
 Sources of information on nursery machinery, equip¬ 
 ment, and chemicals. 92 
 
 Requirements and procedures for nursery stock inspec¬ 
 tion in the Plains States. 92 
 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture forest tree seed policy 
 
 (1939). 93 
 
 Where to purchase seed. 93 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 79 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 81 
 89 
 
 89 
 
INTRODUCTIOBT 
 
 The Prairie-Plains occupy a broad belt of highland 
 between the Rocky Mountains and the Central Low¬ 
 land. The region extends from San Antonio, Tex., to 
 about Edmonton, Alberta, and Saskatoon, Saskatch¬ 
 ewan. Included are the Great Plains proper, a region 
 mostly west of 100° longitude with high altitude, semi- 
 arid climate, and short grass vegetation; and the prairie 
 region, an area of tall grass bordering the eastern decid¬ 
 uous forest. In this essentially treeless area, farmers 
 and ranchers need windbreaks to protect their build¬ 
 ings, livestock, and crops. Townspeople need trees 
 along their streets and in their parks to beautify their 
 cities and to provide shade. 
 
 Tree planting began in the Prairie-Plains just after 
 the first settlers arrived. Many problems of tree estab¬ 
 lishment confronted the early planters. These included 
 low annual precipitation, frequent high winds, un¬ 
 favorable soils, and lack of knowledge concerning the 
 adaptability of tree species to Plains conditions. 
 
 Over the years, from research and practical experi¬ 
 ence, many of the difficulties have been gradually 
 overcome. For example, information is now available 
 
 on what species to plant and how to plant and main¬ 
 tain the trees. 
 
 The growing success of tree planting has increased 
 the demand for deciduous and coniferous planting 
 stock. Meeting that demand will require the best 
 nursery practice that experience and research can 
 provide. 
 
 This manual summarizes available information on 
 Plains conifer nursery practice and recommends to 
 nurserymen specific methods for nursery stock produc¬ 
 tion. It will supplement but not replace a bulletin 
 published in 1941, “Nursery Practice for Trees and 
 Shrubs Suitable for Planting on the Prairie Plains” 
 (U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Pub. 434), a publication con¬ 
 cerned primarily with deciduous stock production. 
 
 Some operations are fairly standardized, while others 
 allow the nurseryman more choice of methods to fit his 
 own situation. Both mechanized and hand methods 
 required in producing trees are presented. Greatest 
 emphasis is on methods suited to large-scale production. 
 Manually operated devices, many developed by the 
 large nurseries during mechanization, are described to 
 meet the needs of small nurseries. 
 
 NATIVE CONIFERS 
 
 The natural stands of trees and shrubs in the Prairie- 
 Plains are outliers of the Rocky Mountain forests on the 
 west and of the Lake States, Central, and Southern 
 forests on the east. Though their acreage, distribution, 
 and number of species are not great, these stands have 
 been important in reforestation in the Prairie-Plains 
 because they have provided a source of seed from plants 
 adapted for growing in this region. 
 
 Some conifers in the Prairie-Plains, such as ponde- 
 rosa pine, eastern redcedar, and Rocky Mountain 
 
 juniper, are distributed widely (fig. 1).^ Others, such 
 as pinyon, limber pine, lodgepole pine, white spruce, 
 and blue spruce, have more limited distribution. Most 
 of this natural growth is in breaks, bluffs, and escarp¬ 
 ments of rough topography at the higher elevations of 
 the western Great Plains (fig. 2). The localities of the 
 most important species are described briefly below. 
 
 ^ For scientific names of trees and shrubs discussed, see 
 Appendix. 
 
 Authority cited and dates enclosed in parentheses, as in 
 the caption for figure 1, refer to items in Literature Cited, 
 p. 81. 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 1.—Natural distribution of some important conifers 
 in the Prairie-Plains. The approximate boundaries of the 
 Prairie-Plains and the Black Hills are indicated by heavy 
 black lines. The range of eastern redcedar [Juniperus 
 virginiana) is shown by a dashed line and that of Rocky 
 Mountain juniper (/. scopulorum) by a solid line. De¬ 
 tailed distributions are identified as follows: PP—pon- 
 derosa pine, L—limber pine, P—pinyon, LP—lodgepole 
 pine, J—junipers other than those above, S—white spruce, 
 and D—Douglas-fir. (Albertson 1940, Bray 1904, Cock- 
 erill et al. 1939, Curtis and Lynch 1957, Herman 1958, 
 Hutchison and Kemp 1952, Livingston 1949, Nienstaedt 
 1957, Potter 1952, Stoeckeler 1952a, U.S. Forest Serv. 
 South. Forest Expt. Sta. 1940, Ware 1936, Warner and 
 Chase 1956, Williamson 1957, and Woodin and Lindsey 
 1954.) 
 
 Ponderosa pine .—Ponderosa pine is the most widely 
 distributed of the pines. It is the main species of the 
 Black Hills, and it is found in all of the Plains States 
 but Kansas. At its easternmost extension in Nebraska, 
 it appears in the canyons, on the rough stony land of 
 the Pine Ridge escarpment, and in the Niobrara and 
 Upper Platte River drainages. Isolated groves oc¬ 
 curred as late as 1885 in the valleys of the Dismal, 
 Calamus, North Loup, South Loup, Lodgepole, and 
 Republican Rivers (Bessey 1895). In South Dakota, 
 
 ponderosa pine is found in the Black Hills, in the 
 northwest comer of the State in Harding County, and 
 scattered over the hills of Shannon, Todd, Washa- 
 baugh, and Bennett Counties (Over 1932). It occurs 
 in three southwestern North Dakota counties in the 
 Badlands. In east-central Colorado, ponderosa pine 
 extends eastward on the Platte-Arkansas Divide 
 (Weaver and Albertson 1956). It also occurs asso¬ 
 ciated with pinyon in the extreme northwest comer of 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 Other pines .—Limber pine is found in southwestern 
 North Dakota, the Black Hills of South Dakota, the 
 extreme southwestern comer of Nebraska, southeastern 
 Wyoming, and the adjoining portions of Colorado. 
 Pinyon occurs in northeastern New Mexico, south¬ 
 eastern Colorado, and northwestern Oklahoma. 
 Lodgepole pine is found very locally in the western 
 part of the Black Hills and in the Cypress Hills of 
 southwestern Saskatchewan. 
 
 Some Southeastern pines, while not found in the 
 Prairie-Plains, grow on dry situations adjacent to the 
 region. Included are shortleaf pine in eastern Okla¬ 
 homa and eastern Texas, loblolly pine in a small area of 
 southeastern Oklahoma and in eastern Texas, and 
 longleaf pine in eastern Texas. 
 
 Junipers .—Eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain 
 juniper are the juniper tree species found most com¬ 
 monly in the Prairie-Plains. Both range from the 
 southern limits of the Prairie-Plains into Montana and 
 North Dakota in the north. Eastern redcedar pre¬ 
 dominates on the east and Rocky Mountain juniper on 
 the west. The ranges of the two species overlap in 
 central South Dakota and central and northwestern 
 Nebraska. An area of natural hybridization has been 
 delineated, but the degree to which this represents the 
 overall situation is unknown (Fassett 1944). The two 
 species may occur in stands together. In eastern 
 Texas, eastern redcedar is found on dry, gravelly ridges 
 and limestone hills (Jones et al. 1932). Other juniper 
 tree species include one-seed juniper in western Texas, 
 New Mexico, and extreme western Oklahoma (Little 
 1950) ; Pinchot juniper in central, northwestern, and 
 Trans-Pecos Texas and in western Oklahoma (Jones 
 et al. 1932); alligator juniper in Trans-Pecos Texas 
 (Jones et al. 1932) ; and Ashe juniper in northeastern 
 and southern Oklahoma and on the Edwards Plateau 
 in central Texas (Hall 1952). 
 
 Spruce .—White spmce is generally found in the val¬ 
 leys of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Outliers also 
 occur in south-central Manitoba and southwestern 
 Saskatchewan. Blue spmce has been reported in the 
 Big Horn Mountains in south-central Montana. 
 
 Douglas-fir. —Douglas-fir occurs on the Piney Buttes 
 (Garfield County) in eastern Montana in an area 
 where the mean annual precipitation is about 12 inches 
 and minimum temperatures may drop to —58° F. 
 (Stoeckeler 1952a). Trees from this source have been 
 used to a small extent in North Dakota plantings. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 3 
 
 F-209918,416974 
 
 Figure 2. Natural stands of conifers in the Prairie-Plains: A, Eastern redcedar near Sargent, Nebr. (ponderosa pine and 
 bur oak are associates) ; B, ponderosa pine in southwestern North Dakota on breaks of Little Missouri River. The pine 
 has moved out into the grassland since fires have been controlled. 
 
4 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 HISTORY OF CONIFER PLANTING 
 
 The planting of conifers for other than ornamental 
 uses began many years ago in the Prairie-Plains. Block 
 plantings of pine in Nebraska are recorded as early as 
 1873. According to the annual report of the then U.S. 
 Division of Forestry, special efforts were made in 1898 
 to introduce conifers into existing plantings. Conifer 
 nurseries had been established at several locations, and 
 in 1898, 300,000 conifers had been distributed to 
 farmers in quantities sufficient for 1- to 5-acre planta¬ 
 tions. Despite these early efforts, few of the conifer 
 plantings established before 1935 are extensive enough 
 to allow planters to compare their performance with 
 that of hardwoods in protection plantings. Coverage 
 of the Plains was incomplete, and some species had 
 little representation in some localities. A notable 
 exception is block plantings of conifers started in 1904 
 on the Nebraska National Forest in the sandhills region 
 
 (fig- 3)- r u 
 
 Conifers were planted over a wide area ot the 
 Prairie-Plains by the Prairie States Forestry Project. 
 Included in the 18,600 miles of shelterbelts planted 
 between 1935 and 1942 under a great variety of cli¬ 
 matic and soil conditions, these trees have been one of 
 
 the main sources of information on the performance of 
 various evergreen species in the Plains. An appraisal 
 made in 1954 (Read 1958) of 938 shelterbelts from 
 North Dakota to northern Texas showed that conifers, 
 when once established, survived well throughout the 
 survey area. Eastern redcedar was the hardiest tree. 
 Ponderosa pine and Austrian pine showed good 
 drought resistance and staying power despite initial 
 survivals of less than 50 percent. Other species used 
 by the Project were Rocky Mountain juniper, alone 
 and with eastern redcedar, from North Dakota to 
 Oklahoma; blue spruce and white spruce in the Da¬ 
 kotas; and jack pine and Scotch pine in South Dakota, 
 Nebraska, and Kansas. Shortleaf and loblolly pines 
 were used in the plantings of southern Kansas, Okla¬ 
 homa, and Texas. 
 
 Austrian and Scotch pine have been widely planted 
 in the Prairie-Plains. Austrian pine grows slower than 
 ponderosa pine in Texas (Jones et al. 1932) and in 
 Oklahoma (Afanasiev 1949a). It has been difficult 
 to establish in North Dakota. Scotch pine has ex¬ 
 hibited early rapid growth but is short lived and is 
 more subject to mortality by drought. 
 
 F-3929M 
 
 Figure 3.—This forest plantation of jack pine in the sandhills of the Nebraska National Forest was large enough by 1940 
 
 to produce posts and small pioles. 
 
5 
 
 CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 Shortleaf pine has been planted in windbreaks in 
 western Oklahoma (Afanasiev 1949b). Some loblolly 
 pine, Japanese red pine, and Japanese black pine are 
 used in eastern Oklahoma. Japanese black pine has 
 been a fast grower, faster than all pines but shortleaf 
 pine, and has a low susceptibility to tip moth damage. 
 Japanese red pine has poor form, with multiple stems, 
 and is highly susceptible to tip moth damage. Jack 
 pine and eastern redcedar have been planted exten¬ 
 sively and quite successfully in Nebraska, particularly 
 in block plantings in the sandhill region. 
 
 Arizona cypress, a native of western Texas, New 
 Mexico, and Arizona, has been used with great success 
 
 in Texas and Oklahoma for windbreak and ornamen¬ 
 tal plantings. Trees of this species are tender while 
 young but have withstood temperatures as cold as 
 10° F. when older (Jones et al. 1932). The form 
 from central Arizona, called smooth Arizona cypress 
 and characterized by smooth outer bark, is widely 
 cultivated in warm, dry regions in shelterbelts and as 
 an ornamental; it also is used for Christmas trees and 
 fenceposts (Little 1950). Selections of oriental arbor- 
 vitae are easy to establish and grow fairly fast. They 
 have proved very hardy and effective in windbreak 
 plantings. 
 
 FUTURE OF COBfIFER PLANTING 
 
 More hardwoods than conifers have been planted 
 in the Prairie-Plains. This was only natural. The 
 Prairie-Plains had little native coniferous growth. Be¬ 
 cause hardwood planting stock was more available to 
 planters and ^ grew faster, it appealed more to the 
 homesteader intent on securing some early protection 
 for his farmstead. Bare-rooted conifers often dried up 
 during tramportation, and the rigorous climate limited 
 their establishment after planting. 
 
 However, in the future, conifers will have an in¬ 
 creasingly irnportant place in Plains planting programs. 
 Among their inherent advantages over most hard¬ 
 woods are year-round foliage retention, greater longev¬ 
 ity, lower fertility and soil moisture requirements, 
 relatively more freedom from insects and diseases, and 
 the ability after establishment to compete more suc¬ 
 cessfully with weeds and grasses. Conifer needles 
 remain under the trees, building up a vegetation¬ 
 smothering and soil-protecting layer of litter that also 
 increases water infiltration and reduces moisture 
 evaporation. In a study of tree planting on the drier 
 sections of the northern Great Plains, it was found that 
 the coniferous species do not exhaust the soil mois¬ 
 ture to as great a depth as do the hardwoods, and that 
 they establish forest conditions very readily in reason¬ 
 ably full stands (George 1939). 
 
 F-502143. 502141, 505888 
 
 Figure 4. —Use of conifers in windbreak plantings on 
 the Prairie-Plains: A, An 18-year-old planting of short¬ 
 leaf pine in a field shelterbelt near Vernon, Tex.; 
 R, right-angle view of a dense single-row planting of 
 eastern redcedar, 15 years old and 18 feet high; C, 
 effective year-round wind protection is provided by 
 25-year-old ponderosa pine in field windbreak near 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
6 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Conifers are well adapted for all protection plant¬ 
 ings, whether they be for farmstead, field, livestock, 
 wildlife, or for multiple purposes (fig. 4). Not only 
 do they provide year-round protection, but their thick 
 crowns trap snow, and the trees offer less competition 
 to adjacent crops (Greb and Black 1961). The soft 
 wood has more value at maturity and is more easily 
 disposed of than the wood of deciduous trees. Coni¬ 
 fers are also particularly suited for ornamental plant¬ 
 ings and for use as Christmas trees. 
 
 Conifers, of course, have some disadvantages when 
 compared to hardwoods. It takes longer and costs 
 more to produce planting stock. The trees are harder 
 to establish, and because initial survivals in the field 
 are lower, more replacements are required. Because 
 they have a slower initial growth and consequently 
 must compete with grass and other ground cover for 
 a longer period, more maintenance is needed. Reten¬ 
 tion of the foliage throughout the year subjects the 
 
 trees to excessive drying during periods of near dor¬ 
 mancy. Damaging agents, such as fire or livestock, 
 will reduce growth and may eliminate the trees since 
 most conifers are unable to sprout or restore foliage. 
 Reproduction of conifers other than eastern redcedar 
 rarely occurs in farm plantings. Finally, adapted seed 
 from natural or planted stands has been hard to obtain 
 in quantities large enough to handle economically. 
 
 Nevertheless, the advantages far outweigh the dis¬ 
 advantages. Furthermore, some of the obstacles can 
 be overcome. In the drier portions of the Plains the 
 use of potted trees and more careful handling of bare- 
 rooted stock from the time of lifting in the nursery 
 to planting have resulted in higher initial survivals. 
 Improved machines and methods of tillage have in¬ 
 creased both initial survival and growth rates. In¬ 
 creased use of trees grown from seed of established 
 plantings and of native stands of proven hardiness 
 should also provide trees that survive better and grow 
 faster. 
 
 COLLECTION AND HANDLING OF SEED 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF SEED SOURCE 
 
 There is abundant evidence that conifer seed from 
 local sources produces planting stock more resistant 
 than imported stock to loss from drought, insects, and 
 disease. Foresters and others engaged in tree planting 
 in the Prairie-Plains generally agree on the importance 
 of using seed sources adapted to local climate and soil 
 conditions. However, this requisite too often is 
 slighted or ignored. Since the advent of large-scale 
 tree planting on the Plains, a large number of trees 
 of unsuitable origin have failed or have grown poorly. 
 Thus, much of the effort spent in seed collection, pro¬ 
 duction of nursery stock, and establishment in the 
 field has been wasted. 
 
 Though seed source research has been less extensive 
 in the Prairie-Plains than in many other areas, there 
 are some specific examples of seed source variation 
 for conifer species grown in the Plains. In a study of 
 the survival and growth of 25- to 41-year-old trees 
 of six Scotch pine races under prairie conditions in 
 Saskatchewan, differences were apparent and seem¬ 
 ingly distinctly inherent (Cram and Brack 1953). 
 Investigators have reported that the growth and sur¬ 
 vival of ponderosa pine is influenced by racial origin; 
 they found wide variations in height growth and sur¬ 
 vival between lots of wide geographic origin and alti¬ 
 tudinal zones (Bates 1927, Callaham and Metcalf 
 1959, Munger 1941, Weidman 1939). In the sand¬ 
 hills of Nebraska, planted ponderosa pine of Nebraska 
 origin were less damaged by tip moth than were the 
 trees of New Mexico seed source (Bates 1927). There 
 was also variation among lots in browsing by deer. 
 
 The variability iff hardiness of ponderosa pine grown 
 from seed originating in different climates was evident 
 in 6-year-old plantings in McHenry County, N. Dak. 
 
 In March 1946, severe winter inju^ appeared as the 
 pine underwent browning and defoliation. ■ The heavi¬ 
 est damage was sustained by trees with Black Hills 
 and western Nebraska origins, and the least by trees 
 grown from seed of the nearest native origins (western 
 North Dakota and eastern Montana). Again, follow¬ 
 ing the winter of 1947—48, the trees of the near-local 
 sources showed less foliage injury (Stoeckeler and 
 Rudolf 1949). 
 
 Outstanding performances of the local sources have 
 been observed many times at the Bessey Nursery, 
 Halsey, Nebr. Scotch pine from a local collection 
 produced 2-0 seedlings nearly twice as large as those 
 from a central European source. Austrian pine from 
 seed collected near Lincoln, Nebr., produced stock far 
 more satisfactory than any Austrian pine previously 
 grown. In 1955, it was noted that 2-0 ponderosa pine 
 beds varied considerably by seed origin; the best lot 
 was from a local collection. 
 
 The Nebraska National Forest, with 30,000 acres of 
 conifer plantings established from 1903 to 1958, is an 
 outstanding example of a site on which seed of local 
 origin was used. The first trees planted were wildlings 
 shipped in from the Black Hills and the Lake States, 
 but the establishment of a nursery in 1902 soon made 
 it possible to control the source of stock. In the spring 
 of 1904, 1-0 ponderosa pine, grown from seed col¬ 
 lected in 1902 in northwestern Nebraska, was planted. 
 The first eastern redcedar seed used was collected in 
 1912 in a natural stand along the Niobrara River. In 
 the early 1920’s, seed of Austrian and Scotch pine was 
 collected from ornamental and shelterbelt trees in east¬ 
 ern Nebraska to supplement seed purchased from 
 Europe. These local plantings have demonstrated 
 reasonably good adaptation to local conditions. 
 
 European countries have much broader experience 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 7 
 
 than the United States in the harmful effects of indis¬ 
 criminate use of seed without regard to origin. Some 
 of them have passed strict laws providing for the cer¬ 
 tification of the source of seed. There are no Federal 
 or State laws in the Plains States requiring the use of 
 forest tree and shrub seeds of known origins. How¬ 
 ever, certification of tree seed is now possible in South 
 Dakota under State laws pertaining to cereal, forage, 
 and oil crops. The International Crop Improvement 
 Association approved minimum standards for tree 
 seeds in 1959 and adopted more widely applicable 
 standards in 1962 (SAF Seed Certification Subcom¬ 
 mittee 1963). 
 
 In 1939 the U.S. Department of Agriculture adopted 
 a seed policy that partly requires and partly recom¬ 
 mends use of local or well-adapted seed for forestry 
 and related purposes. It requires tree planting agen¬ 
 cies in the Department to use in their planting pro¬ 
 grams, wherever practicable, seed of known origin 
 from within 100 miles distance and 1,000 feet eleva¬ 
 tion of the planting site. It recommends keeping an 
 accurate record of such seed, including the lot num¬ 
 ber, year of seed crop, species, origin as to State, 
 county, and specific locality, range of elevation, and 
 proof of origin. (See Appendix for entire policy 
 statement.) 
 
 A suggested minimum program for collecting seed 
 in the Prairie-Plains included the following points 
 (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941) : 
 
 1. Zone the seed collection area according to 
 climate. 
 
 2. Limit collection largely to local seed. 
 
 3. Pick seed only from healthy and vigorous trees 
 of reasonably good form. 
 
 4. Keep an accurate, permanent record of seed 
 source from time of collection through field 
 planting, including proper identification and 
 labeling of the seed and the place and eleva¬ 
 tion of collection. 
 
 5. Import seed only after giving thorough study 
 to the experience with seed from different 
 foreign countries. 
 
 SEED COIXECTIOIV ZOBTES AND LOCALITIES 
 
 Eleven seed collection zones, based primarily on 
 latitude, have been delineated for the Prairie-Plains 
 (fig. 5). It is recommended that seed be collected and 
 the progeny planted within the same zone. Where 
 absolutely necessary it is permissible to move seed or 
 stock from one zone to an adjoining zone. Compen¬ 
 sating factors such as elevation would permit move¬ 
 ment of seed northward across one or two States. 
 Thus, blue spruce seed can be moved safely from the 
 higher western part of the more southern seed zones 
 in Colorado and Wyoming to northern North Dakota 
 (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). A little movement 
 to the north may result in reasonably hardy trees that 
 grow slightly faster than trees of local origin. These 
 zones were based on observation and experience and 
 
 proved workable in the Prairie States Forestry Project. 
 It is recommended-that they be used until research 
 discloses a better basis for zonation. 
 
 Trees from northern seed planted farther south 
 generally survive fairly well; however, they may grow 
 slowly, develop poorly, and eventually succumb to 
 drought and heat. If the northern stock buds out on 
 the first warm days of spring, the new growth may be 
 damaged by frost. When trees grown from southern 
 seed are used too far north, they may soon die because 
 they lack the hardiness and early ripening of wood 
 necessary to withstand the northern winters (Engstrom 
 and Stoeckeler 1941). 
 
 Movements from east to west—that is, generally to 
 drier climates—appear less harmful than latitudinal 
 movements but should not be encouraged (Engstrom 
 and Stoeckeler 1941). 
 
 Although the seed collection zones shown in figure 5 
 are generally applicable to most conifer species in the 
 Prairie-Plains, more specific localities can be given for 
 collecting seed of a few species in certain areas. Pon- 
 derosa pine seed should be collected from the more arid 
 portions of its range bordering the Plains. Good 
 
8 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 sources in Nebraska are the Pine Ridge and Niobrara 
 River areas; in South Dakota, the northwest and on 
 the Rosebud and Pine Ridge Indian Reservations in 
 the southwest; in North Dakota, the southwest; and 
 in Montana, the extreme east. Seed from the foothills 
 of the Black Hills has been used rather extensively 
 because the quantity of seed produced is greater and 
 more reliable than in other collection areas. Further 
 study will be needed before this source can be fully 
 evaluated, but it seems likely that at least some Black 
 Hills seed can be used with confidence in Nebraska and 
 to the north. Eastern Colorado sources seem best for 
 use in Kansas and to the south. 
 
 Seed collections of Rocky Mountain juniper and 
 eastern redcedar should be made as near the latitude 
 of the planting site as practicable. 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper should be collected in 
 North Dakota along the Little Missouri River near 
 Medora, in northwestern South Dakota, and in 
 extreme eastern Montana. 
 
 Seed of eastern redcedar should be collected in South 
 Dakota from the bluffs of the Cheyenne River and 
 from other native stands. However, seed collected 
 along the Platte River in Nebraska does reasonably 
 well in South Dakota (Hansen 1930). In Nebraska, 
 eastern redcedar sources in and adjacent to Custer, 
 Loup, Blaine, and Brown Counties have produced stock 
 better suited to statewide planting than seedlings of 
 Platte Valley origin. Collections of redcedar along 
 the Cimarron River have proved well adapted to Okla¬ 
 homa planting sites. 
 
 In the prairie provinces of Canada, spruce seed 
 collected from older specimens in windbreaks of the 
 nurseries at Indian Head and Sutherland and from 
 natural stands in Manitoba and northern Saskatch¬ 
 ewan have produced stock adapted to Canadian condi¬ 
 tions (Ross 1937). Generally, common commercial 
 seed has not proved hardy. 
 
 SELECTION OF INDIVIDUAL STANDS AND 
 
 TREES 
 
 Next in importance to using seed from local sources 
 is collection from selected stands and individual trees 
 with desirable characteristics. Tree improvement 
 studies of forest trees have revealed wide variations 
 between individuals of the same species (fig. 6). 
 Superior trees with desirable characteristics should be 
 noted, and their location should be recorded. 
 
 Some traits of value in windbreak and shelterbelt 
 trees are tolerance of drought conditions, ability to 
 grow on alkaline soils, and resistance to snow, wind, 
 and glaze injury (Rudolf 1956). Other desirable 
 characteristics are compactness, resistance to insects 
 and disease, and rapid growth without spindliness. 
 
 Trees and stands that are superior in growth char¬ 
 acteristics should be used for seed collection as much 
 as possible. Cones obtained from squirrel caches may 
 be of good genetic character only if the stand as a whole 
 is composed of trees of good form. 
 
 F-493ni 
 
 Figure 6.—A row of 21-year-old pionderosa pine in the 
 North Dakota State Nursery at Towner, McHenry County, 
 N. Dak. The differences in height growth, broadness of 
 crown, density of foliage, and angle of branching illustrate 
 the wide variation between individuals of the same seed 
 source. 
 
 If block plantings are being considered for wood pro¬ 
 duction, the form and height of the parent tree and 
 quality of the product must also be considered. Lum¬ 
 ber from ponderosa pine growing on the hills along 
 the Little Missouri River northwest of Amidon, N. 
 Dak., reportedly was brash and inferior to lumber cut 
 from trees about 35 miles distant in the Long Pines or 
 Ekalaka Divisions of the Custer National Forest in 
 Montana. Of course, it is not known whether these 
 differences stem chiefly from genetic or acquired 
 characteristics. 
 
 Seed orchards should also be established from the 
 material of carefully selected stands. Seed orchards of 
 hardy and desirable form of oriental arborvitae and 
 Arizona cypress have been established in Oklahoma.^ 
 Similar developments are likely to be planted in other 
 Prairie-Plains States. 
 
 DETERMINATION OF SEED RIPENESS 
 AND QUALITY 
 
 The soundness of seeds by locality or even by plant 
 should be tested before extensive collecting is done. 
 Seed viability may vary considerably among stands and 
 trees. Seeds from each tree can be tested quickly by 
 cutting them open with a small wire nipper and seeing 
 whether they are filled. This practice, carefully fol¬ 
 lowed, will eliminate trees with many weeviled and 
 hollow seeds before considerable labor and money are 
 expended. 
 
 ^ Personal communication with E. W. Johnson, Agricul 
 tural Research Service Field Station, Woodward, Okla. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 9 
 
 The ripeness of seed must also be judged during col¬ 
 lection, since immature seed does not keep as well as 
 ripe seed in storage and is of lower germination 
 capacity (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). Seedlings 
 from immature seeds are smaller and less vigorous 
 than those from mature seeds (Tourney and Korstian 
 1942). Cutting tests are also recommended to estimate 
 seed maturity. The kernel of a mature seed is firm 
 and white or cream colored, and fills the cavity 
 completely. 
 
 Ripening dates of a species vary by season or locality 
 because of local climate. Therefore, frequent inspec¬ 
 tions may be required to determine in advance the ap¬ 
 proximate ripening dates. Failure to closely observe 
 the progress of ripening for species that hold their seed 
 for only a few days after maturity, such as limber pine 
 and oriental arborvitae, may result in loss of the crop. 
 
 The seed of Rocky Mountain juniper takes 2 years to 
 mature. One-year fruit is light green as compared to 
 the light blue of the mature fruit. It should not be 
 collected since the green and mature berries are hard 
 to separate. No collections should be made from trees 
 with large amounts of green berries. 
 
 In Nebraska, under dry conditions, ponderosa pine 
 cones can usually be collected directly from the trees 
 only during the 2 to 3 weeks between the time proper 
 ripeness is reached and the opening of cones on the 
 trees. The seed of Austrian pine ripens 2 weeks later 
 than that of ponderosa pine; the cones remain closed 
 longer, sometimes through the winter.^ 
 
 Ponderosa pine cones are ripe enough to collect when 
 their specific gravity in place on the tree has dropped to 
 0.85, or when a majority of five sound, freshly picked 
 cones will float in kerosene. The time of squirrel col¬ 
 lection is not a reliable index of seed ripeness since 
 they often cut the cones 3 to 4 weeks in advance of 
 seed maturity. Color also is not a reliable index of 
 cone ripeness (Maki 1940). 
 
 Spruce cones are ripe enough to collect when the 
 seed coats darken and the kernels become firm (U.S. 
 Forest Serv. 1948). In a study of seed maturity of 
 planted spruce in Saskatchewan, it was recommended 
 that collection of blue spruce cones be delayed until 90 
 percent or more freshly picked cones float in linseed 
 oil, which has a specific gravity of 0.94 (Cram 1956a). 
 For white spruce, collection is recommended when 90 
 percent or more freshly picked cones float in turpentine 
 (Cram 1957). 
 
 The berries of eastern redcedar. Rocky Mountain 
 juniper, and oldfield common juniper are dark blue 
 when ripe. However, they are usually coated with a 
 powdery bloom; therefore, they appear light blue. 
 
 For a further discussion on the seed ripening process 
 and the time to collect, refer to the “Woody-Plant 
 Seed Manual” (U.S. Forest Serv. 1948). 
 
 ^ Personal communication with M. K. Meines, Superin¬ 
 tendent, Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 SEED CROP FREQUENCY 
 
 The size of seed crops will vary from year to year, 
 depending on several factors. Among the most im¬ 
 portant are the climatic conditions during flowering, 
 seed formation, and ripening; the damaging effect of 
 insects and rodents; the age of the seed trees; the size 
 of the flower crops; and the inherent ability of the tree 
 or species to produce seed. Seed may be destroyed by 
 insects that attack the buds, flowers, and immature 
 cones, as well as the seed itself (Lanquist 1946). Seed 
 production by eastern redcedar is often reduced by 
 late spring frosts which damage the female flowers. 
 
 No periodicity in seed crops has been noted in pon¬ 
 derosa pine (Curtis and Lynch 1957). Observations 
 over 23 years east of the Continental Divide in Mon¬ 
 tana showed this species to be a poor seeder—only 
 one good seed crop occurred (Boe 1954). Two good 
 crops, two fair ones, and five failures were recorded 
 during a 9-year period in the foothills of the Rockies 
 in eastern Colorado (Roeser 1941). 
 
 Junipers produce more good seed crops. Partic¬ 
 ularly heavy crops of Rocky Mountain juniper seed are 
 produced every 2 to 5 years, and some seed is borne 
 nearly every year (Sudworth 1915). Eastern redcedar 
 produces good crops every 2 to 3 years in Oklahoma 
 (Afanasiev and Cress 1942a). The same frequency of 
 good seed years occurs at Halsey, Nebr., where nine 
 good seed crops of eastern redcedar were recorded in 
 windbreak plantings between 1929 and 1956. Seed 
 production of trees in windbreak plantings may differ 
 from that of trees in wild stands because of dissimilar 
 growing conditions and parentage. 
 
 Availability of seed in the quantities necessary to 
 fill nursery seeding and planting quotas must also be 
 considered along with the climatic adaptability of any 
 source or “strain.” Some species set a good crop of 
 cones at infrequent intervals. Usually some seed is 
 produced in other years, but it is generally scattered 
 and is often so poor that the cost of a pound averaging 
 50 percent or more in germination may be three or 
 four times as high as seed collected in a good seed year. 
 
 Since most seed retains its viability well when stored 
 properly, it is good to provide for the future in years 
 when a good supply of high-quality seed is obtainable. 
 
 SEED YIELDS 
 
 Complete records on seed yields of species commonly 
 used in Prairie-Plains tree planting are available in the 
 “Woody-Plant Seed Manual” (U.S. Forest Serv. 
 1948). However, localized information on yields is 
 desirable since some widely used species have extensive 
 ranges outside the Plains. 
 
 Data on the seed yield of ponderosa pine, eastern 
 redcedar, and Rocky Mountain juniper in native 
 stands of the Great Plains were obtained primarily 
 from the Btessey Nursery records, which cover a period 
 of more than 50 years (tables 1 and 2). Collections 
 were made in most years. The range in yields is per¬ 
 haps wider than would normally be expected, and re¬ 
 sulted indirectly from the policy of the Nebraska 
 
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 1. —Ponderosa pine: yield of freshly collected, cleaned seed in native stands of the Great Plains 
 
 Locality 
 
 Collec¬ 
 
 tions 
 
 Yield per bushel of 
 cones 
 
 Seed per pound 
 
 Average 
 
 Range 
 
 Low 
 
 High 
 
 Average 
 
 ^. 
 
 Number 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Ounces 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 (?) 
 
 Ounces 
 
 13-36 
 
 18-22 
 
 (*) 
 
 Number 
 
 8, 200 
 13, 400 
 12, 600 
 
 Number 
 11, 500 
 16, 600 
 19, 300 
 
 Number 
 
 9, 700 
 
 14, 600 
 
 15, 700 
 
 
 Eastern Montana 2. 
 
 1 Seed from stands along the Niobrara River at Pine Can¬ 
 yon in Custer County and from one collection on the Rosebud 
 Indian Reservation in South Dakota. 
 
 National Forest of collecting as much seed locally as 
 was possible. Also, the berries or cones occasionally 
 yielded little viable seed, owing to insect infestations 
 or other causes. 
 
 The yield of ponderosa pine varies from 13 to 36 
 ounces per bushel for Nebraska cones, and from 18 to 
 22 ounces for cones from the Black Hills (table 1). 
 Average yields, 20 ounces per bushel of cones, are 
 about the same for the two sources. 
 
 The low yields of eastern redcedar in Nebraska 
 represent collections in years when the seed crop was 
 poor and insect infested (table 2). The larger yields 
 are for good to excellent seed years. 
 
 Now that many planted stands are bearing seed, 
 the nurseryman has a much wider selection of parent 
 trees from which to collect. Seed collection from 
 mature stands or from those of known seed origin is 
 preferable. 
 
 Redcedar berries have been collected for many years 
 from a windbreak 60 years old at Anselmo, Nebr. The 
 trees are probably of natural origin and have produced 
 as much as 80 pounds of berries per tree. At Anselmo 
 an experienced man can pick an average of 40 pounds 
 of berries per day in years of good to excellent crops. 
 
 2 From collections at Fallon, Glendive, and Jordan, Mont. 
 2 Data not available. 
 
 Few records are available for seed production in 
 planted stands of conifers in the Plains, but there is a 
 partial record for such stands on the Nebraska 
 National Forest (table 3). 
 
 This record indicated that planted stands will yield 
 good seed in economical quantities whether they be 
 in block plantings or in individual rows of shelterbelts. 
 The yield of ponderosa pine seed in plantations at Hal¬ 
 sey, Nebr., an average of 20 ounces per bushel of 
 cones, compared very well with that of native stands. 
 Austrian, Scotch, and jack pine from local sources pro¬ 
 vided a supply of good-quality seed from acclimated 
 trees. The seed tended to be larger than that ob¬ 
 tained from the native sources of the three species. 
 Some seed was produced on Scotch and jack pine trees 
 less than 20 years old, but substantial quantities were 
 not produced from Scotch, Austrian, and ponderosa 
 pine until they were 25 to 30 years old. In Oklahoma, 
 Johnson * noted that Austrian pine does not produce 
 much seed before the trees are 20 years old. 
 
 The number of seed per pound also varies consid- 
 
 * Personal communication with E. W. Johnson, Agricul¬ 
 tural Research Service Field Station, Woodward, Okla. 
 
 Table 2. — Juniperus: yield of newly collected, cleaned seed in natural and planted stands 
 
 Species and locality 
 
 Col¬ 
 
 lections 
 
 Yield per 100 pounds 
 of berries 
 
 Seed per pound 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Ramge 
 
 Low 
 
 High 
 
 Average 
 
 Eastern redcedar: 
 
 Number 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Pounds 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Nebraska, planted i. 
 
 20 
 
 15. 3 
 
 4-20 
 
 37, 200 
 
 55, 000 
 
 43, 200 
 
 Nebraska, natural stands 2. 
 
 9 
 
 16. 2 
 
 3-18 
 
 37, 000 
 
 53, 300 
 
 42, 800 
 
 South Dakota, natural stands. 
 
 3 
 
 17. 5 
 
 14-19 
 
 42, 200 
 
 46, 100 
 
 43, 400 
 
 Oklahoma, natural stands. 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper: 
 
 South Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Montana 
 
 (=>) 
 
 14. 0 
 
 7-16 
 
 (») 
 
 (») 
 
 (») 
 
 natural stands. * . 
 
 12 
 
 19. 8 
 
 11-28 
 
 22, 000 
 
 32, 000 
 
 27, 200 
 
 • Planted windbreaks at Anselmo and Halsey. Yields * Data not available, 
 
 based on 27,000 pounds of berries. < Yields based on 3,637 pounds of berries. 
 
 2 Yields based on 9,439 pounds of berries. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 11 
 
 Table 3. — Pinus: yield of newly collected, cleaned seed in planted stands, Nebraska National Forest 
 
 Species 
 
 Collections 
 
 Yield per 
 bushel of 
 
 Seed per pound 
 
 
 
 cones 
 
 Low 
 
 High 
 
 Average 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 Number 
 
 2 
 
 Ounces 
 
 23-24 
 
 6-15 
 
 6-12 
 
 6-13 
 
 Number 
 
 10 , 200 
 14, 000 
 42, 200 
 74, 100 
 
 Number 
 
 12 , 200 
 22 , 800 
 57, 100 
 85, 300 
 
 Number 
 
 11 , 200 
 18, 500 
 48, 100 
 79, 100 
 
 Austrian pine *. 
 
 8 
 
 Scotch pine. 
 
 3 
 
 Tack pine. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 1 Seed from stands near Lincoln, York, and Oakland, Nebr., averaged 20,300 per pound. 
 
 erably, depending on the locality of the collection, sea¬ 
 son, and degree of dryness. Fresh seed tends to be 
 heavier than seed that has been stored over a period 
 of years, so averages are given for newly collected seed. 
 
 Conifers are sometimes depredated by cone- and 
 seed-eating insects. The cone moth Dioryctria auran- 
 ticella (Grote) was noted at Halsey in 1928, about the 
 time when ponderosa pines were first starting to bear 
 cones. This insect is common in native ponderosa 
 pine stands in adjacent areas of Nebraska and South 
 Dakota. Blue spruce cones have been damaged in 
 southern Saskatchewan by the spruce coneworm (Z). 
 reniculella) (Grote) and those of white spruce by the 
 spruce seedmoth Laspeyresia youngana (Kft.) (Peter¬ 
 son and Worden 1959). Other insect enemies un¬ 
 doubtedly are also present. 
 
 METHODS OF SEED COIXECTION 
 
 Seed collection in the Plains often involves much 
 travel over widely scattered areas and use of special 
 collecting equipment. The equipment necessary for 
 efficient seed collection varies by species. However, 
 nursery labor and equipment can be used to make 
 local seed collections of some species. For a season’s 
 work on various species, collection crews should be 
 equipped with wire nippers or side cutters for field 
 cutting tests and other purposes, cutting hooks for de¬ 
 taching cones (fig. 7), ladders, picking bags, baskets, 
 sacks, tags, twine, ropes, linemen’s safety belts, gog¬ 
 gles, hardhats, heavy leather gloves, and tarpaulins 
 or seed sheets. 
 
 A nursery practice handbook, based on many years 
 of experience at the Bessey Nursey, contains the follow¬ 
 ing suggestions for seed collection in planted and nat¬ 
 ural stands of conifers. 
 
 Purchased seed should be obtained from a reliable 
 collector or seed dealer who will guarantee the collec¬ 
 tion area and year of collection (see “Where to Pur¬ 
 chase Seed,” in appendix). 
 
 The foremen define the seed collecting areas and 
 select individual trees desirable as to age, tree form, 
 and other characteristics. Pickers work in pairs to 
 facilitate the movement of the ladders and other equip¬ 
 ment from tree to tree. Man-day production is greater 
 
 when trees of low yield are bypassed. Collection 
 methods to be used depend on the characteristics of 
 each species. 
 
 Because they are borne mostly on the branch tips, 
 ponderosa pine cones can be picked more efficiently 
 from ladders than by climbing the trees. For safety, 
 pickers should carry a short rope on the top rung of 
 
 F-342209 
 
 Figure 7.—A cutting hook for detaching fruit, cones, or small 
 limbs from trees; it is made from two mower blades welded 
 to a flat piece of steel 8^2 inches long. 
 
12 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 the ladder and tie the ladder to a stout branch or to 
 the tree bole. Cone hooks are used to bring cone¬ 
 laden branches toward the picker and to cut loose 
 cones beyond arm reach. The cones usually are 
 dropped and picked up later. In the well-stocked 
 stands of the Black Hills, ponderosa pine cone collec¬ 
 tions can be made from squirrel hoards. 
 
 Austrian pines are easier to climb than ponderosa 
 pines, and the cones come off easier. Serotinous jack 
 pine cones have been collected from branches removed 
 during pruning and thinning. Limber pine tends to 
 open its cones rapidly, and the wingless seed may fall 
 to the ground. However, the seed will remain in the 
 open cone on the tree for a few days if there is no 
 wind, and much of it can be saved by spreading tar¬ 
 paulins under the tree before the cones are picked. 
 When the picker is working on the ground or on low 
 ladders, the cones are put in a sack worn around the 
 neck. 
 
 Juniper berries are collected on the Nebraska Forest 
 by stripping them directly into picking bags or baskets 
 strapped to pickers, by rubbing or stripping them into 
 
 tarpaulins spread under the trees (fig. 8), or by a 
 combination of these methods. The branch is taken 
 between the hands, and near its end it is rubbed with 
 a rolling motion. Part of the debris can be removed 
 while the fruit is still on the tarpaulins by shaking them 
 to bring the coarse material to the surface. 
 
 An alternate method, one of those used in cold 
 weather, is to beat the frozen berries from the branches 
 with a stick 12 to 18 inches long and 1 to 2 inches thick. 
 The end of the stick is padded with several layers of 
 burlap. 
 
 Quite often more than half the tree seed can be 
 reached from the ground, and the rest can be gathered 
 from short ladders. If the crop is good, the tree need 
 not be picked clean. When good seed trees are few, 
 the older and taller trees may furnish most of the 
 good seed, and taller ladders are needed. 
 
 Tarpaulins are not used in brushy areas or on steep 
 slopes. Here, bags with open-hooped mouths are hung 
 from the neck. The use of strippers mounted on p)oles 
 has damaged trees and resulted in an accumulation of 
 much trash among the seed. 
 
 F-334697 
 
 Figure 8.—Collecting eastern redcedar berries from native trees in the Platte River Valley near Fremont, Nebr. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 13 
 
 The seed of oriental arborvitae and some Arizona 
 cypress is obtained from planted trees. The seed of 
 oriental arborvitae must be picked promptly when 
 the cones begin to open and before the small seed falls 
 to the ground. The cones of Arizona cypress remain 
 closed on the tree, permitting a longer period for 
 collection. 
 
 CARE OF FRESH SEED 
 
 Seeds of most conifers are not dry enough to be 
 stored immediately after collection. They must re¬ 
 ceive adequate aeration or be placed in a dry atmos¬ 
 phere. If the seed cannot be extracted immediately, 
 the freshly gathered fruits should be spread in a thin 
 layer in a dry place in the open and stirred occasionally 
 for several days following collection. Freshly picked 
 pine cones and juniper berries heat rapidly if left in 
 sacks or deep piles. Therefore, layers of fruit should 
 not be more than 2 to 4 inches thick. After drying, 
 the fruits can be stored temporarily in bags while 
 awaiting extraction. 
 
 Where ,cone storage sheds are available, the cones 
 can be stored in trays for drying prior to extraction 
 of the seed (fig. 9). 
 
 SEED EXTRACTIOIV AND CLEANING 
 
 A modem seed extractory is desirable if the size of 
 the nursery and its production schedule require large 
 quantities of pine or spruce seeds. Less elaborate 
 facilities suffice when smaller quantities of cones are 
 to be handled. At Norman, Okla., up to 60 bushels 
 of loblolly and shortleaf pine cones can be handled 
 per day in a 25- by 25-foot cone-drying room. This 
 drying unit is heated by gas (a 112,000 B.t.u. heater). 
 Cone trays with a screen-wire bottom are made from 
 2 by 4’s. 
 
 F-488915 
 
 Figure 9.—A cone storage shed at Big Sioux Conifer Nurs- 
 ery, Watertown, S. Dak. The cone storage portion of 
 the building on the right is connected directly to the 
 extractory. 
 
 748-005 0—65——2 
 
 F-502087 
 
 Figure 10.—Ponderosa pine cones placed on racks for ex¬ 
 traction. Tarpaulins are used to prevent the loss of seed 
 as the cones open. Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 Although artificial heating results in greater extrac¬ 
 tion of the seed, solar heat and air drying often are 
 satisfactory. The cones are placed out of doors in the 
 sun on screens or tarpaulins (fig. 10). When open, 
 they are shoveled into a screened tumbler; the seeds 
 fall to the floor from one end of the tumbler, and the 
 empty cones discharge from the other end. Further 
 recovery of seed remaining in the cones can be secured 
 by threshing them in an improvised combine or low 
 revolution-per-minute hammermill. The efficiency of 
 the solar extraction can be raised materially by allowing 
 the cones to remain on the trees almost to the time of 
 natural seed fall. 
 
 - Fresh cones that have been predried in the sun will 
 open readily; cones that have been stored may not. 
 Maki (1940) found that cones fail to open satisfac¬ 
 torily when they have been dried out gradually in cool, 
 dark places or have been stored in sacks and other con¬ 
 tainers where the scales could not open. Cones that 
 have been stored long enough to become dry without 
 opening may have to be moistened before they will 
 open satisfactorily. 
 
 Dewinging of ponderosa pine seed is simplified by 
 wetting. The seed is sacked and dipped in water long 
 enough to swell the wing collars, or loose seed is spread 
 in layers one-half to 1 inch deep and moistened. The 
 seed is then placed on screens to dry with occasional 
 stirring. When sufficiently dried, the wings are loose 
 and can be fanned out. 
 
 Small quantities of dry seed can be dewinged by 
 rubbing them in a cloth sack and then winnowing. 
 For large quantities, some type of mechanical dewinger 
 is needed. Lanquist (1954b) cleaned and dewinged 
 seed in a machine adapted from a dustless hammermill 
 that was designed by the Soil Conservation Service 
 (Steavenson 1940). The hammers of the mill are 
 
14 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 replaced by a brush arrangement for dewinging the 
 seed. The screen size depends on the seed size. With 
 a brush speed of 184 r.p.m., almost all of the wings are 
 removed in one operation. The mechanical dewingers 
 must be used carefully to avoid injury to the seed (U.S. 
 Forest Serv. 1948). 
 
 Seed extraction for the juniper species is mostly a 
 process of running the berries through a fanning mill 
 to remove foliage and other trash, macerating the 
 berries, and removing the pulp residue by flotation and 
 screening. Numerous types of macerators have been 
 successfully employed. 
 
 A macerator developed by the Forest Service is often 
 used (fig. 11). It is of all-metal construction and is 
 built on the principle of a threshing machine with 
 cylinder and concaves. The capacity of the macer¬ 
 ator is governed by the length of the cylinder, which 
 varies from 12 to 18 inches. The machine may have 
 fixed plates, but adjustable macerating plates are avail¬ 
 able so that different clearance widths can be obtained 
 for the various types of seeds processed. A good power 
 unit for operating this machine is a 1-hp. electric motor 
 or a small gasoline engine. Commercial models which 
 operate similarly are also available. 
 
 The machine is run at a rather high speed, with the 
 discharge slide wide open to thresh the fruit from the 
 leaves and twigs. The seed is separated from the pulp 
 by closing the discharge opening and decreasing the 
 speed. This machine, equipped with a 12-inch cylin¬ 
 der with teeth spaced to provide three-eighth-inch 
 clearances, has handled 1,000 to 1,500 pounds of juni¬ 
 per berries per day (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery, a large meat grinder is now 
 used. The grinder is electrically driven and operates 
 in a normal manner, except that the cutting blade is 
 reversed on the shaft to prevent injury to the seed as 
 
 F-502088 
 
 Figure 11.—Macerating juniper berries in a specially con¬ 
 structed macerator. The machine can also be used to 
 thresh the fruit, leaves, and twigs by operating it at a 
 rather high speed, with the discharge slide wide open. 
 
 the berries are forced through the disk sieve. The 
 berries can be run through the grinder as fast as one 
 man can fill the grinder and handle the pulp. For 
 complete maceration, they are run through the grinder 
 two or three times without water. 
 
 A hammermill was used extensively by the Soil Con¬ 
 servation Service nurseries to extract juniper seed. 
 The mill was run at a speed of about 400 r.p.m. by a 
 farm tractor with a flat-belt drive. The fruit was 
 poured into the mill, and ample quantities of water 
 were supplied by one or two garden hoses (Steavenson 
 1940). After 14 to 20 minutes of treatment, the clean 
 seed had collected on a screen in the bottom of the mill. 
 This material was then dumped on screens to dry. 
 Finally, it was run through the fanning mill to separate 
 the seeds from the debris. 
 
 After most maceration processes, the seed usually 
 needs further cleaning. First the mixture of seed and 
 pulp is soaked for 1 or 2 days in a lye solution (1 tea¬ 
 spoon of lye to 1 gallon of water). This separates the 
 seed from the remaining pulp, which is very oily and 
 resinous, and which would hinder seed washing and 
 flotation and subsequent seed stratification. After the 
 lye treatment, the mass is dumped into screened trays 
 and thoroughly washed by forcing water through it 
 under pressure to remove the lye and most of the 
 remaining pulp; only the berry hulls and seed are left. 
 
 The sound seed can usually be separated from the 
 berry hulls and from floaters (empty or light seed) by 
 flotation (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). This 
 method is based on variation in buoyancy under agita¬ 
 tion in water. Some of the macerated material is 
 placed in a slightly tilted large washtub into which a 
 stream of water from a garden hose is directed at such 
 an angle as to create a rotary swirl and a lifting effect 
 on the material. Slight stirring of the material in the 
 bottom of the tub is also necessary. The pulp and 
 light seed will float to the surface and spill over the 
 edge of the tub as the water overflows. The seed is 
 then dried on tarpaulins in the sun or on trays in the 
 extracting room. Finally it is fanned to remove the 
 remaining empties and small seeds. 
 
 After extraction, the moisture content of seeds should 
 be determined, particularly that of conifer seeds sched¬ 
 uled for several years’ storage. The preferred mois¬ 
 ture content of seeds used in Prairie-Plains nurseries is 
 detailed in the following section on seed storage. 
 
 Kiln-dried or air-dried seed from dry climates often 
 need no additional drying. Wahlenberg (1925) 
 recommended that, when possible, ponderosa pine seed 
 should be dried at ordinary temperatures instead of in 
 a kiln. A seed drier may be used to dry seed following 
 extraction, especially during winter when air drying 
 outdoors is not feasible and inside drying space is lim¬ 
 ited. A rotary drier, consisting of a screen-wire 
 cylinder 32 inches long and 32 inches in diameter with 
 wooden ends of one-half inch lumber, has been used by 
 the Forest Service (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). 
 The three 1- by 3-inch baffleboards, equally spaced 
 within the periphery of the cylinder, pick up the seed as 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 the drum revolves and slowly spill it in a thin stream 
 as each baffle reaches the highest point. Warm air 
 from the heater, forced through a revolving cylinder 
 by an electric fan, hastens the evaporation of moisture 
 from the seed. The optimum speed for the cylinder is 
 12 to 15 r.p.m. There is danger, however, of too rapid 
 or excessive drying. 
 
 SEED STORAGE 
 
 Because of the irregularity of conifer seed crops, 
 it is essential that stocks of seed be kept for several 
 years. Lack of knowledge on proper storage conditions 
 resulted in heavy losses during early reforestation 
 efforts. Therefore, extensive research has been done 
 on seed storage. 
 
 One of the two critical factors is moisture content 
 of the seed. Satisfactory ranges or levels of moisture 
 content prior to storage have been determined to be 
 as follows: Pine species other than southern pine, 5 to 
 8 percent; spruce including white and Engelmann, 8 
 percent (Holmes and Buszewicz 1958) ; loblolly and 
 shortleaf pine, 9 to 12 percent (Wakeley 1954); and 
 eastern redcedar, 7 percent (U.S. Forest Serv. 1948). 
 
 To maintain these moisture contents it is usually 
 more practical to use sealed containers than to have 
 the whole storage chamber kept at a low humidity. A 
 common type of seed container is a cylindrical can 
 about 36 inches tall and 18 inches in diameter fitted 
 with a bronze screwcap and sealed with a rubber 
 gasket. Such cans have an approximate capacity of 
 150 to 160 pounds of conifer seed. Cardboard con¬ 
 tainers of various sizes are used at the Towner Nursery. 
 The seed is put in a polyethylene bag and placed in the 
 container. A press-on lid is held in place by wire 
 clamps. At the Oklahoma State Nursery at Norman, 
 5-gallon glass bottles with screwcaps are used. Each 
 bottle holds 25 pounds of seed. Small lots of seed can 
 be kept in jars or similar containers sealed with 
 paraffin. 
 
 Low temperature is the other essential condition for 
 successful storage. Dry cold storage at 32° to 40° F. 
 in sealed containers is satisfactory for prolonged stor¬ 
 age of seeds of all pines, spruces, junipers, Arizona 
 cypress, oriental arborvitae, and larches (U.S. Forest 
 Serv. 1948). Seed apparently can withstand sub¬ 
 freezing temperatures for several years without injury 
 if it is stored in sealed containers and has a moisture 
 content of less than 7 percent. Hence, most com¬ 
 mercial cold-storage facilities can be used to store seed 
 (Rudolf 1952). Seed of ponderosa, lobloUy, and short- 
 leaf pines and of white spruce kept well for 4 to 7 
 years at subfreezing temperatures (Barton 1935). 
 
 In some of the larger Plains conifer nurseries, seed 
 is stored in specially constructed seed-storage facilities. 
 At the Towner Nursery, a 10- by 10-foot walk-in 
 cooler is used. Other nurseries store seed in refriger¬ 
 ated planting-stock storage warehouses. At the Bessey 
 Nursery, several large refrigeration units are used. 
 
 A few examples will illustrate the effectiveness of 
 
 15 
 
 dry cold storage and the magnitude of seed loss that 
 may occur where improper methods are used. 
 
 Ponderosa pine seed sealed in airtight containers 
 and held at 41° F. for 10 years maintained their 
 viability. One seed lot stored for 17 years and the 
 other for 18 years had a viability of 75 to 94 percent 
 (Schubert 1954). Under similar storage conditions, 
 Arizona cypress seed retained viability for 11 to 20 
 years. 
 
 Oriental arborvitae seed has retained viability (95 
 percent) for 18 years when stored in sealed containers 
 and placed in refrigerators.® 
 
 Ponderosa pine seed with a moisture content of 15 
 percent when stored maintained their germination 
 after 3 years’ storage in canvas bags at —4° G. (Barton 
 1954). Germination was reduced 20 percent during 
 the same period when seed with a moisture content of 
 17 percent was stored at —11°. 
 
 Germination of Austrian pine seed with a moisture 
 content of about 8.5 percent, stored for 4 years in 
 sealed containers at 2° G., was 63 percent, compared 
 with an initial germination of 72 percent. Seed from 
 the same lot stored in a sack in an unheated room 
 showed only 1-percent germination. 
 
 The seed of white spruce with a moisture content of 
 6.7 percent showed an insignificant loss in germina¬ 
 tion after 7 years’ storage in sealed containers at 0° and 
 — 18° G. When stored in sealed containers at room 
 temperatures, none of the seed germinated (Allen 
 1957). 
 
 Juniperus seed can survive even longer periods of 
 storage when stored dry in sealed containers at low 
 temperatures. The seed of Rocky Mountain juniper 
 stored in a cool cellar (50° to 65° F.) showed about 
 30 percent germination after 3J/2 years (U.S. Forest 
 Serv. 1948). Johnsen (1959) found that seed of three 
 western species could survive long periods of dry storage 
 in bags or jars. The germination of 45-year-old Utah 
 juniper seed was 17 percent; 21-year-old one-seed 
 juniper, 54 percent; and 9-year-old alligator juniper, 
 16 percent. 
 
 SEED TESTING 
 
 Accurate tests of the number of seeds per pound, 
 purity, and germination percent are necessary if seed 
 is to be sown in the nursery at rates that will assure ap¬ 
 proximately the desired stand per square foot. Thin 
 stands waste space, allow weed growth, and increase 
 planting stock costs. Overdense seedbeds produce 
 undersized, spindly stock with a high cull percent and 
 poor survival or growth. The procedures used in seed 
 testing are thoroughly discussed in the “Woody-Plant 
 Seed Manual” (U.S. Forest Serv. 1948). New tree 
 seed testing recommendations of the Association of 
 Official Seed Analysts are expected to be available^ 
 in 1965. 
 
 Gare must be taken to obtain a representative sample 
 
 ® Communication with Michel Afanasiev, Forestry Dept., 
 Oklahoma A. & M. College, Stillwater, Okla., April 1958. 
 
16 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 of seed. With a conventional grain probe, a uniform, 
 equal sample may be taken from the top to the bottom 
 of the container. Where seed lots of the same year and 
 origin are stored in more than one container, samples 
 from each container are taken and mixed. This 
 sample must then be subdivided until a small repre¬ 
 sentative sample of 2,000 to 3,000 seeds is obtained. 
 A sample can be subdivided by mixing, quartering, and 
 again mixing, or by using a mechanical device. 
 
 Perhaps the most reliable tests of seed viability are 
 those in which the seed is allowed to germinate 
 naturally under ideal conditions of moisture and tem¬ 
 perature. Usually 30 to 60 days are required, so tests 
 are run before the spring sowing season. 
 
 In many Plains nurseries, 200 to 250 seeds of any 
 one lot are sown in flats that are filled with washed and 
 sterilized fine sand (fig. 12). The exact number of 
 seeds is counted and broadcast uniformly over the 
 sand or lined out in rows. The seed is pressed lightly 
 into the surface, sand is sifted over it, and the surplus 
 is struck off with a slat to obtain uniform depth. The 
 flat is then labeled with the seed collection or accession 
 ntunber. 
 
 For species that germinate promptly without pre¬ 
 treatment, the flats are placed in a greenhouse or in 
 a germination room that can be lighted during the 
 normal daylight hours and heated to provide a diurnal 
 fluctuation from 68° to 86° F. (Stoeckeler and Jones 
 1957). The flats are watered daily. Once germina¬ 
 tion starts, the seedlings are removed every 1 to 3 days 
 and recorded. Ungerminated seeds remain in the 
 flats until germination appears complete, usually in 
 30 to 60 days. 
 
 Germination can also be tested by placing the seeds 
 between moist blotter paper in petri dishes. The blot¬ 
 ters should be supported above the free water on the 
 bottom of the petri dish, but should be connected to it 
 
 F-488912 
 
 Figure 12.—Ten- by fourteen-inch flats used at the Bessey 
 Nursery, Halsey, Nebr., in germination tests of coniferous 
 seed. A mixture of half sand and half peat is being used 
 as a medium. 
 
 by strips of blotting paper. The seed should be kept 
 moist but not wet. Equipment should be sterilized 
 with heat or boiling water to reduce mold. 
 
 A Jacobson germinator ® or similar device can be 
 used in lieu of petri dish tests (U.S. Forest Serv. 1948). 
 A number of constant-temperature germinators are 
 available. These devices greatly speed the process of 
 determining potential germination. 
 
 Cutting tests are commonly used by nurserymen for 
 a rough determination of seed quality. They are use¬ 
 ful as emergency guides in fall sowing of freshly col¬ 
 lected seed that have embryo dormancy, or for other 
 seed that have not been tested. In cutting tests, sev¬ 
 eral hundred seeds are cut open with a sharp knife, and 
 the percentage of good seeds is determined. Good 
 seeds are well filled and have white or cream-colored 
 kernels. 
 
 Another rapid method of obtaining the germina¬ 
 tion value for dormant seed is the excised-embryo test. 
 The embryos are dissected from the seeds, placed on 
 moist, sterile cotton in petri dishes, and kept at about 
 70° F. for 2 to 31 days. During this period live em¬ 
 bryos show various types and degrees of development, 
 such as enlargement of the cotyledons, development of 
 green color, and even emergence of radicle (Flemion 
 1941). Those that are not viable discolor and soon 
 deteriorate. The excised-embryo test has worked suc¬ 
 cessfully on Juniper us species, ponderosa pine, and 
 Douglas-fir (Heit 1955). This test eliminates the ef¬ 
 fect of seedcoats and checks the condition of the em¬ 
 bryo, where the life of the plant exists. 
 
 The most rapid viability indicator is a biochemical 
 method that uses tetrazolium salts. The embryos are 
 exposed and placed in a testing solution consisting of 
 0.5 gram of 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride in 200 
 cubic centimeters of water. The chemical stains liv¬ 
 ing tissues a carmine red within 24 hours. Seed 
 viability results obtained with a test using tetrazolium 
 chloride compared closely with those from the ex¬ 
 cised-embryo test (On 1952). Both gave significantly 
 higher germination capacities for ponderosa pine and 
 Douglas-fir than those obtained by sand flats. The 
 tetrazolium (TZ) test has many inherent advantages 
 over other testing methods, but the accuracy of results 
 depends on the qualifications of the analysts who inter¬ 
 pret it (Colbry et al. 1961). It cannot be recom¬ 
 mended for general usage. 
 
 Facilities for testing tree seed are not available at 
 any of the Plains States seed-testing laboratories. 
 However, tree seeds used in Plains nurseries can be 
 tested for a fee at the Eastern Tree Seed Testing Lab¬ 
 oratory, Macon, Ga., cooperatively maintained by the 
 Georgia Forestry Commission and the U.S. Forest 
 Service; the Oregon Seed Testing Laboratory at Cor¬ 
 vallis; or the Department of Seed Investigations, New 
 York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva. 
 
 ® Mention of commercial products or specific firms does not 
 constitute an endorsement by the Forest Service or the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 17 
 
 The fees are prorated according to the total number 
 of tests made during the season. They have averaged 
 $10 to $12 per test. Tests are run for Federal, State, 
 and private nurseries, and for commercial seed dealers. 
 
 SEED DORMANCY AND PRETREATMENT 
 
 Seed of some conifers, including ponderosa, Aus¬ 
 trian, Scotch, and jack pine, germinate satisfactorily 
 without pretreatment. Other seed, including that of 
 some spruces, show embryo dormancy and germinate 
 better if fall sown or stratified prior to spring sowing. 
 Germination of some seed, such as eastern redcedar 
 and Rocky Mountain juniper, may be delayed by the 
 presence of an impermeable seedcoat in addition to 
 embryo dormancy. 
 
 Usually dormancy can be overcome by a period of 
 cold, moist stratification, during which certain chem¬ 
 ical changes occur in the seed, preparing it for prompt 
 germination. Pretreatment of seed frequently results 
 in more rapid, even, complete germination. Seed is 
 used more efficiently, and losses from disease are re¬ 
 duced. It is decidedly beneficial when seed that has 
 been stored for some time is to be sown. However, 
 stratification should not be regarded as an alternate 
 means of seed storage since seed has been ruined by 
 overlong stratification. 
 
 The seed of most pines used in Plains planting will 
 germinate well without stratification. Ponderosa pine 
 lots usually do not need stratification, but it will hasten 
 and improve the germination of some lots. Mirov 
 (1936) cites the need of pregerminative chilling in 
 the presence of moisture; he obtained a 7-percent in¬ 
 crease in germination from seeds stratified for 3 months 
 at 40® F. Taylor (1941) obtained more rapid and 
 complete germination and a more even stand of seed¬ 
 lings from ponderosa pine seed stratified for 30 days 
 at 34° to 40°. He cited certain disadvantages of using 
 stratified seed, including poorer handling by mechani¬ 
 cal sowers, less accurate control of sowing rates, and 
 injury to the seed by acid treatment of the beds after 
 sowing. The germination of loblolly and shortleaf 
 pine is much improved by cold, moist stratification for 
 30 days at 30° to 41° (Wakeley 1954). 
 
 White spruce, including that of Black Hills origin, 
 shows strong dormancy, while that for blue spruce was 
 moderate to nonexistent. Good germination of these 
 species was obtained after 50-day stratification at tem¬ 
 peratures from 34° to 49° F. (Cram 1951). 
 
 Germination of Arizona cypress seed is usually very 
 low, probably because of the poor quality of seed pro¬ 
 duced commercially and possibly also because of seed 
 dormancy. Cold stratification in peat moss for 20 days 
 is recommended.^ 
 
 The erratic germination of juniper seeds commonly 
 used in Plains planting has long been a problem in 
 private nurseries. Seeds of eastern redcedar have 
 dormant embryos which require 100 to 120 days of 
 
 ’ U.S. Forest Serv. Fourth Ann. Rpt., Fiscal Year 1957, 
 Region 8, Eastern Tree Seed Testing Laboratory. 
 
 stratification at 35° to 40° F. to afterripen (Pack 1921, 
 Taylor 1941). In a. series of tests to determine the 
 most favorable temperatures for afterripening. Barton 
 (1951) found that 41° gave the best results, that 33° 
 was less effective, and that 50° was totally ineffective. 
 Germination was arrested in afterripened seed for as 
 long as 3 months by storing ungerminated seed at 
 15° to 20° (Afanasiev 1955). Germinating seed was 
 injured by the subfreezing temperatures, and it did not 
 resume growth after storage. A reduction in germina¬ 
 tion occurs if seed is allowed to dry after stratification 
 and before sowing (Afanasiev and Cress 1942a). 
 
 Dormancy of the seed of Rocky Mountain juniper 
 is essentially the same as that of eastern redcedar ex¬ 
 cept that chemical changes during afterripening are 
 slower and normally require 14 to 16 months after 
 seed maturity for free germination without pretreat¬ 
 ment (Afanasiev and Cress 1942b). Beds of this 
 species have lain over without germination for I/2 
 years from the time of fall seeding despite depulping 
 and 3 months of stratification at controlled tempera¬ 
 ture. Hence, it seems best to keep this species in strat¬ 
 ification for 6 months before seeding in the spring. 
 Then it usually germinates 2 to 3 weeks after seeding. 
 
 The presence of impermeable seedcoats in a large 
 percentage of juniper seed will prevent complete germ¬ 
 ination. Seedcoats may be made permeable by ex¬ 
 posure to moisture at a temperature of approximately 
 25° C. (77° F.) for 2 to 3 weeks. Soaking for 30 
 minutes in concentrated sulfuric acid is also effec¬ 
 tive ; this treatment is given before the seeds are placed 
 at low temperatures for breaking the dormancy of the 
 embryos (Barton 1951). 
 
 Scarification has been used to increase the perme¬ 
 ability of juniper seedcoats. Mechanical scarification 
 of the seed in a steel drum lined with sandpaper was 
 used successfully at the Bessey Nursery as early as 1934 
 (Dayharsh 1934). A more efficient type of scarifier, 
 consisting of six vertical sandpaper-covered disks, was 
 useful for small experimental lots of seed (Stoeckeler 
 and Baskin 1937). For larger lots of seed, where 
 comparatively light scarification is needed, a modified 
 Ames scarifier can be used (Chapman 1936). 
 
 The methods used to induce germination of juniper 
 seed and the results obtained have varied depending 
 on location. In some places one method will produce 
 even, prompt germination, whereas the same proce¬ 
 dure used elsewhere will not. The two species, eastern 
 redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper, may also react 
 differently. The two methods commonly used are 
 planting the seed in the fall shortly after collection 
 and planting in the spring following stratification. 
 
 Consistently prompt germination of eastern redcedar 
 in Oklahoma has been obtained in fall sowing (Eng- 
 strom 1950, 1955). The clean, depulped, unstratified 
 seeds are sown about December 10, covered with one- 
 eighth to one-fourth inch of sawdust, watered, and then 
 covered with 0.002-gage (thickness) polyethylene film. 
 The film is in 1,000-yard rolls and is 53 inches wide. 
 Burlap is laid over the plastic film, and both are pinned 
 
18 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 to the soil at intervals of about 4 to 6 feet with 5-inch 
 soil staples made of No. 9 wire. 
 
 Germination starts about March 1 and is completed 
 by March 10 to 15. As soon as germination starts, the 
 burlap and plastic film are removed from the beds, 
 snow fence is rolled out on the 1- by 6-inch bedboards 
 to provide half-shade, and the burlap is laid on top of 
 the half-shade for 10 days. The burlap conserves 
 moisture and guards against early spring freezes. In 
 one instance, air temperatures dropped to 12° F. with¬ 
 out harm to the seedlings. With this method, red- 
 cedar seed completes germination about 3 weeks earlier 
 in the spring than does seed covered only with burlap. 
 Favorable results are also obtained when it is used with 
 Austrian and ponderosa pine. 
 
 Fall sowing of eastern redcedar is also being tried 
 
 experimentally at the Bessey Nursery, The cedar 
 berries are collected as soon as they are ripe and are 
 depulped. The seeds are dried just enough to permit 
 drill seeding, sown, covered with burlap, and mulched 
 with straw or hay. Germination has been sufficient to 
 produce good stands the following spring. 
 
 At the Mandan nursery of the Soil Conservation 
 Service, October sowing of Juniperus produced uni¬ 
 form germination from 1946 through 1949. Seed of 
 Rocky Mountain juniper was stratified at 45° to 50° F. 
 for a 4-month period prior to sowing, while that of 
 eastern redcedar was sown dry. After seeding, the 
 beds were mulched with a 4-inch layer of straw and 
 shingletow and watered until freezeup. The mulch 
 helped to prevent (a) winter drying when snow cover 
 was absent, (b) alternate freezing and thawing, and 
 (c) premature germination in the spring.® 
 
 SELECTION OF THE NURSERY SITE 
 
 Successful planting of conifers in the Plains begins 
 with the selection and development of the nursery site. 
 This decision is a prime factor in determining the 
 quality and cost of the planting stock. In fact, the 
 success or failure of the nursery may depend on the site 
 selected. Once the nursery is established, a change in 
 location is difficult and expensive. 
 
 The Plains have an essentially adverse environment 
 for growing coniferous seedlings. Common problems 
 are excessive alkalinity of soil or water, water shortages, 
 poor internal drainage and crusting and baking of some 
 soils, lack of mycorrhizal fungi, wind erosion, frequent 
 winter injury, frost heaving, hail, heat injury, much 
 damping-off, and damage by rodents and birds. 
 These are a formidable array of difficulties for those 
 planning to grow conifers in the Plains. All sites have 
 some problems. Therefore, one with the fewest 
 adverse factors must be chosen. 
 
 The major considerations in the selection of a nur¬ 
 sery site are the soil and the water supply. Other 
 important items requiring attention are the availability 
 of markets, utilities, and labor; the shape, topography, 
 and size of tract; and the crop history of the land. 
 
 SOIL 
 
 A suitable soil in the nursery is a prime requisite 
 since the characteristics of the soil influence almost 
 every nursery operation, from sowing the seed to ship¬ 
 ping the stock. Soil texture, soil fertility, its reaction, 
 and its alkalinity are discussed in this section. All 
 aspects of the management of the nursery soil are 
 discussed in detail in a later section. 
 
 Soils with textures that would be considered some¬ 
 what droughty for dryland farming are the ones best 
 adapted to conifer seedling and transplant culture. 
 The irrigation equipment, an essential feature of any 
 Plains nursery, will overcome a trend to droughtiness, 
 which is an inherent feature of all soil profiles with 
 properties desired for a conifer nursery. 
 
 ^Personal communication with A. E. Ferber, Soil Conser- 
 vaUon Service, Denver, Colo., August 1960. 
 
 The surface and subsurface layers of soil to a depth 
 of at least 10 feet should be sands, loamy sands, or light 
 sandy loams. Good internal drainage is necessary, 
 since alkalinity problems, especially upward movement 
 of alkalies from evaporation, are at a minimum in such 
 soils. Areas with tight soils or with clay bands in the 
 substrates must be avoided. So too must extremely 
 coarse, gravelly substrates, which permit a high loss of 
 irrigation water. 
 
 In terms of mechanical analysis, the top 12 to 24 
 inches of soil should have a silt-plus-clay content be¬ 
 tween 12 and 35 p>ercent, with subsoils preferably in the 
 5 to 20 percent range. Tests can readily be made with 
 a field test kit (Wilde and Voigt 1955) or performed 
 for a fee at the soil testing laboratory of the State 
 agricultural college. 
 
 Commercial nurserymen growing balled and bur- 
 lap|>ed stock prefer somewhat finer textured soils for 
 their lining-out beds, used for the second and succes¬ 
 sive transplantings. Soils may be loams or even silt 
 loams, with a silt-plus-clay content of as much as 60 
 percent. Such lining-out tracts receive less watering 
 than seedling or “first transplant” beds; hence, the 
 salinity problem is not as critical. 
 
 Sandy soils have advantages over the heavy soils 
 for seedling and transplant culture. They have bet¬ 
 ter water intake and better soil-air-moisture relation¬ 
 ships; they crust less, can be worked sooner after rain 
 or irrigation, have fewer alkali problems, and produce 
 more fibrous root systems (Anderson and Cheyney 
 1934, Howell 1932). The trees can be lifted, dug, and 
 transplanted with less power and less damage to the 
 rootlets. The disadvantages of sandy soils are their 
 need for more frequent watering, their lower fertility, 
 and their greater subjection to wind erosion. 
 
 The initial nutrient level of the proposed conifer 
 nursery site before fertilization, particularly for areas 
 devoted only to seedlings and transplants, can be some¬ 
 what lower than is desirable for farm crops. More im¬ 
 portant is the need for a friable, deep, rather p>orous, 
 slightly acid soil free from harmful alkalies. Such soils 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 19 
 
 are likely to be deficient in available phosphorus. 
 They may also contain less total nitrogen and organic 
 matter than is necessary for conifer production. But 
 these deficiencies can be remedied by means described 
 in the section on “Soil Management.” 
 
 The pH of the prospective nursery site is quite likely 
 to be 6.0 to 7.2 for soils that have not been irrigated. 
 Use of soils with a pH of 7.5 or higher, especially 
 those of fine texture, is almost certain to result in in¬ 
 soluble or very costly problems of pH adjustment, due 
 to an excess of carbonates and alkalies. (See Eng- 
 strom and Stoeckeler 1941 and Richards et al. 1954 
 for more discussion of this problem.) However, for 
 nursery blocks that produce balled and burlapped stock 
 from transplanted seedlings, satisfactory growth has 
 been obtained in soils with a surface pH as high as 
 7.8, such as in the High Plains of northern Texas near 
 Lubbock, where oriental arborvitae, various junipers, 
 and some of the drought-hardy pines are being 
 produced. 
 
 Use of soils with more than 500 p.p.m. (parts per 
 million) of total soluble salts has created difficulties 
 in the growing of pines and spruces, owing to chlo¬ 
 rosis, excessive damping-off, crusting of salts on the 
 surface due to evaporation of irrigation water, and 
 phosphate and other nutritional unbalance. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 Most States have laws on water use, particularly 
 on the pumping of water from lakes, streams, and 
 reservoirs. Some States require registration of pumps 
 drawing irrigation water from wells. The State Geo¬ 
 logist can provide information. 
 
 Experience has shown that irrigation water for use 
 in Prairie-Plains conifer nurseries should have less than 
 200 p.p .m. of total dissolved solids (Engstrom and 
 Stoeckeler 1941). For sensitive crops, as defined by 
 the Salinity Laboratory at Riverside, Calif., the sodium 
 adsorption ratio of the irrigation water should be under 
 10 and the boron content less than 0.5 p.p.m. (Rich¬ 
 ards et al. 1954). Most conifers grown in the Prairie- 
 Plains are in the sensitive-crop category, so these 
 criteria should be considered approximate p>ermissible 
 maximums. In nurseries devoted to the growth of 
 balled and burlapped stock, where the water need is 
 less than for seedbeds or transplants, water with as 
 much as 400 to 500 p.p.m. of dissolved solids has been 
 used. Higher amounts may be permissible with proper 
 periodic soil treatments, such as acidification. 
 
 Even though irrigation water meets the above speci¬ 
 fications, alkalinity problems can still occur. Con¬ 
 tinued irrigation for several years may result in an 
 unsatisfactory condition in the soil surface. An 
 example is the water supply at the Towner Nursery, 
 Towner, N. Dak. Analysis at the time of nursery 
 establishment showed 187 p.p.m. of total dissolved 
 solids in the irrigation water. Two years of heavy 
 watering raised the average reaction (pH) of the soil 
 
 surface from 6.5 to 7.5, and seedlings of sensitive 
 species began to show the effects. Stunting, patch¬ 
 iness, poor stands, and a low percentage of plantable 
 trees were observed in some beds. The condition was 
 readily corrected with acidifying materials. 
 
 Water drawn from wells may be somewhat less 
 alkaline than surface water taken from streams, and 
 it is also free of weed seed. Moreover, salinity of water 
 in some streams tends to increase as the river stage 
 drops; at this time water needs in the nursery may be 
 quite high. 
 
 The irrigation water required depends on the size 
 of the nursery, its latitude, relative acreage of seed¬ 
 beds and transplants, amount and distribution of rain¬ 
 fall during the growing season, method of irrigation, 
 stand density, protection by windbreaks, and amount 
 of shade on seedbeds. Nurseries in the Southern 
 Plains often need more water than those in the North¬ 
 ern Plains. Nurseries in the Western Plains require 
 more irrigation water than those farther east, where 
 the rainfall is higher. Flood or furrow irrigation re¬ 
 quires more water than sprinkler irrigation. More 
 water will be needed in abnormally hot seasons such 
 as occurred in 1936. 
 
 During years of normal precipitation the total ir¬ 
 rigation water needed for nurseries growing both 
 seedlings and transplants is estimated to be as follows: 
 
 Annual supplemental 
 water needs 
 
 Location {inches) 
 
 Northern Plains_ 10-15 
 
 Central Plains_15-25 
 
 Southern Plains_25-30 
 
 In years of abnormal heat or drought, 5 to 8 inches 
 must be added to the above amounts. Most nursery¬ 
 men will prefer to have a water system with a capacity 
 sufficient to water the necessary area in daylight hours, 
 and a surplus capacity for watering on a round-the- 
 clock basis in seasons of drought or extreme heat. A 
 flow of 450 gallons per minute is equivalent to 1 acre- 
 inch of water per hour. 
 
 For nursery blocks devoted to balled and burlapped 
 stock spaced in rows 40 to 80 inches apart, a capacity 
 of 10 to 20 gallons per minute per acre is ample. 
 
 For sprinkler irrigation, per-minute capacities of 50 
 and 30 gallons of water per acre of seedbeds and trans¬ 
 plants, respectively, are sufficient. Extensive use of 
 flood irrigation will require 30 percent more water. 
 
 AVAILABILITY OF MARKETS, UTILITIES, 
 AND LABOR 
 
 The nursery site should be close to, or slightly south 
 and east of, the market center of the area to which 
 stock is to be shipped. The warmer climate to the 
 south permits lifting of the stock when the planting 
 season opens. If other factors are equal, the more 
 easterly locations have the advantage of greater 
 rainfall. 
 
 The nursery location should have good access to 
 
20 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 railroad, highway, telephone, and telegraph facilities. 
 The type of planting stock distribution anticipated 
 naturally has a bearing on transportation needs. How¬ 
 ever, since deficiencies cannot be remedied easily, ade¬ 
 quate service at the start is virtually essential. The 
 nursery must be on an all-weather road. Electric 
 power is almost a necessity for light, seed and plant¬ 
 ing stock refrigerators, and other miscellaneous needs. 
 
 There must be an adequate supply of labor near 
 the nursery site. The amount of labor needed varies 
 widely, depending on the size of the nursery, the ex¬ 
 tent of mechanization, the degree of chemical weed 
 control, and the amount and kind of stock grown. For 
 about 6 weeks in the early spring, when labor needs 
 are at a peak, about 2.0 laborers are required per acre 
 of nursery seedbed and 1.5 laborers per acre of trans¬ 
 plants. For 25 ^ months in late spring and early sum¬ 
 mer, the average requirements may be about 1.5 la¬ 
 borers per acre. And for about 3 months in late sum¬ 
 mer and fall, the requirements are 0.75 laborer per 
 acre. The average required for this 7-month period 
 is about 1.3 laborers per acre. Women and girls may 
 constitute as much as 30 to 50 percent of the labor 
 force and often do most of the transplanting, grading, 
 and counting of stock. 
 
 SHAPE, TOPOGRAPHY, AND SIZE OF TRACT 
 
 Ideally the nursery tract should be square or 
 rectangular; the long dimension should not be more 
 than twice the short one. However, the best site 
 available may be a long, narrow tract. An efficient 
 layout is more difficult to obtain on such a piece of 
 land, but the disadvantages can be minimized by care¬ 
 ful planning. 
 
 A level tract with stone-free, deep loamy sand or 
 light sandy loam soil is desirable. Such sites are most 
 often on a stream terrace or glacial lake bottom. If 
 furrow irrigation is anticipated, the land should have a 
 gentle slope in one direction, preferably 0.1 to 0.2 
 percent on fine sandy loams, and slightly more for 
 loamy fine sands. On very sandy soils, which absorb 
 water rapidly, slopes up to 0.5 or 1.0 percent have been 
 successfully irrigated in furrows. On land with more 
 slope, it may be necessary to lay out the beds on con¬ 
 tours with terraces. 
 
 Existing wind protection can often be used in choos¬ 
 ing a nursery site. Natural or planted trees or situa¬ 
 tions favored by local topography may reduce the need 
 for, or time required to obtain, adequate protection. 
 
 The tract must be large enough to meet immediate 
 and preferably long-range production goals. Space 
 calculations also must consider the need for cover 
 and soil improvement crops in the rotation. 
 
 To compute nursery acreage needs per million trees 
 for any specific age class, the probable production of 
 usable trees per square foot of seed and transplant 
 beds must be known. An average of 40 usable seedlings 
 or 5 usable transplants per square foot of bed is a 
 reasonable assumption for Prairie-Plains conditions. 
 
 On this basis the net space requirements per million 
 trees produced will approximate those in table 4. 
 Other seedling and transplant densities may be used 
 similarly in determining net space requirements of 
 individual nurseries. For example, where seedlings 
 are field planted directly, an average need of 30 trees 
 per square foot might be assumed. 
 
 Table 4. —Net space requirements per million trees 
 of seedlings and transplants, excluding paths and 
 roads ^ 
 
 Age class of 
 stock 
 
 Acres required for— 
 
 Total 
 
 1st 
 
 year 
 
 2d 
 
 year 
 
 3d 
 
 year 
 
 4th 
 
 year 
 
 5th 
 
 year 
 
 1-0 . 
 
 0. 57 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 57 
 
 2-0. 
 
 . 57 
 
 0. 57 
 
 
 
 
 1. 14 
 
 3-0. 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 0. 57 
 
 
 
 1.71 
 
 1-1. 
 
 . 57 
 
 4. 59 
 
 
 
 
 5. 16 
 
 2-1. 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 4. 59 
 
 
 
 5. 73 
 
 1-2. 
 
 . 57 
 
 4. 59 
 
 4. 59 
 
 
 
 9. 75 
 
 2-2. 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 4. 59 
 
 4. 59 
 
 
 10. 32 
 
 3-2. 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 4. 59 
 
 4. 59 
 
 10. 89 
 
 2-3. 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 57 
 
 4.59 
 
 4. 59 
 
 4. 59 
 
 14. 91 
 
 1 Figures are based on 40 plzintable seedlings and 5 plantable 
 transplants per square foot. 
 
 The gross producing area of the nursery should be 
 three to four times the net space requirements. An 
 area of this size allows for paths, roads, and other non¬ 
 production areas, and for cover crops in the rotation. 
 Additional space must be allowed for windbreaks. 
 
 The minimum size for nurseries producing several 
 million seedlings and several million transplants is 20 
 to 40 acres in actual tree production, with 10 to 20 addi¬ 
 tional acres in reserve or cover crop. 
 
 CHOP HISTORY OF LAND 
 
 The class of land most likely to be selected for a 
 conifer nursery site is former farmland. Such land is 
 usually free or nearly free of the more serious noxious 
 weeds such as quackgrass and field bindweed. Areas 
 that have been in intertilled crops are more amenable 
 to immediate sowing of seedbeds than are those 
 formerly in small grain or hay crops. The weed prob¬ 
 lem in the latter areas is likely to be serious for several 
 years. 
 
 There may be tracts of grassland, pasture, or wild 
 hayland suitable for nursery development. These 
 generally would not be suitable for tree production for 
 about 2 years after breaker plowing. They should 
 preferably be summer fallowed for 1 year and planted 
 to an intertilled agricultural crop the second season. 
 Only then is the soil likely to be in good enough con¬ 
 dition for nursery producdon. 
 
 More rarely, abandoned agricultural land with 
 suitable topography and reasonably adequate fertility. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 21 
 
 but with a somewhat droughty nature, may be used. 
 It may have been abandoned because of its droughti¬ 
 ness. However, if other factors are favorable, if the 
 area has good internal drainage, adequate topsoil 
 depth, proper soil texture, and an adequate supply of 
 
 water of the desired chemical properties, it may be 
 considered a potential nursery site. But the weed 
 problem would probably be so serious as to require 2 
 years of development by the method described for 
 grassland. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NURSERY SITE 
 
 After the nursery site has been selected, it must be 
 developed. Physical data on soil and ground relief 
 characteristics must be obtained during or immediately 
 after acquisition for use in planning the development. 
 Careful groundwork will lessen the need for costly 
 future alterations. 
 
 An accurate map with a scale of 1 inch to 50 to 100 
 feet should be made. On this map the layout of the 
 water system, roads, windbreaks, and buildings can 
 be diagrammed. A topographic map with a contour 
 interval of 0.5 to 1.0 foot is useful in leveling and 
 other necessary ground fitting. If flood irrigation is 
 planned, such a map can be used to determine the 
 location of the main ditches or flumes and grassed 
 waterways. It also can provide the basis for sub¬ 
 dividing the nursery. 
 
 SUBDIVIDING THE NUDSEDY 
 
 The site selected for a nursery is usually smooth, but 
 there are always some small humps and minor de¬ 
 pressions that need to be leveled. Where the cut or 
 fill is more than 3 or 4 inches, it is desirable to stockpile 
 the topsoil, perform the leveling, and replace a normal 
 cap of topsoil on the disturbed area (Mony 1935). 
 
 Trash, straw piles, scrap lumber from old buildings, 
 and other debris should not be burned on any area to 
 be devoted to the growing of trees. Experience has 
 shown that trees grown on the burned areas are more 
 subject to damping-ofT, and growth is depressed, at 
 least on the first crop. 
 
 On land with more than a 1-percent slope, the nurs¬ 
 ery should be subdivided on the contour. The degree 
 of slope and the type of irrigation to be used determine 
 the specific pattern. A system of broad-base terraces 
 should be developed at intervals of 100 to 150 feet. 
 The vertical interval may be 1 to 3 feet. At Norman, 
 Okla., hedge windbreaks were established on the 
 downhill side of each terrace. At most nurseries, slat- 
 wire snow fences are preferred, since they occupy less 
 space, can be readily moved, and harbor no disease or 
 insect pests as living hedges sometimes do. 
 
 Terraces in areas where rather high-intensity rains 
 occur should have some grade. Those at the State 
 Nursery at Norman, Okla., have a grade of about 1 
 percent, with a vertical interval of 2 feet between 
 terraces. The Spacing of terraces, both horizontally 
 and vertically, and their rate of fall depend on the 
 infiltration rate of the soil, steepness of slope, crop, 
 length of terrace, and facilities for disposal of runoff 
 water. 
 
 Agricultural engineers have worked out detailed 
 guidelines on the development of terraces, and numer¬ 
 ous publications with data of local or regional appli¬ 
 cation are available. The technicians of the Soil Con¬ 
 servation Service have helped many nursery personnel 
 lay out a system of terraces and grassed waterways. 
 
 On level land, the irrigation system to be used is 
 the chief factor in subdividing the nursery. A com¬ 
 mon basic subdivision is rectangular, 400 to 500 feet 
 long and 250 to 500 feet wide. A subdivision of this 
 size will accommodate the standard overhead irriga¬ 
 tion system. Where portable surface-pipe irrigation 
 with rotary sprinklers is to be used, distances from the 
 riser to the end of the line may be 700 to 900 feet. 
 
 DEVELOPING THE IBBIGATION SYSTEM 
 
 The type of water supply that should be developed 
 depends on the volume required for irrigation. The 
 choice is often dictated by the quantity and quality of 
 the water available on the nursery site. 
 
 The nurseryman must determine the best method of 
 pumping and distributing the water. The type of 
 pump and motive power to be used will depend on 
 the quantity needed, the pressure desired, and the 
 depth of the water table. 
 
 However, most nurseries in the Plains depend upon 
 wells as a source of water. Deep wells cost more to 
 develop and pump than shallow wells, except possibly 
 where artesian pressure is available. 
 
 A few nurseries pump from streams and ponds. 
 Open water sources are usually less costly to develop 
 than wells. Several wells and pumps are better than 
 a single one, which may break down or fail occasion¬ 
 ally. Where multiple installations are made, they 
 should be far enough apart to avoid overlap of their 
 cones of depression under sustained pumping. 
 
 Well points may be adequate for small nurseries but 
 are not recommended where a large quantity of water 
 is required. Because of the frequent fluctuations in 
 the depth of the water table due to long droughts and 
 the heavy drain upon the underground water supply, 
 it is difficult to maintain a satisfactory water level in 
 the ordinary shallow well or battery of well points. 
 However, this difficulty can be overcome by increasing 
 the depth of the well as the water table drops or by 
 constructing a deep well equipped with a turbine 
 pump. ^ 
 
 Most nurseries use deep-well turbine pumps to ob¬ 
 tain their water supply. These should be installed on 
 a contract basis, with a guarantee of development of 
 
22 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 a specific minimum amount of water per unit of time 
 under sustained pumping of 8 or more hours. 
 
 Centrifugal pumps are satisfactory where water is 
 pumped out of streams or shallow water tables. The 
 suction lift should not be more than 15 feet, and 5 to 
 10 feet is preferred. Shallow wells are often cased 
 with perforated steel pipe, and coarse sand and gravel 
 are placed next to the intake to aecelerate inflow of 
 water and to reduce the rate of clogging of the screen 
 with finer sand particles. Details of casing a well 
 are given in Agricultural Handbook 110 (Stoeck- 
 eler and Jones 1957) and in numerous State college 
 publications on irrigation and well development 
 (Duffin 1955, Fisehbach et al. 1957). 
 
 There are three general types of irrigation; use is 
 made of (1) overhead pipelines, (2) sprinklers with 
 a portable surface pipe, and (3) furrows or flooding. 
 The overhead system is the type most widely used 
 nationally in coniferous nurseries. It is usually the 
 standard against which other systems are compared. 
 
 The overhead system, which is convenient and sim¬ 
 ple to operate, consists of a series of parallel pipes 
 spaced 52 to 53 feet apart and resting on pipe supports 
 at 12-foot intervals (fig. 13). Nozzles are spaeed at 
 2- or 3-foot intervals on the pipe. When this system 
 is in operation, oscillators driven by the water pressure 
 turn the 200- to 500-foot lengths of pipe through an 
 arc sufficient to water a strip about 28 feet wide on 
 each side of the pipe. 
 
 Water is distributed effieiently, and maintenance 
 costs are relatively low. The primary disadvantages 
 are the high initial cost and rather incomplete cov¬ 
 erage obtained when winds are blowing. Both the 
 underground and overhead piping must be carefully 
 planned and installed to assure top p>erformance. 
 
 F-325967 
 
 Figure 13. —Installation of the 1936 expansion of the 
 Towner Nursery water system. Note mains and risers, 
 cross trenches across future roadway at left for risers to 
 be installed in opposite side, and the long, parallel over¬ 
 head lines shortly to be placed in the pipe supports. 
 
 F-475078 
 
 Figure 15.—A portable sprinkler irrigation system at the 
 Oakes Nursery, Oakes, N. Dak. The pipe is of 4-inch 
 diameter and is in 20-foot lengths, and the sprinklers are 
 40 feet apart. One well supplies 13 sprinklers; each 
 throws 13 gallons per minute. There are three wells on 
 the 40-acre tract. Note the excellent wind protection af¬ 
 forded by the dense one-row planting of Siberian elm, 25 
 feet high 20 years after planting. 
 
 The surface-pipe sprinkler system consists of an un¬ 
 derground water main to which lightweight, quick¬ 
 coupling metal pipes are attached (fig. 14). Each 
 section of pipe is 20 to 40 feet long, and rotating single- 
 or double-nozzle sprinklers are installed at 40-foot inter¬ 
 vals (fig. 15). Lengths of 600 to 700 feet may extend 
 from the underground water mains. 
 
 The nozzle sizes used in the rotating type of sprinkler 
 should generally be one-eighth or three-sixteenths inch 
 in diameter, especially for first-year seedbeds; nozzles 
 of larger diameter throw so much water that there is 
 much undesirable splash and soil movement in the 
 beds. For second-year seedbeds and for transplants, 
 larger nozzles would be permissible since soil splash 
 is not as serious a problem, even with nozzle sizes put¬ 
 ting out as much as one-half inch of water per hour. 
 The usual capacity of sprinkler heads used in conifer 
 nurseries is 9 to 18 gallons per minute. 
 
 The initial cost of the surface-pipe sprinkler sys¬ 
 tem is less than that of the overhead system. This 
 method is more flexible and therefore better adapted 
 to the smaller nursery. But it is less convenient. Dis¬ 
 tribution of water is not as uniform. Splashing and 
 soil movements are likely to be greater problems. 
 
 More details on sprinkler watering, estimates of 
 water needs, and other aspects of irrigation are avail¬ 
 able in publications by Fogel (1957), Monson (1952), 
 Monson et al. (1953), Thorfinnson et al. (1955), 
 Wiersma (1955, 1956), and Woodward and Gilden 
 (1955). 
 
 Flood or furrow irrigation should only be used as 
 a supplement for the sprinkler systems in conifer nur¬ 
 series. The porous soils required for best conifer pro¬ 
 duction cause uneven distribution of water, excessive 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAENS 
 
 23 
 
 Figure 14. —Sprinkler irrigation system layout used at the Oklahoma State Nursery at Norman. 
 Surface pipes of 4-inch diameter are laid on the contour between terraces from hydrants. 
 The main pipeline is 8 inches in diameter. 
 
24 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 water use, and leaching of soil nutrients. Also, flood 
 irrigation is less apt to produce the fine fibrous root 
 system desired on pines. 
 
 Under some circumstances, flood or furrow irri¬ 
 
 gation may be a convenient means of watering trans¬ 
 plant beds or second-year seedbeds. Straight rows 
 are preferred to contour rows because of the greater 
 ease of layout. 
 
 SEEDBED PREPARATION AND SOWING 
 
 Ordinary farm equipment—tractors, plows, disks, 
 and harrows—is used to prepare the soil for seedbeds, 
 transplant beds, or cover crops. The choice of equip¬ 
 ment will depend on the size of the nursery, compara¬ 
 tive costs, and the personal preference of the nursery¬ 
 man. 
 
 Both wheel and crawler-type tractors are used in 
 Plains nurseries. The heavy jobs in the larger nursery 
 will require a tractor of about 35-drawbar horsepower. 
 A light unit of 15 to 18 hp. is suitable for the lighter 
 jobs or as the basic power unit for the small nursery. 
 Tractors equipped to use two- or three-point suspen¬ 
 sion implements are more maneuverable and versatile. 
 
 Rotary tillers are used at a few Prairie-Plains nur¬ 
 series for ground preparation. They do an excellent 
 job of incorporating manure, peat, and compost into 
 the soil. However, they tend to pulverize the soil too 
 finely, leaving it more subject to wind erosion. 
 
 As part of soil preparation, small patches of weed 
 pests such as quackgrass can be spaded out carefully by 
 hand, or eliminated by repeated use of a potato digger, 
 quacker, or rotary tiller (ClilTord 1934). If a rotary 
 tiller is used, the hinged rear cover is folded so as to 
 throw soil and roots a maximum distance. After use 
 of any of the three machines, the roots are raked and 
 picked off the surface. Especially heavy patches of 
 quackgrass or other noxious weeds can be eliminated 
 by use of chemicals such as methyl bromide, ammo¬ 
 nium trichloracetate, or sodium trichloracetate. The 
 manufacturers’ instructions should be followed care¬ 
 fully. Sources of information on nursery machinery, 
 equipment, and chemicals are given in the Appendix. 
 
 STAKING OUT AND PREPARING THE REDS 
 
 After the seedbed area has been worked down and 
 leveled, 4-foot-wide beds are staked out. Where over¬ 
 head irrigation is to be used, 10 beds usually are spaced 
 between the pipelines. The space next to the pipeline 
 is usually 18 inches wide, and the nine paths between 
 the 10 beds are 12 inches wide. Some nurseries use 
 only nine beds in order to allow more path width. 
 Stakes are set at each end of the bed, and binder twine 
 is stretched between them to maintain alinement. 
 
 The final fitting of seedbeds is done by one of several 
 methods. The object is to secure a smooth, slightly 
 crowned, or flat bed. The paths are usually made a 
 few inches lower than the bed centers. Mechanized 
 equipment has superseded hand methods, reducing 
 
 manpower requirements per unit of land prepared for 
 seeding. A commercial seedbed shaper (Story 1940), 
 or some adaptation of it (fig. 16), is used at the larger 
 nurseries. 
 
 A method suitable for small-scale operations involves 
 the placement along each bed of two 1- by 4-inch bed- 
 boards spaced 44 inches apart inside. The bedboards 
 are held down with inverted U-shaped strap iron stakes 
 (Robbins 1935, Stoeckeler and Jones 1957). The bed- 
 boards serve as a track on which to slide the bed leveler 
 (fig. 17a). The simple device consists of a piece of 
 1- by 8-inch board 43 inches long; a piece of 2- by 4- 
 inch wood about 2 feet longer than the 1- by 4-inch 
 leveling blade is placed on both sides of the board. To 
 reduce wear on the leveler, a steelplate is placed on 
 the bottom of the leveler where it rides on the 1- by 
 4-inch bedboard. Once beds have been sown, dry, 
 sandy nursery soil is sifted over them, and they are 
 again leveled, with an adjustment for varying the 
 depth of seed covering. 
 
 Seedbeds may also be prepared with a smoother 
 
 F-504414 
 
 Figure 16.—A tractor-mounted bed shaper which forms and 
 levels a seedbed in one operation. Bessey Nursery, Hal¬ 
 sey, Nebr. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 25 
 
 F-475099. 505893 
 
 Figure 17. — Two methods of seedbed preparation: A, a 
 simple and effective float suitable for use on 1- by 4-inch 
 bedboards; B, a seedbed smoother in operation. 
 
 (Futrell 1959) or a 4-foot-wide drag (fig. 17b). Drill 
 seeding is done directly on this prepared bed. 
 
 In all bed preparation some hand touchup of the 
 beds is necessary. The surface of small spots which 
 has become excessively smooth or “shiny” is slightly 
 roughened with push brooms or springy-tined leaf 
 rakes just before seeding so that light seed will remain 
 in place after broadcasting and before the seed cov¬ 
 ering is applied. 
 
 In some nurseries rollers are used to firm the seed¬ 
 beds prior to sowing; other nurseries depend on the 
 walking done on the beds while they are being 
 smoothed, raked, or leveled. Rollers are also used to 
 press the seed lightly into the soil after the beds 
 have been seeded and covered. In large nurseries 
 where seeding has been mechanized into one operation 
 in which only one machine is used, the roller has been 
 made an integral part of the seed drill. 
 
 COMPUTING THE AMOUNT OF SEED 
 TO SOW 
 
 Seed should be sown on the basis of a specific weight 
 of seed per unit of area to secure desired seedbed den¬ 
 sities and to prevent seed wastage. Laboratory tests 
 should be used to determine the germination percent. 
 For freshly collected seed such as juniper, which may 
 have to be fall-sown in the same season it is collected, 
 a cutting test should be used to provide an estimate 
 of quality. 
 
 The amount of seed to sow can be estimated by the 
 following formula: 
 
 AxD 
 
 GxSxY 
 
 where P = pounds of seed; 
 
 ^ =area in square feet; 
 
 L) = desired density in number of seedlings per 
 square foot; 
 
 G = germination percentage of the seed, ex¬ 
 pressed as a decimal; 
 
 S = number of seeds per pound at time of seed¬ 
 ing; and 
 
 Y = survival factor expressed as a decimal. 
 
 The survival factor (Y) is the percentage of the 
 viable seed that survives to the transplantable seedling 
 stage, whether that be the 1-0, 2-0, or 3-0 age. It 
 varies greatly by species and nursery and drops with 
 increasing age of the seedling (table 5). The survival 
 factor can be determined only after data are obtained 
 from germination tests, cutting tests, sowing rate tests, 
 and bed inventories. 
 
 Seedbed density has a marked effect on stock quality, 
 seedling size, cull percent, and efficient use of seed. 
 It can be varied so that the maximum number of trees 
 suitable for transplanting or direct field planting are 
 produced. The experience and judgment of many 
 nurserymen indicate that pine and juniper seedlings 
 to be transplanted should be grown in broadcast-sown 
 beds at a density of 50 trees per square foot, and that 
 spruce intended for transplanting (2-0 and 3-0) 
 should be grown at densities of not more than 100 
 trees per square foot. For drilled spruce seed the 
 density can be reduced to 60 to 75 trees per square foot. 
 In some of the Southern Plains States, conifers shipped 
 from the nursery are fieldplanted as seedling stock, 
 usually as 2-0. Such trees are grown at a density of 
 30 per square foot. 
 
 Fifty years ago Pearson (1914) recommended seed¬ 
 bed densities for ponderosa pine of about 75 per square 
 foot. Higgins (1928) evaluated the seedbed density of 
 ponderosa pine in terms of the lowest cost per surviving 
 2-1 tree in the field. He favored a seedbed density of 
 75 trees or less per square foot (table 6). Wahlenberg 
 (1929) studied ponderosa pine under a range of densi¬ 
 ties from 80 to 275 trees per square foot and found 80 
 to be best. The stem diameter decreased 0.1 milli¬ 
 meter for each 44-tree increase per square foot. After 
 
26 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 5. —Survival ratios for several species and age 
 classes of stock at two Plains nurseries 
 
 Species 
 
 Towner Nursery 
 
 Mandan Nursery i 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 Blue spruce. 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 Rocky Mountain 
 
 juniper. 
 
 Scotch pine. 
 
 0. 43 
 .73 
 
 .70 
 . 57 
 
 0. 39 
 .63 
 
 . 62 
 .45 
 
 0. 50 
 .68 
 
 . 53 
 
 0. 30 
 .60 
 
 . 50 
 
 
 
 
 1 Formerly operated by the Soil Conservation Service. 
 
 2 years in the field, the stock planted as 2—0 had a 
 1-percent decrease in field survival for every 15-tree 
 increase in seedbed density. Current practice is to sow 
 for 50 pine trees per square foot. 
 
 The number of 1-0 seedlings that survive in relation 
 to the number of seeds that germinate also is influenced 
 by seedbed density. Higher tree survival factors are 
 obtained when medium-to-low seeding densities are 
 used. In an experiment at Towner, N. Dak., with 
 ponderosa pine, a medium seeding density of 112 seeds 
 per square foot resulted in a 66-percent survival of 1-0 
 seedlings (fig. 18). 
 
 Table 6. —Nursery performance, and second-year 
 field survival and cost of 2-1 ponderosa pine as 
 affected by nursery seedbed densities 
 
 Trees per 
 square 
 foot of 
 seedbed 
 (number) 
 
 Average 
 weight 
 per tree 
 
 Nur.sery 
 
 cull 
 
 Survival 
 in trans¬ 
 plant 
 bed 
 
 Second- 
 year field 
 survival of 
 trans¬ 
 plants 
 
 Final 
 cost of 
 1,000 
 surviving 
 trees 
 
 
 Grams 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Dollars 
 
 76. 
 
 3. 98 
 
 5. 4 
 
 89 
 
 75 
 
 4. 48 
 
 95. 
 
 3. 88 
 
 7. 5 
 
 88 
 
 67 
 
 5.05 
 
 121. 
 
 2. 88 
 
 9. 4 
 
 88 
 
 62 
 
 5. 52 
 
 141. 
 
 2. 60 
 
 11. 1 
 
 85 
 
 61 
 
 5. 62 
 
 TIME OF SEEDING 
 
 The time of year to seed conifers depends on the tree 
 species, growth rate, and, to some extent, nursery 
 location. 
 
 Seed dormancy and optimum germination tempera¬ 
 ture vary by species. Species having seed with embryo 
 dormancy or a combination of embryo dormancy and 
 impermeable seedcoat are fall sown, or they may be 
 spring sown if the seed is first subjected to cold stratifi¬ 
 cation. Those with impermeable seedcoats but no 
 embryo dormancy are preferably spring sown after the 
 prescribed pretreatment for rendering the seedcoat 
 permeable. 
 
 VIABLE SEED SOWN PER 
 SQUARE FOOT (NUMBER) 
 
 Figure 18. —Relation of first-year survival percent in pon- 
 derosa pine seedbeds to amount of viable seed sown per 
 square foot. Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Because of the longer growing season available to 
 them, fall-sown seedlings commonly are larger and 
 better developed at the end of the first season than are 
 spring-sown seedlings. This differential growth of 
 fall- and spring-sown beds can be used to produce seed¬ 
 lings of the desired size for field planting or for trans¬ 
 planting. 
 
 Local climate must also be considered in setting the 
 time of seeding, particularly for fall sowing. Pre¬ 
 mature germination, with subsequent freezing and 
 mortality of seedlings, can be avoided by delaying seed¬ 
 ing to a time when unseasonable warm temperatures 
 are less apt to occur. Coverings with insulating quali¬ 
 ties, such as clean straw or marsh hay, can be applied 
 to fall- and spring-sown beds to delay germination in 
 the spring. With the above reservation, spring seeding 
 should be done as early as the ground can be worked 
 to allow the seedlings the maximum growing period. 
 
 Emergency late-season seeding (early summer) sub¬ 
 jects the seedlings to high air and ground temperatures 
 during germination and early growth, and frequently 
 results in high mortality. 
 
 Eastern redcedar is sown in the fall after pretreat¬ 
 ment. Seed of the current year depulped and cleaned 
 with a lye solution usually germinates promptly the 
 following spring. Rocky Mountain juniper is handled 
 similarly but with less consistent results. 
 
 Most pine seed is sown in the spring. This is the 
 general practice for ponderosa pine throughout the 
 Plains. Promptly germinating species, such as jack, 
 Scotch, shortleaf, Japanese red, and Japanese black 
 pines, are also spring sown. Sometimes, to even out 
 the nursery workload, ponderosa pines and other pines 
 are fall sown. White pines, such as limber pine or 
 Swiss stone pine, should be sown in the fall; if stratified 
 seed is used, they should be sown in the spring. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 Ponderosa pine in some Dakota nurseries is too small 
 for transplanting as 1—0 and somewhat too large as 
 2-0. By delaying the seeding to about the first half 
 of June, a 1 ^2-0 tree about the right size for transplant¬ 
 ing is produced. Such summer seedings must be 
 watched carefully to avoid heat injury to the tender 
 seedlings in midsummer. They may require not only 
 shading but also more frequent light sprinklings to 
 reduce soil surface temperatures. Summer seedings of 
 ponderosa pine have also been used at the Bessey 
 Nursery. 
 
 Spruce seed of dormant lots should be sown in the 
 fall. However, if the seed are nondormant or strati¬ 
 fied, they may be sown in the spring. In North 
 Dakota® and Wisconsin (Jones 1934), white spruce 
 seed sown in the fall germinates more promptly and 
 completely than that sown in the spring. 
 
 BROADCAST VERSUS DRILL SOWING 
 
 Drill sowing has generally replaced broadcast seed¬ 
 ing by hand in Plains nurseries, since it is more eco¬ 
 nomical. It eliminates the cost of sand covering and 
 permits mechanical cultivation. 
 
 However, broadcast seeding results in a more uni¬ 
 form distribution of seed, better mutual protection of 
 seedlings, quicker formation of a complete ground 
 cover, and more rapid suppression of weeds (Arnold 
 1956, Meines 1939). Brewster and Larsen (1925) 
 found a 20-percent higher stand in broadcast beds 
 than in drill-sown beds of ponderosa pine, both sown 
 with equal amounts of seed. 
 
 At the Towner Nursery, in a controlled experiment, 
 no significant difference was found between the two 
 seeding methods in ponderosa pine beds grown at an 
 average density of 59 trees per square foot. The aver¬ 
 age tree percent, based on viable seed sown, was 95.1 
 for drill-sown beds and 86.4 for broadcast-sown beds. 
 At the 2-0 stage it was 66.2 and 65.6, respectively; the 
 average fresh weight of 30 trees was 24.3 and 26.3 
 grams, respectively. All drill sowing was done by hand 
 at carefully regulated seeding depths (fig. 19). 
 
 Spruces generally are regarded as better suited to 
 the broadcast-sown beds than the usual drill sowings, 
 since the depth of cover can be controlled more closely 
 for broadcast seed. However, the best of the machine 
 drill sowing should approach the control obtained by 
 the hand method. 
 
 Research has shown no clear-cut advantage for 
 either method in the quality and quantity of seedling 
 stands produced, and the choice by the nurseryman 
 will doubtless be influenced more by other considera¬ 
 tions, such as the area of seedbed to be sown and 
 equipment available for seeding. 
 
 SEEDING EQUIPMENT 
 
 Seeding, except on small-scale operations, is done 
 with mechanical seeders which place the seed in rows 
 
 * Personal communication with John Molberg, Associate 
 State Forester, Bottineau, N. Dak. 
 
 27 
 
 F-329649 
 
 Figure 19.—Two- by four-foot experimental beds after use 
 of hand method of drill seeding. The drills were made 
 by tamping the 10-cleat frame in the background into a 
 level, newly prepared, loose, moderately moist bed. The 
 cleats are three-fourths by 1 inch. Seed is covered by 
 hand or with the back of a rake drawn parallel to the 
 drills. 
 
 or broadcast over the seedbed. Some seeders are man¬ 
 ufactured commercially (fig. 20, A and C), while 
 others may be built in a nursery shop from individual 
 grain drill units assembled in batteries of 7 to 10 drills 
 per 4-foot-wide bed (fig. 20B ). 
 
 A lawn seeder is sometimes used. It is simply a 
 V-shaped trough with adjustable openings in the bot¬ 
 tom, which feed out the seed at a specific rate. A 
 shaft rotor in the bottom is turned by the forward 
 motion of the seeder and keeps the seed stirred up and 
 feeding properly. The seed is covered by a mechani¬ 
 cal Sander. The seeder broadcasts seed over a full 
 4-foot-wide bed, and can successfully handle seed as 
 small as white spruce (200,000 per pound) and seed 
 sown to obtain 75 trees per square foot.^° This seeder 
 is especially suitable to small nurseries with a produc¬ 
 tion of a few hundred thousand trees or less per year. 
 
 A second type of seeder, one with a 10-spout seeder, 
 can be used for drill seeding (if equipped with 10 in¬ 
 dividual drill openers and closers), or can be adapted 
 to broadcast seeding by letting the seed drop on a 
 baffleboard placed at approximately a 45-degree angle 
 to make the seeds bounce and slide toward the back, 
 as the seeder is pulled forward (fig. 20B). It may be 
 hand drawn or pulled by tractor. The seeder may run 
 
 Personal communication with Robert Heintz, formerly 
 Nursery Superintendent, North Dakota State Nursery, 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
28 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 on wooden tracks or on the smoothed soil of the seed¬ 
 bed path. 
 
 Seeders that sow and cover the seed in one opera¬ 
 tion are more commonly used than the preceding types. 
 These sow the seed in drills the length of the bed. 
 One or two flat rollers are incorporated (fig. 20C); 
 these perform the final smoothing and firming of the 
 seedbed and drive the seeding apparatus. The seed 
 is fed from a common hopper through modified grain- 
 seeding tubes to the seeding assemblies. Each assem¬ 
 bly consists of an adjustable furrow-opening shoe and 
 a furrow coverer. Packing wheels firm the soil in each 
 drill row, before and after seeding. 
 
 On another type of seeder, two corrugated rollers 
 are mounted rigidly in tandem, with one slightly offset 
 from the other. The seed is fed into the sharply de¬ 
 fined furrows formed by the first roller. It is then 
 covered by the action of the second roller, which splits 
 the ridges formed by the first roller. 
 
 All seeders can and must be adjusted to put out a 
 specific number of seeds per square or lineal foot of 
 drill. The usual procedure is to lay down a large 
 
 F-505890, 296336 
 
 Figure 20. —Several types of seeding machines suitable for 
 4-foot-wide conifer beds; A, A seeder used in combina¬ 
 tion with a roller; B, modified grain drill with 10 tubes, 
 here used for broadcast seeding; C, eight-drill seeder- 
 roller combination, Big Sioux Conifer Nursery, Water- 
 town, S. Dak. C, (Courtesy of S. Dak. Dept, of Game, 
 Fish, and Parks.) 
 
 canvas and, after making an approximate adjustment, 
 to draw the seeder over it for a specific distance; the 
 amount of seed laid down per unit of area is then 
 counted and weighed. Adjustments are made until, 
 after a few trials, the right amount of seed is laid down. 
 The seeder is then ready to sow that specific lot of 
 seed. Frequent checking is needed as seeding proceeds 
 to make sure that each drill is feeding, that no refuse 
 is clogging the feeding mechanism, and that the seed 
 hopper or hoppers have enough seed to maintain a 
 uniform flow. 
 
 COVERING THE SEED 
 
 After the seed is sown, a uniform depth of covering 
 is needed for even germination of seed and a uniform 
 stand of seedlings. Deep sowing makes emergence 
 more difficult and increases the possibility of injury 
 from damping-off fungi. 
 
 The proper sowing depth depends upon seed size, 
 soil texture, and the season of sowing. The common 
 practice is to sow the seed of the larger seeded species 
 such as ponderosa pine at a depth of one-fourth to 
 one-half inch and that of the finer seeded species at 
 one-eighth to three-sixteenths inch. The seeding 
 depth can be about one-third greater in the light 
 sandy soils than in the heavier loam soils because of 
 the greater ease of seedling emergence in the sandy 
 soils. Seeds should be sown slightly deeper in the fall 
 than in the spring to insure adequate covering of the 
 seed in beds exposed to frost action and wind erosion. 
 
 The sowing depth recommended for ponderosa pine 
 is supported by research. Show (1917) found that 
 
PERCENT or GERMINATION 
 
 29 
 
 CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 one-half inch cover was quite satisfactory. Brewster 
 and Larsen (1925) found that on comparable plots 
 under northern Rocky Mountain conditions, the num¬ 
 ber of seedlings obtained according to cover depth was 
 as follows: one-fourth inch, 680; three-eighths inch, 
 650; one-half inch, 600; three-fourths inch,'550; and 1 
 inch, 470. 
 
 Trials at the Towner Nursery in North Dakota, in 
 a considerably drier area than mentioned by the above 
 investigators, showed the germination of ponderosa 
 pine to be dependent both on depth of seeding and 
 whether burlap mulch was used (fig. 21). Two seed 
 lots of different germinative energy were used. The 
 best stands with both seed collections were obtained 
 with one-fourth to five-eighths inch depth and a burlap 
 mulch. At three-fourths inch and deeper, the stand 
 count for seed with a burlap mulch dropped very 
 rapidly. Apparently under burlap, surface drying 
 of beds is not as severe as in unmulched beds, and a 
 very thin soil or sand cover suffices. However, when 
 no burlap mulch was used, one-fourth inch proved too 
 shallow a cover, and the unmulched seed in a consid¬ 
 erable range of sand depth (three-eighths to three- 
 fourths inch) gave better stands. 
 
 Managers of Prairie-Plains nurseries on sandy soils 
 generally use drill seeding and thus avoid the need to 
 cover the seed in a separate operation. However, in 
 nurseries located on heavier soils there are excellent 
 
 Figure 21.—The effect of depth of covering and use of 
 burlap mulch on the germination of ponderosa pine seed, 
 Towner Nursery," Towner, N. Dak. Two seed collection 
 lots were used; the numbers on the trend lines designate 
 these lots. 
 
 reasons for using broadcast seeding with peat, sand, 
 or sawdust as a seed covering to avoid crusting. Straw 
 mulches have been used in some nurseries, but one- 
 fourth inch of sawdust was reported to be more effec¬ 
 tive (Clifford 1955, Knight 1958); it has the advan¬ 
 tages of being free of weed seeds and not requiring re¬ 
 moval (Allison and Anderson 1951). Whatever cover¬ 
 ing is used, seed that is broadcast sown should be 
 .pressed slightly into the soil with a roller before 
 covering. 
 
 Sand to be used as a cover should be thoroughly 
 tested to see that it is at least slightly acid. The test 
 is made with a few drops of 10 to 20 percent hydro¬ 
 chloric acid. If the material fizzes, the sand is not 
 desirable for use as a cover, since it is likely to increase 
 damping-off disease. 
 
 Sands that are acid or neutral in reaction are scarce 
 in the Great Plains, especially in the western part. 
 Sands from subsurface layers of soil, which are more 
 free of weeds and disease, tend to be even more alkaline 
 in reaction. Some dune sands in the Plains may be 
 leached of carbonates to a depth of 4 to 6 feet; these 
 are suitable as seedbed covers. In areas of extensive 
 heavy soils, sometimes the only suitable sandy mate¬ 
 rial is in the surface 6 to 10 inches of the sandiest 
 field that can be found. 
 
 Where no acid sands are within easy hauling dis¬ 
 tance of the nursery, Davis (1940) suggests that in 
 lieu of using alkaline sands, the nurseryman drill sow, 
 surface sow with burlap mulch, or broadcast sow with 
 sawdust as a seed cover. 
 
 If straw or any type of hay is used, it should be as 
 free as possible from weed seed. If such material is 
 hard to obtain, the nurseryman could well grow some 
 rye or oats in the nursery and mow it before seed has 
 formed in order to assure a supply of mulch free from 
 weed seed (fig. 22). 
 
 F-502091 
 
 Figure 22. —Application of a layer of straw on top of cot¬ 
 ton commodity cloth in fall-sown beds, Bessey Nursery, 
 Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 '748-005 0—65-3 
 
30 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Mulch applied to fall-sown beds serves the following 
 purposes: 
 
 1. It conserves moisture and reduces soil drying 
 and cracking. 
 
 2. It prevents fall germination by reducing soil 
 temperatures at seeding depth. 
 
 3. It retains soil temperature in the 33° to 50° F. 
 range longer, and by preventing soil freezing 
 in late fall or early winter, it provides a longer 
 period of afterrip>ening under conditions simi¬ 
 lar to controlled temperature stratification. 
 
 4. It reduces soil blowing and uncovering or deep 
 burial of seed. 
 
 5. It prevents early spring germination. 
 
 At least one commercially manufactured sand 
 spreader is available for use on broadcast-sown beds. 
 However, most nurseries use homemade devices. A 
 simple one consists merely of a frame, 2^/^ by 3 feet, 
 with the long sides extending a foot or more beyond 
 each end to make the handles. The bottom of the 
 frame is covered by j4-iDch-mesh galvanized hard¬ 
 ware cloth. Sand or sandy soil from the paths is 
 shoveled onto the screen, which is shaken by two men. 
 
 A tractor-drawn endless-belt sand spreader was de¬ 
 vised by Olson (1930). Bull (1954) describes a 
 reciprocating sifter, suitable for sifting sand or saw¬ 
 dust, which is actuated by a camshaft and mounted on 
 a trailer (fig. 23). The Savenac Nursery has devised 
 an automatic trough sander, which is towed behind a 
 dump truck from which the sand drops into the sander. 
 
 Any chemical treatments with liquid materials, such 
 as acidification with dilute sulphuric acid or alumi¬ 
 num sulphate or postseeding weed-control drenches, 
 should be applied after the seed is covered with sand 
 or soil and before the burlap or any other mulch is 
 applied. 
 
 F-505892 
 
 Figure 23.—A reciprocating sifter, Towner Nursery, Towner, 
 
 N. Dak. 
 
 F-502093 
 
 Figure 24. —Pinning down burlap on newly seeded beds to 
 conserve moisture and assure prompt, uniform germina¬ 
 tion, Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. Burlap covering also 
 prevents wind erosion. Looped pins of galvanized iron 
 wire are preferred, as they can be re-used. 
 
 Newly seeded beds are commonly protected with 
 covers between seeding and germination. Soil mois¬ 
 ture levels favorable for germination can be main¬ 
 tained with less watering. Use of burlap has been 
 quite successful with the more rapidly germinating 
 pines, especially in spring seedings (fig. 24). More 
 recently, polyethylene film has been employed as a 
 bed covering; it has an outstanding ability to virtually 
 preclude any moisture loss from the beds. Burlap 
 alone does not do this well, especially on fall sowings. 
 A combination of polyethylene film covered by burlap 
 prevents tearing of the film by wind and, by reducing 
 soil freezing, increases the time the fall-sown seed is 
 exposed to the beneficial afterripening effect of soil 
 temperatures in the 33° to 50° F. range. 
 
 The life of burlap is extended by treating it with 
 copper naphthenate (Anderson and Kineer 1949). 
 After use, it should be dried thoroughly, beaten to re¬ 
 move excessive soil, and rolled for storage. A special 
 burlap reel can be used advantageously (Stoeckeler and 
 Jones 1957). 
 
 Five stages of nursery operation, including prepar¬ 
 ing the seedbed, seeding, rolling, seed covering, and 
 sifting sand, are illustrated in figure 25. The methods 
 shown represent an intermediate stage of development 
 of nursery equipment that gave an accuracy of depth 
 control in seeding seldom achieved by the more mech¬ 
 anized methods now commonly used, especially in the 
 larger nurseries. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 SEEDBED CARE DURING GERMINATION AND THE SEEDLING STAGE 
 
 The seed germination stage of about 10 to 30 days 
 is most critical because the tender seedlings are easily 
 injured. Mulches must be removed in the spring after 
 the danger of killing frosts has passed. If allowed to 
 remain in place until germination is well advanced 
 and after the seedcoats appear above ground, the 
 mulch interferes with early growth, and its removal 
 from the bed is accompanied by mechanical damage. 
 Great care must be used in taking up burlap or in 
 raking straw mulches from the seedbed. Fiber or wire- 
 tined rakes are less damaging than ordinary garden 
 rakes. Complete removal is desirable since losses of 
 seedlings are apt to occur as a result of excessive mois¬ 
 ture and the root rot disease favored by the decom¬ 
 position of the mulch. 
 
 HALF-SHADE 
 
 Half-shade is needed in Prairie-Plains conifer beds, 
 particularly by the more delicate and smaller seed¬ 
 lings during the first season. It is common practice to 
 shade all species except ponderosa pine and occa¬ 
 sionally Austrian pine. These two species are more 
 heat resistant and are often grown without shade. 
 
 Half-shade prevents heat and drought injury, reduces 
 water use, and minimizes soil drying (Hartley 1918, 
 Stoeckeler and Jones 1957, Tourney and Korstian 
 1942). When placed directly on bedboards, it also 
 excludes rabbits and dogs. Any half-shade tends to 
 confine the intrusion of larger mammals, such as deer, 
 to the paths. 
 
 Four separate experiments at the Towner Nursery 
 showed that no advantage was to be obtained by shad¬ 
 ing ponderosa pine during the first year. The trends, 
 when analyzed separately for each experiment, were 
 nonsignificant statistically, but the stands, as noted 
 below, were consistently greater in the unshaded beds. 
 
 Experiment 
 
 Plots * 
 Number 
 
 ■ . . . 48 
 
 No shade 
 {trees per 
 square foot) 
 78.9 
 54.6 
 61.2 
 52.2 
 
 Half-shade 
 {trees per 
 square foot) 
 
 1 
 
 
 64 
 
 / 1 
 AH A 
 
 1 
 
 64 
 
 40. U 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 u f» ^ 
 
 AC Q 
 
 
 
 4D. o 
 
 Average.. 
 
 1 Size of plots: 
 
 A, 4 by 12 feet; B, 
 
 61. 7 56. 0 
 
 C, and D, 2 by 4 feet. 
 
 F-439905 
 
 Figure 25.—Various seedbed operations are illustrated here. Right background: preparing seedbeds and laying portable 
 track. Center background: operating a 10-spout seeder, with seedbed roller following the seeder. Center foreground: 
 operating a sanding machine. Right foreground: sifting sand with a slanting portable screen into sand-carrying tray. 
 
32 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Two experiments at the Towner Nursery compared 
 the presence and absence of shade on the basis of tree 
 percent of viable seed sown (fig. 26). Unshaded beds 
 produced higher tree percents, except for high-density 
 sowings in one of the studies. 
 
 Jack pine, however, does best under shade. In a 
 study at the Towner Nursery, shaded beds consistently 
 had a denser stand than unshaded beds and were sub¬ 
 stantially better at the higher rates of viable seed sown 
 (fig. 27). 
 
 The advantages of shading are considered to be 
 even greater with spruces than with jack pine, since 
 the former are slower growing and more delicate than 
 pine. Some nurserymen leave half-shade on second- 
 year spruce until mid-September. The need for shade 
 is somewhat dependent on the season of sowin ; and 
 on watering frequency. Fall-sown seeds germinate 
 more promptly than spring-sown ones. Trees, there¬ 
 fore, are larger and have thicker stems by early 
 summer, and less heat injury occurs. 
 
 Almost all nurseries use slat-wire snow fence for 
 half-shade. For high-shade, snow fence may be placed 
 on two tightly drawn pieces of No. 9 wire supported 
 on 30-inch posts driven into the ground with 1- by 2- 
 inch crosspieces at intervals of about 12 feet (fig. 28). 
 The snow fence is 12 to 20 inches above the ground. 
 It must be wired together and drawn fairly taut at 
 the ends. Some nurserymen take the additional pre¬ 
 caution of attaching it to the No. 9 wire at intervals of 
 about 25 to 30 feet to keep it from being thrown off 
 the wires in high winds. If a third wire is run down 
 the middle of the beds, upright supports can be at 
 least 15 feet apart (Sharkey 1956). 
 
 Where bedboards are used, the snow fence is rolled 
 directly on top of them. This lower shade is not quite 
 as effective as higher shade because the strips of seed¬ 
 bed are exposed longer to full sunlight and there is 
 less free air movement under the snow fence. Heat 
 injury occurs occasionally when half-shade is posi¬ 
 tioned at a height of 4 or 6 inches. 
 
 A few nurseries use rigid shade frames. The Bessey 
 Nursery, for example, uses individual 4- by 12-foot 
 shade frames made of lath nailed to 2- by 254-inch 
 stringers—one on each long side. These shade frames 
 are supported on each of the four corners by a piece 
 of 1^2-inch angle iron 3 inches long that has been 
 welded to the top of a 22-inch-long five-eighths-inch 
 bolt. The bolts are pushed into the ground about 6 
 inches. 
 
 SOIL MOISTURE AXD IRRIGATION 
 
 The amount of water applied in a nursery will vary 
 by water-holding capacity of the soil, annual precipi¬ 
 tation, air temperature, humidity, wind, species, and 
 age of stock. Each soil has a specific water-holding 
 capacity, and only enough water need be added to raise 
 it to field capacity. For sands, this value is about 8 to 
 12 percent; for loamy sands, 12 to 15 percent; for sandy 
 loams, 15 to 25 percent; and for silt loams, 25 to 35 
 percent. Excessive watering tends to leach out soluble 
 
 VIABLE SEED SOWN (NUMBER PER SQ.FT.) 
 
 Figure 26.—Tree percent in 1—0 ponderosa pine beds in two 
 separate experiments (I and II) in shaded versus un¬ 
 shaded beds over a range of sowing densities, Towner 
 Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Figure 27.—Effect of half-shade on a stand of first-year jack 
 pine seedlings over a range of sowing densities, Towner 
 Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 33 
 
 F-342193. 342194 
 
 Figure 28.— A, Round posts and crosspieces for half-shade 
 support; B, the half-shade in position, Fremont Nursery, 
 Fremont, Nebr. 
 
 nutrients, especially nitrogen and potash, and results in 
 unnecessary use of water and power. 
 
 The amount of water to use on trees, particularly 
 from midsummer on, or when the tree roots are at least 
 3 or 4 inches long, can be gaged by use of a tensiometer. 
 This device consists of a porous ceramic cup fitted to a 
 vertical aluminum or plastic tube to which is attached 
 a sealed vacuum gage (fig. 29). 
 
 The entire system is filled with clean water, and the 
 porous cup is buried in the soil in the rooting zone. 
 Water moves through the porous cup to the soil until 
 the tension or suction pull is equalized. The amount 
 of pull is registered in the vacuum-gage dial pointer. 
 The scale ranges from 1 to 100, and represents tension 
 values from 0 to 1.0 atmosphere. Watering of beds is 
 started as soon as the pointer gets into the 50 to 60 
 range. The tensiometer needs occasional filling with 
 water. It may or may not be kept in one place, but 
 about 8 hours must elapse before equilibrium is 
 reached. Hence, it is desirable to have a tensiometer 
 for first-year seedbeds, one for second-year beds, and 
 another for transplants. If texture varies consider¬ 
 ably, checks of moisture content must be made in 
 several situations. Slight knolls that are exposed and 
 very sandy soils will dry out faster than flat areas or 
 those with a higher silt-plus-clay content (Stoeckeler 
 and Aamodt 1940). 
 
 Soil moisture content can also be gaged by electro¬ 
 metric methods devised by Bouyoucos (1956) and 
 
 Colman (1947), by oven drying or use of Livingston 
 soil points (Stoeckeler 1939), or by the alcohol-burning 
 method (Bouyoucos 1937). 
 
 Under nursery conditions, especially during active 
 growth, soils should never be allowed to dry to the 
 wilting point. Preferably they should have at least 
 2 to 3 percent of moisture in excess of the wilting point 
 in sands and 4 to 5 percent in excess in sandy loams. 
 Excessive soil dryness can weaken plants, while exces¬ 
 sive watering tends to reduce drought resistance (Shir¬ 
 ley and Meuli 1939, Stoeckeler 1951a). For example, 
 where 2-0 jack pine were grown under four levels of 
 watering in the nursery, optimum drought hardiness 
 was achieved by those trees in seedbeds with an average 
 available moisture content of about 5 percent from 
 June 1 to September 15, or a total average soil mois¬ 
 ture content of about 8.5 percent for a soil with a silt- 
 plus-clay content of 10 to 12 percent (Stoeckeler 
 1951a). Among western species, Roeser (1940) 
 determined that the water requirements of spruce and 
 fir were considerably higher than those of ponderosa 
 or limber pine. 
 
 Correct watering from germination to the time when 
 root length is at least 3 or 4 inches and stems are mod¬ 
 erately resistant to heat injury is difficult to gage instru- 
 mentally, and the nurseryman should rely on keeping 
 the surface of the bed moist by light daily or twice daily 
 watering. The ends of beds on the windward side may 
 require hand watering with a hose. At the Bessey 
 Nursery, first-year conifers are watered twice a day for 
 the first 4 to 6 weeks; 0.15 inch is applied in the early 
 morning and the same amount in the late afternoon. 
 Thereafter, one watering is made per day, unless the 
 beds are moist from rain. 
 
 Two-year-old stock requires watering about every 4 
 
 F-493114 
 
 Figure 29.—Two instruments for soil moisture determina¬ 
 tion. The soil mosture meter on the left works on the 
 tensiometer principle; it measures comparative soil dry¬ 
 ness in terms of suction pull of the soil. The moisture 
 meter on the right gages soil moisture electrometrically by 
 measuring resistance of current through buried gypsum 
 blocks. 
 
34 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 days, and transplants at least once a week; enough 
 water is applied to soak the soil to an 8- to 10-inch 
 depth. The amount required varies from 0.3 to 0.8 
 inch. In sand, 1 inch of water will wet the soil to a 
 depth of about 1 foot (Woodward and Gilden t955). 
 The depth of wetting will depend on the soil moisture 
 content when watering is started. 
 
 Near the end of the growing season, the trees are 
 watered only once every week to 10 days to harden off 
 the stock, reduce succulence, and increase frost hardi¬ 
 ness. This hardening-off process begins in late August 
 in the Northern Plains, in mid-September in the Cen¬ 
 tral Plains, and in late September or early October in 
 the Southern Plains. 
 
 WEED CONTROL 
 
 Weeds are a constant problem in nurseries and must 
 be systematically eliminated by hand picking, by the 
 use of hand-pushed or power-operated cultivators, or 
 by the application of chemicals. Many nurseries use 
 all of these methods. 
 
 Mechanical and Hand Weedln|4 
 
 In new seedbeds hand weeding is often used as a 
 mopup operation after chemical weed control. Weed- 
 ers may work in pairs on the same 4-foot-wide beds, 
 each taking half the bed and working systematically 
 from one end to the other, or each may have an as¬ 
 signed unit, consisting of one-fourth or one-half the 
 length of the bed. The weeds are pulled by hand and 
 dropped into boxes or collected later from piles in the 
 paths. Deep-rooted, hard-to-pull, or persistent weeds, 
 or those that break off, are dug out or cut off 1 inch 
 or more underground with a steel cutter fixed into a 
 loop attached to a wooden handle (Engstrom and 
 Stoeckeler 1941), an old table knife bent into an L- 
 shape (Tennessee Valley Authority 1954), or a similar 
 handtool. Paths are cleaned with a push hoe or with 
 wide sweeps attached to a rubber-tired tractor. 
 
 After the trees are about 6 weeks old, seedbeds sown 
 in drills with a 4 / 2 - to 6-inch space between drills can 
 be cultivated with power-drawn rotary weeders 
 (McDaniel 1954, Mony 1954, Stoeckeler and Jones 
 1957, and Umland 1946). 
 
 Transplants in rows spaced 10 inches or more apart 
 are usually straddle cultivated by a battery of ordinary 
 farm cultivator shovels mounted on a tractor. In this 
 operation, all the rows in a 4-foot bed are cultivated 
 simultaneously. Where the row spacing is uniform 
 and wide enough to accommodate a rubber-tired trac¬ 
 tor, the rows can be cleaned with multiple-row culti¬ 
 vators to minimize damage to the trees. In transplant 
 beds, four to six cultivations a year are needed to keep 
 the weeds down. 
 
 Weeding should start when the weeds are quite 
 small. Weeds 1 to 2 inches tall are eradicated much 
 more readily than larger ones, and minimum damage 
 to trees occurs. To reduce root breakage, beds should 
 be made reasonably moist before weeding. 
 
 Chemical Control of Weeds 
 
 Chemical weeding is used much less in Plains nurs¬ 
 eries than elsewhere. Wider use could reduce stock 
 costs. Chemicals used rather extensively for weed con¬ 
 trol in forested areas include mineral spirits, allyl alco¬ 
 hol, and methyl bromide. Other chemicals being 
 tested show promise. The generally rapid advance in 
 the use of chemicals to control agricultural weeds is 
 bringing additional benefits to nursery practice. 
 
 Safety rules and precautions for handling, mixing, 
 and applying chemicals are given in the Appendix. 
 All nurserymen should be thoroughly familiar with 
 these rules and should see that adequate precautions 
 are taken when any chemicals are handled. 
 
 Mineral Spirits 
 
 Mineral spirits are petroleum products that are used 
 as selective herbicides in many conifer nurseries (Rob¬ 
 bins et al. 1947, Stoeckeler 1951b and 1952b, Wycoff 
 1954). When used in proper amounts, they kill small 
 broadleaf weeds and grasses without harming the ever¬ 
 greens. They can be purchased from most bulk gaso¬ 
 line distributors. 
 
 Undiluted mineral spirits are applied with pressure 
 sprayers as a fine mist at a pressure of 50 to 100 pounds 
 per square inch, generally at the rate of 25 to 75 gal¬ 
 lons per acre (table 7). On a small scale they can be 
 applied with a 1- or 2-gallon pressure sprayer. They 
 are most effective if applied three to six times per sea¬ 
 son when the weeds are small, preferably about one- 
 fourth to 1 inch tall. Taller and older weeds are 
 more resistant to oil sprays. 
 
 Table 7. —Dosages of mineral spirits used on conifer 
 species in the north-central Prairie-Plains 
 
 
 
 Age 
 
 
 Species 
 
 3 to 6 
 weeks 
 
 6 weeks 
 to 1 year 
 
 1 year 
 and 
 older 
 
 Juniper, Rocky Mountain. . . 
 
 Gal.jcicre 
 
 25 
 
 Gal. 1 acre 
 30 
 
 Gal.! acre 
 40-60 
 
 Pines; 
 
 
 
 
 Austrian. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40-60 
 
 Jack. 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 Ponderosa. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40-75 
 
 Red. 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 Redcedar, eastern. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40-60 
 
 Spruce: 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 Blue. 
 
 White. 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 White (Black Hills). 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 The mineral spirits must be applied as a fine mist, 
 and at a dosage reasonably near the optimum for the 
 specific age class and species. The temperature at the 
 time of spraying is also important. In the absence of 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 35 
 
 specific information from Plains nurseries, it is recom- 
 niended that application should not be made when 
 air temperature exceeds 80° F., a limit that has been 
 found safe in Lake States nurseries. Trials conducted 
 over a period of years have helped to determine effec¬ 
 tive applications at individual nurseries. 
 
 Mineral spirits were first used in the Bessey Nursery 
 in June 1948. They were applied with a Bean sprayer 
 at 200 pounds pressure, using about 50 to 80 gallons 
 per acre on seedlings and 80 to 115 gallons per acre on 
 transplants. Weed kill ranged from 50 to 100 percent. 
 
 Good kill was obtained on lamb’s quarters, primrose, 
 barnyard grass, crabgrass, foxtail, sandbur, fescue, and 
 pigweed. The following species were rather resistant 
 to the spray: Panic grass, rye, ragweed, pepper grass, 
 sunflower, nightshade, sage verbena, plantain, clover, 
 and wood sorrel. 
 
 By 1951, dosages as low as 25 to 50 gallons per acre, 
 sprayed when weeds were quite small (usually less 
 than 1 inch tall), were giving up to 90 percent weed 
 kill. These lower dosages reduced weeding costs 35 
 percent. Injury to seedlings was generally small, al¬ 
 though occasionally about 5 percent of the trees showed 
 some tempKDrary yellowing that usually disappeared 
 within 1 month. Mortality has been under 1 percent, 
 or less than that normally lost in ordinary hand weed¬ 
 ing and machine cultivation. 
 
 Seedlings less than 6 weeks old are more subject to 
 injury from mineral spirit sprays, and special precau¬ 
 tion must be taken with them. 
 
 At the Oklahoma State Nursery, excellent weed con¬ 
 trol has been obtained by application of mineral spirits 
 two or three times a season in amounts as low as 12 to 
 15 gallons per acre. The mineral spirits were applied 
 as soon as the secondary foliage appeared on the seed¬ 
 lings. Eastern redcedar and Austrian, ponderosa, 
 shortleaf, and loblolly pines are among the species 
 sprayed. 
 
 If weeds have emerged but the tree seedlings have 
 not, excellent control with complete safety may be ob¬ 
 tained by spraying the weeds with 50 to 60 gallons per 
 acre of mineral spirits. 
 
 Methyl Bromide 
 
 Methyl bromide is a gas injected under polyethylene 
 film or gasproof cover before seeding. Developed for 
 disease control in forest tree nurseries, it has been very 
 effective as a weed control on seedbeds in which first- 
 year seedlings are produced. It has virtually elimi¬ 
 nated all weed growth for 22 days or more after the 
 tree seed has been sown (Stoeckeler 1951c). In the 
 usual treatment, 1 pound per 100 square feet of bed 
 area is used; however, the dosage may vary from one- 
 fourth to V/i pounds, depending on the kind and 
 severity of weed infestation and the soil texture (Mony 
 1961). In tests at the Towner Nursery in North 
 Dakota, one-half pound applications reduced weed 
 numbers by two-thirds, a degree of control equal to 
 that obtained with dosages of 1 to 1 j /4 pounds. Air 
 temperatures should range between 50° and 80° F., 
 
 and a high moisture content of the weed seeds is essen¬ 
 tial for control. 
 
 Total costs, which include those for labor, gas, and 
 plastic covers with a 2 -year life, have averaged $234 
 per acre in Indiana. This was 67 percent of the cost 
 of other chemical methods and 50 percent of the cost 
 of solvent oil and sulfuric acid methods (Monv 
 1961). ^ 
 
 Allyl Alcohol 
 
 Allyl alcohol has had excellent effect as a preseeding 
 treatment when applied about a week before seeding. 
 Also, no covers are needed. It can be applied at the 
 rate of about 10 gallons of the concentrated chemical 
 in 5,000 gallons of water per acre (Maki and Allen 
 1952, Steavenson 1952, Stoeckeler et al. 1951). Ex¬ 
 perience in Plains nurseries is lacking. In small-scale 
 operations, it has been applied in 0.2 percent solution 
 by volume with sprinkler cans or acid sprayers. On 
 large-scale operations, the safest method appears to 
 be that of Lanquist (1951), who injects a 10-percent 
 mixture by volume of allyl alcohol in water through 
 the riser end of the overhead irrigation system. The 
 mixture is injected at the rate of 50 gallons per 400 
 feet of pipeline; watering is then used to obtain further 
 penetration into the soil. 
 
 Miscellaneous Chemicals 
 
 Zinc sulfate (Wahlenberg 1930) has been used as 
 a postseeding drench, at 8 grams per 250 cubic centi¬ 
 meters of water per square foot of seedbed, and has 
 given 80 percent weed reductions. However, some 
 chemical injury has been reported in dry seasons or 
 during water shortages; spruce has been especially 
 affected (Dejarnette 1936). Sulfuric acid has given 
 good weed control, and it is considered safer than zinc 
 sulfate, because of the possibility of zinc toxicity. 
 
 A 4-percent solution of formaldehyde, at 1 gallon 
 of solution per square yard, applied as a drench well 
 before seeding, has given good weed and damping-off 
 control (Holmes and Ivens 1952). 
 
 Simazine has been used successfully for weed control 
 in Minnesota nurseries. Stadtherr and Coultas 
 (1961) applied one-half to 1 pound per acre as a 
 postemergent treatment to conifer seedbeds on a heavy 
 loam soil. Application of 1 to 2 pounds per acre was 
 used in the second year after transplanting. Two 
 applications were made on the transplants, one in May 
 and the other in mid-July to August. On sandy soils 
 some injuries followed its application. This chemical 
 may warrant small-scale trials under Prairie-Plains 
 conditions. 
 
 Other chemicals reported successful as nursery weed 
 controls are vapam, applied at one-half or 1 quart in 
 21 gallons of water per 100 square feet (Briscoe and 
 Strichland 1956) ; ferbam, at 500 pounds per acre in 
 10,890 gallons of water (Allen 1952); and 2,4-D, 
 at 6 pounds per acre, as a preseeding or preplanting 
 control (Clifford 1952). 
 
36 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 POSSIBLE HARMFITL EFFECTS OF 
 CHEMICALS ON TREES AND SOIL 
 
 In recent years chemical corporations and research 
 chemists have developed scores of new chemicals for 
 weed, insect, and disease control. Overdoses of these 
 chemicals or their cumulative effects may adversely 
 affect tree stand, tree growth, or beneficial soil or¬ 
 ganisms (Gambrell and Heit 1952, Theigs 1955, Voigt 
 1953, Wilde and Persidsky 1956). The nurseryman 
 is advised to use conservative dosages found by re¬ 
 peated trials to be entirely safe for the crop he is grow¬ 
 ing. Manufacturers’ recommendations should be 
 checked at State and Federal experiment stations. 
 
 If experiments are undertaken with chemicals still 
 
 being evaluated, only small areas should be treated. 
 Usually application should be limited to a few hun¬ 
 dred square feet in the form of small replicated plots. 
 At Towner Nursery, monuron (3-(p-chlorophenyl) -1, 
 1-dimethylurea), used as a preseeding treatment in a 
 weed-control experiment, was deleterious to eastern 
 redcedar. There was a 60-percent kill of trees at 1 
 pound per acre, 80 percent at 2 pounds, and 95 per¬ 
 cent at 3 pounds. Experiments must be repeated for 
 several years on areas of different soil textures since 
 weather and soil moisture content affect the action of 
 some chemicals. 
 
 A good point to remember is that organic matter in 
 the soil has a counteracting effect on the harmful 
 action of many biocides (Voigt 1955). 
 
 TRANSPLANTING 
 
 Transplanting is a standard practice in almost all 
 Great Plains conifer nurseries. Its primary purposes 
 are to produce more fibrous root systems, thicker, 
 sturdier stems, and better balance between roots and 
 tops. More food is stored, the enlarged stems stand 
 erect, and the more fibrous root system absorbs more 
 moisture and food from the soil. Such plants often 
 have 20 to 30 percent better survival than seedlings. 
 
 Transplanting usually is done when the seedlings are 
 3 to 5 inches tall. Some of the factors contributing to 
 a good transplant job are good soil tilth, a smooth, level 
 bed, and accurate and regular row alinement. 
 
 The method of lifting the seedlings for transplanting 
 is the same as that for field planting. It is described 
 under “Digging, Grading, Packing, Storing, and Ship¬ 
 ping.” After lifting, the roots are pruned, in small 
 bunches, to a uniform length, usually about 6 inches. 
 The trees are then placed in boxes, ready for trans¬ 
 planting. 
 
 Both hand and machine methods of transplanting 
 have been used. The method depends on the size of 
 the nursery, soil texture, amount of transplanting to be 
 done, and the funds available for mechanization. 
 
 Some of the hand methods have been highly efficient, 
 and under some conditions the production rate has 
 been exceeded very little by using transplant machines. 
 Whether hand or machine planted, the trees should be 
 watered thoroughly on the day on which they are 
 transplanted. 
 
 HAND TRANSPLANTING 
 
 Hand transplanting is done across the beds in short 
 rows or lengthwise in continuous rows 100 to 500 feet 
 long. 
 
 Trenches are made in the soil with a hand or tractor- 
 drawn trencher. A hand-trenching tool consists of 
 two thin steelplates welded together, sharpened at the 
 bottom, and fitted with galvanized iron handles (fig. 
 30A ). Several nurserymen have modified small gar¬ 
 den plows or pony plows so they will make a vertical- 
 walled open trench for transplanting in long rows with 
 the conventional transplant board (Jones 1925, Corson 
 1935). 
 
 The trenches should be deep enough and wide 
 enough to accommodate the tree roots in a vertical 
 
 
 F-361928. 361927 
 
 Figure 30. —Equipment for hand transplanting: A, Hand trenchers formerly used at the Bessey Nursery; B, details of the 
 
 construction of an aluminum transplant board. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 37 
 
 position without curling. Crossbed trenches should 
 be about 6 inches longer than the transplant board. 
 The proper amount of soil moisture will prevent the 
 sidewall from sloughing or caving in, in the interval 
 between trenching and planting. Coarse, unrotted 
 plant residues will interfere with the formation of a 
 clean trench; hence, such materials should be plowed 
 under early enough to decompose or should be removed 
 from the site. 
 
 Seedlings are threaded into transplant boards with 
 notches V/s to 2 inches apart (fig. 305) (Fox 1940, 
 Olson 1930, Schrader 1938). To protect the plants 
 they are threaded inside a light, portable shelter. A 
 hinged upper clamp on the board swings down to hold 
 the trees in place while the board is carried to a trench. 
 The tree roots should always be kept moist. The roots 
 will be less exp>osed if the walking distance from the 
 shelter to the transplant bed is kept less than 50 feet by 
 moving the transplant shelters frequently or by assign¬ 
 ing short sections of bed (about 60 to 100 feet) to each 
 planter if the rows are long. 
 
 In planting, the board is lowered with a swinging 
 motion—to and fro—in the trench and parallel to it. 
 After the roots are hanging vertically, the board is 
 adjusted for depth so that the trees are planted one- 
 fourth to one-half inch deep>er than they were in the 
 seedbed (fig. 31). The trench is closed with the feet 
 or a tamper; looseness around the roots must be pre¬ 
 vented. Heel marks and depressions are smoothed by 
 adding loose soil between the transplant rows. 
 
 When long boards (8 to 10 feet) are used, the trans¬ 
 plant area must be exceptionally smooth and level so 
 that all trees are placed at the proper depth. With a 
 10-foot board with 80 notches at I /2 inches, Oliver 
 (1937) reported that an average of 8,600 trees per 
 8-hour man-day were transplanted in hand trenches 
 across the bed. Olson (1930) reported using an 8.5- 
 foot board with 75 notches, but the planting was done 
 the long way of the bed in an open, vertical-walled 
 trench made with a small 7-inch horse-drawn plow. 
 The crew average was 11,000 trees per man-day. 
 Dejarnette and Augenstein (1946) produced 11,500 
 trees per man-day by the same method. Six two-man 
 crews were used; a threader and planter worked in 
 each row. 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery, hand transplanting in recent 
 years has been done with a 6-foot-long board contain¬ 
 ing 60 notches. A 20-man crew was employed; it 
 consisted of 10 threaders, 5 planters, 3 trenchers, 1 tree 
 carrier, and 1 foreman. Trenching was done by hand 
 across the bed with a mast trencher 26 inches wide. 
 One trencherman worked in each group of five beds, 
 while each planter confined his work to three beds, 
 planting each trench as it was opened by the trencher¬ 
 men. Planting coops, each with two threaders, were 
 kept within about 50 feet of the transplanting work. 
 The crew planted" 150,000 to 175,000 trees per 8-hour 
 day. 
 
 Recently, the Bessey Nursery has started transplant¬ 
 ing the long way of the bed. Each bed has seven rows 
 
 F-406424. 365794 
 
 Figure 31. —Two methods of hand transplanting. A, Plant¬ 
 ing 1-0 eastern redcedar across the bed, using a board 
 about 6 feet long; man in foreground is trenching and the 
 man nearest him is firming the soil around the roots of 
 the trees, Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. B, transplanting 
 ponderosa pine in long, continuous trenches made by 
 tractor-drawn trenchers; this method is well adapted to 
 subsequent mechanical cultivation, Towner Nursery, 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 spaced 7 inches apart; thus, the standard lifter for 4- 
 foot-wide seedbeds can also be used on transplant beds. 
 
 MECHAIVICAL TRANSPLANTING 
 
 Mechanical transplanting is accomplished with the 
 Holland Seedling Transplanter, “New Idea” vegetable 
 planter, or a similar ty^ of machine. The so-called 
 “mechanical transplanter” is not fully automatic. 
 Each seedling must be handled individually and placed 
 in a self-closing pocket on a revolving metal disk, or 
 between two self-closing revolving disks. Normally 
 two rows are transplanted at a time, but the number 
 can be increased to seven (Hanks 1962) by mounting 
 additional transplanting units on a special carriage 
 (fig. 32). 
 
 The transplanting machine has many advantages; 
 the chief asset is the elimination of the heavy manual 
 labor involved in hand trenching and trench closing. 
 Since mechanical trench opening and closing are com¬ 
 bined in the same operation, the trench is left open 
 to drying for an absolute minimum length of time. 
 
38 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-504177 
 
 Figure 32.—Seedling transplanter used to transplant seven 
 rows at a 7-inch spacing in one operation. The method 
 permits the lifting of seven rows at a time with the same 
 lifter used for seedbeds. It also permits efficient mechani¬ 
 cal cultivation of seven rows at a time by a bed-straddling 
 tractor. Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 The tree roots are exposed to the air much less than 
 in hand transplanting, where no protection of the 
 threaded boards being moved from the transplant 
 coops to the planting trench is possible. Transplant¬ 
 ing can be done by crews of women; they are more 
 nimble fingered than men in feeding seedlings into 
 the planter. When the transplanting machine is used, 
 less training, teamwork, or balancing of crews is re¬ 
 quired for maximum efficiency. Furthermore, the 
 machine is geared to a specific speed (usually about 
 11 feet per minute), and the planters must keep up. 
 
 The trees are set by the mechanical transplanters 
 1^ or 2^ inches apart in the row. The wider 
 spacing permits trees, especially 2-2 or large 2-1 stock, 
 to be separated with a minimum of root stripping when 
 they are lifted. Batteries of transplanters pulled by 
 one power unit may transplant two to seven rows dur¬ 
 ing one trip over the beds. Uniform spacing between 
 rows is obtained; thus, the trees are less likely to be 
 damaged during later cultivation. 
 
 Transplant machines usually set about 10,000 trees 
 per person per 8-hour day. Thus, use of these ma¬ 
 chines results in production only equal to or a little 
 greater than that obtained by use of some of the most 
 efficient transplant-board methods already mentioned, 
 particularly those where long trenches are made by 
 horse- or tractor-drawn trenchers. Mechanical trans¬ 
 planting has been widely adopted by the nursery in¬ 
 dustry, largely because of a shortage of labor for hand 
 transplanting. 
 
 TRANSPLANT SPACING 
 
 Spacing within the transplant rows of at least 1 
 inches is desirable. This interval has been determined 
 from spacing experiments and general observations on 
 stock quality, ease of separating roots, and freedom 
 from root stripping. 
 
 Janouch (1927), studying spacing in 2-1 jack pine 
 and in 1-1 and 2-1 ponderosa pine, concluded that 
 6- by 1^-inch spacing at the Bessey Nursery was 
 nearly ideal and that 6- by 2-inch spacing was slightly 
 wider than needed. He based these conclusions on 
 subsequent field survival of the stock. 
 
 A comprehensive study of transplant spacing was 
 initiated in the Towner Nursery in the spring of 1939 
 by personnel of the Lake States Forest Experiment 
 Station. The species involved were ponderosa pine 
 and Rocky Mountain juniper. Four spacings within 
 the row (1, I/ 2 , 2, and 4 inches) and four spacings 
 between rows (6, 12, 18, and 24 inches) were tried in 
 all possible combinations. 
 
 A sample of juniper stock was lifted and measured 
 after 1 year in the transplant bed (table 8). Based 
 on a caliper limit of one-eighth inch for a plantable 
 tree, a spacing of at least 6 by 1 ^2 inches, or 9 square 
 inches per tree, was necessary to yield a fairly high 
 percentage of plantable stock. The 2-inch space be¬ 
 tween trees had a marked advantage over lJ/ 2 -inch 
 spacing when row spacing was 1 foot or less. 
 
 When the juniper stock was lifted at the 2-2 age, 
 the maximum production of usable stock occurred at 
 the 6- by 1-inch spacing. All spacings gave at least 75 
 percent plantable stock. The top-root ratio was a lit¬ 
 tle high, generally 4.0 to 5.0, which is not as good as 
 it was at the 2-1 stage. The largest percentage of 
 premium stock (using calipier as a criterion) was pro¬ 
 duced at a spacing of at least 12 by 2 inches. 
 
 Considering all factors of cost and performance, 
 there seems to be no need for growing 2-2 Rocky 
 Mountain juniper at a spacing greater than 6 by 2 
 inches. The usual spacing attained by mechanical 
 transplanters should produce uniformly good stock but 
 with less efficiency than that obtained with closer 
 spacing between rows. 
 
 The ponderosa pine in the spacing experiment were 
 all grown to the 2-2 age (table 9). The stock meas¬ 
 urements showed that 6- by 1^-inch spacing produced 
 good-sized stock of adequate height and stem caliper. 
 All of the trees were slightly more top heavy than was 
 desirable because of exceptionally favorable growing 
 conditions in the fourth year. 
 
 The percentage distribution by stem caliper for 2-2 
 stock of two conifer species is given in table 10. Ap¬ 
 parently, if a considerable proportion of the trees are 
 to have a stem caliper of one-fourth inch or more, 
 spacings of about 6 by 2 inches or larger are necessary. 
 
 TRANSPLANT LOSSES 
 
 In transplant beds, some of the trees die despite 
 careful handling. To compensate for these losses, the 
 amount of stock transplanted must be increased. 
 
 At the Savenac Nursery in Montana, the loss in pon¬ 
 derosa pine has been 3.1 to 30.0 percent (Fox 1937, 
 1939; U.S. Forest Serv., Rocky Mountain Region 
 1931) and is generally 10 to 20 percent. In the North¬ 
 ern Prairie-Plains, junipers and redcedars have had 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 39 
 
 Table 8. —Effect of transplant spacing on size and grade of 2-1 Rocky Mountain juniper, Towner Nursery, 
 Towner, N, Dak. The transplanting was done in the spring of 1939 and trees were measured in the 
 spring of 1940 
 
 Spacing (inches) 
 
 Average length 
 
 Average 
 
 stem 
 
 diameter 
 
 Green weight 
 
 Usable 
 stock 1 
 
 Premium 
 stock 2 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 Total 
 
 Top-root 
 
 ratio 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 64ths inch 
 
 Grams 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 6 by 1. 
 
 11. 0 
 
 11. 1 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 3. 2 
 
 73 
 
 17 
 
 6 by . 
 
 9. 3 
 
 10. 9 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 2. 8 
 
 97 
 
 47 
 
 6 by 2. 
 
 12.5 
 
 11.0 
 
 15 
 
 34 
 
 3. 2 
 
 100 
 
 86 
 
 6 by 4. 
 
 9.5 
 
 9. 5 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 3.0 
 
 100 
 
 77 
 
 12 by 1. 
 
 10. 1 
 
 9. 6 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 3. 3 
 
 90 
 
 33 
 
 12 by 1)^. 
 
 9.5 
 
 10.0 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 3.0 
 
 93 
 
 61 
 
 12 by 2. 
 
 9. 9 
 
 9.5 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 3. 6 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 12 by 4. 
 
 11.0 
 
 12. 3 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 3. 4 
 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 18 by 1. 
 
 9.5 
 
 8. 9 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 4. 9 
 
 87 
 
 43 
 
 18 by m . 
 
 11. 6 
 
 10. 2 
 
 14 
 
 58 
 
 3.6 
 
 100 
 
 73 
 
 18 by 2. 
 
 10. 9 
 
 11. 0 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 3. 9 
 
 97 
 
 70 
 
 18 by 4. 
 
 10. 8 
 
 9. 3 
 
 18 
 
 46 
 
 3. 8 
 
 100 
 
 93 
 
 24 by 1. 
 
 12. 1 
 
 12. 0 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 3.6 
 
 93 
 
 57 
 
 24 by 1)4. 
 
 9. 7 
 
 9. 8 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 3. 5 
 
 97 
 
 70 
 
 24 by 2. 
 
 9. 9 
 
 9.0 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 3. 4 
 
 100 
 
 70 
 
 24 by 4. 
 
 11.0 
 
 12.4 
 
 17 
 
 56 
 
 3.7 
 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 1 Trees with a stem diameter of at least inch. 
 
 2 Trees with a stem diameter of at least inch. 
 
 Table 9. —Effect of transplant spacing on size and grade of 2—2 ponderosa pine, Towner Nursery, Towner, 
 N. Dak. The transplanting was done in the spring of 1939 and trees were measured in the fall of 1940 
 
 Spacing (inches) 
 
 Average length 
 
 Average 
 
 stem 
 
 Green weight 
 
 Usable 
 
 Premium 
 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 diameter 
 
 Total 
 
 Top-root 
 
 ratio 
 
 stock 1 
 
 stock 2 
 
 6 by 1. 
 
 Inches 
 
 7. 2 
 
 Inches 
 
 12. 3 
 
 64ths inch 
 16 
 
 Grams 
 
 26 
 
 4. 3 
 
 Percent 
 
 100 
 
 Percent 
 
 50 
 
 6 by 1)4. 
 
 9. 0 
 
 12. 2 
 
 18 
 
 37 
 
 5.2 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 6 by 2. 
 
 7. 9 
 
 13. 3 
 
 18 
 
 38 
 
 5.2 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 6 by 4. 
 
 9. 3 
 
 13. 3 
 
 21 
 
 63 
 
 5.4 
 
 100 
 
 85 
 
 12 by 1. 
 
 10. 3 
 
 12. 3 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 4. 1 
 
 90 
 
 25 
 
 12 by 1/2 . 
 
 8. 5 
 
 15. 8 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 5. 3 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 
 12 by 2. 
 
 8.2 
 
 14. 3 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 4. 8 
 
 100 
 
 95 
 
 12 by 4. 
 
 8.0 
 
 14. 6 
 
 20 
 
 59 
 
 5.0 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 
 18 by 1. 
 
 5. 8 
 
 13. 5 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 4. 1 
 
 90 
 
 45 
 
 18 by 1)4. 
 
 8. 0 
 
 14.7 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 5. 3 
 
 95 
 
 55 
 
 18 by 2. 
 
 7. 9 
 
 16. 8 
 
 19 
 
 57 
 
 4. 9 
 
 85 
 
 55 
 
 18 by 4. 
 
 10.2 
 
 15. 1 
 
 23 
 
 94 
 
 5. 9 
 
 100 
 
 88 
 
 24 by 1. 
 
 8. 5 
 
 15. 1 
 
 19 
 
 49 
 
 4. 1 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 24 by 1>^. 
 
 8. 8 
 
 15. 8 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 
 5. 5 
 
 90 
 
 60 
 
 24 by 2. 
 
 8. 8 
 
 15.7 
 
 21 
 
 72 
 
 4. 9 
 
 95 
 
 70 
 
 24 by 4. 
 
 8. 5 
 
 15.0 
 
 21 
 
 63 
 
 4. 5 
 
 95 
 
 80 
 
 1 Trees with a stem diameter of at least %i inch. 
 
 losses of 5 to 15 percent; and spruces, losses of 15 to 25 
 percent. At the Bessey Nursery in Nebraska, losses in 
 the first-year transplant beds have been about 10 per¬ 
 cent, with a usual range of about 4 to 15 percent.^^ 
 
 Personal communication with M. K. Meines, Nursery¬ 
 man, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 2 Trees with a stem diameter of at least inch. 
 
 Each nursery must develop an experience table (see 
 table 11) of first-year transplant losses by species and 
 age class since season of transplanting, method of 
 transplanting, and other factors aJffecting survival vary 
 considerably over the Prairie-Plains. 
 
 Transplant losses are minor after the first season 
 in the beds. 
 
40 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 10 .—Percent of trees over a given caliper 
 class in 2—2 juniper and 2—2 ponderosa pine ^ 
 
 Spacing 
 
 (inches) 
 
 2-2 juniper with a 
 caliper of at least— 
 
 2-2 ponderosa pine with 
 a caliper of at least— 
 
 y33 
 
 inch 
 
 %3 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 y3 2 
 inch 
 
 %2 
 
 inch 
 
 inch 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 6 by 1... . 
 
 97 
 
 30 
 
 1 
 
 92 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 
 6 by U^.. 
 
 99 
 
 33 
 
 3 
 
 99 
 
 59 
 
 10 
 
 6 by 2 .... 
 
 93 
 
 53 
 
 8 
 
 99 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 6 by 4.... 
 
 99 
 
 70 
 
 18 
 
 97 
 
 59 
 
 14 
 
 12 by 1... 
 
 97 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 94 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 12 by 1 / 2 . 
 
 97 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 100 
 
 62 
 
 23 
 
 12 by 2 ... 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 9 
 
 97 
 
 69 
 
 21 
 
 12 by 4... 
 
 99 
 
 88 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 79 
 
 46 
 
 18 by 1 ... 
 
 98 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 87 
 
 44 
 
 9 
 
 18 by 1^. 
 
 98 
 
 71 
 
 21 
 
 99 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 18 by 2 ... 
 
 100 
 
 74 
 
 27 
 
 99 
 
 70 
 
 26 
 
 18 by 4... 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 44 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 50 
 
 24 by 1... 
 
 92 
 
 55 
 
 16 
 
 97 
 
 55 
 
 19 
 
 24 by m. 
 
 99 
 
 53 
 
 11 
 
 96 
 
 53 
 
 12 
 
 24 by 2... 
 
 98 
 
 58 
 
 13 
 
 99 
 
 74 
 
 31 
 
 24 by 4... 
 
 100 
 
 84 
 
 47 
 
 100 
 
 84 
 
 36 
 
 * Based on 100 trees of each species in each spacing, or a 
 total of 1,600 trees per species. 
 
 SEASON OF TRANSPLANTING 
 
 Transplanting is invariably done in the spring in 
 the Prairie-Plains. Fall transplanting has been tried, 
 
 Table 11 .—Average first-year losses in transplants at 
 the Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr., 1943-1956 
 
 Species 
 
 Age class 
 
 Average loss 
 
 Juniper: 
 
 Eastern redcedar. 
 
 Tears 
 
 1-1 
 
 Percent 
 
 4. 4 
 
 Do. 
 
 2-1 
 
 12. 5 
 
 Rocky Mountain. 
 
 1-1 
 
 11. 5 
 
 Do. 
 
 2-1 
 
 15. 2 
 
 Pines: 
 
 Austrian. 
 
 2-1 
 
 10. 1 
 
 Tack. 
 
 2-1 
 
 14. 9 
 
 Ponderosa. 
 
 1-1 
 
 12. 4 
 
 Do. 
 
 2-1 
 
 7. 4 
 
 Red. 
 
 2-1 
 
 11. 1 
 
 Spruce: 
 
 Blue. 
 
 2-1 
 
 6. 1 
 
 White. 
 
 2-1 
 
 8. 7 
 
 Do. 
 
 3-1 
 
 11. 4 
 
 
 but its use generally resulted in abnormally high losses, 
 especially in the Northern Plains. 
 
 Trees should be transplanted as early in the season 
 as possible to take maximum advantage of the grow¬ 
 ing season, especially when the trees are left in the 
 transplant bed only 1 year. In the Dakotas, some 
 transplanting has been done in late May and early 
 June and has been successful, especially in producing 
 ponderosa pine and juniper stock that was rather well 
 balanced as 2-2 stock. It could more accurately be 
 described as 2-1stock since it had only about IJ/a 
 growing seasons in the transplant bed. 
 
 TOP AIVD ROOT PRUNING 
 
 Top and root pruning are used in Prairie-Plains 
 nurseries to retard excessive top growth and keep the 
 trees in better balance. Some favorable results have 
 been obtained, but there is insufficient information on 
 which to make general recommendations. Root prun¬ 
 ing of seedlings and transplants is also done in the 
 beds prior to lifting as a preparation for transplanting 
 or packing. 
 
 The survival of blue spruce of 2-2 or 3-2 age class 
 undercut in the third week of April in the transplant¬ 
 ing bed was 18 percent greater (range 4 to 27 percent) 
 than that of unpruned stock.The first-year field 
 survival of the undercut stands was 94 to 100 percent. 
 Ponderosa pine of 2-2 age undercut in the same series 
 of tests had a survival of 100 percent, while the un¬ 
 pruned stock had a survival of 94 percent. 
 
 Undercutting of third-year Rocky Mountain juni¬ 
 per in the spring at Towner Nursery in North Dakota 
 slightly improved the balance. Fairly fibrous root sys- 
 
 ^ Personal communication with E. J. George, Agricultural 
 Research Service Field Station, Mandan, N. Dak., Mar. 2, 
 1958. 
 
 terns resulted from a strong stimulation in lateral 
 rooting. Practically no roots formed at the point of 
 root pruning. 
 
 To cut nursery production costs, root pruning of 
 seedling stock in place has been recommended as a 
 substitute for transplanting in areas of better rainfall 
 (Foster 1932, Hastings 1923), but it has not been 
 tested very much in the drier Prairie-Plains area. A 
 special thin-bladed root pruner (Olson 1930, Stoeck- 
 eler and Jones 1957) or a lifter with the kicker prongs 
 removed is used. Seedbeds are sometimes root pruned 
 with a horizontal V-shaped steel blade. Bed margins 
 bordering paths have been vertically pruned with 18- 
 inch rolling coulters in drill-sown seedbeds in early 
 June (Clifford 1956a). Two weeks later the entire 
 bed was undercut by horizontal pruning. 
 
 At the Towner Nursery in North Dakota, top 
 pruning of 3-0 ponderosa pine in June, while the new 
 growth was still in a succulent stage, had an adverse 
 effect. The unpruned trees had a first-year field sur¬ 
 vival of 49.2 percent, whereas that of the top-pruned 
 trees was only 34.5 percent. A liquid fertilizer was 
 applied to the trees in this test within a week or so after 
 
41 
 
 CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAENS 
 
 pruning, a procedure found desirable in later top and 
 root pruning experiments in the Lake States (Stoeck- 
 eler and Jones 1957). 
 
 Junipers seem more amenable to top pruning than 
 pines. Rather substantial improvement in balance 
 was obtained by top pruning 2-2 Rocky Mountain 
 juniper at the Towner Nursery (table 12). The re¬ 
 duction of excessive top length by top pruning may 
 
 improve the balance of juniper. But more specific 
 information on the effects on field survival is needed 
 before top pruning can be generally recommended for 
 2—2 Rocky Mountain juniper. 
 
 If this species becomes too large at the 2-2 age, as 
 it does in some nurseries in the Dakotas, an alternative 
 may be to grow 2-1 stock, assuming it gives high field 
 survivals. 
 
 Table 12.—Effect of three degrees of top pruning on size and top-root weight ratio of 2-2 Rocky Mountain 
 
 juniper 
 
 Degree of top pruning 
 
 Average 
 length of 
 top just after 
 pruning 
 
 Measurements of 2-2 stock in fall 
 
 Top-root 
 
 ratio 
 
 Length 
 
 Stem di¬ 
 ameter 
 
 Fresh weight per tree 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 
 
 64ths 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 inch 
 
 Grams 
 
 Grams 
 
 Grams 
 
 
 None.. 
 
 
 14. 0 
 
 10.6 
 
 13. 8 
 
 29. 41 
 
 8. 87 
 
 38. 28 
 
 3 32 
 
 Light. 
 
 8. 26 
 
 11. 3 
 
 10.4 
 
 12. 7 
 
 22. 53 
 
 8. 38 
 
 30. 91 
 
 2 69 
 
 Severe. 
 
 4. 06 
 
 6.0 
 
 10. 9 
 
 14. 3 
 
 17. 19 
 
 8. 25 
 
 25. 44 
 
 2. 08 
 
 HARDENIIVG-OFF 
 
 The hardening-off process prepares conifer stock for 
 survival through the winter. It results from gradual 
 exposure to temperatures that are about 32° F. (Har¬ 
 vey 1930, Levitt 1956). Physiological changes that 
 increase cell sap concentration and reduce the suc¬ 
 culence of young foliage protect the plants against 
 sudden drops in temperature in late fall and from 
 unseasonably warm winds in February and March. 
 Hardening-off is encouraged by the reduction of the 
 water supply and the removal of shade. 
 
 The cutting off or reduction of the water supply 
 begins in late August in the Dakotas and in late Sep¬ 
 tember in the Southern Plains. Watering should be 
 kept moderately low for 4 to 6 weeks thereafter. Ex¬ 
 cessive dryness, however, should be avoided. Sandy 
 soils should not be allowed to dry below about 2 or 
 3 percent of available moisture. 
 
 Exposure to high light intensity accentuates the 
 color change in eastern redcedar; color change is gen¬ 
 erally regarded as a visual criterion of hardening and 
 formation of anthocyanins (McDermott and Fletcher 
 1955). The removal of half-shades will accentuate 
 and advance fall coloration (fig. 33). 
 
 Certain species and age classes, notably 1-0 pon- 
 derosa pine, 1-0 and 2-0 jack pine, 1-0 Scotch pine, 
 1-0 lodgepole pine, and 1-0 eastern redcedar, have a 
 marked color change in the fall—from green to pur¬ 
 ple, violet, or bronze (Busse 1930, Dengler 1944, 
 Kalela 1937, Kienitz 1922, Langlet 1936, Stoeckeler 
 and Rudolf 1956). The color change, part of the nor¬ 
 mal hardening-off process, occurs from late September 
 
 to early November, depending on the nursery location. 
 It is especially striking in pine nursery stock grown 
 from seed of colder or more northern latitudes 
 (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957) than that of stock grown 
 from seed of warmer or more southern areas. In one 
 
 F-475107 
 
 Figure 33.—Half-shade is rolled up in early September and 
 left in paths until late October to harden-off the stock. 
 It is then replaced to give overwinter protection. Towner 
 Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
42 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Study the degree of color change in jack pine showed a 
 statistically high correlation with latitude and average 
 January temperature of the seed source (Stoeckeler 
 
 and Rudolf 1956). The abnormal color disappears 
 during the next growing season, with little apparent 
 effect on the plant. 
 
 DIGGING, GRADING, PACKING, STORING, AND SHIPPING 
 
 When nursery stock is ready to be outplanted or 
 sold, its value is a result of all the direct and indirect 
 costs that have accrued during the time required to 
 produce it. Therefore, the digging, grading, and 
 packing of trees must be supervised closely to assure 
 healthy, uninjured stock when it is fieldplanted. In 
 addition, the rapid completion of these operations per¬ 
 mits earlier shipments to planters and an earlier re¬ 
 sumption of other seasonal nursery operations. Some 
 storage of the packed stock is inevitable, and facilities 
 must be provided. 
 
 DIGGING NURSERY STOCK 
 
 Nursery stock lifters are of two general types (fig. 
 34). One type can be applied to the entire width 
 of the bed at one time. It may be used for seedbeds 
 or transplants. The lifter blade for undercutting a 
 bed may be mounted on a sled or attached directly to 
 the tractor. A lifter mounted hydraulically to the 
 tractor is readily transported from place to place. The 
 second type of lifter is the U-shaped digger used for 
 transplants in rows. It is usually mounted in pairs 
 on a Unicarrier frame. 
 
 Several elaborate lifter designs have appeared in re¬ 
 cent years. These include (1) the agitating lifter of 
 the Savenac Nursery, designed to remove some of the 
 soil from the roots (Sowash 1954), (2) the Lanquist 
 seedling harvester, which includes an endless belt on 
 the lifter onto which counted trees are dropped in 
 bundles (Lanquist 1954a), (3) a hydraulically oper¬ 
 ated lifter mounted on the back of a crawler tractor 
 (Cossitt 1937), and (4) a modified two-row potato 
 digger devised by Clifford (1956b) for lifting 2-0, 
 3-0, and 2-2 stock. 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery, production of an eight-man 
 crew is 250,000 seedlings in an 8-hour day; four men 
 pull, one packs, two carry trees to the baler, and one 
 works on the tractor lifter. A foreman directs the 
 operation.^® 
 
 A day or two before lifting, beds should be watered. 
 Watering reduces root breakage and rapid drying of 
 the undercut beds or rows. The bed-type of lifter is 
 generally dug in at the end of the bed before the power 
 is applied. The lifter is run at a depth of about 7 
 inches for stock to be transplanted and at about 9 
 inches for stock to be fieldplanted. As the seedlings or 
 transplants are loosened by the digger, the labor crews 
 pull the trees upward in bunches and shake the roots 
 to remove surplus soil (fig. 35). Stock should be 
 
 Personal communication with M. K. Meines, Nursery 
 Superintendent, Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 grasped well down around the stems and in small 
 enough bunches to avoid injuring or stripping the 
 needles and roots. 
 
 The importance of exposing roots of trees as little 
 as possible has been repeatedly emphasized (Briggs 
 1939, Cummings 1942, Haasis 1914, Stoeckeler and 
 Jones 1957, Tourney and Korstian 1942, Wakeley 
 1954). Conifers are particularly sensitive, and as lit¬ 
 tle as 5 minutes’ exposure of Jeffrey pine has reduced 
 field survival by 10 percent, and 10 minutes’ exposure 
 by 15 percent. Every 10-minute period thereafter, 
 field survival was reduced by about 10 percent. At 
 
 F-488911. 475060 
 
 Figure 34.—Two types of tree lifters: A, Details of the Bes¬ 
 sey Nursery seedling digger revised from the Smith tree 
 lifter and used for 4-foot-wide beds. B, a two-row lifter 
 mounted on a Unicarrier chassis, used for transplants lined 
 out in long rows. Note burlap wrapping to reduce skin¬ 
 ning of trees. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 43 
 
 F-502094 
 
 Figure 35. —Lifting 1-1 ponderosa pine transplants with a Smith tree lifter, Bessey Nursery, 
 
 Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 the end of 50 minutes of root exposure, field survival 
 was only about 15 percent (U.S. Forest Serv. Calif. 
 Forest Expt. Sta. 1954). The rate of air movement, 
 temperature, and relative humidity are important fac¬ 
 tors in the rate of root drying and subsequent damage. 
 Hence, trees should be placed in boxes covered with 
 wet burlap as promptly as possible and immediately 
 transported to the grading and packing shed or shelter, 
 to cold storage, or to crews doing transplanting. 
 
 Undercut beds tend to dry out fast, and trees should 
 not be undercut more than a few hours before pulling. 
 Work should be planned so that a minimum of un¬ 
 pulled undercut beds are left overnight or over the 
 weekend. A light watering of the unpulled undercut 
 beds with the overhead system may be desirable. 
 Watering must not be so heavy as to cause substantial 
 settling and repacking of the soil, or the pulling will 
 be harder and more roots may be stripped. 
 
 Tree digging should be done as early in the spring as 
 possible, while the trees are still reasonably dormant. 
 A study at the Bessey Nursery in 1939 on the effect of 
 early versus late lifting of eastern redcedar on first-year 
 survival showed the serious disadvantage of late lifting: 
 
 Survival of Survival of 
 
 all trees thrifty trees 
 
 of lifting 1 Percent Percent 
 
 March 31. 74 57 
 
 April 28. 33 22 
 
 * All trees were fieldplanted on May 5. Bessey Nursery 
 1939 Ann. Rpt. 
 
 Stock for field shipment is root pruned to a length 
 of about 8 inches, stock for transplanting to 5 to 6 
 inches. In some nurseries, root pruning is done just 
 after lifting and before the trees are placed in carry¬ 
 ing boxes or trays. In other nurseries, it is done just 
 before packing or transplanting. Pruning is done 
 with a circular saw, meat cleaver, modified cleaver 
 (Mony 1941), or a one-blade shear-type pruner with a 
 stationary base similar to a paper trimmer (fig. 36). 
 
 GRADING 
 
 Grading nursery stock increases field survival and 
 growth. It is especially important that the stock 
 planted meets the grade specifications in areas where 
 tree establishment is difficult to obtain. All nursery 
 stock requires some grading to remove undersized and 
 defective trees. This is done at the time of transplant¬ 
 ing and when stock suitable for fieldplanting is lifted 
 for shipment. Culls at the time of transplanting run 
 about 10 to 15 percent. Discarded are the obvious 
 runts; root-stripped, split, or skinned seedings; and 
 diseased or insect-infested trees. Topheavy and over¬ 
 sized trees are also undesirable. In the grading opera¬ 
 tion, species mixtures resulting from mixed lots of 
 seed can be separated. 
 
 Grading to remove undersized and damaged trees 
 has consistently resulted in better survival and growth 
 in the field (Dejarnette 1938, Fowells 1953, Read 
 1955). 
 
44 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-502401 
 
 Figure 36. —The Savenac root trimmer in operation. 
 
 As early as 1910, Bates (1910) planted three grades 
 of 2-1 ponderosa pine on the Nebraska National 
 Forest and found first-year survival in the field to be 
 86, 73, and 65 percent, respectively, for large, medium, 
 and small grades of stock. 
 
 In 1935, fieldplanting of 2-0 ponderosa pine of two 
 size classes, made in 18-inch furrows on Valentine sand 
 at the Denbigh Field Station near Denbigh, N. Dak., 
 resulted in greater survival and height growth for 
 large-grade stock. Of the 6,132 trees planted, 969 
 were of the small grade, which consisted of the poorest 
 of the nursery-run stock. After 10 years in the field 
 with no cultivation, 21.6 percent of the large-grade 
 trees and 2.3 percent of the small trees survived. Av¬ 
 erage total heights were 2.4 and 1.3 feet, respectively. 
 
 Fowells (1953) found 10 to 11 percent greater sur¬ 
 vival of large grades of ponderosa pine after 9 years 
 in the field. Ninth-year tree heights also were 12 and 
 18 percent greater for large grades of seedlings and 
 transplants, respectively. 
 
 Undersized trees are culled out largely on the basis 
 of stem caliper, although top length is sometimes used 
 as well as root length and development. A caliper 
 gage (Aamodt 1941, Barton 1940) is useful for train¬ 
 ing personnel in estimating stem diameter. It may 
 consist of a Y-shaped piece of brass calibrated in diam¬ 
 eter, a notch of a specific diameter cut into a wood 
 or metal gage, or two pieces of steel welding rod spaced 
 far enough apart on another rod to provide a fixed 
 gage. 
 
 At the Towner Nursery, cull percent in transplants 
 has been about as follows: 2-2 Rocky Mountain juni¬ 
 per, 15; 2-2 ponderosa pine, 10; 2-2 white spruce, 10; 
 and 2-2 blue spruce, 2. In Oklahoma nurseries, cull 
 percent in 2-0 seedlings of pine and eastern redcedar 
 intended for fieldplanting is about 10 to 15 percent. 
 
 During the grading of stock, it is desirable to reduce 
 the length of time and severity of conditions under 
 which tree roots are exposed. Hence, the trees are 
 generally moved indoors promptly and sorted. Sort¬ 
 ing can be done efficiently on an endless belt marked in 
 squares upon which exactly 10 trees are laid (Robbins 
 1942). Culls are dropped into boxes or onto the floor. 
 A vegetable spray mist keeps the roots moist while they 
 are on the ^Delt. At the end of the belt, other workers 
 pick off groups of 5 bunches and tie the stock in bundles 
 of 50 with an electric bundle tier. Using this system, 
 8,200 trees can be lifted, graded, and tied per man-day. 
 
 PACKING 
 
 Trees are wrapped in burlap or waterproof asphaltic 
 paper prior to shipment. They may be packed in a 
 baler or rolled tight on a table. Cardboard containers 
 often are used for parcel post shipments. Some crates 
 are used. 
 
 With the Savenac tree baler (Olson 1930), two wires 
 are placed in notches across the open end baling box 
 (34 by 17J/2 by 15 inches deep on 20-inch legs), and 
 two slats (1 by 2 by 24 inches) are laid at right angles 
 to the wires. A strip of waterproof paper (1 /2 by 6 
 feet lohg) is laid over the wires. Some nurseries use 
 24-inch-wide burlap. Next, packing material is placed 
 in a layer about 1 /a inches deep, and a layer of trees 
 is laid down, with the roots overlapped and the tops 
 out toward each end of the baler. A layer of moss is 
 laid down, and the process is repeated. After the baler 
 is about half full, some moss is stuffed between the 
 waterproof paper and trees at the two vertical walls of 
 the baler so that no roots are in contact with the paper. 
 
 When the bale is completed and no roots are ex¬ 
 posed, the two ends of the paper are held up and given 
 enough turns around a third slat to take up all the 
 slack. 
 
 The ends of the wire (Signode straps are sometimes 
 used) are inserted into a Girard wire-tying machine, 
 and two ties are made rather tightly to give a firm, 
 compact bundle that will retain its shape, keep the moss 
 in place, and not fall apart in subsequent shipment. 
 Properly packed bales are barrel shaped and are about 
 18 inches in diameter (fig. 37). 
 
 The weight of the bundles and the number of trees 
 each contains vary by species and age class and the 
 packing material used. Weights and trees per bale of 
 some species and age classes for the Bessey Nursery are 
 listed below. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 45 
 
 F-392980. 407442 
 
 Figure 37.—Two types of containers for shipping 
 nursery stock: A, A packed bale being secured 
 with a strapping machine as it lies in the tree baler, 
 Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr.; B, crates of the type 
 used on the shelterbelt project, Towner Nursery, 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Weight per Trees per 
 bale bale 
 
 Species 
 
 Age class 
 
 {Pounds) 
 
 (Number) 
 
 Austrian pine. 
 
 2-2 
 
 83 
 
 800 
 
 Blue spruce. 
 
 2 -1-1 
 
 60 
 
 2 , 000 
 
 Eastern redcedar. 
 
 2-2 
 
 85 
 
 645 
 
 Do. 
 
 1-2 
 
 63 
 
 500 
 
 Do. 
 
 1-0 
 
 60 
 
 10, 250 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 2-2 
 
 88 
 
 650 
 
 Do. 
 
 1-2 
 
 98 
 
 2 , 000 
 
 Do. 
 
 2-0 
 
 71 
 
 4, 160 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper.. 
 
 1-2 
 
 77 
 
 1,000 
 
 In table wrapping, which is better for small orders, 
 a sheet of waterproof asphaltic paper, about 30 inches 
 wide and 4 to 8 feet long (dep>ending on bundle size), 
 is laid on the table. A 1-inch layer of packing ma¬ 
 terial, about 18 inches wide and 24 inches long, is put 
 on one-half of the sheet near its end, and counted 
 bundles of trees are placed on the paper, with all roots 
 overlapped toward the center. Successive layers of 
 moss and trees are built up until the bundle is full 
 enough to wrap. A layer of moss completely covers all 
 trees, and the bundle is rolled as tightly as piossible and 
 tied with binder twine or stout cord in three places. 
 
 , 748-005 0—65 - 4 
 
 In another table wrapping method, all the roots are 
 placed in one direction on the paper, with the layer of 
 packing material toward one long edge of the paper. 
 When rolled, the paper is folded over to enclose the 
 bottom of the bundle, and tied twice around the cir¬ 
 cumference and once under the bottom. 
 
 Some cardboard boxes are used in parcel post and 
 express shipments of bare-rooted conifers and potted 
 grafts. The cardboard box shipments via parcel post 
 are rather expensive, but the time in transit is mini¬ 
 mized. 
 
 For Clarke-McNary shipments of stock by the State 
 Forester in Nebraska, six standard box sizes are used: 
 
 Box number Dimensions in inches 
 
 lA. 4 by 4 by 30. 
 
 2. 6 by 6 by 30. 
 
 3A. 4 by 6 by 30. 
 
 4 . 6 by 10 by 30. 
 
 5 . 12 by 12 by 36. 
 
 6 . 10 by 10 by 30. 
 
 After assembly with 3-inch gummed paper, the bo.xes 
 are lined with wax-coated freezer paper, which comes 
 in rolls 18, 20, and 24 inches wide. The trees are 
 
46 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 packed with well-squeezed sphagnum moss. When 
 trees are packed with 25 to the bundle, the roots usually 
 are overlapped in the center of the box and the tops are 
 out. The packages are then sealed and addressed, and 
 12 holes are punched in the ends of the long sides near 
 the tops of the trees for ventilation. Postage, affixed 
 at the nursery, generally costs about $0.40 per 100 trees, 
 $0.80 per 200 trees, and $2.00 per 1,000 trees. The 
 largest boxes can hold about 1,000 trees each of 2-0 
 eastern redcedar or 2-1 pines, or 400 to 500 trees of 1-2 
 eastern redcedar. 
 
 A few nurseries pack trees in light crates of wood 
 slats or veneer. Crates are most likely to be useful if 
 trucks haul the trees from the nursery directly to the 
 tree-planting site and bring the empty crates back to 
 the nursery daily or several times a week. In such 
 instances, the trees need not be counted or tied in 
 bundles; a bed inventory or a general knowledge of the 
 average number of trees per crate is a sufficient basis 
 on which to determine the approximately correct num¬ 
 ber of trees that should be supplied to field crews or 
 fieldplanting machines. 
 
 Some commercial nurserymen are using plastic film 
 bags and a small amount of moist moss or peat around 
 the roots of bare-rooted conifers up to about 2 feet tall. 
 The method has considerable merit, especially in retail 
 yards where stock may be held for considerable periods. 
 
 The packing materials used for conifers usually are a 
 50-50 mixture by volume of sphagnum moss and cedar 
 shingle tow (shavings). The material comes dry in 
 bales from the supplier and must be mixed and soaked 
 down before use. Some nurseries keep a vat of pre¬ 
 wetted material in a cool, shaded place; it is used to 
 supply 50-gallon drums alongside the baler or packing 
 table. 
 
 The water in the drums should be cold and should be 
 cooled with ice if necessary. Warm packing materials 
 accelerate heating and molding of baled or crated stock 
 (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957). Usually the water from 
 deep wells (about 45° to 52° F.) will not require pre¬ 
 cooling. In some nurseries concrete moss tanks and 
 slatted drainboards are fitted across the top of the tank. 
 
 Excess water must be squeezed out of the packing 
 material before use, in order to prevent excessive weight 
 and soggy bundles. It is particularly detrimental in 
 parcel post shipments made in cardboard boxes. 
 
 A detailed study of various packing materials by 
 Mullins (1956), in which stock was stored up to 4^ 
 weeks, showed that there was little to choose between 
 four materials, based on subsequent field survival. 
 The materials were commercial sphagnum moss, 
 freshly collected local sphagnum moss, poplar excelsior 
 (wood wool), and poplar excelsior treated with a wet¬ 
 ting agent. 
 
 STORING AND SHIPPING 
 
 The interval between lifting and planting should be 
 minimized. For example, a prolonged period in 
 
 transit and storage between lifting and planting is a 
 primary cause of poor field survival in shelterbelts. 
 
 However, a delay after the trees are lifted from the 
 nursery bed is not always avoidable. Normal irregu¬ 
 larity in planting operations due to weather or other 
 factors is almost certain to disrupt the flow of stock. 
 Lifting often must be done before the frost is out of 
 the ground at the planting site. A more serious prob¬ 
 lem occurs when the nursery is located far north of 
 the planting site and lifting cannot begin until some 
 time after planting is feasible. In some situations stor- 
 age of planting stock may be necessary for a few days 
 to several months. 
 
 The length of time permissible for storage depends 
 on temperature, moisture conditions, packing material, 
 species, and growing conditions subsequent to planting. 
 Trees can be stored by three general methods: 
 Heel-in storage, indoor storage at room temperature, 
 and cold storage. Great care must be taken to prevent 
 heating, molding, drying, high transpiration, hard- 
 freezing, and damage by rodents and insects. 
 
 Stock in bales, crates, or cardboard containers may 
 be stored indoors in a ventilated shelter for a few 
 days (fig. 38). In cool weather, such storage is per¬ 
 missible for about a week. In warmer weather, when 
 indoor temperatures in the storage shelter reach 70° F. 
 or above, the trees can be stored in this way for only 
 a day or two because heating and molding may occur. 
 
 Test plantings of 2-0 eastern redcedar in central 
 and western Oklahoma, conducted to determine the 
 effect of storage and season of planting on survival, 
 showed that storage for an extra week in the packages 
 in which they had arrived from the nursery had little, 
 if any, effect on survival (Afanasiev et al. 1959). 
 Plantings were made at four sites at weekly intervals 
 from mid-November to May during three planting 
 seasons. 
 
 Unbaled conifers have also been stored successfully 
 indoors for several days to a week on a slat platform 
 6 to 8 inches above the floor (Engstrom 1941). One- 
 or two-inch-mesh chicken wire is formed into a cyl¬ 
 inder 18 inches in diameter and 4 feet high. A 3- 
 inch layer of moist moss or other packing material 
 is laid down, and the trees are placed on top of it, 
 with the tops out and with the root ends just touching 
 the wire. Alternate layers of moss and trees are built 
 up to the height of the wire form. In warm weather 
 a block of ice may be dropped on top of a 3-inch-deep 
 layer of moss inside the chicken wire, and a board 
 or other cover may be placed on top. 
 
 A modification of this system consists of platforms or 
 racks 24 inches wide, with uprights at each end. Lay¬ 
 ers of trees are placed with tops out and roots over¬ 
 lapped; enough moss is used to keep the roots moist. 
 Chipped or chunked ice can be placed on top to pro¬ 
 vide a cooling effect in warm weather. 
 
 At the Northern Great Plains Field Station of the 
 Agricultural Research Service, at Mandan, N. Dak., 
 stock is usually stored on the floor of a root cellar; 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 47 
 
 F-392979 
 
 Figure 38.—Stacked bales of 2—1 ponderosa pine in storage and ready for shipment by truck, Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 individual tree bundles (not bales) are stacked up¬ 
 right in a single layer. Any larger air spaces below the 
 tops are filled with moist packing material. With this 
 method, survivals are reported to be 20 to 25 percent 
 higher than they are with conventionally stacked hori¬ 
 zontal storage. 
 
 For periods longer than a week, cold storage is neces¬ 
 sary. Many nurseries use mechanically refrigerated or 
 ice-cooled cold-storage buildings. A temperature of 
 33° to 40° F. is preferred. At this range, respiration 
 and transpiration are minimized, and heating and 
 molding are prevented. A temperature of 50° is rea¬ 
 sonably satisfactory. The humidity is maintained at 
 about 90 to 95 percent. An average size cold-storage 
 plant has a capacity of around 5,000 cubic feet and can 
 hold 600,000 to 700,000 1-0 or 2-0 trees. 
 
 In the Dakotas, stock is often stored on natural ice 
 in the spring. Partitioned-off areas in storage sheds are 
 
 Personal communication with E. J. George, Northern 
 Great Plains Field Station, Agricultural Research Service, 
 Mandan, N. Dak. 
 
 prepared by flooding and freezing during the winter. 
 The stock is stored in mulch laid on the 4- to 6-inch 
 layer of ice. 
 
 Stock has been held in cold storage for long periods 
 with little or no drop in field survival (Brown 1937, 
 Deffenbacher and Wright 1954, Fowells and Schubert 
 1953, Pike 1933, Sowash 1936). 
 
 Heel-in storage should be regarded as a last resort 
 for conifers and should be limited to the spring sea¬ 
 son. The storage period should not be more than a 
 week or two; the shorter the time the better. The 
 trees should be shaded, but a ventilated space of at 
 least 1 foot above the trees should be provided if canvas 
 or similar material is used. 
 
 In heel-in storage, a straight, broad V-shaped trench 
 is dug to a depth of 8 to 12 inches, and the well-moist¬ 
 ened soil is piled in a ridge at the back. Friable sandy 
 to silt loam material is preferred. A thin layer of trees 
 with not more than 1 inch of root-layer thickness is 
 laid down, and a 2-inch layer of soil is immediately 
 spaded out and placed on top of the roots. The soil 
 
48 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-345374 
 
 Figure 39.—Heeling-in 1-0 pondero..a pine, Plumfield Nur¬ 
 sery, Fremont, Nebr, 
 
 is firmed gently with the bottom of the foot (fig. 39). 
 Successive layers of trees and soil are added until all 
 the trees are heeled-in. 
 
 The soil must come well above the root collar, but 
 it should not cover the needles. The layers should be 
 of uniform depth. A light sprinkling may be done as 
 heeling-in proceeds or shortly thereafter. Some nur¬ 
 serymen dip the roots of each bundle or handful of 
 stock in water before heeling-in. 
 
 In shipment, larger quantities of planting stock 
 usually are transported in 1 k 2 -ton trucks or larger units 
 such as truck trailers. A Ij/a-ton truck can haul about 
 60,000 2-2, 90,000 3-0, or 180,000 2-0 trees if they 
 are crated, and about 50 percent more of each class of 
 stock if it is packed in bales. Pickup trucks are fre¬ 
 quently used to transport smaller quantities of stock 
 for shorter distances. 
 
 State nurseries usually rely on railway express ship¬ 
 ments or motor freight for serving customers. 
 
 For the usual nonrefrigerated truck shipments, the 
 chief precaution is a check for temporary load limits 
 that may have been imposed along the route to be 
 traveled during or following spring breakup. The 
 cargo should be well protected against the sun and 
 wind with tarpaulins. In warm weather, it may be 
 possible to do most of the trucking at night. Watering 
 enroute should not be necessary if loads of trees are 
 properly packed and protected against wind and sun. 
 When the destination is reached, the stock should be 
 unloaded immediately in a building, under the shade 
 of trees, or in a field icehouse constructed for stock 
 storage. 
 
 POTTING AND BALLING NURSERY STOCK 
 
 Conifer nursery stock is potted or balled to increase 
 field survival on nonirrigated lands in the drier portions 
 of the Prairie-Plains. Potted stock is used in field¬ 
 planting, whereas the more expensive balled stock is 
 used most often in ornamental planting. 
 
 Ponderosa pine has rather poor root-producing abil¬ 
 ity (Stone 1955) and rather poor field survival when 
 planted as bare-rooted stock in a zone from approxi¬ 
 mately the 101st meridian westward to the Rocky 
 Mountain area. This zone includes areas in North 
 Dakota with less than 16 inches of annual rainfall; 
 areas in Nebraska with 19 inches or less; and areas in 
 western Oklahoma and northwest Texas with 22 
 inches or less. This is a zone of high drought fre¬ 
 quency (Bates 1935). In farm plantings under these 
 conditions, consistently satisfactory conifer survival 
 may be obtained only with potted stock. Potted trees 
 are also used frequently to replace losses in plantings 
 made originally with bare-rooted trees. The potting 
 is usually done a full growing season before field¬ 
 planting. 
 
 Potted stock has several advantages that favor high 
 
 survival. Practically all the feeder roots are still intact 
 when planted, whereas unpotted stock often loses some 
 of these feeder roots when it is lifted. The root system 
 of potted stock is more compact, has an optimum bond 
 with the soil, and can continue uninterrupted extrac¬ 
 tion of moisture at the planting site; bare-rooted plants 
 must re-establish this bond by extension of the root 
 system. The reserve supply of moisture within the pot 
 is adequate to enable the potted stock to withstand 
 several weeks of drought, while the bare-rooted plant 
 is immediately and totally dependent on whatever 
 moisture it is able to extract from the planting site. 
 The soil in the pot can be ideally proportioned to stim¬ 
 ulate root development and can include substantial 
 amounts of organic matter to increase the water¬ 
 holding capacity. The roots or tops of potted stock 
 are much less likely to heat or mold in transit than 
 those of bare-rooted stock. 
 
 The principal disadvantage of potted trees is the 
 higher unit cost. Some reasons for this increased cost 
 are the materials and labor expended in the potting 
 operation, the need for lathhouses or special structures 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 49 
 
 to protect the potted trees during growth and storage, 
 and the increased transportation costs for distribution 
 to the planting site. 
 
 In western Oklahoma, potted eastern redcedar 
 planted during 2 years of low precipitation had an 
 average survival of 96 percent, compared to 70 percent 
 for bare-rooted stock planted on the same site (Afana¬ 
 siev et al. 1959). However, the following year both 
 classes of stock had 94 percent survival. 
 
 In tests conducted by the Manhattan Nursery be¬ 
 tween 1949 and 1953, use of potted stock increased 
 survival of juniper 15 to 20 percent and that of pine 
 30 to 40 percent.^® 
 
 At the Northern Great Plains Field Station of ARS, 
 initial survivals of 90 to 100 percent were obtained with 
 potted ponderosa pine.^® 
 
 In western Kansas, the pines and cedars are generally 
 potted at the 2-0 age in April in 1 by 2 by 6-inch 
 pots and held 1 year before shipment for shelterbelt 
 planting. The 1-^ eastern redcedar sometimes is large 
 enough to pot and hold for sale as 1-1. 
 
 Since bare-rooted Arizona cypress transplants poorly, 
 potted stock is fieldplanted almost exclusively in the 
 Southern Great Plains and the Southwest. It may be 
 seeded under glass in November in flats of ground-up 
 sphagnum moss, or in sterilized loamy sand soil. The 
 seedlings are lifted in March when they are about 3 
 inches tall, and potted in asphaltic bands or in 2 J/ 2 - 
 inch clay pots. Some of the potted seedlings are ready 
 for fieldplanting the following spring; others are re¬ 
 potted in 1-gallon cans and left for another year. 
 
 Potted 16-month-old Arizona cypress ready for field¬ 
 planting will be about 8 inches tall; 1-1 Austrian pine, 
 4 inches tall; 2-1 Austrian pine, 10 inches tall; 1-1 
 eastern redcedar, 10 inches tall; and 2-1 eastern red¬ 
 cedar, about 22 inches tall. 
 
 Asphaltic roofing paper is one of the materials used 
 for pots. The method developed by Johnson (John¬ 
 son 1955, Johnson and Vanderslice 1956) illustrates its 
 use. The 36-inch-wide rolls are cut lengthwise into 
 three 1-foot-wide sections; then each section is cut into 
 12- by 12-inch sheets. The paper is given four creases 
 to form a finished pot 2% by 2% by 10% inches and 
 stapled at the edges five or six times. The bottom 
 1% inches is creased. 
 
 A somewhat similar pot of 15-pound roofing felt was 
 devised by Morris of the Soil Conservation Service and 
 described by Downs (1954). 
 
 Manufacturers produce inexpensive, flat-packed, 15- 
 pound asphalt-band pots with both ends open. Their 
 sizes range from 2 by 2 by 6 inches to 3 by 3 by 6 inches. 
 The 21 / 2 - by 2%- by 6-inch band contains enough soil 
 for a 1- or 2-year-old pine or juniper seedling to grow 
 an additional year and still feed through the standard 
 
 “ Personal communication with A. E. Ferber, Soil Con¬ 
 servation Service, Denver, Colo. 
 
 ” Personal communication with E. J. George, Northern 
 Great Plains Field Station, Agricultural Research Service, 
 Mandan, N. Dak. 
 
 fieldplanting machines. Such trees occasionally have 
 been held a second year, but the pots tend to deteriorate 
 and fall apart. A 30-pound paper has been better for 
 trees carried in pots 2 years. 
 
 The use of growth promoters such as indoleacetic 
 acid or vitamin B has resulted in root response on 
 southern pines (Plank 1939). Fowells (1943), how¬ 
 ever, found no appreciable response in the number of 
 secondary roots in ponderosa pine when similar treat¬ 
 ments were applied just before the trees were placed 
 in tar paper pots; however, the length of the root 
 system was improved slightly. 
 
 Shaw (1963) describes a potting system developed 
 by the Colorado State Forest Service. In this mech¬ 
 anized operation, a series of live conveyor belts is used 
 to move the potting trays from step to step, and a soil 
 packing machine is operated by hydraulic pressure. 
 Other recently developed devices include a hexagonal 
 soil pot equivalent to a standard 3-inch clay pot and a 
 potting machine capable of forming 750 pots per man¬ 
 hour; the range in the diameters of the pots is 1.6 to 
 3.2 inches (Food and Agriculture Organization 1954). 
 
 The 2^4- by 2%- by 6-inch pots can be filled with 
 soil, and about 750 to 1,000 plants per man-day can be 
 set in. Tomato lugs (flats) that will hold 30 asphalt 
 bands are used. A spacer is necessary to keep the pots 
 open and lined up properly. They are tamped by 
 jarring the whole flat. The bottom few inches of soil 
 are tightly packed with a 2- by 2-inch tamper before 
 the seedlings are placed in the pot and the pot is filled. 
 The tamped plug keeps the soil from sliding out of the 
 bottom of the pots while they are being transferred to 
 a bed in a lathhouse. The pots when planted weigh 
 about 2 pounds apiece. 
 
 Larger, heavy asphalt pots 6 inches in diameter and 
 7 inches deep can also be purchased on the open mar¬ 
 ket, as can the 1-, 2-, or 4-gallon metal cans. The 
 tapered 1-gallon metal pots have distinct advantages 
 over vertical-walled 1-gallon fruit cans because the 
 plant and its ball of soil can be more quickly and easily 
 removed from them for planting; they are extensively 
 used in commercial nurseries. 
 
 Tapered-steel cylinders have been used for a number 
 of years at the Agricultural Research Station at Wood¬ 
 ward, Okla.,^'^ to lift trees for balling (fig. 40). The 
 cylinders are 17% inches long, are of 18-gage metal, 
 and are about one-fourth to one-half inch smaller in 
 diameter at the bottom than at the top. The follow¬ 
 ing diameters are in use: 6, 8, 10, 16, 18, and 24 inches. 
 When used, the cylinders are forced full depth into 
 the soil around the trees. The tree and cylinder 
 are then lifted. A clamp is released, the cylinder is 
 lifted off the soil, and the ball of soil is wrapped in 
 burlap. 
 
 The general idea of cylinder balling was adapted to 
 a commercially manufactured, power-operated balling 
 
 Personal communication with E. W. Johnson, Southern 
 Plains Field Station, Agricultural Research Service, Wood¬ 
 ward, Okla. 
 
50 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-488079 
 
 Figure 40.—Transplanting cylinders with 6-, 8-, 10-, and 
 16-inch top diameters used to expedite balling of conifers 
 in sandy soils, Woodward, Okla. 
 
 machine. It functions well if soils are medium-tex¬ 
 tured, free of stones, and have a good soil moisture 
 content, and if many trees of uniform size can be dug 
 without frequent change of cylinder size. Balling and 
 burlapping has been a standard method for handling 
 larger ornamental stock in the commercial nursery in¬ 
 dustry for many years (fig. 41). 
 
 In recent years, heavy paper, plastic, metal, or other 
 types of containers, about 8 to 20 inches in diameter, 
 have found favor in the handling and shipping of 
 evergreens in the 2- to 5-foot height class. 
 
 The potting mixture used in Prairie-Plains com¬ 
 mercial nurseries in the 1-gallon or larger containers 
 is generally about two parts of fertile topsoil, one part 
 peat moss, and one part sand. In some nurseries one- 
 fifth pound of high-analysis commercial fertilizer, such 
 as ammonium phosphate, per cubic yard, is added. In 
 other nurseries 1 pound of Milorganite per wheelbar¬ 
 row of mix is used. In potting Arizona cypress and 
 pines with top soil that has some alkalinity (pH 7.5 to 
 7.7), some Southern Plains nurserymen use several 
 pounds of “sulfa soil” per cubic yard to reduce the 
 pH and make phosphates and iron more available. 
 All material is run through a shredder. 
 
 AGE CLASSES OF STOCK 
 
 Both transplants and seedlings are produced for 
 planting in the Plains. In the North transplants are 
 used almost exclusively, while in the South seedlings 
 as well as transplants are used. Good-quality stock is 
 required. Such stock has a large amount of fibrous 
 root system and a top about 6 to 12 inches from the 
 ground line to the tip of the terminal bud (or tip of 
 cedars) (fig. 42). It should have a thick, sturdy stem 
 that will hold the plant erect despite wind, clods 
 thrown against it in cultivation, or the matting-down 
 action of snow, weeds, or grass. 
 
 In areas where good topsoil is becoming increasingly 
 more Expensive, some nurseries use a 75-25 mixture 
 of moderately acid fine sand and peat; each cubic yard 
 is fortified with 6 ounces of potassium nitrate, 4 ounces 
 of potassium sulphate, 2^2 pounds of ordinary super¬ 
 phosphate, 45/2 pounds of dolomitic limestone, V/4 
 pounds of calcium carbonate lime, and 114 pounds of 
 gypsum (Matkin and Chandler 1957, Baker et al. 
 1957). In a supplemental treatment, liquid feed¬ 
 ing with nitrogen fertilizers is used; 1 pound of 33 per¬ 
 cent ammonium nitrate per 100 gallons of water 
 (Matkin and Chandler 1957) or a complete N-P-K 
 (nitrogen, phosphorus, potash) fertilizer is applied. 
 
 Details have been published on potting-soil mix¬ 
 tures and their basic ingredients, fortification with dry 
 fertilizers, use of additional liquid fertilizers, disease 
 control, and efficient mechanization of all aspects of 
 the growing of plants in containers (Baker et al. 
 1957). 
 
 F-4751I5 
 
 Figure 41.—Balling and burlapping blue spruce, Esmond, 
 
 N. Dak. 
 
 NEEDED FOR THE PLAINS 
 
 The age class to which a tree species should be 
 grown to attain a proper root system, stem caliper, and 
 height largely depends on the length of the growing 
 season and the tree species. The level of soil fertility 
 is another important factor. 
 
 The usual age classes of stock by species used in field¬ 
 planting and nursery transplanting under Prairie- 
 Plains conditions are given in table 13. Species selec¬ 
 tion is largely dictated by past performance in survival, 
 growth, ease of establishment, and relative freedom 
 from serious pests. State extension foresters, research 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 51 
 
 F-413004, 389090 
 
 Figure 42.—Transplant stock of desirable height, stem caliper, and root development for 
 Plains planting, grown at Towner Nursery, Towner, N, Dak. (1-inch squares are in 
 background) : A, Well developed 3-2 blue spruce; fi, excellent 2-1 Rocky Mountain 
 juniper. 
 
 foresters, horticulturists, and others have prepared 
 numerous guides and observations on tree species 
 adaptable to the Plains. Current summaries include 
 those of George (1953, 1957) and Read (1958). 
 
 Stock suitable for transplanting in the nursery is 1 to 
 3 years of age. In the Dakotas, spruces and firs are 
 grown to a 2-0 or 3-0 age; junipers, redcedars, jack 
 pine, and Scotch pine to a 2-0 age; and ponderosa 
 pine to a 2-0 or occasionally 1-0 age before transplant¬ 
 ing. From Nebraska south to Texas, eastern redcedar 
 is usually transplanted as 1-0 stock, and Rocky Moun¬ 
 tain juniper as 1-0 or 2-0. Ponderosa pine is trans¬ 
 planted as 2-0 or 1-0; the former age is more prevalent 
 in Nebraska. 
 
 The influence of increasing age class and the benefits 
 of transplanting are illustrated in figure 43. 
 
 In northern nurseries it is generally better to grow 
 the conifers, including ponderosa pine, to the 2-0 age 
 
 before attempting to transplant them. However, as 
 soil conditions approach an optimum, fall-sown pon¬ 
 derosa pine and eastern redcedar can be transplanted 
 as 1-0 stock, even in the northern latitudes with their 
 shorter growing season. 
 
 Seedlings are used for potting. Preferably the trees 
 should be uniform in size, with 2 to 4 inches of top 
 (from ground line to tip of terminal bud) for pines, 
 spruces, and Arizona cypress and 4 to 6 inches for 
 junipers. This size is generally attained in 2 or 3 years 
 by spruces, in 2 years by pines, in 1 year by juniper in 
 the Southern Plains and in 2 years in the Central or 
 Northern Plains, and in 3 months by Arizona cypress. 
 
 The dimensions of typical species and of a number 
 of age classes vary among nurseries in the Northern, 
 Central, and Southern Great Plains (tables 14 to 16). 
 Generally the size of comparable age classes of the same 
 species increases from north to south. 
 
 Well-balanced trees have a rather high proportion 
 of their total weight in roots. Such plants have a 
 better chance of survival under the high transpiration 
 stress of difficult dry planting sites. The top-root ratio 
 of good transplants generally ranges from 2.0 :1 to 
 3.5 ;1. 
 
 In contrast, 2-0 or 3-0 seedlings of somewhat com¬ 
 parable top length have a top-root ratio of 4.0 ; 1 to 
 6.0 ; 1. Moreover, in the seedling stock, a higher pro¬ 
 portion of the weight of top is in the needles (a reflec¬ 
 tion of the size of the transpiration mechanism). 
 
52 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-389089. 413005. 413009 
 
 Figure 43.—Size and root development of nursery 
 conifers as affected by age class and species, Town¬ 
 er Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. (1-inch squares are 
 in background) : A, Rocky Mountain juniper, from 
 left to right, 1—0, 2-0, 3-0, and 3—1; B, blue spruce, 
 from left to right, 1-0, 2-0, 3-0, and 3-2; C, 
 Scotch pine, from left to right, 1-0, 2-0, 3-0, and 
 3-2. 
 
 B 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 53 
 
 Table 13. —Age classes and species of conifers commonly used and being tested in the Prairie-Plains of the 
 
 Midwestern United States and nearby Canada 
 
 Species ^ 
 
 Age 
 
 class 
 
 Areas where grown 
 
 Species ' 
 
 Age 
 
 class 
 
 A reas where grown 
 
 Arborvitae, Oriental. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 Pine—Continued 
 
 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 Do. 
 
 Japanese black. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Okla. 
 
 Cypress, Arizona. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Okla.,^ Tex. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Do.2 
 
 Douglas-fir *. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 Japanese red. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Do 
 
 
 
 S. Dak. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 D0.2 
 
 Fir: 
 
 
 
 Limber 2. 
 
 2-1 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 Balsam ^. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 N. D^., S. Dak., Nebr., 
 
 Siberian ^. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 Kans. 
 
 Juniper: 
 
 
 
 Loblolly 2 . 
 
 1-0 
 
 Okla. 
 
 Common ^. 
 
 2-1 
 
 N. Dak., S. Dak., Nebr. 
 
 Lodgepole. 
 
 2-1 
 
 Canadian Plains * 
 
 Ashe. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Okla .,2 Tex. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 Pinyon 2. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Kans., Okla., Tex. 
 
 One-seed. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Kans.,^ Okla .,2 Tex. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Kans., Okla., Tex.^ 
 
 Ponderosa. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 Rocky Mountain. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Canadian Plains, Okla., 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 Tex. 
 
 Ponderosa. 
 
 1-2 
 
 N. Dak., S. Dak., Nebr., 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 
 
 Kans. 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 Canadian Plains,^ N. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 
 
 Dzik., S. Dak. 
 
 
 
 S. Dak. 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 Kans., Nebr. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 2-1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 N. Dak., S. Dak. 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr., Kans. 
 
 Larch: 
 
 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak. 
 
 Europ>ean. 
 
 2-1 
 
 Canadian Plains 
 
 Shortleaf. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 Do.2 
 
 Swiss stone 2. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 Siberian. 
 
 2-1 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak. 
 
 
 
 S. Dak. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains,^ N. 
 
 Redcedar, Eastern. 
 
 2-0 
 
 N. Dak., Nebr., Okla., 
 
 
 
 Dak .2 
 
 
 
 Tex. 
 
 Pine: 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Nebr., Kans., Okla., Tex. 
 
 Austriam. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Okla., Tex. 
 
 
 1-2 
 
 Nebr., Kans. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Okla.,^ Tex.2 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 N. Dak., S. Dak. 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr., Kans. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 S. Dak. 
 
 
 2-2 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr. 
 
 Spruce: 
 
 
 
 Dieerer ^. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Okla. 
 
 Blue. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr., Kans.^ 
 
 Italian stone *. 
 
 2-0 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak. 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 3-2 
 
 Do. 
 
 Jack. 
 
 1-1 
 
 Nebr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2-1 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 Siberian 2. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr. 
 
 White. 
 
 2-2 
 
 Canadian Plains, N. Dak., 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S. Dak., Nebr. 
 
 
 
 
 Tamarack 2. 
 
 2-1 
 
 N. Dak. 
 
 ' See Appendix for scientific names. 
 
 * Not used extensively, still being tested, or receiving restricted use in areas of better rainfall. 
 
 Table 14. —Measurements of various age classes of Towner Nursery stock, Towner, N. Dak., fall 1941 and 
 
 spring 1958 
 
 Age 
 
 class 
 
 Species 
 
 Trees per square foot 
 
 Trees 
 
 measured 
 
 Length 
 
 Stem di¬ 
 ameter 
 
 Fresh 
 weight 
 per plant 
 
 Top-root 
 ratio 
 based 
 on green 
 weight 
 
 Seedbed 
 
 Trans¬ 
 plant bed 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 64 ths inch 
 
 Grams 
 
 
 1-0 
 
 Eastern redcedar. 
 
 30 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 . 9 
 
 7 . 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2.6 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 . 8 
 
 8 . 2 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 2.8 
 
 1-1 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 5.4 
 
 9.8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1.8 
 
 1-0 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper. 
 
 20 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 . 9 
 
 6 . 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 . 3 
 
 2-0 
 
 . do .'. 
 
 30 
 
 
 15 
 
 5.2 
 
 8.9 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2.0 
 
54 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 14. —Measurements of various age classes of Towner Nursery stock, Towner, N. Dak., fall 1941 and 
 
 spring 1958 —(Continued) 
 
 Age 
 
 class 
 
 Species 
 
 Trees per square foot 
 
 Trees 
 
 measured 
 
 Length 
 
 Stem di¬ 
 ameter 
 
 Fresh 
 weight 
 per plant 
 
 Top-root 
 ratio 
 based on 
 green 
 weight 
 
 Seedbed 
 
 Trans¬ 
 plant bed 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 6 Aths in. 
 
 Grams 
 
 
 1 3-0 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper (Cont.) 
 
 5 
 
 
 10 
 
 15.9 
 
 11. 6 
 
 25 
 
 87 
 
 4. 
 
 2-1 
 
 .do. 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 7.5 
 
 8. 3 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 2. 
 
 ®2-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14. 0 
 
 10. 6 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 3. 
 
 3 2-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 11.3 
 
 10. 4 
 
 13 
 
 31 
 
 3. 
 
 < 2-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 6.0 
 
 10.9 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 2. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 40 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 6 
 
 7 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 7 
 
 8 5 
 
 6 
 
 Tt, 
 
 1 
 
 33-0 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 10 
 
 6 2 
 
 8 6 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 A • 
 
 53-0 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 14 
 
 4 4 
 
 9 7 
 
 14 
 
 \fx 
 
 A 
 
 1-1 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 3. 1 
 
 8. 3 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 2 . 
 
 2-1 
 
 .do. 
 
 («) 
 
 (») 
 
 20 
 
 4 . 6 
 
 13. 3 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 3 . 
 
 2-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 7 . 6 
 
 14. 0 
 
 21 
 
 58 
 
 3 . 
 
 1-0 
 
 Scotch pine. 
 
 30 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 30 
 
 
 10 
 
 2 4 
 
 7 8 
 
 R 
 
 V / 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 8 3-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 30 
 
 
 15 
 
 5 0 
 
 8 8 
 
 9 
 
 R 
 
 
 9 3-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 30 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 5 
 
 7 5 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 2-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 7 . 8 
 
 11.2 
 
 17 
 
 32 
 
 2. 
 
 1-0 
 
 Blue spruce. 
 
 18 
 
 
 10 
 
 0 7 
 
 5 5 
 
 2 
 
 Cl 
 
 1 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 («) 
 
 
 20 
 
 2 7 
 
 7 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 73 
 
 
 15 
 
 4 9 
 
 8 2 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2-1 
 
 .do. 
 
 («) 
 
 
 20 
 
 4 4 
 
 11 4 
 
 10 
 
 
 1 
 
 2-2 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 20 
 
 6 8 
 
 18 2 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 3-2 
 
 .do. 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 6. 3 
 
 9.2 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 2 . 
 
 2-0 
 
 Jack pine. 
 
 20 
 
 
 15 
 
 3.6 
 
 9.5 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 . 
 
 * Low seedbed density. 2 Not top pruned. ^ Top pruned at 8 inches. * Top pruned at 4 inches. 
 ® Data not available. ^ Less than 1 gram. 8 Mycorrhizal soil. ® Nonmycorrhizal soil. 
 
 5 Top pruned at 4 to 5 inches 
 
 Table 15. —Measurements of various age classes of Bessey Nursery stock, Halsey, Nehr., spring 1958 
 
 Age 
 
 class 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-1 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-2 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 1-1 
 
 1-2 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-0 
 
 2-1 
 
 2 - 1-1 
 
 Species 
 
 Eastern redcedar. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Rocky Mountain juniper. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Austrian pine. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Red pine. 
 
 .do. 
 
 White spruce. 
 
 Bfue spruce. . 
 
 .do. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Trees per square foot 
 
 Length 1 
 
 Stem di¬ 
 ameter 1 
 
 Fresh 
 
 weight 
 
 per 
 
 plant ^ 
 
 Top-root 
 ratio 
 based on 
 green 
 weight 
 
 Seedbed 
 
 Trans¬ 
 
 plant 
 
 bed 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 64ths inch 
 
 Grams 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 . . 9. 2 
 
 14. 9 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 2 5 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 5. 6 
 
 11.7 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1. 5 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 12. 6 
 
 18.9 
 
 14 
 
 26 
 
 2. 1 
 
 60 
 
 
 2. 3 
 
 5. 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2. 3 
 
 
 17 
 
 8. 0 
 
 13. 6 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 2. 5 
 
 50 
 
 
 1. 4 
 
 6. 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1.7 
 
 50 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 12. 0 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 1.6 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 3. 3 
 
 12. 5 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 2.0 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 5.5 
 
 15. 6 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 3. 0 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 2. 9 
 
 11.0 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 1. 6 
 
 e) 
 
 17 
 
 13. 4 
 
 22. 0 
 
 32 
 
 109 
 
 4. 1 
 
 50 
 
 
 1. 2 
 
 7.3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1.7 
 
 50 
 
 
 2. 7 
 
 11.0 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 1.6 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 4. 3 
 
 14. 2 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 1. 5 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 12. 2 
 
 26. 2 
 
 21 
 
 lb 
 
 2. 8 
 
 60 
 
 
 1. 4 
 
 11. 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 .6 
 
 (2) 
 
 17 
 
 4. 4 
 
 12. 5 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 1.2 
 
 75 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 2. 6 
 
 1 
 
 (*) 
 
 2.0 
 
 75 
 
 
 . 7 
 
 3. 6 
 
 1 
 
 (®) 
 
 . 5 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 3. 1 
 
 10. 1 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 .8 
 
 (^) 
 
 17 
 
 4. 5 
 
 9. 5 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 1. 2 
 
 - , ...— „ ...... <.av.li I.ljiliuiliai.iuil Ui species 
 
 and age class except blue spruce 2-1-1, for which only 16 trees 
 were measured. 
 
 ® Data not available. 
 
 8 Weights less than 1 gram. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 55 
 
 Table 16.— Measurements of various age classes of Norman Nursery stock, Norman, Okla., spring 1958 
 
 Age 
 
 
 Trees per 
 
 Length 1 
 
 Stem di- 
 
 Fresh 
 
 Top-root 
 ratio based 
 
 class 
 
 Species 
 
 square foot 
 of seedbed 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 ameter * 
 
 weight 
 per plant ^ 
 
 on green 
 weight 
 
 1-0 
 
 Eastern redcedar. 
 
 Number 
 
 40 
 
 Inches 
 
 5. 4 
 
 Inches 
 
 10. 3 
 
 64ths inch 
 
 6 
 
 Grams 
 
 5 
 
 3. 6 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 40 
 
 17.0 
 
 15. 8 
 
 19 
 
 48 
 
 3. 6 
 
 1-0 
 
 Ponderosa pine. 
 
 30 
 
 2. 4 
 
 8. 9 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 2. 3 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 30 
 
 6. 6 
 
 13.0 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 3. 4 
 
 3-0 
 
 
 30 
 
 12. 2 
 
 17. 0 
 
 24 
 
 47 
 
 4.2 
 
 1-0 
 
 Austrian pine. 
 
 35 
 
 1. 9 
 
 7. 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3.4 
 
 2-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 35 
 
 5. 3 
 
 12. 2 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 2. 8 
 
 3-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 35 
 
 10. 9 
 
 22. 3 
 
 22 
 
 52 
 
 3. 4 
 
 2-0 
 
 Swiss stone pine. 
 
 50 
 
 16.9 
 
 11. 1 
 
 16 
 
 38 
 
 5. 4 
 
 3-0 
 
 .do. 
 
 50 
 
 18. 3 
 
 18. 2 
 
 21 
 
 55 
 
 3. 5 
 
 2-0 
 
 Digger pine. 
 
 10 
 
 14.9 
 
 17.8 
 
 23 
 
 57 
 
 2.9 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 10 
 
 15. 2 
 
 17. 9 
 
 23 
 
 58 
 
 3. 0 
 
 1 Twenty trees were measured for each combination of species and age class except digger pine, for which 40 trees were 
 measured. 
 
 INVENTORY 
 
 Each nurseryman must know the number of trees, 
 by species and age class, in his nursery so nursery and 
 fieldplanting activities can be properly coordinated and 
 costs of production can be determined. As it is nor¬ 
 mally impractical to make 100-percent counts, ade¬ 
 quate sampling must be employed. Because of the 
 more rigorous climate, stands of conifers in Plains 
 nurseries are generally not as uniform as those else¬ 
 where in the country; thus, a larger sample is required 
 to secure estimates within the required accuracy limits. 
 Methods needed to obtain the counts are the same as 
 those necessary in the South (Wakeley 1954) or the 
 Lake States (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957). 
 
 An inventory which considers the causes of variation 
 in the average stand per square foot of producing area 
 should be made for each seeding. These variables may 
 include seed source, age of stock, species, year of seed 
 collection, season of sowing or transplanting, and other 
 factors. The cost of this inventory should be only a 
 few cents per thousand seedlings if the percentage of 
 sample is properly gaged to the overall totals of the 
 classes listed above. 
 
 For the seedling inventory, it is common practice to 
 make two estimates—one of the total living seedlings 
 in a nursery block, or unit of it, and another of the 
 percentage of these seedlings that are plantable. The 
 accuracy of the final estimate of tree numbers will be 
 increased if (1) the random or systematic location of 
 sampling points provides a good cross section of condi¬ 
 tions on the entire area; (2) the counts are made 
 accurately; (3) the grading specifications used to 
 determine the percentage of seedlings in the sample 
 that are plantable are the same as will be used at the 
 time of lifting and shipping; and (4) the person 
 making the inventory is not biased. 
 
 A 4.0- by 0.5-foot strip across the seedbed is a com¬ 
 mon sampling unit of inventory in the Lake States 
 (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957) ; a 4- by 1-foot strip is 
 usually used in Southern nurseries (Wakeley 1954). 
 More samples can be obtained from the smaller strip 
 in the same time, and they will yield more accurate 
 estimates of the total, especially where the beds are 
 nonuniform. 
 
 The area is defined by a frame of wood, steel welding 
 rods, or flat steel strips reinforced with one or more 
 crossbars. The frame may be open at one end for ease 
 of placement on the bed, but it should be rigid enough 
 to have a constant inside dimension of the sample size 
 desired. 
 
 The number of 4.0- by 0.5-foot sample counts that 
 can be taken per 8-hour day where seedlings average 
 about 45 to 50 per square foot is as follows (Stoeckeler 
 and Jones 1957) : 
 
 Sample 
 
 counts 
 
 Class of stock {number) 
 
 1-0.120-160 
 
 2- 0.90-120 
 
 3- 0.80-100 
 
 The intensity of the sample taken will be determined 
 
 by the accuracy of the count required, the purpose of 
 
 the inventory, and the area and uniformity of stock¬ 
 ing of the seedbeds and transplant beds. More sam¬ 
 ples are required for nonuniform beds or for areas of 
 seedbeds that are less than 10,000 square feet, assum¬ 
 ing that the same degree of accuracy is needed. 
 
 A 1 / 2 -percent estimate or three counts per hundred 
 lineal feet of seedbed has been sufficient for areas larger 
 than 10,000 square feet (2,500 lineal feet) that have a 
 uniform density. Estimates within 5 percent of the 
 
56 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 correct total will be obtained in two of three trials. 
 Many nurserymen use 10 sample counts per 500-foot 
 bed. 
 
 The location of the samples within the beds may be 
 random or systematic, but it should be determined 
 prior to sampling. In a systematic layout, samples are 
 placed at regular intervals in the bed, the distance 
 between samples depending on the total number to be 
 taken. The sampling points are located by pacing or 
 
 measuring. Counts can be made most advanta¬ 
 geously by a two-man crew, one man working on each 
 side of the bed and counting approximately half of 
 the bed. To avoid duplication or misses, smaller units 
 of the area on which the trees are counted can be 
 marked on the ground or indicated on the sampling 
 frame. 
 
 A prepared form is used to record the counts. The 
 example shown below has 20 to 25 lines per sheet 
 (Wakeley 1954). 
 
 (Name) 
 
 Compartment Number. 
 
 Date of Inventory. 
 
 Recorder. 
 
 Measurement started. 
 
 N E S W end of bed (Circle one) 
 
 -Nursery Inventory 
 
 Length of bed. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Seed source. 
 
 Date sown. 
 
 Cultural treatment. 
 
 Uniformity of stocking. 
 
 Bed number 
 
 Distance along 
 bed 
 
 Living 
 
 seedlings 
 
 Plantable 
 
 seedlings 
 
 Bed number 
 
 Distance along 
 bed 
 
 Living 
 
 seedlings 
 
 Plantable 
 
 seedlings 
 
 
 (Feet) 
 
 (Number) 
 
 (Number) 
 
 
 (Feet) 
 
 (Number) 
 
 (Number) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Each sample is shown separately; the trees in each 
 lot are calculated. 
 
 The estimate of the number of plantable seedlings is 
 obtained by digging and counting the plantable seed¬ 
 lings in a subsample of the plots used previously to de¬ 
 termine the total number in a unit of the nursery. 
 These subsamples are selected mechanically at the time 
 the total inventory is made—for example, by marking 
 every fourth plot for digging. About 30 subsamples 
 per unit should be dug. Plot the percent plantable on 
 cross-section paper over the average number of seed¬ 
 lings per square foot on each subsample. A straight 
 line drawn through these points gives an estimate of 
 percent plantable over density for a particular unit of 
 the nursery. The average density of seedlings per 
 square foot in the nursery unit is then determined, and 
 the percent plantable for this density is read from the 
 graph. This percentage is then applied to the esti¬ 
 mated total number of seedlings in the nursery unit to 
 obtain an estimate of the number plantable. Allow¬ 
 ance must be made for seedling growth from the time 
 of inventory to time of shipment and for mechanical 
 
 injury during lifting. The accuracy in making cor¬ 
 rections can be improved by careful observation and 
 study, and the nurseryman should attempt to develop 
 a set of correction factors for his own nursery. 
 
 Because of greater uniformity in transplant beds, less 
 intensive sampling is required for the same accuracy. 
 The sampling unit for machine-transplanted trees is 
 generally a 6-foot-long section of an individual row. 
 When transplanting is done across the bed with 4- 
 to 6-foot-long transplant boards, the sampling unit is 
 the individual row corresponding to the bed width. 
 In counting transplants a 6-foot-long wooden pole (or 
 one corresponding to the bed width) with a long, thin 
 nail or heavy, 4-inch-long wire bent at right angles to 
 the pole at each end will serve as a sampler. 
 
 Where there are about 30 transplants per 6 feet of 
 row, 160 to 200 samples are counted per 8-hour man- 
 day. The percentage of plantable trees in transplant 
 age classes can be estimated very closely on the basis 
 of stem caliper and height, so no digging of samples is 
 required. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 57 
 
 SOIL MANAGEMENT 
 
 The problems in selecting a nursery site in the 
 Plains with the best combination of physical and chem¬ 
 ical soil characteristics for conifer production have al¬ 
 ready been emphasized. Furthermore, since both tops 
 and roots of the trees grown in the nursery are removed 
 from the soil, continued high-level production of qual¬ 
 ity stock requires systematic replacement of the 
 nutrients. 
 
 This section presents soil management practices de¬ 
 signed to develop the nursery soil into its highest pro¬ 
 ductive state and to maintain it in that condition. 
 Major subjects discussed are fertility requirements for 
 conifer production, determination of nutrient needs by 
 soil testing and visual observation of symptoms of mal¬ 
 nutrition, application of chemical and organic fertiliz¬ 
 ing materials, maintenance of soil acidity at favorable 
 levels for conifers (pH may change as a result of ir¬ 
 rigation), and the great importance of soil inhabiting 
 organisms such as mycorrhizal fungi to seedling devel¬ 
 opment and their introduction into nursery soils. 
 
 Many experiments, replicated 4 to 10 times, were 
 installed in four nurseries and more than 1,000 beds 
 in the Dakotas to test soil fertility and pH adjustment. 
 Randomized blocks, Latin squares, and similar statis¬ 
 tical designs were used. In the following discussion 
 details from a few of these experiments are presented 
 to illustrate certain effects. 
 
 FERTILITY REQUIREMENTS AND THE 
 
 DETERMINATION OF NUTRIENT NEEDS 
 
 A proper level of soil fertility and physical condition 
 is a prime essential to good nursery management. The 
 fertility level is important not only in producing ade¬ 
 quate growth but also in imparting frost hardiness 
 (Kopitke 1941) and drought hardiness (Shirley and 
 Meuli 1939). 
 
 Based on the analysis of the surface 6 to 8 inches of 
 soil of a number of nursery beds in the Northern Plains 
 where good seedling growth was observed, adequate 
 levels of fertility were determined to be as follows 
 (Stoeckeler and Arneman 1960) : 
 
 Total nitrogen (f>ercent)_ 0. 13 
 
 Available nitrogen (pounds per acre of am¬ 
 monia and nitrate nitrogen)_ 40.0 
 
 Organic matter (percent)_ 2. 5 
 
 Available phosphorus (pounds per acre of 
 
 P 2 OO_ 150 
 
 Available potash (jx)unds per acre of KjO)- 250 
 Cation exchange capacity (milliequivalents 
 
 per 100 grams)_ 12.0 
 
 Replaceable calcium (milliequivalents per 
 
 100 grams)_ 10.5 
 
 Replaceable magnesium (milliequivalents per 
 
 100 grams)._ 2.4 
 
 Total replace^le bases (milliequivalents per 
 
 100 grams)_ 14. 2 
 
 pH (for juniper species)_6. 5-7. 5 
 
 pH (for ponderosa and Austrian pine)_6. 0-7. 0 
 
 pH (for spruces, Scotch pine, and jack 
 
 pine)-5. 5-6. 3 
 
 Testing procedures are those compiled by Wilde and 
 Voigt (1955). 
 
 Soils of the Plains usually have large calcium, mag¬ 
 nesium, and potassium contents. Soils with the recom¬ 
 mended texture selected for conifer nursery purposes 
 are likely to be deficient in phosphorus and occasion¬ 
 ally in nitrogen. Some sulfur deficiency is reported 
 for general farm crops in eastern Nebraska (Jordan 
 and Reisenauer 1957), and some boron response has 
 been noted in eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, 
 and western Texas (Russel 1957). Norum et al. 
 (1957) report for the Northern Plains a general phos¬ 
 phate response, some nitrogen response, and an iron 
 deficiency in calcareous soils. 
 
 The best quick method to determine any shortage 
 in nutrients is to take 6 to 12 samples from the surface 
 8 inches of soil of the nursery, keeping the samples sep¬ 
 arate by past cropping and soil treatment history, soil 
 texture, and topographic variations, and referenced to 
 a map of soil type. The soil samples, properly labeled, 
 can be tested at the agronomy and soils department of 
 the agricultural colleges, generally on a standard cost 
 basis. Directions in labeling, packaging, shipping, and 
 payment will be supplied by these departments or 
 county agents. In the test, at least the following five 
 items must be determined; Total nitrogen, available 
 phosphorus, available potassium, pH, and silt-plus- 
 clay content. 
 
 The tests for total nitrogen, available phosphorus, 
 and available potassium, when compared with the fer¬ 
 tility table, will usually reveal any serious deficiency. 
 Because of different extraction methods, soil testing 
 techniques are likely to indicate different quantities 
 (in pounds per acre) of available phosphorus and 
 available potassium. Consequently, it is sufficient that 
 the contents of both of these nutrients rank as high or 
 very high, regardless of the method used. Fertilizer 
 should be applied to remedy shortages. Fertilizer test 
 plots can be used to verify the need and degree of 
 response. 
 
 The tests for pH should be electrometric; they will 
 reveal actual or potential alkalinity problems and 
 the amount of acidification, if any, that is needed. The 
 silt-plus-clay content provides a good general guide, 
 especially on the first soil tests run on the site, as to its 
 probable water-retaining ability and cation-exchange 
 capacity. The areas with the lowest silt-plus-clay con¬ 
 tent are most likely to be low in water-holding ca¬ 
 pacity, organic matter, and nutrients generally. These 
 deficient spots may need more manure, peat, com¬ 
 post, and commercial fertilizers than do the areas of 
 higher silt-plus-clay content. Differential treatment 
 of the nursery areas based on soil analysis will result 
 in maximum overall benefits from the fertilization. 
 
 VISUAL SYMPTOMS OF MALNUTRITION 
 
 Soil tests help provide estimates of the probability of 
 specific nutrient deficiency, but the nurseryman should 
 
58 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 also use other aids. One is a small-scale test of ferti¬ 
 lizer response. A second aid is observation of visual 
 symptoms of malnutrition such as the vigor and even¬ 
 ness of growth, foliage color, and the length and vigor 
 of needles and buds. 
 
 The chief visual symptoms of malnutrition in 
 Prairie-Plains conifer nurseries are likely to be (1) a 
 yellow chlorotic condition due to immobility of iron in 
 the plant, probably induced by excess lime carbonate; 
 (2) a purplish color in spring and midsummer on 
 spruces and some pines due to phosphate deficiency; 
 and (3) a patchy, uneven appearance of beds (espe¬ 
 cially in newly established nurseries) due to lack of 
 uniform mycorrhizal inoculation, invariably accentu¬ 
 ated by phosphate starvation. 
 
 When such symptoms of malnutrition are visible, the 
 trees can sometimes be saved by the treatments de¬ 
 scribed in table 17. In cases of advanced malnutri¬ 
 tion, the treatment may not result in any sp>ectacular 
 cure, and salvaging may have to be limited to usable 
 stock, or the beds may have to be written off as a total 
 loss. 
 
 In alkaline soils, iron may be immobile. As a rem¬ 
 edy, enough acidifying material is added to the soil to 
 make it moderately acid. This action stimulates a 
 process known as chelating, which results in mobility 
 of the iron. The effect of organic matter aids che¬ 
 lating. Special iron chelates, superior to iron sulfate, 
 have been used in some horticultural crops to correct 
 the problem, but they have not received much use in 
 Prairie-Plains nurseries. 
 
 Table 17 .—Symptoms of malnutrition in Prairie-Plains coniferous nursery stock 
 
 Deficiency 
 or excess 
 
 Age classes and species 
 observed 
 
 Symptoms and other 
 detection methods 
 
 Treatment required per acre 
 
 Mycorrhizae de- 
 
 2-0 and 3-0 in jack, 
 
 The beds are patchy and uneven. 
 
 Work mycorrhizal soil, leaf mold, or 
 
 ficiency. 
 
 Scotch, and ponder- 
 osa pine, and blue 
 and white spruce. 
 
 Mycorrhizal fungi are absent ex¬ 
 cept on trees in patches of good 
 development. 
 
 compost into soil, preferably between 
 drills, and acidify with one-half to 1 
 ounce of iron sulfate or aluminum 
 sulfate applied in solution per square 
 foot. If tests show available phosphate 
 to be low, apply 600 lbs. of 20-percent 
 superphosphate or its equivalent per 
 
 Phosphate deficiency. 
 
 1-0, 2-0, and 3-0 in 
 white and blue 
 spruce. 
 
 1-0 and 2-0 stock has a purplish 
 needle color in late spring and 
 midsummer; it is sometimes yellow¬ 
 ish in 3-0 stock. Needles are short 
 and may turn brown, terminal 
 buds are poorly developed, and 
 lateral buds are weak or absent. 
 Soil tests may show low available 
 phosphorus content. 
 
 Apply 600 to 1,000 pounds of 20-percent 
 superphosphate per acre or 680 
 pounds per acre of 11-48-0 ammonium 
 phosphate. 
 
 Iron deficiency. 
 
 1-0 and 2-0 in pon¬ 
 der osa and jack pine. 
 
 Trees tend to have pale yellow- 
 green needles. Soil may be alka¬ 
 line in reaction. 
 
 Use iron chelates or apply iron sulfate 
 as a foliage spray in a 1-percent so¬ 
 lution, wetting needles thoroughly. If 
 not cured, repeat treatments using up 
 to one-fourth avd. ounce per square 
 foot of iron sulfate. 
 
 Excess alkalinity. 
 
 All age classes of pon- 
 derosa, Scotch, and 
 jack pine. 
 
 Trees have stunted buds and yellow 
 or greenish-yellow needles. Soils 
 may be in a pH range of 7.7 to 8.8. 
 
 Rake 1)4 avd. ounces of aluminum sul¬ 
 phate per square foot between drills or 
 rows and water heavily. 
 
 The worst deficiency problems are often interrelated. 
 Problems such as excessive alkalinity may result in iron 
 and phosphate starvation and probably manganese 
 starvation, and also in spotty distribution of mycorrhi¬ 
 zal fungi. Often a drastic lowering of pH results in 
 a chain-reaction benefit that increases the availability 
 of three or four nutrient elements, furthers growth of 
 mycorrhizal fungi, and suppresses certain damping-off 
 and root rot organisms. 
 
 Some colors, such as purple, bronze-purple, or violet. 
 
 may be misinterpreted. Purpling is the normal fall 
 color change of some species, especially 1-0 seedlings 
 of some pine species and eastern redcedar. (See sec¬ 
 tion on hardening-off). The degree of color change 
 is less in the second-year or older pine stock, but it 
 occurs in older age classes of eastern redcedar. The 
 purpling due to fall color change persists until late 
 spring, when it disappears. The purpling due to phos¬ 
 phate deficiency is apparent throughout the growing 
 season. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 59 
 
 FERTILIZER APPLICATIOIVS AND THEIR 
 
 RESULTS 
 
 To obtain the maximum benefit from fertilizing 
 materials, nursery soils should be at the optimum pH 
 level for the species being produced and should be well 
 supplied with organic matter and mycorrhizal fungi. 
 The lack of one or more of these requirements may 
 reduce the effect of fertilization. 
 
 A study of response by Rocky Mountain juniper to a 
 number of organic and chemical fertilizer combina¬ 
 tions, with and without acidification, was made at the 
 Towner Nursery in North Dakota; each treatment was 
 replicated 10 times on 4-foot-square subplots (table 
 18). The nursery soil was a Sioux loamy sand. Size 
 was not increased because of acidification (treatment 
 2 ), but there was a strong response in size due to com¬ 
 
 plete commercial fertilizer (treatment 8), to manure 
 (treatment 7), to commercial fertilizer plus peat (treat¬ 
 ment 9), and to commercial fertilizer plus manure 
 (treatment 10). Of the three major fertilizers, nitro¬ 
 gen gave the most response (treatment 3), phosphorus 
 some (treatment 4), and potash none (treatment 5). 
 Only peat gave no response (treatment 6). 
 
 Colorado blue spruce reacted quite differently (table 
 19). Fertilizer alone gave no appreciable response. 
 The acid treatment alone or in combination with 
 mycorrhizal soil or Nitrophoska gave the most effect, 
 doubling the weight of plants but, probably because 
 of acid injury, lowering the number of trees slightly. 
 Other spruces, and most pines, tended to respond some¬ 
 what similarly to the Colorado blue spruce to acidifica¬ 
 tion and fertilizers. Each treatment was replicated 
 five times in a Latin square, with 4-foot-square sub¬ 
 plots. 
 
 Table 18. Effect of fertilization and acidification on 2—0 Juniperus scopulorum at Towner Nursery, 
 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Treat¬ 
 
 ment 
 
 Treatments per unit of area i 
 
 2-0 trees 
 per square 
 
 Length 
 
 Stem 
 
 Total green 
 weight per 
 plant 
 
 Top-root 
 ratio based 
 
 no. 
 
 
 foot 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 diameter 
 
 on weight 
 
 1 
 
 None. 
 
 Number 
 
 3.8 
 
 Inches 
 
 5.6 
 
 Inches 
 
 9. 1 
 
 64ths inch 
 
 8 
 
 Grams 
 
 1. 44 
 
 2.7 
 
 2 
 
 Aluminum sulfate, 1 ounce per square foot. . . 
 
 3.6 
 
 5. 6 
 
 8.7 
 
 7 
 
 8.21 
 
 2. 7 
 
 3 
 
 Ammonium sulfate, 400 pounds per acre. 
 
 4.0 
 
 6. 2 
 
 9.8 
 
 7 
 
 9. 43 
 
 2. 8 
 
 4 
 
 Superphosphate, 800 pounds per acre. 
 
 2>.l 
 
 5. 9 
 
 9. 5 
 
 9 
 
 8. 93 
 
 2.6 
 
 5 
 
 Potash, 200 pounds per acre. 
 
 4.0 
 
 5.4 
 
 9.2 
 
 8 
 
 6. 95 
 
 2.8 
 
 6 
 
 Towner peat, 20 tons per acre. 
 
 4. 3 
 
 5.4 
 
 9. 1 
 
 8 
 
 6. 95 
 
 2.7 
 
 7 
 
 Sheep manure, 20 tons per acre. 
 
 3. 5 
 
 6.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 9 
 
 10. 42 
 
 2.8 
 
 8 
 
 Ammonium sulfate, 400 pounds; superphos¬ 
 phate, 800 pounds; potash, 200 pounds 
 per acre. 
 
 4. 5 
 
 5.6 
 
 9.2 
 
 8 
 
 9. 20 
 
 2.7 
 
 9 
 
 Ammonium sulfate, 400 pounds; super¬ 
 phosphate, 800 pounds; potash, 200 
 pounds; Towner peat, 20 tons per acre; 
 aluminum sulfate, 1 ounce per square foot. . 
 
 4. 3 
 
 6.4 
 
 9. 6 
 
 9 
 
 10. 09 
 
 2.9 
 
 10 
 
 Nitrophoska, 100 pounds; sheep manure, 
 20 tons per acre; aluminum sulfate, 1 
 ounce per square foot. 
 
 3.5 
 
 7. 5 
 
 9.7 
 
 10 
 
 13. 36 
 
 3.2 
 
 1 All peat was applied on an ovendry weight basis. The percent superphosphate, 50-percent muriate of potash, 15-30- 
 fertilizers used were 20-percent ammonium sulfate, 20— 15 Nitrophoska, and ordinary commercial aluminum sulfate. 
 
 Table 19. —Effect of soil amendments on size of 2-0 Colorado blue spruce, Towner Nursery, Towner, 
 
 N. Dak. 
 
 Treatment per square foot of bed 
 
 Trees per 
 square foot 
 
 Length 
 
 Stem 
 
 Green 
 
 weight 
 
 Top-root 
 
 ratio 
 
 
 at 2-0 age 
 
 Top 
 
 Root 
 
 diameter 
 
 jjer 
 
 plant 
 
 based on 
 weight 
 
 None. 
 
 Number 
 
 21. 6 
 
 Inches 
 
 1. 8 
 
 Inches 
 
 1. 5 
 
 64ths inch 
 3. 3 
 
 Grams 
 
 0. 98 
 
 1.00 
 
 Three-eighths ounce of sulfuric acid (diluted).... 
 
 14. 2 
 
 3. 1 
 
 7. 3 
 
 4. 8 
 
 2. 12 
 
 1. 09 
 
 One-fourth ounce of 15-30-15 Nitrophoska. 
 
 21. 5 
 
 1. 9 
 
 6. 6 
 
 3. 3 
 
 1. 04 
 
 1.00 
 
 Three-eighths ounce of sulfuric acid plus 1 pound 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of mycorrhizal soil. 
 
 20. 7 
 
 3.0 
 
 7. 1 
 
 5. 2 
 
 2. 40 
 
 1.07 
 
 Three-eighths ounce of sulfuric acid plus one- 
 fourth ounce of 15—30—15 Nitrophoska plus 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pound mycorrhizal soil. 
 
 18. 6 
 
 2. 8 
 
 7. 6 
 
 4. 7 
 
 1. 99 
 
 1.31 
 
60 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Nitrogen .—Nitrogen has been applied to the soil at 
 the time of ground preparation. Application has 
 usually been at the rate of 40 to 80 pounds per acre, 
 usually in the form of 20 percent ammonium sulfate 
 (200 to 400 pounds per acre). Sometimes it is applied 
 in a complete fertilizer, such as 600 pounds per acre of 
 15-30-15 or 15-35-15. When applied at moderate 
 amounts in properly modified soil, adequate stands 
 were obtained. 
 
 Overtreatment with concentrated nitrogen fertilizers 
 can cause increased damping-oflf or actual chemical 
 injury and may reduce the tree stand (fig. 44). 
 
 Sodium nitrate applied as a preseeding treatment 
 greatly reduced a stand of 1-0 ponderosa pine. For 
 treatments of 0, 400, 800, and 1,200 pounds per acre, 
 the stands per square foot were 54, 31, 20, and 18 seed¬ 
 lings, respectively. 
 
 When beds are acidified at the time of fertilization 
 with nitrogen-supplying materials rototilled into the 
 soil, losses from subsequent damping-off are minimized. 
 This point is discussed in a succeeding section on main¬ 
 tenance of proper pH. 
 
 Phosphorus .—Phosphorus often is the key element in 
 short supply. When applied at 340 to 680 pounds per 
 acre of 20-percent superphosphate, it has given good 
 response. In fact, in some trials as much as 1,320 
 pounds per acre was used with optimum response. 
 Phosphorus is also applied in mixed fertilizers. At 
 most nurseries, use of 600 to 800 pounds per acre of 
 20 percent superphosphate has been sufficient, even for 
 the most deficient situations. 
 
 Potassium .—If required, about 100 to 200 pounds of 
 potassium sulphate can be supplied. 
 
 AMMONIUM SULFATE - POUNDS PER ACRE 
 
 Figure 44.—This graph shows an example of heavy treat¬ 
 ments of nitrogen fertilizers. A small-scale experiment 
 using 20-percent ammonium sulfate worked into the top 
 6 inches of soil before seeding on June 9 caused a reduc¬ 
 tion in 1-0 ponderosa pine tree stand due to damping-off 
 and chemical injury. The beds had not been acid treated. 
 Stand differences are highly significant statistically. 
 Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Calcium and magnesium .—Calcium or magnesium 
 has not been deficient in Prairie-Plains conifer nursery 
 soils. In fact, an excess has sometimes been a problem. 
 
 Iron .—Iron sulfate can be applied as a 1-percent 
 foliage spray to wet the needles thoroughly in case of 
 mild chlorosis (Korstian et al. 1921), in amounts of 
 about 25 pounds per 50 gallons of water per acre 
 (Imperial Institute of London 1936), or with more 
 massive doses of 680 pounds or more per acre applied 
 as a powder at time of seeding or in solution on estab¬ 
 lished beds. Use of iron chelates has definite poten¬ 
 tial for correcting chlorosis (Haertl 1955, Stewart and 
 Leonard 1952). For some horticultural crops, appli¬ 
 cation of iron chelates, at 5 to 10 pounds per acre, has 
 been effective in correcting chlorosis. Often much 
 heavier treatments are necessary, and the treatment 
 may be quite costly, especially if 20 or more pounds 
 should be required per acre. There is little or no 
 experience regarding the value of chelates on coniferous 
 nurseries in the Prairie-Plains. 
 
 Manganese .—This element can be supplied as a 
 manganese sulfate powder, disked in before seeding. 
 In one experiment its application, at 340 pounds per 
 acre, doubled the ponderosa pine tree stand at the 1-0 
 and 3-0 stages (apparently due to damping-off con¬ 
 trol) but did not increase growth. The Imperial Insti¬ 
 tute of London (1936) mentions its use, at 50 to 100 
 pounds per acre, as early as 1936. 
 
 Useful references on soil fertility include those of the 
 Chilean Nitrate Educational Bureau, Inc. (1948), 
 Mayer-Krapoll (1956), Stoeckeler and Arneman 
 (1960), White and Leaf (1956), and Wilde (1958). 
 
 LIQUID FERTILIZERS AS TOPDRESSINCS 
 
 Liquid fertilizers have been applied as topdressings 
 in early June on offcolor beds with some success. 
 Among those that have given good results are (1) one- 
 eighth ounce of 15-30-15 fertilizer per square foot 
 applied in June on 2-0 blue spruce (fig. 45); (2) one- 
 fourth ounce of 11^8-0 ammonium phosphate per 
 square foot applied in June on 3-0 white spruce; and 
 (3) one-twelfth to one-eighth ounce of 20-percent 
 ammonium sulfate per square foot on first- or second- 
 year pines or spruces. At the Bessey Nursery on 2-0 
 stock, urea has been found eflfective when applied in 
 early June in a dilute solution at 0.042 ounce of urea 
 p>er square foot (equivalent to 50 pounds of nitrogen 
 per acre). 
 
 Liquid fertilizers generally are not applied more than 
 once a year; however, at the Bessey Nursery 2-0 stock 
 has sometimes received two treatments; each time 
 0.092 ounce of 20-percent ammonium sulfate per 
 square foot was used. Regardless of the type of liquid 
 fertilizer used, overhead irrigation should follow im¬ 
 mediately after treatment to wash the fertilizer off the 
 foliage and prevent fertilizer burn. 
 
 Liquid fertilizers can be pumped through the over¬ 
 head system or applied from an acid barrel. In the 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 61 
 
 F-413003 
 
 Figure 45.—Liquid fertilizers can improve the growth and color of the seedlings. These are 3-0 blue 
 spruce at Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. At left, three trees from an unfertilized bed, at right, 
 three trees from a bed given a liquid topdressing of one-eighth ounce of 15-30-15 fertilizer i>er square 
 foot of bed in June of the previous season. 
 
 latter case, the water-soluble fertilizer is placed in a 
 sack and hung in the acid barrel to prevent clogging of 
 the holes in the pipe. 
 
 MANURE, COMPOST, LEAF MOLD, AND 
 
 PEAT 
 
 Bulk organic matter has been used with considerable 
 success in the Plains nurseries. Animal manures are 
 most often used; however, various composts are also 
 applied, and development of a peat supply may have 
 promise in the north. 
 
 The chernozemic soils of the Northern Plains are 
 generally rather well supplied with humus (Nikiforoff 
 1938), but prolonged cropping gradually depletes it. 
 Regular application of farm manures in crop rotations 
 is the best means of reducing the rate of nitrogen de¬ 
 pletion (Haas and Evans 1957). The beneficial long- 
 range effect of farm manures has been well docu¬ 
 mented (Haas and Evans 1957, Salter and Schollen- 
 berger 1938, Van Slyke 1932). However, if animal 
 manures are used, application should be confined to 
 cover crops or transplants or as an ingredient in com¬ 
 post since their .use may accentuate the damping-off 
 and weed problems. They should be left in the com¬ 
 post pit for at least 1 year before use in the nursery. 
 Application of 20 to 40 tons per acre has produced ex¬ 
 cellent results. 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery, until 1953, a compost was 
 made up of 2,000 pounds of weeds, grass, or other 
 
 vegetative material, 25 pounds of ammonium phos¬ 
 phate, and 300 pounds of calcareous clay. The clay 
 and fertilizer were mixed and layered between the 
 weeds and kept moist. This material, slightly richer 
 than barnyard manure, was composted for 2 years 
 before 20 tons per acre was applied just before the rye 
 cover crop was plowed under. 
 
 In the Southern Plains, higher rainfall intensities, 
 higher temperatures, and a longer warm season deplete 
 the humus reserve more rapidly than in the north, and 
 the use of bulk organic matter (animal manures or 
 composts) in the nursery becomes even more neces¬ 
 sary. Here there is prospect of using straw, and saw¬ 
 dust in the more easterly areas, as an ingredient in 
 making composts (Allison and Anderson 1951, Feustel 
 1938). 
 
 Leaf litter has been an excellent material for soil im¬ 
 provement in nurseries in forest regions (Lanquist 
 1945, Wilde 1946). Leaves that have been raked up 
 from trees along streets have also been used to ad¬ 
 vantage (Stoeckeler and Jones 1957). Leaf mold can 
 sometimes be obtained in the Prairie-Plains from nat¬ 
 ural stands in bottomlands or hill areas. 
 
 Peat deposits with organic matter that can be added 
 to nursery soils can occasionally be found in the North¬ 
 ern Plains. These peats tend to have a high pH level. 
 The range in one bog near Towner, N. Dak., was 6.0 
 to 7.6, and in most places the pH was about neutral. 
 This peat, when used experimentally at 10, 25, and 
 50 tons per acre on new seedings of ponderosa pine 
 
 748-005 0 - 65—5 
 
62 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 without acid treatment of the beds, had no deleterious 
 effect on the tree stand. An application of sheep ma¬ 
 nure, however, drastically reduced the stand from 58 
 to 22 trees per square foot, and seeding density, from 
 38 to 14 (fig. 46). The loss was due to damping-off. 
 
 Figure 46.—Comparison of 1-0 stands of ponderosa pine as 
 affected by two rates of seeding and by the application of 
 various amounts of moderately acid peat (A and B) and 
 sheep manure (C and D) to beds just before seeding. 
 No acid treatment was used. A and C were sown at the 
 rate of 116 viable seed per square foot. B and D were 
 sown at 58 viable seed per square foot. The peat treat¬ 
 ments had no adverse effect on the stand. The manure 
 was highly deleterious (at a 1-percent level of signifi¬ 
 cance). Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 COVER AND SOIL IMPROVEMENT CROPS 
 
 Many Plains nurserymen use a cover crop at least 
 once every 3 or 4 years in the rotation. Cover crops 
 have_ three primary purposes: (1) To prevent soil 
 blowing on land not occupied by trees, (2) to add or¬ 
 ganic matter, and (3) to keep the weed problem rea¬ 
 sonably controlled on land without trees. 
 
 Cover crops used commonly in the Prairie-Plains 
 conifer nurseries are Hubam clover, soybeans, biennial 
 sweetclover, r>'e, oats, sweetclover, field peas, cowpeas, 
 and vetch or a rye-vetch mixture. Hubam clover has 
 been used in the Dakotas, and cowpeas and soybeans in 
 the Central and Southern Plains. 
 
 Cover crops^ that are hosts to various nematodes 
 should not be used. An example is the soybean cyst 
 nematode found in States east of the Prairie-Plains. 
 This nematode is difficult to eradicate from infected 
 fields, and stock from such fields likely would be quar¬ 
 antined. 
 
 Leguminous cover crops may add as much as 100 to 
 150 pounds of nitrogen per acre; they also may supply 
 several tons of organic bulk per acre (Chadwick 1938; 
 Pieters and McKee 1938; Rogers and Giddens 1957). 
 
 Cover crops require some irrigation in dry periods 
 and may require fertilization. The legumes, particu¬ 
 larly, cannot be expected to produce worthwhile crops 
 without some supplemental water. 
 
 Cover crops are plowed under shortly before or 
 during the first development of flowers, or they may 
 be mowed at that time so that seed formation can be 
 avoided and an erosion-preventing mulch can be re¬ 
 tained on the surface. Rye is often seeded in late sum¬ 
 mer in paths and at bed ends as well as on fallow land. 
 It creates enough cover to give good overwinter pro¬ 
 tection. All cover crops should be plowed under 4 
 to 6 weeks in advance of seeding. Many nurserymen 
 prefer to use them in the rotation before transplant¬ 
 ing rather than before seeding. 
 
 In North Dakota nurseries, biennial white sweet¬ 
 clover is sometimes sown in May of one year, and 
 plowed under in May or June of the following year. 
 
 In Canadian nurseries, under semiarid conditions, 
 cover crops such as millet, rye, Sudangrass, and barley 
 all produced 2 to 4 tons of dry material per acre when 
 given several inches of irrigation (Knight 1956). 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery in Nebraska, the jxilicy is to 
 use a cover crop every third year. Whippoorwill cow¬ 
 peas are sown at the rate of V/i bushels per acre in 
 early May and plowed under in late July or in the 
 early blossom stage; the area is left fallow until early 
 September and then sown to winter rye. Sometimes 
 rye can be a problem following its incorporation into 
 the soil because incompletely decomposed plant resi¬ 
 dues tend to interfere in subsequent seeding or plant¬ 
 ing. Oats may be superior to rye in this situation. 
 
 The amount of organic matter and nitrogen supplied 
 by a cover crop is rather small compared with that 
 furnished by the usual 10- to 20-ton treatment per acre 
 of compost or manure. In many instances excellent 
 crops of trees have been grown for a prolonged period 
 without use of a cover crop. For example, at the 
 Towner Nursery, one tract without cover crops was 
 used continuously for 10 years and each tree crop was 
 more vigorous than the previous one. Organic mat¬ 
 ter in the form of manure was used liberally. 
 
 MAINTENANCE OF PROPER pH 
 
 The pH of the soil is an expression of its relative 
 acidity or alkalinity.^® Many agricultural plants grow 
 quite well over a wide range of pH, often 5.0 to 8.0, 
 while others require a soil well supplied with lime and 
 preferably slightly alkaline (Allaway 1957). 
 
 A soil with a pH of 3.5 would be considered extremely 
 acid; about 5.0 to 6.0, moderately acid; 7.0, neutral; 7.5 
 to 8.0, moderately alkaline; and 8.5 to 9.0, extremely alka¬ 
 line. Very acid soils are low in lime, while very alkaline 
 soils (above pH 8.5) have an excess of salts or alkalies which 
 adversely affects physical characteristics and water relations 
 of the soil and may depress or kill plant growth. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 63 
 
 The maintenance of the proper pH of the soil is very 
 important in Plains nurseries. Serious errors can 
 result in extremely high costs per thousand salable trees 
 or even in stand failure. 
 
 Among conifers commonly grown in Prairie-Plains 
 nurseries, eastern redcedar, Rocky Mountain juniper, 
 and Siberian larch grow well in circumneutral soils at a 
 pH of 6.0 to 7.5. Ponderosa and Austrian pines have 
 done well at a pH of 5.5 to 7.2, and white spruce, blue 
 spruce, jack pine, and Scotch pine have grown best in a 
 moderately acid soil of about 5.5 to 6.5. 
 
 Broadleaf species generally tolerate more alkalinity 
 than do conifers (Stoeckeler 1946), and young conifer 
 seedlings tolerate less than transplants or older stock. 
 
 The chief problem encountered in Plains soils is 
 alkalinity. An inherently high content of carbonates 
 is accentuated by additional carbonates in irrigation 
 waters. The problem is more acute if the nursery soil 
 has poor internal drainage. Often soils that were 
 slightly acid (6.2 to 6.5) before irrigation have a pH 
 change to 7.5 to 7.7 after 1 or 2 years’ irrigation, with 
 great subsequent harm to the conifers because of seri¬ 
 ous damping-off, root rot (Davis 1940), and phosphate 
 and iron starvation. Truog (1946) states that the 
 availability of phosphorus, iron, manganese, zinc, cop¬ 
 per, and boron all are greatly reduced when soil pH is 
 moderately alkaline. Treating the soil with acidifying 
 materials such as sulfur may make iron more available 
 (Holmes and Brown 1957). Bjorkman (1953) noted 
 potash starvation in spruce on soils with a pH up to 
 7.6 and reported that mild cases were corrected by 
 acidification. 
 
 Tests of the pH of the top 6 inches of soil should be 
 made in a number of places to determine the probable 
 amount of acidification required. Acidification should 
 not be overdone, and apparently there is no need to 
 lower the pH below about 5.3 to 5.5 in Plains conifer 
 nurseries. When the soil acidity is lowered to a pH of 
 about 3.8 to 4.5, magnesium and calcium deficiencies 
 may result (Voigt, Stoeckeler, and Wilde 1958). 
 
 COMPARISON OF ACIDIFICATION 
 WITH DIFFERENT CHEMICALS 
 
 The alkalinity of conifer seedbeds cannot be cor¬ 
 rected satisfactorily by the usual fertilization practices. 
 The soil must be acidified. Such treatment will 
 greatly enhance the effects of fertilizers applied later 
 and will improve the rate of spread of beneficial mycor- 
 rhizal fungi. 
 
 To test the effectiveness of several chemicals in cor¬ 
 recting soil alkalinity by acidification, an experiment 
 was conducted on a loamy sand soil at the Towner 
 Nursery in 1938. Seedbeds of ponderosa pine were 
 treated in the spring at the time of seeding and retested 
 in the fall of the same year. All chemicals were 
 applied in solution, using about 1 pint of water per 
 square foot of seedbed. 
 
 Five chemicals (sulfuric and phosphoric acids, and 
 aluminum, iron, and manganese sulfates) were tested 
 at three soil depths (figs. 47 and 48). 
 
 In the spring of 1938, the top 8 inches of the un¬ 
 treated soil had a pH of 6.8; in the fall of the same year, 
 after one season of irrigation, it was 7.5 for the surface 
 4 inches and 7.2 for the 4- to 8-inch level. Except for 
 the weakest solutions, the applications greatly reduced 
 the pH of the surface 2 inches of soil and somewhat 
 reduced the 2- to 4-inch and 4- to 8-inch depths. 
 
 Considering the vigor and size of seedlings and the 
 ultimate stand obtained, it was concluded from this 
 and other tests that a safe, effective, and consistent 
 treatment consisted of application of one-fourth to 
 three-eighths fluid ounce of sulfuric acid or one-half 
 avoirdupois ounce of aluminum sulfate per square 
 foot for a moderately alkaline soil condition. The 
 degree and persistence of the acidification obtained and 
 the damaging effects on the trees were considered in 
 this evaluation. For subsequent re-treatment of areas 
 where previous crops had been acidified, often one- 
 eighth to one-fourth fluid ounce of sulfuric acid or 
 one-fourth ounce aluminum sulfate was sufficient. 
 
 In addition to the five chemicals mentioned, sulfur 
 in fine powder form was also applied before sowing. 
 It proved to be very effective at one-fourth to three- 
 eighths ounce per square foot for a first application in 
 sandy soils and at one-half ounce per square foot on 
 alkaline silt loams (Stoeckeler and Ameman 1960). 
 In applying this treatment, any lumps in the material 
 must be thoroughly pulverized since acid injury may 
 occur if rootlets of plants contact grains or chunks of 
 the sulfur. In terms of acidifying power, 7 avoirdupois 
 ounces of sulfur has about the same effect on pH as 10 
 fluid ounces of sulfuric acid (Davis, Wright, and 
 Hartley 1942). 
 
 Flowers of sulfur tend to produce less acid injury if 
 applied several months or a year before the germina¬ 
 tion period. However, they have been repeatedly used 
 in a large number of experiments immediately pre¬ 
 ceding spring seeding, with no apparent acid injury 
 and with great benefit to the growth of the more lime- 
 sensitive tree species. In all cases the material was very 
 well pulverized and free from grains as large as a 
 match head. 
 
 Sulfur can be expected to be effective for a pro¬ 
 longed period. For instance, the effect of a heavy 
 treatment at the Towner Nursery in 1935 lasted until 
 the fall of 1941, when some treated areas were still in 
 the 5.1 to 5.6 pH range. This prolonged effect is due 
 to the slow chemical reaction and the fact that less 
 sulfur than sulfuric acid is leached out in irrigation 
 water. 
 
 Some treatments of one-half fluid ounce of con¬ 
 centrated acid per square foot, diluted to about 2 per¬ 
 cent in water, have subsequently injured seedlings. 
 Therefore, it is recommended that the amount of acid 
 not exceed three-eighths fluid ounce. 
 
 Before application, the number of square feet of the 
 seedbed to be treated is determined. The required 
 
64 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 47.^ —Effect on soil pH of sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid. Applications were 
 made in the spring of 1938, and the soil tests were made in the fall of the same year. 
 Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 amount of concentrated acid is calculated by multiply¬ 
 ing the desired dosage (expressed in fluid ounces 
 per square foot) by the number of square feet. This 
 amount is then diluted to 2 percent by volume to avoid 
 injury to the trees. The solution is applied so that all 
 of the treated area will receive approximately the same 
 amount. 
 
 As noted previously, species vary in their pH prefer¬ 
 ence or their tolerance of alkalinity. The lower dos¬ 
 ages (about one-eighth fluid ounce per square foot) 
 often sufficed for ponderosa pine. Jack and Scotch 
 pine and all the spruces required the heavier treat¬ 
 ments for best results. At the Towner Nursery, jack 
 pine beds had eight trees per square foot in untreated 
 second-year beds (pH about 7.5) while the beds 
 treated with one-fourth and three-eighths fluid ounce 
 of sulfuric acid per square foot averaged 30 and 51 
 trees, respectively (fig. 49). Untreated beds were 
 chlorotic; treated beds were a healthy green, and av¬ 
 erage heights were double those of the untreated beds. 
 The three-eighths ounce treatment gave the best re¬ 
 sults at the 2-0 stage. 
 
 Figure 49.—Effect of sulfuric acid treatment of beds at 
 the time of seeding on resulting stands of jack pine at 
 1-0 and 2-0 age. The seeding rate was 132 viable seeds 
 per square foot. The acid was applied in water solution 
 at the rate of about 25 cubic centimeters of sulfuric acid 
 per gallon of water. Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 65 
 
 Figure 48.—Effect on soil pH of aluminum sulfate, iron sulfate, and manganese sulfate. Applications were made in the 
 spring of 1938, and soil tests were made in the fall of the same year. Towner Nursery, Towner, N, Dak. 
 
 Similar results were observed in blue spruce; with 
 this species the application of three-eighths fluid ounce 
 of sulfuric acid per square foot doubled the weight of 
 second-year trees. In several North Dakota nurseries, 
 application of one-fourth fluid ounce of sulfuric acid 
 doubled or tripled the number of usable plants pro¬ 
 duced per square foot. Results for flowers of sulfur 
 were similar. 
 
 Variable response has been obtained in juniper 
 seedbeds. 
 
 The response to commercial-grade aluminum sul¬ 
 fate also varied by species; ponderosa pine had an 
 optimum stand when one-half ounce per square foot 
 was applied; comparatively greater effect was obtained 
 at higher rather than low sowing rates (flg. 50). In a 
 trial in which 0, j/ 2 , 1, and 1 /a avoirdupois ounces were 
 used (fig. 51), the 1-ounce treatment per square foot 
 gave the best stand of jack pine. The average heights 
 for 2-0 trees were 1.2, 1.5, 2.0, and 2.0 inches, respec¬ 
 tively. Color was not as good as in the sulfuric acid 
 treatment. In the presence of an adequate phosphate 
 
 80 
 
 I- 
 
 L. 
 
 (/) 
 
 (T 
 
 UJ 
 
 a. 
 
 a 
 
 Z40 
 
 Sn 
 
 O 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 ^ 
 
 VIABLE SEEDS 
 
 per sq.ft. " 
 
 
 
 VIABLE SEEDS 
 
 PER~SqT7^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 UJ 
 
 u 
 
 <0 
 
 20 
 
 1/2 I \\/2 
 
 ALUMINUM SULFATE - AVOP. OUNCES PER SQ.FT 
 
 Figure 50. —Effect of aluminum sulfate treatment on first- 
 year ponderosa pine seedbug stands at two densities of 
 seeding. The chemical was raked into the top 2 inches 
 of soil before seeding. Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
66 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 51.—Effect of aluminum sulfate treatment on stand 
 of jack pine seedlings. The seeding rate was 132 viable 
 seeds per square foot. The material was applied dry on 
 newly seeded beds and washed into the soil by heavy 
 sprinkling immediately after application of the chemical. 
 Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 level, on some occasions acidification did not increase 
 the number of ponderosa pine trees. 
 
 Hartley (1915, 1917) did some of the early research 
 in damping-oflf control at the Bessey Nursery and other 
 nurseries. He found a marked increase in tree stand 
 and size from acid treatment and warned against in¬ 
 jury from concentration of acid as the surface soil 
 dried. 
 
 Another important benefit of soil acidification is 
 weed control. Hartley (1915) reported substantial 
 weed control by sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric 
 acid. Hartley’s results were verified many years later 
 at the Towner Nursery where the weed stand for a 
 1 -month period after acidification was reduced sub¬ 
 stantially ; 
 
 
 Chemical per square 
 
 Weed stand per 
 
 
 foot 
 
 square foot 
 
 Treatment 
 
 (ounces) 
 
 (number) 
 
 Control, untreated. 
 
 .. 0. 
 
 40 
 
 Aluminum sulfate. 
 
 
 45 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 37 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 29 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 28 
 
 Sulfuric acid. 
 
 
 40 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 27 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 20 
 
 Do. 
 
 . . . ^ fluid oz. 
 
 13 
 
 .Acidifying materials such as sulfuric acid or phos¬ 
 phoric acid in about 2 percent solution are generally 
 applied from an acid barrel immediately after seeding. 
 A wooden barrel, steel drum, or lead-lined container 
 drawn by hand or by tractor is used (fig. 52). 
 
 F-502095 
 
 Figure 52.—Application of dilute solution of sulfuric acid 
 to seedbeds. Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 
 Aluminum sulfate may also be applied in solution 
 with an acid barrel or cart. Such an application gives 
 somewhat better damping-off control in the critical 
 surface inch or two of soil, but it does require slightly 
 more labor and expense than when the aluminum 
 sulfate is applied dry with a fertilizer or lime spreader. 
 
 Acidification to maintain proper pH of the soil has 
 been a common requirement in Plains nurseries. If 
 soil testing indicates a need for acidification, a safe, 
 effective, and consistent treatment is the application 
 of one-fourth to three-eighths fluid ounce of sulfuric 
 acid or one-half avoirdupois ounce of aluminum sulfate 
 per square foot for a moderately alkaline soil condition. 
 
 CARRYOVER EFFECT OF ACIDIFICATION 
 
 Part of the beneficial effect of acidification may last 
 for more than 3 years. Tests of the soil pH will indi¬ 
 cate how much the aftereffect of an initial, rather 
 heavy acidification has persisted. This will vary 
 widely, depending on the amount and quality of the 
 irrigation water used and the tree species involved. 
 
 In the fall of 1941, a great variation was observed in 
 some beds of 3-0 Scotch pine at the Towner Nursery. 
 These beds were part of an area which, in the spring 
 of 1936, had been devoted to an experiment involving 
 various levels of acid treatments including no treat¬ 
 ment. The beds were sown to Scotch pine in the 
 spring of 1939 without any additional soil treatment. 
 
 The extreme variation noted in size of the 3-0 
 Scotch pine in the fall of 1941 was correlated with the 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 67 
 
 F-413010 
 
 Figure 53. Difference in size of 3—0 Scotch pine due to treatment of the soil with sulfuric acid 6 years previously. At 
 left, three puny nonmycorrhizal seedlings from untreated areas. At right, three large mycorrhizal seedlings from a plot 
 treated with acid. Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak. (One-inch squares are in background.) 
 
 acidification treatment of the spring of 1936. The 
 better and larger trees were in the areas which had 
 been most heavily acidified, and the poorest trees were 
 in control beds which had received no acid treatment 
 in 1936. 
 
 Samples of the 3-0 Scotch pine, when examined 
 after digging, showed a heavy fungus mantle of mycor¬ 
 rhizal development covering the roots of the good trees. 
 The trees from the areas of poorest development had 
 few or no mycorrhizal fungi and few or no lateral buds 
 surrounding the terminal bud. The contrast in the 
 extremes of the two conditions is shown in figure 53. 
 Similar and striking benefits from acidification were 
 observed on ponderosa pine grown on an alkaline silt 
 loam at Bottineau, N. Dak. (Stoeckeler and Arneman 
 1960). 
 
 The beneficial effect is attributed to the rapid spread 
 of mycorrhizal fungi in the acidified beds and to the 
 improvement in conditions for phosphate and iron 
 assimilation in the same beds. 
 
 THE ROLE OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI 
 
 Mycorrhizal fungi are organisms that live in associa¬ 
 tion with conifers and some hardwoods (Bergemann 
 1956, McArdle 1932, Melin 1927, Shemahanova 
 1957). The mycelia of such fungi are intimately 
 associated with the living tissues of the roots, permitting 
 movement of soluble carbohydrates from tree to fungus, 
 and translocation of mineral nutrients from the fungi 
 into the tree roots. The end result usually is increased 
 tree vigor and growth (Wilde 1958). 
 
 According to Goss (1960), the occurrence of mycor¬ 
 rhizal fungi on pines, chiefly ponderosa, in Nebraska is 
 relatively sparse in the early spring, compared to their 
 reported occurrence at this season in the forested areas 
 of the Eastern United States.^ However, he found 
 them on pine roots growing in a wide variety of soils in 
 field shelterbelts, in the sandy soils of the Nebraska 
 National Forest at Halsey, and in several nursery soils. 
 Plains areas or tracts devoid of tree growth for a long 
 period are likely to have no mycorrhizal fungi (Dale 
 
68 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 and McComb 1955, Goss 1960, McComb 1943, Rosen- 
 dahl 1942, White 1941). If present, they may be 
 unevenly distributed. The lack of or incomplete dis¬ 
 tribution of mycorrhizal fungi has been associated with 
 early poor development of some of the conifers used 
 in windbreak planting (fig. 54). 
 
 Between 1933 and 1938, an extensive series of experi¬ 
 ments with mycorrhizal inoculations and supplemen¬ 
 tary treatments was conducted at Denbigh, Towner, 
 Oakes, and Bottineau, N. Dak. It was concluded that 
 ponderosa pine was favorably affected in some 
 instances by mycorrhizal fungi, particularly where pH 
 adjustments had been made by acidification; and that 
 Scotch and jack pine and blue and white spruces con¬ 
 sistently required mycorrhizal inoculation and acidifi¬ 
 cation with sulfuric acid if they were to have good 
 growth (fig. 55). 
 
 Increased growth and lessened chlorosis of ponderosa 
 pine seedlings resulted from the addition of duff-soil 
 inoculum to nonmycorrhizal virgin grassland soils 
 (Goss 1960). More mycorrhizal than nonmycorrhizal 
 seedlings were able to survive a rapid and extreme soil 
 moisture deficiency. 
 
 Some studies in 1936 included inoculation of beds 
 with pure cultures or mycorrhizal nursery soil. These 
 tests demonstrated clearly that the specific mycorrhizal 
 fungi involved did not thrive in an alkaline soil (pH 
 about 7.5). However, when the soil was acidified suffi¬ 
 ciently to lower pH to 6.0, they grew well.^® 
 
 Mycorrhizal fungi can be introduced into prairie 
 and plains soils by one of several methods: 
 
 1. I ncorpHDration of leaf mold, humus, and sur¬ 
 face soil (surface 2 to 3 inches) from a well- 
 established plantation or shelterbelt of spruce 
 or pine or from a natural stand. 
 
 2. Incorporation of surface soil from a well-estab¬ 
 lished nursery that is free from the more serious 
 disease and insect pests and has nursery stock 
 showing an abundance of mycorrhizal fungi. 
 
 3. Incorporation of compost made of stockpiled 
 leaf mold and peat containing mycorrhizal 
 fungi over the nursery beds. 
 
 4. Transplanting some pine or spruce seedlings 
 obtained from a nursery where the mycorrhizal 
 fungi on the seedling stock are abundant. 
 
 The more successful of these methods has been the 
 use of mycorrhizal soil or seedlings from natural stands 
 
 “ The pure cultures were supplied by Dr. K. D. Doak of 
 the then Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D.G. 
 Wheat was boiled 4 hours and then cooled before inocula¬ 
 tion with specific strains of mycorrhizal fungi and other 
 fungi. These spread throughout the glass jar container 
 within 4 to 6 weeks after inoculation. The species used in¬ 
 cluded: Boletus granulatus, a mycorrhizal fungus found ben¬ 
 eficial to certain conifers native to or introduced into the 
 Eastern United States (including Scotch, eastern white, jack, 
 
 f fitch, and red pine) ; I thy phallus ravenelii, a nonmycorrhizal 
 ungus which, according to Dr. Doak, has benefited Scotch 
 pine and some spruces and firs; Clitopilus abortivus; and 
 Hypholoma uda. On subsequent evaluation, the last two 
 were deemed of little value. 
 
 F-475083. 424671 
 
 Figure 54. — A, Patchy, uneven condition of second-year un¬ 
 treated beds of ponderosa pine in a North Dakota nursery 
 caused by uneven distribution of mycorrhizal fungi and 
 aggravated by soil alkalinity. B, Closeup of mycorrhizal 
 (right) and nonmycorrhizal (left) seedlings lifted from 
 good and p>oor areas in the above nursery. (One-inch 
 squares are in background.) 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 69 
 
 F-397261 
 
 Figure 55.—Jack pine (2-0) seedlings showing efTect of mycorrhizal soil and acidification treatment. 
 Trees on the right received one-fourth ounce sulfuric acid, 1 pound of mycorrhizal soil, and one- 
 fourth ounce of 15—30—15 fertilizer per square foot of seedbed. (One-inch squares are in background.) 
 
 or an established nursery, or the use of leaf mold and 
 surface soil from a shelterbelt of pine or spruce. It 
 will require at least 1 or 2 bushels of mycorrhizal soil 
 or leaf mold per 100 square feet of seedbed to obtain 
 any semblance of uniform inoculation; in order to 
 use this amount, the material must be kept moist in 
 transit, an acid soil condition (pH around 6.0) at the 
 new nursery site must be achieved or maintained, and 
 the inoculum must be spread very uniformly and disked 
 into the surface 2 inches, and then the soil must be 
 watered. 
 
 The safest procedure (the one that will introduce the 
 least disease and the fewest insect pests) would be to 
 obtain the leaf mold and surface soil from a natural 
 pine or spruce stand. However, these are sometimes so 
 distant that the'Tnaterial must be obtained from a 
 planted stand or shelterbelt. If soil that contains my¬ 
 corrhizal fungi from old nurseries or distant localities 
 is used to inoculate a new site, it should be clearly free 
 
 of insects, diseases, and nematodes. However, moving 
 of soil or plants from one nursery to another is not gen¬ 
 erally recommended as a means of transferring mycor¬ 
 rhizal fungi. 
 
 The introduction of pure cultures of mycorrhizal 
 fungi requires more research before it can be recom¬ 
 mended for large-scale operations. 
 
 Mycorrhizal fungi are capable of maintaining them¬ 
 selves in soils where the host plants are absent for 
 several years (Rosendahl and Wilde 1942). At the 
 Towner Nursery, fungi lasted very well without a conif¬ 
 erous host plant from 1943, when the nursery went 
 out of production, until 1953, when it was reactivated 
 without reinocultaion of the beds. Even the first crop 
 of spruce and pine produced after the 10-year lapse 
 appeared to be abundantly supplied with appropriate 
 mycorrhizal fungi, and the 2-0 beds in 1954 were quite 
 uniform and of good color. The presence of humus 
 extends their ability to survive (Kelley 1930). 
 
70 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 NURSERY PROTECTION 
 
 More seedlings are lost or injured from various 
 causes while in the nursery and during distribution than 
 later, when they are in the field. To avoid serious 
 losses from nursery injuries, constant vigilance will be 
 needed, since early discovery is quite as important as 
 prompt treatment. 
 
 Protection of seedlings involves guarding against loss 
 by four major factors: Weather, insects, mammals and 
 birds, and diseases. Major sources of injury, as well 
 as some of the minor ones, are described in this section. 
 Some formulas for insecticide and fungicide sprays and 
 for mouse bait are given in the Appendix. Also in the 
 Appendix, under “Sources of Information on Nursery 
 Problems,” are suggestions on sources from which 
 additional information on specific problems can be 
 obtained. 
 
 METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS 
 
 The climate of the Plains is characterized by ex¬ 
 tremes. Chief among the characteristics influencing 
 the production of coniferous stock is the persistent, 
 rather high wind movement; the low precipitation in 
 the northwest portion furthest removed from the Gulf 
 of Mexico; and the extremely high temperatures which 
 occur everywhere where moisture is lacking at mid¬ 
 summer. While the nurseryman has no control over 
 heat, cold, rain, hail, and wind, he can diminish the 
 effects of all these forces, except hail, by good soil man¬ 
 agement, timely irrigation, development of effective 
 windbreaks, and other good nursery practices. 
 
 Wind 
 
 Wind adversely affects seedling production by (1) 
 burying the seed and seedlings or blowing them out of 
 the ground; (2) causing mechanical injury by sweep¬ 
 ing along the ground particles of sand that cut the 
 small seedlings near the ground line or that sandblast 
 the tender foliage or cotyledons; (3) accelerating de¬ 
 pletion of the soil moisture and making the even distri¬ 
 bution of water difficult; and (4) intensifying the 
 drying effect of high temperatures on plant tissue 
 (Engstrom and Stoeckeler 1941). Older stock may be 
 affected by desiccation of the tops, which results in 
 foliage and bud damage and a less attractive appear¬ 
 ance. Roots dry out faster if the wind is blowing dur¬ 
 ing lifting operations. 
 
 The location of nurseries in naturally protected sites 
 will reduce wind damage. Where this is not possible, 
 protection must be provided by a system of windbreaks. 
 For exterior belts, two to seven rows may be needed. 
 For interior windbreaks, one to three rows should 
 suffice. 
 
 The zone of intensive wind protection for good shel- 
 terbelts is usually about 10 tree heights. Trees in nur¬ 
 series with supplemental water and high fertility levels 
 will generally attain effective heights of 40 to 50 feet. 
 
 The spacing between belts thus can be about 400 to 
 500 feet. 
 
 Nurseries with rather limited space may find it 
 advisable to avoid using cottonwood, Siberian elm, and 
 other species with widespread root systems. It may be 
 better to use one to three rows of conifers in exterior 
 belts and only snow fence for interior portions. 
 
 Species that may serve as host or brood trees for 
 insects and mites or as sources of infection for dis¬ 
 eases that attack trees being grown in the nursery 
 should be avoided if possible. Eastern redcedar has 
 carried over populations of red spider, with subsequent 
 reinfestation of new seedlings in Nebraska nurseries; 
 and white spruce has done the same in North Dakota. 
 Scale insects and tip moths are examples of insects 
 that may maintain populations on pine in windbreaks 
 and thus infest seedling and transplant beds. Pho- 
 mopsis blight of junipers may be transmitted from older 
 trees in the nursery to new seedlings. 
 
 It is customary to place interior roads next to the 
 windbreaks as much as possible since, even under ir¬ 
 rigation, the 15- to 20-foot zone next to such wind¬ 
 breaks is not suitable for nursery stock production be¬ 
 cause of the sapping and shading effect of the trees. 
 Biennial pruning of the roots during the dormant sea¬ 
 son will help reduce the sapping effect. The pruning 
 is done 10 to 20 feet from the trees and to a depth of 
 2 to 2^2 feet. It can be done with a root cutter, a 
 chisel subsoiler, or a middlebuster plow modified as a 
 root cutter. 
 
 One-row plantings of Siberian elm spaced about 4 
 feet apart have proved very effective at the Oakes 
 Nursery (fig. 56). The east-west belts are about 175 
 to 200 feet apart, and the north-south belts are about 
 400 feet apart. 
 
 The presence of at least one or two rows of conifers, 
 particularly a row of pine flanked by a row of another 
 dense-growing species, in exterior or major windbreaks 
 helps reduce wind erosion when broadleaf species are 
 devoid of leaves (fig. 57). Nurseries laid out on the 
 contour may benefit from interior windbreaks paral¬ 
 leling terraces and placed at intervals of about 100 to 
 200 feet (fig. 58). 
 
 Some nurseries use interior hedges of tall-growing 
 shrubs or trimmed cedar. Some Canadian nurseries 
 have trimmed hedges of Siberian peashrubs. 
 
 Most nurseries use some slat-wire snow fence placed 
 on pipe supports under pipelines (fig. 59) to reduce 
 sand movement in the interior of blocks. They are 
 especially useful on new sites which have little or no 
 protection by taller tree growth. 
 
 The use of annual plants such as sorghum, cane, sun¬ 
 flower, and Sudangrass as temporary windbreaks has 
 been tried in many nurseries in the Plains region. They 
 have not been effective in protecting seedlings because 
 they are not tall enough during the critical period and 
 they sap soil moisture needed by the seedlings in ad¬ 
 jacent rows. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAENS 
 
 71 
 
 (Photo courtesy of the North Dakota State Soil Conservation Committee) 
 Figure 56.—Siberian elm shelterbelts at Oakes Nursery, Oakes, N. Dak. 
 
 F-475108 
 
 Figure 57.—This row of 18-year-old ponderosa pine in an 
 exterior sheltei'belt is already a substantially effective wind 
 barrier both in summer and winter, Towner Nursery, 
 Towner, N. Dak. 
 
 Nursery rows should run at right angles to the 
 prevailing summer wind if the lay of the land permits. 
 Successive rows of transplants will break up the sweep 
 of the wind near the ground. 
 
 Heat 
 
 Extremely high air temperatures damage seedlings 
 by heating the soil surface at the ground line to a lethal 
 temperature or by causing the tops to transpire faster 
 than their moisture supply from the soil can be replen¬ 
 ished. The common occurrence of lesions on the stems 
 of very young seedlings in the Bessey Nursery was early 
 attributed to excessive heating of the surface soil (Hart¬ 
 ley 1918). 
 
 Heat injury may appear as heat lesions on the stem 
 at the ground line or as a burning of the leaves and 
 succulent tops. Heat cankers have been noted to be 
 more prevalent on seedlings in rows oriented east and 
 west. 
 
 In Southern Plains nurseries, trees may be damaged 
 
72 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 F-488076 
 
 Figure 58. —Interior single-row, 6-year-old hedges at the State Nursery, Norman, Okla. These are mostly oriental aborvitae 
 (on right) placed on the downhill slope of each terrace. Multiflora rose (on left) and eastern redcedar were used in 
 a few of the hedges. 
 
 
 
 F-320779 
 
 Figure 59. —Slat-wire fences not only protect the soil from blowing and the trees from wind injury but also trap snow. 
 Note relative absence of snow on unprotected field in distance. Towner Nursery, Towner, N. Dak., April 1936. 
 
73 
 
 CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 by heat when hot temperatures and high winds occur 
 in May while the plants are still succulent. 
 
 Shirley (1936), in a study of the relative resistance of 
 1- to 4-year-old conifers of four species to high lethal 
 temperatures in a water bath and under high (85 per¬ 
 cent) and low (15 percent) relative humidities, con¬ 
 cluded that: (1) Resistance to excessive heat increases 
 with increasing age and increasing size or mass of plant 
 and tissue; (2) tops are more resistant than roots; (3) 
 temperatures as high as 111.7° F., while not causing 
 severe damage to toj>s in exposures of up to 5 hours, 
 may kill the roots; and (4) there is little difference in 
 the ability of red, white, and jack pine and white 
 spruce to withstand heat. He also found that the ex¬ 
 ternal killing temperature for plant material of com¬ 
 parable size and age was higher in air than in water 
 and higher in dry air than in moist air. Bates and 
 Roeser (1924), working with ponderosa and lodgepole 
 pines, Engelmann spruce, and Douglas-fir, also found 
 that the resistance of all seedlings to excessive heat 
 became slightly greater with aging and accompanying 
 hardening of tissues and with an increase in the num¬ 
 ber of needles. Older plants stand heat better than 
 first-year trees (Shirley 1936). 
 
 Beds of 1—0 ponderosa pine at Towner, N. Dak., were 
 injured when the soil temperature at the surface 
 reached 120° F. Baker (1929), in a study of the effect 
 of unusually high temperatures on coniferous repro¬ 
 duction, found that 1- to 3-month-old seedlings of 
 ponderosa pine and Sitka spruce were quickly killed by 
 temperatures of 130°. 
 
 Observations by Roeser (1932) of approximate crit¬ 
 ical temperature maxima that ponderosa pine of differ- 
 ent ages can endure may be useful to nurserymen in 
 judging whether to irrigate: 
 
 . . , Critical temperature 
 
 Age tn days in degrees F. 
 
 He found Douglas-fir and Engelmann spruce were 
 more sensitive to heat injury at 71 days of age than 
 were ponderosa pine or lodgepole pine. 
 
 Nursery techniques that will produce sturdy woody 
 stems as early in the season as possible are a logical 
 solution to this problem of heat injury. Older seed- 
 lings and transplants shade the soil and reduce the 
 surface soil temperatures. 
 
 Irrigation by overhead sprinklers and shading help 
 reduce the damage from heat. In 1936, considerable 
 heat injury was observed on the southwest side of 30- 
 to 50-day-old ponderosa pine seedlings at the Towner 
 Nursery when the soil surface temperatures reached 
 120° F. or higher. On hot days, the high soil surface 
 temperatures, after one-half hour of watering started 
 around noon, were promptly reduced from a critical 
 temperature of about 125° to below 100° and were 
 held under 120° for 4 hours or longer (fig. 60) (U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Lake States Forest Expt. Sta. 1937). 
 
 Adequate stand density may be an important factor 
 
 in reducing heat losses since seedlings growing close 
 together protect and shade each other. However, 
 other factors besides heat protection must be considered 
 before a decision is made on the number of seedlings 
 to be grown per square foot. 
 
 Frost and Winter Damage 
 
 Seedbeds generally need to be protected overwinter. 
 In the Northern and Central Plains especially, wind- 
 bum, winter injury, frost heaving, sudden extreme 
 drops in temperature, and spring and fall frosts are 
 hazards to the seedlings. 
 
 In the North it is risky to have succulent trees in the 
 nursery later than September 10. Therefore, well- 
 developed plants must be produced by mid-August in 
 North Dakota and by September 1 in Nebraska. Irri¬ 
 gation and cultivation should be discontinued at that 
 time. 
 
 Seedling nutrition also is important. Kopitke 
 (1941) found that a balanced supply of nutrients, and 
 especially an adequate amount of potash, appeared to 
 be the most important prerequisite for the production 
 of frost-resistant stock. Maximum benefits were ob¬ 
 tained when the concentration of potash was adequate 
 to produce a vigorous seedling at the very beginning of 
 development. 
 
 Pines and junipers in the Dakotas are likely to have 
 a high percentage of their foliage browned by winter 
 injury, even in second-year beds. Sometimes trans¬ 
 plants are affected. The browning is due to loss of 
 moisture from the needles while the ground is frozen 
 and the roots are unable to supply moisture. This 
 injury may occur in March or early April on bright, 
 sunny days with high winds, low humidity, and air 
 temperatures in the 41° to 60° F. range (Walker and 
 Kerr 1954). 
 
 Mulches have been used extensively in conifer pro¬ 
 duction in the Plains. Many different materials have 
 been used, including snow fence, shade frames, rolled 
 burlap, hay, and plastic sheeting. 
 
 A 2- or 3-inch layer of clean straw or marsh hay may 
 be applied shortly before the soil freezes. Coverage 
 should include the paths as well as the seedbeds and 
 transplant beds. The mulch should be left on until 
 March or April. 
 
 Sawdust is another mulch that has been tried. A 
 layer 1 54 inches deep was effective in one experiment 
 (Farnsworth et al. 1956.) Sawdust has been used 
 extensively only in the Oklahoma nurseries, and there 
 only as a thin covering over recently sown conifers, 
 especially fall-seeded eastern redcedar. 
 
 Paper mulches have been tried exp>erimentally, but 
 do not appear to be competitive in cost with other 
 materials (Robbins 1932). 
 
 Snow fence rolled out on the bedboards has given 
 effective protection. Mulch may or may not be used 
 under it. 
 
 All beds should be wetted for a few days before 
 covering is applied. 
 
74 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 TIME OF RECORDINGS 
 
 Figure 60.—EflFect of watering on soil-surface temperatures: A, Air temperatures in shade; B, soil-surface temperatures in 
 sun with 1/2 hours of wetting; C, soil-surface temperatures in sun with no wetting. Towner Nursery, Towner, 
 
 N. Dak. 
 
 As mentioned earlier, snow fences erected on every 
 pipeline or on every second line aid in trapping snow 
 within the nursery and afford some protection by keep¬ 
 ing the trees covered with more snow and for a longer 
 period in the spring. This practice is especially useful 
 on transplant beds; however, it does not distribute the 
 snow as uniformly as is desirable. 
 
 Frost heaving is a problem in northern nurseries. It 
 occurs during open winters with little snow cover and 
 in early spring when the seedlings are emerging. Often 
 1-0 stock is frost heaved partly or entirely out of the 
 ground. Eastern redcedar and spruce are particularly 
 susceptible. Removing the mulch at a date later than 
 normal will reduce the damage from this source. 
 
 Fall-sown eastern redcedar seed germinates early in 
 May in central Nebraska. When freezing tempera¬ 
 tures may occur after germination, mulching with 
 clean straw or marsh hay and sprinkling have been 
 used to prevent frost. 
 
 Sometimes after overwinter mulches have been re¬ 
 moved in the spring, a severe frost, with temperatures 
 between 18° and 28° F., may be predicted. The trees 
 
 may then be protected by rolling out snow fence on 
 the bedboards or by rolling burlap directly on top 
 of the half-shade or directly on top of 1-year-old frost- 
 sensitive seedlings such as spruce or fir. Irrigation 
 with an overhead sprinkler system also offers some pro¬ 
 tection. The sprinklers are turned on the beds of sen¬ 
 sitive species as soon as, or slightly before, the tem¬ 
 perature drops to 32° and are kept on until the tem¬ 
 perature rises. In some instances a sheet of ice formed 
 between the trees, but on melting, little or no damage 
 had occurred from freezing (Stoeckeler and Jones 
 1957). Most of the effectiveness of this method in 
 preventing frost damage is lost when the temperature 
 reaches below 25°. 
 
 nursery insects and mites 
 
 Insects and mites may cause serious damage in nur¬ 
 series. Frequent checks are necessary to detect in¬ 
 juries in the early stages so that losses are reduced and 
 control measures can be applied promptly. Damage 
 may be to the roots or tops or both of seedling and 
 transplant stock. Some insects, such as white grubs, 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 75 
 
 are common nursery pests on both conifers and hard¬ 
 woods in the Plains (Wygant 1936). Others, such as 
 the Nantucket pine tip moth, attack only conifers and 
 are found only in certain areas. The range of some 
 insects is believed to have been increased through the 
 distribution of infested nursery stock (Craighead 1950, 
 Graham 1939). 
 
 Fortunately, in recent years an improved general 
 knowledge of insects and their life cycles has made 
 possible the efficient use of newly developed insecti¬ 
 cides. The stomach insecticides are used for killing 
 top feeders, especially larvae of moths, beetles, and 
 sawflies. The arsenicals, partieularly lead arsenate, 
 are the most important inorganic stomach insecticides. 
 Some organic insecticides, such as derris, pyrethrum, 
 and tobacco products, are stomach poisons. The 
 newer organic chemicals, such as DDT, chlordane, and 
 benzene hexachloride, act as both stomach poisons and 
 contact insecticides. Contact insecticides, which are 
 used chiefly to control sucking insects, also include 
 nicotine sulfate, pyrethrum, lime sulfur, sulfur dust, 
 oils, and oil emulsions. ’ 
 
 White Grabs 
 
 Larvae of the May beetle and related genera 
 {Phyllophaga spp.) eat the roots of coniferous seed¬ 
 lings, causing death or reducing growth. Occasionally 
 the tender stems of newly germinated seedlings are 
 consumed. 
 
 The life cycle of the insect, 2 to 5 years, varies by 
 species and latitude (Craighead 1950). For the more 
 injurious species in South Dakota and Nebraska, it is 
 3 years. The adult beetles eat the foliage of deciduous 
 trees, and the females oviposit in the soil near the 
 trees. Most of the damage occurs during the second 
 year of development, when the grubs are feeding heav¬ 
 ily and larval growth is rapid. These larvae are white 
 and have brown heads, stout, curved bodies, and six 
 prominent legs. 
 
 At the Bessey Nursery in 1930, a grub population 
 of one to eight per square foot caused losses of as much 
 as 50 percent of transplant ponderosa pine, with some 
 damage to jack and red pine. Losses have also oc¬ 
 curred in 1-0 eastern redcedar beds. Severe dam¬ 
 age to pine transplants reportedly occurred in a nurs¬ 
 ery in southeastern Manitoba (Prentice and Hildahl 
 1959). 
 
 Before seeding, white grub control can be obtained 
 in nurseries through the application of 8 pounds of 
 chlordane per acre. It is applied in the form of 80 
 pounds of 10-percent dust. The insecticide is mixed 
 immediately with the soil to an 8-inch depth with a 
 rotary tiller or disk (Speers and Schmiege 1961). A 
 maintenance dosage of 1 to 1 pounds per acre will 
 be needed every 2 years. Dieldrin, applied at the rate 
 of 1/2 pounds per acre and then at one-half pound 
 every 2 years, may be substituted for chlordane. Ex¬ 
 cellent control has been reported following fumigation 
 with methyl bromide gas at the rate of 2 pounds per 
 100 square feet (Hill 1955). 
 
 Areas with trees receive an application of chlordane 
 emulsion, applied at a dosage of 1 part in 200 parts 
 of water, and then sprinkling for 3 to 4 hours to get 
 the rnaterial into the soil. In western Kansas white 
 grubs in potted evergreens also have been controlled 
 by application of chlordane.^® 
 
 Nantucket Pine Tip Moth 
 
 The Nantucket pine tip moth (Rhyacionia frustrana 
 (Comst.)) is a pest of most species of two- and three- 
 needled pines occurring throughout the East and 
 through the Central States to Texas (Craighead 1950). 
 A variety {R. frustrana bushnelli (Busck)) is more 
 common in the Plains area of Minnesota, the Dakotas, 
 and Nebraska. The larvae mine the shoots and buds 
 of nursery stock and older trees. One or two larvae 
 will hollow out only the buds or apex of the new shoot, 
 but where they are numerous, the entire shoot may be 
 riddled with their burrows, and deformation and stunt- 
 ing of the trees may result. 
 
 The larvae are yellow to pale brown and have brown 
 heads. They are nearly one-half inch long when fully 
 grown. Winter is passed in the pupal stage. The 
 Nantucket pine tip moth pupates within the injured 
 twig tip, and the form bushnelli, in the litter on the 
 ground (Craighead 1950). One generation is pro¬ 
 duced each year in the Black Hills and in North Da¬ 
 kota, two occur in Nebraska (Wygant 1936), and up 
 to four are produced in Oklahoma and Texas (Afana¬ 
 siev and Fenton 1947, Craighead 1950). 
 
 The form bushnelli has long been a pest at the Bessey 
 Nursery in Nebraska; infested seedlings were reported 
 as early as 1911 (Swenk 1927). It was almost cer¬ 
 tainly introduced to this grassland area on infested 
 stock (Graham and Baumhofer 1927). Ponderosa 
 pine is most severely attacked, followed by red, jack, 
 Scotch, and Austrian pines, in order of decreasing 
 susceptibility. 
 
 In Oklahoma the native shortleaf and loblolly pines 
 are heavily infested. Also attacked are Japanese red, 
 Austrian, Scotch, Japanese black, and ponderosa pines, 
 in descending order of their attractiveness to bushnelli. 
 The larvae are thought to prefer those species with 
 thin, soft, flexible needles (Afanasiev and Ashdown 
 1951). 
 
 The danger of introducing the pine tip moth into 
 nurseries and plantings on infested stock cannot be 
 overemphasized. For control of the Nantucket pine 
 tip moth on planting stock. Hall (1936) recommends 
 that all seedbeds and transplants be checked in the fall 
 for evidence of the insect and that all infested tips or 
 buds be removed and destroyed. Fumigation of stock 
 moving into or out of the nursery will kill eggs, larvae, 
 and pupae. A commonly used control measure is to 
 dip infested stock before shipment in a miscible oil, 
 alone or mixed with nicotine. 
 
 “ Personal communication with Melvin Dimitt, Nursery¬ 
 man, Garden City, Kans. 
 
76 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Beds where the insect is present should be sprayed 
 with DDT. 
 
 Red Spiders 
 
 Various species of red spiders attack evergreens 
 growing on the Plains. Nursery stock may become 
 infested if it is grown close to trees with mite popula¬ 
 tions. Red spiders are acarinids and not insects but 
 are considered here because control measures for these 
 pests are similar to those used against certain insects. 
 Although small, their number increases rapidly, par¬ 
 ticularly when the weather is hot and dry. They suck 
 the juices of plants, causing premature yellowing and 
 falling of the foliage. 
 
 The adults hibernate in the soil or in other protected 
 places and begin laying their eggs in early summer. 
 Several generations develop during the summer. 
 Their irregular webs spun over the leaves and stems of 
 plants help protect the spiders from wind and rain but 
 also signal their presence. 
 
 The two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus telarius 
 (L.) is the most common and injurious species (Craig¬ 
 head 1950); it has attacked juniper, spruce, and pine in 
 Plains nurseries. It was particularly troublesome on 
 juniper species at the Bessey Nursery prior to the 
 removal of eastern redcedar windbreaks in 1958. 
 Ponderosa pine seedlings and transplants are also 
 attacked in this nursery. 
 
 The spruce spider mite Oligonychus ununguis (Ja¬ 
 cobi) is a pest of ornamental evergreens and coniferous 
 forest trees and has been reported from North Dakota 
 (Goodfellow and Colberg 1958) and on the Canadian 
 prairie (DeGryse 1924). Favorite hosts include Picea, 
 Juniperus, and Cupressus (Pritchard and Baker 1955). 
 Nonphosphate acaricides, including aramite. Dimite, 
 chlorobenzilate,^^ and others, have proven highly effec¬ 
 tive in controlling infestations. These materials have 
 the advantage of not being harmful to insects, and the 
 various species of spider mites apparently have not 
 acquired immunity to them (Johnson 1958). 
 
 The materials are mixed with water and applied at 
 the recommended dosages from the ground by garden- 
 type or commercial spraying equipment. The foliage 
 should be wetted thoroughly, and applications should 
 be repeated when injury is evident or increasing. 
 
 WIreworms 
 
 Wire worms are long, cylindrical, brown, hard- 
 shelled “worms,” usually with well-developed legs, that 
 feed in the soil on small roots and other plant materials. 
 They are the larvae of the click beetles (Elateridae). 
 Most species are crop feeders. The roots of newly 
 germinated seedlings of eastern redcedar have been 
 attacked at the Bessey Nursery, but damage was slight, 
 as new roots developed. 
 
 “To avoid using technical names, common names, are 
 given as listed by the Committee on Insecticide Terminology 
 of the Entomological Society of America for use in the Jour¬ 
 nal of Economic Entomology. (Haller, H. L., 1957. Com¬ 
 mon names of insecticides. Jour. Econ. Ent. 50: 226—228). 
 
 Plowing, harrowing, disking, and cultivation used 
 in the nursery for various purposes tend to reduce 
 populations. Use of soil fumigants such as ethylene 
 dibromide has given good control of wireworms (Keen 
 1952). 
 
 Cutworms 
 
 Cutworms appear occasionally on conifers in Plains 
 nurseries; they damage the young trees considerably 
 by feeding on the foliage, tender roots, or stems, and 
 by clipping off seedlings at the ground line (Craighead 
 1950). TTiey are the larvae of night-flying moths of 
 the family Phalaenidae, commonly referred to as mil¬ 
 lers. They have been reported in 1-0 seedbeds of the 
 Monument Nursery in Colorado and the Savenac 
 Nursery in Montana.^^ Slight damage has been re¬ 
 ported at the Bessey Nursery.^* 
 
 Control can be obtained by spreading commercially 
 prepared baits over the beds in the late afternoon. 
 Dusts of DDT or chlordane also are effective. 
 
 Grasshoppers 
 
 Grasshoppers are primarily pests of agricultural 
 crops, but they may strip the foliage from conifer 
 nursery stock, particularly during outbreaks and 
 drought years. Grasshoppers can be controlled with 
 sprays, dusts, or baits. 
 
 Sprays may be composed of one of the following 
 active ingredients, in the following amounts per acre: 
 Aldrin, I /2 to 2 ounces; chlordane, one-half to 1 
 pound; or Toxaphene, 1 to I /2 pounds (Parker and 
 Cowan 1953). The lower dosages are used on young 
 grasshoppers or in areas where the vegetation is short 
 or sparse. A buffer strip 100 yards wide outside the 
 nursery as well as the nursery stock should be treated. 
 Treatment is started when the young grasshoppers 
 begin to move from their places of hatching. 
 
 Other chemicals used in grasshopper control are 
 methoxychlor, Dieldrin, parathion, and dilan, but these 
 should not be used unless specifically recommended 
 by county agents or the State entomologist. 
 
 In 1928, in the coniferous plantations adjacent to 
 the Bessey Nursery, grasshopper damage was heaviest 
 on Scotch and Austrian pine foliage and stems; in jack 
 and ponderosa pine, the stems were preferred to the 
 foliage; ponderosa pines seldom were chewed.^® No 
 damage to the junipers was reported. 
 
 “‘U.S. Forest Service. 1931 Annual Planting Report, Re¬ 
 gion 2, Denver, Colo. 
 
 “’U.S. Forest Service. 1937 Annual Nursery Report, 
 Savenac Nursery, Region 1, Missoula, Mont. 
 
 “*U.S. Forest Service. 1937 and 1951 Fiscal Year An¬ 
 nual Nursery Reports, Bessey Nursery, Region 2, Denver, 
 Colo. 
 
 U.S. Forest Service. Calendar Year 1928 Annual Plane- 
 ing Report, Nebraska National Forest, Region 2, Denver, 
 Colo. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 77 
 
 In 1949, grasshoppers were in the Bessey Nursery, 
 but they confined their eating mainly to the green 
 manure crops.^® 
 
 NURSERY DISEASES 
 
 Disease control, according to Hardey (1935a), is 
 largely a matter of prevention by proper selection of 
 nursery sites and species and by attention to soil condi¬ 
 tion, stand density, and sanitation. However, even if 
 all reasonable precautions are taken, some diseases 
 are almost certain to be a problem at some time in 
 every nursery. 
 
 Damping-ofl 
 
 Damping-off is a generalized term applied to the 
 killing by fungi of very young seedlings just before or 
 after they emerge from the ground. It is common 
 throughout Plains nurseries and is the strongest de¬ 
 terrent to the growing of conifers other than the 
 junipers from seed in this region. Losses from this 
 cause are sporadic and are slight to complete. Often 
 this situation introduces great uncertainty into nursery 
 operations by upsetting stock production schedules, 
 influencing stand densities, and causing wastage of 
 seed. 
 
 Damping-off affects the seedlings of most conifers; 
 only the genera Juniperus, Cupressus, Thuja, and 
 Chamaecyparis are resistant to it (Hartley 1921). 
 Heavy losses to pine and spruce beds have occurred 
 in the Canadian prairie provinces, the Dakotas, and 
 elsewhere. In 1933, at the Bessey Nursery in Ne¬ 
 braska, ponderosa pine suffered postemergent losses up 
 to 50 percent, and the red pine was almost completely 
 destroyed. 
 
 Hartley (1935a) identified various species of the 
 genera Pythium, Rhizoctonia, and Fusarium as causal 
 organisms of damping-off. Pathogenic tests on seeds 
 of white spruce, blue spruce, Scotch pine, and caragana 
 at Indian Head, Saskatchewan, showed the same gen¬ 
 era but indicated that Rhizoctonia was the most viru¬ 
 lent isolate (Cram 1956b). Thomas (1953), in a 
 preliminary report, suggests that Pythium isolates were 
 the main cause of damping-off losses in conifers in 
 Saskatchewan. 
 
 To minimize damping-off losses, seedbeds should be 
 located on sandy soils with good internal drainage. 
 Heavy or excessively wet soils should be avoided. 
 
 Damping-off is increased in severity by the use of 
 poorly rotted manures, dried blood, or materials that 
 increase the carbon-nitrogen ratio of the soil (Hart¬ 
 ley 1935b). Incorporation of certain cover or soil im¬ 
 provement crops into the soil prior to seeding may 
 have the same effect. In general, legumes, especially 
 sweetclover and redclover, increase damping-off. In 
 
 U.S. Forest Service. Fiscal Year 1950 Annual Nursery 
 Re^rt, Bessey Nursery, Region 2, Denver, Colo. 
 
 •’’U.S. Forest Service. Calendar Year 1933 Annual Nur¬ 
 sery Report, Bessey Nursery, Region 2, Denver, Colo. 
 
 central Illinois, 64 percent fewer red pine seedlings 
 were produced in seedbeds where a green manure crop 
 of cowpeas or soybeans with Sudangrass had been 
 plowed under while green than in seedbeds with no 
 cover crop (Wycoff 1952). Fumigating the soil or 
 removing the crop (instead of plowing it under) are 
 suggested methods of reducing losses from damping- 
 off where new seedings follow these crops by ne¬ 
 cessity at an interval of less than 4 to 6 weeks. 
 The possibility of damping-off is also increased by 
 the addition of other materials that decrease* acid¬ 
 ity, such as lime, limy sand, wood ashes, or nitrates, 
 and the use of irrigation water that has a hardness 
 of over 100 p.p.m. as CaCOa or 125 p.p.m. as a bicar¬ 
 bonate (Davis et al. 1942). Damping-off fungi may 
 be introduced in infected nursery stock from dis¬ 
 tant nurseries or in soil brought into the nursery on 
 machinery. 
 
 There are three principal methods of controlling 
 or reducing the incidence of damping-off. They are 
 soil acidification, soil sterilization or fumigation, and 
 the application of fungicides to the seed or soil. 
 
 In Plains nurseries, soil acidification is commonly 
 used since it has the added advantage of counteract- 
 ing the tendency toward soil alkalinity where alkaline 
 waters are applied in irrigation. The amount of acidi¬ 
 fying material to apply depends largely on soil texture 
 and its pH before treatment, but it usually consists of 
 one-sixteenth to one-eighth fluid ounce of concentrated 
 sulfuric acid per square foot. The acid is diluted in 
 water to a 2-percent solution by volume. It is applied 
 immediately after the seed is sown, and the beds are 
 then watered. Sulfuric acid has been most effective 
 in damping-off control of the acidifying materials 
 tested, including sulfur. 
 
 Other materials, such as aluminum sulfate, fer¬ 
 rous sulfate, and phosphoric acid, are also useful 
 for controlling pre-emergence and ordinary damping- 
 off loss. At the Bessey Nursery, aluminum sulfate 
 cost less than ferrous sulfate and produced superior 
 results. Here, postemergence applications of one- 
 half ounce of aluminum sulfate in water per square 
 foot has successfully curbed early summer damping- 
 off. Good control has been obtained with an annual 
 application of 15 grams of aluminum sulfate per 
 square food of seedbed; it is broadcasted dry and wa¬ 
 tered in.^® 
 
 Deep treatment with one-fourth to one-half avoirdu¬ 
 pois ounce of sulfur per square foot, mixed into the 
 soil to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, has value as a damping- 
 off control and will lower the pH of the soil for a 
 longer time than other acidification treatments 
 (Stoeckeler and Arneman 1960). To avoid acid in¬ 
 jury, the sulfur should be well pulverized and applied 
 for several warm months or a full year before seeding. 
 
 Fumigating nursery seedbeds with gaseous methyl 
 bromide reduces damping-off losses. Side benefits in- 
 
 “ Personal communication with E. W. Johnson, Agricul¬ 
 tural Research Service Field Station, Woodward, Okla. 
 
 748-005 0 - 65—6 
 
78 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 elude the control of weeds, nematodes, insects, and 
 other soil-home plant parasites. Standard dosages 
 for damping-off control are 1 to 2 pounds per 100 
 square feet of soil surface. A machine used at the 
 Chittenden Nursery, Wellston, Mich., applies the va¬ 
 porized fumigant rapidly under a polyethylene cover 
 laid directly over the seedbed (Clifford 1959). Cock- 
 erill (1957), testing methyl bromide in Ontario, found 
 that it reduced pre-emergence losses and resulted in 
 higher emergence of seedlings, but failed to control 
 later damping-off. 
 
 Another means of soil sterilization is the use of one- 
 fourth fluid ounce of commercial 40—percent formalde¬ 
 hyde per pint of water per square foot of seedbed. 
 This solution is applied 7 to 10 days before seeding, 
 and the soil is then heavily watered (Davis et al. 1942). 
 Seven days is sufficient in warm weather or on soils 
 with abundant humus, while 10 days is necessary in 
 cold, damp weather or on heavier soils. 
 
 Pelletizing seed with a fungicide has given better 
 protection than seed dusts. Furthermore, bird and 
 animal repellents can be incorporated in the pelletizing 
 material, and a larger and more uniform seed is pro¬ 
 duced for sowing. Mony (1958) reported control of 
 early damping-off at the Vallonia Nursery, Vallonia, 
 Ind. He used a fungicide-insecticide pelletized mix¬ 
 ture consisting of equal parts of 75-percent thiram, 50- 
 percent captan, and 50-percent W. endrin. He dis¬ 
 cusses equipment, materials, and methods used in 
 p>elletizing. 
 
 In Southern nurseries, seed treatments with fungi¬ 
 cidal dusts have given virtually no control of damping- 
 off of southern pines or other pines (Wakeley 1954). 
 
 Soil dusts applied before seeding show promise of 
 providing more prolonged protection than that secured 
 with seed dusts. Tests of several soil dusts (Strong 
 1952) indicated that the following were the most prom¬ 
 ising in Michigan: Thiram (wettable tetramethyl 
 thiuram disulfide), experimental fungicide 5400, 31 
 parts of Ceresan M (ethyl mercury p-toluane sulfona- 
 nilide) plus 1 part of potassium iodide, and maneb 
 (manganese ethylene bisdithiocarbamate). These 
 fungicides were mixed with soil and applied dry with 
 commercial fertilizers at the rate of 150 pounds of 
 fungicide per acre. The beds were then rototilled to 
 a depth of 5 inches. Treatment should be made 3 
 days before seeding; if rain occurs, seeding should be 
 postponed for 6 days. 
 
 In Saskatchewan, soil drenches with Thiram (75 
 percent) or captan (75 percent) gave very good con¬ 
 trol of Rhizoctonia solani without damage to seedlings 
 in a test on blue spruce, Scotch pine, and caragana 
 (Cram and Vaartaja 1957). The first application, 
 made prior to seeding, was fairly heavy (0.6 gram thi¬ 
 ram per square foot) ; later, postemergent light appli¬ 
 cations were made at 1 - or 2-week intervals (0.1 gram). 
 These materials are particularly useful since they can 
 be used to control postemergent damping-off in seed¬ 
 beds where preseeding control measures have been 
 neglected or proven inadequate. 
 
 Indirect methods of controlling damping-off include 
 sowing at lower seedbed densities, covering the seed 
 with clean nonalkaline sand, and removing half-shade 
 or seedbed covers during prolonged damp weather. 
 
 Cedar Bll|$ht 
 
 Cedar blight is the most damaging disease affecting 
 junipers. It occurs wherever eastern redeedar is pro¬ 
 duced and has caused heavy losses in Plains nurseries 
 from North Dakota to Texas. The causal organism, 
 Phomopsis juniperovora, invades the leaves and small 
 stems, particularly those of the new growth. The 
 foliage turns brown and the stem dries out (Baxter 
 1952). The tips die back and usually the small trees 
 die. Spores are produced from small, dark fruiting 
 bodies or pycnidia in the stems and needles of the in¬ 
 fected trees. Under moist or humid conditions, 
 Phomopsis spores are readily disseminated and infect 
 other plants (Davis et al. 1942). Seedling's and trans¬ 
 plants are subject to attack throughout the growing 
 season. 
 
 A number of nurseries have been contaminated by 
 the introduction of blighted cedar as transplants. 
 There is a little evidence that contamination is possible 
 by spore dissemination from nearby infected plantings. 
 The blight in native redeedar in eastern Nebraska was 
 considered the source of infection in a nearby nursery 
 (Davis and Latham 1939). Once the disease has been 
 introduced into a nursery, it is practically impossible to 
 eradicate, and a continuing program of control is 
 required as long as junipers are produced. Blight-free 
 redeedar was produced at the Bessey Nursery for more 
 than 40 years before the blight appeared in 1956, sup¬ 
 posedly from infected planting stock. 
 
 Eastern redeedar. Rocky Mountain juniper, and 
 their horticultural varieties are particularly susceptible, 
 but other junipers and Arizona cypress are also 
 attacked. Rocky Mountain juniper has been dam¬ 
 aged less than eastern redeedar, probably because of its 
 slower growth. At Manhattan, Kans., losses of ezistem 
 redeedar during a 3-year period averaged five times 
 greater than those of Rocky Mountain juniper.^® In 
 the Prairie States Forestry Project Nursery at Fremont, 
 Nebr., Rocky Mountain juniper was much more resist¬ 
 ant to blight than eastern redeedar.®® 
 
 Caroselli (1957) reported that WK-34 gave good 
 control of Phomopsis blight when applied at 2- to 3- 
 week intervals to 1- or 2-year-old seedlings at the rate 
 of 1.2 ounces per 10 gallons of water. This spray con¬ 
 tained 12 p.p.m. of cycloheximide (an antibiotic) and 
 675 p.p.m. of pentachloronitro benzene. 
 
 “ Slagg, G. M., and Wright, Ernest. Phomopsis blight of 
 eastern redeedar and its control. 1943. Unpublished re¬ 
 port on file at the Lincoln Field Station, Lincoln, Nebr., 
 Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Expt. Sta., U.S. Forest 
 Serv., Fort Collins, Colo. 
 
 “ Personal communication with S. S. Burton, formerly 
 Woodland Conservationist, Soil Conservation Service, Lin¬ 
 coln, Nebr. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 79 
 
 Excellent control has also been obtained by the use 
 of Puratized Agricultural spray (phenyl mercury com¬ 
 pound) at the Oklahoma State Nursery at Norman. 
 Sprays were applied at weekly intervals or more fre¬ 
 quently if needed. 
 
 Spraying should be part of the regular nursery oper¬ 
 ation and should include all seedlings and transplants. 
 Sprays should be applied every 7 to 10 days throughout 
 the growing season. Twice-weekly applications may 
 be necessary during moist, cool weather (Hodges 
 1962). 
 
 Rusts 
 
 Native rust-induced galls are widely distributed on 
 two- and three-needled pines and to a lesser extent on 
 junipers. The rusts considered here include only those 
 fungi that develop on living leaves, stems, or branches 
 without immediately killing them. Infected planting 
 stock, however, may die after field planting. 
 
 The western gall rust, Peridermium harknessii, 
 occurs in the West and has been observed in Prairie- 
 Plains nurseries (Boyce 1961, Davis et al. 1942). 
 Ponderosa and lodgepole pines are particularly suscep¬ 
 tible. A ball-shaped gall is formed on the stem. The 
 aeciospores can cause pine-to-pine infection (Meinecke 
 1929) ; hence, control cannot be effected by eliminat¬ 
 ing the alternate hosts, which may be paintbrush, louse- 
 wort, owlclover, or birdbeak. Infected stock should 
 be eliminated by grading. 
 
 The southern fusiform rust is caused by Cronartium 
 fusiforme. Limited to the Southern States, it attacks 
 a number of hard pines, including shortleaf and lob¬ 
 lolly. Infected seedlings have spindle-shaped stem 
 swellings. Control requires weekly spraying with 
 ferbam, ziram, or zineb prior to infection (Foster 
 1959). All seedling tissue must be completely covered. 
 
 The eastern gall rust {Cronartium cerebrum) ranges 
 eastward from the Prairie-Plains and is most abundant 
 in the Southen States (Boyce 1961). Jack pine and 
 shortleaf pine are favorite hosts. Oak is the alternate 
 host. Control measures are similar to those recom¬ 
 mended for the southern fusiform rust. 
 
 Large transplants or large ornamental stock of east¬ 
 ern redcedar, Rocky Mountain juniper, and other juni¬ 
 pers are subject to cedar-apple rust ( Gymnosporangium 
 juniperi-virginianae). Round galls, 1 or more inches 
 in diameter, are produced, but damage to the suscepti¬ 
 ble conifers is usually light. Control is obtained by 
 spraying the junipers with a general purpose fruit spray 
 containing ferbam or zineb fungicides at the rate of 1 
 to 1 /2 level tablespoons of wettable powder per gallon 
 of water. These fungicides should be applied at 7- to 
 10-day intervals from late July to early September. 
 Another effective spray is Elgetol, formulated at the 
 rate of 1 gallon per 100 gallons of water and applied 
 when the telial horns are small. 
 
 Antibiotics show great promise for providing effec¬ 
 tive control of rust diseases in nurseries, but detailed 
 application methods are still to be developed. 
 
 Nematodes 
 
 Nematodes are tiny, threadlike, soil-inhabiting 
 roundworms that feed on the roots of trees, especially 
 small seedlings. They weaken the trees and may also 
 provide entry courts for root rot fungi. The typical 
 symptoms of nematode injury (Hodges 1962) are a 
 general decline, stunting, and chlorosis of the seedlings. 
 The control of nematodes in nurseries is a necessity in 
 many areas of the country. Their control in Prairie- 
 Plains nurseries will assume greater imjx)rtance when 
 the damage they cause is recognized and diagnosed 
 correctly. 
 
 The root-lesion nematode has been recovered from 
 the roots of eastern redcedar at Halsey, Nebr. (Cave- 
 ness 1957), but not from those of ponderosa or Austrian 
 pine. Stock of 1-0 and 1-1 age class was affected. 
 After the roots of the 1—0 stock were infected at vary¬ 
 ing depths, the plants showed slightly offcolor foliage 
 and reduced growth, and some mortality resulted. 
 
 The nematodes may be eliminated by treating the 
 soil with methyl bromide gas at the rate of I /2 to 2 
 pounds per 100 square feet, ethylene dibromide at 
 3 to 6 gallons (85 percent EDB) per acre, or chloropic- 
 rin at 3 to 5 cubic centimeters per cubic foot of soil 
 (Munnecke 1957). At the Bessey Nursery use of 1 
 pound of methyl bromide gas per 100 square feet gave 
 good control of the root-lesion nematode.^ 
 
 The manufacturer’s directions on the method of 
 treatment should be followed. 
 
 Dieback 
 
 Pine twig blight is a dieback of the current season’s 
 growth of hard pines caused by the fungus Diplodia 
 pinea (Desm.) Kickx. Severe damage to seedlings of 
 Austrian pine has been reported from a Kansas nursery 
 by Slagg and Wright (1942). They also reported 
 (1943) considerable damage from this blight in South¬ 
 ern Plains nurseries on Austrian and ponderosa pines, 
 pinyon, and Douglas-fir. 
 
 Root Rots 
 
 The Phymatotrichum root rot has not been reported 
 from nurseries, but it may become a problem there 
 since it occurs in Oklahoma, Texas, and other parts 
 of the Southwest where shelterbelt plantings are im¬ 
 portant. Both conifers and hardwoods are attacked, 
 but eastern redcedar and Rocky Mountain juniper 
 have a high resistance to the disease (Wright and Wells 
 1948). Based on 6 years of fieldplanting tests in Okla¬ 
 homa and Texas, ponderosa and loblolly pines were 
 susceptible and not recommended for use, while 
 Austrian pine was less susceptible and considered capa¬ 
 ble of surviving on the more sandy soils. 
 
 Personal communication with Glenn Peterson, Rocky 
 Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Lincoln, 
 Nebr. 
 
80 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 MAMMALS AND DIRDS 
 
 Practically all nurseries are situated so that a fence 
 is necessary to exclude domestie livestoek or the larger 
 wild animals such as deer. Some nurseries use woven 
 wire fence or slat-wire snow fence, which will also ex¬ 
 clude dogs or even rabbits. The intensity of protection 
 used will depend entirely on the loeal situation. 
 
 If deer are a problem, a fence at least 10 feet high 
 is necessary. At the Bessey Nursery extensive dam¬ 
 age to seedlings by deer necessitated fencing and later 
 live trapping when ordinary eattle guards failed to ex¬ 
 clude deer at road entranees. In 1945, an estimated 
 one million jack, Scotch, and Austrian pine seedlings 
 were nipped and trampled by deer. The preferred 
 speeies was eastern redeedar, followed by jack pine. 
 Rocky Mountain juniper and Austrian pine were 
 browsed to a lesser extent. Winter cover crops feed 
 the deer in years of low animal population but attract 
 additional animals to the nursery. 
 
 Jaekrabbits, cottontail rabbits, and snowshoe hares 
 may damage Plains nurseries. It is difficult to main¬ 
 tain a fence high and tight enough to exclude rab¬ 
 bits because they may come in over snowdrifts or get 
 through under the wire. Occasional checking is neces¬ 
 sary to determine whether rabbits have gained en- 
 tranee and are doing damage by cutting off the tips 
 of the seedlings. Cover crops may be eaten in prefer- 
 enee to trees. If present, rabbits can be eliminated by 
 snaring, trapping, or shooting. 
 
 Poeket gophers {Geomys and Thomomys) occa¬ 
 sionally cut tree roots and smother seedlings under 
 mounds in nurseries. They live almost exelusively in 
 the ground, pushing out the soil to form troublesome 
 mounds as they excavate their tunnels 4 to 8 inches 
 below the surface. Effective controls include the use 
 of regular pocket gopher traps or the placement of 
 poisoned bait in the runways. Two or three pieces of 
 diced fresh carrots or similar vegetable, dusted with 
 stryehnine alkaloid, at the rate of one-fourth ounce 
 of powder to 4 quarts of carrots, should be put in sev¬ 
 eral plaees in each burrow system. In replugging the' 
 placement holes, care should be taken to avoid cover¬ 
 ing the bait. Poeket gopher control should extend 
 nearly one-fourth mile beyond the nursery since migra¬ 
 tion is sometimes extensive. 
 
 Many speeies of white-footed mice {Peromyscus 
 spp.) may eat the seed of conifers as well as that of 
 hardwoods. The meadow mouse {Microtus) eats 
 seeds, and the pine vole {Pitymys), in an area from 
 eastern Kansas south, may cut off small seedlings. 
 Kangaroo rats {Dipodomys) have eaten pine seed in 
 Nebraska nurseries. 
 
 Straw mulches used on seedbeds over the winter 
 are espeeially attraetive to mice and other rodents. 
 Populations can be kept down by eliminating weeds 
 and grass in fence rows. Hardware-cloth screens 
 placed on bedboards also are used to protect the beds. 
 Mice can be trapped easily with ordinary snap traps 
 
 that are baited with peanut butter, an apple, a vege¬ 
 table, or oatmeal, and placed in runways or near 
 entrances of burrows. 
 
 The use of poisoned baits is probably the cheapest 
 and most effective way of eliminating mice and some 
 of the other seed-eating rodents, such as ground 
 squirrels. 
 
 The principal poisons used are strychnine alkaloid 
 and zinc phosphide. Poisoned grain may be mixed 
 with mulch as it is applied to fall-sown beds, or it may 
 be placed at bait stations at 100-foot intervals. The 
 stations are staggered somewhat where bedboards tend 
 to confine and channelize rodent movement. Outside 
 the nursery, bait should be placed along the fenee 
 and in a bordering zone extending about 200 feet from 
 the fence. In this zone, especially if it is grassy, bait 
 should be spaeed as close as 30 feet apart, in four lines 
 paralleling the fence at intervals of about 50 feet. 
 Commonly the bait is plaeed in small tin cans laid on 
 their sides. Thus protected, the bait will remain ef¬ 
 fective for a longer time, and birds cannot reach it. 
 Do not place bait where livestock will have access to 
 it. 
 
 Moles damage new seedlings and 1-0 seedbeds by 
 loosening the ground with their slightly raised run¬ 
 ways. The runways also expose the seed or bury it 
 too deeply. Moles may cut tree roots in a manner 
 similar to that used by pocket gophers. These animals 
 must be removed from the seedbeds as well as a small 
 surrounding area. Mole traps and poison baits are 
 effective. 
 
 Nurserymen with rodent problems may wish to write 
 to the Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of 
 the Interior, Washington, D.C., for the address of the 
 nearest poison-bait distribution center. Prepared baits 
 are available at such centers at cost. An alternative 
 to the purchase of prepared baits is to use one of several 
 formulas recommended by the Fish and Wildlife Serv¬ 
 ice (Garlough and Spencer 1944) and to prepare the 
 bait at the nursery. Two poison-bait formulas for mice 
 are given in the Appendix on page 89. 
 
 Seed-eating birds may be a serious problem in conifer 
 nurseries, particularly in years when the peak of the 
 spring migration eoineides with seedling emergence. 
 They not only scratch out the seed and eat it, but also 
 they nip the tops of the seedlings after they have 
 emerged from the soil but still retain the seedcoats. A 
 more localized form of damage is debudding of Aus¬ 
 trian pine seedlings by sharp-tailed grouse {Pedioecetes 
 phasianellus) during the winter. 
 
 Birds can be excluded by hardware-cloth screens 
 placed over all seedbeds or those of the most sus- 
 eeptible species (fig. 61). At the Bessey Nursery fall- 
 sown beds of juniper and Austrian pine are screened. 
 More birds take the smaller seed of Austrian pine than 
 that of ponderosa pine. Fall-sown juniper beds are 
 damaged in early spring by the white-crowned spar¬ 
 row {Zonotrichia leucophrys). 
 
 Repellents such as sublimated anthroquinone are 
 being applied to seed in Southern nurseries (Mann and 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 81 
 
 F-488909 
 
 Figure 61.—Pettis screen section for seedbed protection 
 from birds and rodents at Bessey Nursery, Halsey, Nebr. 
 Each section is 454 by 10 feet; 54-inch-mesh netting is used. 
 
 Kingsley 1958) and elsewhere (Abbott 1958) to pro¬ 
 tect seed before and during germination. Anthro- 
 quinone with a latex sticker should be applied at the 
 rate of 15 pounds to 100 pounds of seed. Arasan, an¬ 
 other bird repellent being used in Plains nurseries, 
 also has rodent repellent qualities. 
 
 Another method of reducing bird damage is to vary 
 the time of seed sowing. Fall sowing results in earlier 
 germination, and in some localities the seedling emerg¬ 
 ence is completed by the time the main flight of cer¬ 
 tain species of migratory birds arrives. In other in¬ 
 stances, spring sowing may be delayed until the main 
 offenders have passed on their way north. 
 
 Some degree of control may be secured by syste¬ 
 matic patrolling of the seedbeds in daylight during the 
 critical germination period. 
 
 Shooting of the birds should be limited strictly to 
 those species not protected by State or Federal law. 
 
 LITERATURE CITED 
 
 Aamodt, E. E. 
 
 1941. Stem caliper gauge for nurseries. Jour. Forestry 
 39: 728, illus. 
 
 Abbott, Herschel G. 
 
 1958. Application of avian repellents to eastern white pine 
 seed. Jour. Wildlife Mangt. 22: 304-306. 
 
 Afanasiev, M. 
 
 1949a. Cedar and pine as farm trees for Oklahoma. 
 Okla. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bui. B-331, 18 pp., illus. 
 
 1949b. Observations on Japanese red pine and black pine 
 in central Oklahoma. Jour. Forestry 47: 723-725, illus. 
 
 1955. Storage of afterripened seed of eastern redcedar. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 21: 28-30. 
 - AND Ashdown, D. 
 
 1951. The pine tip moth. Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 
 B-377, 11 pp., illus. 
 
 - AND Cress, M. 
 
 1942a. Producing seedlings of eastern redcedar {Juniperus 
 virginiana L.). Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. B-256, 21 
 pp., illus. 
 
 - AND Cress, M. 
 
 1942b. Changes within seeds of Juniperus scopulorum 
 during process of afterripening and germination. Jour. 
 Forestry 40: 793-801. 
 
 - Engstrom, Albert, and Johnson, Ernest W. 
 
 1959. Effects of planting dates and storage on survival of 
 eastern redcedar in central and western Oklahoma. 
 Okla. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. B-527, 19 pp., illus. 
 
 - AND Fenton, F. A. 
 
 1947. Pine tip moth and its control in Oklahoma. Jour. 
 Forestry 45: 127-128. 
 
 Albertson, F. W. 
 
 1940. Studies of native redcedars in west central Kansas. 
 Kans. Acad. Sci. Trans. 43: 85-95, illus. 
 
 Allaway, W. H. 
 
 1957. pH, soil acidity, and plant growth. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Yearbook 1957: 67-71. 
 
 Allen, G. S. 
 
 1957. Storage behavior of conifer seeds in sealed con¬ 
 tainers held at 0° F., 32° F., and room temperature. 
 Jour. Forestry 55: 278-281. 
 
 Allen, R. M. 
 
 1952. Ferbam controls nursery weeds. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Tree Planters’ Notes 12: 8. 
 
 Allison, F. E., and Anderson, M. S. 
 
 1951. The use of sawdust for mulches and soil improve¬ 
 ment. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 891, 19 pp. 
 
 Anderson, C. H., and Cheyney, E. G. 
 
 1934. Root development in seedlings in relation to soil 
 texture. Jour. Forestry 32: 32-34, illus. 
 
 Anderson, D. A., and Kineer, G. U. 
 
 1949. The use of copper naphthenate treated burlap in 
 forest nursery operations. Jour. Forestry 47: 470-473. 
 
 Arnold, Ingersoll. 
 
 1956. Drill vs. broadcast sowing. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree 
 Planters’ Notes 26: 5-6. 
 
 Baker, F. S. 
 
 1929. Effect of excessively high temperatures on conifer¬ 
 ous reproduction. Jour. Forestry 27: 949-975. 
 
 Baker, Kenneth F., Chandler, Phillip A., Durbin, Rich¬ 
 ard D., AND others. 
 
 1957. The U. C. system for producing healthy container- 
 grown plants. Univ. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ext. Serv. 
 Manual 23, 332 pp., illus. 
 
 Barton, H. Allen. 
 
 1940. Grading gauge for tree seedlings. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Planting Quart. 9(1) : 14. 
 
 Barton, L. V. 
 
 1935. Storage of some coniferous seeds. Boyce Thomp¬ 
 son Inst. Contrib. 7: 379-404, illus. 
 
 1951. Germination of seeds of Juniperus virginiana. 
 Boyce Thompson Inst. Contrib. 16: 387-393. 
 
 1954. Effect of subfreezing temperatures on viability of 
 conifer seeds in storage. Boyce Thompson Inst. Contrib. 
 18: 21-24. 
 
 748-005 0 - 65—7 
 
82 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Bates, G. G. 
 
 1910. Experiments in sandhill planting. Soc. Amer. 
 Foresters Proc. 5: 59-83. 
 
 1927. A vision of the future Nebraska forest. Jour. 
 Forestry 25: 1030—1040. 
 
 1935. Climatic characteristics of the Plains regions. In 
 Possibilities of shelterbelt planting in the Plains region. 
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 -AND Roeser, Jacob, Jr. 
 
 1924. Relative resistance of tree seedlings to excessive 
 heat. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 1263, 16 pp., illus. 
 
 Baxter, Dow Vawter. 
 
 1952. Pathology in forest practice. Ed. 2, 601 pp., illus. 
 New York. 
 
 Bergemann, J. 
 
 1956. Das mykorrhiza Problem in der Forstwirtschaft 
 (The mycorrhiza problem in forestry). Allgemeine 
 Forstzeitschr. 11: 297-304. 
 
 Bessey, Charles E. 
 
 1895. Notes on the distribution of the yellow pine in Ne¬ 
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 Bjorkman, Erik. 
 
 1953. Om “granens gulspelssjuka”. Svenska Skogsvforen. 
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 Boe, Kenneth N. 
 
 1954. Periodicity of cone crops for five Montana conifers. 
 Mont. Acad. Sci. Proc. 14: 5-9. 
 
 Bouyoucos, George John. 
 
 1937. Evaporating the water with burning alcohol as a 
 rapid means of determining moisture content of soils. 
 Soil Sci. 44: 377-383, illus. 
 
 1956. Improved soil moisture meter. Agr. Engin. 37: 
 261-262. 
 
 Boyce, John Shaw. 
 
 1961. Forest pathology. Ed. 3, 572 pp., illus. New 
 York. 
 
 Bray, W. L. 
 
 1904. Forest resources of Texas. U.S. Bur. Forestry Bui. 
 47, 71 pp., illus. 
 
 Brewster, Donald W., and Larsen, J. A. 
 
 1925. Studies in western yellow pine practice. Jour Agr. 
 Res. 31: 1101-1120. 
 
 Briggs, A. H. 
 
 1939. Report of planting experiments to determine the 
 effect of root exposure on deciduous planting stock. 
 Jour. Forestry 37: 939-943. 
 
 Briscoe, Charles G., and Strichland, Freddie R. 
 
 1956. Vapam shows promise as a forest nursery herbicide. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 26: 3-4. 
 
 Brown, George K. 
 
 1937. Results in survival following cold storage of plant¬ 
 ing stock. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 6: 21-24. 
 
 Bull, W. Ira. 
 
 1954. Machine for applying sand or sawdust to seedbeds. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 18: 20-21, illus. 
 BiissE, J. 
 
 1930. Forstlexikon. Vol. 2, 423 pp. Berlin: Paul Parey. 
 Callaham, R. j., and Metcalf, Woodbridge. 
 
 1959. Altitudinal races of Pinus ponderosa confirmed. 
 Jour. Forestry 57: 500-502. 
 
 Caroselli, N. E. 
 
 1957. Juniper blight and progress on its control. U.S. 
 Agr. Res. Serv. Plant. Dis. Rptr. 41: 216. 
 
 Caveness, F. E. 
 
 1957. Root lesion nematode recovered from eastern red- 
 cedar at Halsey, Nebraska. U.S. Agr. Res. Serv. Plant 
 Dis. Rptr. 41: 1058. 
 
 Chadwick, L. C. 
 
 1938. Green manure crops and fertilization for nursery 
 stock. Ohio State Univ. Nursery Notes 7: 1-11. 
 
 Chapman, A. G. 
 
 1936. Scarification of black locust seed to increase and 
 hasten germination. Jour. Forestry 34: 66-74, illus. 
 
 Chilean Nitrate Educational Bureau, Inc. 
 
 1948. Bibliography of the literature on the minor elements 
 and their relation to plant and animal nutrition. Chil¬ 
 ean Nitrate Ed. Bur. Inc. Pub. 1: 1037 pp. 
 
 Clifford, E. D. 
 
 1934. Quack grass and white grubs. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Planting Quart. 3(3): 9-10. 
 
 1952. Use of 2,4-D to control weeds in conifer nurseries. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 12: 6. 
 
 1955. The use of sawdust as a mulch on red, white, and 
 jack pine seedbeds. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ 
 Notes 21: 24-25. 
 
 1956a. Seedbed root pruner. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree 
 Planters’ Notes 24: 11—12. 
 
 1956b. Use of a potato digger for lifting nursery stock. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 24: 9—10. 
 
 1959. A rapid method of fumigating nursery soils with 
 methyl bromide. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 
 37: 9-10, illus. 
 
 COCKERILL, J. 
 
 1957. Experiments in the control of damping-off of the 
 nursery, Orono, Ontario. Forest. Chron. 33: 201-204. 
 CocKERiLL, P. W., Hunter, B., and Pingrey, H. B. 
 
 1939. Type of farming and ranching areas in New 
 Mexico. N. Mex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 261, 68 pp., illus. 
 CoLBRY, Vera L., Swofford, Thomas F., and Moore, 
 Robert P. 
 
 1961. Tests for germination in the laboratory. U.S. Dept. 
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 COLMAN, E. A. 
 
 1947. Manual of instruction for use of the fiberglass soil 
 moisture instrument. U.S. Forest Serv. Calif. Forest 
 and Range Expt. Sta. (Berkeley). (Rev. 1950.) 
 Corson, C. W. 
 
 1935. The Susanville Nursery transplant plow. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 4 (2) : 6. 
 
 CossiTT, F. M. 
 
 1937. The W. W. Ashe nursery seedling lifter. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 6:11. 
 
 Craighead, F. C. 
 
 1950. Insect enemies of eastern forests. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Misc. Pub. 657, 679 pp., illus. 
 
 Cram, W. H. 
 
 1951. Spruce seed viability: dormancy of seed from four 
 species of spruce. Forest. Chron. 27: 349-357. 
 
 1956a. Maturity of Colorado spruce cones. Forest Sci. 
 2: 26-30. 
 
 1956b. Fungicidal control of Rhizoctonia damping-off. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 24: 17-18. 
 
 1957. Maturity of white spruce cones and seed. Forest 
 Sci. 3: 263-269. 
 
 -AND Brack, G. G. E. 
 
 1953. Performance of Scotch pine races under prairie 
 conditions. Forest. Chron. 29: 334-342. 
 
 -AND Vaartaja, O. 
 
 1957. Rate and timing of fungicidal soil treatments. 
 Phytopath. 47: 169-173. 
 
 Cummings, W. H. 
 
 1942. Exposure of roots of shortleaf pine. Jour. Forestry 
 40: 490-492. 
 
 Curtis, James D., and Lynch, Donald W. 
 
 1957. Silvics of ponderosa pine. U.S. Forest Serv. Inter¬ 
 mountain Forest and Range Expt. Sta. Misc. Pub. 12, 
 37 pp., illus. (Ogden, Utah.) 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 83 
 
 Dale, J., and McComb, A. L. 
 
 1955. Chlorosis, mycorrhizae, and the growth of pines on 
 a high-lime soil. Forest Sci. 1: 148-157. 
 
 Davis, William G. 
 
 1940. Abhor alkaline sands. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting 
 Quart. 9: 15-20. 
 
 -- AND Latham, Dennis H. 
 
 1939. Cedar blight on wilding and forest tree nursery 
 stock. Phytopath. 29: 991-992. 
 
 - Wright, Ernest, and Hartley, Carl. 
 
 1942. Diseases of forest-tree nursery stock. U.S. Fed. 
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 Dayharsh, V. J. 
 
 1934. Stratification vs. scarification for cedar seed. U.S. 
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 Deffenbacher, Forrest W., and Wright, Ernest. 
 
 1954. Refrigerated storage of conifer seedlings in the 
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 DeGryse, j. j. 
 
 1924. Injurious shade tree insects of the Canadian prairies. 
 Canada Dept. Agr. Pam. 47, 23 pp., illus. 
 
 DeJarnette, G. M. 
 
 1936. Annual planting report. U.S. Forest Serv., Region 
 1, 72 pp. 
 
 1938. Annual planting report. U.S. Forest Serv., Region 
 1, 89 pp. 
 
 -AND AuGENSTEIN, J. W. 
 
 1946. Annual planting and nursery report. U.S. Forest 
 Serv., Region 1, 21 pp. 
 
 Dengler, Alfred. 
 
 1944. Waldbau. Ed. 3, 596 pp., illus. Berlin: Springer 
 Verlag. 
 
 Dov/ns, Joe A. 
 
 1954. Square pots for transplants. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree 
 Planters’ Notes 16: 10-16, illus. 
 
 Duffin, Robert B. 
 
 1955. Irrigation water from wells. Okla. Agr. Col. Ext. 
 Serv. Cir. 645, 27 pp., illus. 
 
 Engstrom, Albert. 
 
 1950. Mulching seedbeds with cellophane. Tour. For¬ 
 estry 48: 283. 
 
 1955. Polyethylene film for seedbed mulch. U.S. Forest 
 Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 21: 26-27. 
 
 Engstrom, Harold E. 
 
 1941. Utilizing the warehouse for storage of conifers. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 10: 14. 
 
 --AND StOECKELER, J. H. 
 
 1941. Nursery practice for trees and shrubs suitable for 
 planting on the Prairie Plains. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. 
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 Farnsworth, C. E., Lea, R. V., and Engelken, John. 
 
 1956. Mulching coniferous transplant beds with sawdust. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 25: 4-7. 
 
 Fassett, Norman G. 
 
 1944. Juniperus virginiana, J. horizontalis, and /. 
 scopulorum. Torrey Club Bui. 71: 410-418. 
 
 Feustel, Irvin C. 
 
 1938. The nature and use of organic amendments. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1938: 462-468. 
 
 Fischbach, P. E., Schleusener, P. E., and Dreeszen, V. H. 
 
 1957. Nebraska minimum standards for artificially gravel 
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 Flemion, F. 
 
 1941. Further studies of the rapid determination of the 
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 Fogel, Martin. 
 
 1957. Selection of pumping equipment for irrigation. S. 
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 FosTkR, C. H. 
 
 1932. Technical forest practices in New York—improve¬ 
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 1953. Planting stock storage in the California pine region. 
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 1937. Annual nursery report. U.S. Forest Serv., Savenac 
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 1959. Seedbed smoother. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ 
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 Gambrell, F. L., and Heit, C. H. 
 
 1952. Soil chemicals in evergreen seedbeds. Amer. Nurs¬ 
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 Garlough, F. E., and Spencer, Donald A. 
 
 1944. Control of destructive mice. U.S. Fish and Wild¬ 
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 George, Ernest J. 
 
 1939. Tree planting on the drier sections of the North¬ 
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 Dept. Agr. Tech. Pub. 1164, 11 pp., illus. 
 
 Haasis, F. W. 
 
 1914. Result of an experiment on the effect of drying in 
 the roots of seedlings of red and white pine. Forestry 
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 Haertl, E. j. 
 
 1955. New horizons in the application of chelation to agri¬ 
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84 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICUXTURE 
 
 Hall, Marion Trufant. 
 
 1952. Variation and hybridization in Juniperus. Ann. 
 Mo. Bot. Garden 39: 1—64, illus. 
 
 Hall, Ralph G. 
 
 1936. Control of the Nantucket pine tip moth in the Cen¬ 
 tral States. U.S. Bur. Ent. and Plant Quart., 5 pp. 
 Hanks, Sidney H. 
 
 1962. A seven-row seedling transplanter for nursery use. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 53: 20—22. 
 Hansen, N. E. 
 
 1930. Evergreens in South Dakota. S. Dak. Agr. Expt. 
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 Hartley, C. 
 
 1915. Injury by disinfectants to seeds and roots in sandy 
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 1917. The control of damping off of coniferous seedlings. 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 453, 32 pp., illus. 
 
 1918. Stem lesions caused by excessive heat. J )ur. Agr. 
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 1921. Damping-off in forest nurseries. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
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 1935a. Prevention of diseases of conifers in nurseries and 
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 1935b. Undesirable practices from the standpoint of effect 
 on damping-off liability. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting 
 Quart. 4 (2), 16 pp. 
 
 Harvey, R. B. 
 
 1930. Length of exposure to low temperature as a factor 
 in the hardening process in tree seedlings. Jour. For¬ 
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 Hastings, W. G. 
 
 1923. Revolutionizing nursery practice. Jour. Forestry 
 21: 180-182. 
 
 Heit, C.E. 
 
 1955. The excised embryo method for testing germination 
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 Herman, F. R. 
 
 1958. Silvical characteristics of Rocky Mountain juniper. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range 
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 Higgins, Jay. 
 
 1928. Effect of density on seedling development. Jour. 
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 Hill, Joseph A. 
 
 1955. Methyl bromide gas controls weeds, nematodes, and 
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 Hodges, Charles S., Jr. 
 
 1962. Diseases in southeastern forest nurseries and their 
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 Holmes, G. D., and Buszewicz, G. 
 
 1958. The storage of seed of temperate forest tree species. 
 Forestry Abs. 19: 455-476. 
 
 - AND IVENS, G. W. 
 
 1952. Chemical control of weeds in forest nursery seed¬ 
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 Holmes, R. E., and Brown, J. C. 
 
 1957. Iron and soil fertility. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 
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 1932. The development of seedlings of ponderosa pine in 
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 Hutchison, S. B., and Kemp, P. D. 
 
 1952. Forest resources of Montana. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Forest Resource Rpt. 5, 76 pp., illus. 
 
 Imperial Institute of London. 
 
 1936. Some minor mineral fertilizer materials. Imp. 
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 Janouch, Karl L. 
 
 1927. Effect of spacing and root pruning on the develop¬ 
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 JoHNSEN, Thomas N., Jr. 
 
 1959. Longevity of stored juniper seeds. Ecol. 40: 
 487-488. 
 
 Johnson, E. W. 
 
 1955. A simple device for making paper pots. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 20: 11-13, illus. 
 
 - AND Vanderslice, G. G. 
 
 1956. An improved device for making paper pots. U.S. 
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 Johnson, Phillip C. 
 
 1958. Spruce spider mite infestations in northern Rocky 
 Mountain Douglas-fir forests. U.S. Forest Serv., Inter¬ 
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 14 pp., illus. (Ogden, Utah.) 
 
 Jones, D. L., Gaines, Frank, and Karper, R. E. 
 
 1932. Trees and shrubs in northwest Texas. Tex. Agr. 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 447, 63 pp., illus. 
 
 Jones, G. W. 
 
 1925. Forest nursery working practice at Savenac Nurs¬ 
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 1934. Spring sowing versus fall sowing white spruce— 
 Rhinelander Nursery. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting 
 Quart. 3: 14. 
 
 Jordan, Howard V., and Reisenauer, H. M. 
 
 1957. Sulphur and soil fertility. U.S. Dept. Agr. Year¬ 
 book 1957: 107-110, illus. 
 
 Kalela, Aarno. 
 
 1937. Zur Synthese der experimentellen Untersuchungen 
 iiber Klimarassen der Holzarten. Forest Res. Inst. Fin¬ 
 land, Pub. 26, 445 pp., illus. 
 
 Keen, F. P. 
 
 1952. Insect enemies of western forests. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
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 Kelley, Arthur Pierson. 
 
 1930. 11. Mycorhiza studies. The duration of certain 
 
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 Kienitz, M. 
 
 1922. Ergebnis der Versuchsanpflanzung von Kiefem ver- 
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 Zeitschr. Fur. Forst-und Jagdw. 54:65-93. (German.) 
 
 Knight, H. 
 
 1956. Crowning green manure crops at a forest nursery. 
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 illus. 
 
 1958. A test to determine acceptability of sawdust as a 
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 Kopitke, j. C. 
 
 1941. The effect of potash salts upon the hardening of 
 coniferous seedlings. Jour. Forestry 39: 555—558. 
 
 Korstian, C. F., Hartley, Carl, Watts, L. F., and Hahn, 
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 1921. A chlorosis of conifers corrected by spraying with 
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 Langlet, Olof. 
 
 1936. Study of the physiological variability of pine and its 
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 Lanquist, Karl B. 
 
 1945. Leaf litter in forest nurseries. Jour. Forestry 43: 
 43-44, illus. 
 
 1946. Tests of forest tree seed in California. Jour. For¬ 
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 1951. Allyl alcohol application through the overhead 
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CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 85 
 
 Lanquist, Karl B. 
 
 1954a. Seedling harvester. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Plant¬ 
 ers’ Notes 16: 5-6, illus. 
 
 1954b. Seed cleaning and dewinging machine. U.S. For¬ 
 est Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 18: 8-9, illus. 
 
 Levitt, J. 
 
 1956. The hardiness of plants. 278 pp., illus. New York. 
 Little, Elbert L., Jr. 
 
 1950. Southwestern trees, a guide to the native species of 
 New Mexico and Arizona. U.S. Dep^t. Agr., Agr. 
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 1953. Check list of native and naturalized trees of the 
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 Livingston, R. B. 
 
 1949. An ecological study of the Black Forest, Colorado. 
 Ecol. Monog. 19: 124-144, illus. 
 
 McArdle, Richard E. 
 
 1932. The relation of mycorrhizae to conifer seedlings. 
 Jour. Agr. Res. 44: 287-316, illus. 
 
 McComb, a. L. 
 
 1943. Mycorrhizae and phosphorus nutrition of pine seed¬ 
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 McDaniel, Vern E. 
 
 1954. Roto-tiller cultivator. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Plant¬ 
 ers’ Notes 18: 13-15, illus. 
 
 McDermott, R. E., and Fletcher, P. W. 
 
 1955. Influence of light and nutrition on color and growth 
 of redcedar seedlings. Univ. Mo. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 
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 Maki, T. E. 
 
 1940. Seed maturity in ponderosa pine. Tour. Forestry 
 38: 55-60. 
 
 -AND Allen, R. M. 
 
 1952. Use of allyl alcohol for weed control in forest nurser¬ 
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 Mann, W. F., Jr., and Kingsley, C. E. 
 
 1958. Bird control in forest nurseries. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 South. Forest Expt. Sta., South. Forestry Notes 113. 
 (New Orleans, La.) 
 
 Matkin, O. a., and Chandler, Phillip, A. 
 
 1957. U.C. type soil mixes for container-grown plants. 
 Univ. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ext. Serv. Leaflet 89, 2 pp. 
 
 Mayer-Krapoll, Hermann. 
 
 1956. The use of commercial fertilizers—particularly ni¬ 
 trogen in forestry. Translated and published by Nitro¬ 
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 (German.) New York, N.Y. 
 
 Meinecke, E. P. 
 
 1929. Experiments with repeating pine rusts. Phytopath. 
 19: 327-342. 
 
 Meines, M. K. 
 
 1939. Broadcast versus drill sowing of conifers. U.S. For¬ 
 est Serv. Planting Quart. 8: 3. 
 
 Melin, E. 
 
 1927. Studies of the development of coniferous plants in 
 rawhumus. II. The development of mycorrhiza on pine 
 seedlings in various forms of rawhumus. Meddel. fran 
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 Mirov, N. T. 
 
 1936. A note on germination methods for coniferous 
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 Monson, O. W. 
 
 1952. Sprinkler irrigation in Montana. Mont. State Col. 
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 -Criddle, Wayne D., and Davis, Sterling. 
 
 1953. Estimated water requirement of crops in irrigated 
 areas of Montana. Mont. State Col. Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 Bui. 494, 23 pp., illus. 
 
 Mony, Charles G. 
 
 1935. Leveling a new nursery. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting 
 Quart. 4: 20. 
 
 Mony, Charles C. 
 
 1941. Top and root pruning cleaver. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Pla nting Quart. 10: 25, illus. 
 
 1954. Vallonia rotary tooth cultivator. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Tree Planters’ Notes 16: 17-20, illus. 
 
 1958. Seed pelleting process for bird and disease control. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 32: 7-8. 
 
 1961. Observations on the use of methyl bromide. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 45: 23. 
 
 Moore, O. W. 
 
 1960. Ammonium nitrate fertilizer can explode. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 41: 3-4. 
 
 Mullins, R. E. 
 
 1956. Moisture retaining materials for nursery stock pack¬ 
 aging. Ontario Dept. Lands and Forest Res. Rpt. 34, 
 43 pp., illus. 
 
 Munger, T. T. 
 
 1941. Regional strains of ponderosa pine show pronounced 
 difference. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 10 (1): 
 30. 
 
 Munnecke, Donald E. 
 
 1957. Chemical treatment of nursery soils. In The U.C. 
 system for producing healthy container-grown plants. 
 Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Manual 23: 197-209. 
 
 Nienstaedt, Hans. 
 
 1957. Silvical characteristics of white spruce. U.S. Forest 
 Serv., Lake States Forest Expt. Sta. Paper 55, 23 pp., 
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 Nikiforoff, Constantin C. 
 
 1938. Soil organic matter and soil humus. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Yearbook 1938: 929-939. 
 
 Norum, E. B., Krantz, B. A., and Haas, H. J. 
 
 1957. The Northern Great Plains. U.S. Dept. Agr. Year¬ 
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 Oliver, D. A. 
 
 1937. Improvements on Yale transplant board. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 6 (3) : 26, illus. 
 
 Olson, D. S. 
 
 1930. Growing trees for forest planting in Montana and 
 Idaho. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 120, 92 pp., illus. 
 
 On, Danny. 
 
 1952. 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride as a viability 
 indicator of certain coniferous seeds. Jour. Forestry 
 50: 868. 
 
 Over, William H. 
 
 1932. Flora of South Dakota. Univ. S. Dak., 161 pp., 
 illus. 
 
 Pack, Dean A. 
 
 1921. After-ripening and germination of juniperus seed. 
 Bot. Gaz. 71: 32—60. 
 
 Parker, J. R., and Cowan, F. T. 
 
 1953. Grasshopper control. U.S. Dept. Agr. PA-149, 
 
 8 pp. 
 
 Pearson, G. A. 
 
 1914. Forest planting in Arizona and New Mexico. Soc. 
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 Peterson, L. O. T., and Worden, H. A. 
 
 1959. Summary report. Canada Dept. Agr., Res. Branch, 
 Forest Nursery Sta., Indian Head, Saskatchewan, pp. 
 7-10. 
 
 Pieters, A. J., and McKee, Roland. 
 
 1938. The use of cover and green-manure crops. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1938: 431—444. 
 
 Pike, Galen W. 
 
 1933. Temperature only one factor in storing nursery 
 stock. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 2 (2). 
 
 Plank, Donald K. 
 
 1939. Root response of slash pine seedlings to indole- 
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 Potter, L. D. 
 
 1952. North Dakota’s heritage of pine. N. Dak. Hist. 
 19: 157-166, illus. 
 
86 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 79, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Potts, S. F. 
 
 1952. Control of forest and shadetree insects with con¬ 
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 tree pests of the Northeast, pp. 170-174, illus. Soc. 
 Amer. Foresters, New England Sect., Concord, N.H. 
 
 -AND Waterman, A. M. 
 
 1952. Spraying and dusting to control insects and dis¬ 
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 Prentice, R. M., and Hildahl, V. 
 
 1959. Provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, forest 
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 Pritchard, A. Earl, and Baker, Edward W. 
 
 1955. A revision of the spider mite family Tetranychidae. 
 Pacific Coast Ent. Soc., San Francisco, Calif., 472 pp., 
 illus. 
 
 Read, Ralph A. 
 
 1955. Grading of transplants may improve initial sur¬ 
 vival of ponderosa pine in Plains windbreaks. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr., Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Expt. Sta. 
 Res. Note 16, 2 pp. (Ft. Collins, Colo.) 
 
 1958. The Great Plains Shelterbelt in 1954. Great Plains 
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 Richards, L. A., et al. 
 
 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline 
 soils. U.S. Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 60, 160 pp., illus. 
 Robbins, P. W. 
 
 1932. Use of paper mulch in the nursery. Jour. For¬ 
 estry 30: 415-418. 
 
 1935. An iron seedbed stake for forest nurseries. Jour. 
 Forestry 33: 440-441. 
 
 1942. A grading and counting machine for forest nursery 
 seedlings. Jour. Forestry 40: 809-811. 
 
 -Grigsby, B. H., and Churchill, B. R. 
 
 1947. Report on chemical weed control for conifer 
 seedlings and transplants. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Quart. 
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 Roeser, Jacob, Jr. 
 
 1932. Transpiration capacity of coniferous seedlings and 
 the problem of heat injury. Jour. Forestry 30: 381—395. 
 
 1940. The water requirements of Rocky Mountain coni¬ 
 fers. Jour. Forestry 38: 24-26. 
 
 1941. Some aspects of flower and cone production in 
 ponderosa pine. Jour. Forestry 39: 534-536, illus. 
 
 Rogers, T. Hayden, and Giddens, Joel E. 
 
 1957. Green manure and cover crops. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Yearbook 1957: 252-257. 
 
 Rosendahl, R. O. 
 
 1942. The effect of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal 
 fungi on the availability of difficultly soluble potassium 
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 illus. 
 
 -AND Wilde, S. A. 
 
 1942. Occurrence of ectotropic mycorrhizal fungi in soil 
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 Bui. 23: 73-74. 
 
 Ross, Norman M. 
 
 1937. Dominion forest nursery station’s results of experi¬ 
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 18 pp., illus. 
 
 Rudolf, Paul O. 
 
 1952. Low temperature seed storage for western conifers. 
 U.S. Forest Serv., Lake States Forest Expt. Sta. Misc. 
 Rpt. 20, 8 pp- (St. Paul, Minn.) 
 
 1956. Guide for selecting superior forest trees and stands 
 in the Lake States. U.S. Forest Serv., Lake States 
 Forest Expt. Sta. Paper 40, 33 pp., illus. (St. Paul, 
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 Russel, Darrell A. 
 
 1957. Boron and soil fertility. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 
 1957: 121-128. 
 
 SAF Seed Certification Subcommittee. 
 
 1963. The seed we use: Part ii. How to assure reliable 
 information about it. Jour. Forestry 61: 265-269, 
 illus. 
 
 Salter, Robert M., and Schollenberoer, C. J. 
 
 1938. Farm manure. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1938: 
 445-461, illus. 
 
 Schneider, H. W. 
 
 1937. Pruning roots hastens hardening-off of jack pine. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 6 (3) : 1. 
 
 Schrader, W. H. 
 
 1938. The evolution of the transplant board at the Monu¬ 
 ment nursery. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 
 7 (4): 18-19. 
 
 Schubert, G. H. 
 
 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold 
 storage. Jour. Forestry 52: 446-447. 
 
 Sharkey, T. M. 
 
 1956. Sheltering the seedbed. U.S. Forest Serv. Tree 
 Planters’Notes 25: 11. 
 
 Shaw, Dale L. 
 
 1963. A homemade tree potting system. U.S. Forest 
 Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 61: 17-18. 
 
 Shemahanova, N. M. 
 
 1957. Role of mycorrhiza-forming fungi in the nutrition 
 of woody plants. Rev. of Applied Mycology 36-12, p. 
 777. (Translation.) 
 
 Shirley, H. L. 
 
 1936. Lethal high temperatures for conifers and the 
 cooking effect of transpiration. Jour. Agr. Res. 53: 
 239-258. 
 
 -AND MeULI, L. J. 
 
 1939. Influence of moisture supply on drought resistance 
 of conifers. Jour. Agr. Res. 59: 1-22. 
 
 Show, S. B. 
 
 1917. Effect of depth of covering seed upon the germina¬ 
 tion and quality of stock. Jour. Forestry 15: 619-623. 
 Slagg, C. M., and Wright, E. 
 
 1942. Diplodia epidemic in conifer seedbeds. Phytopath. 
 (Abs.) 32: 16. 
 
 -AND Wright, E. 
 
 1943. Diplodia blight in coniferous seedbeds. Phytopath. 
 33: 390-393. 
 
 SoWASH, R. O. 
 
 1936. Cold storage of seedlings and its effect upon sur¬ 
 vival in the field. U.S. Forest Serv. Planting Quart. 5 
 (4): 9-11. 
 
 1954. Agitator type mechanical tree lifter. U.S. Forest 
 Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 18: 10-12, illus. 
 
 Speers, Charles F., and Schmiege, Donald C. 
 
 1961. White grubs in forest tree nurseries and plantations. 
 U.S. Forest Serv., Forest Pest Leaflet 63, 4 pp., illus. 
 Stadtherr, R. j., and Coultas, G. L. 
 
 1961. Chemical weed control in the nursery. Minn. 
 Nurserymen’s Newsletter 9 (3, 4) : 1—4. 
 
 Steavenson, Hugh A. 
 
 1940. The hammermill as an important nursery imple¬ 
 ment. Jour. Forestry 38: 356-361, illus. 
 
 1952. Experiences in using allyl alcohol for weed control. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 12: 7. 
 
 Stewart, I., and Leonard, G. D. 
 
 1952. Chelates as sources of iron for plants growing in 
 the field. Science 116: 564-566. 
 
 Stoeckeler, j. H. 
 
 1939. Nursery soil moisture content. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Planting Quart. 8 (3) : 9-12. 
 
 1946. Alkali tolerance of drought-hardy trees and shrubs 
 in the seed and seedling stage. Minn. Acad. Sci. Proc. 
 14: 79-83. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 87 
 
 Stoeckeler, J. H. 
 
 1951a. Proper watering in the nursery produces drought- 
 hardy jack pine. U.S. Forest Serv. Lake States Forest 
 _^Pt- Sta. Tech. Note 348, 1 p. (St. Paul, Minn.) 
 
 1951b. Hydrocarbon content and storage period affect 
 toxicity of mineral spirits used as selective herbicides for 
 red pine nursery beds. Jour. Forestry 49: 647-649. 
 
 1951c. Killing weed seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 93 (8): 
 
 1952a. A northeastward extension of the range of Doug- 
 las-fir. Jour. Forestry 50: 393. 
 
 1952b. Control of weeds in forest nurseries with mineral 
 spirits. Adv. in Chem. 7: 84-90. 
 
 - AND AamODT, EiNAR. 
 
 1940. The use of tensiometers in regulating watering in 
 forest nurseries. Plant Physiol. 15: 589-607, illus. 
 
 -AND Arneman, Harold F. 
 
 1960. Fertilizers in forestry. Adv. in Agron. 12: 127- 
 195, illus. New York. 
 
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 1937. The Denbigh disk scarifier, a new method of seed 
 treatment. Jour. Forestry 35: 396-398, illus. 
 
 - AND Jones, G. W. 
 
 1957. Forest nursery practice in the Lake States. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr., Agr. Handb. 110, 124 pp., illus. 
 
 ■- Roe, E. L, and Sowash, R. O. 
 
 1951. Allyl alcohol for weed control in forest nurseries. 
 U.S. Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 7: 10-12. 
 
 - AND Rudolf, Paul O. 
 
 1949. Winter injury and recovery of conifers in the Upper 
 Midwest. U.S. Forest Serv., Lake States Forest Expt. 
 Sta. Paper 18, 20 pp. (St. Paul, Minn.) 
 
 -AND Rudolf, Paul O. 
 
 1956. Winter coloration and growth of jack pine in the 
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 Stone, Edward C. 
 
 1955. Poor survival and the physiological condition of 
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 Story, H. D., Jr. 
 
 1940. Nursery bed shaper. Jour. Forestry 38: 515-517. 
 Strong, Forrest C. 
 
 1952. Damping-off in the forest tree nursery and its con¬ 
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 SuDwoRTH, George B. 
 
 1915. The cypress and juniper trees of the Rocky Moun¬ 
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 Swenk, M. H. 
 
 1927. The pine tip moth in the Nebraska National Forest 
 Nebr. Agr. Expt. Sta. Res. Bui. 40: 5-50, illus. 
 
 Taylor, Carl A. 
 
 1941. Germination behavior of tree seeds as observed in 
 the regular handling of seed at the seed extractory and 
 nursery, Norfolk, Nebraska. U.S. Forest Serv., Prairie 
 States Forestry Proj., 64 pp., illus. 
 
 Tennessee Valley Authority. 
 
 1954. Operation manual for TVA forest nurseries. 
 Tenn. Val. Authority, Div. of Forestry Relat. Pub., 57 
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 Theigs, B. J. 
 
 1955. Effect of soil fumigation on nitrification. Down 
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 Thomas, R. W. 
 
 1953. Provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan forest 
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 Thorfinnson, T. S., Hunt, Meryl, and Epp, A. W. 
 
 1955. Cost of distribution of irrigation water by different 
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 Toumey, James W., and Korstian, Clarence F. 
 
 1942. Seeding and planting in the practice of forestry. 
 Ed. 3, 520 pp., illus. New York. 
 
 Truog, E. 
 
 1946. Soil reaction influence on availability of plant nu¬ 
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 Umland, Charles B. 
 
 1946. Nursery weeding costs reduced by mechanical culti¬ 
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 U.S. Forest Service. 
 
 1936. Seed and nursery practice. Shelterbelt Proi. Pub 
 127 pp., illus. 
 
 1948. Woody-plant seed manual. U.S. Dept. Agr. Misc. 
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 U.S. Forest Service California Forest Experiment 
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 1954. Annual report, forest research in California. 70 pp., 
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 U.S. Forest Service Lake States Forest Experiment 
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 1937. Watering reduces soil-surface temperatures. Tech. 
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 U.S. Forest Service Rocky Mountain Region. 
 
 1931. Annual planting report. 41 pp. (Denver, Colo.) 
 U.S. Forest Service Southern Forest Experiment 
 
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 1940. Forest type map of Oklahoma. (New Orleans, La.) 
 Van Slyke, L. L. 
 
 1932. Fertilizers and crop production. 493 pp., illus. 
 New York. 
 
 Voigt, G. K. 
 
 1953. The effect of fungicides, insecticides, herbicides, and 
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 Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 17: 150-152. 
 
 1955. The effect of applied fungicides, herbicides, and in¬ 
 secticides on the control of nutrient elements in tissue of 
 coniferous seedlings. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 19- 
 237-239. 
 
 -Stoeckeler, J. H., and Wilde, S. A. 
 
 1958. Response of coniferous seedlings to soil applica¬ 
 tions of calcium and magnesium fertilizers. Soil Sci. 
 Soc. Amer. Proc. 22: 343-345. 
 
 Wahlenbero, W. G. 
 
 1925. Forestation research in Montana and north Idaho. 
 Jour. Forestry 23: 588-599. 
 
 1929. Relation of quantity of seed sown and density of 
 seedlings to the development and survival of forest plant¬ 
 ing stock. Jour. Agr. Res. 38: 219-227. 
 
 1930. Investigations in weed control by zinc sulphate and 
 other chemicals at the Savenac Forest Nursery. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 156, 36 pp., illus. 
 
 Wakeley, Philip C. 
 
 1954. Planting the southern pines. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Monog. 18, 233 pp., illus. 
 
 Walker, John, and Kerr, W. L. 
 
 1954. Dominion forest nursery station’s progress report 
 1947-1952. Canada Dept. Agr. Pub., 40 pp., illus. 
 
 Ware, E. R. 
 
 1936. Forests of South Dakota—their economic impor¬ 
 tance and possibilities, U.S. Forest Serv., Lake States 
 Forest Expt. Sta. (St. Paul, Minn.) and S. Dak. Planning 
 Bd., 28 pp., illus. 
 
 Warner, J. R., and Chase, G. D. 
 
 1956. The timber resource of North Dakota. U.S. Forest 
 Serv., Lake States Forest Expt. Sta. Paper 36, 39 pp., 
 illus. (St. Paul, Minn.) 
 
 Weaver, J. E., and Albertson, F. W. 
 
 1956. Grasslands of the Great Plains. Ed. 1, 348 pp., 
 illus. Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
88 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Weidman, R. N. 
 
 1939. Evidences of racial influences in a 25-year-old test 
 of ponderosa pine. Jour. Agr. Res. 59: 855-888. 
 
 White, Donald P. 
 
 1941. Prairie soil as a medium for tree growth. Ecology 
 22: 397^07, illus. 
 
 -AND Leaf, Albert L. 
 
 1956. Forest fertilization. N.Y. State Univ. Col. Forestry 
 Tech. Pub. 81, 305 pp. 
 
 WiERSMA, John L. 
 
 1955. Effect of wind variation on water distribution from 
 rotating sprinklers. S. Dak. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 
 16, 18 pp., illus. 
 
 1956. A B C’s of sprinkler irrigation. S. Dak. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Cir. 95, 31 pp., illus. 
 
 Wilde, S. A. 
 
 1946. Difficultly soluble sources of nutrients; their use in 
 forest nurseries. Jour. Forestry 44: 1082-1086. 
 
 1958. Forest soils. 537 pp., illus. New York. 
 
 - AND PeRSIDSKY, D. J. 
 
 1956. Effect of biocides on the development of ectotrophic 
 mycorrhizae in Monterey pine seedlings. Soil Sci. Soc. 
 Amer. Proc. 20: 107—110. 
 
 -AND Voigt, G. K. 
 
 1955. Analysis of soils and plants for foresters and horti¬ 
 culturists. 117 pp., illus., Ann Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Williamson, M. J. 
 
 1957. Silvical characteristics of eastern redcedar. Central 
 States Forest Expt. Sta. Misc. Release 15, 14 pp., illus. 
 (Columbus, Ohio) 
 
 WooDiN, H. E., AND Lindsey, A. A. 
 
 1954. Juniper-pinyon east of the Continental Divide, as 
 analyzed by the linestrip method. Ecology 35: 474— 
 489, illus. 
 
 Woodward, G. O., and Gilden, Robert O. 
 
 1955. Successful sprinkler irrigation. Wyo. Agr. Ext. 
 Serv. Cir. 141, 12 pp., illus. 
 
 Wright, E., and Wells, H. R. 
 
 1948. Tests on the adaptability of trees and shrubs to 
 shelterbelt planting on certain phymatotrichum root-rot 
 infested soils of Oklahoma and Texas. Jour. Forestry 
 46: 256-262, illus. 
 
 Wycoff, H. B. 
 
 1952. Green manure crop causes seedling mortality. U.S. 
 Forest Serv. Tree Planters’ Notes 12: 9-10. 
 
 Wycoff, Hugh. 
 
 1954. An analysis of nursery stock production costs in re¬ 
 lation to the use of mineral spirits. U.S. Forest Serv. 
 Tree Planters’ Notes 18: 25-28. 
 
 Wygant, N. D. 
 
 1936. Insect control in shelterbelts on the Great Plains. 
 U.S. Bur. Ent. and Plant Quart., 51 pp. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 89 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 COMMOIV AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF TREES AND SHRUBS MENTIONED 
 
 Conifers 
 
 Arborvitae, oriental (Chinese) 
 Cypress, Arizona .... 
 Douglas-fir. 
 
 Fir, balsam. 
 
 Fir, Siberian. 
 
 Juniper, alligator .... 
 
 Juniper, Ashe. 
 
 Junip>er, common .... 
 Juniper, oldfield common . 
 
 Juniper, one-seed .... 
 
 Juniper, Pinchot .... 
 Juniper, Rocky Mountain 
 Juniper, Utah. 
 
 Larch, European .... 
 
 Larch, Siberian. 
 
 Pine, Austrian. 
 
 Pine, Digger. 
 
 Pine, Italian stone .... 
 
 Pine, jack. 
 
 Pine, Japanese black . . . 
 
 Pine, Japanese red .... 
 Pine, Jeffrey. 
 
 Thuja orientalis L. 
 Cupressus arizonica Greene. 
 Pseudotsuga menziesii 
 (Mirb.) Franco. 
 
 Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. 
 Abies sibirica Ledeb. 
 Juniperus deppeana Steud. 
 /. ashei Buchholz. 
 
 /. communis L. 
 
 /. communis var. depressa 
 Pursh. 
 
 /. monosperma (Engelm.) 
 Sarg. 
 
 /. pinchotii Sudw. 
 
 /. scopulorum Sarg. 
 
 /. osteosperma (Torr.) Lit¬ 
 tle. 
 
 Larix decidua Mill. 
 
 L. sibirica Ledeb. 
 
 Pinus nigra Arnold. 
 
 P. sabiniana Dougl. 
 
 P. pinea L. 
 
 P. banksiana Lamb. 
 
 P. thunbergi Pari. 
 
 P. densiflora Sieb & Zucc. 
 
 P. jeffreyi grev. and Balf. 
 
 Pine, limber. 
 
 Pine, loblolly. 
 
 Pine, lodgepole. 
 
 Pine, ponderosa. 
 
 Pine, red. 
 
 Pine, Scotch. 
 
 Pine, shortleaf. 
 
 Pine, Swiss stone. 
 
 Pine, Virginia. 
 
 Pine, western white. 
 
 Pinyon . 
 
 Redcedar, eastern. 
 
 Spruce, blue. 
 
 Spruce, Engelmann. 
 
 Spruce, Siberian. 
 
 Spruce, Sitka. 
 
 Spruce, white (includes Black 
 
 Hills). 
 
 Tamarack. 
 
 P. flexilis James. 
 
 P. taeda L. 
 
 P. contorta Dougl. 
 
 P. ponderosa Laws. 
 
 P. resinosa Ait. 
 
 P. sylvestris L. 
 
 P. echinata Mill. 
 
 P. cembra L. 
 
 P. virginiana Mill. 
 
 P. monticola Dougl, 
 
 P. edulis Engelm. 
 
 Juniperus virginiana L. 
 Picea pungens Engelm. 
 
 P. engelmannii Parry. 
 
 P. obovata Ledeb. 
 
 P. sitchensis (Bong.) Carr, 
 
 P. glauca (Moench) Voss. 
 Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. 
 Koch. 
 
 Broadleaves 
 
 Cottonwood, eastern . 
 Elm, Chinese 
 Elm, Siberian 
 
 Oak, bur. 
 
 Peashrub, Siberian . 
 Rose, Japanese . 
 
 Populus deltoides Bartr. 
 Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. 
 
 U. pumila L. 
 
 Quercus macrocarpa Michx. 
 Caragana arborescens Lam. 
 Rosa multiflora Thunb. 
 
 SAFETY RULES AND PRECAUTIONS 
 FOR HANDLING, MIXING, 
 
 AND APPLYING CHEMICALS 
 
 Most insecticides and fungicides and some other 
 sprays and baits contain poisons injurious, if not 
 deadly, to humans and livestock. Many act through 
 the skin or lungs as well as through the digestive tract. 
 In addition, some are flammable or explosive, or in¬ 
 volve other hazards. Wakeley (1954) lists some gen¬ 
 eral rules which, if properly enforced, should minimize 
 accidents occurring when poisons and other hazardous 
 materials are handled. They are as follows: 
 
 1. Plainly mark both temporary and permanent 
 containers to show nature of contents (poisonous, flam¬ 
 mable, etc.) and date of purchase (some chemicals 
 change or deteriorate with age). Keep dangerous 
 materials tightly closed (unless their nature requires 
 venting) ; out of reach of children, irresponsible per¬ 
 sons, livestock, and pets; and in an adequately venti¬ 
 lated storeroom, preferably locked. 
 
 2. When mixing or applying poisonous materials, 
 be extremely careful to keep them out of the mouth, 
 eyes, nose, and lungs, and away from tender parts of 
 the body. Ordinarily, wear leather or paraffined-cloth 
 gloves (rubber or plastic gloves must be used with 
 certain chemicals), and always wear goggles, a respi¬ 
 rator, or a combination of the two. If the manu¬ 
 facturer specifies, mix substance only in open shed or 
 outdoors. 
 
 3. Prohibit smoking during the mixing or applica¬ 
 tion of flammable or explosive substances. 
 
 4. Bum or bury empty packages and bags that 
 have contained poisons. Bury unused or discarded 
 materials. When mixing vessels, sprayers, etc., are 
 washed after use of the more poisonous substances, 
 empty washwater into a hole in the ground, and fill in 
 the hole. Do not bum empty arsenical containers 
 except in open air. (Addition by authors: Avoid 
 breathing smoke or fumes from burning empty chemi¬ 
 cal containers.) 
 
 5. Always wash hands and face thoroughly after 
 mixing or applying poisonous substances. After long 
 exposure, bathe and change clothes. Wash the clothes 
 after each day’s spraying. 
 
 6. Be sure that no poisonous spray material can 
 get into domestic or livestock water supplies. 
 
 7. If sulfuric acid must be diluted (as for acidify¬ 
 ing soil to control damping-oflF), always pour the acid, 
 which is the heavier liquid, into the water. Water 
 poured into sulfuric acid spatters badly, with serious 
 danger, especially to the eyes. 
 
 Only the most responsible and tmstworthy person¬ 
 nel should be allowed to handle chemicals that are 
 explosive, flammable, or toxic to humans. It is ex¬ 
 tremely important that the directions on the labels on 
 insecticides, fungicides, or weed killers be carefully 
 read and followed. Containers for chemicals that 
 have been emptied should be stored in a safe place or 
 destroyed. Surplus mixtures should be buried and 
 covered with soil. They should not be poured into 
 
90 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 streams or ponds where they may endanger human life, 
 fish, or livestock. 
 
 Workers handling concentrated acid should be 
 equipped with goggles, rubber gloves, and acidproof 
 aprons. Once the acid is diluted to a 2-percent solu¬ 
 tion, it is not particularly hazardous to handle. 
 
 Workers should not breathe the fumes of chemicals, 
 especially methyl bromide, allyl alcohol, and para- 
 thion (Frear 1959). In the manual application of 
 methyl bromide, special injectors, as supplied or 
 recommended by the manufacturer of the chemical, 
 should be used. Masks or respirators should be worn 
 when handling allyl alcohol, methyl bromide, Ferbam, 
 and parathion. 
 
 Allyl alcohol, methyl bromide, chlordane, Ferbam, 
 nicotine, and parathion should not be brought into 
 contact with the skin. This precaution should also 
 be observed when handling seedlings treated with such 
 chemicals as Endrin and nicotine. These chemicals 
 are used to repel rabbits after fieldplanting. 
 
 Some chemicals, such as carbon disulfide, are ex¬ 
 plosive. Others, such as chlorates and mineral spirits, 
 are quite flammable. Ammonium nitrate (Moore 
 I960) and allyl alcohol are both explosive and flam¬ 
 mable. Therefore, they must be stored in well-venti¬ 
 lated buildings well separated from warehouses and 
 other buildings. 
 
 Certain insecticides are harmful to bees, which help 
 pollinate many plants. If spraying with DDT is neces¬ 
 sary, it should be done when the flowers are in the bud 
 rather than the bloom stage. However, if the flowers 
 are in bloom, toxaphene can be sprayed in the early 
 morning or late evening. 
 
 Use of oil sprays in the summer is not recommended 
 because the oil may injure the foliage or new growth of 
 small nursery trees. In the dormant season, sprays 
 should be thoroughly mixed or emulsified before appli¬ 
 cation. Oil emulsions of more than 4 percent strength 
 may damage trees. If oils or oil emulsions are used, 
 tanks must, in most cases, be reasonably free of any 
 lime sulfur residues, since these may break down the 
 emulsion. 
 
 Many insecticides and fungicides tend to stain wood, 
 painted surfaces, and stone. The stain damage caused 
 by direct application or drift can be lessened by thor¬ 
 oughly wetting the object before and after an appli¬ 
 cation. 
 
 Sprayers used for weed or brush killers, such as 2,4-D 
 or 2,4,5-T, should not be used for spraying insecticides 
 or fungicides in the nursery because minute residues 
 of these chemicals may damage or kill the trees. If it 
 is necessary to use these sprayers, they should be 
 scrubbed out thoroughly with soap and water and 
 rinsed repeatedly. 
 
 SPRAY FORMULAS FOR 
 INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 
 
 A number of well-tested formulas have been de¬ 
 veloped for preparing insecticides and fungicides 
 (tables 20 and 21). Use of these formulas will help 
 
 nurserymen protect nursery beds as well as larger trees 
 in windbreaks near the nursery. 
 
 Table 20. —Formulas for insecticides and fungicides, 
 after Potts and Waterman {1952) 
 
 Formu¬ 
 la No. 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 Water 
 
 Sticker or 
 spreading 
 agent 
 
 1 
 
 INSECTICIDES 
 
 Lead arsenate 2 to 5 (av. 
 
 Gallons 
 
 100 
 
 1 pt. of fish 
 
 2 
 
 4) lb. 
 
 Derris or cube powder 
 
 100 
 
 oil. 
 
 Yi gal. fish 
 
 3 
 
 4% rotenone) 2-8 lb. 
 Nicotine sulfate (40% 
 
 100 
 
 oil. 
 
 ’3 lb. solid 
 
 4 
 
 nicotine) 1 pint. 
 
 Pyrethrum powder (0.8 
 
 100 
 
 soap or 6 
 lb. liquid 
 soap. 
 
 Do. 
 
 5 
 
 to 1% pyrethrins) 1 lb. 
 Emulsifiable pyrethrum 
 
 100 
 
 None. 
 
 6 
 
 extract (1% pyre¬ 
 thrins) 1 pint. 
 
 Derris or cube powder 
 
 100 
 
 3 lb. solid 
 
 7 
 
 (4% rotenone) 1.5 lb. 
 
 Oil emulsion (75% oil) 4 
 
 96 
 
 soap or 6 
 lb. liquid 
 soap. 
 
 None. 
 
 8 
 
 gal. 
 
 Miscible oil (90% oil) 5 
 
 95 
 
 Do. 
 
 9 
 
 gal. 
 
 Miscible white oils 1 gal... 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 10 
 
 Lime sulfur (10 gal. 
 
 90 
 
 Do. 
 
 11 
 
 liquid or 40 lb. dry). 
 Parathion 1 lb. 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 11a 
 
 Tetraethyl pyrophos- 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 
 
 phate (40% emulsi¬ 
 fiable) ^ pt. 
 
 Aramite 15 W. Neotran, 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 13 
 
 or Dimite, 2 lb. 
 
 DDT (emulsifiable, 25% 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 13a 
 
 DDT) 1 qt. 
 
 DDT (50% DDT wet- 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 14 
 
 table powder) 1 lb. 
 
 FUNGICIDES 
 
 Lime sulfur (2.5 gal. 
 
 100 
 
 None. 
 
 15 
 
 liquid or 6-8 lb. dry). 
 Bordeaux-copper sulfate 8 
 
 100 
 
 Calcium 
 
 16 
 
 lb., hydrated lime 10 
 lb. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture powder 
 
 100 
 
 caseinate 
 
 2 lb. 
 
 Do. 
 
 17 
 
 16 lb. 
 
 Wettable sulfurs. 
 
 (9 
 
 According 
 
 18 
 
 Sulfur dust 2. 
 
 0 
 
 to direc¬ 
 tions on 
 container. 
 None. 
 
 19 
 
 Puratized agricultural 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 20 
 
 spray 1 to 1.5 pts. 
 
 Ferbam 1.5-2 lb. 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 21 
 
 Ferbam lb., wettable 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 22 
 
 sulfur 3 lb. 
 
 Elgetol 1 gal. 
 
 100 
 
 Do. 
 
 ' According to directions on container. 
 
 2 For control of chewing insects, 2 pounds of lead arsenate or 
 1 pound of 50 percent DDT powder can be added per 10 pounds 
 of sulfur. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAENS 
 
 91 
 
 Table 2\—Concentrated-spray formulations for use in mist blowers, aircraft, and hand atomizers, 
 
 after Potts {1952) 
 
 Form¬ 
 ula No. 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 Quantity to make 
 
 Gallons to apply 
 
 Percent 
 
 of 
 
 toxicant 
 
 1 gal. 
 
 100 gal. 
 
 Per acre 
 
 Per 60-ft. 
 tree 
 
 1 
 
 DDT. 
 
 % lb .. 
 
 40 Ih 
 
 2K 
 
 72 
 
 C 
 
 
 Kerosene. 
 
 1 pal... 
 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 
 DDT, technical. 
 
 14 lb .. 
 
 . 
 
 50 Ih 
 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 
 Xylene. 
 
 1 nt 
 
 1 52% tral 
 
 
 72 
 
 0 
 
 
 Kerosene. 
 
 V4 . 
 
 6^/ nt. 
 
 * '^73 5*". 
 
 813% fra] 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 DDT, technical. 
 
 u lb. 
 
 ^ ^ 7o 5 . 
 
 50 Ih 
 
 0 
 
 1/ 
 
 A 
 
 
 Xylene. 
 
 W'H nt... . 
 
 1 52% pal 
 
 
 72 
 
 0 
 
 
 Triton X-100. 
 
 */4 . 
 
 3/ OZ. 
 
 * *^73 5^^. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 6t<> nt. . . . 
 
 7o . 
 
 82 gal 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 DDT, 50% wettable powder. 
 
 ^/i r''’. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 100 gal 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 A 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 1 gal. 
 
 97 pal 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Benzene hexachloride, emulsifiable 20% gamma 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 314 gal. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 67 
 
 
 isomer. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 73/ pt . 
 
 97 pal 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Chlordane, 50% emulsifiable. 
 
 / /4 . 
 
 1 pt. 
 
 ^ ‘ 0^. 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 A 
 
 
 Kerosene or water. 
 
 7 pt. 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 
 7 
 
 Chlordane, 50% wettable powder. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 100 lb.... 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 A 
 
 
 Water.). 
 
 1 pal. 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Nicotine sulfate. 
 
 8 oz. 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2. 5 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 iVi pt. . 
 
 ^74 6*^. 
 
 933/ pal 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 Rotenone, 5% emulsifiable extract. 
 
 7^ u'’. 
 
 1 pt. 
 
 1 7X4* 
 
 5 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 7 nt 
 
 
 
 ^72 
 
 
 10 
 
 Rotenone, 5% powder. 
 
 ' H'”. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 ^ ' 72 6“^. 
 
 100 lb 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 A 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 714 nt ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mineral oil (50 to 90 sec. Saybolt). 
 
 • /I h'*'. 
 
 3 oz. 
 
 y-r gox . 
 
 21% gal 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Pyrethrum extract, 1% emulsifiable. 
 
 1 pt. 
 
 ^/l 6"^. 
 
 1 7XA P^al 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 . 125 
 
 
 Water or kerosene. 
 
 7 pt. 
 
 87i4 pal 
 
 
 12 
 
 Lead arsenate. 
 
 2 lb. 
 
 200 Ih 
 
 6 
 
 1/2 
 
 21 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 7i'c nt. . . . 
 
 
 
 
 Mineral oil (50 to 90 sec. Saybolt). 
 
 34 pt. 
 
 yv . 
 
 5 gal 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 Refined white mineral oil (45 to 75 sec. Saybolt). . . 
 
 1 gal. 
 
 100 gal. 
 
 6 
 
 Wo 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 Refined white miscible mineral oil (50 to 100 sec. 
 
 1 qt. 
 
 26 pal. 
 
 15 
 
 A 72 
 
 3% 
 
 25 
 
 
 Saybolt). 
 
 
 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 3 qt. 
 
 74 pal 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 DN-111. 
 
 8 oz. 
 
 50 Ih 
 
 6 
 
 1/4 
 
 A 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 1 gal 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 Aramite 15W. 
 
 1 lb. 
 
 -'^72 6^^. 
 
 100 Ih 
 
 6 
 
 w 
 
 2 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 73X nt 
 
 
 
 ‘■72 
 
 
 
 Soybean oil or linseed oil. 
 
 ‘ /5 t-''’. 
 
 y g ai. 
 
 7X4 oral 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 Liquid lime sulfur. 
 
 /»> r'*'. 
 
 1 pal. 
 
 ^72 6 ^ . 
 
 100 gal 
 
 15 
 
 334 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 MOUSE BAITS 
 Zinc Phosphide Formula 
 
 The zinc phosphide formula (Garlough and Spen¬ 
 cer 1944) is as follows: 
 
 Steamed rolled oats.98 pounds. 
 
 Zinc phosphide.1 pound. 
 
 Amber petroleum jelly.10 ounces. 
 
 Mineral oil.10 ounces. 
 
 The mineral oil and petroleum jelly are warmed 
 together until they are fluid, but not hot. Zinc phos¬ 
 phide is added to the mixture and stirred vigorously. 
 This material is then poured over the oats and mixed 
 thoroughly. Zinc phosphide baits are generally effec¬ 
 tive for about 3 weeks after preparation. 
 
 Strychnine Alkaloid Formula 
 
 Because of its bitter taste, strychnine alkaloid some¬ 
 times is not as readily accepted by certain mice. The 
 formula is as follows: 
 
 Steamed rolled oats.12 pounds. 
 
 Powdered strychnine alkaloid .... 1 ounce. 
 
 Baking soda.1 ounce. 
 
 Gloss starch. Yk ounce. 
 
 Water.1 pint. 
 
 Heavy com sirup.J4 pint. 
 
 Glycerine or petrolatum.1 tablespoonful. 
 
 The starch is mixed with one-fourth teacup of cold 
 water, stirred into three-fourths pint of boiling water, 
 and cooled until it forms a thin paste. Strychnine is 
 
92 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 7 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 mixed with the baking soda, added to the starch paste, 
 and stirred until free of lumps. The com sirup and 
 glycerine or petrolatum are then added. The mixture 
 is poured over the oats and allowed to dry before 
 sacking. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON NURSERY 
 
 PRORLEMS 
 
 Nurserymen who have problems with nursery insects 
 or diseases can obtain advice on identification and con¬ 
 trol by writing to their State agricultural college or 
 their State nursery inspector; the latter is invariably a 
 trained pathologist or entomologist. The inspector 
 may also send out releases on new quarantine regula¬ 
 tions affecting the nursery industry. Another source 
 of information on nursery disease and insect problems 
 is the Division of Forest Protection Research, Forest 
 Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D.C., 20250. 
 
 Advice on control of mammals and birds can be ob¬ 
 tained from the Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. De¬ 
 partment of the Interior, Washington, D.C., 20240, 
 or from the conservation departments of the respective 
 States. 
 
 Nurserymen who plan interstate shipments of stock 
 should become familiar with Federal and State regula¬ 
 tions which may affect their shipments. This informa¬ 
 tion can be obtained from the Plant Quarantine 
 Division, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Depart¬ 
 ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 Problems on nursery soils can be referred to the soils 
 departments of State colleges and universities. 
 
 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 
 ON NURSERY MACHINERY, 
 EQUIPMENT, AND CHEMICALS 
 
 The nursery industry as much as possible uses equip¬ 
 ment and products of standard manufacture. A list of 
 manufacturers of nursery machinery, equipment, and 
 chemicals can be obtained from the Forest Service, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.G., 
 20250. 
 
 Blueprints of specialized equipment, either assem¬ 
 bled from manufacturers’ parts or to be built by the 
 nurseryman, can be obtained from one of the several 
 regional offices of the U.S. Forest Service. 
 
 The North Central Region of the U.S. Forest Service 
 (consisting of North Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
 Michigan, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio) 
 has blueprints of certain items of special equipment 
 (tree lifters, hand trenchers, root pruners, tree balers, 
 etc.) or of buildings (central warehouses, cold storage 
 sheds, cone storage sheds, and extractories, etc.). 
 Nurserymen can obtain these blueprints at cost by 
 writing to the Regional Forester, U.S. Forest Service, 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 In the Rocky Mountain Region (consisting of South 
 Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and a major 
 
 portion of Wyoming) similar blueprints can be ob¬ 
 tained by writing to the Regional Forester, U.S. Forest 
 Service, Denver, Colo. 
 
 Requests of nurserymen in Oklahoma and Texas 
 should be addressed to the Regional Forester, U.S. 
 Forest Service, Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Nurserymen in Montana can obtain blueprints from 
 the Regional Forester, U.S. Forest Service, Missoula, 
 Mont. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS AND PROCEDURES FOR 
 NURSERY STOCK INSPECTION 
 IN THE PLAINS STATES 
 
 Each State has laws requiring inspection of trees 
 before they can be sold and removed from the nursery 
 premises. In brief, these laws provide for an annual 
 inspection of the nursery by the State nursery inspector 
 or his representative, define the fees to be charged, 
 and provide for the issuance of a certificate of inspec¬ 
 tion. The law names certain species on which there is 
 a quarantine regarding shipment into the State; defines 
 the power of the nursery inspector to recommend and 
 enforce destruction of certain pest-infested stock or 
 to enforce its treatment with appropriate insecticides 
 or fungicides; provides for tagging State shipments of 
 nursery stock and wildings; and provides for penalties 
 for violations of quarantine and other aspects of 
 nursery regulations. 
 
 Individuals in any of the Plains States contemplat¬ 
 ing growing or selling nursery stock can obtain de¬ 
 tailed information on current laws affecting the 
 business by writing to one of the following agencies: 
 
 1. In Colorado: State Department of Agriculture, 
 3130 Zuni Street, Denver, Colo. 
 
 2. In Kansas (for portion of State north of 
 Smoky Hill and Kansas Rivers) : Nursery In¬ 
 spector, Department of Entomology, Kansas 
 State College, Manhattan, Kans. 
 
 3. In Kansas (for portion of State south of 
 Smoky Hill and Kansas Rivers) : Nursery In¬ 
 spector, Department of Entomology, Univer¬ 
 sity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 
 
 4. In Montana: State Nursery Inspector, East 
 Broadway, Missoula, Mont. 
 
 5. In Nebraska: State Entomologist and Nur¬ 
 sery Inspector, Bureau of Plant Industry, State 
 Capitol Building, Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
 6. In North Dakota: State Nursery Inspector, 
 North Dakota State University, Fargo, N. Dak. 
 
 7. In Oklahoma: Nursery Inspector, Entomology 
 Division, State Department of Agriculture, 
 Oklahoma City 5, Okla. 
 
 8. In South DaJcota: State Nursery Inspector, 
 State Department of Agriculture, Pierre, S. 
 Dak. 
 
 9. In Texas: State Entomologist, 308 Capitol 
 Building, Austin, Tex. 
 
 10. In Wyoming: State Entomologist, 308 Capi¬ 
 tol Building, Cheyenne, Wyo. 
 
CONIFER NURSERY PRACTICE IN THE PRAIRIE-PLAINS 
 
 Plant quarantine regulations that are in force on a 
 national basis by the U.S. Department of Agriculture 
 are available from the Plant Quarantine Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMEIVT OF AGRICULTURE 
 FOREST TREE SEED POLICY (1939) 
 
 The U.S. Department of Agriculture has adopted a 
 forest tree seed policy regarding seeds of trees and 
 shrubs to be used in reforestation, shelterbelt, and 
 erosion control planting. It provides guidance for its 
 various conservation agencies engaged in such work. 
 The policy is given below: 
 
 Recognizing that trees and shrubs, in common with 
 other food and fiber plants, vary in branch habit, rate 
 of growth, strength and stiffness of wood, resistance to 
 cold, drought, insect attack, and disease, and in other 
 attributes which influence their usefulness and local 
 adaptation for forest, shelterbelt, and erosion-control 
 use, and that such differences are largely of a genetic 
 nature, it shall be the policy of the United States De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture insofar as practicable to re¬ 
 quire for all forest, shelterbelt, and erosion-control 
 plantings, stocks propagated from segregated strains or 
 individual clones of proven superiority for the partic¬ 
 ular locality or objective concerned. 
 
 Furthermore, since the above attributes are asso¬ 
 ciated in part with the climate and to some extent with 
 other factors of environment of the locality of origin, it 
 shall be the policy of the U.S. Department of Agri¬ 
 culture : 
 
 1. To use only seed of known locality of origin 
 and nursery stock grown from such seed. 
 
 2. To require from the vendor adequate evidence 
 verifying place and year of origin for all lots of seed 
 or nursery stock purchased, such as bills of lading, re¬ 
 ceipts for payments to collectors, or other evidence 
 indicating that the seed or stock offered is of the 
 source represented. When purchases are made from 
 farmers or other collectors known to operate only 
 locally, a statement capable of verification will be re¬ 
 quired as needed for proof of origin. 
 
 3. To require an accurate record of the origin 
 of all lots of seed and nursery stock used in forest, 
 shelterbelt, and erosion-control planting, such records 
 
 93 
 
 to include the following minimum standard require¬ 
 ments to be furnished with each shipment: 
 
 (1) Lot number. 
 
 (2) Year of seed crop. 
 
 (3) Species. 
 
 (4) Seed origin: State—County—Locality— 
 Range of elevation. 
 
 (5) Proof of origin. 
 
 4. To use local seed from natural stands when¬ 
 ever available unless it has been demonstrated that 
 seed from another specific source produces desirable 
 plants for the locality and uses involved. Local seed 
 means seed from an area subject to similar climatic 
 influences and may usually be considered as that col¬ 
 lected within 100 miles of the planting site and differ¬ 
 ing from it in elevation by less than 1,000 feet. 
 
 5. When local seed is not available, to use seed 
 from a region having as nearly as possilale the same 
 length of growing season, the same mean temperature 
 of the growing season, the same frequencies of sum¬ 
 mer droughts, with other similar environment so far 
 as possible, and the same latitude. 
 
 6. To continue experimentation with indigenous 
 and exotic species, races, and clones to determine their 
 possible usefulness, and to delimit as early as practi¬ 
 cable climatic zones within which seed or planting 
 stock of species and their strains may be safely used 
 for forest, shelterbelt, and erosion-control. 
 
 7. To urge that States, counties, cities, corpora¬ 
 tions, other organizations, and individuals producing 
 and planting trees for forest, shelterbelt, and erosion- 
 control purposes, the expense of which is borne wholly 
 or in part by the Federal Government, adhere to the 
 policy herein outlined. 
 
 WHERE TO PURCHASE SEED 
 
 A partial list of tree-seed dealers in the United 
 States and a few foreign countries can be obtained by 
 writing to the Forest Service, U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 A list that includes tree-seed dealers in the Plains 
 States and dealers who handle seed native to the 
 Plains States can be obtained from the Rocky Moun¬ 
 tain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Colorado 
 State University, Fort Collins, Colo.; and the Lake 
 States Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul Campus, 
 University of Minnesota, St. Paul 1, Minn. 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1965 O—748-005 
 
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PEACH PRODUCTION EAST OF 
 THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 ^SMCultural Research Service ^ 
 
 J.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Pesticides are poisonous to man and animals. Use them only 
 when needed and handle them with care. Follow the directions 
 and heed all precautions on the labels. 
 
 Keep pesticides in closed, well-labeled containers in a dry place. 
 Store them where they will not contaminate food or feed, and where 
 children and pets cannot reach them. 
 
 Avoid repeated or prolon^d contact of pesticides with the skin. 
 Avoid inhalation of pesticide dusts or mists. 
 
 Avoid spilling pesticides on your skin, and keep them out of the 
 eyes, nose, and mouth. If any is spilled on skin or clothinji^, wash 
 it off the skin and change clothing immediately. 
 
 When handling pesticides, wear clean, dry clothing. 
 
 Wash your hands and face before eating or smoking and im¬ 
 mediately after completing pesticide application. 
 
 To protect fish and wildlife, do not contaminate lakes, streams, 
 or ponds with pesticide. Do not clean spraying equipment or dump 
 excess spray material near such water. 
 
 To minimize losses of honey bees and other pollinating insects, 
 make pesticide applications, when possible, during hours when the 
 insects are not visiting the plants. Avoid drift of pe.sticide sprays 
 to nearby crops or live^ock. Av'oid drift of pesticides into bee yards. 
 
 Empty containers are particularly hazardous. Bum empty bags 
 and cardboard containers in the open or bury them. Crush and bury 
 bottles or cans. 
 
 Credit for preparation of the basic information in this handbook on 
 culture of peaches and compilation of the initial draft of the handl>ook 
 is due A. Leon Havis, formerly horticulturist. Crops Research Divi¬ 
 sion, Agricultural Research Service. Dr. Havis died in 1962. 
 
 Mention of a proprietary product in this publication does not constitute 
 a ^arantee or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of Agri¬ 
 culture and does not imply its approval by the Department to the ex¬ 
 clusion of other products that may also be suitable. 
 
PEACH PRODUCTION EAST OF 
 THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 280 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 J.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Pag9 
 
 History of the peach_ 1 
 
 Geographic distribution of 
 peaches in the United 
 
 States_ 2 
 
 Selecting orchard sites_ 4 
 
 Selecting varieties_ 6 
 
 Standard commercial va¬ 
 rieties_ 7 
 
 Special-purpose varieties__ 10 
 
 Promising new varieties. _ 12 
 
 Propagating and selecting 
 
 rootstocks_ 13 
 
 Planting the orchard_ 15 
 
 Age and size of trees_ 15 
 
 Time to plant_ 15 
 
 Planting patterns and 
 
 spacings_ 16 
 
 Preparing the site_ 17 
 
 Setting out the trees_ 18 
 
 Replanting the orchard.__ 18 
 
 Training and pruning_ 18 
 
 The young tree_ 19 
 
 The bearing tree_ 21 
 
 Time of pruning_ 28 
 
 Pruning in relation to fruit 
 
 thinning_ 29 
 
 Pruning in relation to fer¬ 
 tilizing_ 29 
 
 Pruning tools and equip¬ 
 ment_ 30 
 
 Soil management_ 30 
 
 The young orchard_ 31 
 
 The bearing orchard_ 33 
 
 Fertilizers_ 35 
 
 Nitrogen_ 35 
 
 Potassium, phosphorus, 
 magnesium, and cal¬ 
 cium_ 37 
 
 Zinc, boron, and manga¬ 
 nese_ 39 
 
 Irrigation_ 39 
 
 Psgi 
 
 Thinning the fruit_ 40 
 
 Thinning according to va¬ 
 riety_ 40 
 
 Amount to thin_ 41 
 
 Methods of thinning_ 42 
 
 Low-temperature injury_ 42 
 
 Injury to buds_ 42 
 
 Injury to twigs, branches, 
 
 and trunks_ 44 
 
 Injury to roots_ 44 
 
 Harvesting, transporting, 
 
 and storing fruit_ 44 
 
 Diseases caused by fungi and 
 
 bacteria_ 50 
 
 Brown rot_ 50 
 
 Scab_ 52 
 
 Bacterial spot_ 53 
 
 Leaf curl_ 55 
 
 Rust_ 56 
 
 Constriction_ 56 
 
 Crown gall_ 57 
 
 Powdery mildew_ 57 
 
 Fungus root rots_ 57 
 
 Dieback_ 57 
 
 Diseases caused by viruses. _ 58 
 
 Peach yellows__ 58 
 
 Little peach_ 61 
 
 Red suture_ 61 
 
 X-disease_ 62 
 
 Phony disease_ 63 
 
 Peach rosette_ 64 
 
 Peach mosaic_ 64 
 
 Rosette mosaic, ring spot, 
 necrotic leaf spot, line 
 pattern, and asteroid 
 
 spot_ 66 
 
 Peach insects_ 67 
 
 Plum curculio_ 67 
 
 Peach tree borer_ 67 
 
 Lesser peach tree borer_ 68 
 
 San Jose scale_ 68 
 
 Oriental fruit moth_ 68 
 
 Sucking bugs_ 68 
 
 This handbook contains the type of information that formerly appeared 
 in Farmers’ Bulletin No. 2021, “Peach Growing East of the Rocky 
 Mountains.” 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued April 1965' 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 — Price 35 cents. 
 
 II 
 
PEACH PRODUCTION EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 By H. W. Fogle,^ H. L. Keil^ W. H. Redit,^ L. C. Cochran,^ and H. Baker ® 
 
 HISTORY OF THE PEACH 
 
 The peach {Prunus persica (L) 
 Batsch) originated in China and 
 was taken from there into Persia, 
 Greece, Italy, and other temperate 
 areas of Europe. 
 
 Probably the earliest introduc¬ 
 tion of peaches into the Western 
 Hemisphere was by the Spaniards, 
 who brought them to Mexico. In 
 1565, Spanish settlers brought 
 peaches to St. Augustine, Fla. The 
 early English and French settlers 
 also brought peach seeds with them 
 to the Eastern United States. 
 Later, Indians planted peach seeds 
 over a wide area. 
 
 Until about 1910, most peach va¬ 
 rieties originated as chance seed¬ 
 lings. The first peaches grown in 
 this country were probably white 
 fleshed. They were later crossed 
 with yellow-fleshed peaches brought 
 from Mexico. All commercial va¬ 
 rieties now grown in the United 
 States originated in this country. 
 The most important new varieties 
 originated from controlled crosses 
 made at State or Federal experi¬ 
 ment stations or by private fruit 
 breeders. 
 
 For 200 years after their intro¬ 
 duction into the United States, 
 seedling peaches were grown mostly 
 for brandy, for fresh fruit for the 
 home, or for hog feed. Almost 
 every farm and plantation in the 
 Middle Atlantic States had a peach 
 orchard. No spraying was done, 
 but the trees evidently produced 
 
 well. By about 1800, several good 
 varieties had been selected from 
 seedlings and propagated by bud¬ 
 ding. By 1850, more than 400 va¬ 
 rieties were listed by nurseries in 
 this country. 
 
 From 1800 to 1850, commercial 
 peach production expanded rap¬ 
 idly. Peaches w^ere transported by 
 rail, by boat, and by wagon to sup¬ 
 ply the demand for fresh peaches 
 in the cities. Peach production 
 mostly was for family use, although 
 commercial orchards were being de¬ 
 veloped near Richmond, Norfolk, 
 and Baltimore. Peach seedlings, as 
 well as budded varieties for home 
 use, were carried west by settlers 
 during the 19th century. 
 
 Commercial shipment of peaches 
 to terminal markets developed 
 gradually from 1870 to 1900. Se¬ 
 lection of the Elberta and Belle 
 varieties and development of the 
 refrigerated rail car were important 
 in market expansion. Commercial 
 peach growing increased in Vir¬ 
 ginia, Maryland, Delaware, New 
 Jersey, and southeastern New York. 
 
 Throughout the 19th century, dis¬ 
 ease and insect problems multiplied 
 as commercial peach production in 
 America expanded. Peach yellows 
 and brown rot diseases and insect 
 borers became increasingly destruc¬ 
 tive. The yellows virus, which be¬ 
 came serious in the Philadelphia 
 area about 1800, caused greater loss 
 of peach trees in Northeastern 
 
 ^ Crops Research Division. 
 
 * Market Quality Research Division. 
 
 * Entomology Research Division; now retired. 
 
 1 
 
United States than did any other 
 trouble. The most serious losses 
 occurred between 1850 and 1900 in 
 New Jersey, in Delaware, and on 
 the Eastern Shore of Maryland. 
 Thousands of trees and many large 
 plantings were completely de¬ 
 stroyed. Serious losses also oc¬ 
 curred as far west as Ohio and 
 Michigan, but the virus caused no 
 damage to the developing peach 
 areas in the Southeast. In 1892, the 
 San Jose scale insect appeared in 
 Virginia and quickly spread to other 
 fruit areas. Spring frosts were a 
 major hazard to the growing com¬ 
 mercial peach industry. The ap¬ 
 pearance of San Jose scale in 1892 
 in Virginia and its rapid spread to 
 other fruit areas led to the adoption 
 of spraying as an orchard practice. 
 A realization of the value of spray¬ 
 ing for other insects and diseases 
 soon developed. 
 
 Most of the early commercial or¬ 
 chards were clean cultivated. Prun¬ 
 ing methods were variable and 
 sometimes severe. Before the use 
 of nitrogenous fertilizers in or¬ 
 chards, clean cultivating and heavy 
 pruning were practiced in some lo¬ 
 cations to stimulate vigorous annual 
 growth. Peach varieties selected 
 between 1850 and 1900 that are still 
 grown commercially include El- 
 
 GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF 
 
 Commercial culture of peaches is 
 more widespread in the United 
 States than that of any other tree 
 fruit, even though in many areas 
 annual production is uncertain and 
 variable. Peaches are produced 
 commercially over a wide area that 
 begins in New Jersey, extends into 
 the South Atlantic States, and 
 reaches into central Texas. Peach- 
 producing sections within this area 
 include parts of the Piedmont and 
 the Coastal Plain. The Piedmont 
 extends from south-central Georgia 
 through the Carolinas and Virginia 
 and into Maryland, and includes 
 
 berta. Belle, and Champion, and, to 
 a lesser extent. Carman and Hiley. 
 
 From 1900 to 1920, the peach in¬ 
 dustry in the United States ex¬ 
 panded, especially in Georgia, 
 South Carolina, Arkansas, Texas, 
 and California. Production 
 reached its peak economically in 
 the United States during this pe¬ 
 riod. Then fruit prices suddenly 
 fell, and thousands of acres of peach 
 trees were abandoned. 
 
 The economic recovery was slow 
 and irregular, even for the most effi¬ 
 cient growers and at the best cul¬ 
 tural locations. World War II 
 brought high peach prices, but it 
 also brought shortages of labor, 
 equipment, and supplies. In the 
 postwar period, the high cost of 
 labor, equipment, sprays, fertilizers, 
 and land made profits uncertain in 
 most areas. Although high pro¬ 
 duction per acre of high-quality 
 fruit over a long period of years has 
 usually been profitable, such haz¬ 
 ards as spring frost, winter injury, 
 insects, diseases, and hail continued 
 to plague fruit growers. 
 
 Since 1890, the number of peach 
 trees in the United States has fluc¬ 
 tuated but has generally declined 
 (fig. 1). However, during the same 
 period production has increased. 
 
 PEACHES IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 parts of the Coastal Plain in the 
 Carolinas, Maryland’s Eastern 
 Shore, Delaware, and New^ Jei’sey. 
 Many large plantings border the 
 Great Lakes in western New York, 
 northern Ohio, and southwestern 
 Michigan. 
 
 In the Far West, climate and soil 
 in the San Joaquin and Sacramento 
 River Valleys of California are ex¬ 
 ceptionally favorable to commer¬ 
 cial peach production. This fact 
 has stimulated heavy planting. 
 Peaches are also grown under irri¬ 
 gation in western Colorado, north¬ 
 ern Utah, southern Idaho, and cen¬ 
 tral Washington (fig. 2). 
 
 2 
 
TREES (Millions) 
 
 BUSHELS (Millions) 
 
 0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120 
 
 *FOR 19S4, DOES NOT INCLUDE DATA FOR FARMS <MITH LESS THAN 20 TREES. ObEAR/NG AND NONBEARING 
 TREES NOT REPORTED SEPARATELY. ^DATA NOT AVAILABLE FOR NONBEARINC TREES. 
 
 Of bearing age Y/////A Nat af bearing age 
 
 IGURE 1.—Number of peach trees in the United States and annual production, 1889-1963. 
 
 IGURE 2.—Location of principal peach tree plantinss in the United States in 1959. Greatest 
 concentrations of plantinss are in California, South Carolina, Georgia, and Michigan. 
 
 3 
 
Large-scale peach production in 
 a given locality may mean that 
 peaches grow especially well there, 
 or it may mean only that they grow 
 better there than do other crops. 
 
 Some areas in this country are not 
 suitable for peach growing. Many 
 States in the North and several 
 States in the Great Plains and the 
 Rocky ]\Iountain region have such 
 cold winters that only the hardiest 
 peach varieties survive, and even 
 those varieties often fail to bear 
 fruit. In extreme south Georgia, 
 in Florida, and in the southern parts 
 of the States bordering the Gulf of 
 Mexico, none of the leading peach 
 varieties produces well enough to be 
 grown commercially because the 
 winters are too warm. Although 
 peach trees do not thrive where 
 winter weather is severe, their buds 
 do require some winter chilling. If 
 a peach tree does not have enough 
 chilling during the winter, its shoot 
 growth and blossoming are delayed 
 the next spring and, after particu¬ 
 larly mild winters, fail to develop 
 at all. Most leading peach varieties 
 require chilling below 45° F. for 
 600 to 1,400 hours. 
 
 Flowerbuds of most varieties re¬ 
 quire slightly less chilling than do 
 leafbuds. Flowerbuds of peaches 
 are formed only in axils of leaves, 
 and they vary from none to three. 
 Usually at least one leafbud occurs 
 
 in the axil of each leaf, and the 
 terminal bud on the twig is always 
 a leafbud. Leafbuds and flower¬ 
 buds are formed during the summer, 
 develop slowly during the winter, 
 and develop rapidly in warm weath¬ 
 er after the required chilling time. 
 
 For the 10-year period 1951-60, 
 annual peach production in the 
 United States averaged 65,650,000 
 bushels. From 1944 to 1948, com¬ 
 mercial j>each production reached 
 its highest average for a 5-year 
 period—75,442,000 bushels. The 
 1959-63 crops also averaged more 
 than 75 million bushels. Pixxluc- 
 tion from 1956 to 1963 averaged 72 
 million bushels annually. The 
 States having the highest produc¬ 
 tion and their approximate average 
 yields, for this 8-year period were: 
 California—40 million bushels (in¬ 
 cluding 28 million clingstones and 
 12 million freestones) ; South Caro¬ 
 lina—5 million bushels; Georgia—4 
 million bushels; Michigan—3 mil¬ 
 lion bushels; Pennsylvania—2,700,- 
 000 bushels; New Jersey—2,300,000 
 bushels; Washington—1,750,000 
 bushels; Arkansas, Virginia, Colo¬ 
 rado, and North Carolina—about 
 1,500,000 bushels each. Improved 
 peach varieties and improved meth¬ 
 ods of canning, freezing, and trans¬ 
 porting are increasing the poten¬ 
 tial consumption of high-quality 
 peaches in the United States. 
 
 SELECTING ORCHARD SITES 
 
 In selecting a peach orchard site, 
 not only the elevation, topography, 
 and slope of the land but also the 
 depth, moisture-holding capacity, 
 and other physical features of the 
 soil should be carefully considered. 
 Satisfactory sites are found on both 
 hilly and level land. 
 
 In the peach-producing areas of 
 the South Atlantic and South Cen¬ 
 tral States, few sites have winter 
 temperatures low enough to injure 
 dormant flowerbuds. But on many 
 sites, fruit crops may be lost because 
 of frost at blossoming time. In the 
 
 New England, Middle Atlantic, and 
 East Central States, peach orchard 
 sites should be selected that offer 
 protection from occasional spring 
 frosts and from severe winter cold. 
 
 Orchards on sites having poor air 
 drainage are most likely to suffer 
 from winter cold and spring frost. 
 On clear, cold, still nights, heat is 
 lost from the earth by radiation. 
 Warm air rises and is replaced by a 
 layer of cold air near the ground.’ 
 At higher levels, tlie corrospondiiig 
 layer of air is warmer. A difference 
 of only a few feet in elevation may 
 
 4 
 
mean a difference of one to several 
 decrees in temperature during the 
 Critical period of a frosty night. If 
 air movement is slowed down by a 
 ridge or by trees, cold air may ac- 
 ,cumulate behind them in pockets on 
 the slopes. In most localities, there¬ 
 fore, tlie site for a peach orchard 
 should be on land elevated above 
 adjacent land and free of obstruc¬ 
 tions to air movement, so that cold 
 \ir can settle to the lower levels. 
 Gently sloping or level land may be 
 satisfactory where the climate is 
 uild or where a nearby body of 
 water affords natural protection 
 from cold. 
 
 An orchard on the leeward side 
 )f a large body of water is often 
 Protected from spring frost because 
 he temperature of the water has a 
 nodifying effect that prevents sud- 
 len, severe drops in air tempera- 
 ure. Ochards planted near bodies 
 of water are found on strips of 
 and 10 to 15 miles wide along the 
 “astern shore of Lake Michigan and 
 he southern shore of Lake Ontario. 
 Masses of cold air blowing over 
 hese lakes are warmed by the water. 
 Vlso, air movement across the cold 
 >vater in early spring tends to pre- 
 . ent sudden rises in air temperature 
 hat would cause peach blossoms to 
 open too early and be injured later 
 oy low temperatures. 
 
 Although a peach orchard site 
 ipally should be at an elevation 
 ligher than that of the adjoining 
 and, a hilltop location has a dis- 
 idvantage if it exposes trees to cold, 
 Irjung winds during winter, 
 ^each trees planted on sites exposed 
 o strong, prevailing winds not only 
 nay be damaged by cold but also 
 nay be permanently dislodged. 
 Phis is especially true in young 
 )rchards where high winds accom- 
 oany heavy rains that have softened 
 he soil. 
 
 Before selecting his peach or- 
 •hard site, an orchardist should de¬ 
 ermine the lowest winter and 
 ipring temperatures for that loca¬ 
 
 tion. This he can do by placing, at 
 different elevations on the site, 
 thermometers that will automati¬ 
 cally record minimum daily air 
 temperature. 
 
 Peach trees grow well on a 
 variety of soils, ranging from coarse 
 sand or shale to fine-textured clay 
 loams. Nevertheless, they yill not 
 grow so well on heavy soils as will 
 apple and pear trees. Soils poorly 
 drained or poorly aerated are not 
 satisfactory for peach trees. Dur¬ 
 ing their growing season, peach 
 trees are very likely to be injured if 
 the orchard water table is tempo¬ 
 rarily raised by heavy rains or by 
 accumulation of irrigation water. 
 lYliere excess water does not pass 
 through the soil quickly but accum¬ 
 ulates and fills the pore spaces be¬ 
 tween soil particles, it shuts off the 
 oxygen supply to the tree roots, 
 which die. Tree injury caused by 
 excess water is often indicated by 
 yellowing of the foilage in early 
 summer, especially where soil be¬ 
 comes saturated with water soon 
 after peach trees start growing in 
 the spring. Winter injury to peach 
 trees in water-saturated soil, as well 
 as trunk and root disease injury, is 
 frequently severe and may result in 
 early death of the trees. The best 
 peach orchards are on well-drained 
 sandy or gravelly loam soils. 
 
 Although the lighter soils (such 
 as the coarse sands, gravels, and 
 shales) usually have better aeration 
 and drainage, they may not drain 
 well if underlaid by impervious 
 clay, hardpan, or rock. Too much 
 water may accumulate near the root 
 zone of the trees after heavy sum¬ 
 mer and fall rains. The low water- 
 retention characteristic of lighter 
 soils is not always an advantage in 
 localities where summer droughts 
 occur and irrigation is not prac¬ 
 ticed. For satisfactory growth and 
 fruit production, peach trees re¬ 
 quire a water supply that is readily 
 available. 
 
 An ideal soil for peaches is one 
 
 5 
 
liaving about 8 feet of sandy loam 
 underlaid by a clay loam capable of 
 retaining and storing most of the 
 rainfall. 
 
 Hillside sites, besides having 
 good air drainage, often have satis¬ 
 factory surface drainage of excess 
 rainwater. On some hillsides the 
 soil is only 3 or 4 feet deep. Trees 
 will grow in shallow soil in the 
 humid regions where the rainfall 
 averages 4 or 5 inches a month dur¬ 
 ing the growing season, or where 
 the trees are irrigated. In regions 
 where rainfall may be deficient for 
 periods of from 4 to 6 weeks in the 
 summer or where there is no irri¬ 
 gation, shallow coarse soils cannot 
 
 SELECTING 
 
 Since 1940, many new peach va¬ 
 rieties have been developed. In this 
 handbook, only the leading com¬ 
 mercial and certain outstanding, 
 new special-purpose varieties are 
 described (table 1). For specific 
 varietal recommendations, consult 
 your local experiment stations and 
 cooperative extension personnel. 
 Local environment and marketing 
 outlets determine the varieties 
 grown. For example, if peaches 
 are grown for a nearby market, 
 high-quality varieties that ripen in 
 sequence during the season rather 
 than varieties especially suited for 
 shipping to distant markets should 
 be grown. In many sections, the 
 hardiness of flowerbuds is impor¬ 
 tant in selecting a variety for a 
 specific climate. Dependable an¬ 
 nual production is necessary for suc¬ 
 cessful peach growing. 
 
 Based on flesh texture, peach va¬ 
 rieties are classified as either melt¬ 
 ing (such as Elberta), or nonmelt¬ 
 ing (such as Ambergem). Melting 
 varieties are grown for dessert and 
 for processing. Nonmelting vari¬ 
 eties are grown almost entirely for 
 processing. Most early-ripening 
 varieties with melting flesh such as 
 Dixired are freestones genetically 
 
 store enough water to meet the 
 needs of the trees. 
 
 Since selecting a peach site is so 
 important, prospective growers 
 should consult their local experi¬ 
 ment station and extension special¬ 
 ists. In general, the following fac¬ 
 tors should be considered: 
 
 1. Spring frost protection on 
 higher locations and from 
 nearby lakes. 
 
 2. Protection from wind and low 
 temperatures by planting on 
 least exposed locations. 
 
 3. Soil-water drainage in deep 
 loam soils. 
 
 4. Soil-moisture capacity desired 
 for best fruit development. 
 
 VARIETIES 
 
 but the flesh adheres tightly until 
 the fruit is overripe. Most late- 
 ripening varieties, however, are en¬ 
 tirely freestones. Varieties with 
 nonmelting flesh are all clingstones. 
 
 Peaches ripen over a period of 
 about 3 months. For convenience 
 in describing varieties, the ripening 
 period has been arbitrarily classifiexi 
 into four general seasons of ripen¬ 
 ing: 
 
 1. Very early—more than 5 weeks 
 earlier than Elberta and generally 
 referred to as the Dixired season. 
 
 2. Early—from 3 to 5 weeks earli¬ 
 er than Elberta and referred to as 
 the Redhaven season. 
 
 3. Midseason—less than 3 weeks 
 earlier than Elberta. This season 
 is usually divided into the Hale- 
 haven or July Elberta season (or va¬ 
 rieties about 2 weeks before Elber¬ 
 ta), and the Elberta season. 
 
 4. Late—all varieties ripening 
 after Elberta. This is usually 
 called the Rio Oso Gem season. 
 
 Comparative ratings of econom¬ 
 ically important varietal character¬ 
 istics are given in table 1. The vari¬ 
 etal descriptions that follow give’ 
 the ripening period and certain out¬ 
 standing strong or weak character¬ 
 istics of (1) standard commercial 
 
 6 
 
varieties, (2) special-purpose vari¬ 
 eties, and (3) promising new vari¬ 
 eties. 
 
 Elberta is still the leading peach 
 variety, although it has become less 
 popular in recent years. Varieties 
 with high quality and attractive¬ 
 ness, such as M. A. Blake and Red¬ 
 skin, are replacing Elbertu for the 
 Elberta season of ripiening. Like¬ 
 wise, Golden Jubilee and Hale- 
 haven, which were very popular a 
 few years ago, are being replaced 
 in their ripening season by such 
 rarieties as Redhaven, Sunhigh, 
 Richhaven, and Redglobe. Firm¬ 
 ness and attractiveness are the chief 
 ‘nerits of these newer varieties. 
 
 Standord Commercial Varieties 
 
 The following peach varieties, 
 hsted in approximate order of rip¬ 
 ening, are suitable for general com- 
 nercial production east of the 
 Rocky Mountains: 
 
 Dixired .—Very early, ripening 5 
 o 6 weeks before Elberta. Fruits 
 nedium sized. Blush bright red. 
 Flesh yellow, medium firm; melt- 
 ng, with strong tendency to cling. 
 Promising for very early shipping 
 )r for local marketing where earli¬ 
 ness is of prime importance and 
 vhere freeness of the pit is not 
 •equired. Considerable acreage 
 nlanted in the Southeast. 
 
 ’ Redhaven. —Early, ripening 4 to 
 ) weeks before Elberta. Fruits re- 
 piire early and heavy thinning to 
 levelop b^t size. Skin bright red, 
 ittractive; flesh yellow. Usually 
 h'eestone when ripe. Flowerbuds 
 noderately hardy. Variety becom- 
 ng more and more popular because 
 )f fruit’s firmness, attractiveness, 
 ind earliness. Excellent for canning 
 ind freezing. 
 
 Golden Jubilee. —Early, ripening 
 ) to 4 weeks before Elberta. Fruits 
 nedium sized, attractive red blush 
 iiid yellow undercolor. Shape com- 
 iressed, especially in southern 
 ;reas. Flesh yellow and medium 
 oft; freestone. Flowerbuds fairly 
 
 hardy. Fruits should be thinned 
 early and well. Valuable where 
 hardiness is important and market 
 is nearby. Not firm enough for dis¬ 
 tance shipping. 
 
 Triogem. —Early, ripening about 
 3 weeks before Elberta. Fruits me¬ 
 dium sized, with attractive skin 
 color. Flesh yellow, fine textured, 
 and firm; usually freestone. Flow¬ 
 erbuds tender to low temperatures. 
 Fruit may be small unless thinned 
 well and early. 
 
 Sunhigh .—Early midseason. 
 Fruits large. Skin attractive, light, 
 solid red. Flesh attractive, fine tex¬ 
 ture, yellow, firm; usually freestone. 
 Buds fairly hardy to low winter 
 temperature, but apparently sensi¬ 
 tive to low temperature in early 
 spring. Susceptible to bacterial 
 spot. Relatively short chilling pe¬ 
 riod required. 
 
 July Elberta. —Midseason, ripen¬ 
 ing about 2 weeks before Elberta. 
 Fruits large, round. Flesh yellow 
 and fairly firm; freestone. Trees 
 productive. Chilling period short. 
 One of the best commercial vari¬ 
 eties for its season in several peach 
 areas. 
 
 Hcdehuven. —^Midseason, ripen¬ 
 ing 2 weeks before Elberta. Fruits 
 large, round. Skin color sometimes 
 dull. Flesh yellow and fairly firm 
 for season; freestone. Flowerbuds 
 fairly hardy. Trees vigorous and 
 productive. Fruit set often heavy, 
 making detailed thinning neces¬ 
 sary. 
 
 Belle {Belle of Georgia). —Mid- 
 season. Flesh white, or high qual¬ 
 ity ; usually freestone. Skin some¬ 
 times lacks color. Flowerbuds 
 hardy. Usually preferred as a 
 white variety ripening just before 
 Elberta, but not planted extensively. 
 
 Sullivan's Early Elberta. —Mid¬ 
 season, ripening 1 week before El¬ 
 berta. Similar to Elberta in all re¬ 
 spects except earlier ripening. One 
 of the most extensively planted 
 varieties several years ago, es¬ 
 pecially in the Southeast. 
 
 7 
 
 757-340 0 — 65 ^ 
 
 2 
 
Table 1 . —Characteristics of some peach varieties for use east of the Rocky Mountains, listed in approximate order 
 
 ripening 
 
 [Numerical ratings of quality characteristics range from 1 to 10; the higher values indicate more desirable characteristics] 
 
 Prin¬ 
 
 cipal 
 value 2 
 
 ooooooo o o o 
 
 W K hJ K h.5 ffi W 
 
 Chilling 
 require¬ 
 ments 
 (hours be¬ 
 
 low 45° F.) 
 
 III 1 
 
 OOOOOO lOOO loooo lo oooooooo ! 
 
 O O ^ O O lO 1 o O 10^^00 lO o lO IC lO lO lO lO 1 
 
 xxococ^GO xt^XGOOJGoosoo 1 
 
 1 ! 1-^ 1 ! 
 
 Ill 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 Bacterial 
 
 spot 
 
 resist¬ 
 
 ance 
 
 III 1 
 
 licco !oOt>iC Icocot^xcooo OCO’^t^OOCDOiCOt^ 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 lit 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 III 1 
 
 Canning 
 
 quality 
 
 i 
 
 eo c<5 CO •'f Tfi fc 1 T}< Tti U5 U5 CO t'-r-r-1'-r-1'. 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Dessert 
 
 quality 
 
 CO CO CO CO lo r-CO t>. lO i> i> 00 00 r-CO oo os oo os oo co os oo t- 
 
 Flesh 
 
 firmness 
 
 TtiCO CO CO CO CO V5 CO CO l> cO CO CO CO t> GO 00 t-00 GO CO CO X 
 
 Attrac¬ 
 
 tiveness 
 
 CO CO i> CO CO 00 001 > 0000 r -00 r-CO os co r-oo r-« r-r- 
 
 Stone 
 
 freeness 
 
 1 
 
 Tf< CO fO CO so UJ lO T}< U5 lO CO CO CO CO 00 t>-1> X X CO 
 
 Fruit 
 
 size 
 
 1 
 
 lo ic CO X CO lO lo CO CO CO CO CO CO i> X r-1» X X XX 
 
 Color of 
 flesh 
 
 White_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 White_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 White_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 White_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Y ellow_ 
 
 White. 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Yellow_ 
 
 Approximate 
 ripening 
 date, in days 
 before or 
 after 
 Elberta i 
 
 X XO X O os X CO lO(M (M O X X lO X X CO O O lO 
 
 cocococoiox'^'^'^-^-^-^-^-^'^xx xxxxxxcocoei 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 M M M 
 
 Ripening season and 
 variety 
 
 Very early: 
 
 Red win. .... 
 
 Marcus.... .. 
 
 Springtime... 
 
 Earligold __ 
 
 Mayflower... 
 
 Earlired_ ___ 
 
 Collins__ 
 
 Sunrise_ 
 
 Cardinal..... 
 
 June Gold.. ___ 
 
 Early Redhaven_ 
 
 Dixired..__ 
 
 Maygold_ 
 
 Redcap_ 
 
 Erly-Red-Fre_ 
 
 Merrill Gemfree_ 
 
 Sunhaven_ . 
 
 Early: 
 
 Starking Delicious_ 
 
 Coronet.... 
 
 Jerseyland_ 
 
 Dixigem..__ 
 
 Redhaven . _ 
 
 Regina.... 
 
 Raritan Rose.... 
 
 Golden Jubilee.. 
 
 Goldgem.. 
 
 8 
 
o o o o 
 
 ooo ^ 000^:30 00 
 
 vJOHjWoWhJWi-^WWh^O JhJi^Wt^OOOO OOOh^lt-^OOOO 
 
 950 1 
 
 650 
 
 00 0000000000000 00000000 
 
 Oic lOiOOlCOiOiOiCOOiOlCO 01010 > 0100»00 
 t^OO 00 0 t> 00 l >00 00 00 --H 00 00 05 05 t'. 00 0 05 05 
 
 0 0 Q 
 
 50 50 0 
 
 00 05 
 
 00000 
 
 50 50 50 50 0 
 
 00 r- 00 0 05 
 
 05 »C 
 
 l>-0 b-50 0 0 1> 00 00 05 Tj< CO 
 
 t'. 00 05 IC t>. 00 CO 
 
 50t^l> 
 
 l^t^OOI>l> 
 
 1 
 
 00 loooot^ 00 C 5 0 05 Oi X Oi Oi 00 00 C 5 00 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 t 
 
 t^osoooooo It^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 « 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 t^l >00 
 
 
 QOOOOOOOOO 00 05 05 0> Oi OS 05 05 05 05 OS 00 05 00 05 05 05 00 05 05 05 05 00 05 05 05 00 t>-t>. 
 
 0000000500 00 05 00 O 05 l> O 05 l> O 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 0 0 0 05 0 05 00 00 00 00 05 
 
 t^OOOOOOt* t'-00 05 t'. t>. 05 «0 O 05 00 O 05 t'. 05 00 05 05 00 05 05 05 05 00 00 00 t'-t>- 
 
 OOOOWOOOO 00 00 05 051-H 05 05 05 05 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 
 
 *00 00 0500 00 05 05 00 »>■ 05 05 05 05 00 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 0 05 0 05 0 05 05 05 05 05 05 
 
 g ^ & 
 
 ’o'o'o'o’o'S’o'o'o’oj^'3 45 
 
 
 oooo-eoooo 
 
 O) a; o o 
 
 c; a; a; 0) 
 
 
 lO »0 (M (N 
 N <N (N (M (N 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 05t'.O»O'^'^'^'^’-Hi-H00 00t>- 
 
 ■^COCOOOOOi-H<N 
 
 III ++ 
 
 CCiOOOOOOO(M«t^ 
 1 ^ 
 
 ++++ 
 
 9 
 
 * At Beltsville, Md. * H = home; L = local market; C = commercial market. 
 
ETherta .—Fruits large, with red 
 blush. Flesh yellow, finn, of fair to 
 good quality; freestone. Flower- 
 buds sensitive to low temperature. 
 Trees productive. By far the lead¬ 
 ing peach variety in the United 
 States. Its popularity with grow¬ 
 ers is due to the large size, firmness, 
 attractiveness, and shipping quality 
 of its fruit; the vigor of the trees; 
 and its suitability to many soil and 
 climatic conditions. xVlthough El- 
 beifa is still considered the prin¬ 
 cipal commercial midseason varie¬ 
 ty, midseason varieties superior to 
 it in quality, hardiness, and skin 
 color are being planted in many 
 orchards. 
 
 Rio Oso Gem. —Late, ripening 
 nearly a week after Elbeida. Fruits 
 large, of good quality. Medium to 
 bright blush. Flesh yellow, firm; 
 freestone. Flowerbuds sensitive to 
 low temperature. Trees rather 
 weak, moderately productive. Sus¬ 
 ceptible to bacterial spot. Popular 
 with many growere because of size, 
 firmness, attractiveness of fruit, 
 and time of ripening. 
 
 Special-Purpose Varieties 
 
 The following peach varieties are 
 suitable for certain localities for spe¬ 
 cial purposes, or for extending the 
 ripening season. These varieties are 
 listed in the approximate order of 
 ripening: 
 
 Mayfloiver .—Very early, ripening 
 about 8 weeks before Elberta. 
 Fruits small. Skin mostly red. 
 Flesh white, soft, juicy; clingstone. 
 Yields usually low. Early ripening 
 the only merit. 
 
 Hiland .—Very early, ripening 
 about 6 weeks before Elberta, about 
 2 weeks before Kedhaven, and a few 
 days before Kedcap. Finits medi¬ 
 um to large. Flesh yellow, medium 
 firm, melting; clingstone. For very 
 early shipping in pi-esent southern 
 commercial peach areas. Chilling 
 requirement low. 
 
 Cardinal .—Very early, ripening 
 
 about same time as Hiland. Fruits 
 medium sized. Skin bright and at¬ 
 tractive. Flesh yellow, firm, melt¬ 
 ing; clingstone. For very ejirly 
 shipment in areas where there is 
 enough winter chilling for varieties 
 such as Elberta. 
 
 Redcap .—Very early, ripening a 
 few days later than Hiland and 
 same time as Dixired. Emits medi¬ 
 um sized. Skin bright red. Flesh 
 yellow, firm, melting; clin^tone. 
 Used for early shipping variety in 
 southern areas. Chilling require¬ 
 ment fairly low. 
 
 May^old .—Very early, ripening 
 same time as Redcap and Dixired. 
 Emits medium sized, and well col¬ 
 ored. Flesh yellow, medium firm, 
 melting; clingstone. Used for early 
 shipping in southernmost commer¬ 
 cial peach-growing areas. Will 
 grow slightly farther south than 
 either Hiland or Redcap. 
 
 Erly-Red-Fre .—Very early, rip¬ 
 ening 5 to 6 weeks before Elberta. 
 Fruits large for early season. Skin 
 partly red. Flesh white; often 
 freestone when fully ripe. Trees 
 productive and winter hardy. 
 Flowerbuds hardy to low winter 
 temperatures. 
 
 Prairie Dawn .—Very early, rip¬ 
 ening 5 weeks before Elberta, or 
 about 1 week before Redhaven. 
 Fruits medium to large. Skin 
 partly red. Flesh yellow, medium 
 firm; usually freestone when ripe. 
 Resistant to bacterial leaf spot. 
 Flowerbuds hardy to low winter 
 temperatures. 
 
 Coronet. —Early, ripening 4 to 5 
 weeks before Elberta. Emits medi¬ 
 um sized. Skin mostly red and very 
 bright. Flesh yellow, fimi; usually 
 freestone. Low chilling require¬ 
 ment similar to that of Redcap. 
 Early flower development some¬ 
 times damaged by spring frost. An 
 attractive shipping peach, often 
 used to follow Redcap harvest in. 
 the South. 
 
 Jerseyland. —Early, ripening 4 to 
 5 weeks before Elberta. Fruits 
 
 10 
 
ledium to large. Skin often solid 
 ed. Flesh yellow, firm; usually 
 reevstone. Dependable production 
 ver wide area. Susceptible to bac- 
 ?rial spot disease. 
 
 Dixlgem. —Early, ripening 4 to 5 
 ■eeks before Elberta and about 
 week before Golden Jubilee, 
 "ruits medium sized. Bright yel- 
 )w, with light-to-medium red over 
 bout half the skin surface. Flesh 
 ellow, firm, fine textured; usually 
 reestone when ripe. 
 
 Raritan Rose. —Early, ripening 4 
 'eeks before Elberta. Skin a 
 right, attractive red. Flesh white, 
 ne textured; freestone. Hardy 
 nd productive. Has special merit 
 >r local sale where an early white 
 ariety is desired. 
 
 Ranger. —Early, ripening same 
 me as Golden Jubilee, or 3 to 4 
 eeks before Elberta. Fruits me- 
 ium to large. Flesh yellow, firm; 
 ^’eestone. Dependable producer 
 ver wide area. Blooms late and 
 >quires considerable chilling. Ke- 
 stant to bacterial spot disease. 
 Redglohe. —Early midseason, rip- 
 ling same time as July Elberta. 
 ruits medium to large and attrac- 
 ve. Flesh yellow, especially firm 
 id fine textured; freestone. De- 
 mdable producer. Good shipping 
 each. 
 
 Southland. —Early midseason, 
 
 pening 2 to 3 weeks before El- 
 irta, or with July Elberta. Fruits 
 edium to large, round, firm, and 
 tractive. Skin has medium blush, 
 hilling requirement low. Has 
 ‘en planted for a shipping variety 
 Southeastern United States. 
 Ambergem. —Early midseason, 
 
 ruits medium sized, round. Flesh 
 dlow, nonmelting, firm, fine tex- 
 red; clingstone. Flowerbuds 
 irdy to low winter temperature— 
 lightly more hardy than those of 
 alehaven. Trees productive, 
 sually planted for canning pur- 
 >ses. Preferable to western cling- 
 !one varieties for planting east of 
 ocky Mountains. 
 
 Champion. —Midseason. Flesh 
 white, fine textured, and of excellent 
 dessert quality; usually freestone. 
 Fruits lack firmness. Flowerbuds 
 very hardy to low temperature. 
 Susceptible to brown rot. 
 
 Redskin. —Midseason, ripening 
 about same time as Elberta. Fruits 
 large, round. Skin attractive and 
 almost solid bright red. Flesh yel¬ 
 low, free, firm. Popular variety 
 planted to replace Elberta in many 
 areas because of its attractiveness 
 and quality. Good for freezing 
 and canning. 
 
 J. H. Hale. —Midseason, ripening 
 same time as Elberta. Fruits large. 
 Skin an attractive red. Flesh yel¬ 
 low, firm, fine textured, and of high 
 dessert quality; freestone. Flower¬ 
 buds sensitive to low temperature. 
 Cross-pollination necessary to fruit 
 setting. Trees lacking in vigor, 
 often not productive, and very sus¬ 
 ceptible to bacterial spot. Often 
 unprofitable to grow in Eastern 
 States, although fruit may bring a 
 premium because of high quality. 
 
 Aftergloio. —Late, ripening near¬ 
 ly 1 week after Elberta. Fruits 
 large. Skin medium to light blush. 
 Flesh yellow and firm. Flowerbuds 
 fairly sensitive to low temperature. 
 Trees moderately vigorous and pro¬ 
 ductive. Although usually not so 
 highly colored as Kio Oso Gem, 
 Afterglow is sometimes preferred to 
 it because of greater tree vigor and 
 slightly greater flowerbud hardi¬ 
 ness. 
 
 Laterose. —Late, ripening about 
 10 days after Elberta. Fruits me¬ 
 dium to large. Skin attraetive red 
 blush. Flesh white, medium firm, 
 and fine' textured; freestone. Trees 
 vigorous and productive. A good 
 white variety to follow the Elberta 
 season. 
 
 Lizzie. —Late, ripening about 2 
 weeks after Elberta. Fruits me¬ 
 dium sized and lacking in skin color. 
 Flesh medium firm, yellow, of fair- 
 to-good quality. Flowerbuds sensi¬ 
 tive to low temperature. Greatest 
 
 n 
 
disadvantage, lack of skin color. 
 Limited plantings. 
 
 Autumn .— Very late, ripening 3 
 to 4 weeks after Elberta. Fiaiits 
 medium to large. Skin color often 
 slightly dull. Flesh yellow, firm; 
 freestone. Often lacks attractive¬ 
 ness and good flavor but is fairly 
 satisfactory for a late peach. 
 
 Promising New Varieties 
 
 Many new peach varieties are 
 promising but have not been tested 
 thoroughly enough to be described 
 accurately. Descriptions of some of 
 the most promising new varieties 
 follow in the approximate order of 
 ripening. 
 
 Redwin. —Very early. Evidently 
 a sport of Erly-Red-Fre, ripening 
 at least 2 to 3 weeks earlier. Flesh 
 white; semifreestone when fully 
 ripe. 
 
 Marcus. —Very early, ripening a 
 few days before MayfloAver. At¬ 
 tractive yellow and red skin. Yel¬ 
 low flesh. Fruit medium sized. 
 
 Springtime. —Very early, ripen¬ 
 ing 2 to 3 days before Mayflower. 
 Fruits small to medium sized. Skin 
 usually almost solid red. Flesh 
 white and juicy. 
 
 Daione .— Very early. Attractive, 
 yellow flesh. 
 
 Earlired. —Very early, ripening a 
 few days before Cardinal and about 
 8 days before Sunhaven. Attract¬ 
 ive, firm, with good flavor. Fruits 
 medium sized and semifreestone. 
 
 Collins. —Very early, ripenmg 
 just before Cardinal. Attractive 
 skin color and relatively firm flesh. 
 Fruits medium sized and semifree¬ 
 stone. Susceptible to bacterial spot 
 disease. 
 
 Early Redhaven. —Very early, 
 ripening about with Dixired. At¬ 
 tractive undercolor. Fruits firm 
 and semifreestone. 
 
 Sunhaven. —Very early, ripening 
 with Dixired or about 10 days be¬ 
 fore Redhaven. Fruits medium 
 sized, round, but rough in more 
 
 southern areas. Skin attractive, 
 bright red. Flesh yellow, finn; 
 semifreestone when ripe. 
 
 Goldenred. —Early, ripening sev¬ 
 eral days after start of Redhaven 
 season. Attractive yellow ground 
 color. Fruits medium to large, 
 round, and of good quality. Flesh 
 yellowy medium firm; freestone. 
 
 Waskington. —E a r 1 y, ripening 
 with Golden Jubilee. Fiaiits large, 
 round, attractive. Flesh yellow, 
 firm, and of good quality; freestone. 
 Early tests indicate frost hardiness. 
 
 Keystone. —Early, ripening with 
 Golden Jubilee. Fruits medium to 
 large sized, round. Skin attractive, 
 red and yellow. Flesh yellow, finn; 
 freestone. Now’ being tested com¬ 
 mercially to replace early white 
 varieties with a yellow’ peach. 
 
 Goldgem>. —Early, ripening in 
 Golden Jubilee season. Flesh yel¬ 
 low’, medium firm; freestone. 
 
 Sutoanee. —Early, ripening be- 
 tw’een Golden Jubilee and Keystone 
 seasons. Flesh yellow’, firm, free¬ 
 stone. Low’ chilling requirement. 
 Light pubescence. 
 
 Richhaven. —Midseason, ripening 
 w’ith Sunhigh and July Elberta, or 
 often 2 days before Halehaven. 
 Fruits medium sized to large and 
 round. Skin color similar to Hale- 
 haven except brighter red and yel¬ 
 low’. Flesh yellow’, fii'm; freestone. 
 
 Summerqueen. —Midseason, rip¬ 
 ening about same time as Sunhigh 
 and July Elberta. Fruits medium 
 sized to large. Flesh yellow’, firm; 
 freestone. Requires cross-pollina- 
 tion. 
 
 Loring. — Midseason, ripening 
 during latter part, of Halehaven 
 season and extending that season. 
 Fruits medium sized to large and 
 round. Skin attractive red with 
 yellow undercolor. Flesh yellow’,, 
 firm; freestone. Resistant to bac¬ 
 terial spot disease. Most promising 
 variety to extend the July Elberta-, 
 Halehaven season. 
 
 Suncrest. —Midseason, ripening 
 W’ith Sullivan Elberta. Fruits 
 
 12 
 
large, round. Skin bright red if 
 trees are verj" vigorous; otherwise 
 red blush dull sometimes in South¬ 
 eastern United States. Flesh yel¬ 
 low, firm; freestone. Very suscep¬ 
 tible to bacterial spot. 
 
 M. A. Bkike. —Midseason, usually 
 ripens a few days before Elberta 
 but after Sullivan Elberta. Fruits 
 medium to large, round. Skin at¬ 
 tractive, almost entirely red. Flesh 
 yellow, firm, and of good quality; 
 freestone. 
 
 Dlxiland. —Midseason, ripening 
 with or j list before Elberta. Fruits 
 large, ovate, freestone. Light pu¬ 
 bescence. I^w chilling require¬ 
 ment. Resistant to bacterial spot. 
 
 J efferson. —Midseason, ripening 
 same time as or just after Elberta. 
 Fruits large, round. Skin attrac¬ 
 tive, bright yellow and red. Flesh 
 yellow, veiy firm, and of good qual¬ 
 ity; freestone. Reported to with¬ 
 stand spring frosts well. 
 
 PROPAGATING AND SELECTING ROOTSTOCKS 
 
 Nurserymen offer a choice of sizes 
 and grades of the popular and 
 promising new varieties, guaranteed 
 :o grow and to be true to variety. 
 Most peach growers, therefore, pur- 
 ;ihase their trees directly from reli¬ 
 able nurseries rather than propagate 
 their own trees. Nevertheless, some 
 peach growers may want to propa¬ 
 gate their own trees for some special 
 purpose such as reproducing a vari¬ 
 ety prized for jam or canning but 
 not obtainable commercially. 
 
 A peach generally cannot be re¬ 
 produced true to variety from seeds. 
 Plants grown from seeds of a given 
 peach tree may differ considerably 
 in tree and fruit characteristics 
 from the parent tree, even though 
 there has been no cross-pollination. 
 Seedlings of some varieties are more 
 uniform than those of others. In 
 reliable nurseries, the main purpose 
 of germinating peach seeds is to 
 grow young trees, called mider- 
 stocks, on which to bud or graft de 
 sired varieties. 
 
 Peaches may be propagated on 
 most fruit trees in the Prunus 
 genus, such as peach, plum, apricot, 
 or almond. Compatibility and top 
 growth vary among varieties of 
 these species, however. In general, 
 buds of desired varieties are com¬ 
 patible when budded to seedlings of 
 the common peach varieties. Elber¬ 
 ta and Halehaven peaches budded 
 to seedlings grown from seeds of 
 
 about 50 peach varieties showed 
 little difference in tree size and 
 yield. 
 
 For general rootstock purposes, 
 peach seeds should be available in 
 large quantity, should be economi¬ 
 cal, and should germinate well in 
 the nursery. Previously, most seeds 
 used for peach understocks came 
 from seedling peach trees in the 
 Carolinas, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 and elsewhere in the South. The 
 supply of reliable seeds from these 
 sources has dwindled, and under¬ 
 stocks are now largely from seeds of 
 Lovell, a variety used in California 
 for drying. Lovell seeds make sat¬ 
 isfactory understocks except where 
 nematodes are numerous. The fu¬ 
 ture supply of Lovell seeds is ques¬ 
 tionable bwause of reduced plant¬ 
 ing of this variety. Seeds of El¬ 
 berta are available in large quanti¬ 
 ties, from canneries, but germina¬ 
 tion varies from year to year. Sat¬ 
 isfactory germination of seeds of 
 Elberta and other midseason and 
 late varieties is usually obtained 
 when the seeds are kept moist and 
 given a longer chilling period than 
 Lovell seeds. Trees on these root¬ 
 stocks usually are very satisfactory. 
 Seeds from red-leaved varieties are 
 used by a few nurseries because this 
 practice permits easy spotting of 
 red-leaved trees developing from the 
 rootstock seedling rather than the 
 scion variety. Rogueing out the 
 
 13 
 
red-leaved trees eliminates this 
 source of error in producing triie-to- 
 variety trees. 
 
 Nematode injury to peach roots in 
 some areas has resulted in import¬ 
 ing, selecting, and breeding for neni- 
 atode-resistant rootstock varieties 
 (fig. 3). The Shalil variety from 
 India and Yunnan from China gave 
 resistance to the aerita nematode. 
 The S-37 rootstock in addition gave 
 slight resistance to the javanica spe¬ 
 cies. Okinawa gave high resistance 
 to both nematodes but lacked vigor. 
 Nemaguard, introduced by the De¬ 
 partment in 1961, combined vigor¬ 
 ous seedling growth with dual re¬ 
 sistance and high germination. 
 
 Understocks are being bred and 
 tested for improved nematode re¬ 
 sistance, higher seed yields, higher 
 percentage of germination, vigorous 
 top growth, and greater hardiness. 
 
 Peaches have been budded to 
 many varieties and types of plum, 
 apricot, and alnaond trees to test 
 such characters as nematode resist¬ 
 ance, winter hardiness, dwarfing. 
 
 scion-stock compatibility, and toler-i 
 ance to wet and dry soils. Kesults i 
 with some of the St. Julian or Dam -1 
 son ])lum varieties were encouraging 
 but were not consistent. In other* 
 plum varieties, the bud onions usu-' 
 ally were not cmnpatible, or the' 
 trees were weak, dwarfed, and short, 
 lived for some other reason.' 
 Peaches budded on the westeni sandi 
 cherry {Prunus hesseyi) are often; 
 sold as dwarf peach trees. They, 
 usually grow about 6 feet high and 
 bear early, normal-sized fruit; bub 
 they are short lived. Heavy annual 
 pruning of peaches grafted onto 
 peach rootst^)cks, together with lit-; 
 tie nitogen fertilization, will pro¬ 
 duce a more satisfactory semidwarf 
 peach tree. | 
 
 Peach seeds should receive an af¬ 
 terripening treatment for about 3| 
 months to insure high germination 
 and normal seedling growth. The 
 length of dormancy depends on the 
 variety. The seeds should be storec 
 over winter in damp peat or sand 
 or in a mixture of the two, at a tem- 
 
 FIGURE 3.—Differences in root-knot nematode resistance of peach stocks. Left, nematodi 
 
 resistant stock; right, susceptible stock. 
 
 14 
 
erature of 35° to 40° F. This 
 eatnient is called afterripeninjr or 
 ; rat i ficat ion. Somet mies the seeds 
 :-e afterripened outdoors in the fall 
 moist sand. Some nurseries af- 
 ■rripen the seeds in underground 
 ts. It is not necessary that the 
 leds freeze, but it is necessary that 
 vey be kept cool and moist. Early 
 the spring, after sufficient after- 
 pening, the seeds are planted in 
 e nursery or garden. 
 
 Planting peach seeds in the field 
 the fall about 2 inches deep and 
 rows about 4 feet apart is a more 
 oinmon practice than is stratifica- 
 ■pn. Seeds so planted germinate 
 Me following spring. Too much 
 oisture, which occurs when the soil 
 poorly drained, injures the seeds 
 id prevents high percentage of 
 irmination. Special precautions 
 ust sometimes be taken to protect 
 le seeds from rodents. 
 
 Budding desired peach varieties 
 onto young seedlings is done during 
 the first year of seedling growth. 
 The time for peach budding in the 
 South is usually June; in the North, 
 it is usually late July or August. 
 
 The shield, or T-budding, method 
 is used. A T-shaped cut is made 
 near the base of the seedling. A 
 shield-shaped section of the bark of 
 a tree of the desired variety con¬ 
 taining one bud is inserted into the 
 cut. The bud is then bound firmly 
 into position with rubberbands, 
 strips of raffia, or string. In about 
 2 weeks, or as soon as the bud has 
 set, the strips or rubberbands are cut 
 to prevent girdling. When the in¬ 
 serted bud starts growing, the seed¬ 
 ling is cut off just above it. This is 
 done soon after June budding and 
 again early the next spring after 
 late-summer budding. All growth 
 except that from the desired bud is 
 removed. 
 
 PLANTING THE ORCHARD 
 
 Age and Size of Trees 
 
 One-year-old n u r s e r y-grown 
 aach trees are usually the most 
 : tisfactory to plant. A 1-year-old 
 ee is a tree that has had one com- 
 ete season’s growth in the nursery 
 iter being budded. A tree that is 
 lidded early the first summer, as 
 lany are in the South, is dug at the 
 id of the same season and is com- 
 lonly referred to as a June-budded 
 ’lee. June-budded trees are usually 
 Jailer than most 1-year-old trees 
 it are satisfactory for planting, 
 Specially in regions that have long 
 'owing seasons. They may be 
 raight, unbranched whips, or they 
 ay have a few branches. One- 
 ?ar-old nursery-grown trees are 
 iiially well branched. 
 
 Nurserymen who propagate large 
 imbers of peach trees grade them 
 .‘cording to height in feet, or di- 
 neter in fractions of an inch, 
 ^ell -grown June-budded trees are 
 iually 2 to 3 feet tall and some¬ 
 
 times taller. For general-purpose 
 planting, the medium-sized (4- to 
 5-foot), 1-year-old tree or the larg¬ 
 est June-budded tree is satisfactory. 
 
 Time To Plant 
 
 Well-hardened, dormant peach 
 trees may be transplanted from the 
 nursery to the orchard in late fall, 
 winter, or early spring. Generally, 
 in the Southeast and the Southwest, 
 the best time for transplanting the 
 trees is during late fall or early win¬ 
 ter. In the Middle Atlantic and 
 Middle South Central States, the 
 best time is late fall; and in the New" 
 England and North Central States, 
 late winter or early spring. 
 
 Where below"-zero temperatures 
 occur, accompanied by high winds, 
 and w'here soil without a snow cover 
 freezes to considerable depth, fall- 
 planted trees may dry out consid¬ 
 erably and be injured by cold. 
 Trees planted in late w'inter or early 
 spring should be set out as soon as 
 
 15 
 
 757-340 0 - 65 - 
 
 3 
 
the soil is dry enough to be worked, 
 so that new roots can become estab¬ 
 lished while soil temperatures and 
 moisture are favorable. Trees 
 planted late in the spring, especially 
 large trees, may become desiccated 
 and have a high mortality. Leaf- 
 buds of the transplanted trees de¬ 
 velop when temperatures become 
 warm. It is important, therefore, 
 that spring-planted trees be set out 
 3 or 4 weeks before the leafbuds 
 start growth. 
 
 If trees are transplanted late in 
 the spring, small- and medium¬ 
 sized trees may have a lower rate of 
 mortality than large trees at the 
 end of the first season in the or¬ 
 chard. If large trees (5 to 7 feet) 
 are planted in the fall or late win¬ 
 ter (at least a month before growth 
 starts), their mortality rate will be 
 no higher than that of smaller trees 
 planted at the same time. They 
 will grow more during their first 
 year in the orchard than will the 
 smaller trees. 
 
 If trees are received from the 
 nursery at an unsuitable time for 
 planting because of soil or weather 
 conditions, they should be placed in 
 cool storage or “heeled in” outdoors 
 to prevent drying out. “Heeling 
 in” means laying the trees on the 
 side of a trench in a sloping posi¬ 
 tion and covering their roots with 
 soil. If planting must be delayed, 
 the soil should be packed tightly 
 around the roots. If the trees are 
 to be planted shortly, they may be 
 protected sufficiently by wrapping 
 some material such as burlap, ex¬ 
 celsior, or old straw around their 
 roots, thoroughly moistening this 
 cover with water, and shielding the 
 trees from wind and sun. Roots 
 must be kept moist and cool but not 
 allowed to freeze. 
 
 Planting Patterns and Spacings 
 
 Peach trees are usually set out in 
 some rectangular pattern to per¬ 
 mit tillage and other cultural work 
 in any direction. Where the land is 
 
 level or slopes no more than 5 feet 
 in 100, a square pattern is commonlj 
 used; that is, the distance betweer, 
 trees in the row is the same as the 
 distance between rows. 
 
 Contour planting and terracing 
 to conser\’e soil and water in i>eacl 
 orchards is good practice where the 
 soil erodes easily. On steep slopes 
 or irregular land, trees should Ik 
 contour planted. In contour plant 
 ing, the trees are set about the sann 
 distance apart within the row; bu< 
 each row follows a true contour lint 
 or else a line sloping so little that 
 the soil drains but does not erode 
 The distance between rows in a con¬ 
 tour-planted orchard varies witl 
 the degree of slope of the land. Ir 
 such an orchard, cultivation anc 
 other operations are carried on onlj 
 along the rows—never up and dowr 
 the slope. By cultivating in one di 
 rection and working the soil towarc 
 the trees, a contour ridge is built uj; 
 along each tree row. 
 
 The principal advantage of tin 
 contour method of planting is thai: 
 soil erosion, which is often seriou; 
 in cultivated orchards planted or 
 the square system on sloping sites, ir 
 reduced to a minimum. Where th( 
 slope is steep, or where there is r 
 broad watershed above the orcharc 
 fi'om which a large amount of water 
 may flow down into the orchard diir 
 ing heavy rains, it may be desirablr 
 to build terraces. Terraces checl 
 the flow of water down the slope 
 cause much of it to percolate int( 
 tire soil, and divert the remainder 
 into drainage ditches or flumes. A 
 system of terraces should be planne( 
 before, rather than after, the or 
 chard is planted. 
 
 For commercial peach produc 
 tion, the trees should be set no close; 
 than 20 by 20 feet if the orchard i: 
 planted on the square. Even tree; 
 planted this far apart are frequently 
 crowded by the time they are 8 year 
 old (fig. 4). On fertile soils capa 
 ble of producing vigorous trees, i 
 spacing of 24 by 24 feet, 20 by 2; 
 
 16 
 
IGURE 4.—Peach orchard that lacks enough space between rows. This makes spraying, 
 cultivating, harvesting, and other operations difficult and inefficient. 
 
 ’eet, or 25 by 25 feet or more is 
 tetter than a spacing of 20 by 20 
 'eet. The wider spacing permits 
 ise of tractors and other power- 
 Iriven machinery for hauling har- 
 •ows and spray equipment without 
 lamaging trees and scarring 
 tranches. "Where trees are planted 
 tn the contour, greater distance be- 
 ween rows permits better tree 
 .pacing. "VWiere modem speed 
 prayers and other power equipment 
 ci-e used in only one direction 
 hrough an orchard, trees are some- 
 imes set only 16 to 18 feet apart in 
 he rows. 
 
 Trees planted for home use or in 
 tther limited areas may be spaced as 
 •lose as 15 feet apart. With the 
 loser spacing, tree growdh may be 
 controlled by pruning. Pmning 
 Till reduce the amount of fruit pro- 
 luced, but many trees may still 
 rield satisfactorily for home use or 
 ocal marketing. 
 
 Preparing the Site 
 
 On infertile soils it is good prac¬ 
 tice to use a green-manure crop be¬ 
 fore planting a peach orchard. 
 
 If the site is level or only gently 
 sloping, the soil may be disked or 
 plowed before the trees are planted. 
 Where trees are planted on the con¬ 
 tour or where terracing between 
 rows is necessary, only the narrow 
 strips of land for planting the tree 
 rows need be prepared. The land 
 between these strips may be left un¬ 
 cultivated. Often in large peach 
 orchards, a deep furrow is prepared 
 for each row of trees. The furrow 
 is filled after the trees are planted. 
 
 When the rows have been laid out 
 for planting, holes are dug for the 
 trees. This digging requires little 
 effort in an area that has been fur¬ 
 rowed for planting. The holes 
 should be 18 inches or more in di¬ 
 ameter and deep enough to accom¬ 
 modate the root systems of the trees. 
 
 17 
 
Soil angel’s operated from power 
 takeoff of a tractor are now used for 
 large plantings (fig. 5), 
 
 FIGURE 5.—Hole-d igging auger used for 
 tree planting. Power is from the takeoff 
 on the tractor. 
 
 Details of methods for laying out 
 and terracing an orchard on the 
 contour can be obtained from your 
 local county agricultural agent or 
 Soil Conservation Service office. 
 
 Setting Out the Trees 
 
 Before planting peach trees, any 
 broken or diseased roots should be 
 removed. Additional root pruning 
 is not necessary or desirable. If the 
 roots have dried out in storage or in 
 transit, they should be soaked in 
 water for several hours, or over¬ 
 night. Special care should be taken 
 to keep the roots from drying out or 
 freezing while they are being plant¬ 
 ed. 
 
 In setting out a tree, it should be 
 planted 1 or 2 inches deeper than it 
 was planted in the nursery. The 
 space around the roots should be 
 filled with topsoil and the soil 
 
 tamped. More topsoil should lx 
 lulded if it is available and watei 
 if the soil is dry. Nitrogen fertil ¬ 
 izer should not be applied to th( 
 soil at planting time. 
 
 Replanting the Orchard 
 
 Growing young peach trees ori 
 old peach orchard sites is often un 
 satisfactory. Some young tree.* 
 planted on old sites die the first sum¬ 
 mer after planting. Some sur\’iv( 
 the first season but make weaf 
 growth and die the second or thirc 
 summer. Growth failure may lx 
 caused by nematodes, root aphids’ 
 disei^es, poor soil drainage, low 
 nutrient supply, low soil pH, oi 
 poor tree condition at planting time 
 Often, however, the reason for fail¬ 
 ure is not clear. The replanting 
 problem seems specific to peaches 
 For example, apple or plum treej 
 may follow peach trees in rotatior 
 without replanting difficulty, anc 
 peach trees may follow apple oi 
 plum trees satisfactorily. 
 
 Special care of young replanteo 
 trees and use of fertilizer, especiall} 
 nitrogen, in the early summer an 
 sometimes helpful. 
 
 At Beltsville, Md., applying 
 about 1 ton of lime per acre to the 
 old field soil has been satisfactory 
 Fumigating the old field witli 
 methyl bromide has also helped 
 Some root damage to replanted, 
 trees, especially in the Southeast, ii 
 due to mushroom root rot (Cli- 
 tocyhe tahescens). Where nema¬ 
 todes are numerous, especially those 
 of the root-knot type, soil fumiga¬ 
 tion with Nemagon is helpful. In 
 addition, use of nematode-resistant 
 rootstocks is advisable. More re-' 
 search is needed on replanting be¬ 
 cause of necessary reuse of good 
 peach sites. 
 
 TRAINING AND PRUNING 
 
 In the United States, the trend is ing of old trees. After the scaffold 
 toward less severe pruning of young limbs have been selected, the tref 
 peach trees and more severe prim- should be pruned only lightly until 
 
 18 
 
t starts to bear fruit. Even then, 
 o obtain highest yields of liigh- 
 [uality fruit, pruning should be 
 erj^ light during the early bearing 
 •ears. As the tree grows older and 
 lead twigs appear, the branches 
 hould be thinned and headed back 
 flore severely to vigorous, outward- 
 ,^rowing, lateral shoots. 
 
 The Young Tree 
 
 When planted .—Pruning cuts on 
 he young tree from the time it is 
 et in the orchard to its early fruit- 
 ng years are mainly for training 
 mrposes. Early training is neces- 
 ,ary to obtain a productive, long- 
 ived tree that may be sprayed, 
 hinned, cultivated, harvested, and 
 otherwise handled economically, 
 s^ot all growers train their trees in 
 he same way because of differences 
 11 soil or other conditions. To de- 
 elop a strong, winter-hardy, long- 
 ived tree, the scaffold branches 
 hould be selected and trained to 
 orm wide angles with the tree 
 runk. 
 
 AVhen obtained from the nursery, 
 
 1-year-old peach tree is usually 
 
 to 6 feet tall and has few lateral 
 •ranches uniform enough to be used 
 s scaffold or framework branches, 
 ^fter the tree is set out, its lateral 
 hoots should be cut back to short 
 tubs having one or two buds each 
 fig. 6). This brings the top into 
 •alance with the root system and 
 orces the tree to develop strong 
 hoots, some of which will be se¬ 
 eded as scaffold branches. 
 
 Spring-planted trees should be 
 lit back immediately after they are 
 et out. Where winters are severe, 
 all-planted trees should not be cut 
 lack until late winter or early 
 pring. 
 
 The height to which a tree is 
 leaded back depends partly on its 
 ize and how well it is branched, 
 nd partly on the grower’s prefer- 
 •nce. Also where winds are strong, 
 OM'-heading is desirable. Occasion- 
 dly a 1-year-old nursery tree has 
 
 well-developed laterals that can be 
 headed back to 6 or 8 inches and 
 spaced to form the head. If a low, 
 spreading tree form is desired, the 
 central stems of 1-year-old trees 
 may be cut to a height of 12 to 18 
 inches if buds are present that low 
 on the trunk. To facilitate cultiva¬ 
 tion and other necessary orchard 
 work, a higher framework of 
 branches is sometimes preferable. 
 Where trees are headed back to a 
 height of 12 to 20 inches, the scaf¬ 
 fold branches are usually close to¬ 
 gether on the trunk. If the tree 
 stem is about 36 inches long when 
 it is planted, scaffold branches can 
 be spaced farther apart on the 
 trunk. 
 
 Nursery trees 4 or more feet tall, 
 with diameters of to %e inch, 
 have a potentially better scaffold 
 system. They should be cut back 
 to about 36 inches, and their lateral 
 shoots cut back to a few buds (fig. 
 6). June-budded trees may not be 
 tall enough to need heading back. 
 The terminal cut should be made 
 just above a live bud or a vigorous 
 lateral branch that forms a sharp 
 angle with the main trunk. If the 
 cut is made at a lateral branch, this 
 branch should also be cut back to a 
 vigorous bud toward the outside; 
 and 4 to 6 inches of the branch 
 should be left on the trunk. All 
 other branches that are weak and 
 crooked and that have sharp-angled 
 crotches, should be removed. All 
 branches below the low’est selected 
 scaffold limb should also be re¬ 
 moved. 
 
 First and second years .—Two to 
 four scaffold limbs should be se¬ 
 lected in early summer of the first 
 growing season (fig. 7). Some 
 growers prefer only two scaffold 
 limbs opposite each other and form¬ 
 ing a wide crotch about 20 inches 
 high. Others prefer three or four 
 scaffold limbs no closer than 5 inches 
 apart, on the main trunk. Further¬ 
 more, the scaffold branches should 
 be spaced around the trunk so that 
 
 19 
 
FIGURE 6,—Prunins the young peach tree 
 just alter planting. Tree is headed at 
 about 36 inches, and all branches are cut 
 back to short stubs. 
 
 none is immediately above another. 
 It is essential that these scaffold 
 limbs form and maintain wide an¬ 
 gles with the central trunk. 
 
 Some summer training is desir¬ 
 able the first season of growth. 
 Shoots arising near the ground can 
 be removed during the summer. 
 Undesirable shoots and lateral 
 branches arising in addition to the 
 selected scaffold limbs should be 
 pinched back by hand or clipped 
 back. Any shoots on scaffold limbs 
 within about 10 inches of the trunk 
 should also be shortened. Cutting 
 back these shoots, rather than re¬ 
 moving them entirely, causes wide¬ 
 angled crotches in the selected scaf¬ 
 fold limbs. 
 
 If there is no summer training the 
 
 FIGURE 7.—New growth on young peach 
 tree about 3 weeks after planting. Scaffold 
 limbs may now be selected and other 
 shoots pinched back. Tree may also be 
 fertilized if necessary. 
 
 first setison, scaffold limbs should be 
 selected during the dormant period 
 before the second growing season. 
 Training or corrective priming at 
 this time necessitates removing a 
 large amount of the previous sea¬ 
 son’s growth. All limbs except 
 those selected for the scaffold 
 branches should be removed entirely 
 or severely cut back. The wide¬ 
 angled limbs selected as scaffold^^ 
 may need heading back only if they 
 are disproportionately vigorous 
 compared to others. Where sum¬ 
 mer pinching removed parts of 
 limbs during the previous growing 
 
 20 
 
eason, the entire limbs can now be 
 einoved. Lateral branches on the 
 caffold limbs within a foot of the 
 rimk should also be removed. 
 
 Early training of wide crotches is 
 •ssential to obtain long-lived, pro- 
 luctive trees with strong branches 
 ree from winter injury to the 
 rotch. 
 
 The topmost scaffold (or modified 
 eader), either as a bud or a shoot 
 imb just after planting, may re- 
 [uire further training after 1 year’s 
 rrowth. Like the other scaffold 
 imbs, it should be trained to grow 
 n an outward and upward direc- 
 ion. This can best be done by re- 
 noving or cutting back all branches 
 lot growing in the desired direction. 
 The purpose of this training is to 
 levelop an open, spreading, sym- 
 aetrical, and strong tree. Pruning 
 ' fter 1 year’s growth in the orchard 
 s the best time to start training a 
 ree. 
 
 Occasionally much of the treetop 
 jrows poorly the first season in the 
 >rchard. Often a strong, vigorous 
 hoot arises during the summer near 
 he base of the tree above the 
 rrafted bud. If this shoot is up- 
 ight and forms a sharp angle with 
 he trunk, the original top of the 
 ree may be removed just above the 
 >ase of the new shoot. Thus, this 
 hoot assumes the position and func- 
 ion of a main stem or tree trunk, 
 kaffold limbs on this shoot then are 
 elected as described for the original 
 ree after 1 year’s growth. 
 
 Some peach growers use a de¬ 
 hoot ing method of summer train- 
 ng during the first season in the 
 •rchard. This method is not used 
 s commonly now as it was a few 
 'ears ago. Deshooting requires 
 nuch time and care. With this 
 nethod, the tree should be at least 
 
 feet tall when planted. The tree 
 s first headed to about 88 inches, 
 ■nd all branches are removed below 
 4 inches from the tree base. The 
 »ther biTinches are cut back to one 
 ►r two buds from the trunk. Dur¬ 
 
 ing early summer, when the new 
 shoots are about 6 inches long, four 
 or five of the most vigorous, wide¬ 
 angled shoots spaced about 6 indies 
 apart are selected. All other shoots 
 are removed. 
 
 A modification of this method is 
 to remove only those shoots that will 
 obviously make poor scaffold limbs. 
 This would include removing the 
 very weak shoots, those with narrow 
 crotches, and those growing in the 
 wrong direction. The remaining 
 branches (possibly 8 or 10) are al¬ 
 lowed to grow during the first sum¬ 
 mer, and scaffolds are selected when 
 the trees are pruned the following 
 winter. Wlien using the deshoioting 
 method, it is preferable to prune the 
 tree several times during the sum¬ 
 mer and remove undesirable shoots 
 that develop. 
 
 During early summer of the sec¬ 
 ond year, new shoots growing from 
 the trunk should be removed except 
 where one is necessary for a scaffold 
 limb. Only light thinning out of 
 limbs and only occasional cutting 
 back to outward growing limbs are 
 required to obtain a well-opened 
 tree the third year. 
 
 The Bearing Tree 
 
 The young 'bearing tree .—After 
 carefully pruning and training the 
 peach tree the first 2 years, little 
 pruning should be necessary for sev¬ 
 eral seasons. A good scaffold sys¬ 
 tem will be well established, and a 
 spreading-branch habit will be en¬ 
 couraged by the weight of the fruit 
 on the limbs. After the second 
 growing season, only light, correc¬ 
 tive pruning will be required to keep 
 the center open and the main 
 branches well spaced (fig. 8). The 
 short branches bear the large fruit 
 buds growing near the base of the 
 large scaffold limbs. Where there 
 are a large number of branches, they 
 may be thinned out to pennit light 
 to reach the tree center. Not all 
 should be removed, however, since 
 
 21 
 
FIGURE 8.—A 
 
 2-year-old peach tree after pruning. Vigorous branch growth is prune 
 lightly to outside shoots or not at all. 
 
 they are usually the first twigs to 
 bear fruit. If tliey are all removed, 
 the fruit-l>earing potential of the 
 tree is delayed unnecessarily. 
 
 After fruiting begins throughout 
 the tree, the inside twigs should be 
 thinned out and shortened to pre¬ 
 vent shading of the tree center. 
 Shading prevents desirable new 
 shoot growth in the tree head as well 
 as development of highly colored 
 fruite. 
 
 A well-trained peach tree will 
 often bear a few fruits the second 
 year, and a peck to a bushel of good 
 fruits the third year. Pnming the 
 fourth and fifth years should still 
 be light enough to train the tree to a 
 spreading, symmetrical shape (figs. 
 9,10, and 11). Pruning is not done 
 in the summer, although a small 
 
 number of shoots may be remove( 
 to prevent dense inside gi'owth. 
 
 When pruning peach trees, re 
 member that the flowers and frui 
 are borne on wood produced tlv! 
 previous year. This fmiting wock 
 tends to grow farther out on th' 
 ends of the branches each year 
 Thus it is best to prune every year h 
 keep the trees within bounds and t« 
 prevent the branches from breaking 
 Fuidhennore, there is no better wa; 
 to stimulate the growth of the 1 
 year fruiting wood in the center o 
 the tree than by thinning out anr 
 heading back the inside branche 
 (fig. 12). 
 
 Peach pruning after the thirt 
 and fourth growing seasons i 
 mainly correctional. Removing o 
 cutting back branches that interfer 
 
 22 
 
CURE 9.—Strong, wide-angled crotch in a 
 4-year-old peach tree. This type of crotch 
 is resistant to winter injury and to breakage 
 by weight of the fruit. 
 
 ith the upward and outward 
 oread of the main scaffold limbs is 
 ecessary. Emphasis is on light 
 runing and framework develop- 
 lent. Where it is necessary to 
 ead back a scaffold limb to change 
 s direction, the cut should always 
 3 made to an outside lateral branch 
 rowing away from the center of 
 le tree. A 4- to 5-year-old tree 
 runed in this way is open and has 
 ’uiting wood throughout (fig. 12). 
 AVhen the number of flowerbuds 
 small, as on very vigorous young 
 ^ees or following winter budkill- 
 ig, pruning should be light. If, 
 owever, all flowerbuds have been 
 tiled, young bearing trees may re¬ 
 tire fairly severe pruning to main- 
 tin a spreading growth. Because 
 •uit crops aid in spreading the 
 ranches, young trees with many 
 owerbuds need little or no heading 
 scaffold limbs. Xo pruning at all 
 »e first 5 to 7 years results in the 
 ,rgest trees and the highest produc- 
 011 during that period. The trees 
 'come shaded in the centei*s, how- 
 er, and fruiting wood is confined 
 
 to the outside and top of the trees. 
 Correct pruning and training dur¬ 
 ing this period develop strong, 
 long-lived, and hardy trees. Only 
 light heading back and moderate 
 opening of the center of the trees 
 pe necessary to encourage spread¬ 
 ing growth and to admit light. 
 
 The mature tree .—Pruning the 
 mature peach tree annually is de¬ 
 sirable to keep it relatively low, to 
 encourage well-distributed fruiting 
 wood, and to obtain high-quality 
 fruit. Bearing peach trees are 
 pruned more severely than are 
 apple, pear, cherry, or plum trees. 
 Enough branches must be removed 
 to permit light and air to reach the 
 tree. First remove dead, injured, 
 and weak branches. Then remove 
 enough healthy branches to give the 
 desired spacing of branches. 
 Pruning, however, is only one of 
 several factors that help produce 
 satisfactory tree growth and fruit 
 quality. Other important factors 
 are soil fertility, soil moisture, con¬ 
 trol of insects and diseases, and fruit 
 thinning. 
 
 During a single season, vigorous, 
 well-grown peach trees often de¬ 
 velop upright shoots 2 to 5 feet long 
 in the center of the tree. These 
 shoots should be removed entirely; 
 otherwise, they soon shade out the 
 more productive fruiting wood un¬ 
 derneath. The more desirable 
 fruiting branches in the center of 
 the tree should usually be thinned 
 out and headed back lightly to a 
 vigorous shoot (fig. 13). Fruiting 
 wood throughout the tree should be 
 thinned out to keep the tree open 
 enough to maintain growth of new 
 wood each year. The amount of 
 necessary thinning out depends on 
 soil fertility, quality of fruit pro¬ 
 duced, and amount of dead wood in 
 the tree. If the size and appear¬ 
 ance of the fruit are poor and there 
 are many dead twigs in the center 
 of the tree, the tree should be 
 thinned out or some branches re¬ 
 moved. 
 
 23 
 
 7&7-a40 0 -h65- i 
 
FIGURE 10.—Strong, wide-angled crotches in a 4-year-old peach tree trained to the modiFiei 
 leader system. Both this system and the system shown in figure 9 develop strong trees. 
 
 A peach tree reaches its most 
 economical liei^ht when it is 6 to 8 
 years old. Trees are allowed to 
 ^row to 12 to 14 feet in some areas, 
 and only to 7 feet in other areas. 
 Where the soil is deep and fertile 
 and moisture is plentiful, trees may 
 be allowed to ^row hi^h and broad. 
 In areas where soil moisture is often 
 limited and soil fertility is low, 
 small, low ti-ees are best for secur¬ 
 ing ajinual vigorous renewal wood. 
 The size and height of the tree are 
 sometimes based on local customs; 
 and local methods are used for 
 pruning, thinning, and spraying 
 
 the trees, and for harvesting tin 
 crop. In areas where orchard site; 
 are relatively inexpensive, trees art 
 often headed low in spite of tin 
 usually smaller yields produced oi 
 low trees. Orchard workers win 
 prune, thin, and harvest fruit froii 
 high trees sometimes object tt 
 working from stepladders. In gen 
 eral, the most satisfactory tre 
 height is l>etween 8 and 10 feet. 
 
 The mature peach tree require 
 more riming than does any othe 
 fruit tree. Pruning is largely a r( 
 newal jirocess and is done by ri 
 moving upright branches, by thir 
 
 24 
 
IGURE 11.—Weak, narrow-angled crotch in a 4-year-old peach tree. This tree may split 
 from the weight of its fruit, particularly following winter damage to the crotch. 
 
 l 
 
 I 
 
 hin^ out shoots, and by occasionally 
 removing lar^e branches of 2- to 3- 
 vear-old wood. The main branches 
 of mature trees should never be cut 
 back to upright or outward-extend¬ 
 ing stubs. 
 
 The practice of heading back all 
 branches and shoots is not advis¬ 
 able. The renewal pruning method 
 results in an open-topped tree ca¬ 
 pable of producing high-quality 
 fruits. 
 
 By using the renewal pnming 
 metliod, trees may be kept 8 to 10 
 feet tall. Only short stepladders 
 Jire then needed to prune, thin, and 
 iuirvest the fruit by hand. At this 
 lieiglit, the largest branch on each 
 well-developed crotch is removed 
 just above or at the side of an out¬ 
 ward branching lateral. This point 
 
 at the crotch is used as a base for the 
 renewal height (or “renewal 
 point”) of the tree top. Two or 
 more branches usually develop the 
 following summer at this renewal 
 point; then all, branches except one 
 outward branching shoot are re¬ 
 moved at the next pruning. After 
 several years, it is necessary to 
 change the renewal point to one 
 slightly higher or one slightly low¬ 
 er on the lateral. Keeping the re¬ 
 newal points at varying heights 
 helps to prevent a thick-topped 
 tree that shades the lower inside 
 areas. 
 
 Usually, too many flowerbuds are 
 produced on the previous season’s 
 gi*owth. Thus pruning the newest 
 growth thins the fruit as well as 
 encourages renewal of better new 
 
 25 
 
FIGURE 12.—A strons, vigorous, productive, 5-year-old Redhaven peach tree. Top, befot' 
 
 pruning,- bottom, as pruning is finished. 
 
 26 
 
IGURE 13.—A strong, mature Elberta peach tree pruned to about 10 feet high. Growth 
 renewal points are established throughout the tree. 
 
 ;hoots for producing high-quality 
 Tuit. New terminal growth each 
 /ear should be 12 to 15 inches long 
 hroughout the mature tree. As 
 he tree becomes older, severe prun- 
 ng is necessary to maintain the 
 nost desirable fruiting wood. 
 Sometimes a fairly large branch on 
 he inside of the tree must be re¬ 
 lieved completely, and others must 
 )e headed back. The presence of 
 hort, slender, terminal shoots 6 to 
 i inches long probably indicates too 
 ittle pruning. Conversely, the 
 iresence of vigorous, annual shoots 
 10 to 40 inches long probably indi- 
 ates too severe pruning. These 
 onditions, however, may be caused 
 •y i^me other factor, such as soil 
 'eitility. Pmning, fertilizing, fruit 
 hinning, and soil management 
 iiust be interrelated to obtain the 
 nost i)roductive tree growth. 
 
 Rejuvenation 'pruning. — Some¬ 
 times extra-heavy pruning is re¬ 
 quired on old or neglected trees to 
 make them again bear profitably. 
 There is often a tendency to “de¬ 
 horn” or “dehead” the old, weak 
 trees in order to rejuvenate them. 
 Tests have shown, however, that 
 trees moderately to heavily pruned 
 made greatest total growth of new 
 wood during the two seasons follow¬ 
 ing treatment. After this moder¬ 
 ate to heavy pruning, only a moder¬ 
 ate type of thinning out and heading 
 back is necessary at the end of the 
 first season to obtain a well-shaped, 
 spreading tree. Also, for the next 
 several years these trees will require 
 only moderate pruning. Rejuvena¬ 
 tion pmning tends to lower the tree 
 head. This greatly facilitates or¬ 
 chard operations and rapid re¬ 
 growth of adequate fmiting wood. 
 
 27 
 
Sometimes large cuts into the 
 best available 4- to 6-year-old 
 branches are necessary to lower the 
 height of the fruiting wood. The 
 method used for renewing the tops 
 is not well suited to inner tree 
 growth or to controlling tree exten¬ 
 sion. These are best accomplished 
 by thinning out some branches and 
 heading back others to vigorous lat¬ 
 erals. 
 
 Although correct pnming will re¬ 
 duce the necessary amount of thin¬ 
 ning, propping, and bracing, it will 
 not eliminate the need for such sup¬ 
 port in years of heavy crops. 
 
 Time of Pruning 
 
 Experiments have indicated that 
 most pruning should be done dur¬ 
 ing the dormant season. However, 
 where spring frost may injure the 
 crop, pinning should be delayed. 
 Some peach growers do at least a 
 jiart. of their pruning after the 
 blooming period because of frost 
 danger. If frost kills a high per¬ 
 centage of the flowers, little or no 
 pruning is done that season. Of 
 course, this practice is not best for 
 renewing shoot growth of the tree. 
 
 Fruit yields are reduced when 
 mature trees are pinned after the 
 full-bloom stage. Pinning at full 
 bloom, at “shuck fall,” and even at 
 3 weeks after shuck fall will pro¬ 
 duce larger fruit than not pruning 
 at all. Thus it seems that most 
 pruning should be done no later 
 than at full bloom. However, if no 
 pinning has been done, it is better 
 to prune late than not at all. In 
 areas where frost hazard is serious, 
 it may be preferable to pinne twice: 
 First, to make major cuts during 
 the dormant season; and second, to 
 thin the blossoms after the frost 
 danger has passed. Pruning after 
 full bloom increases twig growth, 
 number of leaves per fruit, and fruit 
 size. The later pinning is done, 
 however, the less it stimulates shoot 
 growth and the more it reduces the 
 
 amount of fruit. Spring or sum¬ 
 mer pruning of mature trees results 
 in little increase in fruit size and 
 often reduced yield. 
 
 Pruning tests have shown that no 
 pruning, or pinning done at shuck 
 fall, caused earlier fruit ripening 
 than did dormant pinning or pinn¬ 
 ing done 3 weeks after shuck fall. 
 Dormant-pruned trees produced the 
 longest shoot growth and the largest 
 number of flowerbuds per foot 
 (table 2). 
 
 In the more northern peach-grow¬ 
 ing sections of the United States, 
 where midwinter killing of buds, 
 branches, and tree trunks sometimes 
 occurs, pruning should not be done 
 until danger of winterkilling is past. 
 Tree injury is often much more 
 severe if the trees have been pruned 
 before the onset of low tempera¬ 
 tures. Furthermore, where wood 
 injury has resulted from winter 
 cold, pnming should be delayed un¬ 
 til growth starts and the extent of 
 the injury can be determined. Early 
 and heavy heading back, or dehorn¬ 
 ing, of winter-injured trees may kill 
 some of them. After growth has 
 started, dead limbs can be safely re¬ 
 moved. Limbs with live tissues and 
 growing points should be pnined 
 only lightly. Application of nitro¬ 
 gen fertilizer will be more effective 
 in encouraging new tissue growth 
 than heavy pruning of surviving 
 branches that were injured by the 
 cold. 
 
 Delayed pruning has advantages 
 when flowerbuds only have be«n 
 winterkilled, because the percentage 
 of live buds can be determined more 
 accurately after the buds have 
 swelled. Pruning can then be ad¬ 
 justed to the bud set. If pruning is 
 delayed until near blossoming time 
 and few buds have been winter- 
 killed, pruning can be heavier. The 
 number of blossoms and the amount 
 of fruit thinning needed later will 
 be reduced. Pruning, fertilizing, 
 and fruit thinning go hand in hand. 
 
 28 
 
Table 2. —Mature peach trees: Efects of time of pruning on yield, size of 
 fruit, earliness of ripening, shoot length, and number of flowerhuds {Means 
 \ of 4 years) 
 
 Time of pruning 
 
 Yield per 
 tree 
 
 Size of 
 fruit 
 
 Time of 
 ripening i 
 
 Shoot 
 
 length 
 
 Flowerbuds 
 per foot 
 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Number per 
 bushel 
 
 Percent 
 
 Inches 
 
 Number 
 
 Dormant_ 
 
 7. 7 
 
 171 
 
 22. 0 
 
 11. 6 
 
 15. 1 
 
 ^'ull bloom_ _ 
 
 6. 2 
 
 188 
 
 39. 7 
 
 9. 7 
 
 13. 3 
 
 ihuck fall_ 
 
 three weeks after 
 
 5. 3 
 
 167 
 
 43. 9 
 
 9. 0 
 
 11. 1 
 
 shuck falL __ 
 
 4. 7 
 
 162 
 
 26. 7 
 
 8. 7 
 
 11. Z 
 
 Jnpruned _ _ _ 
 
 8. 2 
 
 214 
 
 45. 0 
 
 5. 1 
 
 10. 4 
 
 L.S.D. (0.01).__ 
 
 1. 3 
 
 18 
 
 15. 3 
 
 1. 2 
 
 1. 5 
 
 1 Relative time of ripening based on number of fruits harvested at the first 2 of the 4 
 ticking dates. 
 
 *runing in Relation to Fruit Thinning 
 
 There must be a balance between 
 pruning and fruit-thinning prac- 
 ices in the peach orchard. Neither 
 practice alone will produce the 
 lighest yield of top-quality fruit, 
 ’runing reduces the number of 
 Tuits per tree at a time when fruit 
 binning is of most value—before 
 he fruits have begun to compete 
 vith each other and with the growth 
 tf the tree. 
 
 When a pruning cut is made that 
 emoves either the entire limb or a 
 )art of it, flowerbuds and leafbuds 
 re removed wdth the wmod. Leaf- 
 »uds near the pruning cut are stim- 
 ilated and grow into long, leafy 
 hoots. These leaves are important 
 o the developing fruits left on the 
 ree, since they are the food-pro- 
 lucing organs. For largest peach 
 ize, there should be at least 35 
 eaves for each peach. If there are 
 oo few leaves per peach, the 
 )eaches will be small and the color 
 nd quality poor. Unpruned or 
 ightly pruned trees produce more 
 eaves per tree than do heavily 
 )runed trees, although the growth 
 •lay be short. Unpruned or lightly 
 iruned trees will contain a rela- 
 ively large number of flowers and 
 oung growing fruits, but there will 
 •e fewer leaves for each fruit. By 
 
 the time the fruits are thinned, the 
 potential size will already have been 
 reduced. 
 
 Pruning done largely to thin the 
 peaches should be well distributed. 
 Pruning of many small twigs is de¬ 
 sirable. Peach trees can quickly 
 disseminate nutrients and food ma¬ 
 terials. The largest scaffold 
 branches serve as units, so that a 
 large leaf area anywhere on a large 
 branch increases fruit size over the 
 entire branch. Uniform fruit thin¬ 
 ning is not necessary to increase 
 peach size. 
 
 Pruning in Relation to Fertilizing 
 
 In commercial orchards, soil fer¬ 
 tilizing and pruning are both neces¬ 
 sary for satisfactory new shoot 
 growth on peach trees. Pruning re¬ 
 duces the number of growing points 
 on the tree and increases individual 
 shoot length. Where space is lim¬ 
 ited and yield of fruit per tree is not 
 a major factor, pruning can keep 
 the tree small and maintain the de¬ 
 sired 12 to 15 inches of annual ter¬ 
 minal shoot growth of mature trees. 
 Soil fertilization, especially by 
 nitrogen, should be reduced as the 
 severity of pruning is increased. 
 Tlie fruit yield per tree will also 
 decrease with the severity of plain¬ 
 ing. 
 
 29 
 
Reduction either in pruning or in 
 nitrogen fertilization results in 
 short shoot growth and early friiit 
 ripening. Fniits of varieties Avith 
 little red color develop more color 
 with reduced pruning or reduced 
 application of nitrogen to the soil. 
 Fruits of bright red varieties, Iioav- 
 ever, often become dull and unat¬ 
 tractive if nitrogen in the soil is Ioav 
 or if the trees are lightly pruned. 
 Hea\^y pruning delays fruit ripen¬ 
 ing, as does too much nitrogen fer¬ 
 tilizer. Their basic effects, lioAveA^er, 
 are different. Pruning reduces the 
 size and potential yield of the tree, 
 Avhereas nitrogen fertilization tends 
 to increase both. HeaA^y pruning 
 often increases the percentage of po¬ 
 tassium and other elements m peach 
 leaves, probably by reducing the 
 total leaf area in proportion to the 
 root area per tree. 
 
 Pruning Tools and Equipment 
 
 The use of the poAA’er, compre.ssed- 
 air, or pneumatic pnmer in many 
 good commercial peach orchards in¬ 
 creases Avorking efficiency and re¬ 
 duces labor costs. The poAA^er 
 primer is most valuable Avhen used 
 on mature trees of uniform size. 
 Some groAvers find portable plat¬ 
 forms are especially useful AAutli 
 this type of pruning operation. 
 
 Usually at least one Avorkman 
 prunes from the ground. One of 
 the most useful tools for general 
 pruning is a lightAveight lopper- 
 type hand primer about 24 inches 
 long. This lopper is often the only 
 pruning tool used by many success¬ 
 ful peach groAvers. A small hand 
 shear is also useful for pruning 
 trees. Occasionally, a small saAA^ is 
 used. 
 
 SOIL MANAGEMENT 
 
 Good soil management is as im¬ 
 portant for keeping trees vigorous 
 as is pruning. As mentioned 
 earlier, a deep, Avell-drained soil of 
 medium texture is highly desirable 
 for peach groAving. On nearly level 
 orchard sites having this kind of 
 soil and having adequate air drain¬ 
 age, control of soil erosion is not 
 
 difficult. Soil management on more 
 rolling sites requires careful atten¬ 
 tion (figs. 14, 15, and 16). To ob¬ 
 tain go^ air drainage, peaches are 
 usually planted on rolling to hilly 
 sites, except in the mild climates of 
 the Southeast, or Avhere lakes give 
 protection from unfavorable tern 
 peratures. On these upland sites 
 
 FIGURE 14 .—Sod strips across the slope in this young peach orchard protect the soil fro 
 
 erosion. 
 
 30 
 
FIGURE 15.—Low soil terraces across the 
 slope for each tree row help prevent soil 
 erosion. 
 
 ■IGURE 16.—A sod-mulch system as in this 
 peach orchard prevents soil erosion on the 
 steeper slopes. 
 
 he soil is frequently no more than 
 1 to 5 feet deep. It is customary to 
 ’ultivate the soil of peach orchards 
 
 early in the season to make nutrients 
 readily available to the trees. This 
 cultivation conserves moisture by 
 killing weeds and other plants that 
 compete with the trees for moisture. 
 A ground cover of growing plants 
 on an orchard site, however, may 
 serve two important purposes—it 
 supplies organic matter to the soil 
 and it prevents loss of topsoil by 
 erosion (figs. 17, 18, and 19). Til¬ 
 lage practices on any orchard site 
 affect the soil and moisture conser¬ 
 vation and the organic-matter con¬ 
 tent and fertility of the soil. 
 
 No fruit trees are affected more 
 by lack of soil moisture and nitro¬ 
 gen than are peach trees. Peach 
 trees root extensively, and the roots 
 of trees planted 20 feet apart may 
 rneet after about 5 years. Cultiva¬ 
 tion breaks down the soil organic 
 matter and thus releases the nutri¬ 
 ents. The nitrogen released by 
 cultivation often stimulates the 
 trees as much as does an application 
 of fertilizer. Before inexpensive 
 nitrogenous fertilizers became 
 available, cultivation for this pur¬ 
 pose was invaluable. Now, how¬ 
 ever, it is preferable to add inor¬ 
 ganic nitrogen and keep the organic 
 matter on or in the soil as long as 
 possible. This practice will control 
 erosion most effectively, maintain 
 soil porosity, and improve the gen¬ 
 eral physical structure of the soil. 
 
 The Young Orchard 
 
 The first year after peach trees 
 are planted, the orchard soil should 
 be tended carefully to encourage 
 adequate root and top growth. The 
 soil around the trunks should be 
 kept free from weeds during the 
 growing season, especially in non- 
 irrigated orchards. In the larger 
 orchards, the soil along each side pf 
 each row should be cultivated to a 
 distance of at least 5 feet (fig. 14). 
 It is not necessary to cultivate all 
 the area between tree rows. An 
 
 757-340 O—05^ 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
FIGURE 17.—Rye cover crop in peach orchard ready for early spring disking. 
 
 FIGURE 18.—Rye cover crop disked down correctly so that much of it remains on the soil 
 
 surface. 
 
 annual or biennial cover crop may 
 be grown on the cultivated strips 
 (fig. 17), and turned under to im¬ 
 prove the soil. On sites that are low 
 in soil organic matter and subject to 
 soil loss through water runoff, cover 
 crops in the young orchard are de¬ 
 sirable because they check soil ero¬ 
 sion and because incorporation of 
 cover-crop residues makes the soil 
 more porous. Cover crops should 
 
 not seriously hinder growth of the 
 young trees if they are confined to 
 areas well beyond the spread of the 
 tree branches. Avoid deep culti¬ 
 vation. 
 
 In orchards on level ground, it is 
 often desirable to grow an intercrop 
 the first ‘2 or 3 years. The trees are 
 benefited by the cultivation of such 
 a crop and by the fertilizer applied 
 to it. In orchard sites having 
 
 32 
 
FIGURE 19.—Clean cultivation during early summer often results in vigorous tree growth and 
 
 large-sized fruit, but the soil can erode easily. 
 
 slopes, the intercrop should be 
 planted across the slope, so that 
 water collecting in and along the 
 furrows made by tillage tools will 
 jnot run off rapidly and carry away 
 j topsoil. In the second and third 
 years, less space should be allotted 
 I to an intercrop than in the first 
 lyear. Unless the trees are planted 
 jat least 25 feet apart in both direc¬ 
 tions, an intercrop should not be 
 iplanted after the third year. 
 
 The Bearing Orchard 
 
 ' Cover crops .—Bearing peach 
 orchards are cultivated less today 
 than they were 25 to 30 years ago 
 because of the use of cover crops. 
 
 Cover crops seeded in late sum¬ 
 mer that grow during fall or winter 
 are best, because they do not com¬ 
 pete with the trees at the seasons 
 when the trees require the most 
 moisture and nutrients. Rye (figs. 
 17 and 18) is perhaps the most com¬ 
 monly used cover crop for fall and 
 winter. It resumes growing early in 
 the spring and should be disked 
 roughly before it begins to compete 
 seriously with the trees. Sometimes 
 cover crops that winterkill, such as 
 spring oats and millet, are grown 
 during late summer and early fall. 
 Sometimes annual weeds are al¬ 
 lowed to grow as cover crops during 
 
 that period. The crops or weeds 
 are allowed to remain over winter 
 and are disked in early spring. 
 Disking, however, should not be ex¬ 
 cessive, because it will destroy the 
 value of a cover crop. To permit 
 water penetration and to avoid soil 
 erosion, as much as possible of the 
 cover crop should be left on the soil 
 surface (fig. 18). 
 
 In some locations and on certain 
 soils, especially where soil erosion 
 is likely, a summer cover crop such 
 as soybeans, cowpeas, and crotalaria 
 should be grown in addition to a 
 fall or winter crop, even though it 
 will compete with the trees and per¬ 
 haps reduce the fruit crop. Sum¬ 
 mer cover crops such as late 
 varieties of crotalaria and buck¬ 
 wheat make most of their growth 
 after the Redhaven season varieties 
 are harvested. 
 
 Cover crops should be fertilized 
 according to the local practice. 
 Often a “complete” fertilizer is ap¬ 
 plied when a cover crop is planted. 
 
 Although legumes have often 
 been recommended as orchard cover 
 crops because they add nitrogen to 
 the soil naturally, their use for this 
 purpose is too expensive. 
 
 Many commercial peach orchards 
 are not seeded to cover crops, but 
 weeds are allowed to grow in late 
 summer and fall. Sometimes this 
 
 33 
 
system is fairly satisfactory, but a 
 seeded cover crop will usually pro¬ 
 duce more organic matter for the 
 soil. 
 
 Tests to determine the effects of 
 disking rye cover crops at different 
 stages of growth in a peach orchard 
 showed that late disking intensified 
 the red of Elbert a peaches but had 
 no significant effect on the color of 
 some of the more highly colored 
 peach varieties. Soil erosion was 
 controlled more effectively by late 
 disking of the cover crop than by 
 early disking. Soil moisture and 
 available nitrogen were reduced by 
 late disking, but not enough to affect 
 the size and yield of the fruit or the 
 growth of the trees. 
 
 Where root-knot nematodes are 
 harmful to peaches, nematode-sus¬ 
 ceptible cover crops such as cowpeas, 
 vetch, rye, and x4ustrian winter peas 
 should be avoided. Eesistant crops, 
 such as crotalaria in the later sum¬ 
 mer and oats in the winter, may be 
 used. Native weeds allowed to 
 grow during late summer after har¬ 
 vest and disked in midwinter are 
 preferable to a cover crop suscepti¬ 
 ble to nematodes. "WHiere nema¬ 
 todes are serious and soil erosion is 
 not, clean cultivation throughout 
 most of the year is recommended. 
 
 Damage from spring frost during 
 the pink-through-bloom-and-petal- 
 fall period is sometimes reduced by 
 maintaining a hard, bare soil sur¬ 
 face. In level peach-growing areas, 
 such as the Coastal Plain, an or¬ 
 chard planted with a cover crop is 
 sometimes 1° to 3° cooler than one 
 without a cover crop. A recently 
 cultivated orchard is just as subject 
 to frost damage as is one planted 
 with a cover crop. Bare, hard soil 
 provides a heat reservoir from 
 which heat is radiated at night. If 
 the soil is covered by weeds, cover 
 crop, or mulch, or if it has recently 
 been cultivated, radiation is im¬ 
 paired. In level areas where spring 
 frosts may occur, orchards are clean 
 cultivated in midwinter or very 
 
 early spring in time for rains to 
 pack the soil well before frost 
 danger. 
 
 Permanent or semipermanent 
 crops .—Sod is sometimes used as a 
 cover crop in peach orchards, but its 
 use is not recommended because it 
 often reduces the growth of trees 
 and fruit. Where abundant water 
 is available from rain, from irriga¬ 
 tion, or from an unusually deep soil, 
 a pennanent cover is sometimes sat¬ 
 isfactory. This is not true, how¬ 
 ever, in most of the Eastern and 
 Southern States. 
 
 The use of sqil nutrients by the 
 sod is less serious than its use of wa¬ 
 ter, since nutrients may be added as 
 fertilizer. A nonlegume sod-cov¬ 
 ered orchard area requires about 
 three times as much nitrogen as one 
 under cultivation, because the soil 
 uses so much nitrogen. A mulch 
 helps conserve moisture in the 
 sodded peach orchard (fig. 16). 
 Peach trees, however, root exten¬ 
 sively ; and the sod may compete for 
 moisture with roots as far as 12 to 
 15 feet away from the tree trunk. 
 
 Some ]>each growers use a sod 
 cover but disk the sod well every 
 few years. Others use sod strips 
 across the slope between wide, culti¬ 
 vated peach rows (fig. 14). The 
 sod strips control erosion, and culti¬ 
 vation reduces competition with the 
 trees. The sodded strips provide 
 useful surfaces for moving sprayers 
 and harvesting equipment, espe¬ 
 cially during wet weather. Or¬ 
 chard sod should be fertilized and 
 mowed occasionally. 
 
 In soil-management studies made 
 at Beltsville, Md., over a 12-year 
 period, cultivation of soil in peach 
 orchards during the summer was 
 more effective than use of a sum¬ 
 mer cover crop. Annual cover 
 crops were more effective than were 
 semipermanent sods of sweetclover 
 or lespedeza. Soil moisture seemed* 
 to be the principal limiting factor. 
 Either system of sod culture re¬ 
 duced tree growth and decreased 
 
 34 
 
'eld and size of fruits, even in ma- 
 ire trees. 
 
 Some compromise between a sys- 
 un of clean cultivation and con- 
 ) luous use of sod is possible. Slial- 
 "w disking two or three times a 
 ‘,ar is usually satisfactory. For 
 ’■st results, the needs of each or- 
 uard should be considered indi- 
 dually. 
 
 Soil and moisture conservation in 
 •ach orchards is very important, 
 ontour planting is often neces- 
 sry, and sometimes terraces are 
 •eded (fig. 15). Much depends on 
 e soil type, the amount and dis- 
 'ibution of rainfall, and the per- 
 ntage of land slope. Soil and 
 oisture losses are easily over- 
 oked; it is wise sometimes to risk 
 ducing tree growth for the sake 
 ■ soil conservation. 
 
 FERTILIZERS 
 
 There are 12 known nutrient ele- 
 ents necessary for plant growth, 
 he major nutrient elements, or 
 acroelements, needed by peach 
 •ees include nitrogen, potassium, 
 hosphorus, magnesium, and cal- 
 um. The minor nutrient ele- 
 iients, or microelements, include 
 nc, boron, maganese, copper, 
 •on, sulfur, and molybdenum. A 
 \inor element is just as essential as 
 major one, but less of it is re- 
 uired. 
 
 Nitrogen remains the chief fer- 
 lizer element needed by peach or- 
 lards on most soils. Potassium is 
 erhaps the next element most 
 ceded. The elements most needed, 
 nd the rates at which they should 
 e applied, vary widely according 
 3 soil type and other factors. 
 
 A fertilizer program should be 
 'lanned to cover the complete life 
 f the orchard. A balance of all 
 iitrient elements, but especially of 
 litrogen, potassium, and mag- 
 lesium, is important. However, 
 •nly those materials needed by the 
 rees that are not supplied by the 
 
 soil should be added. Usually fer¬ 
 tilizers are applied to the soil, but 
 some may be applied to the tree as 
 foliar sprays. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Nitrogen deficiency symptoms 
 are small, pale-green leaves, some¬ 
 times yellow with red specks; short, 
 thin shoot growth; and small, early- 
 ripening, highly colored fruits. 
 Lack of nitrogen absorption and 
 translocation because of root or limb 
 damage or poor soil drainage also 
 produces these same symptoms. 
 
 For satisfactory tree growth and 
 production, nitrogen should be 
 added to soils in all peach orchards 
 east of the Rocky Mountains. The 
 amount needed varies considerably. 
 
 To obtain high-quality peaches, 
 the soil nitrogen level should be 
 neither extremely high nor extreme¬ 
 ly low. The level may be regulated 
 somewhat by the use of cover crops 
 as well as by the amount of nitrogen 
 fertilizer applied and the time of 
 application. For the brightest 
 fruit color, the soil nitrogen level 
 should never be extremely high. 
 Where color is important, the nitro¬ 
 gen necessary for tree growth 
 should be applied in the fall rather 
 than in the late spring or early sum¬ 
 mer. The effect of nitrogen on col¬ 
 or is important in such varieties as 
 Elberta, Sullivan’s Early Elberta, 
 and Belle; but Redglobe, Dixired, 
 and certain other varieties color well 
 when relatively high soil and tree 
 nitrogen are present. The time 
 when nitrogen is available to the 
 tree roots is the critical factor; this 
 depends partly on when enough 
 water is available to carry the 
 soluble nitrogen to the roots. 
 Treatments that supply abundant 
 nitrogen in midsummer should be 
 avoided. 
 
 A high soil nitrogen level in early 
 spring is necessary for vigorous foli¬ 
 age growth and large peaches, but 
 high available nitrogen in late 
 spring delays fruit ripening. 
 
 35 
 
In some orchards, nitro|^en is the 
 only fertilizer needed. Because the 
 amount needed varies greatly, no 
 specific recommendation can be 
 made. Growth of the tree, together 
 with yield, size, and quality of fruit, 
 is the l)est criterion to determine 
 required amounts of fertilizei's, 
 especially nitrogen. A suggested 
 amount would be one-eighth of a 
 pound of actual nitrogen per year 
 of the tree’s age, up to 1 pound per 
 tree. For example, the 8-year-old 
 tree would receive 6 pounds of ni¬ 
 trate of soda (16 percent nitrogen), 
 3 pounds of ammonium nitrate (33 
 percent nitrogen), or 2.2 pounds of 
 urea (45 percent nitrogen). These 
 nitrogen sources may be selected on 
 the basis of availability and econ¬ 
 omy, since all are equally effective. 
 High-nitrogen fertilizers are soluble 
 in water and will penetrate to the 
 tree roots soon after rain or irriga¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The fertilizer should be spread 
 evenly mider the tree and should ex¬ 
 tend just beyond the tips of the 
 branches. Cover crops are im¬ 
 proved if the fertilizer is spread 
 over a wider area throughout the 
 orchard, but more fertilizer will be 
 r^uired per acre. A complete fer¬ 
 tilizer is necessai’y in some areas. 
 One pound of actual nitrogen is ob¬ 
 tained in 10 pounds of a 10-10-10 
 fertilizer. Careful obseiwation and 
 advice of local extension or experi¬ 
 ment station workers will help de- 
 tennine w’hether the phosphorus 
 and potassium contained in such a 
 fertilizer is economical. 
 
 Foliage sprays containing nitro¬ 
 gen for fertilizing peaches have 
 been tested with little success. 
 Peach leaves evidently do not ab¬ 
 sorb the nutrient as efficiently as do 
 ajiple leaves. 
 
 Some successful peach growers 
 apply nitrogen only in the late sum¬ 
 mer or fall. Others apply all the 
 nitrogen early in the spring. Still 
 others apply part in the fall and 
 part in the spring. The loss of 
 
 fruit color resulting from the see' 
 Olid method depends on the variet ' 
 the soil type, and the amount cl 
 nitrogen used. With a iiotentialf 
 highly colored variety, a sandy soi 
 and a moderate amount of nitrogei 
 there may be no reduction in fru 
 color. 
 
 Tests with Elberta, Ilalehaver 
 and Triogem varieties at Beltsvillc 
 Md., emphasized the interrelation 
 of variety, time of nitrogen applicai 
 tion, and time of disking the cove 
 crop. 
 
 When nitrogen was applied t’ 
 trees in the fall, theffruit yield wa 
 reduced and the fruit ripened eai 
 Her than when it was applied in tli 
 spring, or when it was applied i 
 three equal amounts in the fall, th 
 spring, and the early summei 
 Yields were usually highest whe 
 nitrogen was apjilied in three eqiia 
 amounts. The time of disking th 
 rye cover crop had little effect oi, 
 fruit yield of any of the three va 
 rieties studied. A full crop o 
 Elberta peaches yielded more thai 
 did Halehaven or Triogem. Dif 
 ferences in fruit size due to fertil 
 izer and disking treatments wer 
 not consistent. The T r i o g e n 
 peaches, however, were consistent!; 
 smaller than those of the other tw< 
 varieties. Fall fertilizing and lat< 
 disking resulted in the deepest re( 
 skin color of Elberta peaches. Thi 
 treatments did not seem to affect tlu 
 color of Halehaven and Triogen 
 peaches. 
 
 Fruit ripened earliest when fer 
 tilized in the fall, but time of ripen 
 ing was unaffected by disking time 
 The leaf-nitrogen content in August 
 was greater when fertilizer was ap 
 plied in the three equal installmentj 
 than when it was applied in the fall 
 Time of disking the lye did not af 
 feet the nitrogen content of tin 
 leaves, which was relatively higl 
 regardless of treatments. 
 
 The divided applications of ni 
 trogen are especially useful or 
 sandy soils subject to rapid leaching: 
 
 36 
 
I, moisture and nutrients. Also, 
 ivided applications allow for bet- 
 r nutrient management ba^d on 
 op needs. For example, if tlie 
 lilt set after bloom is heavy, more 
 trogen can be applied than if 
 ere is a light set following a severe 
 ost. In the southern areas, at 
 ast part of the annual nitrogen 
 quired can be applied just after 
 irvest. However, in the northern 
 •eas, nitrogen applied after har- 
 ?st may increase winter injury. 
 
 >tassium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, 
 and Calcium 
 
 There is almost as much potas- 
 um as nitrogen in peach leaves. 
 1 many peach-growing areas, trees 
 it as much potassium as they need 
 ithout fertilizing. In some areas, 
 ich as much of the Atlantic 
 oastal Plain extending from New 
 
 Jersey to Florida, trees often re¬ 
 quire additional potassium. In 
 other areas, the need for potassium 
 fertilizer for peaches varies. Se¬ 
 vere potassium deficiency causes 
 slender shoot growth, and rolling, 
 puckering, and marginal burn of 
 leaves (fig. 20). Mild deficiency, 
 however, reduces fruit size and 
 yield. In early spring, pofassium 
 may be applied to the soil surface 
 under the tree at the rate of 2 to 4 
 pounds of either muriate or sulfate 
 of potash. It can be applied also 
 in a complete fertilizer such as 
 10 - 10 - 10 . 
 
 Phosphorus in peach-orchard 
 soils is often low, but it is rarely 
 necessai'y to add any for the peach 
 tree. Peaches, as well as other 
 fruits, are able to obtain the phos¬ 
 phorus they require where annual 
 crops will show a severe need for 
 phosphorus fertilization. 
 
 IGURE 20.—Potassium-deficient peach leaves. Left to right: Leaves with increasingly se 
 
 vere symptoms of potassium deficiency. 
 
 37 
 
Magnesium deficiency in peaches 
 (fig. 21) is found mainly in the 
 sandy Coastal Plain soils, especially 
 following heavy potassium fertili¬ 
 zation. The first indication of this 
 deficiency is a light yellowing be¬ 
 tween veins of the leaf. In severe 
 cases, death of the yellowed areas is 
 accompanied by a marginal leaf 
 burning. Usually the more basal 
 leaves are affected first. Foliar 
 spraying with about 10 pounds of 
 magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) 
 per 100 gallons of water usually 
 gives prompt control. Application 
 of dolomitic limestone to the soil at 
 about 2 tons per acre will often con¬ 
 
 trol the deficiency within a fe 
 years. 
 
 Calcium is sometimes needed as; 
 
 fertilizer for peaches, especially j 
 
 Coastal Plain soils where lar; 
 
 < 
 
 amounts of sulfur have been used 
 spray peaches for disease contn 
 Calcium reduces soil acidity, an 
 this, in turn, increases the availabi' 
 ity of many soil elements and rcK 
 growth (fig. 22). Although pea(! 
 trees grow well in acid soils, the p‘ 
 should not be below about 4.5. Ver 
 high soil calcium reduces absorptic 
 of potassium and magnesium by tl 
 roots. Soil acidity can be correcte 
 
 FIGURE 21. Left to right: Increasingly severe symptoms of magnesium deficiency in peac 
 
 leaves. 
 
 38 
 
FIGURE 22.—Effects of (A) low, (B) medium, and (C) high levels of calcium on peach roots 
 
 grown in orchard soils at Beltsville, Md. 
 
 by adding limestone according to 
 local recommendations. 
 
 ! Zinc, Boron, and Manganese 
 
 I Zinc deficiency sometimes occurs 
 jin peach trees grown in sandy soils 
 of the Carolinas and Georgia, but it 
 lis much more common in the West- 
 lern States. Symptoms of this defi¬ 
 ciency are light yellow, wavy, and 
 jcrinkled leaves, with rosettes at the 
 tips of the twigs. In severe cases of 
 2 mc deficiency, leaves are very 
 small. 
 
 Boron deficiency causes twig 
 death, lack of bud growth, and 
 sometimes dark-brown cork spots 
 in the fruits. It occurs only occa¬ 
 sionally in Eastern United States. 
 
 Manganese deficiency causes 
 
 light-yellow' areas between the veins 
 of the younger leaves toward the 
 tips of the shoots. Deficiencies in 
 all these microelements can usually 
 be corrected by foliar sprays used 
 according to local recommenda¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Copper, iron, sulfur, and molyb¬ 
 denum usually occur in ample quan¬ 
 tities in most orchard soils. 
 
 All the chemicals men¬ 
 tioned are assumed to be 
 caustic and poisonous; some 
 are flammable. They should 
 be kept dry and handled 
 with care to prevent fire or 
 explosion. 
 
 IRRIGATION 
 
 Many peach orchards east of the sprinkling equipment has aided 
 Rocky Mountains are now irrigated, greatly in making orchard irriga- 
 Increased efficiency in pumping and tion economically practical. Many 
 
 39 
 
successful peach growers in the East 
 now consider irrigation an essential 
 part, of their soil management pro¬ 
 gram. Irrigation is planned and 
 used according to needs of the trees 
 and capacity of the soil. 
 
 A short period of diy weather, 
 especially during the final month 
 before harvest, will sharply reduce 
 fruit size and quality of peach trees 
 growing in shallow soil. Low soil 
 moisture during early summer af¬ 
 fects fruit size and yield and also 
 affects next year’s crop by reducing 
 the terminal growth of shoots and 
 by weakening the trees. Peaclies 
 from irrigated trees ripen a few 
 days earlier and ripen more uni¬ 
 formly than do those from nonirri- 
 gated trees. 
 
 In most of the Eastern United 
 Stat^, winter rains fill the soil to its 
 maximum water-holding capacity 
 by spring. Thus, peach trees start 
 the growing season with adequate 
 moisture. The amount of water the 
 soil can hold depends mostly on soil 
 texture and depth. This varies 
 from about 1 acre-inch of water per 
 foot for sandy-loam soils to about 
 2 acre-inches per foot for clay loams. 
 Thus, if the root-depth zone is 4 feet 
 in a silt-loam soil, there will be 
 about 6 acre-inches of water avail¬ 
 able in the spring. Eastern peach 
 
 THINNING 
 
 Fruit thinning is necessary to 
 produce high-quality peaches, espe¬ 
 cially in years of heavy crops. The 
 extent of thinning depends some¬ 
 what on the potential size of the ma¬ 
 ture fruit of the particular variety. 
 In general, the smaller the normal 
 size of the fruit at maturity, the 
 wider the spacing to which the fruit 
 should be thinned on the twigs. 
 The correct thinning distance de¬ 
 pends partly on the leaf area per 
 fruit and the general vigor of the 
 tree. It takes about 35 healthy, 
 average-sized green leaves to pro¬ 
 duce a peach of good size and 
 
 orchards use about 3 acre-inches ol 
 water per month during the growl 
 ing season. Thus, the available soi] 
 water would last about 2 month( 
 without additional rain. Peacii 
 trees need water most during th*‘ 
 month just before harvest, when tht 
 moisture requirement for fniit sizi 
 is greatest. 
 
 Development of a water supphj 
 and cost of equipment,and mamte 
 nance are expensive. Irrigatioi 
 will be least economical where th* 
 root depth is great, the soil is fairli 
 heavy, and an early ripening peaci' 
 variety is grown. But where i 
 good supply of water is available aii 
 moderate cost and the root depth v. 
 as shallow as 2 to 3 feet, irrigatior: 
 should increase peach production ir 
 most years. 
 
 If rainfall has averaged less thar 
 1 inch per week for about 3 weeks 
 irrigation may be needed, espe 
 cially close to harvesttime. I\Tier 
 irrigating, completely wet the soi: 
 to the root depth. Light, sand} 
 soils may lose nutrients because oi 
 too much irrigation, but they neec 
 more frequent irrigation than d( 
 heavier soils. Irrigating any soi; 
 too much or too often can damage 
 peach tree roots. Learning to irri¬ 
 gate properly requires careful stud} 
 and much experience. 
 
 THE FRUIT 
 
 quality. In thinning, only one 
 peach should be left to every 6 oi 
 8 inches of twig. Although this 
 may seem drastic and expensive, it 
 must be remembered that small 
 peaches are often hard to sell. 
 Also, thinning lessens the harvest¬ 
 ing work and the danger of limb.« 
 breaking under the weight of fruit. 
 
 Thinning According to Variety 
 
 AVith the early ripening peach 
 varieties that tend to set a heav} 
 load of fruit, thinning well before 
 the June drop greatly increases 
 
 40 
 
•uit size and earliness of ripening 
 ig. 23). These early ripening 
 irieties have a much shorter period 
 ' fruit development than do El- 
 u-ta and the later ripening varie- 
 es. Varieties that particularly 
 mefit from early thinning include 
 iiayflower, Earlired, Cardinal, 
 oronet, Redhaven, Golden Jubilee, 
 id Triogem, With these early 
 pening varieties, early thinning of 
 •uit increases not only fruit size 
 ,,it also quantity of young-shoot 
 rowth and leaf size. 
 
 235 
 
 .205 
 
 175 
 
 ;.i45 
 I 0 
 
 ' 120 
 
 80 
 
 , 0 
 
 I 
 
 CURE 23. — Effects of time of thinning on 
 fruit size (top) and maturity (bottom) of 
 Redhaven peaches. Each successive thin¬ 
 ning period caused smaller and later ripen¬ 
 ing peaches. 
 
 For many early ripening varie- 
 ies, if thinning is delayed much 
 fter the pits begin to harden, the 
 nal size of the fruit may not be 
 reatly increased. This is espe- 
 ially true if dry weather prevails 
 uring the early part of the grow- 
 (ig season and at harvesttime, 
 xrowers must determine if the 
 ..reater value of the larger fruits 
 ustifies the expense of early 
 hinning. 
 
 With midseason and later varie- 
 ies, the usual practice is to wait 
 
 TIME OF THINNING REDHAVEN 
 
 SIZE EFFECT 
 
 Bloom 2 4 6 8 10 12 
 
 WEEKS AFTER BLOOM 
 
 until after the first drop and then 
 remove many of the small and im¬ 
 perfect fruits. Experiments with 
 Elberta peach trees have shown 
 that if the fruit set is only moderate 
 and the drop in June is fairly 
 heavy, thinning done as quickly as 
 possible after the June drop usually 
 results in fruits of good size and 
 color. If thinning is delayed until 
 well along in the pit-hardening 
 period, it still has a beneficial effect 
 on the final size of the fruit. If 
 thinning is done as late as the period 
 of final swell, it still increases the 
 size of the remaining peaches. 
 
 Elberta trees bearing a large crop 
 should be thinned just as soon as 
 possible after the first drop. When 
 thinning is done quickly near the 
 end of the first growth period (be¬ 
 fore pit hardening), the result is 
 almost as satisfactory as it is with 
 earlier thinning. The cost is much 
 less, because some of the peaches 
 will drop anyway. 
 
 Amount To Thin 
 
 How many peaches should be re¬ 
 moved from a tree by thinning de¬ 
 pends chiefly on the size of the tree 
 and its bearing capacity. If a tree 
 cannot bear more than 1 or 2 
 bushels, only enough of the peaches 
 that can develop to desirable size 
 (those with a diameter of 2i/4 to 21/2 
 inches) should be left to make up 
 this quantity. When a tree has a 
 uniformly heavy set of fruit, it can 
 be thinned to a fixed spacing, such 
 as 6 to 8 inches along the twig. 
 Usually, it is best to thin not ac¬ 
 cording to a fixed spacing but ac¬ 
 cording to leaf area, tree vigor, and 
 bearing capacity. After a spring 
 freeze, sometimes the only blossoms 
 left alive are those at the bases of 
 terminal shoots. When this hap¬ 
 pens, the fruits are not thinned even 
 where they touch each other, be¬ 
 cause the leaf area is sufficient for 
 all. 
 
 41 
 
Methods of Thinning 
 
 Wliere labor costs are hi^h, peach 
 l^roAvers may choose to reduce the 
 number of peaches that will be pro¬ 
 duced on tlieir trees by pruning off 
 a large number of shoots either be¬ 
 fore or at blossomtime. In locali¬ 
 ties where spring frosts occur, some 
 detailed pruning may be postponed 
 until blossomtime, when crop pros¬ 
 pects are more certain. 
 
 Recently, because of high labor 
 costs, considerable thinning has 
 been done by rapid mechanical 
 methods rather than by the old¬ 
 er hand method. Some growers 
 now use poles 4 to 8 feet long or 
 longer, with about 12 inches of hard 
 rubber hose over one end. With 
 such poles, the excess fruits are re¬ 
 moved by tapping the branch or 
 twig first at right angles and then 
 lengthwise. Wire or brush brooms 
 
 are sometimes used to thin peacl 
 blossoms, especially those of earl^ 
 ripening varieties. 
 
 Several types of chemical sjiray 
 have been tested, some of which thi; 
 late and after danger of frost 
 However, none is dependabL 
 enough to be recommended fo 
 practical use. Elgetol is one o 
 the chemical thinning sprays tha 
 has been used extensively, al 
 though its results are not alway: 
 reliable. If Elgetol is used, spray 
 ing should be done at full blooom 
 The suggested strength is 1 pint o 
 Elgetol per 100 gallons of water. 
 
 Blossoms should not be thinnei 
 by any method if it is likely tha 
 some may be killed by frost 
 The most experienced growers pre 
 fer to do only part, of a necessan 
 thinning by mechanical method'!' 
 and then to follow up with hanc 
 thinning. 
 
 LOW-TEMPERATURE INJURY 
 
 Low-temperature injury is one of 
 the greatest problems of peach 
 growers in both the North and the 
 South. Almost every year, serious 
 winter injuiy of jieach trees occurs 
 in one or more sections of the coun¬ 
 try (fig. 24). Often winter injury 
 IS not recognized as sucii, for it can 
 occur when temperatures have not 
 been unusually low. For example, 
 rapid drops in winter temperatures 
 from about 70° F. during the day 
 to about 18° F. at night have caused 
 severe damage to peach tree wood 
 in southern areas. In northern 
 areas, the damage is likely to occur 
 only at much lower temperatures; 
 and dormant flowerbiids are af¬ 
 fected before the wood is. A rapid 
 drop to temperatures below —15° 
 F. often injures twigs and trunks 
 as well as buds. Sometimes, in 
 peach orchards having no ground 
 cover, prolonged low temperatures 
 damage even the tree roots. 
 
 In both northern and southeni 
 peach-producing localities, winter 
 injury seems to be least among 
 
 moderately vigorous trees tha 
 grew well the previous season am 
 that were not weakened by poo) 
 drainage, loss of leaves, borers 
 nematodes, or other factors. 
 
 Injury to Buds 
 
 The mcst common type of wintei 
 injury to peaches in the Northern 
 States is killing of dormant flower- 
 buds. Leafbuds are seldom injured. 
 There is no fixed minimum tempera¬ 
 ture at which dormant flowerbiids 
 are destroyed. Much depends on 
 the tree growth during the previous 
 growing season, age and vigor of 
 tree, variety, state of flowerbud de¬ 
 velopment, rapidity of temperature 
 drop and time of its occurrence, and 
 duration of the low temperature. 
 During midwinter, the critical low 
 temperature for Elberta peaches is 
 about —10° F. How’ever, a rapid 
 drop in temperature after a warm 
 period can lead to budkilling at 
 temperatures much higher than 
 — 10°. Conversely, buds have some- 
 
 42 
 
IGURE 24.—Winter damage, primarily on the southwest side of the tree trunk and lower 
 parts of scaffold limbs, caused by rapid temperature changes. Reflection of sun by snow 
 causes surface temperatures considerably above air temperature. 
 
 imes survived temperatures below 
 -15° in midwinter when the drop 
 ras slow and when it followed a 
 »eriod of relatively cold weather. 
 Differences in flowerbud hardi- 
 .ess between peach varieties some- 
 imes mean the difference between 
 good peach crop and no peach 
 rop. Elberta and J. H. Hale are 
 wo of the more tender varieties, 
 iochester, Veteran, Cumberland, 
 nd Erly-Red-Fre are among the 
 lore hardy varieties. Halehaven, 
 Tolden Jubilee, and Redhaven may 
 e classed as fairly hardy. Some 
 arieties such as Ranger, Redhaven, 
 nd Cumberland often bear fair-to- 
 ood crops after large percentages 
 f the buds have been killed, be- 
 !iuse they characteristically have 
 ■vrge numbers of buds per foot of 
 wig length. Some varieties have 
 0 few buds that killing even a small 
 ercentage may make a good crop 
 npossible. 
 
 Usually there is greater bud mor¬ 
 tality on trees having weak growth. 
 Even where there is some difference 
 in tree growth because of different 
 fertilization, however, there is often 
 little or no difference in bud sur¬ 
 vival during midwinter. 
 
 In many parts of the country, 
 especially in the Central and South¬ 
 ern States, damage often results 
 from low temperatures during or 
 after bloom. As flowerbuds develop 
 in the spring, they quickly become 
 more sensitive to cold. Just before 
 they open, flowerbuds will survive 
 temperatures of about 20° to 23° F. 
 Tlie lowest temperature flowers will 
 withstand at full bloom is about 26°. 
 Ten days to 2 weeks after bloom, 
 they will withstand only about 28°. 
 Buds and flowers will survive tem¬ 
 peratures slightly lower than these 
 if the drop is very slow and if the 
 minimum temperature continues 
 only for a very short time. 
 
 43 
 
Accurate thermometers should be 
 used in the orchards. Early spring 
 temperatures, especially on hill¬ 
 sides, are not uniform even at points 
 only 50 feet apart. The higher part 
 of a sloping site is usually much 
 warmer than is the lower part, since 
 cold air drains downward. A 50- 
 foot difference in elevation on a hill¬ 
 side may mean a difference of as 
 much as 5° F. in minimum tempera¬ 
 ture on a still night. 
 
 Injury to Twigs, Branches, and 
 Trunks 
 
 Even in some of the most southern 
 peach areas, and during mild win¬ 
 ters, wood killing is often serious. 
 Injury is caused by rapid drop in 
 temperature and by immaturity of 
 new wood growth produced in late 
 summer or early fall from the stim¬ 
 ulation of high soil nitrogen con¬ 
 tent, recent heavy pruning, or other 
 factors. Peach trees develop resist¬ 
 ance to cold only if they are ex¬ 
 posed gradually to low tempera¬ 
 tures. Trees that have grown 
 poorly for any reason are especially 
 subject to winter injury to trunks 
 and branches. Weak growth and 
 the resulting winter injury are 
 caused by poor soil drainage, nema¬ 
 tode injury to roots, low soil fertil¬ 
 ity, insect damage, and disease. 
 The critical temperature at which 
 wood injury may occur is not spe¬ 
 cific. Serious trunk damage has re¬ 
 sulted from —20° F. temperature 
 in northern areas during certain 
 years. In both northern and south¬ 
 ern peach-growing regions, the least 
 low-temperature damage seems to 
 occur in trees of moderate vigor and 
 
 where there are no sudden chan^ 
 in temperature. 
 
 Even though wood appears 
 have been damaged by winter co 
 much of it may survive if the tr( 
 are not pruned too early or too i 
 verely and if readily available i 
 trogen is applied to the soil at| 
 somewhat heavier than usual ra| 
 If bark on the trunk is found to j 
 loose after a severe drop in tei 
 perature, it should be tacked 
 place immediately. This Som 
 times prevents the bark and wo-j 
 from drying out, and it may hasti 
 healing. When large branches j 
 trunks have been severely damagtl 
 the injured parts should be paint i 
 with a standard tree paint—wh:' 
 lead and raw linseed oil, or a liqiil 
 (brush) grafting wax. 
 
 Injury to Roots 
 
 Cold injury to peach tree vcki 
 is often overlooked or disregards. 
 Winter injury to roots is usual' 
 more severe in light, sandy soils ail 
 after prolonged cold. It is mui 
 worse where there is no snow ’ 
 other covering on the groun. 
 Cover crops are valuable in prever- 
 ing this type of injurj^. In add 
 tion to directly insulating the roci 
 from cold, cover crops tend to hoi 
 protective snow in place. After &• 
 vere damage to roots, tops should i 
 given a moderately heavy prunin. 
 
 Although freezing of orchard stl 
 may not kill tree roots, it may i 
 tard their absorption of water do¬ 
 ing the winter. Trees grown i 
 light shallow soils in more nort- 
 ern States are, of course, most like' 
 to be injured by soil freezing. 
 
 HARVESTING, TRANSPORTING, AND STORING FRUIT* 
 
 The peach grower’s choice of a 
 time to pick his crop depends 
 largely on how he intends to market 
 it. The current trend is to pick 
 
 more mature peaches than former 
 because their eating quality is b( 
 ter. If peachas are to be trucked 
 nearby markets, they may lie p 
 
 ' This section was originally prepared by M. H. Haller. Revised by W. H. Red 
 and W. L. Smith, Jr. Market Quality Research Division. 
 
 44 
 
, owed to become nearly ripe on the 
 rees. For shipping greater dis- 
 ances, most peaches are picked in 
 he firm ripe stage and precooled 
 ,)efore shipment. During transit, 
 ,liis fruit should be maintained at 
 )r below the precooling temperature 
 o delay ripening and thus reduce 
 )ruising. Because peaches mature 
 inevenly, it is usually advisable to 
 make several pickings, beginning 
 ivith the largest, best-colored fruit, 
 ^^or freestone varieties, standards of 
 inaturity are based on the change of 
 rround color from, green to yellow 
 ,ind on flesh firmness, as determined 
 )y using a Magness-Taylor pressure 
 lester (fig. 25). Elberta peaches 
 iBsting 10 to 14 pounds with a %e- 
 iRch-diameter plunger applied to 
 he pared cheeks will hold up in re- 
 ‘rigerated shipment for several 
 lays and will ripen with satisfac- 
 ory dessert quality. For nearby 
 •narketing, less firmness may be de- 
 ■irable. About the same range in 
 Dressiire testing is satisfactory for 
 many varieties other than Elberta. 
 
 Drop-bottom picking bags are 
 low widely used for peaches. 
 
 Padded, drop-bottom picking buck¬ 
 ets (fig. 26) afford greater protec¬ 
 tion from bruising. Pickers should 
 exercise great care in handling 
 peaches to avoid bruising the fruit 
 and breaking the skin. They must 
 be careful not to drop fruit, either 
 when placing it in picking buckets 
 or bags or when transferring it to 
 field crates. Picked fruit should be 
 left in the shade of a tree until it 
 can be hauled to the packinghouse. 
 
 Tub baskets, particularly the ■%- 
 bushel size, with vented liners and 
 cushioning pads are the most com¬ 
 monly used shipping containers for 
 eastern peaches. However, they 
 have these undesirable features: 
 Peaches in the bottom, especially if 
 they are ripe and soft, are likely to 
 be bmisecl and mashed by the 
 weight of tliose above them; peaches 
 on the top are often cut and brused 
 by the rim of the lid; and tub bas¬ 
 kets are not rigid and do not stack 
 well. Peaches in these baskets are 
 usually “faced,” which adds consid¬ 
 erably to the cost. To meet the de¬ 
 mand of “nonfacing” and to try to 
 reduce bruising, a new type of tub 
 
 FIGURE 25.—Pressure tester used to determine maturity of peaches. 
 
 45 
 
FIGURE 26.—Harvesting peaches in a drop- 
 bottom picking bucket designed to prevent 
 bruising. 
 
 basket, the “flat-top” or “Pallet- 
 Pak,” also has been widely tested. 
 This basket has no handles. The 
 sides are raised and the lid is placed 
 so as to prevent the nonnal bulge 
 present in the conventional tub bas¬ 
 ket. Stacking quality is improved, 
 also. 
 
 Wirebound crates have been 
 tested, and some are gaining popu¬ 
 larity in many areas. The advan¬ 
 tage of these containers over tub 
 baskets, is that fmits are packed in 
 bulk without “facing,” which re¬ 
 duces the cost of filling. Some re¬ 
 ports indicate there is less bruising 
 m these containers than in tub bas¬ 
 kets. The Spartan wirebound crate 
 was the first of this type of contain¬ 
 er tested. Although it was once used 
 extensively, its present use is limit¬ 
 ed. The Du-All, another type of 
 wirebound crate, has the sides and 
 lx>ttom lined with chipboard. The 
 ends and a partial telescopic cover 
 are made of parathn-impregnated 
 
 4 
 
 ii 
 
 t 
 
 fiberboard. At present, the Du-AllJ 
 is second only to the tub basket in' 
 popularity as a peach-shipping con-li 
 tainer. ! 
 
 Fiberboard cartons with tele-;' 
 scopic lids also have been extensivel} “ 
 and, in some areas, successfully test¬ 
 ed. Most of these containers how-. 
 ever, will not withstand hydrocool-> 
 ing. To eliminate the effects of wet- ■ 
 ting the fiberboard cartons currentl} i 
 in use, many growers are hydrocool -1 
 ing the fruit in field boxes or in bulk; 
 hydrocoolei’s before packing in ship¬ 
 ping containers. 
 
 The use of paper or plastic cup 
 treys in fiberboard cartons is becom- > 
 ing increasingly popular for ship¬ 
 ping large and fancy peaches. 
 These trays also reduce transit 
 bruising of softer fmit harvested at i 
 a riper stage. Such fruit requires 
 precooling before packing in these 
 trays.^ 
 
 At the high outdoor temperatures 
 that prevail during the peach-mar¬ 
 keting season, picked fruit ripens 
 rapidly. Peaches picked at the 
 shipping stage of maturity become 
 eating ripe in 2 to 4 days at tern 
 peratures of 70° to 80° F. Ripening 
 proceeds alx>ut half as fast at 60'^ 
 as it does at 70° to 80° and aboul < 
 half as fast at 50° as at 60°. At 60° 
 and above, peaches ripen with good i 
 aroma and flavor. If they are held i 
 at 50° until ripe, the flavor is un-’ 
 desirable. At 40°, ripening pro-,; 
 ceeds about half as fast as at 50°.M 
 and the peaches usually break down'. 
 internally before they become full)’ j 
 ripe. Temperatures of 36° and 32°1' 
 hold ripening practically at a stand-T 
 still. After being exposed no longei | 
 than 1 week to 50° temperature or ^ 
 lower, peaches will ripen normall) i 
 at room temperature. After ex¬ 
 posure for 10 days or longer to tern- i 
 peratures between 36° and 50°.'-^ 
 peaches are likely to break down in¬ 
 ternally or to become mealy or off- 
 flavored if ripened at room temper- 
 
 ’For detailed instructions on grading and packing peaches, see U.S. Dept. Agr 
 1960. PREPARING PEACHES FOR MARKET. Mktg. Bul. 9, 21 pp., illUS. 
 
 46 
 
atnre. Peaches can be held some¬ 
 what longer at 32° than at 36° to 
 50° without losing the capacity to 
 ripen normally when exposed to 
 ripening temperatures. 
 
 Peaches are sometimes stored for 
 short, periods to extend the market¬ 
 ing season and the commercial can¬ 
 ning season. Fruit that is to be 
 stored should be cooled to a tempera¬ 
 ture of 31° or 32° F. promptly after 
 picking. Even under the most fa¬ 
 vorable conditions, peaches cannot 
 usually be stored longer than 2 to 
 3 weeks. Loss of the capacity of 
 stored peaches to ripen with good 
 dessert, quality and without break¬ 
 down cannot be readily determined 
 by casual inspection. The proper 
 ,ime for bringing fruit out of stor¬ 
 age and marketing it must be deter- 
 iumed by experience with the vari¬ 
 ety. The storage life of eJ. H. Hale 
 peaches cooled promptly to a tem¬ 
 perature between 31° and 32° may 
 pe 3 or 4 weeks. That of Elberta, 
 liedhaven, and Golden Jubilee 
 peaches similarly cooled is 2 to 3 
 weeks. 
 
 Peaches freeze at about 30° F. 
 
 To allow for cold spots in the stor¬ 
 age room and to provide a margin 
 of safety, peaches should not be 
 held in a room with an air tempera¬ 
 ture lower than 31° or 32°. 
 
 Because of the influence of tem¬ 
 perature on ripening, peaches 
 should be moved to market rapidly 
 and under the coolest possible con¬ 
 ditions. However, if they can be 
 delivered to market the morning 
 after they are picked, an unrefrig¬ 
 erated truck is usually satisfactory. 
 Nearly all peaches harvested in the 
 Southeast and a great many in the 
 East and Middle West are now be¬ 
 ing hydrocooled before shipping. 
 Most peach hydrocoolers are ice re¬ 
 frigerated, but the use of mechani¬ 
 cal refrigeration is steadily increas¬ 
 ing. The hydrocoolers are installed 
 in the packinghouses as part of the 
 packing lines. Peach containers 
 are moved through the hydrocooler 
 under a flood of cold water (fig. 27). 
 The water should be maintained as 
 close to 32° as possible by proper 
 refrigeration. The rate of cooling 
 is affected by size and initial tem¬ 
 perature of the fruit, by water 
 
 IGURE 27.—Typical peach hydrocooler in operation. (Courtesy of Food Machinery and 
 
 Chemical Corporation, Lakeland, Fla.) 
 
 47 
 
temperature, and by time in the 
 cooler (controlled by varying the 
 conveyor speed). Fruit tempera¬ 
 tures can be reduced 20° to 30° in 
 10 to 15 minutes. Wooden contain¬ 
 ers, such as wirebound crates and 
 baskets, are satisfactory for hydro¬ 
 cooling. But, as previously stated, 
 fiberboard cartons must be treated 
 or made of moisture-resistant ma¬ 
 terials to successfully withstand 
 wetting. Bulk hydrocoolers have 
 recently become available and are 
 being used to a limited extent, usu¬ 
 ally when peaches are to be packed 
 in the plastic cup trays or in fiber- 
 board boxes. 
 
 Ice-refrigerated trucks or trailers 
 used for shipping peaches should be 
 equipped with proper air circulat¬ 
 ing fans or blowers. They should 
 have floor racks or stripping, and 
 all doors and vent covers should be 
 fitted tightly to minimize air leak¬ 
 age. Floors should be cleaned be¬ 
 fore loading. From 1 to 3 inches 
 of insulation is necessary. Enough 
 ice must be maintained in the bunk¬ 
 ers to insure a temperature of 50° 
 F. or lower during transit. Fan- 
 equipped refrigerator cars should 
 be used and moved with the fans in 
 operation. IITien a car is held on 
 track at destination for more than a 
 few hours, electric hold motors 
 should be attached to operate the 
 fans. Fan operation will maintain 
 more uniform load temperatures 
 and prevent undue ripening that 
 would occur in warm spots in the 
 load. 
 
 Mechanically refrigerated cars 
 and trucks are more desirable be¬ 
 cause they provide better control of 
 transit temperatures than do ice¬ 
 refrigerated vehicles. 
 
 In areas where hydrocooling is 
 not available, peaches should be 
 room precooled or precooled in ice- 
 refrigerated cars by operating car 
 fans with special electric precooling 
 motors or by the use of portable 
 precooling fans installed temporar¬ 
 ily in the top bunker openings. Up 
 
 to 4 percent of salt should be adde( 
 to the ico to increase the cooling 
 rate. Such car precooling may b 
 done to advantage only if facilitie 
 are available for replenishing th 
 ice in the bunkers promptly afte 
 precooling, in order to maintaii 
 during transit the low temperature; 
 established by the precoolinp 
 Portable, mechanically refrigerates 
 units may also be used for precool 
 ing in cars or trucks. By these dif 
 ferent methods, it is possible' ti 
 lower the average temperature of i 
 load of peaches about 20° to 25° F 
 in 5 or 6 hours. 
 
 Warm peaches loaded in mechan 
 ically refrigerated cars or in th 
 new thermostatically controlle< 
 ice-refrigerated fan cars with con 
 tinuously running, power-operatc 
 fans may be cooled in transit with 
 out being held on track at loadin, 
 point for precooling, as is requirei 
 with conventional ice bunker fa; 
 cars. Since mechanical cars ar 
 usually not designed for rapid cool 
 ing, it takes from 18 to 36 hours t 
 reduce the fruit temperature to 50 
 F. However, with proper thermc, 
 stat setting, lower temperatures ca 
 eventually be reached and main 
 tained in transit in these cars tha 
 can be obtained in the conventions 
 iced car. 
 
 In most peach-producing region; 
 the development of decay durin 
 marketing is a serious problem, pai 
 ticularly in seasons wdien rainfa 
 and humidity are high at or nea 
 the harvest period. The two prir 
 cipal decays of peaches are brow 
 rot and rhizopus rot (fig. 28). Bot 
 decays are caused by fungi. Brow 
 rot occurs chiefly in the orchan 
 and how much brown rot occurs i 
 peaches after harvest depenc 
 largely on how well the rot has bee 
 controlled in the orchard by sprai 
 ing and sanitary measures. Indici 
 tions also are that, unless the hydn 
 cooler and hydrocooling water ai 
 kept clean, the hydrocooling open 
 tion may serve as a method of inoci 
 kiting peaches with spores of tl 
 
 48 
 
FIGURE 28 .—Postharvest decays of peaches. Left, brown rot; and right, rhizopus rot. 
 
 ♦rown rot and rhizopus rot or- 
 :anism. Kliizopus rot usually oc- 
 urs during harvest, in packing- 
 ouses, or in transit. At tempera- 
 ares of 60° to 80° F., both brown 
 ot and rhizopus rot develop and 
 pread rapidly. Both can usually 
 e checked by cooling the peaches as 
 oon as possible after harvest and 
 eeping them at temperatures below 
 0° throughout the marketing pe- 
 iod. Since ripening also is re- 
 iirded by these temperatures, there 
 lust be some point during market- 
 ig or after the peaches reach the 
 onsumer when they must be ex- 
 osed to temperatures high enough 
 ) ripen them. At such tempera- 
 ires, decay will develop rapidly, 
 herefore, although low tempera- 
 ires during transit and marketing 
 lay make it possible to market the 
 "uit before decay becomes serious, 
 ley do not reduce the total amount 
 f decay that can develop in the 
 niit by the time it has been ripened 
 lough to eat. For this reason, 
 her means of controlling decay are 
 JBcessary. 
 
 During hydrocooling, the ice- 
 ater treatment by itself only tem- 
 ararily slows the growth of decay- 
 roducing organisms. To prevent 
 
 the increase of these organisms in 
 the hydrocooling water, chlorine in 
 the form of calcium or sodium 
 hypochlorite at concentrations of 
 100 to 120 parts per million is usu¬ 
 ally added to the water. However, 
 this chemical is not vety effective in 
 preventing the development of 
 brown rot originating from orchard 
 infection. The effectiveness of this 
 chemical in preventing a buildup of 
 organisms in hydrocooling water is 
 greatly reduced if the hydrocooler 
 and the hydrocooling water are 
 dirty. Other chemicals that effec¬ 
 tively reduce these rots have been 
 found, but no satisfactory method of 
 applying them commercially has 
 been developed. 
 
 Recent tests have shown that both 
 brown rot and rhizopus rot were 
 effectively reduced when peaches 
 were treated in water at 130° F. for 
 2 to 3 minutes. The use of hot 
 water to reduce these decays, how¬ 
 ever, is still in the experimental 
 stage, although it was used success¬ 
 fully in one packinghouse in 1963 
 and 1964. The temperature of the 
 water and the length of exposure are 
 critical. A long exposure or water 
 temperature much above 130° may 
 
 49 
 
seriously injure the fruit. Skin 
 mottling of some varieties occurred 
 even with the recommended treat¬ 
 ment. Therefore, low temperatures 
 
 DISEASES CAUSED BY 
 
 Tlie principal fungus and bacte¬ 
 rial diseases of peaches grown east 
 of the Rocky Mountains are brown 
 rot, scab, and bacterial spot. These 
 three widely distributed diseases 
 frequently cause heavy losses to 
 peach growers, shippers, and con¬ 
 sumers. Other fungus and bacterial 
 diseases of peaches in this region in¬ 
 clude leaf curl, rust, constriction, 
 crown gall, powdery mildew, root 
 rots of various types, and dieback.® 
 
 Brown Rot 
 
 Brown rot, the common rot of 
 peaches, starts frequently at an in¬ 
 sect puncture as a tiny, circular, 
 brown spot on green or ripening 
 fruit. It is sometimes referred to as 
 
 are still the most effective means 
 presently available for delaying 
 the development of decay during 
 marketing. 
 
 FUNGI AND BACTERIA® 
 
 gray mold and ripe rot. The sur¬ 
 face area affected enlarges rapidly 
 The rot penetrates deeply in tlu 
 flesh of the peach. Although th( 
 entire peach becomes rotted, it 
 usually retains its fonn and remains 
 attached to the tree for some time 
 It then either falls or, if retained or 
 the tree, gradually shrinks and dries 
 into a hard brown to black mummy 
 Masses of ash-colored spores art 
 produced on the rotted surface; this 
 gives the peach a brownish-gray ap 
 pearance (fig. 29). These spores 
 known as conidia, may be carried b} 
 insects, birds, wind, or splashing 
 raindrops—or even by man—1( 
 nearby healthy peaches, which the} 
 infect. 
 
 FIGURE 29.—Peaches covered with spores of the brown rot fungus. The infection spreads t- 
 the twig from the blighted blossom still attached to it, and to the fruit from the twig. 
 
 ® This section was prepared by H. L. Keil, Crops Research Division. 
 
 ®The organisms causing diseases mentioned are as follows: Brown rot, J/oMihafr 
 fnictieola (Wint.) Honey; scab, Cadosporium carpophilum Thuem.; bacterial siM)t 
 Xanthomonas pruni (E.F. Sm.) Dows.; leaf curl, Taphrina deformans (Berk.) Tul. 
 rust, Tranzschelia discolor (Fekl.) Tranz. & Litv.; constriction Fusieoccnm amygdaL 
 Del.; crowm gall, Agrohacterium tumefaciens (E.F. Sm. & Towns.) Conn.; powder 
 mildew, Podosphaera oxyacanthae (DC.) DBy, and Sphaerotheca pannosa Wallr. e 
 Lev; root rots, ArmiUaria mellea Vahl ex Fr. and allied fungi. Falsa leueostovu 
 Pers. ex. Fr., Polyporus palustris Berk. & Curt, and Stereum complicatum (FV.) Fr 
 and other fungi are commonly associated with dieback. 
 
 50 
 
If peach mummies are allowed to 
 remain on the tree, the fungus may 
 grow into the twigs and cause 
 cankers, which may girdle and kill 
 the twigs. In the South, mummies 
 that remain on the trees rarely car¬ 
 ry the fungus through the winter. 
 In the North, however, mummies 
 eft on the trees over winter often 
 produce numerous fungus spores 
 he following spring (fig. 30). 
 
 IGURE 30.—Peach mummies producing 
 spores (conidia) of the brown rot fungus. 
 
 diese spores may be carried to 
 •each blossoms and may infect 
 liem. This produces the phase of 
 he disease known as blossom blight, 
 lummies clinging to the tree should 
 e removed and destroyed in the fall 
 r winter. If mummies are allowed 
 > accumulate under the trees and 
 lecome partly buried, they fre- 
 uently produce goblet-shaped 
 ruiting bodies (fig. 31) known as 
 pothecia, which shoot spores of an¬ 
 ther kind (ascospores) in the air. 
 hese spores, like the conidia, may 
 ifect blossoms. 
 
 Only occasionally does the brown 
 )t fungus destroy enough blossoms 
 
 I a peach orchard to thin the crop 
 )o much. But even a scattering of 
 lighted blossoms through the trees 
 ‘riously threatens the crop’s safety, 
 he fungus may attack any part of 
 le blossom and cause it to turn 
 cay or light brown. The blossom 
 soon covered with the gray spores 
 ' the fungus, if wet weather pre- 
 •dls. From the infected blossom, 
 le fungus may penetrate the twig, 
 
 II twig tissues, and produce a 
 aiker. Gum oozes from the twig 
 inker and causes the blighted blos¬ 
 
 FIGURE 31.—Goblet-shaped fruiting bodies 
 (apothecia) developing from partly buried 
 peach mummy. 
 
 som to adhere to the twig (fig. 
 32). The blighted blossom produces 
 masses of conidia during the cur¬ 
 rent growing season and sometimes 
 even the following season. Thus, it 
 serves as a source of infection to the 
 ripening fruit. 
 
 Brown rot may be controlled by 
 removing rotted fruit from the trees 
 and by removing mummies from 
 the ground or by cultivating under¬ 
 neath the tree to prevent the brown 
 rot fungus from fruiting on old 
 mummies left on the ground. The 
 trees should be properly pruned so 
 that they can be sprayed thor¬ 
 oughly. The fruit should be 
 thinned to reduce spread of the dis¬ 
 ease from infected to healthy 
 peaches. Insects such as the plum 
 curculio and the oriental fruit moth, 
 which puncture fruits and provide 
 entrance for brown rot spores, 
 should be controlled. The fruit 
 should be sprayed or dusted at reg¬ 
 ular internals during the season. 
 
 51 
 
FIGURE 32.—Gum oozins from brown rot 
 twig canker. 
 
 The best way to control brown rot 
 is by spraying or dusting. 
 
 Until a few years ago, sulfur was 
 the most widely recommended chem¬ 
 ical for controlling brown rot. Re¬ 
 cently, however, sulfur has been 
 partly replaced by organic chemi¬ 
 cals such as dichlone and captan. 
 Dichlone (50-percent wettable pow¬ 
 der) applied during the early bloom 
 stage at one-fourth and one-half 
 pound per 100 gallons of water ef¬ 
 fectively reduces blossom blight in¬ 
 fection and the resulting twig 
 cankers. Dichlone, however, should 
 not be used following bloom because 
 it may injure the fruit. Captan, 
 although somewhat more expensive 
 than sulfur, has proved less injuri¬ 
 ous and is more effective in con¬ 
 trolling the disease. The materials, 
 concentrations, and number of ap¬ 
 plications recommended vary among 
 different localities. Growers should 
 
 consult their State agricultural co 
 leges for local recommendations. 
 
 In general, sulfur (6 pounds pe 
 100 gallons of water) or captan ( 
 pounds per 100 gallons of water 
 should be sprayed or dusted five t 
 eight times a season, depending o 
 the variety and on the weather, s 
 the following intervals: (1) Durin 
 l)ink bud before the blossoms oper 
 (2) at blossom time; (3) whe 
 three-fourths of the shucks ha\ 
 dropped; (4) 10 days after shuc 
 spray; (5) 10 days after the fourt 
 application; (6) 2 weeks after tl 
 fifth application; (7) 2 weeks aft< 
 the sixth application; and (8) 2 to 
 weeks after the seventh applicatio) 
 Sprays or dusts should be applie 
 frequently enough after the fift 
 application to maintain adequat 
 protection against brown rc 
 Dusts are sometimes used just b 
 fore harvest because they do ni 
 leave an objectionable deposi 
 which sprays sometimes do. R 
 cently, growers have successful* 
 stored peaches longer by dippir 
 harvested fruit in a water-capts 
 suspension. 
 
 Tests have shown that brown r 
 is not so much of a problem if tl 
 plum curculio and oriental frii 
 moth are kept under control. (S' 
 section on “Peach Insects,” p. 67 
 
 Scab 
 
 Scab, known also as black spot • 
 freckles, is a fungus dise^ase < 
 peaches in which circular spots on 
 sixteenth to one-eighth inch 
 diameter appear on the fruit usual 
 near the stem end of the expos* 
 surface (fig. 33). These spots a- 
 faintly green at first but soon b 
 come olive green to black, with we 
 defined margins. IVlien numeroi 
 the spots run together and form 
 large, black, scablike area involvir 
 as much as half the surface of f 
 peach. The scabby area frequent 
 splits open; this exposes the fle.s 
 which may then be infected 1*^ 
 
 52 
 
IGURE 33.—Scab spots on peacheS/ show¬ 
 ing the cracking that often develops when 
 the spots are numerous. 
 
 ,poi-es of the brown rot fungus or 
 hizopus rot fungus. Where scab 
 •nfections are numerous, the fruit is 
 ikely to be so stimted and mis- 
 hapen that it cannot be used. 
 
 The scab fungus attacks tender 
 reen shoots of the current season, 
 •roducing small, brown, oval cank- 
 rs that frequently have purplish 
 orders. These cankers are seldom 
 lore than one-eighth inch long, and 
 ley extend only slightly below the 
 Lirface. They rarely cause serious 
 eakening of twigs, but the fungus 
 1 them may remain alive during 
 le winter and produce spores the 
 allowmg spring that may infect 
 le new crop of fruit. Lesions, 
 hich at first may be pale green and 
 mitually become dark green, may 
 Iso be found on the under surfaces 
 f leaves. Only in extremely severe 
 ises does defoliation occur. 
 
 Scab can readily be controlled by 
 pplying sulfur as either a spray or 
 dust. The spray must be ap- 
 lied 2 weeks after the shucks have 
 t’opped from the peaches and again 
 weeks later. Because scab spots 
 ive not appeared on the fruit, 
 ''owers may think their crops are 
 fe from the disease. This is not 
 'vays true, because infections oc- 
 ir early in the season and the fun¬ 
 is grows so slowly that spots are 
 it visible until 40 to 60 days after 
 fection. When the spots do ap- 
 •ifir, it is usually too late for spray- 
 g or dusting. 
 
 Captan will control scab, but it is 
 It so effective as sulfur, especially 
 
 if used at concentrations of less 
 than 2 pounds per 100 gallons of 
 water. For this reason, sulfur 
 should be used when feasible. 
 
 Bacterial Spot 
 
 Bacterial spot, sometimes called 
 bacteriosis, bacterial shot hole, or 
 just shot hole, results from entrance 
 of a certain kind of bacteria into 
 uninjured tissues of leaves, twigs, 
 and fruit. On leaves, the first sign 
 of the disease is the appearance of 
 small, water-soaked areas that de¬ 
 velop into purple or purplish-brown 
 spots (fig. 34), which are generally 
 angular in shape. The individual 
 spots are small at first, but they may 
 run together. Eventually, the af¬ 
 fected tissues die and separate from 
 the healthy tissues, producing a 
 characteristic ragged, shot-hole ap¬ 
 pearance—hence the name “shot 
 hole.” When many leaves are af¬ 
 fected, especially on weak trees, pre¬ 
 mature leaf fall often results. The 
 disease is first visible on the fruit as 
 tiny, watery-looking, slightly 
 sunken spots. As the peach grows, 
 cracks and fissures of various sizes 
 develop and mar the appearance of 
 the fruit (fig. 34, C ). The cracking 
 around the spots of dead tissue 
 makes the fruit unmarketable and 
 frequently permits the entrance of 
 brown rot or other fruit rot fungi. 
 
 Cankers are formed on the twigs 
 at various times during the growing 
 season. Some develop on green 
 shoots late in summer (“summer 
 cankers”), usually after foliage in¬ 
 fection has become established. 
 Some develop on young, succulent 
 twigs in the spring (“spring cank¬ 
 ers”) , about the time the first leaves 
 appear. Bacteria responsible for 
 initial infection in the spring are 
 believed to originate from spring 
 rather than summer cankers. 
 
 Bacterial spot is present in all 
 States east of the Rocky Mountains 
 where peaches and plums are grown. 
 It causes serious annual losses, 
 chiefly where soils are light and low 
 
 53 
 
FIGURE 34.—Symptoms of bacterial spot (A) on peach leaf, (S) on young peach shoots 
 
 and (C) on mature J. H. Hale peaches. 
 
 54 
 
n fertility. Although as much as 
 '•5 percent of the fruit of susceptible 
 'arieties may be discarded because 
 if bacterial spot, the greatest loss is 
 lue to devitalization of the tree re- 
 ulting from defoliation. Vigorous 
 rees are less susceptible to the dis- 
 ase than are neglected trees, 
 ^roper pruning, cultivating, fertil- 
 zing, and other good orchard-man- 
 gement practices are recommended 
 ,s control measures. But these 
 lone will not control severe bac- 
 erial spot infection, especially 
 A’here soil improvement is difficult. 
 Removing sources of overwintering 
 nfections has not as yet been suc- 
 essful. 
 
 Bacterial spot has been held in 
 heck in some areas by a series of 
 pray applications at 5- to 7-day in- 
 ervals, starting at petal fall, 
 fowever, when the disease is severe 
 n other areas, the best materials 
 vailable have been only about 50 
 lercent effective. More effective 
 laterials than those now used are 
 leeded. 
 
 Many sprays for controlling bac- 
 erial spot have been tested over the 
 >ast 30 years, but none can be con- 
 idered successful. The most satis- 
 actory combination used today is 
 be zinc-lime spray. The formula 
 ecommended is: 
 
 inc sulfate (monohy¬ 
 drate)-._ 5 pounds. 
 
 [ydrated lime_ 8 pounds. 
 
 I'ater-100 gallons. 
 
 A monohydrate zinc sulfate (Zn- 
 'O 4 .H 2 O) containing 36 percent 
 inc can be obtained through whole¬ 
 salers and distributors who handle 
 pray materials. This material 
 ihould be stored in a dry place and 
 ept well covered so that it cannot 
 bsorb moisture from the air and 
 ecome lumpy. The hydrated lime 
 bould be fresh and of high quality, 
 die grade known in the trade as 
 •hemical or spray is especially 
 ecommended. 
 
 The spray should be prepared as 
 ollows: Fill the tank three-fourths 
 
 full of water. Start the engine and 
 slowly sift the zinc sulfate into the 
 water while the agitator is moving. 
 If the zinc sulfate is not caked, it 
 will dissolve in less than 5 minutes. 
 After the zinc sulfate has dissolved, 
 slowly add the hydrated lime and 
 continue agitating while the tank 
 fills with water. If other fungi¬ 
 cides and insecticides are used in 
 combination with zinc sulfate, they 
 should be added at this time. Cap- 
 tan should not be used with strongly 
 alkaline materials, such as hydrated 
 lime. 
 
 The zinc-lime spray will not con¬ 
 trol scab and brown rot. Sulfur 
 sprays, which are commonly used 
 on peaches to control bacterial spot, 
 may safely be applied to peach trees 
 in mixture with the zinc-lime spray. 
 
 To reduce bacterial spot, some in¬ 
 vestigators have suggested the use 
 of Bordeaux mixture spray (copper 
 sulfate plus hydrated lime in water) 
 applied either in the fall when the 
 leaves are ready to drop or in the 
 spring before the buds open. Be¬ 
 cause of its tendency to burn 
 peaches, copper should never be ap¬ 
 plied during the growing season. 
 If you wish to try Bordeaux mix¬ 
 ture, do so only on recommendation 
 of your county agent or State agri¬ 
 cultural extension scientists. 
 
 Leaf Curl 
 
 Leaf curl, often referred to as 
 “curl,” “curl leaf,” or “leaf blister,” 
 is an economically important dis¬ 
 ease occurring in all peach-growing 
 regions east of the Bocky Moun¬ 
 tains. It is due to a fungus that 
 causes the early appearing peach 
 leaves to acquire a red to purplish 
 tint, wdiich makes them conspic¬ 
 uous. These leaves become thick¬ 
 ened, blistered, and distorted; turn 
 reddish yellow or yellowish gray; 
 and later turn brown and drop. The 
 actual time of leaf fall depends on 
 the prevailing weather conditions. 
 Dry, hot weather usually hastens 
 
 55 
 
leaf fall. The spores of the fungous 
 overwinter on the twigs and buds 
 of the peach tree, germinate, and in¬ 
 fect the young leaves as they begin 
 to develop in tlie spring. 
 
 If only a small percentage of the 
 leaves are affected, the fruit set will 
 not be materially reduced and the 
 trees will not be seriously injured. 
 But if the number of affected leaves 
 is large enough to cause liea\^ de¬ 
 foliation at or near blooming time, 
 the disease may prevent fruit set 
 and devitalize the tree so that it be¬ 
 comes subject to winter injury and 
 attacks by other disease-producing 
 organisms. 
 
 Peach leaf curl can be controlled 
 by a single application of lime- 
 sulfur solution, Bordeaux mixture, 
 ferbam, or dichlone made in the fall 
 after the trees shed their leaves; 
 during the winter when the tem¬ 
 perature is above freezing; or in the 
 spring before the buds begin to 
 swell. If application is delayed un¬ 
 til after the leaves start to grow, 
 the disease will not be successfully 
 controlled and some materials ap¬ 
 plied at the suggested concentra¬ 
 tions may seriously injure the trees. 
 
 A lime-sulfur solution usually 
 gives satisfactory control when 
 used at the rate of 4 to 6 gallons per 
 100 gallons of water. However, 
 when leaf curl is severe, somewhat 
 liigher rates may be required. A 
 6-6-100 Bordeaux mixture (6 
 pounds of copper sulfate plus 6 
 pounds of hydrated lime in 100 gal¬ 
 lons of water), ferbam at the rate 
 of 2 pK>unds per 100 gallons, or dich¬ 
 lone (50 percent wettable powder) 
 at the rate of 1 pound per 100 gal¬ 
 lons of water will also give satis¬ 
 factory control of peach leaf curl if 
 applied according to directions. 
 All buds on the tree are subject to 
 infection and must, for complete 
 protection, be thoroughly covered 
 with the spray. 
 
 Bordeaux mixture may be used in 
 combination with an oil emulsion in 
 the dormant application to control 
 
 certain insects. The oil should b 
 added after the Bordeaux mixtur 
 is placed in the spray tank. 
 
 Rust 
 
 Rust is a disease that appears tc 
 ward the end of the growing seasoi 
 It usually affects the peach leaves 
 but sometimes, under certain cHinal 
 ic conditions, it appears on twig' 
 bark, and fruit. This disease i 
 found most commonly in vth 
 warmer sections of the stone frui 
 areas. Numerous pale, yellowis 
 spots that later become bright yel! 
 low are evident on the leaf. D: 
 rectly underneath these spots on th 
 lower leaf surface, powdeiy, cir 
 namon-brown spore masses develo] 
 In some seasons, rust infections b( 
 come so numerous that they caus 
 premature leaf fall, which weaker 
 the tree. At present, no measure 
 for controlling this disease are prae 
 ticed east of the Rocky Mountain 
 
 Constriction 
 
 Constriction, sometimes referre 
 to as Fusicoccum canker or peac 
 canker, is a fungus disease that hi 
 become economically important tl 
 past two decades in the North A 
 lantic and Middle Atlantic State 
 This disease affects twigs, blossom 
 leaves, and fruit. Dark-brown cai 
 kers, which later become grayis 
 tan, appear at the nodes of the cii 
 rent season’s twigs. These cankei 
 often girdle the twig, make it wil 
 and eventually kill the affecte 
 branch. Among the varieties & 
 verely affected by the disease a? 
 Golden Jubilee, Raritan Rose, Ca 
 dinal, Jerseyland, Triogem, J. I 
 Hale, and Redhaven. Recent stu< 
 ies have been made in New Jers( 
 on control of late season infectic 
 by postharvest applications of ma> 
 nesium arsenate and a certain o 
 ganic mercury compound. Furth* 
 tests are necessary, however, befo 
 these materials can be recommendi 
 for use by peach growers. 
 
 56 
 
Crown Gall 
 
 Crown gall is a bacterial disease 
 haracterized by formation of swell- 
 igs or galls on the trunks (usually 
 t the crown) and roots of the trees, 
 'his disease, although prevalent 
 nd severe in some sections of the 
 louthem States, may be found in 
 11 peach-growing areas east of the 
 iocky Mountains. In many cases, 
 le disease has been traced back to 
 le planting of infected nursery 
 rees. Nursery trees showing crown 
 all should not be planted. They 
 ill not grow well or mature, and 
 acteria are likely to spread to other 
 'ees. Removing the galls does not 
 ‘-•ee the tree of infection, and little 
 m be done to control the disease 
 nee it becomes established in an 
 rchard. Considerable research is 
 sing done to find a control for the 
 isease in the nursery; but no prac- 
 cal, satisfactory control has yet 
 sen developed. 
 
 Powdery Mildew 
 
 Powdery mildew, a fungus dis- 
 tse, was seldom a serious problem 
 i eastern commercial peach or- 
 lards until use of organic chemical 
 )rays replaced use of sulfur sprays, 
 lien sulfur is used, powdery mil- 
 3w occurs infrequently and is of no 
 onomic importance. However, 
 X)ut 2 years after the organic com- 
 lunds are used, powdery mildew 
 ay often become prevalent and 
 use serious damage. The powdery 
 ildew fungus attacks leaves, young 
 loots, and fruit. The leaves may 
 ' spotted with white to gray 
 itches or may be entirely covered 
 a white, powdery layer of the 
 mgus. The fungus may extend 
 ■ er the entire temiinal portion of 
 c growing shoot and may some- 
 aies kill it. Small, white round 
 •ots first appear on the fruit, 
 h^ spots may increase in size 
 'itil a large jxirtion or the whole 
 rface of the fruit is involved, 
 fuits so attacked may turn a dull 
 
 reddish to pinkish color, and may 
 later turn brown. Wliere powdery 
 mildew becomes serious, sulfur 
 spray or organic compound sprays 
 that include a small amount of sul¬ 
 fur should be used. 
 
 Fungus Root Rots 
 
 Root rots due to several different 
 fungi may, at times, cause the death 
 of peach trees. The first evidence 
 of root rot may be the appearance of 
 small, yellowish leaves that cover 
 the entire tree or that are confined 
 to one or two branches. The entire 
 tree or the affected branches may die 
 by the end of the summer; or they 
 may survive the winter and die the 
 following year. Once a tree is af¬ 
 fected, there is little hope of saving 
 it. Research now being conducted 
 with certain soil fumigants may 
 help solve this problem. Growers 
 finding an appreciable number of 
 trees affected with root rot should 
 consult their State agricultural ex¬ 
 tension service. 
 
 Dieback 
 
 “Dieback” is a general name given 
 to a number of conditions that cause 
 the death of peach twigs and 
 branches. Dieback may be caused 
 by various types of fungi and also 
 by some bacterial organisms. These 
 organisms frequently infect the 
 buds or wounds and produce cank¬ 
 ers that usually enlarge slowly, 
 sometimes girdling the affected limb 
 or twig. When this occurs during 
 the growing season, the leaves take 
 on a yellowish color and then sud¬ 
 denly wilt and die. Sometimes a 
 gumlike substiance is produced on 
 the surface of the canker. In many 
 cases, infection has been associated 
 with spray injury, frost damage, 
 and improperly healed pruning 
 wounds. Insofar as possible, prac¬ 
 tices should be followed that pro¬ 
 duce the maximum quantity of 
 marketable fruit with the least 
 damage to the tree. 
 
 57 
 
DISEASES CAUSED BY VIRUSES 
 
 Virus diseases were first associ¬ 
 ated with peach culture in the 19th 
 century. Stories of the devastation 
 and losses resulting from epidemics 
 of peach yellows in Northeastern 
 United States during the 18(X)'s 
 serve as reminders that virus dis¬ 
 eases can be serious if they are left 
 uncontrolled. Little peach, another 
 virus disease, which is thought to be 
 caused by a strain of the yellows 
 virus, became damaging in the same 
 geographic area as did yellows in 
 the late 1800's, and now causes more 
 losses than do yellows. In South¬ 
 eastern United States, peach rosette 
 and phony peach disease, both 
 caused by viruses, have been com¬ 
 mon since the early 1900’s and cause 
 serious crop losses. 'Within the past 
 30 years, the following additional 
 virus diseases affecting peaches have 
 appeared in Northeastern United 
 States: Red suture, X-disease, ro¬ 
 sette mosaic, necrotic leaf spot, ring 
 spot, and line pattern. Peach mo¬ 
 saic and asteroid spot are virus dis¬ 
 eases that occur m Southwestern 
 United States as far east as eastern 
 Texas, southern Oklahoma, and 
 western Arkansas. 
 
 For the purpose of this discus¬ 
 sion, a virus may be considered as an 
 extremely small organism, too small 
 to be seen through the ordinary 
 compound microscope, which lives 
 and multiplies as a parasite in living 
 tissue. Virus diseases of plants are 
 commonly spread in one of several 
 ways—through juice, by infected 
 propagation material, and occa¬ 
 sionally through seeds from in¬ 
 fected plants. In nature, they are 
 most commonly spread by insects 
 and mites. These insects suck j nice 
 from infected plants and lose some 
 of it while feeding on healthy 
 plants, thereby infecting them. 
 None of the viruses affecting peach 
 trees is known to have been trans¬ 
 mitted mechanically from peach to 
 
 peach with infected juice. On] 
 one, ring spot, has been found trail:) 
 missible through seeds. Ring spc 
 passes through some of the seeds ( 
 mazzard and mahaleb cherries an 
 occasionally through peach seeds. | 
 
 It is highly improbable that au 
 of these viruses can be spread t i 
 cultivation procedures, such L 
 pruning, spraying, thinning, or til® 
 age. They can be spread into he'" 
 areas by use of infected niirseri 
 stock. Within orchards they can 1 1 
 spread by insects and through use ({ 
 infected propagation mfiterial 
 Peach yellow bud mosaic, known t 
 occur only in California, and peaci 
 rosette mosaic, which occurs i| 
 Michigan, in New York, and possj 
 bly in other Eastern States, hav 
 been retained in the soil by nemi' 
 tode vectors where diseased trees ai 
 removed. Thus, these diseas<l 
 could be spread by movement of ii 
 fested soil. 
 
 Peach Yellows 
 
 The symptoms of peach yellov 
 are premature ripening of fruit; ii 
 ward rolling, drooping leaves, pa 
 green to yellow in color; and di 
 velopment of small, clustered shoo 
 with yellow leaves along the trun 
 and main branches of the tree (fig 
 35 and 36). Fruit on affected tret 
 ripens from a few days to 3 weel 
 earlier than normal, lacks swee 
 ness, and is bitter. The peel on a 
 fected fruit is commonly spotte 
 with red and purple, and on no 
 mally red varieties it may be soli 
 purple. Red streaks of differei 
 len^hs extend from the pit towai 
 the peel, and in red varieties tl 
 tissue around the pit is deep red. 
 
 On young trees and vigoroi 
 older trees affected with peach ye 
 lows, buds fonned in the sumin( 
 do not remain dormant but ])ut oi 
 small, yellowish leaves the san 
 
 ” This section was prepared by L. C. Cochran Crops Research Division. 
 
 58 
 
SURE 35.—The small, willowy growth from main limbs of this tree is a symptom of peach 
 yellows. This growth is known as wire shoots. (Courtesy of Illinois Natural History 
 Survey.) 
 
 asoii. In advanced cases, the ends 
 twi^s and brandies die; and clns- 
 rs of small shoots bearing small, 
 ile-^i’een to yellow leaves ^row 
 ;om the trunk and main branches, 
 liese are known as wire shoots, 
 ome varieties jiroduce more wire 
 loots than othere. Affected trees 
 iiially die in 2 to 6 years. 
 
 Plum trees, both cultivated and 
 wild, have been found to carry the 
 yellows virus; but most plum species 
 are not injured by it and do not 
 show any easily recognized symp¬ 
 toms. The disease is spread by the 
 plum leafhopper {Macropsis tri- 
 maeuhita ), which prefers to feed on 
 jilums and migrates from them to 
 
 59 
 
FIGURE 36.—Closeup view of willowy growth arising from a main limb of a peach tree affect 
 with yellows. Note slenderness of twigs,- light color, small size, and abundance of leavr 
 and dark spots on leaves. An almost normal water sprout is seen at the base of the lin 
 at the right. (Courtesy of Illinois Natural History Survey.) 
 
 peaches. In localities where the dis¬ 
 ease has become widespread, 
 peaches should not be ^rowii within 
 1 mile of plums. 
 
 Yellows-ati'ected trees should be 
 removed from the orchard as soon 
 
 as the disease is reco^iized. If f 
 infected tree is left standing in i 
 orchard, the disease spreads rapi 
 ly to neighboring trees. Sor. 
 States have laws prohibiting sa 
 of yellows-affected fruit and r 
 
 60 
 
Hiring that yellows-affected trees 
 e destroyed. Care should be taken 
 ) obtain j^each budwood from 
 nown yellows-free sources and to 
 Irow nursery stock apart from any 
 jatural hosts of the yellows virus, 
 ‘him trees considered as a source 
 jf material for budding or as root- 
 iocks should be checked for yel- 
 )ws before they are used. The yel- 
 )ws virus can be killed in peach 
 udwood or in nursery trees with 
 !eat, but there is no known method 
 f curing infected orchard trees. 
 
 Little Peach 
 
 Some symptoms of the little peach 
 isease are enough like those of yel- 
 )ws to suggest that little peach is 
 Lused by a strain of the yellows vi- 
 is. Trees atfected with little 
 iach, like those with yellows, 
 ave a droopy appearance. In late 
 ages of the disease, the leaves turn 
 ale ^een to yellowish. Little 
 jach is transmitted by the same 
 isect as is yellows. The little 
 ^ch virus is killed by heat at the 
 jime temperature that inactivates 
 jie yellows virus. Little peach dif¬ 
 irs from yellows in that fruit on 
 Tected trees fails to ripen, or rip- 
 is late instead of prematurely, 
 id there is less yellowing of foli- 
 ^e in the early stages of the disease, 
 rees atfected with little peach ap- 
 sar stunted and compact or 
 ishy, because there are more 
 aves on the short spurs along 
 le main branches. They do not 
 reduce the slender yellow shoots 
 wire shoots) on the trunk and 
 lain branches that are characteris- 
 c of yellows-atfected trees. Leaves 
 1 trees in advanced stages of lit- 
 e peach may be curled by recurv- 
 g of the midrib toward the 
 vig, but the halves of the leaves 
 re not as closely folded as they are 
 ith yellows. Fruit is usually 
 Hall and has a jxxir flavor. It 
 ces not have the red color on the 
 ?el or in the flesh that is charac- 
 ‘ristic of yellows. 
 
 Little peach, like yellows, affects 
 different species and varieties of 
 plums. Some plums show a few 
 symptoms, but some do not. 
 
 The control for little peach is 
 the same as for yellows. 
 
 Red Suture 
 
 Red suture, also, belongs to 
 the yellows group. It has occurred 
 in Michigan, Ohio, and Maryland. 
 
 The leaf and tree symptoihs of 
 red suture are more nearly like 
 those of little peach than like 
 those of yellows. Leaves on affected 
 trees are recurved, terminal growth 
 IS shorter than normal, and an ab¬ 
 normal number of short shoots 
 bearing clusters of leaves arise 
 along the main branches. In 
 advanced cases of red suture, there 
 is some twisting of leaves. Most 
 leaves are lighter than normal in 
 color, and the centers of trees ap¬ 
 pear open. As with yellows, the 
 fruits on affected trees ripen sev¬ 
 eral days early, the suture ripen¬ 
 ing first. Frequently, the suture is 
 unevenly swollen. On red fruits, 
 the tops of the ridges and bumps 
 have dark red or purple blotches. 
 The flesh of the early ripening por¬ 
 tion is usually soft and watery. The 
 affected fruits are usually low in 
 sweetness and insipid in flavor. 
 
 Little is known of the host range 
 of red suture. Insufficient tests 
 have been made to determine 
 whether the leaf hopper that spreads 
 peach yellows can spread red 
 suture. 
 
 The control for red suture is the 
 same as for yellows, but is less effi¬ 
 cient because it is harder to rec¬ 
 ognize diseased trees, especially in 
 the early stages. Trees may be dis¬ 
 eased for a year or longer before 
 they develop recognizable symp¬ 
 toms. During that time they serve 
 as a reservoir from which the dis¬ 
 ease can be spread. 
 
 In the infected area, red suture 
 is becoming more serious. 
 
 61 
 
X-Disease 
 
 The X-disease was named for £», 
 the symbol of an unknown quantity, 
 because of its peculiar symptoms. 
 Diseased peach trees appear normal 
 until midsummer (the date varies 
 with locality). Then, within a few 
 days, leaves on affected twigs, start¬ 
 ing near the base of the current sea¬ 
 son’s shoots, become progressively 
 pale, commonly roll upward, be¬ 
 come brittle, and develop irregular 
 yellow and red spots. Some of 
 these spots shrink and fall out. 
 The number of leaves affected and 
 the size of spots on individual leaves 
 increase rapidly, causing a,ffected 
 shoots to become highly colored. 
 Leaves on affected twigs are usually 
 shed progressively from the base to 
 the tip. Tip leaves seldom become 
 affected, and they remain on the 
 tree. During hot weather, leaves 
 often drop before the spots are well 
 formed. Fruits on affected twigs 
 usually shrivel and fall soon after 
 leaf symptoms develop. Fruits on 
 twigs where leaf symptoms develop 
 late in the season may remain on the 
 trees. However, they ripen prema¬ 
 turely and are bitter, and their seeds 
 fail to develop. 
 
 Diseased twigs or branches, even 
 though they shed their leaves, do 
 not always die. If they survive, 
 they leaf out normally the following 
 spring; then the sequence of symp¬ 
 toms is repeated. The disease 
 usually begins on one or several 
 twigs and spreads irregularly 
 through the tree. If of ten takes sev¬ 
 eral years to affect most of the tree. 
 Unlike some of the other viruses 
 affecting peaches, the virus caus¬ 
 ing X-disease seldom becomes dis¬ 
 tributed through the whole tree. 
 Normal-appearing twigs on dis¬ 
 eased trees are free of the virus and 
 produce normal fruit. Affected 
 trees under 3 years of age frequent¬ 
 ly die; older trees^ although they 
 become unproductive, usually do 
 not die as a direct result of X- 
 disease. 
 
 Besides peaches, the X-diseas 
 virus infects cultivated cherrie 
 (both sweet and sour) and severa 
 wild plum and cherry species. Th 
 most commonly affected wild host i 
 the chokecherry {Prumis virgin 
 iana ). This plant is widespread ii 
 Northeastern United States and ad 
 jacent areas of Canada and form 
 dense woodland and fence-roi 
 thickets. The disease appears t': 
 have spread rapidly in this hos 
 from where it was first seen in Nei 
 England through New York, Ohic 
 and Michigan and into Wisconsir 
 Illinois, and Iowa. Diseased choke 
 cherries prematurely develop vary 
 ing degrees of autumnal yellow an^ 
 red foliage, beginning as early a 
 June. They usually die in 3 to 
 years. 
 
 X-disease is spread by the leaf 
 hopper Colladonus clitellarm^^ 
 (Say). This leafliopper lives prin 
 cipally on chokecherries but occai 
 sionally migrates to other nearbi 
 plants. If it has fed first on dis 
 eased chokecherries, it can carry th 
 virus to peach and cherry treef 
 Peach nursery plantings should b 
 at least 500 feet from chokecherrie 
 and other wild cherry or plum spe 
 cies. Eradication of chokecherrie 
 within 500 feet of peach orchard 
 will protect the trees from infectior 
 Chokecherries can be effectivel 
 eradicated by spraying them with 
 water solution of ammonimn sul 
 famate when they are in full leal 
 The recommended strength is three 
 fourths pound per gallon, and th 
 recommended rate of application i 
 2 gallons of spray per 100 squar 
 feet. Sodium or calcium chlorat 
 at the same strength is also effective 
 Atlacide, a proprietary materin 
 containing chlorates, is less danger 
 ous and is effective if used accordin, 
 to the manufacturer’s direction; 
 Brush killers such as 2,4,5-T i 
 kerosene, or diesel oil at the rate o 
 10 to 12 pounds per 100 gallons c 
 oil sprayed around the base of th 
 chokecherry in midsummer, has als 
 
 62 
 
►een effective. After the sprayer is 
 ised, it must be washed thoroughly 
 five or six times) with a warm, 
 oapy, soda solution in water. 
 
 Sodium and calcium chlorates 
 aust be handled with care, since 
 liey are flammable. 
 
 Phony Disease 
 
 Phony disease has caused serious 
 )sses in Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 About 2 million phony-affected 
 peach trees have been removed from 
 orchards in Georgia alone since 
 1930. 
 
 Phony disease dwarfs peach trees 
 and causes them to be darker green 
 and more dense in appearance than 
 normal (fig. 37). The dense ap¬ 
 pearance is due to an abnormal 
 number of lateral twigs with short¬ 
 ened internodes and a closer spacing 
 
 f5URE 37.—(A) Phony-affected Elberta peach tree at Fort Valley, Ga.; (B) normal Elberta 
 
 tree in the same orchard. 
 
 63 
 
of fewer but flatter leaves on the 
 twigs. The symptoms are progres¬ 
 sive. Diseased trees become notice¬ 
 able in early summer when normal 
 trees outgrow them. By July, dis¬ 
 eased trees are easily distinguished 
 from noianal trees. Fruit is smaller 
 on diseased trees than on normal 
 ones and becomes smaller each year 
 because of the disease. Phony dis¬ 
 ease does not kill peach trees, but 
 affected trees are weakened and are 
 more susceptible to winter injury 
 and other orchard troubles. Trees 
 that become diseased when young 
 never reach productive orchard size. 
 
 Phony disease affects all peach 
 varieties similarly. It is spread by 
 several species of large leafhoppers 
 commonly known as sharpshooters. 
 The insects prefer to feed directly in 
 the water-conducting tubes in 
 woody stems. Phony spreads 
 rapidly in some areas and increases 
 in rate in proportion to the age of 
 the trees and the number of diseased 
 trees present. The wild chicasaw 
 plum Prunm angustifolia Marsh., 
 which occurs in thickets all through 
 Southern United States, has been 
 found naturally infected near 
 phony-affected peach orchards in 
 Georgia. 
 
 Phony-affected peach trees should 
 be destroyed promptly. Surveys 
 have shown that the disease spreads 
 less rapidly among the remaining 
 trees when diseased trees have been 
 removed. In infected areas, wild 
 plums should be eradicated from 
 the vicinity of peach orchards. 
 Quarantines covering the infected 
 area prohibit growing nursery stock 
 within 1 mile of diseased trees. 
 
 Peach Rosette 
 
 Peach rosette is another virus dis¬ 
 ease affecting peaches in Southeast¬ 
 ern Imited States. It kills rapidly 
 and has caused severe losses in areas 
 where diseased trees were left 
 standing. 
 
 Symptoms of peach rosette gen¬ 
 
 erally appear in spring or earl;, 
 summer. The first fomied leave 
 turn yellow, and shoots fail to elon 
 gate. Leaves formed later are small 
 and, because of shortened stems 
 grow into tight rosettes (fig. 38)| 
 The older leaves turn yellow am 
 drop fii-st. Trees affected through 
 out usually die before the end of th 
 growing season. Trees partly af 
 fected may live into the second yea 
 but die by the end of that seasor 
 The disease usually occurs in closi 
 colonies and may spread rapidh 
 The Chickasaw plum occasional!;, 
 becomes naturally infected an'i 
 serves as a virus reserv’oir fror 
 which the disease spreads to peac: 
 trees. Symptoms on it are simila: 
 to those on peaches. 
 
 Peach rosette can be effective! 
 controlled by prompt removal o 
 diseased trees in and near the or 
 chard. 
 
 Peach Mosaic 
 
 Peach mosaic occurs in South 
 western United States as far eas, 
 as eastern Texas, in southern Okla 
 homa, in western Arkansas, an' 
 in Mexico. It has caused serioui 
 losses both directly by crop reduci 
 tion and, indirectly, by necessitai 
 ing removal of diseased trees. 
 
 As the name implies, the mos, 
 common and noticeable symptom o 
 peach mosaic disease is the mottle 
 pattern of yellow and gi*een in th 
 leaves. All peach varieties are sus, 
 ceptible to infection, but some ar 
 more seriously damaged tha 
 others. Varieties such as J. H. Hal 
 (or its derivatives), Elberta, Ri 
 Oso Gem, and Fay Elberta are s€ 
 verely injured. But most clingston 
 varieties endure the most sever 
 foiTns of the virus with only mod 
 erate damage. Newly infected tree 
 of the J. H. Hale variety are n 
 tarded in the spring and develo 
 small, narrow, deformed leave 
 with various irregular, mottled pat 
 terns (fig. 39). As the seaso 
 progresses, the mottling become 
 
 64 
 
jURE 38.—Orchard tree affected with peach rosette and showing typically rosetted foliage. 
 Such a tree usually dies before the beginning of the next season. 
 
 ss distinct, but the trees are 
 «’arfed and the fruit is bumpy 
 id misshapen. Symptoms vary be- 
 luse of the different forms of the 
 rus, some of which are more dam¬ 
 ping than others. Damage is most 
 A’ere in cool climates. 
 
 Peach mosaic virus is common in 
 'rtain wild stone fruits, including 
 ‘C chickasaw plum, wildgoose 
 urn {Prunus munsoniana Wight 
 Medr.), and American plum (P. 
 nencana Marsh.), as well as in 
 rtain cultivated stone fniits. 
 ')me of these hosts act as symptom- 
 ss carriers. The rate of spread is 
 ore rapid in some areas than in 
 
 others. The natural vector of peach 
 mosaic is a microscopic eriophyid 
 mite, Eriophyes insldiosus Kiefer 
 and Wilson, which lives exclusively 
 within retarded buds and which is 
 removed by wind to healthy trees 
 as the buds open. 
 
 In areas where very susceptible 
 varieties are grown, losses from 
 peach mosaic can be reduced to less 
 than 1 percent per year by removing 
 diseased trees and excluding tol¬ 
 erant varieties in which symptoms 
 are absent and diagnosis is difficult. 
 In areas where the disease spreads 
 rapidly, where wild hosts are preva¬ 
 lent, or where the cost of removing 
 
 65 
 
FIGURE 39.—Leaves of J. H. Hale peach affected with peach mosaic. The symptoms var 
 from marginal bands in the first leaf at the left to shot hole and veinlet clearing in the leaf c 
 the extreme right. 
 
 diseased trees is uneconomical, tol¬ 
 erant varieties can be grown. Since 
 orchards of Elberta and J. H. Hale 
 and other nontolerant varieties 
 make up a large percentage of the 
 freestone acreage in the United 
 States, strong safeguards should be 
 maintained to prevent spread of the 
 peach mosaic disease to noninfected 
 areas. Infected areas are now un¬ 
 der quarantine. The sale of peach 
 nurseiy stock grown within 1 mile 
 of infected trees or of budwood 
 taken from trees within 1 mile of 
 infected trees is prohibited. 
 
 Rosette Mosaic, Ring Spot, Necrotic 
 
 Leaf Spot, Line Pattern, and As¬ 
 teroid Spot 
 
 Several virus diseases affecting 
 peaches in Eastern United States 
 cause only minor crop losses. The 
 most serious of these is rosette mo¬ 
 saic, which occui's principally in 
 Michigan and New York. This dis¬ 
 ease causes mottling, dwarfing, and 
 
 rosetting of the foliage, and a corre 
 spending reduction of tree vigor 
 The causal virus sometimes remain 
 in the soil and can infect a new tre 
 set where a diseased tree was re ^ 
 moved. 
 
 The ring spot virus retards sprin; 
 growth and causes light-colored an< 
 necrotic ring patterns on leavei 
 Sometimes ring spot kills and split; 
 peach tree bark. Symptoms of rin; 
 spot are usually present only durin; 
 the first growing season after infer 
 tion. Infected trees appear to re 
 cover, but they retain the viru 
 without visible symptoms in sue 
 ceeding years. In the nursery, in 
 fected buds grafted on health 
 peach seedlings fail to grow. Tli 
 viiais exists more commonly i 
 plums and cherries than in peaches 
 
 Necrotic leaf spot differs fror 
 ring spot in that it produces n 
 symptoms in the spring but pre 
 duces dead spots on leaves each yea 
 in midsummer. 
 
 Although line pattern is primal 
 ily a plum disease, peaches hav 
 
 66 
 
een infected with it through bud- 
 ing; and obscure, mottled leaf pat- 
 ?ms have resulted. 
 
 Asteroid spot in peaches is com¬ 
 
 mon in Texas and the Western 
 States. It produces small, star- 
 shaped spots of varying size scat¬ 
 tered over the leaves. 
 
 PEACH INSECTS” 
 
 The common insect pests of 
 eaches grown east of the Eocky 
 fountains are the plum curculio, 
 ne peach tree borer, the lesser peach 
 fee borer, the San Jose scale, the 
 ciental fruit moth, and a group of 
 jicking bugs, including among oth- 
 '•s the tarnished plant bug and cer- 
 iin species of stinkbugs.” 
 
 Plum Curculio 
 
 The plum curculio is a small, 
 ampbacked beetle with a brownish 
 lout, which hibernates in trash in 
 • near the orchard. Early in the 
 iring, the curculios move into the 
 ees. If they come from outside 
 te orchard, they appear first on 
 ees in the outer rows and later 
 ove to other parts of the orchard, 
 hey lay eggs in small peaches soon 
 ter the fruits form. The larvae, 
 grubs, feed within the fruit for 
 weeks or more (fig. 40). The ma- 
 ire grubs leave the fruit and go 
 to the ground, where they com¬ 
 pete their development and emerge 
 ! adult beetles. In the South, a 
 cond generation infests midseason 
 irieties such as Elberta. 
 
 Because the development of the 
 irculio varies according to seasonal 
 ud local conditions, the control pro- 
 'ams vary with the season and lo- 
 lity. Usually, an insecticide is 
 )plied three or four times during 
 le month following petal fall, 
 "here two generations occur in one 
 
 FIGURE 40.—Curculio grub and its injury to 
 ripe peach. 
 
 season, one or two additional spray 
 applications are made, usually dur¬ 
 ing the month before picking time. 
 
 Peach Tree Borer 
 
 The peach tree borer is a white 
 worm about 1 inch long that works 
 underneath the bark near the 
 ground line, often injuring the tree 
 seriously or even killing it. At ma¬ 
 turity, the larvae change to pupae, 
 then to adults, which are clear¬ 
 winged moths. In the southern 
 part of the Gulf States, a few moths 
 appear as early as May or June; but 
 heaviest emergence in the South oc¬ 
 curs during August and September. 
 
 More complete, general information on peach insects and their control is available 
 I U.S. Dept. Agr. 1063. insect pests of the peach east of the rocky mountains. 
 gr. Inf. Bui. 272, 32 pp. illus. More detailed information on various peach insects 
 ul on new insecticides should be obtained from your local State agricultural college 
 ’ extension service or from your county agricultural agent or farm adviser. 
 
 “The scientific names of the insects listed are as follows: Plum curculio, Cono- 
 ichelus nenuphar (Hhst.) ; i)each tree borer, Sanninoidea exitiosa (Say) ; lesser 
 ach tree borer, Synanthedon pictipes (Grote & Robinson) ; San Jose scale, Aspidio- 
 ^ pcrnicio.’tus Com.st.; oriental fruit moth, Grapholitha molesta (Busck) ; tarnisheti 
 ant bug, Lygus lineolaris' (P. de B.) ; stinkbugs, chiefiy Euschistus spp. 
 
 67 
 
In the North, most of the moths 
 emerge during July and August. 
 Egg laying begins shortly after 
 moths appear. Most eggs are 
 placed on the tree trunk but some are 
 placed on small branches of the tree 
 or on the soil or weeds nearby. 
 After the eggs hatch, the young 
 larrae move to the lower part of the 
 tree trunk and usually enter it at the 
 soil surface. Usually there is only 
 one generation a year. 
 
 Lesser Peach Tree Borer 
 
 The lesser peach tree borer is sim¬ 
 ilar to the peach tree borer but 
 mainly attacks the trmik and limbs, 
 particularly in injured areas and in 
 crotches. It passes the winter as a 
 larva in injured areas on the tree. 
 It pupates early in the spring and 
 emerges as a clearwinged moth that 
 lays its eggs along the trunk and 
 limbs of the tree. One generation 
 occurs in the North, and two occur 
 in the South. 
 
 San Jose Scale 
 
 The San Jose scale is a tiny insect 
 that lives under a very small, in¬ 
 conspicuous, grayish, scalelike 
 covering. Small reddish discolora¬ 
 tions are often found at the point 
 of feeding, particularly on new, 
 tender wood. Heavily infested 
 trees have a roughened, grayish ap¬ 
 pearance. Other signs of infesta¬ 
 tion are dead twigs and limbs, and 
 a lowering of the vitality of the 
 trees. A heavy, continuing infesta¬ 
 tion may kill the trees. 
 
 All stages of the scale are present 
 most of the year, but scales that are 
 partly grown survive the winter 
 best. They complete their growth 
 in the spring. The insect remains 
 in one place except during the first 
 
 few hours of its life and during the 
 short time adult males are active. 
 The generations overlap; there are 
 one or two generations a year in the 
 more northern fruit areas and three 
 or more farther south. 
 
 Oriental Fruit Moth 
 
 The larva of the oriental fruit 
 moth is a pinkish-white worm with 
 a brown head. IVlien fully grown, 
 it is about one-half inch long. 
 Early in the season, the larvae tun¬ 
 nel into new peach shoots (fig. 41). 
 causing them to wilt and dry up. 
 Later, usually near harvest, the 
 larvae bore into the fruit. Infesta¬ 
 tion of fruit is heaviest in midsea¬ 
 son and in the later maturing peach 
 varieties. The insects pass the win¬ 
 ter as full-grown larvae, or worms, 
 in cocoons in a protected place 
 on the tree or ground. Moths first 
 appear about the time peach trees 
 are in bloom. The females usually 
 lay their eggs on the leaves. The 
 larvae feed on twigs or in the fruit 
 until they are mature and then spin 
 cocoons m a protected place on the 
 tree or ground. Usually there are 
 four or five generations each year. 
 
 Sucking Bugs 
 
 The tarnished plant bug and sev¬ 
 eral other species of sucking bugs 
 feed on peach blossoms and on 
 newly formed peaches and cause the 
 fruit to become seriously scarred 
 and distorted (fig. 42). These bugs 
 live and feed chiefly on weeds or 
 field crops in or near the orchard 
 They suck on peaches for only a 
 short period in the spring. Where 
 it is consistent with good horticul¬ 
 tural practice, eliminating weeds 
 and certain cover crops aids consid¬ 
 erably in controlling them. 
 
 68 
 
FIGURE 41.—Oriental fruit moth injury to peach twigs. 
 
FIGURE 42.—Peach injury caused by suckins bugs. 
 
 70 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1965 O—757-340 
 
^11 Ni 
 
AGRICULTURAL STABILIZATION AND CONSERVATION SERVICE 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 COMPILATION 
 
 OF 
 
 STATUTES RELATING 
 TO 
 
 Soil Conservation, Marketing Quotas and Allotments, Soil Bank, Commodity 
 Credit Corporation, Price Support, Export and Surplus Removal, Crop Insur¬ 
 ance, Sugar Payments and Quotas, Marketing Agreements and Orders, School 
 Lunch, Food Stamp, and Related Statutes 
 
 AS OF JANUARY 1, 1965 
 
 COMPILED UNDER THE DIRECTION 
 OF THE GENERAL COUNSEL 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 281 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington. D.C., 20402 - Price $1.25 
 

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Prefatory Note 
 
 This is a compilation of legislation administered by the Agricultural 
 Stabilization and Conservation Service and related legislation. Cer¬ 
 tain provisions of law which were applicable to prior years or crops, 
 but which have not been repealed by the Congress, have been omitted 
 from tliis compilation. These may be found in prior compilations. 
 The language of the legislation appearing in this compilation is as 
 it appears in the U.S. Statutes at Large, but, for the convenience of 
 the reader, citations are made at the end of sections and subsections 
 to the U.S. Code, 1958 edition and supplements thereto. The subject 
 headings used herein are generally those as enacted; some of them, 
 however, have been changed and other headings have also been added 
 by the editors of this compilation for explanatory purposes. 
 
 The statutes contained in this compilation are subject to the pro¬ 
 visions of Keorganization Plan No. 2 of 1953 (18 F.R. 3219, 67 Stat. 
 633, 5 U.S.C. 133Z-15, note), prepared by the President and trans¬ 
 mitted to the Senate and House of Representatives on March 25, 
 1953, pursuant to the provisions of the Reorganization Act of 1949 
 (5 U.S.C. 133z to 133z-15). The plan transfers to the Secretary of 
 Agriculture all functions not then vested in him of all other officers 
 and of all agencies and employees of the Department of Agriculture, 
 except functions vested by the Administrative Procedure Act in hear¬ 
 ing examiners employed by the Department and function^ of the 
 corporations of the Department, the Boards of Directors and officers 
 of such corporations, the Advisory Board of the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation, and the Farm Credit Administration. 
 
 Note. —This Handbook is a revision of and supersedes Agriculture Handbook 
 No. 242, dated January 1,1963. 
 
 TIT 
 

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CONTENTS 
 
 PART I. SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC 
 ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 Page 
 
 Sec. 1. Policy of Congress_ 1 
 
 Sec. 2. Lands on which preventive measures may be taken_ 1 
 
 Sec. 3. Benefits for non-Government controlled lands_ 2 
 
 Sec. 4. Cooperation of governmental agencies, personnel, and supplies_ 2 
 
 Sec. 5. Establishment of “Soil Conservation Service”_ 2 
 
 Sec. 6. Appropriation authorized_ 3 
 
 Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944. Sec. 302(b). Sale of 
 supplies by the Soil Conservation Service to other Government activities. 3 
 
 Sec. 7. Agricultural conservation policy_ 3 
 
 Sec. 8. Payments and grants of aid_ 4 
 
 Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1956. Sec. 6(b). Payments 
 
 conditional upon soil-building and soil- and water-conserving practices. _ 6 
 
 Public Law 85-278. Two county committees established in one county in 
 
 certain States_ 6 
 
 Naval stores conservation program_ 11 
 
 Public Law 85-25. Deferred grazing program_ 11 
 
 Sec 9. Surveys, investigations, and reports_ 12 
 
 Sec. 10. “Agricultural commodity” defined_ 12 
 
 Sec. 11. Availability of funds_ 12 
 
 Sec. 12. Expansion of markets and crop insurance advance_ 13 
 
 Sec 13. Execution of powers of Secretary by Production and Marketing 
 
 Administration_ 13 
 
 Sec. 14. Finality of payments_— 14 
 
 Sec. 15. Appropriation authorization and allocating of funds- 14 
 
 Sec. 16(a). Limitation on obligations incurred_ 15 
 
 Sec. 16(b). Great Plains Conservation Program_ 15 
 
 Sec. 16(c). Feed grain program for 1961_ 17 
 
 Sec. 16(d). Feed grain program for 1962_ 17 
 
 Sec. 16(e). Land use adjustment program_ 17 
 
 Sec. 16(f). Disbursements to producers_ 19 
 
 Sec. 16(g). Feed grain program for 1963_ 19 
 
 Sec. 16(h). Feed grain pro^am for 1964 and 1965_ 19 
 
 Sec. 16A. Payment limitation as to wetlands in States of North Dakota, 
 
 South Dakota and Minnesota_ 22 
 
 Sec. 17. Scope of Act and definition of “State”_ 23 
 
 PART II. AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT 
 OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ 
 
 Sec. 2. Declaration of policy_ 
 
 Title II. Adjustments in Freight Rates, New Uses 
 AND Markets, and Disposition of Surpluses 
 
 Sec. 201. Adjustments in freight rates for farm products—-- 
 
 Sec. 202. New uses and new markets for farm commodities (regional 
 research laboratories)_ 
 
 V 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART II. AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT 
 OF 1938, AS AMENDED—Continued 
 
 Title III. Loans, Parity Payments, Consumer 
 Safeguards, Marketing Quotas, and Market¬ 
 ing Certificates 
 
 SUBTITLE A. DEFINITIONS, PARITY PAYMENTS, AND CON¬ 
 SUMER SAFEGUARDS 
 
 Sec. 301. Definitions_ 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1948. Sec. 302(f). Parity and parity prices 
 
 Sec. 303. Parity payments___ 
 
 Sec. 304. Consumer safeguards_ 
 
 Page 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 SUBTITLE B. MARKETING QUOTAS 
 Part I. Marketing Quotas—Tobacco 
 
 Sec. 311. Legislative findings_ 39 
 
 Sec. 312. National marketing quota and referendum_ 40 
 
 Sec. 313. Apportionment of marketing quota and acreage allotments_ 41 
 
 Act of July 12 , 1952. Minimum farm acreage allotment, for 1956 and 
 
 subsequent crops of Burley tobacco_ 41 
 
 Sec. 314. Penalties_ 45 
 
 Sec. 315. Farm acreage allotments for Virginia fire-and sun-cured tobacco. 46 
 Sec. 316. Lease and transfer of tobacco allotments_ 48 
 
 Part II. Acreage Allotment—Corn 
 
 Sec. 321. Legislative findings_ 
 
 Sec. 326. Adjustment of farm marketing quotas_ 
 
 Sec. 327. Proclamations of commercial corn-producing area. 
 
 Sec 328. Acreage allotment_ 
 
 Sec. 329. Apportionment of acreage allotment_ 
 
 Sec. 330. Nonestablisliment of acreage allotments_ 
 
 Part III. Marketing Quotas^— Wheat 
 
 Sec. 331. Legislative findings_ 
 
 Sec. 332. Proclamations of supplies and allotments 
 
 Pub. L. 88-297_ III'LIII 
 
 Sec. 333. National acreage allotment_ 
 
 Sec. 334. Apportionment of national acreage allotment_ 
 
 Sec. 334a. Commercial area_ 
 
 Sec. 335. Small farm exemptions_ 
 
 Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., Marketing quotas and farm marketing excess. 
 
 Sec. 336. Referendum_ 
 
 Sec. 337. Adjustment and suspension of quotas_ 
 
 Sec. 338. Transfer of quotas_ 
 
 Sec. 339. Land use_ 
 
 Part IV. Marketing Quotas—Cotton 
 
 Sec. 341. Legislative findings_ 
 
 Sec. 342. National marketing quota_ 
 
 Sec. 343. Referendum_ 
 
 Sec. 344. National, State, county, and farm acreage allotments 
 
 Sec. 345. Farm marketing quotas and farm marketing excess_ 
 
 Sec. 346. Penalties_ 
 
 Sec. 347. Extra long-staple cotton_ 
 
 Sec. 348. Cotton equalization payments_ 
 
 Sec. 349. Export market acreage_ 
 
 Sec. 350. Domestic acreage allotments_ 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 60 
 61 
 61 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 65 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 VII 
 
 PART II. AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT 
 OF 1938, AS AMENDED—Continued 
 
 Part V. Marketing Quotas^—Rice 
 
 Page 
 
 Sec. 351. Legislative findings_ 81 
 
 Sec. 352. National acreage allotment_ 82 
 
 Sec. 353. Apportionment of national acreage allotment_ 82 
 
 Pub. L. 88-160. Validity of acreage allotment_ 84 
 
 Sec. 354. Proclamation of quotas and conducting referendum_ 87 
 
 Sec. 355. Farm marketing quota and farm marketing excess_ 87 
 
 Sec. 356. Penalties and storage_ 88 
 
 Part VI. Marketing Quotas—Peanuts 
 
 Sec. 357. Legislative findings_ 89 
 
 Sec. 358. Proclamation of national quota, conducting referendum, and 
 
 establishing acreage allotments_ 90 
 
 Sec. 359. Marketing penalties_ 93 
 
 SUBTITLE C. ADMINISTRATIVE PROVISIONS 
 
 Part I. Publication and Review op Quotas 
 
 Sec. 361. Application of provisions for publication and review of quotas._ 95 
 
 Sec. 362. Publication and notice of quota_ 95 
 
 Sec. 363. Review by review committee_ 95 
 
 Sec. 364. Review committee compensation_ 95 
 
 Sec. 365. Institution of proceedings_ 95 
 
 Sec. 366. Court review_ 96 
 
 Sec. 367. Stay of proceedings and exclusive jurisdiction_ 96 
 
 Sec. 368. Effect of increase on other quotas_ 97 
 
 Part II. Adjustment of Quotas and Enforcement 
 
 Sec. 371. General adjustment of quotas_ 97 
 
 Sec. 372. Payment, collection and refund of penalties_97 
 
 Sec. 373. Reports and records_ 98 
 
 Sec. 374. Measurement of farms and report of plantings_ 99 
 
 Sec. 375. Regulations_ 100 
 
 Sec. 376. Court jurisdiction_ 100 
 
 Sec. 377. Preservation of unused acreage allotments_ 101 
 
 Sec. 378. Allotment pool for commodities for any land from which farmer 
 is displaced by eminent domain_ 101 
 
 SUBTITLE D. WHEAT MARKETING ALLOCATION 
 
 Sec. 379a. Legislative findings_ 103 
 
 Sec. 379b. Wheat marketing allocation_ 104 
 
 Sec. 379c. Marketing certificates_ 105 
 
 Sec. 379d. Marketing restrictions_ 107 
 
 Sec. 379e. Assistance in purchase and sale of marketing certificates- 108 
 
 Sec. 379f. Conversion factors_ 108 
 
 Sec. 379g. Authority to facilitate transition_ 108 
 
 Sec. 379h. Reports and records_ 109 
 
 Sec. 379i. Penalties_ 109 
 
 Sec. 379j. Regulations_ HO 
 
 SUBTITLE F. MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS AND APPROPRIATIONS 
 
 Part I. Miscellaneous 
 
 Sec. 383. Insurance of cotton and reconcentration of cotton- HO 
 
 Act of June 16, 1938. Reconcentration of cotton- HI 
 
 Sec. 385. Finality of farmers’ payments and loans- HI 
 
vm 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART II. AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT 
 OF 1938, AS AMENDED—Continued 
 
 Sec. 386. Exemption from laws prohibiting interest of Members of Congress 
 
 in contracts-_ 
 
 Sec. 387. Photographic reproductions and maps_ 
 
 Sec. 388. Utilization of local agencies_ 
 
 Sec. 389. Personnel_ 
 
 Sec. 390. Separability_ I__I I 
 
 Page 
 
 111 
 
 112 
 
 112 
 
 112 
 
 113 
 
 Part II. Appropriations and Administrative Expenses 
 
 Sec. 391. Authorization for appropriations and advances for crop in¬ 
 surance _ 
 
 Sec. 392. Administrative expenses___ _I”I 
 
 Sec. 393. Allotment of appropriation _ 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 115 
 
 PART III. SOIL BANK ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 Sec. 101. Short title_ 
 
 Sec. 102. Declaration of policy_ 
 
 SUBTITLE A. ACREAGE RESERVE PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 103. Terms and conditions_ 
 
 Sec. 104. Extent of participation in program_ 
 
 Sec. 105, Compensation of producers_IIII" 
 
 Sec. 106. Effect on acreage allotments and quotas_ 
 
 117 
 
 117 
 
 118 
 
 119 
 
 120 
 121 
 
 SUBTITLE B. CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 107. Terms and conditions_ _ j2l 
 
 Sec. 108. Conservation reserve goal_ j24 
 
 Sec. 109. Authorized period of contracts and expenditures_ 124 
 
 Sec. 110. Termination and modification of contracts_IIIIIII 125 
 
 Sec. 111. Conservation materials and services_ 125 
 
 Sec. 112. Effect on other programs_ _ _ 120 
 
 Sec. 113. Geographical applicability_IIIIU" 126 
 
 SUBTITLE C. GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 114. Compliance with acreage allotments_ 
 
 Sec. 115. Reapportionment prohibited_IN lA" 
 
 Sec. 116. Certificate of claimant_ 
 
 Sec, 117. Utilization of local and State committees_ 
 
 Sec. 118. Utilization of other agencies_lUI 
 
 Sec. 119. Utilization of land use capability data_IIII 
 
 Sec. 120. Financing_ 
 
 Sec. 121. Finality of determinations_IIII I 
 
 Sec. 122. Protection of tenants and sharecroppers_ IIIIII 
 
 Sec. 123. Penalty for grazing or harvesting_ 
 
 Sec. 124. Regulations_” 
 
 Sec. 125. Production on government lands prohibited_ 
 
 Sec. 126. Pooling of conservation reserve land_UU 
 
 Sec. 127. Compensation for incorrect information furnished under 1956 
 program_ 
 
 Sec. 128. Compensation for incorrect information furnished under thUSoil 
 Bank-Act_ 
 
 126 
 
 127 
 
 127 
 
 127 
 
 128 
 128 
 128 
 128 
 129 
 129 
 129 
 
 129 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
 130 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 IX 
 
 PART IV. PRICE SUPPORT, SALES, AND 
 OTHER DISPOSAL 
 
 SUBPART A. LEGAL HISTORY AND CHARTER OF COMMODITY 
 CREDIT CORPORATION 
 
 Page 
 
 LEGAL HISTORY OF COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION 133 
 
 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT_II 135 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ I 35 
 
 Sec. 2 . Creation and purposes_ I 35 
 
 Sec. 3. Offices_ I 35 
 
 Sec. 4. General powers_ I 35 
 
 Sec. 5. Specific powers_ 138 
 
 Sec. 6 . Existing statutes applicable to the Corporation_ 139 
 
 Sec. 7. Capital stock_ I 39 
 
 Sec. 8 . Use of funds by Corporation_ 139 
 
 Sec. 9. Board of directors and advisory board_ 140 
 
 Sec. 10 . Personnel of Corporation_ 140 
 
 Sec. 11 . Cooperation with other Governmental agencies_ 140 
 
 Sec. 12. Utilization of associations and trade facilities_ 141 
 
 Sec. 13. Records, annual report_ 141 
 
 Sec. 14. Interest of Members of Congress_ 141 
 
 Sec. 15. Crimes and Offenses_ 141 
 
 Sec. 16. Transfer of assets of Delaware Corporation_ 141 
 
 Sec. 17. Dissolution of Delaware Corporation_ I 43 
 
 Sec. 18. Effective date of Act_ I 43 
 
 Sec. 19. Release of Innocent Purchasers of Converted Goods_ 143 
 
 SUBPART B. PRICE SUPPORT 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949, AS AMENDED_ I 47 
 
 Sec. 1 . Short title___ I 47 
 
 TITLE I. BASIC AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 101. Price support for basic agricultural commodities_ 147 
 
 Sec. 102. Program for 1959 and 1960 (cotton)_ 149 
 
 Sec. 103. Price support for 1961 and subsequent years (cotton)_ 150 
 
 Sec. 104. Referendum (corn)_ 151 
 
 Sec. 105. Price support for 1959 and subsequent years (corn and feed 
 
 grains)- 151 
 
 Sec. 106. Price support for 1960 and subsequent years (tobacco)_ 153 
 
 Sec. 107. Price support for 1964 and subsequent years (wheat)_ 154 
 
 TITLE II. DESIGNATED NONBASIC AGRICULTURAL 
 
 COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 201. Price support for designated nonbasic agricultural com¬ 
 modities_ 155 
 
 Sec. 202 . Transfer of dairy products to the military and veterans 
 
 hospitals_ 156 
 
 Sec. 203. Price support for cottonseed and soybeans_ 156 
 
 TITLE III. OTHER NONBASIC AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 301. Price support for other nonbasic agricultural commodities. _ 156 
 
 Sec. 302. Price support for storable nonbasic agricultural commodi¬ 
 ties- 157 
 
 Sec. 303. Levels of price support for competing agricultural com¬ 
 modities to be considered_ 157 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART IV. PRICE SUPPORT, SALES, AND 
 OTHER DISPOSAL—Continued 
 
 TITLE IV. MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Sec. 401. Support through CCC, factors to be considered in supporting 
 prices, compliance by producers, date to be used in determining level 
 
 of price support, and processor programs_ 
 
 Sec. 402. Price support at increased level_ 
 
 Sec. 403. Adjustments for grades and other factors_ I 
 
 Sec. 404. Utilization of CCC in section 32 and school lunch prograrnsi 
 
 Sec. 405. Nonrecourse loans_~ 
 
 Sec. 406. Advance announcement of price support level_ 
 
 Sec. 407. Restrictions on sales by Commodity Credit Corporation_ 
 
 Sec. 408. Definitions_2 
 
 Sec. 412. Determinations by the Secretary_U 
 
 Sec. 413. When price support provisions effective_ II 
 
 Sec. 414. Repeal of section 302 of Agricultural Adjustment Act-JII. 
 
 Sec. 416. Disposition of commodities to prevent waste_ I 
 
 Sec. 417. Storage structure loans to cooperatives_ III 
 
 Sec. 420. Price support for cottonseed_IIIII 
 
 Page 
 
 157 
 
 159 
 
 159 
 
 159 
 
 160 
 160 
 160 
 163 
 165 
 165 
 165 
 165 
 
 167 
 
 168 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954 
 
 169 
 
 TITLE I. SET ASIDE OF AGRICULTUEAL COMMODITIES 
 TITLE VI. AGRICULTURAL ATTACHES 
 TITLE VII. NATIONAL WOOL ACT OF 1954 
 
 Sec. 701. Short title_ 170 
 
 Sec. 702. Policy of Congress_ II”” 179 
 
 Sec. 703. Price support for wool and mohair_ I_HH 470 
 
 Sec. 704. Payments as a means of price support_HI 171 
 
 Sec. 705. Appropriation to cover payments_ I_IIII'~ 171 
 
 Sec. 706. Adjustments for grade and other factors and determinations 
 
 by Secretary_ J 72 
 
 Sec. 707. Marketing year_III 'I" 172 
 
 Sec. 708. Advertising and sales promotion programs_ IIIIII ” 172 
 
 Sec. 709. Amendments to the Agricultural Act of 1949_ III_II 173 
 
 SUBPART C. SALES 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec. 407. Sales in general_ 175 
 
 Joint Resolution of July 10 , 1957. Sale of stockpile cotton_ IIIIIIII 177 
 
 Act of July 25, 1962. Sale and disposal of government stocks of cotton__ 177 
 
 SUBPART D. BARTER AND EXCHANGE OF SURPLUS COMMODITIES 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act. Sec. 4(h). Exchange of 
 
 agricultural commodities for strategic materials_ 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954,'as Amended. 
 
 Sec. 303. Types of goods to be acquired by barter_ 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956. Sec. 206. Transfer of bartered goods to’s’upple- 
 
 mental stockpile_ 
 
 Act of August 11 , 1939_IIII 
 
 179 
 
 179 
 
 180 
 181 
 
 SUBPART E. EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1956_ 
 
 183 
 
 TITLE II. SURPLUS DISPOSAL 
 
 Sec. 201. Program of orderly liquidation_ _ 133 
 
 Sec. 202 . Extra-long staple cotton_ I.IIIII "I 184 
 
 Sec. 203. Export sales program for cotton_ III.IIII " 184 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XI 
 
 PART IV. PRICE SUPPORT, SALES, AND 
 OTHER DISPOSAL—Continued 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1956—Continued Page 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1958. Sec. 110. Cotton export program_ 185 
 
 Public Law 88-638. Export sale of extra long staple cotton_ 185 
 
 Act of July 25, 1962. Sale and disposal of government stocks of 
 
 cotton_ jg 0 
 
 Sec. 204. Agreements limiting imports_ 186 
 
 Sec. 205. Appropriation to supplement section 32 funds_~ 186 
 
 Sec. 206. Transfer of bartered materials to supplemental stockpile_ 186 
 
 Sec. 207. Surplus disposal administrator_~ 187 
 
 Sec. 208. Payment of ocean freight_ 187 
 
 Sec. 209. Commission to recommend legislation providing for in¬ 
 creased industrial use of agricultural products_ 187 
 
 Sec. 210. Donation to penal and correctional institutions_ 187 
 
 Sec. 211. Federal irrigation, drainage, and flood-control proiects_ 187 
 
 INTERNATIONAL WHEAT AGREEMENT ACT OF 1949_ 189 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ Igg 
 
 Sec. 2. Making wheat and flour available under the International 
 
 Wheat Agreement_ 189 
 
 Sec. 3. Other action and issuance of rules and regulations_ 190 
 
 Act of August 1, 1953. Sec. 2. References to International Wheat 
 
 Agreement deemed to include revised agreement_ 192 
 
 Act of August 3, 1956. Sec. 2. References to International Wheat 
 
 Agreement deemed to include 1956 agreement_ 192 
 
 Joint Resolution of August 11, 1939. Sale to foreign governments_ 192 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TRADE DEVELOPMENT AND ASSISTANCE 
 
 ACT OF 1954_ I 93 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ I 93 
 
 Sec. 2 . Policy of Congress_ 193 
 
 TITLE I. SALES FOR FOREIGN CURRENCY 
 
 Sec. 101. Sale of surplus commodities for foreign currencies_194 
 
 Sec. 102. Use of Commodity Credit Corporation stocks and funds_ 195 
 
 Sec. 103. Appropriation to reimburse CCC_ 196 
 
 Sec. 104. Use of foreign currencies_ 197 
 
 Sec. 105. Deposit of foreign currencies_ 202 
 
 Sec. 106. Definition of surplus agricultural commodities_ 203 
 
 Sec. 107. Definition of friendly nation_ 203 
 
 Sec. 108. Report to Congress_ 203 
 
 Sec. 109. Expiration date_ 204 
 
 TITLE II. FAMINE RELIEF AND OTHER ASSISTANCE 
 
 Sec. 201 . Transfer of Commodity Credit Corporation surplus com¬ 
 modities to friendly nations_ 204 
 
 Sec. 202 . Transfers on a grant basis_ 204 
 
 Sec. 203. Limitation on value of commodities transferred_ 204 
 
 Sec. 204. Expiration date_ 205 
 
 TITLE III. GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 303. Barter for other commodities_ 206 
 
 Sec. 304. Assisting friendly countries to be independent of trade with 
 
 the U.S.S.R_ 206 
 
 Sec. 305. Identification of packages_ 207 
 
 Sec. 307. Domestic donations before foreign currency sales_ 207 
 
 Sec. 308. Donation of animal fats and edible oils and their products. _ 207 
 
 TITLE IV. LONG-TERM SUPPLY CONTRACTS 
 
 Sec. 401. Purpose of title_ 208 
 
 Sec. 402. President authorized to enter into agreement with friendly 
 
 nations__ 208 
 
XII 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART IV. PRICE SUPPORT, SALES, AND 
 OTHER DISPOSAL—Continued 
 
 AGRICULTURAL TRADE DEVELOPMENT AND ASSISTANCE 
 ACT OF 1954—Continued Page 
 
 Sec. 403. Payments in dollars_ 208 
 
 Sec. 404. Precautions as not to replace cash sales_ 208 
 
 Sec. 405. Agreement with other countries on proportionate and equi¬ 
 table basis_ 209 
 
 Sec. 406. Application of other provisions_ 209 
 
 SEC. 32 AND RELATED STATUTES: 
 
 Sec. 32 of Public Law 320, 74th Cong_ 211 
 
 Act of June 28, 1937. Purchase of commodities for utilization under 
 
 section 32_ 212 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec. 404. Utilization of Com’moTity Credit 
 
 Corporation in section 32 and school lunch programs_ 213 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956. Sec. 205. Appropriation to supplement 
 
 section 32 funds_ 213 
 
 Act of August 11, 1939. Purchase and distribution of fishery 
 
 products_ _ 213 
 
 Act of September 6, 1958. Sec. 9. Donations of surplus commodities 
 
 abroad_ 215 
 
 Department of the Interior Appropriation Act, 19'6'5~. Distribution 
 of food in trust territories of Pacific_ 215 
 
 SUBPART F. DONATIONS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec. 416. Disposition of commodities to pre¬ 
 vent waste_ _ _ _ __ 217 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954. Sec. 204(c)'. ’i5omestic"drsp'osarof'd’a'iry 
 
 products_ 218 
 
 Act of July 1, 1958, as amended. Milk for children __ _ __ 218 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec. 202. Transfer of dairy prJducts’tUthe 
 
 military and veterans hospitals_ 219 
 
 Act of September 13, 1960, as amended. Surplus foods for home economic 
 
 courses_ __ _ 220 
 
 Act of August 19, 1958. Donations of processed grain food products_ 220 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956. Sec. 210. Donations to penal and correctional 
 
 institutions_ _ _ __ _ _ _ 221 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1958. Sec. 505. Cotton for collegeUrL.’.'.IZ.riirri 221 
 Act of September 21, 1959. Sec. 201. Enrichment of, and sanitary con¬ 
 tainers for cornmeal, grits, rice and white flour distribution_ 221 
 
 Act of September 6, 1958. Donations to areas under U.S. jurisdiction- 
 
 donations of fats and oils_ _ ’ 222 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of l'9'5'4 as amended' 
 
 Sec. 308. Donations of fats and oils_ __ __ _ _ 922 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962. Sec. 20’5. Foreign'schoof'feeding 
 
 programs_ _ _ _ __ 223 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as'amended' 
 
 Sec. 305. Donor-identification_ _ _ _ _ * 223 
 
 Mutual Security Act of 1954, as amende! s’e'c" 402."Dom!'tic'distrU 
 bution of surplus foods available for grant or foreign currency sales 223 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as amen’d'e'd'. 
 bee. 307. Domestic donations before foreign currency sales_ 224 
 
 SUBPART G. FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 Act of Septernber 30, 1950. Providing assistance in major disasters_ 225 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec. 407. Farm commodity available in case of 
 
 economic distress or major disasters_ 226 
 
 Act of September 21, 1959. Sale at support price of feed for livestock" in 
 
 emergency area_ _ _ 227 
 
 Act of September 7, 1957. Relief to farmers and dealers in connection 
 
 with claim under emergency feed program_ __ 228 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949. Sec, 421. Unauthorized use of feed_ 228 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 xm 
 
 PART IV. PRICE SUPPORT, SALES, AND 
 OTHER DISPOSAL—Continued 
 
 Page 
 
 Economic Opportunity Act of 1964. Sec. 331(a). Indemnity payments to 
 
 dairy farmers_ 228 
 
 Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1965_ 229 
 
 Public law 85-58. Emergency conservation measures_ 229 
 
 SUBPART H. GRAIN FOR WILD FOWL 
 
 Act of July 3, 1956_ 231 
 
 Act of August 17, 1961_ 232 
 
 SUBPART I. GENERAL FISCAL STATUTES 
 
 Act of March 8, 1938, as amended_ 233 
 
 Pub. L. 87-155. Annual appropriation to reimburse Commodity 
 
 Credit Corporation_ 233 
 
 Sec. 4. Borrowing power_ 233 
 
 Sec. 5. Taxation_ 234 
 
 Act of July 16, 1943. Sec. 3. Federal Reserve Banks as fiscal agents. 1961 
 
 Appropriation Act. Administrative expense limitation,__ 235 
 
 Act of July 16, 1943. Sec. 4. Reimbursement by other agencies_ 235 
 
 Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944. Sec. 402. Reimbursement 
 
 of procurement costs_ 235 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended. Sec. 391 (c). Crop 
 
 insurance premium and conservation materials advances_ 236 
 
 Department of Agriculture Appropriation Act, 1950. Classing or grading 
 
 without charge for producers obtaining price support_ 236 
 
 Department of Agriculture Appropriation Act, 1952. Classing or grading 
 without charge—reimbursement_ 236 
 
 SUBPART J. MISCELLANEOUS COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION 
 
 STATUTES 
 
 Act of June 30, 1949, as amended. Sec. 602. Exemption from Federal 
 
 Property and Administrative Services Act_ 237 
 
 Internal Revenue Code of 1954. Secs. 77 and 1016. Treatment of Com¬ 
 modity Credit loans for income tax purposes_ 237 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938. Sec. 383. Insurance of cotton and 
 
 reconcentration of cotton_ 238 
 
 Taft Anti-Inflation Law. Sec. 7. Stimulation of foreign production_ 238 
 
 Other principal statutes having applicability to Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration_ 238 
 
 PART V. FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS 
 
 AMENDED 
 
 Sec. 501. Short title_ 242 
 
 Sec. 502. Declaration of purpose_ 242 
 
 Sec. 503. Creation of “Federal Crop Insurance Corporation”_ 242 
 
 Sec. 504. Capital stock_ 242 
 
 Sec. 505. Management of Corporation_ 242 
 
 Sec. 506. General pow'ers_ 243 
 
 Sec. 507. Personnel_ 244 
 
 Sec. 508. Crop insurance_ 245 
 
 Sec. 509. Indemnities exempt from levy_ 247 
 
 Sec. 510. Deposit of funds_ 247 
 
 Sec. 511. Tax exemption_ 248 
 
 Sec. 512. Fiscal agent of Government_ 248 
 
 Sec. 513. Accounting by Corporation_ 248 
 
 Sec. 514. Crimes and offenses_ 248 
 
 Sec. 515. Advisory committee_ 248 
 
 Sec. 516. Appropriations and regulations_ 249 
 
 Sec. 517. Separability_ 249 
 
 Sec. 518. “Agricultural commodity” defined_ 249 
 
 Sec. 519. Right to amend_ 249 
 
 Criminal provisions applicable to Federal Crop Insurance Corporation- 249 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART VI. SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 TITLE I. DEFINITIONS 
 
 Page 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ 255 
 
 Sec. 101. Definitions_ 255 
 
 TITLE II. QUOTA PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 201. Annual estimate of consumption in continental United States_ 257 
 
 Sec. 202. Proration of quotas_ 258 
 
 Sec 203. Consumption estimates and quotas for Hawaii and Puerto Rico_ 261 
 
 Sec. 204. Proration of quotas deficits_ 262 
 
 Sec. 205. Allotments of quotas or prorations_ 262 
 
 Sec. 206. Sugar-containing products_ 265 
 
 Sec. 207. Direct consumption sugar quotas_ 265 
 
 Sec. 208. Liquid sugar quotas, foreign_ 266 
 
 Sec. 209. Prohibited acts_ 267 
 
 Sec. 210. Determinations in terms of raw value_ 267 
 
 Sec. 211. Exportation of sugar_ 267 
 
 Sec. 212. Inapplicability of quota provisions_ 268 
 
 Sec. 213. Import fee_ 268 
 
 TITLE III. CONDITIONAL PAYMENT PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 301. Conditions for payments to producers_ 269 
 
 Sec. 302. Establishment of proportionate shares for farms_ 270 
 
 Sec. 303. Acreage abandonment and crop deficiency payments_ 273 
 
 Sec. 304. Computation of payments and persons eligible for payments_ 273 
 
 Sec. 305. Use of local committees and other agencies_ 274 
 
 Sec. 306. Finality of determinations_ 275 
 
 Sec. 307. Areas in which payments may be made_ 275 
 
 TITLE IV. GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 401. Personnel and expenditures_ 275 
 
 Sec. 402. Authorized annual appropriation_ 275 
 
 Sec. 403. Secretary to issue regulations and determinations_ 275 
 
 Sec. 404. Jurisdiction of courts to enforce Act_ 276 
 
 Sec. 405. Penalties_ 276 
 
 Sec. 406. Obtaining of information by Secretary_ 276 
 
 Sec. 407. Proliibition against speculation by members of Department_ 277 
 
 Sec. 408. Suspension of quotas or payments_ 277 
 
 Sec. 409. Surveys and investigations_ 278 
 
 Sec. 410. Surveys and investigations, generally_ 278 
 
 Sec 411. International Sugar Agreement_ 278 
 
 Sec. 412. Termination of Act_ 278 
 
 Sec. 413. Effective date of Act_ 279 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE CODE-SUGAR 
 
 Sec. 4501. Imposition of tax_ 279 
 
 Sec. 4502. Definitions_ 279 
 
 Sec. 4503. Exemptions for sugar manufactured for home consumption_ 280 
 
 Sec. 6418. Livestock feed, distillation of alcohol, and exportation refunds. 280 
 
 Sec. 6511. Limitations on credit or refund_ 281 
 
 Sec 7240. Penalty for officials investing or speculating in sugar_ 281 
 
 PART VII. MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 STATUTES RELATING TO IMPORTS: 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956. Sec. 204. Agreements limiting exports_ 284 
 
 Sec. 22 of Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (Reenacted by the 
 
 Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937)_ 284 
 
 Public Law 88-482. Import quota on meat and meat products... 286 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XV 
 
 PART VII. MISCELLANEOUS LAWS—Continued 
 
 Page 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS RELATING TO ACREAGE 
 DIVERSIONS: 
 
 Sec. 326 of Food and Agriculture Act of 1962_ 287 
 
 Sec. 327 of Food and Agriculture Act of 1962_ 288 
 
 Sec. 328 of Food and Agriculture Act of 1962 _____ _ _ 288 
 
 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937: 
 
 Sec. 1. Reenactment of provisions of Agricultural Adjustment Act__ 289 
 
 (a) Sec. 1. Declaration of emergency_ 289 
 
 (b) Sec. 2. Declaration of policy_ 289 
 
 (c) Sec. 8a (5), (6), (7), (8), and (9). Violations and enforcement _ 290 
 
 (d) Sec. 8b. Marketing agreements_ 291 
 
 (e) Sec. 8c. Orders_ 291 
 
 (1) Orders_ 291 
 
 (2) Commodities to which applicable_ 291 
 
 (3) Notice and hearing_ 293 
 
 (4) Finding and issuance of order_ 293 
 
 (5) Terms—milk and its products_ 293 
 
 (6) Terms—other commodities_ 294 
 
 (7) Terms common to all orders_ 297 
 
 (8) Orders with marketing agreement_ 297 
 
 (9) Orders with or without marketing agreement_ 298 
 
 (10) Manner of regulation and applicability_ 299 
 
 (11) Regional application_ 299 
 
 (12) Cooperative association representation_ 300 
 
 (13) Retailer and producer exemption_ 300 
 
 (14) Violation of order_ 300 
 
 (15) Petition by handler and review_ 300 
 
 (16) Termination of orders and marketing agreements_ 301 
 
 (17) Provisions applicable to amendments_ 302 
 
 (18) Milk prices_ 302 
 
 (19) Producer referendum_ 302 
 
 (f) Sec. 8d. Books and records_ 303 
 
 (g) Sec. 8e. Restrictions on imported commodities_ 304 
 
 (h) Sec. 10 (a), (b)(2), (c), (f), (g), (h), and (i). Miscellaneous_ 305 
 
 (i) Sec. 12 (a) and (c). Appropriation and administrative ex¬ 
 
 penses_ 308 
 
 (j) Sec. 14. Separability of provisions_ 308 
 
 (k) Sec. 22. Imports_ 309 
 
 Sec. 2. Amendments to Agricultural Adjustment Act_ 309 
 
 Sec. 3. Arbitration of disputes concerning milk_ 309 
 
 Sec. 4. Agreements, etc., unaffected___ 309 
 
 Sec. 5. Taxes under Agricultural Adjustment Act; provisions un¬ 
 affected _ 310 
 
 Sec. 6. Short title_ 310 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT: 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ 311 
 
 Sec. 2. Declaration of policy_ 311 
 
 Sec. 3. Appropriations authorized_ 311 
 
 Sec. 4. Apportionments to States_ 311 
 
 Sec. 5. Nonfood assistance_ 312 
 
 Sec. 6. Direct federal expenditures_ 312 
 
 Sec. 7. Payments to States_ 313 
 
 Sec. 8. State disbursement to schools_ 313 
 
 Sec. 9. Nutritional and other program requirements_ 314 
 
 Sec. 10. Nonprofit private schools_ 314 
 
 Sec. 11. Special assistance_ 315 
 
 Sec. 12. Miscellaneous provisions and definitions_ 316 
 
 FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964: 
 
 Sec. 1. Short title_ _ 319 
 
 Sec. 2. Declaration of policy_ 319 
 
 Sec. 3. Definitions_ 319 
 
 Sec. 4. Establishment of the food stamp program_ 320 
 
XVI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PART VII. MISCELLANEOUS LAWS—Continued 
 
 FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964—Continued Page 
 
 Sec. 5. Eligible households_ 320 
 
 Sec. 6. Issuance and use of coupons_ 321 
 
 Sec. 7. Value of the coupon allotment and charges to be made_ 321 
 
 Sec. 8. Approval of retail food stores and wholesale food concerns_ 321 
 
 Sec. 9. Redemption of coupons_ 322 
 
 Sec. 10. Administration_ 322 
 
 Sec. 11. Disqualification of retail food stores and wholesale food 
 
 concerns_ 323 
 
 Sec. 12. Determination and disposition of claims_ 324 
 
 Sec. 13. Administrative and judicial review_ 324 
 
 Sec. 14. Violations and enforcement_ 325 
 
 Sec. 15. Cooperation with State agencies_ 325 
 
 Sec. 16. Appropriations_ 326 
 
 DECLARATIONS OF POLICY: 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1961. Sec. 2_ 327 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962. Sec. 402_ 327 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954. Sec. 204_ 328 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1961. Sec. 102. Consultation on Agri¬ 
 cultural programs_ 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954. Sec. 601. Agricultural attaches_ 329 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF FEDERAL AGRICULTURAL SERVICES TO 
 
 GUAM_ 329 
 
 ACT OF DECEMBER 20, 1944. Compromising, adjusting, or cancelling 
 
 debts- 330 
 
 PUB. LAW 664. CARGO PREFERENCE ACT_ 333 
 
 ACT OF AUGUST 27, 1953. Sec. 3. Humane Methods of Slaughter Act__ 334 
 
 PART VIII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 AND RELATED AGENCIES APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 TITLE I. GENERAL ACTIVITIES 
 
 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE_ 335 
 
 Salaries and expenses_ 335 
 
 Salaries and expenses (special foreign currency program)__ 336 
 
 SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE_ 336 
 
 Great Plains conservation program_ _ _ 336 
 
 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING SERVICE_ 336 
 
 Special milk program_ 336 
 
 School lunch program_ 337 
 
 Removal of surplus Agricultural Commodities (Sec. 32)_ 337 
 
 FOREIGN AGRICULTURAL SERVICE_I_ 337 
 
 Salaries and expenses__ __ _ 337 
 
 AGRICULTURAL STABILIZATION AND CONSERVATION 
 
 SERVICE_ 338 
 
 Expenses_ 338 
 
 Sugar Act-1 338 
 
 Agricultural conservation program_ 338 
 
 Conservation reserve program_ 339 
 
 Cropland conversion program_ 340 
 
 Emergency conservation measures_ 340 
 
 TITLE II. CORPORATIONS 
 
 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE CORPORATION_ 340 
 
 Administrative and operating expenses_ 340 
 
 Federal crop insurance corporation fund_ 340 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 XVII 
 
 PART VIII. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND 
 RELATED AGENCIES APPROPRIATION ACT—Con. 
 
 Page 
 
 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION_ .340 
 
 Reimbursement for net realized losses_ 340 
 
 Reimbursement for special milk program_ 
 
 Limitation on administrative expenses_ 341 
 
 Public Law 480_ 341 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ 341 
 
 Bartered materials for supplemental stockpile_ 341 
 
 TITLE V. GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 601. Purchase of motor vehicles_ 342 
 
 Sec. 602. Employment of aliens_ 342 
 
 Sec. 603. Funds available for uniforms or allowances_ 342 
 
 Sec. 604. Predicting prices of cotton_ 342 
 
 Sec. 605. Purchase of twine_ 342 
 
 Sec. 606. Contracting_ 342 
 
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SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTE 
 
 Sections 1 to 6, which were enacted April 27, 1935 (49 Stat. 163), 
 vested certain powers in the Secretary of Agriculture with respect to 
 the control and prevention of soil erosion and provided for the Soil 
 Conservation Ser\dce to be established as the agency to exercise such 
 powers. 
 
 Sections 7 to 17 were enacted February 29, 1936 (49 Stat. 1148), to 
 replace, in part, certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act (of 1933) which were invalidated by the Supreme Court on 
 January 6, 1936. Section 17 provides that the entire Act may be cited 
 as the “Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act.” Under the 
 agricultural conservation program formulated pursuant to sections 7 
 to 17 of the Act, farmers are assisted through payments and grants 
 of aid in carrying out approved soil and water conservation measures. 
 Section 16(b) was enacted August 7, 1956 (70 Stat. 1115), to provide 
 specifically for a conservation program in the States of the Great 
 Plains. In 1960, the Great Plains provisions of the Act were amended 
 to provide for the preservation of acreage allotments and quotas 
 for land under contract pursuant to this program (Pub. L. 86-793, 
 74 Stat. 1030, approved September 14, 1960). In 1961, the Act was 
 amended to add section 16(c) to provide for a Feed Grain Pro¬ 
 gram (Pub. L. 87-5, March 22, 1961). Section 16(d) was added by 
 Pub. L. 87-128 (75 Stat. 300), approved August 8,1961 to provide for 
 a special conservation program for 1962. Sections 16 (e), (f), and 
 (g) were added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 606, approved September 
 27, 1962. Section 16(h) was added by Pub. L. 88-26, 77 Stat. 45, 
 approved May 20, 1963. Pub. L. 87-732, 16 U.S.C. 590p, approved 
 October 2,1962 added Sec. 16A which restricts the use of public funds 
 for the drainage of wetlands in the States of North Dakota, South 
 Dakota, and Minnesota. 
 
 Originally the States were given the opportunity to submit State 
 plans for the administration of the conservation program pursuant 
 to section 4 of the Act. However, only one State submitted a plan 
 which was unacceptable. The Congress had on many occasions ex¬ 
 tended the authority of the Secretary to conduct the conservation 
 program, pursuant to section 4 of the Act so as to provide the States 
 additional time to submit these plans. The Secretary’s authority 
 was to expire on December 31, 1962, and the Congress repealed the 
 State Plans provisions of the Act and granted the Secretary con¬ 
 tinuing authority to carry out the agricultural conseiwation pro¬ 
 gram on a national basis. (Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 605.) 
 
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PART I 
 
 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT,i 
 
 AS AMENDED 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To provide for the protection of land resources against soil erosion, and for 
 
 other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 TJnited^ States of Armrica in Congress assembled^ That it is hereby 
 recognized that the wastage of soil and moisture resources on farm, 
 grazing, and forest lands of the Nation, resulting from soil erosion, 
 is a menace to the national welfare and that it is hereby declared to 
 be the policy of Congress to provide permanently for the control and 
 prevention of soil erosion and thereby to preserve natural resources, 
 control floods, prevent impairment of reservoirs, and maintain the 
 navigability of rivers and harbors, protect public health, public lands 
 and relieve unemployment, and the Secretary of Agriculture, from 
 now^ on, shall coordinate and direct all activities with relation to soil 
 erosion and in order to effectuate this policy is hereby authorized, 
 from time to time— 
 
 (1) To conduct surveys, investigations, and research relating to the 
 character of soil erosion and the preventive measures needed, to pub¬ 
 lish the results of any such surveys, investigations, or research, to dis¬ 
 seminate information concerning such methods, and to conduct demon- 
 strational projects in areas subject to erosion by wind or water; 
 
 (2) To carry out preventive measures, including, but not limited to, 
 engineering operations, methods of cultivation, the growing of vege¬ 
 tation, and changes in use of land; 
 
 (3) To cooperate or enter into agreements with, or to furnish finan¬ 
 cial or other aid to, any agency, governmental or otherwise, or any 
 person, subject to such conditions as he may deem necessary, for the 
 purposes of this Act; and 
 
 (4) To acquire lands, or rights or interests therein, by purchase, 
 gift, condemnation, or otherwise, whenever necessary for the purposes 
 of this Act. (16U.S.C. 590a.) 
 
 LANDS ON WHICH PREVENTIVE MEASURES MAT BE TAKEN 
 
 Sec. 2. The acts authorized in section 1 (1) and (2) may be per¬ 
 formed— 
 
 (a) On lands owned or controlled by the United States or any of 
 its agencies, wuth the cooperation of the agency having jurisdiction 
 thereof; and 
 
 (b) On any other lands, upon obtaining proper consent or the 
 necessary rights or interests in such lands. (16 U.S.C. 590b.) 
 
 ^ Pub. L. 46, 74th Cong., 49 Stat. 163, approved April 27, 1935. 
 
 1 
 
2 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 BENEFITS FOR N0N-G0\T:RN]MENT CONTROLLED LANDS 
 
 Sec. 3. As a condition to the extending of any benefits under this 
 Act to any lands not owned or controlled by the United States or any 
 of its agencies, the Secretary of Agriculture ntiay, insofar as he may 
 deem necessary for the purposes of this Act, require— 
 
 (1) The enactment and reasonable safeguards for the enforcement 
 of State and local laws imposing suitable permanent restrictions on 
 the use of such lands and otherwise providing for the prevention of 
 soil erosion; 
 
 (2) Agreements or covenants as to the permanent use of such lands; 
 and 
 
 (3) Contributions in money, services, materials, or otherwise, to any 
 operations conferring such benefits. (16 U.S.C. 590c.) 
 
 PERSONNEL 
 
 Sec. 4. For the purposes of this Act, the Secretary of Agriculture 
 may— 
 
 (1) Secure the cooperation of any governmental agency; 
 
 (2) Subject to the provisions of the civil-service laws and the Clas¬ 
 sification Act of 1949, appoint and fix the compensation of such offi¬ 
 cers and employees as he may deem necessary, except for a period not 
 to exceed eight months from the date of this enactment, the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture may make appointments and may continue em¬ 
 ployees of the organization heretofore established for the purpose of 
 administering those provisions of the National Industrial Recovery 
 Act which relate to the prevention of soil erosion, without regard to 
 the civil-service laws or regulations and the Classification Act of 1949, 
 as amended; and any person with technical or practical knowledge may 
 be employed and compensated under this Act on a basis to be deter¬ 
 mined by the Civil Service Commission; and 
 
 (3) Make expenditures for personal services and rent in the Dis¬ 
 trict of Columbia and elsewhere, for the purchase of lawbooks and 
 books of reference, for printing and binding, for the purchase, opera¬ 
 tion, and maintenance of passenger-carrying vehicles, and perform 
 such acts, and prescribe such regulations, as he may deem proper to 
 carry out the provisions of this Act. (16 U.S.C. 590d.) 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 
 
 Sec. 5. The Secretary of Agriculture shall establish an agency to be 
 known as the “Soil Conservation Service,” ^ to exercise the powers 
 conferred on him by this Act and may utilize the organization hereto¬ 
 fore established for the purpose of administering those provisions of 
 sections 202 and 203 of the National Industrial Recovery Act which 
 relate to the prevention of soil erosion, together with such personnel 
 thereof as the Secretary of Agriculture may determine, and all unex- 
 
 2 Functions of Soil Conservation Service in Department of Agriculture with respect to 
 soil and moisture conservation operations conducted on lands under Jurisdiction of De¬ 
 partment of the Interior were transferred to the Department of the Interior, to be admin¬ 
 istered by the Secretary of the Interior through such agencies in the Department of the 
 Interior as the Secretary shall designate, by Reorganization Plan No. IV, Sec. 6, effective 
 June 30, 1940, 5 F.R. 2421, 54 Stat. 1235, 5 U.S.C. 133t note. 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 3 
 
 pended balances of funds heretofore allotted to said organization shall 
 be available until June 30, 1937, and the Secretary of Agriculture 
 shall assume all obligations incurred by said organization prior to 
 transfer to the Department of Agriculture. In order that there may 
 be proper coordination of erosion-control activities the Secretary of 
 Agriculture may transfer to the agency created under this Act such 
 Ructions, funds, personnel, and property of other agencies in the 
 Depaitment of Agriculture as he may from time to time determine. 
 (16 U.S.C. 590e.) 
 
 appropriation authorized 
 
 Sec. 6. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated for the 
 purposes of this Act such sums as Congress may from time to time 
 determine to be necessary. 
 
 Appropriations for carrying out this Act allocated for the 
 production or procurement of nursery stock by any Federal agency, 
 or funds appropriated to any Federal agency for allocation to 
 cooperating States for the production or procurement of nursery 
 stock, shall remain available for expenditure for not more than 
 3 fiscal years. (16 U.S.C. 590f.) 
 
 [Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944. Sec. 302. (b) 
 The Soil Conservation Service subject to applicable regailations under 
 the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, as 
 amended, may sell and distribute supplies, materials, and equipment 
 to other Government activities, the cost of such supplies and materials 
 or the value of such eq^uipment (including the cost of transportation 
 and handling) to be reimbursed to appropriations current at the tune 
 additional supplies, materials, or equipment are procured from the 
 appropriations chargeable with the cost or value of such supplies, 
 materials, or equipment.^ (16 U.S.C. 590q-l.)] 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CONSERVATION POLICY AND ENUMERATION OF PURPOSES 
 
 Sec. 7. (a) It is hereby declared to be the policy of this Act also to 
 secure, and the purposes of this Act shall also include, (1) preserva¬ 
 tion and improvement of soil fertility;^ (2) promotion of the economic 
 use and conservation of land; (3) diminution of exploitation and 
 wasteful and unscientific use of national soil resources; (4) the protec¬ 
 tion of rivers and harbors against the results of soil erosion in aid of 
 maintaining the navigability of waters and water courses and in aid of 
 flood control ; and (5) reestablishment, at as rapid a rate as the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture determines to be practicable and in the general 
 public interest, of the ratio between the purchasing power of the net 
 income per person on farms and that of the income per person not on 
 farms^ that prevailed during the five-year period August 1909-July 
 1914, inclusive, as determined from statistics available in the United 
 States Department of Agriculture, and the maintenance of such ratio. 
 The powers conferred under sections 7 to 14, inclusive, of this Act 
 shall be used to assist voluntary action calculated to effectuate the 
 purposes specified in this section. Such powers shall not be used to 
 
 •Act of September 21, 1944, 68 Stat. 738, amended by Act of October 31, 1951, 65 Stat. 
 
4 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 discourage the production of supplies of foods and fibers sufficient to 
 maintain normal domestic human consumption as determined by the 
 Secretary from the records of domestic human consumption in the 
 years 1920 to 1929, inclusive, taking into consideration increased pop¬ 
 ulation, quantities of any commodity that were forced into domestic 
 consumption by decline in exports during such period, current trends 
 in domestic consumption and exports of particular commodities, and 
 the quantities of substitutes available for domestic consumption with¬ 
 in any general class of food commodities. In carrying out the purposes 
 of this section due regard shall be given to the maintenance of a 
 continuous and stable suppl}^ of agricultural commodities adequate to 
 meet consumer demand at prices fair to both producers and consumers. 
 (IGU.S.C. 590g(a).) 
 
 Sec.7(b)-(g)" * * * 
 
 AUTHORITY OF SECRETARY TO MAKE PAYMENTS OR GRANTS OF AID 
 
 DIRECTLY TO FARMERS 
 
 Sec. 8. (a) ® * * * 
 
 (b) ® The Secretary shall have power to carry out the purposes 
 specified in clauses (1), (2), (3), (4), and (5) of section T(a) by mak- 
 ing payments or grants of other aid to agricultural producers, in¬ 
 cluding tenants and sharecroppers, in amounts determined by the 
 Secretary to be fair and reasonable in connection with the effectua¬ 
 tion of such purposes during the year with respect to which such 
 payments or grants are made, and measured by (1) their treat¬ 
 ment or use of their land, or a part thereof, for soil restoration, soil 
 conservation, or the prevention of erosion; (2) changes in the use of 
 their land; (3) their equitable share, as determined by the Secre¬ 
 tary, of the normal national production of any commodity or com¬ 
 modities required for domestic consumption; or (4) their equitable 
 share, as determined by the Secretary, of the national production of 
 any commodity or commodities required for domestic consumption 
 and exports adjusted to reflect the extent to which their utilization 
 of cropland on the farm conforms to farming practices which the 
 Secretary determines will best effectuate the purposes specified in 
 section 7(a); or (5) any combination of the above. Clauses (1) 
 and (2) above shall be construed to cover water conservation and 
 the beneficial use of water on individual farms, including measures 
 to prevent runoff, the building of check dams and ponds, and pro¬ 
 viding facilities for applying water to the land. In determining 
 the amount of any payment or grant measured by (1) or (2) the 
 Secretary shall take into consideration the productivity of the land 
 affected by the farming practices adopted during the year with 
 respect to which such payment is made. In carrying out the pro¬ 
 visions of this section in the States of the Union, except Ala^ca,^ 
 
 * Sec. 7(b)-(gr) repealed by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 605, approved 
 September 27, 1962. 
 
 5 Sec. 8(a) repealed by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 605, approved 
 September 27, 1962. 
 
 « Sentences 7 through 11 were added in lieu of other language which was deleted by 
 Pub. L. 88-534, 78 Stat. 742, approved August 31, 1964, and are effective for elections of 
 committeemen held on or after January 1, 1965. Subsec. (b) was previously amended by 
 the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 605, approved September 27, 1962. 
 
 The words “States of Union, except Alaska” substituted for previous language by the 
 Act of July 12, 1960. 74 Stat. 412. fe fe 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 5 
 
 the Secretary is directed to utilize the services of local and State 
 cornmittees selected as hereinafter provided. The Secretary shall 
 designate local administrative areas as units for administration of 
 programs under this section. No such local area shall include more 
 than one county or parts of different counties. Farmers within any 
 such local administrative area, and participating or coooperating in 
 programs administered within such area, shall elect annually from 
 among their number a local committee of not more than three niembers 
 for such area. The members of the local committees shall, in a county 
 convention, nominate and elect a county committee which shall consist 
 of three_ members who are farmers in the county. At the first county 
 convention held on or after the effective date of this sentence, one mem¬ 
 ber of the county committee shall be elected for one year; one member 
 shall be elected for two years; and one member shall be elected for 
 three years. Thereafter, each member of a county committee shall be 
 elected for a term of three years. No member of the county commit¬ 
 tee shall be elected for more than three consecutive terms (exclusive 
 of any term which began prior to the effective date of this sentence). 
 The local committee shall select a secretary and may utilize the county 
 agricultural extension agent for such purpose. The county com¬ 
 mittee shall select a secretary who may be the county agricultural 
 extension agent. If such county agricultural extension agent shall 
 not have been elected secretary of such committee, he shall be ex 
 officio a member of the county committee. The county agricultural 
 extension agent shall not have the power to vote. In any county in 
 which there is only one local committee the local committee shall also 
 be the county committee. In each State there shall be a State com¬ 
 mittee for the State composed of not less than three or more than five 
 farmers who are legal residents of the State and who are appointed by 
 the Secretary. The State director of the Agricultural Extension 
 Service shall be ex officio a member of such State committee. The ex 
 officio members of the county and State committees shall be in addition 
 to the number of members of such committee, hereinbefore specified. 
 The Secretary shall make such regulations as are necessary relating to 
 the selection and exercise of the functions of the respective com¬ 
 mittees, and to the administration, through such committees, of such 
 programs. In carrying out the provisions of this section, the Sec¬ 
 retary shall, as far as practicable, protect the interests of tenants 
 and sharecroppers; is authorized to utilize the agricultural exten¬ 
 sion service and other approved agencies; shall accord such recog¬ 
 nition and encouragement to producer-owned and producer-controlled 
 cooperative associations as will be in harmony with the policy toward 
 cooperative associations set forth in existing Acts of Congress and 
 as will tend to promote efficient methods of marketing and distribu¬ 
 tion ; shall not have power to acquire any land or any right of interest 
 therein; shall, in every practicable manner, protect the interests of 
 small producers; and shall in every practical way encourage and pro¬ 
 vide for soil-conserving and soil-rebuilding practices rather than tlie 
 growing of soil-depleting crops. Rules and regulations governing 
 payments or grants under this subsection shall be as simple and direct 
 as possible, and, wherever practicable, they shall be classified on two 
 bases: (a) Soil-depleting crops and practices, (b) soil-building crops 
 and practices. 
 
6 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 Notwithstanding any other provision of law, in making available 
 conservation materials consisting of seeds, seed inoculants, fertil¬ 
 izers, liming and other soil-conditioning materials, trees, or plants, 
 or in making available soil-conserving or soil-bnilding services, to 
 agricultural producers under this subsection, the Secretary may make 
 payments in advance of determination of performance by the pro¬ 
 ducers, to persons who fill purchase orders covering approved con¬ 
 servation materials or covering soil-conserving or soil-building serv¬ 
 ices, furnished to producers, or who render services to the Secretary 
 in delivering to producers approved conservation materials, for the 
 carrying out, by the prodcers, of soil-building or soil-conserving 
 practices approved by the Secretary. The price at which purchase 
 orders for any conservation materials or services are filled may be 
 limited to a fair price fixed in accoi’dance with regulations prescribed 
 by the Secretary. 
 
 Appropriations are hereby authorized for the purchase in advance 
 of the program year for which the appropriation is made of seeds, 
 fertilizers, lime, trees, or any other farming materials or any soil¬ 
 terracing seiwices, and making grants thereof to agricultural pro¬ 
 ducers to aid them in carrying out farming practices approved by the 
 Secretary in programs under this Act; for the reimbursement of any 
 Federal, State, or local government agency for fertilizers, seeds, lime, 
 trees, or other farming materials, or any soil-terracing services, fur¬ 
 nished by such agency; and for the payment of all expenses necessary 
 in making such grants, including all or part of the costs incident to 
 the delivery thereof. (16 U.S.C. 500h (b).) 
 
 [Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1956. Sec. 6(b) Pay¬ 
 ments of grants under sections 7 to 17 of the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, may be conditioned upon the 
 utilization of land with respect to which such payments or grants are 
 to be made in conformity with farming practices which will encourage 
 and provide for soil-building and soil- and water-conserving practices 
 in the most practical and effective manner and adapted to conditions 
 in the several States, as determined and approved by the State com- 
 mittes appointed pursuant to section 8(b) of such Act, for the re¬ 
 spective States.® (16 U.S.C. 590h^.)] 
 
 [PuRLic Law 85-278 (71 Stat. 601)—That, notwithstanding the 
 provisions of subsection (b) of section 8 of the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, two county committees shall be elected annu¬ 
 ally under such subsection for the counties of Otter Tail, Polk, and 
 Saint rx)uis, in the State of IMinnesota, and for the county of Potta¬ 
 wattamie, in the State of Iowa, and that the actions heretofore or 
 hereafter taken by each of such committees shall be given the same 
 effect in the area served by it as is given to the actions of the county 
 committee in a county served by a single county committee. (16 
 U.S.C. 590h note.)] 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OF ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 (c) (1) In apportioning acreage allotments under this section ir. 
 the case of wheat and corn, the National and State allotments and 
 
 * Act of August 3, 1956, 70 Stat. 1033. 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 7 
 
 the allotments to counties shall be apportioned annually on the 
 basis of the acreage seeded for the production of the commodity 
 during the ten calendar years immediately preceding the calen¬ 
 dar year in which the national acreage allotment is determined 
 (plus, in applicable years, the acreage diverted under previous 
 agricultural adjustment and conservation programs), with ad¬ 
 justments for abnormal weather conditions and trends in acreage 
 during the applicable period. 
 
 (2) ^ In the case of wheat, the allotment to any county shall 
 be apportioned annually by the Secretary, through the local com¬ 
 mittees, among the farms within such county on the basis of till¬ 
 able acres, crop-rotation practices, type of soil, and topography. 
 Not more than 3 per centum of such county allotment shall be ap¬ 
 portioned to farms on which wheat has not been planted during 
 any of the three marketing years immediately preceding the 
 marketing year in which the allotment is made. Notwithstand¬ 
 ing any other provision of this section, the allotments established, 
 or which would have been established, for any farm acquired in 
 1940 or thereafter by the United States for national-defense pur¬ 
 poses shall be placed in an allotment pool and shall be used only 
 to establish allotments for other farms owned or acquired by the 
 owner of the farm so acquired by the United States. The allot¬ 
 ments so made for any farm, including a farm on which wheat 
 has not been planted during any of the three marketing years pre¬ 
 ceding the marketing year in which the allotment is made shall 
 compare with the allotments established for other farms in the 
 same area which are similar except for the past acreage of wheat. 
 (16 U.S.C. 590h(c).) 
 
 (3) In the case of corn, the allotment to any county shall be 
 apportioned annually by the Secretary, through the local commit¬ 
 tees, among the farms within such county on the basis of tillable 
 acreage, type of soil, topography, and crop-rotation practices. 
 
 (5) In determining normal yield per acre for any county 
 under this section in the case of wheat or corn, the normal yield 
 shall be the average yield per acre therein for such commodity 
 during the ten calendar years immediately preceding the cal¬ 
 endar year in which such yield is determined, adjusted for ab¬ 
 normal weather conditions and trends in yields. If for any 
 reason, there is no actual yield, or the data therefor are not avail¬ 
 able for any year, then an appraised yield for such year, deter¬ 
 mined in accordance with regulations of the Secretary, shall be 
 used. If, on account of drought, flood, insect pests, plant disease, 
 or other uncontrollable natural causes, the yield in any year of 
 such ten-year period is less than 75 per centum of the average 
 (computed without regard to such year), such year shall be elim¬ 
 inated in calculating the normal yield per acre. Such normal 
 yield per acre for any county need be redetermined only when the 
 actual average yield for the ten calendar years immediately pre- 
 
 Sec. 201 of Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 178, approved April 11, 1904, regarding the 
 1965 acreage allotment on wheat on p. 55. 
 
 10 Repealed by the Act of April 10, 1939, 53 Stat. 573. 
 
8 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 ceding tlie calendar year in which such yield is being reconsidered 
 differs by at least 5 per centum from the actual average yield for 
 the ten years upon which the existing normal yield per acre for 
 the county was based. 
 
 (6) In determining normal yield per acre for any farm under 
 this section in the case of wheat or corn, the normal yield shall be 
 the average yield per acre thereon for such commodity during the 
 ten calendar years immediately preceding the calendar year in 
 which such yield is determined, adjusted for abnormal weather 
 conditions and trends in yields. If for any such year the data 
 are not available, or there is no actual yield, then the normal 
 yield for the farm shall be appraised in accordance with regula¬ 
 tions of the Secretary, taking into consideration abnormal 
 weather conditions, the normal yield for the county, and the yield 
 in years for which data are available. (16 U.S.C. 590h (c).) 
 
 CONDITIONS AFFECTING PAYMENTS OR GRANTS OF AID 
 
 (d) Any payment or grant of aid made under subsection (b) shall 
 bo conditioned upon the utilization of the land, with respect to which 
 such payment is made, in conformity with farming practices which 
 the Secretary finds tend to effectuate any one or more of the purposes 
 specified in clause (1), (2), (3), (4), or (5) of section Y(a). 
 
 Any payment made under subsection (b) with respect to any farm 
 (except for lands which the Secretary determines should not be 
 utilized for the harvesting of crops but should be permanently used 
 for grazing purposes only) shall, if the number of cows kept on sucli 
 farin, and in the county in which such farm is located, for the pro¬ 
 duction of milk or products thereof (for market), exceeds the normal 
 number of such cows, be further conditioned upon the utilization of 
 the land, with respect to which such payment is made, so that soil¬ 
 building and soil-conserving crops planted or produced on an acreage 
 equal to the land normally used for the production of soil-depleting 
 crops, but, as a condition of such payment, not permitted to be so used, 
 shall be used for the purpose of building and conserving the fertility 
 of the soil, or for the production of agricultural commodities to be 
 consumed on the farm, and not for market. IVlienever it is deter¬ 
 mined that a county, as a whole, is in substantial compliance with 
 the provisions of this paragraph, no payment shall be denied any 
 individual farmer in the county by reason of this paragraph; and no 
 payment shall be denied a farmer by reason of this paragraph miless 
 it has been determined that the farmer has not substantially complied 
 with the provisions of this paragraph. Wlienever the Secretary finds 
 that by reason of drought, flood, or other disaster, a shortage of feed 
 exists in any area, he shall so declare, and to the extent and for the 
 period he finds necessaiy to relieve such shortage, the operation of the 
 condition provided in this paragraph shall be suspended in such area 
 and, if necessary to relieve such shortage, in other areas defined by 
 him. As used in this paragraph, the term “for market” means for 
 disposition by sale, barter, or exchange, or by feeding (in any form) 
 to dairy livestock which, or the products of which, are to be sold, 
 bartered or exchanged; and such term shall not include consumption 
 on the farm. An agricultural commodity shall be deemed consumed 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 9 
 
 consumed by the farmer’s family, employees, or house¬ 
 hold, or if fed to poultry or livestock other than dairy livestock on his 
 fann; or if fed to dairy livestock on his farm and such dairy livestock, 
 or the products thereof, are to be consumed by his family, employees, 
 or household. Whenever the Secretary has reason to believe the 
 income of producers of livestock (other than dairy cattle) or poultry 
 ni any area from such sources is being adversely affected by increases 
 in the supply for market of such livestock or poultry, as the case may 
 be, arising as a result of programs carried out under this Act, he shall 
 make an investigation with respect to the existence of such facts. 
 If, upon investigation, the Secretary finds that the income of pro¬ 
 ducers of such livestock, or poultry, as the case may be, in any area 
 from any such source is being adversely affected by such increases, he 
 shall, as soon as practicable, make such provision in the administra¬ 
 tion of this Act with respect to the use of diverted acres as he may find 
 necessary to protect the interests of producers of such livestock or 
 poultry in the affected area. (16 U.S.C. 590h(d).) 
 
 DIVISION or PAYMENTS AMONG LANDLORDS, TENANTS, AND SHARECROPPERS 
 
 made by the Secretary to farmers under subsection 
 (b) shall be divided among the landlords, tenants, and sharecroppers 
 of any farm, with respect to which such payments are made, in the 
 same proportion that such landlords, tenants, and sharecroppers are 
 entitled to share in the proceeds of the agricultural commodity with 
 respect to which such payments are made, or, effective with respect to 
 the 1942 and subsequent farm programs, in the event of acquisition of 
 title to, or lease of, any farm for use in connection with the national 
 war effort which caused the producers on such farms to lose, prior to 
 the time of harvest, their interests in the crops planted thereon, or the 
 proceeds thereof, payments with respect to such crops, to the extent 
 that full compensation for the loss of payments with respect thereto 
 in connection with such acquisition or lease was not made to such 
 producers, shall be divided among the landlords, tenants, and share¬ 
 croppers on such farm in the proportion which it is determined that 
 such producers would have been entitled to share in the proceeds of 
 such crops but for such acquisition or lease: Provided, That payments 
 based on soil-building or soil-conserving practices shall be divided in 
 proportion to the extent which such landlords, tenants, and share¬ 
 croppers contribute to the carrying out of such practices. Such pay¬ 
 ments shall be paid by the Secretary directly to the landlords, tenants, 
 or sharecroppers entitled thereto, and shall be computed at rates which 
 will permit the Secretary to set aside out of the funds available for the 
 making of such payments for each year an amount sufficient to permit 
 the increases herein specified to be made within the limits of the funds 
 so available. If with respect to any farm the total payment to any 
 person for any year would be: 
 
 (1) Not more than $20, the payment shall be increased by 40 
 per centum; 
 
 (2) More than $20 but not more than $40, the payment shall 
 be increased by $8, plus 20 per centum of the excess over $20; 
 
 (3) More than $40 but not more than $60, the payment shall be 
 increased by $12, plus 10 per centum of the excess over $40; 
 
10 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 (4) More than $60 but not more than $186, the payment shall 
 be increased by $14; or 
 
 (5) More than $186 but less than $200, the payment shall be 
 increased to $200. 
 
 In the case of payments of more than $1, the amount of the payment 
 which shall be used to calculate the 40-, 20-, and 10-per-centum in¬ 
 creases under clauses (1), (2), and (3) shall not include that part, if 
 any, of the payment which is a fraction of a dollar. 
 
 Beginning with the calendar year 1939, no total payment for any 
 year to any person under such subsection _(b) shall exceed $10,000. 
 In the case of payments made to any individual, partnership, or es¬ 
 tate on account of performance on farms in different States, Ter¬ 
 ritories, or possessions, the $10,000 limitation shall apply to the to¬ 
 tal of the payments for each State, Territory, or possession, for a 
 year and not to the total of all such payments. 
 
 Persons who carry out farming operations as tenants or share¬ 
 croppers on cropland owned by the United States Government and 
 who comply with the terms and conditions of the conservation pro¬ 
 gram, formulated pursuant to sections 7 to 17, inclusive, of this Act, 
 as amended, shall be entitled to apply for and receive payments, or 
 to retain payments heretofore made, for their participation in said 
 program to the same extent as other producers. Persons who carry 
 out conservation practices on federally owned noncropland which 
 directly conserve or benefit nearby or adjoining privately owned 
 lands of such persons and who maintain and use such Federal land 
 under agreement with the Federal agency having jurisdiction there¬ 
 of and who comply with the terms and conditions of the agricultural 
 conservation program formulated pursuant to sections 7 to 17 of this 
 Act, as amended, shall be entitled to apply for and receive payments 
 under such program to the same extent as other producers. (16 
 U.S.C. 590h(e).j 
 
 CHANGE BETWEEN LANDLORD AND TENANTS OR SHARECROPPERS 
 AFFECTING LANDLORD’S PAYIVIENTS 
 
 (f) Any change in the relationship between the landlord and the 
 tenants or sharecroppers, with respect to any farm, that would in¬ 
 crease over the previous year the amount of payments or grants of 
 other aid under subsection (b) that would otherwise be made to any 
 landlord shall not operate to increase such payment or grant to such 
 landlord. Any reduction in the number of tenants below the average 
 number of tenants on any farm during the preceding three years that 
 would increase the payments or grants of other aid under such sub¬ 
 section that would otherwise be made to the landlord shall not here¬ 
 after operate to increase any such payment or grant to such land¬ 
 lord. Such limitations shall not apply if on investigation the local 
 committee finds that the change is justified and approves such change 
 in relationship or reduction. Such action of local committees shall be 
 subject to approval or disapproval by State committees. (16 U.S.C. 
 590h(f).) 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 11 
 
 ASSIGNMENT OF PAYJMENT 
 
 (g) A payment which may be made to a farmer under this section, 
 may be assigned, without discount, by him in writing as security for 
 cash or advances to finance making a crop. Such assignment shall be 
 signed by the farmer and witnessed by a member of the county or 
 other local committee, or by the treasurer or the secretary of such com¬ 
 mittee, and filed with the county agent or the county committee. Such 
 assignment shall include the statement that the assignment is not made 
 to pay or secure any preexisting indebtedness. This provision shall 
 not authorize any suit against or impose any liability upon the Secre¬ 
 tary or any disbursing agent if payment to the farmer is made with¬ 
 out regard to the existence of any such assignment. (16 U.S.C. 
 590h(g).) 
 
 [Naval Stores Conservation Program. —In administering the 
 naval stores conservation programs authorized in section 8 and in 
 making payments theremider to gum naval stores producers the Secre¬ 
 tary may utilize the services of regional associations of such producers 
 or any agency of the Government in lieu of the State, county, and 
 other local committees utilized in the other agricultural conservation 
 programs if he finds that more efficient administration will result, 
 and the provisions of section 388(b) of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act of 1938 shall otherwise be applicable to the administration of said 
 naval stores conservation programs.^^ (16 U.S.C. 690h-l.) ] 
 
 [Deferred Grazing Program.—Public Law 85-25 (71 Stat. 
 
 26)—That notwithstanding any other provision of law, in connection 
 with any major disaster due to drought determined by the President to 
 warrant assistance by the Federal Government under Public Law 875, 
 Eighty-first Congress, as amended, the President is authorized and 
 directed as part of the assistance provided pursuant to such Act to 
 formulate and carry out, through the facilities of the Department of 
 Agriculture, a deferred grazing program, which shall include nonuse 
 or limited use, or any needed combination thereof, in any county 
 affected by such disaster in which the Secretary of Agriculture de¬ 
 termines grazing of native rangeland is a substantial factor in agri¬ 
 cultural production, and finds that limited or deferred grazing is 
 necessary and appropriate for the reestablishment or conservation of 
 OTass for grazing. Such program shall be applicable only to non- 
 lederally owned land which is normally used for grazing. Within 
 thirty days (1) after the date of enactment of this Act, or (2) after 
 any subsequent designation of any such area as a disaster area by the 
 President, the Secretary shall designate the counties in any such area 
 in which this program shall be available, and the program shall remain 
 available in each such county for a period of not more than five years 
 after the date of enactment of this Act. 
 
 Sec. 2. The program shall provide for payment for deferred grazing 
 to farmers and ranchers at rates equal to the fair rental value of the 
 land for the grazing use withheld under the program, as determined 
 by the Secretary on the basis of the normal grazing capacity of the 
 land during periods of adequate precipitation. No payment shall be 
 made under the program if it is determined that a shift of livestock 
 
 Act of June 16. 1938, 52 Stat. 746. 
 
 “ Act of AprU 25, 1957. 
 
12 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 from the deferred areas to other land results in overgrazing nonde- 
 ferred areas. Payment to any person for deferred grazing on land in 
 any one county or land in more than one county operated as a single 
 unit shall not exceed $5,000 for any one year. 
 
 Sec. 3. The program authorized herein may include such terms and 
 conditions, in addition to those specifically provided for herein, as are 
 determined desirable to effectuate its purposes and to facilitate prac¬ 
 tical administration. The program authorized herein for any county 
 shall be supplemental to the agricultural conservation program, and 
 not in substitution of, other programs in such county authorized by 
 any other law, except that no payment shall be made concurrently on 
 the same land for deferred grazing under this and any other program. 
 
 Sec. 4. There is hereby authorized to be appropriated, in addition 
 to other funds authorized to be appropriated for the purposes of 
 Public Law 875, Eighty-first Congress, such funds as are necessary to 
 carry out the program authorized herein. (42 U.S.C. 1855b note.)] 
 
 SURVEYS, INVESTIGATIONS, AND REPORTS 
 
 Sec. 9. The Secretary is authorized to conduct surveys, investiga¬ 
 tions, and research relating to the conditions and factors affecting, and 
 methods of accomplishing most effectively, the policy and purposes 
 of section 7(a). Notwithstanding any provision of existing law, the 
 Secretary is authorized to make public such information as he deems 
 necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act. The Secretary shall 
 transmit to the Congress a report, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1937, and for each fiscal year thereafter, of the operations for such 
 year under sections 7 to 14, inclusive, of this Act, which report shall 
 include a statement of the expenditures made and obligations in¬ 
 curred, by classes and amounts. (16 U.S.C. 590i.) 
 
 DEFINITION or AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY 
 
 Sec. 10. The term “agricultural commodity” as used in this Act 
 means any such commodity and any regional or market classifica¬ 
 tion, type, or grade thereof. (16 U.S.C. 590j.) 
 
 AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS 
 
 Sec. 11. All funds available for carrying out this Act shall be avail¬ 
 able for allotment to the bureaus and offices of the Department of 
 Agriculture and for transfer to such other agencies of the Federal or 
 State Governments, or to local public agencies, as the Secretary may 
 request to cooperate or assist in carrying out this Act, and for pay¬ 
 ments to committees or associations of producers in any region or 
 regions to cover the estimated administrative expenses to be incurred 
 by any such committee or association in cooperating in carrying out 
 this Act; Provided^ That the Secretary may prescribe that all or part 
 of such estimated expenses of any such committee or association may 
 be deducted pro rata from the payments or grants made to the mem¬ 
 bers thereof: Provided further, That the Secretary may make such 
 payments in advance of determination of performance: Provided 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 13 
 
 further^ That the transfer of funds for services of technicians in for¬ 
 mulating and carrying out agricultural conservation programs, from 
 allotments for agricultural conservation payments within a State, 
 shall be subject to such limitations and conditions as may be provided 
 in appropriation or other law. Funds so transferred may be placed 
 in a single account for each state. (16 U.S.C. 590k.) 
 
 EXPANSION OF MARKETS FOR AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES AND ADVANCING 
 FUNDS TO FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE CORPORATION 
 
 Sec. 12. (a) Whenever the Secretary finds that the exercise of the 
 powers conferred in this section will tend to carry out the purpose 
 specified in clause (5) of section 7(a), or will tend to provide for and 
 maintain a continuous and stable supply of agricultural commodities 
 adequate to meet consumer demand at prices fair to both producers 
 and consumers, or both, he shall use such part as he deems necessary 
 of the pms appropriated to carry out this Act for the expansion of 
 domestic and foreign markets or for seeking new or additional mar¬ 
 kets for agricultural commodities or the products thereof or for the 
 removal or disposition of surpluses of such commodities or the prod- 
 uctsthereof. (16U.S.C. 590?(a).) 
 
 (b) The Secretary is authorized to make advances to producers for 
 the purpose of assisting them to insure their crops with the Federal 
 Crop Insurance Corporation. The Secretary shall remit the amount 
 of any such advances to a producer directly to such Corporation in 
 payment of the premium on the insurance for which the producer has 
 made application. Advances shall only be made to producers who 
 are participating or who agree to participate in a program formulated 
 pursuant to section 8. Except as otherwise provided in this subsec¬ 
 tion, the terms and conditions of such advances shall be fixed by the 
 Secretary. In carrying out the provisions of this subsection, the Sec¬ 
 retary may transfer to the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, prior 
 to the execution of applications for insurance or requests for advances 
 by producers, the funds estimated as necessary to cover the advances 
 which will be requested for the payment of premiums under a crop- 
 insurance program, and any portion of such funds not used for 
 advances to producers under such program shall be returned to the 
 Secretary by the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. (16 U.S.C. 
 590^(b).) ^ ^ 
 
 EXECUTION OF POWERS OF SECRETARY BY PRODUCTION AND MARKETING 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Sec. 13. Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this Act, the 
 Secretary is authorized and directed to provide for the execution by 
 the Production and Marketing Administration of such powers con¬ 
 ferred upon him under sections 7 to 14, inclusive, of this Act as he 
 deems may be appropriately exercised by such Administration, and 
 for such purposes the provisions of law applicable to the appointment 
 and compensation of persons employed by the Production and Mar¬ 
 keting Administration shall apply. (16 U.S.C. 590m.) 
 
 758-820—65——3 
 
14 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 ITNALITY OF DETERillNATIONS 
 
 Sec. 14. The facts constituting the bases for any payment or grant 
 or the amount thereof authorized to be made uncfer section 7 or 8 
 hereof, when officially determined in conformity with rules or regula¬ 
 tions prescribed by the Secretaiy of Agriculture, shall be reviewable 
 only by the Secretary of Agriculture. Payments to claimants under 
 sections 7 to 17, inclusive, of this Act may be made upon the certificate 
 of the claimant, which certificate shall be in such form as the Secretaiy 
 of Agriculture may prescribe, that he has carried out the conservation 
 practice or practices and has complied with all other requirements as 
 conditions for such payments and that the statements and information 
 contained in the application for payment are correct and true, to the 
 best of his knowledge and belief, under the penalties of title 18, United 
 States Code. (16 U.S.C. 590n.) 
 
 ArrROPRIATIONS AUTHORIZATIONS AND ALLOCATION OF FUNDS 
 
 Sec. 15. To enable the Secretary of Agriculture to carry out the 
 purposes of sections 7 and 8 there is hereby authorized to be appro¬ 
 priated for any fiscal year not exceeding $500,000,000. 
 
 The funds available for payments (after allowing for estimated 
 administrative expenses, and not to exceed 5 per centum for payments 
 Avith respect to range lands, noncrop pasture lands, and naval stores) 
 shall be allocated among the commodities produced with respect to 
 Avhich payments or grants are to be computed. In allocating funds 
 among the commodities the Secretary shall take into consideration 
 and give equal weight to (1) the average acreages planted to the 
 various commodities (including rotation pasture), for the ten years 
 1928 to 1937, adjusted for abnormal weather and other conditions, 
 including acreage diverted from production under the agricultural 
 adjustment and soil conservation programs; (2) the value at parity 
 prices of the production from the allotted acreages of the various 
 commodities for the year with respect to which the payment is made; 
 (3) the average acreage planted to the various commodities during the 
 ten years 1928 to 1937, including the acreage diverted from production 
 under the agricultural adjustment and soil conservation programs, in 
 excess of the allotted acreage for the year with respect to which the 
 payment is made; and (4) the value based on average prices for the 
 preceding ten years of the production of the excess acreage determined 
 under item (3). The rate of payment used in making payments to 
 the producers of each commodity shall be such that the estimated pay¬ 
 ments Avith respect to such commodity shall ^ual the amount of funds 
 allocated to such commodity as herein provided. For the purpose of 
 allocating funds and computing payments or grants the Secretary is 
 authorized to consider as a commodity a group of commodities or a 
 regional or market classification of a commodity. For the purpose of 
 computing payments or grants, the Secretary is authorized to use 
 funds allocated to two or more commodities produced on farms of a 
 designated regional or other classification to compute payments with 
 respect to one of such commodities on such farms, and to use funds, in 
 an amount equal to the estimated payments which would be made in 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 15 
 
 any county, for making payments pursuant to a special program under 
 section 8 approved by the Secretary for such county: Provided^ That 
 farm acreage allotments shall be made for wheat in 1938, but in deter¬ 
 mining compliance wheat shall be considered in the group with other 
 crops for which special acreage allotments are not made. Notwith¬ 
 standing the foregoing provisions of this section and the provisions 
 of section 7(g), programs of soil building practices and soil- and 
 water-conserving practices shall be based on a distribution of the funds 
 available for payments and grants among the several States in accord¬ 
 ance with their conservation needs, as determined by the Secretary, 
 except that the proportion allocated to any State shall not be reduced 
 by more than 15 per centum from the distribution of such funds for 
 the next preceding program year. In carrying out such programs, 
 the Secretary shall give particular consideration to conservation prob¬ 
 lems on farm lands diverted from crops under acreage allotment pro¬ 
 grams and to the maintenance of a proper balance between soil con¬ 
 serving and soil depleting crops on the farm. (16 U.S.C. 590o.) 
 
 LIMITATION ON OBLIGATIONS INCURRED 
 
 Sec. 16. (a) The obligations incurred for the purpose of carrying 
 out for any calendar year, the provisions of sections 7 to 14, inclusive, 
 of this Act shall not exceed $500,000,000. (16 U.S.C. 590p (a).) 
 
 GREAT PLAINS CONSERVATION PROGRAM 
 
 (b) Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (1) the Secretary is authorized, within the amounts of. such 
 appropriations as may be provided therefor, to enter into con¬ 
 tracts of not to exceed ten years with producers in the Great 
 Plains area determined by him to have control for the contract 
 period of the farms or ranches covered thereby. Such contracts 
 shall be designed to assist farm and ranch operators to make, in 
 orderly progression over a period of years, changes in their crop- 
 ping systems and land uses which are needed to conserve the soil 
 and water resources of their farms and ranches and to install the 
 soil and water conservation measures needed under such changed 
 systems and uses. Such contracts may be entered into during the 
 period ending not later than December 31, 1971, with respect to 
 farms and ranches in counties in the Great Plains area of the 
 States of Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, 
 North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Texas, and Wyoming, 
 designated by the Secretary as susceptible to serious wind erosion 
 by reason of their soil types, terrain, and climatic and other fac¬ 
 tors.^® The producer shall furnish to the Secretary a plan of 
 farming operations which incorporates such soil and water con¬ 
 servation practices and principles as may be determined by him 
 to be practicable for maximum mitigation of climatic hazards of 
 the area in which the farm is located, and which outlines a sched¬ 
 ule of proposed changes in cropping systems and land use and of 
 the conservation measures which are to be carried out on the 
 
 “ This sentence was amended by the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 319. 
 
16 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 farm or ranch during the contract period to protect the farm or 
 ranch from erosion and deterioration by natural causes. Under 
 the contract the producer shall agree—■' 
 
 (i) to effectuate the plan for his farm or ranch substan¬ 
 tially in accordance with the schedule outlined therein unless 
 any requirement thereof is waived or modified by the Secre¬ 
 tary pursuant to paragraph (3) of this subsection; 
 
 (ii) to forfeit all rights to further payments or grants 
 under the contract and refund to the United States all pay¬ 
 ments or grants received thereunder upon his violation of the 
 contract at any stage during the time he has control of the 
 farm if the Secretary determines that such violation is of 
 such a nature as to warrant termination of the contract, or 
 to make refunds or accept such payment adjustments as the 
 Secretary may deem appropriate if he determines that the 
 producer’s violation does not warrant termination of the 
 contract; 
 
 (iii) upon transfer of his right and interest in the farm 
 or ranch during the contract period to forfeit all rights to 
 further payments or grants under the contract and refund 
 to the United States all payments or grants received there¬ 
 under unless the transferee of the farm or ranch agrees with 
 the Secretary to assume all obligations of the contract; 
 
 (iv) not to adopt any practice specified by the Secretary 
 in the contract as a practice which would tend to defeat the 
 jDurposes of the contract; 
 
 _(v) to such additional provisions as the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines are desirable and includes in the contract to effectuate 
 the purposes of the program or to facilitate the practical 
 administration of the program. 
 
 In return for such agreement by the producer the Secretary 
 shall agree to share the cost of carrying out those conservation 
 practices set forth in tlie contract for which he determines that 
 cost-sharing is appropriate and in the public interest. The por¬ 
 tion of such cost (including labor) to be shared shall be that part 
 which the Secretary determines is necessary and appropriate to 
 effecuate the physical installation of the conservation measures 
 under the contract; 
 
 (2) the Secretary may terminate any contract with a producer 
 by mutual agreement with the producer if the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that such termination would be in the public interest, and 
 may agree to such modification of contracts previously entered 
 into as he may determine to be desirable to carry out the purposes 
 of the program or facilitate the practical administration thereof; 
 
 (3) ^^ insofar as the acreage of cropland on any farm enters 
 into the determination of acreage allotments and marketing 
 quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, the cropland acreage on the farm shall not be de¬ 
 creased during the period of any contract heretofore or hereafter 
 entered into under this subsection by reason of any action taken 
 for the purpose of carrying out such contract and, under regula¬ 
 tions of the Secretary, shall not be decreased, for such period 
 after the expiration of the contract as is equal to the period of 
 
 Subsecs. (3) and (4) were added by the Act of September 14, 1960, 74 Stat. lO.'JO. 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMIENT ACT, AS AMENDED 17 
 
 the contract, by reason of the maintenance of any change in land 
 use from cultivated cropland to permanent vegetation carried 
 out under the contract ; 
 
 (4) the acreage on any farm which is determined under regu¬ 
 lations of the Secretary to have been diverted from the produc¬ 
 tion of any commodity subject to acreage allotments or marketing 
 quotas m order to carry out any contract heretofore or hereafter 
 entered into under the program or in order to maintain, for such 
 period after the expiration of the contract as is equal to the 
 period of the contract, any change in land use from cultivated 
 cropland to permanent vegetation carried out under the contract 
 shall be considered acreage devoted to the commodity for the 
 purposes of establishing future State, county, and farm acreage 
 allotinents under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended. 
 
 T (^) applymg the provisions of paragraph (6) of Public 
 Law 74, Sevpty-seventh Congress (7 U.S.C. 1340(6)), relating 
 to the reduction of storage amount of wheat, any acreage diverted 
 from the pioduction of wheat under the program carried out 
 under this subsection shall be regarded as wheat acreage ; 
 
 (6) ^e Secretary shall utilize the technical services of agencies 
 of the Department of Agriculture in determining the scope and 
 provisions of any plan and the acceptability of the plan for ef- 
 fectuatmg the purposes of the program. In addition the Secre¬ 
 tary shall take into consideration programs of State and local 
 agencies, mcluding soil conservation districts, having for their 
 
 the objectives of maximum soil and water conservation; 
 
 (7) there IS hereby authorized to be appropriated without fiscal 
 year limitations, such sums as may be necessary to carry out this 
 subsection: PTovided^ That the total cost of the program (exclud¬ 
 ing administrative costs) shall not exceed $150,000,000, and for 
 any program year payments shall not exceed $25,000,000. The 
 funds made available for the program under this subsection may 
 be expended without regard to the maximum payment limitation 
 and small payment increases required under section 8(e) of this 
 Act, and may be distributed among States without regard to dis¬ 
 tribution of funds formulas of section 15 of this Act. The 
 program authorized under this subsection shall be in addition to, 
 and not in substitution of, other programs in such area authorized 
 by this or any other Act. (16 U.S.C. 590p(b).) 
 
 Sec. 16(c) (Applicable to Feed Grain Program for 1961. 75 Slat. 
 6, 16 U.S.C. 590p(c). See p. 124 of Agriculture Handbook 242 for 
 text.) 
 
 Sec. 16(d) (Applicable to Feed Grain Program for 1962. 75 Stat. 
 302, 16 U.S.C. 590p(d). See p. 126 of Agriculture Handbook 242 
 for text.) 
 
 LAND USE ADJUSTMENT PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 16 (e)^® (1) For the purpose of promoting the conservation and 
 economic u se of land, the Secretary, without regard to the foregoing 
 
 “Subsecs. (3) and (4) were added by the Act of September 14, 19G0, 74 Stat. 1030. 
 
 OT added by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 606, September 
 
18 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 provisions of this Act, except those relating to the use of the services 
 of State and local committees, is authorized to enter into agreements, 
 to be carried out during such period not to exceed ten years as he may 
 determine, with farm and ranch owners and operators providing for 
 changes in cropping systems and land uses and for practices or meas¬ 
 ures to be carried out primarily on any lands owned or operated by 
 them and regularly used in the production of crops (including crops 
 such as tame hay, alfalfa, and clovers, which do not require annual 
 tillage, and including lands covered by conservation reserve contracts 
 under subtitle B of the Soil Bank Act) for the purpose of conserving 
 and developing soil, water, forest, wildlife, and recreation resources. 
 Such agreements shall include such terms and conditions as the Secre¬ 
 tary may deem desirable to effectuate the purposes of this subsection 
 and may provide for payments, the furnishing of materials and serv¬ 
 ices, and other assistance in amounts determined by the Secretary to 
 be fair and reasonable, in consideration of the obligations undertaken 
 by the farm and ranch owners and operators and the rights acquired 
 by the Secretary: Provided^ That agreements for the establishment 
 of tree cover may not provide for annual payments with respect to 
 such land for a period in excess of five years. 
 
 (2) No agreement shall be entered into under this subsection cover¬ 
 ing land with respect to which the ownership has changed in the two 
 year period preceding the first year of the contract period unless (a) 
 the new ownership was acquired by will or succession as a result of 
 the death of the previous owner, (b) the land becomes a part of an 
 existing farm or ranch, or (c) the land is combined with other land 
 as a farming or ranching enterprise which the Secretary determines 
 will effectuate the purposes of the program: Provided^ That this pro¬ 
 vision shall not prohibit the continuation of an agreement by a new 
 owner after an agreement has once been entered into under this sub¬ 
 section. 
 
 (3) The Secretary shall provide adequate safeguards to protect the 
 interests of tenants and sharecroppers, including provision for sharing, 
 on a fair and equitable basis, in payments under this subsection. 
 
 (4) The Secretary may agree to such modification of agreements 
 previously entered into as he may determine to be desirable to carry out 
 the purposes of this subsection or to facilitate the practical administra¬ 
 tion of the program carried out pursuant to this subsection. 
 
 (5) The Secretary shall issue such regulations as he determines 
 necessary to carry out the provisions of this subsection, 
 
 (6) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Secretary, to 
 the extent he deems it desirable to carry out the purposes of this sub¬ 
 section, may provide in any agreement hereunder for (A) preservation 
 for a period not to exceed the period covered by the agreement and an 
 equal period thereafter of the cropland, crop acreage, and allotment 
 history applicable to land covered by the agreement for the purpose of 
 any Federal program under which such history is used as a basis for 
 an allotment or other limitation on the production of such crop; or (B) 
 surrender of any such history and allotments. 
 
 (7) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as 
 may be necessary to carry out this subsection. The Secretary is 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 19 
 
 authorized to utilize the facilities, services, authorities, and funds of 
 the Comrnodity Credit Corporation in discharging his functions and 
 responsibilities under this subsection including payment of costs of 
 administration for the program authorized under this subsection: Pro¬ 
 vided^ That after June 30, 1963, the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall not make any expenditures for carrying out the purposes of this 
 subsection unless the Corporation has received funds to cover such 
 expenditures from appropriations made to carry out the purposes of 
 this subsection. The Secretary shall not enter into agreements here¬ 
 under which would require payments, the furnishing of materials and 
 services, and other assistance, in amounts in excess of $10,000,000 for 
 any calendar year, except that the Secretary may enter into agreements 
 hereunder with respect to lands previously covered by conservation 
 reserve contracts which would require payments, the furnishing of 
 materials and services, and other assistance, in an additional amount 
 for the calendar year 1963 not exceeding $15,000,000. (16 U.S.(3. 
 
 590p(e).) 
 
 DISBURSEMENTS TO PRODUCERS 
 
 ^ Sec. 16. (f) The Secretary is authorized to use the services, fa¬ 
 cilities, and authorities of Commodity Credit Corporation for the pur¬ 
 pose of making disbursements to producers under programs 
 formulated pursuant to sections 8 and 16(e) of this Act: Provided^ 
 That no such disbursements shall be made by Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration unless it has received funds to cover the amount thereof from 
 appropriations available for the purpose of carrying out such pro¬ 
 grams. (16U.S.C. 590p(f).) 
 
 Sec. 16. (g) (Applicable to the Feed Grain Program for 1963. 76 
 
 Stat. 607, 16 U.S.C. 590p(g). See p. 128 of Agriculture Handbook 
 242 for text.) 
 
 feed grain program for 19 64 AND 196 5 
 
 Sec. 16. (h)^’’ Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (1) For the 1964 crop and the 1965 crop of feed grains, if the 
 Secretary determines that the total supply of feed grains will, 
 in the absence of an acreage diversion program, likely be exces¬ 
 sive, taking into account the need for an adequate carryover to 
 maintain reasonable and stable supplies and prices of feed gi’ains 
 and to meet any national emergency, he may formulate and carry 
 out an acreage diversion program for feed grains, without regard 
 to provisions which would be applicable to the regular agricul¬ 
 tural conservation program, under which, subject to such terms 
 and conditions as the Secretary determines, conservation pay¬ 
 ments in amounts determined by the Secretary to be fair and 
 reasonable shall be made to producers who divert acreage from 
 the production of feed grains to an approved conservation use 
 and increase their average acreage of cropland devoted in 1959 
 and 1960 to designated soil-conserving crops or practices includ- 
 
 ’"Sec. 16(f) added by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 607, approved 
 September 27, 1962. 
 
 "Sec. 16(h) added by Pub. L. 88-26, 77 Stat. 45, approved May 20, 1963. 
 
20 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 ing summer fallow and idle land by an equal amount. Payments 
 shall be not be made in amounts in excess of 50 per centum of 
 the estimated basic county support rate, including that part of 
 the support price made available through payments in kind, on 
 the normal production of the acreage diverted from the com¬ 
 modity on the farm based on its adjusted average yield per acre. 
 Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, the Secretary may 
 permit such diverted acreage to be devoted to the production of 
 guar, sesame, safflower, sunflower, castor beans, mustard seed, and 
 flax, if he determines that such crops are not in surplus supply 
 and will not be in surplus supply if permitted to be grown on 
 the diverted acreage, subject to the condition that payment with 
 respect to diverted acreage devoted to any such crop shall be at 
 a rate determined by the Secretary to be fair and reasonable, 
 taking into consideration the use of such acreage for the produc¬ 
 tion of such crops, but in no event shall the payment exceed one- 
 half the rate which would otherwise be applicable if such acreage 
 were devoted to conservation uses, and no price support shall be 
 made available for the production of any such crop on such di¬ 
 verted acreage. The base period for the purpose of determining 
 the adjusted average yield in the case of payments with respect to 
 the 1964 crop shall be the four-year period 1959-1962, and in the 
 case of payments with respect to the 1965 crop shall be the five- 
 year period 1959-1963. The term “feed grains” means corn, grain 
 sorghums, barley, and, if for any crop the producer so requests 
 for purposes of having acreage devotedf to the production of wheat 
 considered as devoted to the production of feed grains, pursuant 
 to the provisions of section 328 of the Food and Agriculture Act 
 of 1962, the term “feed grains” shall include oats and rye: Pro- 
 mdecl^ That acreages of corn, grain sorghums, and barley shall 
 not be planted in lieu of acreages of oats and rye: Provided fur¬ 
 ther^ That the acreage devoted to the production of wheat shall 
 not be considered as an acreage of feed grains for purposes of 
 establishing the feed grain base acreage for the farm for sub¬ 
 sequent crops. Such feed grain diversion program shall require 
 the producer to take such measures as the Secretary may deem 
 appropriate to keep such diverted acreage free from erosion, in¬ 
 sects, weeds, and rodents. The acreage eligible for participation 
 in the program shall be such acreage (not to exceed 50 per centum 
 of the average acreage on the farm devoted to feed grains in the 
 crop years 1959 and 1960 or twenty-five acres, whichever is 
 greater) as the Secretary determines necessary to achieve the 
 acreage reduction goal for the crop. Payments shall be made in 
 kind. The average acreage of wheat produced on the farm dur¬ 
 ing the crop years 1959,1960, and 1961, pursuant to the exemption 
 provided in section 335(f) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 of 1938, prior to its repeal by the Food and Agriculture Act of 
 1962, in excess of the small farm base acreage for wheat estab¬ 
 lished under section 335 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 
 1938, as amended, shall be considered as an acreage of feed grains 
 produced in the crop years of 1959 and 1960 for purposes of 
 establishing the feed grain base acreage for the farm, and the rate 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 21 
 
 of payment for diverting such wheat shall be an amount deter¬ 
 mined by the Secretary to be fair and reasonable in relation to 
 the rates of payment for diverting feed grains. The Secretary 
 may make such adjustments in acreage and yields as he deter¬ 
 mines necessary to correct for abnormal factors affectino" pro¬ 
 duction, and to give due consideration to tillable acreage, crop- 
 rotation practices, types of soil, soil and water conservation meas¬ 
 ures, and topography. To the extent that a producer proves the 
 actual acreages and yields for the farm, such acreages and yields 
 shall be used in making determinations. Notwithstanding any 
 other provision of this subsection (0(1),^® the Secretary may, 
 upon unanimous request of the State committee established pur- 
 suant to section 8(b) of the Soil Conservation and Domestic 
 Allotment Act, as amended, adjust the feed grain bases for farms 
 within any State or county to the extent he determines such ad- 
 justment to be necessary in order to establish fair and equitable 
 teed gram bases for farms wdthin such State or county. The Sec¬ 
 retary may make not to exceed 50 per centum of any payments to 
 • advance of determination of performance: Pto- 
 vided^ That in no event shall the Secretary in the crop years 1964 
 or 1965 make payments to any producers under this section 16(h) 
 and under section 105(d) of the Agricultural Act of 1949 as 
 amended, in excess of 20 per centum of the fair market value of 
 any acreage involved. Notwithstanding any other provision of 
 this subsection (h) (1), barley shall not be included in the pro- 
 gram for a producer of malting barley exempted pursuant to sec- 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949 who participates only 
 with respect to corn and grain sorghums and does not knowingly 
 devote an acreage on the farm to barley in excess of 110 per cen¬ 
 tum of the average acreage devoted on the farm to barlev in 1959 
 and 1960. 
 
 (2) Notwithstanding any other provision of this subsection, 
 not to exceed 1 per centum of the estimated total feed grain bases 
 lor all farms in a State for any year may be reserved from the feed 
 gr<nn bases established for farms in the State for apportionment 
 to farms on which there were no acreages devoted to feed grains 
 in the crop years 1959 and 1960 on the basis of the following fac¬ 
 tors . Suitability of the land for the production of feed grains, the 
 past experience of the farm operator in the production of feed 
 grains, the extent to which the farm operator is dependent on 
 income frorn farming for his livelihood, the production of feed 
 grams on other farms owned, operated, or controlled by the farm 
 operator, and such other factors as the Secretary determines 
 Should be considered for the purpose of establishing fair and 
 equitable feed grain bases. An acreage equal to the feed grain 
 base so_ established for each farm shall be deemed to have been 
 inprf j grains on the farm in each of the crop years 1959 
 
 and 1960 for purposes of this subsection except that producers on 
 such farm shall not be eligible for conservation payments for the 
 hrst year for which the feed grain base is established. 
 
 “Probably “(1)(1)” should be “(h)(1).’' 
 
22 SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 (3) There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such 
 amounts as may be necessary to enable the Secretary to carry out 
 this section 16(h). 
 
 (4) The Secretary shall provide by regulations for the sharing 
 of payments under this subsection among producers on the farm 
 on a fair and equitable basis and in keeping with existing 
 contracts. 
 
 (5) Payments in kind shall be made through the issuance of 
 negotiable certificates which the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall redeem for feed grains and, notwithstanding any other pro¬ 
 vision of law, the Commodity Credit Corporation shall, in accord¬ 
 ance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary, assist the 
 producer in the marketing of such certificates. In the case of 
 any certificate not presented for redemption within thirty days 
 of the date of its issuance, reasonable costs of storage and other 
 carrying charges, as determined by the Secretary, for the period 
 beginning thirty days after its issuance and ending with the date 
 of its presentation for redemption shall be deducted from the 
 value of the certificate. Feed grains with which Commodity 
 Credit Corporation redeems certificates pursuant to this para¬ 
 graph shall be valued at not less than the current support price, 
 minus that part of the current support price made available 
 through payments in kind, plus reasonable carrying charges. 
 
 (6) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Secretary 
 may, by mutual agreement with the producer, terminate or modify 
 any agreement previously entered into pursuant to this subsection 
 if he determines such action necessary because of an emergency 
 created by drought or other disaster, or in order to prevent or 
 alleviate a shortage in the supply of feed grains. (16 U.S.C. 590 
 
 PAYIMENT LIMITATIONS AS TO WETLANDS IN CERTAIN STATES 
 
 Sec. 16Ad® The Secretary of Agriculture shall not enter into an 
 agreement in the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minne¬ 
 sota to provide financial or technical assistance for wetland drainage 
 on a farm under authority of this Act, if the Secretary of the Interior 
 has made a finding that wildlife preservation will be materially 
 harmed on that farm by such drainage and that preservation of such 
 land in its undrained status will materially contribute to wildlife pres¬ 
 ervation and such finding, identifying specifically the farm and the 
 land on that farm with respect to which the finding was made, has been 
 filed with the Secretary of Agriculture within ninety days after the 
 filing of the application for drainage assistance: Provided^ That the 
 limitation against furnishing such financial or technical assistance 
 shall terminate (1) at such time as the Secretary of the Interior notifies 
 the Secretary of Agriculture that such limitation should not be ap- 
 
 year after the date on which the adverse finding of 
 the Secretary of the Interior was filed unless during that time an offer 
 has been made by the Secretary of the Interior or a State government 
 agency to lease or to purchase the wetland area from the owner thereof 
 
 “ Sec. 16A was added by the Act of October 2. 1962, 76 Stat. 696. 
 
SOIL CONSERVATION AND DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 23 
 
 as a waterfowl resource, or (3) five years after the date on which such 
 adverse finding was filed if such an offer to lease or to purchase such 
 wetland area has not been accepted by the owner thereof: Provided 
 further^ That upon any change in the ownership of the land with re¬ 
 spect to which such adverse finding was filed, the eligibility of such 
 land for such financial or technical assistance shall be redetermined in 
 accordance with the provisions of this section. (16 U.S.C. 590pA.) 
 
 SCOPE OF act; definition of STATE 
 
 Sec. 17. (a) This Act shall apply to the States, the Commonwealth 
 of Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands, and, as used in this Act, the 
 term “State” includes Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. (16 U.S.C. 
 590q(a).) 
 
 (b) This Act may be cited as the “Soil Conservation and Domestic 
 Allotment Act.” (16 U.S.C. 590q(b).) 
 
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AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTE 
 
 As enacted on February 16, 1938, this statute contained amend¬ 
 ments which strengthened and broadened the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, provided for assistance in the marketing 
 of agricultural commodities for domestic consumption and export, 
 provided for price support loans on wheat, corn, cotton and other 
 agricultural commodities, authorized parity payments for corn, 
 wheat, tobacco, cotton and rice, when funds were appropriated there¬ 
 for, provided for farm marketing quotas for tobacco, corn, wheat, 
 cotton and rice, and established the Federal Crop Insurance Cor¬ 
 poration. The act has been amended many times since its enact¬ 
 ment. In 1941, marketing quota and price support provisions for 
 peanuts were added to the act and the marketing quota provisions 
 for corn and wheat were changed in several important respects. In 
 1949, substantial changes were made in the marketing quota provi¬ 
 sions for cotton and rice, and the price support provisions were re¬ 
 pealed with the enactment of the Agricultural Act of 1949. The 
 Agricultural Act of 1954 repealed the authority for marketing quotas 
 for corn, but authority for corn acreage allotments was retained. 
 Acreage allotments and a commercial corn-producing area were not 
 established for the 1959 and subsequent crops of com since a majority 
 of the corn producers voting in the referendum held on November 
 25,1958, favored a price support program without acreage allotments, 
 as provided in section 104(b) of the Agricultural Act of 1949 (p. 
 151), as added by the Agricultural Act of 1958. 
 
 In 1961, Pub. L. 87-128, 75 Stat. 294, approved August 8, 1961, 
 made numerous changes in the wheat provisions of the Act. Pub. L. 
 87-703, 76 Stat. 605, approved September 27, 1962 made further 
 amendments in the wheat provisions of the Act effective with the 
 1964 and subsequent crops of wheat. A land use and a wheat mar¬ 
 keting allocation program were also enacted by this law. Pub. L. 88- 
 297, 78 Stat. 178, approved April 14, 1964, provided that a national 
 marketing quota would not be in effect for the 1965 crop of wheat. 
 
 The constitutional validity of the marketing quota provisions has 
 been upheld as to tobacco in the case Mulford v. Smith (307 U.S. 38), 
 as to cotton in the case Troppy v. LaSara Farmers Gin Co. (113 F. 2d 
 350), SB to wheat in the case Wickard v. Filburn (317 U.S. Ill), and 
 as to rice in the case of Weir v. United States, (310 F. 2d 149). 
 
 25 
 
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PART II 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938," 
 
 AS AMENDED 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To provide for the conservation of national soil resources and to provide an ade¬ 
 quate and balanced flo'w of agricultural commodities in interstate and foreign 
 commerce and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That this Act may 
 be cited as the “Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938.” (7 U.S.C. 
 
 1281.) 
 
 DECLARATION OF POLICY 
 
 Sec. 2. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress to con¬ 
 tinue the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, 
 for the purpose of conserving national resources, preventing the 
 ■wasteful use of soil fertility, and of preserving, maintaining, and 
 rebuilding the farm and ranch land resources in the national public 
 interest; to accomplish these purposes through the encouragement of 
 soil-building and soil-conserving crops and practices; to assist in the 
 marketing of agricultural commodities for domestic consumption and 
 for export; and to regulate interstate and foreign commerce in cot¬ 
 ton, wheat, corn, tobacco, and rice to the extent necessary to provide an 
 orderly, adequate, and balanced flow of such commodities in inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce through storage of reserve supplies, loans, 
 marketing quotas, assisting farmers to obtain, insofar as practicable, 
 parity prices for such commodities and parity of income, and assist¬ 
 ing consumers to obtain an adequate and steady supply of such com¬ 
 modities at fair prices. {7 U.S.C. 1282.) 
 
 TITLE I—AMENDMENTS TO SOIL CONSERVATION AND 
 DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT 
 
 This title contains amendments to the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allot¬ 
 ment Act, as amended. Insofar as now applicable, these amendments are incor¬ 
 porated in Part I of this compilation. 
 
 TITLE II—ADJUSTMENT IN FREIGHT RATES, NEW USES 
 AND MARKETS, AND DISPOSITION OF SURPLUSES 
 
 ADJUSTMENTS IN FREIGHT RATES FOR FARM PRODUCTS 
 
 Sec. 201. (a) The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to make 
 complaint to the Interstate Commerce Commission with respect to 
 rates, charges, tariffs, and practices relating to the transportation of 
 
 ^ Pub. L. 430, 75th Cong., 52 Stat. 31, approved February 16, 1938. 
 
 27 
 
28 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 farm products, and to prosecute the same before the Commission. 
 Before hearing or disposing of any complaint (filed by any person 
 other than the Secretaiy) with respect to rates, charges, tariffs, and 
 practices relating to the transportation of farm products, the Com¬ 
 mission shall cause the Secretaiy to be notified, and, upon application 
 by the Secretary, shall permit the Secretary to appear and be heard. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1291(a).) 
 
 (b) If such rate, charge, tariff, or practice complained of is one 
 affecting the public interest, upon application by the Secretary, the 
 Commission shall make the Secretary a party to the proceeding. In 
 such case the Secretary shall have the rights of a party before the 
 Commission and the rights of a party to invoke and pursue original 
 and appellate judicial proceedings involving the Commission’s deter¬ 
 mination. The liability of the Secretary in any such case shall extend 
 only to liability for court costs. (7 U.'S.C. 1291(b).) 
 
 (c^ For the purposes of this section, the Interstate Commerce Com- 
 niission is authorized to avail itself of the cooperation, records, serv¬ 
 ices, and facilities of the Department of Agriculture. (7 U.S.C. 
 1291(c).) 
 
 (d) The Secretary is authorized to cooperate with and assist co¬ 
 operative associations of farmers making complaint to the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission with respect to rates, charges, tariffs, and 
 practices relating to the transportation of farm products. (7 U.S.C. 
 1291(d).) 
 
 NEW USES AND NEW MARKETS FOR FARM COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 202. (y) The Secretary is hereby authorized and directed to 
 establish, equip, and maintain four regional research laboratories, one 
 in each major farm producing area, and, at such laboratories, to con¬ 
 duct researches into and to develop new scientific, chemical, and tech¬ 
 nical uses and new and extended markets and outlets for farm com¬ 
 modities and products and byproducts thereof. Such research and 
 development shall be devoted primarily to those farm commodities in 
 which there are regular or seasonal surpluses, and their products and 
 byproducts. (7 U.S.C. 1292(a).) 
 
 (b) For the purposes of subsection (a), the Secretary is authorized 
 to acquire land and interests therein, and to accept in the name of the 
 United States donations of any property, real or personal, to any 
 laboratory established pursuant to this section, and to utilize volun¬ 
 tary or uncompensated services at such laboratories. Donations to 
 any one of such laboratories shall not be available for use by any other 
 of such laboratories. (7 U.S.C. 1292 (b).) 
 
 (c) In carrying out the purposes of subsection (a), the Secretary 
 is authorized and directed to cooperate with other departments or 
 agencies of the Federal Government, States, State agricultural ex¬ 
 periment stations, and other State agencies and institutions, counties, 
 municipalities, business or other organizations, corporations, associa¬ 
 tions, universities, scientific societies, and individuals, upon such terms 
 and conditions as he may prescribe. (7 U.S.C. 1292(c).) 
 
 (d) To carry out the purposes of subsection (a), the Secretary is 
 authorized to utilize in each fiscal year, beginning with the fiscal year 
 beginning July 1, 1938, a sum not to exceed $4,000,000 of the funds 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 29 
 
 appreciated pursuant to section 391 of this Act, or section 15 of the 
 boil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, for such 
 hscal year. The Secretary shall allocate one-fourth of such sum an¬ 
 nually to each of the four laboratories established pursuant to this 
 section. (7 U.S.C. 1292(d).) 
 
 (e)2 * * * 
 
 (f ) There is hereby allocated to the Secretary of Commerce for each 
 
 hscal year, beginning with the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1938, out 
 appropriated for such fiscal year pursuant to section 391 of 
 this Act, or section 15 of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allot¬ 
 ment Act, as amended, the sum of $1,000,000 to be expended for the 
 promotion of the sale of fann commodities and products thereof in 
 such manner as he shall direct. Of the sum allocated under this sub- 
 action to the Secretary of Commerce for the fiscal year beginning 
 July 1, 1938, $100,000 shall be devoted to making a survey and investi¬ 
 gation of the cause or causes of the reduction in exports of agricul¬ 
 tural commodities from the United States, in order to ascertain 
 methods by which the sales in foreign countries of basic agricultural 
 commodities produced in the United States may be increased. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1292(f).) 
 
 .(g) It shall be the duty of the Secretary to use available funds to 
 stimulate and widen the use of all farm commodities in the United 
 States and to increase in every practical way the flow of such com¬ 
 modities and the products thereof into the markets of the world. (7 
 U.S.C. 1292(g).) ^ 
 
 TITLE III—LOANS, PAEITY PAYMENTS, CONSUMER 
 SAFEGUARDS, MARKETING QUOTAS, AND 
 MARKETING CERTIFICATES 
 
 Subtitle A —Definitions, Parity Payments, and Consumer 
 
 Safeguards 
 
 definitions 
 
 Sec. 301. (a) GENERAL DEFINITIONS.—For the purposes of 
 this title and the declaration of policy— 
 
 (I) (^) The “parity price” for any agricultural commodity, as 
 of any date, shall be determined by multiplying the adjusted base 
 price of such commodity as of such date by the parity index as of 
 such date. 
 
 (B) The “adjusted base price” of any agricultural commodity, 
 as of any date, shall be (i_) the average of the prices received by 
 farmers for such commodity, at such time as the Secretary may 
 select during each year of the ten-year period ending on the 31st 
 of December last before such date, or during each marketing sea¬ 
 son beginning in such period if the Secretary determines use of a 
 calendar year basis to be impracticable, divided by (ii) the ratio 
 of the general level of prices received by farmers for agricultural 
 commodities during such period to the general level of prices re¬ 
 ceived by farmers for agricultural commodities during the period 
 
 *Sec. 202(e) repealed by Pub. L. 706, 83d Cong., 68 Stat. 966, approved August 30, 1954. 
 758-820—65-4 
 
30 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 January 1910 to December 1914, inclusive. As used in this sub- 
 paragraph, the term “prices” shall include wartime subsidy pay¬ 
 ments made to producers under programs designed to maintain 
 maximum prices established under the Emergency Price Control 
 Act of 1942. 
 
 (C) The “parity index”, as of any date, shall be the ratio of (i) 
 the general level of prices for articles and services that farmers 
 buy, wages paid hired farm labor, interest on farm indebtedness 
 secured by farm real estate, and taxes on farm real estate, for the 
 calendar month ending last before such date to (ii) the general 
 level of such prices, wages, rates, and taxes during the period Jan¬ 
 uary 1910 to December 1914, inclusive. 
 
 (D) The prices and indices provided for herein, and the data 
 used in computing them, shall be determined by the Secretary, 
 whose determination shall be final. 
 
 (E) Notwithstanding the provisions of subparagraph (A), the 
 transitional parity price for any agricultural commodity, com¬ 
 puted as provided in this subparagraph, shall be used as the parity 
 price for such commodity until such date after January 1, 1950, 
 as such transitional parity price may be lower than the parity 
 price, computed as provided in subparagraph (A), for such com¬ 
 modity. The transitional parity price for any agricultural com¬ 
 modity as of any date shall be— 
 
 (i) its parity price determined in the manner used prior to 
 the effective date of the Agricultural Act of 1948, less 
 
 (ii) 5 per centum of the parity price so determined, multi¬ 
 plied by the number of full calendar years (not counting 1956 
 in the case of basic agricultural commodities) which, as of 
 such date, have elapsed after January 1, 1949, in the case of 
 nonbasic agricultural commodities, and after January 1,1955, 
 in the case of the basic agricultural commodities. 
 
 (F) Notwithstanding the provisions of subparagraphs (A) 
 and (E), if the parity price for any agricultural commodity, com¬ 
 puted as provided in subparagraphs (A) and (E) appears to be 
 seriously out of line with the parity prices of other agricultural 
 commodities, the Secretary may, and upon the request of a sub¬ 
 stantial number of interested producers shall, hold public hearings 
 to determine the proper relationship between the parity price of 
 such commodity and the parity prices of other agricultural com¬ 
 modities. Within sixty days after commencing such hearing the 
 Secretary shall complete such hearing, proclaim his findings as to 
 whether the facts require a revision of the method of computing 
 the parity price of such commodity, and put into effect any re¬ 
 vision so found to be required. 
 
 (G) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this section, 
 the parity price for any basic agricultural commodity, as of any 
 date during the six-year period beginning January 1, 1950, shall 
 not be less than its parity price computed in the manner used prior 
 to the enactment of the Agricultural Act of 1949. 
 
 [Prior to enactment of the Agricultural Acts of 1948 and 1949, the 
 term “parity” was defined in sec. 301(a) of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended, as follows: “‘Parity’, as applied to 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 31 
 
 prices foi any agricultural commodity, shall be that price for the 
 commodity which will give to the commodity a purchasing power 
 with respect to articles that farmers buy equivalent to the purchasing 
 power of such commodity in the base period; and, in the case of all 
 commodities for which the base period is the period August 1909 to 
 July 1914, which will also reflect current interest payments per acre 
 on lann indebtedness secured by real estate, tax payments per acre 
 on faim real estate, and freight rates, as contrasted with such interest 
 payments, tax payments, and freight rates during the base period. 
 1 he base period in case of all agricultural commodities except tobacco 
 shall be the period August 1909 to July 1914. In the case of all kinds 
 of tobacco except Burley and flue-cured such base period shall be the 
 period August 1919 to eluly 1929, and, in the cause of Burley and flue- 
 cured tobacco, shall be the period August 1934 to July 1939; except 
 that the August 1919-July 1929 base period shall be used in allocating 
 any funds appropriated prior to September 1, 1940.” ^ (52 Stat 38 
 
 54Stat. 1210.)2 ^ ’ 
 
 (2) “Parity”, as applied to income, shall be that gross income from 
 agriculture which will provide the farm operator and his family with 
 a standard of living equivalent to those afi’orded persons dependent 
 upon other gainful occupations. “Parity” as applied to income from 
 any agricultural commodity for any year, shall be that gross income 
 much bears the same relationship to parity income from agriculture 
 for such year as the average gross income from such commodity for 
 the preceding ten calendar years bears to the average gross income 
 from agriculture for such ten calendar years. 
 
 (3) The term “interstate and foreign commerce” means sale, mar¬ 
 keting, trade, and traffic between any State or Territory or the District 
 of Colurnbia or Puerto Rico, and any place outside thereof; or be¬ 
 tween points within the same State or Territory or within the District 
 of Columbia or Puerto Rico, through any place outside thereof; or 
 within any Territory or within the District of Columbia or Puerto 
 Rico. 
 
 (4) The term “affect interstate and foreign commerce” means, 
 among other things, in such commerce, or to burden or obstruct such 
 commerce or the free and orderly flow thereof; or to create or tend 
 to create a surplus of any agricultural commodity which burdens or 
 obstructs such commerce or the free and orderly flow thereof. 
 
 (5) The term “United States” means the several States and Terri¬ 
 tories and the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico. 
 
 (6) The term “State” includes a Territory and the District of 
 Columbia and Puerto Rico. 
 
 (7) The term “Secretary” means the Secretary of Agriculture, and 
 tlie term “Department” means the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 (8) The term “person” means an individual, partnership), firm, 
 joint-stock company, corporation, association, trust, estate, or any 
 agency of a State. 
 
 (9) The term “corn” means field corn. (7 U.S.C. 1301(a).) 
 
 »For Maryland tobacco the base period is August 1936 to July 1941 (Pub. L. 897, 80th 
 Cong., 62 Stat. 1248, approved July 3. 1948). 
 
32 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 [Agricultural Act of 1948.^ Sec. 302(f). All references in other 
 laws to— 
 
 (1) parity, 
 
 (2) parity prices, 
 
 (3) prices comparable to parity prices, or 
 
 (4) prices to be determined in the same manner as provided by 
 the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 prior to its amendment 
 by this Act for the determination of parity prices, 
 
 with respect to prices for agricultural commodities and products 
 thereof, shall hereafter be deemed to refer to parity prices as deter¬ 
 mined in accordance with the provisions of section 301(a) (1) of the 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended by this Act. (7 
 U.S.C. 1301a.)] 
 
 (b) DEFINITIONS APPLICABLE TO ONE OR I^IORE 
 COMMODITIES.—For the purposes of this title— 
 
 (1) (^) ^‘Actual production” as applied to any acreage of corn 
 means the number of bushels of corn which the local committee 
 determines would be harvested as grain from such acreage if all 
 the corn on such acreage were so harvested. In case of a dis¬ 
 agreement between the farmer and the local committee as to the 
 actual production of the acreage of corn on the farm, or in case the 
 local committee determines that such actual production is sub¬ 
 stantially below normal, the local committee, in accordance with 
 regulations of the Secretary, shall weigh representative samples 
 of ear corn taken from the acreage involved, make proper deduc¬ 
 tions for moisture content, and determine the actual production 
 of such acreage on the basis of such samples. 
 
 (B) “Actual production” of any number of acres of cotton, rice 
 or peanuts on a farm means the actual average yield for the farm 
 times such number of acres. 
 
 (2) “Bushel” means in the case of ear com that amount of ear com, 
 including not to exceed 15i/^ per centum of moisture content, which 
 weighs seventy pounds, and in the case of shelled corn, means that 
 amount of shelled corn including not to exceed 151/^ per centum of 
 moisture content, which weighs fifty-six pounds. 
 
 (3) (A) “Carry-over,” in the case of com, rice, and peanuts for 
 any marketing year shall be the quantity of the commodity on 
 hand in the United States at the beginning of such marketing year, 
 not including any quantity which was produced in the United 
 States during the calendar year then current. 
 
 (B) “Carry-over” of cotton for any marketing year shall be 
 the quantity of cotton on hand in the United States at the begin¬ 
 ning of such marketing year, not including any part of the crop 
 which was produced in the United States during the calendar year 
 then current. 
 
 [Note. —As originally enacted this term included domestically produced cotton 
 on hand within or without the United States. A new definition, excluding Ameri¬ 
 can cotton on hand outside the United States, was enacted in Sec. 201(c) of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1948 ( 62 Stat. 1250). The definition was changed again by 
 Sec. 2(a) of Pub. L. 272, 81st Cong., approved August 29, 1949 ( 63 Stat. 675), to 
 include all cotton on hand in the United States whether produced within or with- 
 
 ‘ Pub. L. 897, 80th Cong., 62 Stat. 1258, approved July 3, 1948. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 33 
 
 irt“edTpX “■« 
 
 (C) “Cariy-oyer” of tobacco for any marketing year shall be the 
 quantity of such tobacco on hand in the United States at the 
 beginning of such marketing year (or on January 1 of such mar- 
 ketmg year m gie case of Maryland tobacco), which was produced 
 in the United States prior to the beginning of the calendar year 
 in which such marketing year begins, except that in the case of 
 cigar-hller and cigar-bmder tobacco the quantity of type 46 on 
 hand and theretofore produced in the United States during such 
 calendar year shall also be included. 
 
 of wheat, for any marketing year shall be the 
 quantity of wheat on hand in the United States at the beginning 
 of such marketmg year, not including any wheat which was 
 produced in the United States during the calendar year then 
 current, and not including any wheat held by the Federal Crop 
 Insurance Corporation under Title V [of the Agricultural Ad¬ 
 justment Act of 1938]. 
 
 (4) (A) “Commercial corn-producing area” shall mclude all 
 counties in which the average production of corn (excluding corn 
 used as silage) during the ten calendar years immediately preced¬ 
 ing the calendar year for which such area is determined, after ad- 
 justnmnt for abnormal weather conditions, is four hundred and 
 hfty bushels or more per farm and four bushels or more for each 
 acre of farm land in the county. 
 
 (B) Wlienever prior to February 1 of any calendar year the 
 feecretap,^^ has reason to believe that any county which is not 
 mcluded in the commercial corn-producing area determined pur¬ 
 suant to the provisions of subparagraph (A), but which borders 
 upon, one of the counties in such area, or that any minor civil 
 division in a county bordering on such area, is producing (exclud- 
 
 silage) an average of at least four hundred and 
 u u corn per farm and an average of at least four 
 
 bushels, for each acre of farm land in the county or in the minor 
 civil division, as the case may be, he shall cause immediate 
 inv^tigation to be^ made to determine such fact. If, upon the 
 basis of such investigation, the Secretary finds that such county or 
 minor civil division is likely to produce corn in such average 
 amounts during such calendar year, he shall proclaim such deter¬ 
 mination, and commencing with such calendar year, such county 
 shall be included in the commercial corn-producing area. In the 
 case of a county included in the commercial corn-producing area 
 pursuant to this subparagraph, whenever prior to February 1 of 
 any calendar year the Secretary has reason to believe that facts 
 justifying the inclusion of such county are not likely to exist in 
 such calendar year, he shall cause an immediate investigation to be 
 rnade with respect thereto. If, upon the basis of such investiga¬ 
 tion, the Secretary finds that such facts are not likely to exist 
 in such calendar year, he shall proclaim such determination, and 
 commencing with such calendar year, such county shall be 
 excluded from the commercial corn-producing area. 
 
 I 
 
34 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 (5) “Farm consumption” of corn means consumption by the farm¬ 
 er’s family, employees, or household, or by his work stock; or con¬ 
 sumption by poultry or livestock on his farm if such poultry or 
 livestock, or the products thereof, are consumed or to be consumed 
 by the farmer’s family, employees, or household. 
 
 (6) (A) “Market”, in the case of corn, cotton, rice, tobacco, and 
 wheat, means to dispose of, in raw or processed form, by vol¬ 
 untary or involuntary sale, barter, or exchange, or by gift inter 
 vivos, and, in the case of corn and wheat, by feeding (in any 
 form) to poultry or livestock which, or the products of which, 
 are sold, bartered, or exchanged, or to be so disposed of, but 
 does not include disposing of any of such commodities as premium 
 to the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation under Title V [of 
 the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938]. 
 
 (B) “Marketed”, “marketing”, and “for market” shall have 
 corresponding meanings to the term “market” in the connection 
 in which they are used. 
 
 (C) “Market”, in the case of peanuts, means to dispose of 
 peanuts, including farmers’ stock peanuts, shelled peanuts, 
 cleaned peanuts, or peanuts in processed form, by voluntary or 
 involuntary sale, barter, or exchange, or by gift inter vivos. 
 
 (7) “Marketing year” means, in the case of the following com¬ 
 modities, the period beginning on the first and ending with the second 
 date specified below: 
 
 Corn, October 1-September 30; 
 
 Cotton, August 1-July 31; 
 
 Rice, August 1-July 31; 
 
 Tobacco (flue-cured), July 1-June 30; 
 
 Tobacco (other than flue-cured), October 1-September 30; 
 
 Wheat, July 1-June 30. 
 
 [Peanuts, August 1-July 31 (see Sec. 359(a)) page 93.] 
 
 (8) “National average yield” as applied to cotton or wheat shall 
 be the national average yield per acre of the commodity during the 
 ten calendar years in the case of wheat, and during the five calendar 
 years in the case of cotton, preceding the year in which such national 
 average yield is used in any computation authorized in this title, 
 adjusted for abnormal weather conditions and, in the case of wheat, 
 but not in the case of cotton, for trends in yields. 
 
 (9) “Normal production” as applied to any number of acres of 
 corn, cotton, rice, or wheat means the normal yield for the farm times 
 such number of acres. 
 
 (10) (A) “Normal supply” in the case of com, rice, wheat, and 
 peanuts for any marketing year shall be (i) the estimated do¬ 
 mestic consumption of the commodity for the marketing year 
 ending immediately prior to the marketing year for which normal 
 supply is being determined, plus (ii) the estimated exports of 
 the commodity for the marketing year for which normal supply 
 is being determined, plus (iii) an alowance for carry-over. The 
 allowance for carry-over shall be the following percentage of 
 the sum of the consumption and exports used in computing 
 normal supply: 15 per centum in the case of corn; 10 per centum 
 in the case of rice; 20 per centum in the case of wheat; and 15 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 35 
 
 per (^ntuin in tlie case of peanuts. In determining normal supply 
 tlie Secretary shall make such adjustments for current trends 
 
 m consumption and for unusual conditions as he may deem 
 necessary. . 
 
 [Note.— Sec. 2(a) (2) of the Act of Aug. 29, 1949 ( 63 Stat. 676), deleted 
 cotton from the foregoing definition and added a new subparagraph (C) con¬ 
 taining the definition of “normal supply” of cotton. The word “cotton” has not 
 
 (B) Normal supply ’ in the case of tobacco shall be a normal 
 years domestic consumption and exports, plus 1Y5 per centum 
 of a normal year’s domestic consumption and 65 per centum of a 
 normal year s exports as an allowance for a normal carry-oyer, 
 u “no^al supply” of cotton for any marketing year 
 
 shaU be the estimated domestic consumption of cotton for the 
 marketing year for which such normal supply is being deter¬ 
 mined, plus the estimated exports of cotton for such marketing 
 year, plus 30 per centum of the sum of such consumption and ex¬ 
 ports as an allowance for carry-oyer. 
 
 (11) (A) “Normal year’s domestic consumption”, in the case 
 of com and wheat, shall be the yearly ayerage quantity of the 
 commodity, whereyer produced, that was consumed in the United 
 States during the ten rnarketing years immediately preceding the 
 marketing year in which such consumption is determined, ad¬ 
 justed for current trends in such consumption. 
 
 (B) “Normal year’s domestic consumption”, in the case of 
 cotton and tobacco, shall be the yearly ayerage quantity of the 
 commodity produced in the United States that was consumed in 
 the United States during the ten marketing years immediately 
 preceding the marketing year in which such consumption is de¬ 
 termined, adjusted for current trends in such consumption. 
 
 (C) “Normal year’s domestic consumption”, in the case of rice, 
 shall be the yearly ayerage quantity of rice produced in the United 
 States that was consumed in the United States during the fiye 
 marketing years immediately preceding the marketing year in 
 which such consumption is determined, adjusted for current 
 trends in such consumption. 
 
 (12) “Normal year’s exports” in the case of corn, cotton, rice, to¬ 
 bacco, and wheat shall be the yearly ayerage quantity of the com¬ 
 modity produced in the United States that was exported from the 
 United States during the ten marketing years (or, in the case of rice, 
 the five marketing years) immediately preceding the marketing year 
 in which such expoi^ are determined, adjusted for current trends in 
 such exports. 
 
 (13) (A)5 * * * * 
 
 (g) 6 “]^ormal yield” for any county, in the case of peanuts, 
 shall be the average yield per acre of peanuts for the county, ad¬ 
 justed for abnormal weather conditions, during the five calendar 
 years immediately preceding the year in which such normal yield 
 IS determined. 
 
 “Repealed by Pub. L. 87-703, 70 Stat. 625, approved September 27, 1902. 
 
 * The words, “cotton or” appearing before the word “peanuts” were deleted by Pub. L. 
 88-297, 78 Stat. 177, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
36 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 (C) In applying subparagraph (A) or (B), if for any such 
 year the data are not available, or there is no actual yield, an ap¬ 
 praised yield for such year, determined in accordance with regu¬ 
 lations issued by the Secretary, shall be used as the actual yield 
 for such year. In applying such subparagraphs, if, on account 
 of drought, flood, insect pests, plant disease, or other uncontrol¬ 
 lable natural cause, the yield in any year of such ten-year period 
 or five-year period, as the case may be, is less than 75 per centum 
 of the average (computed without regard to such year) such year 
 shall be eliminated in calculating the normal yield per acre. 
 
 (D) ^ “Normal yield” for any county, in the case of rice and 
 wheat, shall be the average yield per acre of rice or wheat, as the 
 case may be, for the county during the five calendar years im¬ 
 mediately preceding the year for which such normal yield is de¬ 
 termined in the case of rice, or during the five years immediately 
 preceding the year in which such normal yield is determined in 
 the case of wheat, adjusted for abnormal weather conditions and 
 for trends in yields. If for any such year data are not available, 
 or there is no actual yield, an appraised yield for such year, deter¬ 
 mined in accordance with regulations issued by the Secretary, tak¬ 
 ing into consideration the yields obtained in surrounding coun¬ 
 ties during such year and the yield in years for which data are 
 available, shall be used as the actual yield for such year. 
 
 (E) 8 “Normal yield” for any farm, in the case of rice and 
 wheat, shall be the average yield per acre of rice or wheat, as the 
 case may be, for the farm during the five calendar years immedi¬ 
 ately preceding the year for which such normal yield is deter¬ 
 mined in the case of rice, or during the five years immediately pre¬ 
 ceding the year in which such normal yield is determined in the 
 case of wheat, adjusted for abnormal weather conditions and for 
 trends in yields. If for any such year the data are not available 
 or there is no actual yield, then the normal yield for the farm 
 shall be appraised in accordance with regulations issued by the 
 Secretary, taking into consideration abnormal weather conditions, 
 trends in yields, the normal yield for the county, the yields ob¬ 
 tained pn adjacent farms during such year and the yield in years 
 for which data are available. 
 
 (F) In applying subparagraphs (D) and (E), if on account 
 of drought, flood, insect pests, plant disease, or other uncontrol¬ 
 lable natural cause, the yield for any year of such five-year period 
 is less than 75 per centum of the average, 75 per centum of such 
 average shall be substituted therefor in calculating the normal 
 yield per acre. If, on account of abnormally favorable weather 
 conditions, the yield for any year of such five-year period is in 
 excess of 125 per centum of the average, 125 per centum of such 
 average shall be substituted therefor in calculating the normal 
 yield per acre. 
 
 T The words, and wheat,” “or wheat, as the case may be,” and “In the case of rice, or 
 during the five years immediately preceding the year in which such normal yield is deter- 
 mined in the case of wheat,” were added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved Sep¬ 
 tember 27, 1962. >11 1 - 
 
 8 The words, “and wheat,” “or wheat, as the case may be,” and “in the case of rice, or 
 during the five years Immediately preceding the year in which such normal yield is deter- 
 mined wheat,” were added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved Sep- 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 37 
 
 yield” for any farm, in the case of com or pea¬ 
 nuts, shall be the average yield per acre of com or peanuts, as the 
 case niay be, for the farm, adjusted for abnormal weather condi¬ 
 tions during the five calendar years immediately precedino- the 
 year in which such normal yield is determined. If for any'^such 
 year the data are not available or there is no actual yield, then 
 the normal yield for the farm shall be appraised in accordance 
 with regulations of the Secretary, taking into consideration ab¬ 
 normal weather conditions, the normal yield for the county, and 
 the yield in years for which data are available. 
 
 1 yield” for any county, for any crop of cotton, 
 
 shall be the average yield per acre of cotton for the county, ad¬ 
 justed for abnormal weather conditions and any significant 
 changes in production practices during the five calendar years 
 immediately preceding the year in which the national marketing 
 quota for such crop is proclaimed. If for any such year the data 
 are not available, or there is no actual yield, an appraised yield 
 determined in accordance with regulations issued 
 
 actual yield for such year, 
 i, 11 u Normal yield” for any farm, for any crop of cotton, 
 shall ^ the average yield per acre of cotton for the farm, adjusted 
 tor abnormal weather conditions and any significant changes in 
 production practices during the three calendar years immediately 
 preceding the year in which such normal yield is determined. If 
 for any such year the data are not avaliable, or there is no actual 
 yield, then the normal yield for the farm shall be appraised in 
 accordance with regulations of the Secretary, taking into con¬ 
 sideration abnormal weather conditions, the normal yield for the 
 county, changes in production practices, and the yield in years 
 for which data are available. 
 
 (14) (A) “Eeserve supply level”, in the case of com, shall be a 
 normal year’s domestic consumption and exports of corn plus 10 
 per centum of a normal year’s domestic consumption and exports, 
 to insure a supply adequate to meet domestic consumption and ex¬ 
 port needs in years of drought, flood, or other adverse conditions, 
 as well as in years of plenty. 
 
 (B) Reserve supply level” of tobacco shall be the normal 
 supply plus 5 per centum thereof, to insure a supply adequate to 
 meet domestic consumption and export needs in years of drought, 
 flood, or other adverse conditions, as well as in years of plenty! 
 
 (15) “Tobacco” means each one of the kinds of tobacco listed below 
 comprising the types specified as classified in Service and Regulatory 
 Announcement Numbered 118 of the Bureau of Agricultural Eco¬ 
 nomics of the Department: 
 
 Flue-cured tobacco, comprising types 11, 12, 13, and 14; 
 
 Fire-cured tobacco, comprising types 21, 22, 23, and 24; 
 
 Dark air-cured tobacco, comprising types 35 and 36; 
 
 Virginia sun-cured tobacco, comprising type 37; 
 
 •The word, “cotton,” deleted by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 177, approved April 11, 1964. 
 1964^ subsection (H) was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 177, approved April 11, 
 
 19 g^A new subsection (I) was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 177, approved April 11, 
 
38 AGRICULTUKAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 Burley tobacco, comprising type 31; 
 
 Maryland tobacco, comprising type 32; 
 
 Cigar-filler and cigar-binder tobacco, comprising types 42, 43, 44, 
 45,46,51,52,53,54, and 55; 
 
 Cigar-filler tobacco, comprising type 41. 
 
 The provisions of this title shall apply to each of such kinds of 
 tobacco severally: Provided^ That any one or more of the types com¬ 
 prising any such kind of tobacco shall be treated as a “kind of tobacco” 
 for the purposes of this Act if the Secretary finds there is a difference 
 in supply and demand conditions as among such types of tobacco 
 which results in a difference in the adjustments needed in the market¬ 
 ings thereof in order to maintain supplies in line with demand: Pro¬ 
 vided further^ That with respect to the 1958 and subsequent crops, 
 type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco shall be treated as a “kind of 
 tobacco” for the purposes of all of the provisions of this title, except 
 that for the purposes of section 312(c) of this title, types 21, 22, and 
 23, fire-cured tobacco shall l)e treated as one “kind of tobacco”.^^ 
 
 (16) (A) “Total supply” of wheat, corn, rice, and peanuts for 
 any marketing year shall be the carry-over of the commodity for 
 such marketing year, plus the estimated production of the com¬ 
 modity in the United States during the calendar year in wdiich 
 such marketing year begins and the evStimated imports of the 
 commodity into the United States during such marketing year. 
 
 (B) “Total supply” of tobacco for any marketing year shall 
 be the carry-over at the beginning of such marketing year (or on 
 January 1 of such marketing year in the case of Maryland to¬ 
 bacco) plus the estimated production thereof in the United States 
 during the calendar year in which such marketing year begins, 
 except that the estimated production of type-46 tobacco during 
 the marketing year with respect to which the determination is 
 being made shall be used in lieu of the estimated production of 
 such type during the calendar year in which such marketing year 
 begins in determining the total supply of cigar-filler and cigar- 
 binder tobacco. 
 
 (C) “Total supply” of cotton for any marketing year shall be 
 the carry-over at the beginning of such marketing year, plus the 
 estimated production of cotton in the United States during tlie 
 calendar year in which such marketing year begins and the esti¬ 
 mated imports of cotton into the United States during such 
 marketing year. (7 U.S.C. 1301(b).) 
 
 (c) The latest available statistics of the Federal Government shall 
 be used by the Secretaiy in making the determinations required to be 
 made by the Secretary under this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1301(c).) 
 
 (cl) In making any determination under this Act or under the Agri¬ 
 cultural Act of 1949 with respect to the carryover of any agricultural 
 commodity, the Secretary shall exclude from such determination the 
 stocks of any commodity acquired pursuant to, or under the authority 
 of, the Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act (60 Stat. 
 596). (7 U.S.C. 1301(d).) 
 
 Sec. 302.13 * * * 
 
 ’2 This proviso was enacted by Pub. L. 85-92, 71 Stat. 284, approved July 10, 1957. 
 
 Section 302 repealed by Pub. L. 439. 81st Cong., 63 Stat. 1057, approved October 31, 
 1949. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 39 
 
 parity payments 
 
 Sec. 303. If and when appropriations are made therefor, the Secre¬ 
 tary IS authorized and directed to make payments to producers of 
 corn, wheat, cotton, rice, or tobacco, on their normal production of 
 such comniodities in amomits wliich, together with the proceeds 
 thereof, will provide a return to such producers which is as nearly 
 j parity price as the funds so made available will permit All 
 funds available for such payments with respect to these commodities 
 shall unless otherwise provided by law, be apportioned to these com¬ 
 modities m proportion to the amount by wliicli each fails to reach the 
 income. Such payments shall be in addition to and not in 
 
 iQA?\ other payments authorized by law. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 loUo, j 
 
 CONSUMER SAFEGUARDS 
 
 Sec. 304. The powers conferred under this Act shall not be used to 
 discourage the production of supplies of foods and fibers sufficient to 
 maintain normal domestic human consumption as determined by the 
 feecreta^ from the records of dornestic human consumption in the 
 years 1920 to 1929, inclusive, taking into consideration increased popu¬ 
 lation, quantities of an^^ commodity that were forced into domestic 
 consumption by decline in exports during such period, current trends 
 in domestic consumption and exports of particular commodities and 
 the quantities of substitutes available for domestic consumption within 
 
 commodities. In carrying out the purposes 
 of this _Act it shall be the duty of the Secretary to give due regard to 
 the maintenance of a continuous and stable supply of agricultural 
 commi^ities from domestic production adequate to meet consumer 
 demand at prices fair to both producers and consumers. (7 U.S.C. 
 loU4. j 
 
 Subtitle B— Marketing Quotas 
 Part I—Marketing Quotas—Tobacco 
 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 311. (a) The marketing of tobacco constitutes one of the great 
 b^ic industries of the United States with ramifying activities which 
 dir^tly affect interstate and foreign commerce at every point, and 
 stable conditions therein are necessary to the general welfare. To¬ 
 bacco produced for market is sold on a Nation-wide market and, with 
 its products, moves almost wholly in interstate and foreign commerce 
 from the producer to the ultimate consumer. The farmers producing 
 such commodity are^ subject in their operations to uncontrollable 
 natural causes, are widely scattered throughout the Nation, in many 
 cases such farmers carry on their farming operations on borrowed 
 nmney or leased lands, and are not so situated as to be able to organize 
 effectively, as can labor and industry through unions and corpora¬ 
 tions enjoying Government protection and sanction. For these rea¬ 
 sons, among others, the farmers are unable without Federal assistance 
 to control effectively the orderly marketing of such commodity with 
 the result that abnormally excessive supplies thereof are produced 
 
40 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 and dumped indiscriminately on the Nation-wide market. (7 U.S.C. 
 1311(a).) 
 
 (b) The disorderly marketing of such abnormally excessive sup¬ 
 plies affects, burdens, and obstructs interstate and foreign commerce 
 by (1) materially affecting the volume of such commodity marketed 
 therein, (2) disrupting the orderly marketing of such commodity 
 therein, (3) reducing the price for such commodity with consequent 
 injury and destruction of interstate and foreign commerce in such 
 commodity, and (4) causmg a disparity between the prices for such 
 commodity in interstate and foreign commerce and industrial prod¬ 
 ucts therein, with a consequent diminution of the volume of interstate 
 and foreign commerce in hidustrial products. (7 U.S.C. 1311(b).) 
 
 (c) Whenever an abnormally excessive supply of tobacco exists, the 
 marketing of such commodity by the producers thereof directly and 
 substantially affects interstate and foreign commerce in such com¬ 
 modity and its products, and the operation of the provisions of this 
 part becomes necessary and appropriate in order to promote, foster, 
 and maintain an orderly flow of such supply in interstate and foreign 
 commerce. (7 U.S.C. 1311 (c).) 
 
 NATIONAL MARKETING QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 312. (a) The Secretary shall, not later than December 1 of 
 any marketing year with respect to flue-cured tobacco, and February 1 
 of any marketing year with respect to other kinds of tobacco, pro¬ 
 claim a national marketing quota for any kind of tobacco for each 
 of the next three succeeding marketing years whenever he determines 
 with respect to such kind of tobacco—• 
 
 (1) that a national marketing quota has not previously been 
 proclaimed and the total supply as of the begimiing of such 
 marketing year exceeds the reserve supply level therefor; 
 
 (2) that such marketing year is the last year of three consecu¬ 
 tive years for which marketing quotas previously proclaimed will 
 be in effect; 
 
 (3) that amendments have been made in provisions for estab¬ 
 lishing farm acreage allotments which will cause material revision 
 of such allotments before the end of the period for which quotas 
 are in effect; or 
 
 (4) that a marketing quota previously proclaimed for such 
 marketing year is not in effect because of disapproval by pro¬ 
 ducers in a referendum held pursuant to subsection (c) : Provided^ 
 That if such producers have disajiproved national marketing 
 quotas in referenda held in three successive years subsequent to 
 1952, thereafter a national marketing quota shall not be pro¬ 
 claimed hereunder which would be in effect for any marketing 
 year within the three-year period for which national marketing 
 quotas previously proclaimed were disapproved by producers in 
 a referendum, imless prior to November 10 of the marketing year 
 one-fourth or more of the farmers engaged in the production of 
 the crop of tobacco harvested in the calendar year in which such 
 marketing year begins petition the Secretary, in accordance with 
 such regulations as he may prescribe, to proclaim a national mar- 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 41 
 
 keting quota each of the next three succeeding marketing 
 years. (7 U.S.C. 1312(a).) ^ 
 
 S^retary shall also determine and announce not later 
 than the firet day of December with respect to flue-cured tobacco and 
 not later than the first day of February with respect to other kinds of 
 tobacco, the amount of the national marketing quota proclaimed pur¬ 
 suant to subsection (a) which is in effect for the next marketing year 
 m terms of the total quantity of tobacco which may be marketed 
 which will make available during such marketing year a supply of 
 tobacco equal to the reserve supply level. The amount of the national 
 marketing quota so announced may, not later than the following 
 March 1, be increased by not more than 20 per centum if the Secretary 
 determines that such mcrease is necessary in order to meet market 
 demands or to avoid undue restrictions of marketings in adjusting the 
 total supply to the reserve supply level. (7 U.S.C. 1312(b).) 
 
 (c) Within thirty days after the proclamation of national mar¬ 
 keting quotas under subsection (a), the Secretary shall conduct a refer¬ 
 endum of farmers engaged in the production of the crop of tobacco 
 harvested im^mediately prior to the holding of the referendum to 
 determine whether such farmers are in favor of or opposed to such 
 quotas for the next three succeedmg marketing years. If more than 
 one-third of the facers voting oppose the national marketing quotas, 
 such results shall be proclaimed by the Secretary and the national 
 marketing quotas so proclaimed shall not be in effect but such results 
 shall m no wise affect or limit the subsequent proclamation and sub¬ 
 mission to a referendum, as otherwise provided in this section, of a 
 national marketing quota. (7 U.S.C. 1312(c).) 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OF NATIONAL MARKETING QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 313. (a) The national marketing quota for tobacco established 
 pursuant to the provisions of section 312, less the amount to be allotted 
 under subsection (c) of this section, shall be apportioned by the Secre¬ 
 tary among the several States on the basis of the total production of 
 tobacco in each State during the five calendar years immediately 
 preceding the calendar year in which the quota is proclaimed (plus 
 in applicable years, the normal production on the acreage diverted 
 un^r previous agricultural adjustment and conservation programs), 
 with such adjustments as are determined to be necessary to make cor¬ 
 rection for abnormal conditions of production, for small farms, and 
 or trends in production, giving due consideration to seed l^d and 
 other plant diseases during such five-year period. Notwithstanding 
 any other provision of this section and section 312 * * * the hurley 
 tobacco acreage allotment which would otherwise be established for 
 any farm having a burley acreage allotment in 1942 shall not be less 
 than one-half acre, and the acreage required for apportionment under 
 this proviso shall be in addition to the National and State acreage 
 allotments. (7U.S.C. 1313(a).) 
 
 Jtily 12,1952.^^ * * * notwithstanding any other provision 
 0 law, effe ctive for the 1956 and subsequent crops of burley tobacco, 
 
 Strt.^2L app?ove/MlS"31. L. 21. 84tL Cong., 69 
 
42 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 the farm acreage allotment for hurley tobacco for any year sliall not 
 be less than the smallest of (1) the allotment established for the farm 
 for the immediately preceding year, (2) five-tenths of an acre, or (3) 
 10 per centum of the cropland: Provtded^ however^ That no allotment 
 of seven-tenths of an acre or less shall be reduced more than one-tenth 
 of an acre in any one year. The additional acreage required under 
 this Act shall be in addition to the State acreage allotments and the 
 production on such acreage shall be in addition to the national mar- 
 ketingquota. (7U.S.C. 1315.)] 
 
 (b) The Secrtary shall provide, through the local committees, for 
 the allotment of the marketing quota for any State among the farms 
 on which tobacco is produced, on the basis of the following: Past 
 marketing of tobacco, making due allowance for drought, flood, hail, 
 other abnormal weather conditions, plant bed, and other diseases; 
 land, labor, and equipment available for the production of tobacco; 
 crop-rotation practices; and the soil and other physical factors affect¬ 
 ing the production of tobacco: Provided^ That, except for farms on 
 which for the first time in five years tobacco is produced to be mar¬ 
 keted in the marketing year for which the quota is effective, the mar¬ 
 keting quota for any farm shall not be less than the smaller of either 
 (1) three thousand two hundred pounds, in the case of flue-cured to¬ 
 bacco, and two thousand four hundred pounds, in the case of other 
 kinds of tobacco, or (2) the average tobacco production for the farm 
 during the preceding three years, plus the average normal production 
 of any tobacco acreage diverted under agricultural adjustment and 
 conservation programs during such preceding three years. (7 U.S.C. 
 1313(b).) 
 
 (c) The Secretary shall provide, through local committees, for the 
 allotment of not in excess of 5 per centum of the national marketing 
 quota (1) to farms in any State whether it has a State quota or not 
 on which for the first time in five years tobacco is produced to be 
 marketed in the year for which the quota is effective and (2) for 
 further increase of allotments to small farms pursuant to the proviso 
 in subsection (b) of this section on the basis of the following: Land, 
 labor, and equipment available for the production of tobacco; crop- 
 rotation practices; and the soil and other physical factors affecting 
 the production of tobacco: Provided^ That farm marketing quotas 
 established pursuant to this subsection for farms on which tobacco is 
 produced for the first time in five years shall not exceed 75 per centum 
 of the farm marketing quotas established pursuant to subsection (b) 
 of this section for farms which are similar with respect to the follow¬ 
 ing: Land, labor, and equipment available for the production of to¬ 
 bacco, crop-rotation practices, and the soil and other physical factors 
 affecting the production of tobacco. (7 U.S.C. 1313(c).) 
 
 (d) Farm marketing quotas may be transferred only in such man¬ 
 ner and subject to such conditions as the Secretary may prescribe by 
 regulations. (7 U.S.C. 1313(d).) 
 
 (e) In case of flue-cured tobacco, the national quota for 1938 is 
 increased by a number of pounds required to provide for each State in 
 addition to the State poundage allotment a poundage not in excess of 
 4 per centum of the allotment which shall be apportioned in amounts 
 which the Secretary determines to be fair and reasonable to farms in 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 43 
 
 the State r^eiving allotments imder the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 of 1938 which the Secretary determines are inadequate in view of past 
 production of tobacco, and for each year by a number of pounds suffi¬ 
 cient to assure that any State receiving a State poundage allotment of 
 
 shall receive a minimum State poundage allotment 
 of nuc-ciir6(i tobacco equal to the average national yield, for the pre- 
 ceding five years of five hmidred acres of such tobacco. (7 U.S.C. 
 1313(e).) 
 
 (f) (Applicable only to 1938 crop.) 
 
 (g) Notwithstanding any other provision of this section, the Secre¬ 
 tary on the basis of average yield per acre of tobacco for the State 
 during the five years last preceding the year in which the national 
 marketing quota is proclaimed, adjusted for abnormal conditions of 
 production, may convert the State marketing quota into a State acre¬ 
 age allotment, and allot the same through the local committees among 
 farms on the basis of the factors set forth in subsection (b), using past 
 acreage (harvested and diverted) in lieu of the past marketing of 
 tobacco; and the Secretary on the basis of the national average yield 
 during the same period, similarly adjusted, may also convert into an 
 acreage allotment the amount reserved from the national quota pur¬ 
 suant to the provisions of subsection (c), and on the basis of the 
 factors set forth in subsection (c) and the past tobacco experience of 
 the farm operator, allot the same through the local committees among 
 farms on which no tobacco was produced during the last five years. 
 Any acreage of tobacco harvested in excess of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment for the year 1955, or any subsequent crop shall not be taken into 
 account in establishing State and farm acreage allotments. Except 
 for farms last mentioned or a farm operated, controlled, or directed 
 by a person who also operates, controls, or directs another farm on 
 which tobacco is produced, the farm-acreage allotment shall be in¬ 
 creased by the smaller of (1) 20 per centum of such allotment or (2) 
 the percentage by wiiich the normal yield of such allotments (as deter¬ 
 mined^ through the local committees in accordance with regulations 
 prescribed by the Secretary) is less than three thousand two hundred 
 pounds, in the case of flue-cured tobacco, and two thousand four hun¬ 
 dred pounds in the case of other kinds of tobacco: Provided^ That the 
 normal yield of the estimated number of acres so added to farm 
 acreage allotments in any State shall be considered as a part of the 
 State marketing quota in applying the proviso in subsection (a). The 
 actual production of the acreage allotment established for a farm 
 pursuant to this subsection shall be the amount of the farm marketing 
 quota. If any amount of tobacco shall be marketed as having been 
 produced on the acreage allotment for any farm which in fact was 
 produced on a different farm, the acreage allotments next established 
 for both such farms shall be reduced by that percentage which such 
 amount was of the respective farm marketing quota, except that such 
 reduction for any such farm shall not be made if the Secretary 
 through the local committees finds that no person connected with such 
 farm caused, aided, or acquiesced in such marketing; and if proof of 
 the disposition of any amount of tobacco is not furnished as required 
 by the Secretary or if any producer on the farm files, or aids or 
 acquiesces in the filing of, any false report with respect to the acreage 
 
44 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 of tobacco grown on the farm required by regulations issued pursuant 
 to this Act, the acreage allotment next established for the farm on 
 which such tobacco is produced shall be reduced by a percentage simi¬ 
 larly computed. If in any calendar year more than one crop of 
 tobacco is grown from (1) the same tobacco plants or (2) different 
 tobacco plants, and is harvested for marketing from the same acreage 
 of a farm, the acreage allotment next establi^ied for such farm shall 
 be reduced by an amount equivalent to the acreage from which more 
 than one crop of tobacco has been so grown and harvested. (7 U.S.C. 
 1313(g).) 
 
 ^ ^ 15 * * * 
 
 (i) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, whenever 
 after investigation the Secretary determines with respect to any kind 
 of tobacco that a substantial difference exists in the usage or market 
 outlets for any one or more of the types comprising such kind of 
 tobacco and that the quantity of tobacco of such type or types to be 
 produced under the marketing quotas and acreage allotments estab¬ 
 lished pursuant to tliis section would not be sufficient to provide an 
 adequate supply for estimated market demands and carry-over re¬ 
 quirements for such type or types of tobacco, the Secretary shall in¬ 
 crease the marketing quotas and acreage allotments for farms produc¬ 
 ing such type or types of tobacco in the preceding year to the extent 
 necessary to make available a supply of such type or types of tobacco 
 adequate to meet such demands and carry-over requirements. The 
 increases in farm marketing quotas and acreage allotments shall be 
 made on the basis of the production of such type or types of tobacco 
 during the period of years considered in establishing farm marketing 
 quotas and acreage allotments for such kind of tobacco. The addi¬ 
 tional production authorized by this subsection shall be in addition to 
 the national marketing quota established for such kind of tobacco 
 pursuant to section 312 of this Act. The increase in acreage under 
 this subsection shall not be considered in establishing future State or 
 farm acreage allotments. (7 U.S.C. 1313 (i).) 
 
 (j) In establishing farm acreage allotments for hurley tobacco 
 crops for the years 1956, 1957j and 1958 the acreage allotment for any 
 farm which has not been retired from agricultural production shall 
 not be reduced below the acreage allotment which would otherwise be 
 established because the harvested acreage was less than the allotted 
 acreage unless the acreage harvested was less than 50 per centum of 
 the allotted acreage in each of the preceding five years, in which event 
 it shall not be reduced for such reason to less than the largest acreage 
 harvested in any year in such five-year period. (7 U.S.C. 1313(j).) 
 
 (j) [sic] The production of tobacco on a farm in 1955 or any sub¬ 
 sequent year for which no farm acreage allotment was established shall 
 not make the farm eligible for an allotment as an old farm under sub¬ 
 sections (b) and (g) hereof: Provided,^ however^ That by reason of 
 such production the farm need not be considered as ineligible for a 
 new farm allotment under subsections (c) and (g) hereof, but such 
 production shall not be deemed past tobacco experience for any pro¬ 
 ducer on the farm. (7 U.S.C. 1313 (j).) 
 
 “Sec. 313(h) repealed by Pub. L. 85-835, 72 Stat. 988, approved August 28, 1958. 
 
 “ Subsection (j) to Sec. 313 was added by Pub. L. 361, 84th Cong., 69 Stat. 684, approved 
 August 11, 1955 ; so in original, probably should be subsec. (k). 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193S, AS AMENDED 45 
 
 penalties 
 
 Sec. 314. (a) The marketing- of any kind of tobacco in excess of 
 the inaiketing quota for the fann on which the tobacco is produced 
 s lall be subject to a penaity of per centum of the average market 
 price (calculated to the nearest whole cent) for such kind of tobacco 
 for the immediately preceding marketing year. Such penalty shall 
 be paid by the person who acquired such tobacco from the producer 
 but an amount equivalent to the penalty may be deducted by the buyer 
 from the price paid to the producer in case such tobacco is marketed 
 by sale; or, it the tobacco is marketed by the producer throuo-h a 
 warehouseman or other agent, such penalty shall be paid by such ware- 
 houseman or agent who may deduct an amount equivalent to the pen¬ 
 alty from the price paid to the producer; Provided, That in case any 
 tobacco IS marketed directly to any person outside the United States 
 the penalty shall be paid and remitted by the producer. If any pro¬ 
 ducer falsely identifies or fails to account for the disposition of any 
 tobacco, an amount of tobacco equal to the normal yield of the number 
 of acr^ harvested m excess of the farm-acreage allotment shall be 
 deemed to have been marketed in excess of the marketing quota for 
 the farm, and the penalty in respect thereof shall be paid and re¬ 
 mitted by the producer. Tobacco carried over by the producer thereof 
 from one marketing year to another may be marketed without pay¬ 
 ment of the penalty imposed by this section if the total amount of 
 tobacco available for marketing from the farm in the marketing year 
 irom which the tobacco is carried over did not exceed the farm mar¬ 
 keting quota established for the farm for such marketing year (or 
 
 established if marketing quotas had been in 
 enect tor such marketing year), or if the tobacco so carried over does 
 not exceed the normal production of that number of acres by which 
 the harvested acreage of tobacco in the calendar year in which the 
 marketing year begins is less than the fann-acreage allotment. To- 
 bacco produced in a calendar year in which marketing quotas are in 
 etr^t for the marketing year beginning therein shall be subject to 
 such quotas even though it is marketed prior to the date on which 
 such marketing year begins. (7 U.S.C. 1314(a).) 
 
 (b) The Secretary shall require collection of the penalty ujion a 
 proportion of each lot of tobacco marketed from the farm equal to 
 the proportion which the tobacco available for marketing from the 
 farm in excess of the farm marketing quota is of the total amount of 
 tobacco available for marketing from the farm if satisactory proof 
 IS not furnished as to the disposition to be made of such excess tobacco 
 prior to the marketing of any tobacco from the fann. All funds 
 collected pursuant to this section shall be deposited in a special de¬ 
 posit account with the Treasurer of the United States until the end of 
 the marketing year next succeeding that in which the funds are col¬ 
 lated, and upon certification by the Secretary there shall be paid out 
 of such special deposit account to persons designated by the S^retary 
 the amount by which the penalty collected exceeds the amount of 
 penalty due upon tobacco marketed in excess of the farm marketing 
 (mota for any farm. Such special account shall be administered by 
 the Secretary, and the basis for, the amount of, and the person en- 
 
 768-820—65^ 
 
 5 
 
46 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 tided to receive a payment from such account, when determined in 
 accordance with regulations ])rescribed by the Secretary, shall be 
 tinal and conclusive. (7 U.S.C. 1314(b).) 
 
 Sec. 315. (a) The provisions of this section shall be eflective, where 
 applicable, notwithstanding any other provision of this Act. Within 
 thirty days after the date this section is enacted into law, the Sec¬ 
 retary shall conduct a special referendum of farmers who were en¬ 
 gaged in the production of the crops of the type 21 (Virginia) lire- 
 cured tobacco or the type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco which was 
 harvested immediately prior to the referendum. The provisions of 
 the regulations issued by the Secretary governing the holding of ref- 
 erendums on marketing quotas authorized under section 312 of this 
 Act shall apply, insofar as applicable, to the holding of the special 
 referendum provided for in this section. The purpose of such special 
 referendum is to determine whether those persons eligible to vote 
 therein favor the establishment, as hereinafter provided in this sec¬ 
 tion, of a single combined tobacco acreage allotment for the 1958-59 
 and subsequent marketing years for any farm for which both a type 21 
 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco acreage allotment and a type 37 Virginia 
 sun-cured tobacco acreage allotment have been established for the 
 1958-59 marketing year. 
 
 (b) If two-thirds or more of the persons voting in the special refer¬ 
 endum provided for in this section favor the establishment for the 
 1958-1959 and subsequent marketing years of a single combined to¬ 
 bacco acreage allotment for any farm having both a type 21 (Virginia) 
 fire-cured tobacco acreage allotment and a type 37 Virginia sun-cured 
 tobacco acreage allotment for the 1958-1959 marketing year, the Sec¬ 
 retary, through local committees, shall establish for each of such farms 
 a single combined tobacco acreage allotment for the 1958-1959 mar¬ 
 keting year and subsequent marketing years applicable to one kind 
 of tobacco, either type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco or type 37 
 Virginia sun-cured tobacco, whichever kind of tobacco the owner of 
 such farm or his representative designates with respect to the 1958- 
 1959 marketing year and notifies the local committee of such desig¬ 
 nation within a period of time as determined and fixed by the Secre¬ 
 tary. In the absence of such a designation and notification by the 
 owner or his representative of any farm for which a single combined 
 tobacco acreage allotment shall be established as provided in this sec¬ 
 tion, the Secretary shall designate such combined allotment for such 
 farm as either a type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco acreage allot¬ 
 ment or a type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco acreage allotment after 
 taking into consideration the prevalent kind of tobacco grown in 
 the area in which such farm is located, the curing facilities on such 
 farni, and the proximity and nature of marketing outlets. The 
 single combined tobacco acreage allotment determined as heretofore 
 provided for each farm for the 1958-1959 marketing years shall be 
 shall equal the total of the acreage of the type 21 
 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco allotment and the acreage of the type 
 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco allotment for the 1958-1959 marketing 
 year established for such farm. No contract entered into under the 
 acreage reserve program for the 1958 crop of type 21 (Virginia) fire- 
 cured tobacco or of the type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco shall be 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 47 
 
 RffGctGci by tho GstsiblishniGnt of a. singlG cornbiiiGcl tobacco acrcagG 
 allotment for a farm as provided in this section. If the establishment 
 of farm acreage allotments as provided in this section are approved in 
 the special referendum as heretofore_ provided in this section, and 
 thereafter two or more farms, of which one or more has a type 21 
 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco allotment and another or more has a 
 type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco allotment, are combined and oper¬ 
 ated as a single farm, a single combined tobacco acreage allotment 
 designated for either type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco or type 
 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco as heretofore provided, shall be estab¬ 
 lished for the combined farm in lieu of and shall equal the total acre- 
 age of the allotments for type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco and 
 type 37 Virginia_ sun-cured tobacco established for the farms com¬ 
 prising the combined farm for the marketing year for which such 
 single combined tobacco acreage allotment is established. For mar¬ 
 keting years subsequent to the marketing year for which a sino-le 
 combined tobacco acreage allotment is first established for a farm°as 
 provided in this section, the history of past marketing or of past har¬ 
 vested acreage from such farm of both type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured 
 tobacco and type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco shall constitute the 
 past marketing of tobacco or the past harvested acreage of tobacco of 
 such farm in determining a single combined tobacco acreage allotment 
 therefor. 
 
 ^ (c) Notwithstanding the national marketing quotas for the market¬ 
 ing year beginning October 1, 1958, announced by the Secretary for 
 each of the two kinds of tobacco described as type 21 (Virginia) 
 fire-cured tobacco and type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco, each of the 
 State acreage allotments for such kinds of tobacco apportioned by the 
 Secretary to the State of Virginia for the marketing year beginning 
 October 1, 1958, shall be increased or decreased respectively by the 
 amount of acreage equivalent to the corresponding net total change in 
 farin acreage allotments for each of such kinds of tobacco for such 
 marketing year which result from the establishment of single com¬ 
 bined tobacco farm acreage allotments as provided in this section, 
 in determining and announcing the amount of the national market¬ 
 ing quotas for type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco, and type 37 Vir¬ 
 ginia sun-cured tobacco in terms of the total quantity of each of such 
 mnds of tobacco which may be marketed during the marketing year 
 ^^RRiiig' October 1, 1959, and during each of the four succeeding 
 marketing years thereafter, the Secretary shall increase or decrease 
 " j^^^^^li'^^rketing quotas determined as provided in section 312 
 (b) and the Virginia State acreage allotments for type 21 (Virginia) 
 re-cured tobacco and type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco to Veflect 
 correspondingly the changes which previously have occurred in the 
 o a acreage allotted for each of such kinds of tobacco pursuant to 
 tins section. Notwithstanding any marketing quota determined and 
 announced for type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured tobacco and type 37 
 1 ^ l sun-cured tobacco for the marketing year beginning October 
 b bJuJ, and for each marketing year thereafter, each of the State 
 acreage allotments for such kinds of tobacco apportioned to the State 
 ^ injinia for any such marketing year shall be increased or de¬ 
 creased respectively by the amount of acreage equivalent to the 
 
48 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AM ENDED 
 
 corresponding net total change in farm acreage allotments for each 
 of such kinds of tobacco for such marketing year which results from 
 the combination of farms and the establishment of single combined 
 tobacco farm acreage allotments as provided in this section. The 
 sum of the State acreage allotments for type 21 (Virginia) fire-cured 
 tobacco and type 37 Virginia sun-cured tobacco determined for any 
 marketing year as provided in section 313 shall not be increased or 
 decreased by reason of any increase or decrease in the State acreage 
 allotment for each of such kinds of tobacco previously provided for 
 
 TT o Pf reflect net changes occurring in acreage allotted. 
 
 (7 U.S.C. 1314a.) 
 
 Sec. 316.^’’ (a) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act 
 lor the crop years 1962, 1963,1964, and 1965,^® the owner and operator 
 ot any farm for which a tobacco acreage allotment (other than a 
 Jiurely tobacco acreage allotment or a cigar-filler and cigar-binder 
 (types 42, 43, 44, 53, 54, and 55) tobacco acreage allotment) is estab¬ 
 lished may lease any part of such allotment to any other owner or oper¬ 
 ator of a farm in the same county for use in such county on a farm hav- 
 mg a current tobacco allotment of the same kind. Such lease and 
 transfer of allotment shall be recognized and considered valid by the 
 county committee provided the conditions set forth in this section are 
 
 Maryland (type 32) tobacco, no farm shall be 
 eligibje for lease of 1962 or 1963 allotment from the farm unless at 
 least i5 per centum of the allotment for the farm was actually planted 
 during each of the years 1960 and 1961, nor shall a farm be eligible 
 tor lease of 19^4 or 1965 Maryland tobacco allotment from the farm 
 unless at least t5 per centum of the allotment for the farm was actually 
 
 planted on such farm during each of the two immediately preceding 
 yGRrs* 
 
 shall be made on an annual basis and on such terms 
 and conditions, except as otherwise provided in this section, as the 
 parties thereto agree. 
 
 (c) The lease and transfer of any allotment shall not be effective 
 until a copy of such lease is filed with and determined by the county 
 committee of the county in which the farms involved are located to be 
 in compliance with the provisions of this section. Such lease and 
 transtei shall not be effective unless a copy of the lease is filed with 
 the county committee prior to a closing date established by the Secre- 
 which date shall be no later than the normal planting time in 
 the county. If the normal yield established by the county committee 
 foi the ffirm to which the allotment is transferred does not exceed the 
 normal yield established by the county committee for the farm from 
 which the allotment is transferred by more than 10 per centum, the 
 l 0 ^fiS 0 and transfer shall be approved acre for acre. If the normal 
 yield for the farm to which the allotment is transferred exceeds the 
 normal yield for the farm from vdiich the allotment is transferred by 
 
 T V«UR 8^^77 80 75 Slat. 469, approved September 6, 1961. 
 
 “nnri lORO” 19, 196.3. struck out the word and figures, 
 
 M Pub® T ss-fis 77 ^ 8 l„V" Qo” thereof the figures, “1963, 1964, and 1965”. 
 other 'ihaJi' 
 
 the iSbuw Lw eratline'i tterSn'" »' *hl>*~tlon (a) and Inserted 
 
 r ‘ V ®tat. 82 amended subsection (b) bv eliminating the provisions against 
 
 leases for any period exceeding one year and for renewals of 1963 croVyear leased 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMEiNT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 49 
 
 more than 10 per centum, the county committee shall make a down¬ 
 ward adjustment m the amount of the acreage allotment transferred 
 by multiplying the normal yield established for the farm from which 
 the allotment is transferred by the acreage being transferred and 
 dividing the result by the normal yield established by the farm to 
 which the allotment is transferred. 
 
 (d) The lease and transfer of any part of a tobacco acreage allot¬ 
 ment determined for a farm shall not affect the allotment for the farm 
 from which such acreage allotment is transferred or the farm 
 to which it is transferred, except with respect to the crop year speci¬ 
 fied in the lease. The amount of acreage allotment which is leased 
 from a farm shall be considered for purpose of determining future 
 allotments to have been planted to tobacco on the farm from which 
 such allotment is transferred and the production pursuant to the lease 
 and transfer shall not be taken into account in establishing allotments 
 for subsequent years for the farm to which such allotment is trans¬ 
 ferred. The lessor shall be considered to have been engaged in the 
 production of tobacco for the purpose of eligibility to vote in the 
 referendum. 
 
 (e) Under the provisions of this section not more than five acres 
 of allotment may be leased and transferred to any farm: Provided, 
 That the total acreage allotted to any farm after such transfer shall 
 not exceed 50 per centum of the acreage of cropland in the farm. 
 
 (f) The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations as he considers 
 necessary for carrying out the provisions of this section. 
 
 (g) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection (c) relating to 
 the filing of a lease with the county committee, the lease and transfer 
 of an allotment for the 1964 crop year shall be effective if, (1) the 
 Secretary finds that a lease in compliance with the provisions of this 
 section was agreed upon prior to the normal planting time in the 
 county, as determined by the Secretary, or June 15,1964, whichever is 
 earlier, and (2) the terms of the lease are reduced to writing and 
 filed in the coimty office in which the farms involved are located within 
 twenty days of the date the 1964 amendment to this subsection be¬ 
 come law.23 (7 U.S.C. 1314b.) 
 
 (h) 24 * ♦ * 
 
 Part II— Acreage Allotments—Corn 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 321. Corn is a basic source of food for the Nation, and corn 
 produced in the commercial corn-producing area moves almost wholly 
 m interstate and foreign commerce in the form of corn, livestock, and 
 livestock products. 
 
 Abnormally excessive and abnormally deficient supplies of corn 
 acutely and directly affect, burden, and obstruct interstate and for- 
 
 Subsection (g) added by Pub. L. 87-530, 76 Stat. 151, approved July 10, 1962. 
 
 ^ Subsection (g) made applicable to the 1964 crop of tobacco by Pub. L. 88-469, 78 Stat. 
 581, approved August 20, 1964. For similar legislation with respect to the 1962 and 1963 
 crops, see Puh. L. 87-530. 76 Stat. 151 and Pub. L. 88-80, 77 Stat. 114. 
 
 *‘Pub. L. 88-469, 78 Stat. 581, approved August 30, 1964, repealed subsec. (h) which 
 was enacted by Pub. L. 88-80, 77 Stat. 114. ^ 
 
 “ Secs. 321 to 329 not in effect due to results of corn referendum held on November 2o, 
 1958, in which farmers approved a price support program without acreage allotments. 
 See section 104, Agricultural Act of 1949, p. 151, for corn price support program. 
 
50 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 eigii commerce in com, livestock, and livestock products. 'When 
 abnormally excessive supplies exist, transport^ition facilities in inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce are overtaxed, and the handling and proc¬ 
 essing facilities through which the flow of interstate and foreign 
 commerce in corn, livestock, and livestock products is directed become 
 acutely congested. Abnormally deficient supplies result in substan¬ 
 tial decreases in livestock production and in an inadequate flow of 
 livestock and livestock products in interstate and foreign commerce, 
 with the consequence of unreasonably high prices to consumers. ’ 
 Violent fluctuations from year to year in the available supply of 
 corn disrupt the balance between the supply of livestock and livestock I 
 products moving in interstate and foreign commerce and the supply 
 of corn available for feeding. When available supplies of corn are 
 excessive, corn prices are low and farmers overexpand livestock pro¬ 
 duction in order to find outlets for corn. Such expansion, together 
 with the relative scarcity and high price of corn, forces farmers to 
 market abnormally excessive supplies of livestock in interstate com¬ 
 merce at sacrifice prices, endangering the financial stability of pro¬ 
 ducers, and overtaxing handling and processing facilities through 
 which the flow of interstate and foreign commerce in livestock and 
 livestock products is directed. Such excessive marketings deplete 
 livestock on farms, and livestock marketed in interstate and foreign 
 commerce consequently becomes abnormally low, with resultant high 
 prices to consumers and danger to the financial stability of persons 
 engaged in transporting, handling, and processing livestock in inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce. These high prices in turn result in 
 another oyerexpansion of livestock production. 
 
 Recurring violent fluctuations in the price of corn resulting from 
 corresponding violent fluctuations in the supply of corn directly affect 
 the movement of livestock in interstate commerce from the range 
 cattle regions to the regions where livestock is fattened for market in 
 interstate and foreign commerce, and also directly affect the move¬ 
 ment in interstate commerce of corn marketed as corn which is 
 transported from the regions where produced to the regions where 
 liv^^ck is^ fattened for market in interstate and foreign commerce. 
 
 • corn moving in interstate commerce, substan¬ 
 
 tially all the corn fed to livestock transported in interstate commerce 
 for fattening, and substantially all the corn fed to livestock marketed 
 in interstate and foreign commerce, is produced in the commercial 
 corn-producing area. Substantially all the corn produced in the com¬ 
 mercial corn-producing area, with the exception of a comparatively 
 small amount used for farm consumption, is either sold or trans¬ 
 ported in interstate commerce, or is fed to live-stock transpoifed in 
 interstate commerce for feeding, or is fed to livestock marketed in 
 interstate and foreign commerce. Almost all the corn produced ont- 
 pde the commercial corn-producing area is either consumed, or is fed 
 to livestock which is consumed, in the State in which such corn is 
 produced. 
 
 The conditions affecting the production and marketing of corn and 
 the livestock products of corn are such that, without Federal assist¬ 
 ance, fanners, individually or in cooperation, cannot effectively pre¬ 
 vent the recurrence of dispartities between the supplies of livestock 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 51 
 
 moving in interstate and foreign commerce and the supply of corn 
 available for feeding, and provide for orderly marketing of corn in 
 interstate and foreign commerce and livestock and livestock products 
 in interstate and foreign commerce. 
 
 The national public interest requires that the burdens on inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce above described be removed by the exer¬ 
 cise of Federal power. By reason of the administrative and physical 
 impracticability of regulating the movement of livestock and live¬ 
 stock products in interstate and foreign commerce and the inadequacy 
 of any such regulation to remove such burdens, such power can be 
 feasibility exercised only by providing for the witldiolding from mar¬ 
 ket of excessive and burdensome supplies of corn in times of excessive 
 production, ^ and providing a reserve supply of corn available for 
 market in times of deficient production, in order that a stable and 
 continuous flow of livestock and livestock products in interstate 
 and foreign commerce may at all times be assured and maintained. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1321.) 
 
 FARM MARKETING QUOTAS 
 
 Secs. 322 to 325.26 * * * 
 
 ADJUSTMENT OF FARM MARKETING QUOTAS 
 
 [Sec. 326 below repealed by 68 Stat. 902 insofar as applicable to 
 corn; (b) and (c) below are still applicable to wheat. See paragraph 
 (6), Pub. L. 74, 77th Congress, on p. 63.] 
 
 Sec. 326. (a) Whenever in any county or other area the Secretary 
 finds that the actual production of corn plus the amount of corn 
 stored under seal in such county or other area is less than the normal 
 production of the marketing percentage of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ments in such county or omer area, the Secretary shall terminate 
 farm marketing quotas for corn in such county or other area. (7 
 U.S.C. 1326(a).) 
 
 (b) Whenever, upon any fann, the actual production of the acre¬ 
 age of corn is less than the normal production of the marketing per¬ 
 centage of the farm acreage allotment, there may be marketed, without 
 penalty, from such farm an amount of com from the corn stored under 
 seal pursuant to section 324 which, together with the actual production 
 of the then current crop, will equal the normal production of the mar¬ 
 keting percentage of the farm acreage allotment. (7 U.S.C. 1326 (b).) 
 
 (c) l^Tienever, in any marketing year, marketing quotas are not 
 in effect with respect to the crop of com produced in the calendar 
 ^’■ear in which such marketing year begins, all marketing quotas 
 applicable to previous crops of corn shall be terminated. (7 U.S.C. 
 1326(c).) 
 
 PROCLAMATION OF COMMERCIAL CORN-PRODUCING AREA 
 
 Sec. 327. Not later than February 1 of each calendar year, the See- 
 .retary shall ascertain and proclaim the commercial corn-producing 
 area. (7 U.S.C. 1327.) 
 
 “ Sees. 322 to 325, which related to marketing quotas for corn, were repealed by Pnb. L. 
 690, 83d Cong., 68 Stat. 902, approved August 28, 1954. 
 
52 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 ACREAGE ALI.OTMENT 
 
 Sec. 328. The acreage allotment of corn for any calendar year shall 
 be that acreage in the commercial corn-producing area which, on the 
 basis of the average yield for corn in such area during the five calen¬ 
 dar years immediately preceding such calendar year, adjusted for 
 abnormal weather conditions, will produce an amount of corn in such 
 area which the Secretary determines will, together wdth corn pro¬ 
 duced in the United States outside the commercial corn-producing 
 area and corn imported, make available a supply for the marketing * 
 year beginning in such calendar year, equal to the normal supply, 
 rhe Secretary shall proclaim such acreage allotment not later than 
 February 1 of the calendar year for which such acreage allotment 
 was determined. (7 U.S.C. 1328.) 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OP ACREAGE ALLOTMENT 
 
 Sec. 329. (a) The acreage allotment for corn shall be apportioned 
 by the Secretary among the counties in the commercial corn-produc¬ 
 ing area on the basis of the acreage seeded for the production of corn 
 during the five calendar years innnediately preceding the calendar 
 year m which the apportionment is determined (plus, in applicable 
 years, the acreage diverted under previous agricultural adjustment 
 and conservation programs), with adjustments for abnormal weather 
 conditions and for trends in acreage during such period and for the 
 promotion of soil-conservation practices: Provided^ That any down¬ 
 ward adjustment for the promotion of soil-conservation practices 
 shall not exceed 2 per centum of the total acreage allotment that 
 would otherwise be made to such county. (7 U.S.C. 1329(a).) 
 
 (b) The acreage allotment to the county for corn shall be appor¬ 
 tioned by the Secretary, through the local committees, among the 
 farms within the county on the basis of tillable acreage, crop-rotation 
 practices, type of soil, and topography. (7 U.S.C. 1329 (b).) 
 
 NONESTABLISIIMENT OF ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 330.2^ Notwithstanding any other provision of laiv, acreage 
 allotments and a commercial corniproducing area shall not be estab¬ 
 lished for the 1959 and subsequent crops of corn. (7 U.S.C. 1441 note.) 
 
 Part III—Marketing Quotas—Wheat 
 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 331.2® Wheat is a basic source of food for the Nation, is pro¬ 
 duced throughout the United States by more than a million farmers, 
 is sold on the country-wide market and, as wheat or flour, flows almost 
 entirely through instrumentalities of interstate and foreign commerce 
 from producers to consumers. 
 
 Abnormally excessive and abnormally deficient supplies of wheat 
 on the country-wide market acutely and directly affect, burden, and 
 obstruct interstate and foreign commerce. Abnormally excessive 
 
 27 This scction is effective since farmers voting in a referendum which was held on 
 November 25, 19o8, voted in favor of no allotments and a price support program as out¬ 
 lined in section 104, Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended (see p. 151). 
 
 *■* The last three paragraphs were added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 619, approved Sep¬ 
 tember 27, 1962. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 53 
 
 supplies overtax tlie facilities of interstate and foreign transporta¬ 
 tion, congest terminal markets and milling centers in the How of wheat 
 from i)roducers to consumers, depress the price of wheat in interstate 
 and foreign commerce, and otherwise disrupt the orderly marketing of 
 such commodity in such commerce. Abnormally -deficient supplies 
 result in an inadequate flow of wheat and its products in interstate 
 and foreign commerce with consequent injurious effects to the instru¬ 
 mentalities of such commerce and with excessive increases in the prices 
 of wheat and its products in interstate and foreign commerce. 
 
 It is in the interest of the general welfare that interstate and foreign 
 commerce in wheat and its products be protected from such burden¬ 
 some surpluses and distressing shortages, and that a supply of wheat 
 be maintained which is adequate to meet domestic consumption and 
 export requirements in years of drought, flood, and other adverse con¬ 
 ditions as well as in years of plenty, and that the soil resources of the 
 Xation be not wasted in the production of such burdensome surpluses. 
 Such surpluses result in disastrously low prices of wheat and other 
 grains to wheat producers, destroy the purchasing power of grain pro¬ 
 ducers for industrial products, and reduce the value of the agricultural 
 assets supporting the national credit structure. Such shortages of 
 wheat result in unreasonably high prices of flour and bread to con¬ 
 sumers and loss of market outlets by wheat producers. 
 
 The conditions affecting the production and marketing of wheat are 
 such that, without Federal assistance, farmers, individually or in co¬ 
 operation, cannot effectively prevent the recurrence of such surpluses 
 and shortages and the burdens on interstate and foreign commerce 
 resulting therefrom, maintain normal supplies of wheat, or provide 
 for the orderly marketing thereof in interstate and foreign commerce. 
 
 Wheat which is planted and not disposed of prior to the date pre¬ 
 scribed by the Secretary for the disposal of excess acres of wheat is an 
 addition to the total supply of wheat and has a direct effect on the 
 l)rice of wheat in interstate and foreign commerce and may also affect 
 the supply and price of livestock and livestock products. In the cir¬ 
 cumstances, wheat not disposed of prior to such date must be con¬ 
 sidered in the same manner as mechanically harvested wheat in order 
 to achieve the policy of the Act. 
 
 The diversion of substantial acreages from wheat to the production 
 of commodities which are in surplus supply or which will be in surplus 
 supply if they are permitted to be grown on the diverted acreage would 
 burden, obstruct, and adversely affect interstate and foreign commerce 
 in such commodities, and would adversely affect the prices of such 
 commodities in interstate and foreign commerce. Small changes in 
 the supply of a commodity could create a sufficient surplus to affect 
 seriously the price of such commodity in interstate and foreign com¬ 
 merce. Large changes in the supply of such commodity could have a 
 more acute effect on the price of the commodity in interstate and for¬ 
 eign commerce and, also, could overtax the handling, processing, and 
 transportation facilities through which the flow of interstate and 
 foreign commerce in such commodity is directed. Such adverse effects 
 caused by overproduction in one year could further result in a deficient 
 supply of the commodity in the succeeding year, causing excessive 
 increases in the price of the commodity in interstate and foreign com- 
 
54 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 inei’ce in such yo;ir. It is, therefore, necessary to prevent acreage 
 diverted from (he production of wheat to be used to produce com¬ 
 modities which are in surplus supply or which will be in surplus 
 supply if they are permit led to be grown on the diverted acreage. 
 
 llie provisions of this part affording a cooperative plan to wheat 
 producers are neces.sary in order to minimize recurring surpluses and 
 shortages of wheat in interstate and foreign commerce, to provide for 
 the maintenance of adequate reserve supplies thereof, to provide for 
 an adequate and orderly flow of wheat and its products in interstate 
 :ind foreign commerce at prices which are fair and reasonable to 
 fanners and consumers, and to prevent acreage diverted from the pro¬ 
 duction of wheat from adversely affecting other commodities in inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce. (7 U.S.C. 1331.) 
 
 PROCLAMATIONS OF SUPPLIES AND ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 332.29 Whenever prior to April 15 in any calendar year the 
 
 Secretary determines that the total supply of wheat in the marketin<r 
 year beginning m the next succeeding calendar year will, in the 
 absence of a marketing quota program, likely be excessive, the Sec¬ 
 retary shall proclaim that a national marketing quota for wheat 
 shall be in effect for such marketing year and for either the following 
 marketing year or the following two marketing years, if the Secretary 
 determines and declares in such proclamation that a two- or three-year 
 marketing (mota program is necessary to effectuate the policy of the 
 Act. (7 U.aC. 1332(a).) ^ ^ 
 
 (b) If a national marketing quota for wheat has been proclaimed 
 for any marl^ting year, the Secretary shall determine and proclaim 
 the amount of the national marketing quota for such marketino* year 
 not earlier than January 1 or later than April 15 of the calenda? year 
 preceding the year in which such marketing year begins. The amount 
 of the national marketing quota for wheat for any marketing year 
 shall be an amount of wheat which the Secretary estimates (i) will be 
 utilized during such marketing year for human consumption in the 
 United States as food, food products, and beverages, composed wholly 
 or partly of wheat, (ii) will be utilized during such marketing year in 
 the United States for seed, (iii) will be exported either in the form of 
 wheat or products thereof, and (iv) as the average amount which was 
 utilized as livestock (including poultry) feed in the marketing years 
 egmning m 1959 and 1960; less (A) an amount of wheat equal to the 
 estimated impor^ of vdieat into the United States during such market- 
 ing ycc^ and, (B) if the stocks of wheat owned by the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation are determined by the Secretary to be excessive, an 
 amount of wheat determined by the Secretary to be a desirable reduc- 
 
 stocks to achieve the policy of the 
 Act: Provided That if the Secretaiy determines that the total stocks of 
 wheat in the Nation are insufficient to assure an adequate carryover for 
 
 19^2^ °For1hftex"t"SfTld Son Pu1I~l'' yo"" fsd^cS Staf ^‘A 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 55 
 
 the next succeeding marketing year, the national marketing quota 
 otherwise determined shall be increased by the amount the Secretary 
 determines to be necessary to assure an adequate carryover; And pro¬ 
 vided further^ That the national marketing quota for wheat for any 
 marketing year shall be not less than one billion bushels. (7 U.S.C. 
 1332(b).) 
 
 (c) If, after the proclamation of a national marketing quota for 
 wheat for any marketing year, the Secretary has reason to believe that, 
 because of a national emergency or because of a material increase in the 
 demand for wheat, the national marketing quota should be terminated 
 or the amount thereof increased, he shall cause an immediate investiga¬ 
 tion to be made to determine whether such action is necessary in order 
 to meet such emergency or increase in the demand for wheat. If, on 
 the basis of such investigation, the Secretary finds that such action is 
 necessary, he shall immediately proclaim such finding and the amount 
 of any such increase found by him to be necessary and thereupon such 
 national marketing quota shall be so increased or terminated. In case 
 any national marketing quota is increased under this subsection, the 
 Secretary shall provide for such increase by increasing acreage allot¬ 
 ments established under this part by a uniform percentage. (7 U.S.C. 
 1332(c).) 
 
 [Pub. L. 88-297.®° Sec. 201. Notwithstanding any other provision 
 of law— 
 
 (1) the Secretary shall not proclaim a national marketing quota for 
 the 1965 crop of wheat and farm marketing quotas shall not be in effect 
 for such crcm of wheat; 
 
 (2) the Secretaiy shall proclaim a national acreage allotment for 
 the 1965 crop of wheat which shall be the number of acres which the 
 Secretary determines will make available an adequate supply of wheat, 
 but shall not be less than forty-nine million five hundred thousand 
 acres.] 
 
 NATIONAL ACREAGE ALLOTMENT 
 
 Sec. 333.®^ Whenever the amount of the national marketing quota 
 for wheat is proclaimed for any marketing year, the Secretary at the 
 same time shall proclaim a national acreage allotment for the crop of 
 wheat planted for harvest in the calendar year in which such marketing 
 year begins. The amount of the national acreage alloment for any 
 crop of wheat shall be the number of acres which the Secretary_ deter¬ 
 mines on the basis of expected yields and expected underplantings of 
 farm acreage allotments will, together with (1) the expected produc¬ 
 tion on the increases in acreage allotments for farms based upon small- 
 farm base acreages pursuant to section 335, and (2) the expected pro¬ 
 duction on increased acreages resulting from the small-farm exemp¬ 
 tion pursuant to section 335, make available a supply of wheat equal 
 to the national marketing quota for wheat for such marketing year. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1333.) 
 
 *®78 Stat. 178, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
 « Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 620, approved September 27, 1962, enacted a new section .3.33, 
 For old section 333 which was in effect for 1963 and prior crops of wheat, see Pub L. 4.30. 
 7.5th Cong., 52 Stat. 5.3, and the amendments thereto contained in Pub. Res. Iso. lljj. 
 75th Cong., 52, Stat. 775, Pub. Res. No. 33, 76th Cong., 53 Stat. 1125, and Pub. L. 897, 
 80th Cong., 62 Stat. 1257. 
 
56 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OF NATIONAL ACREAGE ALLOTMENT 
 
 Sec. 384. (a)"^ national acreage allotment for wheat, less a 
 reserve of not to exceed one per centum thereof for apportionment 
 as provided in this subsection and less the special acreage reserve 
 provided for in this subsection, shall be apportioned by the Secretary 
 among the several States on the basis of the acreage seeded for the 
 production of wheat during the ten calendar years immediately pre¬ 
 ceding the calendar year in which the national acreage allotment is 
 determined (plus, in applicable years, the acreage diverted under 
 previous agricultural adjustment and conservation programs), with 
 adjustments for abnormal weather conditions and for trends in acre¬ 
 age during such Provided, That in establishing State acreage 
 
 allotments the acreage seeded for the production of wheat plus the 
 acreage diverted for 1959 and any subsequent year for any farm on 
 whidi the entire amount of the farm marketing excess is delivered to 
 the Secretary or stored in accordance with applicable regulations to 
 avoid or postpone payment of the penalty shall be the base acreage of 
 wheat determined for the farm under the regulations issued by tlie 
 Secretary for determining farm wheat acreage allotments for such 
 ^Tar, but if any part of the amount of wheat so stored is later 
 depleted and penalty becomes due by reason of such depletion, for 
 the purpose of establishing State wheat acreage allotments subsequent 
 to such depletion the seeded plus diverted acreage of wheat for the 
 farm for the year in which the excess was produced shall be reduced 
 ^ the farm wheat acreage allotment for such year: Provided further. 
 That in establishing State acreage allotments, the acreage seeded for 
 Uie production of wheat plus the acreage diverted for 1965 for any 
 farm shall be the base acreage of wheat determined for the farm 
 under the regulations issued by the Secretary for determining farm 
 wheat acreage allotments for such year. The reserve acreage set 
 aside herein for apportionment by the Secretary shall be used to 
 make allotments to counties, in addition to the county allotments 
 made under subsection (b) of this section, on the basis of the relative 
 needs of counties for additional allotment because of reclamation 
 and other new areas coming into the production of wheat during 
 the ten calendar years ending with the calendar year in which the 
 national acreage allotment is proclaimed. There shall also be made 
 available, beginning with the 1965 crop, a special acreage reserve 
 ot not in excess of one million acres as determined by the Secretary 
 to be desirable for the purposes hereof which shall be in addition 
 to the national acreage reserve provided for in this subsection. Such 
 special acreage reserve shall be used to make additional allotments 
 to counties on the basis of the relative needs of counties, as deter¬ 
 mined by the Secretary, for additional allotments to make adjust¬ 
 ments in the allotments on old wheat farms (i.e., farms on which wheat 
 las been s^ded or regarded as seeded to one or more of the three crops 
 immediately preceding the crop for which the allotment is established) 
 on which the ratio of wheat acreage allotment to cropland on the 
 
 In said subsection. ’ ^ second proviso , and by adding the last five sentences 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 57 
 
 farm is less than one-half the average ratio of wheat acreage allotment 
 to cropland on old wheat farms in the county. Such adj ustments shall 
 not provide an allotment for any farm which would result in an 
 allotment-cropland ratio for the farm in excess of one-half of such 
 county average ratio and the total of such adjustments in any county 
 shall not exceed the acreage made available therefor in the county. 
 Such apportionment from the special acreage reserve shall be made 
 only to counties where wheat is a major income-producing crop, only 
 to farms on which there is limited opportunity for the production 
 of an alternative income-producing crop, and only if an efficient 
 farming operation on the farm requires the allotment of additional 
 acreage from the special acreage reserve. For the purposes of making 
 adjustments hereunder the cropland on the farm shall not include 
 any land developed as cropland subsequent to the 1963 crop year (7 
 U.S.C. 1334(a).) 
 
 (b) ^^ The State acreage allotment for wheat, less a reserve of not to 
 exceed 3 per centum thereof for apportionment as provided in sub¬ 
 section (c) of this section, shall be apportioned by the Secretary 
 among the counties in the State, on the basis of the acreage seeded 
 for the production of wheat during the ten calendar years immedi¬ 
 ately preceding the calendar year in which the national acreage allot¬ 
 ment is determined (plus, in applicable years, the acreage diverted 
 under previous agricultural adjustment and conservation programs), 
 with adjustments for abnormal weather conditions and trends in acre¬ 
 age during such period and for the promotion of soil-conservation 
 practices: Provided, That in establisliing county acreage allotments 
 the acreage seeded for the production of wheat plus the acreage di¬ 
 verted for 1959 and any subsequent year for any farm on which the 
 entire amount of the farm marketing excess is delivered to the Secre¬ 
 tary or stored in accordance with applicable regulations to avoid t)r 
 postpone payment of the penalty shall be the base acreage of wheat 
 determined for the farm under the regulations issued by the Secre¬ 
 tary for determining farm wheat acreage allotments for such year, 
 but if any part of the amount of wheat so stored is later depleted 
 and penalty becomes due by reason of such depletion, for the purpose 
 of establishing comity acreage allotments subsequent to such deple¬ 
 tion the seeded plus diverted acreage of wheat for the farm for the 
 year in which the excess was produced shall be reduced to the farin 
 wheat acreage allotment for such year: Provided further, That in 
 establishing county acreage allotments, the acreage seeded for the 
 production of wheat plus the acreage diverted for 1965 for any farm 
 shall be the base acreage of wheat determined for the farm mider the 
 regulations issued by the Secretary for determining farm wheat 
 acreage allotments for such year. (7 U.S.C. 1334(b).) 
 
 (c) (1)^^ The allotment to the county shall be apportioned by 
 the Secretary, through the local committees, among the farms 
 within the county on the basis of past acreage of wheat, tillable 
 acres, crop-rotation practices, type of soil, and topography. Not 
 more than 3 percentmn of the State allotment sliall be appor- 
 
 Subsection (b) was amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 178, approved April 11, 1964, 
 by adding a second proviso. , , . ^ 
 
 ^ Words and figures, “or 1965" and “except 1965”, were added in the third sentence of 
 subsection (c)(1) by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 178, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
58 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 tioned to farms on which wheat has not been planted during any 
 of the three marketing years immediately preceding the*niar- 
 keting y^r in which the allotment is made. For the purpose of 
 establisliing farm acreage allotments—(i) the past acreage of 
 wheat on any farm for 1958 or 1965 shall be the base acreage 
 detei-mined for the fann under the regulations issued by the 
 hecretary for determmnig 1958 or 1965 farm wheat acreage 
 allotments; (ii) if subsequent to the determination of such base 
 acreage the 1958 or 1965 wheat acreage allotment for the farm is 
 increased thiough administrative, review, or court proceeding's 
 the 1958 or 1965 faip base acreage shall be increased in the same 
 proportion; and (in) the past acreage of wheat for 1959 and 
 any subsequent year except 1965 shall be the wheat acreage on 
 the farm which is not in excess of the farm wheat acreage allot¬ 
 ment, plus, in the case of any farm which is in compliance with 
 its farm wheat acreage allotment, the acreage diverted mider such 
 wheat allotment programs: Provided, That for 1959 and sub¬ 
 sequent years in the case of any farm on which the entire amount 
 of the farm marketing excess is delivered to the Secretary or 
 stored in accordance with applicable regulations to avoid or post¬ 
 pone payrnent of the penalty, the past acreage of wheat for the 
 year in which such farm marketmg excess is so delivered or 
 stored shall be the farm base acreage of wheat determined for 
 the farm under the regulations issued by the Secretary for 
 determining farm wheat acreage allotments for such year, but 
 It any part of the amount of wheat so stored is later depleted 
 and i:^nalty beconies due by reason of such depletion, for the 
 purpose of establishing farm wheat acreage allotments sub¬ 
 sequent to such depletion the past acreage of wheat for the farm 
 for the year m which the excess was produced shall be reduced 
 to tlie farm wheat acreage allotment for such year. 
 
 (2) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, each old or 
 new farm acreage allotment for the 1962 crop of wheat as deter- 
 the basis of a minimum national acreage allotment of 
 ntty-hve million acres shall be reduced by 10 per centum. In 
 the event notices of farm acreage allotments for the 1962 crop of 
 wheat have been mailed to farm operators prior to the effective 
 date of this subparagraph (2), new notices showing the required 
 
 (7 U S 1334operators as soon as practicable. 
 
 Pui*Poses of subsections (a), (b), and (c) of this sec¬ 
 tion, any farm— 
 
 (1) to which a wheat marketing quota is applicable; and 
 
 (2) on which the acreage plantetl to wheat exceeds tlie farm 
 wheat acreage allotment; and 
 
 u which the marketing excess is zero 
 
 shall be regarded as a farm on which the entire amount of the farm 
 marketmg excess has been delivered to the Secretary or stored in 
 accordant with applicable regulations to avoid or postpone the pay- 
 ment of the penalty. This subsection shall be applicable in estab¬ 
 lishing the acreage seeded and diverted and the past acreage of wheat 
 for 1959 and subsequent years in the apportionment of allotments 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMEJSTT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 59 
 
 beginning with the 1961 crop of wheat. For the purpose of clause 
 (1) of this subsection, a farm with respect to which an exemption 
 has been granted under section 335(f) for any year shall not be 
 regarded as a farm to which a wheat marketing quota is applicable 
 for such year, even though such exemption should become null and 
 void because of a violation of the conditions of the exemption. (7 
 U.S.C. 1334(d).) 
 
 (e) ®® (Applicable only with respect to the 1962 and 1963 crops of 
 wheat). 
 
 (f) ®® (Applicable only with respect to the 1955,1956 and 1957 crops 
 of wheat). 
 
 (g) 37 Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no acreage in 
 the commercial wheat-producing area seeded to wheat for harvest as 
 grain in 1958 or thereafter except 1965 in excess of acreage allotments 
 shall be considered in establishing future State and county acreage 
 allotments except as prescribed in the provisos to the first sentence of 
 subsections (a) and (b), respectively, of this section. The planting 
 on a farm in the commercial wheat-producing area of wheat of the 
 1958 or any subsequent crop for which no farm wheat acreage allot¬ 
 ment was established shall not make the farm eligible for an allot¬ 
 ment as an old farm pursuant to the first sentence of subsection (c) of 
 this section nor shall such farm by reason of such planting be con¬ 
 sidered ineligible for an allotment as a new farm under the second 
 sentence of such subsection. (7 U.S.C. 1334(g).) 
 
 (h) ®* (Omitted.) 
 
 (i) ®® If, with respect to any crop of wheat, the Secretary finds that 
 the acreage allotments of farms producing any type of wheat are in¬ 
 adequate to provide for the production of a sufficient quantity of such 
 type of wheat to satisfy the demand therefor, the wheat acreage allot¬ 
 ment for such crop for each farm located in a county designated by the 
 Secretary as a county which (1) is capable of producing such type 
 of wheat, and (2) has produced such type of wheat for commercial 
 food products during one or more of the five years immediately preced¬ 
 ing the year in which such crop is harvested, shall be increased by such 
 uniform percentage as he deems necessary to provide for such quantity. 
 No increase shall be made under this subsection in the wheat acreage 
 allotment of any farm for any crop if any wheat other than such type 
 of wheat is planted on such farm for such crop. Any increases m 
 
 Subsection (e) was enacted by Pub. L. 87—128, 75 Stat. 300, approved August 8, 
 and It was applicable with respect to the 1962, 1963 and 1964 crops of durum wheaL 
 However, Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 620, approved September 27, 1962 amended this sub¬ 
 section to make it applicable only with respect to the 1962 and 1963 crops of durum 
 
 ''^“^Subsectlon (f) was originally enacted by Pub. L 690, ^d Cong., 68 Stat. 903. ap¬ 
 proved August 28, 1954 ; however, it was applicable only to the 19o5 crop of wheat. 1 ub. 
 L. 540, 84th Cong., 70 Stat. 203, approved May 28, 1956, amended this subsection to make 
 it applicable with respect to the 1956 and 1957 crops of wheat. * ^ 
 
 ^^ prlginally enacted as subsection (h). This subsection was redesignstpd^snbsectmnjgj 
 for 
 76 
 
 amended .. — ... 
 
 “except 1965” after the word, “thereafter” in the first sentence. , t, u t 
 
 There is no subsec. (h) for 1964 and subsequent crops because sec. 331 (2) of 1 ub. y. 
 87-703, approved September 27, 1962, redesignated subsec. (i) (so designated through the 
 1963 crop) as subsec. (h) for the 1964 and subsequent crops. However liefore the redesig¬ 
 nation could take place for the 1964 crop year, sec. 1(a) of Pub. L. 88-64, approved .July 
 17, rodeslgimted the «aine subsec. (i) (so desij^nated through the 190^ crop) as subsec. 
 
 (j). Therefore, former subsec. (i) now appears ns subsec. (j). , c ^ u n^r 
 
 New subsection (i) was added by Pub. L. 87—703, 76 Stat. 620, approved September 27, 
 1962. 
 
60 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 wheat acreage allotments authorized by this subsection shall be in 
 adaition to the National, State, and county wheat acreage allotments, 
 and such increases shall not be considered 'in establishing future State 
 farm allotments. The provisions of paragraph (G) of 
 lublic Law 74, Seventy-seventh Congress (7 U.S.C. 1340(6)), and 
 section 326(b) of this Act, relating to the reduction of the storage 
 amount of wheat shall apply to the allotment for the farm established 
 without regard to this subsection and not to the increased allotment 
 under this subsection. The land-use provisions of section 339 shall not 
 be applicable to any farm receiving an increased allotment under this 
 subsection and the producers on such farms shall not be required to 
 comply with such provisions as a condition of eligibility for price ' 
 support. (7U.S.C. 1334(i).) I 
 
 (j) '® (Applicable only to the 1958 through 1963 crops of wheat). i 
 
 (k) ^i Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, if the Sec¬ 
 retary determines that because of a natural disaster a portion of the ! 
 
 farm wheat acreage allotments in a county cannot be timely planted * 
 
 or replanted, he may authorize the transfer of all or a part of the wheat ! 
 
 acreage allotment for any farni in the county so affected to another j 
 
 farm in the county or in an adjoining county on which one or more of i 
 
 the producers on the farm from which the transfer is to be made will ‘ 
 
 be engaged m the production of wheat and will share in the proceeds 
 thereof, in accordance with such regulations as the Secretary may pre- j 
 
 scribe. Any farm allotment transferred under this subsection sliall 
 
 be deemed to be planted on the farm from which it was transferred for 
 the purposes of acreage historj^ credits under this Act. (7 U.S.C. : 
 
 COMMERCIAL AREA 
 
 Sec. 334a.^2 jf acreage allotment for any State for any crop of 
 wheat IS twenty-five thousand acres or less, the Secretary, in order to 
 promote efficient administration of this Act and the Agricultural Act 
 designate such State as outside the commercial wheat- 
 producing area for the marketing year for such crop. If such State is 
 so designated, acreage allotments for such crop and marketing quotas 
 for the marketing year therefor shall not be applicable to any farm 
 in such State. Acreage allotments in any State shall not be increased 
 by reason of such designation. (7 U.S.C. 1334b.) 
 
 '“’Subsection (j) was originally enacted as subsection in hv Pnh t q*; onn i 
 
 May 1, 1958, effective with Respect to the 1958 and 1959 crops'^ Pub L IT'sTn"; 
 
 for tbe 1964 and siibsrquent crops by Pub L 87-703 76 o'- 
 
 S^„bSr„fcr^.'p^'fbSv;fi£“rs 
 
 l^«^New subsection (k) was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 179, approved April 11, 
 ^ J New section 334a was added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 621, approved September 27, 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193S, AS AMENDED 61 
 
 SMALL FARM EXEMPTION 
 
 Sec. 335.^3 Notwithstanding any other provision of this part, no 
 farm marketing quota for any crop of wheat shall be applicable to any 
 farm Avith a farm acreage allotment of less than fifteen acres if the 
 acreage of such crop of wheat does not exceed the small-farm base 
 acreage determined for the farm, unless the operator elects in writing 
 on a form and within the time prescribed by the Secretary to be sub¬ 
 ject to the farm acreage allotment and marketing quota. The small- 
 farm base acreage for a farm shall be the smaller of (A) the average 
 acreage of the crop of wheat planted for harvest in the three years 
 1959, 1960, and 1961, or such later three-year period, excluding 1963, 
 determined by the Secretary to be representative, with adjustments 
 for abnormal weather conditions, established crop-rotation practices 
 on the farm, and such other factors as the Secretary determines should 
 be considered for the purpose of establishing a fair and equitable 
 small-fann base acreage, or (B) fifteen acres. The acreage allotment 
 for any farm shall be the larger of (1) the small-farm base acreage 
 determined as provided above on the basis of the three-year period 
 1959-1961, reduced by the same percentage by which the national acre¬ 
 age allotment for the crop is reduced below fifty-five million acres, or 
 (2) the acreage allotment determined without regard to (1) above. If 
 the operator of any such farm fails to make such election with respect 
 to any crop of wheat, (i) for the purposes of Public Law 74, Seventy- 
 seventh Congress (7 U.S.C. 1340), as amended, the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment for such crop of wheat shall be deemed to be the larger of (A) 
 the small-farm base acreage or (B) the acreage allotment for the faTin, 
 (ii) the land-use provisions of section 339 shall be inapplicable to the 
 farm, (iii) such crop of wheat shall not be eligible for price support, 
 and (iv) wheat marketing certificates applicable to such crop shall 
 not be issued with respect to the farm. The additional acreage re¬ 
 quired to provide acreage allotments for farms based upon small-farm 
 base acreages under this section shall be in addition to National, State, 
 and county acreage allotments. (7 U.S.C. 1335.) 
 
 [Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong.^ (Pub. L. 74 not applicable to corn. See 
 Act of August 28,1954,68 Stat. 905). 
 
 That notwithstanding the provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act of 1938, as amended (hereinafter referred to as the Act) — 
 
 (1)45 marketing quota for any crop of wheat shall be 
 
 the actual production of the acreage planted to such crop of wheat 
 
 Pub. L. 87—703, 70 Stat. 621, approved September 27, 1962, amended section 33n efl'ec- 
 tlve for the 1964 and subsequent crops. For the language of old section 335 (a), (b), (c), 
 (e) and (f) which was applicable with respect to the 1963 and prior crops of wheat, see 
 Pub. L. 430, 75th Cong., 52 Stat. 54, approved February 16, 1938, as amended bv Pub. 
 Res. No. 35, 76th Cong., 53 Stat. 1126, approved .July 26, 1939, and Pub. L. 897, 80th 
 Cong., 62 Stat. 1256, approved July 3, 1948, and Pub. L. 690, 83d Cong., 68 Stat. 90.3, 
 approved August 28, 1954. Former subsection (d) was repealed by Pub. L. 87-128, 75 
 Stat. 297, approved August 8, 1961. 
 
 Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 203, approved May 26, 1941. 
 
 , (1) was amended by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 624, approved September 27, 
 
 1962, and is effective with respect to the 1964 and subsequent crops of wheat. For the 
 of paragraph (1) which was in effect for the 1962 crop of wheat, see Pub. L. 87-128, 
 75 Stat. 296, approved August 8, 1961. For the language of paragraph (1) which was in 
 effect with respect to the 1903 crop of wheat, see Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 20 . 3 . 
 approved May 26, 1941. 
 
 758-820—65 
 
 6 
 
62 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 on tho farm less the fann marketing excess. The farm marketing 
 excess shall be an amonnt equal to twice the normal yield of wheat 
 per acre established for the farm multiplied by the number of 
 acres of such crop of wheat on the farm in excess of the farm 
 acreage allotment^ for such crop unless the producer, in accordance 
 Avith regulations issued by the Secretary and within the time pre¬ 
 scribed therein, establishes to the satisfaction of the Secretary the 
 actual production of such crop of wheat on the farm. If such 
 actual production is so established, the farm marketing excess 
 shall be an amount equal to the actual production of the number 
 of acres of wheat on the farm in excess of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment for such crop. In determining the farm marketing quota 
 and farm marketing excess, any acreage of wheat remaining after 
 the date prescribed by the Secretary for the disposal of excess 
 acres of wheat shall be included as acreage of wheat on the farm, 
 and the production thereof shall be appraised in such manner as 
 the Secretary determines will proAude a reasonably accurate esti¬ 
 mate of such production. Any acreage of wheat disposed of in 
 accordance AAuth regulations issued by the Secretary prior to such 
 date as may be prescribed by the Secretary shall be excluded 
 in determining the farm marketing quota and farm marketing 
 excess. Self-seeded (volunteer) wheat shall be included in deter- 
 niining the acreage of Avheat. Marketing quotas for any market¬ 
 ing year shall be in effect with respect to Avheat harvested in the 
 calendar year in which such marketing year begins notwithstand¬ 
 ing that the wheat is marketed prior to the beginning of such 
 marketing year. (7 U.S.C. 1340.) 
 
 (2) Whenever farm marketing quotas are in effect with respect to 
 any crop of wheat, the producers on a farm shall be subject to a 
 penalty on the farm marketing excess of wheat at a rate per bushel 
 equal to 65 per centum of the parity price per bushel of wheat as of 
 INlay 1 of the calendar year in which the crop is harvested. Each 
 producer haAung an interest in the crop of Avheat on any farm for 
 Avhicli a farm marketing excess of Avheat is determined shall be jointly 
 and seA^erally liable for the entire amount of the penalty on the farm 
 marketing excess. 
 
 (3) The farm marketing excess for wheat shall be regarded as 
 aA^ailable for marketing, and the penalty and the storage amount or 
 amounts to be delivered to the Secretary of the commodity shall be 
 computed upon twice the normal production of tho excess acreage. 
 IVliere, upon the application of the producer for an adjustment of 
 
 Paragraph (2) was amended by Pub. L. 87-70.3, 76 Stat. 62f5, approved September 27, 
 1962, effective with re.spect to the 1964 and subsequent crops of wheat, to provide that the 
 penalty rate is 65 per centum of the parity price. For the text of paragraph (2) effective 
 only for the 1962 crop of wheat in regard to penalty rate, see Pub. L. 87-128, 75 Stat 296, 
 approved August 8, 1961. For the language of paragraph (2) which is In effect ns to the 
 1963 rate of penalty on wheat, see Pub. L. 117. 83d Cong., 67 Stat. 151. approved .Tuly 14 
 1953, which amended the^opginal paragraph (2) enacted by Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 
 203, approved May 26, 1941. 
 
 , A amended by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved September 27. 
 
 1962, which deleted the words, “corn and”, in (he first sentence; by adding the word, 
 ‘twice ’ heUire the word, “the” and after the word, “upon” in the first sentence ; bv adding 
 (he word, “twice” before the word, “the” and after the word, “than” in the second sen- 
 ''.y, words, “twice the” before the word, “normal” and after the word, 
 
 of in the second sentence and by deleting the words, “corn or” in the last .sentence. 
 This amendment is effective with tho 1963 and subsequent crops of wheat For the word- 
 (3) which was applicable to the 1962 crop of wheat, see Pub. L. 87-128, 
 <5 Stat. 296, approved August 8, 1961. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 63 
 
 penalty or of storage, it is shown to the satisfaction of the Secretary 
 that the actual production of the excess acreage is less than twice 
 the normal production thereof, the difference between the amount of 
 the penalty or storage as computed upon the basis of twice the normal 
 production and as computed upon the basis of actual production shall 
 be returned to or allowed the producer. The Secretary shall issue 
 regulations under which the farm marketing excess of the commodity 
 for the farm may be stored or delivered to him. Upon failure to 
 store or deliver to the Secretary the farm marketing excess within 
 such time as may be determined under regulations prescribed by the 
 Secretary, the penalty computed as aforesaid shall be paid by the 
 producer. Any wheat delivered to the Secretary hereunder shall be¬ 
 come the property of the United States and shall be disposed of by the 
 Secretary for relief purposes in the United States or in foreign coun¬ 
 tries or in such other manner as he shall determine will divert it from 
 the normal channels of trade and commerce. 
 
 (4) ^® Until the producers on any farm store, deliver to the Secre¬ 
 tary, or pay the penalty on, the farm marketing excess of any crop of 
 wheat, the entire crop of wheat produced on the farm and any subse¬ 
 quent crop of wheat subject to marketing quotas in which the pro¬ 
 ducer has an interest shall be subject to a lien in favor of the United 
 States for the amount of the penalty. 
 
 ( 5 ) 49 q'pg penalty upon wheat stored shall be paid by the producer 
 at the time, and to the extent, of any depletion in the amount of the 
 commodity so stored, except depletion resulting from some cause be¬ 
 yond the control of the producer. 
 
 (6) Whenever the planted acreage of the then current crop of 
 wheat on any farm is less than the farm acreage allotment for such 
 commodity, the total amount of the commodity from any previous 
 crops required to be stored in order to postpone or avoid payment of 
 penalty shall be reduced by that amount which is equal to the normal 
 production of the number of acres by which the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment exceeds the planted acreage. The provisions of section 326 (b) 
 and (c) of the Act shall be applicable also to wheat. 
 
 (7) Until the farm marketing excess of wheat is stored or de¬ 
 livered to the Secretary or the penalty thereon is paid, each bushel of 
 the commodity produced on the farm which is sold by the producer to 
 any person within the United States shall be subject to the penalty 
 as specified in paragraph (2) of this resolution. Such penalty shall 
 be paid by the buyer, wdio may deduct an amount equivalent to the 
 penalty from the price paid to the producer. If the buyer fails to 
 eollect such penalty, such buyer and all persons entitled to share in 
 
 Paragraph (4) was added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved September 27, 
 1962, effective with respect to the 1964 and subsequent crops of wheat. For the text of 
 paragraph (4) which was in effect with respect to the 1963 and prior crops of wheat, see 
 Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 204, approved May 26, 1941. 
 
 "Paragraphs (5) and (6) were amended by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved 
 September 27, 1962, which deleted the words, “corn or”. 
 
 “Original paragraph (7) was repealed by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved Sep¬ 
 tember 27, 1962, which also renumbered paragraphs (8) through (11) as paragraplis (7) 
 through (10). The new paragraph (7) was further amended by said law which deleted 
 the words, “corn or” and “as the case may be” from the first sentence and added the last 
 sentence to said paragraph. For the language of paragraph (7) in effect for the 1963 and 
 prior crops of wheat, see Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 204, approved May 26, 1941, as 
 amended by Pub. L. 87—128, 75 Stat. 297, approved August 8, 1961, and Pub. L. 87-801, 
 76 Stat. 910, approved October 11, 1962. 
 
64 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 the wheat marketed from the farm or the proceeds tliereof shall be 
 jointly and severally liable for such penalty. 
 
 (8) (Not applicable to wheat.) 
 
 (9) (Applicable only through the 1946 crop.) 
 
 (10) The provisions of this resolution are amendatory of and 
 supplementary to the Act, and all provisions of law applicable in 
 respect of marketing quotas and loans under such Act as so amended 
 and supplemented shall be applicable, but nothing in this resolution 
 shall be construed to amend or repeal sections 301(b) (6), 323(b) or 
 335(d) of the Act. 
 
 (11) The persons liable for the payment or collection of the 
 penalty on any amount of wheat shall be liable also for interest thereon 
 at the rate of 6 per centum per annum from the date the penalty be¬ 
 comes due until the date of payment of such penalty. 
 
 (12) If marketing quotas for wheat are not in effect for any 
 marketing year, all previous marketing quotas applicable to wheat 
 shall be terminated, effective as of the first day of such marketing 
 year. Such termination shall not abate any penalty previously in¬ 
 curred by a producer or relieve any buyer of the duty to remit penalties 
 previously collected by him. (7 U.S.C. 1330, 1340.)] 
 
 REFERENDUM 
 
 Sec. 336.®® If a national marketing quota for wheat for one, two, or 
 three marketing years is proclaimed, the Secreta^ shall, not later than 
 August 1 of the calendar year in which such national marketing quota 
 is proclaimed, conduct a referendum, by secret ballot, of farmers to de¬ 
 termine whether they favor or oppose marketing quotas for the market- 
 year or years for which proclaimed. Any producer who has a farm 
 acreage allotment shall be eligible to vote in any referendum held pur¬ 
 suant to this section, except that a producer who has a farm acreage 
 allotment of less than fifteen acres shall not be eligible to vote unless 
 the farm operator elected pursuant to section 335 to be subject to the 
 farm marketing quota. The Secretary shall proclaim the results of 
 any referendum held hereunder within thirty days after the date of 
 such referendum, and if the Secretary determines that more than one- 
 
 60 Original paragraph (7) was repealed by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved Sep¬ 
 tember 27, 1062, which also renumbered paragraph (8) through (11) as paragraphs (7) 
 through (10). The new paragraph (7) was further amended by said law which deleted 
 the words, “corn or” and “as the case may be” from the first sentence and added the last 
 sentence to said paragraph. For the language of paragraph (7) in effect for the 1963 and 
 prior crops of wheat, see Pub. L. 74, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 204, approved May 26, 1941, as 
 amended by Pub. L. 87-128, 75 Stat. 297, approvved August 8, 1961, and Pub. L. 87-801, 
 76 Stat. 910, approved October 11, 1962. 
 
 61 A new paragraph (11) was added by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved September 
 27, 1962. 
 
 62 A new paragraph (12) was enacted by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 625, approved Sep¬ 
 tember 27, 1962. For the language of paragraph (12) which was in effect for the 1963 
 and prior crops of wheat, see Pub. L. 384, 77th Cong., 55 Stat. 872, approved December 26, 
 
 6.1 Section 336 enacted by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 621, approved September 27, 1962. 
 It was amended further by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 179, approved April 11, 1964, which 
 deleted the language, “not later than sixty days after such proclamation is published in 
 +1 find inserted in lieu thereof the language, “not later than August 1 
 
 of the calendar year in which such national marketing quota is proclaimed”. For the text 
 of old secUon 336 which was in eifect with respect to the 1963 and prior crops of wheat, 
 see Pub. L. 430 75th Cong. 52 Stat. 55, approved February 16, 1938, as amended by 
 Pub. L. 897, 80th Cong., 62 Stat. 1256, approved .July 3, 1948, Pub. L. 87-128, 75 Stat. 
 
 87-104. 75 Stat. 220, approved July 25, 1961, and 
 Pub. L. 540, 76 Stat. 170, approved July 19, 1962. •» > > 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 65 
 
 third of the farmers voting in the referendum voted against market¬ 
 ing quotas, the Secretary shall proclaim that marketing quotas will 
 not be in effect with respect to the crop of wheat produced for harvest 
 in the calendar year following the calendar year in which the referen¬ 
 dum is held. If the Secretary determines that two-thirds or more of 
 the farmers voting in a referendum approve marketing quotas for a 
 period of two or three marketing years, no referendum shall be held 
 for the subsequent year or years of such period. (7 U.S.C. 1336.) 
 
 ADJUSTMENT AND SUSPENSION OF QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 337.®^ * * * 
 
 TRANSFER OF QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 338. Farm marketing quotas for wheat shall not be transfer¬ 
 able, but, in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary 
 for such purpose, any farm marketing quota in excess of the supply 
 of wheat for such farm for any marketing year may be allocated to 
 other farms on which the acreage allotment has not been exceeded. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1338.) 
 
 LAND USE 
 
 [Sec. 339. (a) (1) as set out below is effective only with respect to the 
 crops planted for harvest in 1964 and 1965.] 
 
 S ec. 339. {a) {1).^^ Asa condition of eligibility for wheat marketing 
 certificates with respect to any farm., the producers on such farm shall 
 be required to divert from the production of wheat to an approved con¬ 
 servation use an acreage of cropland on the farm equal to the num¬ 
 ber of acres determined by multiplying the farm acreage allotment 
 by the diversion factor., arid to participate in any program formulated 
 under subsection (5) to the extent prescribed by the Secretary. Such 
 diversion factor shall be determined by dividing the number of acres 
 by which the national acreage allotment is reduced below fifty-five 
 million acres by the number of acres in the national wcreage allotment. 
 
 [Sec. 339. (a) (1) as set out below is effective for the crops planted in 
 1966 and subsequent crop years.] 
 
 Sec. 339. (a) (1) During any year in which marketing quotas for 
 wheat are in effect, the producers on any farm (except a new farm 
 receiving an allotment from the reserve for new farms) on which 
 any crop is produced on acreage required to be diverted from the pro- 
 
 “ Section 337 was repealed by Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 622, approved September 27, 
 1962, effective with respect to the 1964 and subsequent crops of wheat. For the lanfruape 
 of old section 337 which was in effect with respect to the 1963 crop of wheat, see Pub. L. 
 430, 75th Cong., 52 Stat. 55, approved February 16, i938. 
 
 “ See p. 287 for secs. 326, 327 and 328 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962 con¬ 
 taining miscellaneous provisions applicable to the programs provided for in sec. 339. 
 
 Sec. 339(a) (1) was amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 179, approved April 11, 1964, 
 effective only with respect to the crops planted in 1964 and 1965. 
 
 ®^Thl8 section 339(a) (1) was originally added by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 
 76 Stat. 622, approved September 27, 1962. Sec. 339 is inapplicable to any farm receiving 
 additional allotments under secs. 334 (h) and (i) and 335 of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act of 1938, as amended. Sec. 385 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, is applicable to payments made under sec. 339. 
 
66 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 duct ion of wheat shall be subject to a penalty on such crop, in addi¬ 
 tion to any marketing quota penalty applicable to such crops, as pro¬ 
 vided in this subsection unless (1) the crop is designated by the Secre¬ 
 tary as one which is not in surplus supply and will not be in surplus 
 supply if it is permitted to be grown on the diverted acreage, or as 
 one the production of which will not substantially impair the purpose 
 of the requirements of this section, or (2) no wheat is produced on 
 tlie farm, and the producers have not filed an agreement or a state¬ 
 ment of intention to participate in the payment program formulated 
 juirsuant to subsection (b) of this section. The acreage required to 
 be diverted from the production of wheat on the farm shall be an 
 acreage of cropland equal to the number of acres determined by mul- 
 tiplying the farm acreage allotment by the diversion factor deter¬ 
 mined by dividing the number of acres by which the national acreage 
 allotment is reduced below fifty-five million acres by the number of 
 acres in the national acreage allotment. The actual production of 
 any crop subject to penalty under this subsection shall be regarded 
 as available for marketing and the penalty on such crop shall be com- 
 ]mted on the actual acreage of such crop at the rate of 65 per centum 
 of the parity price per bushel of wheat as of INIay 1 of the calendar 
 year in which such crop is harvested, multiplied by the normal yield 
 of wheat per acre established for the farm. Until the producers on 
 any farm pay the penalty on such crop, the entire crop of wheat pro¬ 
 duced on the farm and any subsequent crop of wheat subject to mar¬ 
 keting quotas in which the producer has an interest shall be subject 
 to a lien in favor of the United States for the amount of the penalty. 
 Each producer having an interest in the crop or crops on acreage di¬ 
 verted or required to be diverted from the production of wheat shall 
 be jointly and severally liable for the entire amount of the penalty. 
 The persons liable for the payment or collection of the penalty under 
 this section shall be liable also for interest thereon at the rate of 6 per 
 centum per annum from the date the penalty becomes due until the 
 date of payment of such penalty. 
 
 (2) The Secretary may require that the acreage on any farm 
 diverted from the production of wheat be land which was diverted 
 from the production of wheat in the previous year, to the extent 
 he determines that such requirement is necessary to effectuate the 
 purposes of this subtitle. 
 
 (3) The Secretary may permit the diverted acreage to be grazed 
 in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary. 
 
 (b) The Secretary is authorized to formulate and carry out a pro¬ 
 gram with respect to the 1964 and 1965 crops of wheat under which, 
 subject to such terms and conditions as he determines are desirable 
 to effectuate the purposes of this section, payments may be made in 
 amounts not in excess of 50 per centum of the estimated basic county 
 support rate for wheat not accompanied by marketing certificates on 
 the normal production of the acreage diverted taking into account the 
 income objectives of the Act, determined by the Secretary to be fair 
 
 In approved April 11, 1964. amended subsec. (b) by Inserting 
 
 the words, for M'heat not accompanied by marketing certificates” 
 
 sentLoA^oT^snhiAA A? ® sentence ifter the first 
 
 the*1964 cro^of wheat ” ^ begins with “Any producer” and ends with the words, “for 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 67 
 
 and reasonable with respect (o acreage diverted pursuant to subsec¬ 
 tion (a) of this section. Any producer wlio complies with his 1964 
 farm acreage allotment for wheat and with the other requirements of 
 the program shall be eligible to receive payments under the program for 
 the 1964 crop of wheat. Tlie Secretary may permit producers on any 
 farm to divert from the production of wheat an acreage, in addition 
 to the acreage diverted pursuant to subsection (a), equal to 20 per 
 centum of the farm acreage allotment for wheat: Provided^ That the 
 producers on any farm may, at their election, divert such acreage in 
 addition to the acreage diverted pursuant to subsection (a), as will 
 bring the total acreage diverted on the farm to fifteen acres. Such 
 program shall require (1) that the diverted acreage shall be devoted 
 to conservation uses approved by the Secretary; (2) that the total 
 acreage of cropland on the farm devoted to soil-conserving uses, in- 
 cluciing suimiiGr^ fallow and idlo land but excluding tlie acreage 
 diverted as provided above, shall be not less than the total average 
 acreage of cropland devoted to soil-conserving uses including summer 
 fallow and idle land on the farm during a representative period, as 
 determined by the Secretary, adjusted to the extent the Secretary 
 determines appropriate for (i) abnormal weather conditions or other 
 factors affecting production, (ii) established crop-rotation practices 
 on the farm, (iii) participation in other Federal farm programs, (iv) 
 unusually high percentage of land on the farm devoted to conserving 
 uses, and (v) other factors which the Secretary determines should be 
 considered for the purpose of establishing a fair and equitable soil- 
 conseping acreage for the farm; and (3) that the producer shall not 
 Icnowingly exceed (i) any farm acreage allotment in effect for any 
 commodity produced on the farm, and (ii) except as the Secretary may 
 by regulations prescribe, with the farm acreage allotments on any 
 other farm for any crop in which the producer has a share: Provided, 
 
 1 hat no producer shall be deemed to have exceeded a farm acreage al¬ 
 lotment for wheat if the entire amount of the farm marketing excess 
 IS delivered to the Secretary or stored in accordance with applicable 
 regulations to avoid or postpone payment of the penalty: Arid 'pro¬ 
 vided further. That no producer shall be deemed to have exceeded a 
 farm acreage allotment for any crop of wheat if the farm is exempt 
 trorn the farm marketing quota for such crop under section 335. The 
 producers on a new farm shall not be eligible for payments hereunder. 
 Ihe Secretary shall provide for the sharing of payment among pro¬ 
 ducers on the farm on a fair and equitable basis. Payments may be 
 made in cash or in wheat. 
 
 (c) The Secretary may provide for adjusting any payment on 
 account of failure to comply with the terms and conditions of the 
 
 Program formulated under subsection (b) of this section. 
 
 (d) fsot to exceed 50 per centum of any payment to producers 
 under subsection (b) of this section may be made in advance of deter¬ 
 mination of performance. 
 
 (®) oecretary may permit the diverted acreage to be devoted 
 of gRa-r) sesame, safflower, sunflower, castor beans, 
 and ^x, when such crops are not in surplus supply and will not be in 
 surplus supply if permitted to be grown on the diverted acreage, sub¬ 
 ject to the condition that payment with respect to diverted acreage 
 
68 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 (levDted to any such crop shall be at a rate determined by the Secretary 
 to Iw fair and reasonable taking into consideration the use of such 
 acreage for the production of such crops: Provided, That in no event 
 shall the payment exceed one-half the rate which would otherwise be 
 applicable if such acreage were devoted to conservation uses and no 
 price support shall be made available for the production of any such 
 crop on such diverted acreage. 
 
 (f) The program formulated pursuant to subsection (b) of this 
 section may include such terms and conditions, including provision for 
 the control of erosion, in addition to those specifically provided for 
 herein, as the Secretary determines are desirable to effectuate the pur¬ 
 poses of this section. 
 
 (g) The Secretary is authorized to promulgate such regulations as 
 may be desirable to carry out the provisions of this section. 
 
 (h) ®^ The Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized to utilize 
 its capital funds and other assets for the purpose of making the pay¬ 
 ments authorized in this section and to pay administrative expenses 
 necessary in carrying out this section during the period ending June 
 30,1965. 'Ihere is authorized to be appropriated such amounts as may 
 be necessary thereafter to pay such administrative expenses. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 Part IV—Marketing Quotas—Cotton 
 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 341. American cotton is a basic source of clothing and indus¬ 
 trial products used by every person in the United States and by sub¬ 
 stantial numbers of people in foreign countries. American cotton is 
 sold on a world-wide market and moves from the places of production 
 almost entirely in interstate and foreign commerce to processing 
 establishments located throughout the world at places outside the 
 State where the cotton is produced. 
 
 Fluctuations in supplies of cotton and the marketing of excessive 
 supplies of cotton in interstate and foreign commerce disrupt the 
 oiderly marketing of cotton in such commerce with consequent injury 
 to and destruction of such commerce. Excessive supplies of cotton 
 directly and materially affect the volume of cotton moving in inter¬ 
 state and foreign commerce and cause disparity in prices of cotton 
 and industrial products moving in interstate and foreign commerce 
 yith consequent diminution of the volume of such commerce in 
 industrial products. 
 
 Ihe conditions affecting the production and marketing of cotton 
 are such that, without hederal assistance, farmers, individually or in 
 cooperation, cannot effectively prevent the recurrence of excessive 
 supplies of cotton and fluctuations in supplies, cannot prevent indis¬ 
 criminate dumping of excessive supplies on the Nation-wide and 
 foreign markets, cannot maintain normal carry-overs of cotton, and 
 cannot provide for the orderly marketing of cotton in interstate and 
 foreign commerce. 
 
 88-297, 78 Stat. 179, approved April 11, 1964, 
 by striking out the date, June 30, 1963 and substituting the date, “June 30, 1965”. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 69 
 
 It IS in the interest of the general welfare that interstate and foreign 
 commerce in cotton be protected from the burdens caused by the 
 marketing of excessive supplies of cotton in such commerce, that a 
 supply of cotton be maintained which is adequate, to meet domestic 
 consumption and export requirements in years of drought, flood, and 
 other adverse conditions as well as in years of plenty, and that the 
 soil resources of the Nation be not wasted in the production of 
 excessive supplies of cotton. 
 
 The provisions of this part affording a cooperative plan to cotton 
 producers are necessary and appropriate to prevent the burdens on 
 interstate and foreign commerce caused by the marketing in such 
 commerce of excessive supplies, and to promote, foster, and maintain 
 an orderly flow of an adequate supply of cotton in such coimnerce. 
 (7 TJ.S.C. 1341.) 
 
 NATIONAL MARKETING QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 342. Whenever during any calendar year the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that the total supply of cotton for the marketing year beginning 
 in such calendar year will exceed the normal supply for such market^ 
 ing year, the Secretary shall proclaim such fact and a national mar¬ 
 keting quota shall be in effect for the crop of cotton produced in the 
 next calendar year. The Secretary shall also determine and specify 
 in such proclamation the amount of the national marketing quota in 
 terms of the number of bales of cotton (standard bales of five hun¬ 
 dred pounds gross weight) adequate, together with (1) the estimated 
 carry-over at the beginning of the marketing year which begins in the 
 next calendar year and (2) the estimated imports during such mar¬ 
 keting year, to make available a normal supply of cotton: Provided, 
 That beginning with the 1961 crop, the national marketing quota shall 
 be not less than a number of bales equal to the estimated domestic 
 consumption and estimated exports (less estimated imports) for the 
 marketing year for which the quota is proclaimed, except that the 
 Secretary shall make such adjustments in the amount of such quota 
 as he determines necessary after taking into consideration the esti¬ 
 mated stocks of cotton in the United States (including the qualities 
 of such stocks) and stocks in foreign countries which would be avail¬ 
 able for the marketing year for which the quota is being proclaimed 
 if no adjustment of such quota is made hereunder, to assure the main¬ 
 tenance of adequate but not excessive stocks in the TTnited States to 
 ])rovide a continuous and stable su])])ly of the different qualities of 
 cotton needed in the Ignited States and in foreign cotton consuming 
 countries, and for purposes of national security; but the Secretary, 
 in making such adjustments, may not reduce the national marketing 
 quota for any year below (i) one million bales less than the estimated 
 domestic consumption ami estimated ex[)orts for the marketing year 
 for which such quota is being proclaimed, oi- (ii) ten million bales, 
 whichever is larger. Such ])roclamation shall be made not later than 
 October 1.5 of the calendar year i?i which such determination is 
 made. * * * co Notwithstanding any other provision of Ibis Act, the 
 
 A proviso which was effective only with respect to the 1957 and 1958 crops of cotton 
 has been deleted. 
 
70 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 national marketing quota for upland cotton for 1959 and subsequent 
 years shall be not less than the number of bales required to provide 
 a national acreage allotment for each such year of sixteen million 
 acres. (7U.S.C. 1342.) 
 
 REFERENDUM 
 
 Sec. 343. Not later than December 15 following the issuance of 
 tlie marketing quota proclamation provided for in section 342, the 
 oGcictRiy shcill conduct a rcfcrGiidiiiii, by secret ballot, of farmers 
 engaged in the production of cotton in the calendar year in which 
 the referendum is held, to determine whether such farmers are in 
 favor of or opposed to the quota so proclaimed: Provided^ That * * * si 
 If more than one-third of the farmers voting in the referendum oppose 
 the national marketing quota, such quota shall become ineffective upon 
 proclamation of the results of the referendum. The Secretary shall 
 proclaim the results of any referendum held hereunder within thirty 
 days after the date of such referendum. (7 U.S.C. 1343). 
 
 ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 344. (a) Whenever a national marketing quota is proclaimed 
 under section 342, the Secretary shall determine and proclaim a na¬ 
 tional acreage allotment for the crop of cotton to be produced in the 
 next calendar year. The national acreage allotment for cotton shall 
 be that acreage, based upon the national average yield per acre of cot- 
 ton for the four years immediately preceding the calendar year in 
 which the national marketing quota is proclaimed, required to make 
 available from such crop an amount of cotton equal to the national 
 marketing quota. (7 U.S.C. 1344 (a).) 
 
 (b) The national acreage allotment for cotton for 1953 and sub¬ 
 sequent years shall be apportioned to the States on the basis of the 
 acreage planted to cotton (including the acreage regarded as havino" 
 been planted to cotton under the provisions of Public Law 12, Sev^ 
 enty-ninth Congress) during the five calendar years immediately 
 preceding the calendar year in which the national marketing quota is 
 proclaimed, with adjustments for abnormal weather conditions dur¬ 
 ing such period: Provided, That * * * . Provided, That there is here- 
 
 by established a national acreage reserve consisting of three hundred 
 and ten thousand acres which shall be in addition to the national 
 acreage allotment ; and such reserve shall be apportioned to the States 
 on the basis of their needs for additional acreage for establishing min- 
 miiim farm allotments under subsection (f) (1), as determined by the 
 Secretary without regard to State and county acreage reserves (ex¬ 
 cept thafrthe amount apportioned to Nevada shall be one thousand 
 acres). For the 1960 and succeeding crops of cotton, the needs of 
 States (other than h^evada) for such additional acreage for such pur¬ 
 pose may be estimated by the Secretary, after faking info considera¬ 
 tion such needs as determined or estimated for the preceding crop of 
 cotton and the size of the national acreage allotment for such crop. 
 
 leteclf'Vhich was effective only with respect to the 1950 crop of cotton has i.een 
 r bei*n®delete^^*^^ effective only with respect to the 1957 and 1958 crops of cotton 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 19 38, AS AMENDED 71 
 
 The additional acreage so apportioned to the State shall be appor¬ 
 tioned to the counties on the basis of the needs of the counties for such 
 additional acreage for such purpose, and added to the county acreage 
 allotment for apportionment to farms pursuant to subsection (f) of 
 this section (except that no part of such additional acreage shall be 
 used to increase the county reserve above 15 per centum of the county 
 allotment determined without regard to such additional acreage). 
 Additional acreage apportioned to a State for any year under the fore- 
 going proviso shall not be taken into account in establishing future 
 State acreage allotments. Needs for additional acreage under the 
 foregoing provisions and under the last proviso in subsection (e) shall 
 be determined or estimated as though allotments were first computed 
 without regard to subsection (f) (1). (7 U.S.C. 1344(b).) 
 
 (c) (Applicable only to the 1950 and 1951 crops of cotton.) 
 
 (d) (Applicable only to the 1952 crop of cotton.) 
 
 (e) The State acreage allotment for cotton shall be apportioned 
 
 to counties on the same basis as to years and conditions as is appli¬ 
 cable to the State under subsections (b), (c), and (d) of this section: 
 Provided^ That the State committee may reserve not to exceed 10 per 
 centum of its State acreage allotment (15 per centum if the State’s 
 1948 planted acreage was in excess of one million acres and less than 
 half its 1943 allotment) which shall be used to make adjustments in 
 county allotments for trends in acreage, for counties adversely affected 
 by abnormal conditions affecting plantings, or for small or new farms, 
 or to correct inequities in farm allotments and to prevent hardship: 
 Provided further. That * * * : Provided further^ That if the addi¬ 
 
 tional acreage allocated to a State under the proviso in subsection (b) 
 is less than the requirements as determined or estimated by the Secre¬ 
 tary for establishing minimum farm allotments for the State under 
 subsection (f)(1), the acreage reserved under this subsection shall 
 not be less than the smaller of (1) the remaining acreage so deter¬ 
 mined or estimated to be required for establishing minimum farm 
 allotments or (2) 3 per centum of the State acreage allotment; and the 
 acreage which is required to be reserved under this proviso shall be 
 allocated to counties on the basis of their needs for additional acreage 
 for establishing minimum farm allotments under subsection (f) (1), 
 and added to the county acreage allotment for apportionment to 
 farms pursuant to subsection (f) of this section (except that no part 
 of such additional acreage shall be used to increase the county reserve 
 above 15 per centum of the county allotment determined without 
 regard to such additional acreages). (7 U.S.C. 1344(e).) 
 
 (f) The county acreage allotment, less not to exceed the percentage 
 provided for in paragraph (3) of this subsection shall be apportioned 
 to farms on which cotton has been planted (or regarded as having 
 been planted under the provisions of Public Law 12, Seventy-ninth 
 Congress) in any one of the three years immediately preceding the 
 year for which such allotment is determined on the following basis: 
 
 (1) Insofar as such acreage is available, there sliall be allotted 
 the smaller of the following: (A) ten acres; or (B) the acreage 
 allotment established for the farm for the 1958 crop. 
 
 " A proviso ■which was effective only with respect to the 1&57 and 1958 crops of cotton 
 was deleted. 
 
72 agricultural adjustment act 
 
 OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 (2) 111© lenifiinder shall be allot!ed to farms other than famis 
 to which an allotment has been made under paragraph (1) (B) so 
 that the allotment to each farm under this paragraph together with 
 the amount of the allotment to such fann under paragraph (1) (A) 
 shall be a prescribed percentage (which percentage shall be the 
 same for all such farms in the county or administrative area) of 
 the acreage, during the preceding year, on the farm which is tilled 
 annually or in regular rotation, excluding from such acreages the 
 acres devoted to the production of sugarcane for sugar: suo-ar 
 beets for sugar; wheat, tobacco, or rice for market; peanuts picked 
 anci threshed; wheat or rice for feeding to livestock for market; 
 or lands determined to be devoted primarily to orchards or vine¬ 
 yards, and nonirrigated lands in irrigated areas: Provided, how- 
 evev^ llitit if a farin would bo allot!od iindBr this paragraph an 
 acreage together with the amount of the allotment to such farm 
 imder paragraph (1) (A) in excess of the largest acreage planted 
 (and regarded as planted under Public Law 12, Seventy-ninth 
 Congress) to cotton during any of the preceding thre^ years, the 
 acreage allotment for such farm shall not exceed such laro-est 
 acreage so planted (and regarded as planted under Public Lav^l2, 
 Seventy-ninth Congress) in any such year. 
 
 (3) The CDunty committee may reserve not in excess of 15 per 
 centum of the county allotment * * * which, in addition to the 
 acreage made available under the proviso in subsection (e), shall 
 be used for (A) establishing allotments for farms on which cotton 
 was not planted (or regarded as planted under Public Law 12 
 Seventy-ninth Congress) during any of the three calendar years 
 immediately preceding the year for which the allotment is made, 
 on the basis of land, labor, and equipment available for the pro¬ 
 duction of cotton, crop-TOtation practices, and the soil and other 
 physical facilities affecting the production of cotton; and (B) 
 making adjustments of the farm acreage allotments established 
 under paragraphs (1) and (2) of this subsection so as to establish 
 allotments which are fair and reasonable in relation to the factors 
 set forth in this paragraph and abnormal conditions of production 
 on such farms, or in maldng adjustments in farm acreage allot- 
 ments to correct inequities and to prevent hardship: Provided, 
 ihat not less than 20 per centum of the acreage reserved under 
 this subsection shall, to the extent required, be allotted upon such 
 basis as the Secretary deems fair and reasonable to farms (other 
 
 allotment has been made under subsection 
 (11(1) (B), if any, to which an allotment of not exceeding fifteen 
 acres may be made under other provisions of this subsectron. 
 
 (4) (Applicable only to the 1950 crop of cotton.) 
 
 (5) ( Applicable only to the 1950 crop of cotton.) 
 
 (6) NotAvithstanding the provisions of paragraph (2) of tlie 
 subsection, if the county committee recommends such action ami 
 tlie Secretary determines that such action will result in a more 
 equitable distribution of the county allotment among farms in 
 t le county, the remainder of the county acreage allotment (after 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 73 
 
 making allotments as provided in paragraph (1) of this subsec- 
 tion) shall be allotted to farms other than farms to which an 
 allotment has been made under paragraph (1) (B) of this sub¬ 
 section so that the allotment to each farm under this paragraph 
 togBtlicr with tliB timount of tli6 RllotinBiit of such fcirm uiiclBr 
 paragraph (1) (A) of this subsection shall be a prescribed per¬ 
 centage (which percentage shall be the same for all such farms 
 in the county) of the average acreage planted to cotton on the 
 farm during the three years immediately preceding the year for 
 which such allotment is determined, adjusted as may be neces- 
 sary for abnormal conditions affecting plantings during such 
 . * P'^ovtded^ That the county committee may in 
 
 its discretion limit any farm acreage allotment established under 
 the provisions of this paragraph for any year to an acreage not 
 in excess of 50 per centum of the cropland on the farm, as deter¬ 
 mined pursuant to the provisions of paragraph (2) of this sub¬ 
 section : Provided further , That any part of the county acreage 
 allotment not apportioned under this paragraph by reason of the 
 initial application of such 50 per centum limitation shall be added 
 to the county acreage reserve under paragraph (3) of this sub¬ 
 section and shall be available for the purposes specified therein. 
 If the county acreage allotment is apportioned among the farms 
 of the county in accordance with the provisions of this paragraph, 
 the acreage reserved, under paragTaph (3) of this subsection may 
 be used to make adjustments so as to establish allotments which 
 are fair and reasonable to farms receiving allotments under this 
 paragraph in relation to the factors set forth in paragraph (3). 
 (7) (A) In the event that any farm acreage allotment is less 
 prescribed by paragraph (1), such acreage allotment 
 shall be increased to the acreage prescribed by paragraph (1). 
 The additional acreage required to be alloted to farms under this 
 paragraph shall be in addition to the county. State, and national 
 acreage allotments and the production from such acreage shall be 
 in addition to the national marketing quota, 
 
 (B) Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (i) the acreage by which any farm acreage allotment for 
 1959 or any subsequent crop established under paragraph (1) 
 exceeds the acreage which would have been allotted to such 
 farm if its allotment had been computed on the basis of the 
 same percentage factor applied to other farms in the county 
 under paragraph (2), (6), or (8) shall not be taken into 
 account in establishing the acreage allotment for such farm 
 for any crop for which acreage is allotted to such farm under 
 paragraph (2), (6), or (8); and acreage shall be allotted 
 under paragraph (2), (6), or (8) to farms which did not 
 receive 1958 crop allotments in excess of ten acres if and only 
 if the Secretary determines (after considering the allotments 
 to other farms in the county for such crop compared with 
 their 1958 allotments and other relevant factors) that equity 
 and justice require the allotment of additional acreage to 
 such farm under paragraph (2), (6), or (8), 
 
74 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 (ii) the acreage by which any county acreage allotment for 
 1959 or any subsequent crop is increased from the national or 
 State reserve on the basis of its needs for additional acreage 
 for establishing minimum farm allotments shall not be taken 
 into account in establishing future county acreage allotments, 
 and 
 
 (iii) the additional acreage allotted pursuant to subpara¬ 
 graph (A) of this paragraph (7) shall not be taken into ac¬ 
 count in establishing future State, county, or farm acreage 
 allotments. 
 
 (8) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of paragraphs 
 (2) and (6) of this subsection, the Secretary shall, if allotments 
 were in effect the preceding year, provide for the county acreage 
 allotment for the 1959 and succeeding crops of cotton, less the 
 acreage resented under paragraph (3) of this subsection, to be 
 apportioned to farms on which cotton has been planted in any one 
 of the three years immediately preceding the year for which such 
 allotment is determined, on the basis of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment for the year immediately preceding the year for which such 
 apportionment is made, adjusted as may be necessary (i) for any 
 change in the acreage of cropland available for the production 
 of cotton, or (ii) to meet the requirements of any provision 
 (other than those contained in pargraphs (2) and (6)) with 
 respect to the counting of acreage for history purposes: Provided^ 
 That, beginning with allotments established for the 1961 crop 
 of cotton, if the acreage actually planted (or regarded as planted 
 under the Soil Bank Act, the Great Plains program, and the 
 release and reapportionment provisions of subsection (m) (2) 
 of this section) to cotton on the farm in the preceding year 
 was less than 75 per centum of the farm allotment for such year 
 or, in the case of a farm which qualified for price support on 
 the crop produced in such year under section 103(b) of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Act of 1949, as amended, 75 per centum of the farm 
 domestic allotment established under section 350 for such year, 
 whichever is smaller,®^ in lieu of using such allotment as the 
 farm base as provided in this paragraph, the base shall be the 
 average of (1) the cotton acreage for the farm for the preced- 
 ing year as determined for purposes of this proviso and (2) the 
 allotment established for the farm pursuant to the provisions of 
 this subsection (f) for such preceding year; and the 1958 allot¬ 
 ment used for establishing the minimum farm allotment under 
 paragraph (1) of this subsection (f) shall be adjusted to the 
 average acreage so deterniined. The base for a farm shall not 
 be^ adjusted as provided in this paragraph if the county com¬ 
 mittee determines that failure to plant at least 75 per centum of 
 the farm allotment was due to conditions beyond the control of 
 producers on the farm. The Secretary shall establish limitations 
 to prevent allocations of allotment to farms not affected by the 
 
 Jipproved April 11, 19fi4, amended the proviso in sub¬ 
 paragraph (8) by adding the language: “or, in the case of a farm which qualified for price 
 support on the crop produced In such year under section 103(b) of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1949. as ainended, 75 per centum of the farm domestic allotment established 
 under section 350 for such year, whichever Is smaller”. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 75 
 
 foregoing proviso, which would be excessive on the basis of the 
 ciopland, past cotton acreage, allotments for other commodities, 
 and good soil conservation practices on such farms. (7 U S C 
 1344(f).) . ^ 
 
 (g) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this section— 
 
 (1) State, county, and farm acreage allotments and yields for 
 cotton shall be established in conformity with Public Law 28, 
 Eighty-first Congress. 
 
 (2) In apportioning the county allotment among the farms 
 within the county, the Secretary, through the local committees, 
 shall take into consideration different conditions within separate 
 a^inistrative areas within a county if any exist, including types, 
 kinds, and productivity of the soil so as to prevent discrimination 
 among the admnistrative areas of the countv. 
 
 ^ ^ 66 * * * 
 
 (i) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, any acreage 
 planted to cotton hi excess of the farm acreage allotment shall not be 
 taken into account in establishing State, county, and farm acreage 
 allotments. Notwithstandhig any other provision of this Act, begin¬ 
 ning with the 1960 crop the planting of cotton on a farm in any of the 
 immediately preceding three years that allotments were in effect but 
 no allotment was established for such farm for any year of such three- 
 year period shall not make the farm eligible for an allotment as an 
 old farm under subsection (f) of this section: Provided^ liowe^ev^ 
 That by reason of such planting the farm need not be considered as 
 meligible for a new farm allotment under subsection (f)(3) of this 
 section. (7 U.S.C. 1344(i).) 
 
 (j) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, State and 
 
 county committees shall make available for inspection by owners or 
 operators of farms receiving cotton acreage allotments all records 
 pertaining to cotton acreage allotments and marketing quotas. (7 
 U.S.C. 1344(j).) ^ 
 
 (k) Notwithstanding any other provision of this section excej)t 
 subsection (g) (1), there shall be allotted to each State for which an 
 allotment is made under this section not less than the smaller of (A) 
 four thousand acres or (B) the highest acreage planted to cotton in 
 any one of the three calendar years immediately precedmg the year 
 for which the allotment is made. (7 U.S.C. 1344 (k).) 
 
 (l) [This subsection relating to war crops under Public Law 12, 
 Seventy-ninth Congress, does not apply to the 1955 and succeeding 
 crops of cotton. (7 U.S.C. 1344 (!).)] 
 
 (m) Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (1) (Applicable only to 1954 crop of cotton.) 
 
 (2) Any part of any farm cotton acreage allotment on which 
 cotton will not be planted and which is voluntarily surrendered to 
 the county committee shall be deducted from the allotment to such 
 farm and may be reapportioned by the county committee to other 
 farms in the same county receiving allotments in amounts deter- 
 
 * Sec. 344 (r) (3) was repealed by Pub. L. 86-172i, 73 Stat. 394, approved August 18, 1959. 
 “ Repealed by Pub. L. 85-835, 72 Stat. 996, approved August 28, 1958. 
 
/G AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193S, AS AMENDED 
 
 milled by the county committee to be fair and reasonable on tlie 
 basis of past acreage of cotton, land, labor, equipment available 
 for the production of cotton, crop rot ation practices, and soil and 
 other jhiysical facilities all'ecting the production of cotton. If all 
 of the allotted acreage voluntarily surrendered is not needed in 
 the county, the county committee may surrender the excess acre¬ 
 age to the State committee to be used for the same purposes as the 
 State acreage reserve under subsection (e) of this section. Any 
 allotment released under this provision shall be regarded for the 
 purposes of establishing future allotments as having been plantetl 
 on the farm and in the comity where the release was made rather 
 than on the farm and in the county to which the allotment was 
 transferred, except that this shall not operate to make the farm 
 from which the allotment was transferred eligible for an allotment 
 as having cotton planted thereon during the three-year base 
 period: Provided^ That notwithstanding any other provisions of 
 law, any part of any farm acreage allotment may be permanently 
 released in writing to the county committee by the owner and 
 operator of the farm, and reapportioned as provided herein. 
 Acreage release under this paragraph shall be credited to the 
 State in determining future allotments. The provisions of this 
 paragraph shall apply also to extra long staple cotton covered bv 
 section 347 of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1344(m).) 
 
 (3) (Applicable only to 1954 crop of cotton.) 
 
 (n) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, if the Sec¬ 
 retary determines for any year that because of a natural disaster a 
 portion of the farm cotton acreage allotments in a county cannot be 
 timely planted or replanted in such year, he may authorize for such 
 year the transfer of all or a part of the cotton acreage allotment for 
 any farm in the county so affected to another farm in the county or 
 in an adjoining county on which one or more of the producers on the 
 farm from which the transfer is to be made will be engaged in the 
 production of cotton and will share in the proceeds thereof, in accord¬ 
 ance with such regulations as the Secretary may prescribe. Any farm 
 allotment transferred under this paragraph shall be deemed to be re¬ 
 leased acreage for the purposes of acreage history credits under sec¬ 
 tions 344(f) (8), 344(m) (2), and 377 of this Act: Provided, That, not¬ 
 withstanding the provisions of section 344(m) (2) of this Act, the 
 transfer of any farm allotment under this subsection for any year 
 shall operate to make the farm from which the allotment was trans¬ 
 ferred eligible for an allotment as having cotton planted thereon dur¬ 
 ing the three-year base period. (7 U.S.C. 1344 (n).) 
 
 FARM MARKETING QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 345. The farm marketing quota for any crop of cotton shall be 
 the actual production of the acreage planted to cotton on the farm 
 less the farm marketing excess. The farm marketing excess shall be 
 the normal production of that acreage planted to cotton on the farm 
 
 Pub. L. 88 12, 77 Stat. LS, approved April 26, 196.3, amended subsection (n) by adding 
 and by making it applicable to the 1963 crop of cotton. Pub. L. 88-297. 
 any crop year April 11, 1964, amended subsection (n) to make it applicable to 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 77 
 
 Avhicli is in excess of the farm acreage allotment: Provided^ Tliat sncli 
 farm marketing excess shall not be larger than the amount by which 
 the actual production of cotton on the farm exceeds tlie normarproduc- 
 tion of the farm acreage allotment, if the producer establishes such 
 actual production to the satisfaction of the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 penalties 
 
 Sec. 34G (a) Whenever farm marketing quotas are in effect with 
 lespect to any crop of cotton, the producer shall be subject to a penalty 
 on the farm marlpting excess at a rate per poimd equal to 50 per 
 centum of the parity price per pound for cotton as of June 15 of the 
 calendar year in which such crop is produced. (7 U.S.C. 1346(a).) 
 
 (b) Tlie farm marketing excess of cotton shall be regarded as avail¬ 
 able for marketing and the amount of penalty shall be computed upon 
 the normal production of the acreage on the farm planted to cotton in 
 excess of the farm acreage allotnient. If a downward adjustment in 
 the amount of the farm marketing excess is made pursuant to the 
 proviso in section 345, the difference between the amount of the penalty 
 computed upon the farm marketing excess before such adjustment and 
 as computed upon the adjusted farm marketing excess shall be re¬ 
 turned to or allowed the producer. (7 U.S.C. 1346 (b).) 
 
 (c) The person liable for payment or collection of the penalty shall 
 be liable also for interest thereon at the rate of 6 per centum per an- 
 num from the date the penalty becomes due until the date of payment 
 of such penalty. (7 U.S.C. 1346(c).) 
 
 (d) Until the penalty on the farm marketing excess is paid, all 
 cotton produced on the farm and marketed by the producers shall be 
 subject to the penalty provided by this section and a lien on the entire 
 ciop of cotton produced on the farm shall be in effect in favor of the 
 United States. (7 U.S.C. 1346(d).) 
 
 LONG STAPLE COTTON 
 
 Sec. 347. (a) Except as otherwise provided by this section, the pro¬ 
 visions of this part shall not apply to extra long staple cotton which 
 IS produced from pure strain varieties of the Barbadense species, or 
 hybrid thereof, or other similar types of extra long staple cotton 
 designated by the Secretary having characteristics needed for various 
 end uses for which American upland cotton is not suitable, and grown 
 in irrigated cotton-growing regions of the United States designated 
 by the Secretary or other areas designated by the Secretary as suit¬ 
 able for the production of such varieties or types. (7 U.S.C. 1347 
 (a).) 
 
 (b)68 l^q^enever during any calendar year, not later than October 
 15, the Secretary determines that the total supply of cotton described 
 in subsection (a) for the marketing year beginning in such calendar 
 Vear will exceed the normal supply thereof for such marketing year 
 by more than 8 per centum, the ^Secretary shall proclaim such fact 
 
 **The last proviso in Section 347(b) was added by Pub. L. 86 500, 74 Stat. 29.5, approved 
 June 30, 1900. 
 
 758-820—05- 
 
 7 
 
78 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 and a national marketing; quota shall be in effect for the crop of such 
 cotton produced in the next calendar year. The Secretary shall also 
 determine and specify in such proclamation the amount of the na¬ 
 tional marketing quota in terms of the quantity of cotton described 
 in subsection (a) adequate to make available a normal supply of cot¬ 
 ton, taking into account (1) the estimated carry-over at the begin¬ 
 ning of the marketing year which begins in the next calendar year, 
 and (2) the estimated imports during such marketing year: Pro¬ 
 vided^ That beginnmg with the 1961 crop of extra long staple cotton, 
 such national marketing quota shall be an amount equal to (1) the 
 estimated domestic consumption plus exports for the marketing year 
 which begins in the next calendar year, less (2) the estimated im¬ 
 ports, plus (3) such additional number of bales, if any, as the Secre¬ 
 tary determines is necessary to assure adequate working stocks in 
 trade channels until cotton from the next crop becomes readily avail¬ 
 able without resort to Commodity Credit Corporation stocks. The 
 national marketing quota for cotton described in subsection (a) for 
 any year shall not be less than the larger of thirty thousand bales or 
 a number of bales equal to 30 per centum of the estimated domestic 
 consumption plus exports of such cotton for the marketing year begin¬ 
 ning in the calendar year in which such quota is proclaimed: Pro¬ 
 vided^ however^ That the national marketing quota for 1960 and 1961 
 crops of such cotton shall be not less than 90 per centum of the 1959 
 marketing quota for such cotton.®® (7 U.S.C. 1347(b).) 
 
 (c) All provisions of this Act, except section 342, subsection (h), 
 (k), and (1) of section 344, the parenthetical provisions relating to 
 acreages regarded having been planted to cotton, and the provi¬ 
 sions relating to minimum small tarm allotments, shall, insofar as 
 applicable, apply to marketing quotas and acreage allotments author¬ 
 ized by this section: Provided^ That the applicable penalty rate for 
 such cotton under section 346 shall be the higher of 50 per centum of 
 the parity price or 50 per centum of the support price for extra long 
 staple cotton as of the date specified therem. (7 U.S.C. 1347(c).) 
 
 (d) Unless marketing quotas are in effect under subsection (b) of 
 this section, the penalty provisions of section 346 shall not apply to 
 any cotton the staple of which is one and one-half inches or more in 
 length. (7 U.S.C. 1347 (d).) 
 
 (e) The exemptions authorized by subsections (a) and (d) of this 
 section shall not apply unless (1) the cotton is ginned on a roller-type 
 gin or (2) the Secretary authorizes the cotton to be ginned on another 
 type gin for experimental purposes or to prevent Toss of the cotton 
 due to frost or other adverse condition. (7 U.S.C. 1347 (e).) 
 
 COTTON EQUALIZATION PAYMENTS 
 
 Sec. 348.'^° In order to maintain and expand domestic consumption 
 of upland cotton produced in the United States and to prevent dis¬ 
 crimination against the domestic users of such cotton, notwithstanding 
 
 8» The exclusion of extra long staple cotton from the determination of the national mar¬ 
 keting quota Is required under Pub. L. 87-548, 76 Stat. 218, approved July 25, 1962, and 
 Pub. L, 88—638, 78 Stat. 1038, approved October 8, 1964, which can be found on pages 
 185 and 186, respectively. 
 
 New section 348 added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 173, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 79 
 
 any other provision of law, the Commodity Credit Corporation, under 
 such rules and regulations as the Secretary may prescribe, is author¬ 
 ized and directed for the period beginning with the date of enactment 
 of this section and ending July 31,1966, to make payments through the 
 issuance of payment-in-kind certificates to persons other than pro¬ 
 ducers in such amounts and subject to such terms and conditions as 
 the Secretary determines will eliminate inequities due to differences 
 in the cost of raw cotton between domestic and foreign users of such 
 cotton, including such payments as may be necessary to make raw 
 cotton in inventory on the date of enactment of this section available 
 for consumption at prices consistent with the purposes of this section: 
 Provided^ That for the period beginning August 1 of the marketing 
 year for the first crop for which price support is made available under 
 section 103(b) of the Agriculture Act of 1949, as amended, and ending 
 July 31, 1966, such payments shall be made in an amount which will 
 make upland potton produced in the United States available for domes¬ 
 tic use at a j)rice which is not in excess of the price at which such cotton 
 is made available for export. (7 U.S.C. 1348.) 
 
 EXPORT MARKET ACREAGE 
 
 Sec. 349.^^ (a) The acreage allotment established under the pro¬ 
 visions of section 344 of this Act for each farm for the 1964 crop may 
 be supplemented by the Secretary by an acreage equal to such per¬ 
 centage, but not more than 10 per centum, of such acreage allotment as 
 he determines will not increase the carryover of upland cotton at the 
 beginning of the marketing year for the next succeeding crop above 
 one million bales less than the carryover on the same date one year 
 earlier, if the carryover on such earlier date exceeds eight million bales. 
 For the 1965 crop, the Secretary may, after such hearing and investiga¬ 
 tion as he finds necessary, announce an exjwrt market acreage which 
 he finds will not increase the carryover of upland cotton at the be¬ 
 ginning of the marketing year for the next succeeding crop above one 
 million bales less than the carryover on the same date one year earlier, 
 if the carryover on such earlier date exceeds eight million bales. Such 
 export market acreage shall be apportioned to the States on the basis 
 of the State acreage allotments established under section 344 and 
 apportioned by the States to farms receiving allotments under section 
 344, pursuant to regulations issued by the Secretary, after considering 
 applications for such acreage filed with the county committee of the 
 county in which the farm is located. The “export market acreage” on 
 any farm shall be the number of acres, not exceeding the maximum 
 export market acreage for the farm established pursuant to this sub¬ 
 section, by which the acreage planted to cotton on the farm exceeds 
 the farm acreage allotment. For purposes of sections 345 and 374 of 
 this Act and the provisions of any law requiring compliance with a 
 farm acreage allotment as a condition of eligibility for price support 
 or payments under any farm program, the farm acreage allotment for 
 farms with export market acreage shall be the sum of the farm acre¬ 
 age allotment established under section 344 and the maximum export 
 
 New section 349 added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 175, approved April 11, 19G4. 
 
80 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 market acreage. Export market acreage shall be in addition to the 
 county, State, and National acreage allotments and shall not be taken 
 into account in establishing future State, county, and farm acreage 
 allotments. The provisions of this section shall not apply to extra- 
 long-staple cotton or to any farm which receives price support under 
 section 103(b) of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. (7 
 U.S.C. 1349(a).) ^ 
 
 (b) The producers on any farm on which there is export market 
 acreage or the purchasers of cotton produced thereon shall, under reg¬ 
 ulations issued by the Secretary, furnish a bond or other undertaking 
 prescribed by the Secretary providing for the exportation, without 
 benefit of any Government cotton export subsidy and within such 
 ])eriod of time as the Secretary may specify, of a quantity of cotton 
 produced on the farm equal to the average yield for the farm multi¬ 
 plied by the export market acreage as determined pursuant to regula¬ 
 tions issued by the Secretary. The bond or other undertaking given 
 pursuant to this section shall provide that, upon failure to comply with 
 the terms and conditions thereof, the person furnishing such bond or 
 other undertaking shall be liable for liquidated damages in an amount 
 Avhich the Secretary determines and specifies in such undertaking will 
 approximate the amount payable on excess cotton under section 346(a). 
 The Secretary may, in lieu of the furnishing of a Ixmd or other under¬ 
 taking, provide for the payment of an amount equal to that which 
 would be payable as liquidated damages under such bond or other un¬ 
 dertaking. If such bond or other undertaking is not furnished, or if 
 payrnent in lieu thereof is not made as provided herein, at such time 
 and in the manner required by regulations of the Secretary, or if the 
 acreage planted to cotton on the farm exceeds the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment established under the provisions of section 344 by more than the 
 maximum export market acreage, the farm acreage allotment shall be 
 the acreage so established under section 344. Amounts collected by 
 ^le Secretary under this section shall be remitted to the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation and used by the Corporation to defray costs of 
 encouraging export sales of cotton under section 203 of the Agricul¬ 
 tural Act of 1956, as amended. (7 U.S.C. 1349(b).) 
 
 DOMESTIC ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 350.^^^ In order to provide producers with a choice progi’am of 
 
 higher price support, the Secretary shall estab¬ 
 lish for each farm for the 1964 and 1965 crops of upland cotton a 
 farm domestic allotment in acres. The farm domestic allotment shall 
 be the percentage which the national domestic allotment is of the 
 national acreage allotment established under section 344(a) applied 
 as a percentage of the smaller of (1) the farm acreage allotment estab- 
 lislied under section 344, or (2) the higher acreage actually planted 
 or regarded as planted on the farm (excluding acreage regarded 
 as planted under sections 344 (m) (2) and 377) in the two years preced¬ 
 ing the year for which such allotment is established: Provided. That 
 any farm planting 90 per centum or more of the allotment shall, for the 
 
 New section 350 added by Pub. L. 88-297. 78 Stat. 175. approved April 11. 1964. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 81 
 
 purpose of (2) above, be considered as having planted the entire farm 
 allotment: Provided further^ That, except for farms the acreage allot¬ 
 ments of vrhich are reduced under section 344(m), the farm domestic 
 allotment shall not be less than the smaller of 15 acres or the farm 
 acreage allotment established under section 344, but this proviso shall 
 be applicable to the 1964 crop without regard to the exception stated 
 herein. The national domestic acreage allotment for any crop shall be 
 that acreage, based upon the national average yield per acre of cotton 
 for the four years immediately preceding the calendar year in which 
 tlie national acreage allotment is proclaimed, required to make avail¬ 
 able from such crop an amount of upland cotton equal to the estimated 
 domestic consumption for the marketing year for such crop. The 
 Secretary shall proclaim the national domestic acreage allotment for 
 the 1964 crop not later than April 1,1964, and for each subsequent crop 
 not later than December 15 of the calendar year preceding the year in 
 which the crop is to be produced. (7 U.S.'C. 1350.) 
 
 Part V— Marketing Quotas—Rice 
 legislative findings 
 
 Sec. 351. (a) The marketing of rice constitutes one of the great 
 basic industries of the United States with ramifying activities which 
 directly affect interstate and foreign commerce at every point, and 
 stable conditions therein are necessary to the general welfare. Dice 
 produced for market is sold on a Nation-wide market, and, with its 
 products, moves almost wholly in interstate and foreign commerce 
 from the producer to the ultimate consumer. The farmers producing 
 such commodity are subject in their operations to luicontrollable nat¬ 
 ural causes, in many cases such farmers carry on their farming opera¬ 
 tions on borrowed money or leased lands, and are not so situated as to 
 be able to organize effectively, as can labor and industry, through 
 unions and corporations enjoying Government sanction and protection 
 for joint economic action. For these reasons, among others, the farm¬ 
 ers are unable without Federal assistance to control effectively the 
 orderly marketing of such commodity with the result that abnormally 
 excessive supplies thereof are produced and dumped indiscriminately 
 on the Nation-wide market. (7 U.S.C. 1351 (a).) 
 
 (b) The disorderly marketing of such abnormally excessive sup¬ 
 plies affects, burdens, and obstructs interstate and foreign commerce 
 by (1) materially affecting the volume of such commodity marketed 
 therein, (2) disrupting the orderly marketing of such commodity 
 therein, (3) reducing the prices for such commodity with consequent 
 injury and destruction of such commerce in such commodity, and 
 (4) causing a disparity between the prices for such commodity in 
 interstate and foreign commerce and industrial products therein, with 
 a consequent diminution of the volume of interstate and foreign com¬ 
 merce in industrial products. (7 U.S.C. 1351 (b).) 
 
 (c) Whenever an abnormally excessive supply of rice exists, the 
 marketing of such commodity by the producers thereof directly and 
 substantially affects interstate and foreign commerce in such com¬ 
 modity and its products, and the oiieration of the provisions of this 
 
82 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 part becomes necessary and appropriate in order to promote, foster, 
 and maintain an orderly How of such supply in interstate and foreign 
 commerce. (7 U.S.C. 1351(c).) 
 
 NATIONAL ACREAGE ALLOTMENT 
 
 Sec. 352. The national acreage allotment of rice for any calendar 
 year shall be that acreage which the Secretary determines will, on the 
 basis of the national average yield of rice for the live calendar years 
 immediately preceding the calendar year for which such national 
 average yield is determined, produce an amount of rice adequate, 
 together with the estimated carry-over from the marketing year end- 
 mg in such calendar year, to make available a supply for the market¬ 
 ing year commencing in such calendar year not less than the normal 
 supply: Provided^ however^ That for 1956 no national acreage allot¬ 
 ment shall be established which is less than 85 per centum of the 
 final allotment established for the immediately preceding year. Such 
 national acreage allotment shall be proclaimed not later than Decem¬ 
 ber 31 of each year. (7 U.S.C. 1352.) 
 
 APPORTIONMENT OF NATIONAL ACREAGE ALLOTMENT 
 
 Sec. 353. (a) The national acreage allotment of rice for each calen¬ 
 dar year, less a reserve of not to exceed 1 per centum thereof for 
 apportionment by the Secretary as provided in this subsection, shall 
 be apportioned by the Secretary among the several States in which 
 rice is produced in proportion to the average number of acres of rice 
 in each State during the five-year period immediately preceding the 
 calendar year for which such national acreage allotment of rice is 
 determined (plus, in applicable years, the acreage diverted under 
 previous agricultural adjustment and conservation programs) with 
 adjustments for trends in acreage during the applicable period. The 
 Secretary shall provide for the apportionment of the reserve acreage 
 set aside pursuant to this subsection to farms receiving allotments 
 which are inadequate because of an insufficient State or county acre¬ 
 age allotment or because rice was not planted on the farm during all 
 of the preceding five years. Notwithstanding the foregoing provi¬ 
 sions of this subsection, the reserve acreage set aside for the 1950 crop 
 pursuant to this subsection shall not exceed one-lialf of 1 per centum 
 and shall be in addition to the 1950 national acreage allotment as 
 heretofore proclaimed by the Secretary and apportioned by him 
 among the several rice-producing States and shall be available for 
 apportionment to new farms without regard to the limitation con¬ 
 tained in subsection (b) of this section. (7 U.S.C. 1353(a).) 
 
 (b) The State acreage allotment shall be apportioned to farms 
 owned or operated by persons who have produced rice in the State 
 in any one of the hve calendar years immediately preceding the 
 year for which such apportionment is made on the basis of past 
 production of rice in the State by the producer on the farm taking 
 into consideration the acreage allotments previously established in 
 the State for such owners or operators; abnormal conditions affecting 
 acreage; land, labor, and equipment available for the production 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 83 
 
 of rice; crop rotation practices; and the soil and other physical 
 factors aJffecting the production of rice: Provided^ That if the State 
 committee recommends such action and the Secretary determines 
 that such action will facilitate the effective administration of the 
 Act, he may provide for the apportionment of part or all of the 
 State acreage allotment to farms on which rice has been produced 
 during any one of such period of years on the basis of the foregoing 
 factors, using past production of rice on the farm and the acreage 
 allotments previously established for the farm in lieu of past pro¬ 
 duction of rice by the producer and the acreage allotments previously 
 established for such owners or operators: Provided further^ That if 
 the Secretary determines that part of the State acreage allotment shall 
 be apportioned on the basis of past production of rice by the producer 
 on the farm and part on the basis of the past production of rice on the 
 farm, he shall divide the State into two administrative areas, to be 
 desi^ated “producer administrative area” and “farm administrative 
 area”, respectively, which areas shall be separated by a natural barrier 
 Avhich would prevent each area from being readily accessible to rice 
 producers in one area for producing rice in the other area, and each 
 such area shall be composed of whole counties. Not more than 3 per 
 centum of the State acreage allotment shall be apportioned among 
 farms operated by persons who will produce rice in the State during 
 the calendar year for which the allotment is made but who have not 
 produced rice in the State in any one of the past five years, on the 
 basis of the applicable apportionment factors set forth herein: Pro¬ 
 vided^ That in any State in which allotments are established for farms 
 on the basis of past production of rice on the farm such percentage 
 of the State acreage allotment shall be apportioned among the farms 
 on which rice is to be planted during the calendar year for which the 
 apportionment is made but on which rice was not planted during 
 any of the past five years, on the basis of the applicable apportion¬ 
 ment factors set forth herein. In determining the eligibility of any 
 producer or farm for an allotment as an old producer or farm under 
 the first sentence of this subsection or as a new producer or farm 
 under the second sentence of this subsection, such producer or farm 
 shall not be considered to have produced rice on any acreage which 
 under subsection (c) (2) is either not to be taken into account in 
 establishing acreage allotments or is not to be credited to such pro¬ 
 ducer.For purposes of this section in States which have been 
 divided into administrative areas pursuant to this subsection the 
 term “State acreage allotment” shall be deemed to mean that part of 
 the State acreage allotment apportioned to each administrative area 
 and the word “State” shall be deemed to mean “administrative area”, 
 wherever applicable. (7 U.S.C. 1353 (b).) 
 
 Sec. 2(c) of Pub. L. 85—44.3, 72 Stat. 177, .Tune 4, 1958, provides that the sentence pre¬ 
 ceding this footnote “shall become effective for the 1958 and subsequent crops of rice : 
 Provided, That If any State is divided into administrative areas for 1958 pursuant to 
 section 35.3(b) of the Act, as amended, acreage allotments heretofore establi.shed for farms 
 In such areas shall be redetermined to the extent required as a result of such division : 
 Provided further. That the allotment heretofore established for any farm shall not be 
 reduced as a result of such redetermination. The additional acreage, if any, retpiired to 
 provide such minimum allotments shall be in addition to the 1958 National and State 
 acreage allotments.” 
 
 Sec. 1 of Pub. L. 85—443, 72 Stat. 177, June 4. 1958, provides that the sentence pre¬ 
 ceding this footnote “shall be applicable to the planting of rice in 1958 and subsequent 
 tears.” 
 
84 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 [Pub. L. 88-160, H.J. Res. 192.'^® * ♦ * That in a State in which 
 farm rice acreage allotments are determined on the basis of past 
 production of rice by the producer on the farm, any producer rice 
 acreage allotment found by the ASC county committee or the ASC 
 State committee to have been properly apportioned from the State 
 rice acreage allotment and the acreage allotment for any farm to 
 which such producer allotment has been allocated and approved by 
 the county committee in good faith for any crop year 1956 to 1962, 
 both inclusive, shall be deemed to have been validly established and 
 shall remain in effect, and the farm marketing quota and farm mar¬ 
 keting excess, if any, shall be determined on the basis of such valid 
 farm rice acreage allotment. 
 
 This resolution shall not apply to any producer rice allotment or 
 any planted rice acreage that has been obtained by duplication, for¬ 
 gery, bribery, intimidation, or practices that would result in the total 
 allotted acreage in the State exceeding the State acreage allotment, 
 less any unallocated reserve acreage.] 
 
 (c) Notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act— 
 
 (1) If farm acreage allotments are established by using past 
 production of rice on the farm and the acreage allotments pre¬ 
 viously established for the farm in lieu of past production of 
 rice by the producer and the acreage allotments previously es¬ 
 tablished for owners or operators, the State acreage allotment 
 shall be apportioned among counties in the State on the same 
 basis as the national acreage allotment is apportioned among the 
 States and the county acreage allotments shall be apportioned to 
 farms on the basis of the applicable factors set forth in sub¬ 
 section (b) of this section: Provided, That if the State is divided 
 into administrative areas pursuant to subsection (b) of this sec¬ 
 tion the allotment for each administrative area shall be deter¬ 
 mined by apportioning the State acreage allotment among coun¬ 
 ties as provided in this subsection and totaling the allotments for 
 the counties in such area: Provided, That the State committee 
 may reserve not to exceed 5 per centum of the State allotment, 
 which shall be used to make adjustments in county allotments for 
 trends in acreage and for abnormal conditions affecting plant¬ 
 ings; 
 
 (2) Any acreage planted to rice in excess of the farm acreage 
 allotment shall not be taken into account in establishing State, 
 county, and farm acreage allotments. 
 
 In determining the past production of rice by producers on 
 a farm for the purpose of establishing farm acreage allotments 
 for the 1956 and subsequent crops, the acreage of rice on the 
 farm for any year for which farm acreage allotments were in 
 effect shall be divided among the producers thereon in the pro¬ 
 portion in which they contributed to the farm acreage allotment. 
 
 (3) Each of the State acreage allotments for 1955 heretofore 
 proclaimed by the Secretary shall be increased by 2 per centum 
 or by such greater acreage as may be necessary to pi’ovide sucli 
 State with an alloiment equal to its 1950 allotment. In anv 
 
 Pub. L. 88-lGO, 77 Stat. 279, approved October 28, 1963. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 85 
 
 State liaving county acreage allotments for 1955 (i) the inc.rease 
 in the State allotment shall be apportioned among counties in 
 the State on (he same basis as the State allotment was hereto¬ 
 fore apportioned among the counties, but without regard to ad¬ 
 justments for trends in acreage, anti (ii) the 1955 allotment 
 for any county in_ which the 1950-1954 average planted plus 
 diveited acreage of rice, adjusted for trends in acreage, exceeds 
 the 1945-1949 average planted acreage of rice, similarly adjusted, 
 by more tlnan 2 per centum shall then be further increased by 
 such additional acreage as may be necessary to provide such 
 county with an allotment equal to its 1950 allotment. The in¬ 
 creases 111 the county acreage allotments and the increases in the 
 State allotments, where county allotments are not determined 
 shall be used to establish farm acreage allotments which are fair 
 and reasonable in relation to the applicable allotment factors 
 specified in subsection (b) of this section and to correct inequities 
 and prevent hardships. 
 
 (4) The reserve acreage made available for 1955 in any State 
 for apportionment to farms operated by persons who have not 
 produced rice during the preceding five years or on which rice 
 has not been planted in the preceding five years shall not be less 
 than five hundred acres; and the additional acreage necessary 
 to provide such minimum reserve acreages shall be in addition 
 to the hi ational and State acreage allotments. 
 
 (5) Each of the State acreage allotments for 1956 heretofore 
 proclaimed by the Secretary, after adding thereto any acreage 
 apportioned to farms in the State from the reserve acreage set 
 aside pursuant to subsection (a) of this section, shall be increased 
 by such amount as may be necessary to provide such State with 
 an allotment of not less than 85 per centum of its final allotment 
 established for 1955. Any additional acreage required to provide 
 such minimum allotment shall be additional to the national acre¬ 
 age allotment. In any State having county acreage allotments 
 for 1956, the increase in the State allotment shall be apportioned 
 among counties in the State on the same basis as the State allot¬ 
 ment was heretofore apportioned among the counties, but with¬ 
 out regard to adjustments for trends in acreage. 
 
 (6) The national acreage allotments of rice for 1957 and sub¬ 
 sequent years shall be not less than the national acreage allot¬ 
 ment for 1956, including any acreage allotted under paragraph 
 (5) of this subsection, and such national allotments for 1957 
 and subsequent years shall be apportioned among the States in 
 the same proportion that they shared in the total acreage allotted 
 in 1956. {7_U.S.C. 1353(c).) 
 
 (d) The provisions of this part shall not apply to nonirrigated rice 
 produced on any farm on which the acreage planted to nonirrigated 
 rice does not exceed three acres or to rice produced outside the con¬ 
 tinental United States. (7 U.S.C. 1353 (d).) 
 
 (e) Any part of the farm rice acreage allotment on which rice will 
 not be planted and which is voluntarily surrendered to the county 
 
 “1957 and subsequent years” substituted for “1957 and 1958” by rub. L. 
 85-835, 72 Stat. 994, August 28, 1958. 
 
86 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 committee shall be deducted from the allotment to such farm and may 
 be reapportioned by the county committee to other farms in the same 
 county receiving allotments in amounts determined by the county com¬ 
 mittee to be fair and reasonable on the basis of the past production of 
 rice by the producers on the farm or the past production of rice on 
 the farm, as the case may be; acreage allotments previously established 
 for the farm or for the producers on the farm, as the case may be; 
 abnormal conditions atiecting acreage; land, labor, water, and ecpii})- 
 ment available for the production of rice; crop-rotation practices; 
 and the soil and other ])hysical factors affecting the production of 
 rice. Any allotment surrendered under this provision shall be re¬ 
 garded for the purposes of subsection (b) of this section as having 
 been planted on the farm from which surrendered, except that this 
 shall not operate to make the farm from which the allotment was sur¬ 
 rendered eligible for an allotment as having rice planted thereon, or 
 to make any producer thereon eligible for an allotment as having pro¬ 
 duced rice, during the five-year base period. (7 U.S.C. 1353(e).) 
 (f)(1) If a producer in a State in which farm rice acreage al¬ 
 lotments are determined on the basis of past production of rice 
 by the producer on the farm, dies, his history of rice production 
 shall be apportioned in whole or in jiart among his heirs or de¬ 
 visees according to the extent to which they may continue, or have 
 continued, his farming operations, if satisfactory proof of such 
 succession of farming operations is furnished the Secretary. 
 
 (2) If a producer in a State in which farm rice acreage allot¬ 
 ments are determined on the basis of past production of rice by 
 the producer on the farm withdraws in whole or in part from rice 
 production in favor of a member or members of his family who 
 will succeed to his farming operations that portion of his rice his¬ 
 tory acreage as may be ascribed to such withdrawal may be trans¬ 
 ferred to such family member or members, as the case may be. if 
 satisfactory proof or such relationship and succession of farming 
 operations by such family member or members is furnished the 
 Secretary. 
 
 (3) ’’^ If a producer in a State in which farm rice acreage allot¬ 
 ments are determined on the basis of past production of rice by 
 the producer on the farm permanently withdraws from rice pro¬ 
 duction, his rice history acreage may be transferred to another 
 jiroducer or producers who have had previous rice-producing ex¬ 
 perience, provided the following conditions are met: (i) The trans¬ 
 feree must acquire, except for land, the entire farming operation 
 pertaining to rice, including all production and harvesting equip¬ 
 ment, any irrigation equipment not permanently attached to the 
 land; and (ii) the transferee must actually plant at least 90 per 
 centum of his total producer rice acreage allotment, including the 
 allotment determined on the basis of the rice history acreage 
 acquired from the transferor for at least three out of the next four 
 years following the transfer. Failure by the transferee to comply 
 with condition (ii) above shall result in cancellation of the trans- 
 
 The words except for land,” were added and the words and any land owned by 
 the transferor to which any of the transferred rice history acreage may be ascribed” were 
 stricken from section 353(3) (1) by Pub. L. 88-261, 78 Stat. 6, approved January 28, 1964. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 87 
 
 fer of the rice history acreage. The transferor of rice acreage 
 history under this subsection shall not be eligible for a producer 
 rice acreage allotment for any year subsequent to such transfer, 
 except to the extent that such allotment may be based on rice his¬ 
 tory acquired in a year (subsequent to the transfer) for which 
 rice acreage allotments are not in effect. 
 
 (4) Upon dissolution of a partnership in a State in which fann 
 rice acreage allotments are determined on the basis of past pro¬ 
 duction of rice by the producer on the farm, the partnership’s 
 history of rice production shall be divided among the partners in 
 such proportion as agreed upon in writing by the partners: Pro¬ 
 vided^ That if a partnership was formed in a year in which allot¬ 
 ments were in effect and is dissolved in less than three consecutive 
 crop years after the partnership became effective, the rice acreage 
 allotment established for the partnership and rice history acreages 
 credited to the partnership for each of the years during its exist¬ 
 ence shall be divided among the partners in the same proportion 
 that each partner contributed to the allotment established for the 
 partnership at the time such partnership was formed. The rice 
 history acreage credited to each of the partners for the years prior 
 to the time the partnership was formed shall revert to the person 
 to whom it was originally credited. (7 U.S.C. 1353(f).) 
 
 MARKETING QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 354. (a) Wlienever in any calendar year the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that the total supply of rice for the marketing year beginning 
 in such calendar year will exceed the normal supply for such mar¬ 
 keting year, the Secretary shall not later than December 31 of such 
 calendar year, proclaim such fact and marketing quotas shall be in 
 effect for the crop of rice produced in the next calendar year. (7 
 U.S.C. 1354 (a).)_ 
 
 (b)_ Within thirty days after the date of the issuance of the proc¬ 
 lamation specified in subsection (a) of this section, the Secretary shall 
 conduct a referendum by secret ballot of farmers engaged in the 
 production of the immediately preceding crop of rice to determine 
 whether such farmers are in favor of or opposed to such quotas. If 
 more than one-third of the farmers voting in the referendum oppose 
 such quotas the Secretary shall, prior to the 15th day of February, 
 proclaim the rasult of the referendum and such quotas shall become 
 ineffective. (7 U.S.C. 1354(b).) 
 
 AMOUNT OF FARM MARKETING QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 355. The farm marketing quota for any crop of rice shall be 
 the actual production of rice on the farm less the normal production 
 of the acreage planted to rice on the farm in excess of the farm acre¬ 
 age allotment. The normal production from such excess acreage shall 
 be known as the “farm marketinc excess”: Provided. Tliat the farm 
 marketing excess shall not be larger than the amount by which the 
 actual production of rice on the farm exceeds the normai jirodiiction 
 of the farm acreage allotment if the producer establishes such actual 
 production to the satisfaction of the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 1355.) 
 
88 agricultural adjustment act of 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 TENALITES AND STORAGE 
 
 Sec. 356. (a) Wlienever farm marketintr quotas are in effect with 
 respect to any crop of rice, the producer shall be subject to a penalty 
 on the farm marketing excess at a rate per pound equal to 50 per 
 centum of the parity price per pound for rice as of June 15 of tlie 
 calendar year in which such crop is produced. Effective beginning 
 V ith the 1958 crop, the rate of penalty on rice shall be 65 per centum 
 of the parity price per pound for rice as of June 15 of the calendar 
 year in which the crop is produced. (7 U.S.C. 1356(a).) 
 
 (b) The farm marketing excess of rice shall be regarded as avail¬ 
 able for marketing and the amount of penalty shall be computed 
 upon the normal production of the acreage on the farm planted to 
 rice in excess of the farm acreage allotment. If a downward adjust¬ 
 ment in the amount of the farm marketing excess is made pursuant 
 to the proviso in section 355, the difference between the amount of 
 the penalty computed upon the farm marketing excess before such 
 adjustment and as computed upon the adjusted marketing excess 
 shall be returned to or allowed the producer. (7 U.S.C. 1356(b).) 
 
 (c) The person liable for payment or collection of the penalty 
 shall be liable also for interest thereon at the rate of 6 per centum per 
 annum from the date the penalty becomes due until the date of pav- 
 nient of such penalty. (7 U.S.C. 1356(c).) 
 
 (d) Until the penalty on the farm marketing excess is paid, post¬ 
 poned, or avoided, as provided herein, all rice produced on the farm 
 and marketed by the producer shall be subject to the penalty pro- 
 \ iQGd by this SGction a.ncl a liGn on tliG Gntiro crop of rice produced on 
 
 ^ the United States.*^ (7 U.S.C 
 
 1356(d).) 
 
 (e) The penalty on the farm marketing excess on any crop of rice 
 may be avoided or postponed by storage or by disposing of the com¬ 
 modity in such other manner, not inconsistent with the purposes of 
 
 Secretary shall prescribe, including, in the discretion 
 of the Secretary, delivery to Commodity Credit Corporation or any 
 other agency within the Department. The Secretary shall issue regu¬ 
 lation's governmg such storage or other disposition. Unless otherwise 
 specined by the Secretary in such regulations, any quantity of rice so 
 stored or otherwise disposed of shall be of those types and grades 
 which are representative of the entire quantity of rice produced on 
 the farm. Upon failure so to store or otherwise dispose of the farm 
 marketing excess of rice within such time as may be determined under 
 prescribed by the Secretaiy, the penalty on such excess 
 shall become due and payable.^ Any rice delivered to any agency of 
 pursuant to this subsection shall become the property 
 of the agency to which delivered and shall be disposed of at the 
 direction of the Secretary in a manner not inconsistent with the 
 purposes of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1356(e).) 
 
 (f) Subject to the provisions of subsection (g) of this section, the 
 
 upon the farm marketing excess stored pursuant to this section 
 shall be paid by the producer at the time and to the extent of any de¬ 
 pletion in the amount so stored except depletion resulting from some 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 89 
 
 cause beyond the conirol of the producer or from substitution of the 
 commodity authorized by the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 1356(f).) 
 
 (g) (1) If the planted acreage of the then current crop of rice 
 for any farm is less than the farm acreage allotment, the amount 
 of the commodity from any previous crop of rice stored to post¬ 
 pone or avoid payment of the penalty shall be reduced by an 
 amount equal to the normal production of the number of acres 
 by which the farm acreage allotment exceeds the acreage planted 
 to rice. 
 
 (2) If the actual production of the acreage of rice on any farm 
 on which the acreage of rice is within the farm acreage allotment 
 is less than the normal production of the farm acreage allotment, 
 the amount of rice from any previous crop stored to postpone or 
 avoid payment of the penalty shall be reduced by an amount 
 which, together with the actual production of the then current 
 crop will equal the normal production of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment : Provided^ That the reduction under this paragraph shall 
 not exceed the amount by which the normal production of the 
 farm acreage allotment less any reduction made under paragraph 
 (1) of this subsection is in excess of the actual production of the 
 acreage planted to rice on the farm. (7 U.S.C. 1356(g).) 
 
 (h) Whenever, in any marketing year, marketing quotas are not 
 in effect with respect to the crop of rice produced in the calendar year 
 in which such marketing year begins, all marketing quotas applicable 
 to previous crops of rice shall be terminated, effective as of the first 
 day of such marketing year. Such termination shall not abate any 
 penalty previously incurred by a producer or relieve any buyer of 
 the duty to remit penalties previously collected by him. (7 U.S.C. 
 1356(h).) 
 
 Part yi—M arketing Quotas—Peanuts 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 357. The production, marketing, and processing of peanuts 
 and peanut products employs a large number of persons and is of 
 national interest. The movement of peanuts from producer to con¬ 
 sumer is preponderantly in interstate and foreign commerce, and, 
 owing to causes beyond their control, the farmers producing such 
 commodity and the persons engaged in the marketing and processing 
 thereof are unable to regulate effectively the orderly marketing of 
 the commodity. As the quantity of peanuts marketed in the channels 
 of interstate and foreign commerce increases above the quantity of 
 peanuts needed for cleaning and shelling, the prices at which all 
 peanuts are marketed are depressed to low levels. These low prices 
 tend to cause the quantity of peanuts available for marketing in later 
 years to^ be less than nonnal, which in turn tends to cause relatively 
 high prices. This fluctuation of prices and marketings of peanuts 
 creates an unstable and chaotic condition in the marketing of peanuts 
 for cleaning and shelling and for crushing for oil in the channels of 
 interstate and foreign commerce. Since these unstable and chaotic 
 conditions have existed for a period of years and are likely, witliout 
 
90 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 proper regulation, to continue to exist, it is imperative that the mar¬ 
 keting of peanuts for cleaning and shelling and for crushing for oil 
 in intei^state and foreign commerce be regulated in order to protect 
 l)roducei*s, handlei's, processors, and consumers. (7 U.S.C. 1357.) 
 
 MARKETING QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 358. (a) Between July 1 and December 1 of each calendar year 
 the Secretary shall proclaim the amount of the national marketing 
 quota for peanuts for the crop produced in the next succeeding calen- 
 dar year in terms of the total quantity of peanuts which will make 
 available for marketing a supply of peanuts from the crop with re¬ 
 spect to Avhich the quota is proclaimed equal to the average quantity 
 of peanuts harvested for nuts during the five years immediately pre¬ 
 ceding the year in which such quota is proclaimed, adjusted for cur¬ 
 rent trends and prospective demand conditions, and the quota so pro¬ 
 claimed shall be in effect with respect to such crop. The national 
 marketing quota for peanuts for any year shall be converted to a na¬ 
 tional acreage allotment by dividing such quota by the normal yield 
 per acre of peanuts for the United States detennined by the Secretary 
 on the basis of the average yield per acre of peanuts in the five years 
 preceding the year in which the quota is proclaimed, with such adjust- 
 inents as may be found necessary to correct for trends in yields and 
 for abnormal conditions of production affecting yields in such five 
 years: Provided^ That the national marketing quota establish^ for 
 the crop produced in the calendar j^ear 1941 shall be a quantity of pea¬ 
 nuts sufficient to provide a national acreage allotment of not less than 
 one million six hundred and ten thousand acres, and that the national 
 marketing quota established for any subsequent year shall be a quan¬ 
 tity of peanuts sufficient to provide a national acreage allotment of 
 not less than that established for the crop produced in the calendar 
 year 1941. (7 U.S.C. 1358 (a).) 
 
 (b) Not later than December 15 of each calendar year the Secre¬ 
 tary shall conduct a referendum of farmers engaged in the production 
 of peanuts in the calendar year in which the referendum is held to 
 determine whether such farmers are in favor of or opposed to market¬ 
 ing quotas with respect to the crops of peanuts produced in the three 
 calendar years immediately following the year in which the referen¬ 
 dum is held, except that, if as many as two-thirds of the farmers 
 voting in any referendum vote in favor of marketing quotas, no 
 referendum shall be held with respect to quotas for the second and 
 third years of the period. The Secretary shall proclaim the results 
 of the referendum within thirty days after the date on which it is 
 held, and, if more than one-third of the farmers voting in the referen¬ 
 dum vote against marketing quotas, tlie Secretary also shall proclaim 
 that marketing quotas will not be in effect with respect to the crop of 
 peanuts produced in the calendar year immediately following the 
 calendar year in which the referendum is held. (7 U.S.C. 1358(b).) 
 
 (c) (1) The national acreage allotment for 1951, less the 
 acreage to be allotted to new farms under subsection (f) of this 
 section, shall be apportioned among the States on the basis of the 
 larger of the following for each State: (a) The acreage allotted 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 91 
 
 to the State as its share of the 1950 national acreage allotment 
 of two million one hundred thousand acres, or (b) the State’s 
 share of two million one hundred thousand acres apportioned to 
 States on the basis of the average acreage harvested for nuts in 
 each State in the five years 1915-49; Provided^ That any allot¬ 
 ment so determined for any State which is less than the 1951 
 State allotment announced by the Secretary prior to the enact¬ 
 ment of this Act shall be increased to such announced allotment 
 and the acreage required for such increases shall be in addition to 
 the 1951 national acreage allotment and shall be considered in 
 determining State acreage allotments in future years. For any 
 year subsequent to 1951, the national acreage allotment for that 
 year, less the acreage to be allotted to new farms under subsection 
 (f) of this section, shall be apportioned among the States on the 
 basis of their share of the national acreage allotment for the 
 most recent year in which such apportionment was made. 
 
 (2) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, if the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture determines, on the basis of the average yield 
 per acre of peanuts by_ types during the preceding five years, 
 adjusted for trends in yields and abnormal conditions of produc¬ 
 tion affecting yields in such five years, that the supply of any 
 type or types of peanuts for any marketing j^ear, beginning with 
 the 1951-52 marketing year, will be insufficient to meet the esti¬ 
 mated demand for cleaning and shelling purposes at prices at 
 which the Commodity Credit Corporation may sell for such pur¬ 
 poses peanuts owned or controlled by it, the State allotments 
 for those States producing such type or types of peanuts shall be 
 increased to the extent determined by the Secretary to be re¬ 
 quired to meet such demand but the allotment for any State may 
 not be increased under this provision above the 1947 harvested 
 acreage of peanuts for such State. The total increase so deter¬ 
 mined shall be apportioned among such States for distribution 
 among farms producing peanuts of such type or types on the 
 basis of the average acreage of peanuts of such type or types in 
 the three years immediately preceding the year for which the 
 allotments are being determined. The additional acreage so 
 required shall be in addition to the national acreage allotment, the 
 production from such acreage shall be in addition to the national 
 marketing quota, and the increase in acreage allotted under this 
 provision shall not be considered in establishing future State, 
 county, or farm acreage allotments. (7 U.S.C. 1358(c).) 
 
 (d) The Secretary shall provide for apportionment of the State 
 ncreage allotment for any State through local committees among 
 farms on which peanuts were grown in any of the three years immedi¬ 
 ately preceding the year for which such allotment is determined. The 
 State acreage allotment for 1952 and any subsequent year shall be 
 apportioned among farms on which peanuts were produced in any 
 one of the 3 calendar years immediately preceding the year for whicli 
 such apportionment is made, on the basis of the following: Pa.st 
 acreage of ])eanuts, taking into consideration the acreage allotments 
 previously established for the farm; abnormal conditions alfecting 
 
92 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1 
 
 9 3 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 acreage; land, labor, and equipment available for the production of 
 
 practices; and soil and other physical factors 
 attectmg the production of peanuts. Any acreage of peanuts har- 
 vested m excess of the allocated acreage for any farm for any year 
 shall not be considered in the establishment of the allotment for the 
 farm in succeeding years. The amount of the marketing quota for 
 each tarm shall be the actual production of the farm-acreage allot¬ 
 ment, and no peanuts shall be marketed under the quota for any farm 
 other than peanuts actually produced on the farm. (7 USC 
 1358(d).) ^ 
 
 (e) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this section, the 
 Secretary may, if the State committee recommends such action and 
 the Secretary determines that such action will facilitate the effective 
 administration of the provisions of the Act, provide for the appor¬ 
 tionment of the State acreage allotment for 1952 and any subsequent 
 year among the counties in the State on the basis of the past acreage 
 of peanuts luarvested for nuts (excluding acreage in excess of farm 
 allotments) in the county during the five years immediately preceding 
 the 5 'ear in which such apportionment is made, with such adjustments 
 as are deemed necessary for abnormal conditions affecting acreage, for 
 trends in acreage, and for additional allotments for types of peanuts 
 in short supply under the provisions of subsection (c). The county 
 acreage allotment shall be apportioned among farms in the basis of 
 the factors set forth in subsection (d) of this section. (7 U.S.C. 
 1358(e).) 
 
 (f) Not more than one per centum of the national acreage allot¬ 
 ment shall be apportioned among fanns on which peanuts are to be 
 produced during the calendar year for which the allotment is made 
 but on which peanuts were not produced during any one of the past 
 three years, on the basis of the following: Past peanut-producing 
 experience by the producers; land, labor, and equipment available for 
 the production of peanuts; crop-rotation practices; and soil and other 
 
 physical factors affecting the production of peanuts. (7 USC 
 1358(f).) 1 i v* W.O.V7. 
 
 (^) part of the acreage allotted to individual farms under the 
 provisions of this section on which peanuts will not be produced and 
 which is voluntarily surrendered to the county committee shall be 
 deducted from the allotments to such farms and may be reapportioned 
 by the county committee to other farms in the same county receiving 
 allotments, in amounts determined by the county committee to be 
 fair and reasonable on the basis of land, labor, and equipment avail¬ 
 able for the production of peanuts, crop-rotation practices, and soil 
 and other physical factors affecting the production of peanuts. Any 
 transfer of allotments under this provision shall not operate to reduce 
 the tillotment for any subsequent year for the farm from which acre¬ 
 age is transferred, excej)t as the farm becomes ineligible for an allot¬ 
 ment by failure to produce peanuts during a three-year i)eriod, and 
 any such transfer shall not operate to increase the allotment for any 
 subsequent year for the farm io which the acreage is transferred; 
 Prorided, That, notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act, 
 any part of any farm acreage allotment may be permanently released 
 
 I 
 
 •v 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 > 
 
 i 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 93 
 
 ill writing to the county committee by the owner and operator of the 
 farm, and reapportioned as provided herein. (7 U.S.C. 1358 ( 2 :) ) 
 
 (h) ^®*** Vo// 
 
 (i) The production of peanuts on a farm in 1959 or any subsequent 
 year for which no farm acreage allotment was established shall not 
 make the farm eligible for an allotment as an old farm under sub¬ 
 section (d) of this section: Provided^ however^ That by reason of such 
 production the farm need not be considered as ineligible for a new 
 farm allotment under subsection (f) of this section, but such produc¬ 
 tion shall not be deemed past experience in the production of peanuts 
 for any producer on the farm. (7 U.S.C. 1358 (i).) 
 
 MARKETING PENALTIES 
 
 Sec. 359. (a) The marketing pf any peanuts in excess of the mar¬ 
 keting quota for the farm on which such peanuts are produced, or the 
 marketing of peanuts from any farm for which no acreage allotment 
 was determined, shall be subject to a penalty at a rate equal to 75 per 
 centum of the support price for peanuts for the marketing year 
 (August 1— July 31). Such penalty shall be paid by the person who 
 buys or otherwise acquires the peanuts from the producer, or if the 
 peanuts are marketed by the producer through an agent, the penalty 
 shall be paid by such agent, and such person or agent may deduct 
 an amount equivalent to the penalty from the price paid to the p'ro- 
 duceT. The Secretary may require collection of the penalty upon a 
 portion of each lot of peanuts marketed from the farm equal to the 
 proportion which the acreage of peanuts in excess of the farm- 
 acreage allotment is of the total acreage of peanuts on the farm. If 
 the person required to collect the penalty fails to collect such penalty, 
 such person and all persons entitled to share in the peanuts marketed 
 from the farm or the proceeds thereof shall be jointly and severally 
 liable for the amount of the penalty. All funds collected pursuant to 
 Uiis section shall be deposited in a special deposit account with the 
 Treasurer of the United States and such amounts as are determined, 
 in accord.pce with regulations prescribed by the Secretary, to be 
 penalties incurred shall be transferred to the general fund of the 
 Treasury of the United States. Amounts collected in excess of deter¬ 
 mined penalties shall be paid to such producers as the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines, in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, bore the 
 burden of the payment of the amount collected. Such special account 
 shall be administered by the Secretary and the basis for, the amount 
 of, and the producer entitled to receive a payment from such account, 
 when determined in accordance with regulations prescribed by the 
 Secretary, shall be final and conclusive. Peanuts jirodiiced in a cal¬ 
 endar year in which marketing quotas are in eliect for the marketing 
 year beginning therein shall be subject (o such (piotas even though the 
 peanuts are marketed prior to Ihe date on which such marketing year 
 begins. If any producer falsely identilies or fails to account for the 
 disposition of any jieaniits, an amount ot ])eanuts eijiial to the normal 
 yield of the number of acres harvested in e.xcess of tlie farm acrea 2 :e 
 
 Repealed by Pub. L. 85-8.35, 72 Stat. 996, approved August 28, 1958. 
 758-820—65-8 
 
94 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 allotment shall be deemed to have been marketed in excess of the mar¬ 
 keting quota on the farm, and the penalty in respect thereof shall 
 be paid and remitted by the producer. If any amount of peanuts 
 produced on one farm is falsely identified by a representation tliat 
 such peanuts Avere produced on another farm, the acreage allotments 
 next established for both such farms shall be reduced by that percent¬ 
 age which such amount was of the respective farm marketing quotas, 
 except that such reduction for any such farm shall not be made if the 
 Secretary through the local committee finds that no person connected 
 with such farm caused, aided, or acquiesced in such marketing; and 
 if proof of the disposition of any amount of peanuts is not furnished 
 as required by the Secretary, the acreage allotment next established 
 for the farm on Avhich such peanuts are produced shall be reduced by 
 a percentage similarly computed. Notwithstanding any other pro¬ 
 visions of this title, no refund of any penalty shall be made because 
 of peanuts kept on the farm for seed or for home consumption. (7 
 U.S.C. ■1359(a).)_ 
 
 (b) The provisions of this part shall not apply, beginning with 
 the 1959 crop, to peanuts produced on any farm on which the acre¬ 
 age harvested for nuts is one acre or less provided the producers who 
 share in the peanuts produced on such farm do not share in the pea¬ 
 nuts produced on any other farm. If the producers who share in the 
 peanuts produced on a farm on which the acreage harvested for 
 nuts is one acre or less also share in the peanuts produced on other 
 farm(s) the peanuts produced on such farm on acreage in excess of 
 the allotment, if any, determined for the farm shall be considered as 
 excess acreage and the marketing penalties provided by section 359 
 (a) shall apply. (7 U.S.C. 1359(h).) 
 
 (c) The Avord “peanuts” for the purposes of this Act shall mean 
 all peanuts produced, excluding any peanuts which it is established 
 by the producer or otherAvise, in accordance with regulations of the 
 Secretary, were not picked or threshed either before or after market¬ 
 ing from the farm, or were marketed by the producer before drying 
 or removal of moisture from such peanuts either by natural or ar¬ 
 tificial means for consumption exclusively as boiled peanuts. (7 
 U.S.C. 1359(c).) 
 
 (d) The person liable for payment or collection of the penalty pro¬ 
 vided by this section shall be liable also for interest thereon at the 
 rate of 6 per centum per annum from the date the penalty becomes 
 due until the date of payment of such penalty. (7 U.S.C. 1359(d).) 
 
 (e) Until the amount of the penalty provided by this section is paid, 
 a lien on the crop of peanuts with respect to which such penalty is 
 incurred, and on any subsequent crop of peanuts subject to marketing 
 quotas in which the person liable for payment of the penalty has an 
 interest shall be in effect in favor of the United States. (7 U.S.C. 
 1359(e).) 
 
 80 * ♦ * 
 
 “Boiled peanuts” were exempted from the definition of “peanuts” for 1964 and 1965 by 
 Pub. L. S8-76. 77 Stat. 92, approved .July 25, 1963. 
 
 Rei)ealed by Act of March 28, 1956, 66 Stat. 27. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMEIvfT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 95 
 Subtitle C— Administrative Provisions 
 I’ABT I —Publication and Review of Quotas 
 APPLICATION or PART 
 
 Sec. 361. This part shall apply to the publication and review of 
 farm marketing quotas established for tobacco, corn, wheat, cotton, 
 peanuts, and rice, established under subtitle B. (7 U.S.C. 1361.) 
 
 PUBLICATION AND NOTICE OF QUOTA 
 
 Sec. 362. All acreage allotments, and the farm marketing quotas 
 established for farms in a county or other local administrative area 
 shall, in accordance with regulations of the Secretary, be made and 
 kept freely available for public inspection in such county or other 
 local administrative area. An additional copy of this information 
 shall be kept available in the office of the county agricultural exten¬ 
 sion agent or with the chairman of the local committee. Notice of the 
 farm marketing quota of his farm shall be mailed to the farmer. 
 
 Notice of the farm acreage allotment established for each farm 
 shown by the records of the county committee to be entitled to such 
 allotment shall insofar as practicable be mailed to the farm operator 
 
 sufficient time to be received prior to the date of the referendum. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1362.) 
 
 REVIEW BY REVIEW COMMITTEE 
 
 Sec. 363. Amy^ farmer who is dissatisfied with his farm marketing 
 quota may, within fifteen days after mailing to him of notice as pro¬ 
 vided in section 362, have such quota reviewed by a local review com¬ 
 mittee composed of three farmers from the same or nearby counties 
 appointed by the Secretary. Such committee shall not include any 
 member of the local committee which determined the farm acreage 
 allotment, the norrnal yield, or the farm marketing quota for such 
 farrn. Unless application for review is made within such period, the 
 original determmation of the farm marketing quota shall be final. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1363.) . 
 
 REVIEW COMMITTEE 
 
 Sec. 364. The members of the review committee shall receive as 
 compensation for their services the same per diem as that received by 
 ^e members of the committee utilized for the purposes of the Soil 
 Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended. The mem¬ 
 bers of the review committee shall not be entitled to receive compensa¬ 
 tion for more than thirty days in any one year. (7 U.S.C. 1364.) 
 
 INSTITUTION OF PROCEEDINGS 
 
 Sec. 365. If the farmer is dissatisfied with the determination of the 
 review committee, he may, within fifteen days after a notice of such 
 determination is mailed to him by registered mail or by certified mail. 
 
96 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 file a bill in equity against the review committee as defendant in the 
 United States district court, or institute proceedings for review in any 
 court of record of the State having general jurisdiction, sitting in the 
 county or the district in which his farm is located, for the purpose of 
 obtaining a review of such determination. Bond shall be given in an 
 amount and with surety satisfacto:^ to the court to secure the United 
 States for the costs of the proceeding. The bill of complaint in such 
 proceeding may be served by delivering a copy thereof to any one of 
 the members of the review committee. Thereupon the review com¬ 
 mittee shall certify and file in the court a transcript of the record upon 
 which the determination complained of was made, together with its 
 findings of fact. (7 U.S.C. 1365.) 
 
 COURT REVIEW 
 
 Sec. 366. The review by the court shall be limited to questions of 
 law, and the findings of fact by the review committee, if supported 
 by evidence, shall be conclusive. If application is made to the court 
 for leave to adduce additional evidence, and it is shown to the satis¬ 
 faction of the court that such additional evidence is material and that 
 there were reasonable grounds for failure to adduce such evidence in 
 the hearing before the review committee, the court may direct such 
 additional evidence to be taken before the review committee in such 
 manner and upon such terms and conditions as to the court may seem 
 proper. The review committee may modify its findings of fact or its 
 determination by reason of the additional evidence so taken, and it 
 shall file with the court such modified findings or determination, which 
 findings of fact shall be conclusive. At the earliest convenient time, 
 the court, in term time or vacation, shall hear and determine the case 
 upon the original record of the hearings before the review committee 
 and upon such record as supplemented, if supplemented, by further 
 hearing before the review committee pursuant to direction of the 
 court. The court shall affirm the review committee’s determination, 
 or modified determination, if the court determines that the same is in 
 accordance with law. If the court determines that such determination 
 or modified determination is not in accordance with law, the court 
 shall remand the proceedings to the review committee with direction 
 either to make such deterimnation as the court shall determine to be 
 in accordance with law or to take such further proceedings as, in the 
 court’s opinion, the law requires. (7 U.S.C. 1366.) 
 
 STAY ON PROCEEDINGS AND EXCLUSIVE JURISDICTION 
 
 Sec. 367. The commencement of judicial proceedings under this 
 part shall not, unless specifically ordered by the court, operate as a 
 stay of the review committee’s determination. Notwithstanding any 
 other provision of law, the jurisdiction conferred by this part to review 
 the legal validity of a determination made by a review committee pur¬ 
 suant to this part shall be exclusive. No court of the United States or 
 of any State shall have jurisdiction to pass upon the legal validity of 
 any such determination except in a proceeding under this part. (7 
 U.S.C. 1367.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 97 
 
 NO EFFECT ON OTHER QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 368. Notwithstanding any increase of any farm marketing 
 quota for any farm as a result of review of the determination thereof 
 under this part, the marketing quotas for other farms shall not be 
 affected. (7U.S.C. 1368.) 
 
 Part II —Adjustment of Quotas and Enforcement 
 
 general adjustments of quotas 
 
 Sec. 371.®^ (a) If at any time the Secretary has reason to believe 
 that m the case of cotton, rice, peanuts, or tobacco the operation of 
 farm marketing quotas in effect will cause the amount of such com¬ 
 modity which is free of marketing restrictions to be less than the 
 normal supply for the marketing year for the commodity then current, 
 he shall cause an immediate investigation to be made with respect 
 thermo. In the course of such investigation due notice and opportu¬ 
 nity for hearing shall be given to interested persons. If upon the basis 
 of such inv^tigation the Secretary finds the existence of such fact, he 
 shall proclaim the sarne forthwith. He shall also in such proclamation 
 specify such increase in, or termination of, existing quotas as he finds, 
 on the basis of such investigation, is necessary to make the amount of 
 such commodity which is free of marketing restrictions equal to the 
 normal supply. (7 U.S.C. 1371(a).) 
 
 (b) ®^ If the Secretary has reason to believe that, because of a na¬ 
 tional emergency or tecause of a material increase in export demand, 
 any national marketing quota or acreage allotment for cotton, rice, 
 peanuts, or tobacco should be increased or terminated, he shall cause 
 an immediate investigation to be made to determine whether the in¬ 
 crease or termination is necessary to meet such emergency or increase 
 in export demand. If, on the basis of such investigation, the Secretary 
 finds that such increase or termination is necessary, he shall immedi- 
 ately proclaim such finding (and if he finds an increase is necessary, 
 the amount of the increase found by him to be necessary) and there¬ 
 upon such quota or allotment shall be increased, or shall terminate, 
 as the case may be. (7 U.S.C. 1371 (b).) 
 
 (c) In case any national marketing quota or acreage allotment for 
 any commodity is increased mider this section, each farm marketing 
 quota or acreage allotment for the commodity shall be increased in the 
 same ratio. (7 U.S.C. 1371(c).) 
 
 ^^^^83 * * * 
 
 PAYMENT AND COLLECTION OF PENALTIES 
 
 Sec. 372. (a) The penalty with respect to the marketing, by sale, of 
 wheat, cotton, or rice, if the sale is to any person within the United 
 States, shall be collected by the buyer. (7 U.S.C. 1372(a).) 
 
 *»The words, “corn, wheat,” were deleted from the first sentence of subsection (a) by 
 Pub. L. 87-703, 76 Stat. 626, approved September 27, 1962. ’ 
 
 “The words, “any national acreage allotment for corn or”, “wheat,” and “In order 
 5^0® declared policy of this act or” in subsection (b) were deleted by Pub. L. 87- 
 
 703, 76 Stat. 626, approved September 27, 1962. 
 
 “ Repealed by Pub. L. 690, 83d Cong., 68 Stat. 905, approved August 28,1954. 
 
98 AGRICULTtJEAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 (b) All penalties provided for in Subtitle B shall be collected and 
 paid in such manner, at such times, and under such conditions as the 
 Secretary may by regulations prescribe. Such penalties shall be re¬ 
 mitted to the Secretary by the person liable for the penalty, except that 
 if any other person is liable for the collection of the penalty, such 
 other person shall remit the penalty. The amount of such penalties 
 shall be covered into the general fund of the Treasury of the United 
 States. (7 U.S.C. 1372(b).) 
 
 (c) ^Vlienever, pursuant to a claim filed with the Secretary within 
 two years after payment to him of any penalty collected from any 
 person pursuant to this Act, the Secretary finds that such penalty was 
 erroneously, illegally, or wrongfully collected and that the claimant 
 bore the burden of the payment of such penalty, the Secretary shall 
 certify to the Secretary of the Treasury for payment to the claimant, 
 in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, such amounts as the Secretary finds the claimant is entitled 
 to receive as a refund of such penalty. 
 
 Notwithstanding any other provision of the law, the Secretary is au¬ 
 thorized to prescribe by regulations for the identification of farms and 
 it shall be sufficient to schedule receipts into special deposit accounts 
 or to schedule such receipts for transfer therefrom, or directly, into 
 the separate fund provided for in subsection (b) hereof by means of 
 such identification without reference to the names of the producers 
 on such farms. 
 
 The Secretary is authorized to prescribe regulations governing the 
 filing of such claims and the determination of such refunds. (7 U.S C. 
 1372(c).) 
 
 (d) No penalty shall be collected under this Act with respect to the 
 marketing of any agricultural commodity grown for experimental 
 purposes onlv by any publicly owned agricultural experiment station. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1372(d).) 
 
 REPORTS AND RECORDS 
 
 Sec. 373. (a) This subsection shall apply to warehousemen, proces¬ 
 sors, and common carriers of corn, wheat, cotton, rice, peanuts, or 
 tobacco, and all ginners of cotton, all persons engaged in the business 
 of purchasing corn, wheat, cotton, rice, peanuts, or tobacco from pro¬ 
 ducers, all persons engaged in the business of redrying, prizing, or 
 stemming tobacco for producers, all brokers and dealers in peanuts, 
 all agents marketing peanuts for producers, or acquiring peanuts for 
 buyers and dealers, and all peanut growers’ cooperative associations, 
 all persons engaged in the business of cleaning, shelling, crushing, and 
 salting of peanuts and the manufacture of peanut products, and all 
 persons owning or operating peanut-picking or peanut-threshing ma¬ 
 chines. Any such person shall, from time to time on request of the 
 Secretary, report to the Secretary such information and keep such 
 records as the Secretary finds to be necessary to enable him to carry 
 out the provisions of this title. Such information shall be reported 
 and such records shall be kept in accordance with forms which the 
 Secretary sliall prescribe. For the purpose of ascertaining the cor¬ 
 rectness of any report made or record kept, or of obtaining informa- 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 99 
 
 tion required to be furnished in any report, but not so furnished, the 
 Secretary is hereby authorized to examine such books,' papers, records, 
 accounts, correspondence, contracts, documents, and memoranda as he 
 has reason to believe are relevant and are within the control of such 
 person. Any such person failing to make any report or keep any 
 record as required by this subsection or making any false report or 
 record shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction 
 thereof shall be subject to a fine of not more than $500; and any to¬ 
 bacco warehouseman or dealer who fails to remedy such violation by 
 making a complete and accurate report or keeping a complete and 
 accurate record as required by this subsection within fifteen days after 
 notice to him of such violation shall be subject to an additional fine of 
 $100 for each ten thousand pounds of tobacco, or fraction thereof, 
 bought or sold by him after the date of such violation: Provided^ That 
 such fine shall not exceed $5,000; and notice of such violation shall 
 be served upon the tobacco w^arehouseman or dealer by mailing the 
 same to him by registered mail or by certified mail or by posting 
 the same at any established place of business operated bv him, or both 
 (7 U.S.C. 1373(a).) J 5 • 
 
 (b) Farmers engaged in the production of corn, wheat, cotton, rice, 
 peanuts, or tobacco for market shall furnish such proof of their acre¬ 
 age, yield, storage, and marketing of the commodity in the form of 
 lecords, marketing cards, reports, storage under seal, or otherwise as 
 the Secretary may prescribe as necessary for the administration of this 
 title. (7U.S.C. 1373(b).) 
 
 (c) All data reported to or acquired by the Secretary pursuant to 
 this section shall be kept confidential by all officers and employees of 
 the Department, and only such data so reported or acquired as the 
 Secretary deems relevant shall be disclosed by them, and then only in 
 a suit or administrative hearing under this title. (7 U.S.C. 1373(c) ) 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF FARMS AND REPORT OF PLANTINGS 
 
 Sec. 374. (a) The Secretary shall provide, through the county and 
 local committees, for measuring farms on which corn, wheat, cotton 
 peanuts, or rice is produced and for ascertaining whether the acreao-e 
 planted for any year to any such commodity is in excess of the farm 
 acreage allotment for such commodity for the farm under this title. 
 If in the case of any farm the acreage planted to any such commodity 
 on the farm is in excess of the farm acreage allotment for such com¬ 
 modity for the farm, the committee shall file with the State committee 
 a written report stating the total acreage on the farm in cultivation 
 and the acreage planted to such commodity. (7 U.S.C. 1374(a).) 
 
 (b) With respect to cotton, the Secretary, upon such terms and con¬ 
 ditions as he may by regulation prescribe, shall provide, through tlie 
 county and local committees for the measurement prior to planting of 
 an acreage on the farm equal to the farm acreage allotment if so re¬ 
 quested by the farm operator, and any farm on which the acreage 
 
100 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 planted to cotton does not exceed such measured acreage sliall be 
 deemed to be in com])liance with tlie farm acreage allotment. (7 
 IJ.S.C. 1374(b).) 
 
 (c) If the {icreage determined to be planted to any basic agricul¬ 
 tural commodity on the farm is in excess of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment, the Secretary shall by appropriate regulations provide for a 
 reasonable time prior to harvest Avithin which such planted acreage 
 may be adjusted to the farm acreage allotment. The Secretary shall 
 by appropriate regulations provide for the remeasurement upon re¬ 
 quest by the farm operator of the acreage planted to such commodity 
 on the farm and for the measurement of the acreage planted to such 
 commodity on the farm remaining after any adjustment of excess 
 acreage hereunder and shall prescribe the conditions under which the 
 farm operator shall be required to pay the county committee for the 
 expense of the measurement of adjusted acreage or the expense of 
 remeasurement after the initial measurement or the measurement of 
 adjusted acreage. The regulations shall also provide for the refund 
 of any deposit or payment made for the expense of the remeasurement 
 of the initially determined acreage or the adjusted acreage when be¬ 
 cause of an error in the determination of such acreage the remeasure¬ 
 ment brings the acreage Avithin the allotment or permitted acreage 
 or results in a change in acreage in excess of a reasonable variation 
 normal to measurements of acreage of the commodity. Unless the 
 requirements for measurement of adjusted acreage are met by the 
 farm operator, the acreage prior to such adjustment as determined 
 by the county comrnittee shall be considered the acreage of the com¬ 
 modity on the farm in determining AAdiether the applicable farm allot¬ 
 ment has been exceeded. (7 U.S.C. 1374(c).) 
 
 REGULATIONS 
 
 Secretary shall provide by regulations for the 
 identification, wherever necessary, of corn, wheat, cotton, rice, pea¬ 
 nuts, or tobacco so as to afford aid in discovering and identifying such 
 amounts of the commodities as are subject to and such amounts thereof 
 
 subject to marketing restrictions in effect under this title. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1375(a).) 
 
 (b) The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations as are necessary 
 for the enforcement of this title. (7 U.S.C. 1375 (b).) 
 
 COURT JURISDICTION 
 
 Sec. 376.®^ The seA'^eral district courts of the United States are hereby 
 vested Avith jurisdiction specifically to enforce the provisions of this 
 title. If and when the Secretary shall so request, it shall be the duty 
 of the several United States attorneys in their respective districts, 
 under the direction of the Attorney General, to institute proceedings 
 q collect the penalties proAuded in this title. The remedies and penal¬ 
 ties provided for herein shall be in addition to, and not exclusive of, 
 
 AprU 11* ^'^6 was added by Rub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 176, approved 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMEIVT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED IQl 
 
 any of the remedies or penalties under existing law. This section also 
 shall be applicable to liquidated damages provided for pursuant to 
 section 349 of this title. (7U.S.C. 1376.) 
 
 PRESERVATION OP UNUSED ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 377. In any case in which, during any year beginning with 
 1956, the acreage planted to a commodity on any farm is less than the 
 acreage allotment for such farm, the entire acreage allotment for such 
 farm (excluding any allotment released from the farm or reappor¬ 
 tioned to the farm and any allotment provided for the farm pursuant 
 to subsection (f)(7)(A) of section 344) shall, except as provided 
 herein, be considered for the purpose of establishing future State, 
 county and farm acreage allotments to have been planted to such 
 commodity in such year on such farm, but the 1956 acreage allotment 
 of any commodity shall be regarded as planted under this section only 
 if the owner or operator on such farm notified the county committee 
 prior to the sixtieth day preceding the beginning of the marketin£x 
 year for such commodity of his desire to preserve such allotments 
 Provided, That beginning with the 1960 crop, except for federally 
 owned Imid, the current farm acreage allotments established for a 
 comrnqdity shall not be preserved as histoiy acreage pursuant to the 
 provisions of this section unless for the current year or either of the 
 two preceding vears an acreage equal to 75 per centum or more of the 
 farm acreage allotment for such year or, in the case of upland cotton 
 on a farm which qualified for price support on the crop produced in 
 any such year under section 103(b) of the Agricultural Act of 1949, 
 as amended, 75 per centum of the farm domestic allotment established 
 under section 350 for any such year, whichever is smaller was 
 actually planted or devoted to the commodity on the farm (or was 
 regarded as planted under provisions of the Soil Bank Act or the 
 (Treat Plains jirogram) : Provided further^ That this section shall not 
 be applicable in any case, within tlm period 1956 to 1959, in which 
 the amount of tlie commodity required to be stored to postpone or 
 avoid payment of penalty has been reduced because the allotment was 
 not fully planted. Acreage history credits for released or reappor¬ 
 tioned acreage shall be governed by the applicable provisions of this 
 title pertaining to the release and reapportionment of acreage allot¬ 
 ments. (7U.S.C. 1377.) 
 
 EMINENT domain 
 
 Sec. 378.®° (a) Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act, 
 the allotment determined for any commodity for any land from which 
 
 ApHl 11, 1964, amended the first proviso of 
 section by adding the following language : “or, in the case of upland cotton on a farm 
 
 produced in any such year under section 
 nUntmor?/Act of 1949, as amended, 75 per centum of the farm domestic 
 ®sl*)bUsh^Rd under section .150 for any such year, whichever Is smaller”, 
 nf 3.34(d), .144(h), .3.)3(f) and 358(h) of the Agricultural Adiustinent Act 
 
 were repealed by Rub. L. 85-835, 72 Stat. 995, approved August 
 “P.v transfer or reassignment of allotment heretofore made under the provisions 
 ^fctlons sha 1 remain in effect, and any displaced farm owner for whom an allot- 
 ou repealed sections shall not be eligible for additional 
 
 allotment under section 378(a) because of such displacement. 
 
102 AGRICULTUKAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 19 38, AS AMENDED 
 
 the owner is displaced because of acquisition of the land for any pur¬ 
 pose, other than for the continued production of allotted crops, by 
 any Federal, State, or otlier agency having the right of eminent do¬ 
 main shall be placed in an allotment pool and shall be available only 
 for use in providing allotments for other fanns owned by the owners 
 so displaced. Upon application to the county committee, within three 
 years after the date of such displacement, or three years after the 
 enactment of this section, whichever period is longer, any owner so 
 displaced shall be entitled to have established for other farms owned 
 by him allotments which are comparable with allotments determined 
 for other farms in the same area which are similar except for the past 
 acreage of the commodity, taking into consideration the land, labor, 
 and equipment available for the production of the commodity, crop- 
 rotation practices, and the soil and other physical factors affecting 
 the production of the commodity: Provided^ That the acreage used to 
 establish or increase the allotments for such farms shall be transfer¬ 
 red from the pool and shall not exceed the allotment most recently 
 established for the farm acquired from the applicant and placed in 
 the pool. During the period of eligibility for the making of allot¬ 
 ments under this section for a displaced owner, acreage allotments for 
 the farm from which the owner was so displaced shall be established 
 in accordance with the procedure applicable to other farms, and such 
 allotments shall be considered to have been fully planted. After such 
 allotment is made under this section, the proportionate part, or all, as 
 the case may be, of the past acreage used in establishing the allotment 
 most recently placed in the pool for the farm from which the owner 
 was so displaced sliall be transferred to and considered for the pur¬ 
 poses of future State, county, and farm acreage allotments to have 
 been planted on the farm to which allotment is made under this sec¬ 
 tion. Except where paragraph (c) requires the transfer of allotment 
 to another portion of the same farm, for the purpose of this section 
 (1) that part of any farm from which the owner is so displaced and 
 that part from which he is not so displaced shall be considered as 
 separate farms; and (2) an owner who voluntarily relinquishei? pos¬ 
 session of the land subsequent to its acquisition by an agency having 
 the right of eminent domain shall be considered as having been dis¬ 
 placed because of such acquisition. The former owner of land ac¬ 
 quired as described in this subsection shall not be considered for the 
 purposes hereof to have been displaced from such land during any 
 period for which such land is leased to such former owner: Provided^ 
 That the occupancy of the former owner under the lease follows im¬ 
 mediately after his occupancy as owner: And provided fn/rther. That 
 if a former owner has been displaced prior to the effective date of this 
 amendment and no allotment from the land owned by such former 
 owner has been transferred from the allotment pool and such former 
 owner leases the land formerly owned by him prior to two years 
 from the effective date of this amendment such allotment shall be re¬ 
 transferred from the pool to such land and the occupancy of such 
 former owner under the lease for the purposes of this subsection shall 
 be deemed to have begun immediately after his displacement as 
 owner. During any 5 ^ear of the 8-year period the allotment from a 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 103 
 
 farm may r6main in. tlie allotniGiit pool, tli6 displacGd owiior may, 
 in accordance with regulations of the Secretary, release for one year 
 at a time any part or all of such farm allotment to the county com¬ 
 mittee for reapportionment to other farms in the county having allot¬ 
 ments for such commodity on the basis of the past acreage of the 
 commodity, land, labor, equipment available for the production of 
 the commodity, crop rotation practices, and soil and other physical 
 facilities affecting the production of the commodity; and the allot¬ 
 ment reapportioned shall, for purposes of establishing future farm 
 allotments, not be regarded as planted on the farm to which the 
 allotment was transferred. (7 U.S.C. 1378(a).) 
 
 (b) The provisions of this section shall not be applicable if (1) there 
 IS any marketing quota penalty due with respect to the marketing of 
 the commodity from the farm acquired by the Federal, State, or other 
 agency or by the owner of the farm; (2) any of the commodity pro¬ 
 duced on such farm has not been accounted for as required by the Sec¬ 
 retary; or (3) the allotment next established for the farm acquired 
 by the Federal, State, or other agency would have been reduced because 
 of false or improper identification of the commodity produced on or 
 mark^ed from such farm or due to a false acreage report. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 (c) This section shall not be applicable, in the case of cotton, t.o- 
 bacco, and peanuts, to any farm from which the owner was displaced 
 prior to 1950, in the case of wheat and corn, to any farm from which 
 the owner was displaced prior to 1954, and in the case of rice, to any 
 farm from which the owner was displaced prior to 1955. In any case 
 where the cropland acquired for nonfarming purposes from an owner 
 by an agency having the right of eminent domain represents less than 
 15 per centum of the total cropland on the farm, the allotment attribut¬ 
 able to that portion of the farm so acquired shall be transferred to 
 that portion of the farm not so acquired. (7 U.S.C. 1378(c).) 
 
 Subtitle D—Wheat Marketing Allocation 
 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec. 379a. lAheat, in addition to being a basic food, is one of the great 
 export crops of American agriculture and its production for domestic 
 consumption and for export is necessary to the maintenance of a sound 
 national economy and to the general welfare. The movement of wheat 
 from producer to consumer, in the form of the commodity or any of 
 the products thereof, is preponderantly in interstate and foreign com¬ 
 merce. Unreasonably low prices of wheat to producers impair their 
 purchasing power for nonagricultural products and place them in a 
 position of serious disparity with otlier industrial groups. The con¬ 
 ditions affecting the production of wheat are such that without Fed¬ 
 eral assistance, ]iroducers cannot effectively prevent disastrously low 
 prices for wheat. It is necessary, in order to assist wheat producers in 
 obtaining fair prices, to regulate the price of wheat used for domestic 
 food and for exports in the manner provided in this subtitle. 17 
 U.S.C. 1379a.) 
 
104 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 WHEAT MARKETING ALLOCATION 
 
 [Sec. 3T9b as set out below is effective with respect to the crops 
 planted for harvest in 1964 and 1965.] 
 
 Sec. 3791).^'’ A wheat marketing allocation program as provided in 
 this subtitle shall he in effect for the marketing years for the 196Jf. and 
 1965 Crops. Whenever a wheat marketing allocation program is in 
 effect for any marketing^ year the Secretary shall determine (i) the 
 ivheat marketing allocation for such year which shall he the amount of 
 wheat he estimates will he used during such year for food products 
 for consumption in the Jjnited States and that portion of the amount 
 of wheat which he estimates will he exported in the form of wheat or 
 products thereof during the marketing year on (sic) which the Secre¬ 
 tary detemnines^ that marketing certificates shall he issued to producers 
 in order to achieve^ insofar as practicable., the price and income objec¬ 
 tives of this subtitle^ and (^) the national allocation percentage for 
 siwh year which shall he the percentage which the national marketing 
 allocation is of the national marketing quota proclaimed for the 1961^ 
 crop., less^ the expected production on the acreage allotments for farms 
 which will not he in compliance with the requirements of the program. 
 Each farm shall receive a wheat marketing allocation for such market- 
 ing year equal to the number of bushels obtained by multiplying the 
 number of acres in the farm acreage allotment for wheat by the normal 
 yield of wheat for the farm as determined by the Secretary., and multi¬ 
 plying the resulting number of bushels by the national allocation 
 percentage. (7 U.S.G. 1379b.) 
 
 [Sec. 379b as set out below is effective with respect to the crops 
 planted for harvest in the calendar year 1966 and any subsequent 
 year.] 
 
 Sec. 379b. During any marketing year for which a marketing quota 
 IS in effect for wheat, beginning with the marketing year for the 1964 
 crop, a wheat marketing allocation program shall be in effect as pro¬ 
 vided in this subtitle. Whenever a wheat marketing allocation pro¬ 
 gram is in effect for any marketing year the Secretary shall determine 
 (1) the wheat marketing allocation for such year which shall be the 
 amount of wheat which in determining the national marketing quota 
 for such marketing year he estimated would be used during such year 
 for food products for consumption in the United States,and that por¬ 
 tion of the amount of wheat which in determining sucli quota he esti- 
 niated would be exported in the form of wheat or products thereof dur¬ 
 ing the marketing year on (sic) which the Secretary determines that 
 marketing certificates shall be issued to producers in order to achieve, 
 insofar as practicable, the price and income objectives of tliis subtitle, 
 and (2) the national allocation percentage which shall be the percent¬ 
 age which the national marketing allocation is of the national market¬ 
 ing quota. Each farm shall receive a wheat marketing allocation for 
 such marketing year equal to the number of bushels obtained by mul- 
 
 7 Section 379b amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 179, approved April 11 1964 but 
 
 planted for harvest in 1964 and 1965. 
 
 Pub. L 88-297, 78 Stat. 180, approved April 11, 1964, amended the second sentence 
 of section 379b by deleting the words, “human consumption in the United States, as food, 
 food products, and beverages, composed wholly or partly of wheat” and substituted in lieu 
 thereof the language, ‘food products for consumption in the United States”, and made 
 the entire subsection, as amended, effective with respect to crops planted for harevst in 
 the calendar year 1966 and any subsequent year. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 105 
 
 tiplying the number of acres in the farm acreage allotment for wheat 
 by the normal yield of wheat for the farm as determined by the Sec¬ 
 retary, and multiplying the resulting number of bushels by the na¬ 
 tional allocation percentage. If a noncommercial wheat-producing 
 area is established for any marketing year, farms in such area shall be 
 given wheat marketing allocations which are determined by the Sec- 
 1 etary to be fair and reasonable in relation to the wheat marketing al- 
 producers in the commercial wheat-producing area. (7 
 
 U.o.C'. 13 (9b.) 
 
 MAREETING CERTIFICATES 
 
 Sec. 3(9c. (a) The Secretary shall provide for the issuance of 
 
 vneat marketing certificates for each marketing year for which a 
 wheat marketing allocation program is in effect for the purpose of en¬ 
 abling producers on any farm with respect to which certificates are is¬ 
 sued to receive, in addition to the other proceeds from the sale of 
 wheat, an amount equal to the value of such certificates. The wheat 
 marketing certificates issued with respect to any farm for any market- 
 ing year shall be in the amount of the farm wheat marketing alloca¬ 
 tion for such year, but not to exceed (i) the actual acreage of wheat 
 planted on the farm for harvest in the calendar year in which the mar¬ 
 keting year begin multiplied by the normal yield of wheat for the 
 farm, plus (ii) the amount of wheat stored under section 379c(b) or 
 to avoid or postpone a marketing quota penalty, which is released 
 from storage during the marketing year on account of underplanting 
 or undei production, and if this limitation operates to reduce the 
 amciunt of wheat marketing certificates which would otherwise be is¬ 
 sued With respect to the farm, such reduction shall be made first from 
 (he j^ount of export certificates which would otherwise be issued. 
 1 he Secretary shall provide for the sharing of wheat marketing certifi¬ 
 cates among producers on the farm on the basis of their respective 
 shares in the wheat crop prociuced on the farm, or the proceeds there¬ 
 from. Ihe Secretai^- shall, in accordance with such regulation as he 
 may prescribe, provide for the issuance of domestic marketing certifi¬ 
 cates for the portion of the wheat marketing allocation represent- 
 mg wheat used for^ food products for consumption in the United 
 btates and for the issuance of export marketing certificates for the 
 portion of the wheat marketing allocation used for exports. (7 U.S.C. 
 1379c(a).) 
 
 [The italicized language appearing in subsec. (b) is effective only 
 with respect to the crop planteci for harvest in the calendar year 1965.*] 
 
 . (b) No producer shall be eligible to receive wheat marketing cer¬ 
 tificates with respect to any farm for any marketing year in which a 
 marketing quota penalty is assessed for any commodity on such farm 
 
 amended by Pub. L. 88-279, 78 Stat. 180, approved April 11 
 ^ I sentence after the words, “(11) the amount of wheat 
 
 “under section .879c(b) or”, (2) by adding at the end of tlie seS 
 fonowlng language, “and If this limitation operates to reduce the amount 
 of ^l»eat marketing certificates which would otherwise be Issued with respect to the farm 
 
 BO otT (3) by adding a new sentence at the end of said subsection 
 
 9° amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat 180 approved Anrll 11 
 
 end thereof the Italicized portion which ffins^S tht^Srds 
 
106 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 or in which the farm has not complied with the land-use requirements 
 of section 339 to the extent prescribed by the Secretary, or in which, 
 except as the Secretary may by regulation prescribe, the producer 
 exceeds the farm acreage allotment on any other farm for any com¬ 
 modity in which he has an interest as a producer. No producer shall 
 be deemed to have exceeded a farm acreage allotment for wheat if the 
 entire amount of the farm marketing excess is delivered to the Secre¬ 
 tary or stored in accordance with applicable regulations to avoid or 
 postpone payment of the penalty. No producer shall be deemed to 
 have exceeded the farm acreage allotment for wheat on any other 
 farm, if such farm is exempt from the farm marketing quota for such 
 crop under section 335. For purposes of this section^ hut not for pur¬ 
 poses of diversion payments under subsection {h) of section S39, a pro¬ 
 ducer shall he deemed not to have exceeded the farm acreage allotment 
 for wheat if the acreage in excess of the farm acreage allotment does 
 not exceed 60 per centum of the farm acreage allotment and the 
 amount of wheat produced on the acreage in excess of the farm acre¬ 
 age allotment is stored in accordance with regulations issued hy the 
 Secretary. The amount of wheat required to he stored hereunder 
 shall he an amount equal to twice the normal yield of wheat per acre 
 established, for the farm multiplied hy the number of acres of such 
 crop of loheat on the farm in excess of the farm acreage allotment 
 for such crop unless the producer., in accordance with regulations pre- 
 scrihed hy the Secretary and within the time prescribed therein., estab¬ 
 lishes to the satisfacticn of the Secretary the actual production of such 
 crop of wheat on the farm. If such actual production is so estah- 
 lished., the amount of wheat required to he stored shall he such actual 
 production less the actual production of the farm wheat acreage allot¬ 
 ment hosed upon the average yield per acre for the entire wheat acre¬ 
 age^ on the farm: Provided however.. That the amount of wheat re¬ 
 quired to he stored shall not he larger than the amount hy which the 
 actual production so established exceeds the normal production of the 
 farm xoheat acreage allotment. At the time and to the extent of any 
 depletion in the amount of wheat so stored., except depletion resulting 
 from the release of loheat from storage on account of underplanting 
 or underproduction^ as provided below or depletion resulting from 
 some cause beyond the control of the producer., the producer shall pay 
 an amount to the Secretary equal to one and one-half times the value 
 of the wheat marketing certificates issued with respect to the farm for 
 the year in which the wheat on the acreage in excess of the allotment 
 was produced. Whenever the planted acreage of the then current 
 crop of wheat on the farm is less than the farm acreage allotment, the 
 total amount of loheat from any previous crops stored hereunder or 
 stored in order to avoid or postpone a marketing quota penalty shall he 
 reduced hy that amount which is equal to the normal production of 
 the number of acres hy which the farm acreage allotment exceeds the 
 planted^ acreage., and udienever the actual production of the acreage of 
 wheat is less than the normnl production of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment., the total amount of wheat from any previous crops stored here¬ 
 under or in order to^ avoid a marketing quota penalty shall he reduced 
 hy that am.ount which together with the actual proauction of the then 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 107 
 
 cuTvent CTO'p will equal the uottyiclI pToductiou of the fa/rTn aeveape 
 allotment. {7 U.S.G. 1379c{l)).) 
 
 (c) ®i The Secretary shall determine and proclaim for each mar¬ 
 keting year the face value per bushel of wheat marketing certificates. 
 The face value per bushel of domestic certificates shall be the amount 
 by which the level of price support for wheat accompanied by domes¬ 
 tic certificates exceeds the level of price supj^ort for wheat not accom¬ 
 panied by certificates (noncertificate wheat) ; and the face value per 
 bushel of export certificates shall be the amount by which the level of 
 price support for wheat accompanied by export certificates exceeds the 
 level of price support for noncertificate wheat. (7 U.S.C. 1379c(c).) 
 
 (d) Marketing certificates and transfers thereof shall be repre¬ 
 sented by such documents, marketing cards, records, accounts, certifi¬ 
 cations, or other statements or forms as the Secretary may prescribe. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1379c (d).) 
 
 MARKETING RESTRICTIONS 
 
 Sec. 379d. (a)^^^ Marketing certificates shall be transferable only 
 m accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary. Any 
 unused certificates legally held by any person shall be purchased by 
 Commodity Credit Corporation if tendered to the Corporation for 
 purchase in accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary. 
 (7U.S.C. 1379d(a).) 
 
 (b) During any marketing year for which a wheat marketing allo¬ 
 cation program is in effect, (i) all persons engaged in the processing of 
 wheat into food products shall, prior to marketing any such food 
 product or removing such food product for sale or consumption, 
 acquire domestic marketing certificates equivalent to the number of 
 bushels of wheat contained in such product and (ii) all persons export¬ 
 ing wheat shall, prior to such export, acquire export marketing certifi¬ 
 cates equivalent to the number of bushels so exported. In order to 
 expand international trade in wheat and wheat flour and promote 
 equitable and stable prices therefor the Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion shall, upon the exportation from the United States of any wheat 
 or wheat flour, make a refund to the exporter or allow him a credit 
 against the amount payable by him for marketing certificates, in such 
 amount as the Secretary determines will make United States wheat 
 and wheat flour generally competitive in the world market, avoid dis¬ 
 ruption of world market prices, and fulfill the international obliga¬ 
 tions of the United States. The Secretary may exempt wheat exported 
 for donation abroad and other noncommercial exports of wheat and 
 wheat processed for use on the farm where grown from the require¬ 
 ments of this subsection. Marketing certificates shall be valid to cover 
 only sales or removals for sale or consumption or exportations made 
 during the marketing year with respect to which they are issued, and 
 after being once used to cover a sale or removal for sale or consump- 
 
 igg^Subsectlon 379c (c) was amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 181, approved April 11, 
 
 “Amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 181, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
 “ Subsection (b) amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 181, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
108 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 193 8, AS AMENDED 
 
 (ion or export of a food product or an export of wheat shall be void 
 and shall be disposed of in accordance with regulations prescribed by 
 (he Secretary. Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions hereof, the 
 Secretary may require marketing certificates issued for any marketing 
 year to be accpiired to cover sales, removals, or exportations made on 
 or after the date during the calendar year in which wheat harvested in 
 such calendar year begins to be marketed as determined by the Secre¬ 
 tary even though such wheat is marketed prior to the beginning of the 
 marketing year, and marketing certificates for such marketing year 
 shall be valid to cover sales, removals, or exportations made on or after 
 the date so determined by the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 1379d(b).) 
 
 (c) Upon the giving of a bond or other undertaking satisfactory 
 to the Secretary to secure the purchase of and payment for such 
 marketing certificates as may be required, and subject to such regu¬ 
 lations as he may prescribe, any person required to have marketing 
 certificates in order to market or export a commodity may be permitted 
 to market any such commodity without having first acquired market¬ 
 ing certificates. (7 U.S.C. 1379d(c).) 
 
 (d) ®^ As used in this subtitle, the term “food products” means flour, 
 semolina, farina, bulgur, beverage, and any other product composed 
 wholly or partly of wheat which the Secretary may determine to be a 
 food product. (7 U.S.C. 1379d(d).) 
 
 ASSISTANCE IN PURCHASE AND SALE OF MARKETING CERTIFICATES 
 
 Sec. 379e. For the purpose of facilitating the purchase and sale of 
 marketing certificates, the Commodity Credit Corporation is author¬ 
 ized to issue, buy, and sell marketing certificates in accordance with 
 regulations prescribed by the Secretary. Such regulations may au¬ 
 thorize the Corporation to issue and sell certificates in excess of the 
 quantity of certificates which it purchases. Such regulations may 
 authorize the Corporation in the sale of marketing certificates to 
 charge, in addition to the face value thereof, an amount determined 
 by the Secretary to be appropriate to cover estimated administrative 
 costs in connection with the purchase and sale of the certificates and 
 estimated interest incurred on funds of the Corporation invested in 
 certificates purchased by it. (7 U.S.C. 1379e.) 
 
 CONVERSION FACTORS 
 
 Sec. 379f. The Secretary shall establish conversion factors which 
 shall be used to determine the amount of wheat contained in any food 
 product. The conversion factor for any such food product shall be 
 determined upon the basis of the weight of wheat used in the manu¬ 
 facture of such product. (7 U.S.C. 1379f.) 
 
 AUTHORITY TO FACILITATE TRANSITION 
 
 Sec. 379g. The Secretary is authorized to take such action as he 
 determines to be necessary to facilitate the transition from the pro¬ 
 gram currently in effect to the program provided for in this subtitle. 
 
 Amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 182, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 109 
 
 Notwithstanding any other provision of this subtitle, such authority 
 shall include, but shall not be limited to, the authority to exempt all or 
 a portion of the wheat or food products made therefrom in the chan¬ 
 nels of trade on the effective date of the program under this subtitle 
 from the marketing restrictions in subsection (b) of section 379d or 
 to sell certificates to persons owning such wheat or food products at 
 such prices as the Secretary may determine. Any such certificate shall 
 be issued by Commodity Credit Corporation. (7 U.S.C 1379g ) 
 
 REPORTS AND RECORDS 
 
 Sec. 379h. This section shall apply to processors of wheat, ware¬ 
 housemen and exporters of wheat and food products, and all persons 
 purchasing, selling, or otherwise dealing in wheat marketing certifi¬ 
 cates. Any such person shall, from time to time on request of the 
 Secretary, report to the Secretary such information and keep such 
 records as the Secretary finds to be necessary to enable him to carry 
 out the provisions of this subtitle. Such information shall be re- 
 ported and such records shall be kept in such manner as the Secretary 
 shall prescribe. For the purpose of ascertaining the correctness of 
 any report made or record kept, or of obtaining information required 
 to be furnished in any report, but not so furnished, the Secretary is 
 hereby authorized to examine such books, papers, records, accounts, 
 correspondence, contracts, documents, and memorandums as he has 
 reason to believe are relevant and are within the control of such person 
 (7U.S.C. 1379h.) ^ 
 
 penalties 
 
 Sec. 379i. (a) Any person who violates or attempts to violate or 
 who participates or aids in the violation of any of the provisions of 
 subsection (b) of section 379d of this Act shall forfeit to the United 
 States a sum equal to two times the face value of the marketing certifi¬ 
 cates involved in such violation. Such forfeiture shall be recoverable 
 m a civil action brought in the name of the United States. 
 
 (b) Any person, except a producer in his capacity as a producer, 
 v.ho violates or attempts to violate or who participates or aids in the 
 violation of any provision of this subtitle, or of any regulation, govern¬ 
 ing the acquisition, disposition, or handling of marketing certificates 
 or who fails to make any report or keep any record as required by 
 section 379h shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and upon 
 conviction thereof shall be subject to a fine of not more than $5 000 
 lor each violation. 
 
 . (c) Any person who, in his capacity as a producer, knowingly 
 violates or attempts to violate or participates or aids in the violation 
 of any provision of this subtitle, or of any regulation, govemino’ the 
 acquisition, disposition, or handling of marketing certificates or^fails 
 to make any report or keep any record as required by section 379h 
 shall, (i) forfeit any right to receive marketing certificates, in whole 
 or in part as the Secretary may determine, with respect to the farm 
 or farms and for the marketing year with respect to which any such 
 act or default is committed, or (ii), if such marketing certificates have 
 
 758 - 820 — 65^—9 
 
110 AGRICULTUEAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 already been issued, pay to the Secretary, upon demand, the amount of 
 the face value of such certificates, or such part thereof as the Secretary 
 may determine. Such determination by the Secretary with respect to 
 the amount of such marketing certificates to be forfeit^ or the amount 
 to be paid by such producer shall take into consideration the circum¬ 
 stances relating to the act or default committed and the seriousness 
 of such act or default. 
 
 (d) Any person who falsely makes, issues, alters, forges, or coun¬ 
 terfeits any marketing certificate, or with fraudulent intent possesses, 
 transfers, or uses any such falsely made, issued, altered, forged, or 
 counterfeited marketing certificate, shall be deemed guilty of a felony 
 and upon conviction thereof shall 1^ subject to a fine of not more than 
 $10,000 or imprisonment of not more than ten years, or both. (7 U.S.C. 
 13T9i.) 
 
 REGULATIONS 
 
 Sec. 379j. The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations as may be 
 necessary to carry out the provisions of this subtitle including but not 
 limited to regulations governing the acquisition, disposition, or han¬ 
 dling of marketing certificates. (7 U.S.C. 1379j.) 
 
 Subtitle E.— Rice Certificates 
 
 LEGISLATIVE FINDINGS 
 
 Sec 380a. to Sec. 380p. Applicable only to 1956,1957 and 1958 crops 
 of rice. 
 
 Subtitle F— Miscellaneous Provisions and Appropriations 
 
 Part I —Miscellaneous 
 
 cotton price adjustment payments 
 
 Sec. 381. (a) (Applicable only to 1937 crop of cotton.) 
 (b) (Applicable only to 1937 crop of cotton.) 
 
 ^ 0^95 * * * 
 
 Sec. 382. (Applicable only to 1937 crop of cotton.) 
 
 insurance of cotton and reconcentration of cotton 
 
 Sec. 383. (a) The Commodity Credit Corporation shall place all 
 insurance of every nature taken out by it on cotton, and all renewals, 
 extensions, or continuations of existing insurance, with insurance 
 agents who are bona fide residents of and doing business in the State 
 where the cotton is warehoused: Provided^ That such insurance may 
 be secured at a cost not greater than similar insurance offered on said 
 cotton elsewhere. (7 U.S.C. 1383(a).) 
 
 (b) Cotton held as security for any loan heretofore or hereafter 
 made or arranged for by the Commodity Credit Corporation shall not 
 hereafter be reconcentrated without the written consent of the pro¬ 
 ducer or borrower. (7 U.S.C. 1383(b).) 
 
 Repealed by Pub. L. 987, 80th Cong., 62 Stat. 1255, approved July 3, 1948. 
 

 
 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED HI 
 
 [Act of June 16, 1938.®®—In the administration of section 383(b) 
 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 the written consent of the 
 producer or borrower to the reconcentration of any cotton held as 
 security for any loan heretofore or hereafter made or arranged for by 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation shall not be deemed to have been 
 given unless such consent shall have been given in an instrument made 
 solely for that purpose. Notwithstanding any provision of any loan 
 agreement heretofore made, no cotton held under any such agreement 
 j f as security for any such loan shall be moved from one warehouse to 
 j ^ another unless the written consent of the producer or borrower shall 
 ^ have been obtained in a separate instrument given solely for that 
 ;; purpose, as required by this Act. The giving of written consent for 
 ^ the reconcentration of cotton shall not be made a condition upon the 
 I ] making of any loan hereafter made or arranged for by the Commodity 
 i • Credit Corporation: Provided^ however^ That in cases where there is 
 : - congestion and lack of storage facilities, and the local warehouse 
 _ certifies such fact and requests the Commodity Credit Corporation to 
 move the cotton for reconcentration to some other point, or when the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation determines such loan cotton is im- 
 ! properly warehoused and subject to damage, or if uninsured, or if any 
 • of the terms of the loan agreement are violated, or if carrying charges 
 J are substantially in excess of the average of carrying charges available 
 [ elsewhere, and the l(wal warehouse, after notice, declines to reduce 
 'I such charges, such written consent as provided in this amendment need 
 not be obtained; and consent to movement under any of the conditions 
 of this proviso may be required in future loan agreements. (7 IJ.S.C. 
 1383a.)] 
 
 REPORT OF BENEFITS 
 
 Sec. 384.®^ * * * 
 
 1 
 
 FINALITY OF FARMERS’ PAYMENTS AND LOANS 
 
 _ Sec. 385.®® Tlie facts constituting the basis for any Soil Conserva¬ 
 tion Act payment, parity payment, payment under section 339, loan, or 
 price support operation, or the amount thereof, when officially deter¬ 
 mined in conformity with the applicable regulations prescribed by the 
 Secreta^ or by the Commodity Credit Corporation, shall be final and 
 conclusive and shall not be reviewable by any other officer or agency 
 of the Government. In case any person who is entitled to any such 
 payment dies, becomes incompetent, or disappears before receiving 
 such payment, or is succeeded by another who renders or completes the 
 required performance, the payment shall, without regard to any other 
 provisions of law, be made as the Secretary of Agriculture may deter¬ 
 mine to be fair and reasonable in all the circumstances and provided by 
 regulations. This section also shall be applicable to payments pro- 
 f ' ifided for under section 348 of this title. (7 U.S.C. 1385.) 
 
 Sec. 386. The provisions of section 3741 of the Eevised Statutes 
 [) (U.S.C., 1934 edition, title 41j sec. 22) and sections 114 and 115 of 
 
 I' the Criminal Code of the United States (U.S.C., 1934 edition, title 
 
 f ~ 
 
 H Pub. L. 660, 75th Cong., 52 Stat. 762, approved June 16, 1938. 
 
 I, ^ Repealed by Pub. L. 615, 79th Cong., 60 Stat. 866, approved August 7, 1946 
 
 “The last sentence In section 385 was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 174. approved 
 
112 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED { 
 
 1 
 
 18, secs. 204 and 205) [now 18 U.S.C. 431 and 432] shall not be ap- * 
 plicable to loans or payments made under this Act (except under sec¬ 
 tion 383 (a)). (7U.kC.1386.) 
 
 j* 
 
 rilOTOGRAPHIC REPRODUCTIONS AND MAPS i' 
 
 Sec. 387. The Secretary may furnish reproductions of such aerial |. 
 or other photographs, mosaics, and maps as have been obtained in con- | 
 nection with the authorized work of the Department to farmers and I. 
 governmental agencies at the estimated cost of furnishing such repro- | 
 ductions, and to persons other than farmers at such prices (not less i 
 than estimated cost of furnishing such reproductions) as the Secretary I 
 may determine, the money received from such sales to be deposited in 1 
 the Treasury to the credit of the appropriation charged with the cost j 
 of making such reproductions. This section shall not affect'the power j • 
 
 of the Secretary to make other disposition of such or similar materials 
 under any other provisions of existing law. (7 U.S.C. 1387.) 
 
 UTILIZATION OF LOCAL AGENCIES 
 
 Sec. 388. (a) The provisions of section 8(b) and section 11 of the 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, relating 
 to the utilization of State, county, local committees, the extension 
 service, and other approved agencies, and to recognition and encour¬ 
 agement of cooperative associations, shall apply in the administration 
 of this Act; and the Secretary shall, for such purposes, utilize the i ■ 
 
 same local, county, and State committees as are utilized under sections ' 
 
 7 to 17, inclusive, of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment ' 
 
 Act, as amended. The local administrative areas designated under ! 
 
 section 8(b) of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, ! 
 
 as amended, for the administration of programs under that Act, and ! 
 
 the local administrative areas designated for the administration of t 
 
 this Act shall be the same. (7 U.S.C. 1388(a).) ' 
 
 (b) The Secretary is authorized and directed, from any funds made 
 available for the purposes of the Acts in connection with which county , ^ 
 committees are utilized, to make payments to county committees of I 
 farmers to cover the estimated administrative expenses incurred or to :' 
 be incurred by them in cooperating in carrying out the provisions of j 
 such Acts. All or part of such estimated administrative expenses of 
 any such committee may be deducted pro rata from the Soil Conserva¬ 
 tion Act payments, parity payments, or loans, or other payments i' 
 
 under such Acts, made unless payment of such expenses is otherwise 1 
 
 provided by law. The Secretary may make such payments to such 
 committees in advance of determination of performance by farmers. ■ 
 (7 U.S.C. 1388(b).) i. 
 
 PERSONNEL 
 
 Sec. 389. The Secretary is authorized and directed to provide for 
 the execution by the Agricultural Adjustment Administration of such 
 of the powers conferred upon him by this Act as he deems may be 
 appropriately exercised by such administration; and for such purposes 
 the provisions of law applicable to appointment and compensation of 
 
 1 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMEJSTT ACT OF 19 38, AS AMENDED 113 
 
 persons employed by the Agricultural Adjustment Administration 
 shall apply. (7 U.S.C. 1389.) ^ 
 
 SEPARABILITT 
 
 Sec. 390. If any provision of this Act, or the application thereof to 
 any person or circumstance, is held invalid, the validity of the re- 
 mamder of the Act and the application of such provision to other 
 persons or circumstances, and the provisions of the Soil Conservation 
 and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, shall not be affected thereby. 
 Without limiting the generality of the foregoing, if any provision 
 of this Act should be held not to be within the power of the Congress 
 to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, such provision shall not 
 be held invalid if it is within the power of the Congress to provide for 
 the general welfare or any other power of the Congress. If any 
 provision of this Act for the marketing quotas with respect to any com¬ 
 modity should be held invalid, no provision of this Act for marketing 
 quotas with respect to any other commodity shall be affected thereby. 
 If the application of any provision for a referendum should be held 
 mvalid, the application of other provisions shall not be affected 
 thereby. If by reason of any provision for a referendum the applica¬ 
 tion of any such other provision to any person or circumstance is 
 held invalid, the application of such other provision to other persons or 
 circumstances shall not be affected thereby. (7 U.S.C. 1390.) 
 
 Paet II—Appeopeiations and Administeativb Expenses 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS 
 
 Sec._391. (a) Beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1938, 
 there is hereby authorized to be appropriated, for each fiscal year 
 for the administration of this Act and for the making of soil con¬ 
 servation and other payments such sums as Congress may determine, 
 hi addition to any amount made available pursuant to section 15 
 of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended. 
 (7U.S.C. 1391(a).) 
 
 (b) (Applicable only to fiscal year 1938.) 
 
 (c) During each fiscal year, beginning with the fiscal year ending 
 June 30, 1941, the Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized and 
 directed to loan to the Secretary such sums, not to exceed $50,000,000, 
 as he estimates will be required during such fiscal year, to make crop 
 insurance premium advances and to make advances pursuant to the 
 applicable provisions of sections 8 and 12 of the Soil Conservation 
 and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, in comiection with pro¬ 
 grams applicable to crops harvested in the calendar year in which 
 such fiscal ^ year ends, and to pay the administrative expenses of 
 county agricultural conservation associations for the calendar year 
 in which such fiscal year ends. The sums so loaned during any fis- 
 
 «»The functions of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration were transferred to 
 
 1946 Reorganization Plan No. 3 ^ (60 Stat. 1100. 11 P.R 
 delegated by him to the Commodity Stabilization Service (19 F.R 77 ). The 
 title of the Commodity Stabilization Service was changed to Agricultural Stabiilzatlon and 
 Conservation Service (Reorganization Plan 2 of 1953, (26 F.R. 8404)) 
 
114 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 
 
 cal year shall be transferred to the current appropriation available 
 for carrying out sections 7 to 17 of such Act and shall be repaid, 
 with interest at a rate to be determined by the Secretary but not 
 less than the cost of money to the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 for a comparable period, during the succeeding fiscal year from the 
 appropriation available for that year or from any unobligated balance 
 of the appropriation for any other year. (7 U.S.C. 1391(c).) 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES 
 
 Sec. 392. (a) The Secretary is authorized and directed to make 
 such expenditures as he deems necessary to carry out the provisions 
 of this Act and sections 7 to 17, inclusive, of the Soil Conservation 
 and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, including personal serv¬ 
 ices and rents in the District of Columbia and elsewhere; traveling 
 expenses; supplies and equipment; lawbooks, books of reference, 
 directories, periodicals, and newspapers; and the preparation and dis¬ 
 play of exhibits, including such displays at community, county. State, 
 interstate, and international fairs within the United States. The 
 Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed upon the request 
 of the Secretary to establish one or more separate appropriation ac¬ 
 counts into which there shall be transferred from the respective funds 
 available for the purposes of the several Acts, in connection with 
 which personnel or other facilities of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Administration are utilized, proportionate amounts estimated by the 
 Secretary to be required by the Agricultural Adjustment Administra¬ 
 tion for administrative expenses in carrying out or cooperating in 
 carrying out any of the provisions of the respective Acts. (7 U.S.C. 
 1392(a).) 
 
 (b) In the administration of this title and sections 7 to 17, in¬ 
 clusive, of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as 
 amended, the aggregate amount expended in any fiscal year, begin¬ 
 ning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1942, for administrative 
 expenses in the District of Columbia, including regional offices, and in 
 the several States (not including the expenses of county and local com¬ 
 mittees) shall not exceed 3 per centum of the total amount available 
 for such fiscal year for carrying out the purposes of this title and such 
 Act, unless otherwise provided by appropriation or other law. In the 
 administration of section 32 of the Act entitled “An Act to amend the 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act, and for other purposes,” approved Au¬ 
 gust 24, 1935 (49 Stat. 774), as amended, and the Agricultural Mar¬ 
 keting Agreement Act of 1937, as amended, and those sections of the 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act (of 1933), as amended, which were re¬ 
 enacted and amended by the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act 
 of 1937, as amended, the aggregate amount expended in any fiscal year, 
 beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30,1942, for administrative 
 expenses in the District of Columbia, including regional offices, and in 
 the several States (not including the expenses of county and local com¬ 
 mittees) shall not exceed 4 per centum of the total amount available 
 for such fiscal year for carrying out the purposes of said Acts, unless 
 otherwise provided by appropriation or other law. In the event any 
 administrative expenses of any county or local committee are deducted 
 
AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938, AS AMENDED 115 
 
 ill any fiscal year, beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1939, 
 from Soil Conservation Act payments, parity payments, or loans, each 
 farmer receiving benefits under such provisions shall be apprised of 
 the amount or percentage deducted from such benefit payment or loan 
 on account of such administrative expenses. The names and addresses 
 of the members and employees of any county or local committee, and 
 the amount of such compensation received by each of them, shall be 
 posted annually in a conspicuous place in the area within which they 
 are employed. (7 U.S.C. 1392 (b).) 
 
 ALLOTIMENT OF APPROPRIATIONS 
 
 Sec. 393. All funds for carrying out the provisions of this Act shall 
 be available for allotment to bureaus and ofiices of the Department, 
 and for transfer to such other agencies of the Federal Grovernment, 
 and to such State agencies, as the Secretary may request to cooperate 
 or assist in carrying out the provisions of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1393.) 
 
 TITLE IV—COTTON POOL PAETICIPATION TKUST 
 
 CEKTIFICATES 
 
 [The provisions of this title have not been repealed but are no 
 longer applicable. (7 U.S.C. 1401-1407.) ] 
 
 TITLE V—FEDEKAL CKOP INSUKANCE ACT 
 
 [This title appears in Part V of this compilation.] 
 
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PART III 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT ^ 
 
 SHORT TITLE 
 
 Sec. 101. This title may be cited as the “Soil Bank Act”. (7 U.S.C. 
 1801 note.) 
 
 DECLARATION OF POLICY 
 
 Sec. 102. The Congress hereby finds that the production of ex¬ 
 cessive supplies of agricultural commodities depresses the prices and 
 income of farm families; constitutes improper land use and brings 
 about soil erosion, depletion of soil fertility, and too rapid release of 
 water from lands where it falls, thereby adversely affecting the na¬ 
 tional welfare, impairing the productive facilities necessary for a 
 continuous and stable supply of agricultural commodities, and en¬ 
 dangering an adequate supply of water for agricultural and non- 
 agricultural use; overtaxes the facilities of interstate and foreign 
 transportation; congests terminal markets and handling and process¬ 
 ing centers in the flow of commodities from producers to consumers; 
 depresses prices in interstate and foreign commerce; disrupts the 
 orderly marketing of commodities in such commerce; and otherwise 
 affects, burdens, and obstructs interstate and foreign commerce. It 
 is in the interest of the general welfare that the soil and water re¬ 
 sources of the Nation be not wasted and depleted in the production 
 of such burdensome surpluses and that interstate and foreign com¬ 
 merce in agricultural commodities be protected from excessive sup¬ 
 plies. It is hereby declared to be the policy of the Congress and the 
 purposes of this title to protect and increase farm income, to protect 
 the national soil, water, and forest and wildlife resources from waste 
 and depletion, to protect interstate and foreign commerce from the 
 burdens and obstructions which result from the utilization of farm¬ 
 land for the production of excessive supplies of agricultural com¬ 
 modities, and to provide for the conservation of such resources and 
 an adequate, balanced, and orderly flow of such agricultural com¬ 
 modities in interstate and foreign commerce. To effectuate the policy 
 of Congress and the purposes of this title programs are herein author¬ 
 ized to assist farmers to divert a portion of their cropland from the 
 production of excessive supplies of agricultural commodities, and 
 to carry out a program of soil, water, forest and wildlife conservation. 
 The activities authorized under this title are supplementary to the 
 acreage allotments and marketing quotas authorized under the Agri¬ 
 cultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, and together with such 
 acreage allotments and marketing quotas, constitute an over-all pro¬ 
 gram to prevent excessive supplies of agricultural commodities from 
 burdening and obstructing interstate and foreign commerce. (7 
 U.S.C. 1801.) ^ 
 
 ‘Approved May 28, 1956, 70 Stat. 188, as Title I of the Agricultural Act of 1956. 
 
 117 
 
118 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 Subtitle A— Acreage Keserve Program 
 
 TERMS AND CONDITIONS 
 
 Sec. 103. (a) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the 
 Secretary of Agriculture (hereinafter referred to as the “Secretary”) 
 is authorized and directed to formulate and carry out an acreage re¬ 
 serve program for the 1956, 1957, 1958, and 1959 ^ crops of wheat,® 
 cotton, com produced in the commercial corn-producing area, peanuts, 
 rice, flue-cured tobacco, hurley tobacco, Maryland tobacco, dark air- 
 cured tobacco, fire-cured tobacco, Virginia sun-cured tobacco, cigar 
 binder tobacco types 51, 52, 54, and 55, Ohio cigar filler tobacco types 
 42, 43, and 44, respectively (hereinafter referred to as “the com¬ 
 modity”), under which producers shall be compensated for reducing 
 their acreages of the commodity below their farm acreage allotments 
 or their farm base acreages, whichever may be applicable. To be eli¬ 
 gible for such compensation the producer (1) shall reduce his acreage 
 of the commodity below his farm acreage allotment or farm base acre¬ 
 age, whichever may be applicable, within such limits as the Secretary 
 may prescribe, (2) shall specifically designate the acreage so with¬ 
 drawn from the production of such commodity (hereinafter referred 
 to as the “reserve acreage”), and (3) shall not harvest any crop from, 
 or graze, the reserve acreage unless the Secretary, after certification 
 by the Governor of the State in which such acreage is situated of the 
 need for grazing on such acreage, determines that it is necessary 
 to permit grazing thereon in order to alleviate damage, hardship, or 
 sufl'ering caused by severe drought, flood, or other natural disaster, 
 and consents to such grazing. lieserve acreage of a commodity may 
 include acreage whether or not planted to the production of the 1956 
 crop of the commodity prior to the announcement of the acreage 
 reserve program for the 1956 crop if the crop thereon, if any, shall 
 be plowed under or otherwise physically incorporated into the soil, 
 or clipped, mowed, or cut to prevent maturing so that the reduction 
 in acreage of the commodity below the acreage allotment occurs not 
 later than 21 days after the enactment of this title, or by such later 
 date as may be fixed by the Secretary. The reserve acreage shall be 
 in addition to any acreage devoted to the conservation reserve pro¬ 
 gram authorized under subtitle B of this title. The acreage reserve 
 program may include such terms and conditions, in addition to those 
 specifically provided for herein, including provisions relating to con¬ 
 trol of noxious weeds on the reserve acreage, as the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines are desirable to effectuate the purposes of this title and to 
 facilitate the practical administration of the acreage reserve program. 
 
 Before any producer is entitled to receive any compensation for 
 participating in the acreage reserve program, he must first enter into 
 a contract with the Secretary, which contract, in addition to such 
 
 = See 1959 Agriculture Appropriation Act, 72 Stat. 188, approved July 13, 1958, which 
 prohibited any expenditure thereunder for an acreage reserve program for 1959 crops. 
 
 3 The Act of April 2, 1957, 71 Stat. 10, and the Act of May 1, 1958, 72 Stat. 101, 
 amended section 334 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 to add provisions relating 
 to participation in the acreage reserve program by producers receiving increased allotments 
 for durum wheat. 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 119 
 
 other terms and conditions as may be prescribed by the Secretary, 
 shall contain provisions by which such producer shall agree: 
 
 _ (i) In the event that the Secretary determines that there has been a 
 violation of the contract at any stage during the time such producer 
 has control of the farm and that such violation is of such a substantial 
 nature as to warrant termination of the contract, to forfeit all rights 
 to payments or grants under the contract, and to refund to the United 
 States all payments and grants received by him thereunder; Provided^ 
 however^ the provisions of Section 107(d) shall apply to the 
 termination of any contract hereunder. 
 
 _ (ii) In the event that the Secretary determines that there has been a 
 violation of the contract but that such violation is of such a nature as 
 not to warrant termination of the contract, to accept such payment ad¬ 
 justments, forfeit such benefits, and make such refunds to the United 
 States of payments and benefits received by him, under the contract, as 
 the Secretary may determine to be appropriate. (7 U.S.C. 1821(a).) 
 
 (b) (1) There is hereby established for 1956 and for each year for 
 which an acreage reserve program is in effect for corn a total base 
 acreage of com for the commercial corn-producing area proclaimed 
 under section 327 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, of fifty-one million acres. The total base acreage of corn for 
 the conunercial corn-producing area shall be apportioned by the Secre¬ 
 tary among the comities in such area on the basis of the acreage of corn 
 in such coimties during the five calendar years immediately preceding 
 the calendar year in which the apportionment is made (plus, in appli¬ 
 cable years, the acreage diverted under previous agricultural adjust¬ 
 ment, conservation, and soil bank programs), with adjustments for 
 abnormal weather conditions, for trends in acreage during such period 
 and for the promotion of soil-conservation practices: Provided^ That 
 any downward adjustment for the promotion of soil-conservation 
 practices shall not exceed 2 per centum of the total base acreage that 
 would otherwise be apportioned to the county. The base acreage for 
 the county shall be apportioned by the Secretary, through the local 
 committees, among the farms within the county on the basis of past 
 acreage of com (planted and diverted), tillable acreage crop-rotation 
 practices, types of soil, and topography. 
 
 (2) This subsection (b) shall become inoperative after 1956 if in 
 the referendum conducted pursuant to section 308(b), producers do 
 not vote in favor of the program provided in subsection (c) of such 
 section.^ (7U.S.C. 1821(b).) 
 
 EXTENT OF PARTICIPATION IN PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 104. For purposes of the acreage reserve program the Secretary 
 shall establish a national reserve acreage goal for the 1956,1957, 1958, 
 and 1959 crops of each commodity specified in section 103(a). The 
 limits within which individual farms may participate in the acreage 
 reserve program shall be established in such manner as the Secretary 
 
 * Corn producers voted against the price support program provided in sec. 308(c) of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1956. 
 
120 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 determines is reasonably calcnlated to acliieve the national reserve 
 acreage goal and give producers a fair and equitable opportunity to 
 participate in the acreage reserve program, taking into consideration 
 their acreage allotments or farm base acreages, whichever may be 
 applicable, the supply and demand conditions for different classes, 
 grades, and qualities of the commodity, and such other factors as he 
 deems appropriate. (7U.S.C. 1822.) 
 
 COMPENSATION OF PRODUCERS 
 
 Sec. 105. (a) Producers shall be compensated for participating in 
 the acreage reserve program through the issuance of negotiable cer¬ 
 tificates which the Commodity Credit Corporation shall redeem in 
 accordance with regulations prescribed by the Secretary (1) in cash 
 upon presentation by the producer or by any holder in due course or 
 (2) at the option of the producer in the case of certificates issued with 
 respect to grains and upon presentation by him, in grains (such grains 
 to be valued by the Secretary at such levels as he determines will not 
 materially impair the market price for such grain yet will, to the 
 maximum extent practicable encourage acceptance of payment in 
 grains in lieu of cash) : Provided^ That disposition of quantities of 
 stocks hereunder in any one year shall be limited to not more than 
 two-thirds of such quantities of such commodities as the Secretary 
 determines would be a reasonable estimate of what would have been 
 produced for marketing during such marketing year on the acreage 
 withheld from production under the provisions of this title: And 
 provided further^ That such stocks shall not be released prior to the 
 end of the normal harvesting season for the particular commodity 
 being released. Compensation under this section shall be at such rate 
 or rates as the Secretary determines will provide producers with a fair 
 and reasonable return for reducing their acreage of the commodity, 
 taking into consideration the loss of production of the commodity on 
 the reserve acreage, any savings in cost which result from not planting 
 the commodity on the reserve acreage, and the incentive necessary to 
 achieve the reserve acreage goal. The Secretary shall make an adjust¬ 
 ment in yields for drought, flood, or other al3normal conditions in 
 estimating the loss of production for purposes of establishing rates of 
 compensation. The rates of payment offered under this section shall 
 be such as to encourage producers to underplant their allotments more 
 than one year. Commodities delivered to producers in redemption of 
 such certificates shall not be eligible for tender to Commodity Credit 
 Corporation under the price support program. (7 TJ.S.C. 1823(a).) 
 
 (b) Compensation shall be paid to any producer for participating 
 in the acreage reserve program for any year including 1956 when the 
 Secretary has ascertained that such producer has complied with the 
 acreage reduction requirements of such program for such year. (7 
 U.S.C. 1823(b).) 
 
 (c) The total compensation paid producers for participatinc; in tlie 
 acreage reserve program with respect to any year’s crops shall not 
 exceed $750,000,000, and with respect to any commodity for any year 
 shall not exceed the amount shoAvn below: "Wheat,' $375,000,000; 
 cotton, $300,000,000; corn in the commercial corn-producing area. 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 121 
 
 $300,000,000; peanuts, $7,000,000; rice, $23,000,000; and tobacco, 
 $45,000,000. The total amount available for the acreage reserve pro¬ 
 gram for any year’s crops shall be apportioned among the various 
 coimnodities on the basis of the amounts required to achieve the re¬ 
 serve acreage goal for each commodity established under section 104. 
 (7U.S.C. 1823(c).) 
 
 EFFECT ON ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS AND QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 106. (a) In the future establishment of State, county, and farm 
 acreage allotments under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, or base acreages under this title, reserve acreages applicable 
 to any commodity shall be credited to the State, county, and farm as 
 though such acreage had actually been devoted to the production of 
 the commodity. (7 U.S.C. 1824(a).) 
 
 (b) In applying the provisions of paragraph (6) of Public Law 74, 
 Seventy-seventh Congress (7 U.S.C. 1340(6)), and sections 326(b) 
 and 356(g) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended 
 (^ U.S.C. 1326(b), 1356(g)), relating to reduction of the storage 
 amounts of wheat and rice, the reserve acreage of the commodity on 
 any farm shall be regarded as wheat acreage or rice acreage, as the 
 case may be, on the farm. (7 U.S.C. 1824(b).) 
 
 Subtitle B—Conservation Reserve Program 
 
 TERMS AND CONDITIONS 
 
 Sec. 107. (a) To effectuate the purposes of this title the Secretary 
 is hereby authorized to enter into contracts for periods of not less than 
 three years with producers determined by him to have control for the 
 contract period of the farms covered % the contract wherein the 
 producer shall agree: 
 
 (1) To establish and maintain for the contract period protective 
 vegetative cover (including but not limited to grass and trees), water 
 storage facilities, or other soil-, water-, wildlife-, or forest-conserving 
 uses on a specifically designated acreage of land on the farm regularly 
 used in the production of crops (including crops, such as tame hay, 
 alfalfa, and clovers, which do not require annual tillage). 
 
 (2) To devote to conserving crops or uses, or allow to remain idle, 
 throughout the contract period an acreage of the remaining land on 
 the farm which is not less than the acreage normally devoted only to 
 conserving crops or uses or normally allowed to remain idle on such 
 remaining acreage. 
 
 (3) Not to harvest any crop from the acreage established in pro¬ 
 tective vegetative cover, excepting timber (in accordance with sound 
 forestry management) and wildlife or other natural products of such 
 acreage which do not increase supplies of feed for domestic animals, 
 and except that the Secretary may, with the approval of the contract 
 signers, permit hay to be removed from such acreage if the Secretary, 
 after certification by the Governor of the State in which such acreage 
 is situated of the need for removal of hay from such acreage, deter¬ 
 mines that it is necessary to permit removal of hay from such acreage 
 
122 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 \ 
 
 ( 
 
 in order to alleviate damage, hardship, or suffering caused by severe 
 drought, flood, or other natural disaster.® 
 
 (4) Not to graze any acreage established in protective vegetative 
 cover prior to January 1, 1959, or such later date as may be provided 
 in the contract, except pursuant to the provisions of section 103(a) 
 (3) hereof; and if such acreage is grazed at the end of such period, to 
 graze such acreage during the remainder of the period covered by the 
 contract in accordance with sound pasture management. 
 
 (5) Not to adopt any practice, or divert lands on the farm from 
 conservation, woods, grazing, or other use, to any use specifled by the 
 Secretaiy in the contract as a practice or use which would tend to 
 defeat the purposes of the contract. 
 
 (6) (A) In the event that the Secretary determines that there has 
 been a violation of the contract (including the prohibition of grazing 
 on conservation acreages) at any stage during the time such producer 
 has control of the farm and that such violation is of such a suostantial 
 nature as to warrant termintion of the contract, to forfeit all rights 
 to payments or grants under the contract, and to refund to the United 
 States all payments and grants received by him thereunder. 
 
 (B) In the event that the Secretary determines tliat there has been 
 a violation of the contract but that such violation is of such a nature 
 as not to warrant termination of the contract, to accept such payment 
 adjustments, forfeit such benefits, and make such refunds to the 
 United States of payments and benefits received by him, under the 
 contract, as the Secretary may determine to be apropriate. 
 
 (7) To such additional provisions as the Secretary determines are 
 desirable and includes in the contract to effectuate the purposes of 
 this title and to facilitate the practical administration of the con¬ 
 servation reserve program, including provisions relating to control of 
 noxious weeds. (7 U.S.C. 1831 (a).) 
 
 (b) In return for such agreement by the producer the Secretary 
 shall agree: 
 
 (1) To bear such part of the cost (including labor) of establishing 
 and maintaining vegetative cover or water storage facilities, or other 
 soil-, water-, wildlife-, or forest-conserving uses, on the designated 
 acreage as the Secretary determines to be necessary to effectuate 
 the purposes of this title, but not to exceed a maximum amount per acre 
 or facility prescribed by the Secretary for the county or area in which 
 the farm is situated; and 
 
 (2) To make an annual payment to the producer for the term of 
 the contract upon determination that he lias fulfilled the provisions 
 of the contract entitling him to such payment. The rate or rates of 
 the annual payment to be provided for in the contracts shall be estab¬ 
 lished on such basis as the Secretary determines will provide producers 
 with a fair and reasonable annual return on the land established in 
 protective vegetative cover or water storage facilities, or other soil-, 
 water-, wildlife-, or forest-conserving uses, taking into consideration 
 the value of the land for the production of commodities customarily 
 grown on such kind of land in the county or area, the prevailing rates 
 
 ® Amended by the Act of July 3, 1962, 76 Stat. 135, and effective from the date of en¬ 
 actment to replace an identical amendment by the Act of June 9, 1961, 75 Stat. 129, which 
 expired by its own terms on June 29, 1962. 
 
I 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 123 
 
 t 
 
 < for cash rentals for similar land in the comity or area, the incentive 
 f necessary to obtain contracts covering sufficient acreage for the sub- 
 •f stantial accomplishment of the purposes of the conservation reserve 
 } program, and such other factors as he deems appropriate.® Such rate 
 or rates may be determined on an individual farm basis, a comity or 
 ^ area basis, or such other basis as the Secretary determines will facili¬ 
 tate the practical administration of the program. (7 U.S.C. 1831 (b).) 
 
 (c) In determining the lands in any area to be covered by contracts 
 entered into under this section, the Secretary may use advertising and 
 bid procedure if he determines that such action will contribute to the 
 effective and equitable administration of the conservation reserve 
 program. (7 U.S.C. 1831(c).) 
 
 (d) A contract shall not be terminated under paragraph (6) of 
 subsection (a) unless the nature of the violation is such as to defeat 
 or substantially impair the purposes of the contract. Whenever the 
 State committee believes that there has been a violation which would 
 warrant termination of a contract, the producer shall be given written 
 notice thereof by registered mail or certified mail or personal service, 
 and the producer shall, if he requests such an opportunity within 
 thirty days after the delivery or service of such notice, be given an 
 opportunity to show cause, in an informal proceeding before the 
 county committee under regulations promulgated by the Secretary, 
 why the contract should not be terminated. If the producer does not 
 request an opportunity to show cause why the contract should not be 
 terminated within such thirty-day period, the determination of the 
 State committee made in accordance with regulations of the Secretary 
 shall be final and conclusive. If the producer within such thirty-day 
 period requests an opportunity to show cause why the contract should 
 not be terminated, the county committee, at the conclusion of the pro¬ 
 ceeding, shall submit a report, including its recommendations, to the 
 State committee for determination, on the basis of such report and 
 such other information as is available to the State committee, as to 
 whether there has been a violation which would warrant termination 
 of the contract. The producer shall be accorded the right, in accord¬ 
 ance with regulations promulgated by the Secretary, to appear before 
 the State committee in connection with the State committee’s deter¬ 
 mination of the issue. The producer shall be given written notice by 
 registered or certified mail ^ or personal service of the State commit¬ 
 tee’s determination. If the producer feels aggrieved by such deter¬ 
 mination, he may obtain judicial review of such determination by fil¬ 
 ing a complaint with the United States district court for the district 
 in which the land covered by the contract is located, within ninety 
 days after the delivery or service of notice of such determination, re- 
 
 ^ guesting the court to set aside such determination. Service of process 
 I . in such action shall be made in accordance with the rule of service of 
 I process upon the United States prescribed by the Rules of Civil Proce- 
 I dure for the United States District Courts. The copy of the summons 
 j' and complaint required to be delivered to the officer or agency whose 
 
 • See 1960 Agriculture Appropriation Act, 73 Stat. 167, approved July 8, 1959, as 
 amended by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 606, which contains limitations on 
 payments to producers under the Conservation Reserve Program. 
 
 ’The phrase “or certified mail” was added by the Act of June 11, 1960, 74 Stat. 200. 
 
124 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 order is being attacked shall be sent to the chairman of the State com¬ 
 mittee. The action in the United States district court shall be a trial 
 de novo to determine whether there has been a violation which would 
 warrant termination of the contract. If the producer does not seek 
 judicial review of the State committee’s determination within the 
 ninety-day period allowed therefor, the State committee’s determina¬ 
 tion shall be final and conclusive. The terms “county committee” and 
 “State committee” as used herein refer to the county and State com¬ 
 mittees established under section 8 of the Soil Conservation and Do¬ 
 mestic Allotment Act, as amended. (7 U.S.C. 1831 (d).) 
 
 CONSERVATION RESERVE GOAL 
 
 Sec. 108. (a) The Secretary shall not later than February 1 of each 
 year determine and announce the national conservation reserve goal 
 for such year. Such goal shall be that percentage which the Secretary 
 determines it is practicable to cover by contracts during such year of 
 the number of acres, if any, by which (1) the acreage used for the 
 production of agricultural commodities during the year preceding the 
 year for which such determination is made, plus any acreage then in 
 the acreage or conservation reserve program or retired from produc¬ 
 tion as a result of acreage allotments or marketing quotas, exceeds (2) 
 the acreage needed during the year for which such determination is 
 made for the production of agricultural commodities for domestic 
 consumption and export and an adequate allowance for carryover. 
 As soon as practicable after the enactment of this title the Secretary 
 shall determine the national conservation acreage goal for 1956. (7 
 
 U.S.C. 1832(a).) 
 
 (b) In distributing the national acreage goal among the various 
 States and major crop production regions, the Secretary shall give due 
 regard to the respective needs of the various States and regions for 
 flood control, drought control, and other conservation benefits; the 
 desires of producers in particular States or regions to participate in 
 the conservation program; the diversion of acreage from crops under 
 acreage allotments or marketing quotas; and the need to assure ade¬ 
 quate production of agricultural commodities and products not in sur¬ 
 plus and to discourage the production of agricultural commodities and 
 products in suiqilus. (7 U.S.C. 1832 (b).) 
 
 (c) The Secretary shall transmit to the Congress on or before 
 IMarch 15 of each year a report of the scope of the conservation reserve 
 program for the preceding year and the basis for participation in such 
 program in the various States and major crop production regions of 
 the countr\L (7 U.S.C. 1832(c).) 
 
 AUTHORIZED PERIOD OF CONTILVCTS AND EXPENDITURES 
 
 Sec. 109. (a) The Secretary is authorized to fonnulate and an¬ 
 nounce programs under this subtitle B and to enter into contracts 
 thereunder with producers during the five-year period 1956-1960 to 
 be carried out during the period ending not later than December 31, 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 125 
 
 1969, except that contracts for the establishment of tree cover may 
 contmue until December 31, 1974. (7 U.S.C. 1833(a).) 
 
 (b) The period covered by any contract shall not exceed ten years, 
 except that contracts for the establishment of tree cover mav extend 
 for 15 years. (7 U.S.C. 1833(b).) 
 
 (c) In carrying out the conservation reserve program, the Secretary 
 shall not enter into contracts with producers wliich would require 
 payments to producers, including the cost of materials and services 
 m excess of $450,000,000 in any calendar year. (7 U.S.C. 1833 (c).) ’ 
 
 TERMINATION AND MODIFICATION OF CONTRACTS 
 
 Sec. 110. (a) The Secretary may treminate any contract with a 
 producer by mutual agreement with the producer if the Secretary 
 determines that such termination would be in the public interest. (7 
 U.S.C. 1834(a).) ’ 
 
 (b) The Secretary may agree to such modification of contracts 
 previously entered into as he may determine to be desirable to carry 
 out the purposes of this title and to facilitate the practicable adminis¬ 
 tration of the conservation reserve program. (7 U.S.C. 1834(b).) 
 
 CONSERVATION MATERIALS AND SERVICES 
 
 Sec. 111. (a) The Secretary may purchase or produce conservation 
 materials and services and make such materials and services available 
 to producers under the conservation reserve program to aid them in 
 establishing vegetative cover or water storage facilities, or other soil-, 
 water-, wildlife-, or forest-conserving uses, under contracts authorized 
 by tills subtitle B, may reimburse any Federal, State, or local govern¬ 
 ment agency for conservation materials and services furnished by such 
 agency, and may pay expenses necessary in making such materials, 
 and services available, includmg all or part of the cost incident to 
 
 application, or installation of materials and services.® 
 
 I Lilooo (9/).^ 
 
 X* ^ j. • 1 1 g any other provision of law, in making conser¬ 
 
 vation materials and services available to producers hereunder, the 
 secretary may make payments, in advance of determination of per- 
 lormance by the producers, to persons who fill purchase orders cover¬ 
 ing approved conservation materials or who render services to the 
 secretary in furnishing to producers approved conservation materials 
 or services for the establishment by the producers of vegetative cover 
 or water storage facilities, or other soil-, water-, wildlife-, or forest- 
 conserving uses, under contracts authorized by this subtitle B. The 
 price at which purchase orders for any conservation material or serv¬ 
 ice are filled may be limited, if the Secretary determines that it is 
 necessary in the interest of producers and the Government, to a fair 
 
 regulations prescribed by the Secretary. 
 
 U.S.G. 1835(b).) 
 
 Up® 25, 1962, 76 Slat. 107, providing for the continuation of the nroc—nm 
 
 Acf but"siLTd®scon«nuefunLf ?he ^oU Bank 
 
 758-820—65-10 
 
126 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 EFFECT ON OTHER PROGRAMS 
 
 Sec. 112. Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (1) insofar as the acreage of cropland on any farm enters into 
 the determination of acreage allotments and marketing quotas 
 under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, the 
 cropland acreage on the farm shall not be decreased during the 
 period of any contract heretofore or hereafter entered into under 
 this subtitle by reason of any action taken for the purpose of 
 carrying out such contract and, under regulations of the Sec¬ 
 retary, shall not be decreased, for such period after the expiration 
 of the contract as is equal to the period of the contract, by reason 
 of the maintenance of any change in land use from cultivated 
 cropland to permanent vegetation carried out under the contract; 
 
 (2) the acreage on any farm which is determined under regu¬ 
 lations of the Secretary to have been diverted from the production 
 of any commodity subject to acreage allotments or marketing 
 quotas in order to carry out any contract heretofore or hereafter 
 entered into under this subtitle or in order to maintain, for such 
 period after the expiration of the contract as is equal to the period 
 of the contract, any change in land use from cultivated cropland 
 to permanent vegetation carried out under the contract shall be 
 considered acreage devoted to the commodity for the purposes of 
 establishing future State, county, and farm acreage allotments 
 under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended.® 
 (7U.S.C. 1836.) 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL APPLICABILITY 
 
 Sec. 113. This subtitle B shall apply to the several States and, if 
 the Secretary determines it to be in the national interest, to the Com¬ 
 monwealth of Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands; and as used in 
 this subtitle B, the term “State” includes Puerto Rico and the Virgin 
 Islands.^® (TU.S.C. 1837.) 
 
 Subtitle C—General Provisions 
 
 compliance WITH ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS 
 
 Sec. 114. No person shall be eligible for payments or compensation 
 under this title with respect to any farm for any year in which (1) the 
 acreage of any basic agricultural commodity other than wheat or 
 com on the farm exceeds the farm acreage allotment for the commod¬ 
 ity under title III of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, or (2) in the case of a farm which is not exempted from 
 marketing quota penalties under section 335(f) of the Agricultural 
 Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, the wheat acreage on the farm 
 exceeds the larger of the farm wheat acreage allotment under such 
 title or fifteen acres, or (3) the corn acreage on the farm, in the 
 
 • Amended by Act of September 14, 1960, 74 Stat. 1030. 
 
 Amended by Act of July 12, 1960, 74 Stat. 411, 
 
 “ Subdivision (2) of Sec, 114 amended by Act of August 28, 1957, 71 Stat, 478. 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 127 
 
 case of a farm in the commercial corn-producing area, exceeds the 
 farm base acreage for com or the farm acreage allotment, whichever 
 is in effect. For the purpose of this section, a producer shall not be 
 deemed to have exceeded his farm acreage allotment or farm base 
 acreage, unless such producer knowingly exceeded such allotment or 
 base acreage and, in the case of wheat, unless such producer know¬ 
 ingly exceeded the farm acreage allotment or fifteen acres, whichever 
 is larger. 
 
 Notwithst^ding any other provision of this section—(1) no person 
 shall be ineligible to receive payments or compensation under an acre¬ 
 age reserve contract for 1958 by reason of the fact that the com acre¬ 
 age on the farm exceeds the farm acreage allotment for corn if the 
 county in which such farm is located is included in the commercial 
 corn producing area for the first time in 1958; (2) no person shall be 
 inehgible to receive payments or compensation under an acreage re¬ 
 serve contract for any year subsequent to 1958 or a conservation 
 reserve contract by reason of the fact that the corn acreage on the farm 
 exceeds the farm acreage allotment for corn if such contract was . 
 entered into prior to January 1 of the first year for which the county 
 is included in the commercial corn producing area: Provided^ That the 
 foregoing provisions of this sentence shall apply only to a farm for 
 which an “old farm” com allotment is established for such first year. 
 For purposes of this provision, a contract which has been terminated 
 by the producer under the program regulations by reason of the fact 
 that the county in which the farm is located was included in the com¬ 
 mercial corn-producing area for the first time in 1958, and which is re¬ 
 instated, shall be deemed to have been entered into as of the original 
 date of execution of such contract.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1802.) 
 
 REAPPORTIONMENT PROHIBITED 
 
 Sec. 115. No acreage diverted from the production of any com¬ 
 modity subject to acreage allotments as a result of participation in 
 the acreage reserve or conservation reserve programs shall be reappor¬ 
 tioned or allotted to any other farm. (7 U.S.C. 1803.) 
 
 CERTIFICATE OF CLAIMANT 
 
 Sec. 116. Subject to the provisions of section 105(b), payment or 
 compensation authorized by this title may be made upon the certifi¬ 
 cate of the claimant, in such form, as the Secretary may prescribe, 
 that he has complied with all requirements for such payment and 
 that the statements and information contained in the application for 
 payment are correct and true, to the best of his knowledge and belief. 
 
 (7 U.S.C. 1804.) 
 
 UTILIZATION OF LOCAL AND STATE COMMITTEES 
 
 Sec. 117. In administering this title in the continental United States, 
 the Secretary shall utilize the services of local, county, and State 
 committees established under section 8 of the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, as amended. (7 U.S.C. 1805.) 
 
 “The preceding two sentences were added by the Act of April 7, 1958, 72 Stat. 81. 
 
128 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 UTILIZATION OF OTHER AGENCIES 
 
 Sec. 118. With respect to conservation aspects of any program under 
 tliis title, the Secretary shall consult with the soil-conservation dis¬ 
 tricts, State foresters. State game and fish agencies, land-grant col¬ 
 leges, and other appropriate agencies of State governments, and with 
 the Fish and Wildlife Service, in the formulation of program provi¬ 
 sions at the State and county levels. The technical resources of the 
 Soil Conservation Service, the Forest Service, the land-^rant colleges, 
 the State foresters. State game and fish agencies, the Fish and Wild¬ 
 life Service, and other appropriate technical services shall be utilized, 
 so far as practicable, to assure coordination of conservation activities 
 and a solid technical foundation for the program. (Y U.S.C. 1806.) 
 
 UTILIZATION OF LAND USE CAPABILITY DATA 
 
 Sec. 119. In administering this title the Secretary shall utilize to the 
 fullest practicable extent land use capability data, including capa¬ 
 bility surveys as developed by the Soil Conservation Service, and shall 
 carry forward to completion as rapidly as possible the basic land 
 inventory of the Nation. (7 U.S.C. 1807.) 
 
 FINANCING 
 
 Sec. 120. (a) The Secretary is authorized to utilize the facilities, 
 services, authorities, and funds of the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 in discharging his functions and responsibilities under this title, in¬ 
 cluding payment of costs of administration for the programs author¬ 
 ized under this title; Provided^ That the Secretary shall, prior to 
 February 1, 1957, or such earlier date as may be practicable, submit to 
 the Congress a full program of all operations under this title which 
 will requii-e the making of expenditures during the fiscal year ending 
 June 30, 1958; and, after June 30, 1957, the Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration shall not make any expenditures for carrying out the pur¬ 
 poses of this title unless the Corporation has received funds to cover 
 such expenditures from appropriations made to carry out the pur¬ 
 poses of this title. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated 
 such sums as may be necessary to carry out the purposes of this title, 
 including such amounts as may be required to make payments to the 
 Corporation for its actual costs incurred or to be incurred under this 
 section. (7U.S.C. 1808(a).) 
 
 (b) All funds available for carrying out the purposes of this title 
 shall be available for transfer to such agencies of the Federal or State 
 governments as the Secretary may request to cooperate or assist in 
 carrying out this title; and for technical assistance in formulating and 
 carrying out the programs authorized by this title. The Secretary 
 may make such payments in advance of determination of performance. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1808(b).) 
 
 FINALITY OF DETERMINATIONS 
 
 Sec. 121. The facts constituting the basis for any payment or com¬ 
 pensation, or the amount thereof, authorized to be made under this 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 129 
 
 title, when officially determined in conformity with applicable regula¬ 
 tions prescribed by the Secretary, shall be final and conclusive and 
 shall not be reviewable by any other officer or agency of the Govern¬ 
 ment. In c^e any producer who is entitled to any payment or com¬ 
 pensation dies, becomes incompetent, or disappears before receiving 
 such payment or compensation, or is succeeded by another who renders 
 or completes the required performance, the payment or compensation 
 giall, without regard to any other provisions of law, be made as the 
 Secretary may detennine to be fair and reasonable in all the circum¬ 
 stances and so provide by regulations. (7 U.S.C. 1809.) 
 
 PROTECTION OF TENANTS AND SHARECROPPERS 
 
 Sec. 122. In the formulation and administration of programs under 
 this title, the Secretary shall provide adequate safeguards to protect 
 the interests of tenants and sharecroppers, including provision for 
 fair and equitable basis, in payments or compensation 
 under this title, and including such provision as may be necessary to 
 prevent them from being forced off the farm. Applications to partici¬ 
 pate in any such program shall specify the basis on which the 
 landlord, tenants, and sharecroppers are to share in such payments or 
 compensation, and no contract under any such program shall be en¬ 
 tered into unless such basis is approved by the county committee and 
 incorporated into the^ contract. The standards prescribed by the 
 Secretary for the guidance of county committees in determining 
 whether any such basis shall be approved shall include the require¬ 
 ment that consideration be given to the respective contributions which 
 would have been made by the landlord, tenants, and sharecroppers in 
 the production of the crops which would have been produced on the 
 acreage diverted from production under the contract and the basis on 
 which they would have shared in such crops or the proceeds thereof. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1810.) 
 
 penaltt for grazing or harvesting 
 
 Sec. 123. Any producer who knowingly and willfully grazes or 
 harvests any crop from any acreage in violation of a contract entered 
 into under section 103 or 107 shall be subject to a civil penalty equal 
 to 50 per centum of the compensation payable for compliance with 
 such contract for the year in which the violation occurs. Such pen¬ 
 alty shall be in addition to any amount required to be forfeited or 
 refunded under the provisions of such contract, and shall be recover¬ 
 able in a civil suit brought in the name of the United States. (7 
 U.S.C. 1811.) ^ 
 
 regulations 
 
 Sec. 124. The Secretary shall prescribe such regulations as he deter¬ 
 mines necessary to carry out the provisions of this title. (7 U.S.C. 
 1812.) ^ 
 
 PRODUCTION ON GOVERNMENT LANDS PROHIBITED 
 
 Sec. 125. The President shall, with respect to farmlands now or 
 hereafter owned by the Federal Government, restrict insofar as prac¬ 
 ticable the leasing of such lands for the production of price supported 
 
130 
 
 SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 crops in surplus supply. Nothing contained in this section shall pre¬ 
 vent the production of such crops on national wildlife refuges under 
 cooperative permits where such production is necessary to maintain 
 satisfactory wildlife populations, especially of waterfowl for bene¬ 
 ficial use. The provisions of this section shall not be applicable with 
 respect to the leasing of such farmlands to the former owners thereof 
 (7 U.S.C. 1813.) 
 
 POOLING OF CONSERVATION RESERVE LAND 
 
 Sec. 126. Wlienever management of family farms or optimum land 
 use will be aided, the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to permit 
 farmers to pool their rights to participate jointly in the conservation 
 reserve program on property other than their home farms. (7 U.S.C. 
 1814.) 
 
 COMPENSATION FOR INCORRECT INFORMATION FURNISHED UNDER 195 6 
 
 PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 127. In any case under the 1956 program in which a producer, 
 in reliance, in good faith, on incorrect or incomplete information fur¬ 
 nished to him by an authorized representative of the Secretary, entered 
 into an acreage reserve or conservation reserve contract, or took action 
 with the intention of entering into such a contract, and the producer 
 is not entitled to receive under the provisions of the program the pay¬ 
 ment which was stipulated in the contract, or which would have been 
 stipulated if a contract had been entered into, the Secretary is hereby 
 authorized, whenever he deems it desirable in order to provide fair and 
 equitable treatment to such a producer, to compensate such producer 
 for any loss suffered by him as a result of action taken for the purpose 
 of participating in the program.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1815.) 
 
 EQUITABLE TREATMENT FOR PRODUCERS PARTICIPATING IN THE SOIL BANK 
 
 PROGRAM ON THE BASIS OF INCORRECT INFORMATION FURNISHED BY THE 
 
 GOVERNMENT 
 
 Sec. 128.^® Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Secre¬ 
 tary may, to the extent he deems it desirable in order to provide fair 
 and equitable treatment, pay a producer compensation under the 
 acreage reserve or conservation reserve program which he otherwise 
 would not be entitled to receive because the contract, application there¬ 
 for, action, or conduct of the producer is— 
 
 (1) not in conformity with the provisions of the program, or 
 
 (2) less favorable to the producer than would have been the 
 case if it had been based on correct information, or 
 
 (3) based on an understanding that payment would be forth¬ 
 coming in an amount in excess of that permitted by the program 
 
 if it is established to the satisfaction of the Secretary that the con- 
 
 ” Last sentence was added by the Act of April 9, 1960, 74 Stat. 42. 
 « Sec. 127 added by the Act of May 16, 1958, 72 Stat. 118. 
 
 Sec. 128 added by the Act of September 14, 1959, 73 Stat. 552. 
 
SOIL BANK ACT 
 
 131 
 
 tract, application, action, or conduct of the producer was the result 
 of relying in good faith on the erroneous approval of such contract, 
 application, action, or conduct by, or on the erroneous advice, deter¬ 
 mination, or computation of, an authorized representative of the Sec¬ 
 retary. No contract heretofore or hereafter entered into shall be 
 modified, invalidated, or changed because of the marriage of any two 
 contracting parties. (7 U.S.C. 1816.) 
 

 
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 ►'V 
 
 ’ I ■« 
 
 -. ♦* 
 
PART IV 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT, SALES AND OTHER DISPOSAL 
 
 SUBPART A—LEGAL HISTORY AND CHARTER OF COMMODITY CREDIT 
 
 CORPORATION 
 
 LEGAL HISTORY OF COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation was created on October 17, 
 Wdd, under the laws of the State of Delaware pursuant to Executive 
 Order No. 6340, dated October 16,1933, issued by virtue of the author- 
 itj vested in the President by section 2(a) of the National Industrial 
 
 1^^) • The Act of January 31, 
 713), directed that the Corporation should “continue 
 until April 1, 1937, or such earlier date as may be fixed by the Presi¬ 
 dent by Executive Order, to be an agency of the United States.” The 
 Corporation was continued until June 30, 1948, as an agency of the 
 .^y successive amendments to the Act of January 31, 
 /K-n-Q President’s reorganization plan No. I 
 
 C-p-C- 133t, note), effective July 1,1939, the Corporation was made 
 a part of the United States Department of Agriculture, and its opera- 
 tions were placed under the supervision and control of the Secretarv 
 or Agnculture. 
 
 Corporation was originally capitalized for 
 83,000,000 subscribed by the Secretaiy of Agriculture and the Gov¬ 
 ernor of the Farm Credit Administration. The funds for such sub- 
 
 appropriation authorized by section 
 220 of the National Industrial Recovery Act (48 Stat. 210) and made 
 by the Fourth Deficiency Act, fiscal year 1933 (48 Stat. 274) In 
 accordance with the Act of April 10, 1936 (15 U.S.C. 7l3a), the 
 Corporation s capitalization was increased to $100,000,000, the addi¬ 
 tional $97,000,000 of the Corporation’s stock being acquired by the 
 Reconstruction Finance Corporation. By section 3 of the Act of 
 March 8, 1938 (15 U.S.C. 7l3a-3), the Secretary of Agriculture, the 
 Governor of the Farm Credit Administration, and the Reconstruction 
 -T inance Corporation were directed to transfer the ownership of the 
 stock of the Corporation to the United States. That section also pro- 
 vided that all rights of the United States arising out of the ownership 
 of such stock should be exercised by the President of the United States 
 or by such officers or agencies as he might designate. Executive Order 
 Ao. 8219, lulled August 7, 1939 (4 F.R. 3565), transferred to the 
 Secretary of Agriculture the authority to exercise on behalf of the 
 United States all rights arising out of the ownership of the stock of 
 tlie Commodity Credit Corporation. 
 
 The Delaware charter of the Commodity Credit Corporation au- 
 tliorized the Corporation, among other things, to engage in buying, 
 
 133 
 
134 PRICE SUPPORT, SALES AND OTHER DISPOSAL 
 
 selling, lending, and other activities with respect to agricultural com¬ 
 modities, products thereof, and related facilities. These charter 
 powers enabled the Corporation to engage in extensive operations for 
 the purpose of increasing production, stabilizing prices, assuring ade¬ 
 quate supplies, and facilitating the efficient distribution of agricultural 
 commodities, foods, feeds, and fibers. Many of the Corporation’s 
 operations were carried out in response to specific congressional man¬ 
 dates. In carrying out its operations, the Corporation was also subject 
 to certain specific limitations placed upon it by the Congress. 
 
 Section 304(b) of the Government Corporation Control Act (31 
 U.S.C. 869) required that wholly-owned Government corporations 
 incorporated imder State law be reincorporated by Act of the Con¬ 
 gress in order to continue as agencies or instrumentalities of the 
 United States after June 30, 1948. Accordingly, the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation was incorporated as a Federal corporation by the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, effective as of midnight, 
 June 30, 1948. Pursuant to the Charter Act and by appropriate ac¬ 
 tion of the boards of directors of the Delaware and the Federal cor¬ 
 porations, all the assets, funds, property, and records of the Delaware 
 corporation were transferred to the Federal corporation, and the 
 rights and duties and liabilities of the Delaware corporation were as¬ 
 sumed by the Federal corporation. The Charter Act also directed the 
 dissolution of the Delaware corporation, and the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation, a Delaware corporation, was dissolved under the laws 
 of the State of Delaware, effective as of 9 a.m., September 15,1948. 
 
 The Charter Act incorporated the Federal corporation for substan¬ 
 tially the same purposes which the Delaware corporation had served, 
 and made applicable to the Federal corporation the statutes which 
 had been applicable to the Delaware corporation. 
 
COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT ^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To Provide a Federal Charter for the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 
 hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act may 
 
 XT “Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act.” (15 
 
 U.b.C. 714 note.) 
 
 Sec. 2. Creation' and Purposes.— For the purpose of stabilizing, 
 supporting, and protecting farm income and prices, of assisting in the 
 mamtenance of balanced and adequate supplies of agricultural com¬ 
 modities, products thereof, foods, feeds, and fibers (hereinafter collec¬ 
 tively referred to as “agricultural commodities”), and of facilitating 
 the orderly distribution of agricultural commodities, there is hereby 
 created a body corporate to be known as Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion (hereinafter referred to as the “Corporation”), which shall be an 
 agency and instrumentality of the United States, within the Depart- 
 nient of Agriculture, subject to the general ^ supervision and direction 
 of the Secretary of Agriculture (hereinafter referred to as the “Sec¬ 
 retary”). (15U.S.C.714.) 
 
 Sec. 3. Offices.— The Corporation may establish offices in such 
 place or places as it may deem necessary or desirable in the conduct of 
 Its business. (15 U.S.C. 7l4a.) 
 
 Sec. 4. General Powers.— The Corporation— 
 
 (a) Shall have succession in its corporate name. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b 
 
 (cl) .) 
 
 (Id) May adopt, alter, and use a corporate seal, which shall be 
 judicially noticed. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b (b).) 
 
 (c) May sue and be sued, but no attachment, injunction, garnish¬ 
 ment or other similar process, mesne or final, shall be issued against 
 the Corporation or its property. The district courts of the United 
 States, including the districts courts of the District of Columbia and 
 of any Terriory or possession, shall have exclusive original jurisdic¬ 
 tion, without regard to the amount in controversy,^ of all suits brought 
 by or against the Corporation: Provided, That the Corporation may 
 intervene in any court in any suit, action, or proceeding in which it 
 has an interest. Any suit against the Corporation shall be brought in 
 the District of Columbia, or in the district wherein the plaintiff resides 
 or is engaged in busings. No suit by or against the Corporation shall 
 be allowed unless (1) it shall have been brought within six years after 
 the right accrued on which suit is brought, or (2) in the event that 
 the person bringing such suit shall have been under legal disability 
 or beyond the seas at the time the right accrued, the suit shall have 
 
 I Approved June 29, 1948, 62 Stat. 1070. 
 
 > Prior to amendment by the Act of June 7, 1949, 63 Stat. 154, the balance of the sen- 
 tenw read, “direction and control of Its Board of Directors.” 
 
 * This phrase was added by the Act of June 7,1949, 63 Stat. 154. 
 
 135 
 
136 
 
 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 been brought within three years after the disability shall have ceased 
 or within six years after the right accrued on which suit is brought, 
 whichever period is longer. The defendant in any suit by or against 
 the Corporation may plead^ by way of set-olf or counterclaim, any 
 cause of action, whether arising out of the same transaction or not, 
 which would otherwise be barred by such limitation if the claim upon 
 which the defendant’s cause of action is based had not been barred 
 prior to the date that the plaintiff’s cause of action arose: Frcyvided^ 
 That the defendant shall not be awarded a judgment on any such 
 set-off or counterclaim for any amount in excess of the amount of the 
 plaintiff’s claim established in the suit.^ All suits against the Cor¬ 
 poration shall be tried by the couit without a jury. Notwithstanding 
 any other provision of this Act, the Federal Tort Claims Act (Public 
 Law 601, Seventy-ninth Congress) shall be applicable to the Corpora¬ 
 tion. Any suit by or against the United States as the real party in 
 interest based upon any claim by or against the Corporation shall be 
 subject to the provisions of this subsection (c) to the same extent as 
 though such suit were by or against the Corporation,® except that (1) 
 any such suit against the United States based upon any claim of the 
 type enumerated in title 28, section 1491, of the United States Code, 
 may be brought in the United States Court of Claims, and (2) no 
 such suit against the United States may be brought in a district court 
 unless such suit might, without regard to the provisions of this Act, be 
 brought in such court. (15 U.S.C. 714b (c).) 
 
 (d) May adopt, amend, and repeal bylaws, rules, and regulations 
 governing the manner in which its business may be conducted and the 
 powers vested in it may be exercised. (15 U.o.C. 714b(d).) 
 
 (e) Shall have all the rights, privileges, and immunities of the 
 United States with respect to the right to priority of payment with 
 respect to debts due from insolvent, deceased, or bankrupt debtors. 
 The Corporation may assert such rights, privileges, and immunities 
 in any suit, action, or proceeding. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b(e).) 
 
 (f) Shall be entitled to the use of the United States mails in the 
 same manner and upon the same conditions as the executive depart¬ 
 ments of the Federal Government. (15 U.S.C. 714b(f).) 
 
 (g) May enter into and carry out such contracts or agreements as 
 are necessary in the conduct of its business. State and local regu¬ 
 latory laws or rules shall not be applicable with respect to contracts 
 or agreements of the Corporation or the parties thereto to the extent 
 that such contracts or agreements provide that such laws or rules 
 shall not be applicable, or to the extent that such laws or rules are 
 inconsistent with such contracts or agreements. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b (g).) 
 
 (h) May contract for the use, in accordance with the usual customs 
 of trade and commerce, of plants and facilities for the physical han¬ 
 dling, storage, processing, servicing, and transportation of the agri¬ 
 cultural commodities subject to its control.® The Corporation shall 
 
 ^ This and the preceding sentence were substituted by the Act of .Tune 7, 1949, R.S Stat. 
 154, for the sentence re.ading “No suit by or against the Corporation shall be allowed 
 unless it shall have been brought within four years after the right accrued on which suit 
 is brought.” 
 
 ® The balance of the sentence was added by the Act of June 7, 1949, 63 Stat. 154. 
 
 ® The balance of subsection (h) was substituted for previous language by the Act of 
 June 7, 1949, 63 Stat. 154. 
 
COMMODITY CflEDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 137 
 
 have power to acquire personal property necessary to the conduct 
 of its DiisiiiGss but slicill not htivo powor to ciccjuirG rGal property or 
 any interest therein except that it may (a) rent or lease office space 
 necessary for the conduct of its business and (b) acquire real prop¬ 
 erty or any interest therein for the purpose of providing storage ade¬ 
 quate to carry out effectively and efficiently any of the Corporation’s 
 programs, or of securing or discharging obligations owing to the 
 Corporation, or of otherwise protecting the financial interest of the 
 Corporation: Provided ^the authority contained in this subsec¬ 
 tion (h) shall not be utilized by the Corporation for the purpose of 
 acquiring real property, or any interest therein, in order to provide 
 storage facilities for any commodity unless the Corporation deter¬ 
 mines that existing privately owned storage facilities for such com- 
 modity in the area concerned are not adequate: Provided furthev^ 
 That no refrigerated cold storage facilities shall be constructed or 
 purchased except with funds specially provided by Congress for 
 that purpose: And provided further, That nothing contained in this 
 subsection (h) shall limit the duty of the Corporation, to the maxi¬ 
 mum extent practicable consistent with the fulfillment of the Cor- 
 portation’s purposes and the effective and efficient conduct of its 
 business, to utilize the usual and customary channels, facilities, and 
 arrangements of trade and commerce in the warehousing of com¬ 
 modities: And provided further, That to encourage the storage of 
 gram on farms, where it can be stored at the lowest cost, the Cor¬ 
 poration shall make loans to grain growers needing storage facilities 
 when such gi’owers shall apply to the Corporation for financing the 
 construction or purchase of suitable storage, and these loans shall 
 be deducted from the proceeds of price support loans or purchase 
 agreements made between the Corporation and the growers.^ Not¬ 
 withstanding any other provision of law, the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation is authorized, upon terms and conditions prescribed or 
 approved by the Secretary of Agriculture, to accept strategic and 
 critical materials produced abroad in exchange for agricultural com- 
 inodities acquired by the Corporation.® Insofar as practicable, in 
 effecting such exchange of goods, normal commercial trade channels 
 shall be utilized and priority shall be given to commodities easily 
 storable_ and those which serve as prime incentive goods to stimulate 
 production of critical and strategic materials. The determination of 
 the quantities and qualities of such materials which are desirable for 
 stockpiling and the detennination of which materials are strategic 
 and critical shall be made in the manner prescribed by section 2 of 
 the Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act (60 Stat. 596). 
 Strategic and critical materials acquired by Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration in exchange for agricultural commodities shall, to the extent 
 
 See pec. 417 of the Agricultural Act of lfl49 relating to loans bv the Banks for Co¬ 
 operatives to cooperative associations to finance construction of structures for storage of 
 ngricultural commodities if Commodity Credit Corporation has agreed to lease or guarantee 
 utilization of 7.’) percent of the storage space. 
 
 * See also sec. .10.^ of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 
 sec. 20fi of the Agricultural Act of 1956, and sec. 41G of the Agricultural Act of 1949 
 relating to barters and exchanges of agricultural commodities owned by Commodity Credit 
 Corporation for strategic and other materials. Strategic materials may also be acquired 
 Vnlipurchase, using foreign currencies accruing under Title I) and sec 
 104(g) (in payment of loans to promote multilateral trade and economic development) of 
 the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954. 
 
138 
 
 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 approved by the Munitions Board of the Department of Defense,® 
 be transferred tD the stock pile provided for by the Strategic and 
 Critical Materials Stock Piling Act; and when transferred to the 
 stock pile the Commodity Credit Corporation shall be reimbiu*sed 
 for the strategic and critical materials so transferred to the stock pile 
 from the funds made available for the purpose of the Strategic and 
 Critical Materials Stock Piling Act, in an amount equal to the fair 
 market value, as determined by the Secretary of the Treasury,^® of 
 the material transferred to the stock pile. Nothing contained herein 
 shall limit the authority of the Commodity Credit Corporation to 
 acquire, hold, or dispose^ of such quantity of strategic and critical 
 materials as it deems advisable in carrying out its functions and pro¬ 
 tecting its assets. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b(h).) 
 
 (i) May borrow money subject to any provision of law applicable 
 to the Corporation: Provided^ That the total of all money fctrrowed 
 by the Corporation, other than trust deposits and advances received 
 on sales, shall not at any time exceed in the aggregate $14,500,000,- 
 000.11 Corporation shall at all times reserve a sufficient amount 
 of its authorized borrowing power which, together with other funds 
 available to the Corporation, will enable it to purchase, in accordance 
 with its contracts with lending agencies, notes, or other obligations 
 evidencing loans made by such agencies under the Corporation’s 
 programs. (15U.S.C.Yl4b(i).) 
 
 (j) Shall determine the character of and the necessity for its obli¬ 
 gations and expenditures and the manner in which they shall be 
 incurred, allowed, and paid. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b(j).) 
 
 (k) Shall have authority to make final and conclusive settlement 
 and adjustment of any claims by or against the Corporation or the 
 accounts of its fiscal officers. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b(k).) 
 
 (l) May make such loans and advances of its funds as are neces¬ 
 sary in the conduct of its business. (15 U.S.C. 7l4b (1).) 
 
 (m) Shall have such powers as may be necessary or appropriate 
 for the exercise of the powers specifically vested in the Corporation, 
 and all such incidental powers as are customary in corporations gen¬ 
 erally ; but any research financed by the Corporation shall relate to 
 the conservation or disposal of commodities owned or controlled by 
 the Corporation and shall be conducted in colaboration with research 
 agencies of the Department of Agriculture. (15 U.S.C. 714b(m).) 
 
 Sec. 5. Specific Powers.— In the fulfillment of its purposes and 
 in carrying out its annual budget programs submitted to and ap¬ 
 proved by the Congress pursuant to the Government Corporation 
 Control Act (31 U.S.C. 841-871), the Corporation is authorized to 
 use its general powers only to— 
 
 (a) Support the prices of agricultural commodities through 
 loans, purchases, payments, and other operations. 
 
 » “Department of Defense” substituted for “National Military Establishment” by the 
 Act of August 10, 1949, 63 Stat. 578, 591. 
 
 «This function was transferred to the Administrator of General Services, by sec. 102 
 of the Act of .Tune 30, 1949, 63 Stat. 380, 5 U.S.C. 630a. 
 
 “Borrowing power increased from .$4,750,000,000 to $6,750,000,000 by the Act of 
 June 28, 1950, 64 Stat. 261 ; to $8,500,000,000 by the Act of March 20, i954, 68 Stat. 
 30; to $10,000,000,000 by the Act of August 31. 19.54, 68 Stat. 1047 ; to $12,000,000,000 
 by the Act of August 11, 1955, 69 Stat. 634; and to $14,500,000,000 by the Act of August 
 1,1956, 70 Stat. 783. 
 
COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 139 
 
 (b) Make available materials and facilities required in con¬ 
 nection with the production and marketing of agricultural 
 commodities. 
 
 (c) Procure agricultural commodities for sale to other Gov¬ 
 ernment agencies, foreign governments, and domestic, foreign, or 
 international relief or rehabilitation agencies, and to meet do¬ 
 mestic requirements. 
 
 (d) Remove and dispose of or aid in the removal or disposition 
 of surplus agricultural commodities. 
 
 (e) Increase the domestic consumption of agricultural com¬ 
 modities by expanding or aiding in the expansion of domestic 
 markets or by developing or aiding in the development of new and 
 additional markets, marketing facilities, and uses for such 
 commodities. 
 
 (f) Export or cause to be exported, or aid in the development 
 of foreign markets for, agricultural commodities. 
 
 _ (g) Carry out such other operations as the Congress may spe¬ 
 cifically authorize or provide for. 
 
 In the Corporation’s purchasing and selling operations with respect 
 to agricultural commodities (except sales to other Government agen¬ 
 cies), and in the warehousing, transporting, processing, or handling 
 of agricultural commodities, the Corporation shall, to the maximum 
 extent practicable consistent with the fulfillment of the Corporation’s 
 purposes and the effective and efficient conduct of its business, utilize 
 the usual and customary channels, facilities, and arrangements of 
 trade and commerce.^^ (15 U.S.C. 7l4c.) 
 
 Sec. 6. Existing Statutes Applicable to the Corporation. —The 
 Federal statutes applicable to Commodity Credit Corporation, a 
 Delaware corporation, shall be applicable to the Corporation. Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation, a Delaware corporation, shall cease to 
 be an agency of the United States as provided in section 7(a) of the 
 Act of January 31, 1935, as amended (15 U.S.C., 1940 edition, Supp. 
 V, 713(a)). (15 U.S.C. 7l4d.) 
 
 Sec. 7. Capital Stock.— The Corporation shall have a capital stock 
 of $100,000,000 which shall be subscribed by the United States. Such 
 subscription shall be deemed to be fully paid by the transfer of assets 
 to the Corporation pursuant to section 16 of this Act. The Cor¬ 
 poration shall pay interest to the United States Treasury on the 
 amount of its capital stock, and on the amount of the obligations of 
 the Corporation purchased by the Secretary of the Treasury pursuant 
 to the Act of March 8, 1938 (U.S.C., title 15, sec. 713a-4), as 
 amended, at such rates as may be determined by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury to be appropriate in view of the terms for which, such 
 amounts are made available to the Corporation. (15 U.S.C. 7l4e.) 
 
 Sec. 8. Funds. —The Corporation is authorized to use in the con¬ 
 duct of its business all its funds and other assets, including capital 
 and net earnings therefrom, and all funds and other assets which 
 have been or may hereafter be transferred or allocated to, borrowed 
 by, or otherwise acquired by it. (15 U.S.C. 714f.) 
 
 “ For similar policy statement with regard to Commodity Credit Corporation’s opera¬ 
 tions, see p. 327, Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, sec. 402. 
 
140 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 Sec. 9. Directors, .Vdvisory Doard.— (a) The iiianagenient of the 
 Corporation shall be vested in a board of directors (hereinafter re¬ 
 ferred to as the “Board”) 5 subject to the general supervision and 
 direction of the Secretary. The Secretary shall be an ex officio di¬ 
 rector and shall serve as Chairman of the Board. The Board shall 
 consist of six members (in addition to the Secretary), who shall be 
 appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate. In addition to their duties as members of the Board, such 
 appointed members shall perform such other duties as may be pre¬ 
 scribed by the Secretary. Each appointed member of the Board 
 shall receive compensation at such rate not in excess of the maximum 
 then payable mider the [Classification Act of 1949],^^ as may be 
 fixed by the Secretary, except that any such member who holds an¬ 
 other office or position under the Federal Government the compensa¬ 
 tion for which exceeds such rate may elect to receive compensation 
 at the rate provided for such other office or position in lieu of the 
 compensation provided by this section. A majority of the director 
 shall constitute a quorum of the Board and action shall bo taken only 
 by a majority vote of those present. (15 U.S.C. 714g(a).) 
 
 (b) In addition to the Board of Directors there shall be an advisory 
 board reflecting broad agricultural and business experience in its 
 membership and consisting of five members Avho shall be appointed 
 by the President, and who shall serve at the pleasure of the Presi¬ 
 dent. Not more than three of such members shall belong to the 
 same political party. The advisory board shall meet at the call of 
 the Secretary, who shall require it to meet not less often than once 
 each ninety days; shall survey the general policies of the Corpora¬ 
 tion, including its policies in connection with the purchase, storage, 
 and sale of commodities, and the operation of lending and price- 
 support programs; and shall advise the Secretary with respect 
 thereto. Members of the advisory board shall receive for their serv¬ 
 ices as members compensation of not to exceed $50 per diem when 
 actually engaged in the performance of their duties as such, together 
 with their necessary traveling expenses while going to and coming 
 from meetings.^* (15 U.S.C. 714g(b).) 
 
 Sec. 10. Personnel of Corporation. —The Secretary shall appoint 
 such officers and employees as may be necessary for the conduct of the 
 business of the Corporation, define their authority and duties, dele¬ 
 gate to them such of the powers vested in the Corporation as he may 
 determine, require that such of them as he may designate be bonded 
 and fix the penalties therefor. The Corporation may pay the pre¬ 
 mium of any bond or bonds. With the exception of experts, appoint¬ 
 ments shall be made pursuant to the civil service laws and the 
 [Classification Act of 1949].^® (15 U.S.C. 7l4h) 
 
 Sec. 11. Cooperation With Other Government Agencies.— 
 The Corporation may, with the consent of the agency concerned, 
 accept and utilize, on a compensated or uncompensated basis, the 
 
 I’As orijrinally enacted, secs. 9 and 10 referred to the Classification Act of 192.^, as 
 amended, which was repealed and superseded by the Classification Act of 1949 (approved 
 October 28, 1949, 63 Stat. 954 ; .5 U.S.C. 1071). 
 
 The provisions of this section were substituted for the previous provisions by the Act 
 of .Tune 7, 1949, 63 Stat. 154, 155. 
 
 “The provisions of this section were substituted for the previous provisions by the Act 
 of June 7, 1949, 63 Stat. 154, 156. 
 
COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 141 
 
 facilities, and information of any agency 
 of the Federal Government, including any bureau, office, administra- 
 
 n I?epartment of Agriculture, and of any 
 fetate, the District of Columbia, any Territory or possession, or any 
 political subdivision thereof. The Corporation may allot to anv 
 bureau office, administration, or other agency of the Department of 
 Agriculture or transfer to such other agencies as it may request to 
 assist It in the conduct of its business any of the funds available to it 
 for ac^imstrative expenses. The personnel and facilities of the Cor¬ 
 poration m^, with the consent of the Corporation, be utilized on 
 a reimbursable basis by any agency of the Federal Government, in¬ 
 cluding any bureau, office, administration, or other agency of the De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture, in the performance of any part or all of 
 the functions of such agency. (15 U.S.C. 7l4i.) 
 
 feEC. 12. Utilization or Associations and Trade Facilities _The 
 
 Corporation may, in the conduct of its business, utilize on a contract 
 committecs OT associations of producers, producer-owned 
 (15 U S c" cooperative associations, and trade facilities. 
 
 Sec. 13. Eecords; Annual Eeport.— The Corporation shall at all 
 aimuaUv accurate books of account and shall file 
 
 the of Agriculture a complete report as to 
 
 bv tirSpprpif Corporation, a copy of which shall be forwarded 
 
 tt to 
 
 Sec 14. Interest of Members of the Congress.— The provisions 
 ^ Act of February 27, 1877, as amended (41 U.S.C., 
 
 to all contracts or agreements of the 
 o^oept contracts or agreements of a kind which the Cor¬ 
 poration may enter into with farmers participating in a program of 
 the Corporation. (15 U.S.C. 714?.) ^ ^ ^ a pzogram oi 
 
 Sec. 15. Crimes and Offenses.— 
 
 false statements; overvaluation of securities 
 
 evir ^t^te^ent knowing it to be false, or who- 
 
 i^anv !vnv ^curity, for the purpose of influencing 
 
 tainbL fm-S ® the Corporation, or for the purpose of oh- 
 
 taming foi himself or another, money, property, or anvthinp- of 
 
 Ro •atio'n'‘'Xnl7‘® applicable to^the Cor- 
 
 S than iln’nnr" be punished by a fine of not 
 
 orbotl^ c 
 
 embezzlement, and so forth; false entries; fraudulent issue of 
 
 OBLIGATIONS OF CORPORATION 
 
 tion^or^'?nv connected in any capacity with the Corpora- 
 
 wnifidlv r embezzles, abstracts, purloins, or 
 
 I'a IP money, fmds, securities, or other things of 
 
 ^alue, vhefher belonging to the Corporation or pledged or other- 
 vise entrusted to it; or (ii) with intent to defraud the Corporation, 
 
 75S-820—65-11 ^ ’ 
 
142 COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 
 
 or any other body, politic or corporate, or any individual, or to de¬ 
 ceive any officer, auditor, or examiner of the Corporation, makes any 
 false entry in any book, report, or statement of, or to, the Corpora¬ 
 tion, or draws any order, or issues, puts forth or assigns any note or 
 other oblization or draft, mortgage, judgment, or decree thereof; or 
 (iii) with intent to defraud the Corporation, participates or shares 
 in, or receives directly or indirectly any money, proht, property, or 
 benefits through any transaction, loan, commission, contract, or any 
 other act of the Corporation, shall, upon conviction thereof, be pun¬ 
 ished by a fine of not more than $10,000 or by imprisonment for not 
 more than five years, or both. (15 U.S.C. 7l4m (b).) 
 
 larceny; conversion of property 
 
 (c) Whoever shall willfully steal, conceal, remove, dispose of, or 
 convert to his own use or to that of another any property owned or 
 held by, or mortgaged or pledged to, the Corporation, or any property 
 mortgaged or pledged as security for any promissory note, or other 
 evidence of indebtedness, which the Corporation has guaranteed or 
 is obligated to purchase upon tender, shall, upon conviction thereof, 
 if such property be of an amount or value in excess of $500, be pun¬ 
 ished by a fine of not more than $10,000 or by imprisonment for not 
 more than five years, or both, and, if such property be of an amount 
 or value of $500 or less, be punished by a fine of not more than $1,000 
 or by imprisonment for not more than one year, or both.^® (15 U.S.C. 
 714m (c).) 
 
 CONSPIRACY TO COMMIT OFFENSE 
 
 (d) Wlioever conspires with another to accomplish any of the acts 
 made unlawful by the preceding provisions of this section shall, upon 
 conviction thereof, be subject to the same fine or imprisonment, or 
 both, as is applicable in the case of conviction for doing such unlawful 
 acts. (15 U.S.C. 714m(d).) 
 
 GENERAL STATUTES APPLICABLE 
 
 (e) All the general penal statutes relating to crimes and offenses 
 against the United States shall apply with respect to the Corpora¬ 
 tion, its property, money, contracts and agreements, employees, and 
 operations: Provided^ That such general penal statutes shall not apply 
 to the extent that they relate to crimes and offenses punishable under 
 subsections (a), (b), (c), and (d) of this section: Provided further^ 
 That sections 114 and 115 of the Act of March 4, 1909, as amended 
 (18 U.S.C., 1940 edition, 204, 205), shall not apply to contracts or 
 agreements of a kind which the Corporation may enter into with 
 farmers participating in a program of the Corporation. (15 U.S.C. 
 714m(e).) 
 
 USE OF WORDS “COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION” 
 
 (f) No individual, association, partnership, or corporation shall 
 use the words “Commodity Credit Corporation” or any combination 
 
 “ Substituted for original provisions of this subsection by the Act of August 1, 1956, 
 Stat. 783. 
 
COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION CHARTER ACT 143 
 
 of the same, as the name or a part thereof under which he or it shall 
 do or purport to do business. Eve^ individual, partnership, asso¬ 
 ciation, or corporation violating this prohibition shall be guilty of 
 a misdemeanor and shall be punished by a fine of not more than 
 
 imprisonment for not more than one year, or both 
 (15U.S.C.7l4m(f).) ’ 
 
 ^c. 16. Transfer of Assets of Commodity Credit Corporation 
 A Delaware Corporahon.— The assets, funds, property, and records 
 01 Commodity Credit Corporation, a Delaware corporation, are here¬ 
 by transferred to the Corporation. The rights, privileges, and pow- 
 6r^ and. th.6 duties and liabilities of Coniniodity Credit Corporation 
 ft Delaware corporation, in respect to any contract, agreement, loan! 
 account, or other obligation shall become tlie rights, privileges, and 
 power^ and the duties and liabilities, respectively, of the Corpora¬ 
 tion. ^ The enforceable claims of or against Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration, a Delaware corporation, shall become the claims of or 
 may be enforced by or against, the Corporation: Pro- 
 'vmed^ That nothing in this Act shall limit or extend any period of 
 Junitation otherwise applicable to such claims against the Corpora¬ 
 tion. (15 U.S.C. 7l4n.) ^ 
 
 Sec. 17. Dissolution of Delaware Corporation.— The Secretary 
 
 Agriculture, representing the United States as the sole owner of 
 the capital stock of Comrnodity Credit Corporation, a Delaware cor¬ 
 poration, IS hereby authorized and directed to institute or cause to be 
 instituted such proceedings as are required for the dissolution of said 
 Corporation under the laws of the State of Delaware.^® The costs of 
 such dissolution of said Corporation shall be borne by the Coruora- 
 tion. (15 U.S.C. 7l4o.) 
 
 Sec. 18. Effective Date. —This Act shall take effect as of midnio-ht 
 June 30, 1948. (15 U.S.C. 714 note.) 
 
 Sec. 19. Release of Innocent Purchasers of Converted Goods.— 
 A buyer in the ordinary course of business of fungible goods hereto¬ 
 fore or hereafter sold and physically delivered by a warehouseman or 
 other dealer who was regularly engaged in the business of buying and 
 selling such goods shall take or be deemed to have taken such goods 
 free of any claim, existing or hereafter arising, by Commodity Credit 
 Corporation, based on the want of authority in the seller to sell such 
 goods, provided the buyer purchased such goods for value in good 
 faith and did not know or have reason to know of any defect in the 
 sellers authority to sell such goods. To be entitled to relief under 
 this section a buyer must assert as an affirmative defense and establish 
 by a preponderance of the evidence the facts necessary to entitle him 
 to such relief.^» (15 U.S.C. 7l4p.) 
 
 added by the Act of June 7„ 1949, 63 Stat. 154, 157. 
 T. ® Delaware Corporation was dissolved under the laws of 
 effective 9 a.m.. September 15, 1948. 
 
 Sec. 19 added by the Act of May 23, 1955, 69 Stat. 65. 
 
 the State of Delaware, 
 
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SUBPART B—PRICE SUPPORT 
 EXPLANATORY NOTE 
 
 support directly to producers was first made available in 
 lydd by loans to cotton and corn producers by the Commodity Credit 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 (Section 
 3Uz{), the Congress enacted the first comprehensive legislation dealino- 
 with price support. Additional legislation thereafter included • "" 
 
 The Act of April 3, 1941 (55 Stat. 90; 7 U.S.C. 1359) (providing 
 for loans on peanuts). 
 
 'r amended (55 Stat. 203, 55 Stat. 860; 
 
 7 U.S.C. 13o0, 1340) (providing for loans on basic commodities 
 through the 1946 crop). 
 
 amended (55 Stat. 498, 56 
 Stat. 768; 15 U.S.C. 7l3a—8) (the so-called “Steagall amendment”, 
 which provided that if the Secretary of Agriculture issued an an¬ 
 nouncement requesting the expansion of production of a non-basic 
 agricultural commodity, he should provide price support on such 
 commodity for two years after World War II). 
 
 ^ Stabilization Act of 1942, as amended (56 Stat. 
 
 <67, 58 Stat. 643, 58 Stat. 784; 50 U.S.C. App. 968) (providing for 
 loans on basic commodities for two years after World War II) 
 
 The Act of July 28, 1945 (59 Stat. 506; 7 U.S.C. 1312 note) ’(pro¬ 
 viding for loans on tobacco). 
 
 ir August 5,1947, as amended (61 Stat. 769, 62 Stat. 1248; 
 
 ‘j? i^ote) (providing for price support on wool). 
 
 Much of this legislation expired with the termination of the war- 
 / succeeded by the Agricultural Act of 1948 
 
 (62 Stat. 1247). The Agricultural Act of 1949 (7 U.S.C. 1421) 
 superseded or repealed prior legislation, effective for the 1950 and 
 subsequent crop years. The Agricultural Act of 1954, the Agricul¬ 
 tural Act of 1956, and the Agricultural Act of 1958 (72 Stat. 988) 
 made significant changes in the 1949 Act which have been incorporated 
 therein in this compilation. 
 
 The Agricultural Act of 1961 and the Food and Agriculture Act 
 of 1962 made significant changes with respect to wheat and feed 
 grains. 
 
 Public Uaw 88—297, approved April 11, 1964, made important 
 changes with respect to cotton and wheat, and Public Law 88-26, 
 
 approved May 20, 1963, made certain changes with respect to feed 
 grams. 
 
 The Commodity Credit Corporation is the chief instrumentality in 
 making price support available to producers. Export and surplus 
 remoA^al programs operated under Section 32 of Public Law 320, 
 <4th Congress, are also at times utilized as a means of price support. 
 
 145 
 
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 Mfiv ht^Aufi: ^esihi^tM 
 
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 Tk. (o .’*11^. :>#<- >tU ^ 
 
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 -stm ifM muiiCKVT.'i^ t‘^^v \iv3f*^ ili. 
 
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AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 ^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To stabilize prices of agricultural commodities. 
 
 the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United btates of America in Congress assemhled. That this Act may 
 be cited as the “Agricultural Act of 1949.” (7 U.S.C. 1421 note.) 
 
 TITLE I—BASIC AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 101. The Secretary of Agriculture (hereinafter called the “Sec- 
 reta^ ) is authorized and directed to make available through loans, 
 purchases, or other operations, price support to cooperators for any 
 crop 01 any basic agricultural commodity, if producers have not dis¬ 
 approved marketing quotas for such crop, at a level not in excess of 
 90 per centum of the parity price of the commodity nor less than the 
 level provided in subsections (a), (b), and (c) as follows: 
 
 I or tobacco (except as otherwise provided herein), corn, and 
 ^ar^is • percentage as of the beginning of the marketing 
 
 Not more than 102_ 
 
 More than 102 but not more than 104, 
 More than 104 but not more than 106. 
 More than 106 but not more than 108. 
 More than 108 but not more than 110. 
 More than 110 but not more than 112 
 More than 112 but not more than 114. 
 More than 114 but not more than 116. 
 More than 116 but not more than 118. 
 More than 118 but not more than 120. 
 More than 120 but not more than 122. 
 More than 122 but not more than 124. 
 More than 124 but not more than 126. 
 More than 126 but not more than 128. 
 More than 128 but not more than 130. 
 More than 130_ 
 
 The level of support shall 
 he not lesH than the 
 following percentage of 
 the parity price: 
 
 - 90 
 
 - 89 
 
 - 88 
 
 - 87 
 
 - 86 
 
 - 85 
 
 - 84 
 
 - 83 
 
 - 82 
 
 - 81 
 
 - 80 
 
 - 79 
 
 - 78 
 
 - 77 
 
 - 76 
 
 - 75 
 
 For ri(^ of the 1959 and 1960 crops, the level of support shall be 
 not less than 75 per centum of the parity price. For rice of the 1961 
 crop the level of support shall be not less than 70 per centum of the 
 parity price. For the 1962 and subsequent crops of rice the level 
 Tj shall be not less than 65 per centum of the parity price.® 
 (7 U.o.C. 1441(a).) 
 
 ‘ Approved October 31, 1949, 63 Stat. 1051. 
 
 — ® sul^ectlon was amended by sec. 302 of the Agricultural Act of 1958 72 Stnt 904 
 
 FO? St l"eVt?ng 
 
 '958, 72 Stat. 904, 
 
 147 
 
148 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 (b) For cotton and peanuts, if the supply percentage as of the 
 beginning of the marketmg year is: 
 
 The level oj support shall 
 be not less than the 
 following percentage of 
 the parity price: 
 
 Not more than 108_ 00 
 
 More than 108 but not more than 110_ 89 
 
 More than 110 but not more than 112_ 88 
 
 More than 112 but not more than 114_ 87 
 
 More than 114 but not more than 116_ 86 
 
 More than 116 but not more than 118_ 85 
 
 More than 118 but not more than 120_ 84 
 
 More than 120 but not more than 122_ 83 
 
 More than 122 but not more than 124_ 82 
 
 More than 124 but not more than 125_ 81 
 
 More than 125 but not more than 126_ 80 
 
 More than 126 but not more than 127_ 79 
 
 More than 127 but not more than 128_ 78 
 
 More than 128 but not more than 129_ 77 
 
 More than 129 but not more than 130_ 76 
 
 More than 130_ 75 
 
 (7U.S.C. 1441(b).) 
 
 (c) For tobacco, if marketing quotas are in effect, the level of sup¬ 
 port shall be 90 per centum of the parity price.^ (7 U.S.C. 1441 (c).) 
 
 (d) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this section— 
 
 (1) if producers have not disapproved marketing quotas for 
 such crop, the level of support to cooperators shall be 90 per 
 centiun of the parity price for the 1950 crop of any basic agri¬ 
 cultural commodity for which marketing quotas or acreage allot¬ 
 ments are in effect; 
 
 (2) if producers have not disapproved marketing quotas for 
 such crop, the level of support to cooperators shall be not less 
 than 80 per centum of the parity price for the 1951 crop of any 
 basic agricultural commodity for which marketing quotas or 
 acreage allotments are in effect; 
 
 (3) the level of price support to cooperators for any crop of 
 a basic agricultural commodity, except tobacco, for which mar¬ 
 keting quotas have been disapproved by producers shall be 50 per 
 centum of the parity price of such commodity; and no price sup¬ 
 port shall be made available for any crop of tobacco for which 
 marketing quotas have been disapproved by producers; 
 
 6 * * H* * 
 
 (5) price support may be made available to noncooperators at 
 such levels, not in excess of the level of price support to coopera¬ 
 tors, as the Secretary determines will facilitate the effective oper¬ 
 ation of the program. 
 
 (6) ® Except as provided in subsection (c) and section 402, the 
 level of support to cooperators shall be not more than 90 per 
 
 * See sec. 106 of this title. 
 
 s Subsec. (4) was repealed, effective with the 1959 crop, by sec. 201 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 993. 
 
 * Prior to amendment by subsec. 201(a) of the Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 899. 
 par. (6) (added by the Act of July 17, 1952, 66 Stat. 758, 759) read: “The level of support 
 of cooperators shall be 90 per centum of the parity price for the 1953 and 1954 crops of 
 any basic agricultural commodity with respect to which producers have not disapproved 
 marketing quotas.” 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 149 
 
 centum of the parity price for 
 the 1955 crop of any basic agricultural commodity with respect 
 producers have not disapproved marketing quotas; 
 withm such hmits, the minimum level of support shall be fixed 
 as provided m subsections (a) and (b) of this section. 
 
 (7) ^ Where a State is designated under section 335(e) of the 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, as outside the 
 commercial wheat-producing area for any crop of wheat, the 
 level 01 price support for wheat to cooperators in such State for 
 such crop of wheat shall be 75 per centum of the level of price 
 
 ^ commercial wheat-producing area. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1441(d).) ^ 
 
 8 * * * 
 
 (f) The provisions of this Act relating to price support for cotton 
 shall apply severally to (1) American upland cotton and (2) extra 
 mng staple cotton described in subsection (a) and ginned as required 
 
 ^ 347 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 
 ot 1938, as amended, except that, notwithstanding any of the fore¬ 
 going provisions of section 101 of this Act, the level of support to 
 cooperators for the 1957 and each subsequent crop of extra lono- 
 staple cotton, if producers have not disapproved marketing quotas 
 tfieretor, shall not exceed the same per centum of the parity price as 
 tor the 1956 crop and shall be determined after consideration of the 
 tactors specified in section 401(b) and the price levels for similar 
 qualities of cotton produced outside the United States: Provided, 
 1 fiat such level of price support shall be not less than 60 per centum 
 ot the parity price. Disapproval by producers of the quota pro- 
 c aimed under such section 347 shall place into effect the provisions 
 ot section 101(d) (3) of this Act with respect to the extra long staple 
 cotton descnbed in subsection (a) of such section 347. Nothing con- 
 tamed herein shall affect the authority of the Secretary under section 
 402 to make support available for extra long staple cotton in accord¬ 
 ance with such section 402.® (7 U.S.C. 1441(f).) 
 
 A section was added by sec. 101 of the Agricultural 
 
 Act ot 1958, 72 Stat. 989, but was applicable only to the 1959 and 1960 
 crops of cotton. See p. 131 of Agriculture Handbook No. 192.] 
 
 * slc^' 101 Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 899. 
 
 Stat 7 ^ repealed by the Act of February 20, 1960, 74 
 
 A- continued in effect sec. 2 of the Act of Julv 28 194^ «« 
 
 i “Sec. 2. Notwithstanding any other provision of law 
 cron^*t?°^nvi^ authorized and directed, beginning with the 1945 
 
 cfirpH available upon any crop of fire-cured, dark air-cured and Virginia sun- 
 
 producers have not disapproved marketing quotas for such tobacco for 
 the marketing year beginning with the calendar year in whlk such crop is harvested 
 Support at, in the case of fire-cured tobacco, 75 per centum of the 
 nTff corresponding crop and, in the case of dark air-cured 
 
 ®u°-cared tobacco, at 66% per centum of such burley tob^co loan rate • 
 
 1958 crop, the levels of support for such Mndt of 
 90^npr°no!!f/\ exceed the higher of (a) the level applicable to the 1957 crop or (b) 
 parity price.” (59 Stat. 506; 7 U.S.C. 1312 note.) ^ ^ 
 
 20 1 QRO 1945, as amended, was also repealed by the Act of February 
 
 However, sec. 106 was added to this title by the Act of February 20 1960 and 
 
 tobacco for 1960 and subsequent years^ 
 of Jo’y 1^- 1952, 66 Stat. 758, 759. Thrfi?st sLtence 
 
 7rsfaT2ran“d^the'lctof of 25. 1957, 
 
150 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 1961 AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS (COTTON) 
 
 Sec. 103.^° (a) Notwithstanding the provisions of section 101 of this 
 Act, price support to cooperators for each crop of upland cotton, begin¬ 
 ning with the 1961 crop, for which producers have not disapproved 
 mariieting quotas shall be at such level not more than 90 per centum 
 of the parity price therefor nor less than the minimum level pre¬ 
 scribed below as the Secretary determines appropriate after consid¬ 
 eration of the factors specified in section 401(b) of this Act. For 
 the 1961 crop the minimum level shall be 70 per centum of the parity 
 price therefor, and for each subsequent crop the minimum level shall 
 be 65 per centum of the parity price theref or: Provided^ That the price 
 support for the 1964 crop shall be a national average support price 
 which reflects 30 cents per pound for Middling one-inch cotton. Price 
 support in the case of noncooperators and in case marketing quotas are 
 disapproved shall be as provided in section 101(d) (3) and (5). 
 
 (b) If producers have not disapproved marketing quotas, the Sec¬ 
 retary shall provide additional price support on the 1964 and 1965 
 crops of upland cotton to cooperators on whose farms the acreage 
 planted to upland cotton for harvest does not exceed the farm domestic 
 allotment established under section 350 of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act of 1938, as amended. Such additional support shall be at a level 
 up to 15 per centum in excess of the basic level of support established 
 under subsection (a) and shall be provided on the normal yield of the 
 acreage planted for harvest within the farm domestic allotment. 
 
 (c) In order to keep upland cotton to the maximum extent practi¬ 
 cable in the normal channels of trade, any additional price support 
 under subsection (b) of this section may be carried out through the 
 simultaneous purchase of cotton at the support price therefor under 
 subsection (b) and the sale of such cotton at the support price therefor 
 under subsection (a) or similar operations, including loans under 
 which the cotton would be redeemable by payment of the amount for 
 which the cotton would be redeemable if the loan thereon had been 
 made at the support price for such cotton under subsection (a), or 
 payments-in-kind through the issuance of certificates which the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation shall redeem for cotton under regulations 
 issued by the Secretary. If such additional support is provided 
 through the issuance of payment-in-kind certificates, such certificates 
 shall have a value per pound of cotton equal to the difference between 
 the level of support established under subsection (a) and the level of 
 support established imder subsection (b). The corporation may, 
 under regulations prescribed by the Secretary, assist the producers 
 and persons receiving payment-in-kind certificates under this section 
 and section 348 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as 
 amended, in the marketing of such certificates at such time and in 
 such manner as the Secretary determines will best effectuate the pur¬ 
 poses of the program authorized by this section and such section 348. 
 In the case of any certificate not presented for redemption with thirty 
 
 M Sec. 130 added bv sec. 102 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 980, and amended 
 by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 174, approved April 11, 1964, (1) by Inserting (a) before 
 the first sentence, (2) by adding the proviso after the second sentence, and (3) by adding 
 new subsecs, (b) and (c). 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 151 
 
 days of the date of its issuance, reasonable costs of storage and other 
 carrying charges as determined by the Secretary for the period begin¬ 
 ning thirty days after its issuance and ending with the date of its 
 presentation for redemption shall be deducted from the value of the 
 certificate. (7U.S.C. 1444.) 
 
 REFERENDUM (CORN) 
 
 Sec. 104.11 (a) (Applicable only to the referendum conducted in 
 i.yDo .) 
 
 (h) * * * 
 
 SPECIAL COTTON RESEARCH PROGRAM 
 
 (c) 12 The Secretary of Agriculture is hereby authorized and di¬ 
 rected to conduct a special cotton research program designed to reduce 
 the cost of producing upland cotton in the United States at the 
 earliest practicable date. There are hereby authorized to be appropri¬ 
 ated such sums, not to exceed $10,000,000 annually, as may be necessary 
 for the Secretary to carry out this special research program. The 
 Secr^ary shall report annually to the Committee on Agriculture of 
 House of Representatives and to the Committee on Agriculture 
 
 Senate with respect to the results of such research. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1441 note.) 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 1959 AND SUBSEQUENT TEARS (CORN AND FEED GRAINS) 
 
 Notwithstanding the provisions of section 101 of 
 this Act, beginning with the 1964 crop, price support shall be made 
 available to producers for each crop of corn at such level, not less than 
 50 per c^tim or more than 90 per centum of the parity price there- 
 for, as ^e Secretary determines will not result in increasing Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation stocks of corn: Provided, That in the case 
 of any crop for which an acreage diversion program is in effect for feed 
 pains, the level of price support for corn of such crop shall be at such 
 Jevel not less than 65 per centum or more than 90 per centum of the 
 j^rity price therefor as the Secretary determines necessary to achieve 
 
 apeage reduction ^oal established by him for the crop. 
 
 n the 1959 crop, price support shall be made 
 
 available to producers for each crop of oats, rye, barley, and grain 
 sorghums at such level of the parity price therefor as the Secretary of 
 Agriplture determines is fair and reasonable in relation to the level 
 at which price support is made available for corn, taking into con- 
 
 cultifra^®Act^f^l958^72^«!/J 201 of the Agri- 
 
 <2 Stat. 993, provided for a referendum in 1958 of corn producer"? to 
 
 Rupport program as provided in sec. 105 in Heu of^rice 
 the^sA* K acreage allotments. A majority of producers voted for 
 
 there^der^and^cr?-lirTail^ment«^nrt^ 1959 crop, price support was made available 
 liched mpto -T allotments and a commercial corn producing area was not estnh- 
 
 llBhed. This section also repealed subsec. 101(d)(4) of this Act, eLcUve with 1959 
 
 88-297, 78 Stat. 174, approved April 11 1904 
 subsec. (a) was added by Pub. L. 88-26, 77 Wat. 44, approved May 20 
 
 of 1962 ® 7 fl previously amended by sec. 305 of the Food and AgrlcultX Act 
 
 14 OK approved September 27, 1962. -abUKunure Act 
 
 aubsec. (b) was added by the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 993. 
 
152 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 sideration the feeding value of such commodity in relation to com, 
 and the other factors set forth in section 401(b) hereof. 
 
 (c) Notwithstanding any other provision of law— 
 
 (1) [This subsection was added by the Act of March 22, 1961, 
 72 Stat. 994, and is applicable only to the 1961 crops of com and 
 grain sorghums. See p. 155 of Agriculture Handbook 242.] 
 
 (2) [This subsection was added by the Act of March 22, 1961, 
 72 Stat. 994, and is applicable only to the 1961 crops of corn, grain 
 sorghmns and any other feed grains. See p. 155 of Agriculture 
 Handbook 242.] 
 
 (3) [This subsection was added by the Agricultural Act of 
 1961, 75 Stat. 301, and is applicable only to the 1962 crops of corn, 
 grain sorghums, and barley. See p. 156 of Agriculture Hand¬ 
 book 242.] 
 
 (4) [This subsection was added by the Agricultural Act of 
 1961, 75 Stat. 301, and is applicable only to the 1962 crops of corn, 
 grain sorghums and barley. See p. 156 of Agriculture Handbook 
 242.] 
 
 (5) [This subsection was added by the Food and Agriculture 
 Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 612, and is applicable only to the 1963 crops 
 of com, grain sorghums and barley. See p. 157 of Agriculture 
 Handbook 242.] 
 
 (6) [This subsection was added by the Food and Agriculture 
 Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 612, and is applicable only to the 1963 crops 
 of corn, grain sorghums and barley. See p. 157 of Agriculture 
 Handbook 242.] 
 
 (d) The provision of this subsection shall be applicable with 
 respect to the 1964 crop and the 1965 crop of feed grains if an acreage 
 diversion program is in effect under section 16(h) of the Soil Con¬ 
 servation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended. The Secretary 
 shall require as a condition of eligibility for price support on the crop 
 of any feed grain which is included in the acreage diversion program 
 that the producer shall participate in the diversion program to the 
 extent prescribed by the Secretary, and, if no diversion program is 
 in effect for the 1964 crop or the i965 crop, he may require as a con¬ 
 dition of eligibility for price support on such crop of feed grains that 
 the producer shall not exceed his feed grain base: Provided^ That the 
 Secretary may provide that no producer of malting barley shall be 
 required as a condition of eligibility for price support for barley to 
 participate in the acreage diversion program for feed grains if such 
 producer has previously produced a malting variety of barley, plants 
 barley only of an acceptable malting variety for harvest, does not 
 knowingly devote an acreage on the farm to barley in excess of 110 
 per centum of the average acreage devoted on the farm to barley in 
 1959 and 1960, does not knowingly devote an acreage on the farm to 
 com and grain sorghums in excess of the average acreage devoted on 
 the farm to com and grain sorghums in 1959 and 1960, and does not 
 devote any acreage devoted to the production of oats and rye in 1959 
 and 1960 to the production of wheat pursuant to the provisions of 
 
 Subsec. (c) was added by the Act of March 22, 1961, 72 Stat. 994. 
 
 Subsec. (d) added by Pub. L. 88-26, 77 Stat. 44, approved May 20, 1963. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 153 
 
 section 328 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962. Such portion 
 of the support price for any feed grain included in the acreage diver¬ 
 sion program as the Secretary determines desirable to assure that the 
 benefits of the price support and diversion programs inure primarily 
 to those producers who cooperate in reducing their acreages of feed 
 grains shall be rnade available to producers through payments in kind. 
 Such payments in kind shall be made on the number of bushels of such 
 feed grain determined by multiplying the actual acreage of such feed 
 gram planted on the farm for harvest by the adjusted average yield 
 per acre. The base period used in determining such adjusted average 
 yield shall be the same as that used for purposes of the acreage diver¬ 
 sion program formulated under section 16(h) of the Soil Conserva¬ 
 tion and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended. The Secretary may 
 make not to exceed 50 per centum of any payments heremider to pro¬ 
 ducers in advance of determination of performance. Such payments 
 in land shall be made through the issuance of negotiable certificates 
 which the Commodity Credit Corporation shall redeem for feed grains 
 (such feed grains to be valued by the Secretary at not less than the 
 current support price minus that part of the current support price 
 made available through payments in kind, plus reasonable carrying 
 charges) and, notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation shall, in accordance with regulations pre¬ 
 scribed by the Secretary, assist the producer in the marketing of such 
 certificat^. In the case of any certificate not presented for redemp¬ 
 tion within thirty days of the date of its issuance, reasonable costs of 
 storage and other carrying charges, as determined by the Secretary, 
 for the period beguming thirty days after its issuance and ending with 
 the date of its presentation for redemption shall be deducted from 
 the value of the certificate. The Secretary shall provide for the shar¬ 
 ing of such certificates among the producers on the farm on the basis 
 of their respective shares in the crop produced on the farm with re¬ 
 spect to which such certificates are issued, or the proceeds therefrom. 
 If the operator of the farm elects to participate in the acreage diver¬ 
 sion program, price support for feed grains included in the program 
 shall be made available to the producers on such farm only if such 
 producers divert from the production of such feed grains in accord¬ 
 ance with the provisions of such program an acreage on the farm equal 
 to the number of acres which such operator agrees to divert, and the 
 agreement shall so provide. (7 U.S.C. 1441 note.) 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 1960 AND SUBSEQUENT TEARS (TOBACCO) 
 
 Sec. 106.1^ Notwithstanding any of the provisions of section 101 of 
 this Act: (a) For the 1960 crop of any kind of tobacco for which 
 marketing quotas are in effect, or for which marketing quotas are not 
 disapproved by producers, the support level in cents per pound shall 
 be the level at which the 1959 crop of such kind of tobacco was sup¬ 
 ported, or if marketing quotas were disapproved for the 1959 crop 
 of such kind of tobacco, the level at which the 1959 crop of such kind 
 of tobacco would have been supported if marketing quotas had been in 
 
 ” Sec. 106 added by the Act of February 20, 1960, 74 Stat. 6. 
 Act for price support on tobacco prior to 1960. 
 
 See footnote 8 of this 
 
154 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 effect, (b) For the 1961 crop and each subsequent crop of any kind 
 of tobacco for which marketing quotas are in effect, or for which 
 marketing quotas are not disapproved by producers, the support level 
 in cents per pound shall be determined % adjusting the support level 
 for the 1959 crop of such kind of tobacco, or if marketing quotas were 
 disapproved for the 1959 crop of such kind of tobacco, the level at 
 which the 1959 crop of such kind of tobacco would have been sup¬ 
 ported if marketing quotas had been in effect, by multiplying such 
 support level for the 1959 crop by the ratio of (i) the average of the 
 index of prices paid by farmers, including wage rates, interest, and 
 taxes, as defined in section 301(a) (1) (C) of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended, for the three calendar years immedi¬ 
 ately preceding the calendar year in which the marketing year begins 
 for the crop for which the support level is being determined to (ii) the 
 average index of such prices paid by farmers, including wage rates, 
 interest, and taxes for the calendar year 1959. (7 U.S.C. 1445.) 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 1962 CROP (WHEAT) 
 
 [Sec. 123 of the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 296. See p. 158 
 of Agriculture Handbook 242.] 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 196 3 CROP (WHEAT) 
 
 [Sec. 306 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 614. 
 See p. 159 of Agriculture Handbook 242.] 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR 19 64 AND SUBSEQUENT YEARS (WHEAT) 
 
 Sec. 107.^® Notwithstanding the provisions of section 101 of this 
 Act, beginning with the 1964 crop— 
 
 (1) Price support for wheat accompanied by domestic certifi¬ 
 cates shall be at such level not less than 65 per centum or more 
 than 90 per centum of the parity price therefor as the Secretary 
 determines appropriate, taking into consideration the factors 
 specified in section 401 (b). 
 
 (2) Price support for wheat accompanied by export certifi¬ 
 cates shall be at such level not more than 90 per centum of the 
 parity price therefor as the Secretary determines appropriate, 
 taking into consideration the factors specified in section 401(b). 
 
 (3) Price support for wheat not accompanied by marketing 
 certificates shall be at such level, not in excess of 90 per centum 
 of the parity price therefor, as the Secretary determines appropri¬ 
 ate, taking into consideration competitive world prices of wheat, 
 the feeding value of wheat in relation to feed grains, and the 
 level at which price support is made available for feed grains. 
 
 (4) Price support shall be made available only to cooperators; 
 and, if a commercial wheat-producing area is established for such 
 
 “For special provisions on durum wheat, see sec. 334(j) of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act of 1938, as amended. 
 
 « Sec. 107 was added by sec. 325 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 631, 
 and was amended by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 182, approved April 11, 1964. 
 
 See sec. 379c of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, on p. 105. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OP 1949 155 
 
 cpp, price support shall be made available only in the commer¬ 
 cial wheat-producing area. 
 
 (5) Effective with respect to crops planted for harvest in the 
 calendar year 1966 and any subsequent year, the level of price sup¬ 
 port for any prop of wheat for which a national marketing quota 
 is not proclaimed or for which marketing quotas have been dis¬ 
 approved by producers shall be as provided in section 101. 
 
 (6) A “cooperator” with respect to any crop of wheat produced 
 on a farm shall be a producer who (i) does not knowingly exceed 
 (A) the farm acreage allotment for wheat on the farm or (B) 
 except as the Secretary may by regulation prescribe, the farm 
 acreage allotment for wheat on any other farm on which the 
 producer shares in the production of wheat, and (ii) complies 
 with the land-use requirements of section 339 of the Agricultural 
 Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, to the extent prescribed by 
 the Secretary. Effective with respect to crops planted for harvest 
 in the calendar year 1966 and any subsequent year, if marketing 
 quotas are not in effect for the crop of wheat, a “cooperator” with 
 respect to any crop of wheat produced on a farm shall be a pro¬ 
 ducer who does not knowingly exceed the farm acreage allotment 
 for wheat. No producer shall be deemed to have exceeded a farm 
 acreage allotment for wheat if the entire amount of the farm 
 marketing excess is delivered to the Secretary or stored in accord¬ 
 ance with applicable regulations to avoid or postpone payment 
 of the penalty, but the producer shall not be eligible to receive 
 price support on such marketing excess. No producer shall be 
 deemed to have exceeded the farm acreage allotment for wheat 
 on any other farm, if such farm is exempt from the farm market- 
 ing quota for such crop under section 335. No producer shall be 
 deemed to have exceeded a farm acreage allotment for wheat if 
 the production on the acreage in excess of the farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment is stored pursuant to the provisions of section 3Y9c(b), but 
 the producer shall not be eligible to receive price support on the 
 wheat so stored. (7 U.S.C. 1445a.) 
 
 TITLE II—DESIGNATED NONBASIC AGRICULTUEAL 
 
 COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 201. The Secretary is authorized and directed to make avail¬ 
 able (without regard to the provisions of title III) price support to 
 producers for tung nuts, honey,^2 milk, butterfat, and the products 
 
 of milk and butterfat as follows: 
 
 21 * * ♦ 
 
 (b) The price of tung nuts and honeyrespectively, shall be sup¬ 
 ported through loans, purchases, or other operations at a level not 
 
 Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 899 (p. 173) deleted the reference to 
 ^ repealed subsec. (a), which provided for price support on, 
 
 wool, effective April 1, 1955. Bep:inning on that date, price support on wool has been 
 “ 954 ® “ ® VII—National Wool Act of 1954 of the Agricultural Act of 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 899, deleted references to potatoes 
 1 Q. 5 A® subsection (b) and repealed section 5 of the Act of March 31, 
 
 ^ff t. prohibited price support on Irish potatoes unless marketipg quotas were In 
 
156 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 in excess of 90 per centum nor less than 60 per centum of the parity 
 price therefor: Provided^ That in any crop year in which the Sec¬ 
 retary determines that the domestic production of tung oil will be less 
 than the anticipated domestic demand for such oil, the price of tung 
 nuts shall be supported at not less than 65 per centum of the parity 
 price therefor; 
 
 (c) The price of whole milk, butterfat, and the products of such 
 commodities, respectively, shall be supported at such levels not in 
 excess of 90 per centum nor less than 75 per centum of the parity 
 price therefor as the Secretary determines necessary in order to as¬ 
 sure an adequate supply. Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, 
 for the period beginning with the enactment of this sentence and end¬ 
 ing March 31, 1961, the price of milk for manufacturing purposes 
 and the price of butterfat shall be supported at not less than $3.22 
 per hundredweight and 59.6 cents per pound, respectively. Such 
 price support shall be provided through loans on, or purchases of, 
 milk and the products of milk and butterfat, and for the period end¬ 
 ing March 31, 1956, surplus stocks of dairy products owned by the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation may be disposed of by any methods 
 determined necessary by the Secretary. For tlie period beginning 
 September 1,1954, and ending June 30,1955, not to exceed $50,000,000, 
 and for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1956, not to exceed $60,000,000, 
 and for each of the two fiscal years in the period beginning July 1, 
 1956, and ending June 30, 1958, not to exceed $75,000,000, of the funds 
 of the Community Credit Corporation shall be used to increase the 
 consumption of fluid milk by children in (1) nonprofit schools of 
 high-school grade and under; and in (2) nonprofit nursery schools, 
 child-care centers, settlement houses, summer camps, and similar non¬ 
 profit institutions devoted to the care and training of children.^^ (7 
 U.S.C. 1446.) 
 
 TRANSFER OF DAIRY PRODUCTS TO MILITARY AND VETERANS HOSPITALS 
 
 Sec. 202. [This section appears on p. 217 in the section entitled 
 “Donations.”] 
 
 Sec. 203. 'VYlieneyer the price of either cottonseed or soybeans is 
 supported under this Act, the price of the other shall be supported at 
 such level as the Secretary determines will cause them to compete on 
 equal terms on the market.^® (7 U.S.C. 1446d.) 
 
 TITLE III—OTHER NONBASIC AGRICULTURAL 
 
 COMMODITIES 
 
 Sec. 301. The Secretary is authorized to make available through 
 loans, purchases, or other operations price support to producers for 
 
 2’ Proviso added by sec. 503 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 996. 
 
 The provisions of subsec. (c) were substituted for the previous provisions by sec. 204 
 (b) of the Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 899. The last sentence was substituted by 
 the Act of July 20, 1956, 70 Stat. 596, for the previous provision. A new sentence was 
 added after the first sentence by the Act of September 16, 1960, 74 Stat. 1054. 
 
 For authority with respect to similar milk donation provisions In subsequent years 
 see p. 218. 
 
 “ Sec. 203 added by sec. 601 of the Agricultural Act of 1956, 70 Stat. 212. See also 
 sec. 420 of this Act. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 157 
 
 any nonbasic agricultural commodity not designated in title II at 
 a level not in excess of 90 per centum of the parity price for the 
 commodity. (7U.S.C. 1447.) 
 
 Sec. 302. Without restricting price support to those commodities for 
 which a marketing (juota or marketing agreement or order program 
 IS in effect, price support shall, insofar as feasible, be made available 
 
 storable nonbasic agricultural commodity for 
 which such a program is in effect and who are complying with such 
 program. The level of such support shall not be in excess of 90 per 
 centum of the parity price of such commodity nor less than the level 
 provided in the following table: 
 
 ^ If the supply percentage as of the beginning of the marketing year 
 
 IS • 
 
 Not more than 102_ 
 
 More than 102 but not more than 104_' 
 More than 104 but not more than 106 
 More than 106 but not more than 108_. 
 More than 108 but not more than 110. 
 More than 110 but not more than 112_. 
 More than 112 but not more than 114_. 
 More than 114 but not more than 116. 
 More than 116 but not more than 118_. 
 More than 118 but not more than 120_. 
 More than 120 but not more than 122_. 
 More than 122 but not more than 124_. 
 More than 124 but not more than 126. 
 More than 126 but not more than 128_. 
 More than 128 but not more than 130. 
 More than 130_ 
 
 The level of support shall 
 he not less than the 
 following percentage of 
 the parity price: 
 
 - 90 
 
 - 89 
 
 - 88 
 
 - 87 
 
 - 86 
 
 - 85 
 
 - 84 
 
 - 83 
 
 - 82 
 
 - 81 
 
 - 80 
 
 - 79 
 
 - 78 
 
 - 77 
 
 - 76 
 
 - 75 
 
 Provided^ That the level of price support may be less than the mini¬ 
 mum level provided in the^ foregoing table if the Secretary, after 
 examination of the availability of funds for mandatory price support 
 consideration of the other factors specified in section 
 
 that such lower level is desirable and proper. (7 
 U.S.C. 1448.) ' 
 
 Sec. 303. In determining the level of price support for any nonbasic 
 agricultural commodity under this title, particular consideration shall 
 be given to the levels at which the prices of competing agricultural 
 commodities are being supported. (7 U.S.C. 1449.) 
 
 TITLE IV—MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 SUPPORT THROUGH CCC 
 
 Stc. 401. (a) The Secretary shall provide the price support au¬ 
 thorized or required herein through the Commodity Credit Corpo¬ 
 ration and other means available to him. (7 U.S.C. 1421(a).) 
 
 grown on diverted acreage for 1964 and 1965, see sec. 
 iS<i9(e) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended (p. 67). 
 
 758-820—65 
 
 12 
 
158 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 FACTORS 
 
 (b) Except as otherwise provided in this Act, the amounts, terms, 
 and conditions of price support operations and the extent to which 
 such operations are carried out, shall be determined or approved by 
 the Secretary. The following factors shall be taken into considera¬ 
 tion in determining, in the case of any commodity for which price 
 support is discretionary, whether a price-support operation shall be 
 undertaken and the level of such support and, in the case of any com¬ 
 modity for which price support is mandatory, the level of support in 
 excess of the minimum level prescribed for such commodity: (1) the 
 supply of the commodity in relation to the demand therefor, (2) the 
 price levels at which other commodities are being supportea and, in 
 the case of feed grains, the feed values of such grains in relation to 
 corn, (3) the availability of funds, (4) the perishability of the com¬ 
 modity, (5) the importance of the commodity to agriculture and the 
 national economy, (6) the ability to dispose of stocks acquired through 
 a price-support operation, (7) the need for offsetting temporary losses 
 of export markets, (8) the ability and willingness of producers 
 to keep supplies in line with demand, and (9),^^ in the case of upland 
 cotton, changes in the cost of producing such cotton. (7 U.S.C. 
 1421(b).) 
 
 COMPLIANCE WITH ACREAGE ALLOTMENTS, GOALS, AND MARKEITNG 
 
 PRACTICES 
 
 (c) Compliance by the producer with acreage allotments, produc¬ 
 tion goals and marketing practices (including marketing quotas when 
 authorized by law), prescribed by the Secretary, may be required as a 
 condition of eligibility for price support. In administering any pro¬ 
 gram for diverted acres the Secretary may make his regulations appli¬ 
 cable on an appropriate geographical basis. Such regulations shall be 
 administered (1) in semiarid or other areas where good husbandry 
 requires maintenance of a prudent feed reserve in such manner as to 
 permit, to the extent so required by good husbandry, the production 
 of forage crops for storage and subsequent use either on the farm or in 
 feeding operations of the farm operator, and (2) in areas declared to 
 be disaster areas by the President under Public Law 875, Eighty-first 
 Congress, in such manner as will most quickly restore the normal 
 pattern of their agriculture. (7 U.S.C. 1421(c).) 
 
 DETERMINATION OF SUPPORT LEVEL 
 
 (d) The level of price support for any commodity shall be de¬ 
 termined upon the basis of its parity price as of the beginning of 
 the marketing year or season in the case of any commodity mar¬ 
 keted on a marketing year or season basis and as of January 1 in the 
 case of any other commodity. (7 U.S.C. 1421 (d).) 
 
 Clause (9) was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 175. approved April 11, 1964. 
 Language In subsec. after the first sentence was added by sec. 206 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 901. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 19 49 
 
 159 
 
 PROCESSOR programs 
 
 (e) 29 Whenever any price support or surplus removal operation for 
 any agricultural commodity is carried out through purchases from or 
 loans^ or payments to processors, the Secretary shall, to the extent 
 practicable, obtain from the processors such assurances as he deems 
 adequate that the producers of the agricultural commodity involved 
 have received or will receive maximum benefits from the price support 
 or surplus removal operation. (7 U.S.C. 1421(e).) 
 
 SUPPORT AT INCREASED LEVEL 
 
 Sec. 402. Notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act, price 
 support at a level in excess of the maximum level of price support 
 otherwise prescribed in this Act may be made available for any agri¬ 
 cultural commodity if the Secretary determines, after a public hear¬ 
 ts which reasonable notice has been given, that price support at 
 such increased level is necessary in order to prevent or alleviate a 
 shortage in the supply of any agricultural commodity essential to 
 the national welfare or in order to increase or maintain the produc¬ 
 tion of any agricultural commodity in the interest of national secu- 
 The Secretary’s determination and the record of the hearmg 
 shall be available to the public. (7 U.S.C. 1422.) 
 
 adjustments for grade, etc. 
 
 Sec. 403.2° Appropriate adjustments may be made in the support 
 price for any commodity for differences in grade, type, staple, qual¬ 
 ity, location, and other factors. Such adjustments shall, so far as 
 practicable, be made in such manner that the average support price 
 for such commodity will, on the basis of the anticipated incidence of 
 such factors, be equal to the level of support determined as provided 
 m this Act. Beginning with the 1959 crop, in adjusting the support 
 price for cotton on the basis of grade, the Secretary shall establish 
 separate price support rates for split grades and for full grades sub¬ 
 stantially reflecting relative values.^i (7 U.S.C. 1423.) 
 
 UTILIZATION OF SERVICES AND FACILITIES OF CCC 
 
 Secretary, in carrying out programs under section 
 3^ of Public Law Numbered 320, Seventy-fourth Congress, approved 
 August 24, 1935, as amended, and section 6 of the National School 
 Lunch Act may utilize the services and facilities of the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation (including but not limited to procurement by 
 contract), and make advance payments to it. (7 U.S.C. 1424.) 
 
 Subsec. (e) added by sec. 207 of the Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 901 
 “luiAii section contained as Its third sentence the following: 
 
 Middling seven-elghths-inch cotton shall be the Standard in this Act.” This sentence 
 Stat^gg'l^ effective with the 1961 crop by sec. 108 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 
 
 “ Last sentence added by sec. Ill of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 993. 
 
160 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 NONRECOURSE LOANS 
 
 Sec. 405. No producer shall be personally liable for any deficiency 
 arising from the sale of the collateral securing any loan made under 
 authority of this Act unless such loan Avas obtained through fraudu¬ 
 lent representations by the producer. This provision shall not, how¬ 
 ever, be construed to prevent the Commodity Credit Corporation or 
 the Secretary from requiring producers to assume liability for de¬ 
 ficiencies in the grade, quality, or quantity of commodities stored on 
 the farm or delivered by them, for failure properly to care for and 
 preserve commodities, or for failure or refusal to deliver commodities 
 in accordance with the requirements of the program. There is au¬ 
 thorized to be included in the terms and conditions of any such 
 nonrecourse loan a provision whereby on and after the maturity of 
 the loan or any extension thereof Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall have the right to acquire title to the unredeemed collateral 
 without obligation to pay for any market value which such collateral 
 may have in excess of the loan indebtedness.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1425.) 
 
 ADVANCE ANNOUNCEMENT 
 
 Sec. 406. The Secretary shall, insofar as practicable, announce the 
 level of price support for field crops in advance of the planting sea¬ 
 son and for other agiucultural commodities in advance of the 
 beginning of the marketing year or season (January 1 in the case of 
 commodities not marketed on a marketing year or season basis), but the 
 level of price support so announced shall not exceed the estimated 
 maximum level of price support specified in this Act, based upon the 
 latest information and statistics available to the Secretary when such 
 level of price support is announced; and the level of price sup¬ 
 port so announced shall not be reduced if the maximum level of price 
 support when determined, is less than the level so annoimced. (7 
 U.S.C. 1426.) 
 
 RESTRICTIONS ON SALES BY CCC 
 
 Sec. 407.®^ The Commodity Credit Corporation may sell any farm 
 commodity owned or controlled by it at any price not prohibited by 
 this section. In determining sales policies for basic agricultural com- 
 inodities or storable nonbasic commodities, the Corporation should 
 give consideration to the establishing of such policies with respect to 
 prices, terms, and conditions as it detennines will not discourage or 
 deter manufacturers, processors, and dealers from acquiring and carry¬ 
 ing normal inventories of the commodity of the current crop. The 
 Corporation shall not sell any basic agricultural commodity or storable 
 nonbasic commodity at less than 5 per centum above the current sup¬ 
 port price for such commodity, plus reasonable carrying charges: 
 Pro^ided^'^ That effective with the beginning of the marketing year for 
 the 1961 crop, the Corporation shall not sell any upland or extra long 
 staple cotton for unrestricted use at less than 15 per centum 
 
 Last sentence added by sec. 502 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 996. 
 63 Stat. 1055, October 31, 1949. 
 
 This proviso was added by sec. 109 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 993. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT-AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 19 49 
 
 161 
 
 above the current support price for cotton plus reasonable carry¬ 
 ing charges, except that the Corporation may, in an orderly 
 manner and so as not to affect market prices unduly, sell for 
 unrestricted use at the market price at the time of sale a num¬ 
 ber of bales of cotton equal to the number of bales by which the na¬ 
 tional marketing quota for such marketing year is reduced below 
 the estimated domestic consumption and exports for such market¬ 
 ing year pursuant to the provisions of section 342 of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended: Provided fv/rther^ 
 That beginning August 1, 1964, the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 may sell upland cotton for unrestricted use at not less than 105 per 
 centum of the current loan rate for such cotton under section 103(a) 
 plus reasonable carrying charges: Provided ,That if a wheat market¬ 
 ing allocation program is in effect, the current support price for wheat 
 shall be the support price for wheat accompanied by marketing 
 certificate and wheat sold shall be accompanied by a marketing certifi¬ 
 cate. 
 
 [Sec. 204 of Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 183, approved April 11, 1964, provides that 
 effective only with respect to the marketing years beginning in the calendar 
 years 1964 and 1965, the preceding proviso is amended to read as follows: “Pro¬ 
 vided -further, That if a wheat marketing allocation program is in effect, the 
 current support price for wheat shall be the support price for wheat not accom¬ 
 panied by marketing certificates,”] 
 
 The foregoing restrictions shall not apply to (A) sales for new or 
 byproduct uses; (B) sales of peanuts and oilseeds for the extraction 
 of oil; (C) sales for seed or feed if such sales will not substantially 
 impair any price-support program; (D) sales of commodities which 
 have substantially deteriorated in quality or as to which there is a 
 danger of loss or waste through deterioration or spoilage; (E) sales 
 for the purpose of establishing claims arising out of contract or against 
 persons who have committed fraud, misrepresentation, or other 
 wrongful acts with respect to the commodity; (F) sales for export; 
 (G) sales of wool; and (H) sales for other than primary uses. Not¬ 
 withstanding the foregoing, the Corporation, on such terms and con¬ 
 ditions as the Secretary may deem in the public interest, shall make 
 available any farm commodity or product thereof owned or controlled 
 by it for use in relieving distress (1) in any area in the United States 
 including the Virgin Islands declared by the President to be an 
 acute distress area because of unemployment or other economic cause 
 if the President finds that such use will not displace or interfere with 
 normal marketing of agricultural commodities and (2) in connection 
 with any major disaster determined by the President to warrant as¬ 
 sistance by the Federal Government under Public Law 875, Eighty- 
 first Congress, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1855)^® and shall make feed 
 owned or controlled by it available at any price not less than 75 per 
 centum of the current basic county support rate for such feed includ¬ 
 ing the value of any applicable price support payment in kind (or a 
 
 ** This proviso was added by Pub. L. 88—297, 78 Stat. 175, approved April 11, 1964. 
 **This proviso was added by sec. 325 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 
 631. 
 
 ” The words “Including the Virgin Islands” were added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, 
 approved September 11, 1964. 
 
 See Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 574 (p. 227). 
 
162 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 comparable price if there is no current basic county support rate) for 
 assistance in the preservation and maintenance of foundation herds 
 of cattle (including producing dairy cattle), sheep, and goats, and 
 their offspring, in any area of the United States including the Virgin 
 Islands where, because of flood, drought, fire, hurricane, earthquake, 
 storm, disease, insect infestation, or other catastrophe in such areas, 
 the Secretary determines that an emergency exists which warrants such 
 assistance, such feed to be made available only to persons who do not 
 have, and are unable to obtain through normal channels of trade with¬ 
 out undue financial hardship, sufficient feed for such livestock: Pro¬ 
 vided., That the Secretary may provide for the furnishing of feed 
 or mixed feed, in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, to 
 such persons by feed dealers under an arrangement whereby the feed 
 grains (or other feed being sold by the Corporation) in the feed so 
 furnished would be replaced with feed owned or controlled by the 
 Corporation and sold to such persons at a price determined as provided 
 above.^^ Except on a reimbursable basis, the Corporation shall not 
 bear any costs in connection with making such commodity available 
 beyond the cost of the commodities to the Corporation in store and the 
 handling and transportation costs in making delivery of the com¬ 
 modity to designated agencies at one or more central locations in each 
 State or other area.^° Nor shall the foregoing restrictions apply to 
 sales of commodities the disposition of which is desirable in the inter¬ 
 est of the effective and efficient conduct of the Corporation’s opera¬ 
 tions because of the small quantities involved, or because of age, loca¬ 
 tion or questionable continued storability, but such sales shall be offset 
 by such purchtisGS of coinmodities as th© Corporation dGtGrmines arc 
 necessary to prevent such sales from substantially impairing any price- 
 support program, but in no event shall the purchase price exceed the 
 then current support price for such commodities.^^ For the purposes 
 of this section, sales for export shall not only include sales made on 
 condition that the identical commodities sold be exported, but shall 
 also include sales made on condition that commodities of the same 
 kind and of comparable value or quantity be exported, either in raw 
 or processed form.^^ Notwithstanding the foregoing, whenever prior 
 to December 31, 1963, the Secretary determines it necessary in order 
 to assure the Nation an adequate supply of milk free of contamination 
 ^ radioactive fallout, he may make feed owned or controlled by the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation available to producers of milk in 
 any area or areas of the United States at such prices and on such terms 
 
 /S appropriate in the public interest."® 
 
 (7 U.S.C. 1427.) 
 
 1961^^75‘‘(42 U.S C 1855)” was added by the Act of August 7. 
 
 S^fimber nSSMlbv aaS'n/the SfovIS,”'’''’ ''' 
 
 SeS'beri^^SM, bj a"ai"rt'bla™ovf.o'’''’ 
 
 « This sentence was added by the Act of July 29, 1954. 68 Stat. 58.8 
 oThia added by the Act of January 28, 1956. 70 Stat. 6 
 
 Stat™?.^ ‘ sentence was added by sec. 404 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 163 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 Sec. 408. F or the purposes of this Act— 
 
 STORABLE COMMODITIES 
 
 (a) A commodity shall be considered storable upon determination 
 by the Secretary that, in normal trade practice, it is stored for sub¬ 
 stantial periods of time and that it can be stored under the price- 
 support program without excessive loss through deterioration or 
 spoilage or without excessive cost for storage for such periods as will 
 permit its disposition without substantial impairment of the effec¬ 
 tiveness of the price-support progTam. (7 U.S.C. 1428(a).) 
 
 COOPERATOR 
 
 (b) A “cooperator” with respect to any basic agricultural com¬ 
 
 modity shall be a producer on whose farm the acreage planted to the 
 commodity does not exceed the farm acreage allotment for the com¬ 
 modity under title III of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, 
 as amended, or in the case of price support for corn or wheat to a 
 producer outside the commercial corn-producing or wheat-producing 
 area, a producer who complies with conditions of eligibility pre¬ 
 scribed by the Secretary. For the purpose of this subsection, a pro¬ 
 ducer shall not be deemed to have exceeded his farm acreage allot¬ 
 ment unless such producer knowingly exceeded such allotment.^® (7 
 U.S.C. 1428(b).) ^ 
 
 BASIC AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY 
 
 (c) A “basic agricultural commodity” shall mean corn, cotton, pea¬ 
 nuts, rice, tobacco, and wheat, respectively. (7 U.S.C. 1428(c).) 
 
 NONBASIC AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY 
 
 (d) A “nonbasic agricultural commodity” shall mean any agricul¬ 
 tural commodity other than a basic agricultural commodity. (7 U.S.C. 
 1428(d).) 
 
 SUPPLY PERCENTAGE 
 
 (e) The “supply percentage” as to any commodity shall be the per¬ 
 centage which the estimated total supply is of the normal supply as 
 determined by the Secretary from the latest available statistics of the 
 Department of Agriculture as of the beginning of the marketing year 
 for the commodity. (7 U.S.C. 1428(e).) 
 
 ** The words “or wheat” and “or wheat-producing” were added by sec. 209 of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 901. 
 
 “See sec. 374(c) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 as to adjusting planted 
 acreage. 
 
164 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 TOTAL SUPPLY « 
 
 (f) “Total supply” of any nonbasic agricultural commodity for ' 
 any marketing year shall be the carry-over at the beginning of such j 
 marketing year, plus the estimated production of the commodity in i 
 the United States during the calendar year in which such marketing ; 
 year begins and the estimated imports of the commodity into the ( 
 United States during such marketing year. (7 U.S.C. 1428(f).) 
 
 CARRY-OVER 
 
 (g) “Carry-over” “8 of any nonbasic agricultural commodity for 
 any marketing year shall be the quantity of the commodity on hand : 
 in the United States at the beginning of such marketing year, not 
 including any part of the crop or production of such commodity which ; 
 was produced m the United States during the calendar year then cur¬ 
 rent. The carry-over of any such commodity may also include the 
 quantity of such commodity in processed form on hand in the United 
 States at the beginning of such marketing year, if the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that the inclusion of such processed quantity of the commodity 
 
 IS necessary to effectuate the purposes of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1428 (g).) 
 
 NORMAL SUPPLY 
 
 (h) “Normal supply”^® of any nonbasic agricultural commodity 
 for any marketing year shall be (1) the estimated domestic consump¬ 
 tion of the commodity for the marketing year for which such normal 
 supply is being determined, plus (2) the estimated exports of the 
 commodity for such marketing year, plus (3) an allowance for carry¬ 
 over. The allowance for carry-over shall be the average carry-over of 
 the commodity for the five marketing years immediately preceding 
 the marketing year in which such normal supply is determined, ad¬ 
 justed for surpluses or deficiencies caused by abnormal conditions, 
 changes in marketing conditions, or the operation of any agricultural 
 program. In determining normal supply, the Secretary shall make 
 such adjustments for current trends in consumption and for unusual , 
 conditions as he may deem necessary. (7 U.S.C. 1428 (h).) 
 
 MARKETING YEAR 
 
 (i) Marketing year” ^® for any nonbasic agricultural commodity 
 means any period determined by the Secretary during which sub¬ 
 stantially all of the crop or production of such commodity is normally 
 marketed by the producers thereof. (7 U.S.C. 1428 (i).) 
 
 TERMS DEFINED IN AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT OF 1938 
 
 (j) Any term defined in the Agi-icultural Adjustment Act of 1938, 
 shall have the same meaning when used in this Act. (7 U S C 
 1428(j).) 
 
 .sllcommodfHii^ Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 for definitions applicable to 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 19 49 105 
 
 Sec. 409. [This section contains amendments to the Agricultural 
 Adjustment Act of 1938. These amendments are included in that Act, 
 as it appears in this compilation.] 
 
 Sec. 410. [This section contains an amendment to section 4 of the 
 Act of March 8, 1938 (15 XJ.S.C. 7l3a—4) relating to the borrowing 
 power of Commodity Credit Corporation (p. 233).] 
 
 Sec. 411. [This section contains an amendment to section 32 of 
 Pub. L. 320, 74th Congress (p. 211).] 
 
 determinations by secretary 
 
 Sec. 412. Determinations made by the Secretary under this Act 
 shall be final and conclusive: Provided, That the scope and nature 
 of such determinations shall not be inconsistent with the provisions 
 of the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act. (7 U.S.C. 1429.) 
 
 WHEN PRICE SUPPORT PROVISIONS EFFECTIVE 
 
 Sec. 413. This Act shall not be elfective with respect to price sup¬ 
 port operations for any agricultural commodity for any marketing 
 year or season commencing prior to January 1, 1950, except to the 
 extent that the Secretary of Agriculture shall, without reducing price 
 support theretofore undertaken or announced, elect to applv the provi¬ 
 sions of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1430.) 
 
 REPEAL or PREVIOUS LEGISLATION 
 
 Sec. 414. Section 302 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, 
 as arnended, and any provision of law in conflict with the provisions 
 of tins Act are hereby repealed. (7 U.S.C. 1421 note.) 
 
 Sec. 415. [This section contains amendments to the Agricultural 
 Act of 1948 and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938.] 
 
 DISPOSITION OF COMMODITIES TO PREVENT WASTE 
 
 _ Sec. 416.^^ In order to prevent the waste of commodities whether 
 m private stocks or acquired through price-supported operations by 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation before they can be disposed of in 
 normal domestic channels without impairment of the price-support 
 program or sold abroad at competitive world prices, the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation is authorized, on such terms and under such regu¬ 
 lations as the Secretary may deem in the public interest: (1) upon 
 application, to make such commodities available to any Federal agency 
 for use in making payment for coimnodities not produced in the United 
 States; (2) to barter or exchange such commodities for strategic or 
 
 The provisions of this section were substituted for the previous provisions bv sec. 302 
 ARricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 458 See 
 rt September 6. 1958, 72 Stat. 1792 and the Department of the Interior 
 and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, 1965 (both on p. 215), providing for distribution 
 of commodities under sec. 416 to overseas areas under the jurisdiction or administration 
 aUI. See also see. 305 of the Agricultural Trade Development and 
 
 Assistant Act of 1954, providing for the Identification of stocks disposed of under sec. 416 
 as being furnished by the people of the United States. 
 
 gtat^gso^ “wliether in private stocks or” were added by the Act of July 24, 1959, 73 
 
166 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 other materials as authorized by law; (3) in the case of food commodi¬ 
 ties to donate such commodities to the Bureau of Indian Affairs and 
 to such State, Federal, or private agency or agencies as may be desig¬ 
 nated by the proper State or Federal authority and approved by the 
 Secretary, for use in the United States in nonprofit school-lunch pro¬ 
 grams,*® in nonprofit summer camps for children,®® in the assistance of 
 needy persons, and in charitable institutions, including hospitals, to 
 the extent that needy persons are served; and (4^ to donate any such 
 food commodities in excess of anticipated disposition under (1), (2), 
 and (3) above to nonprofit voluntary agencies registered with the 
 Committee on Voluntary Foreign Aid of the Foreign Operations 
 Administration or other appropriate department or agency of the 
 Federal Government and intergovernmental organizations for use in 
 the assistance of needy persons and in nonprofit school lunch pro¬ 
 grams outside the United States. In the case of (3) and (4) above 
 the Secretary shall obtain such assurance as he deems necessary that 
 the recipients thereof will not diminish their normal expenditures for 
 food by reason of such donation. In order to facilitate the appro¬ 
 priate disposal of such commodities, the Secretary may from time to 
 time estimate and announce the quantity of such commodities which 
 he anticipates will become available for distribution under (3) and 
 (4) above. The Commodity Credit Corporation may pay, with re¬ 
 spect to commodities disposed of under this section, reprocessing, 
 packaging, transporting, handling, and other charges accruing up 
 to the time of their delivery to a Federal agency or to the desimated 
 State or private agency, in the case of commodities made available for 
 use within the United States, or their delivery free alongside ship or 
 free on board export carrier at point of export, in the case of com¬ 
 modities made available for use outside the United States. In addi¬ 
 tion, in the case of food commodities disposed of under this section, 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation may pay the cost of processing 
 such commodities into a form suitable for home or institutional use, 
 such processing to be accomplished through private trade facilities to 
 the greatest extent possible.®® For the purpose of this section the 
 terms “State” and “United States” include the District of Columbia 
 and any Territory or possession of the United States. The assistance 
 to needy persons provided in (4) above shall, insofar as practicable 
 be directed toward community and other self-help activities designed 
 to alleviate the causes of the need for such assistance.®® (7 U.S.C. 
 1431.) 
 
 " See Act of September 13, 1960, 74 Stat. 899 (p. 220) authorizing the use of surplus 
 foods for training home economics students. 
 
 “ The words “In nonprofit summer camps for children,” were added by the Act of July 
 2, 1958, 72 Stat. 286. 
 
 The phrase “and In nonprofit school lunch programs” was added by Food and Airrl- 
 culture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 611, September 27, 1962. 
 
 “This sentence was added by the Agricultural Act of 1956, 70 Stat. 203. 
 
 “ This sentence was added by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1038, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 167 
 
 STORAGE STRUCTURE LOANS TO COOPERATIVES 
 
 _ Sec. 417. (a) Section 41 of the Farm Credit Act of 1933 (U.S.G., 
 title 12, sec. 1134c) is amended by adding at the end thereof the fol¬ 
 lowing : 
 
 “Notwithstanding any limitations or conditions imposed by law, 
 but subject to the availability of funds, each Bank for Coopera¬ 
 tives shall have power and authority to make separate loans to 
 cooperative associations as defined in the Agricultural Marketing 
 Act, as amended, for the purpose of financmg the construction of 
 structures for the storage of agricultural commodities (other than 
 structures to provide refrigerated cold storage or structures in 
 areas in which existing privately owned storage facilities for the 
 commodity concerned are adequate) in amounts up to a maxi¬ 
 mum of 80 per centum of the cost of such structures, as approved 
 by the Bank for cooperatives to whom application is made for the 
 loan: Provided^ That the cooperative association which has ap¬ 
 plied for any loan shall have furnished to the Bank for Coopera¬ 
 tives an appropriate commitment from the Commodity Sedit 
 Corporation that the Commodity Credit Corporation will lease 
 or guarantee utilization of not less than 75 per centum of the 
 storage space contained in such structures when completed for a 
 period of at least three years if such structures are not additions 
 to existing structures, or two years if such structures are additions 
 to existing structures.” 
 
 (b) Section 34 of the Farm Credit Act of 1933 (U.S.C., title 12, 
 sec. 1134]) is amended by adding at the end thereof the following: 
 
 “Notwithstanding any limitations or conditions imposed by law, 
 but subject to the availability of funds, the Central Bank for Co¬ 
 operatives shall have power and authority to make separate loans 
 to cooperative associations as defined in the Agricultural Market¬ 
 ing Act, as amended, for the purpose of financing the construction 
 of structures for the storage of agricultural commodities (other 
 than structures to provide refrigerated cold storage or structures 
 located in areas in which existing privately owned storage facili¬ 
 ties for the commodity concerned are adequate) in amounts up to 
 a maximum of 80 per centum of the cost of such structures, as 
 approved by such bank: Provided, That the cooperative associa¬ 
 tion which has applied for any loan shall have furnished to such 
 bank an appropriate commitment from the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation that the Commodity Credit Corporation will lease 
 or guarantee utilization of not less than 75 per centum of the 
 storage ^ace contained in such structures when completed for a 
 period of at least three years if such structures are not additions 
 to existing structures, or two years if such structures are additions 
 to existing structures.” 
 
 Secs. 418 and 419. [These sections contain amendments to the Agri- 
 • cultural Adjustment Act of 1938. These amendments are included 
 in that Act as it appears in this compilation.] 
 
 “See also sec. 4(h) of the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act (p. 136) which 
 provides for loans by the Corporation to grain growers to finance the construction’or nur- 
 chase of storage facilities. ^ 
 
168 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1949 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT FOR COTTONSEED 
 
 Sec. 420.®® Any price support program in effect on cottonseed or any 
 of its products shall be extended to the same seed and products of 
 the cottons defined under section 347(a) of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended. (7 U.S.C. 1432.) 
 
 Sec. 421. [This section was added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, 
 approved September 11, 1964. It appears on p. 228.] 
 
 TITLE V—AGRICULTUKAL WORKERS 
 
 [This title, which was added by the Act of July 12, 1951, 65 Stat. 
 119, 7 U.S.C. 1461-1468, contained provisions authorizing the Secre¬ 
 tary of Labor to enter into arrangements for the recruiting of agri¬ 
 cultural workers from Mexico. Pub. L. 88-203, 77 Stat. 363, ap¬ 
 proved December 13, 1963, however, terminated such authority 
 effective December 31, 1964.] 
 
 “This section was added by the Act of July 17, 1952, 66 Stat. 259. See also sec. 203 
 of this Act. 
 
AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To provide for greater stability in agriculture; to augment the marketing and disposal 
 of agricultural products ; and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled. 
 
 TITLE I—SET ASIDE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 
 
 [This title is no longer in effect since the set aside and disposition 
 of the commodities involved have been completed as required. See 
 p. 148 of Agriculture Handbook No. 192 for the text.] 
 
 TITLE II—AMENDMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 
 1949, AS AJVIENDED, AND RELATED LEGISLATION 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Agricultural Act of 1949, 
 which are incorporated in that Act as contained in this compilation, 
 and amendments to related legislation.] 
 
 TITLE III—AMENDMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL ADJUST¬ 
 MENT ACT OF 1938, AND RELATED LEGISLATION 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Agricultural Act of 1949 
 and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, which are incorporated 
 in those Acts contained in this compilation, and amendments to re¬ 
 lated legislation.] 
 
 TITLE IV—AMENDMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL MARKET¬ 
 ING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Agricultural Marketing 
 Agreement Act of 1937, which are incorporated in that Act as con¬ 
 tained in this compilation.] 
 
 TITLE V—AMENDMENTS TO SOIL CONSERVATION AND 
 DOMESTIC ALLOTMENT ACT 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, which are incorporated in that Act as con¬ 
 tained in this compilation.] 
 
 1 Approved August 28, 1954, 68 Stat. 897. 
 
 169 
 
170 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954 
 
 TITLE VI—AGRICULTURAL ATTACHES 
 
 [This title appears on p. 329 in the Miscellaneous Laws Section.] 
 
 TITLE VII—NATIONAL WOOL ACT OF 1954 
 
 Sec. 701. Thistitlemay be cited as the “National Wool Act of 1954.” 
 
 Sec. 702. It is hereby recognized that wool is an essential and 
 strategic commodity which is not produced in quantities and grades 
 in the United States to meet the domestic needs and that the desired 
 domestic production of wool is impaired by the depressing effects of 
 wide fluctuations in the price of wool in the world markets. It is 
 hereby declared to be the policy of Congress, as a measure of na¬ 
 tional security and in promotion of the general economic welfare, to 
 encourage the annual domestic production of approximately three 
 hundred million pounds of shorn wool, grease basis, at prices fair to 
 both producers and consumers in a manner which will have the least 
 adverse effects upon foreign trade. (7 U.S.C. 1781.) 
 
 Sec. 703. The Secretary of Agriculture shall, through the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation, support the prices of wool and mohair, 
 respectively, to the producers thereof by means of loans, purchases, 
 payments, or other operations. Such price support shall be limited 
 to wool and mohair marketed during the period beginning April 1, 
 1955, and ending March 31, 1966.^ The support price for shorn 
 wool shall be at such incentive level as the Secretary, after con¬ 
 sultation with the producer representatives, and after taking into 
 consideration prices paid and other cost conditions affecting sheep 
 production, determines to be necessary in order to encourage an 
 annual production consistent with the declared policy of this title: 
 Provided^ That the support price for showm wool shall not exceed 
 110 per centum of the parity price therefor. If the support price 
 so determined does not exceed 90 per centum of the parity price 
 for shorn wool, the support price for shorn wool shall be at such 
 level, not in exc^s of 90 per centum nor less than 60 per centum 
 of the parity price therefor, as the Secretary determines necessary 
 in order to encourage an annual production of approximately three 
 hmidred and sixty million pounds of shorn wool. The support prices 
 for pulled wool and for mohair shall be established at such levels, 
 in relationship to the support price for shorn wool, as the Secretary 
 determines will maintain normal marketing practices for pulled wool, 
 and as the Secretary shall determine is necessary to maintain ap¬ 
 proximately the same percentage of parity for mohair as for shorn 
 wool. The deviation of mohair support prices shall not be calculated 
 so as to cause it to rise or fall more than 15 per centum above or 
 below the comparable percentage of parity at which shorn wool is 
 supported. Notwithstanding the foregoing, no price support shall 
 be made available, other than through payments, at a level in excess 
 of 90 per centum of the parity price for the commodity. The Sec¬ 
 retary shall, to the extent practicable, announce the support price 
 levels for wool and mohair sufficiently in advance of each marketing 
 
 fl 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 ’ “1966” substituted for “1962” by sec. 151 of the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 306, 
 August 8. 1961. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954 
 
 171 
 
 year ^ will permit producers to plan their production for such 
 marketing year. (T U.S.C. 1782.) 
 
 Sec. 704. If payments are utilized as a means of price support, 
 the jiayments shall be such as the Secretary of Agriculture deter- 
 mmes to be sufficient, when added to the national average price re- 
 ceived by producers, to give producers a national average return for 
 the commodity equal to the support price level therefor: Provided, 
 liiat the total of all such payments made under this Act shall not 
 at any time exceed an amount equal to 70 per centum of the accu¬ 
 mulated totals, as of the same date, of the gross receipts from duties ^ 
 collected on and after January 1, 1953, on all articles subject to duty 
 under schedule 11 of the Tariff Act of 1930, as amended. The pay¬ 
 ments shall be made upon wool and mohair marketed by the producers 
 thereot, but any wool or mohair produced prior to January 1, 1955, 
 shall not be the subject of payments. The payments shall be at such 
 rates lor the marketing year or periods thereof as the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines will give producers the support price level as herein provided 
 Tayments to any producer need not be made if the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that the amount of the payment to the producer or all producers 
 IS too small to justify the cost of making such payments. The Secre¬ 
 tary may make the payment to producers through the marketing 
 agpcy to or thrmigh whom the producers marketed his wool or mo- 
 air. Provmed, That such marketing agency agrees to receive and 
 promptly distribute the payments on behalf of such producers. In 
 case any person who is entitled to any such payment dies, becomes in- 
 competent, or disappears before receiving such payment, or is suc¬ 
 ceeded by another who renders or completes the required performance 
 the payment shall, without regard to any other provisions of law, be 
 made as the Secretary may determine to be fair and reasonable in all 
 the^ circumstances and provided by regulation. (7 U.S.C. 1783 ) 
 
 Sec. 705. For the purpose of reimbursing the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation for any expenditures made by it in connection with 
 paymeiffs to producers under this title, there is hereby appropriated 
 fiscal year beginning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 
 1956, an amount equal to the total of expenditures made by the Corpo¬ 
 ration during the preceding fiscal year and to any amounts expended 
 m prior fiscal years not previously reimbursed: Provided, however, 
 Ihat such amounts appropriated for any fiscal year shall not exceed 
 70 per centum of the gross receipts from duties" collected during the 
 period January 1 to December 31, both inclusive, preceding the begin- 
 nmg of each such fiscal year on all articles subject to duty under 
 schedule 11 of the Tariff Act of 1930, as amended. For the purposes 
 
 ?T o ^ ^ct of March 8, 1938, as amended (15 
 
 U.i5.C. 713a-l), the Commodity Credit Corporation shall establish on 
 its books an account receivable in an amount equal to any amount 
 expended by Commodity Credit Corporation in connection with pay¬ 
 ments pursuant to this title which has not been reimbursed ;^om 
 appropriations made hereunder. (7 U.S.C. 1784.) 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 995, deleted “specific” prior 
 the word dutles^^^ specific duties are parts of compound rates)” following, 
 
172 
 
 PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954 
 
 i 
 
 Sec. 706. Except as otherwise provided in this title, the amounts, , 
 terms, and conditions of the price support operations and the extent : 
 to which such operations are carried out shall be determined or ap- • 
 proved by the Secretary of Agriculture. The Secretary may, in de- ? 
 termining support prices and rates of payment, make adjustments \ 
 in such prices or rates for differences in grade, quality, type, location, 
 and other factors to the extent he deems practicable and desirable. . 
 Determinations by the Secretary under this title shall be final and i 
 conclusive. The facts constituting the basis for any operation, pay- • 
 meiit, or amount thereof when officially determined m conformity with i 
 applicable regulations prescribed by the Secretary shall be final and 1 
 conclusive and shall not be reviewable by any other officer or agency 
 of the Government. (7 U.S.C. 1785.) 
 
 Sec. 707. The term “marketing year” as used in this title means I 
 the Dyelve-month period begiiming April 1 of each calendar year or, ) 
 for either wool or mohair, such other period, or periods for pre- } 
 scribed areas, as the Secretary may determine to be desirable to i 
 effectuate the purpose of this title. (7 U.S.C. 1786.) 
 
 Sec. 708. The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to enter into 
 agreements with, or to approve agreements entered into between, .i 
 marketing cooperatives, trade associations, or others engaged or whose i 
 members are engaged in the handling of wool, mohair, sheep, or goats -■ 
 or the products thereof for the purpose of developing and conducting 
 on a National, State, or regional basis advertising and sales promo- i 
 tion programs for wool, mohair, sheep, or goats or the products 
 thereof. Provision may be made in such agreement to obtain the 
 funds necessary to defray the expenses incurred thereunder through 
 pro rata deductions from the payments made under section 704 of this 
 title to producers within the production area he determines will be 
 benefited by the agreement and for the assignment and transfer of 
 the amoimts so deducted to the person or agency designated in the 
 agreement to receive such amoimts for expenditures in accordance 
 with the terms and conditions of the agreement. No agreement con¬ 
 taining such a provision for defraying expenses through deductions , 
 shall become effective until the Secretary determines that at least ; 
 two-thirds of the producers who, during a representative period deter- ; 
 mined by the Secretary, have been engaged, within the production area 
 he determines will be benefited by the agreement, in the production for 
 market of the commodity specified therein approve or favor such 
 agreement or that producers who, during such representative period 
 have produced at least two-thirds of the volume of such commodity 
 produced within the area which will be benefited by such agreement, 
 approve or favor such agreement. Approval or disapproval by co¬ 
 operative associations shall be considered as approval or disapproval 
 by the producers who are members of, stockholders in, or under 
 contract with such cooperative association of producers. The Secre¬ 
 tary may conduct a referendum among producers to ascertain their 
 approval or favor. The requirements of approval or favor shall be 
 held to be complied with if two-thirds of the total number of producers, 
 or two-thirds of the total volume of production, as the case may be. 
 
PRICE SUPPORT—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1954 
 
 173 
 
 represented in such referendum, indicate their approval or favor (1 
 U.S.C. 1787.) ‘ ^ 
 
 Sec. 709. Section 201 of the Agricultural Act of 1949 (7 U S C 
 sec. 1446) is amended effective April 1, 1955, (i) by deleting from the 
 hrst sentence thereof the phrase “wool (mcluding mohair),” and (ii) 
 by deleting subsection (a) thereof relating to the support of wool 
 and mohair. 
 
 Sec. 710. [This section contams an amendment to the Commoditv 
 Exchange Act.] 
 
 758-820—65-13 
 
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 V 
 
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SUBPART C. SALES 
 
 [See Subpai-t E. Export and Surplus Removal for export sales p 
 183.] ^ ^ 
 
 SALES IN GENERAL 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949— Sec. 407.^ The Commodity Credit 
 Corporation may sell any farm commodity owned or controlled by it 
 at any price not prohibited by this section. In determining sales poli¬ 
 cies for basic agriraltural commodities or storable nonbasic commodi¬ 
 ties, the Corporation should give consideration to the establishing of 
 such policies with respect to prices, terms, and conditions as it deter¬ 
 mines will not discourage or deter manufacturers, processors, and 
 dealers from acquiring and carrying normal inventories of the com¬ 
 modity of the current crop. The Corporation shall not sell any basic 
 agricultural commodity or storable nonbasic commodity at less than 5 
 per centum above the current support price for such commodity, plus 
 reasonable carrying charges: Provided,^ That effective with the begin¬ 
 ning of the marketing year for the 1961 crop, the Corporation shall 
 not sell any upland or extra long staple cotton for unrestricted use at 
 less than 15 per centum above the current support price for cotton plus 
 reasonable carrying charges, except that the Corporation may, in an 
 orderly manner and so as not to affect market prices unduly, sell for 
 unrestricted use at the market price at the time of sale a number of 
 bales of cotton equal to the number of bales by which the national 
 marketing quota for such marketing year is reduced below the esti¬ 
 mated domestic consumption and exports for such marketing year 
 pursuant to the provisions of section 342 of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended: Provided fuTtliev^ That beginning 
 August 1, 1964, the Commodity Credit Corporation may sell upland 
 cotton for unrestricted use at not less than 105 per centum of the 
 current loan rate for such cotton under section 103(a) plus reasonable 
 carrying charges: Provided That if a wheat marketing allocation 
 program is in effect, the current support price for wheat shall be 
 the support price for wheat accompanied by marketing certificate 
 and wheat sold shall be accompanied by a marketing certificate. 
 
 [Sec. 204 of Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 183, approved April 11, 1964, provides 
 that effective only with respect to the marketing years beginning in the calendar 
 years 1964 and 1965, the preceding proviso is amended to read as follows: 
 'Provided further, That if a wheat marketing allocation program is in effect, 
 the current support price for wheat shall he the support price for wheat not 
 accompanied hy marketing certificates."] 
 
 The foregoing restrictions shall not apply to (A) sales for new or 
 byproduct uses; (B) sales of peanuts and oilseeds for the extraction 
 
 » 6.3 stat. 1055, October 31,1949. 
 
 I This proviso was added by sec. 109 of the Agricultural Act of 1958, 72 Stat. 993. 
 
 • Th s prov so was added by Pub. L. 88-297, 78 Stat. 175, approved April 11, 1964. 
 631'^°* *® proviso was added by sec. 325 of the Pood and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 
 
 175 
 
176 
 
 SALES 
 
 of oil; (C) sales for seed or feed if such sales will not substantially 
 impair any price-support program; (D) sales of commodities which 
 have substantially deteriorated in quality or as to which there is a 
 danger of loss or waste through deterioration or spoilage; (K) sales 
 for the purpose of establishing claims arising out of contract or against 
 persons who have committed fraud, misrepresentation, or other 
 wrongful acts with respect to the commodity; (F) sales for export; 
 (G) sales of wool; and (H) sales for other than primary uses. Not¬ 
 withstanding tlie foregoing, the Corporation, on such terms and con¬ 
 ditions as the Secretary may deem in the public interest, shall make 
 available any farm commodity or product thereof owned or controlled 
 by it for use in relieving distress (1) in any area in the United States 
 including the Virgin Islands ® declared by the President to be an acute 
 distress area because of unemployment or other economic cause if the 
 President finds that such use will not displace or interfere with normal 
 marketing of agricultural commodities and (2) in connection with 
 any major disaster determined by the President to warrant assistance 
 by the Federal Government under Public Law 875, Eighty-first Con¬ 
 gress, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1855) ® and shall make feed owned or con¬ 
 trolled by it available at any price not less than 75 per centum of the 
 current basic county support rate for such feed including the value of 
 any applicable price support payment in kind (or a comparable price 
 if there is no current basic county support rate) for assistance in the 
 preservation and maintenance of foundation herds of cattle (includ¬ 
 ing producing dairy cattle), sheep, and goats, and their offspring, in 
 any area of the United States including the Virgin Islands ° where, 
 because of flood, drought, fire, hurricane, earthquake, storm, disease, 
 insect infestation, or other catastrophe in such areas, the Secretary 
 determines that an emergency exists which warrants such assistance, 
 such feed to be made available only to persons who do not have, and 
 are unable to obtain through normal channels of trade without undue 
 financial hardship, sufficient feed for such livestock: Provided, That 
 the Secretary may provide for the furnishing of feed or mixed feed, 
 in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, to such persons by 
 feed dealers under an arrangement whereby the feed grains (or other 
 feed being sold by the Corporation) in the feed so furnished would be 
 replaced with feed o^yned or controlled by the Corporation and sold to 
 such persons at a price determined as provided above.'^ Except on a 
 reimbursable basis, tlie Corporation shall not bear any costs in connec¬ 
 tion with making such commodity available beyond the cost of the 
 commodities to the Corporation in store and the handling and trans¬ 
 portation costs in making delivery of the commodity to designated 
 agencies at one or more central locations in each State or other area.® 
 Nor sluall the foregoing restrictions apply to sales of commodities the 
 disposition of wiiich is desirable in the interest of the effective and 
 
 ® The words “including the Virgin Islands” were added by Pub. L. 88-585. 78 Stat. 927. 
 approved September 11, 1964. 
 
 * See Pub. L. 86-299. 73 St.nt. 574, approved September 21. 1959 (p. 227). 
 
 appearing after “(42 U.S.C. 1855)” was added by the Act of August 7, 
 1961. 75 Stat. 203. 204. and was further amended by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, ap¬ 
 proved September 11. 1964, b.v adding this proviso. 
 
 "The words “or other area” were added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, approved 
 September 11, 1964. 
 
SALES 277 
 
 efficient conduct of the Corporation’s operations because of the small 
 quantities involved, or because of age, location or questionable con¬ 
 tinued storability, but such sales shall be offset by such purchases of 
 coininodities as the Corporation determines are necessary to prevent 
 such sales from substantially impairing any price-support program, 
 but in no event shall the purchase price exceed the then current sup- 
 port price for such commodities.® For the purposes of this section, 
 shall not only include sales made on condition that 
 the identical cqinmodities sold be exported, but shall also include sales 
 made on condition that commodities of the same kind and of com¬ 
 parable ^^iue or quantity be exported, either in raw or processed 
 forin.i" Notwithstanding the foregoing, whenever prior to Decem- 
 1 ^^' Secretary determines it necessary in order to assure 
 
 the Nation an adequate supply of milk free of contamination by radio¬ 
 active fallout, he may make feed owned or controlled by the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation available to producers of milk in any area 
 or areas of the United States at such prices and on such terms and 
 conditions as he deems appropriate in the public interest.^ (7 U S C 
 142i.) 
 
 SALE OF STOCKPILE COTTON 
 
 JOINT KESOLUTION OF JULY 10, 1957 
 
 Relating to the stockpile of extra long staple cotton under the Strategic and 
 
 Critical Materials Stockpiling Act. 
 
 Resolved hy the Senate and House of Refresentatives of the United 
 States of Armrica in Congress assemUed^ That notwithstanding any 
 other provision of law, fifty thousand bales of domestically grown 
 extra long staple cotton in the stockpile (including any cotton which 
 does not meet current stockpile specifications) established pursuant 
 A T? f Critical Materials Stockpiling Act, as amended 
 
 (50 U.J^C. 98), shall be withdrawn and transferred to the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation for sale at not less than the prices at which the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation may sell its stocks under the minimum 
 pricing provision of section 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as 
 amended. Proceeds from such sale, less costs incurred by Commodity 
 Credit Corporation, including administrative expense, as determined 
 by the Secretary of Agriculture, shall be covered into the Treasury 
 of the United States as miscellaneous receipts. (71 Stat. 290.1 
 
 ACT OF JULY 25, 1962 
 
 lo facilitate the sale and disposal of Government stocks of extra long staple 
 
 cotton. 
 
 it enacted hy the Sermte and House of Representatives of the 
 united States of America in Congress assembled^ That, notwithstand- 
 ing any other provision of law, all extra long staple cotton remaining 
 in the stockpile established pursuant to the Strategic and (Critical 
 
 sentence was added by the Act of July 29, 1954, 68 Stat. 583. 
 
 II sentence was added by the Act of January 28, 1956, 70 Stat. 6. 
 t^ 6^2 sentence was added by sec. 404 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 
 
178 
 
 SALES 
 
 Materials Stock Piling Act, as amended (50 U.S.C. 98), shall be 
 withdrawn and transferred or made available to the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation for disposition as provided herein. The domes¬ 
 tically grown cotton in the stockpile shall be transferred to the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation and shall be sold only for unrestricted use 
 at not less than the prices at wdiich the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 may sell its stocks under the minimum pricing provisions of section 
 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. Such domestically 
 grown cotton shall be excluded in making any determination with 
 respect to national marketing quotas under the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended, until after it is sold by Commodity 
 Credit Corporation. The foreign-grown cotton in the stockpile shall 
 be transferred to the Commodity Credit Corporation. Any foreign- 
 grown cotton transferred hereunder to the Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration shall be sold or disposed of only for export at not less than 
 the world market price, as determined by the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 In administering sales or disposals of the foreign-grown cotton, the 
 Secretary of Agriculture shall periodically determine and announce 
 quotas for disposals by commercial sales and for disposals through 
 the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 amended. Such foreign-grown cotton shall be excluded in making 
 any determination with respect to national marketing quotas under 
 the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, and shall be 
 considered as domestically grown surplus cotton for purposes of sale 
 or disposal under the provisions of the Agricultural Trade Develop¬ 
 ment and Assistance Act of 1954, as amended, and shall be eligible 
 for sale or disposal thereunder in accordance with the provisions of 
 this Act. 
 
 Proceeds from such sales and dispositions, less costs incurred by 
 Commodity Credit Corporation, including administrative expense, as 
 determined by the Secretary of Agriculture, shall be covered into 
 the Treasury of the United States as miscellaneous receipts. (76 
 Stat. 218.) 
 
SUBPART D. BARTER AND EXCHANGE OF SURPLUS 
 
 COMMODITIES 
 
 [See sec. 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended, on p. 165.] 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act. Sec. 4(1i) * * * 
 Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation is authorized, upon terms and conditions prescribed 
 or. approved by the Secretary of Agriculture, to accept strategic and 
 critical materials produced abroad in exchange for agricultural com¬ 
 modities acquired by the Corporation. Insofar as practicable, in ef- 
 fecting such exchange of goods, normal commercial trade channels 
 shall be utilized and priority shall be given to commodities easily stor¬ 
 able and those which serve as prime incentive goods to stimulate pro¬ 
 duction of critical and strategic materials. The determination of the 
 quantities and qualities of such materials which are desirable for stock 
 piling and the determination of which materials are strategic and 
 critical shall be made in the manner prescribed by section 2 of the 
 Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act (60 Stat. 696). 
 Strategic and critical materials acquired by Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration in exchange for agricultural commodities shall, to the extent 
 approved by the Munitions Board of the Department of Defense,^ be 
 transferred to the stock pile provided for by the Strategic and Critical 
 Materials Stock Piling Act; and when transferred to the stock pile the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation shall be reimbursed for the strategic 
 and critical materials so transferred to the stock pile from the funds 
 made ^aOable for the purpose of the Strategic and Critical Materials 
 Stock Piling Act, in an amount equal to the fair market value, as deter¬ 
 mined by the Secretary of the Treasury,^ of the material transferred 
 to the stock pile. Nothing contained herein shall limit the authority of 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation to acquire, hold, or dispose of such 
 quantity of strategic and critical materials as it deems advisable in 
 canning out its functions and protecting its assets. (15 USC 
 D4b(h).) 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 
 amended. Sec. 303. The Secretary shall, whenever he determines 
 that such action is in the best interest of the United States, and to 
 the maximum extent practicable, barter or exchange agricultural com¬ 
 modities owned by the Commodity Credit Corporation for (a) such 
 strategic or other materials of which the United States does not 
 domestically produce its requirements and which entail less risk of loss 
 rorough deterioration or substantially less storage charges as the 
 President may designate, or (b) materials, goods, or equipment re¬ 
 quired in connection with foreign economic and military aid and as- 
 
 Establishment” by the 
 
 179 
 
180 BARTER AND EXCHANGE OF SURPLUS COMMODITIES 
 
 sistance programs, or (c) materials or equipment required in substan¬ 
 tial quantities for offshore constmction programs. He is hereby di¬ 
 rected to use every practicable means, in cooperation with other Gov¬ 
 ernment agencies, to arrange and make, through private channels, such 
 barters or exchanges or to utilize the authority conferred on him by 
 section 4(h) of the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, as 
 amended, to make such barters or exchanges. In carrying out barters 
 or exchanges authorized by this section, no restrictions shall be placed 
 on the countries of the free world into which surplus agricultural com¬ 
 modities may be sold, except to the extent that the Secretary shall find 
 necessary in order to take reasonable precautions to safeguard usual 
 marketings of the United States and to assure that barters or ex¬ 
 changes under this Act will not unduly disrupt world prices of agri¬ 
 cultural commodities or replace cash sales for dollars. The Secretary 
 may permit the domestic processing of raw materials of foreign origin. 
 The Secretary shall endeavor to cooperate with other exporting coun¬ 
 tries in preserving normal patterns of commercial trade with respect to 
 commodities covered by formal multilateral international marketing 
 agreements to which the United States is a party. Agencies of the 
 United States Government procuring such materials, goods, or equip¬ 
 ment are hereby directed to cooperate with the Secretary in the dis¬ 
 posal of surplus agricultural commodities by means of barter or ex¬ 
 change. The Secretary is also directed to assist, through such means as 
 are available to him, farmers’ cooperatives in effecting exchange of 
 agricultural commodities in their possession for strategic materials.® 
 (68 Stat. 459, July 10,1954; 72 Stat. 1791, September 6,1958. 7 U.S.C. 
 1692.) 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956, as Amended. Sec. 206. (a) Strategic 
 and other materials acquired by the Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion as a result of barter or exchange of agricultural commodities 
 or products, unless acquired for the national stockpile established 
 pursuant to the Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act 
 (50 U.S.C. 98-98h), or for other purposes shall be transferred to 
 the supplemental stockpile established by section 104(b) of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 (7 U.S.C. 
 1704); but no strategic or critical material shall be acquired by the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation as a result of such barter or ex¬ 
 change, except for such national stockpile, for such supplemental 
 stockpile, for foreign economic or military aid or assistance pro¬ 
 grams, or for offshore construction programs,^ or to meet require¬ 
 ments of government agencies.® 
 
 (b) [This subsection which provided that strategic materials ac¬ 
 quired by the Commodity Credit Corporation as a result of barter 
 or exchange of agricultural commodities or products may be entered or 
 withdrawn from warehouse free of duty, was repealed by the Act 
 of May 24, 1962, 76 Stat. 78. The effective date of the repeal was 
 provided for in sec. 102 of the same Act. See Executive Order No. 
 11075,19 U.S.C.A. 1801 note.] 
 
 » See sec. .S04(b) of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 with 
 respect to the limitation on use of this authority for Communist-controlled areas 
 
 * The material following the semicolon was added hy the Act of September 6 1958. 72 
 Stat. 1791. 
 
 6 This phrase was added by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 611. 
 
BARTER AND EXCHANGE OF SURPLUS COMMODITIES 181 
 
 (c) Ill order to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation for 
 materials transferred to the supplemental stockpile there are hereby 
 authorized to be appropriated amoimts equal to the value of any 
 materials so transferred. The value of any such material for the 
 purpose of this subsection, shall be the lower of the domestic market 
 price or the Commodity Credit Corporation’s investment therein as 
 of the date of such transfer, as determined by the Secretary of Agri¬ 
 culture. (70 Stat. 200, May 28,1956. 7 U.S.C. 1856.) 
 
 ACT OF AUGUST 11, 1939 
 
 To facilitate the execution of arrangements for the exchange of surplus agricultural 
 commodities produced in the United States for reserve stocks of strategic and critical 
 materials produced abroad. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatwes of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That, notwithstand¬ 
 ing any other provision of law, whenever the President, by and with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate, has concluded a treaty involving 
 the exchange of surplus agricultural commodities produced in the 
 United States which are held under loans made or made available by 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation for stocks of strategic and critical 
 materials produced abroad, the Commodity Credit Corporation is au¬ 
 thorized, upon terms and conditions prescribed by the Secretary of 
 Agriculture, to accept such strategic and critical materials in exchange 
 for such surplus agricultural commodities; and for the purpose of 
 such exchange the Secretary of War,® the Secretary of the Navy, and 
 the Secretary of the Interior acting jointly through the agency of the 
 Army and Navy Munitions Board,^ shall determine which materials 
 are strategic and critical and the quantity and quality of such 
 materials. In order to carry out the provisions of this Act, the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation is authorized, upon terms and conditions 
 prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture, to procure, convey, trans¬ 
 port, handle, store, maintain, or rotate such surplus agricultural com¬ 
 modities, and such reserve stocks of strategic and critical materials, as 
 may be necessary to accomplish the purposes of this Act. 
 
 The Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized and directed to 
 transfer to warehouses in or near cotton manufacturing centers in 
 New England not to exceed three hundred thousand bales of cotton, to 
 which it now has title or may hereafter acquire title, having regard 
 for the grades and staples customarily required by manufacturers in 
 that area: Provided^ That all necessary costs in connection with such 
 transfer will not result in additional net cost to the Corporation. 
 
 “ The Department of War was designated the Department of the Army and the title of 
 the Secretary of War was changed to Secretary of the Army by section 205(a) of act 
 July 20. 1947, ch. 343, title II, 61 Stat. 501. Section 205(a) of act July 26, 1947, was 
 repealed by section 53 of act Aug. 10, 1956, ch. 1041, 70A, Stat. 641. Section 1 of act 
 Aug. 10, 1956, enacted “Title 10, Armed Forces” which in sections 3011-3013 continued 
 the military Department of the Army under the administrative supervision of a Secretary 
 of the Army. 
 
 ’’ The Army and Navy Munitions Board ceased to exist when the Chairman of the Board 
 of Munitions took office and the records and personnel of the Army and Navy Munitions 
 Board were transferred to the Munitions Board by act July 26, 1947, ch. 343, title II, 
 sec. 213, 61 Stat. 505. 
 
 The Munitions Board was abolished by section 2 of 1953 Reorg. Plan No. 6, 18 F.R. 
 3743, 67 Stat. 638, and all functions of the Munitions Board were transferred to the 
 Secretary of Defense by section 1 of 1953 Reorg. Plan. 
 
182 BARTER AND EXCHANGE OF SURPLUS COMMODITIES 
 
 In determining specific cotton to be exchanged under this Act, the 
 determination shall be made by sampling and selection at the place 
 where the cotton is stored on the date of ratification of a treaty pro¬ 
 viding for such exchange, and no cotton shall be exchanged under such 
 treaty which, after such date, is transported to anomer place and 
 there sampled and selected. Such reserve stocks of strategic and criti¬ 
 cal materials shall be stored on military or naval reservations or in 
 other locations approved by the Secretary of War and the Secretary 
 of the Navy. The Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized to 
 transfer such reserve stocks of strategic and critical materials, upon 
 such terms and conditions as the Secretary of Agriculture shall 
 approve, to any other governmental agency. Such reserve stocks or 
 strategic and critical materials shall be made available or disposed of 
 by the Commodity Credit Corporation or other governmental agency 
 only upon order of the President in accordance with the terms of the 
 applicable treaty; when necessary to prevent deterioration, the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation or other governmental agency is author¬ 
 ized to replace those quantities of the reserve stocks of such strategic 
 and critical materials subject to deterioration with equivalent quanti¬ 
 ties of the same materials. The funds now or hereafter made avail¬ 
 able to the Commodity Credit Corporation are hereby made available 
 to carry out the purposes of this Act. There is hereby authorized to 
 be appropriated such additional sums as may be required to carry out 
 the provisions of this Act. All funds for carrying out the provisions 
 of this Act shall be available for allotment to bureaus and offices of 
 the Department of Agriculture, and for transfer to such other agen¬ 
 cies of the Federal Government as the Secretary of Agriculture may 
 request to cooperate or assist in carrying out the provisions of this Act. 
 (53 Stat. 1407,15 U.S.C. 713 a-7.) 
 
SUBPART E—EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL 
 
 [See also the following statutory provisions: 
 
 Page 
 
 Section 2 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 (declaration of policy)_ 327 
 
 Section 4(h) of the CJommodity Credit Corporation Charter Act (barter 
 of agricultural commodities for strategic and critical materials pro¬ 
 duced abroad)_ 136 
 
 Section 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949 (exempting export sales from 
 certain pricing restrictions and making farm commodities available to 
 
 relieve distress)_ 160 
 
 Section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949 (disposition of surplus com¬ 
 modities)_ 165 
 
 Title VI of the Agricultural Act of 1954 (acquiring information on foreign 
 demand for United States agricultural commodities)]_ 329 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1956" 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To enact the Agricultural Act of 1956. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That this Act may 
 be cited as the “Agricultural Act of 1956”. 
 
 TITLE I—SOIL BANK ACT 
 [The provisions of this title are to be found beginning on p. 117.] 
 
 TITLE II—SURPLUS DISPOSAL 
 
 PROGRAM OF ORDERLY LIQUIDATION 
 
 Sec. 201. (a) The Commodity Credit Corporation shall, as rap¬ 
 idly as possible consistent with its existing authority, the operation 
 of the price support program, and orderly liquidation, dispose of all 
 stocks of agricultural commodities held by it. 
 
 (b) The Secretary shall submit to Congress within ninety days 
 after the enactment of this Act detailed programs, with recommen¬ 
 dations for any additional legislation needed to carry out such pro¬ 
 grams, (1) for the disposition of surplus commodities as required by 
 subsection (a) above; (2) for a food stamp plan or similar program 
 for distribution through States (including the District of Columbia, 
 the Territories, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands) and local units 
 of Government of future surplus production to needy persons in the 
 United States, its Territories, and possessions, so as to prevent the 
 accumulation of commodities in the hands of the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation; and (3) for strategic stockpiling of foodstuffs and 
 other agricultural products (A) inside the United States and (B) 
 outside the United States as authorized in section 415 of the Mutual 
 
 * Approved May 28, 1956, 70 Stat. 188. 
 
 183 
 
184 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL-AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 195 6 
 
 Security Act of 1954. The Secretary shall report annually on his 
 operations under subsection (a) and such reports shall show— 
 
 (11 the quantities of surplus commodities on hand; 
 
 (2) the methods of disposition utilized and the quantities dis¬ 
 posed of during the preceding twelve months ; 
 
 (3) the niethods of disposition to be utilized and the esti¬ 
 mated quantities that can be disposed of during the succeeding 
 twelve months; 
 
 (4) a detailed program for the expansion of markets for sur¬ 
 plus agricultural commodities through marketing and utilization 
 research and improvement of marketing facilities; and 
 
 (5) recommendations for additional legislation necessary to 
 accomplish the purposes of this section. (7 U.S.C. 1851.) 
 
 EXTRA-LONG STAPLE COTTON 
 
 Sec. 202. (a) Hereafter the quota for cotton having a staple length 
 of one and one-eighth inches or more, established September 20, 
 1939, pursuant to section 22 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 of 1933, as amended, shall apply to the same grades and staple lengths 
 included in the quota when such quota was initially established. 
 Such quota shall provide for cotton having a staple length of one 
 and eleven-sixteenths inches and longer, and shall establish dates for 
 the quota year which will recognize and permit entry to conform to 
 normal marketing practices and requirements for such cotton. 
 
 (b) Beginning not later than August 1, 195G, the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation is directed to sell for export at competitive world 
 prices its stocks of domestically produced extra long staple cotton on 
 hand on the date of enactment of this Act. The amount offered and 
 the price a^epted by the Commodity Credit Corporation shall be 
 such as to dispose of such quantity in an orderly manner and within a 
 reasonable period of time. (7 U.S.C. 1852.) 
 
 EXPORT SAI^S PROGRAM FOR COTTON 
 
 Sec 203. In furtherance of the current policy of the Commodity 
 Cl edit Corporation of offering surplus agricultural commodities for 
 ^le lor export at competitive world prices, the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation is dir^ted to use its existing powers and authorities 
 immediately upon the enactment of this Act to encourage the export 
 of cotton by offering to make cotton available at prices not in excess 
 ol the level of prices at which cottons of comparable qualities are 
 eing offered in substantial quantity by other exporting countries 
 I'oKfl in any event, for the cotton marketing year beginning August 1, 
 1956, at prices not in excess of the minimum prices (plus carTvin" 
 charges, beginning October 1, 1956, as established pursuant to Sec^ 
 tion 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949) at which cottons of com¬ 
 parable qualities WCTe sold imder the export program annomiced by 
 file United states Department of Agriculture on August 12, 195^ 
 1 he Commodity Credit Corporation may accept bids in excess of the 
 maximum prices specified herein but shall not reject bids at such 
 
 ^ higher bid is received for the same cotton. 
 Oottons of qualities not comparable to those of cottons sold under 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 195 6 185 
 
 the program announced on August 12, 1955, shall be offered at prices 
 not in excess of the maximum prices prescribed hereunder for cot¬ 
 tons of qualities comparable to those of cottons sold under such pro¬ 
 gram, ^yith appropriate adjustment for differences in quality. Such 
 quantities of cotton shall be sold as will reestablish and maintain the 
 fair historical share of the world market for United States cotton, 
 said volume to be determined by the Secretary of Ao-riculture. (7 
 U.S.C. 1853.) ^ 
 
 COTTON EXPORT PROGRAM 
 
 [Agricultural Act of 1958—Sec. 110. Nothing in this Act shall be 
 construed to affect or modify the provisions of section 203 of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Act of 1956, and any cotton owned or acquired by the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation under any price support program may be 
 used for the purpose of carrying out the cotton export program pro¬ 
 vided for in section 203 of the Agricultural Act of 1956. (72 Stat. 
 
 993, 7 U.S.C. 1853 note.)] 
 
 [Public Law 88-638 —Sec. 3. Notwithstanding any other provision of 
 law, the Commodity Credit Corporation, in order to encourage exports 
 of extra long staple cotton which is in surplus supply at competitive 
 world prices, is directed to offer for sale, whenever extra long staple 
 cotton is in surplus supply, any extra long staple cotton owned by it 
 (except stocks released from the stockpile established pursuant to the 
 Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act, as amended) at 
 prices not in excess of the prices at which cotton of comparable quality 
 is being offered by other exporting countries, on condition that such 
 cotton be exported or that an equal quantity of extra long staple 
 cotton will be exported within the period specified by the Secretary of 
 Agriculture. The Commodity Credit Corporation may accept bids 
 in excess of the maximum prices specified herein but shall not reject 
 bids at such maximum prices unless a higher bid is received for the 
 same cotton. The Secretary of Agriculture shall make a determina¬ 
 tion of the amomit, if any, of extra long staple cotton which is in 
 surplus supply for the 196U65 marketing year not later than thirty 
 days after the effective date of this section and for each succeeding 
 marketing year not later than thirty days prior to the beginning of 
 each such marketing year. Extra long staple cotton shall be deemed 
 to be in surplus supply whenever the Secretary of Agriculture deter¬ 
 mines that the total supply of such cotton (under the formula for 
 determining the “Total supply” of cotton specified in Section 301(b) 
 (16) (C) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, but 
 not including cotton released from such stockpile) is in excess of 
 j estimated domestic consumption and estimated exports of such cotton 
 excluding estimated exports made under the authority of this section, 
 plus an allowance for carryover equal to fifty per centum of such 
 I- estimated consumption and exports. Exports hereunder shall be ex¬ 
 cluded in making any determination with respect to national marketing 
 quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, 
 ^sothing herein shall preclude the Corporation from accepting bids 
 which may be made at higher than world prices. (78 Stat. 1038, ap¬ 
 proved Octobers, 1964.)] 
 
186 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1956 
 
 [ACT OF JULY 25, 1962 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To facilitate the sale and disposal of Government stocks of extra long staple 
 
 cotton. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That, notwithstand¬ 
 ing any other provision of law, all extra long staple cotton remaining 
 in the stockpile established pursuant to the Strategic and Critical 
 Materials Stock Piling Act, as amended (50 U.S.C. 98), shall be with¬ 
 drawn and transferred or made available to the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation for disposition as provided herein. The domestically 
 grown cotton in the stockpile shall be transferred to the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation and shall be sold only for unrestricted use at not 
 less than the prices at which the Commodity Credit Corporation may 
 sell its stocks under the minimum pricing provisions of section 407 of 
 the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. Such domestically grown 
 cotton shall be excluded in making any determination with respect to 
 national marketing quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 of 1938, as amended^ until after it is sold by Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration. The foreign-grown cotton in the stockpile snail be trans¬ 
 ferred to the Commodity Credit Corporation. Any foreign-grown 
 cotton transferred hereunder to the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall be sold or disposed of only for export at not less than the world 
 market price, as determined by the Secretary of Agriculture. In 
 administering sales or disposals of the foreign-grown cotton, the Sec¬ 
 retary of Agriculture shall periodically determine and announce quotas 
 for disposals by commercial sales and for disposals through the Agri¬ 
 cultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as amended. 
 Such foreign-grown cotton shall be excluded in making any deter¬ 
 mination with respect to national marketing quotas under the Agri¬ 
 cultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, and shall be considered 
 as domestically grown surplus cotton for purposes of sale or disposal 
 mider the provisions of the Agricultural Trade Development and 
 Assistance Act of 1954, as amended, and shall be eligible for sale or 
 disposal thereunder in accordance with the provisions of this Act. 
 
 Proceeds from such sales and dispositions, less costs incurred by 
 Commodity Credit Corporation, including administrative expense, as 
 determined by the Secretary of Agriculture, shall be covered into the 
 Treasury of the United States as miscellaneous receipts. (76 Stat. 
 218.)] 
 
 AGREEMENTS LIMITING IMPORTS 
 
 Sec. 204. [This section appears on p. 284.) 
 
 APPROPRIATION TO SUPPLEaiENT SECTION 32 FUNDS 
 
 Sec. 205. [This section is set out in full on p. 211 in the section en¬ 
 titled “Section 32 and Related Statutes.”] 
 
 Sec. 206. [This section provides for the transfer of bartered mate¬ 
 rials to the supplemental stockpile. (See p. 180.)] 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL-AGRICULTURAL ACT OF 1956 187 
 
 SURPLUS DISPOSAL ADMINISTRATOR 
 
 Sec. 207.2 The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to appoint an 
 agricultural surplus disposal administrator whose duties shall include 
 such re^onsibility for activities of the Department, including those 
 of the Commodity Credit Corporation, relating to the disposal of 
 sutoIus agricultural commodities as the Secretary may direct. (7 
 XJ.S.C. 1857.) 
 
 PAYMENT or OCEAN FREIGHT 
 
 Sec. 208. [This section contains amendments to the Agricultural 
 Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, which are incor¬ 
 porated in that Act as contained in this compilation. (See p. 205.) ] 
 
 COMMISSION TO RECOMMEND LEGISLATION PROVIDING FOR INCREASED 
 INDUSTRIAL USE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 Sec. 209. [This section is omitted because the Commission’s recom¬ 
 mendation was submitted to Congress in 1957.] 
 
 DONATION TO PENAL AND CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Sec. 210. [This section appears on p. 221 in the section entitled 
 “Donations.”] 
 
 FEDERAL IRRIGATION, DRAINAGE, AND FLOOD-CONTROL PROJECTS 
 
 Sec. 211. [ThissectionexpiredMay 28,1959. See p. 159 of Agricul¬ 
 ture Handbook No. 192 for text.] 
 
 Sec. 212. [This section amended section 416 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1949.] 
 
 TITLE III—MAEKETING QUOTAS AND ACEEAGE 
 
 ALLOTMENTS 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 of 1938, which are incorporated in that act as contained in this 
 compilation.] 
 
 TITLE IV—FOEESTEY PEOVISIONS 
 
 [This title contains provisions relating to assistance to states 
 for tree planting and reforestation,] 
 
 TITLE V—CEETIFICATE PEOGEAM FOE EICE 
 
 [This title added subtitle D—Eice Certificates to title III of the 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 and appears on p. 110.] 
 
 TITLE VI—MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 [This title contains amendments to the Agricultural Act of 1949 
 and the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, which are incorporated 
 in those acts as contained in this compilation.] 
 
 » Amended by Pub. L. 87-793, October 11, 1962, 76 Stat. 849. 
 
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INTERNATIONAL WHEAT AGREEMENT ACT OF 1949," 
 
 AS AMENDED 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To give effect to the International Wheat Agreement signed by the United States 
 and other countries relating to the stabilization of supplies and prices in the 
 international wheat market. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That this Act shall 
 be known as the “International Wheat Agreement Act of 1949.” 17 
 U.S.C. 1641 note.) 
 
 Sec. 2. The President is hereby authorized, acting through the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation, to make available or cause to be 
 made available, notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, such 
 quantities of wheat and wheat-flour and at such prices as are nec¬ 
 essary to exercise the rights, obtain the benefits, and fulfill the obliga¬ 
 tions of the United States under the International Wheat Agreement 
 of 1949 signed by Australia, Canada, France, the United States, Uru¬ 
 guay, and certain wheat importing countries, along with the agree¬ 
 ments signed by the United States and certain other countries revising 
 and renewing such agreement of 1949 for periods through July 31, 
 1965 (hereinafter collectively called the “International Wheat Agree¬ 
 ment”). Nothing herein shall be construed to preclude the Secretary 
 of Agriculture, in carrying out programs to encourage the exportation 
 of agricultural commodities and products thereof pursuant to section 
 32 of Public Law 320, Seventy-fourth Congress, as amended, from 
 utilizing funds available for such programs in such manner as, either 
 separately or^ jointly with the Commodity Credit Corporation, to 
 exercise the rights, obtain the benefits, and fulfill all or any part of 
 the obligations of the United States under the International Wheat 
 Agreernent or to preclude the Commodity Credit Corporation in 
 otherwise carrying out wheat and wheat-flour export programs as 
 authorized by law. Nothing contained herein shall limit the duty of 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation to the maximum extent practicable 
 consistent with the fulfillment of the Corporation’s purposes and 
 the effective and efficient conduct of its business to utilize the usual 
 and customary channels,^ facilities, and arrangements of trade and 
 commerce in making available or causing to be made available wheat 
 and wheat-flour hereunder. The pricing provisions of section 112(e) 
 of the Economic Cooperation Act of 1948 and section 4 of the Act of 
 July 16,19 43 (57 Stat. 566), shall not be applicable to domestic wheat 
 
 ^ Approved October 27, 1949, 63 Stat. 945. The original International Wheat Agreement 
 was a contractual agreement between the governments of 4 wheat-exporting countries 
 and 42 wdieat-importing countries for the period August 1, 1949, to August 1, 1953. The 
 International Wheat Agreement Act of 1949 was implementing legislation authorizing the 
 necessary action to carry out the terms of this agreement. The agreement has been 
 renegotiated at three-year Intervals since 1953. It has been ratified by 10 exporting and 
 38 importing countries as of October 31, 1964. 
 
 ^ The rest of this sentence was substituted for the previous language by the Act of 
 September 21, 1959 (73 Stat. 600) and the Act of September 5, 1962 (76 Stat. 434). 
 
 189 
 
 758-820—65^ 
 
 14 
 
190 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL-INTERNATIONAL WHEAT 
 
 AGREEMENT 
 
 and wheat-flour supplied to countries which are parties to the In¬ 
 ternational Wheat Agreement and credited to their guaranteed pur¬ 
 chases thereunder on and after August 1, 1949, and up to and in¬ 
 cluding June 30, 1950J Where prices in excess of the International 
 Wheat Agreement prices have been paid for such wheat and wheat- 
 flour financed by the Economic Cooperation Administration on or 
 after August 1, 1949, and up to and including June 30, 1950, the 
 Secretary of Agriculture or Commodity Credit Corporation is au¬ 
 thorized to reimburse tlie Economic Cooperation Administration for 
 such excess amounts. Funds realized from such reimbursement shall 
 revert to the respective appropriation or appropriations from which 
 funds were expended for the procurement of such wheat and wheat- 
 flour. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as 
 may be necessary to make payments to the Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion of its estimated or actual net costs of carrying out its functions 
 hereunder.^ Such net costs in connection with the International 
 Wlieat Agreement, 1959, shall include those with respect to all trans¬ 
 actions which qualify as commercial purchases (as defined in such 
 agreement) from the United States by importing member countries.® 
 Such net costs in connection with the International Wheat Agreement, 
 1962, shall include those with respect to all transactions which qualify 
 as commercial purchases (as defined in such agreement) from the 
 United States by member and provisional member importing coun¬ 
 tries, including transactions entered into prior to the deposit of instru¬ 
 ments of acceptance or accession by any of the countries involved, if 
 the loading period is not earlier than the date the agreement enters 
 into force.® The Commodity Credit Corporation is hereby authorized 
 in carrying out its functions hereunder to utilize, in advance of such 
 appropriations or payments, any assets available to it. (7 U.S.C. 
 1641.) 
 
 Sec. 3. (a) The President is hereby further authorized to take 
 such other action, including prohibiting or restricting the importation 
 or exportation of wheat or wheat-flour and to issue such rules or regu¬ 
 lations which shall have the force and effect of law, as may be neces¬ 
 sary in his judgment in the implementation of the International 
 lYlieat Agreement. (7 U.S.C. 1642(a).) 
 
 (b) All persons exporting or importing wheat or wheat-flour or 
 selling wheat or wheat-flour for export shall report to the President 
 such information as he may from time to time require and keep such 
 records as he finds to be necessary to enable him to carry out the 
 purposes of this Act. Such information shall be reported and such 
 records shall be kept in accordance with such regulations as the 
 President may prescribe. For the purposes of ascertaining the cor¬ 
 rectness of any report made or record kept, or of obtaining informa¬ 
 tion required to be furnished in any report, but not so furnished, the 
 
 Sec. 112(m) of the Economic Cooperation Act of 1948 (as added by the Act of June 
 5, 1950, 64 Stat. 198, 200; 22 U.S.C. 1510(m)) provides: 
 
 “(m> Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the pricing provisions of section 
 112(e) of this title and section 4 of the Act of July 16, 1943 (57 Stat. 566) shall not 
 be applicable to domestic wheat and wheat flour procured under this title or any other 
 Act providing for assistance or relief to foreign countries, supplied to countries which 
 are parties to the International Wheat Agreement of 1949 and credited to their guaranteed 
 purchases thereunder.” 
 
 ‘ Several appropriations have been made pursuant to this provision. 
 
 ®The preceding sentence was added by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 600. 
 
 9 Sentence added by the Act of September 5, 1962 (P.L. 87-632, 76 Stat. 434). 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—INTERNATIONAL WHEAT 191 
 
 AGREEMENT 
 
 President is hereby authorized to examine such books, papers, records, 
 accounts, correspondence, contracts, documents, and memoranda as are 
 relevant to transactions under the International Wheat Agreement 
 and are within the control of any such person. (7 U.S.C. 1642(b).) 
 
 (c) Any person failing to make any report or keep any record as 
 required by or pursuant to this section 3, or making any false report 
 or record or knowingly violating any rule or regulation of the Presi¬ 
 dent issued pursuant to this section 3 shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be subject to a line 
 of not more than $1,000 for each violation. (7 U.S.C. 1642(c).) 
 
 (d) Any person who Imowingly and wilfully exports wheat or 
 wheat-flour from the United States, or who knowingly and willfully 
 imports wheat or wheat-flour into the United States for consumption 
 therein, in excess of the quantity of wheat or wheat-flour permitted 
 to be exported or imported, as the case may be, under regulations 
 issued by the President shall forfeit to the United States a sum equal 
 to two times the market value at the time of the commission of any 
 such act, of the quantity of wheat or wheat-flour by which any such 
 exportation or importation exceeds the authorized amount which 
 forfeiture shall be recoverable in a civil suit brought in the name of 
 the United States. (7 U.S.C. 1642(d).) 
 
 (e) The district courts of the United States and the District Court 
 of the United States for the District of Columbia shall have jurisdic¬ 
 tion of violations of this Act or the rules and regulations thereunder, 
 and of all suits in equity and actions at law brought to enforce any 
 liability or duty created by this Act or the rules and regulations there¬ 
 under. Any criminal proceeding may be brought in the district 
 wherein any act or transaction constituting the violation occurred. 
 Any suit or action to enforce any liability or duty created by this Act 
 or rules and regulations thereunder, or to enjoin any violation of such 
 Act or rules and regulations, may be brought in any such district 
 v/herein the defendant is found or is a resident or transacts business. 
 The remedies, fines, and forfeitures provided for in this Act shall be 
 in addition to, and not exclusive of, any of the remedies, fines, and 
 forfeitures under existing law. (7 U.S.C. 1642(e).) 
 
 (f) Any power, authority, or discretion conferred on the President 
 by this Act may be exercised through such department, agency, or 
 officer of the Government as the President may direct, and shall be 
 exercised in conformity with such rules or regulations as he may 
 prescribe. (7 U.S.C. 1^2(f).) 
 
 (g) There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as 
 may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this section, includ¬ 
 ing the necessary expenses and contributions of the United States in 
 connection with the administration of the International Wheat 
 Agreement. (7 U.S.C. 1642(g).) 
 
 (h) Funds appropiated under authority of this Act may be used 
 for the purchase or hire of passenger motor vehicles, for printing and 
 binding, for rent and personal services in the District pf Columbia 
 and elsewhere without regard to the limitation contained in section 
 607(g) of the Federal Employees Pay Act of 1945, as amended,^ and 
 
 ’'Sec. 607(g) was repealed September 12, 1950, 64 Stat. 843. 
 
192 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—INTERNATIONAL WHEAT 
 
 AGREEMENT 
 
 for the employment of experts or consultants or organization thereof, 
 on a temporary basis, by contract or otherwise, without regard to the 
 Classification Act, at rates not in excess of $50 per diem. (7 U.S.C. 
 1642(h).) 
 
 (i) The functions exercised under authority of this Act shall be 
 excluded from the operation of the Administrative I^rocedure Act (60 
 Stat. 237) except as to the requirements of sections 3 and 10 thereof. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1642(i).) 
 
 (j) The term “i^erson” as used in this section shall include the 
 singular and the plural and any individual, partnership, corporation, 
 association, as any other organized group of persons. (7 U.S.C. 
 1642 (j).) 
 
 [Act of August 1, 1953—Sec. 2. Reference in any law to the Inter¬ 
 national Wheat Agreement of 1949 shall be deemed to include the 
 agreement revising and renewing the International Wheat Agree¬ 
 ment. (67 Stat. 358; 7 U.S.C. 1641 note.)] 
 
 [Act of August 3, 1956—Sec. 2. Reference in any law to the Inter¬ 
 national Wheat Agreement of 1949 shall be deemed to include the 
 Agreement (International Wheat Agreement, 1956) revising and re¬ 
 newing the International Wheat Agreement for a period endino- July 
 31,1959. (70 Stat. 966; 7 U.S.C. 1641 note.)] 
 
 SALE TO FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS 
 
 Joint Resolution of August 11, 1939.—That notwithstanding any 
 other provision of law, the Commodity Credit Corporation, with the 
 approval of the President, is authorized to sell surplus agricultural 
 commodities, acquired by such Corjioration through its loan opera¬ 
 tions, to foreign governments on the condition that, except for rotation 
 to prevent deterioration, such commodities shall be held in reserve by 
 such governments for a period of not less than five years from the date 
 of acquisition, and shall not be disposed of unless a war or war emer¬ 
 gency results in a serious interruption of normal supplies of such com¬ 
 modities: Provided^ That under this joint resolution no concession 
 below the prevailing world market price for the unrestricted use of 
 such commodities, as determined by the Secretary of Agriculture, 
 shall be granted, in consideration of the obligation assumed by such 
 governments to hold such commodities in reserve as required herein¬ 
 before, in excess of a maximum amount equal to the average cariy- 
 ing charges, as estimated by the Secretaiy of Agriculture, that would 
 be incurred if such commodities should be held for an additional 
 eighteen months’ period by the Commodity Credit Corporation. In 
 deteimining specific cotton to be sold under this Act, the determina¬ 
 tion shall be made by sampling and selection at the place where the 
 cotton is stored on the date of signing any sales agreement or contract 
 under this Act, and no cotton shall be sold under any such sales agree¬ 
 ment or contract which, after such date, is transported to any other 
 place and there sampled and selected: Provided further^ That in case 
 of a sale settlement must be made within sixty days after delivery and 
 not more than five hundred thousand bales of cotton shall be sold 
 upon the terms and conditions provided in this joint resolution. 
 (Pub. Res. 52, 76th Con., 53 Stat. 1418; 15 U.S.C. 713a-6.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL TRADE DEVELOPMENT AND ASSIST¬ 
 ANCE ACT OF 195V AS AMENDED 
 
 Public Law 480—83d Congress 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To increase the consumption of United States agricultural commodities in for¬ 
 eign countries, to improve the foreign relations of the United States, and for 
 other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted l)y the Senate and House of Repnesentatwes of the 
 United States of America in Congress assemhled^ That this Act may 
 be cited as the “Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance 
 Act of 1954”. 
 
 Sec.^ 2. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress to ex¬ 
 pand international trade among the United States and friendly 
 nations, to facilitate the convertibility of currency, to promote the 
 economic stability of American agriculture and the national welfare, 
 to make maximum efficient use of surplus agricultural commodities 
 in furtherance of the foreign policy of the United States, and to 
 stimulate and facilitate the expansion of foreign trade in agricul¬ 
 tural commodities produced in the United States by providing a 
 means whereby surplus agricultural commodities in excess of the 
 usual marketings of such commodities may be sold through private 
 trade channels, and foreign currencies accepted in payment therefor. 
 TT V j policy to use foreign currencies which accrue to the 
 
 United States under this Act to expand international trade, to en- 
 courage^ e^nomic development, to purchase strategic materials, to 
 pay United States obligations abroad, to promote collective strength. 
 
 $17.5,000,000 shall be used to finance t^ e^ort and Wile for 
 produced’in^th^Unfted^s1^ates"fn^^Mh'-^^^ agricultural commodities or products thereof 
 transferred nnrsn«nf t« surplus agricultural commodities or products 
 
 and in acimrdnnw Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 19,54, 
 
 expressed In sectTon im pricing and the use of private trade channels, 
 
 shall^he^ntjWi^XfJ^ currency proceeds accruing from such sales 
 
 sectien Pyrn^ses of this Act and with particular emphasis on the purposes of 
 
 in the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 wliich are 
 
 meJtal ApprSuation Notwithstanding section 1415 of theSplet 
 
 193 
 
194 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAI^P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 and to foster in other ways the foreign policy of the United States.^ 
 (7U.S.C. 1691.) 
 
 TITLE I—SALES FOR FOREIGN CURRENCY« 
 
 Sec. 101. In furtherance of this policy, the President is authorized 
 to negotiate and carry out agreements with friendly nations or organi¬ 
 zations of friendly nations to provide for the sale of surplus agri¬ 
 cultural commodities for foreign currencies. In negotiating such 
 ao-reements the President shall— 
 
 o 
 
 (a) take reasonable precautions to safeguard usual market¬ 
 ings of the United States and to assure that sales under this 
 Act will not unduly disrupt world prices of agricultural com¬ 
 modities or normal patterns of commercial trade with friendly 
 countries; ^ 
 
 (b) take appropriate steps to assure that private trade chan¬ 
 
 nels are used to the maximum extent practicable both with respect 
 to sales from privately owned stocks and from stocks owned by 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation; _ ^ 
 
 (c) give special consideration to utilizing the authority and 
 funds provided by this Act, in order to develop and expand con¬ 
 tinuous market demand abroad for agricultural commodities, with 
 appropriate emphasis on underdeveloped and new rnarket areas; 
 
 (d) seek and secure commitments from participating countries 
 that will prevent resale or transshipment to other countries, or 
 
 2 Subsection (f) of sec. 2 of the Mutual Security Act of 1954, as amended (22 U.S.C. 
 1750), provides as follows: 
 
 “(f> It Is the sense of the Congress that Inasmuch as— 
 
 (1) the United States favors freedom of navigation In International waterways and 
 economic cooperation between nations ; and 
 
 (2) the purposes of this Act are negated and the peace of the world Is endangered 
 when nations which receive assistance under this Act wage economic warfare against 
 other nations assisted under this Act, Including such procedures as boycotts, blockades, 
 and the restriction of the use of International waterways ; 
 
 assistance under this Act and the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act 
 of 1954. as amended, shall be administered to give effect to these principles, and. In all 
 negotiations between the United States and any foreign state arising as a result of funds 
 appropriated under this Act or arising under the Agricultural Trade Development and 
 Assistance Act of 1954, as amended, these principles shall be applied, as the President may 
 determine, and he shall report on measures taken by the Administration to insure their 
 
 3 Sec. RO.I of the International Development Act of 1961 provides: “Shipping on United 
 States Vessels. —The ocean transportation between foreign countries of commodities and 
 defense articles purchased with foreign currencies made available or derived from funds 
 made available under this Act or the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act 
 of 1954, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1691 et seq.), and transfers of fresh fruit and products 
 thereof under this Act, shall not be governed by the provisions of section 901(b) of the 
 Merchant Marine Act of 1936, as amended (46 U.S.C. 1241), or any other law relating to 
 the ocean transportation of commodities on United States flag vessels.” 75 Stat. 4.39, 
 September 4, 1961. Sec. 504 of the Mutual Security Act of 1954, as amended (22 U.S.C. 
 1761) contains similar language. 
 
 See also Sec. 3 of the Act of August 3, 1956. 70 Stat. 988, which provides that sales 
 of fresh fruit and the products thereof under Title I shall be exempt from the requirements 
 of the cargo preference laws. 
 
 Sec. 620 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. 75 Stat. 444, was amended by the Foreign 
 Assistance Act of 1963, 77 Stat. 387, to Include subsec. (1) which provided as follows: 
 
 “(1) No assistance shall be provided under this or an.y other Act, and no sales 
 shall he made under the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 
 to any country which the President determines is engaging In or preparing for aggres- 
 slye military efforts directed against— 
 
 (1) the United States. 
 
 (2) any country recelyirg assistance under this or any other Act, or 
 
 (3) any country to which sales are made under the Agricultural Trade Derel- 
 opment and Assistance Act of 1954, 
 
 until the President determines that such military efforts or preparations haye ceased 
 and he reports to the Congress that he has recelyed assurances satisfactory to him that 
 such military efforts or preparations will not be renewed. This restriction may not 
 be waiyed pursuant to any authority contained in this Act.” 
 
 * Phrase beginning with “or” added by the Act of September 6, 1958, 72 Stat. 1790. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 4S0, 83d CONGRESS 195 
 
 use for other than domestic purposes, of surplus agricultural 
 commodities purchased under this Act, without specific approval 
 of the President; and 
 
 (e) afford any friendly nation the maximum opportunity to 
 purchase surplus agricultural commodities from the United 
 States, taking into consideration the opportunities to achieve the 
 declared policy of this Act and to make effective use of the for¬ 
 eign currencies received to carry out the purposes of this Act. 
 
 (f) ® obtain rates of exchange applicable to the sale of com¬ 
 modities under such agreements which are not less favorable than 
 the highest of exchange rates legally obtainable in the respective 
 countries, and which are not less favorable than the highest of 
 exchange rates obtainable by any other nation. 
 
 (g) ® require such foreign currencies to be convertible to dollars 
 to the extent consistent with the effectuation of the purpose of this 
 Act, but in any event to the extent necessary to permit that portion 
 of such currencies made available for payment of United States 
 obligations to be used to meet obligations or charges payable by 
 the United States or any of its agencies to the government of the 
 importing country or any of its agencies. (T U.S.C. 1701.) 
 
 Sec. 102.^ (a) For the purpose of carrying out agreements con¬ 
 cluded by the President hereunder, the Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion, in accordance with regulations issued by the President pursuant 
 to subsection (b) of this section, (1) shall make available for sale 
 hereunder to domestic exporters surplus agricultural commodities 
 heretofore or hereafter acquired by the Corporation in the adminis¬ 
 tration of its price-support operations, and (2) shall make funds 
 available to finance the sale and exportation of surplus agricultural 
 commodities, whether from private stocks or from stocks of the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation. In supplying such commodities to 
 exporters under this subsection the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall not be subject to the sales price restrictions in section 407 of 
 the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. The commodity set-aside 
 established for any commodity under section 101 of the Agricul¬ 
 tural Act of 1954 (68 Stat. 897) shall be reduced by a quantity 
 equal to the quantity of such commodity financed hereunder which 
 is exported from private stocks. The Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall finance ocean freight charges incurred pursuant to agreements 
 entered into after December 31, 1964, only to the extent that such 
 
 « Subsec. (f) was added by sec. 201 of the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 306, August 
 8 , 1961, and was amended by Pub. L. 88-2.05, 75 Stat. 391, approved December 16 1963 
 and by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
 added by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved October 8, 1964. 
 ^ The last two sentences of sec. 102(a) were added by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035 
 
 102(a) was previously amended by the Act of April 25! 
 
 laODf 69 StRt. 44. 
 
 folfo^ws^ of the Act of September 6, 1958, 72 Stat. 1792, 7 U.S.C. 1701 note), provides as 
 
 A provisions of the Agricultural Trade Development and A.sslstance 
 
 Act of 1954, as amended, extra long staple cotton shall be made available for sale pur- 
 suant to the provisions of title I of the Act in the same manner as upland cotton or any 
 other surplus agricultural commodity is made available, and products manufactured from 
 staple cotton shall be made available for sale pursuant to the provisions 
 ^ long as cotton is In surplus supply, and no discriminatory or other 
 
 conditions shall be imposed which will prevent or tend to interfere with their sale or 
 sale under the Act: Provided, That that portion of the sales price of such 
 hUii 'll® financed as a sale for foreign currency under title I of the Act shall 
 
 ro J « estimated portion of the sales price of such products attributable to the 
 
 raw cotton content of such products.” 
 
i 
 
 196 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS , 
 
 j 
 
 charges are higher (than would otherwise be the case) by reason of a 
 requirement that the commodities be transported in United States flag 
 vessels. Such agreements shall require the balance of such charges for ] 
 transportation in United States vessels to be paid in dollars by the 
 nations or organizations with whom such agreements are entered into. 1 
 (7 U.S.C. 1702(a).) 
 
 (b) In order to facilitate and maximize the use of private chan- * 
 nels of trade in carrying out agreements entered into pursuant to 
 this Act, the President may, under such regulations and subject to 
 such safeguards as he deems appropriate, provide for the issuance 
 of letters of commitment f^ainst funds or guaranties of funds sup¬ 
 plied by the Commodity Credit Corporation and for this purpose , 
 accounts may be established on the books of any department, agency, 
 or establishment of the Government, or on terms and conditions 
 approved by the Secretary of the Treasury in banking institutions 
 in the United States. Such letters of commitment, when issued, shall 
 constitute obligations of the United States and moneys due or to 
 become due thereunder shall be assignable under the Assignment of 
 Claims Act of 1940. Expenditures of funds which have been made 
 available througli accounts so established shall be accounted for on 
 standard documentation required for expenditures of Government 
 funds. (7 U.S.C. 1702(b).) 
 
 Sec. 103. (a)® For the purpose of making payment to the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation to the extent the Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration is not reimbursed under section 105 for commodities dis¬ 
 posed of and costs incurred under titles I and II of this Act, there 
 are hereW authorized to be appropriated such sums as are equal to 
 (1) the Corporation’s investment in commodities made available for 
 export under this title and title II of this Act, including processing, 
 packaging, transportation, and handling costs, (2) all costs incurred 
 by the Corporation in making funds available to finance the exporta¬ 
 tion of surplus agricultural commodities pursuant to this title and, 
 
 (3) all Commodity Credit Corporation funds expended for ocean 
 freight costs authorized under title II hereof for purposes of section 
 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. Any funds or other 
 assets available to the Commodity Credit Corporation may be used 
 in advance of such appropriation or payments, for carrying out the 
 purposes of this Act. In presenting his budget, the President shall 
 classify expenditures under this Act as expenditures for international 
 affairs and finance rather than for agriculture and agricultural re¬ 
 sources. (7 U.S.C. 1703(a).) 
 
 (b)® Agreements shall not be entered into under this title during the 
 period beginning January 1, 1965, and ending December 31, 1966, 
 which will call for appropriations to reimburse the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation in a total amount in excess of $2,700,000,000 plus any 
 amount by which agreements entered into in prior years have called or 
 will call for appropriations to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corpo¬ 
 ration in amounts less than authorized for such prior years by this Act 
 
 »The last sentence of subsec. (a) was added by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved 
 October 8, 1964. Sec. 103(a) was previously amended by sec. 208(a) of the Ai?rlcultural 
 Act of 1956, 70 Stat. 201. 
 
 » Subsec. (b) was amended by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
 The amendment Is effective January 1, 1965. This subsection has been amended several 
 times. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 197 
 
 as in effect during such yeai-s: Provided, That agreements shall not be 
 entered into during any calendar year of such period which will call 
 for appropriations to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation in 
 amounts in excess of $2,500,000,000. (7 U.S.C. 1703 (b).) 
 
 Sec. 104.^° Notwithstanding section 1415 of the Supplemental Ap¬ 
 propriation Act, 1953, or any other provision of law, the President 
 may use or enter into agreements with friendly nations or organiza¬ 
 tions of nations to use the foreign currencies, including principal and 
 interest from loan repayments,"^^ which accrue under this title for one 
 or more of the following purposes.^^ 
 
 (a) 'Pq develop new markets for United States agricultural 
 commodities on a mutually benefiting basis. From sale proceeds and 
 loan repayments under this title not less than the equivalent of 5 per 
 centum of the total sales made each year under this title after the 
 date of this amendment shall be set aside in the amounts and kinds of 
 foreign currencies specified by the Secretary of Agriculture and made 
 available in advance for use as provided by this subsection over such 
 period of years as the Secretary of Agriculture determines will most 
 effectively carry out the purpose of this subsection: Provided, That 
 no such funds shall be allocated under this subsection after June 30, 
 1960, except as may be specified, from time to time, in appropriation 
 acts. Provision shall be made in sale and loan agreements for the 
 convertibility of such amount of the proceeds thereof (not less than 2 
 per centum) as the Secretary of Agriculture determines to be needed 
 to carry out the purpose of this subsection in those countries which 
 are or offer reasonable potential of becoming dollar markets for United 
 States agricultural commodities. Such sums shall be converted into 
 the types and kinds of foreign currencies as the Secretary deems neces¬ 
 sary to carry out the provisions of this subsection and such sums shall 
 be deposited to a special Treasury account and shall not be made avail¬ 
 able or expended except for carrying out the provisions of this sub- 
 
 Act of August 13, 1957, 71 Stat. 345, provides that within sixty days after any agree¬ 
 ment is entered into for the use of any foreign currencies, a full report thereon shall be 
 made to the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States and to the Com¬ 
 mittees on Agriculture and Appropriations thereof. (7 U.S.C. 1704a.) 
 
 ^ The phrase “including principal and interest from loan repayments” was added by the 
 Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 306, August 8, 1961. 
 
 ^ See sec. 407 of the Act of September 1, 1954, as amended (5 U.S.C. 171z-l), which 
 provides: 
 
 “In addition to family housing and community facilities otherwise authorized to be con¬ 
 structed or acquired by the Department of Defense, the Secretary of Defense is authorized, 
 subject to the approval of the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, to construct, or 
 acquire by lease or otherwise, family housing for occupancy as public quarters, and com¬ 
 munity facilities, in foreign countries through housing and community facilities projects 
 which utilize foreign currencies to a value not to exceed $250,000,000 acquired pursuant 
 to the provisions of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 or 
 through other commodity transactions of the Commodity Credit Corporation. 
 
 “The Department of Defense shall pay the Commodity Credit Corporation, from appro¬ 
 priations otherwise available for the payment of quarters allowances for military person¬ 
 nel and from appropriate allotments or rental charges for civilian personnel, amounts equal 
 to the quarters allowances or allotments otherwise payable to or the rental charges col- 
 K'cted from personnel occupying any housing constructed or acquired under authority of 
 rois section after deducting amounts chargeal)le for the maintenance and operation of such 
 housing: Provided, That such payments shall not exceed the dollar equivalent of the value 
 of the foreign currencies used for all such construction or acquisition.” 
 
 See also sec. 509 of the Act of June 8, 1960, 74 Stat. 186, which provides: 
 
 509. Notwithstanding the provisions of any other law, at least 75 per centum of 
 the total cost of any family housing project or community facility hereafter constructed or 
 acquired in any foreign country by the Department of Defense or any military department 
 Shall be paid for from foreign currencies acquired by the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 i*«r5*^‘^***' provisions of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 
 
 tl’ot the following projects authorized jiursuant to this Act shall not be subject 
 to this requirement: . . .” (ILst of projects omitted). 
 
 ” Subsec. (a) was amended by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 606, and the 
 Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 306. approved August 8, 1961. 
 
198 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 section. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, if sufficient for¬ 
 eign currencies for carrying out the purpose of this subsection in such 
 countries are not otherwise available, the Secretory of Agriculture 
 is authorized and directed to enter into agreements with such countries 
 for the sale of surplus agricultural commodities in such amounts as 
 the Secretary of Agriculture determines to be adequate and for the 
 use of the proceeds to carry out the purpose of this subsection; 
 
 (b) ^^ To purchase or contract to purchase, in such amounts as may 
 be specified from time to time in appropriation acts, strategic or other 
 materials for a supplemental United States stockpile of such materials 
 as the President may determine from time to time. Such strategic 
 or other materials acquired under this subsection shall be placed in the 
 above named supplemental stockpile and shall be released therefrom 
 only luider the provisions of section 3 of the Strategic and Critical 
 INIaterials Stock Piling Act; 
 
 (c) ^® To procure equipment, materials, facilities, and services for 
 the common defense including internal security; 
 
 (d) For financing the purchase of goods or services for other 
 friendly countries; 
 
 (e) ^® For promoting balanced economic development and trade 
 among nations, for which purposes currencies shall also be available to 
 the maximum usable extent through and under the procedures estab¬ 
 lished by such agency as the President shall direct for loans mutually 
 agreeable to said agency and the country with which the agreement is 
 made to United States business firms and branches, subsidiaries, or 
 affiliates of such finns for business development and trade expansion 
 in such countries and for loans to domestic or foreign finns for the 
 establishment of facilities for aiding in the utilization, distribution, or 
 otherwise increasing the consumption of, and markets for. United 
 States agricultural products: Provided^ however^ That no such loans 
 shall be made for the manufacture of any products to be exported to 
 the United States in competition with products produced in the United 
 States or for the manufacture or production of any commodity to be 
 marketed in competition with United States agricultural commodities 
 or the products thereof. Foreign currencies may be accepted in repay¬ 
 ment of such loans; 
 
 (f) To pay United States obligations abroad; 
 
 (g) For loans to promote multilateral trade and economic develop¬ 
 ment, made through established banking facilities of the friendly 
 nation from which the foreign currency was obtained or in any other 
 manner which the President may deem to be appropriate. Strategic 
 materials, services, or foreign currencies may be accepted in payment 
 of such loans; 
 
 “ As amended by the Act of September 21, 19.59, 73 Stat. 607. 
 
 As amended by Pub. L. 8S-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
 Sec. 420 of the Act of August 10, 1959, 73 Stat. 324 provides : 
 
 “Sec. 420. in carrying out a foreign country any project authorized by this Act or 
 any other Military Construction Act heretofore or hereafter enacted, currencies of such 
 country acquired pursuant to the provisions of the Agicultural Trade Development and 
 Assistance Act of 1954 (Public Law 480, Eighty-third Congress) shall, to the extent avail¬ 
 able and feasible, be used in lieu of dollars. The Department of Defense shall reimburse 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation for any foreign currencies so utilized in carrying out 
 such projects.” (7 U.S.C. 1704(b).) 
 
 M As amended by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1035, approved October 8. 1964, bv the Act 
 of September 4, 1961, 75 Stat. 463, and by the Act of August 13, 1957, 71 Stat. 345. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 199 
 
 For the financing of international educational exchange ac¬ 
 tivities under the programs authorized by section 32(b)(2) of the 
 Surplus Property Act of 1944, as amended (50 U.S.C. App. 1641(b) ) 
 and for the financing in such amounts as may be specified from time 
 to time in appropriation acts of programs for the interchange of per¬ 
 sons under title II of the United States Information and Educational 
 Exchange Act of 1948, as amended (22 U.S.C. 1446). In the alloca¬ 
 tion of funds as among the various purposes set forth in this section, a 
 special effort shall be made to provide for the purposes of this sub¬ 
 section, including a particular effort with regard to: (1) countries 
 where adequate funds are not available from other sources for such 
 purposes, and (2) countries where agreements can be negotiated to 
 establish a fund with the interest and principal available over a period 
 of years for such purposes, such special and particular effort to include 
 the setting aside of such amounts from sale proceeds and loan repay¬ 
 ments under this title, not in excess of $1,000,000 a year in any one 
 country for a period of not more than five years in advance, as may 
 be determined by the Secretary of State to be required for the purposes 
 of this subsection; 
 
 (i) ^® For financing the translation, publication, and distribution of 
 books and periodicals, including Government publications, abroad: 
 Provided^ That not more than $5,000,000 may be allocated for this 
 purpose during any fiscal year; 
 
 (j) ^® For providing assistance to activities and projects authorized 
 by section 203 of the United States Information and Educational 
 Exchange Act of 1948, as amended (22 U.S.C. 1448), but no foreign 
 currencies which are available under the terms of any agreement for 
 appropriation for the general use of the United States shall be used 
 for the purposes of this subsection (j) without appropriation therefor; 
 
 (k) 2 o 'Pq collect, collate, translate, abstract, and disseminate scien¬ 
 tific and teclmological information and to conduct research and sup¬ 
 port scientific activities overseas including programs and projects of 
 scientific cooperation between the United States and other countries 
 such as coordinated research against diseases common to all of man¬ 
 kind or unique to individual regions of the globe, and to promote and 
 support programs of medical and scientific researchj cultural and 
 educational development, health, nutrition, and sanitation: Provided^ 
 That foreign currencies shall be available for the purposes of this 
 subsection (in addition to funds otherwise made available for such 
 purposes) only in such amounts as may be specified from time to time 
 in appropriation Acts; 
 
 (l) ^^ For the acquisition by purchase, lease, rental or otherwise of 
 sites and buildings and grounds abroad, for United States Govern¬ 
 ment use including offices, residence quarters, commmiity and other 
 
 As amended by the Act of July 18, 1956, 70 Stat. 564 ; Act of August 14, 1957, 71 Stat. 
 345 ; and Act of September 6, 1958. 72 Stat. 1790. 
 
 « Subsection (i) added by the Act of July 18, 1956, 70 Stat. 565. 
 
 ’•Subsection (j) added by the Act of August 3, 1956, 70 Stat. 988. 
 
 •“Subsection (k) added by tbe Act of June 30, 1958, 72 Stat. 275. Subsection (k) was 
 amended previously by the Act of July 24, 1959, 73 Stat. 258, and by the Act of Septem¬ 
 ber 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 607. See also the International Health Research Act of 1960, 74 
 Stat. 364, approved July 12, 1960, authorizing the President to enter into agreements with 
 organizations to use foreign currencies for international health research. 
 
 (22 U.S.O. 2>103.) 
 
 added by the Act of September 6, 1958, 72 
 
 ot&t. 1791. 
 
200 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 facilities, and for construction, repair, alteration and furnishing of 
 such buildings and facilities: Provided^ That foreign cuiTencies shall 
 be available for the purposes of this subsection (in addition to funds | 
 otherwise made available for such purposes) in such amounts as may 1 
 be specified from time to time in appropriation acts; * 
 
 (m) 2i For financing in such amounts as may be specified from 
 time to time in appropriation acts (A) trade fair participation and 
 related activities authorized by section 3 of the International Cultural 
 Exchange and Trade Fair Participation Act of 1956 (22 U.S.C. 
 1992) or section 212(B) of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936,^2 and 
 (B) agricultural and horticultural fair participation and related 
 activities; 
 
 (n) 2i For financing under the direction of the Librarian of 
 Congress, in consultation with the National Science Foimdation and 
 other interested agencies, in such amounts as may be specified from 
 time to time in appropriations acts, (1) programs outside the United 
 States for the analysis and evaluation of foreign books, periodicals, 1 
 and other materials to determine whether they would provide infor¬ 
 mation of technical or scientific significance in the United States and 
 whether such books, jieriodicals, and other materials are of cultural or 
 educational significance; (2) the registry, indexing, binding, repro¬ 
 duction, cataloging, abstracting, translating, and dissemination of 
 books, periodicals, and related materials determined to have such 
 significance; and (3) the acquisition of such books, periodicals, and 
 other materials and the deposit thereof in libraries and research 
 centers in the United States specializing in the areas to which they 
 relate; 
 
 (o) 2i For providing assistance, in such amounts as may be specified 
 from time to time in appropriation acts, by grant or otherwise, in the 
 expansion or operation in foreign countries of established schools, 
 colleges, or universities founded or sponsored by citizens of the United 
 States, for the purpose of enabling such educational institutions to 
 carry on programs of vocational, professional, scientific, technological, 
 or general education; 
 
 (p) 2^ For supporting workshops in American studies or American ' 
 educational techniques, and supporting chairs in American studies; 
 
 (q) 2^ For assistance to meet emergency or extraordinary relief re¬ 
 quirements other than requirements for surplus food commodities: 
 Provided^ That not more than a total amount equivalent to $5,000,000 
 may be made available for this purpose during any fiscal year; 
 
 (r) 2* For fhiancing the preparation, distribution, and exhibiting of 
 audio-visual informational and educational materials, including Gov¬ 
 ernment materials, abroad: Provided^ That not more than a total 
 amount equivalent to $2,500,000 may be made available for this pur¬ 
 pose during any fiscal year, but nothing in this subsection shall limit 
 or affect the use of forei^i currencies to finance the preparation, dis¬ 
 tribution, or exhibition of such materials in connection with trade fairs 
 and other market development activities under subsection (a); 
 
 21 See p. 1»9. 
 
 23 The phrase “or section 212(B) of the Merchant Marine Act of 1936’’ was added by the 
 Act of October 18, 1962, 76 Stat. 1074. auucu u:, 
 
 temblr* 2 ri 959 ^3®Stat®^607^ subsec. (o) but was separated by the Act of Sep- 
 
 2* Subsecs, (p), (q), and (r) added by Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 607. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 201 
 
 (s) For tlie sale for dollars to American tourists under such teims 
 and conditions as the President may prescribe; 
 
 (t) For sale to United States citizens as provided herein. In 
 order to provide for the foreign currency needs of United States citi¬ 
 zens for travel or other purposes, the Secretaiy of the Treasury may 
 make available for sale for United States dollars to such citizens, at 
 United States embassies or other convenient locations, foreign cur¬ 
 rencies acquired by the United States through operations under the 
 Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended, the Mutual Security Act 
 of 1954, as amended, or any Act repealed thereby, or the Agricultural 
 Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as amended, which 
 (1) he determines to be in excess of the needs of departments and 
 agencies of the United States for such currencies, and (2) are not pro¬ 
 hibited from such use or committed to other uses by agreement hereto¬ 
 fore entered into with another country. United States dollars received 
 from the sale of foreign currencies under this subsection shall be de¬ 
 posited in the Treasury as miscellaneous receipts, except that in the 
 case of any such foreign currencies acquired through operations under 
 title I of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act 
 of 1954, as amended, the United States dollars received from the sale 
 of such foreign currencies shall be deposited to the account of the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation and shall be treated as a reimbursement 
 to Commodity Credit Corporation under section 105 of this Act. 
 
 Provided^ however^ That section 1415 of the Supplemental Appro¬ 
 priation Act, 1953,^^ shall apply to all foreign currencies used for 
 grants under subsections (d) and (e) and for payment of United 
 States obligations involving grants under subsection (f) and to not 
 less than 10 per centum of the foreign currencies which accrue under 
 this title pursuant to agreements entered into on or before December 
 31, 1964 and to not less than 20 per centum in the aggregate of the 
 foreign currencies which accrue pursuant to agreements entered into 
 thereafter: Provided^ however^ That the President is authorized 
 
 to waive such applicability of section 1415 in any case where he deter¬ 
 mines that it would be inappropriate or inconsistent with the purposes 
 of this title: Provided^ however^ That no foreign currencies shall be 
 available pursuant to subsections (k), (p), and (r), except in such 
 amounts as may be specified from time to time in appropriation Acts.^'^ 
 There is hereby established an advisory committee composed of the 
 Secretarv of Agriculture, the Director of the Bureau of the Budget, 
 the Administrator of the Agency for International Development, the 
 chairman and the ranking minority member of the House Committee 
 on Agriculture, and the chairman and the ranking minority member 
 
 2® Snhspc. (s) WHS added by the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 'Stat. .306, August S, 1961. 
 
 “ SubsPC. (t) was originally sec. 612(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, 77 St.nt 
 " 2 ^. ns amended by the Foreign Assistance Act of 196.3, 77 Stat. .386, approved December 
 16, 196.3. It was amended and redesignated subsec. (t) of the Agricultural Trade Devel¬ 
 opment and AssLstance Act of 1954, as amended, by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1037, 10.38, 
 approved October 8, 1964. 
 
 Section 1415 provides that “Foreign credits owed to or owned bv the United States 
 Treasury wjll not be available for expenditure by agencies of the United States after 
 June 30, 19.53, except as may be provided for annually In appropriation Acts and provisions 
 for the utilization of such credits for purposes authorized by law are hereby authorized 
 to be included In general appropriation Acts.” 
 
 « preceding proviso was amended by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 10.36, approved October 
 
 » The last proviso added by the Act of September 21. 1959, 7.3 Stat. 607, was amended 
 by the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 306, August 8. 1961. 
 
202 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 of the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. Such Com¬ 
 mittee shall review from time to time the status and usage of foreign 
 currencies which accrue under this title, and shall make recommenda¬ 
 tions to the President as to ways and means of assuring to the United 
 States (1) the maximum benefit from the use of such currencies, mak¬ 
 ing special reference to any such currencies which are excess to the 
 normal requirements of United States agencies, and (2) the maximum 
 return from sales made under this title. Such Committee shall make 
 such other recommendations for improving this Act and its admin¬ 
 istration as such Committee may deem fit.®° 
 
 The committee shall be consulted with respect to: (1) policies 
 relating to (a) loans under subsections (e) and (g) hereof, (b) the 
 degree of convertibility to be required under section 101(g), and (c) 
 the amount of currency to be reserved in sales agreements for loans to 
 private industry under subsection (e) hereof; and (2) each proposal 
 to establish an interest rate for dollar sales under title IV higher than 
 the minimum provided in section 403.“ 
 
 No agreement or proposal to grant any foreign currencies (except 
 as provided in subsection (c) of this section), or to use (except pur¬ 
 suant to appropriation Act) any principal or interest from loan repay¬ 
 ments under this section, shall be entered into or carried out until the 
 expiration of thirty days following the date on which such agreement 
 or proposal is transmitted by the President to the Senate Committee 
 on Agriculture and Forestry and to the House Committee on Agri¬ 
 culture, if transmitted while Congress is in session, or sixty days fol¬ 
 lowing the date of transmittal if transmitted while Congress is not in 
 session, and then only if, between the date of transmittal and the 
 expiration of such period there has not been passed by either of the 
 two Committees a resolution stating in substance that that Committee 
 does not favor such agreement or proposal.®® 
 
 Any loan made under the authority of this section shall bear interest 
 at such rate as the President may determine but not less than the cost 
 of funds to the United States Treasury, taking into consideration the 
 current average market yields on outstanding marketable obligations 
 of the United States having maturity comparable to the maturity of 
 such loans, unless the President shall in specific instances upon the 
 recommendation of the advisory committee herein established desig¬ 
 nate a different rate.®® (7 U.S.C. 1704.) 
 
 Sec. 105.®^ Foreign currencies received pursuant to this title shall 
 be deposited in a special account to the credit of the United States and 
 shall be used only pursuant to section 104 of this title, and any depart¬ 
 ment or agency of the government using any of such currencies for a 
 purpose for which funds have been appropriated shall reimburse the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation in an amount equivalent to the dollar 
 value of the currencies used. The President shall utilize foreign cur¬ 
 rencies received pursuant to this title in such manner as will, to the 
 maximum extent possible, reduce any deficit in the balance of pay¬ 
 ments of the United States. (7 U.S.C. 1705.) 
 
 These three paragraphs and the last sentence were added by Pub. E. 88-638, 78 Stat. 
 1036, approved October 8, 1964. See the President’s statement on signing the bill. 
 
 The last sentence was added by Pub. L. 88-205, 75 Stat. 390, approved December 16, 
 1963. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 203 
 
 Sec. 106.32 “surplus agricultural commodity” 
 
 shall mean any agricultural commodity or product thereof, class, kind, 
 type, or other specification thereof, produced in the United States, 
 either privately or publicly owned, which is at the time of exportation 
 01 donation in excess of domestic requirements, adequate carryover, 
 and anticipated exports for dollars, as determined by the Secretary of 
 Agriculture. The Secretary of Agriculture is also authorized to de¬ 
 termine the nations with whom agreements shall be negotiated, and 
 to determine the commodities pd quantities thereof which may be 
 included in the negotiations with each country after advising with 
 other agencies of Government affected and within broad policies laid 
 down by the President for implementing this Act. For the purposes 
 of this title and title IV, the term “surplus agricultural commodity” 
 shall include any domestically produced fishery product (not includ- 
 mg fish flour until approved by the Food and Drug Administration) 
 if the Secretary of the Interior has determined that such product is at 
 the time of exportation in excess of domestic requirements, adequate 
 carryover, and anticipated exports for dollars. (7 U.S.C. 1706.) 
 
 Sec. 107.33 As used in this Act, “friendly nation” means any coun- 
 try, other than (1) the U.S.S.R., or (2) any nation or area dominated 
 or controlled by the foreign government or foreign organization con¬ 
 trolling the world Communist movement, or (3) for the purpose only 
 of title I any nation or area dominated or controlled by a Communist 
 government, or (4) for the purpose only of title I any nation which 
 permits ships or aircraft under its registry to transport to or from 
 Cuba (excluding United States installations in Cuba) any equipment, 
 materials, or commodities, so long as Cuba is governed by the Castro 
 regime. ^ Notwithstanding any other Act, the President is authorized 
 to enter mto agreements for the sale of surplus agricultural commodi¬ 
 ties for dollars under title IV with nations which fall within the defi¬ 
 nition of “friendly nation” for the purpose of that title. In the case 
 of any such agreement which would be prohibited by any other Act 
 but for the foregoing sentence the maximum payment period shall be 
 five years, instead of twenty years. 
 
 The President is directed that no sales under this Act shall be made 
 with any country if he finds such coimtry is (a) an aggressor, in a 
 military sense, against any country having diplomatic relations with 
 the United States, or (b) using funds, of any sort, from the United 
 States for purposes inimical to the foreign policies of the United 
 States. (7 U.S.C. 1707.) 
 
 Sec. 108. The President shall make a report to Congress with respect 
 to the activities carried on under this Act at least once each year 3^ and 
 at such other times as may be appropriate and such reports shall in¬ 
 clude the dollar value, at the exchange rates in effect at the time of the 
 sale, of the foreign currency for which commodities exported pursuant 
 to section 102(a) hereof are sold. (7 U.S.C. 1708). 
 
 sentence was added by Pub. L. 88-205, 75 Stat. 390, approved December 16, 
 1 effective as of January 1, 1965. The section was previously amended by the 
 
 Act of August 12, 1955, 69 Stat. 721. 
 
 » Sec. 107 was amended by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1036, approved October 8, 1964, 
 "y bidding all the language following the word “movement,”. 
 
 o.. .. “year” was substituted for the words “six months” by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 
 
 Stat. 1037, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
204 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAI^P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 Sec. 109. No transactions shall be undertaken under authority of 
 this title after December 31, 1966,except as requiretl pui'suant to 
 agreements theretofore entered into pursuant to this title. (7 U.S.C. 
 1709.) 
 
 TITLE II—FAMINE KELIEF AND OTHER ASSISTANCE 
 
 Sec. 201. In order to enable the President to furnish emergency 
 assistance on behalf of the people of the United States to friendly 
 peoples in meeting famine or other urgent or extraordinai*y relief 
 requirements, the Commodity Credit Corporation shall make avail¬ 
 able to the President out of its stocks such surplus agricultural com¬ 
 modities (as delined in section 106 of title I)^* as he may request, for 
 transfer (1) to any nation friendly to the United States in order to 
 meet famine or other urgent or extraordinary relief requirements 
 of such nation, and (2) to friendly but needy populations without 
 regard to the friendliness of their government. (7 U.S.C. 1721.) 
 
 Sec. 202.^® In order to facilitate the utilization of surplus agricul¬ 
 tural commodities in meeting the requirements of needy peoples, and 
 in order to promote economic and community development in under¬ 
 developed areas in addition to that which can be accomplished under 
 title I of this Act, the President may authorize the transfer on a grant 
 basis of surplus agricultural commodities from Commodity Credit 
 Corporation stocks to assist programs undertaken with friendly gov- 
 ernnients or through voluntary relief agencies: Provided^ That the 
 President shall take reasonable precaution that such transfers will not 
 displace or interfere with sales which might otherwise be made. (7 
 U.S.C. 1722.) 
 
 Sec. 203.^® Programs of assistance shall not be undertaken under 
 this title during any calendar year beginning January 1, 1965, and 
 ending December 31, 1966, which call for appropriations of more than 
 $400,000,000 to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation for all 
 costs incurred in connection with such programs (including the Cor- 
 portion’s investment in conunodities made available), plus any 
 amount by which programs of assistance undertaken in the preceding 
 calendar year have called or will call for appropriations to reimburse 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation in amounts less than were author¬ 
 ized for such purpose during such preceding year by tliis title as in 
 effect during such preceding year. The President may make trans¬ 
 fers through such agencies including intergovernmental organiza¬ 
 tions, in such manner, and upon such teians and conditions as he deems 
 appropriate; he shall make use of the facilities of voluntary relief 
 
 O substituted for “19G4” by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1037, approved October 
 
 o, iyb*±. 
 
 See also Act of August 19, 1958, 72 Stat. 635 (p. 220), as to donations of processed 
 grain food products. 
 
 Stat""988^ “Of extraordinary” inserted in two places of the Act of August 3, 1956, 70 
 
 ^ delivery be made ‘‘f.o.b. vessels in United States ports” removed by 
 
 sec. 208(b) of Agricultural Act of 19.56. 
 
 amended by Pub. L. 88-205, 77 Stat. 391, approved December 16, 
 1.^63 , by the Act of July 20, 1961, 75 Stat. 211 ; and by the Act of May 14, 1960, 74 Stat. 
 
 substituted for the previous sentence by the Agricultural Act 
 ‘o Stat. 307, August 8, 1961, and was further amended by Pub. L. S8-638, 78 Stat. 
 ^ D) substituting “1965” for “1961”, “1966” for “1964” 
 
 1965 $300,000,000”. The last amendments are effective January 1, 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 205 
 
 agenci^ to the extent practicable. Such transfers may include de 
 
 by S, PresidenShafit^ffStates ports and, upon a cleterminatfon 
 y le r^resident that it is necessary to accomplish the Durnoses of 
 
 title or of section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 194^9 as ImeLed 
 
 ocea,i treight charge from United States ports to cWi<?nateTnSs 
 
 of entiy abroad, or, in the case of landlocked countries, transnorthion 
 
 from United States ports to designated points of eS^y abS mTv 
 
 be paid from funds available to carry out this title on coXodS 
 
 tiansferr^ pursuant hereto or donated under said section 416 and 
 
 contributions arising out of the ocean 
 
 Lid donated under 
 
 teiSbS 6 ?968 V?2 ^ u " ® Sep- 
 
 it’excLdili? 500 om’" n “f® ‘‘^le may to used in a‘n amount 
 cruino- undpr^ffna^T^’^^^ annually to purchase foreign currencies ac- 
 
 aZmistoative noth? Personnel and 
 
 a nniistrative costs of cooperating sponsors, distributing agencies and 
 
 recipient agencies, and the costs of construction or mahitenance of anv 
 
 church owned or operated edifice or any other edifice^ to boused for 
 
 ZtoZlm StCZuu'dZ^ff to assure that commodities made available 
 fi j under title III are used to carry out more effective!v 
 
 the purposes for which such commodities are made available or to 
 
 ItoZa“,!^T“the'need f f®'^‘’^®’P activities designed to alleviate 
 suto fSs sb»n I ^ assistance: Provided, however, That 
 
 ZZ^Za lv T'y to supplement and not substitute for, 
 
 available for such purposes from other non-United 
 
 or fw ri^atoed for ocean freight costs 
 
 Tnn u 4 purchase of foreign currencies authorized under this title 
 
 Cominodity Credit Corporation to such other 
 1723 agency as may be designated by the President.^^ (7 U.S.C. 
 
 aufhorifv of tS be undertaken under the 
 
 auuiority of this title after December 31, 1966.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1724 ) 
 
 TITLE III—GENEEAL PKOVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 301 [This section contains an amendment to section 407 of 
 
 Co^hI to ' 160). authorizing Commodity St 
 
 sl!? ^09 commodities available to relieve distress^ 
 
 OEC. 6VZ. [iJiis section contams a revision of section nf 
 
 Agnc«ltu™l Act of 1949 (p. 165), which auZrizes vSus methods 
 surpirsup7?yy Corporation of coinmo“ii 
 
 by the Act of May 14,1960, 74 Stat^l40^*”^^^ 
 
 8.1964. sentence was added by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1037, approved October 
 
 s£f|lTnd waf fu?thL'"amtndedt? P^b'^L §^3^8 °7VsMf '^0 
 
 j 9-‘1960» substituted for “1964” by Pub. L. 88-638. 78 Stat. 1037. approved October 8. 
 
 758-820—65 
 
 15 
 
206 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAI^P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 Sec. 303.'*® The Secretary shall, whenever he determines that such 
 action is in the best interest of the United States, and to the maxi¬ 
 mum extent practicable, barter or exchange agricultural commodi¬ 
 ties owned by the Commodity Credit Corporation for (a) such 
 strategic or other materials of which the United States does not 
 domestically produce its requirements and which entail less risk of 
 loss through deterioration or substantially less storage charges as the 
 President may designate, or (b) materials, goods, or equipment re¬ 
 quired in connection with foreign economic and military aid and 
 assistance programs, or (c) materials or equipment required in sub¬ 
 stantial quantities for offshore construction programs. He is hereby 
 directed to use every practicable means, in cooperation with other 
 Government agencies, to arrange and make, through private channels, 
 such barters or exchanges or to utilize the authority conferred on him 
 by section 4(h) of the Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, as 
 amended, to make such barters or exchanges. In carrying out barters 
 or exchanges authorized by this section, no restrictions shall be placed 
 on the countries of the free world into which surplus agricultural com¬ 
 modities may be sold, except to the extent that the Secretai-y shall 
 find necessary in order to take reasonable precautions to safeguard 
 usual marketings of the United States and to assure that barters or 
 exchanges under this Act will not unduly disrupt world prices of 
 agricultural commodities or replace cash sales for dollars. The Sec- 
 reta^ may permit the domestic processing of raw materials of foreign 
 origin. The Secretary shall endeavor to cooperate with other export¬ 
 ing countries in preserving normal patterns of commercial trade with 
 respect to commodities covered by formal multilateral international 
 marketing agreements to which the United States is a party. Agen¬ 
 cies of the United States Government procuring such materials, goods, 
 or equipment are hereby directed to cooperate with the Secretary in 
 the disposal of surplus agricultural commodities by means of barter 
 or exchange. The Secretary is also directed to assist, through such 
 means as are available to him, farmers’ cooperatives in effecting ex¬ 
 change of agricultural commodities in their possession for strategic 
 materials. (7 U.S.C. 1692.) 
 
 Sec. 304.^® (a) The President shall exercise the authority con¬ 
 tained in title I of this Act (1) to assist friendly nations to be inde¬ 
 pendent of trade with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the 
 Communist regime in China and with nations dominated or controlled 
 by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or the Communist regime 
 in China and (2) to assure that agricultural commodities sold or trans¬ 
 ferred thereunder do not result in increased availability of those or 
 like commodities to unfriendly nations. 
 
 (b)^’^ Nothing in this Act shall be construed as authorizing trans¬ 
 actions under title I or title III with the Union of Soviet Socialist 
 Republics or any of the areas dominated or controlled by the Com¬ 
 munist regime in China. (7 U.S.C. 1693.) 
 
 Sec. 303 was amended by the Act of September 6, 1958, 72 Stat. 1791. 
 
 The words “or the Communist regime in China” appearing in clause (1) were added by 
 Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1037, approved October 8, 1964. 
 
 The Act of August 13, 1957, 71 Stat. 345, amended this section by designating the 
 existing provision as subsec. (a), restricting provisions thereof to titie I transactions, 
 eliminating the words “for food, raw materials and markets” preceding “and 2,” and 
 adding subsec. (b). 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 207 
 
 Sec. 305.^8 All Commodity Credit Corporation stocks donated 
 abroad under title II of this Act and section 416 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1949, as amended, shall be clearly identified by appropriate 
 marking on each package or container and insofar as practical in the 
 language of the locality where such stocks are distributed as beino- 
 furnished by the people of the United States of America and where 
 available funds accruing under title I shall be used for this purpose. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1694.) 
 
 Sec. 306.^8 [Xhis section authorizing the Secretary of Agriculture 
 to establish a Food Stamp Plan to distribute surplus foods domesti¬ 
 cally to needy peoples was effective till January 1962. See Agriculture 
 Handbook 192, p. 189. A new Food Stamp Act was enacted in 1964. 
 See p. 319.J 
 
 Sec. 307.^8 IVlienever the Secretary of Agriculture determines un¬ 
 der section 106 of this Act that any food commodity is a surplus aori- 
 cultural commodity, insofar as practicable he shall make such com- 
 modity available for distribution to needy families and persons in the 
 United States in such quantities as he determines are reasonably neces¬ 
 sary before such commodity is made available for sale for foreign 
 currencies under title I of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1696.) 
 
 Sec. 308.^8^ Notwithstanding any other provision of law, the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation is hereby authorized— 
 
 (1) to dispose of its stocks of animal fats and edible oils or 
 l^oducts thereof by donation, upon such terms and conditions as 
 the Secretary of Agriculture deems appropriate, to nonprofit vol¬ 
 untary agencies registered with the Department of State, appro¬ 
 priate agencies of the Federal Government or international or¬ 
 ganizations, for use in the assistance of needy persons and in 
 nonprofit school lunch programs outside the United States; 
 
 (2) ^ to purchase for donation as provided above such quantities 
 of animal fats and edible oils and the products thereof as the 
 Secretary determines will tend to maintain the support level for 
 cottonseed and soybeans without requiring the acquisition of such 
 commodities under the price support program. 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation may incur such additional costs with 
 respect to commodities to be donated hereunder as it is authorized 
 a \respect to food commodities disposed of under section 
 41b 01 the Agricultural Act of 1949, and may pay ocean freight charges 
 
 ports to designated ports of entry abroad. (7 
 
 U.S.C. 1697.) 
 
 TITLE IV—LONG-TEEM SUPPLY CONTKACTS 
 
 Sec. 401. The purpose of this title is to utilize surplus agricultural 
 commodities and the products thereof produced in the United States to 
 
 73^S?at*60^7^**°° substituted for the previous section by the Act of September 21, 1959, 
 
 See otlmr jfufhnrftLf September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 608. 
 
 donations of fats and oils on p. 222. 
 
 School lunch programs” was added by the Pood and 
 76 Stat. 611, September 27, 1962. 
 
 lltle IV was added by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 610. 
 
208 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, S3d CONGRESS 
 
 assist the economic develojJinent of friendly nations by providing long¬ 
 term credit for purchases of surplus agricultural commodities for 
 domestic consumption during periods of economic development so that 
 the resources and manpower of such nations may be utilized more 
 effectively for industrial and other domestic economic development 
 without jeopardizing nieanwhile adequate supplies of agricultural 
 commodities for domestic use. It is also the purpose of this title to 
 stimulate and increase the sale of surplus agricultural commodities for 
 dollars through long-tenn supply agreements and through the exten¬ 
 sion of credit for the purchase of such commodities, by agreements 
 either with friendly nations or with the i:)rivate trade, thereby assist¬ 
 ing the development of the economies of friendly nations and maximiz¬ 
 ing dollar trade.®2 (7 U.S.C. 1731.) 
 
 Sec. 402. In furtherance of this purpose, the President is authorized 
 to enter into agreements with friendly nations, including financial 
 institutions acting in behalf of such nations,®^ under which the United 
 States shall undertake to provide for delivery annually of certain 
 quantities of such surplus agricultural commodities for periods of not 
 to exceed ten years, pursuant to the terms and conditions set out in 
 this title, providing such commodities are in surplus at the time de¬ 
 livery is to be made. In furtherance of the purpose of maximizing 
 dollar sales through the private trade, the Secretary of Agriculture 
 is authorized to enter into sales agreements with foreign and United 
 States private trade under which he shall undertake to provide for the 
 delivery of surplus agricultural commodities over such periods of time 
 and under the tenns and conditions set forth in this title. Any agree¬ 
 ment entered into hereunder with the private trade shall provide for 
 the furnishing of such security as the Secretary determines necessaiy 
 to provide reasonable and adequate assurance of payment of the 
 amount due for agricultural commodities sold pursuant to such acree- 
 ment..^<^ (Y U.S.C. 1732.) 
 
 ^ Sec. 403.®® Payment for such commodities shall be in dollars with 
 interest at such rate as the Secretary may determine but not less than 
 the minimum rate required by section 201 of the Foreign Assistance 
 Act of 1961 for loans made under that section. Payment may be made 
 in reasonable annual amounts over periods of not to exceed twenty 
 years from the date of the last delivery of commodities in each calendar 
 year under the agi’eement, except that the date for beginning such 
 annual payment may be deferred for a period not later than two years 
 after such date of last delivery, and interest shall be computed from 
 the date of such last deliveiy. (7 U.S.C. 1733.) 
 
 Sec. 404. In carrying out the provisions of this title, the Secretary 
 of Agriculture shall endeavor to maximize the sale of United States 
 agricultural commodities taking such reasonable precautions as he 
 determines necessary to avoid replacing any sales which the Secretary 
 
 September 27 added by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 610, 
 
 yncludlng financial Institutions acting In behalf of such nations” was 
 1 Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 612, approved September 27. 1962. 
 
 611 SeptpmbeT27^^1962^^^ added by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 
 
 "niPO'^ed by Pub. L. 88-638, 78 Stat. 1037, approved October 8, 
 
 oil ^ amended by the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 
 
 bll, feeptember zt, 1062. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 209 
 would otherwise be made for cash dollars. (7 
 
 Sec. 405.®® In the case of such agreements, the Secretary may enter 
 into agreements with other friendly and historic supplying nations of 
 nroirTm their participation in the supply and assistance 
 
 ^7 U S^ 1735^) proportionate and equitable basis. 
 
 provisions of sections 101 
 Ki ^nd 108 of this Act shall be appli¬ 
 
 cable to the extent not inconsistent with this title. (7 U.S.C. 1736.) 
 
 tember^27t^l96T® amended by the Pood and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 611, Sep- 
 1962?^^’ amended by the Pood and Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 611, September 27, 
 
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 V 
 
 
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 V ! I '-i: . 
 
 MiJkitl . i 
 
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 •* tul U&Uv'*". 
 
 i' ■ 
 
 i - (i»)<l. ' ,Uil . 
 
 :i»uV, 
 
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SECTION 32 AND RELATED STATUTES 
 
 SECTION 32 OF PUBLIC LAW NO. 320, SEVENTY-FOURTH CONGRESS" 
 
 _ Sec. 32. There is hereby appropriated for each fiscal year begin¬ 
 ning with the fiscal year ending June 30, 1936, an amount equal to 
 30 per centum of the gross receipts from duties collected under the 
 customs laws during the period January 1 to December 31, both in- 
 clusi'v^, preceding the beginning of each such fiscal year.^ ouch sums 
 shall be maintained in a separate fund and shall be used by the Sec¬ 
 retary of Agriculture only to (1) encourage the exportation of agri¬ 
 cultural commodities and products thereof by the payment of benefits 
 m connection with the exportation thereof or of indemnities for losses 
 incurred in connection with such exportation or by payments to pro¬ 
 ducers in connection with the production of that part of any agri¬ 
 cultural commodity required for domestic consumption; (2) encourage 
 the domestic consumption of such commodities or products by divert¬ 
 ing them, by the payment of benefits or indemnities or by other means, 
 froni the normal channels of trade and commerce or by increasing 
 their utilization through benefits, indemnities, donations or by other 
 means, among persons in low-income groups as determined by the 
 Secretary of Agriculture; and (3) reestablish farmers’ purcliasing 
 power by making payments in connection Avith the normal production 
 of any agricultural commodity for domestic consumption. Deter¬ 
 minations by the Secretary as to what constitutes diversion and what 
 constitutes normal channels of trade and commerce and what con- 
 stiUites normal production for domestic consumption shall be final. 
 
 The sums appropriated under this section shall be expended for 
 such one or more of the above-specified purposes, and at such times, 
 in such manner, and in such amounts as the Secretary of Agriculture 
 finds will effectuate substantial accomplishment of any one or more 
 of the purposes of this section. Notwithstanding any other provision 
 of this section, the amount that may be devoted, during any fiscal year 
 after June 30,1939, to any one agricultural commodity or the products 
 thereof in such fiscal year, shall not exceed 25 per centum of the funds 
 a\’'ai]able under this section for such fiscal year. The sums appropri¬ 
 ated under this section shall be deAmted principally to perishable non- 
 basic agricultural commodities (other than those receiving price sup- 
 
 of August 24, 1935, 49 Stat. 750, 774. Although this section has been 
 ® number of Umes, the purposes of sec. 32—through payments or indemnities 
 nrJu.of exportapon and domestic consumption of agricultural commodities and 
 
 reestablish farmers’ purchasing power in connection with the normal 
 production of agricultural commodities—.remain basically as originally enacted. Author- 
 fiL™ encourage consumption of agricultural commodities and products by their utillza- 
 ioIq low-income groups was added by amendment of clause (2) in 
 
 L P..' u amendments are noted below. Sec. 32 funds may be used (1) 
 
 agricultural commodities and products and to donate them for relief pur- 
 for Act of June 28, 1937 (p. 212) and (2) to donate commodities to schools 
 
 lorutlllziUlon in school lunch programs under the National School Lunch Act (p 311) 
 each Agricultural Act of 1956 (p. 213) authorized the appropriation for 
 
 ennhif * year, beginning wltL the fiscal .vear ending June 30, 1957, of .$509,000,000 to 
 
 tP nil faeretary of Agriculture to further carry out the provisions of sec. 32, subject 
 tion ’ n-Lf law relating to the expenditure of funds appropriated by such sec- 
 
 loL; that up to 50 percent of the $500,000,000 may be devoted during any fiscal 
 
 year to any one agricultural commodity or the products thereof. 
 
 211 
 
212 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAIj—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 port title II of the Agricultural Act of 1949)3 and their 
 
 in-oclucts. I he sums appropriated under this section shall, notwith- 
 s anding the provisions of any other law, continue to remain available 
 for the purposes of this section until expended; but any excess of the 
 
 ^scal year over 
 
 ^15400,000,000 shall, in the same manner as though it had been appro¬ 
 priated for the service of such fiscal year, be subject to the provisions 
 of section 3690 of the Eevised Statutes (U.S.C., title 31, sec. 712), 
 and section 5 of the Act entitled “An Act making appropriations for 
 the legislative, executive, and judicial expenses of the Government 
 tor the year ending June thirtieth, eighteen hundred and seventy-five 
 and for other purposes” (U.S.C., title 31, sec. 714)(7 U.S.C. 612c.) 
 
 ACT OF JUNE 28, 1937, AS AMENDED “ 
 
 purchase and distribution of surplus agricultural com- 
 Co^Sion P^^rposes and to continue the Federal Surplus Commodities 
 
 Be if, enacted ly the Senate and Home of Representatives of the 
 United iStates of Amerwa in Congress assemUed, That in car^iim 
 
 T of the Act approved 
 
 August 24, 1935 (49 Stat. 77), as amended, the Secretary of Agricul- 
 ture mfiy transfer to the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation/ 
 ^ Corporation is continued, until June 30, 1945, as an agency 
 ot the United States under the direction of the Secretary of Agri'- 
 ciilture, such funds, appropriated by said section, as may be neces- 
 purpose of effectuating clause (2) of said section: 
 I romded. That such transferred funds, together with other funds 
 of the Corporation, may be used for purchasing, exchanging, proc¬ 
 essing, distributing, disposing, transporting, storing, and handling of 
 agiiculfiiral commodities and products thereof and inspection costs, 
 commissions, and other incidental costs and expenses, without regard 
 to the provisions of existing law governing the expenditure of public 
 funds and for administrative expenses, including rent, printing and 
 bincbng, and the employment of persons and means, in the District 
 ot Columbia,^ and elsewhere, such employment of persons to be in 
 accordance with the provisions of law applicable to the employment 
 of persons by the Agricultural Adjustment Administration. 
 
 In carrying out clause (2) of section 32, the funds appropriated 
 said section may be used for the purchase, without regard to the 
 provisions of existing law governing the expenditure of public funds, 
 of agricultural commodities and products thereof, and such commod¬ 
 ities, as Avell as agricultural coimnodities and products thereof pur- 
 
 the parentheses was substituted for “other than those designated 
 68 Stat V Agricultural Act of 1949” by sec. 5 of the Act of January 30, 1954, 
 
 ^This sentence was added by sec. 411 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, 63 Stat 1057. 
 eo J*"* added by sec. 301 of the Agricultural Act of 1948, July 3, 1948, 
 
 6- Stat. 1257. See sec. 392(b) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, 
 1 >. 114, for limitation on administrative expenses 
 
 «50 Stat. 323; February 16, 1938, 52 Stat. 31, 38; June 27, 1942, 56 Stat. 461. 
 
 4 . functions of the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation have been transferred 
 
 to the Secretary of Agriculture (7 U.S.C. 612a, note) and the Corporation has been 
 dissolved. 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL—P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 213 
 
 chased under the preceding paragraph of this section, may be donated 
 for relief purposes and for use in nonprofit summer camps for chil- 
 dren.« (15 U.S.C. 7l3c.) ^ 
 
 UTILIZATION OF COMMODITY CREDIT CORPORATION 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949— Sec. 404. The Secretary, in carrying 
 out programs under section 32 of Public Law Numbered 320, Sew 
 enty-fourth Congress, approved August 24, 1935, as amended, and 
 section 6 of the National School Lunch Act, may utilize the services 
 ^nd facilities of the Commodity Credit Corporation (including but 
 not limited to procurement by contract), and make advance pavments 
 to it. (7 U.S.C. 1424.) ^ 
 
 APPROPRIATION TO SUPPLEMENT SECTION 32 FUNDS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956 —Sec. 205. There is hereby authorized 
 to be appropriated for each fiscal year, beginning with the fiscal year 
 ending June 30, 1957, the sum of $500,000,000 to enable the Secre- 
 Ury of Agriculture to further carry out the provisions of section 32, 
 Pu^bhc Law 320, Seventy-fourth Congress, as amended (7 U.S.C. 612c) 
 subject to all provisions of law relating to the expenditure of fmids 
 appropriated by such section, except that up to 50 per centum of such 
 $500,000,000 may be devoted during any fiscal year to any one agricul¬ 
 tural commodity or the products thereof. (7 U.S.C. 1855.) 
 
 ACT OF AUGUST 1939® 
 
 To authorize the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation to purchase and 
 distribute surplus products of the fishing industry. 
 
 it mmcted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 Umted States of America in Congress asemhled^ That any part of 
 the funds not to exceed $1,500,000 per year, transferred by the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture to the Federal Surplus Commodities Corpora- 
 tion 10 created under and to carry out the provisions of section 32 
 of the Act of August 24, 1935 (49 Stat. 774), as amended, may also 
 be used by such Corporation for the purpose of diverting surplus 
 fishery products (including fish, shellfish, mollusks, and Crustacea) 
 irom the normal channels of trade and commerce by acqiiirino’ them 
 and providing for their distribution through Federal, State, and 
 private relief channels: Provided, That none of the funds made 
 available to the Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation under 
 his Act shall be used to purchase any of the commodities designated 
 m this Act which may have been produced in any foreign country. 
 Ihe provisions of law relating to the acquisition of materials or 
 supplies for the United States shall not apply to the acquisition of 
 commodities under this Act. (15 U.S.C. 7l3c-2.) 
 
 Sec. 2. (a) The Secretary of Agriculture shall transfer to the 
 
 Secretary of the Interior each fiscal year, beginning with the fiscal 
 
 *53 Stet^mT "^2 stat. 286. 
 
 Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation have been transferred 
 &solyed.®"®*‘‘'’'' Agriculture (7 U.S.C. 612a note) and the KoraTonXIbeeJ 
 
214 EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAI^P.L. 480, 83d CONGRESS 
 
 year commencing July 1, 1954, and ending on June 30, 1957,“ from 
 moneys made available to carry out provisions of section 32 of 
 such Act of August 24, 1935, an amount equal to 30 per centum of 
 the gross receipts from duties collected under the customs laws on 
 fishery products (including fish, shellfish, mollusks, Crustacea, aquatic 
 plants and animals, and any products thereof, including processed 
 and manufactured products), which shall be maintained in a sepa¬ 
 rate fund and used by the Secretary of the Interior (1) to promote 
 the free flow of domestically produced fishery products in commerce 
 by conducting a fishery educational service and fishery technological, 
 biological and related research programs, the moneys so transferred 
 to be also available for the purchase or other acquisition, construc- 
 tion, equipment, operation, and maintenance of vessels or other 
 facilities necessary for conducting research as provided for in this 
 section, and (2) to develop and increase markets for fishery products 
 of domestic origin and (3) to conduct any biological, technological, 
 or other research pertaining to American fisheries. 
 
 (b) For the purposes of this section, any agency of the United 
 States, or any corporation wholly owned by the United States, is 
 authorized to transfer, without reimbursement or transfer of funds, 
 any vessels or equipment excess to its needs required by the Secre¬ 
 tary of the Interior for the activities, studies, and research author¬ 
 ized herein, 
 
 (c) In carrying out the puposes and objectives of this section, 
 the Secretai-y of the Interior is directed as far as practicable to co¬ 
 operate with other appropriate agencies of the Federal Govenment, 
 with State or local governmental agencies, private agencies, organi¬ 
 zations, or individuals, having jurisdiction over or an interest in fish 
 or fishery commodities and he is authorized to appoint an advisory 
 committee of the American fisheries industry to advise him in the 
 formulation of policy, rules and regulations pertaining to requests 
 for assistance, and other matters. 
 
 (d) The Secretary of the Interior is further authorized to retrans¬ 
 fer any of the funds not to exceed $1,500,000 to be made available 
 under this section to the Secretary of Agriculture to be used for the 
 purposes specified in section 1 of this Act, and only such funds as 
 are thus transferred shall be used for the purposes specified in sec¬ 
 tion 1 of this Act with respect to domestically produced fishery 
 products. 
 
 (e) The separate fund created for the use of the Secretary of 
 the Interior under section 2 (a) of this Act and the annual accruals 
 thereto shall be available for each year until expended by the 
 Secretary. 
 
 (f) ^ The Secretary of the Interior shall make a report to the ap¬ 
 propriate committees of Congress annually on the use of the separate 
 fund created under section 2 of this Act.“ (15 U.S.C. 713c-3.) 
 
 provfdes August 8, 1956 (70 Stat. 1124, 15 U.S.C. 713c-3 note) 
 
 The authorization for the transfer of certain funds from the Secretary of Agriculture 
 ill ^"teHor and their maintenance In a separate fund as contained 
 
 K August 11, 1939, as amended .July 1, 1954 (68 Stat. 376), 
 
 ^o^tlnued for the year ending June 30, 1957, and each j'ear thereafter.” 
 
 Till.. 1 se^io^n were substituted for the original provisions by the Act of 
 
 Stat 1124 was amended by the Act of August 8, 1956, 70 
 
EXPORT AND SURPLUS REMOVAL 
 
 215 
 
 DONATIONS TO AREAS UNDER U.S. JURISDICTION 
 
 Act of September 6, 1958. —Sec. 9. Notwithstanding any other 
 provision of law (1) those areas under the jurisdiction or adminis¬ 
 tration of the United States are authorized to receive from the De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture for distribution on the same basis as domestic 
 distribution in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States, 
 without exchange of funds, such surplus commodities as may be avail¬ 
 able pursuant to clause (2) of section 32 of the Act of August 24,1935, 
 as amended (7 U.S.C. 612c), and section 416 of the Agricultural Act 
 of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1431); * * *. (7 U.S.C. 1431b, 72 
 
 Stat. 1792.) ’ 
 
 Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropria¬ 
 tion Act, 1965.—Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands—* * * Pro¬ 
 vided further^ That notwithstanding the provisions of any law, the 
 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands is authorized to receive, during 
 the current fiscal year, from the Department of Agriculture for distri¬ 
 bution on the same basis as domestic distribution in any State, 
 Territory, or possession of the United States, without exchange of 
 funds, such surplus food commodities as may be available pursuant 
 to section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935, as amended (7 U.S.C. 
 612c), and section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended 
 (7 U.S.C. 1431.) (78 Stat. 278.) 
 

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SUBPART F—DONATIONS 
 
 [A number of authorities for donations are found in the following 
 ^atutes which are set forth in other parts of this compilation as 
 indicated: 
 
 Pp P'0 
 
 Clause 2 of Section 32 of the Act of Augrust 24,1935 (programs to encourage 
 
 domestic consumption)_ 211 
 
 Act of June 28, 1937, as amended (donation for relief purposes and non¬ 
 profit children’s summer camp)_ 212 
 
 Sections 6 and 9 of the National School Lunch Act (donation for school- 
 
 lunch) ---312, 314 
 
 Title II of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 
 as amended (donation for famine relief and other assistance abroad)— 204 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are also the following statutes 
 relating to donations; some of which affect one or more of the above 
 authorities.] 
 
 DISPOSITION or COMMODITIES TO PREVENT WASTE 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949 .—Sec. 416.^ In order to prevent the 
 waste of commodities whether in private stocks or ^ acquired through 
 price-support operations by the Commodity Credit Corporation before 
 they can be disposed of in normal domestic channels without impair¬ 
 ment of the price-support program or sold abroad at competitive 
 world prices, the Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized, on such 
 terms and under such regulations as the Secretary may deem in the 
 public interest: (1) upon application, to make such commodities 
 available to any Federal agency for use in making payment for 
 commodities not produced in the United States; (2) to barter or 
 exchange such commodities for strategic or other materials as author¬ 
 ized by law; (3) in the case of food commodities to donate such 
 commodities to the Bureau of Indian Affairs and to such State, Fed¬ 
 eral, or private agency or agencies as may be desimated by the proper 
 State or Federal authority and approved by the Secretary, for use in 
 the United States in nonprofit school-lunch programs,^ in nonprofit 
 summer camps for children,^ in the assistance of needy persons, and 
 in charitable institutions, including hospitals, to the extent that needy 
 persons are served; and (4) to donate any such food commodities 
 m excess of anticipated disposition under (1), (2), and (3) above to 
 nonprofit voluntary agencies registered with the Committee on Volun¬ 
 tary Foreign Aid of the Foreign Operations Administration or other 
 
 y The provisions of this section were substituted for the previous provisions by sec. 302 
 of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 458. See 
 September 6, 1958, 72 Stat. 1792 and the Department of the Interior 
 and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, 1965 (both on p. 215), providing for distribution 
 of commodities under sec. 416 to overseas areas under the jurisdiction or administration 
 of the United States. See also sec. 305 of the Agricultural Trade Development and 
 Assistance Act of 1954, providing for the Identification of stocks disposed of under sec. 
 416 as being furnished by the people of the United States. 
 
 ’The words “whether In private stocks or” were added by the Act of July 24, 1959, 73 
 Stat. 250. 
 
 *See Act of September 13, 1960, 74 Stat. 899 (p. 220) authorizing the use of surplus 
 foods for training home economics students. 
 
 * The words “in nonprofit summer camps for children,” were added by the Act of July 
 2, 1958, 72 Stat. 286. 
 
 217 
 
218 
 
 DONATIONS 
 
 appropriate department or agency of the Federal Government and 
 intergovernmental organizations for use in the assistance of needy 
 persons and in nonprofit school lunch programs ® outside the United 
 States. In the case of (3) and (4) above the Secretary shall obtain 
 such assurance as he deems necessary that the recipients thereof will 
 not diminish their normal expenditures for food by reason of such 
 donation. In order to facilitate the approi^riate disposal of such com¬ 
 modities, the Secretary may from time to time estimate and announce 
 the quantity of such commodities which he anticipates will become 
 available for distribution under (3) and (4) above. The Commodity 
 Credit Corporation may pay, with respect to commodities disposed 
 of under this section, reprocessing, packaging, transporting, handling, 
 and other charges accruing up to the time of their delivery to a Federal 
 agency or to the designated State or private agency, in the case of 
 commodities made available for use within the United States, or their 
 delivery free alongside ship or free on board export carrier at point 
 of export, in the case of commodities made available for use outside 
 the United States. In addition, in the case of food commodities dis¬ 
 posed of under this section, the Commodity Credit Corporation may 
 pay the cost of processing such commodities into a form suitable for 
 home or institutional use, such processing to be accomplished through 
 private trade facilities to the greatest extent possible.® For the pur¬ 
 pose of this section the terms “State” and “United States” include the 
 District of Columbia and any Territory or possession of the United 
 States. The assistance to needy persons provided in (4) above shall, 
 insofar as practicable, be directed toward community and other self- 
 help activities designed to alleviate the causes of the need for such 
 assistance.^ (7 U.S.C. 1431.) 
 
 DOMESTIC DISPOSAL OF DAIRY PRODUCTS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954.—Sec. 204. (c) In order to prevent the 
 accumulation of excessive inventories of dairy products the Secretary 
 of Agriculture shall undertake domestic disposal programs under 
 authorities granted in the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 and 
 the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended, or as otherwise authorized 
 by law. (7 U.S.C. 1446c.) 
 
 MILK FOR CHILDREN 
 ACT OF JULY 1, 1958,® AS AMENDED 
 AN ACT 
 
 To continue the special milk program for children in the interest of improved 
 nutrition by fostering the consumption of fluid milk in the schools. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That for the fiscal 
 year beginning July 1, 1959, not to exceed $85,000,000, and for the 
 fiscal year beginning July 1, 1960, not to exceed $95,000,000, and for 
 
 ® The phrase ‘‘and In nonprofit school lunch programs” was added by Food and Agri¬ 
 culture Act of 19G2, 76 Stat. 611, September 27, 1962. 
 
 «This sentence was added by the Agricultural Act of 1956, 70 Stat. 203 
 
 «72 Stet"??^ approved October 8. 1964. 
 
DONATIONS 
 
 219 
 
 (he fiscal year beginning July 1, 1961, not to exceed $105,000,000, of 
 the funds of the Commodity Credit Corporation shall be used to in¬ 
 crease the consumption of fluid milk by children (1) in nonprofit 
 schools of high-school grade and under; and (2) in nonprofit nursery 
 schools, child-care centers, settlement houses, summer camps, and 
 similar nonprofit institutions devoted to the care and training of chil¬ 
 dren. There is authorized to be appropriated for the purposes of 
 this Act for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1960, separate from any 
 other appropriation of funds for Commodity Credit Corporation, 
 such amount as may be deemed to be necessary to reimburse Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation for amounts advanced by it under this 
 Act. Amounts expended hereunder and under the authority con¬ 
 tained in the last sentence of section 201(c) of the Agricultural Act of 
 1949, as amended, shall not be considered as amounts expended for 
 the purpose of carrying out the price-support program.® 
 
 Sec. 2._ There is hereby authorized to be appropriated for the fiscal 
 year beginning July 1, 1962, and for each of the four fiscal years 
 thereafter, such sums as may be necessary to enable the Secretary of 
 Agriculture, under such rules and regulations as he may deem in the 
 public interest, to encourage consumption of fluid milk by children 
 in the United States in (1) nonprofit schools of high school grade and 
 under, and (2) nonprofit nursery schools, child-care centers, settle¬ 
 ment houses, summer camps, and similar nonprofit institutions de¬ 
 voted to the care and training of children. For the purposes of this 
 Act, “United States” means the 50 States and the District of Colum¬ 
 bia.^® (7 U.S.C. 1446 note.) 
 
 TRANSFER OF DAIRY PRODUCTS TO THE MILITARY AND VETERANS HOSPITALS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949 —Sec. 202.^^^ As a means of increasing 
 the utilization of dairy products (including for purposes of this sec¬ 
 tion, milk) upon the certification by the Administrator of Veterans’ 
 Affairs or by the Secretary of the Army, acting for the military de¬ 
 partments under the Department of Defense’s Service Purchase As¬ 
 signment for Subsistence, or their duly authorized representatives that 
 the usual quantities of dairy products have been purchased in the nor¬ 
 mal channels of trade— 
 
 (a) The Commodity Credit Corporation until December 31, 1967,^® 
 shall make available to the Administrator of Veterans’ Affairs at 
 warehouses where dairy products are stored, such dairy products ac¬ 
 quired under price-support programs as the Administrator certifies 
 that he requires in order to provide butter and cheese and other dairy 
 products as a part of the ration in hospitals under his jurisdiction. 
 The Administrator shall report every six months to the Commit¬ 
 tees on Agriculture of the Senate and House of Kepresentatives and 
 
 StafT47^ amended by Act of April 29, 1960, 74 Stat. 84, and by Act of June 30, 1961, 75 
 
 ‘“Sec. 2 added by the Agricultural Act of 1961, 75 Stat. 319, August 8, 1961 
 ^02 added by sec. 204(d) of the Agricultural Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 900. 
 
 substituted for “1964” by Pub. L. 88-529, 78 Stat. 737, approved August 31, 
 
 iyo4. 
 
 4* “every six months” substituted for “monthly” by the Act of June 25, 1962, 76 Stat. 
 
 Xv V* 
 
220 
 
 DONATIONS 
 
 the Secretary of Agriculture the amount of dairy products used under 
 this subsection. 
 
 (b) Tlie Commodity Credit Corporation until December 31, 1967,^2 
 shall make available to the Secretary of the Army, at warehouses 
 where dairy products are stored, such dairy products acquired under 
 price-support programs as the Secretary of the Army or his duly 
 authorized representative certifies can be utilized in order to provide 
 additional butter and cheese and other dairy products as a part of the 
 ration (1) of the Army, Navy, Air Force, or Coast Guard, (2) in 
 hospitals under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense, and 
 (3) of cadets and midshipmen at, and other personnel assigned to, 
 the United States JSIerchant Marine Academy. The Secretary of the 
 Army shall report every six months to the Committees on Agricul¬ 
 ture of the Senate and the House of Representatives and the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture the amount of dairy products used under this 
 subsection. 
 
 (c) Dairy products made available under this section shall be made 
 available without charge, except that the Secretary of the Army or 
 the Administrator of Veterans’ Affairs shall pay the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation the costs of packaging incurred in making such 
 products so available. 
 
 (d) The obligation of the Commodity Credit Corporation to make 
 dairy products available pursuant to the above shall be limited to 
 dairy products acquired by the Corporation through price-support 
 operations and not disposed of under provisions (1) and (2) of sec¬ 
 tion 416 of this Act, as amended. (7 U.S.C. 1446a.) 
 
 SURPLUS FOODS FOR HOME ECONOMIC COURSES 
 
 ACT OF SEPTEMBER 13, I960,"* AS AMENDED 
 
 To authorize the Commodity Credit Corporation to donate dairy products and 
 other agricultural commodities for use in home economics courses. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assenibled^ That schools receiv¬ 
 ing surplus foods pursuant to clause (3) of section 416 of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Act of 1949 (7 U.S.C. 1431) or section 32 of the Act of 
 August 24, 1935, as amended (7 U.S.C. 612c) are authorized to use 
 such foods in training students in home economics, including college 
 students if the same facilities and instructors are used for training 
 both high school and college students in home economics courses. 17 
 U.S.C. 1431 note.) ^ 
 
 DONATIONS OF PROCESSED GRAIN FOOD PRODUCTS 
 
 ACT OF AUGUST 19, 1958,“ AS AMENDED” 
 
 Authorizing Commodity Crodit Corporation to purchase flour and commeal and 
 donating same for certain domestic and foreign purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled., That at any time 
 
 « 74 Stat. S99. 
 
 16 Amended by the Act of August 30, 1961, 75 Stat. 411 
 i« 72 Stat. 635, 7 U.S.C. 1431 note. 
 
 ” Pub. L. 88-550, 78 Stat. 755, approved August 31, 1964. 
 
DONATIONS 
 
 221 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation has any grain available for donation 
 clause (3) or (4) of section 416 of the Agricultural Act 
 amended, section 210 of the Agricultural Act of 1956, or 
 title II of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act, 
 as amended, the Corporation, in lieu of processing all or any part of 
 such gram into human food products, may purchase such processed 
 food products in quantities not to exceed the equivalent of the re¬ 
 spective grain available for donation on the date of such purchase and 
 donate such processed food products pursuant to clause (3) or (4) of 
 such section 416 and to such section 210, and make such processed food 
 products available to the President pursuant to such title II, and may 
 sell, without regard to the provisions of section 407 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1949, as amended, a quantity of the grain equivalent to the 
 processed food products so purchased: Provided, That no food product 
 purchased pursuant to the authority contained herein shall constitute 
 less than 50 per centum by weight of the grain from which processed, 
 or contain any additive other than for normal vitamin enrichment, 
 preservative, and bleaching purposes. (7 U.S.C. 1431 note.) 
 
 DONATIONS TO PENAL AND CORRECTIONAL INSTITUTIONS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956 —Sec. 210. Notwithstanding any other 
 limitations as to the disposal of surplus commodities acquired through 
 price support operations, the Commodity Credit Corporation is au¬ 
 thorized on such terms and under such regulations as the Secretary of 
 Agriculture may deem in the public interest, and upon application, to 
 doimte food commodities acquired through price support operations 
 to Federal penal and correctional institutions, and to State correc¬ 
 tional institutions for minors, other than those in which food service 
 IS provided for inmates on a fee, contract, on concession basis. (70 
 Stat. 202, 7 U.S.C. 1859.) ^ 
 
 COTTON FOR COLLEGES 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1958—Sec. 505. Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion IS authorized, on such terms as the Secretary of Agriculture may 
 approve, to donate cotton acquired through its price support opera- 
 educational institutions for use in the training of students in 
 the processing and manufacture of cotton into textiles. (72 Stat. 996, 
 7 U.S.C. 1431a.) ^ ’ 
 
 ENRICHMENT OP AND SANITARY CONTAINERS FOR CORNMEAL, GRITS, RICE, 
 
 AND WHITE FLOUR DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Act of September 21, 1959 —Sec. 201. (a) In order to insure the 
 
 nutritional value of commeal, grits, rice, and white flour when such 
 foods are made available for distribution under section 416(3) of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1949 or for distribution to schools under the 
 National School Lunch Act or any other Act, such foods shall be 
 enriched so as to meet the standards for enriched commeal, enriched 
 corn grite, enriched rice, or enriched flour, as the case may be, pre¬ 
 scribed in regulations promulgated under the Federal Food, Drug, 
 and Cosmetic Act; and in order to protect the nutritional value and 
 
 758-820—65-16 
 
222 
 
 DONATIONS 
 
 sanitary quality of such enriched foods during transportation and 
 storage such foods shall be packaged in sanitary containers. For 
 convenience and ease in handling, the weight of any sanitary container 
 when filled shall not exceed fifty pounds unless a larger container is 
 r^uested by the recipient agency.^® Nothing in this section shall pro¬ 
 hibit the distribution of fortified parboiled rice which is substantially 
 equal in nutritional value to that of enriched rice.^® 
 
 (b) The term “sanitary container” means any container of such 
 material and construction as (1) will not permit the infiltration of 
 foreign matter into the contents of such container under ordinary 
 conditions of shipping and handling, and (2) will not, for a period 
 of at least one year, disintegrate so as to contaminate the contents of 
 the container, necessitating the washing of the contents prior to use. 
 (73 Stat. 610, 7 U.S.C. 1431c.) 
 
 DONATIONS TO AREAS UNDER U.S. JURISDICTION—DONATIONS OF FATS 
 
 AND OILS 
 
 Act of September 6 , 1958—Sec. 9. Notwithstanding any other 
 provision of law (1) those areas®® under the jurisdiction or adminis¬ 
 tration of the United States are authorized to receive from the De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture for distribution on the same basis as domestic 
 distribution in any State, Territory, or possession of the United States, 
 without exchange of funds, such surplus commodities as may be avail¬ 
 able pursuant to clause (2) of section 32 of the Act of August 24,1935, 
 as amended (7 U.S.C. 612c), and section 416 of the Agricultural Act 
 of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1431) ; and (2) the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation is authorized to purchase products of oil seeds, and edible 
 oils and fats and the products thereof in such form as may be needed 
 for donation abroad as provided in the following sentence. Any such 
 commodities or products if purchased shall be donated to nonprofit 
 voluntary agencies registered with the Department of State, other 
 appropriate agencies of the Federal Government or international 
 organizations for use in the assistance of needy persons and in non¬ 
 profit school lunch programs outside the United States. Commodity 
 Credit Corporation may incur such additional costs with respect to 
 such oil as it is authorized to incur with respect to food commodities 
 disposed of under section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949. (7 
 
 U.S.C. 1431b, 72 Stat. 1792.) 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 
 as amended— Sec. 308. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation is hereby authorized— 
 
 (1) to dispose of its stocks of animal fats and edible oils or 
 products thereof by donation, upon such terms and conditions as 
 
 Clause beginning with “unless” added by the Act of October 11, 191)2. 
 
 i»Thls sentence and all other references to rice In sec. 201(a) were added by the Act of 
 October 11, 1962, 76 Stat. 910. 
 
 ®“The Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, 1965, provides 
 for the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands— * * • Provided further, That notwith¬ 
 standing the provisions of any law, the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Is author¬ 
 ized to receive, during the current fiscal year, from the Department of Agriculture for 
 distribution on the same basis as domestic distribution In any State, Territory, or posses¬ 
 sion of the United States, without exchange of funds, such surplus food commodities as 
 may be available pursuant to section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935, as amended (7 
 U.S.C. 612c). and section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 
 1431). (78 Stat. 278.) 
 
 21 The phrase “and In nonprofit school lunch programs,” was added by the Food and 
 Agriculture Act of 1962, 76 Stat. 611, approved September 27, 1962. 
 
DONATIONS 
 
 223 
 
 the Secretary of Agriculture deems appropriate, to nonprofit 
 voluntary agencies registered with the Department of State, 
 appropriate agencies of the Federal Government or international 
 organizations, for use in the assistance of needy persons and in 
 noproht school lunch programs outside the United States; 
 
 (2) to purchase for donation as provided above such quan- 
 tities of animal fats and edible oils and the products thereof as 
 the Secretary determines will tend to maintain the support level 
 for cottonseed and soybeans without requiring the acquisition of 
 such commodities under the price support program. 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation may incur such additional costs with 
 respect to commodities to be donated hereunder as it is authorized 
 to incur with respect to food commodities disposed of under section 
 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, and may pay ocean freight charges 
 
 designated ports of entry abroad .22 
 
 (7 U.o.C'* 1697.) 
 
 FOREIGN SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMS 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962— Sec. 205. In any school feed¬ 
 ing programs undertaken hereafter outside the United States pur¬ 
 suant to section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended, sec¬ 
 tion 308 of Public Law 480 (83d Congress), as amended, and section 
 9 of the Act of September 6, 1958, as amended, the Secretary shall 
 receive assurances satisfactory to him that, insofar as practicable, 
 there will be student participation in the financing of such programs 
 on the basis of ability to pay, and such programs shall be undertaken 
 with the understanding that commodities will be available for those 
 programs only in accordance with the provisions of such statutes and 
 that commodities made available under section 416 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1949, as amended, will be available only in accordance with the 
 priorities established in such section. (76 Stat. 611, 7 U.S.C. 1431d.) 
 
 DONOR IDENTIFICATION 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, 
 as amended Sec. 305. All Commodity Credit Corporation stocks 
 donated abroad under title II of this Act and section 416 of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended, shall be clearly identified by 
 appropriate marking on each package or container and insofar as 
 practical in the language of the locality where such stocks are dis¬ 
 tributed as being furnished by the people of the United States of 
 America and where available funds accruing under title I shall be 
 used for this purpose. (7 U.S.C. 1694.) 
 
 DOMESTIC DISTRIBUTION OF SURPLUS FOODS AVAILABLE FOR GRANT OR 
 
 FOREIGN CURRENCY SALES 
 
 Mutual Security Act of 1954, as amended— Sec. 402. Of the 
 funds authorized to be made available in the fiscal year 1961 pursuant 
 to this Act (other than funds made available pursuant to title II), not 
 less than $175,000,000 shall be used to finance the export and sale for 
 
 “ See footnote on p. 222. 
 
 Enacted by the Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 609. See sec. 304(b) of the Agri- 
 cultural Trade Redevelopment and Assistance Act of 1954, with respect to limitation on 
 Uses of this authority with respect to Communist controlled areas. 
 
224 
 
 DONATIONS 
 
 foreign currencies or the grant of surplus agricultural commodities or 
 products thereof produced in the United States, in addition to surplus 
 agricultural commodities or products transferred pursuant to the 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, and in 
 accordance with the standards as to pricing and the use of private 
 trade channels expressed in section 101 of said Act. Foreign currency 
 proceeds accruing from such sales shall be used for the purpose of this 
 Act and with particular emphasis on the purposes of section 104 of 
 the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954 
 which are in harmony with the purposes of this Act. Notwithstand¬ 
 ing section 1415 of the Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1953, or any 
 other provision of law, the President may use or enter into agreements 
 with friendly nations or organizations of nations to use for such pur¬ 
 poses the foreign currencies which accrue to the United States under 
 this section. Surplus food commodities or products thereof made 
 available for transfer under this Act (or any other Act) as a grant 
 or as a sale for foreign currencies may also be made available to the 
 maximum extent practicable to eligible domestic recipients pursuant 
 to section 416 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 
 1431), or to needy persons within the United States pursuant to 
 clause (2) of section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935, as amended 
 (7 U.S.C. 612c). (22 U.S.C. 1922.) 
 
 DOMESTIC DONATIONS BEFORE FOREIGN CURRENCY SALES 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 amended—Sec. 307. Whenever the Secretary of Agriculture deter¬ 
 mines under section 106 of this Act that any food commodity is a sur¬ 
 plus agricultural commodity, insofar as practicable he shall make such 
 commodity available for distribution to needy families and persons 
 in the United States in such quantities as he determines are reasonably 
 necessary before such commodity is made available for sale for for¬ 
 eign currencies under title I of this Act. (73 Stat. 609,7 U.S.C. 1696.) 
 
SUBPART G—FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 [See also Secs. 103(a) and 107(a) (3) of the Soil Bank Act on pp. 118 and 121.] 
 
 Act of September 30, 1950—Sec. 2. As used in this Act, the fol¬ 
 lowing terms shall be construed as follows unless a contrary intent 
 appears from the context: 
 
 \^) Major disaster” means any flood, drought, fire, hurricane, 
 earthquake, storm, or other catastrophe in any part of the United 
 States which, in the determination of the President, is or threatens 
 to be of sufficient severity and magnitude to warrant disaster assist¬ 
 ance by the Federal Government to supplement the efforts and avail¬ 
 able resources of States and local governments in alleviating the 
 damage, hardships, or suffering caused thereby, and respecting which 
 me governor of any^ State (or the Board of Commissioners of the 
 District of Columbia) in which such catastrophe may occur or 
 threaten certifies the need for disaster assistance under this Act, and 
 shall give assurance of expenditure of a reasonable amount of the 
 funds of the government of such State, local governments therein, 
 or other agencies, for the same or similar purposes with respect to 
 such catastrophe; 
 
 (b) ^ “United States” includes the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, 
 the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Trust Territory 
 of the Pacific Islands. 
 
 (c) i “State” means any State in the United States, Puerto Rico, the 
 \ irgm Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Trust Territory of 
 the Pacific Islands. 
 
 (d) “Governor” means the chief executive of any State; 
 
 (e) “Local govenment” means any county, city, village, town, dis- 
 ^ict, or other political subdivision of any State, or the District of 
 Columbia; 
 
 (f) “Federal agency” means any department, independent estab¬ 
 lishment, Government corporation, or other agency of the executive 
 branch of the Federal Government, excepting, however, the American 
 National Red Cross. (42 U.S.C. 1855a.) 
 
 ^ Sec. 3. In any major disaster. Federal agencies are hereby author- 
 ized when directed by the President to provide assistance (a) by 
 utilizing or lending, with or without compensation therefor, to States 
 and local governments their equipment, supplies, facilities, person¬ 
 nel, and other resources, other than the extension of credit under the 
 authority of any Act; * * * (c) by donating or lending equipment 
 and supplies, determmed under then existing law to be surplus to 
 (he needs and responsibilities of the Federal Government, to States 
 for use or distribution by them for the purposes of the Act includ- 
 ing the restoration of public facilities damaged or destroyed in such 
 major disaster and essential rehabilitation of individuals in need as 
 the result of such major disaster; (d) * * * The authority conferred 
 
 ’ Subsecs, (b) and (c) amended by the Act of June 27, 1962, 76 Stat. 111. 
 
226 
 
 FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 by this Act, and any funds provided hereunder shall be supplementary 
 to, and not in substitution for, nor in limitation of, any other authority 
 conferred or funds provided under any other law. Any funds received 
 by the Federal agencies as reimbursement for services or supplies fur¬ 
 nished under the authority of this section shall be deposited to the 
 credit of the appropriation or appropriations currently available for 
 such services or supplies. The Federal Government shall not be liable 
 for any claim based upon the exercise or performance or the failure to 
 exercise or perform a discretionary function or duty on the part of a 
 Federal agency or an employee of the Government in carrying out the 
 provisions of this section. (64 Stat. 1109; as amended by the Act of 
 July 17, 1953, 67 Stat. 180; 42 U.S.C. 1855b.) 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended.— Sec. 407. * * * * Not¬ 
 withstanding the foregoing, the Corporation, on such terms and con¬ 
 ditions as the Secretary may deem in the public interest, shall make 
 available any farm commodity or product thereof owned or controlled 
 by it for use in relieving distress (1) in any area in the United States 
 including the Virgin Islands ^ declared by the President to be an acute 
 distress area because of unemployment or other economic cause if the 
 President finds that such use will not displace or interfere with normal 
 marketing of agricultural commodities and (2) in connection with 
 any major disaster determined by the President to warrant assistance 
 by the Federal Government under Public Law 875, Eighty-first Con¬ 
 gress, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1855) ® and shall make feed owned or 
 controlled by it available at any price not less than 75 per centum of 
 the current basic county support rate for such feed including the value 
 of any applicable price support payment in kind (or a comparable 
 price if there is no current basic county support rate) for assistance 
 in the preservation and maintenance of foundation herds of cattle (in¬ 
 cluding producing dairy cattle), sheep, and goats, and their offspring, 
 in any area of the United States including the Virgin Islands ^ where, 
 because of flood, drought, fire, hurricane, earthquake, storm, disease, 
 insect infestation, or other catastrophe in such areas, the Secretary 
 determines that an emergency exists which warrants such assistance, 
 such feed to be made available only to persons who do not have, and 
 are unable to obtain through normal channels of trade without undue 
 financial hardship, sufficient feed for such livestock: Provided^*^ That 
 the Secretary may provide for the furnishing of feed or mixed feed, 
 in accordance with regulations prescribed by him, to such persons by 
 feed dealers under an arrangement whereby the feed grains (or other 
 feed being sold by the Corporation) in the feed so furnished would be 
 replaced with feed owned or controlled by the Corporation and sold 
 to such persons at a price determined as provided above. Except on a 
 reimbursable basis, the Corporation shall not bear any costs in connec¬ 
 tion with making such commodity available beyond the cost of the 
 commodities to the Corporation in store and the handling and trans- 
 
 ’ The words “including the Virgin Islands” were added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, 
 approved September 11, 1964. 
 
 * See Act of September 21, 1959, 73 Stat. 574, p. 227. 
 
 < The language appearing after “(42 U.S.C. 1855)” was added by the Act of August 7, 
 1961, 75 Stat. 203, 204. It was further amended by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, ap¬ 
 proved September 11, 1964. 
 
FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 227 
 
 portation costs in making delivery of the commodity to designated 
 
 central locations in each State or other area.° 
 
 * * * * (7 U.S.C. 1427.) 
 
 ACT OF SEPTEMBER 21, 1959,® AS AMENDED 
 
 To authorize the sale at current support prices of agricultural commodities 
 owned by the Commodity Credit Corporation to provide feed for livestock in 
 areas determined to be emergency areas, and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the^ Senate and Home of Re-presentatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That, notwithstand¬ 
 ing the provisions of section 407 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, the 
 Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to sell, at not less than the 
 current basic county support rate including the value of any applicable 
 price support payment in kind (or a comparable price if there is no 
 current basic county support rate),^ any wheat, corn, oats, barley, rye, 
 sorghums (hereafter referred to as feed grains), owned by 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation, to provide feed for livestock in 
 any area determined by him to be an emergency area under section 2. 
 
 Sec. 2. ^ The Secretary may, after certification by the Governor of 
 the State in which such area is situated of the need therefor, designate 
 any area as an emergency area for the purposes of this Act if he 
 determines that, as a result of flood, drought, hurricane, tornado, 
 earthquake, or other catastrophe including disease or insect infesta¬ 
 tion, there is a shortage of feed for livestock in such area. “State” 
 means any State in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin 
 Islands. 
 
 Sec. 3.® The Secretary shall not sell feed grains under this Act to 
 piy person unless he is satisfied that such person does not have, and 
 is unable to obtain through normal channels of trade without undue 
 financial hardship, sufficient feed for livestock owned by him, and 
 imless such person agrees to use the feed grains only for feed for such 
 livestock. The Secretary may provide for the furnishing of feed 
 grains or mixed feed, in accordance with regulations prescribed by 
 him, to any such person by a feed dealer under an arrangement 
 whereby feed grains in the feed so furnished would be replaced with 
 feed grains oymed or controlled by the Corporation and sold to such 
 person at a price determined as provided in section 1. 
 
 Sec. 4. Any person who fails to carry out an agreement entered into 
 under section 3 with respect to any feed grains purchased or fur¬ 
 nished ® under this Act, or who disposes of any such feed grains other 
 than by feeding to livestock owned by him, shall be subject to a penalty 
 equal to but not in excess of the market value of the feed grains 
 involved, to be recovered by the Secretary in a civil suit brought for 
 
 ' The two preceding sentences were added by sec. 301 of the Agricultural Trade De- 
 Assistance Act of 1954, 68 Stat. 458. The words “or other area” were 
 added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, approved September 11, 1964. 
 
 ” 73 stat. 574. 
 
 phrase beginning with “at not less” was added by Pub. L. 88-585 78 
 Stat. 927, approved September 11, 1964. 
 
 * 3 4 were added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, approved 
 
 oeptember 11. 1964. ^ 
 
 tember^n°1964 furnished” were added by Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, approved Sep- 
 
228 
 
 FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 that purpose, and in addition shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and 
 upon conviction thereof shall be subject to a fine of not more than 
 $1,000 or imprisonment for not more than one year. (7 U.S.C. 1427 
 note.) 
 
 ACT OF SEPTEMBER 7, 1957 
 
 To authorize Commodity Credit Corporation to grant relief with respect to 
 claims arising out of deliveries of eligible surplus feed grains on ineligible 
 dates in connection with purchase orders under its emergency feed program. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That Commodity 
 Credit Corporation, under such regulations as may be approved by 
 the Secretary of Agriculture, is hereby authorized to grant relief to 
 farmers and dealers in connection with claims arising out of early 
 and late deliveries under purchase orders for drou^t relief feed 
 issued under the 1954, 1955, and 1956 emergency feed programs, by 
 reco^izing as valid those purchases and deliveries of designated 
 surplus feed grains and approved mixed feeds, which (a) were 
 actually purchased by the farmer from the dealer on or alter the 
 date the Secretary declared the county, where the purchase order 
 was issued, to be eligible for assistance under the emergency feed 
 program, and (b) are found to have been physically delivered to the 
 farmer not later than six months from the eviration date of the 
 purchase order issued to the farmer. (71 Stat. 632, 12 U.S.C. 
 1148a-2.) 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949, as amended. —Sec. 421. Any person 
 who disposes of any feed which has been made available to him under 
 section 407 of this Act for use in relieving distress or for preservation 
 and maintenance of foundation herds, other than as authorized by the 
 Secretary, shall be subject to a penalty equal to the market value of 
 the feed involved, to be recovered by the Secretary in a civil suit 
 brought for that purpose, and in addition shall be guilty of a mis¬ 
 demeanor and upon conviction thereof shall be subject to a fine of 
 not more than $1,000 or imprisonment for not more than one year. 
 (Pub. L. 88-585, 78 Stat. 927, approved September 11,1964.) 
 
 ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY ACT OF 1964 
 PUBLIC LAW 88-452 
 
 August 20, 1964 
 
 ***♦♦*♦ 
 
 TITLE III—SPECIAL PROGRAMS TO COMBAT POVERTY IN RURAL 
 
 AREAS 
 
 4: 4: 4: « 
 
 Pabt D—Indemnity Payments to Dairy Farmers 
 
 Sec. 331. (a) The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to make 
 indemnity payments, at a fair market value, to dairy farmers who 
 have been directed since January 1, 1964, to remove their milk from 
 commercial markets because it contained residues of chemicals regis¬ 
 tered and approved for use by the Federal Government at the time 
 of such use. Such indemnity payments shall continue to each dairy 
 
FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 229 
 
 fc^-mer until he has been reinstated and is again allowed to dispose 
 01 his milk on commercial markets. 
 
 (b) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as may 
 be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. 
 
 (c) The authority granted under tliis section shall expire on Janu¬ 
 ary 31, 1965. 
 
 ******* 
 
 SUPPLEMENTAL APPROPRIATION ACT, 1965 
 PUBLIC LAW 88-635 
 
 October 7, 1964 
 
 Chapter VI 
 
 Executive Office of the President 
 Office of Economic Opportunity 
 
 ECONOMIC OPPOETUNITY PEOGEAM 
 
 For expenses necessary to carry out the provisions of the Economic 
 Opportunity Act of 1964 (Public Law 88-452 approved Aumist 20, 
 1964) $800,000,000, of which * * * not more than $8,800,000 to carry 
 out the purposes of part D of title III; 
 
 ******:!: 
 
 Provided further That none of the funds contained in this Act shall 
 be used to make indemnity payments, authorized by part D of title 
 111, to any farmer whose milk was removed from commercial markets 
 as a result of his failure to follow the procedures prescribed by the 
 Federal Government for the use of the offending chemical i 
 
 * * * 
 
 * * * * 
 
 PUBLIC LAW 85-58, JUNE 21, 1957 
 AN ACT 
 
 Making supplemental appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1057, 
 
 and for other purposes. 
 
 it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assemhled, That the following 
 sums are appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not other¬ 
 wise appropriated, to supply supplemental appropriations (this Act 
 may be cited as tlie “Third Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1957”) 
 
 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1957, and for other purposes, 
 namely: 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 ******* 
 Ageicultueal Conseevation Peogeam Seevice 
 EMEBGENCY CONSEEVATION MEASUEES 
 
 For an additional amount to enable the Secretary to make pay¬ 
 ments to farmers who carry out emergency measures to control wind 
 
230 
 
 FARM DISASTER RELIEF 
 
 erosion on farmlands or to rehabilitate farmlands damaged by wind 
 erosion, floods, hurricanes, or other natural disasters when, as a result 
 of the foregoing, new conservation problems have been created which, 
 (1) if not treated, will impair or endanger the land, (2) materially 
 affect the productive capacity of the land, (3) represent damage 
 which is unusual in character and, except for wind erosion, is not 
 the type which would recur frequently in the same area, and (4) will 
 be so costly to rehabilitate that Federal assistance is or will be 
 required to return the land to productive agricultural use, and for 
 reimbursement to the appropriation to the President for “Disaster 
 relief”, for allocations to the Secretary of Agriculture for such pur¬ 
 poses, $4,000,000,^° to remain available through June 30, 1958 Pro¬ 
 vided, That this appropriation may be expended without regard to 
 the adjustments required under section 8(e) of the Soil Conservation 
 and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended (16 U.S.C. 590h), and may 
 be distributed among States and individual farmers without regard 
 to other provisions of law. 
 
 10 The Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1958, Pub. L. 85-170, 70 Stat. 426, approved 
 August 28, 1957, appropriated an additional .$20,000,000 to be used for the same purposes 
 and subject to the same conditions as the funds appropriated In the Third Supplemental 
 Appropriation Act, 1957. 
 
 The Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1959, Pub. L. 85-776, 72 Stat. 865, approved 
 August 27, 1958, provided that the unobligated balance of the amounts made available 
 in the Third Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1957, and in the Supplemental Appropri¬ 
 ation Act, 1958, shall remain available until expended. 
 
 The Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1962, Pub. L. 87-332, 75 Stat. 733, approved 
 September 30, 1961, appropriated an additional $5,000,000 to remain available until 
 expended. 
 
 The Deficiency Appropriation Act, 1964, Pub. L. 88-317, 78 Stat. 204, approved June 9, 
 1964, appropriated an additional $4,000,000 to remain available until expended. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, 1965, Pub. L. 
 88—573, 78 Stat. 862, approved September 2, 1964, appropriated an additional $4,000,000 
 with which shall be merged the unexpended balances of funds heretofore appropriated. 
 
SUBPART H—GRAIN FOR WILDFOWL 
 
 ACT OF JULY 3, 1956" 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To authorize the Secretary of the Interior to cooperate with Federal and non- 
 Federal agencies in the prevention of waterfowl depredations, and for other 
 purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted lay the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That, for the pur¬ 
 pose of preventing crop damage by migratory waterfowl, the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation shall make available to the Secretary of 
 the Interior such wheat, corn, or other grains, acquired through price 
 support operations and certified by the Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion to be available for the purposes of this Act or in such condition 
 through spoilage or deterioration as not to be desirable for human 
 consumption, as the Secretary of the Interior shall requisition pur¬ 
 suant to section 2 hereof. With respect to any grain thus made avail¬ 
 able, the Commodity Credit Corporation may pay packaging, trans¬ 
 porting, handling, and other charges up to the time of delivery to one or 
 more designated locations in each State. (7 U.S.C. 442.) 
 
 Sec. 2. Upon a finding by the Secretary of the Interior that any 
 area in the United States is threatened with damage to farmers’ crops 
 by migratory waterfowl, whether or not during the open season for 
 such niigratory waterfowl, the Secretary of the Interior is hereby 
 authorized and directed to requisition from the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation and to make available to Federal, State, or local govern¬ 
 mental bodies or officials, or to private organizations or persons, such 
 gram acquired by the Commodity Credit Corporation through price- 
 support operations in such quantities and subject to such regulations 
 as the Secretary determines will most effectively lure migratory water- 
 fowl away from crop depredations and at the same time not expose 
 such migratory waterfowl to shooting over areas to which the water- 
 fowl have been lured by such feeding programs. (7 U.S.C. 443.) 
 
 Sec. 3. With respect to all grain made available pursuant to sec¬ 
 tion 2, the Commodity Credit Corporation shall be reimbursed by the 
 Secretary of the Interior for its expenses in packaging and transport¬ 
 ing such grain for purposes of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 444.) 
 
 Sec. 4. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums 
 as may be necessary to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 for its investment in the grain transferred pursuant to this Act. (7 
 U.S.C. 445.) ^ 
 
 Sec. 5.2 * * * 
 
 » 70 Stat. 492. 
 
 by'thl^c® KiS 4°1959^ 73 ^ enactment was repealed 
 
 231 
 
232 
 
 GRAIN FOR WILDFOWL 
 
 ACT OF AUGUST 17, 1961 => 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To authorize the use of Commodity Credit Corporation owned surplus grain by 
 the States for emergency use in the feeding of resident game birds and other 
 resident wildlife; to authorize the use of such surplus grain by the Secretary 
 of the Interior for emergency use in the feeding of migratory birds, and for 
 other purposes. 
 
 Be it eTuwted hy the Senate and House of Representatwes of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That for the purpose 
 of meeting emergency situations caused by adverse weather conditions 
 or other factors destructive of important wildlife resources, the States 
 are hereby authorized, upon the request of the State fish and game 
 authority or other State agency having similar authority and a finding 
 by the Secretai-y of the Interior that any area of the United States is 
 threatened with serious damage or loss to resident game birds and other 
 resident wildlife from staiwation, to requisition from the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation grain acquired by the Corporation through price 
 support operations. Such grain may thereafter be furnished to the 
 particular State for direct and sole utilization by the appropriate State 
 agencies for purposes of this Act in such quantities as mutually agreed 
 upon by the State and the Commodity Credit Corporation and subject 
 to such regulations as may be considered desirable by the Corporation. 
 The Corporation shall be reimbursed by the particular State in each 
 instance for the expense of the Corporation m packaging and trans¬ 
 porting such grain for purposes of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 447.) 
 
 Sec. 2. Upon a finding by the Secretary of the Interior that migra¬ 
 tory birds are threatened with starvation in any area of the United 
 States, the Secretaiy is authorized to requisition from the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation grain acquired by that Corporation through price- 
 support operations in such quantities as may be mutually agreed upon. 
 The Corporation shall be reimbursed by the Secretary for its expense 
 in packaging and transporting of such grain for purposes of this Act. 
 (7 U.S.C. 448.) 
 
 Sec. 3. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums 
 as may be necessary to reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 for its investment in grain transferred pursuant to this Act. (7 
 U.S.C. 449.) 
 
 ® 75 Stat. 389. 
 
SUBPART I—GENERAL FISCAL STATUTES 
 
 ACT OF MARCH 8, 1938/ AS AMENDED 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To maintain unimpaired the capital of the Commodity Credit Corporation at 
 o ^ o * * $100,000,000, and for other purposes. 
 
 Sec. 1.2 * * * 
 
 Sec. 2.2 * * * 
 
 [Public Law 87-155 ^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To authorize annual appropriation to reimburse Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion tor net realized losses sustained during any fiscal year in lieu of annual 
 appropriations to restore capital impairment based on annual Treasury ap¬ 
 praisals, and for other purposes. 
 
 hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 States of America in Congress assembled^ That sections 1 and 
 2 of the Act of March 8, 1938, as amended (15 U.S.C. 7l3a-l, 2), are 
 hereby repealed. 
 
 Sec. 2. There is hereby authorized to be appropriated annually for 
 each nscal year, commencing with the fiscal year ending June 30,1961, 
 out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, an 
 amount sufficient to reimburse Commodity Credit Corporation for its 
 net realized loss incurred during such fiscal year, as reflected in its ac¬ 
 counts and shown in its_ report of its financial condition as of the close 
 of such fiscal year. Reimbursement of net realized loss shall be with 
 appropriated funds, as provided herein, rather than through the can¬ 
 cellation of notes. (15 U.S.C. Supp. 7l3a-ll.) 
 
 Sec. 3. In the event the accounts of the Commodity Credit Cor¬ 
 poration reflect a net realized gain for any such fiscal year, the amount 
 of such net realized gain shall be deposited in the Treasury by the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation and shall be credited to miscellaneous 
 receipts. (15 U.S.C. Supp. _7l3a-12.) ] 
 
 Sec. 3. [This section provided for the transfer of stock of the Dela¬ 
 ware corporation to the United States.] 
 
 BORROWING TOWER 
 
 Sec. 4._ With the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation is authorized to issue and have out- 
 s^nding at any one time, bonds, notes, debentures, and other similar 
 obligations in an aggregate amount not exceeding $14,500,000,000.^ 
 
 I 62 Stat. 107, 15 U.S.C. 71.3a-l, et seq. 
 
 » ^ repealed by Pub. L. 87-155. 75 Stat. 391, August 17, 1961. 
 
 4 St®*-391. August 17, 1961, 15 U.S.C. 713a-ll, 71.3a-12. 
 
 S12 oon Increased a number of times and -was Increased from 
 
 Commnd?i-®J^'rv2ab^ Act of Aijgust 1, 1956, 70 Stat. 783. See also sec. 4(1) of the 
 cSol^Kt (31 U*S?TS^^^“ Charter Act (p. 138) and the Government Cor^ratlon 
 
 233 
 
234 
 
 GENERAL FISCAL STATUTES 
 
 Such obligations shall be in such forms and denominations, shall 
 have such maturities, shall bear such rates of interest, shall be sub¬ 
 ject to such terms and conditions, and shall be issued in such manner 
 and sold at such prices as may be prescribed by the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation, with the approval of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury. Such obligations shall be fully and unconditionally guar¬ 
 anteed both as to interest and principal by the United States, and 
 such guaranty shall be expressed on the face thereof, and such obli¬ 
 gations shall be lawful investments and may be accepted as security 
 for all fiduciary, trust, and public funds the investment or deposit 
 of which shall be under the authority or control of the United 
 States or any officer or officers thereof. In the event that the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation shall be unable to pay upon demand, 
 when due, the principal of, or interest on, such obligations, the Sec¬ 
 retary of the Treasury shall pay to the holder the amount thereof 
 which is hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any money in 
 the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and thereupon to the ex¬ 
 tent of the amount so paid the Secretary of the Treasury shall suc¬ 
 ceed to all the rights of the holders of such obligations. The Secre¬ 
 tary of the Treasury, in his discretion, is authorized to purchase any 
 obligations of the Commodity Credit Corporation issued hereunder, 
 and for such purpose the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized 
 to use as a public-debt transaction the proceeds from the sale of any 
 securities hereafter issued under the Second Liberty Bond Act, as 
 amended, and the purposes for which securities may be issued under 
 such Act, as amended, are extended to include any purchases of the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation’s obligations hereunder. The Secre¬ 
 tary of the Treasury may at any time sell any of the obligations of 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation acquired l3y him under this sec¬ 
 tion. All redemptions, purchases, and sales by the Secretary of the 
 Treasury of the obligations of the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 shall be treated as public-debt transactions of the United States. 
 No such obligations shall be issued in excess of the assets of the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation, including the assets to be obtained 
 from the proceeds of such obligations, but a failure to comply with 
 this provision shall not invalidate the obligations or the guaranty of 
 the same: Provided^ That this sentence shall not limit the authority 
 of the Corporation to issue obligations for the purpose of carrying 
 out its annual budget programs submitted to and approved by the 
 Congress pursuant to the Government Corporation Control Act (31 
 U.S.C., 1946 edition, sec. 841).® The Commodity Credit Corpora¬ 
 tion shall have power to purchase such obligations in the open market 
 at any time and at any price. (15 U.S.C. Yl3a^.) 
 
 TAXATION 
 
 Sec. 5. Bonds, notes, debentures, and other similar obligations 
 issued by the Commodity Credit Corporation under the provisions 
 of this Act shall be deemed and held to be instrumentalities of the 
 Government of the United States, and as such they and the income 
 derived therefrom shall be exempt from Federal, State, municipal, 
 
 ® Proviso added by sec. 410 of the Agricultural Act of 1949, 63 Stat. 1057. 
 
GENERAL FISCAL STATUTES 
 
 235 
 
 and local taxation (except surtaxes, estate, inheritance, and gift 
 taxes). The Commodity Credit Corporation, includhig its franchise, 
 its capital, reserves, and surplus, and its income shall be exempt 
 from all taxation now or hereafter imposed by the United States, 
 by any Territory, dependency, or possession thereof, or by any 
 State, county, municipality, or local taxing authority; except that 
 any real property of the Commodity Credit Corporation shall be 
 subject to State, Territorial, county, municipal, or local taxation to 
 tliB saiTiB 6xt6nt Recording to its VRlue rs other reRl property is tRxed 
 (15 U.S.C. 7l3a-5.) « r' a • 
 
 FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS AS FISCAL AGENTS 
 
 Act of July 16, 1943 —Sec. 3. The Federal Reserve Banks are 
 hereby authorized to act as depositaries, custodians, and fiscal agents 
 for the Commodity Credit Corporation. (57 Stat. 566; 12 U.S.C. 
 395.) 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSE LIMITATION 
 
 [See the Commodity Credit Corporation item in the Department 
 of Agriculture and Farm Credit Administration Appropriation Act, 
 1965, in Part VIII hereof, and the similar items in previous appropri¬ 
 ation acts. Section 104 of the Government Corporation Control Act 
 (approved Dec. 6, 1945, 59 Stat. 597; 31 U.S.C. 841) provides for en¬ 
 actment of necessary appropriations making available corporate funds 
 of each wholly owned Government corporation for administrative 
 expenses or limiting the use thereof.] 
 
 REIMBURSEMENT BY OTHER AGENCIES 
 
 Act of July 16, 1943; —Sec. 4. Full reimbursement shall be made 
 to the Commodity Credit Corporation for services performed, losses 
 sustained, operating costs incurred, or commodities purchased or de¬ 
 livered to or on behalf of the Lend-Lease Administration, the Army 
 or Navy, the Board of Economic Warfare, the Reconstruction Fi¬ 
 nance Corporation, or any other Government agency, from the appro¬ 
 priate funds of these agencies. (57 Stat. 566; 15 U.S.C. 713a-9.) 
 
 REIMBURSEMENT OF PROCUREMENT COSTS 
 
 Department of Agriculture Organic Act of 1944— Sec. 402. Ap¬ 
 plicable appropriations available to the War Food Administration ^ 
 current at the time services are rendered or payment therefor is re¬ 
 ceived may be reimbursed by nongovernmental agencies or foreign 
 governments (by advance credits or reimbursements) for the actual 
 or ^timated costs, as determined by the War Food Administration, 
 incident to procuring agricultural commodities for such nongover- 
 mental agencies or foreign governments. (Sept. 21,1944, 58 Stat. 734, 
 738;5U.S.C.569.) i j ^ 
 
 ®tat. 7, 9, as amended March 28, 1942, 56 Stat. 
 i«j, lyy, iji U.S.C. sec. 742a, abolishing tax exemption for Income from obligations 
 ‘ tHSu or giiamnteed by the United States or any agency or instrumentality thereof. 
 
 Ihe War Food Administration was terminated by Executive Order No. 9577, and its 
 transferred to the Secretary of Agriculture (E.O. 9577, June 29, 1945, 10 
 
236 
 
 GENERAL FISCAL STATUTES 
 
 CROP INSURANCE AND CONSERVATION MATERIALS 
 
 The Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 —Sec. 391 (^c). [This 
 section (p. 113) contains authority for loans by Commodity Credit 
 Corporation to the Secretary of Agriculture during each fiscal year 
 of such sums, not to exceed $50,000,000, as he estimates will be required 
 to make crop insurance premium advances and to make advances for 
 the purchase of conservation materials from January 1 to June 30 
 of each year, with repayment (plus interest) to be made from 
 appropriated funds. (7 U.S.C. 1391(c)).] 
 
 COST OF CLASSING OR GRADING 
 
 Department of Agriculture Appropriation Act, 1950 —* * * On 
 
 and after Jmie 29, 1949, appropriations available for classing or 
 grading any agricultural commodity without charge to the producers 
 thereof may be reimbursed from nonadministrative funds of the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation for the cost of classing or grading any such 
 commodity for producers who obtain Commodity Credit Corporation 
 price support. (June 29, 1949, 63 Stat. 324, 344, 7 U.S.C. 440.) 
 
 Department of Agriculture Appropriation Act, 1952—* * * Here¬ 
 after there may be transferred to appropriations available for class¬ 
 ing or grading any agricultural commodity without charge to the 
 producers thereof such sums from nonadministrative funds of the 
 Commodity Credit Corporation as may be necessary in addition to 
 other funds available for these purposes, such transfers to be reim¬ 
 bursed from subsequent appropriations therefor. (Aug. 31, 1951, 
 65 Stat. 225,239; 7 U.S.C. 414a.) 
 
SUBPART J. MISCELLANEOUS COMMODITY CREDIT 
 CORPORATION STATUTES 
 
 EXEMPTION FROM FEDERAL PROPERTY AND ADMINISTRATIVE 
 
 SERVICES ACT 
 
 Actof June 30,1949, as amended— Sec. 602 . * * * Nothing in this 
 
 Act shall impair or affect any authority of—* * * (2) any executive 
 agency with respect to any ph^e (including, but not limited to, pro¬ 
 curement, storage, transportation, processing, and disposal) of any 
 program coMucted for purposes of resale, price support, grants to 
 armers, stabilization, transfer to foreign governments, or foreign 
 aid, relief, or rehabilitation: Provided^ That the agency carryinff out 
 
 maximum extent practicable, cmisistent 
 with the fulfillment of the purposes of the program and the effective 
 and emcient conduct of its business, coordinate its operations with 
 the requirements of said chapters and the policies and regulations 
 prescribed P^^^uant tliereto,* * * *. (June 30, 1949, 63 Stat. 377, 
 401; Sept. 5, 1950, 64 Stat. 578, 583; 40 U.S.C. 474.) 
 
 TREATMENT OF COMMODITY CREDIT LOANS FOR INCOME TAX 
 
 PURPOSES 
 
 INTEENAL EEVENUE CODE OF 1954 ^ 
 
 SEC. 77. COMMODITY CREDIT LOANS 
 
 (a) ELEcnoN To Include Loans in Income. —Ajnounts received as 
 
 loans from the Commodity Credit Corporation shall, at the election 
 pt the taxpayer, be considered as income and shall be included in sross 
 income for the taxable year in which received. ^ 
 
 (b) Effect of Election on Adjustments for Subsequent Years.— 
 it a taxpayer exercises the election provided for in subsection (a) for 
 
 method of computing income so adopted 
 ^ adhered to with respect to all subsequent taxable years unless 
 
 witli the approval of the Secretary or his delegate a change to a 
 different method IS authorized. (26 U.S.C. 77.) ^ 
 
 SEC. 1016. ADJUSTMENTS TO BASIS. 
 
 (a) Gen^l Rule.—P roper adjustment in respect of the property 
 shall in all cases be made— u f j 
 
 ******* 
 
 (8) in the case of property pledged to the Commodity Credit 
 
 Corporation, to the extent of the amount received as a loan from 
 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation and treated by the taxpayer 
 
 as income for the year in which received pursuant to section 77, 
 
 deficiency on such loan with respect to 
 
 726 U SC 1016^)^^^^ relieved from liability; * * * 
 
 
 758-S20—65-17 
 
 237 
 
238 MISCELLANEOUS COMAIODITY CREDIT CORP. STATUTES 
 
 INSURANCE OF COTTON AND KECONCENTRATION OF COTTON 
 
 [See section 383 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 
 (7 U.S.C. 1383(a)) and the Act of June 10, 1938 (7 U.S.C. 
 1383a) pp. 110 and 111.] 
 
 STIMULATION OF FOREIGN PRODUCTION 
 
 Taft Anti-Inflation Law —Sec. 7. Notwithstanding any other pro¬ 
 vision of law, in order to alleviate and prevent shortages in foods, 
 agricultural commodities, and products thereof. Commodity Credit 
 Corporation is authorized to carry out projects to stimulate and in¬ 
 crease the production of foods, agricultural commodities and products 
 thereof, in non-European foreign countries. Such projects may in¬ 
 clude procurement, the making of advances and price guaranties, the 
 furnishing of technical information and assistance, the furnishing of 
 seed, fertilizer, machinery, equipment, and other materials, and such 
 other actions as are necessary or incident to the carrying out of such 
 I)rojects: Provided^ That any such program is first submitted to Con¬ 
 gress by the Secretary of Agriculture, and is not disapproved by 
 concurrent resolution of Congress within sixty days thereafter. (Dec. 
 30, 1947, 61 Stat. 945, 947; 50 U.S.C. App. 1917.) 
 
 OTHER PRINCIPAL STATUTES HAVING APPLICABILITY TO COMMOD¬ 
 ITY CREDIT CORPORATION 
 
 Government Corporation Control Act (Dec. 6, 1945, 59 Stat. 597; 
 31 U.S.C. 841.) 
 
 Sections 222 and 1026 of the U.S. Criminal Code (June 25,1948, 62 
 Stat. 683, 696, 755; 18 U.S.C. 222, 1026) providing penalties for 
 acceptance of fees in connection with cancellation of farm indebted¬ 
 ness. 
 
 Section 206 of the Technical Changes Act of 1953 (August 15, 1953, 
 67 Stat. 615, 620; 26 U.S.C. 169) providing for amortization deduc¬ 
 tions for grain storage facilities. [Regulations were issued under 
 this section by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue on Nov. 15, 
 1954, and were published in the Federal Register on Nov. 19, 1954. 
 19 F.R. 7453.] 
 
 Act of June 11, 1947, as amended (61 Stat. 308; 71 Stat. 464; 31 
 U.S.C. 132), requiring withdrawal of the amount of all checks, which 
 have not been paid prior to the close of the fiscal year next following 
 the fiscal year in which issued, from the account of designated deposi¬ 
 tories and deposit of the amount with the Treasurer of the United 
 States for credit to a consolidated account. 
 
 Section 9(c) of the Act of August 2,1946 (41 U.S.C. 5), providing 
 that the bid procedure set out in section 3709, Revised Statutes, as 
 amended (41 U.S.C. 5), shall apply only to the administrative trans¬ 
 actions of wholly-owned Government corporations. 
 
 Independent Offices Appropriation Act, 1950 (Aug. 24, 1949, 63 
 Stat. 631, 662; 31 U.S.C. 870), authorizing corporations subject to 
 the Government Corporation Control Act to consolidate into one cr 
 more accounts for banking and checking purposes all cash, including 
 amounts appropriated, from whatever source derived. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS COMMODITY CREDIT CORP. STATUTES 239 
 
 Secs. 207 and 209 of Title II—General Provisions of the General 
 vT~MvfR 1959. (72 Stat. 225, 40 
 
 Small Business Act, as amended (15 U.S.C. 631 et. seq.). 
 
 ?''* Uuly 2, 1964, 78 Stat. 241.) 
 
 Sec. 286b(b)(3) of Title 22, U.S.C. provides that the National 
 
 °u J“te™ational Monetary and Financial Prob- 
 lems shall be consulted by Government agencies in the making of 
 toreipi loans or m engagmg in foreign financial, exchange or mone- 
 taiy transactions. ^ 
 
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 « 
 
FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTE 
 
 The Federal Crop Insurance Act, which was enacted as title V 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 (52 Stat. 72), established 
 the h ederal Crop Insurance Corporation to insure producers of wheat 
 against unavoidable losses in production resulting from adverse 
 conditions, disease, insect infestation and other hazards. In 
 1941, the Act was amended to authorize the Corporation to insure cotton 
 as well as wheat (55 Stat. 255). The Congress did not provide funds 
 tor insurance on crops harvested in 1944 but in December 1944, the 
 insurance program was reinstated as to wheat and cotton and extended 
 to permit the insuring of flax on a national basis and other commodi¬ 
 ties on an experimental basis (58 Stat. 918). In 1947, the Congress 
 made a number of basic changes in the nature and scope of the crop 
 msurance program the more important of which (1) placed crop in¬ 
 surance entirely on an experimental basis by restricting the number 
 of commoditi^ for which the Corporation could write insurance and 
 the number of counties in which insurance could be offered; and (2) 
 limited the level of insurance that could be provided to the general 
 cost of producing the insured crop (61 Stat. 718). The Act was again 
 amended in 1949 to pennit the Corporation to expand through 1953 
 more efficiently the experimental program initiated by 
 the 1947 legislation (63 Stat. 663). A 1953 amendment permits con¬ 
 tinued expansion by authorizing insurance in 100 additional counties 
 each year (67 Stat. 575); however in 1964, the number of counties was 
 increased to 150 counties by Pub. L. 88-589 (78 Stat. 933). The Act 
 of August 3, 1956, 70 Stat. 1034, authorized the Corjioration to con¬ 
 sider ^rtain costs as non-administrative and to use premium income 
 for admmistrative expenses within limits prescribed by applicable 
 legislation. Pub. L. 85-111, 71 Stat. 309, July 23, 1957 addS a new 
 subsection (t) to section 508 to provide reinsurance in Puerto Rico 
 under certain conditions. In 1959, the Federal Crop Insurance Act 
 was further amended by the enactment of Pub. L. 86-131, 73 Stat. 278, 
 approved August 4, 1959, which provided that insurance shall not be 
 provided for any agricultural commodity in any county in which the 
 lioard deteipmes that income therefrom is an unimportant part of 
 the total agricultural income of the county. 
 
 241 
 
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PART V 
 
 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED ^ 
 
 SHORT TITLE AND APPLICATION OF OTHER PROVISIONS 
 
 ”*3; be cited as the “Federal Crop Insurance 
 titles'Tnf TV ;n ?1 y provided the provisions in 
 
 he^rm “Il’e n ™’ ^ this title, and 
 
 S inclTde at tiTle'TrU s”lO 
 
 DECLARATION OF PURPOSE 
 
 Purpose of this title to promote the national 
 rifufrl “P™™? th® economic stability of agriculture through 
 a sound system of crop insurance and providing the means for the 
 
 crE’fe;) "c purposes of this title, there is hereby 
 
 created as an agency of and withm the Department of Agriculture 
 a body corporate with the name “Federal drop Insurance Corpora- 
 
 rornor^t“‘’“if*ii®n Corporation). The principal office of the 
 
 District of Columbia, but there 
 may be established agencies or branch offices elsewhere in the United 
 
 KrSore f7ixac.“03.r®“’"'““' Prescribed by the Board of 
 
 CAPITAL STOCK 
 
 non mn^o\ CofPoration shall have a capital stock of $100,- 
 
 ,000 subscribed by the United States of America, payment for 
 
 the approval of the Secretary of Agriculture, be 
 ^bject to call in whole or in part by the Board of Directors of the 
 Corporation. (7 U.S.C. 1504(a).) 
 
 (b) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as 
 are necessary^ for the purpose of subscribing to the capital stock of 
 the Corporation. (7 U.S.C. 1504(b).) 
 
 (c) Receipts for payments by the United States of America for 
 or on account of ^ich stock shall be issued by the Corporation to the 
 Secretary of the T^asury and shall be evidence of the stock owner¬ 
 ship by the United States of America. (7 U.S.C. 1504 (c).) 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF CORPORATION 
 
 • management of the Corporation shall be vested 
 
 m a Board of Directors (hereinafter called the “Board”) subiect to 
 the general supervision of the Secretary of Agriculture. The Board 
 shal consist of the manager of the Corporation, two other persons 
 employed m the Department of Agriculture, and two persons experi- 
 enced in th e m.surance business who are not otherwise employed by 
 
 nienT Insurance Act was enacted as title V of the Agricultural Adjust- 
 
 243 
 
244 
 
 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 the Government. The Board shall be appointed by, and hold office 
 at the pleasure of the Secretary of Agriculture, who shall not, himself, 
 be a member of the Board. (7 U.S.C. 1505(a).) 
 
 (b) Vacancies in the Board so long as there shall be three members 
 in office shall not impair the powers of the Board to execute the func¬ 
 tions of the Corporation, and three of the members in office shall 
 constitute a quorum for the transaction of the business of the Board. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1505(b).) 
 
 (c) The Directors of the Corporation who are employed in the 
 Department of Agriculture shall receive no additional compensation 
 for their services as such Directors, but may be allowed necessary 
 traveling and subsistence expenses when engaged in business of the 
 Corporation, outside of the District of Columbia. The members of 
 the Board who are not employed by the Government shall be paid 
 such compensation for their services as directors as the Secretary of 
 Agriculture shall determine, but such compensation shall not exceed 
 $50 per day each when actually employed and transportation expenses 
 plus not to exceed $10 per diem in lieu of subsistence expenses when on 
 business of the Corporation away from their homes or regular places 
 of business. (7 U.S.C. 1505 (c).) 
 
 (d) The manager of the Corporation shall be its chief executive 
 officer, with such power and authority as may be conferred upon him 
 by the Board. He shall be appointed by, and hold office at the 
 pleasure of, the Secretary of Agriculture. (7 U.S.C. 1505(d).) 
 
 GENERAL POWERS 
 
 Sec. 506. The Corporation— 
 
 (a) shall have succession in its corporate name; (7 U.S.C. 1506(a).) 
 
 (b) may adopt, alter, and use a corporate seal, which shall be 
 judicially noticed; (7 U.S.C. 1506 (b)) 
 
 (c) may make contracts and purchase or lease and hold such real 
 and personal property as it deems necessary or convenient in the 
 transaction of its business, and may dispose of such property held by 
 it upon such terms as it deems appropriate; (7 U.S.C. 1506(c).) 
 
 (d) subject to the provisions of section 508(c), may sue and be 
 sued in its corporate name in any court of record of a State having 
 general jurisdiction, or in any United States district court, and juris¬ 
 diction is hereby conferred upon such district court to determine 
 such controversies without regard to the amount of controversy: 
 Provided^ That no attachment, injunction, garnishment, or other 
 similar process, mesne or final, shall be issued against the Corporation 
 or its property; (7 U.S.C. 1506(d).) 
 
 (e) may adopt, amend, and repeal bylaws, rules, and regulations 
 governing the manner in which its business may be conducted and 
 the powers granted to it by law may be exercised and enjoyed; (7 
 U.S.C. 1506(e).) 
 
 (f) shall be entitled to the free use of the United States mails in 
 the same manner as the other executive agencies of the Government; 
 (7 U.S.C. 1506(f).) 
 
 (g) with the consent of any board, commission, independent estab¬ 
 lishment, or executive department of the Government, including any 
 field service thereof, may avail itself of the use of information, serv- 
 
FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 245 
 
 ices, facilities, officials, and employees thereof in carrying out the 
 provisions of this title; (7 U.S.C. 1506(g).) 
 
 (h) may conduct researches, surveys, and investigations relating to 
 crop insurance and shall assemble data for the purpose of establish¬ 
 ing sound actuarial bases for insurance on agricultural commodities: 
 (7 U.S.C. 1506(h).) 
 
 (i) shall determine the character and necessity for its expenditures 
 under this title and the manner in which they shall be incurred, 
 allowed, and paid, without regard to the provisions of any other laws 
 governing the expenditure of public funds and such determinations 
 shall be final and conclusive upon all other officers of the Government: 
 (7 U.S.C. 1506(i).) 
 
 (j) shall have such powers as may be necessary or appropriate for 
 the exercise of the powers herein specifically conferred upon the Cor¬ 
 poration and all such incidental powers as are customary in corpora¬ 
 tions generally. (7 U.S.C. 1506 (j).) 
 
 PERSONNEL 
 
 Sec. 507. (a) The Secretary shall appoint such officers and em¬ 
 
 ployees as may be necessary for the transaction of the business of 
 the^ Corporation pursuant to civil-service laws and regulations, fix 
 their compensation in accordance with the provisions of the [Classi¬ 
 fication Act of 1949 (5 U.S.C. 1071-1153)], define their authority 
 and duties, delegate to them such of the powers vested in the Cor¬ 
 poration as he may determine, require bond of such of them as he 
 may designate, and fix the penalties and pay the premiums of such 
 bonds: Provided^ That personnel paid by the hour, day, or month 
 when actually employed, and county crop insurance committeemen 
 may be appointed and their compensation fixed without regard to civil- 
 servfice laws and regulations or the [Classification Act of 19491. (7 
 U.S.C. 1507(a).) ^ 
 
 (b) Insofar as applicable, the benefits of the Act entitled “An Act 
 to provide compensation for employees of the United States suffer¬ 
 ing injuries while in the performance of their duties, and for other 
 purposes,” approved September 7, 1916, as amended, shall extend to 
 persons given employment under the provisions of this title, includ- 
 mg the employees of the committees and associations referred to in 
 subsection (c) of this section and the members of such committees. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1507(b).) 
 
 (c) The Board may establish or utilize committees or associations 
 of producers in the administration of this title and make payments to 
 such committees or associations to cover the estimated administra¬ 
 tive expenses to be incurred by them in cooperating in cariying out 
 this title and ma^^ provide that all or part of such estimated expenses 
 may be included in the insurance premiums provided for in this title. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1507(c).) 
 
 (d) The Secretary of Agriculture may allot to bureaus and offices 
 of the Department of Agriculture or transfer to such other agencies 
 of the Sate and Federal Governments as he may request to assist in 
 canning out this title any funds made available pursuant to the 
 provisions of section 516 of this Act, except that employees or agen¬ 
 cies responsible for administering this Act in each county shall be 
 
246 
 
 federal, crop insurance act, as aaiended 
 
 selected and designated by the Corporation and shall be responsible 
 directly to the Corporation without the inter\-ention of any intenne- 
 diate otlice or agency. (7 U.S.C. 1507(d).) 
 
 (e) In carrying out the provisions of this title the Board may, in 
 its discretion, utilize producer-owned and producer-controlled coopera¬ 
 tive associations. (7 U.S.C. 1507(e).) 
 
 CROP insurance 
 
 Sec. 508.^ To carry out the purposes of this title the Corporation 
 IS authorized and empowered— 
 
 (a) Commencing with crops planted for harvest in 1948, for the 
 purpose of determining the most practical plan, terms, and condi¬ 
 tions of insurance for agricultural commodities, if sufficient actuarial 
 data are available, as determined by the Board, to insure, or to rein¬ 
 sure insurers of, producers of such agricultural commodities under 
 any plan or plans of insurance determined by the Board to be adapted 
 to any such commodity. Such insurance shall be against loss of the 
 insured commodity due to unavoidable causes, including drought, 
 flood, hail, wind, frost, winterkill, lightning, fire, excessive rain, 
 snow, wildlife, hurricane, tornado, insect infestation, plant disease, 
 and such other unavoidable causes as may be determined by the 
 Board; Provided^ 1 hat, except in the case of tobacco, such insurance 
 shall not extend beyond the period the insured commodity is in the 
 field. In 1948 insurance shall be limited to not more than seven 
 agricultural commodities (including wheat, cotton, flax, corn, and 
 tobacco) and to not more than three additional agricultural commodi¬ 
 ties in each year thereafter: Provided, That other agricultural 
 commodities may be included in multiple crop insurance (insurance 
 on two or more agricultural commodities under one contract with a 
 producer). Beginning with crops planted for harvest in 1954, crop 
 insurance may be offered each year in not to exceed 150 ^ counties in 
 addition to the number of counties in which such insurance was 
 offered in the preceding year. In determining the new counties in 
 which such insurance is to be offered and the commodities to be 
 insured, the Corporation shall take into consideration the demand of 
 farmers for such insurance, the extent to which such insurance is 
 available to commercial producers of insured commodities, and the 
 anticipated risk of loss to the Corporation. Reinsurance for private 
 insurance companies shall be limited to not to exceed twenty counties 
 which may be selected without regard to the other county limitations 
 specified herein. Any insurance offered against loss in yield shall not 
 cover in excess of 75 per centum of the recorded or appraised average 
 yield of the commodity on the insured farm for a representative 
 period subject to such adjustments as the Board may prescribe to 
 the^ end that the average yields fixed for farms in the same area, 
 which are subject to the same conditions, may be fair and just: 
 Provided, That if 75 per centum of the average yield represents 
 generally more protection than the investment in the crop in any 
 
 » Amended by Fub. L. 86-131, 73 Stat. 278, approved August 4, 1959. 
 
 7 R Rfoe Increased from 100 to 150 counties by Pub. L 88-589, 
 
 78 stat. 934, approved September 12, 1964. . 
 
FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 247 
 
 area, taking into consideration recognized farming practices, the 
 Board shall reduce such maximum percentage so as more nearly to 
 reflect the investment in the crop in such area. Insurance provided 
 under this subsection shall not cover losses due to the neglect or 
 malfeasance of the producer, or to the failure of the producer to 
 reseed to the same crop in areas and under circumstances where it is 
 customary to so reseed, or to the failure of the producer to follow 
 established good farming practices. Counties selected by the Board 
 shall be^ representative of the several areas where the agricultural 
 commodity insured is normally produced. The Board may limit or 
 refuse insurance in anj county or area, or on any farm, on the basis 
 of the insurance risk involved. Insurance shall not be provided on 
 any agricultural commodity in any county in which the Board deter¬ 
 mines that the income from such commodity constitutes an unim¬ 
 portant part of the total agricultural income of the county, except 
 that insurance may be provided for producers on farms situated in a 
 local producing area bordering on a county with a crop-insurance 
 program. The Corporation shall report annually to the Congress the 
 results of its operations as to each commodity insured. (7 U.S.C. 
 1508(a).) 
 
 (b) To fix adequate premiums for insurance in the agricultural 
 commodity or in cash, at such rates as the Board deems sufficient to 
 cover claims for crop losses on such insurance and to establish as 
 expeditiously as possible a reasonable reserve against unforseen 
 losses: Provided., That such premiums may be established on the 
 basis of the parity or comparable price for the commodity as deter¬ 
 mined and published by the Secretary of Agriculture, or on the basis 
 of an average market price designated by the Board. Such premiums 
 shall be collected at such time or times, or shall be secured in such 
 manner, as the Board may determine. (7 U.S.C. 1508 (b).) 
 
 (c) To adjust and pay claims for losses in the agricultural com¬ 
 modity or in_ cash, under rules prescribed by the Board: Provided., 
 That indemnities may be determined on the same price basis as pre¬ 
 miums are determined for the crop with respect to which such indem¬ 
 nities are paid. The Corporation shall provide for the posting 
 annually in each county at the county courthouse of a list of indem¬ 
 nities paid for losses on farms in such county. In the event that 
 any claim for indemnity under the provisions of this title is denied 
 by the Corporation, an action on su<m claim may be brought against 
 the Corporation in the United States district court, or in any court 
 of record of the State having general jurisdiction, sitting in the 
 district or county in which the insured farm is located, and juris¬ 
 diction is hereby conferred upon such district courts to determine 
 such controversies without regard to the amount in controversy: 
 Provided., That no suit on such claim shall be allowed under this sec¬ 
 tion unless the same shall have been brought within one year after the 
 date when notice of denial of the claim is mailed to and received by the 
 claimant. (7 U.S.C. 1508(c).) 
 
 (d) From time to time, in such manner and through such agencies 
 as the Board may determine, to purchase, handle, store, insure, pro¬ 
 vide storage facilities for, and sell the agricultural commodity, and 
 pay any expenses incidental thereto, it being the intent of this pro- 
 
248 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 vision, however, that, insofar as practicable, the Corporation shall 
 purchase the agricultural commodity only at the rate and to a total 
 amount equal to the payment of premiums in cash by farmers or to 
 replace promptly the agricultural commodity sold to prevent deterio¬ 
 ration; and shall sell the agricultural commodity only to the extent 
 necessary to cover payments of indemnities and to prevent deterio¬ 
 ration : Provided^ however^ That nothing in this section shall prevent 
 prompt offset purchases and sales of the agricultural commodity for 
 convenience in handling. Nothing in this section shall prevent the 
 Corporation from accepting, for the payment of premiums, notes 
 payable in the commodity insured, or the cash equivalent, upon such 
 security as may be determined pursuant to subsection (b) of this sec¬ 
 tion, and from purchasing the quantity of the commodity represented 
 by any of such notes not paid at maturity. The restriction on the 
 purchase and sale of the agricultural commodity provided in this sec¬ 
 tion shall be made a part of any crop insurance agreement made 
 under this title. Notwithstanding any provision of this title, there 
 shall be no limitation upon the legal or equitable remedies available 
 to the insured to enforce against the Corporation the foregoing 
 restriction with respect to purchases and sales of the agricultural 
 commodity. (7 U.S.C. 1508 (d).) 
 
 (e) In connection with insurance upon yields of cotton, to include 
 provision for additional premium and indemnity in terms of lint 
 cotton to cover loss of cottonseed, such additional premium and in¬ 
 demnity to be determined on the basis of the average relationship 
 between returns from cottonseed and returns from lint cotton for the 
 same period of years as that used for computing yields and premium 
 rates. (7 U.S.C. 1508(e).) 
 
 (f) ^^ Notwithstanding any other provision of this title, the cor¬ 
 poration is hereby authorized, under such terms and conditions as it 
 deems consistent with sound reinsurance principles, to provide rein¬ 
 surance on any crop or plantation insurance provided in Puerto Rico 
 by a duly authorized agency of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico: 
 Provided^ That, no application for reinsurance authorized herein shall 
 be^ approved, unless the corporation shall have determined that the 
 reinsurance deemed necessary is not available from recognized private 
 sources at reasonable cost. (7 U.S.C. 1508(f).) 
 
 INDEMNITIES EXEMPT FROM LEVY 
 
 Sec. 509. Claims for indemnities under this title shall not be li¬ 
 able to attachment, levy, garnishment, or any other legal process 
 before payment to the insured or to deduction on account of the in¬ 
 debtedness of the insured or his estate to the United States except 
 claims of the United States or the Corporation arising under this title 
 (7 U.S.C. 1509.) 
 
 DEPOSIT OF FUNDS 
 
 Sec. 510. All money of the Corporation not otherwise employed 
 may be deposited with the Treasurer of the United States or in any 
 bank approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, subject to with¬ 
 drawal by the Corporation at any time, or with the approval of the 
 
 *■ Subsection (f) added by Pub. L. 85-111, 71 Stat. 309, July 23, 1957. 
 
FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 249 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury may be invested in obligations of the 
 United States or in obligations guaranteed as to principal and in¬ 
 terest by the United States. Subject to the approval of the Secre¬ 
 tary of the Treasury, the Federal Reserve banks are hereby author¬ 
 ized and directed to act as depositories, custodians, and fiscal agents 
 for the Corporation in the performance of its powers conferred by 
 this title. (7 U.S.C. 1510.) 
 
 TAX EXEMPTIONS 
 
 Sec. 511. The Corporation, including its franchise, its capital, re¬ 
 serves, and surplus, and its income and property, shall be exempt 
 from all taxation now or hereafter imposed by the United States or 
 by any Territory, dependency, or possession thereof, or by any State, 
 county, municipality or local taxing authority. (7 U.S.C. 1511.) 
 
 FISCAL AGENT OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 Sec. 512. When designated for that purpose by the Secretary of 
 the Treasury, the Corporation shall be a depository of public money, 
 except receipts from customs, under such regulations as may be pre¬ 
 scribed by said Secretary; and it may also be employed as a financial 
 agent of the Government; and it shall perform all such reasonable 
 duties, as a depository of public money and financial agent of the 
 Government, as may be required of it. (7 U.S.C. 1512.) 
 
 ACCOUNTING BY CORPORATION 
 
 Sec. 513. The Corporation shall at all times maintain complete 
 and accurate books of account and shall file annually with the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture a complete report as to the business of the Cor¬ 
 poration. The financial transactions of the Corporation shall be 
 audited at least once each year by the General Accounting Office for 
 the sole purpose of making a report to Congress, together with such 
 recommendations as the Comptroller General of the United States 
 may deem advisable: Provided^ That such report shall not be made 
 until the Corporation shall have had reasonable opportunity to ex¬ 
 amine the exceptions and criticisms of the Comptroller General or 
 the General Accounting Office, to point out errors therein, explain or 
 answer the same, and to file a statement which shall be submitted by 
 the Comptroller General with his report. (7 U.S.C. 1513.) 
 
 CRIMES AND OFFENSES 
 
 Sec. 514. (^Subsections (a) through (e) repealed by 62 Stat. 859.) 
 
 (See criminal provisions beginning on p. 259.) 
 
 (f) The provisions of section 22 of Title 41 shall not apply to any 
 crop insurance agreements made under this title. (7 U.S.C. 1514(f).) 
 
 ADVISORY COMMITTEE 
 
 Sec. 515. The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to appoint 
 from time to time an advisory committee, consisting of not more than 
 five members experienced in agricultural pursuits and appointed with 
 due consideration to their geographical distribution, to advise the 
 Corporation with respect to carrying out the purposes of this title. 
 The compensation of the members of such committee shall be deter- 
 
250 
 
 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 mined by the Board but shall not exceed $10 per day each while 
 actually employed and actual necessary traveling and subsistence 
 expenses, or a per diem allowance in lieu thereof. (7 U.S.C. 1515.) 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS AND REGULATIONS 
 
 Sec. 516. (a) There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such 
 sums, not in excess of $12,000,000 for each fiscal year oeginning after 
 June 30, 1938, as may be necessary to cover the operating and ad- 
 rninistrative costs of the Corporation, which shall be allotted to the 
 Corporation in such amounts and at such time or times as the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture may determine: Provided^ That expenses in con¬ 
 nection with the purchase, transportation, handling, or sale of the 
 agricultural commodity and the direct cost of loss adjusters for crop 
 inspections and loss adjustments may be considered by the Corpora¬ 
 tion as being non-administrative or non-operating expenses. The 
 Corporation is authorized to use premium income for administrative 
 and operating costs within limits prescribed in applicable appropria- 
 tiones. (7 U.S.C. 1516(a).) 
 
 (b) The Secretary and the Corporation, respectively, are author¬ 
 ized to issue such regulations as may be necessary to carry out the 
 provisions of this title. (7 U.S.C. 1516(b).) 
 
 SEPARABILITY 
 
 Sec. 517. The section of this title and subdivisions of sections are 
 hereby declared to be separable, and in the event any one or more 
 sections or parts of the same of this title be held to be unconstitu¬ 
 tional, the same shall not affect the validity of other sections or parts 
 of sections of this title. (7 U.S.C. 1517.) 
 
 Sec. 518. “Agricultural commodity”, as used in this title, means 
 wheat, cotton, flax, corn, dry beans, oats, barley, rye, tobacco, rice, 
 peanuts, soybeans, sugar beets, sugarcane, timber and forests, pota¬ 
 toes and other vegetables, citrus and other fruits, tame hay, or any 
 other agricultural commodity determined by the Board pursuant to 
 subsection (a) of section 508 of this title, or any one or more of such 
 commodities, as the context may indicate. (7 U.S.C. 1518.) 
 
 RIGHT TO AMEND 
 
 Sec. 519. The right to alter, amend, or repeal this title is hereby 
 reserved. (7 U.S.C. 1519.) 
 
 CRIMINAL PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE 
 
 CORPORATION 
 
 Whoever, being an officer, agent or employee of or connected in 
 any capacity with the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Federal 
 Deposit Insurance Corporation, Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, 
 Farm Credit Administration, Federal Housing Administration, Fed¬ 
 eral Farm Mortgage Corporation, Federal Crop Insurance Corpora- 
 
 j’- Home Corporation or any land bank, intermediate 
 
 credit bank, bank for cooperatives or any lending, mortgage, insur¬ 
 ance, credit or savings and loan corporation or association authorized 
 or acting under the laws of the United States, and whoever, being 
 a receiver of any such institution, or agent or employee of the re- 
 
FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AMENDED 251 
 
 ceiver, embezzles, abstracts, purloins or willfully misapplies any 
 moneys, funds, credits, securities or other things of value belonging 
 to such institution, or pledged or otherwise intrusted to its care, 
 shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than 
 five years, or both; but if the amount or value embezzled, abstracted, 
 purloined or misapplied does not exceed $100, he shall be fined not 
 more than $1,000 or imprisoned not more than one year, or both. 
 (18U.S.C.657.) 
 
 Whoever, with intent to defraud, knowingly conceals, removes, 
 disposes of, or converts to his own use or to that of another any 
 property mortgaged or pledged to, or held by, the Farm Credit Ad¬ 
 ministration, any Federal intermediate credit bank, or the Federal 
 Farm Mortgage Corporation, Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, 
 Farmers’ Home Corporation, or any production credit corporation 
 or corporation in which a production credit corporation holds stock, 
 any regional agricultural credit corporation, or any bank for co¬ 
 operatives, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more 
 than five years, or both; but if the value of such property does not 
 exceed $100, he shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned not 
 more than one year, or both. (18 U.S.C. 658.) 
 
 Whoever, being an ofiicer, agent or employee of or connected in any 
 capacity with the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Federal De¬ 
 posit Insurance Corporation, Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, Farm 
 Credit Administration, Federal Housing Administration, Federal 
 Farm Mortgage Corporation, Federal Crop Insurance Corporation, 
 Farmers’ Home Corporation, or any land bank, intermediate credit 
 bank, bank for cooperatives or any lending, mortgage, insurance, 
 credit or savings and loan corporation or association authorized or 
 acting under the laws of the United States, with intent to defraud 
 any such institution or any other company, body politic or corporate, 
 or any individual, or to deceive any officer, auditor, examiner or 
 agent of any such institution or of department or agency of the United 
 States, makes any false entry in any book, report or statement of or 
 to any such institution, or without being duly authorized, draws any 
 order or bill of exchange, makes any acceptance, or issues, puts forth 
 or assigns any note, debenture, bond or other obligation, or draft, 
 bill of exchange, mortgage, judgment, or decree, or, with intent to 
 defraud the United States or any agency thereof, or any corpora¬ 
 tion, institution, or association referred to in this section, partici¬ 
 pates or shares in or receives directly or indirectly any money, profit, 
 property, or benefits through any transaction, loan, commission, con¬ 
 tract, or any other act of any such corporation, institution, or asso¬ 
 ciation, shall be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned not more 
 than five years, or both. (18 U.S.C. 1006.) 
 
 Whoever knowingly makes any false statement or report, or will¬ 
 fully overvalues any land, property or security, for the purpose of 
 influencing in any way the action of the Reconstruction Finance Cor- 
 poi-ation. Farm Credit Administration, Federal Crop Insurance Cor¬ 
 poration, Farmers’ Home Corporation, any Federal intermediate 
 credit bank, or the Federal Farm Mortgage Corporation, or any di¬ 
 vision, officer, or employee thereof, or of any corporation organized 
 under sections 1131-1134m of Title 12, or in which a Production Credit 
 
252 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE ACT, AS AAIENDED 
 
 Corporation holds stock, or of any regional agricultural credit cor¬ 
 poration established pursuant to law, or of the National Agricultural 
 Credit Corporation, a Federal Home Loan Bank, the Federal Home 
 Loan Bank Board, the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation, a Federal 
 Savings and Loan Association, a Federal land oank, a joint-stock 
 land bank, a National farm loan association, or of a Federal Researve 
 Bank, upon any application, advance, discount, purchase, purchase 
 agreement, repurchase agreement, commitment or loan or any change 
 or extension of any of the same, by renewal, deferment of action or 
 otherwise, or the acceptance, release, or substitution of security there¬ 
 for, shall be fined not more than $5,000 or imprisoned not more than 
 two years, or both. (18 U.S.C. 1014.) 
 
 Whoever, while acting in any official capacity in the administration 
 of any Act of Congress relating to crop insurance or to the Federal 
 Crop Insurance Corporation speculates in any agricultural commod¬ 
 ity or product thereof, to wdiich such enactments apply, or in con¬ 
 tracts relating thereto, or in the stock or membership interests of 
 any association or corporation engaged in handling, processing, or 
 disposing of any such commodity or product, shall be fined not more 
 than $10,000 or imprisoned not more than two years, or both. (18 
 U.S.C. 1903.) 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 EXPLANATOKX NOTE 
 
 The first statute authorizing the imposition of sugar quotas on all 
 areas supplying the United States market, including the mainland 
 cane sugar area, the domestic beet sugar areas, and Hawaii, Puerto 
 Kico, and the Virgin Islands, was the Jones-Costigan Sugar Act. 
 approved in May 1934, which was an amendment to the Agricultural 
 Adjustment Act of 1933. This act also authorized the Secretary to 
 impose a processing tax on sugar and to enter into contracts with 
 domestic growers providing for payments on a production limited to 
 area quotas. In 1936 the production control and processing tax pro¬ 
 visions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act were invalidated in the 
 case of United States v. Butler (297 U.S. 1); however, sugar quotas 
 were continued in effect and were subsequently revised and reenacted 
 in the Sugar Act of 1937. The act of 1937 also provided for pay¬ 
 ments to producers of sugarcane and sugar beets who complied with 
 specified conditions relating to child labor, farm wages, acreage 
 allotments, soil conservation, and for payments to producers, who 
 were also processors and who have paid to other producers fair prices 
 for sugar beets or sugarcane. 
 
 The Sugar Act of 1948, enacted in August 1947, reenacted the 
 Sugar Act of 1937 with certain changes, the most important of which 
 related to the determination of the annual estimate of sugar con¬ 
 sumption and the establishment of annual area sugar quotas. The 
 constitutional validity of the quota provisions of the Sugar Act of 
 1948 has been upheld in the case of Secretary of Agriculture v. Central 
 Roig Refining Company et al.^ 338 U.S. 604. The act was amended in 
 1951,65 Stat, 318, in 1956,70 Stat. 217, in 1958, 72 Stat. 950, in 1959, 73 
 Stat. 141, in 1960,74 Stat. 330, in 1961,75 Stat. 40, and in 1962, 76 Stat. 
 156,169. 
 
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PART VI 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED" 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To reflate commerce among the several States, with the Territories and pos¬ 
 sessions of the United States, and with foreign countries; to protect the 
 welfare of consumers of sugars and of those engaged in the domestic sugar- 
 producing industry; to promote the export trade of the United States; and 
 for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That this Act may 
 be cited as the “Sugar Act of 1948.” (7 U.S.C. 1100.) 
 
 TITLE I—DEFINITIONS 
 
 Sec. 101. For the purpose of this Act, except title V — 
 
 (a) The term “person” means an individual, partnership, corpora¬ 
 tion, or association. (7 U.S.C. 1101(a).) 
 
 (b) The term “sugars” means any grade or type of saccharine 
 product derived from sugarcane or sugar beets, which contains su¬ 
 crose, dextrose, or levulose. (7 U.S.C. 1101(b).) 
 
 (c) The term “sugar” means raw sugar or direct-consumption 
 sugar. (7 U.S.C. 1101 (c).) 
 
 (d) The term “raw sugar” means any sugars (exclusive of liquid 
 sugar from foreign countries having liquid sugar quotas), whether 
 or not principally of crystalline structure, which are to be further 
 refined or improved in quality to produce any sugars principally of 
 crystalline structure or liquid sugar. (7 U.S.C. 1101(d).) 
 
 (e) The term “direct-consumption sugar” means any sugars prin¬ 
 cipally of crystalline structure and any liquid sugar (exclusive of 
 liquid sugar from foreigTi countries having liquid sugar quotasl, 
 which are not to be further refined or improved in quality, (l 
 U.S.C. 1101(e).) 
 
 (f) The term “liquid sugar” means any sugars (exclusive of sirup 
 of cane juice produced from sugarcane grown in continental United 
 States) which are principally not of crystalline structure and which 
 contain, or which are to be used for the production of any sugars 
 principally not of c^stalline structure which contain, soluble non¬ 
 sugar solids (excluding any foreign substances that may have been 
 added or developed in the product) equal to 6 per centum or less of 
 the total soluble solids. (7 U.S.C. 1101(f).) 
 
 (g) Sugars in dry amorphous form shall be considered to be prin¬ 
 cipally of crystalline structure. (7 U.S.C. 1101(g).) 
 
 (h) The “raw value” of any quantity of sugars means its equivalent 
 in terms of ordinary commercial raw sugar testing ninety-six sugar 
 
 1 Approved August 8, 1947, 61 Stat. 922. The provisions of the Act set forth are those 
 In effect following the amendments made by Pub. L. 85-539, approved July 19, 1962. The 
 amendments made by Pub. L. 85-535, approved July 13, 1962 may be cited as the “Sugar 
 Act Amendments of 1962". 
 
 255 
 
256 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMETUDED 
 
 degrees by the polariscope, determined in accordance with regulations 
 to be issued by the Secretary. The principal grades and types of 
 sugar and liquid sugar shall be translated into terms of raw value 
 in the following manner; 
 
 (1) For direct-consumption sugar, derived from sugar beets 
 and testing ninety-two or more sugar degrees by the polariscope, 
 by multiplying the number of pounds thereof by 1.07; 
 
 (2) For sugar, derived from sugarcane and testing ninety-two 
 sugar degrees by the polariscope, by multiplying the number of 
 pounds thereof by 0.93; 
 
 (3) For sugar, derived from sugarcane and testing more than 
 ninety-two sugar degrees by the polariscope, by multiplying tlie 
 number of pounds thereof by the figure obtained by adding to 
 0.93 the result of multiplying 0.0175 by the number of degrees 
 and fractions of a degree of polarization above ninety-two 
 degrees; 
 
 (4) For sugar and liquid sugar, testing less than ninety-two 
 sugar degrees by the polariscope, by dividing the number of 
 pounds of the “total sugar content” thereof by 0.972. 
 
 (5) _ The Secretary may establish rates for translating sugar 
 and liquid sugar into terms of raw value for (a) any grade or 
 type of sugar or liquid sugar not provided for in the foregoing 
 and (b) any special grade or type of sugar or liquid sugar for 
 which he determines that the raw value cannot be measured 
 adequately under the provisions of paragraphs (1) to (4), in¬ 
 clusive, of this subsection (h). (7U.S.C. 1101(h).) 
 
 (i) The term “total sugar content” means the sum of the sucrose 
 and reducing or invert sugars contained in any grade or type of 
 sugar or liquid sugar. (7 U.S.C. 1101 (i).) 
 
 (j) The term “quota,” depending upon the context, means (1) that 
 
 quantity of sugar or liquid sugar which may be brought or imported 
 into the continental United States, for consumption therein, during 
 any calendar year, from Hawaii, Puerto Pico, the Virgin Islands, or 
 a foreign country or group of foreign countries; (2) that quantity of 
 sugar or liquid sugar produced from sugar beets or sugarcane grown 
 in the continental United States which, during any calendar year, 
 may be shipped, transported, or marketed in interstate commerce, 
 or in competition with sugar or liquid sugar shipped, transported, or 
 marketed in interstate or foreign commerce; or (3) that quantity of 
 sugar or liquid sugar which may be marketed in Hawaii or in Puerto 
 Rico, for consumption therein, during any calendar year.^ (7 U.S.C. 
 llOl(j).) J V 
 
 (k) The term “producer” means a person who is the legal owner, 
 at the time of harvest or abandonment, of a portion or all of a crop 
 of sugar beets or sugarcane grown on a farm for the extraction of 
 sugar or liquid sugar. (7 U.S.C. 1101 (k).) 
 
 (l) The terms “including” and “include” shall not be deemed to 
 exclude anything not mentioned but otherwise within the meaning 
 of the term defined. (7 U.S.C. 1101 (1).) 
 
 (m) The term “Secretary” means the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1101 (m).) 
 
 a Amended by Pub. L. 86-692, 74 Stat. 331, approved July 6, 1960. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 257 
 
 (n) The term “to be further refined or improved in quality” means 
 to be subjected substantially to the processes of (1) affination or def¬ 
 ecation, (2) clarification, and (3) further purification by adsorp¬ 
 tion or crystallization. The Secretary is authorized, after such 
 hearing and upon such notice as he may by regulations prescribe, to 
 determine whether specific processes to which sugars are subjected 
 are sufficient to meet the requirements of this paragraph (n) and 
 whether sugars of specific qualities are raw sugar within the meaning 
 of paragraph (d) of this section, or direct-consumption sugar within 
 the meaning of paragraph (e) of this section. (7 U.S.C. 1101 
 (n).) 
 
 (o) The term “continental United States” means the 49 States and 
 the District of Columbia.^ (7 U.S.C. 1101 (o).) 
 
 TITLE II—QUOTA PKOVISIONS 
 
 annual estimate of consumption in continental united states 
 
 Sec. 201. The Secretary shall determine for each calendar year, 
 beginning with the calendar year 1948, the amount of sugar needed 
 to meet the requirements of consumers in the continental United 
 Stat^; such determinations shall be made during the month of Decem¬ 
 ber in each year for the succeeding calendar year (in the case of 
 the calendar year 1948, during the first ten days thereof) and at 
 such other times during such calendar years as the Secretary may 
 d^m necessary to meet such requirements. In making such deter¬ 
 minations the Secretary shall use as a basis the quantity of direct- 
 consumption pgar distributed for consumption, as indicated by 
 official statistics of the^ Department of Agriculture, during the 
 twelve-month period ending October 31 next preceding the calendar 
 year for which the determination is being made, and shall make 
 allowances for a deficiency or surplus in inventories of sugar, and for 
 change in consumption because of changes in population and demand 
 conditions, as computed from statistics published by agencies of the 
 Federal Government; and, in order that such determinations shall be 
 made so as to protect the welfare of consumers and of those engaged 
 in the domestic sugar industry by providing such supply of sugar as 
 will be consmned at prices which will not be excessive to consumers 
 and which will fairly and equitably maintain and protect the welfare 
 of the doinestic sugar industry, the Secretary, in making any such 
 determination, in addition to the consumption, inventory, population, 
 and demand factors above specified and the level and trend of con¬ 
 sumer purchasing power shall take into consideration the relationship 
 between the pric^ for raw sugar that he estimates would result from 
 such determination and the parity index, as compared with the rela¬ 
 tionship between the average price of raw sugar during the three-year 
 period 1957, 1958, and 1959, and the average of the parity indexes 
 during such three years, with the view to attaining generally stable 
 domestic sugar prices that will carry out over the long term the price 
 objective previously set forth in this section; and in order that the 
 regulation of commerce provided by this Act shall not result in exces- 
 
 • Added by Pub. L. 86-70, 73 Stat. 141, approved June 25, 1959, 
 
258 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 sive prices to consumers, the Secretary shall make such additional 
 allowances as he deems necessary in the amount of sugar determined 
 to be needed to meet requirements of consumers. The term “parity 
 index” as used herein shall mean such index as determined under 
 section 301 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, 
 and as published monthly by the United States Department of Agri¬ 
 culture.^ (TU.S.C. 1111.) 
 
 PRORATIOX OF QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 202.® Whenever a determination is made, pursuant to section 
 201, of the amount of sugar needed to meet the requirements of con¬ 
 sumers, the Secretary shall establish quotas, or revise existing quotas— 
 (a)(1) For domestic sugar-producing areas, by appropriating 
 among such areas five million eight hundred and ten thousand 
 short tons, raw value, as follows: 
 
 Short tong, 
 raw value 
 
 Domestic beet sugar_ 2, 650, 000 
 
 Mainland cane sugar_ 895^ 000 
 
 Hawaii-1,110,’000 
 
 Puerto Rico- 1 , 140 , 000 
 
 Virgin Islands_ 15 ^ 000 
 
 Total- 5 , 810, 000 
 
 (2) (A) To the above total of five million eight hundred and 
 ten thousand short tons, raw value, there shall be added an amount 
 equal to 65 per centum of the amount by which the Secretary’s 
 determination of requirements of consumers in the continental 
 United States for the calendar year exceeds nine million seven 
 hundred thousand short tons, raw value. Such additional amount 
 shall be apportioned between the domestic beet sugar area and 
 the mainland cane sugar area on the basis of the quotas for such 
 areas established under paragraph (1) of this subsection and the 
 amounts so apportioned shall be added to the quotas for such areas. 
 
 (B) Whenever the production of sugar in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, 
 or in the Virgin Islands in any year subsequent to 1961 results in 
 there being available for marketing in the continental United 
 States in any year sugar in excess of the quota for such area for 
 such year established under para^aph (1) of this subsection, the 
 quota for the immediately following year established for such area 
 under paragraph (1) of this subsection shall be increased to the 
 extent of such excess production '.Provided^ That in no event shall 
 the quota for Hawaii, Puerto Rico, or the Virgin Islands, as so 
 increased, exceed the quota which would have been established 
 for such area at the same level of consumption requirements under 
 the provisions of section 202(a) of the Sugar Act of 1948, as 
 amended, in effect immediately prior to the date of enactment 
 of the Sugar Act Amendments of 1962. (7 U.S.C. 1112(a).) 
 
 (b) For the Republic of the Philippines, in the amount of one mil¬ 
 lion and fifty thousand short tons, raw value, of sugar. (7 U.S.C. 
 1112(b).) 
 
 amended by Pub. L. 87-535. 76 Stat. 156, approved July 13, 1962, which 
 language which begins at “shall take into consideration” and ends at “as 
 published monthly by the United States Department of Agriculture”. 
 
 ® Section 202 amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 156. approved July 13 1962 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 259 
 
 (c)(1) For the six-moiitli period ending December 31, 1962, for 
 foreign countries other than the Republic of the Idiilippines an 
 amount of sugar, raw value, equal to the amount determined pur¬ 
 suant to section 201 less the sum of (i) the quotas established pur- 
 suant to subsections (a) and (b) of this section, (ii) the amount 
 of nonquota purchase sugar authorized for importation between 
 January 1 and June 30, 1962, inclusive, pursuant to Sugar Regu- 
 latum 820, and (iii) the quotas for foreign countries other than 
 the Republic of the Philippines established by Sugar Regulation 
 811 for the six-month period ending June 30, 1962. 
 
 (2) For the calendar years 1963 and 1964, for foreign countries 
 other than the Republic of the Philippines, an amount of sugar, 
 raw value, equal to the amount determined pursuant to section 201 
 less the sum of the quotas established pursuant to subsections (a) 
 and (b) of this section. 
 
 quotas for foreign countries other than the Repub¬ 
 lic of the Philippine determined under paragraphs (1) and 
 (2) of this subsection, less five thousand six hundred and 
 sixty-seven short tons, raw value, for 1962 and less eleven 
 thousand three hundred and thirty-two short tons, raw value, 
 for 1063 and 1964, shall be prorated among such countries 
 on the following basis: 
 
 Country 
 
 Cuba_ 
 
 Peru_ 
 
 Dominican Republic. 
 
 Mexico_ 
 
 Brazil_ 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 Australia_ 
 
 Republic of China_ 
 
 French West Indies.. 
 
 Colombia_ 
 
 Nicaragua_ 
 
 Costa Rica_ 
 
 Ecuador_ 
 
 India_ 
 
 Haiti_ 
 
 Guatemala_ 
 
 South Africa_ 
 
 Panama_ 
 
 El Salvador_ 
 
 Paraguay_ 
 
 British Honduras_ 
 
 Fiji Islands_ 
 
 Netherlands_ 
 
 Per 
 
 centum 
 
 57. 77 
 6 . 71 
 6 . 71 
 6 . 71 
 6 . 37 
 3.19 
 1. 41 
 1. 24 
 1.06 
 1.06 
 .88 
 .88 
 .88 
 .71 
 .71 
 .71 
 .71 
 .53 
 .36 
 .35 
 .35 
 .35 
 .35 
 
 (B) For the six-month period ending December 31, 1962, 
 Canada, United Kingdom, Belgium, and Hong Kong shall 
 be permitted to import into the continental United States 
 the amount of sugar allocated to each in Sugar Regulation 
 811, issued December 11, 1961 (26 F.R. 11963). For the cal¬ 
 endar years 1963 and 1964, Canada, United Kingdom, Bel¬ 
 gium, and Hong Kong shall be permitted to import into the 
 continental United States a total of thirteen hundred and 
 thirty-two short tons of sugar, raw value, which amount shall 
 be allocated to such countries in amounts as specified in Sugar 
 
260 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 Regulation 811, as amended, issued March 31, 1961 (26 F.R. 
 2774); _ 
 
 (C) For the six-month period ending December 1962, the 
 Secretary is authorized to allocate to foreign countries not 
 enumerated in subparagraph (A) or (B) an amount of sugar, 
 raw value, not exceeding in the aggregate five thousand short 
 tons. For the calendar years 1963 and 1964, the Secretary 
 is authorized to allocate to foreign countries not enumerated 
 in subparagraph (A) or (B) an amount of sugar, raw value, 
 not exceeding in the aggregate ten thousand short tons. Each 
 foreign country to which an allocation is made under the 
 provisions of this subparagraph for any period or year shall 
 be permitted to import into the continental United States the 
 amount of sugar allocated to it by the Secretary. 
 
 (4) (A) Nowithstanding the provisions of paragraph (3) of 
 this subsection, whenever the United States is not in diplo¬ 
 matic relations with any country named in paragraph (3) of 
 this subsection and during such period after resumption of 
 diplomatic relations with such country as the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines is required to permit an orderly adjustment in the 
 channels of commerce for sugar, the proration or allocation 
 provided for in paragraph (3) of this subsection shall not 
 be made to such country, and a quantity of sugar not to exceed 
 an amount equal to the proration or allocation which would 
 have been made but for the provisions of this paragraph, 
 may be authorized for purchase and importation from for¬ 
 eign countries, except that all or any part of such quantity 
 need not be purchased from any country with which the 
 United States is not in diplomatic relations, or from any 
 country designated by the President whenever he finds and 
 proclaims that such action is required in the national interest. 
 In authorizing the purchase and importation of sugar from 
 foreign countries under this paragraph, special considera¬ 
 tion shall be given to countries of the Western Hemisphere 
 and to those countries purchasing United States agricultural 
 commodities. 
 
 (B) Of the quantity authorized for purchase and importa¬ 
 tion under subparagraph (A), the President is authorized to 
 allocate to countries within the Western Hemisphere, for the 
 six-month period ending December 31, 1962, an amount of 
 sugar, raw value, not exceeding in the aggregate seventy-five 
 thousand short tons, and for the calendar years 1963 and 1964, 
 an amount of sugar, raw value, not exceeding in the aggre¬ 
 gate one hundred and fifty thousand short tons.® 
 
 (5) Sugar authorized for purchase pursuant to paragraph (4) 
 of this subsection shall be raw sugar, except that if the Secretary 
 determines that the total quantity is not reasonably available as 
 raw sugar from the countries either named or determined by the 
 Secretary under paragraph (4) of this subsection, he may author¬ 
 ize for purchase for direct consumption from such countries such 
 
 “Paragraph 4(B) added by Pub. I*. 87-539, 76 Stat. 169, approved July 19, 1962. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 261 
 
 part of such quantity of sugar as he determines may be required 
 to meet the requirements of consumers in the United States. 
 
 (6) Sugar shall not be authorized for purchase pursuant to 
 paragraph (4) of this subsection from any foreign country which 
 imports sugar unless, in the preceding and current calendar year, 
 its aggregate exports of sugar to countries other than the United 
 States equal or exceed its aggregate imports of sugar. (7 U.S.C. 
 1112(c).) 
 
 (d) Whenever in any year any foreign country with a quota or 
 proration thereof of more than ten thousand short tons, raw value, 
 fails to fill such quota or proration by more than ten per centum and 
 at any time during such year the world price of sugar exceeds the 
 domestic price, the quota or proration thereof for such country for 
 subsequent years shall be reduced by an amount equal to the amount 
 by which such country failed to fill its quota or proration thereof, 
 unless the Secretary finds that such failure was due to crop disaster 
 or force majeure or finds that such reduction would be contrary to 
 the objectives of this Act. Any reduction hereunder shall be pro¬ 
 rated in the same manner as deficits are prorated under section 204. 
 (7U.S.C. 1112(d).) 
 
 (e) If a foreign coimtry imports sugar, it may not export sugar 
 to the United States to fill its quota or proration thereof for any year 
 unless, in both the preceding and current calendar years, its aggregate 
 exports of sugar to countries other than the United States equal or 
 exceed its aggregate imports of sugar. If sugar is exported to the 
 United States from any foreign comitry in any year in violation of 
 this subsection (e), the quota or proration thereof for such foreign 
 country for subsequent years shall be reduced by an amount equal to 
 riiree times the lesser of (i) the amount of such country’s excess of 
 imports of sugar over its exports of sugar to countries other than the 
 United States during the preceding or current calendar year, in which¬ 
 ever year an excess or the larger excess occurs, or (ii) the amount of 
 sugar exported to the United States by such coimtry to fill its quota 
 or proration thereof during the calendar year in which the violation 
 of this subsection (e) occurred. The provisions of this subsection 
 shall not apply to sugar exported by any foreign country to the 
 United States to fill any allocation made to it under subsection 
 (c)(3)(C).^ (7 U.S.C. 1112(e).) 
 
 (f) The quota or proration thereof or purchase authorization 
 established for any foreign country may be filled only with sugar 
 produced from sugarbeets or sugarcane grown in such country. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1112(f):) 
 
 CONSUMPTION ESTIMATES AND QUOTAS FOR HAWAII AND PUERTO RICO 
 
 Sec. 203. In accordance with such provisions of section 201 as he 
 deems applicable, the Secretary shall also determine the amount of 
 sugar needed to meet the requirements of consumers in Hawaii, and 
 in Puerto Eico, and shall establish quotas for the amounts of sugar 
 which may be marketed for local consumption in such areas equal 
 to the amounts determined to be needed to meet the requirements of 
 consumers therein.® (7 U.S.C. 1113.) 
 
 19^1962 subsection (e) added by Pub. L. 87-539, 76 Stat. 169, approved July 
 
 * Amended by Pub. L. 86-592, 74 Stat. 331, approved July 6,1960. 
 
262 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 PRORATION OF QUOTAS DEFICITS 
 
 Sec. 204. (a) The Secretary shall from time to time determine 
 whether, in view of the current inventory of sugar, the estimated 
 production from the acreage of sugarcane or sugarbeets planted, the 
 normal marketings within a calendar year of new-crop sugar and other 
 pertinent factore, any area or country will be unable to market the 
 quota or proration for such area or country. If the Secretary deter¬ 
 mines that any domestic area or foreign country will be unable to mar¬ 
 ket the quota or proration for such area or country, he shall revise the 
 quota for the Eepublic of the Philippines by prorating to it an amount 
 of sugar which bears the same ratio to the deficit as the quota for the 
 Eepublic of the Philippines determined under section 202(b) then in 
 effect bears to the sum of such quota for the Eepublic of the Philip¬ 
 pines and of the prorations to foreign countries named in section 
 202(c) (3) (A) then in effect; and shall allocate an amount of sugar 
 equal to the remainder of the deficit to foreign countries within the 
 U estern Hemisphere named in section 202(c) (3) (A) : Provided, That 
 no part of any such deficit shall be prorated or allocated to any country 
 not m diplomatic relations with the United States. If the Secretary 
 determines that the Eepublic of the Philippines will be unable to fill 
 its share of any deficit determined under this subsection, he shall allo¬ 
 cate such unfilled amount to foreign countries within the Western 
 TTemisphere named in section 202(c) (3) (A) : Provided, That no such 
 allocation shall be made to any foreign country not in diplomatic rela¬ 
 tions with the United States. In making allocations for foreign coun¬ 
 tries within the Western Hemisphere under this subsection, special 
 consideration shall be given to those countries purchasing United 
 States agricultural^ commodities. If the Secretary determines that 
 neither the Eepublic of the Philippines nor the countries within the 
 Western Hemisphere named in section 202(c)(3)(A) can fill all of 
 any such deficit whenever provisions of section 202(c)(4) apply, he 
 shall add such unfilled amount to the quantity of sugar which mav be 
 oAo/ pursuant to section 202(c)(4), and whenever section 
 
 ^ 1 u • ‘^Ppl.y shall apportion such unfilled amount on 
 
 such basis aim to such foreign countries in diplomatic relations with 
 
 States as he determines is required to fill such deficit. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1114(a).) 
 
 established for any domestic area or the Eepublic 
 ot the 1 hilippmes under section 202 shall not be reduced by reason of 
 any determination of a deficit existing in any calendar year under sub¬ 
 section (a) of this section.® (7 U.S.C. 1114(b).) 
 
 ALLOTMENTS OF QUOTAS OR PRORATIONS 
 
 Sec. 205. (a) Whenever the Secretary finds that the allotment of 
 auy quota, or proration thereof, established for any area pursuant to 
 the provisions of this Act, is necessary to assure an orderly and ade¬ 
 quate flow of sugar or liquid sugar in the channels of interstate oi 
 toieign commerce, or to prevent disorderly marketing or importation 
 of sugar or liquid sugar, or to maintain a continuous and stable sup- 
 
 » Section 204 was amended by I'lib. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 100, approved .Tiilv 1.3 1062 and 
 amended a^^ain by Pub. L. 87-539 ; 76 Stat. 169, apt)roved .July 19, 1962. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 263 
 
 ply of sugar or Ikiuid sugar, or to afford all interested persons an 
 equitable opportunity to market sugar or liquid sugar within any 
 area’s quota, after such hearing and upon such notice as he may by 
 regulations prescribe, he shall make allotments of such quota or pro- 
 ration thereof by allotting to persons who market or import sugar or 
 liquid sugar, for such periods as he may designate, the quantities of 
 sugar or liquid sugar which each such person may market in con¬ 
 tinental United States, Hawaii, or Puerto Rico, or may import or 
 bring into continental United States, for consumption therein. Allot- 
 nients shall be made in such manner and in such amounts as to pro¬ 
 vide a fair, efficient, and equitable distribution of such quota or pro¬ 
 ration thereof, by taking into consideration the processings of sugar 
 or liquid sugar from sugar beets or sugarcane, limited in any year 
 when proportionate shares were in effect to processings to which 
 proportionate shares, determined pursuant to the provisions of sub- 
 sectiori (b) of section 302, pertained; the past marketings or im¬ 
 portations of each such person; and the ability of such person to 
 market or import that portion of such quota or proration thereof 
 allotted to him. The Secretary is also authorized in making such al¬ 
 lotments, wdienever there is involved any allotment that pertains to a 
 new sugarbeet processing plant or factory serving a locality having 
 a substantial sugarbeet acreage for the first time or that pertains to 
 an existing sugarbeet processing plant or factory with substantially 
 expanded facilities added to serve farms having a substantial sugar- 
 beet acreage for the first time, to take into consideration in lieu of or 
 in addition to the foregoing factors of processing, past marketings, 
 and ability to market, the need of establishing an allotment which 
 will^ permit such marketing of sugar as is necessary for reasonably 
 efficient operation of any such new processing plant or factory or ex¬ 
 panded facilities during each of the first two years of its operation. 
 In making such allotments, the Secretary may also take into con¬ 
 sideration and make due allowance for the adverse effect of drought, 
 storm, flood, freeze, disease, insects, or other similar abnormal and 
 uncontrollable conditions seriously and broadly affecting any general 
 area served by the factory or factories of such person. The Secretary 
 may also, upon such hearing and notice as he may by regulations 
 prescribe, revise or amend any such allotment upon the same basis 
 as the initial allotment was made.^° (7 U.S.C. 1115(a).) 
 
 (b) An appeal may be taken, in the manner hereinafter provided 
 from any decision making such allotments, or revisions thereof, to 
 the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia in 
 any of the following cases: 
 
 (1) By any applicant for an allotment whose application shall 
 have been denied. 
 
 (2) By any person aggrieved by reason of any decision of the 
 Secretary granting or revising any allotment made to him. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1115(b).) 
 
 (c) Such appeal shall be taken by filing with said court, within 
 twenty days after the decision complained of is effective, notice in 
 writing of said appeal and a statement of the reasons therefor, to- 
 
 “ Amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 160, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
264 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 gether with proof of service of a true copy of said notice and state¬ 
 ment upon the Secretary. Unless a later date is specified by the 
 Secretary as part of his decision, the decision complained of shall be 
 considered to be effective as of the date on which public announce¬ 
 ment of the decision is made at the office of the Secretary in the city 
 of Washington. The Secretary shall thereupon, and in any event 
 not later than ten days from the date of such service upon him, mail 
 or otherwise deliver a copy of said notice of appeal to each person 
 shown by the records of the Secretary to be interested in such ap¬ 
 peal and to have a right to intervene therein under the provisions 
 of this section, and shall at all times thereafter permit any such 
 person to inspect and make copies of appellants’ reasons for said 
 appeal at the office of the Secretary in the city of Washington. 
 Within thirty days after the filing of said appeal the Secretary shall 
 file with the court the record upon which the decision complained of 
 was entered, as provided in section 2112 of title 28, United States 
 Code, and a list of all interested persons to whom he has mailed or 
 otherwise delivered a copy of said notice of appeal. (7 U.S.C. 
 1115(c).) 
 
 (d) Within thirty days after the filing of said appeal any inter¬ 
 ested person may intevene and participate in the proceedings had 
 upon said appeal by filing with the court a notice of intention to 
 intervene and a verified statement showing the nature of the interest 
 of such party together with proof of service of true copies of said 
 notice and statement, both upon the appellant and upon the Secre¬ 
 tary. Any person who would be aggrieved or whose interests would 
 be adversely affected by reversal or modification of the decision of 
 the Secretary complained of shall be considered an interested partv- 
 (7 U.S.C. 1115(d).) 
 
 (e) At the earliest convenient time the court shall hear and deter¬ 
 mine the appeal upon the record before it, and shall have power, 
 upon such record, to enter a judgment affirming or reversing the 
 decision, and if it enters an order reversing the decision of the 
 Secretary it shall remand the case to the Secretary to carry out the 
 judgment of the court: Provided^ howeveT^ That the review by the 
 court shall be limited to questions of law and that findings of fact 
 by the Secretary, if supported by substantial evidence, shall be 
 conclusive unless it shall clearly appear that the findings of the 
 Secretary are arbitrary or capricious. The court’s judgment shall 
 be final, subject, however, to review by the Supreme Court of the 
 United States, upon writ of certiorari on petition therefor, under 
 section 240 of the Judicial Code, as amended (U.S.C., title 28, sec. 
 1254), by appellant, by the Secretary, or by any interested party 
 intervening in the appeal. (7 U.S.C. 1115 (e).) 
 
 (f) The court may, in its discretion, enter judgment for costs in 
 favor of or against appellant, and other interested parties inter- 
 vening in said appeal, but not against the Secretary, depending upon 
 the nature of the issues involved in such appeal and the outcome 
 thereof. (7U.S.C. 1115(f).) 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 265 
 
 SUGAR-CONTAINING PRODUCTS 
 
 Sec. 206.“ The sugar or liquid sugar in any product or mixture, 
 which the Secretary detennines is the same or essentially the same in 
 composition and use as a sugar-containing product or mixture which 
 was imported into the United States during any three or more of the 
 five years prior to 1960 without being subject to a quota under this 
 Act, shall not be subject to the quota and other provisions of this Act, 
 unless the Secretary determines that the actual or prospective impor¬ 
 tation or bringing into the United States or Puerto Rico of such 
 sugar-containing product or mixture will substantially interfere with 
 the attainment of the objectives of this Act: Provided^ That the sugar 
 and liquid sugar in any other product or mixture imported or brought 
 into the United States or Puerto Rico shall be subject to the quota 
 and other provisions of this Act unless the Secretary determines that 
 the actual or prospective importation or bringing in of the sugar- 
 containing product or mixture will not substantially interfere with 
 the attainment of the objectives of this Act. In determining whether 
 the actual or prospective importation or bringing into the United 
 States or Puero Rico of any sugar-containing product or mixture will 
 or will not substantially interfere with the attainment of the objec¬ 
 tives of this Act, the Secretary shall take into consideration the total 
 sugar content of the product or mixture in relation to other ingredi¬ 
 ents or to the sugar content of other products or mixtures for similar 
 use, the costs of the mixture in relation to the costs of its ingredients 
 for use in the United States or Puerto Rico, the present or prospective 
 volume of importations relative to past importations, and other perti¬ 
 nent information which will assist him in making such determination. 
 Determinations by the Secretary that do not subject sugar or liquid 
 sugar in a product or mixture to a quota, may be made pursuant to 
 this section without regard to the rulemaking requirements of section 
 4 of the Administrative Procedure Act, and % addressing such deter¬ 
 minations in writing to named persons and serving the same upon 
 them by mail. If the Secretary has reason to believe it likely that the 
 sugar or liquid sugar in any product or mixture will be subject to a 
 quota under the provisions of this section, he shall make any deter¬ 
 mination provided for in this section with respect to such product or 
 mixture in conformity with the rulemaking requirements of section 4 
 of the Administrative Procedure Act. (7 U.S.C. 1116.) 
 
 DIRECT CONSUMPTION SUGAR QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 207.“ (a) The quota for Hawaii established under section 202 
 for any calendar year may be filled by direct-consumption sugar not to 
 exceed an amount equal to 0.342 per centum of the Secretary’s deter¬ 
 mination for such year issued pursuant to section 201. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 1117(a).) 
 
 (b) The quota for Puerto Rico established under section 202 for 
 any calendar year may be filled by direct-consumption sugar not to 
 
 “ Sections 20fl and 207 amended by Pub. L. 87-.'535. 76 Stat. 160-161, approved .Inly 1.3, 
 1962. The amendment to Sec. 206 shall become effective on the earlier of the date specified 
 In the rejrulatlons which implement the Act and published in the Federal Register or sixty 
 days after the date of the enactment of Pub. L., 87-535. 
 
266 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 exceed an amount equal to 1.5 per centum of the Secretary’s deter¬ 
 mination for such 3 ^ear issued pursuant to section 201 : Provided^ That 
 one hundred and twenty-six thousand and thirty-three short tons, 
 raw value, of such direct-consumption sugar shall be principally of 
 crystalline structure. (Y U.S.C. 1117(b).) 
 
 (c) None of the quota for the Virgin Islands for any calendar year 
 may be filled by direct-consumption sugar. (7 U.S.C. 1117(c).) 
 
 (d) Not more than fifty-six thousand short tons of sugar of the 
 
 quota for the Eepublic of the Philippines for any calendar year may 
 be filled by direct-consumption sugar as provided under section 201 
 of the Philippine Trade Agreement Revision Act of 1955. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 1117(d).) 
 
 (e) ( 1 ) None of the proration established for Cuba imder section 
 202(c) (3) for any calendar year and none of the deficit prorations 
 and apportionments for Cuba established under section 204(a) 
 may be filled by direct-consumption sugar. 
 
 ( 2 ) The proration or allocation established for each foreign 
 country which receives a proration or allocation of twenty thou¬ 
 sand short tons, raw value, or less under section 202(c) (3), may 
 be filled by direct-consumption sugar to the extent of the average 
 amount of direct-consumption sugar entered by such country dur¬ 
 ing the years 1957, 1958, and 1959. None of the proration or 
 allocation established for each foreign country which receives a 
 proration or allocation of more than twenty thousand short tons, 
 raw value, under section 202(c) (3), may be filled by direct-con¬ 
 sumption sugar. None of the deficit prorations and apportion¬ 
 ments for foreign countries established under section 204(a) may 
 be filled by direct-consumption sugar. The provisions of this 
 paragraph shall not apply to any allocation made to a foreign 
 country under section 202(c) (3)‘(C) (7 XJ.S.C. 1117(e).) 
 
 (f) This section shall not apply with respect to the quotas estab¬ 
 lished under section 203 for marketing for local consumption in 
 Hawaii and Puerto Rico. (7 U.S.C. 1117(f).) 
 
 (g) The direct-consumption portions of the quotas established 
 pursuant to this section, and the enforcement provisions of title IT 
 applicable thereto, shall continue in effect and shall not be subject 
 to suspension pursuant^ to the provisions of section 408 of this Act 
 unless the President acting thereunder specifically finds and proclaims 
 that a national economic or other emergency exists with respect to 
 sugar or liquid sugar which requires the suspension of direct-con¬ 
 sumption portions of the quotas. (7 U.S.C. 1117(g).) 
 
 LIQUID SUGAR FOREIGN- QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 208. A quota for liquid sugar for foreign countries for each 
 calendar year is hereby established as follows: two million gallons of 
 sirup of cane juice of the type of Barbados molasses, limited to liquid 
 sugar containing soluble nonsugar solids (excluding any foreign sub¬ 
 stances that may have been added or developed in the product) of more 
 than 5 per centum of the total soluble solids, which is not to be used 
 
 The sentence beginning with the words “The provisions” and ending with “under 
 section 202(c) (3) (C)” was added by Pub. L. 87-539, 76 Stat. 169, approved July 19, 1962. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 267 
 
 as a coiiipoiieiit. of any dirccf-coiiusnip( ion sug'ar but is (o be used as 
 niolasses witliout substantial niodiiicatioii of its cliaracteristics after 
 importation, except that tlie President is authorized to prohibit the 
 importation of liquid sugar from any foreign country which he shall 
 designate whenever he fmds and proclaims that such action is required 
 by the national interestd^ (7 U.S.C. 1118.) 
 
 PROHIBITED ACTS 
 
 Sec. 209. All persons are hereby prohibited— 
 
 (a) From bringing or importing into the continental United States 
 from Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, or foreign countries, 
 (1) any sugar or liquid sugar after the applicable quota, or the 
 proration of any such quota, has been filled, or ^2) any direct- 
 consumption sugar after the direct-consumption portion of any such 
 quota or proration has been filled; (7 U.S.C. 1119(a).) 
 
 (b) From shipping, transporting, or niarketing in interstate com¬ 
 merce, or in competition with sugar or liquid sugar shipped, trans¬ 
 ported, or marketed in interstate or foreign commerce, any sugar or 
 liquid sugar produced from sugar beets or sugarcane grown in either 
 the domestic-beet-sugar area or the mainland cane-sugar area after 
 the quota for such area has been filled; (7 U.S.C. 1119(b).) 
 
 (c) From marketing in either Hawaii or Puerto Rico, for con¬ 
 sumption therein, any sugar or liquid sugar after the quota therefor 
 has been filled; (7 U.S.C. 1119(c).) 
 
 (d) From exceeding allotment of any quota, direct-consumption 
 portion of any quota, or proration or allocation of any quota, made to 
 them pursuant to the provisions of this Act; (7 U.S.C. 119(d).) 
 
 (e) From bringing or importing into the Virgin Islands for con¬ 
 sumption therein, any sugar or liquid sugar produced from sugarcane 
 or sugarbeets grown in any area other than Puerto Rico, Hawaii, or 
 the continental United States.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1119(e).) 
 
 DETERMINATIONS IN TERMS OF RAW VALUE 
 
 Sec. 210 . (a) The determinations provided for in sections 201 and 
 203, and all quotas, prorations, and allotments, except quotas estab¬ 
 lished pursuant to the provisions of section 208, shall be made or 
 established in terms of raw value. (7 U.S.C. 1120(a).) 
 
 (b) For the purposes of this title, liquid sugar, except that im¬ 
 ported from foreign countries, shall be included with sugar in making 
 tlie determinations provided for in sections 201 and 203 and iii 
 the establishment or revision of quotas, prorations, and allotments. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1120(b).) 
 
 EXPORTATION OF SUGAR 
 
 Sec. 211. (a) Sugar or liquid sugar entered into tlie continental 
 United States under an applicable bond established pursuant to orders 
 or regulations issued by the Secretary, for the express purpose of 
 subsequently exporting the equivalent (piantity of sugar or liquid 
 sugar as such, or in manufactured articles, shall not be charged against 
 the applicable quota or proration for the country of origin. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 w Section 208 amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 162, approved .Tuly 13 1962 
 Sec. 209 amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 162, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
268 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 (b) Exportation within the meaning of sections 309 and 313 of 
 the Tariff Act of 1930 shall be considered to be exportation within 
 the meaning of this section. (7 U.S.C. 1121(b).) 
 
 (c) ^® The quota established for any domestic sugar-producing area 
 may be filled only with sugar or liquid sugar produced from sugarbeets 
 or sugarcane grown in such area. (7 U.S.C. 1121(c).) 
 
 INAPPLICABILITY OF QUOTA PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 212.1® The provisions of this title shall not apply to (1) the 
 first ten short tons, raw value, of sugar or liquid sugar imported from 
 any foreign country, other than Cuba and the Kepublic of the Philip¬ 
 pines, in any calendar year; (2) the first ten short tons, raw value, 
 of sugar or liquid iinported from any foreign country, other than 
 Cuba and the Kepublic of the Philippines, in any calendar year for 
 religious, sacramental, educational, or experimental purposes; (3) 
 liquid sugar imported from any foreign country, other than Cuba 
 and the Kepublic of the Philippines, in individual sealed containers 
 of such capacity as the Secretary may determine, not in excess of 
 one and one-tenth gallons each; or (4) any sugar or liquid sugar 
 imported, brought into, or produced or mpufactured in the United 
 States for the distillation of alcohol, including all polyhydric alcohols, 
 or for livestock feed, or for the production of livestock feed. (7 U.S.C. 
 X1^ 
 
 IMPORT FEE 
 
 Sec. 213.^^ (a) An import fee established as provided in subsection 
 (b) of this section shall be paid to the United States as a condition for 
 importing into the continental United States sugar purchased pur¬ 
 suant to paragraph (4) (A) of section 202(c) of this Act. Such fee 
 sliall be paid by the person applying to the Secretary for entry and 
 release of sugar. Such payment shall be made in accordance with 
 regulations promulgated by the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 1123 (a).) 
 
 (b) Whenever the Secretary determines that the currently prevail¬ 
 ing price for raw sugar for the United States market exceeds the 
 market price which he determines, from available information, pre¬ 
 vails for raw sugar of foreign countries which may be imported into 
 the continental United States pursuant to paragraph (4) (A) of sec¬ 
 tion 202(c), he shall establish an import fee in such amount as he 
 determines from time to time will approximate the amount by which 
 a domestic price for raw sugar, at a level that will fulfill the domestic 
 price objectives set forth in section 201, would exceed the market price 
 for raw sugar (adjusted for freight to New York, and most-favored- 
 nation tariff) of foreign countries which may be imported into the 
 continental United States pursuant to paragraph (4) (A) of section 
 202(c). Such fee shall be imposed on a per pound, raw value, basis, 
 and shall be applied uniformly to sugar purchased pursuant to para¬ 
 graphs (4) (A) and (5) of section 202(c). (7U.S.C. 1123(b).l 
 
 16 162. approved July 13. 1962. 
 
 ” Amended by Pub L. 87-535. 76 Stat. 163, Approved July 13 . 1962. 
 
 ”New section added by Pub. L. 87-535. 76 Stat. 163. approved July 13 1962 and 
 again b.v Pub. L. 87-539, 76 Stat. 171, approved July 19, 1962. Section 213 
 ^ Specified in the regulations which Implement the Act 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 269 
 
 (c) As a condition for importing sugar into the continental United 
 States pursuant to paragraphs (3) and (4) (B) of section 202(c) and 
 section 204(a) of this Act, an import fee shall be paid to the United 
 States during the years 1962, 1963, and 1964, which fee in each such 
 year shall be respectively 10, 20, and 30 per centum of the amount 
 which the Secretary determines from time to time will approximate the 
 amount by which a domestic price for raw sugar, at a level that will 
 fulfill the domestic price objective set forth in section 201 would 
 exceed either the prevailing market price for raw sugar (adjusted for 
 freight to New York, and most-favored-nation tariff) of foreign 
 countries which may be imported into the continental United States 
 pursuant to paragraph (4) (A) of section 202(c), or whenever para¬ 
 graph (4) (A) of section 202(c) does not apply, the prevailing world 
 market price for raw sugar (adjusted for freight to New York, and 
 most-favored-nation tariff). The fee provided for in this paragraph 
 shall be imposed on a per pound, raw value, basis, and shall be applied 
 uniformly, except that the import fee imposed on any direct-consump¬ 
 tion sugar during the years 1962, 1963, and 1964, shall be respectively 
 0.1,0.2, and 0.3 of one cent per pound more than the import fee imposed 
 on raw sugar under this p ar agraph. (7 U.S.C. 1123(c).) 
 
 (d) The funds collected as import fees by the Secretary pursuant 
 to the provisions of this section shall be covered into the Treasury as 
 miscellaneous receipts. (7 U.S.C. 1123 (d).) 
 
 TITLE III—CONDITIONAL PAYMENT PKOVISIONS 
 
 CONDITIONS OF PAYMENT 
 
 Sec. 301. The Secretary is authorized to make payments on the fol¬ 
 lowing conditions with respect to sugar or liquid sugar commercially 
 recoverable from the sugar beets or sugarcane grown on a farm for the 
 extraction of sugar or liquid sugar: 
 
 (a) That no child under the age of fourteen years shall have been 
 employed or permitted to work on the farm, whether for gain to 
 such child or any other person, in the production, cultivation, or 
 harvesting of a crop of sugar beets or sugarcane with respect to which 
 application for payment is made, except a member of the immediate 
 family of a person who was the legal owner of not less than 40 per 
 centum of the crop at the time such work was performed; and that no 
 child between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years shall have been 
 employed or permitted to do such work, whether for gain to such child 
 or any other person, for a longer period than eight hours in any one 
 day, except a member of the immediate family of a person who was 
 the legal owner of not less than 40 per centum of the crop at the time 
 such work was performed. The Secretary is authorized to make pay¬ 
 ments, notwithstanding a failure to comply with the conditions pro¬ 
 vided in this subsection, but the payments made wfith respect to any 
 crop shall be subject to a deduction of $10 for eacli child for each day, 
 or a portion of a day, during which such child was employed or per¬ 
 mitted to work contrary to the foregoing provisions of this subsection. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1131(a).) 
 
 (b) ^® That there shall not liave been marketed (or processed), ex- 
 cept for li vestock feed, or for the production of livestock feed, as 
 
 « Amended by Pub. L. 87-635, 76 Stat. 165, approved July 13,1962. 
 
 758-820—65-19 
 
270 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 determined by the Secretary, an amount (in terms of planted acre¬ 
 age, weight, or recoverable sugar content) of sugar beets or sugar¬ 
 cane grown on the farm and used for the production of sugar or 
 liquid sugar to be marketed in, or so as to compete with or other¬ 
 wise directly affect interstate or foreign commerce, in excess of the 
 proportionate share for the farm, if farm proportionate shares are 
 determined by the Secretary pursuant to the provisions of section 302, 
 of the total quantity of sugar beets or sugarcane required to be proc¬ 
 essed to enable the area in which such sugar beets or sugarcane are 
 produced to meet the quota (and provide a normal carry-over inven¬ 
 tory) as estimated by the Secretary for such area for the calendar year 
 during which the larger part of the sugar or liquid sugar from such 
 crop normally would be marketed. (7 U.S.C. 1131 (b).) 
 
 (c) (1) That all persons employed on the farm in the production, 
 cultivation, or harvesting of sugar beets or sugarcane with respect to 
 which an application for payment is made shall have been paid in 
 full for all such work, and shall have been paid wages therefor at 
 rates not less than those that may be determined by the Secretary 
 to be fair and reasonable after investigation and due notice and 
 opportunity for public hearing; and in making such determinations 
 the Secretary shall take into consideration the standards therefor 
 formerly established by him under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, 
 as amended, and the differences in conditions among various pro¬ 
 ducing areas: Provided^ however^ That a payment which would be 
 payable except for the foregoing provisions of this subparagraph 
 may be made, as the Secretary may determine, in such manner that 
 the laborer will receive an amount, insofar as such payment will 
 suffice, equal to the amount of the accrued unpaid wages for such 
 work, and that the producer will receive the remainder, if any, of 
 such payment. 
 
 (2) That the producer on the farm who is also, directly or indi¬ 
 rectly a processor of sugar beets or sugarcane, as may be determined 
 by the Secretary shall have paid, or contracted to pay under either 
 purchase or toll agreements, for any sugar beets or sugarcane grown 
 by other producers and processed by him at rates not less than those 
 that may be determined by the Secretary to be fair and reasonable after 
 investigation and due notice and opportunity for public hearing. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1131(c).) 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF PROPORTIONATE SHARES FOR FARMS 
 
 Sec. 302.^® (a) The amount of sugar or liquid sugar with respect 
 to which payment may be made shall be the amount of sugar or liquid 
 sugar commercially recoverable, as determined by the Secretary, from 
 the sugar beets or sugarcane grown on the farm and marketed (or 
 processed by the producer) not in excess of the proportionate share for 
 the farm, if farm proportionate shares are determined by the Secre- 
 tary, of the quantity of sugar beets or sugarcane for the extraction 
 of sugar or liquid sugar required to be processed to enable the produc¬ 
 ing area in which the crop of sugar beets or sugarcane is grown to 
 meet the quota (and provide a normal carry-over inventory) esti- 
 
 Amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 163, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
271 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 mated by the Secretary for such area for the calendar year during 
 which the larger part of the sugar or liquid sugar from such crop 
 normally would be marketed. (7U.S.C. 1132(a).) 
 
 (b)(1) Wlienever the Secretary determines that the production 
 of sugar from any cpp of sugarbeets or sugarcane will be 
 greater than the quantity needed to enable the area to meet the 
 quota, and provide a normal carryover inventory, as estimated by 
 the Secretary for such area for the calendar year during which 
 the larger part of the sugar from such crop normally would be 
 marketed, he shall establish proportionate shares for farms in 
 such area as provided in this subsection. In determining the 
 proportionate shares with respect to a farm, the Secretary may 
 take into consideration the past production on the farm of sugar- 
 beets and sugarcane marketed (or processed) for the extraction 
 of sugar or liquid sugar (within proportionate shares when in 
 effect) and the ability to produce such sugarbeets or sugarcane. 
 
 (2) The Secretary may also, in lieu of or in addition to the fore¬ 
 going factors, take into consideration with respect to the domestic 
 beet sugar area the sugarbeet production history of the person who 
 was a farm operator in the base period, in establishing farm pro¬ 
 portionate shares in any State or substantial portion thereof in 
 which the Secretary determines that sugarbeet production is 
 organized generally around persons rather than units of land, 
 other than a State or substantial portion thereof wherein personal 
 sugarbeet production history of farm operators was not used 
 generally prior to 1962 in establishing farm proportionate shares. 
 In establishing proportionate shares for farms in the domestic 
 beet sugar area, the Secretary may first allocate to States (except 
 acreage reserved) the total acreage required to enable the area to 
 meet its quota and provide a normal carryover inventory (here¬ 
 inafter referred to as the “national sugarbeet acreage require¬ 
 ment”) on the basis of the acreage history of sugarbeet production 
 and the ability to produce sugarbeets for extraction of sugar in 
 each State. 
 
 (3) In order to make available acreage for growth and ex¬ 
 pansion of the beet sugar industry, the Secretary, in addition to 
 protecting the interest of new and small producers by regulations 
 generally similar to those heretofore promulgated by him pur¬ 
 suant to this Act, shall reserve each year from the national sugar- 
 beet acreage requirement established by him the acreage required 
 to yield 65,000 short tons, raw value, of sugar. The acreage so 
 reserved shall be distributed on a fair and reasonable basis, when it 
 can be^ utilized, to farms without regard to any other acreage 
 allocations to States or areas within States determined by him 
 and shall be withheld from such other allocations until it can be 
 so utilized: Provided^ however. That beginning with 1966, the 
 total acreage previously reserved and not used, plus that reserved 
 in the current year, shall not exceed the acreage required to pro¬ 
 duce 100,000 short tons, raw value, of sugar. At the time the 
 Secretary distributes the sugarbeet acreage reserve for any year, 
 wliich determination of distribution shall be made as far’in ad¬ 
 vance of such year as practicable, such distribution shall therebv 
 
272 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 19 48, AS AMENDED 
 
 be committed to be in effect for the year in which production of 
 sugarbeets is scheduled to commence in a locality or localities de¬ 
 termined by the Secretary to receive such reserves for such year, 
 such determination of distribution by the Secretary shall be final, 
 and such commitment of the sugarbeet acreage reserve shall be 
 irrevocable upon issuance of such determination of the Secretary 
 by publication in the Federal Register; except that if the Secre¬ 
 tary finds in any case that construction of sugarbeet processing 
 facilities and the contracting for processing of sugarbeets has not 
 proceeded in substantial accordance with the representations made 
 to him as a basis for his determination of distribution of the sugar- 
 beet acreage reserve, he shall revoke such determination in ac¬ 
 cordance with and upon publication in the Federal Register of 
 such findings. In determining distribution of the sugarbeet 
 acreage reserve and whenever proposals are made to construct 
 sugarbeet processing facilities in two or more localities where 
 sugarbeet production is scheduled to commence in the same year, 
 the Secretary shall base his determination and selection upon the 
 firmness of capital commitment, suitability for growing sugar- 
 beets, the proximity of other mills, need for a cash crop or a re¬ 
 placement crop, and accessibility to sugar markets, and the rela¬ 
 tive qualifications of localities under such criteria. Whenever 
 there is no interest in constructing a new facility to commence pro¬ 
 duction in a certain year, the Secretary shall give consideration to 
 proposals, if any, to substantially expand existing factory facili¬ 
 ties and in such event he shall base his determination of distribu¬ 
 tion of the sugarbeet acreage reserved on the aforementioned 
 criteria and the extent of the proposed substantial expansion or 
 expansions. If proportionate shares are in effect in the two years 
 immediately following the year for which the sugarbeet acreage 
 reserve is committed for any locality, the acreage of proportionate 
 shares established for farms in such locality in each of such two 
 years shall not be less than the smaller of the acreage committed 
 to such farms or the acreage required to yield 50,000 short tons, 
 raw value, of sugar based upon the yield expectancy initially 
 considered by the Secretary in distributing the sugarbeet acreage 
 reserve to such locality. 
 
 (4) The allocation of the national sugarbeet acreage re-quire- 
 ment to States for sugarbeet production, as well as the distribution 
 of the sugarbeet acreage reserve, shall be determined by the Secre¬ 
 tary after investigation and notice and opportunity for an in¬ 
 formal public hearing. 
 
 (5) In determining farm proportionate shares, the Secretary 
 shall, insofar as practicable, protect the interests of new producers 
 and small producers and the interest of producers who are cash 
 tenants, share tenants, adherent planters, or sharecroppers and of 
 the producers in any local producing area whose past production 
 has been adversely, seriously, and generally affected by drought, 
 storm, flood, freeze, disease, insects, or other similar abnormal and 
 uncontrollable conditions. 
 
 (6) ^ Whenever the Secretary determines it necessary for the 
 effective administration of this subsection in an area where farm 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 273 
 
 proportionate shares are established in terms of sugarcane acre¬ 
 age, he may consider acreage of sugarcane harvested for seed on 
 the farm in addition to past production of sugarcane for the ex¬ 
 traction of sugar in determining proportionate shares as hereto¬ 
 fore provided in this subsection; and whenever acreage of sugar¬ 
 cane harvested for seed is considered in determining farm 
 proportionate shares, acreage of sugarcane harvested for seed shall 
 be included in determining compliance with the provisions of 
 section 301(b) of this Act, notwithstanding any other provisions 
 of section 301(b). 
 
 ( 7)20 jToj. purposes of establishing proportionate shares 
 hereunder and in order to encourage wise use of land resources, 
 foster greater diversification of agricultural production, and pro¬ 
 mote the conservation of soil and water resources in Puerto Rico, 
 the Secretary, on application of any owner of a farm in Puerto 
 Rico, is hereby authorized, whenever he determines it to be in 
 the public interest and to facilitate the sale or rental of land for 
 other productive purposes, to transfer the sugarcane production 
 record for any parcel or parcels of land in Puerto Rico owned 
 by the applicant to any other parcel or parcels of land owned by 
 such applicant in Puerto Rico. (7 U.S.C. 1132(b).) 
 
 (c) Payments shall be effective with respect to sugar or liquid 
 sugar commercially recoverable from sugar beets and sugarcane grown 
 on a farm commencing with the crop year 1948. (7 U.S.C. 1132(c).) 
 
 ACREAGE ABANDONMENT AND CROP DEFICIENCY PAYMENTS 
 
 Sec. 303. In addition to the amount of sugar or liquid sugar with 
 respect to which payments are authorized under subsection (a) of 
 section 302, the Secretary is also authorized to make payments, on 
 the conditions provided in section 301, with respect to bona fide 
 adandonment of planted acreage and crop deficiencies of harvested 
 acreage, resulting from drought, flood, storm, freeze, disease, or 
 insects, which cause such damage to all or a substantial part of the 
 crop of sugar beets or sugarcane in the same factory district (as estab¬ 
 lished by the Secretary), county, parish, municipality, or local produc¬ 
 ing area, as determined in accordance with regulations issued by the 
 Secretary, on the following quantities of sugar or liquid sugar: (1) 
 With respect to such bona fide abandonment of each planted acre of 
 sugar beets or sugarcane, one-third of the normal yield of commer¬ 
 cially recoverable sugar or liquid sugar per acre for the farm, as de¬ 
 termined by the Secretary; and (2) with respect to such crop defi¬ 
 ciencies of harvested acreage of sugar beets or sugarcane, the excess 
 of 80 per centum of the normal yield of commercially recoverable 
 sugar or liquid sugar for such acreage for the farm, as determined by 
 the Secretary, over the actual yield. (7 U.S.C. 1133.) 
 
 COMPUTATION OF PAYMENTS AND PERSONS ELIGIBLE FOR PAYMENTS 
 
 Sec. 304. (a) The amount of the base rate of payment shall be 
 80 cents per hundred pounds of sugar or liquid sugar, raw value. 
 (7U.S.C. 1134(a).) 
 
 ^ Section 302(b)(7) amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 164, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
274 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 (b) All payments shall be calculated with respect to a farm which, 
 for I he purposes of this Act, shall be a farming unit as determined 
 in accordance with regulations issued by the Secretary, and in mak¬ 
 ing such determinations, the Secretary shall take into consideration 
 the use of common work stock, equipment, labor, management, and 
 other pertinent factors. (7 U.S.C. 1134(b).) 
 
 (c) The total payment with respect to a farm shall be the product 
 of the base rate specified in subsection (a) of this section multiplied 
 by the amount of sugar and liquid sugar, raw value, with respect to 
 which payment is to be made, except that reduction shall be made 
 from such total payment in accordance with the following scale of 
 reductions; 
 
 That portion of the quantity of sugar and liquid sugar which is 
 included within the following intervals of short tons, raw value: 
 
 Reduction in the basic rate of payment per hundredweight of such portion 
 
 350 to 700-$0. 05 
 
 700 to 1,000_ _ _ .10 
 
 1,000 to 1,500_ .20 
 
 1,500 to 3,000_ .25 
 
 3,000 to 6,000_ .275 
 
 6,000 to 12,000_ _ .30 
 
 12,000 to 30,000_ .325 
 
 More than 30,000_ . 50 
 
 (7 U.S.C. 1134(c).) 
 
 (d) Application for payment shall be made by, and payments 
 shall be made to, the producer or, in the event of his death, dis¬ 
 appearance, or incompetency, his legal representative, or heirs: Pro¬ 
 vided^ however^ That all producers on the farm shall signify in the 
 application for payment the percentage of the total payment with 
 respect to the farm to be made to each producer: And provided 
 further^ That payinents may be made, (1) in the event of the death, 
 disappearance, or incompetency of a producer, to such beneficiary 
 as the producer may designate in the application for payment; (2) 
 to one producer of a group of two or more producers, provided all 
 producers on the farm designate such producer in the application 
 for payment as sole recipient for their benefit of the payment with 
 r^pect to the farm; or (3) to a person who is not a producer, pro¬ 
 vided such person controls the land included within the farm with 
 respect to which the application for payment is made and is desig¬ 
 nated by the sole producer (or all producers) on the farm, as sole 
 recipient for his or their benefit, of the payment with respect to the 
 farm. (7U.S.C. 1134(d).) 
 
 USE OF LOCAL COMMITTEES AND OTHER AGENCIES 
 
 Sec. 305. In carrying out the provisions of titles II and III of this 
 Act, the Secretary is authorized to utilize local committees of sugar 
 beet or sugarcane producers. State and county agricultural conser¬ 
 vation committees, or the Agricultural Extension Service and other 
 agencies, and the Secretary may prescribe that all or a part of the 
 expenses of such committees may be deducted from the payments 
 herein authorized. (7 U.S.C. 1135.) 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 275 
 
 riNALITT or DETERMINATIONS 
 
 Sec. 306. The facts constituting the basis for any payment, or the 
 amount thereof authorized to be made under this title, officially 
 determined in conformity with rules or regulations prescribed by the 
 Secretary, shall be reviewable only by the Secretary, and his deter¬ 
 minations with respect thereto shall be final and conclusive. (7 U.S.C. 
 1136.) 
 
 APPLICABILITY OF TITLE III 
 
 Sec. 307.^^^ This title shall apply to the continental United States, 
 Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. (7 U.S.C. 1137.) 
 
 TITLE IV—GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 EXPENDITURES BY SECRETARY 
 
 Sec. 401. For the purposes of this Act, the Secretary may make 
 such expenditures as he deems necessary to carry out the provisions • 
 of this Act, including personal services and rents in the District of 
 Columbia and elsewhere. (7 U.S.C. 1151.) 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS AND AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS 
 
 Sec. 402. (a) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated for 
 each fiscal year for the purposes and administration of this Act the 
 funds necessary to make the payments provided for in title III of 
 this Act and such other amounts as the Congress determines to be 
 necessary for such fiscal year to carry out the other provisions of the 
 Act. (7U.S.C. 1152(a).) 
 
 (b) All funds available for carrying out this Act shall be avail¬ 
 able for allotment to the bureaus and offices of the Department of 
 Agriculture and for transfer to such other agencies of the Federal 
 Government as the Secretary may request to cooperate or assist in 
 carrying out the provisions of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1152(b).) 
 
 (c) The funds made available for the purpose of enabling the 
 
 Secretary to carry into effect the provisions of the Sugar Act of 1937, 
 as amended, during the fiscal year 1948 are also hereby made available 
 to the Secretary for purposes of administration of the provisions of 
 this Act during the fiscal year 1948. (7 U.S.C. 1152(c).) 
 
 REGULATIONS AND DETERMINATIONS 
 
 Sec. 403. (a) The Secretary is authorized to make such orders or 
 regulations, which shall have the force and effect of law, as may be 
 necessary to carry out the powers vested in him by this Act. Any 
 person knowingly violating any order or regulation of the Secretary 
 issued pursuant to this Act shall, upon conviction, be punished by a 
 fine of not more than $100 for each such violation. (7 U.S.C. 1153(a).) 
 
 (b) Each determination issued by the Secretary in connection with 
 quotas and deficits under title II or payments under title III of this 
 Act shall be promptly published in the Federal Register and shall 
 ho accompanied by a statement of the bases and considerations upon 
 which such detenniiiatioii was mad(>. (7 U.S.(k 115)3(1)).) 
 
 -‘Amended by I*ub. L. 8G-5!)2, 74 Stat. 3.‘{1, ai)i)roved July 0, l!)GO. 
 
276 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 JURISDICTION OF COURTS 
 
 Sec. 404.^“ The several district courts of the United States are 
 hereby vested with jurisdiction specifically to enforce, and to prevent 
 and restrain any person from violating, the provisions of this Act 
 or of any order or regulation made or issued pursuant to this Act. 
 If and when the Secretary shall so request, it shall be the duty of 
 the several United States attorneys of the United States, in their 
 respective districts, to institute proceedings to enforce the remedies 
 and to collect the penalties, fees and forfeitures provided for in this 
 Act. The remedies provided for in this Act shall be in addition to, 
 and not exclusive of, any of the remedies or penalties existing at law 
 or in equity. (7 U.S.C. 1154.) 
 
 CIVIL PENALTIES 
 
 Sec. 405. (a) Any person who knowingly violates, or attempts to 
 violate, or who knowingly participates or aids in the violation of 
 any of the provisions of section 209, or any person who brings or 
 imports into the continental United States direct-consumption sugar 
 after the quantities specified in section 207 have been filled, shall 
 forfeit to the United States the sum equal to three times the market 
 value, at the time of the commission of any such act, (1) of that 
 quantity of sugar or liquid sugar by which any quota, proration, 
 or allotment is exceeded, or (2) of that quantity brought or imported 
 into the continental United States after the quantities specified in 
 section 207 have been filled, which forfeiture shall be recoverable 
 in a civil suit brought in the name of the United States. (7 U.S.C. 
 1155(a).) 
 
 (b) Any person whose sugar processing operations otherwise meet 
 the requirements of section 101 (n) and who subjects to such processes 
 sugar imported or brought into the continental United States under 
 a declaration that it is raw sugar but which sugar subsequently is 
 determined to be of direct-consumption quality, shall forfeit to the 
 United States a sum equal to 1 cent per pound for each pound, raw 
 value, of such sugar in excess of that part of the direct-consumption 
 portion of the applicable quota or proration or allotment thereof re¬ 
 maining unfilled at the time of such determination, which forfeiture 
 shall be recoverable in a civil suit brought in the name of the United 
 States. (7 U.S.C. 1155(b).) 
 
 FURNISHING INFORMATION TO SECRETARY 
 
 Sec. 406. All persons engaged in the the manufacturing, marketing, 
 or transportation of industrial use of sugar or liquid sugar, and hav¬ 
 ing information which the Secretary deems necessary to enable him 
 to administer the provisions of this Act, shall, upon the request of the 
 Secretary, furnish him with such information. Any person willfully 
 failing or refusing to furnish such information or furnishing will¬ 
 fully any false information, shall upon conviction be subject to a pen¬ 
 alty of not more than $1,000 for each such violation. (7 U.S.C. 1156.) 
 
 22 Amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 166, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 277 
 
 SUGAR INVESTMENTS BY OFFICIALS PROHIBITED 
 
 Sec. 407. No person shall, while acting in any official capacity in the 
 administration of this Act, invest or speculate in sugar or liquid sugar, 
 contracts relating thereto, or the stock or membership interests of any 
 association or corporation engaged in the production or manufactur¬ 
 ing of sugar or liquid sugar. Any person violating this section shall 
 upon conviction thereof be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned 
 not more than two years, or both. The provisions of this section shall 
 not apply to persons whose services are obtained pursuant to section 
 305. (7U.S.C. 1157.) 
 
 SUSPENSION OF QUOTAS 
 
 Sec. 408.^® (a) Whenever pursuant to the provisions of this Act the 
 President finds and proclaims that a national economic or other emer¬ 
 gency exists with respect to sugar or liquid sugar, he shall by procla- . 
 mation suspend the operation, except as provided in section 207 of this 
 Act, of all the provisions of title II above, and, thereafter, the opera¬ 
 tion of such title shall continue in suspense until the President finds 
 and proclaims that the facts which occasioned such suspension no 
 longer exist. The Secretary shall make such investigations and re¬ 
 ports thereon to the President as may be necessary to aid him in carry¬ 
 ing out the provisions of this section. (7 U.S.C. 1158 (a).) 
 
 (b) In the event the President, in his discretion, determines that 
 any foreign country having a quota or receiving any authorization 
 under this Act to import sugar into the United States, has been or is 
 allocating the distribution of such quota or authorization within that 
 country so as to discriminate against citizens of the United States, he 
 shall suspend the quota or other authorization of that country until 
 such time as he has received assurances, satisfactory to him, that the 
 discrimination will not be continued. Any quantity so suspended 
 shall be authorized for purchase in accordance with the provisions of 
 section 202(c) (4), or apportioned in accordance with section 204(a), 
 whichever procedure is applicable. (7 U.S.C. 1158(b).) 
 
 (c) In any case in which the President determines that a nation or 
 a political subdivision thereof has hereafter (1) nationalized, expro¬ 
 priated, or otherwise seized the ownership or control of the property 
 of United States citizens or (2) imposed upon or enforced against 
 such property or the owners thereof discriminatory taxes or other 
 exactions, or restrictive maintenance or operational conditions not 
 imposed or enforced with respect to property of a like nature owned 
 or operated by its own nationals or the nationals of any government 
 other than the Government of the United States, and has failed within 
 six months following the taking of action in either of such categories 
 to take steps determined by the President to be appropriate and ade¬ 
 quate to remedy such situation and to discharge its obligations under 
 hiternational law toward such citizens, including the prompt payment 
 to the owner or owners of such property so nationalized, expropriated, 
 or otherwise seized, or to arrange, with the agreement of the parties 
 concerned, for submitting the question in dispute to arbitration or con- 
 
 Section 408(b) was amended and section 408(c) was added by Pub. L. 87-535, 70 Stat. 
 166, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
278 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 ciliatioii in accordance with procedures under which a linal and bind¬ 
 ing decision or settlement wdll be reached and full payment or arrange¬ 
 ments wdth the owners for such payment made within tw^elve months 
 following such submission, the President shall suspend any quota, 
 proration of quota, or authorization to purchase and import sugar 
 under this Act of such nation until he is satisfied that appropriate 
 steps are being taken. Any quantity so suspended shall be authorized 
 for purchase in accordance with the provisions of section 202(c) (4), 
 or apportioned in accordance with section 204(a) whichever procedure 
 is applicable. (7 U.S.C. 1158 (c).) 
 
 SURVEYS AND INVESTIGATIONS 
 
 Sec. 409. Whenever the Secretary determines that such action is 
 necessary to effectuate the purposes of this Act, he is authorized, if 
 first requested by persons constituting or representing a substantial 
 proportion of the persons affected in any one of the five domestic 
 sugar-producing areas, to make for such area surveys and investi¬ 
 gations to the extent he deems necessary, including the holding of 
 public hearings, and to make recommendations with respect to (a) 
 the terms and conditions of contracts between the producers and 
 processors of sugar beets and sugarcane in such areas and (b) the 
 terms and conditions of contracts between laborers and producers of 
 sugar beets and sugarcane in such area. In carrying out the provi¬ 
 sions of this section, information shall not be made public with respect 
 to the individual operations of any processor, producer, or laborer. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1159.) 
 
 Sec. 410. The Secretary is authorized to conduct surveys, investi¬ 
 gations and research relating to the conditions and factors affecting 
 the methods of accomplishing most effectively the purposes of this 
 Act and for the benefit of agriculture generally in any area. Not¬ 
 withstanding any provision of existing law, the Secretary is author¬ 
 ized to make public such information as he deems necessary to carry 
 out the provisions of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 1160.) 
 
 INTERNATIONAL SUGAR AGREEMENT 
 
 Sec. 411. The Secretary is authorized to issue such regulations as 
 may be necessary to carry out article 7 of the International Sugar 
 Agreement for the Regulation of the Production and Marketing of 
 Sugar (ratified by and with the advice and consent of the United 
 States Senate on April 29, 1954), restricting importations of sugar 
 into the United States from foreign countries not participating in 
 such agreement, or to carry out the corresponding provisions of any 
 such future agreements ratified by and with the advice and consent 
 of the United States Senate. (7 U.S.C. 1161.) 
 
 termination of act 
 
 Sec. 412. The powers vested in the Secretary under this Act shall 
 terminate on December 31, 1966, except that the Secretary shall have 
 power to make payments under title III under programs applicable to 
 the crop year 1966 and previous crop years.^^ (7 U.S.C. 1101, note.) 
 
 “ Amended by Pub. L. 87-535, 76 Stat. 166, approved July 13,1962. 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 
 
 279 
 
 EFFECnVE DATE 
 
 Sec. 413.25 * * *. 
 
 EXCISE TAXES WITH RESPECT TO SUGAR 
 
 INTERNAL REVENUE CODE OF 1954 
 
 CHAPTER 37 
 Subchapter A—Sugar 
 SEC. 4501. IMPOSITION OF TAX. 
 
 (a) 2^ General. —There is hereby imposed upon manufactured sugar 
 manufactured in the United States, a tax, to be paid by the manufac¬ 
 turer at the rate of 0.53 cent per pound of the total sugars therein. 
 The manufacturer shall pay the tax with respect to manufactured 
 sugar (1) which has been sold, or used in the production of other 
 articles, by the manufacturer during the preceding month (if the tax 
 has not already been paid) and (2) which has not been so sold or 
 used within 12 months ending during the preceding calendar month, 
 after it was manufactured (if the tax has not already been paid). 
 For the purpose of determining whether sugar has been sold or used 
 within 12 months after it was manufactured, sugar shall be con¬ 
 sidered to have been sold or used in the order in which it was manu¬ 
 factured. (26 U.S.C. 4501 (a).) 
 
 (b) 28 Termination of Tax. —No tax shall be imposed under this 
 subchapter on the manufacture or use of sugar or articles composed 
 in chief value of sugar after June 30,1967. Notwithstanding the pro¬ 
 visions of subsection (a), no tax shall be imposed under this subchapter 
 with respect to unsold sugar held by manufacturer on June 30,1967, or 
 with respect to sugar or articles composed in chief value of sugar held 
 in customs custody or control on such date. (26 U.S.C. 4501(b).) 
 
 SEC. 4502. DEFINITIONS. 
 
 For the purposes of this subchapter— 
 
 (1) Manufacturer. —Any person who acquires any sugar 
 which is to be manufactured into manufactured sugar but who, 
 without further refining or otherwise improving it in quality, 
 sells such sugar as manufactured sugar or uses such sugar as 
 manufactured sugar in the production of other articles for sale 
 shall be considered, for the purposes of section 4501 (a), the manu¬ 
 facturer of manufactured sugar and, as such, liable for the tax 
 under section 4501 (a) with respect thereto. 
 
 (2) Person. —The term “person” means an individual, partner¬ 
 ship, corporation, or association. 
 
 (3) IViANUFACTURED SuGAR. —The term “manufactured sugar” 
 means any sugar derived from sugar beets or sugarcane, which 
 is not to be, and which shall not be, further refined or otherwise 
 
 Repealed by Pub. L. 87-535. 76 Stat. 166, approved July 13, 1962. 
 
 Only those provisions of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 which became effective 
 January 1, 1955, and subsequent amendments which deal directly with sugar are In¬ 
 cluded. See title 26 of the United States Code for general definitions, time and place for 
 filing returns and paying taxes, interest, abatements, credits, refunds, etc. 
 
 ^ Sec. 501(a) of Pub. L. 87-456, 76 Stat. 79, approved May 24, 1962, amended the first 
 sentence. The amendment was to become effective with respect to articles entered, or 
 withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption on or after the lOth day following the date 
 of proclamation of the President provided for in sec. 102 of such Act. Presidential Proc¬ 
 lamation No. 3548 was Issued on August 21, 1963, 28 F.R. 9279. 
 
 Former subsec. (bl was repealed and former subsec. (c) was amended and redesig¬ 
 nated subsec. (b)( by Pub. L. 87-456, 76 Stat. 77, approved May 24, 1962 ; for effective 
 date of this amendment see footnote 27. 
 
280 
 
 SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AAIENDED 
 
 improved in quality; except sugar in liquid form which contains 
 nonsugar solids (excluding any foreign substance that may have 
 been added or developed in the product) equal to more than 6 per 
 centum of the total soluble solids and except also sirup of cane 
 juice produced from sugarcane grown in continental United 
 States. The grades or types of sugar within the meaning of this 
 definition shall include, but shall not be limited to, granulated 
 sugar, lump sugar, cube sugar, powered sugar, sugar in the form 
 of blocks, cones, or molded shapes, confectioners’ sugar, washed 
 sugar, centrifugal sugar, clarified sugar, turbinado sugar, planta¬ 
 tion white sugar, muscovado sugar, refiners’ soft sugar, invert 
 sugar mush, raw sugar, sirups, molasses, and sugar mixtures. 
 
 (4) Total Sugars.— The term “total sugars” means the total 
 amount of the sucrose and of the reducing or invert sugars. 
 
 (5) United States.— The term “United States” shall be deemed 
 to include the States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. 
 (26U.S.C.4502.) 
 
 SEC. 4503. EXEMPTIONS FOR SUGAR MANUFACTURED FOR HOME CON¬ 
 SUMPTION. 
 
 No tax shall be required to be paid under sec. 4501(a) upon the 
 manufacture of manufactured sugar by or for the producer of the 
 sugar beets or sugarcane from which such manufactured sugar was 
 derived, for consumption by the producer’s own family, employees, 
 or household. (26U.S.C. 4503.) 
 
 CHAPTER 65—ABATEMENTS, CREDITS, AND REFUNDS 
 
 SEC. 6418. SUGAR. 
 
 (a) Use as Livestock Feed or for Distillation of Alcohol.— 
 Upon the use of any manufactured sugar, or article manufactured 
 therefrom, as livestock feed, or in the production of livestock feed, or 
 for the distillation of alcohol, there shall be paid by the Secretary or 
 his delegate to the person so using such manufactured sugar, or article 
 manufactured therefrom, the amount of any tax paid under section 
 4501 with respect thereto. (26 U.S.C. 6418(a).) 
 
 (b) 29 Exportation. —Upon the exportation from the United States 
 to a foreign country, or the shipment from the United States to any 
 possession of the United States except Puerto Rico, of any manufac¬ 
 tured sugar, or any article manufactured wholly or partly from manu¬ 
 factured sugar with respect to which tax under the provisions of section 
 4501(a) has been paid, the amount of such tax shall be paid by the 
 Secretary or his delegate to the consignor named in the bill of lading 
 under which the article was exported or shipped to a possession, or to 
 the shipper, or to the manufacturer of the manufactured sugar or of 
 the articles exported, if the consignor waives any claim thereto in 
 favor of such shipper or manufacturer. (26 U.S.C. 6418 (b).) 
 
 »Subsec. (b) was amended by Pub. L. 87-456, 76 Stat. 77 
 for efiEectIve date of this amendment see footnote 27, 
 
 , approved May 24, 1962; 
 
SUGAR ACT OF 1948, AS AMENDED 281 
 
 CHAPTER 66—LIMITATIONS 
 SEC. 6511. LIMITATIONS ON CREDIT OR REFUND. 
 
 i|c 4; Hi ♦ ♦ 
 
 (e) Special Rules in Case of Manufactured Sugar.— 
 
 (1) Use AS Livestock Feed or for Distillation of Alcohol.— 
 No payment shall be allowed under section 6418(a) unless within 
 2 years after the right to such payment has accrued a claim 
 therefor is filed by the person entitled thereto. 
 
 (2) Exportation. —No payment shall be allowed under sec¬ 
 tion 6418(b) unless within 2 years after the right to such pay¬ 
 ment has accrued a claim therefor is filed by the person entitled 
 thereto. (26U.S.C.6511(e).) 
 
 CHAPTER 75—CRIMES, OTHER OFFENSES, AND 
 
 FORFEITURES 
 
 SEC. 7240. OFFICIALS INVESTING OR SPECULATING IN SUGAR. 
 
 Any person, while acting in an official capacity in the administra¬ 
 tion of subchapter A of chapter 37, relating to manufactured sugar, 
 who invests or speculates in sugar or liquid sugar, contracts relating 
 thereto, or the stock or membership interests of any association or 
 corporation engaged in the production or manufacture of sugar or 
 liquid sugar, shall be dismissed from office or discharged from em¬ 
 ployment and shall be guilty of a felony and, upon conviction thereof, 
 be fined not more than $10,000, or imprisoned not more than 2 years, 
 or both. (26 U.S.C. 7240.) 
 
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 4 
 
PART VII 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 EXPLANATORY NOTE 
 
 Included in this part of the compilation are certain miscellaneous 
 laws which govern or affect certain programs and functions of several 
 agencies of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Under the heading entitled “Statutes Relating to Imports” are sec. 
 206 of the Agricultural Act of 1956, sec. 22 of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1933 (reenacted by the Agricultural Marketing Act of 
 193Y) and Public Law 88-482. 
 
 Secs. 326-328 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1962 relates to * 
 acreage diversion programs. 
 
 The Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 reenacted and 
 amended certain provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 
 1933, as amended, which related to marketing agreements and orders. 
 
 The National School Lunch Act provides for distribution of com¬ 
 modities to schools for utilization in the school-lunch program. 
 
 The Food Stamp Act of 1964 provides for issuance of food stamp 
 coupons to low income households. 
 
 Under the heading entitled “Declarations of Policy” are sec. 2 of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1961, sec. 402 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 
 1962 and sec. 204 of the Agricultural Act of 1954. 
 
 Secs. 102-104 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 provides for the con¬ 
 sultation of the Secretary of Agriculture with farmers and farm or¬ 
 ganizations on farm legislation. 
 
 Sec. 601 of the Agricultural Act of 1954 provides that the Secretary 
 of Agriculture acquire information regarding the competition and 
 demand for United States agricultural products for interpretation 
 and dissemination in the United States. 
 
 Public Law 88-584 provides for the establishment of federal agri¬ 
 cultural services to Guam. 
 
 The Act of December 20, 1944, authorizes the Secretary of Agri¬ 
 culture to compromise, adjust, or cancel certain debts of farmers to 
 the United States. 
 
 Public Law 664 (the Cargo Preference Act) provides for the trans¬ 
 portation of a substantial portion of waterborne cargoes in U.S.-flag 
 vessels. 
 
 The Act of August 27, 1958, provides for humane methods of 
 slaughtering livestock. 
 
 283 
 
284 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 STATUTES RELATING TO IMPORTS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956—Sec. 204. The President may, when¬ 
 ever he determines such action appropriate, negotiate with representa¬ 
 tives of foreign governments in an effort to obtain agreements limiting 
 the export from such countries and the importation into the United 
 States of any agricultural commodity or product manufactured there¬ 
 from or textiles or textile products, and the President is authorized 
 to issue regulations governing the entry or withdrawal from ware¬ 
 house of any such commodity, product, textiles, or textile products to 
 carry out any such agreement. In addition, if a multilateral agree¬ 
 ment has been or shall be concluded under the authority of this section 
 among countries accounting for a significant part of world trade in 
 the articles with respect to which the agreement was concluded, the 
 President may also issue, in order to carry out such an agreement, 
 regulations governing the entry or withdrawal from warehouse of the 
 same articles which are the products of countries not parties to the 
 agreement.^ Nothing herein shall affect the authority provided under 
 section 22 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act (of 1933) as amended. 
 (7U.S.C. 1854.) 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933— Sec. 22.^ (a) When¬ 
 ever the Secretary of Agriculture has reason to believe that any 
 article or articles are being or are practically certain to be imported 
 into the United States under such conditions and in such quantities as 
 to render or tend to render ineffective, or materially interfere with, 
 any program or operation undertaken under this title or the Soil 
 Conspvation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, or section 32, 
 Public Law numbered 320, Seventy-fourth Congress, approved August 
 24, 1935, as amended, or any loan, purchase, or other program or 
 operation undertaken by the Department of Agriculture, or any 
 agency operating under its direction, with respect to any agricultural 
 commodity or product thereof, or to reduce substantially the amount 
 of any product processed in the United States from any agricultural 
 commodity or product thereof with respect to which any such pro¬ 
 gram or operation is being undertaken, he shall so advise the Presi¬ 
 dent and, if the President agrees that there is reason for such belief, 
 the President shall cause an immediate investigation to be made by 
 the United States Tariff Commission, which shall give precedence to 
 investigations under this section to determine such facts. Such inves- 
 
 ^ This sentence added by the Act of June 19, 19fi2, 76 Stat 104 
 
 of ^ec. 22 was added by the Act 
 
 773). As originally enacted this section authorized the 
 Jrresiaent to rennet the importations of any aj^ricultural commodity or product when- 
 ever he found, after Investigation by the Tariff Commission and on the basis of its findings 
 recommendations made pursuant thereto, that such importations were adverselv 
 affecting programs or operations under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933. Sec 22 
 
 revised in its entirety by sec. 3 of the Agricultural 
 ^ and again by sec. 3 of the Act of June 28, 1950 (64 Stat. 
 
 authorized to impose quantitative restrictions (quotas) and 
 fees on any J^ricultural commodity or product whenever he finds, pursuant to appropriate 
 
 Commission, that imports of such commodity o^'^produrt 
 A program or operation undertaken by the 
 
 ?hA Secretary of Agriculture has the responsibility of 
 
 advising the President regarding the need for action under sec. 22. In addition the 
 Secretary of Agriculture is charged with the responsibility of determining %e need for 
 
 perishable agricultural commrdltles 
 Presidential Executive Order No. 7233, dated November 23, 1935 (19 CFR, §5 201 204) 
 contains the regulations governing investigations under this section. For statement of 
 proc^ures of the Department of Agriculture in discharging its respon¬ 
 sibilities under sec. 22, see 17 F.R. 8287, 7 CFR. Part 6 (September 16, 1952). ^ 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 285 
 
 tigation shall be made after due notice and opportunity for hearing 
 to interested parties, and shall be conducted subject to such regula¬ 
 tions as the President shall specify. (7 U.S.C. 624(a).) 
 
 (b) If, on the basis of such investigation and report to him of 
 findings and recommpdations made in connection therewith, the 
 President finds the existence of such facts, he shall by proclamation 
 impose such fees^ not in excess of 50 per centum ad valorem or such 
 quantitative limitations on any article or articles which may be 
 entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption as he finds 
 and declares shown by such investigation to be necessary in order 
 that the entry^ of such article or articles will not render or tend to 
 render ineffective, or materially interfere with, any program or opera¬ 
 tion referred to in subsection (a) of this section, or reduce substan¬ 
 tially the amount of any product processed in the United States from 
 any such agricultural commodity or product thereof with respect to 
 which any such program or operation is being luidertaken: Provided^ 
 That no proclamation under this section shall impose any limitation 
 on the total quantity of any article or articles which may be entered, 
 or withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption which reduces such 
 permissible total quantity to proportionately less than 50 per centum 
 of the total quantity of such article or articles which was entered, or 
 withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption during a representative 
 period as determined by the President: And 'provided further^ That in 
 designating any article or articles, the President may describe them 
 by physical qualities, value, use, or upon such other bases as he shall 
 determine. 
 
 In any case where the Secretary of Agriculture determines and 
 reports to the President with regard to any article or articles that 
 a condition exists requiring emergency treatment, the President may 
 take immediate action under this section without awaiting the recom¬ 
 mendations of the Tariff Commission, such action to continue in effect 
 pending the report and recommendations of the Tariff Commission 
 and action thereon by the President.® (7 U.S.C. 624(b).) 
 
 (c) The fees and limitations imposed by the President by procla¬ 
 mation under this section and any revocation, suspension, or modifi- 
 tion thereof, shall become effective on such date as shall be therein 
 specified, and such fees shall be treated for administrative purposes 
 and for the purposes of section 32 of Public Law numbered 320, 
 Seventy-fourth Congress, approved August 24, 1935, as amended, as 
 duti^ imposed by the Tariff Act of 1930, but such fees shall not be 
 considered as duties for the purpose of granting any preferential 
 concession under any international obligation of the United States. 
 (7 U.S.C. 624_(c).) _ 
 
 (d) After investigation, report, finding, and declaration in the 
 manner provided in the case of a proclamation issued pursuant to 
 subsection (b) of this section, any proclamation or provision of such 
 proclamation may be suspended or terminated by the President when¬ 
 ever he finds and proclaims that the circumstances requiring the 
 proclamation or provision thereof no longer exist or may be modified 
 by the President whenever he finds and proclaims that changed cir- 
 
 »Paragraph added by sec. 104 of the Trade Agreements Extension Act of 1953, 67 Stat. 
 758-820—65-20 
 
286 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 cumstances require such modification, to carry out the purposes of this 
 section. (7 U.S.C. 624(d).) 
 
 (e) Any decision of the President as to facts under this section 
 shall be final. (7 U.S.C. 624(e).) 
 
 (f) ^ No trade agreement or other international agreement hereto¬ 
 fore or hereafter entered into by the United States shall be applied 
 in a manner inconsistent with the requirements of this section. 
 (7 U.S.C. 624(f).) 
 
 PUBLIC LAW 88-482 
 
 AUGUST 22, 1964 
 AN ACT 
 
 To provide for the free importation of certain vpild animals, and to provide 
 for the imposition of quotas on certain meat and meat products. 
 
 Sec. 1 . (Amendments to Title I of the Tariff Act of 1930.) 
 
 Sec. 2. (a) It is the policy of the Congress that the aggregate 
 quantity of the articles specified in items 106.10 (relating to fresh, 
 chilled, or frozen cattle meat) and 106.20 (relating to fresh, chilled, or 
 frozen meat of goats and sheep (except lambs)) of the Tariff Sched¬ 
 ules of the United States which may be imported into the United 
 States in any calendar year beginning after December 31,1964, should 
 not exceed 725,400,000 pounds; except that this quantity shall be 
 increased or decreased for any calendar year by the same percentage 
 that estimated average annual domestic commercial production of 
 these articles in that calendar year and the two preceding calendar 
 years increases or decreases in comparison with the average annual 
 domestic commercial production of these articles during the years 
 1959 through 1963, inclusive. 
 
 (b) The Secretary of Agriculture, for each calendar year after 
 1964, shall estimate and publish— 
 
 (1) before the beginning of such calendar year, the aggregate 
 quantity prescribed for such calendar year by subsection (a), and 
 
 (2) before the first day of each calendar quarter in such cal¬ 
 endar year, the aggregate quantity of the articles described in 
 subsection (a) which (but for this section) would be imported 
 in such calendar year. 
 
 In applying paragraph (2) for the second or any succeeding calendar 
 quarter in any calendar year, actual imports for the preceding calen¬ 
 dar quarter or quarters in such calendar year shall be taken into 
 account to the extent data is available. 
 
 (c) (1) If the aggregate quantity estimated before any calendar 
 quarter by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant to subsection 
 (b) (2) equals or exceeds 110 percent of the aggregate quantity 
 estimated by him pursuant to subsection (b) (1), and if there is 
 no limitation in effect under this section with respect to such cal¬ 
 endar year, the President shall by proclamation limit the total 
 quantity of the articles described in subsection (a) which may l)e 
 entered, or withdrawn from warehouse, for consumption, during 
 
 o^ subsec. (f) were substituted for the original provisions by sec. 
 
 Trade Agreements Extension Act of 1951, approved June 16, 1951, 65 Stat. 
 
 7J, 75. 
 
 ® 78 Stat. 594, 19 U.S.C. 1202 note. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 287 
 
 such calendar year, to the aggregate quantity estimated for such 
 calendar year by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant to sub¬ 
 section (b) (1). 
 
 (2) If the aggregate quantity estimated before any calendar 
 quarter by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant to subsection 
 (b) (2) does not equal or exceed 110 percent of the aggregate 
 quantity estimated by him pursuant to subsection (b) (1), and if 
 a limitation is in effect under this section with respect to such 
 calendar year, such limitation shall cease to apply as of the first 
 day of such calendar quarter; except that any limitation which has 
 been in effect for the third calendar quarter of any calendar year 
 shall continue in effect for the fourth calendar quarter of such 
 year unless the proclamation is suspended or the total quantity is 
 increased pursuant to subsection (d). 
 
 (3) The Secretary of Agriculture shall allocate the total quan¬ 
 tity proclaimed under paragraph (1), and any increase in such 
 quantity pursuant to subsection (d), among supplying countries 
 on the basis of the shares such countries supplied to the United 
 States market during a representative period of the articles de¬ 
 scribed in subsection (a), except that due account may be given to 
 special factors which have affected or may affect the trade in 
 such articles. The Secretary of Agriculture shall certify such 
 allocations to the Secretary of the Treasury. 
 
 (d) The President may suspend any proclamation made under sub¬ 
 section (c), or increase the total quantity proclaimed under such sub¬ 
 section, if he determines and proclaims that— 
 
 (1) such action is required by overriding economic or national 
 security interests of the United States, giving special weight to 
 the importance to the Nation of the economic well-being of the 
 domestic livestock industry; 
 
 (2) the supply of articles of the kind described in subsection 
 (a) will be inadequate to meet domestic demand at reasonable 
 prices; or 
 
 (3) trade agreements entered into after the date of the enact¬ 
 ment of this Act ensure that the policy set forth in subsection (a) 
 will be carried out. 
 
 Any ^ch suspension shall be for such period, and any such increase 
 shall be in such amount, as the President determines and proclaims 
 to be necessary to carry out the purposes of this subsection. 
 
 (e) The Secretary of Agriculture shall issue such regulations as he 
 determines to be necessary to prevent circumvention of the purposes of 
 this section. 
 
 (f) All determinations by the President and the Secretary of Agri¬ 
 culture under this section shall be final. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS RELATING TO ACREAGE DIVERSION PROGRAIMS 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962— Sec. 326.« Notwithstanding 
 any other provision of law, performance rendered in good faith 
 in reliance upon action or advice of an authorized representative of 
 the Secretary may be accepted as meeting the requirements of subsec- 
 
 •76 Stat. 631, amended by Pub. L. 88-26, 77 Stat. 47. 
 
288 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 tions (c^, (d), (g), and (h), of section 16 of the Soil Conservation and 
 Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, or of section 307 of the Food 
 and Agriculture Act of 1962, section 339 of the Agricultural Act of 
 1938, as amended, or of section 124 of the Agricultural Act of 1961, 
 and payment may be made therefor in accordance with such action 
 or advice to the extent the Secretary deems it desirable in order to 
 provide fair and equitable treatment. (7 U.S.C. 1339a.) 
 
 Sec. 327. In the establishment of State, county, and farm acreage 
 allotments for wheat under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, 
 as amended, the acreage which is determined under regulations of the 
 Secretary to have been diverted from the production of wheat under 
 the special programs formulated pursuant to section 307 of this Act, 
 section 339 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938, as amended, 
 and section 124 of the Agricultural Act of 1961, shall be credited to 
 the State, county, and farm as though such acreage had actually been 
 devoted to the production of wheat. (7 U.S.C. 1339b.) 
 
 Sec. 328. Elective with the 1964 crop, during any year in which an 
 acreage diversion program is in effect for feed grains, the Secretary 
 shall, notwithstanding any other provision of law, permit producers of 
 feed grains to have acreage devoted to the production of feed grains 
 considered as devoted to the production of wheat and producers of 
 wheat to have acreage devoted to the production of wheat considered 
 as devoted to the production of feed grains to such extent and subject 
 to such terms and conditions as the Secretary determines will not 
 impair the effective operation of the program for feed grains or 
 wheat. (7 U.S.C. 1339c.) 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193V 
 REENACTING, AMENDING, AND SUPPLEMENTING THE 
 AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT, AS AMENDED 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To reenact and amend provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as 
 amended, relating to marketing agreements and orders. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate aTid Mouse of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That the following 
 provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as amended, not hav¬ 
 ing been intended for the control of the production of agricultural 
 commodities, and having been intended to be effective irrespective of 
 the validity of any other provision of that Act are expressly affirmed 
 and validated, and are reenacted without change except as provided 
 in section 2: 
 
 (a) Section 1 (relating to the declaration of emergency); 
 
 DECLARATION 
 
 cit is hereby declared that the disruption of the orderly exchange 
 of commodities in interstate commerce impairs the purchasing power 
 of farmers and destroys the value of agricultural assets which sup¬ 
 port the national credit structure and that these conditions affect 
 transactions in agricultural commodities with a national public in¬ 
 terest, and burden and obstruct the normal channels of interstate 
 commerce. (7 U.S.C. 601.)] 
 
 (b) Section 2 (relating to declaration of policy); 
 
 DECLARATION OP POLICY 
 
 [Sec. 2. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress— 
 
 (1) Through the exercise of the powers conferred upon the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture under this title, to establish and maintain such 
 orderly marketing conditions for agricultural commodities in inter¬ 
 state commerce as will establish, as the prices to farmers, parity 
 prices as defined by section 301(a)(1) of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938.2 
 
 (2) To protect the interest of the consumer by (a) approaching 
 the level of prices which it is declared to be the policy of Congress 
 to establish in subsection (1) of this section by gradual correction 
 of the current level at as rapid a rate as the Secretary of Agriculture 
 deems to be in the public interest and feasible in view of the current 
 consumptive demand in domestic and foreign markets, and (b) au¬ 
 thorizing no action under this title which has for its purpose the 
 
 reenacted and amended the following 
 Adjustment Act (of 1933), as amended: 1; 2; 
 % \ (b)(2), (c), (f), (g), (h), (i) ; 12(a), 
 
 language^of the provisions (which were reenacted with all amendments 
 printing) by reference to this Act are set forth In brackets after the 
 appropriate subsections. 
 
 3 Amended by sec. 302 of the Agricultural Act of 1948 (July 3, 1948, 62 Stat. 1247) to 
 refer to parity prices as defined In the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938. 
 
 289 
 
290 AGRICULTURAL MARKETESTG AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 maintenance of prices to farmers above the level which it is declared 
 to be the policy of Congress to establish in subsection (1) of this 
 section. 
 
 (3) Through the exercise of the power conferred upon the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture under this title, to establish and maintain such 
 minimum standards of quality and maturity and such grading and 
 inspection requirements for agricultural commodities enumerated in 
 section 8c(2), other than milk and its products, in interstate com¬ 
 merce as will effectuate such orderly marketing of such agricultural 
 commodities as will be in the public interest. 
 
 (4) Through the exercise of the power conferred upon the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture under this title, to establish and maintain such 
 orderly marketing conditions for any agricultural commodity enu¬ 
 merated in section 8c(2) as will provide, in the interests of pro¬ 
 ducers and consumers, an orderly flow of the supply thereof to 
 market throughout its normal marketing season to avoid unreason¬ 
 able fluctuations in supplies and prices.® 
 
 (5) Through the exercise of the power conferred upon the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture under this title, to continue for the remainder 
 of any marketing season or marketing year, such regulation pursu¬ 
 ant to any order as will tend to avoid a disruption of the orderly 
 marketing of any commodity and be in the public interest, if the 
 regulation of such commodity under such order has been initiated 
 during such marketing season or marketing year on the basis of its 
 need to effectuate the policy of this title.^ (7 U.S.C. 602.) j[ 
 
 ,(c) Section 8a (5), (6), (7), (8), and (9) (relating to violations 
 and enforcement); 
 
 VIOLATIONS AND ENFORCEMENT 
 
 [Sec. 8a. (5) Any person exceeding any quota or allotment fixed 
 for him under this title by the Secretary of Agriculture and any other 
 person knowingly participating or aiding in the exceeding of such 
 quota or allotment shall forfeit to the United States a sum equal to 
 the value of such excess at the current market price for such com¬ 
 modity at the time of violation, which forfeiture shall be recoverable 
 in a civil suit brought in the name of the United States.® 
 
 (6) The speral^ district courts of the United States are hereby 
 vested with jurisdiction specifically to enforce, and to prevent and 
 restrain any person from violating any order, regulation, or agree¬ 
 ment, heretofore or hereafter made or issued pursuant to this title, 
 in any proceeding now pending or hereafter brought in said courts. 
 
 (7) Upon the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, it shall be 
 the duty of the several United States attorneys, in their respective 
 districts, under the directions of the Attorney General, to institute 
 proceedings to enforce the remedies and to collect the forfeitures pro¬ 
 vided for in, or pursuant to, this title. Wlienever the Secretary, or 
 such officer or employee of the Department of Agriculture as he may 
 designate for the purpose, has reason to believe that any handler has 
 violated, or is violating, the provisions of any order or amendment 
 
 » Subsec. (4) added b.v sec. 401 of the Aj?ricultural Act of 1954, (58 Stat. 90(5 
 Stat'soir ^ atJ'Jed by sec. 141 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 (August 8, 1961, 75 
 
 ® Amended by Sec. 141 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 (August 8, 1961, 75 Stat. 304). 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 291 
 
 thereto issued pursuant to this title, the Secretary sliall liave power to 
 institute an investigation and, after due notice to such handler to 
 conduct a hearing in order to determine the facts for the purpose of 
 referri^ the matter to the Attorney General for appropriate action. 
 
 (8) ihe remedies provided for in this section shall be in addition 
 to, and not exclusive of, any of the remedies or penalties provided 
 lor elsewhere in this title or now or hereafter existing at law or in 
 equity. 
 
 (9) The term “person” as used in this title includes an individual, 
 
 ‘"^s®o<^i^tion, and any other business unit. 
 
 (< U.o.G. 608a.)J 
 
 (d) Section 8b (relating to marketing agreements) ; 
 
 MARKETING AGREEMENTS 
 
 [Sec. 8 b. In order to effectuate the declared policy of this title, the. 
 Secretary of Agriculture shall have the power, after due notice and 
 opportunity lor hearing, to enter into marketing agreements with 
 processors, producers, associations of producers, and others engaged 
 in the handling of any agricultural commodity or product thereof, 
 only with respect to such handling as is in the current of interstate 
 or loreip commerce or which directly burdens, obstructs, or affects, 
 mterstate or foreign commerce in such commodity or product thereof, 
 ihe making of any such agreement shall not be held to be in violation 
 ol any of the antitrust laws of the United States, and any such agree- 
 rnent shall be deemed to be lawful: Provided^ That no such agreement 
 608b termination of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 
 
 (e) Section 8c (relating to orders); 
 
 ORDERS 
 
 [Sec. 8c. (p The Secretary of Agriculture shall, subject to the pro¬ 
 visions of this section, issue, and from time to time amend, orders 
 applicable to processors, associations of producers, and others engaged 
 m the handlmg of any agricultural commodity or product thereof 
 specified in subsection (2) of this section. Such persons are referred 
 to in this title as handlers.” Such orders shall regulate, in the manner 
 hereinafter in this section provided, only such handling of such agri¬ 
 cultural commodity, or product thereof, as is in the current of inter- 
 state or foreign commerce, or which directly burdens, obstructs, or 
 affects, interstate or foreign commerce in such commodity or product 
 
 COMMODITIES TO WHICH APPLICABLE 
 
 issued pursuant to this section shall be applicable only 
 to ( A) the following agricultural commodities and the products there¬ 
 of (except canned or frozen grapefruit, cherries, apples, or cranber¬ 
 ries,® the products of naval stores, and the products of honeybees), or 
 o jmy regional, or market classification of any such commodity or 
 product: Milk, fruits (including filberts, almonds,'^ pecans and wal¬ 
 nuts but not including apples, other than apples produced in the 
 
 cultnMl cranberries.” were added by Sec. 141 of the Agrl- 
 
 -^ct cf 1061 (Aupnst 8. 1961, 75 Stat. .S04). 
 
 me words filberts, almonds,” were added by the Act of June 29, 1949, 63 Stat. 282. 
 
292 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 States of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, New York, Michigan, Mary¬ 
 land, New Jersey, Indiana, California, Maine, Vermont, New Hamp¬ 
 shire, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and not including 
 fruits for canning or freezing other than olives, grapefruit, cherries, 
 cranberries, and apples produced in the States named above except 
 Washington, Oregon, and Idaho),® tobacco, vegetables (not including 
 vegetables, other than asparagus, for canning or freezing), hops, 
 honeybees and naval stores as included in the Naval Stores Act and 
 standards established thereunder (including refined or partially re¬ 
 fined oleoresin) : Provided^ That no order issued pursuant to this sec¬ 
 tion shall be effective as to any grapefruit for canning or freezing 
 unless the Secretary of Agriculture determines, in addition to other 
 findings and determinations required by tliis Act, that the issuance 
 of such order is approved or favored by the processors who, during 
 a representative period determined by the Secretary, have been en¬ 
 gaged in canning or freezing such commodity for market and have 
 canned or frozen for market more than 60 per centum of the total 
 volume of such commodity canned or frozen for market during such 
 representative period; and (B) any agricultural commodity (except 
 honey, cotton, rice, wheat, corn, grain soghums, oats, barley, rye, 
 sugarcane, sugarbeets, wool, mohair, livestock, soybeans, cottonseed, 
 flaxseed, poultry (but not excepting turkeys), eggs (but not excepting 
 turkey hatching eggs), fruits and vegetables for canning or freezing, 
 and apples), or any regional or market classification thereof, not sub¬ 
 ject to orders under (A) of this paragraph, but not the products 
 (including canned or frozen commodities or products) thereof. No 
 order issued pursuant to this section shall be effective as to cherries, 
 apples, or cranberries for canning or freezing unless the Secretary of 
 Agriculture determines, in addition to other required findings and 
 determinations, that the issuance of such order is approved or favored 
 by processors who, during a representative period determined by the 
 Secretary, have engaged in canning or freezing such commodity for 
 market and have frozen or canned more than 50 per centum of the 
 total volume of the commodity to be regulated which was canned or 
 frozen within the production area, or marketed within the marketing 
 area, defined in such order, during such representative period. No 
 order issued pursuant to this section shall be applicable to peanuts 
 produced in more than one of the following production areas: the 
 Virginia-Carolina production area, the Southeast production area, 
 and the Southwest production area. If the Secretary determines that 
 the declared policy of the title will be better achieved, thereby (i) 
 the commodities of the same general class and used wholly or in part 
 for the same purposes may be combined and treated as a single com¬ 
 modity and (li) the portion of an agricultural commodity devoted to 
 or marketed for a particular use or combination of uses, may be 
 treated as a separate agricultural commodity. All agricultural com¬ 
 modities and products covered hereby shall be deemed specified herein 
 for the purposes of section 8c (6) and (7) of this title.® 
 
 8 The language referring to the States, other than Idaho, was added by Sec. 141 of the 
 Agricultural Act of 1961 (August 8, 1961, 75 Stat. 304). 
 
 •Amended by Sec. 141 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 (August 8, 1961, 75 Stat. 304). 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 293 
 
 NOTICE AND HEARING 
 
 the Secretary of Agriculture has reason to believe 
 that the issuance of an order will tend to effectuate the declared pol- 
 title with respect to any commodity or product thereof 
 specified m subsection (2) of this section, he shall give due notice 
 of and an opportunity for a hearing upon a proposed order. 
 
 FINDING AND ISSUANCE OF ORDER 
 
 (4) After such notice and opportunity for hearing, the Secretary 
 of Agriculture shall issue an order if he finds, and sets forth in such 
 order, upon the evidence introduced at such hearing (in addition to 
 such other findings as may be specifically required by the section) 
 that the issuance of such order and all of the terms and conditions 
 thereof will tend to effectuate the declared policy of this title with 
 respect to such commodity. 
 
 TERMS-MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 
 
 (5) In the case of milk and its products, orders issued pursuant 
 to this section shall contain one or more of the following terms and 
 conditions, and (except as provided in subsection (7)) no others: 
 
 (-^) Classifying milk in accordance with the form in which 
 or the purpose for whiph it is used, and fixing, or providing a 
 method for fixing, minimum prices for each such use classifica- 
 handlers shall pay, and the time when payments 
 shall be made for milk purchased from producers or associations 
 of Producers. Such prices shall be uniform as to all handlers, 
 subject only to adjustments for (1) volume, market, and produc¬ 
 tion differentials customarily applied by the handlers subject to 
 such order, (2) the grade or quality of the milk purchased, and 
 (3) the locations at which delivery of such milk, or any use classi¬ 
 fication thereof, is made to such handlers. 
 
 (B) Providing: 
 
 (y for the payment to all producers and associations of 
 producers delivering milk to the same handler of uniform 
 prices for all milk delivered by them: Provided^ That, except 
 in the case of orders covering milk products only, such pro¬ 
 vision is approved or favored by at least three-fourths of the 
 producers who, during a representative period determined 
 by the Secretary of Agriculture, have been engaged in the 
 production for market of milk covered in such order or by 
 producers who, during such representative period, have pro¬ 
 duced at least three-fourths of the volume of such milk 
 produced for market during such period; the approval re¬ 
 quired hereunder shall be separate and apart from any other 
 approval or disapproval provided for by this section; or 
 (ii) for the payment to all producers and associations of 
 producers delivermg milk to all handlers of uniform prices 
 for all milk so delivered, irrespective of the uses made of such 
 milk by the individual handler to whom it is delivered; 
 subject, in either case, only to adjustments for (a) volume, 
 market, and production differentials customarily applied by the 
 handlers subject to such order, (b) the grade or quality of the 
 
294 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 milk delivered, (c) the locations at which delivery of such milk 
 is made, and (d) a further adjustment, equitably to apportion 
 the total value of the milk purchased by any handler, or by all 
 handlers, among producers and associations of producers, on the 
 basis of their marketings of milk during a representative period 
 of time. 
 
 (C) In order to accomplish the purposes set forth in para¬ 
 graphs (A) and (B) of this subsection (5), providing a method 
 for making adjustments in payments, as among handlers (includ¬ 
 ing producers who are also handlers), to the end that the total 
 sums paid by each handler shall equal the value of the milk pur¬ 
 chased by him at the prices fixed in accordance with paragraph 
 (A) hereof. 
 
 (D) Providing that, in the case of all milk purchased by han¬ 
 dlers from any producer who did not regularly sell milk during a 
 period of 30 days next preceding the effective date of such order for 
 consumption in the area covered thereby, payments to such pro¬ 
 ducer, for the period beginning with the first regular delivery by 
 such producer and continuing until the end of two full calendar 
 months following the first day of the next succeeding calendar 
 month, shall be made at the price for the lowest use classification 
 specified in such order, subject to the adjustments specified in para¬ 
 graph (B) of this subsection (5). 
 
 (E) Providing (i) except as to producers for whom such serv¬ 
 ices are being rendered by a cooperative marketing association, 
 qualified as provided in paragraph (F) of this subsection (5), 
 for market information to producers and for the verification of 
 weights, sampling, and testing of milk purchased from producers, 
 and for making appropriate deductions therefor from payments 
 to producers, and (ii) for assurance of, and security for, the pay¬ 
 ment by handlers for milk purchased. 
 
 (F) Nothing contained in this subsection (5) is intended or 
 shall be construed to prevent a cooperative marketing association 
 qualified under the provisions of the Act of Congress of February 
 18, 1922, as amended, known as the “Capper-Volstead Act,” en¬ 
 gaged in making collective sales or marketing of milk or its 
 products for the producers thereof, from blending the net proceeds 
 of all its sales in all markets in all use classifications, and making 
 distribution thereof to its producers in accordance with the con¬ 
 tract between the association and its producers: Provided^ That 
 it shall not sell milk or its products to any handler for use or 
 consumption in any market at prices less than the prices fixed pur¬ 
 suant to paragraph (A) of this subsection (5) for such milk. 
 
 (G) No inarketing agreement or order applicable to milk and 
 its products in any marketing area shall prohibit or in any manner 
 limit, in the case of the products of milk, the marketing in that 
 area of any milk or product thereof produced in any production 
 area in the United States. 
 
 I'ERMS—OTI1ER COIMMODITIES 
 
 (6) In the case of the agricultural commodities and the prod¬ 
 ucts thereof, other than milk and its products, specified in subsection 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 295 
 
 (2) orders issued pursuant to this section shall contain one or more 
 ot the following terms and conditions, and (except as provided in 
 subsection (7)), no others: 
 
 (A) Liiniting, or providing methods for the limitation of, the 
 total quantity of any such commodity or product, or of any grade. 
 Size, or quality thereof, produced during any specified period or 
 periods, which may be marketed in or transported to any or all 
 markets in the current of interstate or foreign commerce or so as 
 directly to burden, obstruct, or affect interstate or foreign com¬ 
 merce in such commodity or product thereof, during any specified 
 period or periods by all handlers thereof. 
 
 (B) Allotting, or providing methods for allotting, the amount 
 of such commodity or product, or any grade, size, or quality 
 thereof, which each handler may purchase from or handle on be¬ 
 half of any and all producers thereof, during any specified period 
 or periods, under a uniform rule based upon the amounts sold by 
 su(m producers in such prior period as the Secretary determines 
 to be representative, or upon the current quantities available for 
 sale by such producers, or both, to the end that the total quantity 
 thereof to be purchased, or handled during any specified period or 
 periods shall be apportioned equitably among producers. 
 
 (C) Allotting, or providing methods for allotting, the amount 
 of any such commodity or product, or any grade, size, or quality 
 thereof, which each handler may market in or transport to any 
 or all markets in the current of interstate or foreign commerce or 
 so as directly to burden, obstruct, or affect interstate or foreign 
 commerce in such commodity or product thereof, under a uniform 
 rme based upon the amounts which each such handler has avail¬ 
 able for current shipment, or upon the amounts shipped by each 
 such handler in such prior period as the Secretary determmes to 
 be representative, or both, to the end that the total quantity of 
 such commodity or product, or any grade, size, or quality thereof, 
 to be marketed in or transported to any or all markets in the 
 current of interstate or foreign commerce or so as directly to 
 burden, obstruct, or affect interstate or foreign commerce in such 
 cominodity or product thereof, during any specified period or 
 periods shall be equitably apportioned among all of the handlers 
 thereof. 
 
 (D) Determining, or providing methods for determining, the 
 existence and extent of the surplus of any such commodity or 
 product, or of any grade, size, or quality thereof, and providing 
 
 ^ disposition of such surplus, and for equalizing 
 
 the burden of such surplus elimination or control among the 
 producers and handlers thereof. 
 
 (E) Establishing or providing for the establishment of reserve 
 pools of any such commodity or product, or of any grade, size, or 
 q^uality thereof, and providing for the equitable distribution of 
 tlie net return derived from the sale thereof among the persons 
 beneficially interested therein. 
 
 
296 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 (F) Requiring or providing for the requirement of inspection 
 of any such commodity or product produced during specified 
 periods and marketed by handlers. 
 
 (G) In the case of hops and their products, in addition to, or in 
 lieu of, the foregoing terms and conditions, orders may contain 
 one or more of the following: 
 
 (i) Limiting, or providing methods for the limitation of, 
 the total quantity thereof, or of any grade, type, or variety 
 thereof, produced during any specified period or periods, 
 which all handlers may handle in the current of or so as di¬ 
 rectly to burden, obstruct, or affect interstate or foreign com¬ 
 merce in hops or any product thereof. 
 
 (ii) Apportioning, or providing methods for apportioning, 
 the total quantity of hops of the production of the then cur¬ 
 rent calendar year permitted to be handled equitably among 
 all producers in the production area to which the order applies 
 upon the basis of one or more or a combination of the follow¬ 
 ing: The total quantity of hops available or estimated will 
 become available for market by each producer from his pro¬ 
 duction during such periods; the nonnal production of the 
 acreage of hops operated bv each producer during such period 
 upon the basis of the numoer of acres of hops in production, 
 and the average yield of that acreage during such period as 
 the Secretary determines to be representative, with adjust¬ 
 ments determined by the Secretary to be proper for age of 
 plantings or abnormal conditions affecting yield; such normal 
 production or historical record of any acreage for which data 
 as to yield of hops are not available or which had no yield 
 during such period shall be determined by the Secretary on 
 the basis of the yields of other acreage of hops of similar 
 characteristics as to productivity, subject to adjustment as 
 just provided for. 
 
 (iii) Allotting, or providing methods for allotting, the 
 quantity of hops which any handler may handle so that the 
 allotment fixed for that handler shall be limited to the quan¬ 
 tity of hops apportioned under preceding section (ii) to each 
 respective producer of hops; such allotment shall constitute 
 an allotment fixed for that handler within the meaning of 
 subsection (5) of section 8a of this title (U.S.C., 1940 edition, 
 title 7, sec. 608a). 
 
 (H) Providing a method for fixing the size, capacity, weight, 
 dimensions, or pack of the container, or containers, which may be 
 used in the packaging, transportation, sale, shipment, or handling 
 of any fresh or dried fruits, vegetables, or tree nuts: Provided^ 
 however^ That no action taken hereunder shall conflict with the 
 Standard Containers Act of 1916 (15 U.S.C. 251-256) and the 
 Standard Containers Act of 1928 (15 U.S.C. 257-257i); 
 
 (I) Establishing or providing for the establishment of market¬ 
 ing research and development projects designed to assist, improve, 
 or promote the marketing, distribution, and consumption of any 
 
 Added by Sec. 401 of the Agricultural Act of 1954 (68 Stat. 907). 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 297 
 
 such commodity or product, the expense of such projects to be paid 
 from funds collected pursuant to the marketing order; Provided^ 
 That with respect to orders applicable to cherries such projects 
 may provide for any form of marketing promotion including paid 
 advertising.^^ 
 
 TERMS COMMON TO ALL ORDERS 
 
 (7) In the case of the agricultural commodities and the products 
 thereof specified in subsection (2) orders shall contain one or more 
 of the following terms and conditions: 
 
 (A) Prohibiting unfair methods of competition and unfair 
 trade practices in the handling thereof. 
 
 (B) Providing that (except for milk and cream to be sold for 
 consumption in fluid form) such commodity or product thereof, 
 or any grade, size, or quality thereof shall be sold by the handlers 
 thereof only at prices filed by such handlers in the manner provided 
 in such order. 
 
 (C) Providing for the selection by the Secretary of Agricul¬ 
 ture, or a method for the selection, of an agency or agencies and 
 defining their powers and duties, which shall include only the 
 powers: 
 
 (i) To administer such order in accordance with its terms 
 and provisions; 
 
 (ii) To make rules and regulations to effectuate the terms 
 and provisions of such order; 
 
 (iii) To receive, investigate, and report to the Secretary of 
 Agriculture complaints of violations of such order; and 
 
 (iv) To recommend to the Secretary of Agriculture amend¬ 
 ments to such order. 
 
 No person acting as a member of an agency established pursuant 
 to this paragraph (C) shall be deemed to be acting in an official 
 capacity, within the meaning of section 10(g) of tMs title, unless 
 such person receives compensation for his personal services from 
 funds of the United States. There shall be included in the mem¬ 
 bership of any agency selected to administer a marketing order 
 applicable to grapefruit for canning or freezing one or more rep¬ 
 resentatives of processors of the commodity specified in such 
 order.^^ 
 
 (D) ^ Incidental to, and not inconsistent with, the terms and 
 conditions specified in subsections (5), (6) and (7) and necessary 
 to effectuate the other provisions of such order. 
 
 ORDERS WITH MARKETING AGREEMENT 
 
 (8) Except as provided in subsection (9) of this section, no order 
 issued pursuant to this section shall become effective until the han¬ 
 dlers (excluding cooperative associations of producers who are not 
 engaged in processing, distributing, or shipping the commodity or 
 product thereof covered by such order) of not less than 50 per centum 
 of the volume of the commodity or product thereof covered by such 
 
 Subsec. (I) added by Sec. 403 of the Agricultural Act of 1954 (68 
 Stat. 907) ; proviso added by Sec. 403 of the Agricultural Act of 1962 (September 27, 1962, 
 
 76 Stat. 632). 
 
 “ This sentence was added by sec. 401 of the Agricultural Act of 1954. 
 
298 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 order which is produced or marketed within the production or mar¬ 
 keting area defined in such order have signed a marketing agreement, 
 entered into pursuant to section 8b of this title, which regulates the 
 handling of such commodity or product in the same manner as such 
 order, except that as to citrus fruits produced in any area producing 
 what is known as California citrus fruits no order issued pursuant to 
 this subsection (8) shall become effective until the handlers of not 
 less than 80 per centum of the volume of such commodity or product 
 thereof covered by such order have signed such a marketing agree¬ 
 ment: Provided^ That no order issued pursuant to this subsection 
 shall be effective unless the Secretary of Agriculture determines that 
 the issuance of such order is approved or favored: 
 
 (A) By at least two-thirds of the producers who (except that as 
 to citrus fruits produced in any area producing what is known as 
 California citrus fruits said order must be approved or favored by 
 three-fourths of the producers), during a representative period 
 determined by the Secretary, have been engaged, within the pro¬ 
 duction area specified in such marketing agreement or order, in the 
 production for market of the commodity specified therein, or who, 
 during such representative period, have been engaged in the pro¬ 
 duction of such commodity for sale in the marketing area specified 
 in such marketing agreement, or order, or 
 
 (B) By producers who, during such representative period, have 
 produced for market at least two-thirds of the volume of such com¬ 
 modity produced for market within the production area specified 
 in such marketing agreement or order, or who, during such repre¬ 
 sentative period, have produced at least two-thirds of the volume 
 of such commodity sold within the marketing area specified in 
 such marketing agreement or order. 
 
 ORDERS WITH OR WITHOUT MARKETING AGREEMENT 
 
 (9) Any order issued pursuant to this section shall become effective 
 in the event that, notwithstanding the refusal or failure of handlers 
 (excluding cooperative associations of producers who are not en¬ 
 gaged in processing, distributing, or shipping the commodity or 
 product thereof covered by such order) of more than 50 per centum 
 of the volume of the commodity or product thereof (except that as to 
 citrus fruits produced in any area producing what is known as Cali¬ 
 fornia citrus fruits said per centum shall be 80 per centum) covered 
 by such order which is produced or marketed within the production 
 or marketing area defined in such order to sign a marketing agree¬ 
 ment relating to such commodity or product thereof, on which a 
 hearing has been held, the Secretary of Agriculture, with the approval 
 of the President,^^ determines: 
 
 (A) That the refusal or failure to sign a marketing agreement 
 (upon which a hearing has been held) by the handlers (excluding 
 cooperative associations of producers who are not engaged in proc¬ 
 essing, distributing, or shipping the commodity or product thereof 
 covered by such order) of more than 50 per centum of the volume 
 of the commodity or jiroduct thereof (except that as to citrus 
 
 1047 Reorjranlzatlon Plan No. 1 abolished this function of the President. 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 299 
 
 fruits produced in any area producing what is known as California 
 ptrus fruits said per centum shall be 80 per centum) specific there¬ 
 in which is produced or marketed within the production or mar¬ 
 keting area specified therein tends to prevent the effectuation of 
 the declared policy of this title with respect to such commodity or 
 product, and 
 
 (B) That the issuance of such order is the only practical means 
 of advancing the interests of the producers of such commodity 
 pursuant to the declared policy and is approved or favored; 
 
 (i) By at least two-thirds of the producers (except that as 
 to citrus fruits produced in any area producing what is 
 known as California citrus fruits said order must be approved 
 or favored by three-fourths of the producers) who, during a 
 representative period determined by the Secretary have been 
 engaged within the production area specified in such market¬ 
 ing agreement or order in the production for market of the 
 commodity specified therein, or who, during such representa- 
 tive period, have been engaged in the production of such com¬ 
 modity for sale in the marketing area specified in such market¬ 
 ing agreement, or order, or 
 
 (ii) By producers who, during such representative period, 
 have produced for market at least two-thirds of the volume of 
 such commodity produced for market within the production 
 area specified in such marketing agreement or order, or who, 
 during such representative period, have produced at least 
 two-thirds of the volume of such commodity sold within the 
 marketing area specified in such marketing agreement or 
 
 MANNER OF REGULATION AND APPLICABILITY 
 
 (10) No order shall be issued under this section unless it regulates 
 tiie handling of the commodity or product covered thereby in the 
 same manner as, and is made applicable only to persons in the respec¬ 
 tive classes of industrial or commercial activity specified in, a market- 
 mg agreement upon which a hearing has been held. No order shall 
 be issued under this title prohibiting, regulating, or restricting the 
 advertising of any commodity or product covered thereby, nor shall 
 any marketing agreement contain any provision prohibiting, regulat¬ 
 ing, or restricting the advertising of any commodity or product 
 covered by such marketing agreement. 
 
 REGIONAL APPLICATION 
 
 order shall be issued under this section which is 
 applicable to all production areas or marketing areas, or both, 
 commodity or product thereof unless the Secretary finds 
 that the issuance of several orders applicable to the respective 
 regional production areas or regional marketing areas, or both, as 
 the case may be, of the commoditv or product would not effectively 
 cuf the declared policy of this title. 
 
 (B) Epept in the case of milk and its products, orders issued 
 under this section shall be limited in their application to the 
 smallest regional production areas or regional marketing areas, or 
 
300 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 both, as the case may be, which the Secretary finds practicable, 
 consistently with carrying out such declared policy. 
 
 (C) All orders issued under this section which are applicable 
 to the same commodity or product thereof shall, so far as practi¬ 
 cable, prescribe such different terms, applicable to different pro¬ 
 duction areas and marketing areas, as the Secretary finds 
 necessary to give due recognition to the differences in production 
 and marketing of such commodity or product in such areas. 
 
 COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATION REPRESENTATION 
 
 (12) Whenever, pursuant to the provisions of this section, the 
 Secretary is required to determine the approval or disapproval of 
 producers with respect to the issuance of any order, or any term or 
 condition thereof, or the termination thereof, the Secretary shall con¬ 
 sider the approval or disapproval by any cooperative association of 
 producers, bona fide engaged in marketing the commodity or product 
 thereof covered by such order, or in rendering services for or advanc¬ 
 ing the interests of the producers of such commodity, as the approval 
 or disapproval of the producers who are members of, stockholders in, 
 or under contract with, such cooperative association of producers. 
 
 RETAILER AND PRODUCER EXEMPTION 
 
 (13) (A) No order issued under subsection (9) of this section 
 shall be applicable to any person who sells agricultural com¬ 
 modities or products thereof at retail in his capacity as such 
 retailer, except to a retailer in his capacity as a retailer of milk 
 and its products. 
 
 (B) No order issued under this title shall be applicable to any 
 producer in his capacity as a producer. 
 
 VIOLATION OF ORDER 
 
 (14) Any handler subject to an order issued under this section, or 
 any officer, director, agent, or employee of such handler, who violates 
 any provision of such order (other than a provision calling for pa-y- 
 ment of a pro rata share of expenses) shall, on conviction, be fined 
 not less than $50 or more than $500 for each such violation, and each 
 day during which such violation continues shall be deemed a sepa¬ 
 rate violation: Provided^ That if the court finds that a petition 
 pursuant to subsection (15) of this section was filed and prosecuted 
 by the defendant in good faith and not for delay, no penalty shall 
 be imposed under this subsection for such violations as occurred 
 between the date upon which the defendant’s petition was filed with 
 the^ Secretary, and the date upon which notice of the Secretary’s 
 ruling thereon was given to the defendant in accordance with regula¬ 
 tions prescribed pursuant to subsection (15). 
 
 PETITION BY HANDLER AND REVIEW 
 
 (15) (A) Any handler subject to an order may file a written 
 petition with the Secretary of Agriculture, stating that any such 
 order or any provision of any such order or any obligation im¬ 
 posed in connection therewith is not in accordance with law and 
 praying for a modification thereof or to be exempted therefrom. 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 301 
 
 He shall thereupon be given an opportunity for a hearing upon 
 such petition, in accordance with regulations made by the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture, with the approval of the President. After 
 such hearing, the Secretary shall make a ruling upon the prayer 
 which shall be final, if in accordance with law 
 (ii) Phe District Courts of the United States in any district 
 in which such handler is an inliabitant, or has his principal place 
 of business, are hereby vested with jurisdiction in equity to review 
 such ruling, provided a bill in equity for that purpose is filed 
 withni twenty days from the date of the entry of such rulino’ 
 Service of process in such proceedings may be had upon the Sec¬ 
 retary by delivering to him a copy of the bill of complaint. If 
 the court determines that such ruling is not in accordance with 
 law, it shall remand such proceedings to the Secretary with direc¬ 
 tions dther (1) to make such ruling as the court shall determine 
 to be in accordance with law, or (2) to take such further proceed¬ 
 ings as, in its opinion, the law requires. The pendency of pro¬ 
 ceedings instituted pursuant to this subsection (15) shall not im¬ 
 pede, hinder, or delay the United States or the Secretary of Aori- 
 culture from obtaining relief pursuant to section 8a (6) of this 
 title. Any proceedings brought pursuant to section 8a (6) of this 
 title (except where brought by way of counterclaim in proceed- 
 ings instituted pursuant to this subsection (15) shall abate when¬ 
 ever a final decree has been rendered in proceedings between the 
 same parties, and covering the same subject matter, instituted 
 pursuant to this subsection (15). 
 
 TERMINATION OF ORDERS AND MARKETING AGREEMENTS 
 
 (16) (A) The Secretary of Agriculture shall, whenever he finds 
 that any order issued under this section, or any provision thereof 
 obstructs or does not tend to effectuate the declared policy of this 
 title, terminate or suspend the operation of such order or such 
 provision thereof. 
 
 (B) The Secretary shall terminate any marketing agi^eement 
 entered into under section 8b, or order issued under this section at 
 the end of the then current marketing period for such commodity 
 specified in such marketing agreement or order, whenever he finds 
 that such termination is favored by a majority of the producers 
 who, during a representative period determined by the Secretary 
 have been engaged in the production for market of the commodity 
 specified in such marketing agreement or order, within the pro¬ 
 duction area specified in such marketing agreement or order, or 
 who, during such representative period, have been engaged in 
 the production of such commodity for sale within the marketino- 
 area specified in such marketing agreement or order: Provided^ 
 That such majority have, during such representative period, pro¬ 
 duced for market more than 50 per centum of the volume of such 
 commodity produced for market within the production area speci¬ 
 fied in such marketing agreement or order, or have, during such 
 representative period, produced more than 50 per centum of the 
 
 “The reference to the district court of the United 
 has been deleted as superfluous. See 28 U.S.C. 88, l.‘12a 
 
 States for the District of Columbia 
 
 758-820—65-21 
 
302 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 volume of such commodity sold in the marketing area specified 
 in such marketing agreement or order, but such termination shall 
 be effective onlv if announced on or before such date (prior to 
 the end of the then current marketing period) as may be specified 
 in such marketing agreement or order. 
 
 (C) The termination or suspension of any order or amendment 
 thereto or provision thereof, shall not be considered an order 
 within the meaning of this section. 
 
 PROVISIONS APPLICABLE TO AMENDMENTS 
 
 (17) The provisions of this section and section 8d,^® applicable to 
 orders shall be applicable to amendments to orders: Provided^ That 
 notice of a hearing upon a proposed amendment to any order issued 
 pursuant to section 8c, given not less than three days prior to the 
 date fixed for such hearing, shall be deemed due notice thereof. 
 
 MILK PRICES 
 
 (18) The Secretary of Agriculture, prior to prescribing any term 
 in any marketing agreement or order, or amendment thereto, relating 
 to milk or its products, if such term is to fix minimum prices to be 
 paid to producers or associations of producers, or prior to modifying 
 the price fixed in any such term, shall ascertain the parity prices of 
 such commodities. The prices wdiich it is declared to be the policy 
 of Congress to establish in section 2 of this title shall, for the purposes 
 of such agreement, order, or amendment, be adjusted to reflect the 
 price of feeds, the available supplies of feeds, and other economic 
 conditions which affect market supply and demand for milk or its 
 products in the marketing area to which the contemplated marketing 
 agreement, order, or amendment relates. Wlienever the Secretary 
 finds, upon the basis of the evidence adduced at the hearing required 
 by section 8b or 8c, as the case may be, that the parity prices of such 
 commodities are not reasonable in view of the price of feeds, the 
 available supplies of feeds, and other economic conditions which 
 affect market supply and demand for milk and its products 
 in the marketing area to which the contemplated agreement, 
 order, or amendment relates, he shall fix such prices as he finds will 
 reflect such factors, insure a sufficient quantity of pure and wholesome 
 milk, and be in the public interest. Thereafter, as the Secretary finds 
 necessary on account of changed circumstances, he shall, after due 
 notice and opportunity for hearing, make adjustments in such prices.^^ 
 
 PRODUCER REFERENDUM 
 
 (19) For the purpose of ascertaining whether the issuance of an 
 order is approved or favored by producers or processors, as required 
 under the applicable provisions of this title, the Secretary may con¬ 
 duct a referendum among producers or processors and in the case of 
 an order other than an amendatory order shall do so. The require¬ 
 ments of approval or favor under any such provision shall be held 
 to be complied with if, of the total number of producers or processors, 
 
 The reference to the old sec. 8e (repealed) •was deleted by sec. 302 of the Agricultural 
 Act of 1948 (July 3, 1948, 62 Stat. 1247). 
 
 The provisions of this section were substituted for the previous provisions by sec. 
 302 of the Agricultural Act of 1948 (July 3, 1948, 62 Stat. 1247). 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 303 
 
 or the total volume of production, as the case may be, represented in 
 pch referendum, the percentage approving or favoring is equal to or 
 in excess of the percentage required under such provision. The terms 
 and conditions of the proposed order shall be described by the Secre¬ 
 tary in the ballot used in the conduct of the referendum. The nature, 
 content, or extent of such description shall not be a basis for attacking 
 the legality of the order or any action relating thereto. Nothing in 
 this subsection shall be construed as limiting representation by co¬ 
 operative associations as provided in subsection (12) of this section.^^ 
 (7 U.S.C. 608c.)2 
 
 j(f) Section 8d (relating to books and records); 
 
 BOOKS AND RECORDS 
 
 [Sec. 8d. (1) All parties to any marketing agreement, and all 
 handlers subject to an order, shall severally, from time to time, upon 
 the request of the Secretary, furnish him with such information as 
 he finds to be necessary to enable him to ascertain and determine the 
 extent to which such agreement or order has been carried out or 
 has effectuated the declared policy of this title, and with such infor¬ 
 mation as he finds to be necessary to determine whether or not there 
 has been any abuse of the privilege of exemptions from the anti¬ 
 trust laws. Such information shall be furnished in accordance with 
 forms of reports to be prescribed by the Secretary. For the purpose 
 of ascertaining the correctness of any report made to the Secretary 
 pursuant to this subsection, or for the purpose of obtaining the in¬ 
 formation required in any such r^ort, where it has been requested 
 and has not been furnished, the Secretary is hereby authorized to 
 examine such books, papers, records, copies of income-tax reports, 
 accounts, correspondence, contracts, documents, or memoranda, as he 
 deems relevant and which are within the control (1) of any such 
 party to such marketing agreement, or any such handler, from whom 
 such report was requested or (2) of any person having, either di¬ 
 rectly or indirectly, actual or legal control of or over such party or 
 such handler or (3) of any subsidiary of any such party, handler, or 
 person. 
 
 (2) Notwithstanding the provisions of section 7, all information 
 furnished to or acquired by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant 
 to this section shall be kept confidential by all officers and employees 
 of the Department of Agriculture and only such information so fur¬ 
 nished or acquired as the Secretary deems relevant shall be disclosed 
 by them, and then only in a suit or administrative hearing brought at 
 ^ if' the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, or to 
 
 which he oy any officer of the United States is a party, and involving 
 the marketing agreement or order with reference to which the informa¬ 
 tion so to be disclosed was furnished or acquired. Nothing in this 
 section shall be deemed to prohibit (A) the issuance of general state¬ 
 ments based upon the reports of a number of parties to a marketing 
 agreement or of handlers subject to an order, which statements do not 
 Klentity the information furnished by any person, or (B) the publica- 
 
 
304 AGRICUI/rURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 tion by direction of the Secretary of the name of any person violating 
 any marketing agreement or any order, together with a statement of 
 the particular provisions of the marketing agreement or order violated 
 by such person. Any such officer or employee violating the provisions 
 of this section shall upon conviction be subject to a fine of not more than 
 $1,000 or to imprisonment for not more than one year, or to both, and 
 shall be removed from office. (7 U.S.C. 608d.)] 
 
 (g) Section 8e; 
 
 RESTRICTIONS ON IMPORTED COMMODITIES 
 
 [Sec. 8e. Notwithstanding any other provision of law, whenever 
 a marketing order issued by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant to 
 section 8c of this Act contains any terms or conditions regulating the 
 grade, size, quality, or maturity of tomatoes, avocados, mangoes, limes, 
 grapefruit, green peppers, Irish potatoes, cucumbers, oranges, onions, 
 walnuts, dates, or eggplants produced in the United States the impor¬ 
 tation into the United States of any such commodity, other than dates 
 for processing, during the period of time such order is in effect shall 
 be prohibited unless it complies with the grade, size, quality, and 
 maturity provisions of such order or comparable restrictions promul¬ 
 gated hereunder: Provided^ That this prohibition shall not apply to 
 such commodities when shipped into continental United States from 
 the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico or any Territory or possession of 
 the United States where this Act has force and effect: Provided 
 further^ That whenever two or more such marketing orders regulating 
 the same agricultural commodity produced in different areas of the 
 United States are concurrently in effect, the importation into the 
 United States of any such commodity, other than dates for processing, 
 shall be prohibited unless it complies with the grade, size, quality, and 
 maturity provisions of the order which, as determined by the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture, regulates the commodity produced in the area 
 witli which the imported commodity is in most direct competition. 
 Such prohibition shall not become effective until after the giving of 
 such notice as the Secretary of Agriculture determines reasonable, 
 which shall not be less than three days. In determining the amount of 
 notice that is reasonable in the case of tomatoes the Secretary of Agri¬ 
 culture shall give due consideration to the time required for their 
 transportation and entry into the United States after picking. When¬ 
 ever the Secretary of Agriculture finds that the application of the 
 restrictions under a marketing order to an imported commodity is not 
 practicable because of variations in characteristics between the domes¬ 
 tic and imported commodity he shall establish with respect to the 
 imported commodity, other than dates for processing, such grade, size, 
 quality, and maturity restrictions by varieties, types, or other classi¬ 
 fications as he finds will be equivalent or comparable to those imposed 
 upon the domestic commodity under such order. The Secretary of 
 Agriculture may promulgate such rules and regulations as he deems 
 necessary, to cany out the provisions of this section. Any person 
 who violates any provision of this section or of any rule, regulation, 
 or order promulgated hereunder shall be subject to a forfeiture in the 
 
 Agricultural 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 305 
 
 amount prescribed in section 8a(5) or, upon conviction, a penalty in 
 the amount prescribed in section 8c (14) of the Act, or to both such 
 forfeiture and penalty.^" (7 U.S.C. 608e-l.)] 
 
 (h) Section 10(a), (b)(2), (c), (f), (g), (h), and (i) (miscel¬ 
 laneous provisions); 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 CSec. 10. (a) The Secretary of Agriculture may appoint such officers 
 and employees, subject to the provisions of the Classification Act 
 of 194921 and Acts amendatory thereof, and such experts as are 
 necessary to execute the fmictions vested in liim by this title; and 
 the Secretary may make such appointments without regard to the 
 laws or regulations; Provided^ That no salary in excess 
 of $10,000 per annum shall be paid to any officer, employee, or expert 
 of the Agricultural Adjustment Administration, which the Secretary 
 shall establish in the Department of Agriculture for the administra- 
 functions vested in him by this title: And provided fur¬ 
 ther^ , State Administrator appointed to administer this Act 
 
 in each State shall be appointed by the President, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the Senate. Title II of the Act entitled “An 
 Act to maintain the credit of the United States Government”, ap¬ 
 proved March 20,1933, to the extent that it provides for the impound¬ 
 ment of appropriations on account of reductions in compensation, 
 s lall not operate to require such impoundment under appropriations 
 contained in this Act. 
 
 (b)(1) The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to establish, 
 for the more effective administration of the functions vested in 
 liim by this title. State and local committees, or associations of 
 producers, and to permit cooperative associations of producers 
 wlien m his judgment they are qualified to do so, to act as agents 
 of their members and patrons in connection with the distribution 
 of payments authorized to be made under section 8. The Secre- 
 taiy, in the administration of this title shall accord such recoo’ni- 
 tion and encouragement to producer-owned and producer-con¬ 
 trolled cooperative associations as will be in harmony with the 
 polmy toward cooperative associations set forth in existing Acts 
 of Congress, and as will tend to promote efficient methods of 
 marketnig and distribution. 
 
 order relating to milk and its products issued 
 by the Secretary under this title shall provide that each 
 handler subject thereto shall pay to any authority or ao’ency 
 established under such order sucli handler’s pro rata *share 
 (as approved by the Secretary) of such expenses as the Secre¬ 
 tary may find will necessarily be incurred by such authority or 
 agency, during any period specified by him, for the mainten¬ 
 ance and functioning of such authority or agency, other than 
 expenses incurred in receiving, handling, holding, or dispos- 
 
 20 
 
 141 
 
 21 
 
 The provisions of this section 
 of the Agricultural Act of 1961 
 “1949” substituted for “1923” 
 
 \vere substituted for the previous provisions by sec. 
 (August 8, 1961, 75 Stat. 305). 
 by the Act of October 28, 1949, 63 Stat. 972. 
 
306 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 
 
 ing of any quantity of milk or products thereof received, 
 handled, held, or disposed of by such authority or agency for 
 the benefit or account of persons other than handlers subject 
 to such order. The pro rata share of the expenses payable by 
 a cooperative association of producers shall be computed on 
 the basis of the quantity of milk or product thereof covered 
 by such order which is distributed, processed, or shipped by 
 such cooperative association of producers. 
 
 (ii) Each order relating to any other commodity or prod¬ 
 uct issued by the Secretary under this title shall provide that 
 each handler subject thereto shall pay to any authority or 
 agency established under such order such handler’s pro rata 
 share (as approved by the Secretary) of such expenses as 
 the Secretary may find are reasonable and are likely to be 
 incurred by such authority or agency, during any period 
 specified by him, for such purposes as the Secretary may, pur¬ 
 suant to such order, determine to be appropriate, and for 
 the maintenance and functioning of such authority or agency, 
 other than expenses incurred in receiving, handling, holding, 
 or disposing of any quantity of a commodity received, han¬ 
 dled, held, or disposed of by such authority or agency for 
 the benefit or account of persons other than handlers subject 
 to such order. The pro rata share of the expenses payable 
 by a cooperative association of producers shall be computed 
 on the basis of the quantity of the agricultural commodity 
 or product thereof covered by such order which is distributed, 
 processed, or shipped by such cooperative association of pro¬ 
 ducers. The payment of assessments for the maintenance 
 and functioning of such authority or agency, as provided for 
 herein, may be required under a marketing agreement or 
 marketing order throughout the period the marketing agree¬ 
 ment or order is in effect and irrespective of whether par¬ 
 ticular provisions thereof are suspended or become 
 inoperative. 
 
 (lii) Any authority or agency established under an order 
 may maintain in its own name, or in the name of its members, 
 a suit against any handler subject to an order for the collec¬ 
 tion of such handler’s pro rata share of expenses. The several 
 district courts of the United States are hereby vested with 
 jurisdiction to entertain such suits regardless of the amount 
 in controversy. 
 
 (c) The Secretary of Agriculture is authorized, with the approval 
 of the President, to make such regulations with the force and effect 
 of law as may be necessary to carry out the powers vested in him by 
 this title. Any violation of any regulations shall be subject to such 
 penalty, not in excess of $100, as may be provided therein. 
 
 ♦ *•**♦* 
 
 (f) The provisions of this title shall be applicable to the United 
 States and its possessions, except the Philippine Islands, the Virgin 
 Islands, American Samoa, the Canal Zone, and the island of Guam; 
 except that, in the case of sugarbeets and sugarcane, the President, 
 if he finds it necessary in order to effectuate the declared policy of 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 307 
 
 this Act, is authorized by proclamation to make the provisions of 
 this title applicable to the Philippine Islands, the Virgin Islands, 
 American Samoa, the Canal Zone, and/or the island of Guam. 
 
 (s) person shall, while acting in any official capacity in the 
 administration of this title, speculate, directly or indirectly, in any 
 agricultural commodity or product thereof, to which this title applies, 
 or in contracts relating thereto, or in the stock or membership interests 
 of any^ association or corporation engaged in handling, processing, or 
 disposing of any such commodity or product. Any person violating 
 this subsection shall upon conviction thereof be fined not more than 
 $10,000 or imprisoned not more than two years, or both. 
 
 (h) For the efficient administration of the provisions of part 2 of 
 this title, the provisions, including penalties, of sections 8, 9, and 10 
 ot the Federal Trade Commission Act, approved September 26, 1914, 
 are made applicable to the jurisdiction, powers, and duties of the 
 Secretary in administering the provisions of this title and to any 
 person subject to the provisions of this title, whether or not a cor¬ 
 poration. Hearings authorized or^ required under this title shall be 
 conducted by the Secretary of Agriculture or such officer or employee 
 of the Department as he may designate for the purpose. The Secre¬ 
 tary may report any violation of any agreement entered into under 
 part 2 of this title of the Attorney General of the United States, 
 who shall cause appropriate proceedings to enforce such agreement 
 to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the United 
 States without delay. 
 
 _(i) The Secretary of Agriculture upon the request of the duly con¬ 
 stituted authorities of any State is directed, in order to effectuate 
 the declared policy of this title and in order to obtain uniformity in 
 the formulation, administration, and enforcement of Federal and 
 State programs relating to the regulation of the handling of agri¬ 
 cultural commodities or products thereof, to confer with and hold 
 joint^ hearings with the duly constituted authorities of any State, 
 and IS authorized to cooperate with such authorities; to accept and 
 utilize, with the consent of the State, such State and local officers and 
 employees as may be necessary; to avail himself of the records and 
 iRcilitics of such, authorities, to issue orders (subject to the provi- 
 sions of section 8c) complementary to orders or other regulations 
 issued by such authorities; and to make available to such State 
 authorities the records and facilities of the Department of Agricul¬ 
 ture . Pvovidicd^ That information furnished to the Secretary of 
 Agriculture pursuant to section 8d(l) hereof shall be made avail¬ 
 able only to the extent that such information is relevant to trans¬ 
 actions within the regulatory jurisdiction of such authorities, and 
 then only upon a written agreement by such authorities that the 
 information so furnished shall be kept confidential by them in a 
 manner similar to that required of Federal officers and employees 
 under the provisions of section 8d (2) hereof. 
 
 (j) The term “interstate or foreign commerce” means commerce 
 between any State, Territory, or possession, or the District of Colum¬ 
 bia, and any place outside thereof; or between points within the 
 same State, Territory, or possession, or the District of Columbia, but 
 through any place outside thereof; or within any Territory or posses- 
 
308 AGRICULTURAL AIARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 sion, or the District of Columbia. For the purpose of this Act (but 
 in nowise limiting the foregoing definition) a marketing transaction 
 in respect to an agricultural commodity or the product thereof shall 
 be considered in interstate or foreign commerce if such commodity 
 or product is part of that current of interstate or foreign commerce 
 usual in the handling of the commodity or product whereby they, 
 or either of them, are sent from one State to end their transit, after 
 purchase, in another, including all cases where purchase or sale is 
 either for shipment to another State or for the processing within the 
 State and the shipment outside the State of the products so proc¬ 
 essed. Agricultural commodities or products thereof normally in 
 such current of interstate or foreign commerce shall not be con¬ 
 sidered out of such current through resort being had to any means 
 or device intended to remove transactions in respect thereto from 
 the provisions of this Act. As used herein the word “State” includes 
 Territory, the District of Columbia, possession of the United States, 
 and foreign nations.22 (7U.S.C. 610.)] 
 
 (i) Section 12 (a) and (c) (relating to appropriation and expense) ; 
 
 APPROPRIATION 
 
 [Sec. 12. (a) There is hereby appropriated, out of any money in 
 the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $100,000,000 to 
 be available to the Secretary of Agriculture for administrative ex¬ 
 penses under this title and for payments authorized to be made under 
 section 8. Such sum shall remain available until expended. 
 
 To enable the Secretary of Agriculture to finance, under such 
 terms and conditions as he may prescribe, surplus reductions with 
 respect to the dairy- and beef-cattle industries, and to carry out any 
 of the purposes described in subsections (a) and (b) of this section 
 (12) and to support and balance the markets for the dairy and beef 
 cattle industries, there is authorized to be appropriated, out of any 
 money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum of $200,- 
 000,000; Provided^ That not more than 60 per centum of such amount 
 shall be used for either of such industries. 
 
 * ^ :(e 
 
 (c) The administrative expenses provided for under this section 
 shall include, among others, expenditures for personal services and 
 rent in the District of Columbia and elsewhere, for law books and 
 books of reference, for contract stenographic reporting services, and 
 for printing and paper in addition to allotments under the existing 
 Dw. The Secretary of Agriculture shall transfer to the Treasury 
 Department, and is authorized to transfer to other agencies, out of 
 funds available for administrative expenses under this title, such 
 sums as are required to pay administrative expenses incurred and 
 refunds made by such department or agencies in the administration 
 ofthistitle. (7U.S.C.6_12.)] 
 
 (j) Section 14 (relating to separability) ; 
 
 “Par. (j) added by sec 2(i) of the Agricultural Act of 1937 (.Tune 3, 1937, 50 Stat. 248). 
 
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 193 7 309 
 
 SEPARABILITY OF PAA'MENTS 
 
 [Sec. 14. If any provision of this title is declared unconstitu¬ 
 tional, or the applicability thereof to any person, circumstance, or 
 commodity is held invalid the validity of the remainder of this title 
 and the applicability thereof to other persons, circumstances, or 
 commodities shall not be affected thereby. (T U.S.C. 714.) ] 
 
 (k) Section 22 (relating to imports); 
 
 [Sec. 22 appears on p. 284 of this compilation.] 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO AGRICULTURAL ADJUSTMENT ACT 
 
 Sec. 2. The following provisions, reenacted in section 1 of this 
 Act, are amended as follows: 
 
 [Subsecs, (a) to (j) inclusive, of sec. 2 of the Agricultural Marketing Agree¬ 
 ment Act of 1937 are incorporated in the preceding text and in the footnotes.] 
 
 ARBITRATION OF DISPUTES CONCERNING MILK 
 
 Sec. 3. (a) The Secretary of Agriculture, or such officer or em¬ 
 ployee of the Department of Agriculture as may be designated by him, 
 upon written application of any cooperative association, incorporated 
 or otherwise, which is in good faith owned or controlled by producers 
 or organizations thereof, of milk or its products, and which is bona 
 ffde engaged in collective processing or preparing for market or 
 handling or marketing (in the current of interstate or foreign com¬ 
 merce, as defined by paragraph (i) of section 2 of this Act), milk or 
 its products, may mediate and, with the consent of all parties, shall 
 arbitrate if the Secretary has reason to believe that the declared policy 
 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as amended, would be effectuated 
 thereby, bona fide disputes, between such associations and the pur¬ 
 chasers or handlers or processors or distributors of milk or its prod¬ 
 ucts, as to terms and conditions of the sale of milk or its products. 
 The power to arbitrate under this section shall apply only to such 
 subjects of the term or condition in dispute as could be regulated under 
 the provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as amended, relat¬ 
 ing to orders for milk and its products. 
 
 (b) Meetings held pursuant to this section shall be conducted sub¬ 
 ject to such rules and regulations as the Secretary may prescribe. 
 
 (c) No award or agreement resulting from any such arbitration 
 or mediation shall be effective unless and until approved by the Secre¬ 
 tary of Agriculture, or such officer or employee of the Department of 
 Agriculture as may be designated by him, and shall not be approved 
 if it permits any unlawful trade practice or any unfair method of 
 competition. 
 
 (cl) No meeting so held and no award or agreement so approved 
 shall be deemed to be in violation of any of the antitrust laws of the 
 United States. (7 U.S.C. 671.) 
 
 AGREEMENTS, ETC., UNAFFECTED 
 
 Sec. 4. (a) Nothing in this act shall be construed as invalidating 
 any marketing agreement, license, or order, or any regulation relat¬ 
 ing to, or any provision of, or any act of the Secretary of Agriculture 
 in connection with, any such agreement, license, or order which has 
 been executed, issued, approved, or done under the Agricultural Ad- 
 
310 AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AGREEMENT ACT OF 1937 
 
 justment Act, or any amendment thereof, but such marketing agree¬ 
 ments, licenses, orders, regulations, provisions, and acts are hereby 
 expressly ratified, legalized, and confirmed. 
 
 (b) Any program in effect under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, 
 as reenacted and amended by this Act, on the effective date of section 
 302 of the Agricultural Act of 1948 shall continue in effect without 
 the necessity for any amendatory action relative to such program, but 
 any such program shall be continued in operation by the Secretary 
 of Agriculture only to establish and maintain such orderly marketing 
 conditions as will tend to effectuate the declared purpose set out in 
 section 2 or 8c (18) of the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as reenacted 
 and amended by this Act.^^ (7 U.S.C. 672.) 
 
 TAXES UNDER AGRICULTUIU\L ADJUSTMENT ACT; PROVISIONS UNAFFECTED 
 
 Sec. 5. No processing taxes or compensating taxes shall be levied 
 or collected under the Agricultural Adjustment Act, as amended. 
 Except as provided in the preceding sentence, nothing in this Act shall 
 be construed as affecting provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act, as amended, other than those enumerated in section I. The pro¬ 
 visions so enumerated shall apply in accordance with their terms (as 
 amended by this Act) to the provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Act, this Act, and other provisions of law to which they have been 
 heretofore made applicable. (7 U.S.C. 673.) 
 
 SHORT TITLE 
 
 Sec. 6. This act may be cited as the “Agricultural Marketinf^ 
 Agreement Act of 1937.” (7U.S.C. 674.) 
 
 
NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To provide assistance to the States in the establishment, maintenance, opera¬ 
 tion, and expansion of school-lunch programs, and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That this Act may 
 be cited as the “National School Lunch Act.” (42 U.S.C. 1751 note.) 
 
 DECLARATION OF POLICY 
 
 Sec. 2. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress, as a- 
 measure of national security, to safeguard the health and well-being 
 of the Nation’s children and to encourage the domestic consumption 
 of nutritious agricultural commodities and other food, by assisting 
 the States, through grants-in-aid and other means, in providing an 
 adequate supply of foods and other facilities for the establishment, 
 maintenance, operation, and expansion of nonprofit school-lunch 
 programs. (42 U.S.C. 1751.) 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS AUTHORIZED 
 
 Sec. 3.^ For each fiscal year there is hereby authorized to be ap¬ 
 propriated, out of money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, 
 such sums as may be necessary to enable the Secretary of Agriculture 
 (hereinafter referred to as “the Secretary”) to carry out the provi¬ 
 sions of this Act, other than section 11. (42 U.S.C. 1752.) 
 
 APPORTIONMENTS TO STATES 
 
 Sec. 4.® The sums appropriated for any fiscal year pursuant to the 
 authorization contained in section 3 of this Act, excluding the sum 
 specified in section 5, shall be available to the Secretary for supply- 
 ing agricultural commodities and other foods for the program in ac¬ 
 cordance with the provisions of this Act. The Secretary shall ap¬ 
 portion among the States during each fiscal year not less than 75 per- 
 centum of the funds made available for such year for supplying agri¬ 
 cultural commodities and other foods under the provisions of section 
 3 of this Act. Apportionment among the States shall be made upon 
 the basis of two factors: (1) the participation rate for the State, and 
 (2) the assistance need rate for the State. The amount of ap¬ 
 portionment to any State shall be determined by the following 
 method: First, determine an index for the State by multiplying 
 factors (1) and (2); second, divide this index by the sum of the 
 indices for all the States (exclusive of American Samoa for periods 
 
 1 June 4, 1946, 60 Stat. 230. See also Act of July 1, 1958, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1446 
 note) (relating to use of Commodity Credit Corporation funds to Increase milk consumption 
 In schools (p. 218) and sec. 404 (relating to utilizing Commodity Credit Corporation in 
 carrying out school lunch programs) (p. 159) of the Agricultural Act of 1949. 
 
 * Sec. 3 was amended by Pub. L. 87-823, October 15, 1962. 
 
 * Sec. 4 was amended by the Act of October 15, 1962, 76 Stat. 944. 
 
 311 
 
312 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 ending before July 1,1967) ; and third, apply the figure thus obtained 
 to the total fimds to be apportioned. If any State cannot utilize all 
 funds so apportioned to it, or if additional funds are made available 
 under section 3 for apportionment among the States, the Secretary 
 shall make further apportionments to the remaining States in the 
 same manner. Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this 
 section, (1) for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1962, three-quarters 
 of any funds available for apportionment among the States shall be 
 apportioned in the manner used prior to such fiscal year, and one- 
 quarter of any such funds shall be apportioned in accordance with the 
 foregoing sentences of this section, (2) for the fiscal year beginning 
 July 1, 1963, one-half of any funds available for apportionment 
 among the States shall be apportioned in the manner used prior to the 
 fi^scal year beginning July 1, 1962, and one-half of any such funds 
 shall be apportioned in accordance with the foregoing sentences of 
 this section, (3) for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1964, one- 
 quarter of any funds available for apportionment among the States 
 slitill bo RpportionGcl in tli6 ro^iinGr usgcI prior to tli6 fiscRl y6<ir bo- 
 ginning July 1, 1962, and three-quarters of any such funds shall be 
 apportioned in accordance with the foregoing sentences of this section, 
 and (4) for the five fiscal years in the period beginning July 1, 1962, 
 and ending June 30, 1967, the amount apportioned to American 
 Samoa shall be $25,000 each year, which amount shall be first deducted 
 tiom the funds available for apportionment in determining the 
 amounts to be apportioned to the other States. (42 U.S.C. 1753.) 
 
 NONFOOD ASSISTANCE 
 
 Sec. 5.^ Of the sums appropriated for any fiscal year pursuant to 
 the authorization contained in section 3 of this Act, $10,000,000 shall 
 be available to the Secretary for the purpose of providing, durino- 
 such fiscal year, nonfood assistance for the school-lunch program pur¬ 
 suant to the provisions of this Act. The Secretary shall apportion 
 nni? States during each fiscal year the aforesaid sum of 
 1 apportionment among the States shall be on the 
 
 forth 
 com- 
 
 qi rne lacrors, and in accordance with the standards, set 
 m section 4 with respect to the apportionment for agricultural 
 modities and other foods. (42 U.S.C. 1754.) 
 
 DIRECT FEDERAL EXPENDITURES 
 
 Sec. 6 . The funds appropriated for any fiscal year for carryino- out 
 tlie provisions of this Act, less not to exceed 31/2 per centum thereof 
 hereby made available to the Secretary for his administrative ex¬ 
 penses, less the amount apportioned by him pursuant to sections 4, 
 0 , and 10, and less the amount appropriated pursuant to section 11,® 
 sliall be available to the Secretary during such year for direct expendi- 
 ture by him for agricultural commodities and other foods to be 
 distributed among the States and schools participating in the school- 
 lunch program under this Act in accordance with the needs as deter¬ 
 mined by thy local school authorities. The provisions of law contained 
 in the proviso of the Act of June 28, 1937 (50 Stat. 323), facilitating 
 
 ♦This soction amended by the Act of October 15, 1962 (Pub ] 
 ’’Preceding clause added by the Act of October 15, 1962 (Piib 
 
 87-823) 76 Stat. 945. 
 
 L. 87-823), 76 Stat. 94,5. 
 
NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 313 
 
 operations with respect to the purchase and disposition of surplus 
 agricultural commodities under section 32 of the Act approved 
 August 24, 1935 (49 Stat. 774), as amended, shall, to the extent not 
 inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, also be applicable to 
 expenditures of funds by the Secretary under this Act. (42 U.S.C. 
 1755.) 
 
 PAYMENTS TO STATES 
 
 Sec. 7. Funds apportioned to any State pursuant to section 4 or 5 
 during any fiscal year shall be available for payment to such State 
 for disbursement by the State educational agency, in accordance with 
 such agreements not inconsistent with the provisions of this Act, as 
 may be entered into by the Secretary and such State educational 
 agency, for the purpose of assisting schools of that State during such 
 fiscal year, in supplying (1) agricultural commodities and other 
 foods for consumption by children and (2) nonfood assistance in 
 furtherance of the school-lunch program authorized under this Act. 
 Such payments to any State in any fiscal year during the period 1947 
 to 1950, inclusive, shall be made upon condition that each dollar 
 thereof will be matched during such year by $1 from sources within 
 the State determined by the Secretary to have been expended in con¬ 
 nection with the school-lunch program under this Act. Such pay¬ 
 ments in any fiscal year during the period 1951 to 1955, inclusive, 
 shall be made upon condition that each dollar thereof will be so 
 matched by one and one-half dollars; and for any fiscal year there¬ 
 after, such payments shall be made upon condition that each dollar 
 will be so matched by $3. In the case of any State whose per capita 
 income is less than the per capita income of the United States, the 
 matching required for any fiscal year shall be decreased by the per¬ 
 centage which the State per capita income is below the per capita 
 income of the United States. For the purpose of determining 
 whether the matching requirements of this section and section 10, 
 respectively, have been met, the reasonable value of donated services, 
 supplies, facilities, and equipment as certified, respectively, by the 
 State educational agency and in case of schools receiving funds pur¬ 
 suant to section 10, by such schools (but not the cost or value of land, 
 of the acquisition, construction, or alteration of buildings of com¬ 
 modities donated by the Secretary, or of Federal contributions), may 
 be regarded as funds from sources within the State expended in con¬ 
 nection wdth the school-lunch program. The Secretary shall certify 
 to the Secretary of the Treasury from time to time the amounts to 
 be paid to any State under this section and the time or times such 
 amounts are to be paid; and the Secretary of the Treasury shall pay 
 to the State at the time or times fixed by the Secretary the amounts 
 so certified. (42 U.S.C. 1756.) 
 
 STATE disbursement TO SCHOOLS 
 
 Sec. 8 . Funds paid to any State during any fiscal j^ear pursuant to 
 section 4 or 5 sliall be disbursed by the State educational agency, in 
 accordance "with such agreements approved by the Secretary as may 
 be entered into by such State agency and the schools in the State, to 
 those schools in the State which the State educational agency, taking 
 into account need and attendance, determines are eligible to partici- 
 
314 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 pate in the school-lunch program. Such disbursement to any school 
 shall be made only for the purpose of reimbursing it for the cost of 
 obtaining agricultural commodities and other foods for consumption 
 by children in the school-lunch program and nonfood assistance in 
 connection with such program. Such food costs may include, in addi¬ 
 tion to the purchase price of agricultural commodities and other 
 foods, the cost of processing, distributing, transporting, storing, or 
 handling thereof. In no event shall such disbursement for food to 
 any school for any fiscal year exceed an amount determined by multi- 
 plying the number of lunches served in the school in the school-lunch 
 program under this Act during such year by the maximum Federal 
 food-cost contribution rate for the State, for the type of lunch served, 
 as prescribed by the Secretary. (42 U.S.C. 1757.) 
 
 NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS 
 
 Sec. 9. Lunches served by schools participating in the school-lunch 
 program under this Act shall meet minimum nutritional requirements 
 jirescribed by the Secretary on the basis of tested nutritional research. 
 Such meals shall be served without cost or at a reduced cost to children 
 who are determined by local school authorities to be unable to pay the 
 full cost of the lunch. No physical segregation of or other discrimina¬ 
 tion against any child shall be made by the school because of his inabil¬ 
 ity to pay. School-lunch programs under this Act shall be operated 
 on a nonprofit basis. Each school shall, insofar as practicable, utilize 
 in its lunch program commodities designated from time to time by the 
 Secretary as being in abundance, either nationally or in the school area, 
 or commodities donated by the Secretary. Commodities purchased 
 under the authority of section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935 (49 
 Stat. 774), as amended, may be donated by the Secretary to schools, 
 in accordance with the needs as determined by local school authorities, 
 for utilization in the school-lunch program under this Act as well as to 
 other schools carrying out nonprofit school-lunch programs and 
 institutions authorized to receive such commodities. (42 U.S.C. 1758.) 
 
 NONPROFIT PRIVATE SCHOOLS 
 
 Sec. 10. If, in any State, the State educational agency is not per¬ 
 mitted by law to disburse the funds paid to it imder this Act to 
 nonprofit private schools in the State, or is not permitted by law to 
 match Federal funds made available for use by such nonprofit private 
 schools, the Secretary shall withhold from the funds apportioned to 
 any such State under sections 4 and 5 of this Act an amount which 
 bears the same ratio to such funds as the number of lunches, con¬ 
 sisting of a combination of foods and meeting the minimum require¬ 
 ments prescribed by the Secretary pursuant to section 9, served in 
 the preceding fiscal year by all nonprofit private schools participating 
 m the program under this Act within the State, as determined by the 
 Secretary, bears to the participation rate for the State.® The Sec¬ 
 retary shall disburse the funds so withheld directly to the nonprofit 
 pri'^te schools within said State for the same purposes and subject 
 to the same conditions as are authorized or required with respect to 
 
 15*1962^(Pub ^ 87-82^/^76^8^1*945^^*^ previous provisions by the Act of October 
 
NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 315 
 
 the disbursements to schools within the State by the State educational 
 agency, including the requirement that any such payment or payments 
 shall be matched, in the proportion specified in section 7 for such 
 State, by funds from sources within the State expended by nonprofit 
 private schools within the State participating in the school-lunch pro¬ 
 gram under this Act. Such funds shall not be considered a part of 
 the funds constituting the matching funds under the terms of section 
 7. (42.U.S.C.1759.) 
 
 SPECIAL ASSISTANCE 
 
 Sec. 11.'^ (a) There is hereby authorized to be appropriated $10,000,- 
 000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1963, and such sums as may 
 be necessary for each succeeding fiscal year to provide special assist¬ 
 ance to schools drawing attendance from areas in which poor economic 
 conditions exist, for the purpose of helping such schools to meet the 
 requirement of section 9 of this Act concerning the service of lunches 
 to children unable to pay the full cost of such lunches. 
 
 (b) Of the sums appropriated pursuant to this section for any fiscal 
 year, 3 per centum shall be available for apportionment to Puerto Pico, 
 the Virgin Islands, Guam, and American Samoa. From the funds so 
 available the Secretary shall apportion to each such State an amount 
 which bears the same ratio to the total of such funds as the number of 
 free or reduced-price lunches served in accordance with section 9 of 
 this Act in such State in the preceding fiscal year bears to the total 
 number of such free or reduced-price lunches served in all such States 
 in the preceding fiscal year: Provided^ That for the fiscal year ending 
 June 30, 1963, $5,000 shall be apportioned to American Samoa, which 
 amount shall be first deducted from the total amount available for 
 apportionment under this subsection. If any such State cannot utilize 
 for the purposes of this section all of the funds apportioned to it the 
 Secretary shall make further apportionment on the same basis as 
 the initial apportionment to any such States which justify the need 
 for additional funds for such purposes. 
 
 (c) Of the remaining sums appropriated pursuant to this section 
 for any fiscal year, not less than 50 per centum shall be apportioned 
 among States, other than Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, and 
 American Samoa, on the basis of the following factors for each 
 State: (1) the number of free or reduced-price lunches served in ac¬ 
 cordance with section 9 of this Act in the preceding fiscal year, and 
 ('2) the assistance need rate. These factors shall be applied in the 
 following manner: First, determine an index for each State by multi¬ 
 plying factors (1) and (2); second, divide this index by the sum 
 of the indices for all such States; and, third, apply the figure thus 
 obtained to the total funds to be apportioned. Any funds so initially 
 apportioned which cannot be used for the purpose of this section by 
 the State to which apportioned, together with the remainder of the 
 funds available under this subsection, shall be further apportioned 
 by the Secretarv on the same basis as the initial apportionment to 
 such States which justify on the basis of operating experience the 
 
 ^Thls section inserted by the Act of October 15, 1962 (Pnb. L. 87-823), 76 Stat. 946. 
 Former section 11 became the present section 12, as amended. 
 
316 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 need for additional funds to meet tlie need of students in such States 
 for free or reduced-price lunches in schools deemed eligible by their 
 State educational agencies for special assistance in accordance with 
 the factors set forth in subsection (e) of this section. 
 
 (d) Payment of the funds apportioned to any State under this sec¬ 
 tion shall be made as provided in the last sentence of section 7 of 
 the Act. 
 
 (e) Funds paid to any State during any fiscal year pursuant to this 
 section shall be disbursed to selected schools in such State to assist 
 such schools in the purchase of agricultural commodities and other 
 foods. The selection of schools and the amounts of funds that each 
 shall from time to time receive (within a maximum per lunch amount 
 established by the Secretary for all the States) shall be determined 
 by the State educational agency on the basis of the following factors: 
 (1) The economic condition of the area from which such schools 
 draw attendance; (2) the needs of pupils in such schools for free 
 or reduced-pnce lunches; (3) the percentages of fre« and reduced- 
 price lunches being served in such schools to their pupils; (4) the 
 prevailing price of lunches in such schools as compared with the 
 average prevailing price of lunches served in the State under this 
 Act; and (5) the need of such schools for additional assistance as 
 renected by the financial position of the school lunch programs in 
 such schools. 
 
 (f) If in any State the State educational agency is not peiTnitted by 
 law to disburse funds paid to it under this Act to nonprofit private 
 schools in the State, the Secretary shall withhold from the funds 
 apportioned to such State under subsections (b) or (c) of this section 
 an amount which bears the same ratio to such funds as the number of 
 
 lunches .served in accordance with section 9 
 ot tms Act in the jireceding fiscal year by all nonprofit private schools 
 jDarticipating in the progi’am under this Act in such State bears to 
 the numbm’ of such free and reduced-price lunches served during 
 such year by all schools participating in the program under this Act 
 in such State. The Secretary shall disburse the funds so withheld 
 directly to the nonprofit private schools within such State for the 
 same purposes and subject to the same conditions as are applicable 
 to a State educational agency disbursing funds under this section. 
 
 . (S) carrying out this section, the terms and conditions govem- 
 ing the operation of the school lunch progi'am set forth in other 
 sections of this Act, including those applicable to funds apportioned 
 01 paid pursuant to sections 4 or 5 but excluding the provisions of 
 section 7 relating to matching, shall be applicable to the extent they 
 
 TT^ i^c^sistent with the express requirements of this section. 
 (4z U.o.u. l<59a.) 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS PROWSIONS AND DEFINITIONS 
 
 Sec. 12.® (a) States, State educational agencies, and schools partici¬ 
 pating m the school-lunch program under this Act shall keep such 
 accounts and records as may be necessary to enable the Secretary to 
 
 and'^ili’bseetVon's Tii Subsections td)(l) through (4) were amended, 
 
 7G suit 947 (6) added, by the Act of October 15, 1962 (Pub. L. 87-823) 
 
NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 317 
 
 determine whether the provisions of this Act are being complied with 
 Such accounts and records shall at all times be available for inspec¬ 
 tion and audit by representatives of the Secretary and shall be 
 preserved for such period of time, not in excess of five years, as the 
 Secretary determines is necessary. 
 
 (b) The Secretary shall incorporate, in his agreements with the 
 State educational agencies, the express requirements mider this Act 
 with respect to the operation of the school-lunch program under this 
 Act insofar as they may be applicable and such other provisions as 
 m his opinion are reasonably necessary or appropriate to effectuate 
 the purposes of this Act. 
 
 (c) In carrying out the provisions of this Act, neither the Secre¬ 
 tary nor the State shall impose any requirement with respect to teach¬ 
 ing personnel, curriculum, instruction, methods of instruction, and 
 materials of instruction in any school. 
 
 (d) For the purposes of this Act— 
 
 (1) “Stat^’ means any of the fifty States, the District of Co- 
 
 himbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Eico, the Virgin Islands 
 Guam, or American Samoa. ’ 
 
 (2) “State educational agency” means, as the State legislature 
 may determine, (A) the chief State school officer (such as the 
 State superintendent of public instraction, commissioner of edu- 
 catiOT, or similar officer), or (B) a board of education controllino" 
 Uie State department of education; except that in the District of 
 Columbia it shall mean the Board of Education. 
 
 (3) “Nonprofit private school” means any private school ex¬ 
 empt from income tax under section 501(c) (3) of the Internal 
 Eevenue Code of 1954. 
 
 (4) “Nonfood assistance” means equipment used by schools in 
 storing, preparing, or serving food for school children. 
 
 (5) Participation rate” for a State means a number equal to 
 the nimiber of lunches, consisting of a combination of foods and 
 meeting the minimum requirements prescribed by the Secretary 
 pursuant to section 9, served in the preceding fiscal year by schools 
 participating in the program under this Act in the State, as de¬ 
 termined by the Secretary. 
 
 (6) Assistance need rate” (A) in the case of any State having 
 an average annual per capita income equal to or greater than the 
 average annual per capita income for all the States, shall be 5; 
 and (B) in the case of any State having an average annual per 
 capita income less than the average annual per capita income for 
 all the States, shall be the product of 5 and the quotient obtained 
 by dividing the average annual per capita income for all the 
 States by the average annual per capita income for such State, 
 except that such product may not exceed 9 for any such State, 
 lor the purposes of this paragraph (i) the average annual per 
 capita income for any State and for all the States shall be deter¬ 
 mined by the Secretary on the basis of the average annual per 
 capita income for each State and for all the States for the three 
 most recent years for which sucli data are available and certified 
 to the Secretary by the Department of Commerce; and (ii) the 
 average annual per capita income for American Samoa shall be 
 
 758-820—65-22 
 
318 
 
 NATIONAL SCHOOL LUNCH ACT 
 
 disregarded in determining the average annual per capita income 
 for all the States for periods ending Before July 1, 1967. 
 
 _ (7) “School” means any public or nonprofit private school of 
 high school grade or under and, with respect to Puerto Kico, shall 
 also include nonprofit child-care centers certified as such by the 
 Governor of Puerto Rico. (42 U.S.C. 1760.) 
 
FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964 ^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To strengthen the agricultural economy; to help to achieve a fuller and more 
 effective use of food abundances; to provide for improved levels of nutrition 
 among low-income households through a cooperative Federal-State program 
 of food assistance to be operated through normal channels of trade: and for 
 other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled. That this Act may 
 be cited as “The Food Stamp Act of 1964”. 
 
 DECLAEATION OF POLICY 
 
 Sec. 2. It is hereby declared to be the policy of Congress, in order 
 to promote the general welfare, that the Nation’s abundance of food 
 should be utilized cooperatively by the States, the Federal Govern¬ 
 ment, and local governmental units to the maximum extent practicable 
 to safeguard the health and well-being of the Nation’s population and 
 raise levels of nutrition among low-income households. The Congress 
 hereby finds that increased utilization of foods in establishing and 
 maintaining adequate national levels of nutrition will tend to cause 
 the distribution in a beneficial manner of our agricultural abundances 
 and will strengthen our agricultural economy, as well as result in more 
 orderly marketing and distribution of food. To effectuate the policy 
 of Congress and the purposes of this Act, a food stamp program, 
 which will permit those households with low incomes to receive a 
 greater share of the Nation’s food abundance, is herein authorized. 
 (TU.S.C.2011.) 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 Sec. 3. As used in this Act— 
 
 fa) The term “Secretary” means the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 (b) The term “food” means any food or food product for human 
 consumption except alcoholic beverages, tobacco, those foods which 
 are identified on the package as being imported, and meat and meat 
 products which are imported. 
 
 (c) The term “coupon” means any coupon, stamp, or type of cer¬ 
 tificate issued pursuant to the provisions of this Act. 
 
 (d) ^ The term ^^coupon allotment” means the total value of coupons 
 to be issued to a household during each month or other time period. 
 
 (e) The term “household” shall mean a group of related or non- 
 related individuals, who are not residents of an institution or boarding 
 house, but are living as one economic unit sharing common cooking 
 facilities and for whom food is customarily purchased in common. 
 The term “household” shall also mean a single individual living alone 
 who has cooking facilities and who jiurchases and prepares food for 
 home consumption. 
 
 ^ Pub. L. 88—525, 78 Stat. 703, approved August 31, 1964. 
 
 319 
 
320 
 
 FOOD STAMP ACT OF 196 4 
 
 (f) The term “retail food store” means an establishment, including 
 a recognized department thereof, or a house-to-hoiise trade route 
 which sells food to households for home consumption. 
 
 (g) The term “wholesale food concern” means an establishment 
 which sells food to retail food stores for resale to households. 
 
 (h) The term “State agency” means the agency of the State govern- 
 rnent which has responsibility for the administration of the federally 
 aided public assistance programs. 
 
 (i) The term “bank” means member or nonmember banks of the 
 Federal Keserve System. 
 
 (j) The term “State” means the fifty States and the District of 
 Columbia. 
 
 (k) Tlie term “food stamp program” means any program promul¬ 
 gated pursuant to the provisions of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 2012.) 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE FOOD STAMP PROGRAM 
 
 Sec. 4. (a) The Secretary is authorized to formulate and administer 
 a food stamp program under which, at the request of an appropriate 
 State agency, eligible households within the State shall be provided 
 with an opportunity more nearly to obtain a nutritionally adequate 
 diet through the issuance to them of a coupon allotment which shall 
 have a greater monetary value than their normal expenditures for 
 food. The coupons so received by such households shall be used only 
 to purchase food from retail food stores which have been approved 
 for participation in the food stamp program. Coupons issued and 
 used as provided in this Act shall be redeemable at face value by the 
 Secretary through the facilities of the Treasurer of the United States. 
 
 (b) In areas where a food stamp program is in effect, there shall be 
 no distribution of federally owned foods to households under the 
 authority of any other law except during emergency situations caused 
 by a national or other disaster as determined by the Secretary. 
 
 (c) The Secretary shall issue such regulations, not inconsistent with 
 this Act, as he deems necessary or appropriate for the effective and 
 efficient administration of the food stamp program. (7 U.S.C. 2013.) 
 
 ELIGIBLE HOUSEHOLDS 
 
 Sec. 5. (a) Participation in the food stamp program shall be limited 
 to those households whose mcome is determined to be a substantial 
 limiting factor in the attainment of a nutritionally adequate diet. 
 
 (b) In complying with the limitation on participation set forth in 
 subsection (a) above, each State agency shall establish standards to 
 determine the eligibility of applicant households. Such standards 
 shall include maximum income limitations consistent with the income 
 standards used by the State agency in administration of its federally 
 aided public assistance programs. Such standards also shall place a 
 limitation on the resources to be allowed eligible households. The 
 standards of eligibility to be used by each State for the food stamp 
 program shall be subject to the approval of the Secretary. (7 U.S.C. 
 
FOOD STAMP ACT OF 19 64 
 
 321 
 
 ISSUANCE AND USE OF COUPONS 
 
 Sec. 6. (a) Coupons shall be printed in such denominations as may 
 be determined to be necessary, and shall be issued only to households 
 which have been duly certified as eligible to participate in the food 
 stamp program. 
 
 (b) Coupons issued to eligible households shall be used by them 
 only to purchase food in retail food stores which have been approved 
 tor participation in the food stamp program at prices prevailing: 
 m such stores: Provided, That nothing in this Act shall be construed 
 as authorizing the Secretary to specify the prices at which food may 
 be sold by wholesale food concerns or retail food stores. 
 
 (c) Coupons issued to eligible households shall be simple in design 
 and shall include only such words or illustrations as are required to 
 explain their purpose and define their denomination. The name of 
 any public official shall not appear on such coupons. (7 U.S.C. 2015.) 
 
 VALUE OF THE COUPON ALLOTMENT AND CHAEGES TO BE MADE 
 
 Sec. 7. (a) The face value of the coupon allotment which State 
 agencies shall be authorized to issue to households certified as eligible 
 to participate in the food stamp program shall be in such amount as 
 ATiJl provide such households with an opportunity more nearly to 
 obtain a low-cost nutritionally adequate diet. 
 
 (b) Households shall be charged such portion of the face value 
 of the coupon allotment issued to them as is determined to be equiv¬ 
 alent to their normal expenditures for food. 
 
 (c) The value of the coupon allotment provided to anv eligible 
 household which is in excess of the amount charged such households 
 for such allotment shall not be considered to be income or resources 
 for any purpose imder any Federal or State laws including, but not 
 imited to, laws relating to taxation, welfare, and public assistance 
 
 programs. 
 
 (d) Funds derived from the charges made for the coupon allot¬ 
 
 ment shall be promptly deposited in a manner prescribed in the reo-u- 
 Jations issued pursuant to this Act, in a separate account maintained 
 in the rreasury of the United States for such purpose. Such deposits 
 shall be available, without limitation to fiscal years, for the redemo- 
 tion of coupons. (7 U.S.C. 2016.) ^ 
 
 approval of retail food stores and WHOLESALE FOOD CONCERNS 
 
 Sec. 8. (a) Eegulations issued pursuant to this Act shall provide 
 tor the submission of applications for approval by retail food stores 
 and wholesale food concerns which desire to be authorized to accept 
 and redeem coupons under the food stamp program and for the ap¬ 
 proval of those applicants whose participation will effectuate the 
 purposes of the food stamp program. In determining the qualifica¬ 
 tions of applicants there shall be considered among such other factors 
 as may be appropriate, the following: (1) the nature and extent of 
 the retail or wholesale food business conducted by the applicant; (2) 
 the volume of coupon business which may reasonably be expected to 
 be conducted by the applicant retail food store or wholesale food 
 concern; and (3) the business integrity and reputation of the appli- 
 
322 
 
 FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964 
 
 cant. Approval of an applicant shall be evidenced by the issuance 
 to such applicant of a nontransferable certificate of approval. 
 
 (b) Regulations issued pursuant to this Act shall require an appli¬ 
 cant retail food store or wholesale food concern to submit infonnation 
 wliich will pe^it a determination to be made as to whether such 
 applicant qualifies, or continues to qualify, for approval under the 
 provisions of this Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this 
 Act. Regulations issued pursuant to this Act shall provide for safe¬ 
 guards which restrict the use or disclosure of information obtained 
 under the authority granted by the subsection to purposes directly 
 connected with administration and enforcement of the provisions of 
 this Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. 
 
 (c) Any retail food store or wholesale food concern which has 
 failed upon application to receive approval to participate in the food 
 stamp program may obtain a hearing on such refusal as provided in 
 section 13 of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 2017.) 
 
 REDEItfPTION OF COUPONS 
 
 Sec. 9. Reflations issued pursuant to this Act shall provide for 
 the redemption of coupons accepted by retail food stores through 
 approved wholesale food concerns or through banks, with the coop¬ 
 eration of the Treasury Department. (7 U.S.C. 2018.) 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 ^ Sec. 10. (a) All practicable efforts shall be made in the administra¬ 
 tion of the food stamp program to insure that participants use their 
 increased food purchasing power to obtain those staple foods most 
 needed in their diets, and particularly to encourage the continued use 
 of those in abundant or surplus supply so as not to reduce the total 
 consumption of surplus commodities which have been made available 
 through direct distribution. In addition to such steps as may be 
 taken administratively, the voluntary cooperation of existing Federal, 
 State, local, or private agencies which carry out informational and 
 educational programs for consumers shall be enlisted. 
 
 (b) The_ State agency of each participating State shall assume 
 responsibility for the certification of applicant households and for the 
 issuance of coupons: Provided^ That the State agency may, subject to 
 State law, delegate its responsibility in connection with the issuance of 
 coupons to another agency of the State government. There shall be 
 kept such records as may be necessary to ascertain whether the pro¬ 
 gram is being conducted in compliance with the provisions of this 
 Act and the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. Such records 
 shall be available for inspection and audit at any reasonable time and 
 shall be preserved for such period of time, not in excess of three years, 
 as may be specified in the regulations. 
 
 (c) In the certification of applicant households for the food stamp 
 program there shall be no discrimination against any household by 
 reason of race, religious creed, national origin, or political beliefs. 
 
 (d) Participating States or participating political subdivisions 
 thereof shall not decrease welfare grants or other similar aid extended 
 to any person or persons as a consequence of such person’s or persons’ 
 
FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964 
 
 323 
 
 participation in benefits made available under the provisions of this 
 Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. 
 
 (e) The State agency of each State desiring to participate in the 
 food stamp program shall submit for approval a plan of operation 
 
 program will be conducted 
 withm the State, the political subdivisions within the State in which 
 the State desires to conduct the program, and the effective dates of 
 participation by each such political subdivision. In addition, such 
 plan 01 operation shall provide, among such other provisions as mav 
 by regulation be required, the following: (1) the specific standards to 
 be used in determining the eligibility of applicant households: (2) 
 that the State agency shall undertake the certification of applicant 
 households in accordance with the general procedures and persomiel 
 standards used by them in the certification of applicants for benefits 
 un^der the federally aided public assistance programs; (3) safeguards 
 which restrict the use or disclosure of information obtained from 
 applicant households to persons directly connected with the admin¬ 
 istration or enforcement of the provisions of this Act or the reo-ula- 
 tions issued pursuant to this Act; and (4) for the submission of such 
 reports and other information as may from time to time be required. 
 In approving the participation of the subdivisions requested by each 
 otate in its plan of operation, the Secretary shall provide for an 
 equitable and orderly expansion among the several States in ac- 
 cordance with their relative need and readiness to meet their requested 
 effective dates of participation. 
 
 (f) If the Secretary determines that in the administration of the 
 pro^am there is a failure by a State agency to comply substantially 
 with the provisions of this Act, or with the regulations issued pur¬ 
 suant to this Act, or with the State plan of operation, he shall inform 
 such State agency of such failure and shall allow the State agency a 
 reasonable period of time for the correction of such failure. Upon 
 the expiration of such period, the Secretary shall direct that there be 
 no further issuance of coupons in the political subdivisions where 
 such failure has occurred until such time as satisfactory corrective 
 action has been taken. 
 
 (g) If the Secretary determines that there has been gross negli¬ 
 gence or fraud on the part of the State agency in the certification of 
 applicant households, the State shall upon request of the Secretary 
 deposit into the separate account authorized by section 7 of this Act, 
 a sum equal to the amount by which the value of any coupons issued 
 as a result of such negligence or fraud exceeds the amount that was 
 charged for such coupons under section 7(b) of this Act. (7 U.S.C. 
 2019.) 
 
 DISQUALIFICATION OF RETAIL FOOD STORES AND WHOLESALE FOOD 
 
 CONCERNS 
 
 Sec. 11. Any approved retail food store or wholesale food concern 
 may be disqualified from further participation in the food stamp 
 program on a finding, made as specified in the regulations, that such 
 store or concern has violated any of the provisions of this Act, or of 
 the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. Such disqualification 
 shall be for such period of time as may be determined in accordance 
 
324 
 
 FOOD STAIMP ACT OF 1964 
 
 with regulations issued pursuant to this Act. The action of disquali¬ 
 fication shall be subject to review as provided in section 13 of this Act. 
 (7U.S.C.2020.) 
 
 DETERMINATION AND DISPOSITION OF CLAIMS 
 
 Sec. 12. The Secretary shall have the power to determine the 
 amount of and settle and adjust any claim and to compromise or 
 deny all or part of any such claim or claims arising under the pro¬ 
 visions of this Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. 
 (7U.S.C.2021.) ^ 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE AND JUDICIAL REVIEW 
 
 Sec. 13. Whenever— 
 
 (a) an application of a retail food store or wholesale food 
 concern to participate in the food stamp program is denied, 
 
 (b) a retail food store or a wholesale food concern is disquali¬ 
 fied under the provisions of section 11 of this Act, or 
 
 (c) all or part of any claim of a retail food store or whole¬ 
 sale food concern is denied under the provisions of section 12 of 
 this Act, notice of such administrative action shall be issued to 
 the retail food store or wholesale food concern involved. Such 
 notice shall be delivered by certified mail or personal service. If 
 such store or_ concern is aggrieved by such action, it may, in 
 accordance with regulations promulgated under this Act, with¬ 
 in ten days of the date of delivery of such notice, file a written 
 request for an opportunity to submit information in support of 
 its position to such person or persons as the regulations may 
 designate. If such a request is not made or if such store or con¬ 
 cern fails to submit information in support of its position aft^r 
 filing a request, the administrative determination shall be final. 
 If such a request is made by such store or concern, such infor¬ 
 mation as may be submitted by the store or concern, as well as 
 such other information as may be available, shall be reviewed by 
 the person or persons designated, who shall, subject to the right 
 of judicial review hereinafter provided, make a determination 
 which shall be final and which shall take effect fifteen days after 
 the date of the delivery or service of such final notice of determi¬ 
 nation. If the store or concern feels aggrieved by such final 
 determination he may obtain judicial review thereof by filing 
 a complaint against the United States in the United States 
 district court for the district in which he resides or is engaged 
 in business, or in any court of record of the State having com¬ 
 petent jurisdiction, within thirty days after the date of delivery 
 or service of the final notice of determination upon him, request¬ 
 ing the court to set aside such determination. The copy of the 
 summons and complaint required to be delivered to the official 
 or agency whose order is being attacked shall be sent to the Sec¬ 
 retary or such person or persons as he may designate to receive 
 service of process. The suit in the United States district court or 
 State court shall be a trial de novo by the court in which the 
 court shall determine the validity of the questioned admin¬ 
 istrative action in issue. If the court determines that such ad¬ 
 ministrative action is invalid it shall enter such judgment or 
 order as it determines is in accordance with the law and the 
 
FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964 
 
 325 
 
 evidence. During the pendency of such judicial review, or any 
 appeal therefrom, the administrative action under review shall be 
 and remain in full force and effect, unless an application to the 
 court on not less than ten days’ notice, and after hearing thereon 
 and a showing of irreparable injury, the court temporarily stays 
 such administrative action pending disposition of such trial or 
 appeal. (7 U.S.C. 2022.) 
 
 VIOLATIONS AND ENFORCEMENT 
 
 Sec. 14. (a) Notwithstanding any other provisions of this Act, 
 the Secretary may provide for the issuance or presentment for 
 redemption of coupons to such person or persons, and at such times 
 and in such manner, as he deems necessary or appropriate to protect 
 the interests of the United States or to insure enforcement of the 
 provisions of this Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this Act. 
 
 (b) Whoever knowingly uses, transfers, acquires, or possesses 
 coupons in any manner not authorized by this Act or the regulations 
 issued pursuant to this Act shall, if such coupons are of the value of 
 $100 or more, be guilty of a felony and shall, upon conviction thereof, 
 be fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned for not more than five 
 years, or both, or, if such coupons are of a value of less than $100, shall 
 be guilty of a misdemeanor and shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined 
 not more than $5,000 or imprisoned for not more than one year, or both. 
 
 (c) Whoever presents, or causes to be presented, coupons for pay¬ 
 
 ment or redemption of the value of $100 or more, knowing the same to 
 have been received, transferred, or used in any manner in violation 
 of the proAUsions of this Act or the regulations issued pursuant to this 
 Act shall be guilty of a felony and shall, upon conviction thereof, be 
 fined not more than $10,000 or imprisoned for not more than five years, 
 or both, or, if such coupons are of a value of less than $100, shall be 
 guilty of a misdemeanor and shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined 
 not more than $5,000 or imprisoned for not more than one year, or 
 both. ’ 
 
 (d) Coupons issued pursuant to this Act shall be deemed to be obli¬ 
 gations of the United States within the meaning of title 18, United 
 States Code, section 8. (7 U.S.C. 2023.) 
 
 COOPERATION WITH STATE AGENCIES 
 
 Sec. 15. (a) Each State shall be responsible for financing, from funds 
 available to the State or political subdivision thereof, the costs of 
 carrying out the administrative responsibilities assigned to it under 
 the provisions of this Act. Except as provided for in subsection (b) 
 of this section, such costs sliall include, but shall not be limited to, the 
 certification of households; the acceptance, storage, and protection of 
 coupons after their delivery to receiving points within the States; and 
 the issuance of such coupons to eligible households and the control and 
 accounting therefor. 
 
 ■ The Secretary is authorized to cooperate Avith State agencies 
 in the certification of households A\diich are not receiving any type of 
 public assistance so as to insure the effectiA^e certification of such house¬ 
 holds in accordance Avith the eligibility standards approA'ed under the 
 provisions of section 10 of this Act. Such cooperation shall include 
 
326 
 
 FOOD STAMP ACT OF 1964 
 
 payments to State agencies for part of the cost they incur in the certi¬ 
 fication of such households. The amount of such payment to any one 
 State agency shall be 60 per centum of the sum of: (1) the direct 
 salary costs (including the cost of such fringe benefits as are normally 
 paid to its personnel by the State agency) of the personnel used to 
 make such interviews and such postinterview field investigations as 
 are necessary to certify the eligibility of such households, and of the 
 immediate supervisor of such personnel, for such periods of time as 
 they are employed in certifying the eligibility of such households; 
 (2) travel and related costs incurred by such personnel in postinter¬ 
 view field investigations of such households; and (3) an amount not 
 to exceed 25 per centum of the costs computed under (1) and (2) 
 above. (7 U.S.C. 2024.) 
 
 APPROPRIATIONS 
 
 Sec. 16. (a) To carry out the provisions of this Act, there is hereby 
 authorized to be appropriated not in excess of $75,000,000 for the 
 fiscal year ending June 30, 1965; not in excess of $100,000,000 for the 
 fiscal year ending June 30, 1966; and not in excess of $200,000,000 for 
 the fiscal year ending June 30, 1967; and not in excess of such sum 
 as may hereafter be authorized by Congress for any subsequent fiscal 
 year. Such portion of any such appropriation as may be required 
 to pay for the value of the coupon allotments issued to eligible house¬ 
 holds which is in excess of the charges paid by such households for 
 such allotments shall be transferred to and made a part of the separate 
 account created under section 7 (d) of this Act. 
 
 (b) In any fiscal year, the Secretary shall limit the value of those 
 coupons issued which is in excess of the value of coupons for which 
 households are charged, to an amount which is not in excess of the 
 portion of the appropriation for such fiscal year which is transferred 
 to the separate account under the provisions of subsection (a) of this 
 section.^ If in any fiscal year the Secretary finds that the requirements 
 of participating States will exceed the limitation set forth herein, the 
 Secretary shall direct State agencies to reduce the amount of such 
 coupons to be issued to participating households to the extent necessary 
 to comply with the provisions of this subsection. 
 
 (c) If the Secretary determines that any of the funds in the separate 
 account created under section 7(d) of this Act are no longer required 
 to carry out the provisions of this Act, such portion of such funds shall 
 be paid into the miscellaneous receipts of the Treasury. 
 
 (d) Amounts expended under the authority of this Act shall not be 
 considered amounts expended for the purpose of carrying out the agri¬ 
 cultural price-support program and appropriations for the purposes 
 of this Act shall be considered, for the purpose of budget presenta¬ 
 tions, to relate to the functions of the Government concerned with 
 welfare. (7 U.S.C. 2025.) 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 327 
 
 DECLARATIONS OF POLICY 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1961— Sec. 2. In order more fully and effec¬ 
 tively to improve, maintain, and protect the prices and incomes of 
 farmers, to enlarge rural purchasing power, to achieve a better balance 
 between supplies of agricultural commodities and the requirements of 
 consumers therefor, to preserve and strengthen the structure of agri¬ 
 culture, and to revitalize and stabilize the overall economy at reason¬ 
 able costs to the Government, it is hereby declared to be the policy of 
 Congress to— 
 
 (a) afford farmers the opportunity to achieve parity of income 
 with other economic groups by providing them with the means to 
 develop and strengthen their bargaining power in the Nation’s 
 economy ; 
 
 (b) encourage a commodity-by-commodity approach in the 
 solution of farm problems and provide the means for meeting 
 varied and changing conditions peculiar to each commodity; 
 
 (c) expand foreign trade in agricultural commodities with 
 friendly nations, as defined in section 107 of Public Law 480, 83d 
 Congress, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1707), and in no manner either 
 subsidize the export, sell, or make available any subsidized agri¬ 
 cultural commodity to any nations other than such friendly na¬ 
 tions and. thus make full use of our agricultural abundance ; 
 
 (d) utilize more effectively our agricultural productive capac¬ 
 ity to improve the diets of the Nation’s needy persons; 
 
 (e) recognize the importance of the family farm as an efficient 
 unit of production and as an economic base for towns and cities 
 in rural areas and encourage, promote, and strengthen this form 
 of farm enterprise; 
 
 (f) facilitate and improve credit services to farmers by revis¬ 
 ing, expanding, and clarifying the laws relating to agricultural 
 credit; 
 
 (g) assure consumers of a continuous, adequate, and stable 
 supply of food and fiber at fair and reasonable prices; 
 
 (h) reduce the cost of farm programs, by preventing the accu¬ 
 mulation of surpluses; and 
 
 (i) use surplus farm commodities on hand as fully as practi¬ 
 cable as an incentive to reduce production as may be necessary to 
 bring supplies on hand and firm demand in balance. (75 Stat 
 294,7U.kC. 1282.) 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962— Sec. 402. Congress hereby 
 reconfirms its long-standing policy of favoring the use by govern¬ 
 mental agencies of the usual and customary channels, facilities, and 
 arrangements of trade and commerce, and directs the Secretary of 
 Agriculture and the Commodity Credit Corporation to the maximum 
 extent practicable to adopt policies and procedures designed to mini¬ 
 mize the acquisition of stocks by the Commodity Credit Corporation 
 to encourage orderly marketing of farm commodities through private 
 competitive trade channels, both cooperative and noncooperative, and 
 to obtain maximum returns in tlie marketplace for producers and for 
 the Commodity Credit Corporation. (76 Stat. 632,15 U.S.C. 713-13 ) 
 Agricultural Act of 1954— Sec. 204. (a) The production and use 
 of abundant supplies of high quality milk and dairy products are 
 
328 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 essential to the health and general welfare of the Nation; a dependable 
 domestic source of supply of these foods in the form of high grade 
 dairy herds and modern sanitary dairy equipment is important to the 
 national defense; and an economically sound dairy industry affects 
 beneficially the economy of the country as a whole. It is the policy of 
 Congress to assure a stabilized annual production of adequate supplies 
 of milk and dairy products; to promote the increased use of these 
 essential foods; to improve the domestic source of supply of milk and 
 butterfat by encouraging dairy farmers to develop efficient production 
 units consisting of high-grade, disease-free cattle and modern sanitary 
 equipment; and to stabilize the economy of dairy farmers at a level 
 wdiich will provide a fair return for their labor and investment when 
 compared with the cost of things that farmers buy. (7 U.S.C. 1446b.) 
 
 CONSULTATION ON AGRICULTURAL TROGRAMS 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1961— Sec. 102. (a) Notwithstanding any 
 other provision of law, "whenever the Secretary of Agriculture de¬ 
 termines that additional legislative authority is necessary to develop 
 new agricultural programs involving supply adjustments or marketing 
 regulations through marketing orders, marketing quotas, or price sup¬ 
 port programs with respect to any agricultural commodity, or to make 
 substantial revisions in any existing agricultural legislation or pro¬ 
 grams, he may consult and advise with farmers, farm organizations, 
 and appropriate commodity organizations, if any, for the commodity 
 involved, to review the problems involved, the need for new legislation, 
 and the provisions which should be included in any such proposed 
 legislation. 
 
 (b) In addition, whenever and to the extent he deems such action 
 necessary or desirable, the Secretary of Agriculture may consult and 
 advise with any person or group of persons, or organizations, includ¬ 
 ing farmers, handlers, processors, or others connected with the produc¬ 
 tion, processing, handling, or use of the commodity involved, with 
 respect to the problems involved and need for legislation and the pro¬ 
 visions which should be included in any such proposed legislation. 
 
 (c) In order that the Secretary of Agriculture may be assured of 
 being able tn obtain the advice of any such person or organization, 
 he is authorized, whenever he determines such action necessary, to pay 
 for each day’s attendance at meetings and while traveling to and from 
 such meetings, transportation expenses and in lieu of subsistence, a 
 per diem in the amount authorized under the Travel Expense Act of 
 1949 for Federal employees. No salary or other compensation shall 
 be paid. (7 U.S.C. 1911.) 
 
 Sec. 103. If the Secretary of Agriculture, after such consultation 
 and receipt of such advice as provided in section 102 of this Act, deter¬ 
 mines that additional legislative authority is necessary to develop agri¬ 
 cultural programs involving supply adjustments or marketing regula¬ 
 tions through the use of marketing orders, marketing quotas or price- 
 support programs, he shall formulate specific recommendations in the 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 329 
 
 form of proposed legislation which shall be submitted to the Congress 
 together with a statement setting forth the purpose and need for such 
 proposed legislation. (7 U.S.C. 1912.) 
 
 Sec. 104. Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to limit the authority 
 of the Secretary of Agriculture under other provision of law or to 
 establish or consult with advisory committees. (7 U.S.C. 1913.) 
 
 AGRICULTURAL ATTACHES 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954— Sec. 601. For the purpose of encour- 
 promoting the marketing of agricultural products of the 
 United States and assisting American farmers, processors, distribu¬ 
 tors, and exporters to adjust their operations and practices to meet 
 world conditions, the Secretary of Agriculture shall acquire informa¬ 
 tion regarding the competition and demand for United States agri¬ 
 cultural products, the marketing and distribution of said products 
 in foreign countries and shall be responsible for the interpretation and 
 dissemination of such information in the United States and shall make 
 investigations abroad regarding the factors affecting and influencino’ 
 the export of United States agricultural products, and shall conduct 
 abroad any other activities including the demonstration of standards 
 of qualitv for American agricultural products for which the Depart¬ 
 ment of Agriculture now has or in the future may have such standards, 
 as he deems necessary. Nothing contained herein shall be construed 
 as prohibiting the Department of Agriculture from conducting abroad 
 any activity for which authority now exists. (7 U.S.C. 1761.) 
 
 establishment of federal agricultural services to GUAM 
 
 PUBLIC LAW 88-584 SEPTEMBER 7, 1964 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To establish Federal agricultural services to Guam, and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of America in Congress assembled^ That the Secretary 
 of Agriculture is authorized to establish and maintain an agricul¬ 
 tural program in Guam which will include such programs admin¬ 
 istered by the United States Department of Agriculture, hereinafter 
 referred to as “Department”, as are determined by the Secretary will 
 promote the welfare of that island. This authority may be exercised 
 without regard to section 25(b) of the Organic Act of Guam (64 
 Stat. 390; 48 U.S.C. 1421c(b)), or any other provision of law under 
 which Guam may have been excluded from such programs. The 
 Secretary is authorized to provide for such modification of any such 
 programs extended to Guam as he deems necessary in order to adapt 
 it to the needs of Guam. The program authorized by this section 
 shall be developed in cooperation with the territorial government of 
 Guam and shall be covered by a memoradum of understanding aoreed 
 to by the territorial government and the Department. The Secretary 
 may also utilize the agencies, facilities, and employees of the Depart¬ 
 ment, and may cooperate with other public agencies and with private 
 organizations and individuals in Guam and elsewhere: Provided, That 
 
330 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 the number of employees of the United States Department of Agri¬ 
 culture stationed on Guam to carry out the purposes of this Act shall 
 not exceed three at any one time. 
 
 Sec. 2. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums, 
 but not to exceed $60,000 per annum, as may be necessary to carry 
 out the purposes of this Act. Sums appropriated in pursuance of 
 this Act shall be in addition to, and not in substitution for, sums 
 appropriated or otherwise made available to the Department, and 
 may be allocated to such agencies of the Department as are concerned 
 with the administration of the program in Guam. 
 
 Sec. 3. All provisions of this Act shall terminate five years from the 
 date of enactment of this Act. (78 Stat. 926.) 
 
 COMPROMISING, ADJUSTING, OR CANCELING DEBTS 
 
 ACT OF DECEMBER 20, 1944 
 
 The Secretary of Agriculture, hereinafter referred to as the Secre¬ 
 tary, is hereby authorized and directed to compromise, adjust, or 
 cancel indebtedness arising from loans and payments made or credit 
 extended to farmers under the provisions of the several Acts of Con¬ 
 gress or programs enumerated in section 2: Provided^ That the Secre¬ 
 tary finds, after such investigation as he deems sufficient to establish 
 the facts, that (1) said indebtedness has been due and payable for 
 five years or more; (2) the debtor is unable to pay said indebtedness 
 in full and has no reasonable prospect of being able to do so; (3) the 
 debtor has acted in good faith in an effort to meet his obligation; 
 and (4) the principal amount of said indebtedness is not in excess 
 of $1,000. The Secretary is hereby further authorized at his discre¬ 
 tion to cancel and discharge indebtedness arising under said Acts of 
 Congress or programs when the amount of said indebtedness is less 
 than $10, or the debtor is deceased and there is no reasonable prospect 
 of recovering from his estate, or his whereabouts has remained un- 
 known for two years and there is no reasonable prospect of obtaining 
 collection, or he has been discharged of the indebtedness in any pro¬ 
 ceeding under the Act entitled “An Act to establish a uniform system 
 of bankruptcy throughout the United States.” The compromises, ad¬ 
 justments, or cancelations authorized by this section shall be effected 
 through such agencies, upon such terms and conditions, and subject 
 to such regulations, as the Secretary may prescribe, and the Secretary 
 may delegate the exercise of any such powers and functions to such 
 officers or employees of the Department of Agriculture as he may 
 designate. (12 U.S.C. 1150.) 
 
 Sec. 2. The provisions of this Act shall apply to any indebtedness 
 of farmers arising from loans or payments made or credit extended 
 to them under any of the following Acts or programs: (a) July 1, 
 1918 (40 Stat. 635); March 3, 1921 (41 Stat. 1347) ; March 20, 1922 
 (42 Stat. 467) ; April 26, 1924 (43 Stat. 110) ; February 25, 1927 
 (44 Stat. 1245) ; February 28, 1927 (44 Stat., part II, 1251) ; Feb¬ 
 ruary 25, 1929 (45 Stat. 1306), as amended May 17, 1929 (46 Stat. 
 3) ; March 3, 1930 (46 Stat. 78-79), as amended April 24, 1930 (46 
 Stat. 254); December 20, 1930 (46 Stat. 1032), as amended February 
 14, 1931 (46 Stat. 1160); February 23,1931 (46 Stat. 1276); January 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 331 
 
 22, 1932 (47 Stat. 5); March 3, 1932 (47 Stat. 60); February 4,1933 
 (47 Stat. 795); February 23, 1934 (48 Stat. 354); June 19, 1934 (48 
 Stat. 1056); February 20, 1935 (49 Stat. 28); March 21, 1935 (49 
 Stat. 50); April 8,1935 (49 Stat. 115); (Executive Order No. 7305); 
 January 29, 1937 (50 Stat. 5); and February 4, 1938 (52 Stat. 27); 
 (b) Agricultural Adjustment Act (of 1933); Bankhead Cotton Act 
 of April 21, 1934, on account of the several cotton tax-exemption 
 certificate pools ; Jones-Connally Cattle Act of April 7, 1934; Emer¬ 
 gency Appropriation Act, fiscal year 1935, approved June 19, 1934; 
 Kerr Tobacco Act of June 28,1934, and Public Eesolution Numbered 
 76, approved March 14,1936; section 32 of the Act of August 24,1935, 
 and related legislation; Suppleinental Appropriation Act, fiscal year 
 1936; sections 7 to 17 of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allot¬ 
 ment Act; Sugar Act of 1937; sections 303 and 381(a) of the Agri¬ 
 cultural Adjustment Act of 1938 and related or subsequent legislation 
 authorizing parity or price adjustment payments; title IV and title 
 V of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 and related legislation; 
 any amendment to any of the foregoing Acts heretofore and any other 
 Act of Congress heretofore enacted authorizing payments to farmers 
 under programs administered through the Agricultural Adjustment 
 Agency; (c) Loans made by or through the Kesettlement Administra¬ 
 tion or the Farm Security Administration out of funds appropriated 
 or made available by or pursuant to the following Acts: April 8, 1935 
 (49 Stat. 115); June 22, 1936 (49 Stat. 1608) ; February 9, 1937 (50 
 Stat. 8); June 29, 1937 (50 Stat. 352); The Bankhead-Jones Farm 
 Tenant Act, July 22, 1937 (50 Stat. 522 et seq.); the Water Facilities 
 Act of August 28, 1937 (50 Stat. 869 et seq.); March 2,1938 (52 Stat. 
 83, Public Eesolution Numbered 80); June 21, 1938 (52 Stat. 809); 
 June 30, 1939 (53 Stat. 927); June 26,1940 (Public Eesolution Num¬ 
 bered 88); flood-restoration loans, Second Deficiency Appropriation 
 Act, 1943 (57 Stat. 537, 542); and subsequent legislation appropriat¬ 
 ing or making available funds for such loans; commodity loan, pur¬ 
 chase, sale, and other programs of the Commodity Credit Corporation ; 
 and crop-insurance programs formulated pursuant to title V of the 
 Agiicultural Adjustment Act of 1938 (the Federal Crop Insurance 
 A^t), and any amendment or supplement thereto heretofore or here¬ 
 after enacted. This Act shall also apply to any indebtedness of 
 farmers evidenced by not^ or accoimts receivable, title to which has 
 been acquired in the liquidation of loans to cooperative associations 
 made under the provisions of the Act of June 15, 1929 (46 Stat. 11). 
 (12 U.S.C. 1150a.) ^ ’ 
 
 Sec. 3. There is hereby authorized to be appropriated, out of any 
 money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, such amount as 
 inay be necessary to enable the Secretary to carry out the provisions 
 of this Act, and the current and subsequent appropriations to enable 
 the Secretary^ to administer the respective Acts of Congress or pro¬ 
 grams to which the aforesaid payments or loans or extensions of 
 credit relate shall also be available for the administrative expenses 
 of carrying out this Act. (12 U.S.C. 1150b.) 
 
 Sec. 4. [Eepealed, effective September 1, 1948, by 62 Stat. 862. 
 
 I revisions of this section are now covered by sections 217 and 1026 
 of Title 18, U.S.C.] 
 
332 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 CARGO PREFERENCE ACT 
 
 Public Law 664—83d Congress 
 Act of August 26, 1954 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 To amend the Merchant Marine Act, 1936, to provide permament legislation 
 for the transportation of a substantial portion of waterborne cargoes in United 
 States-flag vessels. 
 
 Be it eimcted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the 
 United States of Anierica in Congress assenibled^ That section 901 
 of the Merchant Marine Act, 1936, as amended, is hereby amended 
 by inserting “(a)” after “Sec. 901.” and by adding at the end of the 
 section the following new subsection: 
 
 “(b) whenever the United States shall procure, contract for, or 
 otherwise obtain for its own accoimt, or shall furnish to or for the 
 account of any foreign nation without provision for reimbursement, 
 any equipment, materials, or commodities, within or without the 
 United States, or shall advance funds or credits or guarantee the 
 convertibility of foreign currencies in connection with the furnish¬ 
 ing of such equipment, materials, or commodities, the appropriate 
 agency or agencies shall take such steps as may be necessary and 
 practicable to assure that at least 50 per centum of the gross ton¬ 
 nage of such equipment, materials, or commodities (computed sep¬ 
 arately for dry bulk carriers, dry cargo liners, and tankers), which 
 may be transported on ocean vessels shall be transported on privately 
 owned United States-flag commercial vessels, to the extent such 
 vessels are available at fair and reasonable rates for United States- 
 flag commercial vessels, in such manner as will insure a fair and 
 reasonable participation of United States-flag commercial vessels 
 in such cargoes by geograpliic areas: Provided^ That the provisions 
 of this subsection may be waived whenever the Congress by con¬ 
 current resolution or otherwise, or the President of the United States 
 or the Secretaiy of Defense declares that an emergency exists justi¬ 
 fying a temporary waiver of the provisions of section 901(b) and 
 so notifies the appropriate agency or agencies: And provided further^ 
 That the provisions of this subsection shall not apply to cargoes 
 carried in the vessels of the Panama Canal Company. Nothing 
 herein shall repeal or otherwise modify the provisions of Public 
 Resolution Numbered 17, Seventy-third Congress (48 Stat. 500), 
 as amended.” ^ (68 Stat. 832,46 U.S.C. 1241 (b).) 
 
 1 Sec. 3 of the Act of August 3, 195fi, 70 Stat. 988, provides that the sales of fresh fruit 
 and the products thereof under Title I of the Agricultural Trade Development and Assist¬ 
 ance Act of 1954 shall be exempt from the requirements of the cargo preference laws. 
 (7 U.S.C. 1701 note, 15 U.S.C. 616a note, 46 U.S.C. 1241 note.) 
 
MISCELLANEOUS LAWS 
 
 333 
 
 HUMANE METHODS OF SLAUGHTER ACT 
 
 August 27, 1958—Sec. 3. Tlie public policy declared herein 
 shall be taken into consideration by all agencies of the Federal Govern¬ 
 ment in connection with all procurement and price support programs 
 and operations and after June 30, 1960, no agency or instrumentality 
 of the United States shall contract for or procure any livestock 
 products produced or processed by any slaughterer or processor 
 which in any of its plants or in any plants of any slaughterer or 
 processor with which it is affiliated slaughters or handles in connection 
 with slaughter livestock by any methods other than methods desig¬ 
 nated and approved by the Secretary of Agriculture (hereinafter 
 referred to as the Secretary) pursuant to section 4 hereof: Pro'vided^ 
 That during the period of any national emergency declared by the 
 President or the Congress, the limitations on procurement required 
 by this section may be modified by the President to the extent de¬ 
 termined by him to be necessary to meet essential procurement needs 
 during such emergency. For the purposes of this section a slaugh¬ 
 terer or processor shall be deemed to be affiliated with another 
 slaughterer or processor if it controls, is controlled by, or is under 
 common control with, such other slaughterer or processor. After 
 June 30, 1960, each supplier from which any livestock products are 
 procured by any agency of the Federal Government shall be required 
 by such agency to make such statement of eligibility under this section 
 to supply such livestock products as, if false, will subject the maker 
 thereof to prosecution, title 18, United States Code, section 287. 
 (<2 Stat. 862, approved August 27, 1958, 7 U.S.C. 1903.) 
 
 758-820—65 
 
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PART VIII 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND RELATED 
 AGENCIES APPROPRIATION ACT, 1965 ^ 
 
 AN ACT 
 
 Making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture and related 
 for the fiscal year ending June 30,1965, and for other purposes. 
 
 agencies 
 
 Be it enacted ly the Senate arid House of Representatives of the 
 Umted States of America in Congress assembled, That the following- 
 sums are appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise 
 appropriated, for the Department of Agriculture and related agencies 
 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1965, and for other purposes; 
 
 V * 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 TITLE I—GENERAL ACTIVITIES 
 
 Agriculture Research Service 
 
 SAUABIES AND EXPENSES 
 
 Plant and animal disease and pest control: For operations and 
 measures, not otherwise provided for, to control and eradicate pests 
 and plant and animal diseases and for carrying out assigned inspec¬ 
 tion, quarantine, and regulatory activities, as authorized by law, 
 including expenses pursuant to the Act of February 28, 1947 as 
 amended (21 US.C. 114Uc), $68,793,200, of which $1,500,000 shall be 
 apportioned for use pursuant to section 3679 of the Revised Statutes, 
 as amended, for the control of outbreaks of insects and plant diseases 
 to the extent necessary to meet emergency conditions: Provided, That 
 no funds shall be used to formulate or administer a brucellosis eradica¬ 
 tion program for the current fiscal year that does not require minimum 
 matching by any State of at least 40 per centum: Provided further, 
 I hat no funds in excess of $250,000 shall be available for carrying out 
 the screw worm eradication program that does not require minimum 
 matching ly State oy local sources of at least 50 per centum of the 
 expenses of production, irradiation, and release of the screwworm 
 Pro^^ed further. That, in addition, in emergencies which 
 threaten the livestock or poultry industries of the country, the Secre¬ 
 tary may transfer from other appropriations or funds available to 
 the agencies or corporations of the Department such sums as he may 
 deem necessary, to be available only in such emergencies for the arrest 
 and eradication of foot-and-mouth disease, rinderpest, contagious 
 
 ^ Pub. L. 88—573, 78 Stat. 862, approved September 2, 1964. 
 
 335 
 
336 
 
 19 65 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 pleuropneumonia, or other contagious or infectious diseases of animals, 
 or European fowl pest and similar diseases in poultry, and for expenses 
 in accordance with the Act of February 28, 1947, as amended, and any 
 unexpended balances of funds transferred under this head in the next 
 preceding fiscal year shall be merged with such transferred amounts; 
 
 Salaries and Expenses (Special Foreign Currency Program) 
 
 For payments in foreign currencies which accrue under title I of the 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 amended (7 U.S.C. 1704), for market development research author¬ 
 ized by section 104(a) and for agricultural and forestry research and 
 other functions related thereto authorized by section 104 (k) of the 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 amended (7 U.S.C. 1704(a) (k)), to remain available until expended, 
 $2,000,000: Provided^ That this appropriation shall be available in 
 addition to other appropriations for these purposes, for payments in 
 the foregoing currencies: Provided further^ That funds appropriated 
 herein shall be used for payments in such foreign currencies as the 
 Department determines are needed and can be used most effectively to 
 carry out the purposes of this paragraph, and such foreign currencies 
 shall, pursuant to the provisions of section 104(a), be set aside for sale 
 to the Department before foreign currencies which accrue under said 
 title I are made available for other United States uses: Provided fur¬ 
 ther,, That not to exceed $25,000 of this appropriation shall be avail¬ 
 able for payments in foreign currencies for expenses of employment 
 pursuant to the second sentence of section 706(a) of the Organic Act 
 of 1944 (5 U.S.C. 574), as amended by section 15 of the Act of August 
 2,1946 (5 U.S.C. 55a). 
 
 ^ ^ 4 : 4 : ♦ * 
 
 SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE 
 
 * ^ ^ ^ :|c :|c 
 
 GREAT PLAINS CONSERVATION PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry into effect a program of conserva¬ 
 tion in the Great Plains area, pursuant to section 16(b) of the Soil 
 Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as added by the Act of 
 August 7,1956 (16 U.S.C. 590p), $14,744,000, to remain available until 
 
 expended. 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Sf! * 
 
 * ♦ 
 
 
 AGRICULTURAL 
 
 MARKETING SERVICE 
 
 * 
 
 * ♦ 
 
 * * 
 
 
 SPECIAL 
 
 MILK PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry out the Special Milk Program, as 
 authorized by the Act of August 8, 1961 (7 U.S.C. 1446, note), 
 $103,000,000, of which $51,500,000 shall be derived by transfer from 
 funds available under section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935 (7 
 U.S.C. 612) : Provided,, That hereafter appropriations under this head 
 shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Public Law 87-128. 
 
1965 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 337 
 
 SCHOOL LUNCH PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry out the provisions of the National 
 School Lunch Act, as amended (42 U.S.C. 1751-1760), $146,400,000: 
 Provided^ That no part of this appropriation shall be used for non¬ 
 food assistance under section 5 of said Act: Provided further, That 
 $45,000,000 shall be transferred to this appropriation from funds avail¬ 
 able under section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935, for purchase and 
 distribution of agricultural commodities and other foods pursuant 
 to section 6 of the National School Lunch Act. 
 
 REMOVAL OP SURPLUS AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES 
 
 (SECTION 32) 
 
 No funds available under section 32 of the Act of August 24, 1935 
 (7 U.S.C. 612c) shall be used for any purpose other than commodity 
 program expenses as authorized therein, and other related operating 
 expenses, except for (1) transfers to the Department of the Interior 
 as authorized by the Fish and Wildlife Act of August 8, 1956, (2) 
 transfers otherwise provided in this Act, (3) not more than $2,924,000 
 for formulation and administration of marketing agreements and 
 orders pursuant to the Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 
 1937, as amended, and the Agricultural Act of 1961, (4) not more 
 than $35,000,000 for expenses for the Pilot Food Stamp Program 
 and (5) not in excess of $12,175,000 to be used to increase domestic 
 consumption of farm commodities pursuant to authority contained in 
 Public Law 88-250, the Department of Agriculture and Eelatecl 
 Agencies Appropriation Act, 1964, of which amount $500,000 shall 
 remain available until expended for construction, alteration and 
 modification of research facilities. 
 
 Foreign Agricultural Service 
 
 SALARIES AND EXPENSES 
 
 For necessary expenses for the Foreign Agricultural Service, includ¬ 
 ing carrying out title VI of the Agricultural Act of 1954 (7 U.S.C. 
 1761-1768), market development activities abroad, and for enabling 
 the S^retary to coordinate and integrate activities of the Depart¬ 
 ment in connection with foreign agricultural work, including not to 
 exceed $35,000 for representation allowances and for expenses pursu¬ 
 ant to section 8 of the Act approved August 3, 1956 (7 U.S.C. 1766), 
 $20,488,000: Provided, Tliat not less than $255,000 of the funds con¬ 
 tained in this appropriation shall be available to obtain statistics and 
 related facts on foreign production and fid I and complete information 
 on methods used by other countries to move farm commodities in 
 lyorld trade on a competitive basis: Provided further. That, in addi¬ 
 tion, not to exceed $3,117,000 of the funds appropriated by section 32 
 of the Act of August 24, 1935, as amended (7 U.S.C. 612c), shall be 
 merged with this appropriation and shall be available for all expenses 
 of the Foreign Agricultural Service. 
 
338 
 
 19 65 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service 
 
 EXPENSES, AGRICULTURAL STABILIZATION AND CONSERVATION SERVICE 
 
 For necessary administrative expenses of the Agricultural Stabili¬ 
 zation and Conservation Service, including expenses to formulate and 
 carry out programs authorized by title III of the Agricultural Adjust¬ 
 ment Act of 1938, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1301-1393); Sugar Act of 
 1948, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1101-1161); sections 7 to 15,16(a), 16(d), 
 16(e), 16(f), and 17 of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment 
 Act, as amended (16 U.S.C. 590g-590q; 7 U.S.C. 1010-1011) as added 
 by section 132 of the Act of August 8, 1961; subtitles B and C of the 
 Soil Bank Act (7 U.S.C. 1831-1837, 1802-1814, and 1816); and laws 
 pertaining to the Commodity Credit Corporation, $105,602,000: Pro¬ 
 vided^ That, in addition, not to exceed $87,508,000 may be transferred 
 to and merged with this appropriation from the Commodity Credit 
 Corporation fund (including not to exceed $35,668,000 under the limi¬ 
 tation on Commodity Credit Corporation administrative expenses): 
 Provided further^ That other funds made available to Agricultural 
 Stabilization and Conservation Service for authorized activities may 
 be advanced to and merged with this appropriation: Provided further^ 
 That no part of the funds appropriated or made available under this 
 Act shall be used, (1) to influence the vote in any referendum; (2) to 
 influence agricultural legislation, except as permitted in 18 U.S.C. 
 1913; or (3) for salaries or other expenses of members of county and 
 community committees established pursuant to section 8(b) of the 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act, as amended, for 
 engaging in any activities other than advisoiy and supervisory duties 
 and delegated program function prescribed in administrative 
 regulations. 
 
 SUGAR ACT PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry into effect the provisions of the 
 Sugar Act of 1948 (7 U.S.C. 1101-1161), $90,000,000, to remain avail¬ 
 able until June 30 of the next succeeding fiscal year. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL CONSERVATION PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry into effect the program authorized 
 in sections 7 to 15,16(a), and 17 of the Soil Conservation and Domestic 
 Allotment Act, approved February 29, 1936, as amended (16 U.S.C. 
 590g-590(o), 590p(a), and 590q), including not to exceed $6,000 for 
 the preparation and display of exhibits, including such displays at 
 State, interstate, and international fairs within the United States, 
 $225,000,000, to remain available until December 31 of the next succeed¬ 
 ing fiscal year for compliance with the programs of soil-building and 
 soil- and water-conserving practices authorized under this head in the 
 Department of Agriculture and Belated Agencies Appropriation Acts, 
 1963 and 1964, carried out during the period July 1,1962, to December 
 31, 1964, inclusive: Provided^ That none of the funds herein appro¬ 
 priated shall be used to pay the salaries or expenses of any regional 
 information employees or any State information employees, but this 
 shall not preclude the answering of inquiries or supplying of informa¬ 
 tion at the county level to individual farmers: Provided further, That 
 
1965 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 339 
 
 no portion of the ^nds for the current year’s program may be utilized 
 to provide financial or technical assistance for drainage on wetlands 
 now designated as Wetland Types 3 (HI), 4 (IV), and 5 (Y) in 
 United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 
 Circular 39, Wetlands of the United States, 1956: Provided further^ 
 That necessary amounts shall be available for administrative expenses 
 in connection with the formulation and administration of the 1965 
 program of soil-building and soil- and water-conserving practices, 
 including related wildlife conserving practices, under the Act of 
 Febmary 29,1936, as amended (amounting to $220,000,000 excluding 
 administration, except that no participant shall receive more than 
 $2,500, except where the participants from two or more farms or 
 ranches join to cary out approved practices designed to conserve or 
 improve the agricultural resources of the community) : Provided 
 further^ That not to exceed 5 per centum of the allocation for the cur¬ 
 rent year’s agricultural conservation program for any county may, on 
 the recommendation of such county committee and approval of the 
 State committee, be withheld and allotted to the Soil Conservation 
 Service for services of its technicians in formulating and carrying out 
 the agricultural conservation program in the participating counties, 
 and shall not be utilized by the Soil Conservation Service for any pur¬ 
 pose other than technical and other assistance in such counties, and 
 in addition, on the recommendation of such county committee and 
 approval of the State committee, not to exceed 1 per centum may be 
 made available to any other Federal, State, or local public agency for 
 the same purpose and under the same conditions: Provided further^ 
 That for the current year’s program $2,500,000 shall be available for 
 technical _ assistance in formulating and carrying out agricultural 
 conservation practices: Provided further^ That such amounts shall be 
 available for the purchase of seeds, fertilizers^ lime, trees, or any other 
 farming material, or any soil-terracing services, and making grants 
 thereof to agricultural producers to aid them in carrying out farming 
 practices approved by the Secretary under programs provided for 
 herein: Provided further^ That no part of any fimds available to the 
 Department, or any bureau, office, corporation, or other agency consti¬ 
 tuting a part of such Department, shall be used in the current fiscal 
 year for the payment of salary or travel expenses of any person who 
 has been convicted of violating the Act entitled “An Act to prevent 
 pernicious political activities”, approved August 2, 1939, as amended, 
 or who has been found in accordance with the provisions of title 18, 
 United States Code, section 1913, to have violated or attempted to 
 violate such section which prohibits the use of Federal appropriations 
 for the payment of personal services or other expenses designed to 
 influence in any manner a Member of Congress to favor or oppose any 
 legislation or appropriation by Congress except upon request of any 
 Member or through the proper official channels. 
 
 CONSERVATION RESERVE PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to carry out a conservation reserve program 
 as authorized by subtitles B and C of the Soil Bank Act (7 U.S.C. 
 1831-1837,1802-1814, and 1816), and to carry out liquidation activities 
 for the acreage reserve program, to remain available until expended. 
 
340 
 
 19 65 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 $194,000,000, with which may be merged the unexpended balances of 
 funds heretofore appropriated for soil bank programs: Provided^ 
 That no part of these funds shall be paid on any contract which is 
 illegal under the law due to the division of lands for the purpose of 
 evading limits on annual payments to participants. 
 
 CROPLAND CONVERSION PROGRAM 
 
 For necessary expenses to promote the conservation and economic 
 use of land pursuant to the provisions of section 16(e) of the Soil 
 Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act (16 U.S.C. 590h, 590p), as 
 amended, $15,000,000, to remain available until expended. 
 
 EMERGENCY CONSERVATION MEASURES 
 
 For emergency conservation measures, to be used for the same pur¬ 
 poses and subject to the same conditions as funds appropriated under 
 this head in the Third Supplemental Appropriation Act, 1957, to 
 remain available until expended, $4,000,000, with which shall be 
 merged the unexpended balances of funds heretofore appropriated 
 for emergency conservation measures. 
 
 TITLE III—CORPOEATIONS 
 
 The following corporations and agencies are hereby authorized to 
 make such expenditures, within the limits of funds and borrowing 
 authority available to each such corporation or agency and in accord 
 with law, and to make such contracts and commitments without regard 
 to fiscal year limitations as provided by section 104 of the Government 
 Corporation Control Act, as amended, as may be necessary in carrying 
 out the programs set forth in the budget for the current fiscal year 
 for such corporation or agency, except as hereinafter provided: 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation 
 
 ADMINISTRATIVE AND OPERATING EXPENSES 
 
 For administrative and operating expenses, $6,942,000. 
 
 FEDERAL CROP INSURANCE CORPORATION FUND 
 
 Not to exceed $3,638,000 of administrative and operating expenses 
 may be paid from premium income. 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation 
 
 REIMBURSEMENT FOR NET REALIZED LOSSES 
 
 To partially reimburse the Commodity Credit Corporation for net 
 realized losses sustained during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1963, 
 pursuant to the Act of August 17, 1961 (15 U.S.C. 7l3a-ll, 713a-12), 
 $1,574,000,000. 
 
19 65 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 341 
 
 LIMITATION ON ADMINISTRATIVE EXPENSES 
 
 in this Act shall be so construed as to prevent the Com¬ 
 modity Credit Corporation from carrying out any activity or any 
 program authorized by : Promded, That not to exceed $37,351,000 
 shall be available for administrative expenses of the Corporation: 
 Provided further, That $945,000 of this authorization shall be avail¬ 
 able only to expand and strengthen the sales program of the Corpora¬ 
 tion pursuant to authority contained in the Corporation’s charter: 
 Provided further, That not less than 7 per centum of this authorization 
 shall be placed in reserve to be apportioned pursuant to section 3679 
 of the Kevised Statutes, as amended, for use only in such amounts 
 and at such tim^ as may become necessary to carry out program 
 operations: Provided further, That all necessary expenses (including 
 legal and special services performed on a contract or fee basis, but not 
 including other personal services) in connection with the acquisition, 
 operation, maintenance, improvement, or disposition of any real or 
 personal property belonging to the Corporation or in which it has 
 an interest, including expenses of collections of pledged collateral, 
 shall be considered as nonadministrative expenses for the purposes 
 hereof: Provided further. That no part of the administrative funds 
 authorized under this head or of the capital funds of the Commodity 
 Credit Corporation shall be available to formulate or administer a 
 cotton Ipan program during fiscal year 1965 which requires that 
 micronaire readings shall be mandatory as a part of the cotton classing 
 in connection with cotton loans. 
 
 Public Law 480 
 
 For expenses during fiscal year 1965j not otherwise recoverable and 
 unrecovered prior years’ costs, including interest thereon, under the 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, as 
 amended (7 U.S.C. 1701—1709,1721—1724,1731—1736), to remain avail¬ 
 able until expended, as follows: (1) Sale of surplus agricultural com¬ 
 modities for foreign currencies pursuant to title I of said Act, 
 $1,612,000,000; (2) commodities disposed of for emergency famine 
 relief to friendly peoples pursuant to title II of said AcC$220,453,000; 
 and (3) long-term supply contracts pursuant to title IV of said Act, 
 $35,000,000. ’ 
 
 International Wheat Agreement 
 
 For expenses during fiscal year 1965 and unrecovered prior years’ 
 costs, including interest thereon, under the International Wheat 
 Agreement Act of 1949, as amended (7 U.S.C. 1641-1642), $31,838,000, 
 to remain available until expended. 
 
 Bartered Materials for Supplemental Stockpile 
 
 For expenses during fiscal year 1965 and unrecovered prior years’ 
 costs related to strategic and other materials acquired as a result of 
 barter or exchange of agricultural commodities or products and trans¬ 
 ferred to the supplemental stockpile pursuant to Public Law 540 
 Eighty-fourth Congress (7 U.S.C. 1856), $92,860,000, to remain avail¬ 
 able until expended. 
 
342 
 
 19 65 AGRICULTURE APPROPRIATION ACT 
 
 TITLE V—GENERAL PROVISIONS 
 
 Sec. 501.^ Witliin the unit limit of cost fixed by law, appropriations 
 and authorizations made for the Department under this Act shall be 
 available for the purchase, in addition to those specifically provided 
 for, of not to exceed four hundred and seventy-four passenger motor 
 vehicles, of which four hundred and fifty-two shall be for replacement 
 only, and for the hire of such vehicles. 
 
 Sec. 602. Provisions of law prohibiting or restricting the employ¬ 
 ment of aliens shall not apply to employment under the appropriation 
 for the Foreign Agricultural Service. 
 
 Sec. 503. Funds available to the Department of Agriculture shall be 
 available for uniforms or allowances therefor as authorized by the 
 Act of September 1,1954, as amended (5 U.S.C. 2131). 
 
 Sec. 504. No part of the funds appropriated by this Act shall be used 
 for the pa3rment of any ofiicer or employee of the Department who, as 
 such officer or employee, or on behalf of the Department or any divi¬ 
 sion, commission, or bureau thereof, issues, or causes to be issued, any 
 prediction, oral or written, or forecast, except as to damage tlireatened 
 or caused by insects and pests, with respect to future prices of cotton or 
 the trend of same. 
 
 Sec. 505. Except to provide materials required in or incident to 
 research or experimental work where no suitable domestic product is 
 available, no part of the funds appropriated by this Act shall be 
 expended in the purchase of twine manufactured from commodities or 
 materials produced outside of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 506. Not less than $l,500j000 of the appropriations of the 
 Department for research and service work authorized by the Acts of 
 August 14, 1946, July 28, 1954, and September 6, 1958 (7 U.S.C. 427, 
 1621-1629; 42 U.S.C. 1891-1893), shall be available for contracting in 
 accordance with said Acts. 
 
 This Act may be cited as the “Department of Agriculture and Re¬ 
 lated Agencies Appropriation Act, 1965”. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acreage aUotments. See Corn, Cotton, Peanuts, Rice, Tobacco, Wheat 
 Acreage Reserve Program. See Soil Bank Act. 
 
 Acreage diversion_ iq 
 
 Act of April 11 , 1964_II.II.I ” I I ” 55 
 
 Actual production. See Production. 
 
 Adjustment of marketing quotas__g 4 97 
 
 Administrative areas_ 
 
 Administrative expenditures: ’ ' ’ 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ __ _ 113 114 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act_’ 141 
 
 Compromising, adjusting or canceling debts_ 332 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Act__' 249 
 
 General. 
 
 342 
 
 International Wheat Agreement Act of 1949_ _ __ 199 I 91 
 
 Section 32_~ *212 
 
 Soil Bank Act_' ” _ j28 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic ^otment Act_ ----- - - 
 
 Sugar Act of 1948_ I_II~ ’ 273 
 
 Administrative expenses, deduction of, from payments_ 12 112 115 
 
 Administrative Procedure Act, functions excluded from _ __’ ’ 192 
 
 Advances: 
 
 Administrative expenses of committees_ II 4 
 
 Agricultural conservation program_ _ 4 II 3 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation_III..' ” 113 
 
 Crop insurance premiums_I 13 113 236 
 
 Advances to departmental agencies: ~ ” ’ ’ 
 
 Brucellosis eradication_ _ 335 
 
 Classing and grading_IIIIIII" 236 
 
 Diseases of animals and poultry_336 
 
 Foot and mouth disease_ 335 
 
 Advertising and sales promotion programs, wool, mohair, sheep, and goats ' 172 
 
 Advisory committee: 
 
 Crop Insurance_ _ _ _ __ oaq 
 
 Pub. L. 480_ 202 
 
 Aerial photographs, availability of_ 112 
 
 Agreements, for changes in cropping systems and land uses_I 17 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1949, see also Price support_ 147— 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954_ ~ iRq-lv*? 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1956: 
 
 Title I—Soil Bank Act_ 1 i 7 _i qi 
 
 Title II—Surplus Disposal_183-187 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act (of 1933). See Agricultural Marketing 
 
 Agreement Act of 1937_ _ _ __ 289-310 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_" 27-115 
 
 Agricultural attaches_~ IIII'I. 329 
 
 Agricultural commodities, products and byproducts: 
 
 Base period for prices_ 29 
 
 Expenditure to encourage exportation_ 184 193 211 
 
 Promotion of sale by Secretary of Commerce_ ’ _ ’ 29 
 
 Research into uses and markets_II "I" 28 
 
 Stimulation of use_” " ' 29 
 
 Transportation charges, parties to complaints_ _ _ _ 27-28 
 
 Agricultural commodity, defined_ ” " ”12 249 
 
 Basic. ’ 
 
 163 
 
 Nonbasic_ IIII.I.III”' ' 103 
 
 343 
 
344 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Agricultural conservation program_ 1-23 
 
 Agricultural Extension Service. See Extension Service. 
 
 Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937. See Marketing Agree¬ 
 ments and orders. 
 
 Agricultural programs, consultation on_ 328 
 
 Agricultural Surplus Disposal Administrator_ 187 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954_ 193-209 
 
 Allocation of funds to: 
 
 Animals, humane slaughter of_ 333 
 
 Bureaus and offices of the Department for—• 
 
 Federal crop insurance_ 340 
 
 Soil bank_ 338 
 
 Soil conservation_ 338 
 
 Sugar__ 338 
 
 Commodities_ 14 
 
 Research laboratories_ 28 
 
 Secretary of Commerce_ 29 
 
 Allotment pool_ 102 
 
 Animals, humane slaughter_ 333 
 
 Appointment of officers and employees: 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 112 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation_ 140 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation_ 244 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act_ 2 
 
 Appropriation Act, fiscal year 1965: 
 
 Agricultural conservation program_ 338 
 
 Bartered materials for supplemental stockpile_ 341 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation_ 340 
 
 Conservation reserve program_ 339 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation_ 340 
 
 General provisions—■ 
 
 Aliens, employment of_ 342 
 
 Automobiles_ 342 
 
 Cotton, prohibition against price predictions_ 342 
 
 Funds for contracts relating to research_ 342 
 
 Twine, prohibition against purchase of_ 342 
 
 Great Plains conservation program_ 336 
 
 International wheat agreement_ 341 
 
 Public Law 480_ 341 
 
 School lunch program_ 337 
 
 Special milk program_ 336 
 
 Sugar Act_ 338 
 
 Appropriation authorizations: 
 
 Cost of classing or grading_ 236 
 
 Grain for waterfowl_ 220 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ 191 
 
 Public Law 480 dispositions_ 196 
 
 Sales for foreign currency_ 194-204 
 
 Sec. 32_ 211 
 
 Transfers to supplemental stockpile_ 179 
 
 Assignment, agricultural conservation program payment_ 11 
 
 Assistance: 
 
 To friendly nations_ 203 
 
 To promote conservation_ 17 
 
 Bank for Cooperatives, loans for storage structures_ 167 
 
 Barter or exchange of agricultural commodities: 
 
 Charter provision_ 138, 179 
 
 For foreign aid and assistance programs_ 179, 180 
 
 For strategic commodities_ 138, 179 
 
 For materials for offshore construction programs_ 217 
 
 Transfer of commodities to— 
 
 National stockpile_ 179 
 
 Supplemental stockpile_ 180 
 
 Base, period for prices_ 3 
 
INDEX 
 
 345 
 
 Basic agricultural commodities_ 
 
 Bond_ ~ 
 
 Borrowing authority of CCC_III. I'II_11II 
 
 Bushel, defined_II' II'I' 
 
 Butter: 
 
 Price support_ 
 
 Buyer, collection and payment of penalty by_ 
 
 Cancellation of debts_ II~ 
 
 Cargo Preference Act_ I_~~_ 
 
 Carriers, common, records and reports required of__I 
 Carry-over, defined: 
 
 Corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco, wheat_ 
 
 Certification of claimants_ 
 
 Certification, Food Stamp Program_III.II.II.I 
 
 Changes in cropping systems and land uses, agreements." 
 
 Classification Act of 1949_ 
 
 Commercial area, wheat_I.I.I.I_II. 
 
 Commercial corn, producing area, defined_II.I..^ 
 
 Committee, review. See Review committee. 
 
 Committees, local, county, and State: 
 
 Establishment_ 
 
 Expenses_ 
 
 Functions and utilization for— 
 
 Agricultural adjustment_ 
 
 Commodity credit_ 
 
 Federal crop insurance_ 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 
 
 Soil conservation_I 
 
 Sugar_~~ 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation. See also Price support. 
 
 Acquisition of plants and facilities_ 
 
 Administrative expenses_ 
 
 Advances for crop insurance premiums_ 
 
 Advances to Department agencies_ 
 
 Allotment of funds to other agencies_ 
 
 Annual report_IIIII.I 
 
 Board of directors_ I 
 
 Advisory board_ 
 
 Borrowing authority_I.IIIIII 
 
 Bylaws, adoption of_ 
 
 Capital stock_ 
 
 Claims, authority to adjust and settle_1.11.1.. 
 
 Cold storage facilities_ 
 
 Conspiracy to commit offenses against_ 
 
 Contracts and agreements_ 
 
 Conversion of property of_ 
 
 Cooperation with other agencies..__..I 
 
 Corporate powers_ 
 
 Costs and expenses of donation programs_ 
 
 Counterclaims_ 
 
 Court of Claims, suit in_ 
 
 Creation and purposes_ 
 
 Crimes and offenses_ 
 
 Cropping systems, changes in, and land uses, agreements 
 Disposition of agricultural commodities: 
 
 Barter_ 
 
 Cotton for colleges_ 
 
 Cotton for export_ 
 
 Dairy products for armed forces_ 
 
 Disaster relief_ 
 
 Domestic disposal programs_ 
 
 Export_ 
 
 Extra long staple cotton for export_ 
 
 Famine relief_ 
 
 Page 
 
 - 154 
 
 - 80 
 
 ... 138,233 
 _ 32 
 
 155 
 
 45,’77, 93, 97 
 
 _ 330 
 
 _ 333 
 
 _ 94 
 
 _ 32-33 
 
 _ 127 
 
 _ 323 
 
 - 18 
 
 _2,244 
 
 _ 33 
 
 _ 33 
 
 - 5 
 
 - 12, 114 
 
 -42, 56 
 
 _ 140 
 
 _ 245 
 
 - 127 
 
 - 5 
 
 _ 274 
 
 _ 136 
 
 _ 139 
 
 _ 113, 236 
 
 _ 235 
 
 _ 141 
 
 _ 141 
 
 _ 140 
 
 _ 140 
 
 _ 138, 233 
 
 _ 136 
 
 _ 139 
 
 _ 138 
 
 _ 137 
 
 _ 142 
 
 _ 136 
 
 _ 142 
 
 _ 140 
 
 _ 135, 138 
 
 _ 166 
 
 _ 135 
 
 _ 136 
 
 _ 135 
 
 _ 141-142 
 
 _ 18 
 
 _ 179-182 
 
 _ 221 
 
 _ 184-185 
 
 _ 219 
 
 _ 225-230 
 
 _ 217-224 
 
 175-178, 183-215 
 
 _ 184 
 
 _ 204 
 
346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation. See also Price support—Continued Page 
 
 Disposition of agricultural commodities—Continued 
 
 Financing exportation of surplus agricultural commodities_ 195 
 
 Flour and cornmeal donations_ 220 
 
 Foreign currency_ 194 
 
 Legislative directive_ 183 
 
 Migratory waterfowl_ 231-232 
 
 Oil seeds, donations of_ 222 
 
 Processing, payment of costs of_212, 213 
 
 Restrictions on.._ 160 
 
 Sales- 139, 160, 183-186, 192 
 
 Sales price- 160, 195 
 
 Section 32_ 159, 211 
 
 Surplus agricultural commodities_ 194 
 
 To foreign governments_ 192 
 
 Upland cotton_ 150 
 
 Dissolution of Delaware corporation_ 143 
 
 Effective date of Charter Act_ 143 
 
 Embezzlement of money, funds of_ 141 
 
 Exchange of commodities for foreign products_ 179-182 
 
 Exemption from legal process_ 135 
 
 Expansion and development of markets_ 139 
 
 Expenditures, authority to determine_ 138 
 
 Exportation of surplus commodities..__ 178-179 
 
 Exporting agricultural commodities_ 139, 184-185 
 
 False statements to influence action of_ 141 
 
 Federal Property and Administrative Services Act, exemption from... 237 
 
 Federal Reserve Banks, use of_ 235 
 
 Federal Tort Claims Act applicable_ 136 
 
 Free use of mails_ 136 
 
 General powers_ 135-138 
 
 Insurance on cotton_ 110 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ 189-192 
 
 Interest of Members of Congress_ 141 
 
 Intervention in suits_ 135 
 
 Jurisdiction of courts_ 135 
 
 Larceny of property of_ 142 
 
 Legal history of_ 133 
 
 Limitation on actions_ 135 
 
 Liquidation of agricultural stocks_ 183 
 
 Loans and advances, authority to make_ 136, 137, 138 
 
 Loans, income tax on_ 237 
 
 Loans, nonrecourse_ 160 
 
 Location of oflices_ 135 
 
 Making available surplus agricultural commodities_ 195, 204 
 
 Markets, expansion of_ 139 
 
 Munitions Board, Department of Defense_ 138 
 
 National School Lunch Act_ 311 
 
 Personal property, acquisition of_ 137 
 
 Personnel_ 140 
 
 Powers- 135, 138 
 
 Price support authority_ 139 
 
 Procuring agricultural commodities_ 139 
 
 Purchasers of converted goods_ 143 
 
 Purposes_ 135 
 
 Real estate, acquisition of_ 137 
 
 Reconcentration of cotton_ 110 
 
 Records and reports_ 141 
 
 Regulations and rules, authority to adopt_ 136 
 
 Reimbursement by other agencies. See Reimbursement to CCC. 
 
 Removal or disposition of surplus commodities_ 139 
 
 Reports to Congress. See Reports by CCC to Congress. 
 
 Research, restrictions on_ 138 
 
 Restrictions on acquisition of real and personal property_ 137 
 
 Right to intervene in proceedings_ 135 
 
 Rights, privileges and immunities of, same as United States_ 136 
 
ESTDEX 
 
 347 
 
 Commodity Credit Corpor^ion. See also Price support—Continued Page 
 
 bales. See Sales by CCC. 
 
 Set-offs_ _ _ _ 1 Qfi 
 
 Settlements, authority to make_ ioq 
 
 Specific powers_I 13« 
 
 State and local laws applicability_" ~ ~~ 10^ 
 
 Statutes applicable to Corporation_ 130 ii9~937_9QQ 
 
 Stimulating foreign production_ 238 
 
 Storage facility loans to grain producers ___ 137 
 
 Strategic and Critical Materials Stock Piling Act___I_IIiri_I_r_ri37 179 
 
 Summary of legal history of Corporation_ 233 
 
 Supporting prices of agricultural commodities. _ __ ~ 138 
 
 Surplus disposal_ 130 
 
 Taxation_I 237 
 
 Transfer of assets of Delaware corporation_ 143 
 
 Use of funds and other assets_ __ ~ 130 
 
 Usual custom of the trade_ __ 237 239 
 
 Utilization of association and trade facilities_ 139* 141 
 
 Utilization of usual trade channels_ I37 139 igg 194*219 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation Charter Act, see also Commodity Credit 
 
 Corporation_ ____ __ 13rc 
 
 Commodity set-aside. /See Set-aside. " ---- - --- 0 
 
 Conditions for receiving payment or grant of aid_ 
 
 Confidential records and reports_ ~ 
 
 Congress, interest of members in contracts with the Government 
 
 Conservation materials and services, see also Grants of aid_ 
 
 Conservation measures, emergency_ 
 
 Conservation pai'ments, special, for diverted acreage_ 
 
 Consultation on agricultural programs_ 
 
 Consumer safeguards_ 
 
 Consumption, normal domestic human_ 
 
 Consumption, normal year’s domestic: 
 
 Defined— 
 
 2, 4, 8, 269 
 99 
 141 
 1-4 
 19 
 19 
 
 --- 328 
 
 39 
 4 
 
 Corn, cotton, tobacco, wheat_ 
 
 Rice_~ 
 
 Container, identification_ 
 
 Container, sanitary_ 
 
 Cooperation for soil conservation. Government agencies_ 
 
 Cooperative associations, recognition and encouragement of 
 Corn: 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 223 
 
 221 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas_ 
 
 Acreage allotment for commercial area—• 
 
 Amount of_ 
 
 Apportionment to counties_II.II 
 
 Apportionment of county allotment to farms_I.” 
 
 When proclaimed_II.I 
 
 Appeal relating to allotment, see also Review of acreage allotment 
 Definitions—■ 
 
 49-52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 Actual production_ 
 
 Bushel_ 
 
 Carryover_ 
 
 Commercial corn-producing area_ 
 
 Farm consumption_ 
 
 Farm marketing quota_ 
 
 Market, marketed, for market_ 
 
 Marketing year_ 
 
 Normal production_ 
 
 Normal supply_ 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ 
 
 Normal yield_ 
 
 Reserve supply level_ 
 
 Total supply_ 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 51 
 34 
 34 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 35 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
INDEX 
 
 348 
 
 Corn—Continued Page 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas—’Continued 
 
 Farm acreage allotments_ 52 
 
 Notice of farm acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ 102 
 
 Farm marketing excess_ 51 
 
 Farm marketing quota_ 51 
 
 Legislative finding_ 49 
 
 Price support level_ 151 
 
 Regulations issuance by Secretary_ 100 
 
 Reports and records required of buyers, warehousemen and others. 98 
 
 Data confidential_ 99 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 Acreage allotments under Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment 
 
 Act_ _ 6 
 
 Crop insurance. See Crop insurance. 
 
 Loans. See Price support. 
 
 Acreage requirement for price support_ 147, 150 
 
 Parity payments_ 39 
 
 Transfer_ 76 
 
 Cornmeal, enrichment of_ 221 
 
 Cotton: 
 
 American upland: 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas_68, 69 
 
 Acreage planted, effect of, on agricultural conservation pro¬ 
 gram payment_ 75 
 
 Adjustment of acreage planted to cotton_ 77 
 
 Appeal relating to farm quota and allotment, see also Review 
 
 of farm marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 91 
 
 Carryover_ 79 
 
 County acreage allotments—• 
 
 Adjustments in_71, 72 
 
 Apportionment to old cotton farms_ 71 
 
 County cropland factor_71-72 
 
 Reserves for adjustments and new farms_ 72 
 
 Definitions—• 
 
 Actual production_ 32 
 
 Carryover_ 32 
 
 Farm marketing excess_ 76 
 
 Market, marketed, for market_ 34 
 
 Marketing year_ 34 
 
 National average yield_ 34 
 
 Normal production_ 34 
 
 Normal supply_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ 35 
 
 Normal yield, county and farm_ 35 
 
 Parity_ 29 
 
 Total supply_ 38 
 
 Domestic acreage allotments_ 80 
 
 Equalization payments_ 78 
 
 Excess acreage excluded from allotment calculations_ 75 
 
 Export market acreage_ 79 
 
 Farm acreage allotments—• 
 
 Adjustments in old farm allotments_ 72 
 
 Adjustments in allotments for small farms_ 72 
 
 Apportionment of county allotment to old farms_ 71 
 
 Farms acquired for governmental use_ 102 
 
 Minimum, for old farms_ 74 
 
 New farms_ 74 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ 74 
 
 Release and reapportionment_ 102 
 
 Seventy-five percent planting rule_ 100 
 
INDEX 
 
 349 
 
 Cotton—Continued p^gg 
 
 American upland—Continued 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas—Continued 
 Farm marketing excess—• 
 
 Adjustment in amount of_ 77 
 
 Amount of farm marketing excess_ 70 
 
 Producer subject to penalty on_ 77 
 
 Regarded as available for marketing_ 77 
 
 Farm marketing quotas—• 
 
 Amount of farm quota_ 70 
 
 Increase or termination_ 97 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ jq 2 
 
 Identification of marketings_ _ jqq 
 
 Legislative findings_I 08 
 
 Measurement of farms_"_ 99 
 
 National acreage allotment—• 
 
 Amount of_ 99 
 
 Apportionment to States: 
 
 For 1953 and subsequent years_ 70 
 
 When proclaimed_ 70 
 
 National marketing quota—■ 
 
 Amount of_ 09 
 
 Conditions requiring proclamation of_ 09 
 
 Domestic and foreign-grown cotton_ 09 177 
 
 Exemption of Extra long staple cotton from_ ’ 77 
 
 Minimum national marketing quota_ 70 
 
 When proclaimed_ 70 
 
 Penalties—■ 
 
 Buyer to collect and pay_ 97 
 
 Exemption of marketings by experiment stations_ 98 
 
 Interest on unpaid penalty_ 77 
 
 Lien for, on entire cotton crop_ 77 
 
 Long staple cotton exemption_ 78 
 
 Producer subject to_ 77 
 
 Rate of penalty_~ 77 
 
 Refund of penalty_I__ 98 
 
 Proclamations— 
 
 Increase or termination of marketing quotas_ 97 
 
 National acreage allotment_ 70 
 
 National marketing quota_ 09 
 
 Referendum results_^ 70 
 
 Referendum— 
 
 Effect of results_ 70 
 
 Eligible voters_ 70 
 
 Notice of farm quota and allotment mailed prior to 
 
 referendum_ 95 
 
 Proclamation of results_ 70 
 
 When conducted_ 70 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary_ lOO 
 
 Reports and records_ 98 
 
 Availability of data on allotments and quotas_ 98 
 
 Data confidential_ 99 
 
 Information required of ginners, buyers and others_ 98 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 State acreage allotments— 
 
 Apportionments to counties_ 71 
 
 Minimum State allotment_ 71 
 
 Reserve for adjustments and new farms_ 71 
 
 Crop insurance. See Crop insurance. 
 
 Donation to colleges_ __ 221 
 
 Export sales_' 184 
 
 758 - 820—65 
 
 24 
 
INDEX 
 
 350 
 
 Cotton— Continued 
 
 American upland—Continued Page 
 
 Extra long staple. See Extra-long staple cotton. 
 
 Insurance on_ 245 
 
 Loans. See Price support. 
 
 Parity payments_ 39 
 
 Predicting prices_ 342 
 
 Price support on_ 148 
 
 Reconcentration of_ Hq 
 
 Sales for export_ 184 
 
 Sales to foreign governments_ 192 
 
 Standard grade_ I 59 
 
 Extra long staple: 
 
 Export sales_ 184 
 
 Import quota_ 184 
 
 Price support_ I 49 
 
 Sales for export_ 184 
 
 Long staple cotton: 
 
 Applicability of provisions of Act relating to acreage allotments 
 
 and marketing quotas for cotton_ 77 
 
 Exemption of, from acreage allotments and marketing quotas 
 
 for American upland cotton_ 78 
 
 National marketing quota— 
 
 Amount_ 77 
 
 Minimum national quota_ 78 
 
 When proclaimed_ 77 
 
 Rate of penalty_ 78 
 
 Varieties of long staple cotton_ 77 
 
 Cottonseed, price support_ 168 
 
 Cottonseed support level_ 156 
 
 County agricultural extension agent_ 5 
 
 County committee, election of_ 5 
 
 County committee, secretary to_ 5 
 
 County convention, election of delegates to_ 5 
 
 Court: 
 
 Jurisdiction- 100 , 244, 277 
 
 Review— 
 
 Marketing quotas_ 96 
 
 Sugar allotments_ 236 
 
 Crop insurance. See also Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. 
 
 Advances to producers_ 13 
 
 Agricultural commodities defined_ 248 
 
 Amount of insurance coverage_ 246 
 
 Claims for losses_ 248 
 
 Corn-1 246 
 
 Cotton_ 246 
 
 Cottonseed_ 248 
 
 Counties, number in which insurance to be offered_ 246 
 
 Criminal provisions applicable_ 250 
 
 Crops insured_ 246 
 
 Declaration of purpose_ 243 
 
 Failure to reseed to same crop or to follow good farming practices_ 247 
 
 Flax- 246 
 
 Indemnities free from levy_ 248 
 
 Jurisdiction of courts on claims_ 247 
 
 Limitations on basis of risk involved_ 247 
 
 Minimum amount of participation_ 246 
 
 Multiple crop insurance_ 246 
 
 Premiums_ 247 
 
 Neglect or malfeasance of producer_ 247 
 
 Reinsurance for private companies_ 246 
 
 Risks insured against_ 246 
 
 Tobacco_ 246 
 
 Wheat_ 246 
 
INDEX 
 
 351 
 
 Page 
 
 Cropland: 
 
 Government owned, payments to_ 10 
 
 Leasing by government_~ iq 
 
 Cropping systems, changes in, and land uses, agreements_ 18 
 
 Dairy products: 
 
 Availability to armed forces, Veterans Administration_ 219 
 
 Congressional policy_ 327 
 
 Domestic disposal_:_~ 218 
 
 Price support_ I 55 
 
 Data, latest available to be used_ 38 
 
 Death, incompetency, or disappearance, person entitled to payment_ 111 , 274 
 
 Debts, compromising, adjusting or cancelhng— 
 
 Applicable statutes and programs_ 330 
 
 Appropriation authorization_ 331 
 
 Conditions under which action authorized_ 330 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary_ 330 
 
 Declaration of pohcy. Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 27 
 
 Deferred grazing program_ 11 • 
 
 Deficiency, loan collateral, liabiUty for_ 160 
 
 Definitions: 
 
 Actual production_ 32 
 
 Adjusted base price_ 29 
 
 Affect interstate and foreign commerce_ 31 
 
 Agricultural commodity_ 12 , 250 
 
 Bank- 322 
 
 Basic agricultural commodity_ 163 
 
 Bushel_ 32 
 
 Carry-over- 32^33, 164 
 
 Commercial corn-producing area_ 33 
 
 Cooperator_ 163 
 
 Corn_ 31 
 
 Coupons_ 321 
 
 Department_ 31 
 
 Direct-consumption sugar_ 255 
 
 Export market acreage_ 79 
 
 Farm consumption_ 34 
 
 Farm domestic allotment_ 80 
 
 Federal agency_ 225 
 
 Feed grains_ 20 
 
 Food-1 319 
 
 Food products_ 108 
 
 Friendly nations_ 203 
 
 Governor_ 225 
 
 Household_ 319 
 
 Interstate or foreign commerce_ 31 
 
 Liquid sugar- 255 
 
 Local Government_ 225 
 
 Long staple cotton_ 77 
 
 Major disaster_ 225 
 
 Manufactured sugar_ 279 
 
 Market, marketea, marketing_ 34 
 
 Marketing year-34, 164 
 
 National average yield_ 34 
 
 National domestic allotment_ 80 
 
 Nonbasic agricultural commodity_ 164 
 
 Normal production_ 34 
 
 Normal supply_ 164 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ 35 
 
 Normal yield_ 35 , 37 
 
 Parity, prior to Agricultural Act of 1949_ 30 
 
 Parity, income_ 31 
 
 Parity index_ 30 
 
 Parity price_ 29 
 
352 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Definitions—Continued Page 
 
 Peanuts_ 94 
 
 Person_ 255, 279 
 
 Producer, sugar_ 256 
 
 ^ Quota, sugar_ 256 
 
 Raw sugar_ 255 
 
 Raw value, sugar_ 255 
 
 ^ Reserve supply level_ 37 
 
 Retail food store_ 320 
 
 Sanitary containers_ 222 
 
 Secretary_ 31, 256, 319 
 
 State_ 31, 225 
 
 State agency_ 320 
 
 Storable commodities_ 163 
 
 Sugars_ 255 
 
 Supply percentage_ 163 
 
 Surplus agi-icultural commodities_ 203 
 
 Tobacco_ 37 
 
 Total sugar content_ 256 
 
 Total sugars_ 280 
 
 Total supply_ 164 
 
 Transitional parity price_ 30 
 
 United States_ 31, 225, 280 
 
 Wholesale food concern_ 320 
 
 Demonstrational projects_ 1 
 
 Deposit of funds: 
 
 Crop insurance_ 248 
 
 Marketing penalties_45^ 93, 97 
 
 Photographic reproductions_ 112 
 
 Determination by Secretary_ 19 
 
 Determinations, sugar_ 257 
 
 Disappearance, death, or incompetency, person entitled to payment_111, 274 
 
 Disaster relief: 
 
 Equipment, supplies_ 225 
 
 Feed_ 227 
 
 Diseases of animals, expense of eradication_ 335 
 
 Disposition of surplus agricultural commodities_ 139, 183-186, 217 
 
 Disqualification_ 323 
 
 District attorneys, enforcement of Sugar Act by_ 274 
 
 District courts, jurisdiction of_ 100, 244, 276 
 
 Diverted acreage: 
 
 Corn_ 52 
 
 Rice_ 82 
 
 Tobacco_ 42 
 
 Use_ 17 
 
 Wheat: 
 
 Penalty_ 65 
 
 Domestic acreage allotments, cotton_ 80 
 
 Domestic marketing certificate_ 105 
 
 Donation: 
 
 Domestically before foreign currency sales_ 224 
 
 For disaster relief_ 225-230 
 
 For home economics courses_ 220 
 
 Generally_217-218 
 
 Identification on containers_ 223 
 
 Of animal fats_ 222 
 
 Of dairy products_ 218 
 
 Of flour and cornmeal_ 221 
 
 To areas under U.S. jurisdiction_ 222 
 
 To colleges_ 221 
 
 To penal instutions_ 221 
 
 To school lunch program_ 311-318 
 
 To trust territories of the United States_ 215 
 
 Donor identification_ 223 
 
 Educational exchange, financing of international_ 199 
 
 Election of local and county committees_ 5 
 
INDEX 
 
 353 
 
 Page 
 
 Eligibility to vote in committee elections_ 5 
 
 Emergency area_ 225 
 
 Eminent domain_ 101 
 
 Enforcement—Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 100 
 
 Enforcement—Food Stamp Act_ 325 
 
 Enrichment of cornmeal, grits and white flour_ 221 
 
 Equalization payments_ 78 
 
 Expansion of international trade_ 193 
 
 Export market acreage_ 79 
 
 Export, sales for— 
 
 Cotton_ 184 
 
 Extra-long staple cotton_ 184 
 
 Extension Service_ 274 
 
 County agent_ 5 
 
 State director_ 5 
 
 Extra-long staple cotton; See Cotton. 
 
 Factors, feed grain bases_ 20 
 
 Facts constituting bases for agricultural conservation program payment, 
 
 sugar or parity payment, loan, or price support, conclusiveness of_ 14, 111,273 
 
 Fair prices for conservation materials and services_ 6 
 
 Famine relief: 
 
 CCC surplus commodities for_ 204-206 
 
 Marking, as from U.S_ 207 
 
 Farm, definition of, for purposes of sugar payments_ 272 
 
 Farm domestic allotment_ 80 
 
 Farm marketing excess: 
 
 Cotton_ 76 
 
 Rice_ 87 
 
 Wheat_ 62 
 
 Farm marketing quotas. See Corn, Cotton, Peanuts, Rice, Tobacco, 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Farms, small, provisions relating to_41, 94 
 
 Federal agricultural services_ 329 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Act_ 243 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation: 
 
 Accounting by_ 249 
 
 Actions on claims_ 247 
 
 Advances by CCC for payment of premiums_ 13 
 
 Advances to pay crop insurance___ 236 
 
 Advisory committee.. _ 250 
 
 Allotment of funds to bureaus, offices, and agencies_ 245 
 
 Annual reports_ 249 
 
 Appropriation, authorization for administrative costs.._ 250 
 
 Audit of accounts by General Accounting Office_ 249 
 
 Board of Directors _ 244 
 
 By laws, adoption of_ 244 
 
 Capital stock_ 243 
 
 Claims for losses_ 247 
 
 Compensation, injured employees_ 245 
 
 Corporate seal_ 244 
 
 Court action, by and against_ 244 
 
 Creation_ 243 
 
 Crimes and offenses_ 249 
 
 Deposit of funds_ 248 
 
 Employees to furnish bonds_ 245 
 
 Exemption from legal process_ 244 
 
 Exemption from taxation_ 249 
 
 Expenditures, authority to determine_ 245 
 
 Fiscal agent of Government_ 249 
 
 Free use of mails_ 244 
 
 Funds, deposit and investment_ 248 
 
 General powers of Corporation_ 244 
 
 Incidental powers_ 245 
 
 Indemnities, payment of_ 247 
 
354 INDEX 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation—Continued 
 
 Location, principal office_ 243 
 
 Management_ 243 
 
 Manager_ 243 
 
 Non-administrative and nonoperating expenses_ 250 
 
 Offset purchases and sales_ 248 
 
 Personnel_ 245 
 
 Premium rates_ 247 
 
 • Premium reserves_ 247 
 
 Premiums, collection or payment of_ 247 
 
 Publication of list of indemnities paid_ 247 
 
 Purchase, handling, and sale of agricultural commodities_ 248 
 
 Purpose of Act_ 243 
 
 Regulations_ 250 
 
 Report to Congress_ 249 
 
 Research, surveys, and investigations_ 245 
 
 Right to amend Act_ 250 
 
 Separability_ 250 
 
 Tax exemption_ 249 
 
 Utilization: 
 
 Cooperative associations_ 245 
 
 Local committees or associations_ 245 
 
 Federal Property and Administrative Services Act_ 237 
 
 Feed for livestock_ 226 
 
 Feed grain_ 19 
 
 Fees, import_ 211 
 
 Finality of determinations_ 14, 128, 165, 275 
 
 Financing exports of surplus commodities_ 195 
 
 Fines and forfeitures: 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 97 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation_ 251 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ 191 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 129 
 
 Sugar Act_ 276 
 
 Flour, enrichment of_ 221 
 
 Food stamp plan, legislative directive_ 183 
 
 Food Stamp Act_ 319 
 
 Foreign currency, sales for under Public Law 480: 
 
 Deposit of currency in special account_ 202 
 
 Domestic donations before_ 224 
 
 Rates of exchange_ 203 
 
 Report to Congress_ 203 
 
 Use of currency_ 197, 201 
 
 Foreign markets, expansion of_ 13, 194, 329 
 
 Foreign production, stimulation of_ 238 
 
 Freight, ocean, payment of_ 196, 205 
 
 Freight rates, adjustment of_ 27 
 
 Friendly nations: 
 
 Assistance to_ 206 
 
 Definition_ 203 
 
 Sales to, for foreign currency_ 194 
 
 Trade with_ 327 
 
 Goats: 
 
 Advertising and sales promotion programs_ 172 
 
 Price support on mohair_ 170 
 
 Government-owned cropland, payments on_ 10 
 
 Grits, enrichment of_ 221 
 
 Grants of aid: 
 
 Assignment of payments earned_ 11 
 
 Increase of small payments_ 10 
 
 Ten-thousand-dollar limitation_ 10 
 
 Grants to agricultural producers, conditions of payment_ 8 
 
 Great Plains conservation program_ 15 
 
 Acreage preservation_ 15 
 
 Guam_ 329 
 
INDEX 
 
 355 
 
 Hearing: 
 
 Adjustment of marketing quotas_ __ _ _ 07 
 
 Imports-284 
 
 Parity prices_~_' ' oq 
 
 Price suwort level_~_III _ IIII 163 
 
 Review Committee. _ nc 
 
 Sugar...__----"iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii::::::::::::: 278 
 
 Home economic courses, surplus commodities for __ 220 
 
 Humane slaughter of livestock.. ~ ~ ooo 
 
 Honey-iii::::::::: 
 
 Hops......-:::::::::::::::::: 2% 
 
 Identification of surplus food containers_ 223 
 
 Imports quotas and fees under Section 22 of Agricultural Adjustment Act 
 
 of 1933— ...... _... 284 
 
 Agreements with foreign governments_ _ _ 284 
 
 Extra^long staple cotton_1.1.II .1.1" 184 
 
 Imports and exports: 
 
 Farm commodities, investigation of cause of reduction of exports. 29 
 
 Meat and livestock_ _ _ 286 
 
 President’s authority under Section ”22 of Agricultural Adjustment 
 
 Act of 1933_ 904 
 
 See also Sugar. 
 
 Incompetency, death, or disappearance, person entitled to payment_ 274 
 
 Income tax, on CGC loans_ ... 237 
 
 Incorrect information under Soil Bank_I_I_IIII__I_ HI” 130 
 
 Innocent purchasers of converted goods_ _ _ _ _III_ _I 143 
 
 Insurance on cotton_I.I.I.'. 'I.'.'_ 248 
 
 Intergovernmental organizations, use of_I_I_I.II..I_IIIIII”II 204 
 
 International Wheat Agreement, 1956_ I ” _ 492 
 
 International Wheat Agreement Act of 1949_I._ I~ I 189 
 
 Appropriation authorization_ I_”I 191 
 
 Fines and forfeitures_I II__ I " 494 
 
 Jurisdiction of courts_I_ ..I_I " 494 
 
 Person, defined_I I_I_I__ 492 
 
 Regulations and rules, issuance by President__ 49O 
 
 Utilization of Commodity Credit Corporation_II I__I_ _ 439 
 
 Interstate Commerce Commission: 
 
 Department of Agriculture, cooperation_ 28 
 
 Farm products, prosecution of complaints by Secretary of Agriculture 27 28 
 
 Hearings before_ __ ~ ’23 
 
 Investigations--- ---i,'9,'io,"i2,"33,'97,’245, 278 
 
 Eand uses, changes in, and cropping uses, agreements_ 43 
 
 Landlords, tenants, or sharecroppers_ I ~I 5 9 
 
 Laws, miscellaneous_III.I. I" I ”” 283 
 
 Letters of commitment, sales for foreign currency_ __ 495 
 
 Limitations on actions_II~.. "Ill ” 435 
 
 Limitations, payments under agricultural conservation program ... 9 
 
 Liquidated damages_ “ on 
 
 Livestock: 
 
 Humane slaughter_ 
 
 Preservation and maintenance_HI 
 
 Livestock and poultry producers, protection of income of 
 
 Livestock feed, sugar_ 
 
 Loans for storage facilities_ HIHH' 
 
 Loans, income tax on CCC_ I_H 
 
 Ixians, on agricultural commodities. See Price suppHt. 
 
 Ijocal administrative areas_ 
 
 ^ Ixical and county committees. See Committe'esH" 
 
 Ixing staple cotton. See Cotton. 
 
 Long-term supply contract_ 
 
 Manufacturers, sugar tax_ HIHH' 
 
 Maps, furnished to governmental agencies_ 
 
 I Market, marketing, or marketed, definition of_HI! 
 
 .. 333 
 
 . 176 
 
 9 
 
 280 
 137, 167 
 . 237 
 
 5, 83, 95 
 
 207 
 
 279 
 
 112 
 
 34 
 
356 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Marketing agreements and orders: 
 
 Anti-trust laws, exemption from_ 
 
 Blended milk prices_ 
 
 Books, keeping of_ 
 
 Commerce, interstate or foreign, defined_I 
 
 Commodities for which orders may be issued_II_I' 
 
 Confidential information, penalties_ 
 
 Cooperation with State authorities_IIIII' 
 
 Forfeitures_ 
 
 Fruit and vegetable orders_II_IIIII' 
 
 Hearing on order_II.I.I 
 
 Marketing agreements_ IIIIII 
 
 Marketing control: 
 
 Commodities other than milk and its products, methods 
 
 Milk and its products, methods_ 
 
 Marketing order, issuance_' 
 
 Marketing policy_ ”” 
 
 Milk marketing orders_I.III 
 
 Milk order prices_~ _ 
 
 Milk programs_III.III 
 
 Notice of proposed order_ IIIII" 
 
 Orders: 
 
 Arbitration of disputes___ 
 
 Authority to issue_ 
 
 Commodities other than milk or its products, terms of._ 
 
 Cooperative approval, of, as approval of producer_ 
 
 Exemption from_ _ 
 
 Finding of Secretary_I II_I_III_I! 
 
 Imported commodities, restrictions of_ 
 
 Marketing agreement with_I_IIIII! 
 
 Marketing agreement, with or without_ I_I. 
 
 Milk or its products_~ 
 
 Producer and processor, approval of_II. 
 
 Referendum for approving_ 
 
 Regional basis, applicability on_ 
 
 Representation of cooperatives_ 
 
 Terms and conditions of_ 
 
 Penalties for violation of order_ 
 
 Petition by handler, court review of Secretary’s ruling_ 
 
 Petition by handler for modification of order or exemption 
 Policy_ __ _ _ _ 
 
 Products covered by_ __I"I 
 
 Purposes of program_~ 
 
 Records, keeping of_ 
 
 Speculation forbidden_ 
 
 Termination of_IIIIIIIIII 'II II 
 
 Violation of orders_ 
 
 Marketing certificates_ I ^ ' '_I_"I 
 
 Marketing penalties. Penalties. 
 
 Marketing quotas: 
 
 Adjustment of quotas and enforcement_ 
 
 Commodities subject to—■ 
 
 Cotton_ 
 
 Peanuts_ I_III_'_ 
 
 Rice_ ” " 
 
 Tobacco_ 
 
 Wheat_2 
 
 Review of farm marketing quotas by review committees I 
 
 Marketing year: 
 
 Corn_ 
 
 Cotton_ II_I ”I 
 
 Peanuts_I __ 
 
 Rice_ 
 
 Tobacco_ 
 
 Page 
 
 291 
 294 
 .. 303 
 
 307 
 
 291 
 .. 303 
 
 .. 307 
 
 .. 300 
 
 292 
 .. 293 
 291, 297 
 
 294-295 
 
 293 
 291 
 289 
 293 
 
 .. 302 
 
 293 
 .. 293 
 
 - 309 
 291 
 
 294-295 
 300 
 . 300 
 
 - 293 
 304 
 296 
 
 - 298 
 
 - 293 
 
 - 298 
 302 
 
 299 
 
 300 
 . 293 
 300, 307 
 
 - 300 
 
 300 
 . 289 
 
 301 
 _ 289 
 
 . 303 
 
 - 307 
 
 - 301 
 300, 307 
 
 105 
 
 97 
 
 69 
 
 89 
 
 87 
 
 40, 153 
 52, 61, 154 
 95 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
INDEX 
 
 357 
 
 Marketing year—Continued 
 
 Wheat_ 
 
 Wool and mohair_ 
 
 Measurement of farms_ 
 
 Migratory waterfowl, grain for_ 
 
 Military equipment, etc., procurement of 
 Milk: 
 
 Arbitration of dispute concerning_ 
 
 Marketing orders_ 
 
 Policy of Congress_ 
 
 Prices_ 
 
 Program to increase consumption of. 
 
 Miscellaneous laws_ 
 
 Mohair: 
 
 Page 
 
 34 
 
 172 
 
 99 
 
 - 231 
 198 
 
 - 309 
 293-294 
 
 327 
 155 
 218, 328 
 283 
 
 Advertising and sales promotion programs_ 
 
 Marketing year_ ' _ 
 
 Price support_ 
 
 Mosaics, furnished to governmental agencies_ 
 
 Multilateral trade loans_' ~ 
 
 National acreage allotment: 
 
 Cotton_ 
 
 Peanuts_~ 
 
 Rice__ I~__ 
 
 Wheat__ 
 
 National domestic allotment_~~~_ ~ 
 
 National School Lunch Act. See School lunch program. 
 
 National average yield. See Yield. 
 
 National Industrial Recovery Act_ 
 
 National marketing quota: 
 
 Cotton_ 
 
 Peanuts_II _'I I 
 
 Tobacco_I__ 
 
 Wheat_ 
 
 Amount_ _ _ __ ~~ I II 
 
 National stockpile. Nee Stockpile. 
 
 National Wool Act of 1954, See Wool. 
 
 Naval stores conservation program_ 
 
 New farms: 
 
 Cotton_ 
 
 Peanuts_ ~ ~ 
 
 Rice_ IIII'III 
 
 Tobacco_ _~I_ 
 
 Wheat_~ 
 
 New or expanded markets_ I_IIIII_I_”'I'~I”I~I 
 
 Noncooperator, price support_ ~~ ~ ~ 
 
 Normal production. See Production. 
 
 Normal supply. See Supply. 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption. See Consumption. 
 
 Normal year’s exports. Nee Exports. 
 
 Normal yields. See Yield. 
 
 Notice, farm marketing quota and acreage allotment, mailed to farmer 
 
 prior to referendum_ 
 
 Nursery stock, appropriation authorized_ I.II 
 
 Obligations, limitation of, for agricultural conservation_ 
 
 Ocean freight charges_ 
 
 Officers and employees, appointment and compensation. See Appoint¬ 
 ment of officers and employees. 
 
 Parity, definition of (prior to Agricultural Act of 1949)_ 
 
 Parity (Agricultural Act of 1949): 
 
 Cotton, standard grade for purposes of_ 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Adjusted base price_ 
 
 Parity index_ IIII_ 
 
 Parity price— 
 
 Determination of_ 
 
 172 
 
 172 
 
 170 
 
 112 
 
 198 
 
 70 
 
 89 
 
 82 
 
 52 
 
 80 
 
 69 
 
 89 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 11 
 
 71 
 
 90 
 
 82 
 
 42 
 
 58 
 
 13 
 
 148 
 
 95 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 196 
 
 29-30 
 
 159 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
358 INDEX 
 
 Parity (Agricultural Act of 1949)—Continued Page 
 
 Parity price—Continued 
 
 Hearings on revision_ 30 
 
 Minimum, for 6 years beginning Jan. 1 , 1950_ 30 
 
 Wartime subsidy payments included_ 30 
 
 References to, meaning of_ 29 31 
 
 Parity payments_ ’ 39 
 
 Payment-in-kind certificate_ 22 
 
 Payments; 
 
 Advance, agricultural conservation program_5, 113 
 
 Agricultural conservation program_ I 5 ig 
 
 Assignment of_ ’ n 
 
 Cotton equalization_ 10 
 
 Cropland owned by United States_ 10 
 
 Division of, between landlords, tenants and sharecroppers_ 10 
 
 Finality of determinations_ 14 
 
 In-kind_ 22 
 
 Naval stores conservation program_ 11 
 
 Parity- 39 
 
 Producers displaced by war effort_ 9 
 
 Sharing in by tenants and sharecroppers_ 8 
 
 Small, increase in_ 9-10 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 112 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act_ 4 , 8 
 
 Sugar- 267 
 
 Ten-thousand-dollar limitation_ 10 
 
 Peanuts: 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas— 
 
 Appeal of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment _ 95 
 
 County acreage allotments__ 90 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Actual production_ 32 
 
 Carry-over _ 32 
 
 Market, marketed, for market _ 34 
 
 Marketing year____ 34 
 
 Normal supply_ 34 
 
 Normal yield, county and farm_ 35-36 
 
 Peanuts_ 94 
 
 Total supply- 38 
 
 Excess acreage excluded from future allotment calculations_ 92 
 
 Exemptions of farms harvesting one acre or less_ 94 
 
 Farm acreage allotments— 
 
 Apportionment of county allotment to old farms _ 94 
 
 Apportionment of State allotment to old farms..__ 94 
 
 Farms acquired by Government under eminent domain 
 
 powers_ 102 
 
 New farms_ 92 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ 102 
 
 Reduction in, for violation_ 93 
 
 Release and reapportionment of farm allotments_ 92 
 
 Seventy-five percent planting rule_ 101 
 
 Farm marketing quotas— 
 
 Amount of farm quota_ 89 
 
 Identification of marketings _ 100 
 
 Legislative findings_ 89 
 
 National acreage allotment—■ 
 
 Amount of_ 89 
 
 Apportionment to the States_ 90 
 
 Conversion of national quota to_ 90 
 
 Minimum national acreage allotment_ 90 
 
 Reserve for new farms _ 91 
 
 National marketing quota— 
 
 Amount_ 90 
 
 Conversion to national acreage allotment__ 90 
 
INDEX 
 
 359 
 
 Peanuts—Continued 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas—Continued 
 iNational^ marketing quota—Continued 
 
 Minimum national marketing quota _ _ on 
 
 Proclamation of_ ___ I” on 
 
 Penalties, penalty— " ' 
 
 Buyer and producer jointly and severally liable"for ""I 93 
 
 Deposit of penalties___ “ ' ‘ gg 
 
 Failure to account for disposition of peanuts _ _ 93 
 
 False identification___~ 93 
 
 Marketing in excess of farm quota, subject to_ 93 
 
 rayment of penalty by producer _ 93 
 
 Percent method of collecting,_ __ I 04 
 
 Rate of penalty_ oq 
 
 Refund of- 94 
 
 No refunds based on peanuts used for seed or home con- 
 
 sumption__ 04 
 
 Proclamations— 
 
 National marketing quota_ _ _ on 
 
 Results of referendum _____ ~ on 
 
 Referendum— ~~ "" " ^ 
 
 Effect of results _ on 
 
 Eligible voters _I-,!.,!,!!!!.,!,"IT_11" 90 
 
 Proclamation of results_ __ ” qn 
 
 When conducted _I ' 90 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary __ __ lOO 
 
 Release and reapportionment of farm"acreagral"lotm"e~n"tsI 92 
 
 Reports and records__ _ __ 08 
 
 Data confidential_ "I 99 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 rnarketmg quota and acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 State acreage allotment— 
 
 Apportionment to old farms_ _ __ _ _ 91 
 
 ,, ,Apportionment to counties """ "" 91 
 
 Penalty, marketing; ^ 
 
 of crops marketed by experiment stations_ 98 
 
 npnniit' and refund of penalties, see also Corn, cotton, 
 
 peanuts, rice, tobacco, wheat__ 07 08 
 
 Rate of penalty— 
 
 Cotton_ _ _ 
 
 Peanuts_ ~ oo 
 
 Rice-~ CQ 
 
 Tobacco__~~ 
 
 Wheat_ _ po 
 
 , unauthorized use of feed__ 99s 
 
 Personnel: - 31, 192, 255, 279 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Administration 119 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation_I “ 111111111111- 140 
 
 ederal Crop Insurance Corporation_ 945 
 
 International Wheat Agreement Act _ __ " 191 
 
 Soil Conservation Service ‘ "" o 
 
 Sugar Act- 275 
 
 “mosaics, and maps, furnishing of", to govern¬ 
 mental agencies and others_ e. . 6 
 
 1 olicies and purposes: " ~ 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1954 qo 7 
 
 Agricultural Act of 1961_ 397 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of "l938_I_I_”I_27 
 
 CommocRty Credit Corporation Charter Act. " "”""””1 135 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Act_ _ __ _ 243 
 
 Food and Agriculture Act of 1962 _"" " "” ”' 327 
 
INDEX 
 
 360 
 
 Policies and purposes—Continued Page 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 177 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act_ 1 
 
 Preservation of acreage_ lOi 
 
 Price support: 
 
 Amount, terms, and conditions_ I 57 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation— 
 
 Authority to sell commodities_ 160 175 
 
 Authority to support prices, charter provision_ ’ 135 
 
 Disposition of commodities deteriorating or spoiling_ 161, 163 
 
 Disposition of commodities to prevent waste_217-218 
 
 Restrictions on sales_ I 75 
 
 Sales policies_ I 75 
 
 Secretary to provide price support through_ 157 
 
 Utilization of, in Section 32 programs_ 159 
 
 Conditional on— 
 
 Marketing quota, marketing agreement or order program_158 
 
 Cottonseed- 156, 168 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Basic agricultural commodity_ 163 
 
 Carryover, nonbasic agricultural commodity_ 164 
 
 Cooperator_ 163 
 
 Marketing year_ 164 
 
 Nonbasic agricultural commodity_ 163 
 
 Normal supply, nonbasic agricultural commodity_ 164 
 
 Storable commodities_ 163 
 
 Supply percentage_ 163 
 
 Terms defined in Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 164 
 
 Total supply, nonbasic agricultural commodity__ 164 
 
 Eligibility for price support— 
 
 Compliance with allotments, goals, practices, quotas_ 158 
 
 Factors governing availability of price support_ 158 
 
 Finality of determinations_ HI, 165 
 
 Level of price support— 
 
 Adjustment for grade, location, etc_ 159 
 
 Advance announcement of_ 160 
 
 Basic agricultural commodities_ 147 
 
 Conditions_ 158 
 
 Corn-"■ 151 
 
 Cotton and peanuts_ 148 
 
 Long staple cotton_ 149 
 
 Non cooperators_ 148 
 
 Tobacco_ 147 
 
 Wheat_ 147 
 
 Designated nonbasic agricultural commodities— 
 
 Honey- 155 
 
 Milk (whole), butterfat, and products_ 155 
 
 Tung nuts- 155 
 
 Wool (including mohair)_ 170 
 
 Factors considered in determining_ 158 
 
 Increasing, after public hearing_ 159 
 
 Loans- 147-155 
 
 Loans taxable as income_ 237 
 
 Nonrecourse loans_ 160 
 
 Other nonbasic agricultural commodities_ 156 
 
 Parity prices used in determining_ 158 
 
 Private channels of trade, use of_ 137 
 
 Producer’s liability for deficiencies, etc_ 160 
 
 Reconcentrating and insuring cotton_ 110 
 
 Processed food products_ 220 
 
 Processor programs_ 159 
 
 Proclamations: 
 
 Imports- 285 
 
 ^Marketing quotas— 
 
 Cotton_ 69 
 
INDEX 
 
 361 
 
 Proclamations—Continued 
 
 Marketing quotas—Continued 
 
 Peanuts_ 
 
 Rice_~ 
 
 Tobacco_ 
 
 Wheat_ 
 
 Procurement costs, reimbursement for_ _ 
 
 Producers, small, protection of_ 
 
 Production and Marketing Administration: 
 
 Delegation of powers to_ 
 
 Organization of_ ^ 
 
 Production: " 
 
 Actual—• 
 
 Corn_ 
 
 Cotton__I 
 
 Peanuts_II 
 
 Rice_I ' ~ 
 
 Wheat_ I_I_ ~~ 
 
 Normal— 
 
 Corn_ 
 
 Cotton_ ~ ~I~I 
 
 Rice_ II_I~_ 
 
 Wheat_ 'l l 
 
 Proportionate shares: 
 
 Conservation of resources, Puerto Rico__ 
 
 Sugar_ 
 
 Public Law 480, 83d Cong_I_II_I ~ " I 
 
 Publication and review of farm marketing quota 
 Purchase agreements. See Price support. 
 
 Purchase orders for conservation materials and Services_ 
 
 Purchases. See Price support. 
 
 Purchases, advance, of conservation materials and services_ 
 
 Purchasing power, ratio of farm and nonfarm___ HI 
 
 Quotas. See Import quotas, Marketing quotas, and Sugar Act of 1948~ 
 
 Kate of conservation payments_ 
 
 Reconcentration of cotton_ H ~I I~ 
 
 Records, availability of Department_ IIII__'_II"_ ' "II "H 
 
 Records and reports— 
 
 Administrator of Veteran Affairs, report to Congress 
 
 Agriculature Adjustment Act of 1938_ 
 
 Agriculatural conservation operations, report to Congress'IIII_I 
 
 Commodity Credit Coporation, annual report_ 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Corporation_ 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ __ _ _I 
 
 Marketing agreements and orders_ ir-_m_.~.I 
 
 Wheat marketing allocation_ _ I ~~I' I" 
 
 Redemptions_ ~I_I~I" 
 
 Referendum: 
 
 Commodities to which applicable— 
 
 Cotton_ 
 
 Peanuts_"III 
 
 Rice_I~ 
 
 Tobacco_ II' 
 
 Wheat_ 
 
 ^ Wool_ I" I'll "I 
 
 Notice of farm quota and allotment mailed prior to referenduin " 
 Refunds: 
 
 Marketing quota penalties_ 
 
 Taxes on sugar_ 
 
 Regional research laboratories: 
 
 Establishment and maintenance_ 
 
 Regulations: 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas 
 Agriculatural conservation_ 
 
 Page 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 41 
 
 64 
 
 235 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 61 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 273 
 
 270 
 
 193 
 
 95 
 
 6 
 
 5-6 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 no 
 
 99 
 
 219 
 
 98 
 
 12 
 
 141 
 
 249 
 
 189 
 
 303 
 
 109 
 
 322 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 40 
 
 64 
 
 172 
 
 95 
 
 98 
 
 279 
 
 28 
 
 97 
 
INDEX 
 
 362 
 
 Regulations—Continued Page 
 
 Committees, selection and functions_ 5 
 
 Commodity Credit Corporation_ ___ ___ 135 
 
 Corn- :::::::::: loo 
 
 Cotton_ jQQ 
 
 Crop insurance_ "" 242 
 
 Debts, compromising, adjusting, or canceling_330 
 
 International Wheat Agreement_ 191 
 
 Issurance by Secretary_IIIIIII.I 100 
 
 Peanuts_ ^qO 
 
 Rice- 100 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 129 
 
 Soil conservation _ " 2 
 
 Sugar-275 
 
 Tobacco_ 100 
 
 Wheat_ 100 
 
 Reimbursement to CCC: 
 
 By other agencies for foreign currency_ 203 
 
 By other agencies for services_ 235-236 
 
 Dairy products_ 219 
 
 Disaster and distress relief_225-230 
 
 Grain for waterfowl_ 231 
 
 Net realized loss, 1961_^ 233 
 
 Payments to wool producers_ 171 
 
 Public Law 480 exports_ 195-196 
 
 Procurement costs_ 235 
 
 Transfers to stock pile_138 
 
 Use of personnel and facilities by other agencies_I_I 140 
 
 Reports. See Records and reports. 
 
 Reports by CCC to Congress: 
 
 Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act_ 203 
 
 Annual report_ 141 
 
 Disposal of CCC stocks_” 133 
 
 Public Law 480 sales_' 203 
 
 Research laboratories_ 28 
 
 Reserve supply level. See Supply. 
 
 Restrictions on land use. See Practices. 
 
 Review committee, appointment and compensation of members_ 95 
 
 Review of farm marketing quota and acreage allotment: 
 
 Application for review_ 95 
 
 Publication and notice of farm quota and allotment_I. 95 
 
 Review by court of review committee determination_ 96 
 
 Review of payments or grants only by Secretary_” 14 
 
 Rice: 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas— 
 
 Appeal of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 County acreage allotments— 
 
 Apportionment to old farms_ 85 
 
 Death of producer, apportionment in case of_ 86 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Actual production_ 32 
 
 Carry-over_ 32 
 
 Market, marketed, for market_ 34 
 
 Marketing year_ 34 
 
 Normal production_ 34 
 
 Normal supply_ 34 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ 35 
 
 Normal yield_ 35 
 
 Total supply- 33 
 
 Exemptions— 
 
 Farms planting 3 acres or less to nonirrigated rice_ 85 
 
 Rice produced outside continental United States_ 85 
 
 Excess acreage excluded in future allotment calculations_ 84 
 
INDEX 
 
 363 
 
 Rice—Continued 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas—Continued 
 Farm acreage allotments—• 
 
 Allotments for new farms 
 
 Allotments for new producers_~ ~~~ 
 
 Death of producer, apportionment in case of_” 
 
 Established on basis of producer’s rice history _ __ __ ~~~ 
 
 Established on basis of rice history on farm I ~__II 
 National reserve for adjustments in, for old'and"newTarms" 
 East production, determination upon basis of _ _ 
 
 Seventy-five percent planting rule_ _ 
 
 Farm marketing excess— ” “ 
 
 Adjustment in amount of_ 
 
 Definition of_~ 
 
 Disposition of rice delivered to Department - II II'I I" 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ ~I_~ _I__I ' ~ 
 
 Producer subject to penalty on__I 
 
 Reduction of stored amount by underplanting’or" p’rod’ucine 
 
 sub-normal crop__ _ _ _ _ _ ® 
 
 Regarded as available for marketingr_I_I_I_I_I_~”''""' 
 
 Regulations governing delivery or storage’__III_ 
 
 Representative grades to be stored unless otherwise provided 
 Farm marketing quotas— ^ 
 
 Amount of farm quota_ 
 
 Increase or termination_ ~ 
 
 Identification of marketings_HI 
 
 Legislative findings_I’_’_ 
 
 Marketing quotas— ~ ~ ~ ~ " ' 
 
 Conditions requiring proclamation of_ 
 
 When proclaimed_ _ _ _II_~ 
 
 Measurement of farms_HIIIHIII ~_ 
 
 National acreage allotment— ' ' ~ 
 
 Amount of_ 
 
 Apportionment among States_I-I_III_III I 
 
 Reserve acreage for old and new farms__ _~ I 
 
 When proclaimed_ ~ 
 
 Past production, determination on basis of_I_ IHIII.II ’ I' '' 
 Penalties, penalty^— ” 
 
 Exemption of rice marketed by experienced stations 
 
 Interest on unpaid penalty_ 
 
 Lien for, on entire crop_HH 
 
 Marketings subject to, until excess stored or delivered 
 
 Producer subject to penalty_ _ __ 
 
 Rate of penalty_HI "I 
 
 Refund of_ H ”HIH 
 
 When due_IHHHHH 
 
 Price support level_IH_H_I "I 
 
 Proclamations_ _ 
 
 Referendum— 
 
 Effects of results_ 
 
 Eligible voters_IHHH I 
 
 Proclamation of results_IHI "HI 
 
 When conducted_IHH’ I 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary_ H 
 
 Reports and records_HHIH_ 
 
 Data confidential_" H 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 
 
 State acreage allotments— 
 
 Apportionment to farms of old producers_ 
 
 Apportionment of old farm_IIIIHHIH H’ 
 
 Establishment and adjustment of county allotments. 
 
 Reserves for new farms and new producers_ ~ H 
 
 Transfer, conditions_ 
 
 Page 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 101 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 102 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 88 
 
 87 
 
 97 
 100 
 
 81 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 99 
 
 82 
 
 82-83 
 
 82 
 
 82 
 
 86 
 
 98 
 
 88 
 88 
 88 
 88 
 88 
 
 99 
 88 
 
 147 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 87 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 95 
 
 82-83 
 
 82-83 
 
 84 
 
 83 
 
 86 
 
364 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Sanitary containers_ 221 
 
 School lunch program: 
 
 Accounts and records___ 316 
 
 Administrative expenses_ 312 
 
 Agreements between States and schools_ 313 
 
 Agreements with States_ 313 
 
 Apportionments_ 311 
 
 Appropriations_ 311, 337 
 
 Certification to Treasury of payments to States_ 313 
 
 Declaration of policy_ 311 
 
 Direct distribution_ 312 
 
 Disbursements to schools_ 313 
 
 Food costs defined_ 314 
 
 Imposition of teaching requirements prohibited_ 317 
 
 Matching funds_ 313 
 
 Nonfood assistance_ 312 
 
 Nonfood assistance defined_ 317 
 
 Nonprofit private school defined_ 317 
 
 Nutritional requirements_ 314 
 
 Private schools_ 314 
 
 Program requirements_ 314 
 
 Records_ 316 
 
 School defined_ 318 
 
 Section 32 commodities to schools_ 312 
 
 State defined_ 317 
 
 State educational agency defined_ 317 
 
 Utilization of CCC services_ 159 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture, defined_ 31 
 
 Secretary of Commerce, promotion of sale of farm commodities by_ 29 
 
 Section 32 of Pub. Law 320, 74th Cong., see also Appropriations_ 211 
 
 Advance payments to Commodity Credit Corporation_ 159 
 
 Availability of funds. Administrative expenses_ 211 
 
 Distribution of fish products_ 213 
 
 Domestic consumption, encouragement of_ 211 
 
 Exportation, encouragement of_ 211 
 
 Finally of Secretary’s determinations_ 211 
 
 Limitation on funds for a commodity_ 211 
 
 Purchasing power, reestablishment of farmers’_ 211 
 
 Supplemental appropriation_ 213 
 
 Utilization of Commodity Credit Corporation_ 159 
 
 Section 22 of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933_ 284 
 
 Separability of provisions: 
 
 Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938_ 113 
 
 Federal Crop Insurance Act_ 249 
 
 Services and facilities of CCC, use of by Secretary_ 159 
 
 Set offs_ 135 
 
 Settlement of indebtedness_ 138 
 
 Sharecroppers. See Landlords, tenants, or sharecroppers. 
 
 Sheep: 
 
 Advertising and sales promotion_ 172 
 
 Price support on wool_ 170 
 
 Shipping, cargo preference_ 332 
 
 Slaughter, humane_ 333 
 
 Small farms and small producers_ 5 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 117 
 
 Acreage reserve program_ 118 
 
 Compensation of producers_ 120 
 
 Effect on acreage allotments and quotas_ 121 
 
 Extent of participation in program_ 119 
 
 Removal of hay, special circumstances_ 121 
 
 Conservation reserve program_ 121 
 
 Authorized period of contracts and expenditures_ 124 
 
 Conservation reserve goal_ 124 
 
 Effect on other programs_ 126 
 
 Geographical applicability_ 126 
 
INDEX 305 
 
 Soil Bank Act—Continued p 
 
 Conservation reserve program—Continued 
 
 Termination and modifications of contracts_ jor 
 
 Terms and conditions_ ___ _ lo'i* 
 
 Declaration of policy_ 
 
 General provisions_^_ 19 a 
 
 Certificate of claimant_19- 
 
 Compliance with acreage allotments I ’ll ion 
 
 Finality of determination_ _ _ 
 
 Financing- 
 
 Incorrect information_ _ jon 
 
 Penalty for grazing or harvesting.- loq 
 
 Pooling of conservation reserve land_ 129 
 
 Protection of tenants and sharecroppers_ loq 
 
 Reapportionment prohibited__ _ II 197 
 
 Regulations_]_ 
 
 Utilization of land use capability data_ ~ 1 28 
 
 Utilization of local and State committees_ lo? 
 
 Utilization of other agencies.. . _ 190 
 
 Soil-building practices. Nee Practices. ’’ ’ " 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act_ 1 
 
 Acreage allotments and normal yields__I_IIIIIII fi-7 
 
 Advances for crop insurance_ 10 
 
 Appropriations for fiscal year 1965 . See also Appropriation Act 8S8 
 
 Assignment of payments_11 
 
 Av'ailability of funds_ I2 
 
 Certificates of claimants_ 
 
 Conservation materials and services_ c 
 
 Deferred grazing program_I_HI 
 
 Grants of aid_ 
 
 Naval Stores Conservation proeram 11 
 
 Payments or grants of aid__II_IIIIIIIII 4 
 
 Soil Conservation Service: ^ 
 
 Establishment, powers and duties_ 2-3 
 
 Authority to sell supplies, materials, and equipment to other Goveru- 
 
 ment activities_ o 
 
 Soil-depleting practices. Nee PracticesI ’ ’ ' ^ 
 
 Soybeans, price support on_ 
 
 Special acreage reserve_ I __H 
 
 Special deposit account_ I_HI no 
 
 Peanuts_ I. ny 
 
 Tobacco_ ~ 
 
 Standards_ ' 
 
 State, defined_ ~ 9^0? 
 
 State agency_ I . '^999 
 
 State committee_ H ^ i 
 
 State laws, applicability to CCC___IIII I II 186 
 
 Statistics, latest available to be used I.. I_. ___I _I HH’II ^88 
 
 Statistics, use of official_ I __H. 9^7 
 
 Steagall amendment_ ..I.. 14I 
 
 Stockpile, transfer of bartered commodities to__ 188 179—189 
 
 Stockpiling of agricultural products_ _ __' ” ’ icq 
 
 Storage amount: 
 
 Rice_ __ 
 
 Storage facilities, loans for_ "I 1 . _ IIH 187 167 
 
 Strategic and Critical Materials Stock ififinc'Act ’ i qq 
 
 Stratgeic materials: ' 
 
 Barter for- _ 18C 9n6 917 
 
 Purchase by other agencies_ _. .. II I II . ’ ’206 
 
 Purchase under Public Law 480 _I.III.II iqc 
 
 Transfer to stockpile___ 138 179 
 
 Transfer to supplemental stockpile_ H I80'198 
 
366 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Strategic stockpiling of agricultural commodities- 183 
 
 Sugar Act of 1948: 
 
 Appropriation authorization- 338 
 
 Appropriations for fiscal years 1964-65. See Appropriations. 
 
 Civil penalties for violation of Act- 276 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Direct-consumption sugar- 255 
 
 Including, include- 2.56 
 
 Liquid sugar_ 255 
 
 Manufacturefl sugar_ 279 
 
 Manufacturer- 279 
 
 Person_ 255, 279 
 
 Producer_ 256 
 
 Quota_ 256 
 
 Raw sugar_ 255 
 
 Raw value_ 255 
 
 Secretary_ 256 
 
 Sugar_ 255 
 
 Sugars_ 255 
 
 Total sugar content- 256 
 
 Total sugars_ 280 
 
 United States- 257, 280 
 
 Diplomatic relations, discontinuance- 260 
 
 District attorneys of United States to enforce- 276 
 
 Expenditures by Secretary- 275 
 
 Finality of determinations_ 275 
 
 Fines and forfeitures- 276 
 
 Import fees_ 268 
 
 Information to be furnished Secretary- - 276 
 
 Investments and business interests by officials prohibited- 277 
 
 .Turisdiction of courts_ 276 
 
 National economic or other emergency, existence of, as basis for sus¬ 
 pending quotas_ 276 
 
 Payments— 
 
 Abandonment of planted acreage, as basis for- 273 
 
 Adherent planters_ 272 
 
 Application for- 274 
 
 Appropriation authorization for- 275 
 
 Areas in which payment provisions applicable- 27.5 
 
 Base rate of payment- 273 
 
 Calculation of- 273 
 
 Compliance with provisions relating to— 
 
 Child labor..__ 269 
 
 Proportionate share for farm- 270 
 
 Wages and wage rates- 270 
 
 Conditions in respect to_ 269 
 
 Crop deficiencies of harvested acreage, as basis for- 273 
 
 Death, disappearance or incompetency- 274 
 
 Designation of payee by producers- 274 
 
 Establishment of proportionate shares for farms—- 270 
 
 Farm, to be defined by Secretary- 274 
 
 Finality of determination with respect to- 275 
 
 New and small producers- 271 
 
 Utilization of local committees and other agencies- 274 
 
 Proportionate shares_ 272 
 
 Puerto Rico_ 273 
 
 Quotas: 
 
 Allotments of quotas or prorations— 
 
 Appeal of allotment—. 263 
 
 Basis for allotments_ 262-263 
 
 Hearings_ 264 
 
 Area quotas— 
 
 Cuba_ 259,266 
 
 Domestic beet sugar_ 258 
 
 Mainland cane sugar-- 258 
 
INDEX 
 
 367 
 
 Sugar Act of 1948—Continued 
 Quotas—Continued 
 
 Area quotas—Continued 
 
 Hawaii....- 258,265 
 
 Utner foreign countries_ _ _ _ _ 258-259 
 
 Puerto Rico --1::::::::::: 258,205 
 
 Republic of Philippines_ _ 258 
 
 Virgin Islands_258 265 
 
 Consumption estimates, determination of, for— ’ 
 
 Continental United States_ 257 
 
 Hawaii and Puerto Rico_ " 261 
 
 Deficits, proration of quota_” 262 
 
 Exemptions from quota provisions_ 268 
 
 Exportation of sugar from United States— 
 
 Entry of sugar under bond_ 267 
 
 Expressed in terms of raw value_IIIIIIIII 267 
 
 F'illing quotas with direct-consumption sugar— 
 
 Hawaii_ 
 
 Puerto Rico_I 265 
 
 Republic of the Philippines_ _ _ 266 
 
 Virgin Islands_IIIIIIII.I.I" 265 
 
 Suspension of direct-consumption portions of quotas 277 
 
 Liquid sugar, inclusion in determinations_” 267 
 
 Local consumption quotas for Hawaii and Puerto Rico _ _ 261 
 
 Prohibited acts_ ' " 267 
 
 Secretary to establish or revise existing quotas_ 257 
 
 SuspGiisioii_ _____ 277 
 
 Regi^ations, determinations and orders, issuance by Secretary_ 275 
 
 Publication in Federal Register_ 275 
 
 Surveys and investigations_278 
 
 Information on individual operations confidential_ _ 278 
 
 Suspension of quotas_ ” ~ ' 277 
 
 Taxes, excise (provisions of Internal Revenue (3ode)—" 
 
 Applicability of other laws_ _ 970 
 
 Definitions..__'III'I' 'II ~ 279 
 
 Distillation_ IIIIIIIIIII I _'.I" 280 
 
 Exemption_ IIII.IIIIII " ' II 280 
 
 Exportation_” “ 280 
 
 Filing of return and payment of tax_ 279 
 
 Investments and business interests by officials prohibited 281 
 
 Livestock feed_ 9 gj^ 
 
 Manufactured sugar_ III IIII I I 279 
 
 Personal consumption_ "I” 279 
 
 Manufactures_II ~ 'II' ' 279 
 
 Rate, manufactured sugar_ _ _ I'l " 279 
 
 Termination of Sugar Act_ II ’ ' I" 277 
 
 Supplemental stockpile: 
 
 Transfer of bartered commodities to_ _ _ 177-182 
 
 Purchase for, under Public Law 480_ II I _I 179 
 
 Reimbursement to CCC_ . __ _II"_ I' 195-106 
 
 Supply: "■ - ----- . 
 
 Normal— 
 
 Corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco, wheat_ 34 
 
 Nonbasic commodity_ II 
 
 Reserve level, corn and tobacco. . 97 
 
 Total— 
 
 Corn, peanuts, rice, wheat_ _ 3 g 
 
 Cotton_ ---- I 
 
 Tobacco_ I-I_IIIII_ I'l" 38 
 
 Supply contracts_ IIIII I ” 208 
 
 Surplus commodities, disposition of_ I--IIII.IIII.I 183 
 
 Surplus disposal, CCC -'139,'183,'195, 204 
 
 Appointment of administrator_ jgy 
 
 Legislative directive_ ” jgg 
 
 Report to Congress_ jgg 
 
 Surveys and investigations- -”11, io,"i2,'29,'33,'97,'245, 278 
 
368 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PaRf 
 
 Suspension of quotas. See Termination of quotas. 
 
 Tariff Act of 1930_ 285 
 
 Tariff Commission, United States_ 285 
 
 Taxation. See Federal Crop Insurance Act and Sugar Act of 1948. 
 
 Tenants. See Landlords, tenants, or sharecroppers. 
 
 Ten-thousand-dollar limitation on payments_ 10 
 
 Termination of feed grain program_ 22 
 
 Termination or suspension of quotas_ 97, 277 
 
 Territorial application of acts: 
 
 Soil Bank Act_ 127 
 
 Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act_ 1 
 
 Sugar Act of 1948- 275 
 
 Tobacco: 
 
 Acreage allotment and marketing quotas— 
 
 Appeal relating to farm quota and allotment, see also Review of 
 
 farm marketing quota and acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 Definitions— 
 
 Carryover_ 33 
 
 Market, marketed, for market_ 34 
 
 Marketing year_ 34 
 
 Normal supply_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption_ 35 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ 35 
 
 Parity_ 31 
 
 Reserve supply level_ 37 
 
 Tobacco_ 37 
 
 Total supply_ 38 
 
 Farm acreage allotments— 
 
 Apportionment of State allotments to old farms_ 41-42 
 
 Increases in, for small farms_ 42 
 
 Increases in, for types in short supply_ 44 
 
 Minimum, for Burley farms_ 44 
 
 New farms_ 44 
 
 Notice of farm acreage allotment_ 95 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ 102 
 
 Reduction in, for violation_ 44 
 
 Seventy-five percent planting rule_ 101 
 
 Farm marketing quotas— 
 
 Amount of farm quota when farm allotments established_ 40 
 
 Apportionment of State quota to old tobacco farms_ 41 
 
 Increase in, for small farms_ 41 
 
 Increase in, for types in short supply_ 44 
 
 Increase or termination_ 97 
 
 Lease and transfer of_ 48 
 
 New farms_ 42 
 
 Notice of farm marketing quota_ 95 
 
 Identification of marketings_ 100 
 
 National marketing quota— 
 
 Amount of_ 40 
 
 Apportionment to States_ 41 
 
 Increase in, under specified conditions_ 41 
 
 When proclaimed_ 41 
 
 Penalties, penalty— 
 
 Carryover tobacco_ 45 
 
 Deposit of penalties_ 45 
 
 Disposing of excess tobacco to avoid_ 45 
 
 Exemption of tobacco marketed by e.xperiinent stations_ 98 
 
 Failure to account for disposition of tobacco_ 45 
 
 False identification_ 45 
 
 Marketings outside United States_ 45 
 
 Marketings prior to beginning of marketing year_ 45 
 
 Marketings subject to penalty_ 45 
 
 Payment of, by buyer, warehouseman, agent_ 45 
 
 Rate of penalty_ 45 
 
 Refund of penalty_ 98 
 
INDEX 
 
 369 
 
 Tobacco—Continued 
 
 Acreage allotment and marketing quotas—Continued 
 
 Proclamations_ 
 
 Referendum— ~ 
 
 Effect of results_ _ 
 
 Eligible voters_""_'II I 4! 
 
 ^*dum quota and allotment mailed prior to referen- 
 
 Proclamation of results..r'lliririrm ” ' I 4? 
 
 When conducted_ .....~ 41 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary. inn 
 
 Reports and records_ ~ ^oq 
 
 Data confidential_.-I.'.I.'.I. ] qq 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Revlevv of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment_ _ qc 
 
 btate acreage allotment— - _ . .j.j 
 
 Apportionment to old farms . . _ _ _ _ 41 
 
 Conversion of State quota to_ _ ‘ 49 
 
 State marketing quota— 
 
 Apportionment to old farms . . . _ 40 
 
 Conversion of, to State acreage allo6nent 
 
 Minimum, for flue-cured tobacco_ _ ’ 40 
 
 Reserve for new and small farms_I_49 
 
 State poundage allotment. .. _ _ ’ 40 
 
 Legislative finding_00 
 
 Loans. See Price support, 
 
 Parity payments_ _ ........ _ on 
 
 Price support level_ 7.^ '^o 
 
 Total supply. See Supply. “ 
 
 Trade agreement_ 
 
 Transfer of quotas: " ~ 
 
 Tobacco_ 
 
 Wheat_I ..1 
 
 Tung nuts__ 
 
 Unfriendly nations_ 1 _I onn 
 
 United States, definition of . . . _ _ or? 
 
 Utilization of State and local agencies.IIII 4-94^’ 97I 
 
 Vendors of conservation materials and services ’ “ 
 
 Violations_ _ ' “ “ 
 
 Voluntary relief agencies, use of_ ---. I I IIII'I onl 
 
 Wage, rates, sugar_ _I o-in 
 
 W^ater conservation_I.'.II'.II.I_ 
 
 VV'aterfowl, migratory- 11111111 , ,^09 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas— 
 
 under Soil Conservation and Domestic Allot- 
 
 Appeal relating to farm quota and' allotment, see also Review'of^’ 
 
 farm marketing quota and acreage allotment_ . (ir. 
 
 County acreage allotments— ' 
 
 Apportionment to old farms_ _ ._ ry 
 
 Definitions— ~ 
 
 Actual production_ 
 
 Carryover_ II.I _I 00 
 
 Farm marketing excess_ 1 . 1 ...II..I_IIIII II to 
 
 Market, marketed, for market__ ~_04 
 
 Marketing year_ 11 ?.. I_ 94 
 
 National average yield_04 
 
 Normal production_ _ . 1.1 I 94 
 
 Normal supply__III.IIIIIII 94 
 
 Normal year’s domestic consumption'.IIIIIII''"' _ qr. 
 
 Normal year’s exports_ __ _ ] " " or 
 
 Normal yield, county and" farm ----- 99 
 
 Total supply_/._::::::::::- i 
 
 harm acreage allotments— -- -- oo 
 
 Apportionment of county allotment to old farms_ 57 
 
INDEX 
 
 370 
 
 Wheat—Continued 
 
 Acreage allotments and marketing quotas—Continued 
 Farm acreage allotments—Continued 
 
 Commercial area_ 
 
 New farms___ 
 
 Notice of farm acreage allotment- 
 
 Pooled acreage allotments_ 
 
 Reduction_ 
 
 Seventy-five percent planting rule- 
 
 Farm marketing excess— 
 
 Application for adjustment of stored amount- 
 
 Definition of- 
 
 Disposition of wheat delivered to Secretary- 
 
 Failure to deliver or store- 
 
 Regarded as available for marketing- 
 
 Regulations governing delivery or storage- 
 
 Farm marketing quotas— 
 
 Effect of termination_ 
 
 Increase or termination- 
 
 Notice of farm marketing quota- 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary- 
 
 Small farm exemption—-- 
 
 Transfer of quotas- 
 
 Identification of marketings- 
 
 Land use- 
 
 Legislative findings_ 
 
 Measurements of farms- 
 
 National acreage allotment— 
 
 Amount of- 
 
 Apportionment to States- 
 
 National marketing quota-— 
 
 Amount of--- 
 
 Conditions requiring proclamation of- 
 
 Increase or termination- 
 
 Penalties, penalty— 
 
 Application for adjustment of- 
 
 Buyer to collect and pay- 
 
 Lien for, on entire crop--- 
 
 Marketings subject to, until excess stored or delivered- 
 
 Payment of, upon failure to deliver or store excess wheat— 
 
 Producer subject to penalty--- 
 
 Rate of penalty_ 
 
 Refund of penalty- 
 
 When due___ 
 
 Proclamations— 
 
 National acreage allotment- 
 
 National marketing quota- 
 
 Normal supply and total supply- 
 
 Referendum results_ 
 
 Referendum— 
 
 Effect of results_ 
 
 Eligible voters____ 
 
 Notice of farm quota and allotment mailed prior to- 
 
 Proclamation of results- 
 
 When conducted_ 
 
 Regulations, issuance by Secretary- 
 
 Reports and records-- 
 
 Data confidential--- 
 
 Review of farm quota and allotment, see also Review of farm 
 
 marketing quota and acreage allotment- 
 
 State acreage allotments----- 
 
 Apportionment to counties- 
 
 Diverted acreage--- 
 
 Penalty_ 
 
 Page 
 
 GO 
 
 57 
 
 95 
 
 102 
 
 44 
 
 101 
 
 02 
 
 G2 
 
 C2 
 
 03 
 
 02 
 
 02 
 
 97 
 
 97 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 01 
 
 05 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 99 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 97 
 
 02 
 
 97 
 03 
 03 
 02 
 02 
 02 
 
 98 
 02 
 
 55 
 53 
 57 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 95 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 100 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 95 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 19 
 
 05 
 
INDEX 
 
 371 
 
 Wheat—Continued 
 
 International wheat agreement_ 
 
 Land use_ " ~ 
 
 Loans. See Price support. 
 
 Marketing allocation: 
 
 Authority to facilitate transition_ 
 
 Conversion factors_ 
 
 Determination by Secretary_ 
 
 Legislative findings_ 
 
 Marketing certificates: 
 
 Assistance in purchase and sale.. 
 
 Ineligible producers_ 
 
 Issuance by Secretary_ 
 
 Marketing restrictions_ 
 
 National allocation percentage_ 
 
 Penalties_ 
 
 Reports and records_ 
 
 Transfer of certificates_III 
 
 Unused certificates: 
 
 CCC authorized to purchase_ 
 
 Old farm_ 
 
 Parity payments_I 
 
 Storage of_ 
 
 Wool: 
 
 Advertising and sales promotion programs. 
 
 Congressional policy__ 
 
 Disposition in case of death, incompetency 
 
 Marketing year_ 
 
 Payments_ 
 
 Price support_ 
 
 Yield: 
 
 National average, cotton and wheat_ 
 
 Normal—■ 
 
 Corn_ 
 
 Cotton_” 
 
 Peanuts_IIII. 
 
 Rice_ 
 
 Wheat_ 
 
 Page 
 
 189 
 
 17 
 
 108 
 
 108 
 
 104 
 
 103 
 
 108 
 
 106 
 
 105 
 107 
 
 104 
 109 
 109 
 107 
 
 107 
 
 56 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 172 
 
 170 
 
 171 
 
 172 
 170-171 
 
 171 
 
 34 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 36 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 AGRICULTURE LIBRARY 
 
 Predicting 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES 
 FROM CROPLAND 
 
 EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 Guide for Selection of Practices 
 for Soil and Water Conservation 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 28 2 
 
 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE • U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 IN COOPERATION WITH PURDUE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 
 
I 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Purpose of handbook_ 1 
 
 iistory of soil-loss equations_ 1 
 
 k)il-loss tolerances_ 2 
 
 rhe soil-loss equation_~ 3 
 
 The equation model_ 3 
 
 The rainfall factor (R) _” 3 
 
 The soil-erodibility factor (K) _ 4 
 
 Factors for slope length (L) and gradient OS)'.’.'.'!' 8 
 
 The cropping-management factor (C)_ 10 
 
 The erosion-control practice factor (P) _ 36 
 
 Limitations_ 38 
 
 Fi^d applications of the soil-loss equation 
 
 Predicting field soil loss_ 
 
 Determining alternative ways in which a particular 
 tract of land may be used and treated to conserve 
 or improve it_ 
 
 Estimating source sediment from watersheds 
 
 Summary__ 
 
 Literature cited_!_ 
 
 Appendix_ 
 
 Page 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 LIST OF TABLES 
 
 o’ ^o^^P'^ted K values for soils on erosion-research stations_ _ _ 
 
 ADT to corresponding loss from continuous fallow’ ' 10 
 
 table 2.7..’!®^! ^PP"o^i"^ating soil-loss ratios for cropping and management'c’o’m'binat'i’o'ns'n'o't'l'ist’e'd”in 
 
 ^mThiVate^Ser ‘‘““S' ope'ratYonVwlth Vtubbto 
 
 Indiana.-::::::::::::::;::::;: 35 
 
 ABLE 7.—Length limits for contouring_ 
 
 ■^®LE 8.—Strip widths recommended for contours._! " ! ’ ! !'!^! 07 
 
 ^th wiS'r 43 
 
 ABI F 11 ■—^ rotations for a specific erosion-index distribution area '" 43 
 
 ABLE 12 —Probability value of erosion index at each of 181 key I’ocations 45 
 AULtj 12—Expected magnitudes of single-storm erosion-index values_I0 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued May 1965 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 30 cents 
 
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PREDICTING RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM 
 CROPLAND EAST OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS 
 
 Guide for Selection of Practices for Soil and Water Conservation 
 
 By Walter H. Wischmeier and Dwight D. Smith, Soil and Water Conservation Research Division, Agricultural 
 
 Research Service 
 
 PURPOSE OF HANDBOOK 
 
 Scientific farm planning for soil and water 
 •)nservation requires knowledge of the relations 
 itween those factors that cause loss of soil and 
 ’ater and those that help to reduce such losses 
 •1 cropland. Since 1930, controlled studies on 
 15ld plots and small watersheds have supplied 
 luch valuable information regarding these com- 
 ]ex factor interrelations. But the greatest pos- 
 ole benefits from such research efforts can be 
 lalized only when the findings are rapidly con- 
 ^irted to sound practice on the numerous farms 
 troughout the country. Specific guidelines are 
 leded to help select the control practices best 
 sited to the particular needs of each farm. 
 
 The soil-loss prediction procedure presented in 
 tis handbook provides such guidelines. It is a 
 t3hnique whereby all pertinent research informa- 
 t.n is methodically combined to provide design 
 eta for conservation plans. 
 
 The empirical soil-loss equation underlying this 
 tjhnique is applicable in any location where nu¬ 
 
 merical values of the equation’s factors are known 
 or can be determined. Kesearch has supplied in¬ 
 formation from which at least approximate values 
 of these factors can be derived for any location in 
 the major agricultural areas of the United States. 
 Tables and charts make this information readily 
 available for field use. 
 
 Research is continuing to obtain more complete 
 and more precise information on the interrelations 
 of topography, soil, and management practices. 
 Additional knowledge gained can be readily 
 brought into the present prediction procedure. 
 Experience has shown, however, that the factor 
 values reported herein are sufficiently accurate to 
 provide very valuable guidelines for conservation 
 farm planning and to aid in estimating gross 
 erosion from watersheds. 
 
 The soil-loss equation in its present form is the 
 result of more than 20 years of development and 
 has had many contributors. 
 
 HISTORY OF SOIL-LOSS EQUATIONS 
 
 Development of equations for calculating field 
 3;1 loss began about 1940 in the Com Belt 
 3ites. The soil-loss estimating procedure de- 
 roped in that region between 1940 and 1956 
 33 been generally referred to as the slope-practice 
 iithod. Zingg { 28 ) ^ published an equation in 
 110 relating soil-loss rate to length and percent- 
 M of slope. In the following year, Smith { 12 ) 
 ided crop and conservation-practice factors and 
 b concept of a specified soil-loss limit, to de- 
 ^op a graphical method for determining conser- 
 'Mon practices needed on the Shelby and 
 iiociated soils of the Midwest. Browning and 
 !<TOrkers { 1 ) added soil erodibility and manage- 
 tnt factors and prepared a set of tables to 
 iiplify field use of the equation in Iowa. Other 
 
 ^Itelic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature 
 -'3a, p. 44. 
 
 advances and adaptations of the procedure in 
 the Corn Belt were made by Smith and Whitt 
 { 13 , 14 ) and by Van Doren and Bartelli { 19 ). 
 Research scientists and operations personnel in 
 the North Central States worked together in de¬ 
 veloping the slope-practice method for use 
 throughout the Corn Belt States. 
 
 In 1946, a nationwide committee on soil-loss 
 prediction met in Ohio for the purpose of adapt¬ 
 ing the Corn Belt equation to other cropland 
 areas with erosion problems. This committee 
 reappraised the Corn Belt factor values and added 
 a rainfall factor { 9 ). The resulting formula, 
 generally known as the Musgrave equation, has 
 been widely used for estimating gross erosion from 
 watersheds in flood abatement programs. A 
 graphical solution of the equation was published in 
 1952 by Lloyd and Eley { 5 ) and used by the Soil 
 Conservation Service in the Northeastern States. 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Years of field experience by the Soil Conser¬ 
 vation Service in the Com Belt and the North¬ 
 eastern States proved the value of soil-loss 
 prediction as a tool to help guide conservation 
 farm planning. Extension of the usefulness of 
 these equations to new areas was seriously ham¬ 
 pered by the lack of procedures and basic infor¬ 
 mation for adjusting measured factor values for 
 differences in rainfall distribution, types of rain¬ 
 storms expected, localized farming methods, 
 length of growing season, and other variables. 
 
 An improved soil-loss equation developed in the 
 latter part of the 1950’s (l8, 26) overcame many 
 of the limitations of the earlier equations. The 
 improved equation was developed at the Runoff 
 and Soil-Loss Data Center of the Agricultural 
 Research Service, established at Purdue Univer¬ 
 sity in 1954. Most of the basic runoff and soil-loss 
 data obtained in studies in the United States 
 
 since 1930 were assembled at this location for 
 summarization and further analyses.^ These 
 analyses resulted in several major improvements 
 that were incorporated in the new soil-loss 
 equation: (1) an improved rainfall-erosion index 
 {21)) (2) a method of evaluating cropping- 
 management effects on the basis of local climatic 
 conditions {22 ); (3) a quantitative soil-erodibility 
 factor; and (4) a method of accounting for effects 
 of interrelations of such variables as productivity 
 level, crop sequence, and residue management. 
 
 These developments freed the equation from 
 some of the generalizations and the geographic and 
 climatic restrictions inherent in earlier models. 
 Because of its general applicability, the improved 
 equation presented in this handbook has been 
 referred to in some of the literature as the “uni¬ 
 versal” soil-loss equation {10, 16, 17, 18, 26). 
 
 SOIL-LOSS TOLERANCES 
 
 The term “sod-loss tolerance” is used to denote 
 the maximum rate of soil erosion that will permit 
 a high level of crop productivity to be sustained 
 economically and indefinitely. This rate has usu¬ 
 ally been expressed in terms of average soil loss 
 per acre per year. Knowledge of the expected 
 rate of sod erosion for each of various alternative 
 cropping systems and management plans on any 
 particular field may be obtained by use of the 
 erosion equation. When these predicted losses 
 can be compared with a sod-loss tolerance for 
 that field, very specific guidelines are provided 
 for effecting erosion control within the specified 
 limits. Anjr cropping and management combina¬ 
 tion for which the predicted erosion rate is less 
 than the tolerance may be expected to provide 
 satisfactory erosion control. From the various 
 satisfactory alternatives indicated by the sod-loss 
 prediction procedure, the farmer may then select 
 
 2 Data used to develop the present equation and sup¬ 
 porting tables and charts were contributed by personnel 
 on Federal-State cooperative research projects at the fol¬ 
 lowing locations: Batesville, Ark.; Tifton and Watkins- 
 ville, Ga.; Dixon Springs, Joliet, and Urbana, Ill.; La¬ 
 fayette, Ind.; Clarinda, Castana, Beaconsfield, Independ¬ 
 ence, and Seymour, low^a; Hays, Kans.; Baton Rouge, 
 La.; Presque Isle, Maine; Benton Harbor and East Lan¬ 
 sing, Mich.; Holly Springs and State College, Miss.; 
 Bethany and McCredie, Mo.; Hastings, Nebr.; Beemer- 
 ville, Marlboro, and New Brunswick, N.J.; Ithaca, 
 Geneva, and Marcellus, N.Y.; Statesville and Raleigh, 
 N.C.; Coshocton and Zanesville, Ohio; Cherokee and 
 Guthrie, Okla.; State College, Pa.; Clemson and Spar¬ 
 tanburg, S.C.; Knoxville and Greeneville, Tenn.; Temple 
 and Tyler, Tex.; Blacksburg, Va.; Pullman, Wash.; 
 LaCrosse, Madison, and Ow’en, Wis.; and Mayaguez, P.R. 
 Rainfall data for development of the iso-erodent map and 
 erosion-index distribution curves were supplied by the U.S. 
 Weather Bureau, National Records Center. 
 
 the land use and management combination best 
 suited to his particular farm enterprise. 
 
 Establishment of tolerances for specific soils and 
 topography has been largely a matter of collective 
 judgment. Both physical and economic factors 
 are considered. For the soils in the United 
 States, the maximum soil-loss rates thus deter¬ 
 mined range from 1 to 5 tons per acre per year, 
 depending upon soU properties, soil depth, topog¬ 
 raphy, and prior erosion. A deep, medium- 
 textured, moderately permeable sod that has sub- 
 soU characteristics favorable for plant growth has 
 a tolerance of 5 tons per acre. Tolerances for 
 soils with a shallow root zone, or with a high 
 percentage of shale at the surface, are usually 
 quite low. 
 
 Soil-loss tolerances for the major soil types were 
 subjectively evaluated at regional Sod-Loss Pre¬ 
 diction Workshops, and lists were distributed in 
 the workshop reports.® 
 
 3 ARS-SCS Soil Loss Prediction Workshop Reports: 
 
 1959. Soil loss estimation in Tennessee. Knoxville, 
 Tenn. 
 
 1960. Soil loss estimation in the Southeast. Athens, 
 Ga. 
 
 1961. Soil loss prediction, North Dakota, Nebraska, 
 and Kansas. Lincoln, Nebr. 
 
 1961. Soil loss prediction for Arkansas, Louisiana, 
 Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Texas. Little Rock, 
 Ark. 
 
 1962. Soil loss prediction for the North Central States. 
 Chicago, Ill. 
 
 1962. Soil loss prediction for the Northeastern States. 
 New York, N.Y. 
 
 These reports are mimeographed, but may be available 
 either from the Agricultural Research Service or the Soil 
 Conservation Service. 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 THE SOIL-LOSS EQUATION 
 
 The Equation Model 
 
 The soil-loss equation is 
 
 A=R K L S C P 
 
 where A is the computed soil loss per unit area. 
 
 R, the rainfall factor, is the number of ero¬ 
 sion-index units in a normal year’s rain. 
 The erosion index is a measure of the 
 erosive force of specific rainfall. 
 
 K, the soil-erodibility factor, is the erosion 
 rate per unit of erosion index for a spe¬ 
 cific soil in cultivated continuous fallow, 
 on a 9-percent slope 72.6 feet long. The 
 reasons for selection of these conditions 
 as unit values is explained in the de¬ 
 tailed discussion of this factor. 
 
 L, the slope-length factor, is the ratio of 
 soil loss from the field slope length to 
 that from a 72.6-foot length on the same 
 soil type and gradient. 
 
 S, the slope-gradient factor, is the ratio of 
 soil loss from the field gradient to that 
 from a 9-percent slope. 
 
 C, the cropping-management factor, is the 
 ratio of sqU loss from a field with speci¬ 
 fied cropping and management to that 
 from the fallow condition on which the 
 factor K is evaluated. 
 
 P , the erosion-control practice factor, is 
 the ratio of soil loss with contouring, 
 stripcropping, or terracing to that with 
 straight-row farming, up-and-down slope. 
 Numerical values for each of the six factors 
 ave been determined from research data. These 
 alues differ from one field or locality to another, 
 he approximate numerical values for any par- 
 icular field may be obtained from the figures 
 nd tables presented herein. 
 
 The subsection entitled “Predicting Field Soil 
 qss,” page 38, illustrates how to select appro- 
 nate values from the figures and tables. The 
 iader who has had no prior experience with the 
 )il-loss equation may wish first to read that 
 action. After he has referred to the tables and 
 ^res and located the values used in the example, 
 
 8 ^ be able to understand the intervening 
 stalled discussions of the equation’s factors. 
 
 In actual practice, the equation is usually not 
 *lved in selecting practices for each farm field. 
 
 1 rnany locations, persons experienced in the use 
 the equation have prepared reference tables 
 lat provide the information needed for the 
 ■ecific locality. 
 
 The soil-loss prediction procedure can be more 
 telligently used as a guide for selection of prac- 
 qes if the user has a general knowledge of the 
 inciples and factor interrelations on which the 
 based. Therefore, the significance of 
 ch factor is discussed before presenting the 
 
 ready-reference table or chart from which loca¬ 
 tional values of that factor may be obtained, 
 iamitations of the data available for evaluation 
 ot some of the factors are also pointed out. 
 
 The Rainfall Factor (/?) 
 
 ^^jor ^ difference between the universal 
 soil-loss equation and its predecessors is in the 
 manner and precision with which locational dif¬ 
 ferences in rainfall are brought into the soil-loss 
 computations. The Corn Belt slope-practice 
 equation was based on an overall average of the 
 seventy and distribution of the rainfall that oc¬ 
 curred on the plot studies in that region. This 
 average rainfall effect was reflected in an 8-ton 
 base soil-loss rate for a 3-year rotation of corn, 
 oats, and meadow. ^ The Musgrave equation as¬ 
 sumed that the erosivity of annual rainfall varied 
 as the 1.75 power of the 2-year maximum 30- 
 mmute rainfall. TMs relation was based on 
 limited data taken in Wisconsin in the 1930’s. 
 Research since 1946 has not supported the ac¬ 
 curacy of this term as an indicator of annual 
 rainfall erosivity. Furthermore, its use as a 
 rainfall factor allowed no consideration of effects 
 of locational differences in the number of ero¬ 
 sive rainstorms and in their expected distribution 
 within the year. 
 
 Rills and sediment deposits observed after an 
 unusually intense stomi could lead to the con¬ 
 clusion that the significant soil erosion is asso¬ 
 ciated with only a few rare storms. However, 
 more than 30 years of measurements in many 
 States have shown that such is not the case {2^). 
 The data showed that a rainfall factor used to 
 estimate average annual soil loss must include 
 the cumulative effects of the many moderate-size 
 storms, as well as the effects of the occasional very 
 severe ones. 
 
 The^ rainfall factor in the soil-loss equation is 
 the rainfall erosion index reported by Wischmeier 
 in 1959 {21). Locational values of this factor 
 were published in 1962 in the form of an iso- 
 erodent map {23). 
 
 The Rainfall Erosion Index 
 
 Exploratory analyses of the large volume of 
 sod loss and rainfall data assembled at the Run¬ 
 off and Soil Loss Data Center brought out a 
 very helpful relation between soil loss and a sin¬ 
 gle rainstorm.parameter. The research data show 
 that when factors other than rainfall are held 
 constant, storm soil losses from cultivated fields 
 are directly proportional to the product value of 
 two rainstorm characteristics: total kinetic energy 
 of the storm times its maximum 30-minute in¬ 
 tensity {El). This product variate is an inter¬ 
 action term that reflects the combined potential 
 
4 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 of raindrop impact and turbulence of runoff to 
 transport dislodged soil particles from the field. 
 The value of this statistic for any particular rain¬ 
 storm can be computed from a recording-rain- 
 gage record with the help of a rainfall energy 
 taWe published in 1958 {2S). 
 
 The sum of the computed storm El values for 
 a given time period is a numerical measure of the 
 erosivity of all the rainfall within that period. 
 The rainfall erosion index at a particular location 
 is the longtime-average yearly total of the storm 
 El values. The storm El values reflect the inter¬ 
 relations of significant rainstorm characteristics. 
 Summing these values to compute the erosion 
 index adds the effect of frequency of erosive storms 
 within the year. 
 
 Iso-Erodent Map 
 
 Locational values of the rainfall factor, R, may 
 be taken directly from the iso-erodent map re¬ 
 produced in figure 1. The lines joining points 
 with the same erosion-index value (which implies 
 equally erosive average annual rainfall) are called 
 iso-erodents. The average number of erosion- 
 index units per year along each iso-erodent is the 
 value of R in the erosion equation. Points lying 
 between the indicated iso-erodents may be ap¬ 
 proximated by linear interpolation. 
 
 To develop the map, the locational value of the 
 erosion index was computed from rainfall data for 
 each of about 2,000 locations fairly evenly dis¬ 
 tributed over the 37 States. The iso-erodents were 
 then plotted as indicated by these values {23). 
 
 Iso-erodents in the mountainous States west 
 of the 104th meridian were not included because 
 of the sporadic rainfall pattern of the mountains. 
 In this area, one weather station may average 
 fewer than 10 inches of rain per year, whereas 
 another station less than 100 miles away averages 
 more than 25 inches. Locational erosion-index 
 values are probably equally sporadic, but are not 
 directly proportional to rain amounts. A very 
 large number of locational rain-intensity records 
 would be required to establish iso-erodents in the 
 mountainous States. In the scattered agricul¬ 
 tural areas where rainfall is sufficient to pose an 
 erosion hazard, locational values of the erosion 
 index can be computed from rainfall records 
 within those specific areas, but a few spot values 
 of the index should not be considered represent¬ 
 ative of a large geographic area. 
 
 The iso-erodent map shows that erosion-index 
 values in the 37 States range from 50 to 600. The 
 erosion index measures only the effect of rainfall 
 when separated from all other factors that influ¬ 
 ence erosion. If the soU and topography were 
 exactly the same everywhere, average annual soil 
 losses from plots maintained in continuous fallow 
 would differ in direct proportion to the erosion- 
 index values. This potential difference is, how¬ 
 ever, partially offset by differences in soil, topog¬ 
 
 raphy, vegetal cover, and residues. On fertile 
 soils in the high rainfall areas of the Southern 
 States, good vegetal cover protects the soil sur¬ 
 face throughout most of the year and heavy plant 
 residues may provide excellent cover also during 
 the dormant season. In the regions where the 
 erosion index is extremely low, rainfall is seldom 
 adequate for establishment of meadows and good 
 cover provided by other crops is often limited to 
 only a relatively short period. Hence, serious 
 soil-erosion hazards exist in semiarid regions as 
 well as in humid. 
 
 In areas such as the Pacific Northwest, where 
 snowmelt causes a large part of the field erosion,, 
 the practical value of the rainfall-erosion equation 
 in its present form has not been established. 
 
 Probability Values of the Erosion Index 
 
 When the erosion equation is used to estimate 
 average annual soil loss, the value of the factor R 
 must equal the average annual value of the ero¬ 
 sion index at that location as obtained from the 
 iso-erodent map. If desired, however, some 
 specific probability value of the erosion index, 
 other than annual averages, may be substituted 
 for R in the equation. For example, the quan¬ 
 tity of soil loss that will be exceeded 1 year in 5, 
 on the average, may be estimated by assigning to 
 R the 20-percent probability of the erosion index. 
 
 The 50-percent, 20-percent, and 5-percent 
 probability values of the index at 181 key lo¬ 
 cations are shown in appendix table 11. 
 
 To approximate the amount of soil loss from 
 a single storm that will probably be exceeded 
 once in 1, 2, 5, 10, or 20 years, the factor^ may 
 be assigned a value selected from appendix table 
 12. For this purpose, however, the value of C 
 should be determined as indicated under “Indi¬ 
 vidual-Storm Soil Losses.’’ 
 
 The Soil-Erodibility Factor (K) 
 
 The meaning of the term “soil erodibility’’ is 
 distinctly different from that of the term “soil 
 erosion.” The rate of soil erosion on any area 
 may be infiuenced more by land slope, rainstorm 
 characteristics, cover, and management than by 
 properties of the soil itself. The total rate of 
 soff loss is designated by the symbol A in the 
 equation. But some soils erode more readily 
 than others even when slope, rainfall, cover, and 
 management are the same. This difference, due 
 to properties of the soil itself, is referred to as the 
 soil erodibility. 
 
 Soil properties that infiuence erodibility by 
 water are (1) those that affect the infiltration 
 rate, permeability, and total water capacity, and 
 (2) those that resist the dispersion, splashing, 
 abrasion, and transporting forces of the rainfaU 
 and runoff. A number of attempts have been 
 made to determine criteria for scientific class- 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 ification of soils according to erodibility (^, 6, 7 
 11, 16). Generally, however, soil classifications 
 used for erosion prediction have been largely 
 subjective and have been only relative rankings. 
 
 erodibility of different soils is 
 difficult to judge from field observations. Even 
 a soil with a relatively low erodibility factor may 
 show signs of serious erosion when the soil occum 
 on long or ^ steep slopes or in localities having 
 nurnerous high-intensity rainstorms. A soil with 
 a high natural erodibility factor, on the other 
 hand, may show little evidence of actual erosion 
 under gentle rainfall when it occurs on short and 
 gentle slopes or when the best possible manage¬ 
 ment IS practiced. The effects of rainfall dif¬ 
 ferences, slope, cover, and management are 
 accounted for in the prediction equation by the 
 symbols Z, S, C, and P. Therefore, the 
 ^il-erodibility factor, K. must be evaluated in¬ 
 dependently of the effects of the other factors. 
 
 Definition of the Factor K 
 
 The soO-erodibility factor, K, in the soil-loss 
 equation is a quantitative value, experimentally 
 ietermmed. For a particular soil, it is the rate 
 )f erosion per unit of erosion index from unit 
 dots on that soil. 
 
 A unit plot is 72.6 feet long, with a uniform 
 engthwise slope of 9 percent, in continuous 
 allow, tilled up and down the slope. Contin- 
 lous fallow, for this purpose, is land that has 
 •een tilled and kept free of vegetation for a 
 'enod of at least 2 years or until prior crop 
 esidues have decomposed. During the period of 
 oil-loss measurements, the plot is plowed and 
 laced m conventional com seedbed condition 
 ach spring and is tilled as needed to prevent 
 ^etal growth or serious surface crusting, 
 vhen all of these conditions are met, each of 
 le factors L, S, C, and P has a value of 1 0 
 nd K equals AjEL 
 
 The conditions listed above were selected as 
 nit values m the soil-loss equation because they 
 'pr^ent the predominant slope length and the 
 edian gradient on which past erosion measure- 
 ents in the United States have been made, and 
 le d^ignated management provides the surface 
 •ndition least influenced by differences in cli- 
 ate and local cropping systems. 
 
 Direct measurements of K on well replicated 
 jut plots as described should reflect the com¬ 
 bed effects of all the variables that significantly 
 itiuence the ease with which a soil is eroded by 
 iinfall and mnoff. To evaluate K for soils that 
 <• not usually occur on a 9-percent slope, soil-loss 
 < a from plots that meet all the other specified 
 <nditions are adjusted to 9-percent slope bv 
 leans of the slope factor. 
 
 760-705 o—65- 2 
 
 Values of K 
 
 V^ues of K determined for 23 major soils on 
 which erosion plot studies were conducted since 
 1930 are listed in table 1. Seven of these values 
 are from continuous fallow. The others are from 
 row props averaging 20 plot-years of record per 
 location and requiring a minimum of adjustment 
 tor management effects {10). 
 
 Table 1. Computed K values for soils on erosion- 
 research stations 
 
 Soil 
 
 Dunkirk silt loam_ 
 
 Keene silt loam_ 
 
 Shelby loam_ 
 
 Lodi loam_ 
 
 Fayette silt loam_ 
 
 Cecil sandy clay loam_ 
 
 Marshall silt loam_ 
 
 Ida silt loam_ 
 
 Mansic clay loam_ 
 
 Hagerstown silty clay foam. 
 
 Austin clay_ 
 
 Mexico silt loam_ 
 
 Honeoye silt loam_ 
 
 Cecil sandy loam_ 
 
 Ontario loam_ 
 
 Cecil clay loam_ 
 
 Boswell fine sandy loam_ 
 
 Cecil sandy loam_ 
 
 Zaneis fine sandy loam_ 
 
 Tifton loamy sand_ 
 
 Freehold loamy sand_ 
 
 Bath fiaggy silt loam with 
 surface stones>2 inches 
 removed. 
 
 Albia gravelly loam_ 
 
 Source of data 
 
 Geneva, N.Y_ 
 
 Zanesville, Ohio_ 
 
 Bethany, Mo_ 
 
 Blacksburg, Va_ 
 
 LaCrosse, Wis_ 
 
 Watkinsville, Ga_ 
 
 Clarinda, Iowa_ 
 
 Castana, Iowa_ 
 
 Hays, Kans_ 
 
 State College, Pa_ 
 
 Temple, Tex_ 
 
 McCredie, Mo_ 
 
 Marcellus, N.Y_ 
 
 Clemson, S.C_ 
 
 Geneva, N.Y_ 
 
 Watkinsville, Ga_ 
 
 Tyler, Tex_ 
 
 Watkinsville, Ga_ 
 
 Guthrie, Okla_ 
 
 Tifton, Ga_ 
 
 Marlboro, N.J_ 
 
 Arnot, N.Y_ 
 
 Beemerville, N.J_ 
 
 Com¬ 
 
 puted 
 
 K 
 
 0. 69 
 . 48 
 . 41 
 . 39 
 ‘ . 38 
 . 36 
 . 33 
 . 33 
 . 32 
 . 31 
 . 29 
 . 28 
 . 28 
 . 28 
 . 27 
 . 26 
 . 25 
 . 23 
 . 22 
 . 10 
 . 08 
 . 05 
 
 . 03 
 
 * Evaluated from continuous fallow, 
 computed from row-crop data. 
 
 All others were 
 
 Other soils on which valuable erosion studies 
 have been conducted (see footnote 2, p. 2) were 
 not included in the table because of uncertainties 
 involved in adjustments of the data for effects of 
 cropping and management. Short periods of 
 record from plots cropped to rotations that pro¬ 
 vide good canopy or residue protection most of 
 the tinie cannot presently serve for authentic 
 evaluation of K, even though the studies were 
 well designed and provided valuable data for 
 evaluation of other factors in the equation. 
 
 Soil-erodibihty values for numerous other soils 
 have been approximated by considering a soil's 
 characteristics and tempering the estimate of its 
 erodibility against the established values for the 
 23 soils listed in table 1. Such estimated values 
 for all the major soils in the several major geo¬ 
 graphic regions were prepared at joint AR^SCS 
 Regional Soil-Loss Prediction Workshops.^ 
 
 ♦ See footnote 3, p. 2. 
 
Figure 1. —Average annual 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 7 
 
 lues of the rainfall factor, R 
 
8 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Increased research efforts, begun in 1961 at 
 several locations, are designed to identify and 
 evaluate the various soil properties that influence 
 erodibility. Additional benchmark values are also 
 being obtained by direct measurement of K on 
 unit plots. 
 
 Factors for Slope Length (L) and 
 Gradient 
 
 The rate of soil erosion by water is very much 
 affected by both slope length and gradient (per¬ 
 cent slope). The two effects have been evaluated 
 separately in research and are represented in the 
 erosion equation by L and S, respectively. In 
 field application of the equation, however, it 
 is convenient to consider the two as a single 
 topographic factor, LS. 
 
 The Slope-Effect Chart 
 
 The factor LS is the expected ratio of soil loss 
 per unit area on a field slope to corresponding loss 
 
 from the basic 9-percent slope, 72.6 feet long. 
 This ratio, for specific combinations of slope length, 
 and gradient, may usually be taken directly from 
 the slope-effect chart (fig. 2). For example, a 10- 
 percent slope, 360 feet long, would have an LS 
 ratio of 2.6. 
 
 When the equation is used as a guide for selec¬ 
 tion of practices on an area where several slopes 
 are combined into a single field, the slope charac¬ 
 teristics of the most erosive significant segment 
 of the field should be used for figure 2. Use of 
 field averages on such slope complexes would 
 underestimate soil movement on significant parts 
 of the field. 
 
 The slope-effect chart assumes essentially uni¬ 
 form slopes. Field slopes are often either convex 
 (steepening substantially toward the lower end) 
 or concave (flattening toward the lower end). 
 The effect of convexity or concavity of slopes on 
 soil-erosion rates has not been fully evaluated. 
 However, limited data indicate that use of the 
 average gradient of the entire slope length would 
 substantially underestimate soil loss from the con- 
 
 Fiqure 2.—Slope-effect chart (topographic factor, LS). 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 vex slopes and would overestimate the loss from 
 concave slopes. When the lower end of the slope 
 is steeper than the upper end, the gradient of the 
 steeper segment should be used with the overall 
 slope length to enter the slope-effect chart. On 
 a concave slope, deposition may occur on the 
 lower end of the field. In such cases, the appro¬ 
 priate length and gradient are those of that seg¬ 
 ment of the slope that is above the point where it 
 flattens enough for deposition to occur. 
 
 The broken-line portions of the curves on the 
 chart were extrapolated to provide the best 
 estunates now available for slopes longer than 
 those ^ measured in plot studies. Subsequent 
 investigations on slopes longer than 300 feet may 
 show need for revision of these segments of the 
 curves. 
 
 Values of LS for slope percentages not shown 
 bn the chart may be computed by solving the 
 following equation: 
 
 i:^=Vx(0.0076+0.0053s+0.00076s 
 where X is the field slope length in feet, and s 
 is the gradient expressed as slope percent. 
 
 Slope Length 
 
 Slope length is defined as the distance from 
 the point of origip of overland flow to either of 
 the following, whichever is limiting for the major 
 3art of the area under consideration: (1) the point 
 vhere the slope decreases to the extent that 
 ieposition begins or (2) the point where runoff 
 inters a well-defined channel that may be part 
 )f a drainage network or a constructed channel 
 luch as a terrace or diversion (16). 
 
 Numerous plot studies have shown that the 
 oil loss per unit area is proportional to some 
 lower of slope length. Since the factor L is the 
 atio of field soil loss to that from a 72.6-foot 
 
 lope, the value of L may be expressed as 
 
 inhere X is field slope length in feet and the ex- 
 *onent m is determined from field data. The 
 lagnitude of the exponent m in this expression 
 5 not the same for all locations or for all con- 
 itions^ at a given location {27). Its average 
 past investigations under natural rain- 
 ill has been about 0.5. This is the value used 
 3r development of the slope-effect chart (fig. 2). 
 
 The value of m is significantly influenced by 
 tie interaction of slope length with gradient and 
 lay also be influenced by soil properties, type 
 1 vegetation, and management practices. On 
 opes steeper than 10 percent, a value of 0.6 
 )r m is recommended. A value of 0.3 appears 
 pplicable to the very long slopes of less than 
 ne-half percent gradient encountered in the 
 irrow-imgated sections of the High Plains of 
 estem Texas. Data from gently sloping 
 Louston clay and Alansic clay loam soils that 
 ere frequently dry and deeply cracked showed 
 
 a decrease in runoff with increased slope length 
 and indicated a value of m=0.3 for these par¬ 
 ticular soils. Other than for these special cases, 
 use of the 0.5-power relation reflected in figure 2 
 is presently recommended. However, further re¬ 
 search investigation may soon provide a basis 
 for recommending other deviations from this over¬ 
 all average. 
 
 Figure 3 provides a graphical method for deter- 
 
 lO 
 
 Ci 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 llj 
 
 ^ 400 
 
 UJ 
 l 
 
 i 
 
 O 200 
 UJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 O 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SLOPE LENGTH (feet) 
 
 Figure 3.—Equivalent slope lengths for use of slope- 
 effect chart when the value of the pertinent length- 
 exponent is not 0.5. 
 
 mining the value of LS when conditions indicate 
 that a length exponent other than 0.5 is appli¬ 
 cable. For example, assume a 600-foot slope 
 length on Houston clay with 4-percent gradient 
 and an exponent of 0.3. Entering figure 2 with 
 the 260 found in figure 3, the LS value for the 
 assumed situation is about 0.68. A 600-foot slope 
 length under conditions where the applicable ex¬ 
 ponent is 0.4 is shown to be equivalent to a 390- 
 foot length under conditions where the exponent 
 is 0.5. 
 
 Slope Gradient 
 
 A. W. Zingg, in 1940, concluded that soil loss varies 
 as the 1.4 power of percent slope {28). In 1946, 
 the Musgrave Committee {9) recommended use 
 of the 1.35 power of percent slope. Based on 
 andyses of the data assembled at the Runoff and 
 Soil-Loss Data Center Smith and Wischmeier 
 {15) in 1957 proposed the relation: 
 
 o_0.43+0.30s+0.043s2 
 
 6.613 
 
 where s is the gradient expressed as percent slope 
 and S is the slope factor in the erosion equation. 
 The latter relation was used to derive figure 2. 
 
 The relation of soil loss to gradient is influenced 
 by density of vegetal cover and by soil particle 
 size. However, research data are presently not 
 adequate to determine the specific conditions 
 
10 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 8 2, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 under which deviations from the expressed aver¬ 
 age relation would be significant. 
 
 The Cropping-Management Factor (C) 
 
 The effects of cropping and management vari¬ 
 ables cannot be evaluated independently because 
 of the many interre ations involved. Almost any 
 crop can be grown continuously, or it can be grown 
 in any one of numerous rotations. The sequences 
 of crops within a system can be varied. Crop 
 residues can be removed, left on the surface, in¬ 
 corporated near the surface, or plowed under. 
 \Vlien left on the surface, they can be chopped or 
 they can be allowed to remain as left by the 
 harvesting operation. Seedbeds can be left rough, 
 with much available capacity for surface storage 
 of rainfall, or they can be left smooth. Different 
 combinations of these variables are likely to have 
 different effects on soU loss. 
 
 In addition, the effectiveness of crop-residue 
 management will depend on how much residue 
 there is. This, in turn, depends on rainfall dis¬ 
 tribution, on the fertility level, and on various 
 management decisions made by the farmer. Sim¬ 
 ilarly, the erosion-control effectiveness of meadow 
 sod turned under before corn or other rowcrops 
 depends on the type and quality of the meadow 
 and on the length of time elapsed since the sod 
 was turned under. 
 
 The canopy protection of crops not only de¬ 
 pends on the type of vegetation, the stand, and 
 the quality of growth, but it also varies greatly 
 in different months or seasons. Therefore, the 
 overall erosion-reducing effectiveness of a crop 
 depends largely on how much of the erosive rain 
 occurs during those periods when the crop or 
 management practice provides the least protection. 
 
 Definition of Factor C 
 
 The factor C in the soil-loss equation is the 
 ratio of soil loss from land cropped under spec¬ 
 ified conditions to the corresponding loss from 
 tilled, continuous fallow. This factor measures 
 the combined effect of all the interrelated cover 
 and management variables listed in the preceding 
 three paragraphs. 
 
 The loss that would occur on a particular field 
 if it were continuously in fallow condition is com¬ 
 puted by the four-factor product, RKLS, in the 
 erosion equation. Actual loss from the cropped 
 field is usually much less than this amount. Just 
 how much less depends on the particular combi¬ 
 nation of cover, crop sequence, and management 
 practices. It also depends on the particular stage 
 of growth and development of the vegetal cover 
 at the time of the rain. The factor C adjusts the 
 soil-loss estimate to suit these conditions. 
 
 The correspondence of periods of expected 
 highly erosive rainfall vdth periods of poor or 
 good plant cover differs between regions or 
 locations. Therefore, the value of C for a par¬ 
 
 ticular cropping system will not be the same in 
 all parts of the country. In order to derive the 
 appropriate C values for a given locality, it is 
 necessary to know how the erosive rainfall in 
 that locality is likely to be distributed through 
 the 12 months of the year. It is also necessary 
 to know how much erosion-control protection the 
 growing plants, the prior-crop residues, and 
 various tillage operations will provide at the time 
 when erosive rains are likely to occur. A pro¬ 
 cedure has been developed for deriving locational 
 values of the factor C on the basis of available 
 weather records and research data that reflect 
 effects of crops and management. The cropping 
 and weather data needed for this purpose appear 
 in ready-reference form in the subsections en¬ 
 titled “Sod-Loss Ratios” and “Erosion-Index 
 Distribution Curves.” 
 
 The change in effectiveness of plant cover 
 within the crop year is gradual. For practical 
 purposes, it was necessary to divide the year 
 into a series of crop stage periods so defined that 
 cover and management effects may be considered 
 approximately uniform within each period. 
 
 Crop Stage Periods 
 
 The five crop stage periods that are used for 
 computation of locational C values are defined 
 as follows: 
 
 Period F.— Rough fallow. Turn plowing to 
 seeding. 
 
 Period 1.— Seedling. Seedbed preparation to 
 1 month after planting. 
 
 Period 2.— Establishment. From 1 to 2 
 months a^'ter spring or summer seeding. 
 For fall-seeded grain, period 2 includes the 
 winter months, ending about May 1 in 
 the Northern States, April 15 in the 
 Central States, and April 1 in the South¬ 
 ern States. 
 
 Period 3.— Growing and maturing crop. End 
 of period 2 to crop harvest. 
 
 Period 4.— Residue or stubble. Crop harvest 
 to plowing or new seeding. (When 
 meadow was established in small grain, 
 grain period 4 was assumed to extend 2 
 months beyond the grain harvest date. 
 After that time, the vegetation was clas¬ 
 sified as established meadow.) 
 
 Some adjustment in length of periods 1 
 through 3 may be necessary for vegetable crops. 
 
 Effects of Cropping System and Management 
 on Soil Loss 
 
 About 10,000 plot-years of runoff and soU-loss 
 data assembled from 47 research stations in 24 
 States {20) were analyzed to obtain empirical 
 measurements of the effects of cropping system 
 and management on soil loss within each crop- 
 stage period. Several significant factor relations 
 that became apparent from the analyses provide 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 11 
 
 background information for interpretation of the 
 soil-loss ratio table. 
 
 Erosion From Fallow Soil—'TYie rate at which 
 fallow soil eroded depended on cropping history 
 and the nature and quantity of residues turned 
 under as well as on inherent characteristics of the 
 soil itself. Brief periods of fallow in a rotation 
 were not comparable in erodibility to continuous 
 clean-tilled fallow on similar soil and slope. 
 Plant residues incorporated in fallow soil were very 
 eflfective in reducing both runoff and erosion. 
 Effects of cropping history are a part of the factor 
 C in the erosion equation. 
 
 Productivity Level and Soil Loss. —In general, 
 soil losses decreased as crop yields increased! 
 Since good grain yields are usually associated with 
 good stands and good forage growth, the canopy 
 cover IS better and more residues are returned to 
 ^e soil. Both help to decrease erosion losses. 
 However, the added erosion-reducing benefit of 
 each additional unit of crop yield becomes less as 
 yields become higher. 
 
 Crop-Residue Management. —The soil-loss reduc¬ 
 tion resulting froih prior crop residues left on the 
 field depended on the type and quantity of res¬ 
 idues produced and the method of handling. Res¬ 
 idues were most effective when left at the surface. 
 But after several years of turning heavy crop re¬ 
 sidues under with a moldboard plow before row- 
 3rop seeding, both runoff and soil loss from the 
 "ow crop were much less than from similar plots 
 rom which cornstalks and grain straw were re- 
 no ved at haryesttime. The effectiveness of in- 
 jorporated residues was greatest during the fal- 
 ow and seedling periods. 
 
 _ Erosion From Row Crop After Meadow. —Spe- 
 ‘ific-year erosion losses from corn after meadow 
 anged from 14 to 68 percent of corresponding 
 osses from continuous corn on adjacent plots, 
 vlixtures of grass and legume were more effective 
 nan legumes alone. In general, the effectiveness 
 'f grass-and-legume meadow sod plowed under 
 •efore corn in reducing soil loss from the corn was 
 arectly proportional to meadow yields. Its ero- 
 lon-control effectiveness was greatest during the 
 ough fallow and corn-seedling periods and de- 
 reased as the com year moved along. The total 
 eduction in soU loss effected by the meadow 
 epended, therefore, largely upon the stage of 
 evelopment of the corn when the erosive rains 
 ccurred. The length of the period during which 
 le turned sod remained effective in reducing cro¬ 
 on was also directly related to meadow yields. 
 
 Ejffect of I^ength of Meadow Periods. —Direct 
 )mparisons of corn after first, second, and third 
 ears of meadow were very limited, and the data 
 ere too sporadic for overall differences to be 
 atistically significant. Wlien second-year mead- 
 w was allowed to deteriorate under poor manage- 
 lent, it was less effective than 1 year of meadow. 
 
 When succeeding meadows were more productive 
 than first-year, they were usually more effective in 
 reducing erosion from corn after the meadow. 
 The effectiveness of virgin sod and of long periods 
 of continuous alfalfa in which grass became well 
 established was longer lasting than that of 1 or 2 
 years of rotation meadow. 
 
 Grass-and-legume catch crops established in 
 spring-seeded small grain and plowed under at 
 corn planting time in the following year effected 
 significant reduction in soil erosion during the corn 
 seedling period, but their effectiveness was shorter 
 lived than that of a full year of meadow. 
 
 Winter-Cover Seedings. —The erosion control 
 attained with winter-cover seedings depended 
 upon time and method of seeding, time of plow¬ 
 ing, rainfall distribution, and type of cover seeded. 
 Covers such as vetch and ryegrass seeded between 
 the corn or cotton rows before harvest and turned 
 under in April were effective in reducing erosion 
 not only in the winter months but also during the 
 seedling and establishment periods of the following 
 crop. Small grain alone seeded in corn or cotton 
 residues and plowed under in spring was of some 
 value during the winter period but showed no 
 residual erosion-reducing effect after the next 
 year’s corn or cotton planting. Very limited data 
 indicated crimson clover alone to be of doubtful 
 value as a ydnter cover, but when it was combined 
 with a cjuick-starting grass, effective protection 
 was provided. Small grain or vetch seeded in the 
 fall on plowed cottonland and turned under in 
 spring for another cotton seeding lost about 20 
 percent more soil than adjacent plots with undis¬ 
 turbed cotton residues on the surface. 
 
 Soil-Loss Ratios 
 
 Humid Areas. —An empirical measure of the 
 erosion-control effectiveness of each crop, grown 
 in various sequences, was obtained from the as¬ 
 sembled plot data. Ratios of soil losses from the 
 cropped plots to corresponding losses from con¬ 
 tinuous fallow were computed. This ratio was 
 computed for each of the five crop-stage periods 
 previously defined, for each particular crop, in 
 various combinations of crop sequence and pro¬ 
 ductivity level. 
 
 A 10-column, 100-line table of the computed 
 soil-loss ratios was published in 1960 by Wisch- 
 rneier (22). This table was not as comprehen¬ 
 sive as would be desirable from an application 
 viewpoint. Some combinations of conditions en¬ 
 countered in field soil-loss estimation in various 
 parts of the United States were omitted from the 
 table, because not enough research data were avail¬ 
 able to make sound evaluations of these partic¬ 
 ular combinations. Nevertheless, the table was 
 comprehensive enough to test the validity and 
 value of the new procedure for deriving rotation 
 C values on a locational basis. It also provided 
 
12 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 282, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 a broad set of benchmark values from which other 
 ratios could be estimated by subjective com¬ 
 parisons. 
 
 Table 2 is an e.xpansion of the previously pub¬ 
 lished soil-loss ratio table. It lists, for each crop- 
 stage period, the expected ratio of soil loss from 
 the designated crop and practice combination to 
 corresponding loss from the base fallow condition. 
 The table is entered on the basis of crop, crop 
 
 sequence, residue management, and crop pro-, 
 ductivity level, in that order. The soU-loss ratic' 
 for each crop-stage period is taken from the sever 
 columns at the right. Three columns are needed; 
 for corn-period 4, in order to reflect effects oj 
 different ways of managing the field during that 
 period. Suggestions for estimating soil-loss ratios 
 under some of the conditions not directly listed 
 in this table are shown in table 3. 
 
 Table 2. —Ratio oJ soil loss from cropland to corresponding loss from continuous faUow 
 
 Line 
 
 No. 
 
 Cover, sequence, 
 and management ^ 
 
 Productivity * 
 
 Soil-loss ratio for 
 crop-stage period ® 
 
 Hay 
 
 yield 
 
 Corn 
 
 yield 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 ^ 
 
 4L 
 
 4R 
 
 4L + WC 
 
 
 CORN IN ROTATION 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ist-year C after gr & Ig hay: 
 
 Tons 
 
 Bu. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 1 
 
 Spg TP, conv till_ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 1( 
 
 2 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 75 + 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 .40 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 Do____ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 12 
 
 29 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 60-74 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 15 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 If 
 
 6 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 40-59 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 20-35 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 65 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 Spg TP, min till.__ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 1( 
 
 9 
 
 ‘ ^ Dol_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 75 + 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 1( 
 
 10 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 60-74 
 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 Do_ _ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 If 
 
 
 2d-year C after gr & Ig hay: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 RdL, spg TP, conv till_ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 25 
 
 48 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 b6r...l_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 75 + 
 
 32 
 
 51 
 
 41 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 
 If 
 
 15 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 35 
 
 54 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 
 If 
 
 16 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 42 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 40-59 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 54 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 
 2f 
 
 18 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 20-35 
 
 55 
 
 66 
 
 60 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 
 32 
 
 19 
 
 RdL, spg TP, min till. _ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 b6Jl_..l_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 75 + 
 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 13 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 If 
 
 21 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 65 
 
 If 
 
 22 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 Do. __ _ 
 
 <1 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 46 
 
 46 
 
 18 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 2f 
 
 24 
 
 RdL, WC in prec C, conv till__ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 25 
 
 bo_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 75 + 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 If 
 
 26 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 21 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 65 
 
 If 
 
 27 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 25 
 
 42 
 
 40 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 21 
 
 28 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 40-59 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 75 
 
 2f 
 
 29 
 
 Do_ 
 
 <1 
 
 20-35 
 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 35 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 RdR, WC in prec C, conv till_ 
 
 .3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 
 60 
 
 3f 
 
 31 
 
 bo_;_:_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 45 
 
 24 
 
 
 65 
 
 3f 
 
 32 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 42 
 
 60 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 
 75 
 
 3f 
 
 33 
 
 RdR, no WC, conv till___ . 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 47 
 
 22 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 34 
 
 bo_1_ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 51 
 
 24 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 35 
 
 Do_ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 65 
 
 72 
 
 57 
 
 30 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 3d or 4th year C after gr & Ig hay, or 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2d-vear C after SG, red cl, or sw cl: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 RdL, conv till __ . 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 36 
 
 63 
 
 50 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 bo.. .. 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 45 
 
 66 
 
 54 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 
 i. 
 
 38 
 
 Do__ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 32 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 Do.. 
 
 <1 
 
 20-35 
 
 70 
 
 76 
 
 64 
 
 38 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 RdL, min till.. 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 bo.. _ _ 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 42 
 
 Do.. 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 19 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 RdL 4- WC in prec C_ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 22 
 
 46 
 
 41 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 
 If 
 
 44 
 
 Do__ .. 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 26 
 
 48 
 
 44 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 
 2( 
 
 45 
 
 Do___ 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 33 
 
 51 
 
 47 
 
 32 
 
 50 
 
 
 2f 
 
 See footnotes at end of table. 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND jg 
 
 Table 2.~Raiio oj soU loss from cropland to corresponding loss from continuous jallow-Contimxei 
 
 Line 
 
 No. 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 Cover, sequence, 
 and management ' 
 
 CORN IN ROTATION—Continued 
 
 RdL + WC in prec C_ 
 
 RdR, conv till 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_iiiiiiiiiii; 
 
 RdR, 8 tons manure added_ 
 
 Ist-year C after cl hay_ 
 
 Ist-year C after sw cl_ 
 
 Ist-year C after lesp hay_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 C after 1 year cot after gr & Ig hav 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Corn in meadowless systems: 
 
 After SG wintercrop, spg TP. 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 After SG, no intercrop, RdL_ 
 
 Productivity * 
 
 COTTON IN ROTATION 
 
 Ist-year cot after gr & Ig hay.. 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 2d-year cot after gr & Ig hay; 
 
 RdL, no WC seeding 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 RdL + WC in prec cot 
 
 Do__ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do..._ 
 
 Cot after cot, 3d or more year after M: 
 RdL, no WC seedine 
 Do_ 
 
 RdL+WC in prec cot 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Cot Mter 1 year C (RdL) after M 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_:::: 
 
 Cot after 1 year C C RdR.. 
 
 Cot after 2 years C (RdL) after M 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Cot in cot (V)-C (crot) system __ 
 
 Cot in cot-O-lesp seed, RdL_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Cot in cot-SG-sw cl_ 
 
 Hay 
 
 yield 
 
 Corn 
 
 yield 
 
 Tons 
 
 Bu. 
 
 <1 
 
 20-35 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 60-74 
 
 2 
 
 40-55 
 
 
 40-55 
 
 1-2 
 
 60-70 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-55 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-70 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 3-5 
 
 2- 3 
 1-2 
 1-2 
 <1 
 
 3- 5 
 
 2- 3 
 1-2 
 <1 
 
 3- 5 
 2-3 
 1-2 
 <1 
 
 SMALL GRAIN IN ROTATION 
 
 With meadow seeding: 
 
 In disked row-crop residue— 
 After 1 year C after M.... 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do _iimirr 
 
 After 2d or 3d year C after 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 Do_ 
 
 After 1 or more C after SG. 
 See footnotes at end of table. 
 
 7«0-705 O— 65-3 
 
 M. 
 
 3-5 
 
 2-3 
 
 1-2 
 
 2- 3 
 
 3- 5 
 2-3 
 1-2 
 
 3-5 
 
 2- 3 
 1-2 
 <1 
 
 3- 5 
 2-3 
 1-2 
 <1 
 
 75 + 
 60-70 
 40-55 
 
 HP 
 HP 
 HP 
 MP 
 MP 
 
 HP 
 
 HP 
 
 MP 
 
 MP 
 
 HP 
 
 HP 
 
 MP 
 
 MP 
 
 HP 
 MP 
 HP 
 MP 
 75 + 
 60-75 
 40-59 
 40-59 
 75 + 
 60-75 
 40-59 
 HP 
 HP 
 MP 
 MP 
 
 75 + 
 60-74 
 40-59 
 25-39 
 75 + 
 60-74 
 40-59 
 25-39 
 
 Pet. 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 («) 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 40 
 45 
 20 
 23 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 25 
 32 
 
 35 
 60 
 
 36 
 45 
 55 
 
 28 
 23 
 25 
 25 
 
 Pci. 
 
 56 
 
 78 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 37 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 (®) 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 47 
 51 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 51 
 54 
 
 65 
 63 
 
 66 
 70 
 40 
 34 
 40 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 75 
 
 (*) 
 
 Soil-loss ratio for 
 crop-stage period ® 
 
 Pet. 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 60 
 70 
 52 
 32 
 38 
 
 55 
 60 
 46 
 54 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 (*) 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 62 
 68 
 70 
 
 46 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 57 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 49 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 63 
 62 
 68 
 73 
 45 
 40 
 45 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 36 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 (“) 
 
 3 < 
 
 Pet. 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 30 
 35 
 
 28 
 25 
 28 
 30 
 32 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 («) 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 38 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 50 
 38 
 
 44 
 46 
 50 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 32 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 40 
 
 39 
 
 45 
 50 
 35 
 30 
 37 
 35 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4- 15 
 
 5- 15 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5- 15 
 
 6- 15 
 (*) 
 
 4L 
 
 Pet. 
 
 65 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 (®) 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 C) 
 
 4R 
 
 4L + WC 
 
 Pet. 
 
 62 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 62 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 75 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 Pet. 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 18 
 20 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
14 AGR. HANDBOOK 282, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 2. —Ratio of soil loss from cropland to corresponding loss from continuous fallow —Continued 
 
 Line 
 
 No. 
 
 Cover, sequence, 
 and management ‘ 
 
 Productivity ® 
 
 Soil-loss ratio for 
 crop stage period * 
 
 Hay 
 
 yield 
 
 Corn 
 
 yield 
 
 F 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 « 
 
 4L 
 
 4R 
 
 4L+WC 
 
 
 SMALL GRAIN IN ROTATION —Continued 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 With meadow seeding—Continued 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In disked row-crop residue—Con. 
 
 Tons 
 
 Bu. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 Pet. 
 
 QK 
 
 Affpr 1 flf.-vpn,r f*nt. ftft.pr TVT 
 
 2-3 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 5-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 QQ 
 
 Affpr 9H-.vpflr pnt. flft.pr IVT 
 
 2-3 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 5-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Tn r*nt. mirlrllps n.ft.pr rw cl nr leRn 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 10-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 On disked row-crop stubble, RdR— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 01 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-1- 
 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 5-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 Do 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 7-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 10“^ 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-f 
 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 6-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 A ft.pr C SH vpR.r a ftpr IVT 
 
 
 
 92 
 
 55 
 
 7-15 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 On plowed seedbed, RdL— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 After 1 year C or SG after M __ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 25 
 
 45 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 Do 
 
 2-5 
 
 60-74 
 
 35 
 
 51 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 Do 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 42 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 After 2 years C or SG after M _ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 36 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 109 
 
 Do 
 
 2-3 
 
 40-59 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 On plowed seedbed, RdR— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 After 1 year C or SG after M __ 
 
 3-5 
 
 75 + 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 Dn 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 Dn 
 
 1-2 
 
 40-59 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 
 2-3 
 
 60-74 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Without meadow seeding: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 Spniipnppfl nnH vipIHq nf linps QO 
 
 
 
 0 ) 
 
 d) 
 
 (0 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 
 115 
 
 Sequences and yields of lines 91-99, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 101 105 106 108-110 
 
 
 
 C) 
 
 C) 
 
 (0 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 116 
 
 Sequences and yields of lines 102- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 104 107. 111-113 
 
 
 
 Q) 
 
 (0 
 
 (0 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 DOUBLE-CROPPED ROTATIONS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 117 
 
 Whpfl+. nnH Ipnn /^bnv^ 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 AVhpnf, nnH Ipcn Hnfh iyrn7,pH 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 119 
 
 Rno nnfQ ^Vinv^ nnH Ipcn ^hnv^ 8 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ESTABLISHED MEADOWS ® 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 rirnQQ nnH Iptriimp noiv 
 
 3-f- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 4 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 T^n 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 
 122 
 
 Dn 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 0 
 
 
 
 123 
 
 AIfnIfn 
 
 2. 5-f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 0 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 0 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 T?pH plnvpr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 5 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 Sprippn 9H vpnr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 0 
 
 
 . 
 
 127 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 0 
 
 
 . 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2. 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Symbols: C, corn; conv till, conventional tillage; cot, 
 cotton; crot, crotolaria; gr & Ig, grass and legume; lesp, 
 lespedeza; M, grass and legume meadow, at least 1 full 
 year; min till, minimum tillage; O, oats; prec, preceding; 
 RdL, residue of prior crop left; RdR, residue of prior crop 
 removed; spg, spring; SG, small grain; sw cl, sweetclover; 
 TP, turn plow; V, vetch; WC, grass or grass-and-legume 
 winter cover seeded early. 
 
 * For cotton, HP = high crop productivity; MP = mod¬ 
 erate crop productivity. 
 
 Small-grain cover is assumed commensurate with the 
 indicated productivity level of corn or cotton. 
 
 ® Crop-stage periods are as defined on p. 10. Period 4 
 ratios are taken from column 4L when crop residues 
 remain on field but without winter cover seeding; from 
 
 column 4R when corn stover, straw, and similar residues 
 are removed; and from column 4L+WC when early- 
 seeded grass and legume winter cover is established m 
 addition to leaving crop residues. 
 
 ^ Where two period 3 values appear, the first is for 
 high-yielding grain and the second is for grain yielding 
 less than 30 bushels of oats or 15 bushels of wheat pei 
 Here* 
 
 * Use data from lines 36 to 42, selecting line on basis 
 
 of productivity level. . . 
 
 ® Use data from lines 93 to 96, selecting line on basis of 
 productivity level. 
 
 ^ Use data from lines 89 to 113. 
 
 ® Ratio for winter months is 12 percent. 
 
 • Ratios shown are the yearly averages. 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 Table Z.-Suggestiom for approxirmting soil-loso patios for cropping and maruM/ement combinations not 
 
 listed in table 2 
 
 Cover, sequence, and management 
 
 Jorn: 
 
 After fall turnplowing in northern 
 half of United States. 
 
 After 2 or more full years of mea¬ 
 dow. 
 
 With small-grain seeding for win¬ 
 ter cover. 
 
 rrain sorghum. 
 
 leadow: 
 New. 
 
 Established, 
 januts_ 
 
 staioes: 
 
 After potatoes or truck crop. 
 
 After grass-and-legume hay yield¬ 
 ing more than 2 tons per acre. 
 After corn or small grain_ 
 
 iybeans: 
 
 After grass-and-legume hay or af¬ 
 ter corn. 
 
 After soybeans_ 
 
 Late-planted. 
 
 beet corn., 
 'uck crops. 
 
 Soil loss ratios 
 
 To compensate for effect of freezing and thawing and for high earlv-sDrimr 
 
 1 o“°‘r 3 “to ^ period-1® vaKn Kl 
 
 ^^Ad^tiSTredlt for'VvP^^ f established grass-and-legume meadow. 
 
 52Lrfi?Sfr£dsTr2 to deteriorate: Reduce by lOpercentthe 
 
 values tor periods F, 1, 2, 3 and 4L m lines 13, 14, 15, 33, 34, 66, 67, 78, and 
 
 ‘“’■“e'* early in spring does not significantly reduce soil loss from 
 following corn crop Select lines from table 2 that do not specif/wc seedfng 
 
 .. 1 2 for corn period 4L ot4R® 
 
 Same as ratios for corn in similar rotations where canopy cover and auan- 
 
 "e eomparable. Under irrigation, S valfes“or Tr“n 
 sorghum may equal those for high-yielding corn. ° 
 
 ^gra^."" ThelJ^ng^hs 
 
 Apply vXVo"flfntS to eomparable to corresponding grain periods. 
 
 sequence, values in lines 5, 6, 16, 17 27 28 32 3’i 38 
 45, 49, 52, and 56 are recommended. ’>’>>! 
 
 values from periods F, 1, 2, and 4 of lines 18, 
 29, 39, 46. For period 3, use values from line 16, 17, 27, 28 38 or 45 
 
 t'fJom U?e ^ ® ■’ “ basis if hVyieTdfperiod 
 
 from Itoe 7 “ T ‘o 3 on basis of preceding crop and yield; period 
 
 7, 
 
 Use values for comparable corn rotations: Periods F to 3 from lines 3 to 
 8 29, 37 to 39, 48, 49; period 4 from lines 7, 18, 29, 39 
 
 15^to^r 3? residues equivalent to soybean residues: Lines 
 
 comparable crop sequences in lines 5, 6, 16, 17, 27, 28 32 
 
 oo, oo, 45, 49. 7 7 > f 
 
 Do. 
 
 truck crops after grass-and-legume hay or high-residue crops, 
 1 and 1 values from comparable corn rotations; periods 2, 3, 
 and 4 values from lines 7, 18, 29, 39, 46. For second or more year of truck 
 crop, use values from line 39 or 46 for all periods. 
 
 Other combinations of crops and management 
 'nabJes are being included in studies as rapidly 
 ® lyssible. Rainfall simulators have been devef- 
 ced to decrease the time required to obtain data. 
 1 the meantmie, the data in table 2 will be help- 
 I for estimating the effectiveness of covers or 
 t^i-nagement practices that have not been meas- 
 u id directly. Such estimates are facilitated by 
 15 fact that the table values are given for each 
 C'p-stage period separately. Cover and surface 
 C'lditions as they occur in each crop-stage period 
 0 an untested crop or with a new tillage practice 
 usually be compared with the conditions 
 ected in one of the lines of soil-loss ratio table, 
 iis procedure is illustrated in table 3, which 
 digests a number of specific comparisons. 
 
 '>emiarid Areas —Water erosion is a serious 
 
 problem also in most semiarid regions. Inade¬ 
 quate moisture and periodic droughts reduce the 
 periods when growing plants provide good soil 
 cover and limit the total quantities of plant 
 residues produced. Erosive rainstorms are not 
 uncommon, and they are concentrated within the 
 season when cropland is least protected. Be¬ 
 cause of the difficulty of establishing meadows 
 and the competition for available soil moisture, 
 sod-based rotations are often impractical. 
 
 Proper management of available residues offers 
 one of the most mportant opportunities for a 
 mgher level of soil and moisture conservation. 
 However, accurate soil-loss ratios for stubble 
 mulching and summer fallowing practices on the 
 western Plains are not yet available from re¬ 
 search data. The ratios given in table 4 are 
 approximations based on observations of experi- 
 
10 AGR. handbook 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 4. —Approximations of soil-loss ratios for crop-stage periods and number of tillage operations with 
 
 stubble mulching and summer fallowing in western Plains areas 
 
 Cover, sequence, and management 
 
 Residue on surface 
 
 Soil-loss ratios for crop-stage period— 
 
 at seeding time 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4L 
 
 4R 
 
 Small grain without meadow seeding: 
 
 Aft.pr small flrrain _ _ 
 
 Pounds 
 
 200-500 
 
 Pci. 
 
 70 
 
 Pet. 
 
 45 
 
 Pci. 
 
 6 
 
 Pet. 
 
 10 
 
 Pet. 
 
 20 
 
 Do __ 
 
 500-1, 000 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ___ --- - 
 
 1, 000-1, 500 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ____ 
 
 i; 500-2, 000 
 
 0-200 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 After summer fallow of— 
 
 Smn.ll-grain residues _ __ _ 
 
 90 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ___ - 
 
 200-500 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ___ 
 
 500-1, 000 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ___ 
 
 1, 000-1, 500 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do __ 
 
 i; 500-2, 000 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Row crop residues.. ___ 
 
 0-200 
 
 90 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do * .. _ . 
 
 200-500 
 
 85 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do _ 
 
 500-1, 000 
 
 70 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do _ 
 
 1, 000-1, 500 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do __ 
 
 1, 500-2, 000 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Do ___ 
 
 2, 000-2, 500 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Soil-loss ratios for following number of til¬ 
 lage operations after grain harvest— 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Summer fallow: 
 
 After small grain__ _ 
 
 0-200 
 
 53 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 Do "" _ _ 
 
 200-500 
 
 25 
 
 49 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 Do _ _ 
 
 500-1, 000 
 
 25 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 Do .... 
 
 1, 000-1, 500 
 1, 500-2, 000 
 0-200 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 25 
 
 Do _ 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 After row crop___ 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 Do ...___ .. 
 
 200-500 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 63 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 Do ___ 
 
 500-1, 000 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 Do _ 
 
 1, 000-1, 500 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 Do __ 
 
 1, 500-2, 000 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35 
 
 40 
 
 Do_ _ 
 
 2 , 000-2, 500 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 enced field personnel,® guided by very limited 
 data on the erosion-control effectiveness of var¬ 
 ious amounts of surface mulch and by the exper¬ 
 imentally determined values of table 2. These 
 approximations appear to be consistent with 
 present knowledge of erosion research and runoff 
 and will provide valuable guides until more precise 
 evaluations can be obtained through additional 
 research. 
 
 Erosion-Index Distribution Curves 
 
 The rainfall factor, R, in the erosion equation 
 does not completely describe the effects of lo- 
 
 ® The authors are indebted to D. G. Craig, W. A. Hays, 
 J. J. Pierre, and J. W. Turelle, Soil Conservation Service, 
 for substantial contributions toward expanding the scope 
 and usability of the soil-loss ratio data from which table 
 2 was derived. Table 4 was taken from unpublished ma¬ 
 terial developed by J. W. Turelle and D. G. Craig, in 
 cooperation with the Agricultural Research Service’s 
 runoff and soil loss data center. 
 
 cational differences in rainfall pattern on soil 
 erosion. On cropped fields, rainstorm distri¬ 
 bution within the year is also important. The 
 erosion-control effectiveness of a cropping system 
 on some particular field depends, in part, on how 
 the year’s erosive rainfall is distributed among 
 the five crop-stage periods of each crop included 
 in the system. Therefore, expected monthly dis¬ 
 tribution of erosive rainfall at a particular location 
 is an element in deriving the applicable value 
 of the cropping-management factor, C. ^ 
 
 It was previously pointed out that a location s 
 erosion index is computed by summing El values 
 of individual storms. Thus, the monthly distri¬ 
 bution of the erosion index can also be determined 
 from long-time rainfall data. This was done for 
 all the station rainfall records abstracted for 
 development of the iso-erodent map. 
 
 On the basis of monthly distribution of the 
 erosion index, the 37 States of figure 1 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 17 
 
 livided into 33 geographic areas shown in figure 
 L For practical purposes, its monthly distri- 
 )ution may be considered uniform throughout any 
 )ne of these areas but different from monthly 
 iistribution in any of the other 32 areas. Actu- 
 lUy, the changes in distribution are usually 
 'radual transitions from one area to another 
 ather than abrupt changes at the area bound- 
 ,ries. Therefore, wdde differences between a ver¬ 
 ge distributions within two adjacent areas are 
 ften not apparent. However, at some part of 
 he distribution curve, the difference is sufficient 
 0 affect (7-value derivations for some cropping 
 ystems. For widely separated geographic areas, 
 ifferences in the erosion-index distributions are 
 luch more apparent. 
 
 The erosion-index distribution curve applicable 
 
 in each of the 33 subareas of figure 4 is shown in 
 figures 5 to 21, respectively. The numbers of the 
 plotted curves in these figures correspond with 
 the area numbers shown on the key map, figure 
 4. Average monthly erosion-index values were 
 expressed as percentages of average annual val¬ 
 ues and plotted cumulatively against time. Thus, 
 the percentage of the annual erosion index that 
 IS to be expected within any particular crop stage 
 period may be found by reading the curve at the 
 last and first date of the period and subtracting. 
 
 Procedure for Deriving Rotation C-Values for 
 a Particular Locality 
 
 To compute the value of C for any particular 
 rotation on a given field, one needs first to deter¬ 
 mine the most likely seeding and harvest dates 
 
 Figure 4.— Key map for selection of applicable erosion-index distribution curve. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 18 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 8 2, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 5.—Erosion-index distribution curves 1 and 2: the Dakotas and parts of Minnesota, Nebraska, and Iowa. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 100 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 19 
 
 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 0/1 9/1 IO/l I I/I 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 40 
 
 
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 DATE 
 
 I/I 
 
 Figure 6.—Erosion-index distribution 
 
 curves 3 and 4: parts of Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 20 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DATE 
 
 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 lO/l II/I 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 Fiqube 7.—Erosion-index distribution curves 5 and 6: parts of Oklahoma and Texas. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 21 
 
 100 
 
 
 
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 DATE 
 
 Figure 8. —Erosion-index distribution curves 7 and 8: parts of Texas. 
 
 760-705 0—65- i 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 22 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 0/1 9/1 lO/l ll/l 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 9.—Erosion-index distribution curves 9 and 10: parts of Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 buRE 10,—Erosion-index distribution curves 11 and 12: 
 
 parts of Texas, Minnesota, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Michigan. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 24 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DATE 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 11.—Erosion-index distribution curves 13 and 14: parts of Nebraska, Kansas,Missouri, Iowa, Illinois,'and 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 100 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 25 
 
 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 lO/l 11/1 12/1 1/1 
 
 DATE 
 
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 Figure 12.—Erosion-index distribution curves 15 and 16: parts of Michigan, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 26 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DATE 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 13.—Erosion-index distribution curves 17 and 18: parts of Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Missouri, and 
 
 Arkansas. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
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 27 
 
 Figure 14.—Erosion-index distribution 
 
 curves 19 and 20: parts of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 28 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 15.—Erosion-index distribution curves 21 and 22: parts of Tennessee, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and 
 
 Alabama. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
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 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 0/1 9/1 lO/l II/I 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 16.— Erosion-index distribution curves 23 and 24: parts of Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. 
 
 29 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 30 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 lO/l ll/l 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 0/1 9/1 lO/l ll/l 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 17.—Erosion-index distribution curves 25 and 26: parts of Florida and Georgia. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 31 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 100 
 
 
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 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 lO/l II/I 12/1 I/I 
 
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 Figure 18.—Erosion-index distribution 
 
 curves 27 and 28: parts of South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 32 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 0/1 9/1 10/1 11/1 12/1 1/1 
 
 DATE 
 
 1/1 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 
 
 DATE 
 
 8/1 9/1 lO/l II/I 12/1 1/1 
 
 Figure 19.—Erosion-index distribution curves 29 and 30; Atlantic coast from New Jersey to Florida. 
 
PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX PERCENT OF ANNUAL EROSION INDEX 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 JURE 20.—Erosion-index distribution curves 31 and 32; New York and parts of Maine, 
 
 and Massachusetts. ’ 
 
 New Hampshire, Vermont, 
 
 33 
 
34 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 X 
 
 UJ 
 
 o 
 
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 CO 
 
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 UJ 
 
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 I/I 2/1 3/1 4/1 5/1 6/1 7/1 8/1 9/1 lO/l ll/l 12/1 I/I 
 
 DATE 
 
 Figure 21.—Erosion-index distribution curve 33: Connecticut, Rhode Island and parts of Massachusetts, New 
 
 Hampshire, and Maine. 
 
 method of seedbed preparation and residue man¬ 
 agement, and average crop yields including hay 
 expected with this system on the soil involved and 
 with the contemplated management. Tables 2 to 
 4 and figures 4 to 21 then supply the research 
 data needed to complete the computation. The 
 procedure will be explained by means of an 
 example. 
 
 Problem .—Evaluate C for a 4-year rotation of 
 wheat-wdth-meadow^-seeding, meadow, corn, corn 
 in central Indiana: (1) with conventional tillage 
 and average production of 45 bushels of wheat, 4 
 tons of hay, and 100 bushels of corn per acre; (2) 
 w'ith minimum tillage and similar crop yields; and 
 (3) \vith conventional tillage and yield averages of 
 only 12 to 15 bushels of wheat, 2 tons of hay, and 
 40 to 55 bushels of corn. Assume that the mead¬ 
 ow is a mixture of grass and legume, such as alfalfa 
 and brome or timothy and clover; that crop resi¬ 
 dues are left on the field; that cornstalks are 
 plow^ed under about May 1 for corn planting or 
 disked for wheat seeding about October 10; and 
 that wheat is harvested about July 10. 
 
 Procedure .—Set up a working table such as that 
 
 illustrated in table 5, obtaining the needed 
 information as follows: 
 
 Column 1 lists in chronological sequence all 
 seeding and harvest dates (other than hay) 
 involved in the rotation. 
 
 Column 2 lists the beginning date of each 
 successive crop-stage period. A seeding date 
 begins crop stage period 1. By definition, period 
 2 begins 1 month later, period 3 begins 2 months 
 after seeding (except for winter grain), period 4 
 begins with crop harvest, and period F with the 
 date of moldboard plowing. The meadow period 
 begins 2 months after wheat harvest and extends 
 to plowing date. Thus, all the dates in column 2 
 are determined by the locational seeding and 
 harvest dates. 
 
 Column 3 records values read from the ap¬ 
 propriate erosion-index distribution curve. Figure 
 4 shows that the curve applicable in central 
 Indiana is No. 16. This curve appears in figure 12. , 
 The curve is read for each successive date listed 
 in column 2, adding one to the “hundreds , 
 column each time January 1 is passed. , . 
 
 Column 4 identifies the crop-stage penod 
 ending with the date shown on that line. * 
 
TJH 
 
 35 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 Column 5 lists the percentage of the erosion 
 ndex applicable to each successive crop-stage 
 leriod. The values are differences between 
 ^successive curve readings recorded in column 3. 
 
 Column 6 lists the soil-loss ratio indicated in 
 able 2, page 12, for the specific conditions and 
 rop-stage period represented by each line in the 
 working table. The numbers in parentheses 
 QaicatB tuG liiiGs in tablG 2 from whicli the values 
 • ere taken. 
 
 The crop yield figure for entering table 2 is the 
 xpected average yield, not the yield attainable in 
 he most favorable years. If the likelihood of 
 leadow failure is significant, a yield figure well 
 elow the expected average is appropriate. From 
 n erosion viewpoint, the adverse effects of a 
 leadow failure^ in a rotation far outweigh the 
 ^ A n occasional exceptionally good meadows 
 All row-crop values in the table that are not 
 ■ther'^se identified assume moldboard plowing 
 noothmg for seedbed, and cultivation after 
 nergence. 
 
 ' The F period precedes the crop year with which 
 IS associated in the table. For example, the 
 
 yalu^e for rough fallow after first-year corn appears 
 in the line for second-year corn. 
 
 ^ ^ is self-explanatory. (The decimals 
 
 in this column derive from the percentage values 
 m columns 5 and 6.) 
 
 Column 8 subtotals for the different crops in¬ 
 dicate where in the rotation most of the erosion 
 IS occurring and help to suggest where additional 
 conservation measures could be most helpful in 
 reducing erosion. The total for this column, 
 divT^ded by the number of years in the rotation, 
 IS the C value for this rotation under the conditions 
 assumed m columns 1 to 6. 
 
 Columns 9 and 10 replace column 6 when 
 solving parts 2 and 3 of the problem. 
 
 The first eight columns complete part 1 of the 
 problem. Only the addition of columns 9 and 
 10 IS needed to derive C values for the manage¬ 
 ment levels specified in parts 2 and 3. Wheel- 
 track planting (part 2) reduced the value of C 
 from 0.119 to 0.075, a 37-percent reduction. 
 A productivity level as low as that specified in 
 part 3 would increase the C value for the rotation 
 to 0.186, an increase of 56 percent. Expected 
 
 1 ... 
 
 PC. 
 
 H C. 
 
 C. 
 
 PlW. 
 
 Table 5.~WorH7ig table Jor derivation oj C value for i-year rotation in central Indiana 
 
 ( 1 ) 
 
 Operation 
 
 I W.. 
 I W. 
 
 Rotation total, 
 
 4 years... 
 
 Annual average C 
 value for rota¬ 
 tion. 
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 Date 
 
 10/10 
 
 11/10 
 
 5/1 
 
 7/10 
 
 9/10 
 
 9/10 
 
 5/1 
 
 5/20 
 
 6/20 
 
 7/20 
 
 10/15 
 
 5/1 
 
 5/20 
 
 6/20 
 
 7/20 
 
 10/10 
 
 (3) 
 
 Readings 
 from curve 
 No. 16 
 
 Pet. 
 
 91 
 
 96 
 
 114 
 
 153 
 
 183 
 
 283 
 
 314 
 
 321 
 
 339 
 
 359 
 
 392 
 
 414 
 
 421 
 
 439 
 
 459 
 
 491 
 
 (4) 
 
 Crop- 
 
 stage 
 
 period 
 
 W1 
 
 W2 
 
 W3 
 
 W4 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 
 F 
 
 Cl 
 
 C2 
 
 C3 
 
 C4 
 
 F 
 
 Cl 
 
 C2 
 
 C3 
 
 (5) 
 
 El 
 
 in 
 
 period 
 
 Pet. 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 100 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 32 
 
 ( 6 ) 
 
 Soil-loss 
 ratio 1 2 
 
 Pet. 
 
 400 
 
 32(93) 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 . 4(122) 
 
 . 4 
 
 8 ( 1 ) 
 
 25 
 17 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 25(13) 
 
 48 
 37 
 20 
 
 (7) 
 
 Column 
 5 times 
 col. 6 
 
 0. 0160 
 . 0342 
 . 0195 
 . 0090 
 
 ( 8 ) 
 
 Value 
 of C 
 
 0040 
 
 0012 
 
 0056 
 
 0450 
 
 0340 
 
 0330 
 
 0330 
 
 0175 
 
 0864 
 
 0740 
 
 0640 
 
 ^ bu. corn per acre, 
 
 o entional seedbed and tillage. ^ 
 
 ale 2 "^*^^*^ parentheses refer to line numbers in 
 Whewm^^^^ column 6, except minimum tillage 
 
 0. 0787 
 . 0052 
 
 . 1176 
 . 0330 
 
 . 2419 
 
 4764 
 
 . 119 
 
 (9) 
 
 Soil-loss 
 ratio 2 8 
 
 Pet. 
 
 32(93) 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 . 4 
 . 4 
 
 8 ( 8 ) 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 25(19) 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 ». 3005 
 
 «. 075 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 Soil-loss 
 ratio 2 4 
 
 Pet. 
 
 58(95) 
 
 35 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 . 6 ( 121 ) 
 . 6 
 
 15(5) 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 42(16) 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 28 
 
 7438 
 
 . 186 
 
 For 12 to 15 bu. wheat, 2 tons hay, 40 to 55 bu. corn, 
 conventional tillage. 
 
 * Sum of the products of El increments (col. 5) and 
 corresponding soil-loss ratios. 
 
 ® Rotation total divided by number of years in the 
 rotation. 
 
36 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 soil loss from the field would be increased by the 
 same percentage. 
 
 The C values computed for the rotation in 
 the example are directly applicable only within 
 area 16 of figure 4. For other areas or other 
 seeding dates, the values in columns 3 and 5 of 
 table 5 are different and the C value for the same 
 rotation in other areas may be either larger or 
 smaller. 
 
 It should be pointed out here that all these 
 detailed computations are not required of each 
 farm field. The procedure and basic data for der¬ 
 ivation of the C values are provided primarily 
 to enable computation of ready-reference hand¬ 
 book tables of values applicable in specific States 
 or geographic areas. Knowledge of the procedure 
 will, however, lead to a better understanding of 
 the significance of such tables and will permit 
 field computation of values for unusual situations. 
 
 The Erosion-Control Practice 
 Factor (P) 
 
 In general, whenever sloping soil is to be cul¬ 
 tivated and exposed to erosive rains, the protec¬ 
 tion offered by sod or close-growing crops in the 
 system needs to be supported by practices that 
 will slow the runoff water and thus reduce the 
 amount of soil it can carry. The most important 
 of these supporting practices for cropland are con¬ 
 tour tillage, stripcropping on the contour, ter¬ 
 race systems, and stabilized waterways. The fac¬ 
 tor P in the erosion equation is the ratio of soil 
 loss with the supporting practice to the soil loss 
 with up-and-down-hill culture. Improved tillage 
 practices, sod-based rotations, fertility treatments, 
 and greater quantities of crop residues left on 
 the field contribute materially to erosion control 
 and frequently provide the major control in a 
 farmer’s field. However, these are considered con¬ 
 servation cropping and management practices, and 
 the benefits derived from them are included in 
 the factor C. 
 
 Contouring 
 
 The practice of tillage and planting on the con¬ 
 tour have been, in general, effective in reducing 
 erosion. In limited field studies, the practice pro¬ 
 vided almost complete protection against erosion 
 from individual storms of moderate to low in¬ 
 tensity, but it provided little or no protection 
 against the occasional severe storms that caused 
 extensive breakovers of the contoured rows. Con¬ 
 touring appears to produce its maximum average 
 effect on slopes in the 3- to 7-percent range. As 
 land slope decreases, it approaches equality with 
 the contour row slope, and the soil-loss ratio ap¬ 
 proaches 1 . 0 . As slope increases, contour row 
 capacity decreases and the soil-loss ratio again 
 approaches 1 . 0 . 
 
 Practice-Factor Values for Contouring—Afte 
 available data and observations were considered 
 a joint ARS-SCS-AES slope-practice worksho] 
 group meeting at Purdue University in 195i 
 adopted the vmues of P shown in table 6 . 
 
 Table 6. —Practice factor values for contouring 
 
 Land slope (percent) 
 
 P value 
 
 11 to 2 ... 
 
 0 . & 
 
 2 i to 7 ... 
 
 . 61 
 
 7 1 to 12 ... 
 
 .6* 
 
 12 1 to 18 __-.. 
 
 .81 
 
 18.1 to 24 ____ 
 
 .91 
 
 
 
 These are average values for the factor. Lo 
 cation values may vary with soil type, cropping 
 residue management, and rainfall pattern. 
 
 The full benefits of contouring are obtained 011 I 3 
 on fields relatively free from gullies and depres 
 sions other than grassed waterways. The effec 
 tiveness of this practice is reduced if a field con¬ 
 tains numerous small guUies and rills that are not 
 obliterated by normal tillage operations. In such 
 instances, land smoothing should be considerec 
 before contouring. Otherwise, a judgment valu( 
 greater than shown in table 6 should be used wher 
 computing the benefits for contouring. 
 
 Contour Listing. —Contour listing, with the corr 
 planted in the furrows, has been more effectiv( 
 than surface planting on the contour (5). How¬ 
 ever, the additional effectiveness of this practic( 
 is limited to the time from the date of listing 
 to that of the second corn cultivation. Th( 
 soil-loss ratios (table 2 ) that apply to this 
 period may be reduced 50 percent in addition tc 
 reduction supplied by the contour factor. Th( 
 additional credit does not apply after the listei 
 ridges have been largely obliterated by two corn 
 cultivations. 
 
 A similar analysis would apply to commercial 
 potato production where the potato rows are on 
 the contour, except that in this case the 50-per- 
 cent reduction would be applied only from lay¬ 
 by time to potato harvest. 
 
 Slope-Length Limits for Effective Contouring.— • 
 When rainfall exceeds infiltration and surface 
 detention in large storms, breakovers of contour 1 
 rows often result in concentrations of runoff that J 
 tend to become progressively greater with m -1 
 creases in slope length. Therefore, on slopes 
 exceeding some critical length the amount of 
 soil moved from a contoured field may approacc 
 or exceed that from a field on which each row 
 carries its own runoff water down the slope-. 
 At what slope length this could be expected to ; 
 occur would depend to some extent on gradient,, j 
 soil properties, management, and storm charac -1 
 teristics. Terraces or the sod strips in a concur 
 stripcrop system function to prevent serious 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 37 
 
 rosion damage when excessive row breakage 
 ccurs. 
 
 After the 1956 slope-practice workshop, the 
 'oil Conservation Service prepared ready-refer- 
 nce tables for use with the Corn Belt slope- 
 ractice procedure. The values shown in table 7 
 ere given as guides to slope-length limits for 
 ffective contouring. These are judgment values, 
 wesearch data are not now available to verify 
 r correct them. It is important to bear in 
 lind, however, that the contour factor values 
 iven in table 6 assume slope lengths short 
 lough for full effectiveness of the practice. Use 
 
 these values for estimating soil loss on unter- 
 iced slopes that are several terrace intervals in 
 ngth is speculative. 
 
 Table 7.— Length limits for contouring 
 
 Slope (percent) 
 
 Maximum 
 
 slope 
 
 length 
 
 r 
 
 _ 
 
 Feet 
 
 400 
 
 300 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 4o6.. 
 
 g.. 
 
 1__ 
 
 I_ 
 
 lto24_ 
 
 
 (►ntour Stripcropping 
 
 5tripcropping, a practice in which contour 
 sips of sod are alternated with strips of row 
 s>p or small grain, has proved to be a more 
 asctiye practice than contouring alone. A good 
 imple is found in the Mormon Coulee near 
 L Crosse, Wis., where some fields are reported to 
 been cropped in strips for more than 70 
 ^irs. Where the strips were on the contour, or 
 liny so, good erosion control was accomplished, 
 nere the strips were 5 percent or more off 
 icitour, very high soil losses have occurred due 
 
 < the flow of runoff down the rows at high 
 'ocities. 
 
 )bservations from stripcrop studies indicated 
 tt much of the soil washed from a cultivated 
 filtered out of the runoff as it spread 
 ^Qin the first several feet of the adjacent sod 
 fp. Thus, the stripcrop factor, derived from 
 o-loss measurements at the foot of the slope, 
 cjunts for off-the-field movement of soil but 
 c^for all movement within the field. 
 ractice Fu,ctor for Contour Stripcropping. —Af- 
 ^'^^il^ble data and field observations, 
 fi AKS-SCS Workshop group meeting at Pur- 
 m 1956 decided to compute the contour- 
 t pcrop factor as one-half of that for contouring 
 le (table 6). This value was to apply with 
 alternate grain-and-meadow strip system pos- 
 Re with a 4-year rotation of corn, small-grain. 
 
 meadow, meadow, with the meadow established in 
 the small grain. Strip guidelines were to be level. 
 With less effective stripcrop systems, larger fac¬ 
 tor values are recommended. 
 
 With a cropping system such as a 4-year system 
 of small grain, meadow, and 2 years of row crop, 
 the contour factor value should probably be about 
 75 percent of the value in table 6 for contouring 
 alone. Alternate strips of /aZZ-seeded grain and 
 row crop were effective on relatively flat slopes 
 in Texas (5), but alternate strips of spn?i^-seeded 
 grain and corn on moderate to steep slopes have 
 not appeared to provide significant erosion con¬ 
 trol benefits beyond those attained with contouring 
 alone. For such systems the contour values are 
 recommended. 
 
 Buffer stripcropping consists of narrow pro¬ 
 tective strips alternated with wide cultivated 
 strips. The location of the protective strips is 
 determined largely by the width and arrangement 
 of adjoining strips to be cropped in the rotation 
 and by the location of steep, severely eroded areas 
 on slopes. Buffer strips usually occupy the correc¬ 
 tion areas on sloping land and are seeded to pe¬ 
 rennial grasses and legumes. This type of strip¬ 
 cropping is not so effective as contour stripcrop¬ 
 ping _(^). 
 
 Width of Strips With Contour Stripcropping .— 
 The strip widths shown in table 8 were recom¬ 
 mended by the 1956 slope-practice workshop. 
 
 Table 8. —Strip widths recommended for contours 
 
 Slope group (percent) 
 
 Width of 
 strip 
 
 2 to 7__ 
 
 Feet 
 
 88 to 100 
 74 to 88 
 60 to 74 
 50 to 60 
 
 7 to 12_ 
 
 12 to 18_ 
 
 18 to 24. _ _ 
 
 
 Terracing 
 
 Terracing with contour farming is more effective 
 as an erosion-control practice than stripcropping, 
 because it positively divides the slope into 
 segments equal to the horizontal terrace spacing. 
 With terracing, the slope length is this terrace 
 interval; with stripcropping or contouring alone, 
 it is the entire field slope length. Dividing a slope 
 length into four equal segments cuts the expected 
 rate of soil loss per acre m half. Dividing it into 
 six equal segments divides the soil-loss rate by 2.45. 
 These reductions are reflected in the erosion 
 equation by changes in the LS factor value. 
 
 Both with terracing and with contour strip¬ 
 cropping, measured soil losses have included 
 only soil moved completely off the field. The 
 soil saved with contour stripcropping is largely 
 that deposited in the sod strip. With terracing. 
 
38 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 the deposit is in the terrace channel and may 
 equal 90 percent of the soil moved to the channel 
 (28). The slope-practice workshop group in 
 1956 decided to use neither the off-the-field soil- 
 loss rate nor that for soil movement within the 
 terrace interval, but a rate that shows a part of 
 the soil deposited in the channels as not lost. 
 The group recommended a terracing practice 
 factor value equal to the one for contour strip¬ 
 cropping. 
 
 If all furrow slices between the terraces were 
 turned up slope periodically with a two-way plow, 
 most or all of the soil washed into the terrace 
 channel would be effectively moved back up the 
 slope and a factor v&lue based on the off-the- 
 field rate of loss could be safely applied. Limited 
 data indicate the terrace factor in this case should 
 be about 20 percent of that for contouring. But in 
 most farming operations, conventional plows are 
 used and the soil deposited in the terrace channel 
 is not returned to the interterrace interval to 
 help maintain soil productivity. 
 
 It is logical to assume that the total movement 
 of soil within a terrace interval is equal to that 
 with contouring alone on the same length and 
 percentage of slope. Erosion control between 
 
 FIELD APPLICATIONS OF 
 
 The primary purpose of the soil-loss predic¬ 
 tion procedure described in this handbook is to 
 provide specific and reliable guides to help select 
 adequate sod and water conservation practices 
 for farm fields. Where agricultural lands are a 
 major sediment source, the procedure may also 
 be used to compute this phase of sediment pro¬ 
 duction in predicting rates of reservoir sedi¬ 
 mentation. Specific applications of the erosion 
 equation are discussed and illustrated below. 
 
 Predicting Field Soil Loss 
 
 Rotation Averages 
 
 The procedure for computing the expected 
 average annual soil loss from a given cropping 
 system on a particular field is illustrated by the 
 following example. 
 
 Assume a field in Fountain County, Ind., on 
 Russell silt loam, having an 8-percent slope about 
 200 feet long. The cropping system is a 4-year 
 rotation of wheat, meadow, corn, corn with 
 tillage and rows on the contour and with corn 
 residues disked for wheat seeding and turned 
 under in spring for second-year corn. Fertility 
 and residue management on this farm are such 
 that crop yields are rarely less than 85 bushels 
 corn, 40 bushels wheat, or 4 tons alfalfa-brome 
 
 hay, and the probability of meadow failure is 
 
 sli^t. 
 
 The first step is to refer to the charts and 
 
 terraces depends upon the crop rotation and othei 
 management practices. Therefore, if a contro 
 level is desired that wiU maintain soil movementi 
 between terraces within the soil-loss toleranc< 
 limit, the practice factor for terracing should equa 
 the contour practice factor. 
 
 However, if the erosion equation is used t( 
 compute gross erosion for estimates of reservoii 
 sedimentation rates, a terracing practice factoi 
 equal to 20 percent of the contour factor value; 
 shown in table 6 is recommended. The reasor 
 for this lower value is that the sod deposited ir 
 the terrace channels, although lost from the terrace 
 interval, does not leave the field completely tc 
 enter into the established drainageways. 
 
 Limitations 
 
 The rainfall-erosion index measures only the 
 erosivity of rainfall and associated runoff. There¬ 
 fore, the equation does not predict sod loss that 
 is due solely to thaw, snowmelt, or wind. In 
 areas where such losses are significant, they must 
 be estimated separately and combined with those 
 predicted by the equation for comparison with 
 sod-loss tolerances. 
 
 THE SOIL-LOSS EQUATION 
 
 tables discussed in the preceding section and to 
 select the values of R, K, LS, C, and P that 
 apply to the specific conditions on this particular 
 field. 
 
 The value of the rainfall factor, R, is taken 
 from figure 1, page 6. Fountain County, in 
 west-central Indiana, lies between iso-erodents 
 175 and 200. By linear interpolation, .ff=)185. 
 
 The value of the sod-erodibdity factor, K, is 
 taken from table 1, page 5, supplemented by 
 ^L-value tables prepared at regional Sod-Loss 
 Prediction Workshops.® Sod scientists in the 
 North Central States consider RusseU sdt loam 
 equal in erodibility to Fayette sdt loam, for 
 which table 1 lists iiC=0.38. 
 
 The slope-effect chart (fig. 2, p. 8), shows that, 
 for an 8-percent slope, 200 feet long, Z(S'=1.41. 
 
 Figure 4 (p. 17), shows that Fountain County is 
 within the geographic area to which erosion-index 
 distribution curve No. 16 applies. Using curve 
 No. 16, figure 12 , and sod-loss ratios taken from 
 table 2 (p. 12) or table 4 (p. 16), compute the 
 value for the rotation by the procedure dlustrated 
 in table 5 (p. 35). For the productivity level and 
 management practices assumed in this example, 
 factor C for a W-M-C-C rotation in area 16 was 
 shown in table 5 to equal 0.119. 
 
 Table 6 (p. 36) shows a practice-factor value of 
 0.6 for contouring on 8-percent slope, and table 7 
 
 ® See footnote 3, p. 2. 
 
39 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 (p. 37) indicates that the 200-foot slope is not too 
 long for this factor to be applicable. Therefore, 
 ander the conditions assumed in this examnle. 
 P=0.6. 
 
 The next step is to substitute the selected 
 lumerical values for the symbols in the erosion 
 .equation and solve for A. In this example, 
 4=185X0.38X1.41X0.119X0.6=7.1 tons of soil 
 
 OSS per acre per year. 
 
 If planting had been up and down slope, instead 
 )f on the contour, the factor P would have 
 squaled 1.0, and the predicted soil loss for this 
 ield would have been 185X0.38X1.41X0.119X 
 .0=11.8 tons per acre. 
 
 Had contour farming been combined with 
 ninimum tillage for all corn in the rotation, the 
 ^alue of the factor 0 would have been 0.075 (see 
 able 5). The predicted average annual soil loss 
 rom the field would then have been 185 X 0.38 X 
 .41X0.075X0.6=4.5 tons per acre. 
 
 'rop-Year Averages 
 
 The soil losses computed in the example are 
 Dtation averages over a long time period. Thus, 
 le heavier losses experienced during the corn 
 ears are diluted by trivial losses during the 
 leadow year. Please refer again to the first 
 )lution above, in which the rotation average was 
 1 tons per acre per year. The 4-year loss from 
 ich complete rotation cycle would average 
 X7.1, or about 28.4 tons per acre. 
 
 Use of the values in column 8 of table 5 enables 
 le to compute the average soil loss for each of the 
 ‘ crop years. Column 8 shows a computed C 
 due of 0.0787 for the wheat period and a C 
 
 • 0.4764 for the entire 4-year period. The 
 Kerage yearly soil loss from wheat in the above 
 cample, with contouring, would be 28.4 X 
 J079/0.476, or 4.7 tons per acre. First-year corn, 
 icludmg the winter period, would average 
 ^ .4X0.151/0.476, or 9.0 tons. The second-year 
 
 average 28.4X0.242/0.476, or 14.4 tons, 
 
 | d the 20-month meadow period would average 
 hs than 0.5-ton soil loss per acre. 
 
 Sil-Loss Probabilities Other Than Average 
 
 Because rainfall differs from year to year, the 
 fitual value of the factor P also differs from year 
 t year at any given location. Appendix table 
 lists 50-, 20-, and 5-percent probability values 
 
 ♦ . / ^81 key locations. These may be used 
 
 further characterization of soil-loss hazards, 
 t untam, County, Ind. (where our example was 
 'ated), is not listed in the table, but figure 1 
 8 3WS that the P value there is essentially the 
 sne as the P value at Indianapolis. Table 11 
 S)ws ^at, over a long period, the value of the 
 i::tor P will equal or exceed 225 at Indianapolis 
 1120 percent ol the years. This is 225^185, or 
 '2 times the average value. Returning once 
 
 more to the example, soil loss from second-year 
 corn on the assumed field would be expected to 
 exceed 1.22X14.4 = 17.6 tons per acre in 20 percent 
 m the years. The 5-percent probability value of 
 P at Indianapolis is shown in table 11 to be 302, 
 or 1.63 times the average value of 185. Therefore’ 
 soil loss from the second-year corn on the field 
 assumed for our example would be expected to 
 exceed 1.63X14.4 = 23.5 tons per acre in 5 percent 
 of the years if the corn is contoured. Without 
 contouring it would exceed 23.5^0.6=39.2 tons 
 per acre in 5 percent of the years. 
 
 Individual-Storm Soil Losses 
 
 The assembled plot data show conclusively that 
 the relation of soil loss to such major factors as 
 slope, cropping, management, and conservation 
 practices is not the same from storm to storm or 
 from year to year, even on the same field under a 
 continuing rotation. In a particular rainstorm, 
 the factor relations are influenced by such vari¬ 
 ables as antecedent moisture, tillage, tractor and 
 irnplement compaction, soil crusting by prior 
 rains, and progressive changes in plant cover. 
 Daily soil moisture and temperatures are more 
 favorable to rapid development of good protective 
 cover in some years than in others. The factor 
 values reported in the preceding section and used 
 in the foregoing examples represent average factor 
 relations derived from research measurements over 
 an extended period. Therefore, the erosion equa¬ 
 tion is particularly designed to predict average 
 annual soil loss from any specific field over an 
 extended period. 
 
 Predictions of individual-storm soil losses will 
 be less accurate, because effects of the minor 
 variations in antecedent conditions cannot be 
 precisely evaluated at this time. However, valu¬ 
 able estimates of single-storm losses can be com¬ 
 puted by the following procedure. 
 
 Instead of taking the value of P from figure 
 1, let P equal the computed erosion-index value 
 for the specific rainstorm. Instead of the C 
 value for the rotation, let C in the equation 
 equal the soil-loss ratio shown in table 2, 3, or 4 
 for the specific conditions existing on the field 
 at the time of the rain. For example, appendix 
 table 12 shows that a 10-year rain at Indianapohs 
 has an erosion-index value of 75 or more. Assume 
 that such a rain occurred about 3 weeks after 
 planting the second-year corn in the preceding 
 example. The existing condition is then de¬ 
 scribed by line 13 of table 2. Since the rain 
 occurred within 30 days after corn planting, 
 the value of C at the time of this particular 
 rain is 48. The value of P is 75. Other values 
 in the equation remain the same as in the first 
 solution. The estimated soil loss from this 
 single rainstorm on the second-year corn, without 
 contouring, is then i^-iiC-L-S'-C'-P=75X0.38X 1.41 
 X0.48X 1.0=19.3 tons per acre. 
 
40 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 28 2, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Specific-Year Soil Losses 
 
 Soil loss from a particular field in any specific 
 year cannot presently be predicted in advance, 
 primarily because it is not presently possible to 
 predict the size and time of the rainstorms that 
 will occur in that year. Deviations from average 
 are very great. Surface conditions, quahty of 
 cover, and minor factors in tillage and manage¬ 
 ment may also differ significantly from the 
 average for that field. However, the erosion 
 equation can provide reasonably reliable esti¬ 
 mates of soil loss in a particular past year, if 
 detailed rainfall records were obtained. Storm 
 El values need to be computed from the specific 
 year’s rainfall records, and the soil loss must be 
 computed for each crop-stage period separately. 
 This is done by letting R equal the erosion index 
 measured for the crop-stage period and letting 
 C equal the soil-loss ratio taken from table 2, 
 as in the example for estimating individual- 
 storm soil losses. 
 
 Even though a particular year’s precipitation 
 may have been essentially equal to the average 
 annual rainfall in inches at that location, this 
 fact is not justification for selecting R and C 
 values from figure 1 and table 11 to estimate 
 the soil loss for that particular year. Even with 
 normal annual precipitation, the erosion index 
 may have been well' above or below normal 
 because of abnormal intensities. The monthly 
 distribution of the erosive rains may also have 
 deviated significantly from normal. 
 
 Significance of Average Field Soil Loss 
 
 Knowledge of quantitative rates of erosion and 
 soil-loss tolerances provides specific guidelines for 
 effective erosion-control planning. Such values 
 are, however, to be looked upon as guides that 
 sometimes need to be tempered with judgment. 
 It is important to bear in mind that the accepted 
 expression for average rate of erosion from a 
 field—tons of soil loss per acre—is not intended 
 to imply uniform soil movement over the entire 
 field area. Since soil loss increases as the 0.5 
 power of slope length, the erosion rate on the upper 
 quarter of a field with a single uniform slope is 
 about half the field average and that on the lower 
 quarter is about 1% times the field average. 
 Because of the erodibility of the lower ends of 
 long uniform or convex slopes, it may be appro¬ 
 priate to recommend subdividing such a slope 
 even though the estimated average soil loss for 
 the entire length is within the tolerance Umit. On 
 irregular topography, serious erosion may occur 
 in some parts of a field while deposition occurs in 
 others. In such cases, the erodible slopes need to 
 be taken as the limiting factor for the field. 
 
 Determining Alternative Ways in Whicl 
 a Particular Tract of Land Ma^ 
 Be Used and Treated Successfully T 
 
 Conserve or Improve It 
 
 The soil-loss prediction procedure provides th 
 practicing conservationist with concise ready 
 reference tables from which he can ascertain, fo 
 each particular situation encountered, whic’ 
 specific land use and management combination 
 will provide the desired level of erosion control 
 A number of possible alternatives are usuallv in 
 dicated. From these, the farmer will be able t< 
 make a choice, in line with his desires and financia 
 resources. 
 
 Management decisions generally influence ero 
 sion losses by affecting the factor (7 or P in th 
 erosion equation. The factor L is modified onl; 
 by terracing. The other three factors— R, K, am 
 S —are essentially fixed so far as a particular fieh 
 is concerned. Wnen erosion is to be hmited to thi 
 maximum allowable, or tolerance rate, the tern 
 A in the equation is replaced by T, and the equa 
 tion is rewritten in the form: CP=TjRKLS 
 Substituting the locational values of the fixec 
 factors in this equation and solving for CP give th( 
 maximum value that the product CP may assumi 
 under the specified field conditions. With m 
 conservation practices, the most intensive crop 
 ping plan that can be safely used on the field i 
 one for which the factor C just equals this value 
 When a conservation practice such as contourini 
 or stripcropping is added, the computed value o 
 TfRKLS is divided by the practice factor, P 
 to obtain the maximum permissible cropping 
 management factor value. With terracing, thi 
 value of TjRKLS is increased by decreasing thi 
 value of L. 
 
 A special shde rule recently designed in Ten 
 nessee {17) enables rapid and systematic computa 
 tion of TjRKLS for any specific situation aftei 
 pertinent values of the factors have been selectee 
 from the tables and charts. 
 
 Since a practicing conservationist usually work 
 within the limits of a single county or othei 
 small geographic area, he will usually be concernec 
 with only one value of R, one erosion-index dis 
 tribution curve, K and T values for only a few 
 soils, and C values for only a limited number o 
 cropping systems. Therefore, the R value for hisi 
 county, a list of T and K values for the soils in hi; 
 work area, a few brief tables of pertinent TjRKK 
 values, and a table of C values for pertinent rota 
 tions Wl provide all the information he will neet 
 to use this procedure as a guide to selection o 
 conservation practices. He will rarely, if ever 
 need to solve the equation or to perform computa 
 tions in the field. 
 
 The TjRKLS values are the maximum allow- ' 
 able C values for the various soil and slope coni- 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 41 
 
 binations in the conservationist’s work area. 
 They may be included in his handbook in the form 
 llustrated by table 9, with a table for each major 
 >oil type with which he is concerned. 
 
 C values for rotations may be centrally com¬ 
 muted for all cropping systems encountered 
 vithin a given erosion-index distribution area 
 fig. 4), based on average seeding and harvest 
 lates within that area. The factor for each 
 Topping system needs to be computed for each 
 »f several crop-productivity levels and for each 
 if several methods of residue management and 
 eedbed preparation. The results are then listed 
 n a table in order of dechning magnitude of 
 i7, as illustrated in table 10. 
 
 To illustrate the selection process, we will 
 ssume a field in a county having a rainfall factor 
 f 180, located within the erosion-index distri- 
 mtion area in which the C values of table 10 apply. 
 Lssume that the soil on this field has a K value 
 f 0.33 and a soil-loss tolerance of 4 tons per acre 
 er year. Past yields on the field have been 
 'om 2 to 3 tons hay and from 40 to 60 bushels 
 orn per acre, with conventional seedbed prepara- 
 on and tillage. 
 
 The land slope averages about 3 percent over 
 le upper half of a total 400-foot slope, but the 
 ►wer half steepens considerably and ranges from 
 to 7 percent. The field is planted as a single 
 nit. In conservation farming, soil movement 
 ■om the most vulnerable part of the field should 
 e held below the tolerance limit, T. Therefore, 
 le gradient of the lower half of the field is the 
 gnificant percentage of slope for the soil loss 
 itimate. However, surface runoff from the 
 pper half passes over the lower half. Therefore, 
 le overall length will be the effective slope 
 ngth. Thus, a slope length of 400 feet and a 
 !ope gradient of 6 percent would be used to 
 •iter the ready-reference table. 
 
 For this soil and slope combination, table 9 
 l>ts a maximum CP value of 0.050. Entering 
 1 ble 10 with this value, the farmer finds that with 
 sraight rows and conventional tillage at the Y 2 
 ’eld level, the most intensive cropping system he 
 ‘^safely use is 1 year of corn in 5 years (C-O-M- 
 i-M). Any system having a C value less than 
 tat for C-O-M-M-M should provide better 
 t an the tolerable level of erosion control under 
 te conditions assumed for this example. 
 
 With contour farming, the maximum C value 
 ')uld be 0.10 (table 9), and he could move up 
 tc list in table 10 to a C—C—O—M—M—M system. 
 Improvement in his general level of fertility 
 ^d residue management would enable the farmer 
 t^use a more intensive cropping system safely or 
 t attain a higher level of conservation, while at 
 te same time increasing his crop yields. If he 
 v:re able to reach and maintain average yields 
 ^3 in table 10 , he could move up to a 
 rotation without contouring or to 
 
 with contouring. If he then also 
 added wheeltrack planting and minimum tillage 
 for corn, he could move up the list to 2 years of 
 corn and 1 year meadow in a C—C—O—M rotation. 
 Thus, the tables, show the farmer how he can 
 improve his erosion-control program and still 
 increase yields or decrease labor and tractor 
 costs. 
 
 A system of terraces would break the slope 
 length and permit a higher degree of conservation 
 or more intensive cropping systems. Terraces at 
 about 100 -foot horizontal intervals would reduce 
 the effective slope length from 400 feet to 100 
 feet. For a 6 -percent slope 100 feet long, con¬ 
 toured, table 9 shows a maximum C value of 0 . 20 . 
 This would permit any of the cropping systems 
 listed in table 10 up to 3 years of corn in 5 
 (C-C-(7-0-M) or a 2 -year system of corn and 
 oats with sweetclover intercrop. With wheel- 
 track planting, a 3-year rotation of corn, corn, 
 oats-and-sweetclover would also appear satis¬ 
 factory. 
 
 Estimating Source Sediment From 
 Watersheds 
 
 Cultivated farm fields are a major sediment 
 source in the general agricultural area of the 
 hpmid and subhumid zones. The soil-loss pre¬ 
 diction equation may be used effectively in making 
 predictions of the magnitude of this sediment 
 source. Other sources of sediment production 
 that must be considered in making estimates of 
 total sediment loads include gullies, roadside 
 areas, and residential subdivisions. 
 
 The erosion equation provides a methodical 
 means of bringing the effects of expected rainfall 
 pattern, soil properties, and land use into compu¬ 
 tation of that part of the sediment production that 
 is attributable to sheet and rill erosion. The 
 drainage area may be broken down into a series 
 of tracts having relatively homogeneous land use 
 and treatment. The erosion equation is then 
 used to approximate the average annual rate of 
 soil movement from each tract. 
 
 However, sediment estimates computed in this 
 manner are estimates of average annual sediment 
 production over a period of at least 25 years or 
 more. Gross erosion on the watershed in any one 
 particular year may be at least three or four times 
 this average rate. In other years it will be less. 
 This is true for a number of reasons. Table 11 
 shows that in one year out of 20 , the rainfall 
 erosion index is at least twice the average for that 
 location. At the same time, abnormal distribu¬ 
 tion of erosive rains may resiilt in a greater than 
 average portion of the erosive rainfall occurring 
 when the fields are most vulnerable to rainfall 
 erosion. Breakover of contour rows in a severe 
 rainstorm may increase greatly the gross erosion 
 from that storm and also from succeeding storms 
 until the break is obliterated by tillage. Adverse 
 
42 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 9. — Maximum 'permissible C values (TjRKLS) jor indicated gradient and slope length with straight 
 and with contoured rows jor soil type with the K, T, and R values as listed 
 
 For soil type with A'=0.33, T=4 or if=0.25, T=3, and R»180. 
 
 Gradient (percent) 
 
 Values for slope length (in feet) of— 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 Straight row 
 
 2.. 
 
 0. 45 
 
 0. 35 
 
 0. 33 
 
 0. 26 
 
 0. 22 
 
 0. 20 
 
 0. 17 
 
 0.15 
 
 4._... 
 
 .22 
 
 . 19 
 
 . 17 
 
 . 13 
 
 . 11 
 
 . 10 
 
 .092 
 
 .081 
 
 6__.-.. 
 
 . 13 
 
 . 11 
 
 . 10 
 
 .083 
 
 .072 
 
 .065 
 
 .058 
 
 .050 
 
 8__ 
 
 .089 
 
 .077 
 
 .068 
 
 .055 
 
 .048 
 
 .043 
 
 .039 
 
 .034 
 
 10.... 
 
 . 064 
 
 .056 
 
 .050 
 
 .040 
 
 .035 
 
 .030 
 
 .028 
 
 .024 
 
 12___ 
 
 .048 
 
 .042 
 
 .037 
 
 .030 
 
 .026 
 
 .023 
 
 .021 
 
 .018 
 
 14.. 
 
 .038 
 
 .033 
 
 .029 
 
 .024 
 
 .020 
 
 .018 
 
 .017 
 
 .014 
 
 16-__ . 
 
 .030 
 
 .026 
 
 .024 
 
 .019 
 
 . 016 
 
 .015 
 
 .013 
 
 .012 
 
 18 
 
 . 025 
 
 . 022 
 
 . 019 
 
 . 016 
 
 .014 
 
 .012 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 .021 
 
 .018 
 
 .016 
 
 .013 
 
 . on 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Contoured 
 
 2_.... 
 
 0. 75 
 
 0. 58 
 
 0. 57 
 
 0. 43 
 
 0. 37 
 
 0. 33 
 
 0. 28 
 
 0. 25 
 
 4. 
 
 .44 
 
 .38 
 
 . 34 
 
 .26 
 
 .22 
 
 .20 
 
 . 18 
 
 0.16 
 
 6 .__. 
 
 .26 
 
 .22 
 
 .20 
 
 . 17 
 
 . 14 
 
 . 13 
 
 . 12 
 
 .10 
 
 8 . .. .. 
 
 . 15 
 
 . 13 
 
 . 11 
 
 .092 
 
 .080 
 
 .072 
 
 .065 
 
 .057 
 
 10 ___ 
 
 . 11 
 
 .093 
 
 .083 
 
 .067 
 
 .058 
 
 .050 
 
 .047 
 
 .040 
 
 12_ __ 
 
 .08 
 
 .070 
 
 .062 
 
 .050 
 
 .043 
 
 .038 
 
 .035 
 
 .030 
 
 14 .. 
 
 .048 
 
 .041 
 
 .036 
 
 .030 
 
 .025 
 
 .022 
 
 .021 
 
 .018 
 
 16 .... 
 
 .038 
 
 .032 
 
 .030 
 
 .024 
 
 .020 
 
 .019 
 
 .016 
 
 .015 
 
 18 
 
 . 031 
 
 . 027 
 
 . 024 
 
 . 020 
 
 . 018 
 
 .015 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 .023 
 
 .020 
 
 .018 
 
 .014 
 
 .012 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 weather in one year may cause widespread meadow 
 failure within the watershed area. Gross erosion 
 from the first-year and second-year rotation corn 
 after a poor meadow will then be substantially 
 greater than normal and may nearly equal that 
 from continuous row cropping. Furthermore, 
 one segment of the watershed may receive a 
 severe rainstorm while another segment of the 
 same watershed receives little or no rain. Loca¬ 
 tion of the storm center will differ from one storm 
 to another, so that the long-time average rainfall 
 may be nearly uniform. However, specific-storm 
 or specific-year values of both R and C may deviate 
 a great deal from their average values for that 
 location. When gross erosion is to be estimated 
 for a specific short-term period for evaluation of 
 sediment dehvery rates, the specific El value and 
 soil-loss ratio for each successive crop-stage 
 period must be used in lieu of the annual erosion 
 index and the rotation C value. (Refer to page 39 
 for details.) 
 
 Correct interpretation of watershed conditions 
 for selection of appropriate values of the factors 
 L and S is also very important, but interpretation 
 is frequently quite difficult because of complex 
 topography. Complex soil and land use patterns 
 superimposed upon a complex topography present 
 
 problems in interpretation and factor evaluation 
 that need further research analysis. However, 
 the definition of slope length, page 9, and the 
 discussion of convex and concave slopes, page 8, 
 provide helpful guides. Slope shapes and drainage 
 patterns need to be carefully considered. A steep 
 gradient at the lower end of a slope should not 
 be averaged with a gentle gradient at the upper 
 end. A slope length does not terminate simply 
 because of a wire fence or a change in cropping. 
 If runoff from an area above a field is allowed to 
 enter the field as sheet flow, the upper area is 
 part of the slope length for computing erosion on 
 the field. However, sufficient flattening of the 
 slope to cause deposition to begin indicates the 
 end of a slope length. 
 
 The sum of the estimates for the individual , 
 tracts making up the watershed approximates the 
 quantity of soil moved from its original general 
 position. This initial sediment estimate must be 
 adjusted downward to compensate for deposition 
 in terrace channels, in sod waterways, in fieW 
 boundaries, and at the toe of field slopes. Further 
 changes in sediment content of runoff water will | 
 occur during the stream transport phase. 
 
 The appropriate value of the factor P for a 
 terraced field is considerably lower for purposes ^ 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 43 
 
 Pable lO.-Partial list of C values for common rotatiam for a specific erooion-index dutnhntim area ' 
 
 Cropping system * * 
 
 Rotations 
 
 ontinuous corn. 
 
 -C-C-0,._ 
 
 -C-0,_ 
 
 -C-C-O-M. 
 
 - 0 ,. 
 
 -C-O-M_ 
 
 'C-O-M-M-M. 
 
 <0-W-M. 
 
 
 (0-M-M-M.... 
 
 (0-M-M-M-M. 
 
 Limits ® 
 
 a- 
 
 C values for RdL, disked for small grain, spring-plowed for 
 
 corn 
 
 Conventional plant and till * 
 
 Y, 
 
 0. 48 
 
 . 36 
 
 . 32 
 
 . 25 
 . 25 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 088 
 
 071 
 
 060 
 
 0. 43 
 . 31 
 . 27 
 
 . 20 
 . 18 
 
 , 14 
 
 12 
 
 096 
 
 083 
 
 079 
 
 060 
 
 049 
 
 042 
 
 0. 38 
 . 27 
 . 24 
 
 , 19 
 . 17 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 082 
 
 058 
 
 058 
 
 045 
 
 036 
 
 031 
 
 Area shown in fig. 12 for curve No. 16 
 ' Abbreviations: ^corn, O—oats, O,—oats with sweet 
 ever intercrop, W—fall-seeded grain, M—grass and 
 l(ume meadow, RdL—residues left. ^ 
 
 Dashed lines indicate cropping system limits for: a. 
 
 Minimum tillage 
 
 0. 33 
 
 . 23 
 
 . 19 
 
 . 14 
 . 13 
 
 10 
 
 081 
 
 068 
 
 064 
 
 052 
 
 040 
 
 033 
 
 028 
 
 0. 27 
 
 . 19 
 
 . 17 
 
 . 12 
 . 12 
 
 082 
 
 066 
 
 057 
 
 049 
 
 037 
 
 029 
 
 024 
 
 020 
 
 straight-row farming; b, contouring; c, terraces. Accept¬ 
 able rotations are those below the lines. 
 
 * Fi—average yields of 1 to 2 tons hay, 40 to 59 bu. corn. 
 Fj—average yields of 2 to 3 tons hay, 60 to 74 bu. corn. 
 F 3 —average yields of 3 to 5 tons hay, 75 to 100 bu. corn. 
 
 0 watershed sediment prediction than it is for 
 prposes of erosion-control planning. As much 
 a 90 percent of the soil eroded from the area 
 b .ween terraces may be deposited in the channels 
 For sediment prediction, the important 
 Msideration is the quantity of soil moved com- 
 JteJy off the field. For this purpose, P values 
 iual to about 20 percent of the contour practice 
 ^ ill table 6 are recommended. 
 
 F hen runoff from a cropped field enters a grass 
 
 waterway or crosses a sodded fence row or stream- 
 bank area to enter a main drainageway, part of 
 the silt load is filtered out by the sod, as it is in a 
 cultivated field with contour stripcropping. If 
 the gradient decreases significantly between the 
 lower end of the cropped field and the point where 
 the runoff enters the drainageway, deposition may 
 occur even if the area is not sodded. Factors to 
 adjust gross-erosion estimates for these situations 
 have not been evaluated. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 ^he ^il-loss prediction procedure presented 
 ntliis handbook provides a methodical means 
 b using all available research information to 
 guide land use and management decisions 
 t any particular farm field where soil erosion 
 ■3 rainfall and runoff is a problem. The soil- 
 equation presented is universally 
 flicable wherever locational values of the 
 Ration's individual factors are known or can 
 €determined. Research data assembled from 
 umajor agricultural areas of the United States 
 '•e analyzed and summarized in ready-reference 
 
 tables and graphs. These provide a source of 
 information for approximating the factor values 
 needed to apply the equation to the specific 
 conditions in the various geographic areas. 
 
 Data and procedures are presented in con¬ 
 siderable detail, to help the user interpret the 
 guides supphed by solutions of the equation. 
 Applications of the procedures are illustrated in 
 specific examples. 
 
 Use of the equation, tables, and figures for 
 predicting soil erosion losses on any particular 
 
44 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 field, under each of various alternative cropping 
 systems and management practices, is not a 
 complicated procedure. Comparison of the pre¬ 
 dicted erosion rates with the applicable soil-loss 
 tolerance provides very specific guidehnes for 
 
 effecting erosion control within specified limits.] 
 For the selection of practices on an individual 
 farm, the procedure can be reduced to use of a 
 few reference tables derived for the particular 
 geographic area. 
 
 LITERATURE CITED 
 
 (1) Browning, G. M., Parish, C. L., and Glass, J. A. 
 
 1947. A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE USE AND 
 LIMITATION OF ROTATION AND CONSERVATION 
 PRACTICES IN CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION IN 
 
 IOWA. Amer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 39: 65-73. 
 
 (2) Blakely, B. D., Coyle, J. J., and Steele, J. G. 
 
 1957. EROSION ON CULTIVATED LAND. In Soil, U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Yearbook, pp. 290-306. 
 
 (3) Hill, H. O., Peevy, W. J., McCall, A G., and Bell, 
 
 F. G. 
 
 1944. INVESTIGATIONS IN EROSION CONTROL AND 
 RECLAMATION OF ERODED LAND AT THE 
 BLACKLAND CONSERVATION EXPERIMENT STA¬ 
 TION, TEMPLE, TEX., 1931-41. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Tech. Bui. 859, i09 pp. 
 
 (4) Lillard, j. H., Rogers, H. T., and Elson, Jesse. 
 
 1941. EFFECTS OF SLOPE, CHARACTER OF SOIL, 
 RAINFALL, AND CROPPING TREATMENTS ON 
 EROSION LOSSES FROM DUNMORE SILT LOAM. 
 
 Va. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bui. 72, 32 pp. 
 
 (5) Lloyd, C. H., and Eley, G. W. 
 
 1952. GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF PROBABLE SOIL 
 LOSS FORMULA FOR NORTHEASTERN REGION. 
 
 Jour. Soil and Water Conserv. 7: 189-191. 
 
 (6) Middleton, H. E., Slater, C. S., and Byers, H. G. 
 
 1932. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 OF THE SOILS FROM THE EROSION EXPERI¬ 
 MENT STATIONS. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. 
 Bui. 316, 51 pp. 
 
 (7) - Slater, C. S., and Byers, H. G. 
 
 1934. THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERIS¬ 
 TICS OF THE SOILS FROM THE EROSION 
 EXPERIMENT STATIONS—SECOND REPORT. 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 430, 62 pp. 
 
 (8) Moldenhauer, W. C., and Wischmeier, W. H. 
 
 1960. SOIL AND WATER LOSSES AND INFILTRATION 
 RATES ON IDA SILT LOAM AS INFLUENCED BY 
 CROPPING SYSTEMS, TILLAGE PRACTICES AND 
 RAINFALL CHARACTERISTICS. Soil Sci. SoC. 
 Amer. Proc. 24 : 409-413. 
 
 (9) Musgrave, G. W. 
 
 1947. THE QUANTITATIVE EVALUATION OF FACTORS 
 IN WATER EROSION, A FIRST APPROXIMATION. 
 
 Jour. Soil and Water Conserv. 2: 133-138. 
 
 (10) Olson, T. C., and Wischmeier, W. H. 
 
 1963. SOIL-ERODIBILITY EVALUATIONS FOR SOILS 
 ON THE RUNOFF AND EROSION STATIONS. 
 
 Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 27: 590-592. 
 
 (11) Peele, T. C., Latham, E. E., and Beale, O. W. 
 
 1945. RELATION OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF 
 DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES TO ERODIBILITY. 
 
 S. C. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 357, 31 pp. 
 
 (12) Smith, D. D. 
 
 1941. INTERPRETATION OF SOIL CONSERVATION DATA 
 FOR FIELD USE. Agr. Engin. 22: 173-175. 
 
 (13) - and Whitt, D. M. 
 
 1947. ESTIMATING SOIL LOSSES FROM FIELD AREAS OF 
 CLAYPAN SOILS. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 
 
 12: 485-490. 
 
 (14) - and Whitt, D. M. 
 
 1948. EVALUATING SOIL LOSSES FROM FIELD AREAS. 
 Agr. Engin. 29: 394-396. 
 
 (15) - and Wischmeier, W. H. 
 
 1957. FACTORS AFFECTING SHEET AND RILL EROSION. 
 Amer. Geophys. Union Trans. 38: 889-896.' 
 
 (16) -and Wischmeier, W. H. 
 
 1962. RAINFALL EROSION. Advances in Agronomy, 
 V. 14, pp. 109-148. Academic Press, Inc., 
 New York, N.Y. 
 
 (17) Springer, D. K., Breinig, C. B., and Springer, 
 
 M. E. 
 
 1963. PREDICTING SOIL LOSSES IN TENNESSEE. 
 Jour. Soil and Water Conserv. 18(4): 157- 
 158. 
 
 (18) U.S. Agricultural Research Service. 
 
 1961. A UNIVERSAL EQUATION FOR PREDICTING 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 ARS 22-66, 11 pp. 
 
 (19) Van Doren, C. A., and Bartelli, L. J. 
 
 1956. A METHOD OF FORECASTING SOIL LOSSES. 
 
 Agr. Engin. 37: 335-341. 
 
 (20) Wischmeier, W. H. 
 
 1955. PUNCHED CARDS RECORD RUNOFF AND SOIL- 
 LOSS DATA. Agr. Engin. 36: 664-666. 
 
 ( 21 ) - 
 
 1959. A RAINFALL EROSION INDEX FOR A UNIVERSAL 
 SOIL-LOSS EQUATION. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 
 Proc. 23: 246-249. 
 
 ( 22 ) - 
 
 1960. CROPPING-MANAGEMENT FACTOR EVALUATIONS 
 FOR A UNIVERSAL SOIL-LOSS EQUATION. Soil 
 
 Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 24: 322-326. 
 
 ( 23 ) - ^ . 
 
 1962. RAINFALL EROSION POTENTIAL. Agr. Engin. 
 43: 212-215. 
 
 (24) - 
 
 1962. STORMS AND SOIL CONSERVATION. Jour. Soil 
 and Water Conserv. 17(2): 55-59. 
 
 (25) -and Smith, D. D. 
 
 1958. RAINFALL ENERGY AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO 
 SOIL LOSS. Amer. Geophys. Union Trans. 
 39: 285-291. 
 
 (26) - and Smith, D. D. 
 
 1961. A UNIVERSAL SOIL-LOSS ESTIMATING EQUATION 
 TO GUIDE CONSERVATION FARM PLANNING- - 
 
 7th Cong. Internatl. Soil Sci. Soc. Trans, v. 
 
 1, paper 2. 
 
 (27) - Smith, D. D., and Uhland, R. E. 
 
 1958. evaluation of factors in the soil loss 
 EQUATION. Agr. Engin. 39: 458-462, 474. 
 
 (28) ZiNGG, A. W. 
 
 1940. DEGREE AND LENGTH OF LAND SLOPE AS iT 
 AFFECTS SOIL LOSS IN RUNOFF. Agr. Engin. 
 
 21: 59-64. 
 
45 
 
 RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Table Observed range and 5-, 20-, and 60-vercent 
 vrobabtltty values of erosion index at each of 181 key 
 locations 
 
 Table 11 —06sert>erf range and 6-, 20-, and 60-percent 
 probability values of erosion index at each of 181 kev 
 locations —Continued ^ 
 
 Values ot erosion index (El) 
 
 Location 
 
 dabama; 
 
 Birmingham. 
 
 MobUe. 
 
 Montgomery_ 
 
 .rkansas; 
 
 Fort Smith. 
 
 Little Rock.. 
 
 Mountain Home.. 
 
 Texarkana.. 
 
 ali/omla; 
 
 Red Bluff.. 
 
 San Luis Obispo... 
 olorado: 
 
 Akron_ 
 
 Pueblo. 
 
 Springfield.. 
 
 onnectlcut: 
 
 Hartford. 
 
 New Haven. 
 
 istrlct of Columbia, 
 lorida: 
 
 Apalachicola. 
 
 Jacksonville. 
 
 Miami. 
 
 sorgla: 
 
 Atlanta.. 
 
 Augusta. 
 
 Columbus. 
 
 Macon. 
 
 Savannah_ 
 
 WatklnsviUe *. 
 
 inois: 
 
 Cairo. 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 Dixon Springs *_ 
 
 Moline. 
 
 Rantoul. 
 
 Iprlngfield.. 
 
 dlana; 
 
 Evansville. 
 
 Eort Wayne.. 
 
 ndlanapolls. 
 
 louth Bend.. 
 
 Terre Haute.. 
 
 Iva: 
 
 Jurllngton.. 
 
 Jharles City. 
 
 ’larlnda ‘. 
 
 )es Moines. 
 
 Jubuque. 
 
 lioux City. 
 
 lockweU City_ 
 
 Insas: 
 
 iurllngame. 
 
 loffeyirille. 
 
 loncordla. 
 
 lodge City. 
 
 loodland. 
 
 fays *. 
 
 i'^lchita. 
 
 latucky: 
 
 •exlngton. 
 
 •oulsvllle. 
 
 liddlesboro... 
 
 1 lisiana; 
 
 ake Charles. 
 
 w Orleans.... 
 
 hreveport. 
 
 Mne: 
 
 arlbou. 
 
 ortland_ 
 
 towhegan_ 
 
 Aryland, Baltimore. 
 ^ ssachusetts: 
 
 baton. 
 
 'ashlngton. 
 
 A;higan; 
 
 Ipena. 
 
 etrolt. 
 
 ast Lansing, 
 rand Rapids.I 
 
 Observed 
 
 22-year 
 
 range 
 
 60-percent 
 
 probability 
 
 20-p)ercent 
 y probabUit; 
 
 6-p)ercent 
 y probability 
 
 179-601 
 
 364 
 
 461 
 
 692 
 
 279-926 
 
 673 
 
 799 
 
 940 
 
 164-780 
 
 369 
 
 482 
 
 638 
 
 116-818 
 
 264 
 
 400 
 
 614 
 
 103-626 
 
 308 
 
 422 
 
 669 
 
 98-441 
 
 206 
 
 301 
 
 432 
 
 137-664 
 
 326 
 
 446 
 
 600 
 
 11-240 
 
 64 
 
 98 
 
 171 
 
 6-147 
 
 43 
 
 70 
 
 113 
 
 8-247 
 
 72 
 
 129 
 
 226 
 
 
 44 
 
 93 
 
 189 
 
 4-246 
 
 79 
 
 138 
 
 233 
 
 66-366 
 
 133 
 
 188 
 
 263 
 
 66-373 
 
 167 
 
 222 
 
 310 
 
 84-334 
 
 183 
 
 260 
 
 336 
 
 271-944 
 
 629 
 
 663 
 
 820 
 
 283-900 
 
 640 
 
 693 
 
 876 
 
 197-1226 
 
 629 
 
 784 
 
 1136 
 
 116-649 
 
 286 
 
 377 
 
 488 
 
 148-476 
 
 229 
 
 308 
 
 408 
 
 216-614 
 
 336 
 
 400 
 
 473 
 
 117-493 
 
 282 
 
 367 
 
 447 
 
 197-886 
 
 412 
 
 671 
 
 780 
 
 182-644 
 
 278 
 
 362 
 
 441 
 
 126-676 
 
 231 
 
 349 
 
 618 
 
 69-379 
 
 140 
 
 212 
 
 316 
 
 89-681 
 
 226 
 
 326 
 
 466 
 
 80-369 
 
 168 
 
 221 
 
 303 
 
 73-286 
 
 162 
 
 201 
 
 263 
 
 38-316 
 
 164 
 
 210 
 
 283 
 
 104-417 
 
 188 
 
 263 
 
 362 
 
 60-276 
 
 127 
 
 183 
 
 259 
 
 60-349 
 
 166 
 
 226 
 
 302 
 
 43-374 
 
 137 
 
 204 
 
 298 
 
 81-413 
 
 190 
 
 273 
 
 389 
 
 66-286 
 
 162 
 
 216 
 
 284 
 
 39-308 
 
 140 
 
 206 
 
 296 
 
 76-376 
 
 162 
 
 220 
 
 296 
 
 39-319 
 
 136 
 
 198 
 
 284 
 
 64-389 
 
 176 
 
 261 
 
 366 
 
 66-336 
 
 136 
 
 206 
 
 308 
 
 40-391 
 
 137 
 
 216 
 
 336 
 
 67-447 
 
 176 
 
 267 
 
 398 
 
 66-646 
 
 234 
 
 339 
 
 483 
 
 38-669 
 
 131 
 
 241 
 
 427 
 
 16-421 
 
 98 
 
 176 
 
 303 
 
 10-166 
 
 76 
 
 116 
 
 171 
 
 66-373 
 
 116 
 
 182 
 
 279 
 
 42-440 
 
 188 
 
 292 
 
 446 
 
 64-396 
 
 178 
 
 248 
 
 340 
 
 84-296 
 
 168 
 
 221 
 
 286 
 
 107-301 
 
 164 
 
 197 
 
 248 
 
 200-1019 
 
 672 
 
 786 
 
 1063 
 
 273-1366 
 
 721 
 
 1007 
 
 1384 
 
 149-707 
 
 321 
 
 446 
 
 609 
 
 26-120 
 
 68 
 
 79 
 
 106 
 
 36-241 
 
 91 
 
 131 
 
 186 
 
 39-149 
 
 78 
 
 108 
 
 148 
 
 60-388 
 
 178 
 
 263 
 
 381 
 
 39-366 
 
 99 
 
 169 
 
 262 
 
 66-229 
 
 116 
 
 163 
 
 198 
 
 14-124 
 
 67 
 
 86 
 
 124 
 
 66-179 
 
 100 
 
 134 
 
 177 
 
 36-161 
 
 86 
 
 121 
 
 166 
 
 33-203 
 
 84 
 
 123 
 
 178 
 
 Location 
 
 Minnesota: 
 
 Alexandria_ 
 
 Duluth. 
 
 Fosston. 
 
 Minneapolis_ 
 
 Rochester_ 
 
 Springfield_ 
 
 Mississippi: 
 
 Meridian_ 
 
 Oxford_ 
 
 Vicksburg.. 
 
 Missouri: 
 
 Columbia_ 
 
 Kansas City_ 
 
 McCredle *_ 
 
 RoUa_ 
 
 Springfield_ 
 
 St. Joseph.. 
 
 St. Louis.. 
 
 Montana: 
 
 Billings_ 
 
 Great Falls. 
 
 Miles City_ 
 
 Nebraska: 
 
 Antioch_ 
 
 Lincoln_ 
 
 L3mch_ 
 
 North Platte_ 
 
 Scribner.. 
 
 Valentine_ 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 cord.. 
 
 New Jersey: 
 
 Atlantic City_ 
 
 Marlboro i_ 
 
 Trenton.. 
 
 New Mexico: 
 Albuquerque.... 
 
 Roswell_ 
 
 New York: 
 
 Albany_ 
 
 Binghamton_ 
 
 Buffalo_ 
 
 Geneva >_ 
 
 Marcellus •_ 
 
 Rochester_ 
 
 Salamanca_ 
 
 Syracuse_ 
 
 North Carolina: 
 
 Asheville_ 
 
 Charlotte_ 
 
 Greensboro_ 
 
 Raleigh__ 
 
 Wilmington_ 
 
 North Dakota: 
 
 Bismarck_ 
 
 Devils Lake. 
 
 Fargo_ 
 
 Willlston. 
 
 Ohio: 
 
 Cincinnati_ 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 Columbiana_ 
 
 Columbus_ 
 
 Coshocton >_ 
 
 Dayton_ 
 
 Toledo_ 
 
 Oklahoma: 
 
 Ardmore... 
 
 Cherokee >... 
 
 Guthrie *.. 
 
 McAlester.. 
 
 Tulsa... 
 
 Oregon: 
 
 Pendleton.. 
 
 Portland. 
 
 Pennsylvania: 
 
 Erie. 
 
 Franklin. 
 
 Harrisburg. 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Cou' 
 
 Values of erosion index (El) 
 
 100-678 
 
 49-320 
 
 69-441 
 
 106-741 
 
 19-684 
 
 2-28 
 
 16-80 
 
 11-634 
 
 60-228 
 
 48-232 
 
 72-361 
 
 263 
 
 167 
 
 210 
 
 272 
 
 247 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 106 
 166 
 
 Observed 
 
 22-year 
 
 range 
 
 60-percent 
 
 probabilitj 
 
 20-percent 
 r probabilit; 
 
 6-percent 
 y probability 
 
 33-301 
 
 88 
 
 147 
 
 240 
 
 7-227 
 
 84 
 
 127 
 
 189 
 
 22-206 
 
 62 
 
 108 
 
 184 
 
 19-173 
 
 94 
 
 136 
 
 190 
 
 46-338 
 
 142 
 
 207 
 
 297 
 
 37-290 
 
 96 
 
 164 
 
 243 
 
 216-820 
 
 416 
 
 667 
 
 737 
 
 131-670 
 
 310 
 
 413 
 
 643 
 
 166-786 
 
 366 
 
 493 
 
 668 
 
 98-419 
 
 214 
 
 297 
 
 406 
 
 28-361 
 
 170 
 
 248 
 
 366 
 
 64-410 
 
 189 
 
 271 
 
 383 
 
 106-416 
 
 209 
 
 287 
 
 387 
 
 97-333 
 
 199 
 
 266 
 
 362 
 
 60-369 
 
 178 
 
 267 
 
 366 
 
 6fr-737 
 
 168 
 
 290 
 
 488 
 
 2-82 
 
 12 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 3-62 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 1-101 
 
 21 
 
 40 
 
 72 
 
 18-131 
 
 60 
 
 86 
 
 120 
 
 44-289 
 
 133 
 
 201 
 
 299 
 
 34-217 
 
 96 
 
 142 
 
 205 
 
 14-236 
 
 81 
 
 136 
 
 224 
 
 69-312 
 
 164 
 
 206 
 
 269 
 
 4-169 
 
 64 
 
 100 
 
 163 
 
 62-212 
 
 91 
 
 131 
 
 187 
 
 71-318 
 
 166 
 
 229 
 
 311 
 
 68-331 
 
 186 
 
 264 
 
 343 
 
 37-382 
 
 149 
 
 216 
 
 308 
 
 0-46 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 36 
 
 6-169 
 
 41 
 
 73 
 
 128 
 
 40-172 
 
 81 
 
 114 
 
 169 
 
 20-161 
 
 76 
 
 106 
 
 146 
 
 20-148 
 
 66 
 
 96 
 
 139 
 
 33-180 
 
 73 
 
 106 
 
 152 
 
 24-241 
 
 74 
 
 112 
 
 167 
 
 22-180 
 
 66 
 
 101 
 
 161 
 
 31-202 
 
 70 
 
 106 
 
 167 
 
 8-219 
 
 83 
 
 129 
 
 197 
 
 76-238 
 
 136 
 
 176 
 
 223 
 
 113-626 
 
 229 
 
 322 
 
 443 
 
 102-367 
 
 184 
 
 244 
 
 320 
 
 162-669 
 
 280 
 
 379 
 
 606 
 
 196-701 
 
 368 
 
 497 
 
 677 
 
 9-189 
 
 43 
 
 73 
 
 120 
 
 21-171 
 
 66 
 
 90 
 
 142 
 
 6-213 
 
 62 
 
 113 
 
 200 
 
 4-71 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 67 
 
 66-362 
 
 146 
 
 211 
 
 299 
 
 21-186 
 
 93 
 
 132 
 
 186 
 
 2fr-188 
 
 96 
 
 129 
 
 173 
 
 46-228 
 
 113 
 
 158 
 
 216 
 
 72-426 
 
 168 
 
 235 
 
 343 
 
 66-246 
 
 126 
 
 176 
 
 240 
 
 32-189 
 
 83 
 
 120 
 
 170 
 
 396 
 
 242 
 
 316 
 
 411 
 
 347 
 
 8 
 
 66 
 
 181 
 
 136 
 
 146 
 
 210 
 
 682 
 
 346 
 
 467 
 
 609 
 
 478 
 
 16 
 
 77 
 
 331 
 
 184 
 
 199 
 
 282 
 
 See footnote at end of table. 
 
46 
 
 AGR. HANDBOOK 2 82, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 11. —Observed range and 5-, 20-, and 60-percent 
 probability value of erosion index at each of 181 key 
 locations —Continued 
 
 Values of erosion index (El) 
 
 Location 
 
 Observed 
 22-year 
 range 
 
 60-percent 
 
 probability 
 
 20-peroent 
 
 probability 
 
 5-percent 
 
 probability 
 
 Pennsylvania—Con. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pittsburgh.. 
 
 43-201 
 
 111 
 
 148 
 
 194 
 
 Reading.. 
 
 84-308 
 
 144 
 
 204 
 
 285 
 
 Scranton.- 
 
 62-198 
 
 104 
 
 140 
 
 188 
 
 Puerto Rico, San Juan... 
 
 203-577 
 
 345 
 
 445 
 
 565 
 
 Rhode Island, Providence. 
 
 63-226 
 
 119 
 
 167 
 
 232 
 
 South Carolina: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charleston.. 
 
 174-1037 
 
 387 
 
 559 
 
 796 
 
 Clemson •.. 
 
 138-624 
 
 280 
 
 384 
 
 519 
 
 Columbia__ 
 
 81-461 
 
 213 
 
 298 
 
 410 
 
 Greenville. 
 
 130-589 
 
 249 
 
 350 
 
 487 
 
 South Dakota; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aberdeen.. 
 
 19-295 
 
 74 
 
 129 
 
 219 
 
 Huron. 
 
 18-145 
 
 60 
 
 91 
 
 136 
 
 Isabel—. 
 
 16-141 
 
 48 
 
 78 
 
 126 
 
 Rapid City... 
 
 10-140 
 
 37 
 
 64 
 
 108 
 
 Tennessee: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chattanooga.-. 
 
 163-468 
 
 269 
 
 348 
 
 445 
 
 Knoxville-'..— 
 
 64-370 
 
 173 
 
 239 
 
 325 
 
 Memphis... 
 
 139-596 
 
 272 
 
 384 
 
 536 
 
 Nashville__ 
 
 116-381 
 
 198 
 
 262 
 
 339 
 
 Texas: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Abilene.__ 
 
 27-564 
 
 146 
 
 253 
 
 427 
 
 Amarillo.... 
 
 33-340 
 
 110 
 
 184 
 
 299 
 
 Austin__-. 
 
 69-669 
 
 270 
 
 414 
 
 624 
 
 BrownsvlUe.-.. 
 
 46-552 
 
 267 
 
 386 
 
 549 
 
 Corpus Christ!. 
 
 124-669 
 
 237 
 
 330 
 
 451 
 
 Dallas.-. 
 
 93-630 
 
 263 
 
 396 
 
 686 
 
 Del Rio.... 
 
 19-406 
 
 121 
 
 216 
 
 374 
 
 El Paso.. 
 
 4-85 
 
 18 
 
 36 
 
 67 
 
 Houston_ 
 
 176-1171 
 
 444 
 
 674 
 
 1003 
 
 Lubbock_ 
 
 17-416 
 
 82 
 
 158 
 
 295 
 
 Midland.... 
 
 35-260 
 
 82 
 
 139 
 
 228 
 
 Nacogdoches_ 
 
 153-769 
 
 401 
 
 671 
 
 801 
 
 San Antonio. 
 
 77-635 
 
 220 
 
 363 
 
 666 
 
 Temple i.. 
 
 81-644 
 
 261 
 
 379 
 
 542 
 
 Victoria...... 
 
 108-609 
 
 266 
 
 385 
 
 551 
 
 Wichita Falls.. 
 
 79-658 
 
 196 
 
 298 
 
 447 
 
 Vermont, Burlington_ 
 
 33-270 
 
 72 
 
 114 
 
 178 
 
 Virginia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blacksburg >.. 
 
 81-245 
 
 126 
 
 168 
 
 221 
 
 Lynchburg.. 
 
 64-366 
 
 164 
 
 232 
 
 324 
 
 Richmond. 
 
 102-373 
 
 208 
 
 275 
 
 361 
 
 Roanoke__ 
 
 78-283 
 
 129 
 
 176 
 
 237 
 
 Washington: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pullman i.. 
 
 1-30 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 Spokane. 
 
 1-19 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 West Virginia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Elkins.... 
 
 43-223 
 
 118 
 
 168 
 
 209 
 
 Huntington. 
 
 56-228 
 
 127 
 
 173 
 
 233 
 
 Parkersburg_ 
 
 69-303 
 
 120 
 
 165 
 
 226 
 
 Wisconsin; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green Bay__ 
 
 17-148 
 
 77 
 
 107 
 
 147 
 
 LaCrosse ‘.. 
 
 61-385 
 
 153 
 
 228 
 
 331 
 
 Madison... 
 
 38-251 
 
 118 
 
 171 
 
 245 
 
 Milwaukee... 
 
 31-193 
 
 93 
 
 139 
 
 202 
 
 Rice Lake.. 
 
 24-334 
 
 122 
 
 202 
 
 327 
 
 Wyoming: 
 
 Casper... 
 
 1-24 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 26 
 
 Cheyenne... 
 
 8-66 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 66 
 
 * Computations based on ARS-SWC rainfall records. All others are 
 based on Weather Bureau records. 
 
 Table 12. —Expected magnitudes of single-storm erosion 
 
 index values 
 
 Location 
 
 Index values normally exceeded once in— 
 
 1 
 
 year 
 
 2 
 
 years 
 
 5 
 
 years 
 
 10 
 
 years 
 
 20 
 
 years 
 
 Alabama: 
 
 Birmingham.. 
 
 54 
 
 77 
 
 no 
 
 140 
 
 170 
 
 MobUe... 
 
 97 
 
 122 
 
 151 
 
 172 
 
 194 
 
 Montgomery ___ 
 
 62 
 
 86 
 
 118 
 
 145 
 
 172 
 
 Arkansas: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fort Smith_ 
 
 43 
 
 65 
 
 101 
 
 132 
 
 167 
 
 Little Rock.. 
 
 41 
 
 69 
 
 116 
 
 158 
 
 211 
 
 Mountain Home__ 
 
 33 
 
 46 
 
 68 
 
 87 
 
 106 
 
 Texarkana_ 
 
 51 
 
 73 
 
 105 
 
 132 
 
 163 
 
 California: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Bluff.. 
 
 13 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 66 
 
 San Luis Obispo___ 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 Colorado: 
 
 
 
 
 Akron.. 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 63 
 
 87 
 
 118 
 
 Pueblo___ 
 
 17 
 
 31 
 
 60 
 
 88 
 
 127 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 31 
 
 61 
 
 84 
 
 112 
 
 152 
 
 Connecticut: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hartford.. 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 64 
 
 79 
 
 New Haven.... 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 73 
 
 96 
 
 122 
 
 District of Columbia... 
 
 39 
 
 67 
 
 86 
 
 108 
 
 136 
 
 Florida; 
 
 
 
 
 Apalachicola.... 
 
 87 
 
 124 
 
 180 
 
 224 
 
 272 
 
 Jacksonville___ 
 
 92 
 
 123 
 
 166 
 
 201 
 
 236 
 
 Miami_ 
 
 93 
 
 134 
 
 200 
 
 253 
 
 306 
 
 Georgia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Atlanta.... 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 92 
 
 112 
 
 134 
 
 Augusta__ 
 
 34 
 
 60 
 
 74 
 
 94 
 
 118 
 
 Columbus_ 
 
 61 
 
 81 
 
 108 
 
 131 
 
 162 
 
 Macon_ 
 
 53 
 
 72 
 
 99 
 
 122 
 
 146 
 
 Savannah.. 
 
 82 
 
 128 
 
 203 
 
 272 
 
 368 
 
 WatkinsvUle... 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 98 
 
 120 
 
 142 
 
 Illinois: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cairo..... 
 
 39 
 
 63 
 
 101 
 
 135 
 
 173 
 
 Chicago.. 
 
 33 
 
 49 
 
 77 
 
 101 
 
 129 
 
 Dixon Springs. 
 
 39 
 
 66 
 
 82 
 
 105 
 
 130 
 
 Moline... 
 
 39 
 
 59 
 
 89 
 
 116 
 
 145 
 
 Rantoul... 
 
 27 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 69 
 
 82 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 36 
 
 62 
 
 76 
 
 94 
 
 117 
 
 Indiana: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • Evansville.. 
 
 26 
 
 38 
 
 56 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 Fort Wayne_ 
 
 24 
 
 33 
 
 46 
 
 66 
 
 66 
 
 Indiana^lis_ 
 
 29 
 
 41 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 South Bend... 
 
 26 
 
 41 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 111 
 
 Terre Haute... 
 
 42 
 
 57 
 
 78 
 
 96 
 
 113 
 
 Iowa: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Burlington. 
 
 37 
 
 48 
 
 62 
 
 72 
 
 81 
 
 Charles City.. 
 
 33 
 
 47 
 
 68 
 
 86 
 
 103 
 
 Clarinda..... 
 
 35 
 
 48 
 
 66 
 
 79 
 
 94 
 
 Des Moines... 
 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 67 
 
 86 
 
 106 
 
 Dubuque.... 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 91 
 
 114 
 
 140 
 
 Rockwell City__ 
 
 31 
 
 49 
 
 76 
 
 101 
 
 129 
 
 Sioux City.... 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 84 
 
 105 
 
 131 
 
 Kansas; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Burlingame.. 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 69 
 
 83 
 
 100 
 
 Cofleyville.... 
 
 47 
 
 69 
 
 101 
 
 128 
 
 169 
 
 Concordia.... 
 
 33 
 
 53 
 
 86 
 
 116 
 
 154 
 
 Dodge City. 
 
 31 
 
 47 
 
 76 
 
 97 
 
 124 
 
 Goodland. 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 53 
 
 67 
 
 80 
 
 Hays... 
 
 35 
 
 61 
 
 76 
 
 97 
 
 121 
 
 Wichita. 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 93 
 
 121 
 
 160 
 
 Kentucky: 
 
 
 
 
 
 151 
 
 Lexington. 
 
 28 
 
 46 
 
 80 
 
 114 
 
 Louisville_ 
 
 31 
 
 43 
 
 59 
 
 72 
 
 86 
 
 Middlesboro... 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 73 
 
 Louisiana; 
 
 
 
 
 
 330 
 
 New Orleans..... 
 
 104 
 
 149 
 
 214 
 
 270 
 
 Shreveport. 
 
 55 
 
 73 
 
 99 
 
 121 
 
 142 
 
RAINFALL-EROSION LOSSES FROM CROPLAND 
 
 47 
 
 Table 12. — Expected magnitudes of single-storm erosion 
 index values —Continued 
 
 Table 12.—Expected magnitudes of single-storm erosion 
 index values —Continued 
 
 Location 
 
 laine: 
 
 Caribou.. 
 
 Portland.. 
 
 Skowhegan.. 
 
 laryland, Baltimore. 
 
 las^husetts: 
 
 Boston.. 
 
 Washington. 
 
 Uchlgan: 
 
 Alpena. 
 
 Detroit. 
 
 East Lansing.. 
 
 Grand Rapids. 
 
 llnnesota: 
 
 Duluth. 
 
 Fosston. 
 
 Minneapolis... 
 
 Rochester... 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 Mississippi; 
 
 Meridian_ 
 
 Oxford. 
 
 Vicksburg. 
 
 Jssouri: 
 
 Columbia_ 
 
 Kansas City_ 
 
 McCredle.. 
 
 Rolla. 
 
 Springfield. 
 
 St. Joseph. 
 
 ontana: 
 
 Great Falls.. 
 
 Miles City__ 
 
 ebraska; 
 
 Antioch. 
 
 Lincoln.. 
 
 Lynch... 
 
 North Platte. 
 
 Scribner. 
 
 Valentine__ 
 
 ew Hampshire, Concord 
 ew Jersey: 
 
 Atlantic City.. 
 
 Marlboro_ 
 
 Trenton.. 
 
 3w Mexico; 
 
 Albuquerque.. 
 
 Roswell. 
 
 3w York: 
 
 Albany... 
 
 Binghamton_ 
 
 Buffalo.I" 
 
 Mar cell us__ 
 
 Rochester_ 
 
 lalamanca. 
 
 Syracuse__ 
 
 )rth Carolina: 
 
 Asheville . 
 
 Ilharlotte... 
 
 JreenstKjro_ 
 
 Raleigh_I” 
 
 Wilmington.] 
 
 >rth Dakota: 
 
 Jevlls Lake... 
 
 ^argo." 
 
 WUllston_ 
 
 Mo; 
 
 i^incinnati.... 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 ’olumblana. 
 
 Jolumbus_I 
 
 loshocton_I 
 
 Jayton.IIIIIIII' 
 
 i'oledo... 
 
 
 Index values normally exceeded once in— 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 
 year 
 
 years 
 
 years 
 
 years 
 
 years 
 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 
 16 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 66 
 
 88 
 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 86 
 
 109 
 
 133 
 
 
 17 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 
 67 
 
 73 
 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 46 
 
 60 
 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 50 
 
 
 21 
 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 56 
 
 68 
 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 61 
 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 34 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 93 
 
 
 17 
 
 26 
 
 39 
 
 51 
 
 63 
 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 78 
 
 
 41 
 
 58 
 
 85 
 
 105 
 
 129 
 
 
 24 
 
 37 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 102 
 
 
 69 
 
 92 
 
 125 
 
 151 
 
 176 
 
 
 48 
 
 64 
 
 86 
 
 103 
 
 120 
 
 
 57 
 
 78 
 
 111 
 
 136 
 
 161 
 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 77 
 
 93 
 
 107 
 
 
 30 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 93 
 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 89 
 
 117 
 
 151 
 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 91 
 
 115 
 
 140 
 
 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 70 
 
 87 
 
 102 
 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 86 
 
 106 
 
 126 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 38 
 
 
 19 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 
 36 
 
 51 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 112 
 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 54 
 
 67 
 
 82 
 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 69 
 
 78 
 
 99 
 
 
 38 
 
 53 
 
 76 
 
 96 
 
 116 
 
 
 18 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 
 62 
 
 79 
 
 
 39 
 
 65 
 
 77 
 
 97 
 
 117 
 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 85 
 
 111 
 
 136 
 
 
 29 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 102 
 
 131 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 34 
 
 45 
 
 53 
 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 66 
 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 47 
 
 58 
 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 61 
 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 49 
 
 62 
 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 38 
 
 54 
 
 75 
 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 61 
 
 65 
 
 
 28 
 
 40 
 
 68 
 
 72 
 
 87 
 
 
 41 
 
 63 
 
 100 
 
 131 
 
 164 
 
 
 37 
 
 61 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 113 
 
 
 53 
 
 77 
 
 no 
 
 137 
 
 168 
 
 
 59 
 
 87 
 
 129 
 
 167 
 
 206 
 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 39 
 
 49 
 
 69 
 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 54 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 
 27 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 59 
 
 69 
 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 53 
 
 71 
 
 86 
 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 77 
 
 94 
 
 
 27 
 
 45 
 
 77 
 
 108 
 
 143 
 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 67 
 
 70 
 
 
 16 
 
 26 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 74 
 
 Location 
 
 Oklahoma: 
 
 Ardmore__ 
 
 Cherokee_” 
 
 Guthrie.." 
 
 McAlester_I 
 
 Tulsa_^ 
 
 Oregon, Portland_” 
 
 Pennsylvania; 
 
 Franklin_ 
 
 Harrisburg_ 
 
 Philadelphia_ 
 
 Pittsburgh_ 
 
 Reading_ 
 
 Scranton_” 
 
 Puerto Rico, San Juan_ 
 
 Rhode Island, Providence 
 South Carolina: 
 
 Charleston_ 
 
 Clemson_ 
 
 Columbia_ 
 
 Greenville_I 
 
 South Dakota: 
 
 Aberdeen_ 
 
 Huron__ 
 
 Isabel_”” 
 
 Rapid City_ 
 
 Tennessee: 
 
 Chattanooga___ 
 
 KnoxvUle_ 
 
 Memphis_I' 
 
 Nashville_ 
 
 Texas; 
 
 Abilene. 
 
 Amarfilo___ 
 
 Austin..I”’ 
 
 BrownsvUle_ 
 
 Corpus Christ!... 
 
 Dallas_ 
 
 Del Rio.....” 
 
 El Paso_ 
 
 Houston_” 
 
 Lubbock__' 
 
 Midland... 
 
 Nacogdoches_ 
 
 San Antonio___ 
 
 Temple_ 
 
 Victoria___ 
 
 Wichita Falls_ 
 
 Vermont, Burlington_ 
 
 Virginia; 
 
 Blacksburg.. 
 
 Lynchburg... 
 
 Richmond___ 
 
 Roanoke___ 
 
 Washington, Spokane_ 
 
 West Virginia; 
 
 Elkins_ 
 
 Huntington.. 
 
 Parkersburg_ 
 
 Wisconsin: 
 
 Green Bay_ 
 
 LaCrosse_ 
 
 Madison.... 
 
 Milwaukee_ 
 
 Rice Lake_ 
 
 Wyoming: 
 
 Casper..... 
 
 Cheyenne_ 
 
 Index values normally exceeded once In— 
 
 1 
 
 year 
 
 2 
 
 years 
 
 5 
 
 years 
 
 10 
 
 years 
 
 
 71 
 
 107 
 
 141 
 
 
 59 
 
 80 
 
 97 
 
 
 70 
 
 105 
 
 134 
 
 
 82 
 
 127 
 
 165 
 
 47 
 
 69 
 
 100 
 
 127 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 
 24 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 19 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 69 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 57 
 
 28 
 
 39 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 
 23 
 
 32 
 
 44 
 
 53 
 
 67 
 
 87 
 
 131 
 
 169 
 
 23 
 
 34 
 
 62 
 
 68 
 
 74 
 
 106 
 
 154 
 
 196 
 
 51 
 
 73 
 
 106 
 
 133 
 
 41 
 
 59 
 
 85 
 
 106 
 
 44 
 
 65 
 
 96 
 
 124 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 66 
 
 73 
 
 19 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 52 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 48 
 
 ' 34 
 
 49 
 
 72 
 
 93 
 
 25 
 
 41 
 
 68 
 
 93 
 
 43 
 
 55 
 
 70 
 
 82 
 
 35 
 
 49 
 
 68 
 
 83 
 
 31 
 
 49 
 
 79 
 
 103 
 
 27 
 
 47 
 
 80 
 
 112 
 
 51 
 
 80 
 
 125 
 
 169 
 
 73 
 
 113 
 
 181 
 
 245 
 
 67 
 
 79 
 
 114 
 
 146 
 
 53 
 
 82 
 
 126 
 
 166 
 
 44 
 
 67 
 
 108 
 
 144 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 82 
 
 127 
 
 208 
 
 275 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 53 
 
 77 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 62 
 
 69 
 
 77 
 
 103 
 
 138 
 
 164 
 
 57 
 
 82 
 
 122 
 
 155 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 123 
 
 162 
 
 59 
 
 83 
 
 116 
 
 146 
 
 47 
 
 63 
 
 86 
 
 106 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 23 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 31 
 
 45 
 
 66 
 
 83 
 
 46 
 
 63 
 
 86 
 
 102 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 48 
 
 61 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 23 
 
 31 
 
 42 
 
 51 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 49 
 
 69 
 
 20 
 
 31 
 
 46 
 
 61 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 38 
 
 49 
 
 46 
 
 67 
 
 99 
 
 125 
 
 29 
 
 42 
 
 61 
 
 77 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 62 
 
 29 
 
 45 
 
 70 
 
 92 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 years 
 
 179 
 
 113 
 
 163 
 
 209 
 
 154 
 
 18 
 
 54 
 
 51 
 
 81 
 
 67 
 
 81 
 
 63 
 216 
 
 83 
 
 240 
 
 163 
 
 132 
 
 153 
 
 92 
 
 61 
 
 67 
 
 64 
 
 114 
 
 122 
 
 91 
 
 99 
 
 138 
 
 150 
 
 218 
 
 312 
 
 171 
 
 213 
 
 182 
 
 24 
 
 359 
 
 103 
 
 85 
 
 194 
 
 193 
 
 206 
 
 178 
 
 123 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 103 
 
 125 
 
 73 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 89 
 
 76 
 
 59 
 154 
 
 95 
 
 74 
 119 
 
 14 
 
 34 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1965 
 
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S30 
 
 iitistic 
 
 Field 
 
 and 
 
 Seed 
 
 Crops 
 
 USUAL 
 PLANTING 
 AND HARVESTING 
 
 DATES 
 
 By States 
 
 In 
 
 Principal 
 
 Producing 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 283 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 Service, Crop Reporting Board, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Areas 
 
CON TENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Introduction. 1 
 
 United States District Map .... 2 
 
 Crops: 
 
 Barley. 3 
 
 Corn .. 7 
 
 Cotton. 10 
 
 Flaxseed. 12 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa. 14 
 
 Hay, Clover and Timothy... 16 
 
 Oats . 18 
 
 Peanuts . 22 
 
 Rice... 23 
 
 Rye. 25 
 
 Sorghum .. 28 
 
 Soybeans. 31 
 
 Sugar Beets. 34 
 
 Tobacco . 36 
 
 Wheat, Spring and Durum .. 41 
 
 Wheat, Winter. 38 
 
 States: 
 
 Alabama. 44 
 
 Alaska. 45 
 
 Arizona. 45 
 
 Arkansas .. 46 
 
 California. 47 
 
 Colorado. 48 
 
 Delaware. 49 
 
 Florida. 49 
 
 Georgia .. 50 
 
 Hawaii. 50 
 
 Idaho. 51 
 
 Page 
 
 States (Con. ) 
 
 Illinois . 52 
 
 Indiana. 53 
 
 Iowa. 54 
 
 Kansas . 55 
 
 Kentucky . 56 
 
 Louisiana. 57 
 
 Maryland. 58 
 
 Michigan .. 59 
 
 Minne s ota. 60 
 
 Mississippi. 61 
 
 Missouri. 62 
 
 Montana. 63 
 
 Nebraska. 64 
 
 Nevada .. 65 
 
 New England... 66 
 
 New Jersey. 65 
 
 New Mexico . 68 
 
 New York. 69 
 
 North Carolina. 70 
 
 North Dakota . 71 
 
 Ohio. 72 
 
 Oklahoma . 73 
 
 Oregon. 74 
 
 Pennsylvania . 75 
 
 South Carolina. 76 
 
 South Dakota . 77 
 
 Tennessee. 78 
 
 Texas. 79 
 
 Utah. 80 
 
 Virginia. 81 
 
 Washington. 82 
 
 West Virginia. 83 
 
 Wisconsin. 84 
 
 Wyoming. 83 
 
 This report was prepared by C. E, Burkhead, J. W, Kirkbride, and 
 L. A. Losleben, Field Crops Statistics Branch, Statistical Reporting Service. 
 Primary data were provided by State statisticians. 
 
 Harch 1965 
 
Field and Seed Crops 
 
 USUAL PLANTING AND HARVESTING DATES 
 By States In Principal Producing Areas 
 
 INTRODUC TION 
 
 This report contains information on the usual planting and harvesting 
 dates for major field and seed crops. Information is arranged by States for 
 niajor crops and by commodity for selected major crops (tables 1-66). In 
 addUion, dot maps showing major areas of production and isomaps showing 
 f®”? harvesting are included for specific crops (figures 
 
 1-15) The information was assembled by the Statistical Reporting Service 
 based on the best information readily available. This bulletin and "Commer¬ 
 cial Vegetables for Fresh Marketing and Processing, Usual Planting and 
 Harvesting Dates in Principal Producing Areas," Agriculture Handbook 251, 
 June 1963, replace "Usual Planting and Harvest Time for Major Field Crons 
 
 mas Vegetables for Fresh Market, by States, " issued in March 
 
 9 y the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in cooperation with the Pro- 
 duction and Marketing Administration. 
 
 The dates shown for planting and harvesting indicate the periods in which 
 the crops are planted and harvested in most years. The periods shown do 
 not cover exceptionally early or late dates of scattered planting and harvest¬ 
 ing, nor do they take into account abnormal seasons caused by climatic or 
 economic conditions. The starting and ending dates are generally consid- 
 ered as those periods when 5 percent and 95 percent of the acreage is 
 involved, although these percentages will vary by crops because of differ¬ 
 ences in maturity, elevation, and area concentration. 
 
 The usual planting dates" shown are the times when crops are usually 
 planted in the fields. For transplanted crops, such as tobacco, the planting 
 period refers to the time of setting plants in the field. 
 
 The "harvest dates" refer to the periods during which harvest of the crop 
 actually occurs--combining, picking, cutting, pulling, and so on. It does 
 lot extend through the subsequent period in which some commodities are 
 stored in the field after harvest. 
 
 The "principal producing areas" are areas of major importance in a 
 >tate, even though the crop may be grown to a lesser extent elsewhere. 
 
 They are designated by county or crop-reporting districts, or as statewide. 
 
 ere no major defined areas of production exist, "statewide" distribution 
 : s mdicated. The number designation used in the producing area column re- 
 lers to crop-reporting districts which are shown on the U. S. map infigure 1. 
 
< 
 
 « 
 
 o 
 
 N 
 
 N 
 
 6 
 
 U 
 
 z 
 
 w 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 U 
 
 K 
 
 O 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 Z 
 
 U 
 
 z 
 
 K 
 
 K 
 
 < 
 
 Q. 
 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 Statistical Reporting Service 
 
CROPS 
 
 Barley 
 
 More than 12 million acres of barley were harvested in 1962. While 
 
 I 
 
 I year-to-year fluctuations have occurred, acreage is still at about the same 
 
 level as in the late twenties. Yields, however, have been steadily increasing. 
 
 The major barley-producing State is North Dakota, where almost one- 
 
 fourth of the U. S. acreage is sown. This State, together with California 
 
 and Montana, the second and third ranking producing States, accounts for 
 
 about 50 percent of the Nation's annual acreage and production. Only minor 
 
 acreages are grown in the eastern and southern parts of the United States. 
 
 Most barley is fed to livestock, although about 20 percent of the crop is used 
 for malting. 
 
 BARLEY HARVESTED 
 
 
 
 1 DOT-5,000 ACRES 
 
 MAP NO A59 tE28 
 
 U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
 
 Figure 2 
 
BARLEY 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 3 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-1 
 
 - k - 
 
Table 1.—Beirley: Usual 
 
 planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 J 1^02 : 
 
 state • harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 j Usual harvesting dates * 
 
 ___: (000) : 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 dates 
 
 . 7" —rriacipai proaucing 
 
 . Begins ] Most active * Ends * areas and counties 
 
 _ J « 
 
 New York 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Delaware 
 Maryland 
 V'lrginia 
 ^est Virginia 
 J^orth Carolina 
 
 19 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
 Apr. 25-Aug. 5 
 
 July 15 July 20 -July 30 Aug. 5 h, 8 
 
 Aug. 5 Aug. 10 -Aug. 30 Sept. 1 Statewide 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 21 
 
 Sept. 15 - Sept. 30 
 Mar. 25-Apr. 20 
 
 June 15 
 June 15 
 
 June 20 -July 10 
 June aO-July 10 
 
 July 15 
 July 15 
 
 5 , 8 
 
 5 , 8 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 184 
 
 Sept. 10 -Oct. 1 
 
 Apr. 25-May 25 
 
 June 20 
 July 25 
 
 June 25-July 5 
 Aug. 1 -Aug. 15 
 
 July 10 
 Aug. 20 
 
 K 5 , 6 , 7, 8, 9 
 
 1. 2, 3 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 45 
 
 Sept. 5-Oct. 10 
 Apr. 5 - May 10 
 
 June 20 
 July 15 
 
 July 1 -July 10 
 July 25-Aug. 5 
 
 July 15 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Northern half of 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 42 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 30 
 Apr. 1 - Apr. 20 
 
 June 10 
 July 1 
 
 June 15-June 25 
 July 10 -July 20 
 
 July 1 
 July 30 
 
 5 , 6 , 7, 8, 9 
 
 2 , h, 5, 6 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 52 
 
 Aug. 20 -Sept. 20 
 Apr. 5 -Apr. 30 
 
 June 20 
 July 15 
 
 June 25-July 5 
 July 20 -July 30 
 
 July 15 
 Aug. 5 
 
 4 a, 6a, 7, 9 
 
 1 . 3 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 62 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 15 
 Apr. 10 -May 10 
 
 June 25 
 July 15 
 
 July 1 -July 10 
 July 20 -Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 Aug. 5 
 
 5 , 8 , 9 
 
 6 , 7 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 30 
 
 Apr. 15 - May I5 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20 -July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Rock, Walworth^Dodge, 
 Fond du Lac,Racine 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 719 
 
 Apr. 15 - May 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 1 -Aug. 18 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 1 -Apr. 25 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20 -July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Missouri 
 
 101 
 
 Sept. 1 -Oct. 10 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5 “June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 2, 887 
 
 Apr. 15 - Jvine 5 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 -Avig. 15 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 409 
 
 Apr. 5 - May 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2; 3 / 8 , 8 , 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 135 
 
 Sept. 10 -Oct. 10 
 Apr. 5 - Ifey 1 
 
 June 25 
 June 25 
 
 July 10 -July 20 
 July 10 -July 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1 . 7 
 
 1 . 7 
 
 Kansas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 689 
 
 Sept. lO-Nov. 1 
 Feb. 25 - June 1 
 
 June 10 
 June 25 
 
 June 15-July 1 
 June 25-July 10 
 
 July 5 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 14 Sept. 25 - Nov. 10 
 
 91 Sept. 25- Nov. 10 
 
 112 Sept. 5-Nov. 1 
 
 10 Sept. 15-Oct. 20 
 
 66 Sept. 20 -Oct. 30 
 
 June 10 June 20 -July 5 July 10 Statewide 
 
 June 10 June 20 -July 5 July 10 Statewide 
 
 June 1 June 20 -July 1 July I5 2 , 4 , 5, 6 
 
 June 25 July 1 -July 25 Aug. 1 6 
 
 May 20 June 10 -June 25 July 1 5 , 8, 9 
 
 - 5 - 
 
Table i.—Barley; Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas—Con. 
 
 state 
 
 1 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 • Usual ; 
 
 Usual harvesting dates j 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 ] dates 1 
 
 Begins 
 
 • • 
 
 ' Most active 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 22 
 
 Oct. 1 - Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25-June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Georgia 
 
 12 
 
 Oct. 1 - Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25-June 5 
 
 June 15 
 
 1 , 2, 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 53 
 
 Aug. 20 -Sept.30 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15-July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 2 , 3 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 35 
 
 Sept. 1 - Nov. 1 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 1 -June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 3 , 4 , 5 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 28 
 
 Sept. 1 - Nov. 20 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10 -June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oklahom 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 547 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 5 
 Jan. 20 - Mar. I5 
 
 June 1 
 June 1 
 
 June 5 -June 20 
 June 5 -June 20 
 
 July 1 
 July 1 
 
 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5, 1 , 8 
 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5, 7 , 8 
 
 Texas 
 
 227 
 
 Sept. 10 -Nov. 25 
 
 May 15 
 
 May 25-June 15 
 
 Jan. 30 
 
 In, 2n, 2s, 4 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,802 
 
 Apr. 1 - May 30 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 -Aug. 25 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 f 
 
 648 
 
 Sept. 1 - Oct. 10 
 Mar. 25 - May 25 
 
 July 15 
 July 25 
 
 July 25-Aug. 15 
 Avig. 5-Sept.20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 Sept.30 
 
 1 . 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 112 
 
 Apr. 5 - May 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 “Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 431 
 
 Sept, i-oct. 15 
 Mar. 15 -Apr. 30 
 
 June 20 
 Jvme 30 
 
 July 1 -July 20 
 July 5 -Ai;ig. 15 
 
 A\ig. 5 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2 , 6 , 9 
 
 1 , 2 , 6 , 7, 8 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 37 
 
 Sept. l-Nov. 1 
 Feb. 15 - Apr. 1 
 
 June 10 
 June 20 
 
 June 15-July 10 
 Jvine 25-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 Aug. 1 
 
 3 , 7 , 9 
 
 3 , 7 , 9 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 120 
 
 Oct. 1 - Dec. 31 
 Jan. 20 -Feb. 28 
 
 May 20 
 June 10 
 
 May 25-June 10 
 June 15-June 30 
 
 June 20 
 July 5 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 Utah 
 
 155 
 
 Mar. 20 -Apr. 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 13 
 
 Sept. l-Oct. 20 
 Apr. 20 - May 10 
 
 June 15 
 July 20 
 
 July 1 -Aug. 15 
 July 25-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Pershing, Churchill, 
 Lyon, Doxxglas, Clark 
 
 Washington 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 621 
 
 Sept. 5-Nov. 10 
 Mar. 10 - Apr. 1 
 
 July 1 
 July 5 
 
 July 15-Aug. 10 
 July 20 -Ai:ig. I5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 Sept. 1 
 
 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 
 
 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 407 
 
 Aug. 15 - Feb. 1 
 
 Feb. 15 - May 15 
 
 July 5 
 July 25 
 
 July 15-Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 5 -Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 Sept.15 
 
 1 , 2 , 3, 8 
 
 Statewide 
 
 California 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 • 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 l, 46 l 
 
 Oct. 15-Apr. 15 
 Mar. 1 - May 1 
 
 l^y 15 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 June 1 -July 15 
 Sept.l-Sept .20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 Sept.30 
 
 4 , 5 , 5 a, 8 
 
 Modoc, Siskiyou 
 
 Alaska 
 
 2.2 
 
 May 1 - June 10 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.25-Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Tanana and Matanuska 
 Valleys 
 
 6 
 
Corn 
 
 Corn IS the leading crop in American agriculture both in terms of value 
 and of acreage grown each year. In 1962, nearly 57 million acres of corn 
 were harvested for grain, producing 3, 637 million bushels. The acreage 
 for gram comprised 86 percent of the corn grown for all purposes. NeLly 
 three-fourths of the corn-for-grain acreage lies in the Corn Belt, with lovra 
 
 Illinois second. Corn-for-grain estimates began in 
 1919. The largest acreage of record, 97 million, was harvested in 1932 
 Acreage gradually declined, except for larger wartime plantings, and wks 
 down to 72 million acres by 1950. The downtrend continued to about 63 mil¬ 
 lion acres in 1957 and 1958 as allotments were in force in commercial 
 coupes for producers desiring price support. With the discontinuance of 
 aliotaents in 1959, acreage returned to the 1950 level of 72 million, but 
 declined with the advent of the Feed Grain Program in 1961. The average 
 yield per acre has trended upward since 1940 with more rapid increases 
 since the mid-1950's, resulting in a new record being established nearly 
 each year since 1955. The 1962 yield was 64. 2 bushels per acre. 
 
 - 7 - 
 
CORN 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 7 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-4 
 
 - 8 - 
 
 
 1 
 
Table 2 .-Com; Usxaal planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 Usml 
 
 planting 
 
 Usml harvesting dates 
 
 : Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 I' ; 
 
 [ 1 Vermont * 1 
 
 I, h-bssachusetts [ 2 
 
 ' I Connecticut 2 
 
 New York . I8I 
 
 , j New Jersey : 78 
 
 ■ I Pennsylvania ] 788 
 
 t Ohio 2,663 
 
 f Indiana J k ,298 
 
 Illinois ; 8,270 
 
 I Michigan . I,l408 
 
 Wisconsin : 1,533 
 
 Minnesota ' 4,575 
 
 Iowa \ 9,776 
 
 : ! Mlssoxirl : 2,982 
 
 1 North Dakota [ I69 
 
 South Dakota . 2,659 
 
 ’ Nebraska : 5,031 
 
 ■ Kansas j 1>298 
 
 Delaware . no 
 
 Maryland : 354 
 
 Virginia • 534 
 
 West Virginia * 7I 
 
 North Carolina! 1,259 
 
 I South Carolina: 487 
 
 Georgia ’ 1,692 
 
 Florida 315 
 
 ■ Kentucky ! I,ll6 
 
 ■' Tennessee : 961 
 
 Alabama \ 1 ,229 
 
 Mississippi 754 
 
 , Arkansas : 207 
 
 Loiiisiana j 222 
 
 Oklahoma .* I23 
 
 5 Texas : 1,052 
 
 » Montana • 4 
 
 11 Idaho i 23 
 
 r Wyoming 8 
 
 I! Colorado : I98 
 
 IT New Mexico : 12 
 
 I Arizona * I5 
 
 » Utah I 3 
 
 I Washington ; 30 
 
 ) Oregon : 20 
 
 » « 
 
 California • 77 
 
 May 20-June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 May 20-June 15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 May 5 -June 20 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Jby 5“ June 10 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 May 5“June 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 fby 5“ June 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 May 5" June 10 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 May 5“June I 5 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 May 10-Jiine 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 ^by 5“June 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Apr.25-Iby 31 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 May 15“June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 May 5“June 1 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 May 5“June 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 10 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Iby 1-June 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Nby 1-June 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 25 
 
 Sept.l 
 
 May 1-June 5 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Apr. 5"June 5 
 
 Sept .5 
 
 Apr. 1-Iby 25 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 ^br. 20 -^by 25 
 
 Sept.l 
 
 Mar. 5“-^r. I 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Apr. 25 -June 20 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Apr.20-June 20 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Apr. 1-June 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Apr. 1-May 3 I 
 
 Sept.l 
 
 Apr.l 0 -^fa,y 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Mar. 1-Apr. 30 
 
 AVLg. 1 
 
 Ibr. 25 “May 10 
 
 Sept.l 
 
 Mar. 5“I^y 10 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 tby 10-June 10 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 ^hy 1 -fby 25 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 ^fay 10-June 15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Apr.20-Nby 20 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Iby 10-June 10 
 
 Sept.1 
 
 May 5“June 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 ^by 5“June ID 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Iby l-July 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct 
 
 . 15 -Oct 
 
 . 25 
 
 Nov 
 
 . 1 
 
 Oct 
 
 . 15 -Oct 
 
 . 25 
 
 Nov 
 
 . 1 
 
 Oct 
 
 . 15 -Oct 
 
 . 25 
 
 Nov 
 
 . 1 
 
 Oct 
 
 . 25 -Nov 
 
 . 15 
 
 Dec 
 
 . 1 
 
 Oct 
 
 . 20-Nov, 
 
 . 5 
 
 Nov, 
 
 . 25 
 
 Oct, 
 
 . 1-Oct, 
 
 . 20 
 
 Nov, 
 
 . 10 
 
 Oct, 
 
 . 15“Nov, 
 
 , 10 
 
 Dec, 
 
 . 1 
 
 Oct, 
 
 . 15 -Nov. 
 
 . 15 
 
 Nov, 
 
 . 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 . 20-Nov, 
 
 . 15 
 
 Dec, 
 
 . 5 
 
 Oct, 
 
 , 20-Nov, 
 
 , 10 
 
 Dec, 
 
 , 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 , 5“0ct. 
 
 ■ 30 
 
 Nov, 
 
 . 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 , 21-Nov, 
 
 9 
 
 Nov. 
 
 ^ 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 -Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20-Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5“Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 Sept 
 
 .20-0ct. 
 
 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Sept 
 
 . 25 -Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5 -N 0 V. 
 
 15 
 
 j£in. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept 
 
 . 15 -Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Sept 
 
 . 1-Sept 
 
 .30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5-N0V. 
 
 5 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15“Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 -Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 , 1-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept, 
 
 ■ 15 -Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 -Sept. 
 
 ,20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 
 
 20-0ct. 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 -Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 -Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 -Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25 -Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 4 , Cayuga 
 Statewide 
 
 5 , 8, 9 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 
 5 , 6 , 7, 8 , 9 
 
 Statewide 
 4 , 5 , 6, 7, 8, 9 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 
 6 , 9 
 
 2 , 3 , 5 , 6, 9 
 
 3 , 5 , 6, 9 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 Statewl de 
 Statewide 
 Statewide 
 
 1 , 3 , 5 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 
 
 4, 5 n, 8 n, 9 
 Statewide 
 
 7 , 8 
 
 1 , 2, 5 
 
 2 , 6, 7 , 9 
 
 1 , 3 , 7 , 9 
 
 2 , 9 
 
 Davis, Utah, Duchesne, 
 Emery, Weber 
 
 2 , 5 
 
 1 , Ifeatilla, Malheur, 
 Josephine 
 
 5 a, Sacramento, Solano, 
 Butte 
 
 9 
 
Cotton 
 
 Cotton is grown in southern areas of the United States, mostly south of 
 the 36 th parallel. Cotton belongs to the mallow family and requires a long, 
 frost-free season. Under tropical conditions, plants continue to grow each 
 year and develop into trees. In the United States, cotton is grown as an 
 annual from seed planted after soils become sufficiently w^rm. However, 
 some cotton in Arizona is grown from surviving stubble of the previous 
 year’s crop and is called "stub cotton. " Planting gets underway in the 
 Lower Valley of Texas the latter part of February and moves north across 
 the Cotton Belt as the season advances. The bulk of the U.S. crop is plant¬ 
 ed during April, but in some late years planting is not completed until 
 around mid-June, especially in the Plains areas of Texas. Although the 
 first bale is ginned in June from the early-planted cotton in the Lower 
 Valley of Texas, the bulk of the U.S. crop is harvested in October and No¬ 
 vember except in the Plains areas of Texas. In that area, strippers are 
 used to harvest the crop after the first freeze with peak ginning during 
 December in most years. Most cotton grown in the United States is Upland 
 cotton with a staple length of 1 inch or longer. Some extra-long-staple 
 cotton (Ameiican-Egyptian), which has a staple of l|- inches or longer, is 
 grown in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. 
 
 - 10 - 
 
COTTON 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 
 Before Mor. 20 
 
 a 
 
 Mar. 20-31 
 
 
 April 1-9 
 
 
 April 10-19 
 
 : 1 
 
 April 20-30 
 
 
 May 1-9 
 
 I- ■ • 
 
 After May 9 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 COTTON 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Before Aug. 10 
 
 2 
 
 Aug. 10-19 
 
 R 
 
 Aug. 20-31 
 
 n 
 
 Sept. 1-9 
 
 r. 
 
 Sept. 1&.19 
 
 
 Sept. 20-30 
 
 Zi 
 
 Oct. 1-9 
 
 
 Oct. 10-19 
 
 E 
 
 After Oct. 19 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 10 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE 
 
 M-6 
 
Table 3.--Cotton: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and princii)al producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 1^2 
 
 harvestad 
 
 
 Usual 
 
 
 Usxial harvesting dates 
 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 . planting 
 
 . dates 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 Most active 
 
 - 
 
 Ends 
 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Illinois 
 
 2 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -May 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 30-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 Alexander, Pulaski 
 
 Missouri 
 
 383 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -May 
 
 20. 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 -Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Virginia 
 
 II+.8 
 
 Apr. 
 
 15-May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec^ 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 h 02 
 
 Apr. 
 
 10 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 25-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6 , 8 , 9 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 575 
 
 Apr. 
 
 10 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5 -Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Georgia 
 
 692 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -May 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 -Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Florida 
 
 20.6 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Aiig. 15 
 
 Aug. 25-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 1 , 3 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 6.5 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 -Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Fulton, Hickman 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 538 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25-Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 1 , 2 and southern part 
 
 3 and 4 
 
 Alabsima 
 
 900 
 
 Apr. 
 
 10 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 1 • 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 1,585 
 
 Apr. 
 
 10 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 20 -Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 1 , 2 , k 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1,355 
 
 Apr. 
 
 25-May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Oct. 1 -Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 565 
 
 Apr. 
 
 10 -May 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 15-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 612 
 
 May 
 
 1 -June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 -Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 Texas 
 
 6,500 
 
 Mar. 
 
 10 -June 
 
 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Sept. 5 -Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 Jan. 
 
 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 201 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -May 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 15-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 3 , 7 , 9 
 
 Arizona 
 
 ^05 
 
 Mar. 
 
 15-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 25-Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 Jan. 
 
 15 
 
 5 , 7 , 9 
 
 Nevada 
 
 3.5 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -Apr. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 25-Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 Nye 
 
 California 
 
 809 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -May 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15-Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Jan. 
 
 15 
 
 Fresno, Kings, Kern, 
 Tulare, Ingperial 
 
 Table 4 .--Flaxseed: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (OOQ) 
 
 1 Usual 
 
 [ planting 
 
 1 dates 
 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and coimties 
 
 Begins 
 
 • • 
 
 J Most active j 
 
 Ends J 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 k 
 
 Apr. 15-May 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 25-July 30 
 
 A\ig. 15 
 
 Ozaxikee, Sheboygan, Pierce 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brown, Bayfield 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 510 
 
 Apr. 20 -June 
 
 5 
 
 Aiog. 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 18-Sept.15 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 1 , 7 
 
 Iowa 
 
 10 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1, 2 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 1,627 
 
 May 1 -June 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15-Sept.15 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 577 
 
 Apr. 20 -June 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 2 , 3 , 6 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 Apr. 15-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 A\ig. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 -Sept .20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 
 
 Texas 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 1 -Dec. 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 May 
 
 15-June 1 
 
 June 10 
 
 8 n, 8 s, lOn 
 
 Montana 
 
 23 
 
 Apr. 20 -June 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 5 -Sept .20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 2 , 3 
 
 California 
 
 32 
 
 Nov. 1 -Jan. 
 
 15 
 
 May 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 15-July 5 
 
 July 20 
 
 In^jerial. 
 
 
 
 Nov. 15-May 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 -Sept.15 
 
 Sept.30 
 
 San Mateo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
Flaxs eed 
 
 Most of the flaxseed produced in the United States is located in three 
 States--North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota. The total acreage har¬ 
 vested in 1962 was 2. 8 million acres, of which more than half was located in 
 North Dakota. Flax in this country and in adjacent parts of Canada is grown 
 primarily for the seed, which yields linseed oil used in the manufacture of 
 paint and other industrial products. Yields vary considerably from year to 
 year mainly because of the fluctuations in weather, particularly rainfall, in 
 the main producing areas. Production in recent years has ranged from 5. 2 
 bushels per acre in 1957 to 11.5 bushels per acre in 1962. 
 
 - 13 - 
 
Hay--Alfalfa 
 
 About 4Z percent of the total acreage of hay crops is alfalfa hay, which 
 includes alfalfa and alfalfa mixtures used for hay and for dehydrating. 
 Alfalfa is common in all areas of the United States except the Southeast, 
 where the humid climate and sandy soils are not favorable for production. 
 Soils with adequate lime are the most favorable for growing alfalfa. In 
 most areas, the crop is harvested two or three times a year, and yields 
 range from 2 to 3 tons per acre. Annual yields are particularly high in the 
 Southwest because of the long growing season and the common use of irri¬ 
 gation water. In 1962, the California yield was 5. 2 tons and the Arizona 
 yield was 4. 8 tons per acre. Four States cut more than 2 million acres in 
 1962 -- Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and South Dakota. 
 
Table 5.—Hay, 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Maine 
 
 9 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 13 
 
 — 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 Vermont 
 
 116 
 
 — 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 3h 
 
 -r- 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 June 5 
 
 ... 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 40 
 
 — 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 New York 
 
 1,052 
 
 — 
 
 June 1 
 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 89 
 
 — 
 
 May 25 
 
 _ 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 771 
 
 — 
 
 May 20 
 
 ... 
 
 Ohio 
 
 792 
 
 — 
 
 June 1 
 
 — 
 
 Indiana 
 
 563 
 
 — 
 
 May 25 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1,070 
 
 — 
 
 May 30 
 
 ... 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1,235 
 
 — 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 2,929 
 
 — 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 2,457 
 
 — 
 
 June 20 
 
 ... 
 
 Iowa 
 
 2,232 
 
 — 
 
 May 30 
 
 ... 
 
 Missouri 
 
 651 
 
 — 
 
 June 15 
 
 . .. 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 1,400 
 
 --- 
 
 June 20 
 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 2,092 
 
 -- 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 1,831 
 
 — 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 1,201 
 
 — 
 
 May 15 
 
 ... 
 
 Delaware 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 May 25 
 
 ___ 
 
 Maryland 
 
 92 
 
 
 May 20 
 
 — 
 
 Virginia 
 
 250 
 
 — 
 
 May 1 
 
 ... 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 127 
 
 — 
 
 May 25 
 
 .. . 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 39 
 
 — 
 
 May 25 
 
 ... 
 
 Georgia 
 
 16 
 
 — 
 
 May 1 
 
 ___ 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 330 
 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 177 
 
 — 
 
 May 1 
 
 ___ 
 
 Alabama 
 
 16 
 
 — 
 
 May 1 
 
 ... 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 9 
 
 — 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 May 15 
 
 ... 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 16 
 
 — 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 ... 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 4 i 8 
 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 155 
 
 — 
 
 May 1 
 
 ... 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,017 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Idaho 
 
 959 
 
 .... 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 468 
 
 . 
 
 Jime 10 
 
 
 Colorado 
 
 845 
 
 — 
 
 June 10 
 
 ... 
 
 Ne;;^ Mexico 
 
 156 
 
 «... 
 
 May 1 
 
 
 Arizona 
 
 210 
 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 443 
 
 ... 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 Nevada 
 
 122 
 
 — 
 
 May 15 
 
 — 
 
 Washington • 
 
 427 
 
 ... 
 
 June 1 
 
 
 Oregon 
 
 360 
 
 ... 
 
 May 5 
 
 — 
 
 California : 
 
 1,156 
 
 — 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 — 
 
 Sept 10 Statewide 
 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 Sept 10 Statewide 
 Sept. 15 Statewide 
 Sept. 15 Statewide 
 Sept. 15 statewide 
 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 Sept 20 Statewide 
 Oct. 1 Statewide 
 
 Sept. 25 Statewide 
 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 Sept. 5 Statewide 
 Sept. 1 Statewide 
 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 Aug. 30 Statewide 
 , Sept.10 Statewide 
 Sept 15 Statewide 
 Sept. 25 Statewide 
 Sept. 20 Statewide 
 Sept 30 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 
 Oct. 15 Statewide 
 Sept 25 Statewide 
 Sept 25 Statewide 
 Oct. 20 2, k, 7 
 Sept 10 Statewide 
 Sept 30 1, 2, 14-, 5, 8 
 Sept. 15 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 
 Sept.15 2, 3, 4, 5 
 Oct. 1 4, 5, 6 
 Sept 15 1, 2, 2a, 3, 4, 5, 6 
 Sept. 30 1, 3, 4, 6 
 Sept. 15 Statewide 
 Oct. 15 1 
 
 Oct . 20 Statewide 
 Sept. 30 In, 2n, 4, 6, 9 
 
 Sept 20 Statewide 
 Oct. 15 Statewide 
 Sept. 5 1, 2, 3, 5 
 Sept 25 Statewide 
 
 Oct. 20 1, 3, 7, 9 
 
 Dec. 1 5, 7 
 
 Oct. 25 Statewide 
 Oct. 1 Churchill, I^on, 
 
 Pershing, Dotigla^ Elko 
 Sept 15 Statewide 
 
 Sept 15 Statewide 
 Nov. 5 ^a. Imperial 
 
 15 
 
Hay»-Clover and Timothy 
 
 The major producing areas for clover and timothy hay are in the North 
 Central and Northeastern States. In 1962, the North Central States har¬ 
 vested 7. 2 million acres and the Northeastern States harvested 3, 8 million 
 acres of clover and timothy or clover mixtures of hay. More than three- 
 fourths of the Nation's total clover and timothy acreage was located in 
 these two regions. 
 
 The clover and timothy hay crop was formerly much more important than 
 it is today. In 1909, nearly 37 million acres of clover and timothy were 
 cut, compared with 4. 7 million acres of alfalfa hay. In 1962, only 14.4 mil¬ 
 lion acres of clover and timothy hay were cut, compared with 28. 4 million 
 acres of alfalfa. Part of the decline in the acreage of clover and timothy 
 is associated with the decrease in number of horses used as draft animals. 
 
 CLOVER OR TIMOTHY CUT FOR HAY ‘ 
 
 __ ACREAGE, 1959 
 
 1 DOT-5,000 ACRES 
 
 *Nof nporfed separately 
 and South Carolina. 
 
 for Alaska, Ariiona, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, 
 
 MAP NO A59-1E60 
 ‘ 'us. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERC 
 BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
 
 Figure 13 
 
Table 6.--Hay, Clover-Timothy: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 i9S2 r 
 
 harvested : 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 1 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 1 Begins 
 
 Most active 
 
 i Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Maine 
 
 33 *^ 
 
 — • 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 ... 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 107 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Vermont 
 
 383 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 State'i/lde 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 131 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 11 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 90 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 New York 
 
 1,508 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 1,171 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Sept.25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1 , 0^3 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Indiana 
 
 629 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Illinois 
 
 855 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 30 
 
 — 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Michigan 
 
 k 66 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 901 
 
 — 
 
 June 15 
 
 — 
 
 Sept.10 . 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 532 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Iowa 
 
 1,231 
 
 — 
 
 Jvine 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Missouri 
 
 1,396 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 75 
 
 — 
 
 June 20 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 Kansas 
 
 104 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 Delaware 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Maryland 
 
 212 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Virginia 
 
 463 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 3^1 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 152 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1 , 2, 4 , 5 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 466 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 235 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 June 20 
 
 3 , 5 , 6 
 
 Alabama 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 58 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 July 31 
 
 5 , 7 , 8 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 92 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Montana 
 
 270 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 25 
 
 — 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Idaho 
 
 118 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 130 
 
 — 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 2, 3 , 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 222 
 
 — 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 1 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Avig. 15 
 
 1 , 3 
 
 Utah 
 
 ^3 
 
 — 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 31 
 
 6 
 
 Nevada 
 
 46 
 
 “ " " 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Elko, Washoe, Dovigla 
 Humbolt 
 
 Washington 
 
 229 
 
 — 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 — 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oregon 
 
 184 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 7 
 
 ^ska 
 
 5.1 
 
 — 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 — 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Tanana, Matanuska 
 Valleys 
 
 764-744 O- 
 
 - 65—3 
 
 
 
 17 - 
 
 
 
 
Oats 
 
 Oats, the second major small grain produced in the United States is 
 most important as a feed for livestock. In 1962, almost 23 million acres 
 were harvested, producing over 1 billion bushels of grain. Minnesota and 
 Iowa are the leading producing States; but the crop is also grown extensively 
 throughout the Corn Belt, Great Lakes States, and the Northern Plains. 
 Acreage has shown a consistent decline in recent years, from 40 million 
 acres harvested in 1954 to less than 23 million in 1962. Relatively few oats 
 are produced in the southern and western parts of the United States. 
 
 OATS HARVESTED 
 
 Figure 14 
 
 1 DOT-10,000 ACRES 
 
 MAP NO A59 1E2J 
 
 US. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 
 BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
 
 - 18 - 
 
OATS 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 15 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-7 
 
 OATS FOR GRAIN 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 16 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-8 
 
 19 
 
Table 7.--Oats: Usual planting auad harvesting dates by States and principal producing eureas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 ; Usual 
 . planting 
 . dates 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 Harvest dates 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 . Most active 
 
 . Ends 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas sind counties 
 
 Maine 
 
 49 
 
 May 10-June 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 5-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Aroostook, 
 
 Penobscot 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Ik 
 
 Apr.25-June 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 A\;ig. 
 
 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 New York 
 
 569 
 
 Apr. 20-^y 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fk] 1 sown 
 
 18 
 
 Sej^i 20-0ct. 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 5, 8 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Mar.15-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20-Aug. 10 
 
 kv^, 20 
 
 2 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall sown 
 
 601 
 
 Sei*. 1-iSept .20 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 20-Atjg. 1 
 
 A\;ig. 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Apr.l0*41ay 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 statewide 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 833 
 
 Apr. 1-May 
 
 5 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 20-Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PeJ. 1 sown 
 
 605 
 
 Sept.1-Sept.30 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 5 
 
 July 10 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 
 ^rlng sown 
 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 10-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1,503 
 
 Mar.25-Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 July 
 
 15-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1, 3, 4, 5, 
 
 6 
 
 Michigan 
 
 754 
 
 Apr.10-May 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 25-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 2,229 
 
 Apr.l0-4fey 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 3,026 
 
 Apr.15-May 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 
 
 2-Aug. 16 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Iowa 
 
 2,947 
 
 Apr. l^lay 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall sown 
 
 316 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 
 
 30 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 Jtme 
 
 10-June 20 
 
 June 25 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Mar. 1-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 20-July 10 
 
 J\ily 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 1,950 
 
 Apr.15-June 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 2,590 
 
 Apr. 
 
 5 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 25-A\ag. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 971 
 
 Apr. 5"May 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 15-Aug. 1 
 
 A\ig. 15 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 351 
 
 Peb.l5-May 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Delaware 
 
 6 
 
 Sept20-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall sown 
 
 50 
 
 Seit.20-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 10 
 
 July 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Mar. 20-May 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 5-July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall sown 
 
 81 
 
 Sept.l-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 10-July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Peb. 1-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 1-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 2, 4, 7, 8 
 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 24 
 
 Apr.10-May 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 217 
 
 Seife20-0ct. 
 
 30 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 10-June 25 
 
 JxiLy 5 
 
 2, 5, 8, 9 
 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall sown 
 
 199 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 May 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 25-June 15 
 
 Jinae 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Jan.l5-MEu:. 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 Jhne 
 
 10-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fbll sown 
 
 139 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 May 
 
 10 
 
 May 
 
 25-June 10 
 
 June 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Jan.15-Mar. 
 
 1 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 5-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 - 20 - 
 
T&ble 7 •““Oats; Usual planting and harvesting dates by States amd principal producing areas--Con. 
 
 state 
 
 I 9 S 2 
 
 harvested 
 
 [ Usual 
 
 ’ planting 
 
 1 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 1 Begins 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 * Ends 
 
 Florida 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 15 -Nov. 1 
 
 Apr. 20 
 
 May 1-May 10 
 
 May 30 
 
 1, 3, 5 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 43 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept .30 
 Mar. 1 -Apr. I 5 
 
 June 15 
 June 25 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 July 1-July 15 
 
 July 15 
 July 25 
 
 1 . 2 , 3 
 
 3, 5, 6 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 85 
 
 Sept.l- Nov. 1 
 Mar. 15 “Apr. I 5 
 
 June 1 June 10-Jvine 30 
 
 Mostly for hay 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 4, 5, 6 
 
 Alabama 
 
 83 
 
 Sept.l- Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 132 
 
 Sept. 25 “Nov. 5 
 Feb. 15 -Mar. I 5 
 
 May 20 
 June 1 
 
 June 1-June 10 
 June 10-June 20 
 
 June 20 
 June 30 
 
 1, 4 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 106 
 
 Sept. 15 -Nov. 15 
 Feb. 15 -Mar. I 5 
 
 June 1 
 June 10 
 
 June 5“June 20 
 June 15“July 1 
 
 June 30 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 38 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 30 
 
 May 10 
 
 May 20-June 10 
 
 June 15 
 
 1. 3, 5, 6, 7 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 319 
 
 Sept.10 - Nov. 10 
 Jan. 25 “ Mar. I 5 
 
 June 1 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 22 
 June 10-June 22 
 
 July 5 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Texas 
 
 741 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 25 
 
 May 10 
 
 May 20-June I 5 
 
 June 25 
 
 2s, 3. 4, 7, 8n 
 
 Montana 
 
 263 
 
 Apr. 5 ~ June 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Idaho 
 
 l4l 
 
 Mar. 25 “ May 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 94 
 
 Apr. 5 - May 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 101 
 
 Jfar. 15 “Apr. 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 9 
 
 Sept.l - Oct. 15 
 Feb. 15 - Apr. I 5 
 
 June 15 
 July 1 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 July 5“July 25 
 
 July 15 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1, 3, 9 
 
 1, 3, 9 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 7 
 
 Oct. 1 - Nov. 20 
 Mar. 15 “Apr. 30 
 
 May 5 
 Aug. 1 
 
 May 25 -June 15 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 5 
 
 June 20 
 Sept. 15 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Utah 
 
 26 
 
 I'fer. 20 - May 10 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 A-ug. 15 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Box Elder, Cache, 
 Duchesne, Sanpete, 
 Uintah, Utah, Weber 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Washington 
 
 3 
 
 105 
 
 Apr. 20 “ May 10 
 
 Mar. 10 “Apr. 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Douglas, Humbolt, 
 Lyon, Nye 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 169 
 
 Oct. 5 - Feb. 15 
 Feb. 15 -Apr. I 5 
 
 July 10 
 Aug. 10 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 15 
 Aug. 20 -Sept. 1 
 
 Aug. 31 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 California i 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 153 
 
 Nov. 1 _ Mar. 1 
 
 Mar. 15“ May 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 July 15 -July 30 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Sonoma, Butte, Sutter 
 Solano, Sacramento 
 Modoc, Siskiyou 
 
 Alaska 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 25“ July 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 -Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Tanana & Matanuska 
 Valleys 
 
 21 - 
 
Peanuts For Nuts 
 
 Production of peanuts is confined mostly to Southern States, There are 
 three main producing areas -- the Virginia-Carolina area, where large 
 seeded bunch and runner types predominate; the Southeast, where the crop 
 is mainly small seeded runners and Spanish types; and the Southwest, where 
 the acreage is almost exclusively planted to Spanish types. Some acreage 
 of Valencias--a roasting type--is planted in New Mexico. The leading 
 producing States in order of importance in 1962 were Georgia, North Caro¬ 
 lina, Virginia, Texas, Alabama, and Oklahoma, The acreage harvested 
 for nuts has been fairly stable in recent years. 
 
 22 - 
 
Table 8.—Peanuts for Nuts: Usual planting eind harvesting dates by States emd principal producing areas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 j Usual i 
 
 , planting 
 
 ! dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 • « 
 
 Begins Most active .* Ends 
 
 •.Principal producing 
 : areas and comities 
 
 Virginia 
 
 io4 
 
 May 5 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct.l-JJov. 25 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 176 
 
 May 1-Jime 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct.l-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 15-May 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept.l5-0Gt.l 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Sumter, Lee, Florence, 
 Hampton, Barnwell, Aiken 
 
 Georgia 
 
 472 
 
 Apr.10-May 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug.15-Sept.15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8 
 
 Florida 
 
 48 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr.30 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept.1-Oct.15 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Jackson, Santa Rosa, 
 Holmes, Calhoun, Levy, 
 Marlon 
 
 Alabama 
 
 195 
 
 Apr.15-May 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept.l5-0ct.5 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 9, Covington, Crenshaw 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 5 
 
 Apr. 15-May 25 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept.5-Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 19 
 
 5, 6, 7, 9 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 115 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 0ct.5-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 Texas 
 
 287 
 
 Apr. l-Aug. 1 
 
 Ju3y 15 
 
 Sept.1-Nov.15 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 3, 4, 8n, lOn 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 7.5 
 
 May lO-Jime 1 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct.lO-Oct.25 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 Roosevelt 
 
 Table ^ . —Rice: Usxaal planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Usual j 
 , planting , 
 j dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Begins ' Most active j Ends 
 
 I • 
 
 :Principal producing 
 : areas and counties 
 
 Missouri 
 
 4.6 
 
 May 1-May 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 5-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Marlon, St. Charles, 
 Lincoln, Lewis, Scott, 
 Stoddard, Pemiscot, 
 Butler, New Madrid, 
 Dunklin, Ripley 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 49 
 
 Apr.l5-I'5ay 31 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1, ^ 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 426 
 
 Apr.20-May 25 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 508 
 
 Apr. 10-May 31 
 
 A\ig.l0 
 
 Sept.1-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 3, 5, 7, 8 
 
 Texas 
 
 462 
 
 Mar.25-June 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 Aug.10-Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 9 
 
 California 
 
 323 
 
 Apr. 1-June 1 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Oct.lO-Oct. 
 
 30 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 5, Fresno 
 
 I- 
 
 23 
 
Rice 
 
 Successful rice culture is dependent upon high temperatures during the 
 growing season, a dependable fresh water supply for the irrigation period, 
 soils that are comparatively level and underlain with impervious subsoil, anc 
 good drainage. Areas which meet these requirements are the Coastal 
 Prairie region of southwestern Louisiana and southeastern Texas, eastern 
 Arkansas and northwest Mississippi, and the central valleys of California 
 (particularly the Sacramento Valley). Production in the United States is 
 confined mainly to these three regions. 
 
 The acreage of rice harvested in 1962 totaled 1. 8 million acres, the lar¬ 
 gest since 1955. The peak year came in 1954, when 2. 6 million acres were 
 harvested. The average yield per acre has increased sharply in recent 
 years, averaging 3, 726 pounds per acre in 1962 and pushing production to a 
 record level. The average yield for the previous 5 years was 3, 317 pounds 
 per acre. 
 
 RICE HARVESTED- 
 
 ACREAGE, 1959 
 
 1 DOT-2,000 ACRES 
 
 Figure 1 8 
 
 
 
 y MAP NO A59IE33 
 
 ' US. DEPARTMENT OF COMMf 
 BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
 
 *Dofo available only ' for principal Slates (California, Texas, Louisiana, 
 Arkansas, and Mississippi). 
 
 24 - 
 
Rye 
 
 Rye was harvested from 2. 0 million acres in 1962, the largest since 
 955, However, this was well below the peak in 1919, when 7. 2 million 
 cres were harvested. It should be noted that a large acreage of rye, in 
 ddition to the acreage harvested for grain, is used as a winter cover crop, 
 ’his often serves as pasture and then is turned under as a green manure 
 rop. In 1962, only 41 percent of the acres planted were harvested for grain. 
 
 Rye is usually planted in the fall and harvested during the late spring and 
 arly summer months. Most of the rye is produced in the Northern and the 
 Central Plains. Four States--North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and 
 Iansas--had 61 percent of the 1962 harvested acreage. Only minor acreages 
 f rye are grown in the eastern and southern parts of the United States. 
 
 764-744 0-65—4 
 
 - 25 - 
 
RYE 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 
 0. 
 
 
 
 Before Sept. 1 
 After Sept. 1 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 20 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-9 
 
 RYE FOR GRAIN 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 21 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-10 
 
 I 
 
 -I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 26 
 
Table 10.—l^e: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 : 
 
 harvested; 
 
 Usual * 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage : 
 (OOO) : 
 
 dates * 
 
 • 
 
 Begins * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Most active * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Ends \ 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 New York 
 
 19 
 
 Aug. 20-0ct. 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 4, 9a 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2 , 5, 8 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 18 
 
 Sept.l5-0ct. 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Ohio 
 
 31 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 20 
 
 J\ine 25 
 
 July 5-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Indiana 
 
 53 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Illinois 
 
 55 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept.20 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 5 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Michigan 
 
 42 
 
 Aug. 15 -Oct. 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 23 
 
 Sept. 5-Oct. 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Portage, Dunn, 
 Waiishara, Marquette, 
 Adams 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 86 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept .25 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 27 -Aug. 8 
 
 Avig. 15 
 
 1, 5, 6 
 
 Iowa 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept.20 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 5-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Missouri 
 
 30 
 
 Avig. 15 -Sept. 30 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 June 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 539 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept.20 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 261 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6 , 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 225 
 
 Aug. 15 -Sept.20 
 
 Jiuae 25 
 
 July 1-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1. 2 , 3, 7 
 
 Kansas 
 
 189 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Delaware 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.25-Nov. 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Maryland 
 
 18 
 
 Sept.25-Nov. 15 
 
 Jvuae 20 
 
 Jvme 25 -July 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Virginia 
 
 19 
 
 Sept. 1-Dec. 1 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 15 -July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 6 , 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 16 
 
 Aug. 20-Nov. 15 
 
 J\ane 5 
 
 June 15 -July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 2 , 5 , 8, 9 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 16 
 
 Sept. 1-Dec. 5 
 
 May 25 
 
 Jime 1-J\ine 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Chesterfield, Orange¬ 
 burg, Aiken, Bamberg 
 Hampton, Barnwell 
 
 Georgia 
 
 24 
 
 Sept.l5-Nov. 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1-June I 5 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 25 -July 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 9 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 3, 4, 5 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 58 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-J\ine 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 Texas 
 
 23 
 
 Sept. 1-Nov. 20 
 
 May 10 
 
 June 1-June 15 
 
 June 25 
 
 In, Is, 2n, 2s 
 
 Montana 
 
 37 
 
 Aug. 20-0ct. 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Idaho 
 
 8 
 
 Sept. 15 -Sept .30 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 7 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept .30 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 30 -Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 48 
 
 Aug. 25 -Oct. 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2, 6, 9 
 
 Washington 
 
 81 
 
 Aug. 10-Nov. 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 20-Aiag. I 5 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Oregon 
 
 17 
 
 Sept. 1-Feb. 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15^ug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 27 
 
Sorghum 
 
 Sorghum is well adapted to heat and is tolerant to limited moisture con¬ 
 ditions. For this reason, most grain sorghums are grown in the Southern 
 Plains States. Of the 11. 5 million acres harvested for grain in 1962, 
 
 84 percent was in Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska. Acreage fluctuated con¬ 
 siderably from year to year but trended upward to a maximum of nearly 
 27 million acres planted in 1957. The Feed Grain Program effective in 
 1961 sharply reduced the acreage. With the introduction of hybrid seed in 
 1956 sorghum yields surged upwards and by 1962 had doubled the prehybrid 
 yield level. Sorghum grain is used primarily as a livestock feed. 
 
 - 28 - 
 
SORGHUM 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SORGHUM FOR GRAIN 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 24 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-12 
 
 - 29 - 
 
Table 11.—Sor^iim: Usml planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 
 Begins | 
 
 Most active 
 
 • Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Indiana 
 
 11 
 
 May 5“June 
 
 5 
 
 Sept.25 
 
 Sept.30-0ct. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Illinois 
 
 6 
 
 May 10-Jime 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 4a, 6a, 7 
 
 Iowa 
 
 12 
 
 May 10-June 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Missouri 
 
 177 
 
 May 15“June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Sept. 25 “Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 115 
 
 May 20-June 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 5 , 6 , 8 , 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 1,5'40 
 
 May 15“Jxine 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Kansas 
 
 2,960 
 
 May 10-July 
 
 1 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Virginia 
 
 7 
 
 May 10-July 
 
 1 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 48 
 
 May 1-July 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 5“Sept.30 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 5, 8 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 6 
 
 June 1-Jan. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Sept.25-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Newberry, Anderson, 
 Saluda, Chester, Spar- 
 tanbixrg, Greenville 
 
 Georgia 
 
 10 
 
 May 1-Jvily 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 25“Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 10 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15“Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 20 
 
 Jione 1-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 
 
 Alabama 
 
 10 
 
 Jvine l-July 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 5"Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 6 
 
 May l-Jinie 
 
 30 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 1, ^ 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 12 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 4 
 
 May 15“June 
 
 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 3, 7 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 658 
 
 Apr.25“June 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept.20-Nov. 5 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tejffiis 
 
 5,154 
 
 Mar.10-July 
 
 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 25“Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Colorado 
 
 278 
 
 May 10-Jme 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 6, 9 
 
 New lexica 
 
 188 
 
 May 10-July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 3 / 7 , 9 
 
 Arizona, early 
 late 
 
 98 
 
 May 1-July 
 
 1 
 
 July 15 
 Oct. 1 
 
 July 20-Ai:ig* 5 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 25 
 
 Aug. 10 
 Dec. 15 
 
 5, 7, 9 
 
 California 
 
 -■ 1 ■ ■ ■ ■ 1 ■ 
 
 206 
 
 May 1-Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 5, 5a, Iir^jerial 
 
 30 
 
Soybeans 
 
 Soybean production has been increasing at a phenomenal rate in the 
 dnited States, more than doubling during the past decade. Soybeans are 
 yrown primarily for beans which are processed for oil and meal, although 
 1 small acreage is grown as a forage or green manure crop in some areas. 
 The main soybean-producing area is in the North Central States, although 
 he South Central and South Atlantic States are becoming increasingly im- 
 Dortant producers. Illinois is the leading State followed by Iowa. These 
 rwo States accounted for nearly two-fifths of the U. S. total production in 
 L962. Other top-ranking States include Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, 
 Vlinnesota, and Ohio. 
 
 SOYBEANS GROWN FOR ALL PURPOSES* 
 
 1 DOT-5,000 ACRES 
 
 MAP NO A59.)E4I 
 
 U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 
 
 
 •Grown alone and with 
 
 - 31 - 
 
SOYBEANS 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 26 
 
 STATIS.TICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-13 
 
 32 
 
Table 12.--Soybeans: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 
 Begins | 
 
 Most active 
 
 ' Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 New York 
 
 k 
 
 Jvtne 
 
 1-J\uie 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 11 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Seneca 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 42 
 
 liay 
 
 25-July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 5, 8 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 9 
 
 May 
 
 15-July 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 9, Northac^rton, 
 Northumberland, 
 
 Montour 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1,791 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 
 
 Indiana 
 
 2,708 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Sept.20-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Illinois 
 
 5,575 
 
 I-iay 
 
 10-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Sept.25-Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Michigan 
 
 351 
 
 May 
 
 20-Jxme 
 
 20 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Viisconsin 
 
 101 
 
 May 
 
 20-Jiily 
 
 1 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Dunn, Trempealeau, Pepin 
 Eau Claire, Racine, Wal¬ 
 worth, Kenosha 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 2,201 
 
 May 
 
 15-June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 7-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 
 
 Iowa 
 
 3,405 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Stateirtde 
 
 Missouri 
 
 2,732 
 
 Apr. 
 
 25-Jxme 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept 
 
 .lO-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 67 
 
 May 
 
 2 5-June 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Cass, Richland, 
 
 Traill 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 121 
 
 14ay 
 
 15-June 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10-Oct. 20 
 
 WIov. 1 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 310 
 
 May 
 
 15-June 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 Kansas 
 
 914 
 
 ^fey 
 
 10-July 
 
 1 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 Delaware 
 
 217 
 
 May 
 
 15-July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 statewide 
 
 hfaryland 
 
 280 
 
 Ivfay 
 
 15-Jul7 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 2, 8, 9 
 
 Virginia 
 
 389 
 
 Why 
 
 l-July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 -Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 5, 6, 9 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 558 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 640 
 
 Why 
 
 l-Jxily 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Orangeburg, Calhoun, Dar 
 lington, Lee, Allendale, 
 Sumter 
 
 Georgia 
 
 80 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20-June 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 -Nov. 25 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 statewide 
 
 Florida 
 
 39 
 
 May 
 
 15-June 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Calhoun, Dade, Escambia, 
 Okaloosa, Santa Rosa 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 219 
 
 I4ay 
 
 10-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 1, 2 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 463 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 -Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 1, 2 
 
 Alabama 
 
 149 
 
 June 
 
 1-July 
 
 20 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Baldwin, Escambia, 
 Mobile, Jackson, 
 
 Madison 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 1,107 
 
 May 
 
 1-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 1, 4 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 2,682 
 
 May 
 
 1-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 loulslana 
 
 219 
 
 May 
 
 1-June 
 
 25 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 3, 5 
 
 Clclahoma 
 
 171 
 
 May 
 
 10-Jvine 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Sept 
 
 . 15 -Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 3 , 6, 8, 9 
 
 Texas 
 
 6o 
 
 Jun 
 
 5-July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1-Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 25 
 
 In, Is, 5n 
 
 764-744 0-65—5 
 
 33 
 
Sugar Beets 
 
 Sugar beets are grown in the North Central and Western areas of the United 
 States. Most of the acreage is grown under irrigation in the Mountain and 
 Pacific States, although considerable acreage is grown in the more humid 
 areas of the North Central States. For successful production, the sugar beel 
 crop requires plentiful and well-distributed moisture and extended moderately 
 cool weather during the growing season. Acreage has increased sharply in 
 recent years, and in 1 962 growers harvested 1.1 million acres, one-sixth 
 more than average. California is the leading State in sugar beet production 
 followed in order by Colorado and Idaho. Most beets are seeded from March 
 to May and harvested from September to December, with harvest reaching 
 the peak in October. California is the only State planting some acreage in 
 the fall for harvest the following spring. 
 
 - 34 - 
 
Table 13.—Sugar Beets: 
 
 Usual planting and 
 
 har\'e sting 
 
 dates by 
 
 States and principal producing areas 
 
 State 
 
 1902 ; 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 :Principal producing 
 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 ■ Most 
 
 active " 
 
 Ends 
 
 • areas and counties 
 
 Ohio 
 
 25.0 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15-IIov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 1, 2, 4 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 Mar. 30-Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 lO-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 Cook 
 
 liichigan 
 
 66.2 
 
 Apr. 15-Jime 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 5, 6 , 9 
 
 liinnesota 
 
 106.9 
 
 Apr. 25-May 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 9 -Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1 ; 5 , 8 
 
 Icrt/a 
 
 
 May 1 -May 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25-oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 2, 4 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 53.9 
 
 May 15-June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 lO-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Pembina, Walsh, 
 Grand Forks, 
 
 Cass, Traill, 
 Richland, 
 Williams, 
 McKenzie 
 
 South DaJcota 
 
 10.2 
 
 Apr. 20 -May 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 20-0ct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 1 , 5 , 9 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 72 .7 
 
 Apr. 1 -Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25-Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 1 , 5 , 7 , 8 
 
 Kansas 
 
 li;-.0 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1 , 7 
 
 Montsuna 
 
 63.^^ 
 
 Apr. 5 “May 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5 -Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Idaho 
 
 127.1 
 
 Mar. 20 -May 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 7 , 8, 9 ' 
 
 Uyoning 
 
 i^ 8.7 
 
 Apr. 5 "May 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 
 
 lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 1 , 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 170.7 
 
 Mar. 15-Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10 -Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 2 , 9 
 
 Ifew Ifexico 
 
 
 Feb. 1 -Mar. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 10 -Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 Ciurry, Torrance, 
 Santa Fe 
 
 Utah 
 
 24.0 
 
 Mar. 20 -May 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 -Hov. 10 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 Box Elder, Cache, 
 Salt Lake, Weber 
 Sevier, Utah 
 
 Washington 
 
 55.5 
 
 Mar. 1 -Mar. 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 2 , 5 , 9 
 
 Oregon 
 
 19.6 
 
 Mar. 10 -Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Umatilla, 
 
 Malheur 
 
 California 
 
 Fall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 planting 
 
 238.9 
 
 Sept. 1 -Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 May 
 
 10 -June 30 
 
 July 15 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Spring 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Monterey, Yolo, 
 Solano, San 
 Joaquin, 
 Sacramento 
 
 planting ^ 
 
 
 Nov. 15-June 
 
 1 
 
 July 1 
 Mar. 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -Nov. 10 
 1 -Apr. 20 
 
 Dec. 10 
 May 31 
 
 ^ Some spring planted sugan beets are usually loft in the ground over winter and harvested the 
 following spring. 
 
 35 
 
Tobacco 
 
 Tobacco production in the United States is generally confined to areas 
 east of the Mississippi River--the principal exception being the Weston area 
 of Missouri. Six major classes are grown--flue-cured, fire-cured, air- 
 cured (light and dark), cigar filler, cigar binder, and cigar wrapper. Pro¬ 
 duction is estimated for 18 States of which 6--North Carolina, Kentucky, Sou 
 Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia--produce about nine-tenths of 
 the total poundage. Although grown at various latitudes, the crop has little 
 tolerance to frost and freezing temperatures. Tobacco seeds are usually 
 sown during the winter and early spring in protected beds from which seed- 
 lings are pulled and transplanted in the spring. Harvesting operations are 
 conducted mostly during summer and early fall, and completion dates are 
 governed largely by latitude, elevation, seasonal conditions, and the nature 
 of the particular type produced in a given belt. The flue-cured and cigar 
 wrapper types are harvested by priming (picking the leaves as they ripen) 
 whereas other types are for the most part stalk cut. 
 
 - 36 - 
 
Table 14.—Tobacco: Usual planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areais 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Begins 
 
 Usual harvesting dates ] 
 
 • • . 
 
 ^ Most active | Ends \ 
 
 • • • 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Nassachusetts 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 52 
 
 0.9 
 
 May 25 -June 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Franklin, 
 
 " 6 l 
 
 2.1 
 
 May 20-June 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Ai;g. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Hangpden & Hampshire 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 51 
 
 1.5 
 
 May 25 -June 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Ai;ig. lO^ug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Hartford and 
 
 " 52 
 
 .2 
 
 May 25 -June 20 
 
 A\ig. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 " 61 
 
 5.8 
 
 May 20-June 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 Ai;ig. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Tolland 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 4l 
 
 31 
 
 May 25 -July 1 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Lancaster, Lebanon, 
 
 York, Berks, Chester 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 31 
 
 10.6 
 
 May 20-June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 8 , Hamilton, Clermont 
 
 " 42-44 
 
 4.2 
 
 May 25 -June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Darke, Miami, Mont¬ 
 gomery, Preble, Warren 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 31 
 
 7.9 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 8 , 9) Spencer 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ty^e 54 
 
 4.9 
 
 Meiy 25 -June 15 
 
 Avig. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Dane, Rock, Colvunbia 
 
 " 55 
 
 7.2 
 
 J\ine 1-June 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Vernon, Crawford, 
 
 Monroe, Richland, 
 
 La Crosse 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 31 
 
 Maryland 
 
 3.2 
 
 May 1-May 31 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Platte, Buchanan 
 
 TjTpe 32 
 
 41.5 
 
 May 25 -July 1 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 8 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 11 
 
 73.5 
 
 May 5-J'^e 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 A\ig. 10-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 8 , 9 
 
 " 21 
 
 7.6 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Avig. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 5 , 8 
 
 " 31 
 
 12.1 
 
 rfay 15 -June 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 7 
 
 " 37 
 
 2.2 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 A\;ig. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 5 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 31 
 
 2.8 
 
 ^teLy 25 -June 25 
 
 Aiig. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 25 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Cabell, Lincoln, Mason, 
 Putnam 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 11 
 
 191 
 
 May 1-June 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 2, 5 
 
 " 12 
 
 234 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 15 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 3 , 6 
 
 " 13 
 
 58 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 9 
 
 " 31 
 
 11 
 
 May 15 -June 10 
 
 Avig. 1 
 
 Aiig. 10-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 , 4 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 13 
 
 84 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5-Avig. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 3, Clarendon 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type l4 
 
 74 
 
 >far. 20-Apr. 25 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 " 62 
 
 1.3 
 
 Mar. 20^pr. 25 
 
 J\ine 20 
 
 June 25 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Grady, Decatur 
 
 Florida 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type l4 
 
 14.8 
 
 Mar. 10-Apr. 10 
 
 June 1 
 
 Jxme 10-June 25 
 
 July 15 
 
 3 
 
 " 62 
 
 4.0 
 
 Mar. 5-Mar. 25 
 
 May 25 
 
 Jiine 1-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Gadsden 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 22 
 
 6.5 
 
 May 20-June 15 
 
 A\ig. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 2 
 
 " 23 
 
 6.6 
 
 May 20-June 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 
 
 " 31 
 
 224 
 
 May 20-June 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 " 35 
 
 7.1 
 
 May 20-June I 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 , 2 
 
 " 36 
 
 4.7 
 
 May 25 -June 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Septi 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 2 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 22 
 
 14 
 
 May 10-June I 5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Cheatham, Dickson, 
 Montgomery, Robert¬ 
 son, Stewart 
 
 " 23 
 
 1.4 
 
 May 10-June I 5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Henry and Weakley 
 
 " 31 
 
 67 
 
 May 10-June I 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 3, 4, 5 , 6 
 
 n 35 
 
 2.1 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Macon, Robertson, Sumner 
 & Weakley 
 
 Alabama 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 14 
 ouisiana 
 
 .5 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15 -July 10 
 
 July 25 
 
 Butler, Conecuh, Cov¬ 
 ington 
 
 72 
 
 _ 
 
 Apr. 15-May 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-July 20 
 
 Aufii .1 
 
 St. James 
 
 - 37 - 
 
Winter Wheat 
 
 Winter wheat is widely grown throughout the United States, with the 
 heaviest concentration in the central and southern parts of the Great Plains. 
 Five Great Plains States--Kansas, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Texas, and 
 Colorado--harvested 60 percent of the winter wheat acreage in 1962, Among 
 the States, Kansas led in wheat production, with 9. 0 million acres harvested 
 27 percent of the U. S. total. Oklahoma, with 3. 7 million acres harvested, 
 and Nebraska, with 2. 8 million acres, were the second and third ranking 
 winter wheat States. 
 
 Winter wheat is planted in the fall of the year. When weather conditions 
 are favorable for early fall growth, much of the winter wheat in the Great 
 Plains area is grazed in the fall prior to going into dormancy and again in 
 the late winter and early spring when new growth starts. Winter wheat 
 harvest begins in the southernmost producing areas in the late spring and 
 quickly spreads northward with the start of combining, usually extending 
 well into the summer months in the northern tier of States. 
 
 - 38 - 
 
WINTER WHEAT 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 32 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-16 
 
 39 
 
•ftible 15.—Winter Wheat: Usxial planting and harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 1 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 
 Begins j 
 
 Most active 
 
 Ends 1 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 New York 
 
 183 
 
 Sept. 5-Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 4, 5 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 35 
 
 Sept.20-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Jiily 5 
 
 July 15-July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 ^51 
 
 Sept.15-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 15-July 25 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 Ohio 
 
 1,209 
 
 Sept. 20-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Jiily 15-July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Indiana 
 
 1,135 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 30-July 25 
 
 July 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Illinois 
 
 1,580 
 
 Cept.l5-0ct. 
 
 30 
 
 June 25 
 
 June 30-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 4, 4a, 5, 6, 6a, 7, 9 
 
 Mchigan 
 
 922 
 
 Sept.15-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 1 
 
 Avig. 10 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 5“Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 Jvily 20-July 30 
 
 Avig. 10 
 
 Racine, Washington, Kenosha 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ozaukee 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 21 
 
 Sept. l-Sept.25 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 27-Aug. 8 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 4 
 
 Iowa 
 
 75 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 Jtay 10-J\ay 25 
 
 July 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Missouri 
 
 976 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 
 
 31 
 
 June 10 
 
 Jvme 15-July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 
 Sept. 10-Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 1, 4, 7 
 
 Soiith Dakota 
 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15-JuIy 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 5, 7, 8 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 2,760 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Jvily 10-July 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 Kansas 
 
 8,986 
 
 Sept.10-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Jime 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Delaware 
 
 19 
 
 Oct 5-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 J\n« 2 5-July 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Maryleind 
 
 124 
 
 Sept.25-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25-Ju3y 15 
 
 A\ig. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Virginia 
 
 179 
 
 Sept.25-Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 June 10 
 
 Juine 20-July 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 2 , 5, 6, 8 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 18 
 
 Sept.25-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15-Avig. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 6 , Preston, Mason 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 204 
 
 Sept.20-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15-Juiy 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 56 
 
 Oct. 5-Dec. 
 
 20 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15-Juiy 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Anderson, Orangeburg, Spar¬ 
 tanburg, Calhoun, laurens 
 
 Georgia 
 
 47 
 
 Oct. l-Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1-June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Florida 
 
 31 
 
 Sept.15-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Apr. 25 
 
 May 1-Nfay I5 
 
 May 20 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 131 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 10 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 107 
 
 Oct .10-Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15-J''il/ 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Alabama 
 
 35 
 
 Sept.20-Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 May 20 
 
 June l-June 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, Colbert, Jackson, 
 Baldwin, Escambia 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5-June 15 
 
 June 25 
 
 1, 2, 4 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 112 
 
 Sept.lO-Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 loulslana 
 
 44 
 
 Sei)t.l5-0ct. 
 
 30 
 
 May 20 
 
 June 1-June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 3 
 
 Cklahoma 
 
 3,741 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 1 , 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 Texas 
 
 2,731 
 
 Sept. 1-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 2-June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 In, 2n, 2s, 4 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,688 
 
 Aug. 25-Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 JW.y 25 
 
 Aag. 1-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Idaho 
 
 608 
 
 Sept. l-Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 J\ay 15 
 
 July 25-Aug. 20 
 
 Avig. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 187 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept» 30 
 
 Jtxly 20 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 1,906 
 
 Sept. l-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25-July 15 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2 , 6, 9 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 213 
 
 Sept. l-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15-July 5 
 
 July 20 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Arizona 
 
 24 
 
 Nov. 15-Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25-June 10 
 
 June 25 
 
 5, 7 
 
 Utah 
 
 148 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept 25 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Box Elder, Cache, San Jvian, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Salt lake, Millard, Juab 
 
 Nevada 
 
 2 
 
 Sept. l-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-Aug. 15 
 
 Avig. 25 
 
 Chvirchlll, Hvmibolt 
 
 Washington 
 
 1,486 
 
 Aug. 15-Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 20-A\ag. 15 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 2, 3, 5, 9 
 
 Oregon 
 
 597 
 
 Aug. 15-Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 California 
 
 296 
 
 Oct. 15-Feb. 
 
 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 July 15-Aug. 15 
 
 Avig. 30 
 
 5, San Inis Obispo, 
 Monterey, Siskiyou, Modoc 
 
 
 
 Nov. 1-Feb. 
 
 15 
 
 ^fay 15 
 
 June 15-July 15 
 
 Aug. 8 
 
 5a, Los Angeles, Riverside 
 
 4o 
 
Spring Wheat 
 
 Spring wheat acreage planted in 1 962 amounted to 10.4 million acres and 
 accounted for 23 percent of the total U. S. wheat acreage. North Dakota, 
 die leading spring wheat State, had slightly over one-half of the 10. 1 million 
 acres of spring wheat harvested in 1962. Montana was the second leading 
 State in spring wheat acreage, with 1.8 million acres harvested; South Dakota 
 vas third, with 1. 3 million acres. Durum wheat used in making macaroni and 
 spaghetti was harvested from 2.4 million acres, representing nearly one- 
 fourth of the total spring wl^at acreage. Of the total durum acreage 
 larvested, North Dakota had 7 9 percent. 
 
 Spring wheat is planted in the late spring and harvested late in the summer, 
 [n the .Ufest North Central and Northwestern States, where spring wheat is 
 Drimarily grown, a high proportion of the total rainfall comes during the 
 summer months. The favorable seasonal distribution and greater effective- 
 less of the precipitation make it possible to produce spring wheat with a 
 relatively small total annual precipitation. 
 
 - 41 - 
 
SPRING WHEAT 
 
 USUAL START OF PLANTING - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 MICH 
 
 nebs. 
 
 HANS 
 
 OSLA 
 
 TENN 
 
 Pi Before Apr. 10 
 ITTI Apr. 10-19 
 
 M Apr. 20-30 
 
 
 
 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 34 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-17 
 
 SPRING WHEAT 
 
 USUAL START OF HARVEST - PRINCIPAL AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 35 
 
 B Before July 20 
 July 20-31 
 Aug. 1-9 
 ^ Aug. 10-20 
 
 • After Aug. 20 
 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE M-18 
 
 - - 
 
Table l6.—Spring Wheat; Usual planting auid harvesting dates by States and principal producing areas 
 
 state 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 • Usml • 
 
 • planting * 
 
 • dates * 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 : Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Begins 
 
 • Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • Ends 
 
 • 
 
 : areas and counties 
 
 DURUM 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 51 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 6-Aug. 18 
 
 Sept.5 
 
 1, 4 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 1,855 
 
 Apr. 10-May 30 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 A\ig. 5-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept.5 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 144 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6 
 
 Montana 
 
 290 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 2, 3 
 
 California 
 
 11 
 
 Mar. 15-May 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Siskiyou, Modoc 
 
 OTHER SPRING 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 17 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sheboygan, Ozaukee, 
 Walworth, Dane, Dodge 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 630 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 6-Aug. 18 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1 , ^ 
 
 Iowa 
 
 13 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 25 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 3,597 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 1,129 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1, 2, 3, 5 
 
 Montana 
 
 1,487 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 2 , 3, 9 
 
 Idaho 
 
 349 
 
 ffer. 20-May 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 30 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 26 
 
 Apr. 5-May 10 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Avig. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 Colorado 
 
 16 
 
 Mar. 10-Apr. 30 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Utah 
 
 4l 
 
 Mar. 20-Apr. 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept.l 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Cache, Box Elder, 
 Utah, Salt Lake 
 
 Nevada 
 
 15 
 
 Apr. 1-May 10 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Humbolt, Pershing, 
 Eureka 
 
 Washington 
 
 211 
 
 Mar.10-Apr. 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 2, 3, 5, 9 
 
 Oregon 
 
 83 
 
 Feb. 1-Apr. 15 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 43 
 
liable 17.—Alabama: Usual planting and harvesting dates b7 crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1952 
 
 ha invested 
 
 • Usual • 
 
 • planting 
 
 • 
 
 Usual harvesting dates | 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage 
 
 ((XX)) 
 
 • dates * 
 
 Begins 
 
 • Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • Eads * 
 
 • f 
 
 « • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Com, (Sain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 1,229 
 
 15 
 
 111 
 
 Apr. 1-June 5 
 Apr. 10-June I5 
 Apr. 1-June 1 
 
 Aug. 25 
 Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 20 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 10 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Dec. 5 
 Sept. 30 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 8,9 
 
 Cotton 
 
 900 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept, lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cowpeas for peas 
 
 9 
 
 Apr. 15-June 1 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 Clo-tim 
 Lespedeza 
 Soybean 
 
 Cbwpea 
 
 Ifeanut 
 
 (Jraln 
 
 Other 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 220 
 
 
 May 1 
 May 10 
 Aug. 10 
 Aug. 25 
 July 20 
 Sept.1 
 May 1 
 May 15 
 
 
 Sept.15 
 Oct. 1 
 Oct. 15 
 Sept. 25 
 Sept. 15 
 Oct. 5 
 June 20 
 Oct. 15 
 
 1,2,2a, 3,4,5,6 
 Statewide 
 
 1,2,2a,3,6 
 l,2,2a,3,6 
 
 2,2a,3,5,6 
 
 8,9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 83 
 
 Sept.1-Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peanuts for nuts 
 
 195 
 
 Apr. 15-May 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept.15-Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 9, Covington, 
 Crenshaw 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 
 May 1-May 20 
 
 Sept.1 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Jackson, DeKalb 
 
 Sorghm, Grain 
 Silage 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 June 1-July 15 
 June 1-July I5 
 
 Sept.25 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Oct. 5-Nov. 1 
 Sept. 5-Sept.20 
 
 Nov. 25 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 149 
 
 June 1-July 20 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Baldwin, Escambia, 
 Mobile, Jackson, 
 Madison 
 
 Tobacco, Type l4 
 
 0.5 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15-July 10 
 
 July 25 
 
 Butler, Conecuh, 
 Covington 
 
 Velvetbeans 
 
 13 
 
 Apr. 15-June 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 20-0ct. 5 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 6,7,8,9 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 35 
 
 Sept.20-Dec. 5 
 
 May 20 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, Colbert, Jackson, 
 Baldwin, Escambia 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White Clover 
 
 0.7 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15-June 25 
 
 June 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 1-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2 
 
 Tall (Alta &. Ky. 
 31) Fescue 
 
 ^.3 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 Jvine 15-June 25 
 
 June 25 
 
 2,3 
 
 (Simson Clover 
 
 11 
 
 
 May 25 
 
 May 25-June 5 
 
 June 5 
 
 2,5 
 
Table l8.—Alaska: Usiial planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 : 19^2 T 
 
 : harvested: 
 : acreage : 
 : (000) : 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 • Usual harvesting dates 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 • Begins 
 
 • 
 
 * MDSt active • 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Barley : 2.2 
 
 fby 1-June 10 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.25”Oct.10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Tanana & Matanuska 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valleys 
 
 Hay, Clo-tlm : 5*1 
 
 
 Jtuie 15 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Tanana & ^felt8muska 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valleys 
 
 Wild : .6 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Kenai & Southvest 
 
 • 
 
 Mixed grains : U.O 
 
 ^fey 15-Ju];y 15 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug.25“Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Tanana & Matanuska 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valleys 
 
 Oats : 1.1 
 
 Apr. 25 -July 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept.25"Oct.10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Tanana & Matanuska 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valleys 
 
 Table I 9 .—Arizona: Usml planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing ao^as 
 
 Crop 
 
 xyoii : 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 fOOO) : 
 
 Usml 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 * Usual harvesting dates ’ 
 
 * • 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 * Begins 
 
 * Mast active 
 
 • • 
 
 • 
 
 Ends * 
 
 • 
 
 Barley, Fall sown 
 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 31 
 
 May 20 
 
 ^fay 25"June 10 
 
 June 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Ju^ 
 
 Jan.20-Feb. 28 
 
 Jxme 10 
 
 June 15 -June 30 July 5 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 15 
 
 Apr.15"June 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Silage 
 
 8 
 
 Mar.l5"Apr.l0 
 
 June 20 
 
 July l-Jxoly 20 
 
 A\ag. 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Forage 
 
 5 
 
 Mar.l5"Apr.l0 
 
 June 20 
 
 J\ily 1-July 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Cotton 
 
 k03 
 
 Mar.l5"Apr.25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 0ct.25"Dec. 5 
 
 Jan .15 
 
 5, 
 
 7 , 
 
 9 
 
 Hay, alfalfa 
 
 210 
 
 
 Mar. 15 
 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 5, 
 
 7 
 
 
 Oats, Fall sown 
 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 20 
 
 May 5 
 
 May 25"June I 5 
 
 June 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 ^ring sown 
 
 7 
 
 Mar.l5"^r. 30 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug.20-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Safflower 
 
 
 Dec. 1-Feb. 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Jvily 15" Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Early 
 
 oft 
 
 May 1-Ju2y 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 20"Axig. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 5, 
 
 7 , 
 
 9 
 
 Late 
 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 2 O-N 0 V .25 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 5, 
 
 7 , 
 
 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Early 
 
 
 Mar.l5"A\:ig. 1 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 5"July 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Late 
 
 22 
 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Sept.25"0ct.20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 24 
 
 Nov.l5"Feb. 1 
 
 yiay 20 
 
 May 25"June 10 
 
 Jttne 25 
 
 5 , 
 
 7 
 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 : 20 
 
 
 July 25 
 
 July 30 -Sept .15 Oct. 15 
 
 5 , 
 
 7 
 
 
 - 45 - 
 
Table 20.—Arkansas: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 . Usual 
 
 . planting 
 : dates 
 
 
 . Usual harvesting dates 
 
 • * • 
 
 . Begins . Most active i 
 
 • • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 . Principal producing 
 . areas and countlei 
 
 Barley 
 
 28 
 
 Sept. 1 -Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 June 10 -June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Corn, Grain 
 
 207 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 1 -Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 6 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept.15 
 
 Sept .20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 8 
 
 Apr. 10 -May 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 25-Sept.15 
 
 Sept .20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cotton 
 
 1,355 
 
 Apr. 25-May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 1 -Oct. 10 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cowpeas for peas 
 
 k 
 
 Apr. 20 -June 
 
 25 
 
 Avig. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 5 -Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 15 
 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 Jime 
 
 1 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 25 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wild 
 
 113 
 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sept.25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats, Fall sown 
 
 106 
 
 Sept.15-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 June 5 -June 20 
 
 June 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Feb. 15-Mar. 
 
 15 
 
 Jttne 
 
 10 
 
 June 15-July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 RLce 
 
 426 
 
 Apr. 20 -May 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 -Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 3, 6 , 9 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 12 
 
 May 1 -June 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 15-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 17 
 
 May 1 -June 
 
 15 
 
 Avjg. 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept .20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 2,682 
 
 May 1 -June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 15-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 112 
 
 Sept. 10 -Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 5 
 
 J\me 10 -June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 15-Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 3 , 6 
 
 Tall (Alta & 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31) Fescxae 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 June 25-July 1 
 
 Jxaly 5 
 
 1 , 3 , 7 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 June 5 -June I5 
 
 June 20 
 
 Independence, Arkan- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sas, Clark, Desha 
 
 Hairy vetch 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 June 25-July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 3 , 5 , 6 , 9 
 
 46 
 
Table 2L—California: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 
 r 
 
 Usual 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 Crop 
 
 harvested: 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 Begins 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 ' Ends 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley, Fall sown 
 
 1,461 
 
 Oct. 15-Apr. 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1 -July I5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 4 , 5 , 5 a, 8 
 
 Spring sc«m 
 
 Mar. 1 -May 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Modoc, Siskiyou 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 230 
 
 Apr. 15-July 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 5 , 5 a, 8, Monterey 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 77 
 
 May 1 -July 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 5 a, Sacramento, 
 Solano, Butte 
 
 Silage 
 
 57 
 
 Apr. 1 -Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Sept. 1 -Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 5 a, Sacramento, 
 Solano, Butte 
 
 Cotton 
 
 809 
 
 Apr. 1 -May 1 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15-Dec, 1 
 
 Jan. 15 
 
 Fresno, Kings, 
 
 Kem, Tulare, 
 Imperial 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 32 
 
 Nov. 1 -Jan. 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 15-July 5 
 
 July 20 
 
 Imperial 
 
 
 Nov. 15-May 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 San Mateo 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 1,156 
 
 
 Apr. 15 
 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 5 a, Imperial 
 
 Wild 
 
 103 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 
 Aug. 31 
 
 Northern counties 
 
 Grain 
 
 420 
 
 
 May 15 
 
 
 July 31 
 
 4 , 5 > 5 a, 8 
 
 Other 
 
 202 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 4 , 5 , 5 a, 8 
 
 Oats, Fall sown 
 
 
 Nov. 1 -Mar. 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 15-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sonoma, Butte, 
 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sutter, Solano, 
 Sacramento 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Mar. 15-May 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Modoc, Siskiyou 
 
 Rice 
 
 323 
 
 Apr. 1 -June 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov, 30 
 
 5 , Fresno 
 
 Safflower 
 
 
 Feb. 15-June 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 Aug. 1 -Aug. 20 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Dec. 15-Feb. 15 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15-Aug, 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Fresno, Tulare, 
 Kings 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 206 
 
 May 1 -Aug. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 5 , 5 a, Imperial 
 
 Sileige 
 
 19 
 
 Mar. 1 -July 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 Aug. 1 -Sept. 30 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 5 , 5 a, Imperial 
 
 Sugar Beets, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Imperial 
 
 Fall planting 
 
 238.9 
 
 Sept. 1 -Oct. 15 
 
 Apr. 1 
 
 May 10 -June 30 
 
 July 15 
 
 Spring planting 'ij 
 
 Nov. 15-June 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 Aug. 20 -Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 Monterey, Yolo, 
 
 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 Apr. 1 -Apr. 30 
 
 May 31 
 
 Solano, San 
 Joaquin, 
 
 Sacramento 
 
 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 
 Oct. 15-Feb. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 July 15-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 5 , San Luis 
 
 
 296 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 15-July 15 
 
 Aug. 8 
 
 Obispo, Monterey, 
 Siskiyou, Modoc 
 
 5 a, Los Angeles, 
 Riverside 
 
 
 Nov. 1 -Feb. 15 
 
 
 Dumom 
 
 11 
 
 Mar. 15-May 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Siskiyou, Modoc 
 
 SEED CROPS; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 115 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 30 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Fresno, Kem, 
 
 Kings, Stanislaus, 
 Imperial 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 31 
 
 Stanislaus, Merced 
 
 Ladino Clover 
 
 18.5 
 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Glenn, Tehama, 
 Sacramento 
 
 Merlon Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 July 5 -July 25 
 
 July 31 
 
 Kern 
 
 Bluegrass 
 
 .59 
 
 July 1 
 
 Sudangrass 
 
 16 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 -Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Yolo, Colusa, 
 Sacramento 
 
 Common Vetch 
 
 .6 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5 -July 25 
 
 July 31 
 
 Butte, Sutter 
 
 Purple Vetch 
 
 30 
 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 5 -July 25 
 
 July 31 
 
 Butte, Sutter 
 
 Musteo^ 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5 -July 25 
 
 July 31 
 
 Santa Barbara 
 
 y Some spring plant 
 
 ed sugar beets are usually left in the 
 
 ground over winter 
 
 and harvested the following 
 
 spring. 
 
 47 
 
Tabl© 22Colorado: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 (U 
 
 u 
 
 05 
 
 g5 C (0 
 P( tH CD 4 ) 
 
 ■H O 
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 to +> 
 
 03 
 
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 H O 
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 m 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 1 
 
 03 
 
 bfl 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
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 •H 
 
 •p 
 
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 C3 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 03 
 
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 03 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 x: 
 
 S 
 
 iH 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 b- 
 
 C7N 
 
 
 C3N C7N 
 
 03 
 
 43 
 
 
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 b- 
 
 
 t- b- 
 
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 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 •» •> 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 
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 VO 
 
 05 
 
 V 
 
 5 
 
 VO VO VO 
 
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 ♦\ •» 
 
 
 
 
 CVJ H 
 
 CVJ 
 
 m 
 
 CVJ CVJ CVJ 
 
 DD rH rH 
 
 W 
 
 oo 
 
 ir\ 
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 10 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
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 CVJ 
 
 ICN 
 
 CVJ 
 
 rH 
 
 ur\ 
 
 CVJ 
 
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 ir\ CVJ 
 
 CVJ 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 < < 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 > 
 
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 js; 
 
 Sept, 
 
 Oct. 
 
 •P 
 
 Pi 
 
 4) 
 
 CO 
 
 Aug. 
 Sept, 
 
 < 
 
 Sept. 
 
 
 o 
 
 ir\ 
 
 ir\ o 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
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 l/N 
 
 o 
 
 O ITN 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 rH 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CVJ rH 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 p 
 
 C3 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 43 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 O 4) 43 
 
 S CO CO 
 
 P 
 
 < 
 
 
 •-3 <: 
 
 1 
 
 ir\ 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 rH 
 
 pH 
 
 l/N O ITN 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 rH uS 
 
 
 
 H CO 
 
 rH 
 
 H 
 
 
 U 
 
 4) 
 
 U 
 
 43 
 
 • • P 
 
 P M Pi 
 
 C3 3 4) 
 
 § 
 
 
 h> *-3 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 O < CO 
 
 
 < 
 
 ON 
 
 00 
 
 On 
 
 
 
 CJN P 
 
 o\ 
 
 b- 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 ON (7N 
 
 <Js 
 
 VO p 
 
 b- 
 
 VO 
 
 VO 
 
 •s 
 
 CVJ 
 
 •» 
 
 VO VO 
 
 CM 
 
 p 
 
 CVJ CO 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CVJ 
 
 •v 
 
 m 
 
 LTN 
 
 rH 
 
 o 
 
 O CO 
 rH 
 
 if\ 
 
 rH 
 
 o o 
 
 rH CO 
 
 ITN 
 
 rH 
 
 ir\ 
 
 rH 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 t>*U 
 
 O 43 
 
 Is; CO 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 LTV O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 ITv 
 
 o 
 
 CVJ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CO 
 
 
 rH 
 
 rH rH 
 
 
 
 rH • 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 •U 
 
 •> 4) 
 
 • 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 
 U 
 
 43 
 
 4) 
 
 u 
 
 43 
 
 
 O CO 
 
 
 h> <; 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 s « 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 ITN 
 
 o 
 
 LO ITN 
 
 ITN 
 
 LTN 
 
 lA 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 CVJ H 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CVJ 
 
 
 • P 
 
 P Pi 
 
 • 
 
 P 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 43 
 
 O 
 
 3 p 
 
 P 
 
 p 
 
 d 
 
 h) 
 
 O CO 
 
 O 
 
 ►-a 
 
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 c 
 
 to 
 
 c 
 
 •H 
 
 t 30 
 
 
 H -H W 
 
 o5 -p O 
 
 ^ s -y 
 
 CO 05 o5 
 tD H 'd 
 Pi 
 
 -P 
 
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 I 
 
 U 
 
 Pi 
 
 <; 
 
 I 
 
 LfN 
 
 • 
 
 Pi P 
 O d 
 W S 
 
 o 
 
 ITN 
 
 o 
 
 IfN 
 
 rH 
 
 CVJ 
 
 LfN H 
 
 o o 
 
 CO 
 
 CVJ 
 
 
 
 CVJ 
 
 rH rH 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 « 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 • p 
 
 M Pi 
 
 3 43 
 
 it 
 
 
 < 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 <; CO 
 
 »-5 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 LfN 
 
 CO 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CVJ CVJ 
 
 
 CO 
 
 lb 
 
 CO 
 
 CVJ 
 
 VO 
 
 LTv 
 
 P P P 
 pi| Pi pit 
 
 < <: c 
 
 00 Q H 
 C7N0O CVJ 
 
 rH rH 
 
 bO 
 
 ITN 
 
 CVJ 
 
 < 
 
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 ir\ 
 
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 rH rH 
 
 rH 
 
 o 
 
 CVJ lA 
 
 
 a 
 
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 P 
 
 
 3 
 
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 43 4) 
 
 CO CO 
 
 C3 
 
 o 
 
 3 P 
 
 *3 *3 
 
 l/N 
 
 
 o 
 
 lA O 
 
 rH 
 
 lA lA 
 
 r-| 
 
 CO 
 
 H CO 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 • • 
 
 P 
 
 43 43 
 
 u 
 
 P P 
 
 C3 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 C3 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 3 P 
 
 <5 
 
 o <; 
 
 I 
 
 h) h) 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 LTN 
 
 1 1 
 
 LA 
 
 rH O 
 
 CVJ 
 
 o o 
 
 rH 
 
 rH 
 
 rH rH 
 
 P 
 
 I 
 
 -!£ • 
 Pi P 
 O d 
 CQ S 
 
 §> g' 
 
 LTN 
 
 rH 
 
 CO CVJ CVJ 
 
 101 
 
 b- g 
 
 <p CVJ 
 b- CO 
 CVJ 
 
 O 
 
 1—1 
 
 VO VO 
 
 O H 
 
 ON 
 
 VO 
 
 rH 
 
 CO 
 
 LA 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 Pi 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 rH •H 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 4) 
 
 05 S 
 
 rH f-t 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 bO 
 
 bO 
 
 P -P 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
 CO 
 
 fH p 
 
 Pi CO 
 
 h 
 
 p 
 
 05 
 
 rH 
 
 p 
 
 05 1 Id 
 
 
 id 
 
 K 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 P O H 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 
 iH P P 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 <; o :2 
 
 o; 
 
 OQ 
 
 s 
 
 •\ 
 
 
 
 
 rH 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 •v 
 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 >5 
 
 y 
 
 
 ij 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Pm 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 CO 
 
 03 
 
 o5 03 
 
 & ^ 
 
 (U 
 
 P bD 
 •H cd 
 05 H 
 P tH 
 Cl5 CO 
 
 •a 
 
 p 
 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 
 P ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 43 C 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 CQ 
 
 P -H 
 
 .•t 
 
 
 43 
 
 P 
 
 43 
 
 ^ U 
 
 P Pi 
 
 
 
 
 
 lx CO 
 
 O 
 
 o5 
 
 P 
 
 m 
 
 •s 
 
 6 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 P 
 
 
 05 
 
 43 
 
 CD 
 
 o5 
 
 Q 
 
 P 
 
 4) 
 
 
 4) 
 
 Ey 
 
 P 
 
 > 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 <; 
 
 lio 
 
 CO 
 
 
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 48 
 
T&ble 23.—Delaware; Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19S2 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreeige 
 
 (000) 
 
 • Usual 
 
 . planting 
 
 1 dates 
 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates | 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 1 Begins * 
 
 Mast active 
 
 « 
 
 Ends 1 
 
 Barley 
 
 Ih 
 
 Sept. 25-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 119 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 20 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 5 
 
 May 5-June 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 5'Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Ai:ig. 
 
 25 
 
 
 Sept 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 6 
 
 Sept. 20-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 June 25-July 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Bye 
 
 10 
 
 Sept 25-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Jime 
 
 20 
 
 June 25-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 217 
 
 May 15-Jiily 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 19 
 
 Oct. 5-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 June 25-July 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Table 24.—Florida: Ustial planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usiml 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 
 [ Begins ] 
 
 Most active 
 
 
 • Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Cora, Grain 
 
 315 
 
 Mar. 5-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 1, 3, 5 
 
 Silage 
 
 10 
 
 Mar. 5-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 1, 3, 5 
 
 Forage 
 
 121 
 
 Mar. 5-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Jiily 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 31 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 1> 3, 5 
 
 Cotton 
 
 20.6 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 25-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Hay, peanut 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 15 
 
 Sept, 15-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 
 
 May 1-May 
 
 10 
 
 May 
 
 30 
 
 1. 3, 5 
 
 Peanuts for nuts 
 
 48 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Avig. 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 Jackson, Santa Rosa, Holmes 
 Calhoun, Levy, Marlon 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 39 
 
 May 15-J\ine 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Calhoun, Dade, Escambia, 
 Okaloosa, Seuata Rosa 
 
 Sugarcane for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sugar 
 
 114.3 
 
 Feb. 1-May 
 
 31 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 15-Mar. 
 
 15 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 Lake Okeechobee area 
 
 Tobacco, Type l4 
 
 14.8 
 
 Mar. 10-Apr. 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 1 
 
 June 10-Jvine 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Type 62 
 
 4.0 
 
 Mar. 5-Mar. 
 
 25 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 June 1-June 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 Gadsden 
 
 Velvetbeans 
 
 13 
 
 Mar. 5-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 
 
 31 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30 
 
 Columbia, Marlon, 
 
 Suwannee 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 15-Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 May 1-May 
 
 15 
 
 May 
 
 20 
 
 1, 3 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lupine 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 May 1-May 
 
 15 
 
 May 
 
 20 
 
 Alachua, Colvnnbia, 
 
 Gilchrist, Jefferson, 
 Lafayette, Levy, Madison, 
 Suweinnee 
 
 ^9 
 
Table 25,--Georgia: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 I 9 S 2 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual ; 
 
 planting * 
 
 dates * 
 
 « 
 
 • 
 
 Usual harvesting dates | 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 Begins 
 
 • 
 
 * Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • Ends * 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 12 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25 -June 5 
 
 June 15 
 
 1 , 2 , 3 ,4, 5,6 
 
 Corn, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 1,692 
 
 48 
 
 326 
 
 Mar. 20-May 25 
 Apr. 10-May 25 
 Mar. 20-May 25 
 
 Sept. 1 
 July 15 
 July 15 
 
 Sept. 15 -Nov. 1 
 Aug. 1-A\:ig. 25 
 A\ag. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Dec. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 4, 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Cotton 
 
 692 
 
 Apr. 1-May 10 
 
 Aiig. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cowpeas for 
 peas 
 
 22 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 30 
 
 July 15 
 
 Aug. 5 “Sept. 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 
 May 1 
 J\ine 1 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Sept. 30 
 
 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 139 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 1 
 Jan. 15 -Mar. 1 
 
 Jfey 10 
 May 25 
 
 May 25 -June 10 
 Jime 20 
 
 June 20 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peanuts for 
 nuts 
 
 472 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 15 -Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 4, 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 
 
 Rye 
 
 24 
 
 Sept. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1-June 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 May 1-July 1 
 
 May 1-July 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 July 5 
 
 Oct. 25 -Nov.aO 
 July 20-Aug. 20 
 
 Dec. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeai^ 
 
 80 
 
 Apr. 20-June 30 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 25 -Nov. 25 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Type l4 
 
 Type 62 
 
 74 
 
 1.3 
 
 Mar. 20-Apr. 25 
 Mar. 20-Apr. 25 
 
 June 20 
 June 20 
 
 J\ine 25 -July 25 
 June 25 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 Aug. 1 
 
 5, 6 , 7, 8 , 9 
 
 Grady, Decatur 
 
 Velvetbeans 
 
 55 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 25 -Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 4, 5 , 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 47 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 30 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1-June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 11 
 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tall (Alta & 
 
 Ky. 31 ) 
 
 Fescue 
 
 4.5 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15 -June 30 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Crimson 
 
 Clover 
 
 12 
 
 
 Meiy 1 
 
 May 10-May 20 
 
 May 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lupine 
 
 2 
 
 
 May 10 
 
 May 20-June 1 
 
 June 15 
 
 6, 7, 8 
 
 Table 26.- 
 
 -Hawaii: 
 
 Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops 
 
 and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 : harvested: 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 : acreage 
 
 : ( 000 ) 
 
 pianiiiag 
 
 dates 
 
 • 
 
 Begins 
 
 • 
 
 * Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Sugarcane for 
 sugar 
 
 ; 1,086 
 
 Jan. 1-Dec. 31 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Mar. 1-Oct. 3 I 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Hawaii, Kauai , Maui, 
 Oediu Islands 
 
 - 50 - 
 
Table 27.—Idaho: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 ’ Usvial 
 
 1 planting 
 
 * dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 * Begins 
 
 • 
 
 ’ Most active 
 
 • 
 
 * Ends * 
 
 • • 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 6 I 18 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 10 
 Mar. 25 -May 25 
 
 July 15 
 July 25 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 15 
 Aug. 5-Sept. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 Sept. 30 
 
 1, 9 
 
 statewide 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 125 
 
 May 20-June 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 7 , 8 
 
 Com, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 23 
 
 55 
 
 1 
 
 May 1-May 25 
 
 May 1-June 5 
 
 May 1-June 5 
 
 Oct. 10 
 Sept. 1 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 15 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 30 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 30 
 
 Dec. 10 
 Oct. 15 
 Nov. 5 
 
 7, 8 
 
 7 , 8, 9 
 
 7, 8 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Wild 
 
 Grain 
 
 Other 
 
 959 
 
 118 
 
 103 
 
 29 
 
 21 
 
 
 June 5 
 June 20 
 July 10 
 July 25 
 June 10 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 Sept. 1 
 Aug. 15 
 Aug. 10 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lentils 
 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 5 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 -Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1 
 
 Oats 
 
 l4l 
 
 Mar. 25 -May 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peas, dry 
 
 131 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1 , 8, 9 
 
 Rye 
 
 8 
 
 Sept. 15 -Sept .30 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 127.1 
 
 Mar. 20-May 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Winter 
 
 Spring 
 
 608 
 
 349 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 10 
 Mar. 20-May 20 
 
 July 15 
 July 25 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 20 
 Avig. 10-Aug. 30 
 
 Aug. 30 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 52 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 15 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 7, 8 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 12 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 15 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 7, 8 
 
 Alsike Clover 
 
 1.2 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 -Oct. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 1, 7 
 
 White Clover 
 (including 
 Ladlno) 
 
 10.5 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 1 
 
 Merion Kentucky 
 Bluegrass 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 1 
 
 Red Fescue 
 
 .2 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1 
 
 Tall (Alta & 
 
 Ky. 31 ) Fescue 
 
 .9 
 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1 
 
 Crested 
 
 Wheatgrass 
 
 6 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 8 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Winter Peas 
 
 39 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 1 
 
 Rapeseed 
 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-A\ag. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Lewis, Nez Perce 
 
 51 - 
 
•ftible 28. —Illinois: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usml 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 : Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 P-L6UlT^ing 
 
 * dates 
 
 • 
 
 
 • 
 
 Begins [ 
 
 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 Ends * 
 
 • 
 
 areas and covmties 
 
 Bar'ley, Fall sown 
 
 52 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20-Sept. 
 
 20 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25~July 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 8a, 7, 9 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Ppr. 
 
 5 - Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Broomcom 
 
 .7 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 -Sept .30 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 6 a 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 8,270 
 
 May 
 
 5-June 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 281 ^ 
 
 May 
 
 5 -June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.5 
 
 Sep. 5”Sept.l5 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Forage 
 
 52 
 
 I^y 
 
 5-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept.5 
 
 Sep. 10-Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cotton 
 
 2 
 
 Apr. 
 
 20 -May 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Sept.30-0ct. 25 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Alexander, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pulaski 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 1,070 
 
 
 
 
 May 30 
 
 
 Sept.5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tlm 
 
 855 
 
 
 
 
 May 30 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespede 2 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 7, 9 
 
 Soybean 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 
 A\Jg. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 1,503 
 
 Mar. 
 
 25 -Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15“July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1 , 3 , k, 5 , 6 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 2k 
 
 May 
 
 5-June 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Gallatin 
 
 Rye 
 
 55 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20-Sep 
 
 20 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 5 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soarghum, Grain 
 
 6 
 
 May 
 
 10-J\ine 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. ID 
 
 4a, 6a, 7 
 
 Silage 
 
 2 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Sept.10-Sept.20 
 
 Sept .30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 5,575 
 
 May 
 
 ID-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept .15 
 
 Sept.25”Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 
 Mar. 
 
 30 -Apr. 
 
 30 
 
 Sept .30 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. ID 
 
 Cook 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 1,580 
 
 Sept 
 
 . 15 -Oct. 
 
 30 
 
 June 25 
 
 June 30 -July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 4, 4a, 5, 8, 6a, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7, 9 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5"Sept .15 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 4a., 6a, 7, 9 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Avig. 5 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 4a, 6a, 7, 9 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. 5 -N 0 V. 15 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 lawrence 
 
 Timothy 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 July 30 
 
 Aug. 5“Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Redtop 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 JvOy 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 8 a, 9 
 
 - 52 - 
 
Table 29.—Indiajia: Usml pleinting and harvesting dates by crcjps and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 harvested: 
 
 planting 
 
 acreap : 
 fOOO^ : 
 
 
 Usml harvesting dates 
 
 
 Pid.nclpal pro due 
 areas and coxxnt: 
 
 
 Begins * 
 
 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 Ends ' 
 
 Barley, Fall sown 
 
 ko 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept 
 
 .30 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15 -June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 5, 6 , 7 , 8 
 
 Spring Bcnm 
 
 
 Apr. l-^r. 
 
 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Jvily 20 
 
 Jtily 30 
 
 1 , 2 , 3, 4, 5 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 4,298 
 
 I^y 5“ June 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 -IIov. 15 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 134 
 
 May 5“June 
 
 5 
 
 S^t. 5 
 
 Sept. 10- Sept. 20 
 
 Sept .30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 39 
 
 May 5“June 
 
 5 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 563 
 
 
 
 May 25 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 629 
 
 
 
 Jvme 10 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 
 Sept.20 
 
 T, 8 , 9 
 
 Other 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 Jiine 25 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats, Fall sown 
 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 
 
 30 
 
 June 20 
 
 Jime 25-JTily 5 
 
 July 10 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 Jtily 1 
 
 July 10-July 30 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 38 
 
 May lO-Jime 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-IIov. 10 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Rye 
 
 53 
 
 Sept.10-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-JvLly 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sor^vm, Grain 
 
 11 
 
 May 5"June 
 
 5 
 
 Sept .25 
 
 Sept.30-0ct. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 4 
 
 May 5“June 
 
 5 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.10-Sept.20 
 
 Sept .30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 2,708 
 
 May lO-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept.10 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, Type 31 
 
 7.9 
 
 May 15 -Jvme 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 8, 9 , Spencer 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 1,135 
 
 Sept.ID-Oct. 
 
 25 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 30 -July 25 
 
 July 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 30 -Sept .30 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 25 -Wov. 10 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Timothy 
 
 • 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 Jiily 30 -Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 - 53 - 
 
Table 30 .--Iowa: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and pi*incipal producing ao^as 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : Usual 
 
 harvested: planting 
 
 acreage : dates 
 
 : 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Begins • Most active * 
 
 • • 
 
 : Princinal nroducinK 
 : areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 July 15 
 
 JvQy 20-J\xly 30 
 
 Aug. ID 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 9,776 
 
 fiay 5"Jiine 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 25-Wov. 20 
 
 Dec. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 27 ^ 
 
 May 5-June 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept, 5"Sept.20 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 81 
 
 I-lay 5 " June 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 30 -Sept .15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 ID 
 
 Apr. 10-fby 
 
 ID 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25“Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1 , 2 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 2,232 
 
 
 
 May 30 
 
 
 Sept, ID 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 1,231 
 
 
 
 Jxme ID 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 2,9^7 
 
 Apr. 1-Ifey 
 
 1 
 
 Jxxly 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. ID 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 34 
 
 May l“tfciy 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15“0ct. 30 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 Rye 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 25“Sept,20 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 5“July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 3,405 
 
 Ifa.y 10-June 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 25 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 12 
 
 May ID-June 
 
 10 
 
 Oct, 5 
 
 Oct. 20-nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 9 
 
 May 10-Jvtne 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5“Sept .25 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 
 May 1-May 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept.25“Oct, ID 
 
 Oct, 15 
 
 2, 4 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 75 
 
 Sept.10-Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Jtily 5 
 
 July 10-July 25 
 
 July 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Spring 
 
 13 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr, 
 
 25 
 
 J\ily 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. ID 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 72 
 
 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5“Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Timothy 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 J\ily 20 
 
 July 30“Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Kentucky blue grass 
 
 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15“June 25 
 
 June 30 
 
 7 , 8 
 
 Smooth bromegrass 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 
 J\ily 15 
 
 J\ily 25“Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 4, 7 
 
 54 
 
Table 31.--Kansas; Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 I 9 S 2 
 
 harvested 
 
 ] Usual 
 
 * planting 
 
 1 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producina 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 \ Begins 
 
 • 
 
 ’ Most active 
 
 • 
 
 * Ends 
 
 • 
 
 areas and 
 
 counties 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sovn 
 
 689 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 1 
 Feb. 25 -June 1 
 
 June 10 
 June 25 
 
 June 15 -July 1 
 June 25 -July 10 
 
 July 5 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 17 
 
 May 25 -July 1 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 4, 7 
 
 
 Broomcom 
 
 2.3 
 
 May 10-June 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 7- 
 
 
 Com, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 1,298 
 
 201 
 
 13 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 10 
 Apr. 20-June 20 
 Apr. 20-Jime 20 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Aug. 20 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 5-Nov. 10 
 Aug. 25 -Oct. 1 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 Dec. 5 
 Oct. 10 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 Wild 
 
 1,201 
 
 104 
 
 38 
 
 701 
 
 
 Meiy 15 
 Jxine 1 
 Aug. 10 
 July 15 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 Aug. 25 
 Sept. 15 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 351 
 
 Feb. 15 -^fely 1 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 4.3 
 
 May 20-June 20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2 , 3, 6 
 
 
 Bye 
 
 189 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 June 5 
 
 Jxine lO-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 2,960 
 
 506 
 
 May 10-July 1 
 
 May 10-July 1 
 
 Sept. 25 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 10 
 
 Dec. 1 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 914 
 
 May 10-July 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 8 , 9 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 14 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1. 7 
 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 8,986 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 1 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 94 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 30 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 16 
 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 8 . 9 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 10 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 25 -Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Bromegrass 
 
 10 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 Sudangrass 
 
 4.4 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 h 
 
 55 
 
Table 32.—Kentucky: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crcps and principcLi producing areas 
 
 
 19^2 r 
 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 (000) : 
 
 Usml 
 
 planting | 
 
 dates ] 
 
 Usml harvesting dates 
 
 
 : Principal 
 
 Crop 
 
 « • 
 
 • • 
 
 Begins : Most active : 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 : producing 
 : areas and 
 : counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 53 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 30 
 
 June 5 Jvme 15-July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Com, 
 
 
 
 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Grain 
 
 1,116 
 
 Apr. 25"June 20 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 5”Nov. 5 Nov. 20 
 
 Silage 
 
 TO 
 
 May 5"June 25 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 Sept. 20 
 
 3, 4, 5 
 
 Forage 
 
 11 
 
 May 1-June 25 
 
 Avig. 10 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 Sept. 20 
 
 1 , 3 , 4, 6 
 
 Cotton t 
 
 6.5 
 
 Apr. 20-May 20 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 Dec. 1 
 
 P\ilton, Hickman 
 
 Hay, 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 330 
 
 
 May 15 
 
 2, 3, 5 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 466 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 564 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 1, 2 , 3 , 5 
 
 Soybean 
 
 52 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 2 , 3, 6 
 
 Grain 
 
 60 
 
 
 May 25 
 
 July 10 
 
 3 , 5, 6 
 
 Other 
 
 14? 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 3, 5 
 
 Oats, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 
 Aug. 25"Sept. 30 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 July 15 
 
 1, 2, 3 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Ifer. 1-Apr. 15 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 1-J\ily 15 Jvily 25 
 
 3, 5, 6 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 21 
 
 Apr. 25"June 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 Nov. 10 
 
 Calloway, Graves 
 Todd, Logan, 
 Christian, Uhion 
 
 Rye 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 10"0ct. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 25"July 10 July 15 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Sor^um, 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 1 Nov. 10 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 10 
 
 May 1-Jtine 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Silage 
 
 5 
 
 May 5" June 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 Sept. 20 
 
 3, ^ 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 219 
 
 May 10-June 30 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 Nov. 10 
 
 2 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 22 
 
 6.5 
 
 Ifey 20-June 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5"Sept. 20 Oct. 1 
 
 2 
 
 Type 23 
 
 6.6 
 
 May 20-J\uie 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5"Sept. 20 Oct. 1 
 
 1 
 
 Type 31 
 
 224 
 
 Ifey 20-June 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 25 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Type 35 
 
 7.1 
 
 Ifey 20-June I 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5"Sept. 25 Oct. 1 
 
 1 , 2 
 
 Type 36 
 
 4.7 
 
 May 25"June 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5"Sept. 20 Oct. 1 
 
 2 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 winter 
 
 131 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 Jtuie 20-July 5 July 10 
 
 2 , 3 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 14 
 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 15 Sept. 30 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 50 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 25"Nov. 20 Nov. 30 
 
 Simpson, Logan, 
 Christiam 
 
 Orchardgrass 
 
 22 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-June 30 June 30 
 
 Oldhaun, Shelby, 
 Henry 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bluegrass 
 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5"June I 5 June 20 
 
 Bourbon, Scott, 
 Woodford, 
 Fayette, Harriso 
 Clark 
 
 Tall 
 
 (Alta & Ky. 31 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fescue 
 
 53 
 
 
 Jxine 15 
 
 June 20-J\ine 30 July 10 
 
 1, 2, 3 
 

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 57 
 
Table 34.—Maryland: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and princii)al producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usvial 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 • • 
 
 \ Usual harvesting dates * 
 
 • • 
 
 Princii)al producing 
 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) L 
 
 
 ■ Begins [ 
 
 • 
 
 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Ends * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Beo-ley 
 
 91 
 
 Sept. 25“Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Com, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 39*- 
 
 99 
 
 May 1-June I 5 
 May 5"June 25 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Nov. 20 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 92 
 
 212 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 14iy 20 
 jTine 1 
 Aug. 25 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 Sept. 1 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Fall sovn 
 Spring sown 
 
 50 
 
 Sept. 20-Nov. 
 Mar. 20-Ifey 1 
 
 10 
 
 June 15 
 Jvine 25 
 
 June 25“July 10 
 July 5-July 25 
 
 July 25 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 
 May 1-June 15 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25“Oct. 10 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Carroll, Frederick, 
 Washington, Cecil, 
 
 Kent 
 
 Rye 
 
 18 
 
 Sept. 25 -Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Jiine 20 
 
 June 25“July 15 
 
 Jxily 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 280 
 
 May 15 -July 10 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 2 , 8, 9 
 
 Tobacco, 
 type 32 
 
 hi 
 
 tfey 25 -July 1 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 8 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 winter 
 
 124 
 
 Sept. 25 -Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25"July 15 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25"Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 2, 9 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Queen Annes, St. Iferys, 
 Caroline, Dorchester, 
 Talbot 
 
 58 
 
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 rH d ft 
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 59 
 
Table 36.—Minnesota: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : Usual 
 
 harvested: planting 
 
 acreage : dates 
 
 ^ 000 ^ : 
 
 
 • 
 
 Usual harvesting dates ‘ ^ 
 
 : I 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and co\intles 
 
 
 Begins ■ 
 
 • 
 
 Ifcist active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Ends * 
 
 • 
 
 Beurley 
 
 719 
 
 Apr, 15“May 
 
 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 18 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1 , 
 
 4 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 
 I'iay 18 -June 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 2-Sept. 6 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 1 
 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 4,^5 
 
 liay ID-Jme 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 21-Nov. 9 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 4, 
 
 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 865 
 
 May ID-June 
 
 5 
 
 Sept. 15 Sept.20-Sept .30 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 46 
 
 llay lO-June 
 
 5 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 510 
 
 Apr, 20-June 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 18 -Sept .15 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 1 , 
 
 4, 7 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 2,457 
 
 
 
 June 20 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tiin 
 
 532 
 
 
 
 June 20 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Wild 
 
 399 
 
 
 
 J\ily 10 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 3,026 
 
 ^r. 15“ifa.y 
 
 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 2-Aug. 16 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peas, dry 
 
 3 
 
 Apr. 2D-J\me 
 
 1 
 
 Avig. 10 
 
 Aug. 21-Aug. 28 
 
 S^t. 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 Rye 
 
 86 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept .25 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 27 "Aug. 8 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 4, 5, 6 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 2,201 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 VUI 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.’ 20 
 
 Oct. 7"0ct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 4, 
 
 5, 7, 8, 9 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 106.9 Apr. 25“May 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 9-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1 , 
 
 5 , 8 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 21 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 
 
 25 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 27"Aug. 8 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 4 
 
 Durum 
 
 51 
 
 Apr, 10-lfeiy 
 
 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 6 -Aug. 18 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1 , 
 
 4 
 
 Other spring 
 
 630 
 
 Apr. lO-Ifeiy 
 
 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 6 -Aug. 18 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1 , 
 
 4 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 3.5 
 
 
 
 Sept. .5 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 1 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 , 4 
 
 Red clover 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 S^t. 5 
 
 Sept.l5"Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 2, 4, 5 , 6, 9 
 
 Alsike clover 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. lD"Sept. 2 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Axig. 10-Sept. 5 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 , 4 
 
 Timothy 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 7"Aug. 20 
 
 A\;ig. 30 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 
 
 Kentucky bluegrass 
 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 Jiily 3" July 7 
 
 July 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
Table 37.—Mississippi: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and princinal producinc areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 usual 
 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 
 (pool 
 
 
 Usml harvesting dates * 
 
 : I 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 • 
 
 • - 
 
 Begins * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 M5St active * 
 
 • 
 
 Ends * 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Corn, Grain 
 
 761i- 
 
 Apr. 1-May 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 17 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 30 
 
 July 20 
 
 At:ig. 15“Sept.l5 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 28 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 K) 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Sept. 1-Cct. 1 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cotton 
 
 1,585 
 
 Apr. 10-l'^ay 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 20 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 1 , 2 , 4 
 
 Cowpeas for peas 
 
 10 
 
 y^r. 20 -June 
 
 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 15“Sept.l5 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 2, 5, 6 
 
 Hay, AlTalfa 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 I>Iay 15 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 1, 3, h, 6 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 May 20 
 
 
 July 31 
 
 5, 7, 8 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 2, 3 
 
 Oats, Fail sown 
 
 
 Sept.25“Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 May 20 
 
 Jme 1-June 10 
 
 June 20 
 
 1 , ^ 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 132 
 
 Feb. 15“Mar. 
 
 15 
 
 June 1 
 
 June ID-June 20 
 
 June 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peeuiuts for nuts 
 
 5 
 
 Apr. 15“^fely 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 5 -Sept.20 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 5, 6, 7 , 9 
 
 Rice 
 
 49 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1 , ^ 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 6 
 
 Ifey 1-June 
 
 30 
 
 Sept. 15 Oct. 15“Nov. 15 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 
 Silage 
 
 15 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 30 
 
 July 15 
 
 Aug. 15-S^t.l5 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 2, 3, 6 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 1,1P7 
 
 May 1-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 1 , ^ 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 30 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 
 
 5 
 
 June 1 
 
 Jime 5“June 15 
 
 June 25 
 
 1 , 2, 4 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 White clover 
 
 0.6 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-June 30 
 
 July ID 
 
 6 , 7, 8, 9 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. l-Nov. 15 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 2, 3, 6 
 
 Thll (Alta & Ky. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 31 ) Fescue 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-June 30 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Crimson clover 
 
 3 .: 
 
 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25“May 31 
 
 June 10 
 
 6 , 7, 8, 9 
 
 6 l 
 
Table 38 .—Mlssoviri: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19 ^ 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates | 
 
 « 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 Begins 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 * Ends * 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 101 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 1 
 
 Jxme 1 
 
 June 5-June I 5 
 
 June 20 
 
 6, 7 , 8, 9 
 
 Com, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 2,982 
 
 229 
 
 33 
 
 Apr. 25 -May 31 
 Apr. 25 -May 31 
 Apr. 25 -May 31 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Sept. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 10 
 Sept.10-Sept. 25 
 Sept.10-Sept. 25 
 
 Nov. 30 
 Sept. 30 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cotton 
 
 383 
 
 Apr. 20-May 20 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 9 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 Wild 
 
 651 
 
 1,396 
 
 313 
 
 173 
 
 
 June 15 
 June 1 
 July 15 
 Aug. 1 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Auq. 20 
 Sept. 20 
 Aug. 31 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 5, 7 
 
 Oats, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 316 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept .30 
 Mar. 1-Apr. 15 
 
 June 5 
 June 15 
 
 June 10-June 20 
 June 20-July 10 
 
 June 25 
 July 15 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 9 
 
 May 1-May 31 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept.25-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 1 , 2 , 4, 9 
 
 Rice 
 
 4.6 
 
 May 1-May 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 5-Oct. 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Marion, St. Charles, 
 Lincoln, Lewis, 
 Scott, Stoddard, 
 Pemiscot, Butler, 
 New Madrid,Dunklin, 
 Ripley 
 
 Rye 
 
 30 
 
 Aiag. 15 -Sept. 30 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 June 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 177 
 
 44 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 May 15 -Jvine 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept.25-Oct. 20 
 Aiig. 25 -Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 2,732 
 
 Apr. 25 -June 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Type 31 
 
 3.2 
 
 May 1-May 31 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 5“Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Platte, Buchanan 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 976 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 31 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15 -July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 127 
 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 5 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 20-Aug. 10 
 
 Avig. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 56 
 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 5-Nov. 20 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Timothy 
 
 58 
 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 10-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 1 , 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 
 
 Orchardgrass 
 
 16 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Redtop 
 
 30 
 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 10-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Bluegrass 
 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-June 20 
 
 June 20 
 
 1 , ^ 
 
 Tall (Alta &. 
 
 Ky. 3l)Fescue 
 
 26 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Bromegrass 
 
 3.9 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hairy Vetch 
 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 20 
 
 June 30 
 
 9 
 
 62 
 
Table 39.--Montana: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and princli)al producing areas 
 
 ti) 
 
 fj o 
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 O "H 
 
 ■g § 
 
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 P« O 
 
 1—1 
 
 as 
 
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 4^ +> +> 
 
 
 •s 
 
 
 45 
 
 43 
 
 p> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 CQ CQ on 
 
 CVJ 
 
 CQ CQ CQ 
 
 CQ 
 
 CVJ 
 
 on 
 
 CQ 
 
 CQ CVJ CVJ 
 
 CQ 
 
 iH 
 
 CVJ 
 
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Table 40.--Nebraska: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 : Begins 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 : Most active : Ends 
 
 : Principal producing 
 :6a:eas and counties 
 
 Barley, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 P\all sown 
 
 135 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 10 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 10-July 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1, 
 
 7 
 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Apr. 5-May 1 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 10-July 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1, 
 
 7 
 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 8l 
 
 May 20-June 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Castor Beans 
 
 
 May 1-June 1 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. l-Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 7, 
 
 8 
 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 5,031 
 
 May 5-June 10 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1-Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 3, 
 
 5 , 6 , 
 
 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 208 
 
 May 5-June 10 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 3, 5, 
 
 6 , 7 
 
 Forage 
 
 56 
 
 May 5-June 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 3, 
 
 5, 7 
 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 
 Apr. 15 -Apr. 25 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 1,831 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 1 , 
 
 2, 3, 
 
 5 , 6, 9 
 
 Clo-tlm 
 
 75 
 
 
 June 20 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 3, 
 
 6 , 9 
 
 
 Wild 
 
 3,062 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 1 , 
 
 2 
 
 
 Oats 
 
 971 
 
 Apr. 5-May 1 
 
 JuOy 10 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 9 
 
 
 I^e 
 
 225 
 
 Aug. 15 -Sept. 20 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 1-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1 , 
 
 2, 3, 
 
 7 
 
 Safflower 
 
 
 Apr. 20-May 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1 , 
 
 7 
 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 1,5^^ 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 5, 
 
 6, 7, 
 
 8 , 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 m 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 5, 
 
 6, 7, 
 
 8 , 9 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 310 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 9 
 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 72.7 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 30 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 25 -Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 1 , 
 
 5, 7, 
 
 8 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 2,760 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 10-July 20 
 
 July 25 
 
 1 , 
 
 5, 6, 
 
 7, 8, 9 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 63 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 1 , 
 
 2, 3, 
 
 5, 9 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 28 
 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 9 
 
 
 Si^eetclover 
 
 13 
 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 9 
 
 
 Smooth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bromegrass 
 
 7 
 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 10-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 3, 
 
 6, 9 
 
 
 Crested 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheatgrass 
 
 3 
 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Hairy Vetch 
 
 22 
 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 10-Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Central Northeeust 
 
 64 
 
Table 41^—Nevada: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1952 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 Begins 
 
 • • 
 
 . Most active I 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 13 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 20 
 Apr. 20-May 10 
 
 June 15 
 July 20 
 
 July 1-Aug. 15 
 
 July 25^ug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Pershing, Churchill 
 Lyon, Doxiglas, Clark 
 
 Com, Silage 
 
 5 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 15 
 
 Sept. 20 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Churchill, Clark, 
 Himboldt, Pershing 
 
 Cotton 
 
 3-5 
 
 Apr. 1-Apr. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 25 -Dec. 15 
 
 Jan. 1 
 
 Nye 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Wild 
 
 122 
 
 48 
 
 160 
 
 
 May 15 
 
 June 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Churchill, Lyon, 
 Pemhlng, Douglas, 
 Elko 
 
 Elko, Washoe, 
 Douglas, Humboldt 
 Elko, Humboldt, Nye, 
 Washoe 
 
 Oats 
 
 3 
 
 Apr. 20-May 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25^ug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Douglas, Hvunboldt, 
 Lyon, Nye 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 Spring 
 
 SEED CROPS; 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 20 
 Apr. 1-May 10 
 
 July 10 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-Aug. 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 25 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Churchill, Humboldt 
 Humboldt, Pershing, 
 Eureka 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 5.5 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 -Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 Table 42. —New Jersey ; 
 
 Usual planting and harvesting dates bjr crops and 
 
 principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Begins 
 
 • • 
 
 Most active 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 areas and coimtles 
 
 Barley, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 21 
 
 Sept. 15 -Serpt. 30 
 Mar . 25 -Apr. 20 
 
 June 15 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 10 
 
 June 20-July 10 
 
 July 15 
 July 15 
 
 5, 8 
 
 5, 8 
 
 Com, Grain 
 Silage 
 Forage 
 
 78 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 May 15 -Jnne 25 
 Jfay 15 -July 1 
 
 Oct. 5 
 Sept. 5 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Sept. 30 
 Sept. 15 -Sept. 25 
 
 Nov. 25 
 Oct. 25 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 2 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 Clo-tlm 
 
 89 
 
 70 
 
 
 May 25 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 20 Statewide 
 
 Sept. 20 Statewide 
 
 Cats, 
 
 Fall sown 
 Spring sown 
 
 18 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 10 
 Mar. 15 -Apr. 25 
 
 July 15 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 10 
 
 July 20^ug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 Aug. 20 
 
 5, 8 
 
 2 
 
 Rye 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2; 5, 8 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 42 
 
 May 25 -July 10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 -Nov. 10 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 5, 8 
 
 Wheat, winter 
 
 35 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 20 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2, 5 
 
Table 43.--Maine: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal, producing areas 
 
 
 1962 : 
 
 Usual 
 
 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Crop 
 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 (000) : 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 : Most active : 
 
 * • 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Com, Silage 
 
 11 
 
 May 20-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 Clo-tim 
 
 9 
 
 334 
 
 
 
 June 15 
 June 20 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 49 
 
 May 10-June 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Aroostook, 
 
 Penobscot 
 
 Table 44.--New Hampshire: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Begins 
 
 Most active 
 
 Ends 
 
 Com, Silage 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 Clo-tim 
 
 10 May 20-June 20 Sept. 5 Sept. 15-Oct. 1 Oct. 10 Statewide 
 
 13 Jvme 15 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 
 lOT June 20 Aug. 20 Statewide 
 
 Table 45.—Vermont: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Begins 
 
 Most active 
 
 Ends 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Oats 
 
 1 May 20-June 20 Oct. 1 Oct. 15-Oct. 25 Nov. 1 Statewide 
 
 4l May 20-June 20 Sept. 5 Sept. 15-Oct. 1 Oct. 10 Statewide 
 
 June 15 Sept. 10 Statewide 
 
 383 June 20 Aug. 20 Statewide 
 
 l4 Apr. 25 -June 5 Aug. 1 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 Sept. 1 Statewide 
 
 66 
 
Table 46.—Massachusetts: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 
 
 19^2 ; 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 Usual haivesting dates 
 
 
 Crop 
 
 
 heirvested: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage ; 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 : Most active : 
 
 • • 
 
 • * 
 
 Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 
 2 
 
 May 15-June 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 
 25 
 
 May 15-June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, Type 
 
 52 
 
 .9 
 
 May 25 -June 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Franklin, 
 
 Hampden, 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Type 
 
 6 l 
 
 2.1 
 
 May 20-June 
 
 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Franklin, 
 
 Hampden, 
 
 Hampshire 
 
 Table47.--Rhode Island; Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19^2 : 
 
 harvested; 
 acreage ; 
 (000) ; 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Begins 
 
 Usual harvesting 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 ; Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 dates 
 
 • 
 
 ; Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Com, Silage 
 
 5 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 5 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 11 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Table 48.--Connecticut; Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 
 
 1962 ; 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 UsTial harvesting dates 
 
 
 Crop 
 
 
 harvested: 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 
 acreage ; 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 ; Most active 
 
 : Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 
 
 ( 000 ) ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 
 2 
 
 May 15 -June 
 
 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 
 33 
 
 May 15 -June 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 
 ho 
 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, Type 
 
 51 
 
 1.5 
 
 May 25 -June 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Hartford, 
 
 Tolland 
 
 Type 
 
 52 
 
 .23 
 
 May 25 -June 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Hartford, 
 
 Tolland 
 
 Type 
 
 61 
 
 5.8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 CVJ 
 
 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept.'1 
 
 Hartford, 
 
 Tolland 
 
 67 
 
Table 4^—New Mexico: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 I 9 S 2 
 
 hairvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 * Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 1 Begins 
 
 • 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 • 
 
 • Ends 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 37 
 
 Sept. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15 -July 10 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 h 3, 1, 9 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Feb. 15 -Apr. 1 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 15 
 
 A\;ig. 
 
 1 
 
 1. 3, 1, 9 
 
 Beans, diy 
 
 7 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Broomcom 
 
 38 
 
 May 20-July 1 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 9 
 
 Com, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 12 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 1. 3, 7, 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 12 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 7, 9 
 
 Forage 
 
 5 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 1, 3, 7, 9 
 
 Cotton 
 
 201 
 
 Apr. 1-May I 5 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 20 
 
 Jan. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 7, 9 
 
 Hay, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tlm 
 
 156 
 
 15 
 
 
 May 1 
 July 1 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 1, 3, 7, 9 
 
 1, 3 
 
 Oats, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Q 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 1. 3, 9 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 y 
 
 Feb. 15 -Apr. 15 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5-July 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 3, 9 
 
 Peanuts for 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 nuts 
 
 7.5 
 
 May 10-June 1 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Roosevelt 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 188 
 
 May 10-July 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 Deo. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 7, 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 20 
 
 May 10-June 20 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 5“Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 3, 7, 9 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 
 Feb. 1-Mar. I 5 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10-Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Curry, Torrance, 
 
 Santa Fe 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 213 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 June 5 
 
 Jxine 15 -July 5 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 1, 3 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 4.6 
 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 15 -Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 9 
 
 Sudangrass 
 
 6 
 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Roosevelt, Curry 
 
 68 
 
Table 50 .--New York: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
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 Red Clover : 9 Sept. 1 Sept. 15-Oct. 15 Oct. 20 
 
Tatle 51.—North Carolina: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19^2 
 
 harvested 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Usml harvesting dates | 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 (ooo) 
 
 Begins 
 
 • 
 
 * Most active 
 
 • 
 
 * Ends 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 areas 
 
 and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 66 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 30 
 
 May 20 
 
 Jvine 10-June 25 
 
 July 1 
 
 5, 8, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Com, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 1,259 
 
 110 
 
 51 
 
 Apr. 5-June 5 
 Apr. 5-June 5 
 Apr. 5“Jvuie 5 
 
 Sept. 5 
 Aug. 1 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Oct. 5-Nov. 15 
 Aug. 10-Sept. 10 
 Aug. 15-Sept. 1 
 
 Jan. 10 
 Oct. 1 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 
 
 2, 5, 8, 9 
 
 Cotton 
 
 402 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept.25-Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 2, 3, 
 
 5, 
 
 6, 8, 9 
 
 Cowpeas for 
 peas 
 
 7 
 
 May 1-July 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 3, 8, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tlm 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 39 
 
 152 
 
 206 
 
 
 May 25 
 June 5 
 July 25 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 Aug. 20 
 Sept. 15 
 
 1, 2, 
 1, 2, 
 2, 5, 
 
 4, 
 
 8 
 
 5, 8 
 
 5 
 
 Oats 
 
 217 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 30 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, 5, 
 
 8 , 
 
 9 
 
 Peanuts for 
 nuts 
 
 176 
 
 May 1-June 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 3, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Rye 
 
 16 
 
 Aug. 20-Nov. 15 
 
 Jxine 5 
 
 June 15-July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, 5, 
 
 8, 
 
 9 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 May 1-July 1 
 
 May 1-July 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 July 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept.30 
 Aug. 5-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 Oct. 1 
 
 5, 8 
 2, 5, 
 
 8 
 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 558 
 
 May 10-June 25 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Nov. 1-Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 3, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 Type 11 
 " 12 
 ” 13 
 
 " 31 
 
 191 
 
 234 
 
 58 
 
 11 
 
 May 1-June 1 
 
 Apr. 15-May 15 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 May 15-June 10 
 
 July 15 
 July 5 
 July 1 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 1-Sept. 5 
 July 15-Aug. 15 
 July lO-Axog. 10 
 A\ig. 10-Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 Aug. 25 
 Aug. 20 
 Oct. 1 
 
 2, 5 
 
 3, 6 
 
 9 
 
 1, 
 
 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 Winter 
 
 204 
 
 Sept.20-Nov. 15 
 
 June 5 
 
 Jime 15-July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 2, 3, 
 
 5, 
 
 6, 8, 9 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 51 
 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1-Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 2, 5, 
 
 6, 
 
 8 
 
 70 
 
Table 52.—North Dakota: Usual planting ajid harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 :Principal producing 
 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 : Begins 
 
 : Most active : 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 Ends 
 
 :areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 2,887 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 5 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 
 May 20-June 10 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 4 
 
 Ck 5 m, Grain 
 Silage 
 Forage 
 
 169 
 
 709 
 
 150 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 May 15 -June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 10 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 Sept. 25 
 Oct. 1 
 
 6 , 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 1,627 
 
 May 1-June 25 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 -Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Wild 
 
 l,iUX) 
 
 1,693 
 
 
 June 20 
 June 25 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 lats 
 
 1,950 
 
 Apr. 15 -June 1 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peas, dry 
 
 4 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 3, 6 
 
 i^e 
 
 539 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 July 20 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 statewide 
 
 Safflcnrer 
 
 
 May 10-May 25 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct.lO-Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 1 , 2 , 4, 5 , 7, 8 
 
 Sorghum, 
 
 Silage 
 
 8 
 
 May 25 -June 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 67 
 
 May 25 -June 10 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 5-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Cass, Richland, 
 Traill 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 53.9 
 
 May 15 -June 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 10-Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 Pembina, Walsh, 
 Grand Forks, Cass, 
 Traill, Richland, 
 Williams, McKenzie 
 
 /heat. Winter 
 Durum 
 Other 
 Spring 
 
 1,855 
 
 3,597 
 
 Sept. 10-Oct. 10 
 Apr. 10-May 30 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 July 15 
 Aug. 1 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 5-Aug. 25 
 
 Aug. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1, T 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 16 
 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 &reetclover 
 
 11 
 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 3 , 6, 9 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Bluegrass 
 
 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 1-July 5 
 
 July 5 
 
 5, 9 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Broomgrass 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 6, 9 
 
 Crested 
 
 Wheatgrass 
 
 6 
 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 1, T, 8 
 
 71 
 
Table 53.—Ohio: Usiial planting aind harvesting dates by crops aind principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usiial ] 
 
 planting |- 
 
 dates \ 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 :Principal producin 
 
 acreage : 
 rOOO^ : 
 
 Begins | 
 
 • 
 
 Most active ] 
 
 Ends 
 
 :areas and counties 
 
 « 
 
 Barley, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 
 Sept. 5"0ct. 10 
 
 June 20 
 
 July 1-July 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Apr. 5”M5Ly 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Avig. 5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Northern half of 
 State 
 
 Corn, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 2,663 
 
 Iby 5“June 10 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 226 
 
 Jfey 5 "June 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 19 
 
 May 5"June 10 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Hay, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 792 
 
 1,043 
 
 
 June 1 
 June 5 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 833 
 
 Apr. 1-May 5 
 
 Jxxly 10 
 
 July 20-Aug. 5 
 
 1 
 
 • 
 
 H 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 17.5 
 
 May 5”June 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5 
 
 Rye 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 20 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 5-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 1,791 
 
 tfay 10-June 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 1 , 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 25 
 
 Apr. 10-May I 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 10 
 
 1 , 2, 4 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Type 31 
 
 10.6 
 
 May 20-June 25 
 
 Au^. 25 
 
 Sept. 5”Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 8 , Hamilton, 
 Clermont 
 
 Type k2-kh 
 
 4.2 
 
 Ifay 25 -June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5 -Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Darke, Miami, 
 Montgomery, 
 Preble, Warren 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 1,209 
 
 Sept. 20-Nov. 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 3.5 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 1 , 2, 4 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 135 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 -Sept. 25 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Alsike Clover 
 
 1 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5"Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 1 , 2 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 6.7 
 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 1 , 2, 4 
 
 Timothy 
 
 30 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 72 
 
Table 54.—Oklahoma: Usml planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : 
 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 
 roOO^ : 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting ! 
 
 dates i 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 • • 
 
 • • 
 
 Begins : Msst active : Ends 
 
 Principal 
 producing 
 areas and 
 counties 
 
 
 
 Barley, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 Slj.7 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 5 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 
 7, 
 
 8 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 
 Jan. 20-I<far. 15 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5"June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 
 7, 
 
 8 
 
 Broome om. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 Apr. 15-June 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 Jxxly 20-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Geirvin, Grady, 
 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 McClain, Stephens 
 
 
 Dwarf 
 
 
 May 25~June 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. lO-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Cinarron, Texas 
 
 
 Com, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 123 
 
 Mar. 25-May 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 20 
 
 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Silage 
 
 15 
 
 Mar. 25“May 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 10-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Forage 
 
 5 
 
 ^fer. 25“May 10 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 3, 5, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Cotton 
 
 612 
 
 Ifey 1-June 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 30 
 
 Dec. 15 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Cowpeas for peas 
 
 21 
 
 Nfeiy 1-July 1 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 2, 5, 6, 7 
 
 
 
 luar 
 
 
 May 15“June 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 s^t. 25-oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Say, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 4l8 
 
 
 Apr, 20 
 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 statewide 
 
 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 87 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 3, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Wild 
 
 14-15 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 
 
 9 
 
 
 Peemut 
 
 44 
 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Hing Beans 
 
 24 
 
 May l-July 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 Aug. 15-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 25 
 
 3, 5 
 
 
 
 Cats, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fall sown 
 
 
 Sept. 10-Nov. 10 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 22 
 
 J\ily 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 
 ^ring sown 
 
 3iy 
 
 Jan. 25-rfer. I5 
 
 Jtine 1 
 
 Jime 10-J\me 22 
 
 July 5 
 
 Statewide’ 
 
 
 
 peanuts for nuts 
 
 115 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 5 “Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 Pye 
 
 58 
 
 Sept, 1-Oct. 15 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 10-June 20 
 
 July 1 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 
 
 3afflower 
 
 
 Apr. 10-Ifey 15 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 sescune 
 
 
 Itiy 15-June 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept, 5"Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 Sor^um, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 658 
 
 Apr. 25"June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 
 Silage 
 
 84 
 
 Apr. 25“June 25 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 171 
 
 Ifey 10-June 10 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 25 
 
 3, 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 
 •/heat. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 3,741 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 25 
 
 June 1 
 
 June ID-Jime 20 
 
 Jixly 1 
 
 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 
 
 
 
 jEED CROPS : 
 
 Alfalfa 
 Sweetclover 
 Lespedeza 
 Tall 
 
 (Alta & Ky. 31) 
 Fescue 
 
 Sudangrass 
 
 Hairy Vetch 
 
 1^8 
 
 k 
 
 6 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.7 
 
 14 
 
 Aug. 15 Aug. 25"Sept. 25 Oct. 5 
 June 25 July 1-Aug. 10 Aug. 20 
 Nov. 5 Nov. 10-Nov. 20 Nov. 30 
 
 1. 7 
 
 2, 5, 7 
 
 2 , 3 , 6 , 8 , 9 
 
 June 15 June 20-July 1 July 5 3^ 6, 9 
 
 Sept. 10 Sept. 20-0ct. 5 Oct. 15 2, 5> 8 
 
 June 10 June 20-July 15 July 30 1 
 
 - 73 - 
 
Table 55.--Oregon: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 : Usual 
 
 harvested: 
 
 
 Usual hsirvesting 
 
 iates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 • dates 
 
 
 Begins 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 
 ] Ends ’ 
 
 eireas and coxmties 
 
 Barley, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pall Bovra 
 
 407 
 
 Aug. 15-Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 
 
 15-Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 2 , 3 , 8 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Feb. 15-May 
 
 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Aiig. 
 
 5 -Axig. 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Com, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 20 
 
 May 5-June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25-Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Utaatilla, tfelheur, 
 Josephine 
 
 Silage 
 
 27 
 
 May 5 -June 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 5 -Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 20 
 
 1 , Ltaatilla, Malheur, 
 Josephine, Coos 
 
 Hay, 
 
 360 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 
 
 May 5 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 184 
 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 1 , 7 
 
 Wild 
 
 225 
 
 
 
 June 5 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 2, 3, 8 
 
 Oats, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fail sown 
 
 169 
 
 Oct. 5 -Feb. 
 
 15 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 
 
 25-Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 
 
 31 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Feb. 15-Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 -Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peas, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dry 
 
 16 
 
 Feb. 20 -MEir. 
 
 15 
 
 July 5 
 
 July 
 
 10 -July 
 
 20 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 ltaatilla, Itaion, Wallowa 
 
 I^e 
 
 17 
 
 Sept. 1 -Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 
 
 15-Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Aiag. 
 
 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Sugar Beets 
 
 19.6 
 
 Mar. 10 -Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept .10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 25-Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 ltaatilla, Malhexir 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 597 
 
 Aug. 15-Feb. 
 
 1 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 
 
 10 -Aug. 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Spring 
 
 83 
 
 Feb. 1 -Apr. 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25-Sept. 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Sept.15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 20 -Oct. 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 3 , 8, Jackson 
 
 Had Clover 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 
 
 lO-Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 1 (except coast). Baker, 
 Union, Jackson, Jefferson 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malheur 
 
 Alsike Clover 
 
 0,6 
 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 -Sept. 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Multnomali, Yamhill, 
 Deschutes, Jefferson, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Klamath, Malheur 
 
 White Clover 
 
 2.1 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 H 
 
 f 
 
 Aug. 
 
 25-Sept. 
 
 5 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 Benton, Linn, Marion, 
 
 (including Ladlno) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Union, Wallowa, Jefferson 
 Malheur 
 
 
 
 Merlon 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky Hluegrass 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 1 (except coast). Union, 
 Jackson, Jefferson 
 
 Chewings Fescue 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 
 
 5 -July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 1 (except coast). Union 
 
 Red Fescue 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 
 
 5 -July 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 1 (except coast), 
 
 Ifeion, Jefferson 
 
 Tall 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Alta & Ky. 3I) 
 Fescue 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 
 
 5 -July 
 
 10 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 1 (except coast). Union 
 
 Bentgrass 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 
 
 30-Sept. 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 
 
 15 
 
 1 , Union, Jackson, 
 Jefferson, Klamath 
 
 Austrian 
 
 Winter Peas 
 
 8.5 
 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 
 
 20 -July 
 
 30 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 1 (except coast), Ifaion 
 Doiiglas, Jackson, 
 Jefferson, Klamath 
 
 Crimson Clover 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 
 
 25-July 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 10 
 
 1 (except coast) 
 
 Hairy Vetch 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 JtlLy 
 
 20 -Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 1 (except coast) 
 
 Common Vetch 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 
 
 20 -Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 1 (except coast), Jackson 
 Josephine, Douglas 
 
 All P^egrass 
 
 152 
 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 
 
 15-July 
 
 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 1 (except coast), Douglas 
 
 
n 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 H 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 3| 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 ? 
 
 ■4 
 
 J 
 
 *» 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 ? 
 
 •I 
 
 > 
 
 9 
 
 i 
 
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Table 57.--South Carolina: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19 ^ 
 
 harvested 
 
 1 Usual 
 
 ] planting 
 
 * dates 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 Usual harvesting dates | 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 \ Begins 
 
 1 Most active 
 
 • Ends * 
 
 « a 
 
 • • 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 22 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 1 
 
 May 20 
 
 May 25 -June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Corn, Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 U 87 
 
 20 
 
 Apr. 1-May 25 
 Apr. 1-May 25 
 Apr. 1-June 1 
 
 Sept. 15 
 Jane 15 
 June 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec, 5 
 
 July 1-Aug, 1 
 
 July 1-Sept. 1 
 
 Dec. 15 
 Aug, 15 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cotton 
 
 575 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 Aug, 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Nov. 1 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cowpeaa for peas 
 
 14 
 
 May 15 -July 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 25 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Aiken, Lexington, 
 Orangeburg, Barn¬ 
 well, Allendale, 
 Bamberg 
 
 Hay, Lespedeza 
 
 U 6 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 Anderson, York, 
 Spartanburg, New¬ 
 berry, Greenville, 
 Chester 
 
 Oats, Fall sown 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 199 
 
 Oct. 1-Dec. 1 
 Jan. 15 -Mar. 1 
 
 Ifey 20 
 June 5 
 
 May 25 -June 15 
 June 10-June 25 
 
 June 20 
 July 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Peanuts for nuts 
 
 11 
 
 Apr. 15-i'lay 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 15 -Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Sumter, Lee, 
 Florence, Hampton, 
 Barnwell, Aiken 
 
 Rye 
 
 16 
 
 Sept. 1-Dec. 5 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 1-June I 5 
 
 June 20 
 
 Chesterfield, 
 Orangeburg, Aiken, 
 Bamberg, Hampton, 
 Barnwell 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 Silage 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 June 1-June 25 
 Apr. 15 -July 1 
 
 Sept, 20 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 -Oct. 25 
 Aug. 20-Sept, 10 
 
 Nov. 15 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Newberry, Anderson, 
 Saluda, Chester, 
 Spartanburg, Green¬ 
 ville 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 640 
 
 May 1-July I 5 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1-Dec. 1 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Orangeburg, Calhoun, 
 Darlington, Lee, 
 Allendale, Sumter 
 
 Tobacco, Type 13 
 
 84 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 1 
 
 July 5-Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 3, Clarendon 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 56 
 
 Oct. 5-Dec. 20 
 
 June 5 
 
 June 15 -July 1 
 
 July 5 
 
 Anderson, Orange¬ 
 burg, Spartanburg, 
 Calhoun, laurens 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 9 
 
 
 Nov. 5 
 
 Nov. 10-Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 1 
 
 Anderson, Chester¬ 
 field, Spartanburg, 
 Greenville, York, 
 Laurens 
 
 Tall (Alta & Ky. 
 
 31 ) Fescue 
 
 4 
 
 
 June 20 
 
 June 25 -July 10 
 
 July 20 
 
 Anderson, Laurens, 
 Spartanburg, Green¬ 
 ville, Greenwood, 
 Saluda 
 
 Lupine 
 
 3-5 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 5-June 15 
 
 June 20 
 
 Allendale, Barnwell, 
 Hampton 
 
Table 58.--South Dakota: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 I 9 S 2 : 
 
 harvested: 
 
 Usual * 
 
 planting * 
 
 dates * 
 
 Usual harvesting dates 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage : 
 (000) : 
 
 Begins J 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Most active • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 Ends 5 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 409 
 
 Apr. 5-May 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 8, 9 
 
 3om, 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 Forage 
 
 2,659 
 
 470 
 
 116 
 
 May 5-June 1 
 
 May 10-June 10 
 May 5-June 10 
 
 Oct. 5 
 Aug. 25 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Oct. 20-Nov. 5 
 
 Sept.10-Sept. 20 
 Sept.20-0ct. 5 
 
 Nov. 15 
 Oct. 1 
 Oct. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 9 
 
 ?’laxseed 
 
 577 
 
 Apr. 20-June 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 15 -Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 2, 3, 6 
 
 
 Jay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Wild 
 
 2,092 
 
 2,305 
 
 
 June 5 
 July 10 
 
 
 Sept. 20 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 }ats 
 
 2,590 
 
 Apr. 5-May 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25-A\;ig. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 ^e 
 
 261 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Ai:ig. 1 
 
 Aug. 5 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6, 
 
 9 
 
 sorghum. 
 
 Grain 
 
 Silage 
 
 115 
 
 86 
 
 May 20-June 20 
 May 20-June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 25 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 15 
 
 Nov. 5 
 Sept. 25 
 
 5 , 6, 8, 9 
 
 Statewide 
 
 
 soybeans 
 
 121 
 
 May 15 -June I 5 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. lO-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 3, 6, 9 
 
 
 sugar Beets 
 
 10.2 
 
 Apr. 20-May I 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept.20-0ct. 5 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 1, 5, 9 
 
 
 /heat, 
 
 Winter 
 
 Durum 
 
 Other Spring 
 
 448 
 
 144 
 
 1,129 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 1 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 Apr. 1-May 1 
 
 July 10 
 July 20 
 July 20 
 
 July 15 -July 25 
 July 25 -Aug. 10 
 July 25 -Aug. 10 
 
 Aug. 5 
 Aug. 15 
 Aug. 15 
 
 5, 7, 8 
 2, 3, 5, 6 
 1, 2, 3, 5 
 
 
 SEED CROPS; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 44 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 25 -Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 2, 3, 4, 7 . 
 
 8 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 18 
 
 
 July 20 
 
 Ai;ig. 1-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 3 , 6, 8, 9 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Bluegrass 
 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 2, 3, 5, 6 
 
 
 Smooth 
 
 Bromegrass 
 
 7 
 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 5 , 6, 9 
 
 
 Crested 
 
 Wheatgrass 
 
 7.5 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 1, 2, 5 , 8 
 
 
 77 
 
Table 60.—Texas: Usual plaatlog aod harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1952 : 
 
 harvested: 
 acreage : 
 ( 000 ) : 
 
 
 Usimil 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 UsiAal harvesting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 :Principal producing 
 
 * Begins 
 
 • Most active 
 
 • Ends 
 
 :areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 227 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 -Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 May 
 
 15 
 
 May 
 
 25-June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 30 
 
 In, 2n, 28, 4 
 
 Broomcom 
 
 25 
 
 Mar. 
 
 10 -Apr. 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 1 -July 
 
 15 
 
 July 25 
 
 Bee, Medina, I^rnes, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Live Oak, LaSalle 
 
 Corn^ Grain 
 
 1,052 
 
 l*lar. 
 
 5 -May 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 Aug. 
 
 15-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 4 , 5 n, 8n, 9 
 
 Silage 
 
 36 
 
 Mar. 
 
 5 -May 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 June 25-Aug. 
 
 10 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 In, 4 , 8n 
 
 Forage 
 
 38 
 
 Mar. 
 
 5 -May 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 5 -July 
 
 31 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 
 
 4 , 8n, 9 
 
 Cotton 
 
 6,500 
 
 Mar. 
 
 10 -June 
 
 15 
 
 July 
 
 25 
 
 Sept. 
 
 5 -Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 Jan. 
 
 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Cowpeas for peas 
 
 39 
 
 Mar. 
 
 15-June 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 1 -Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Is, 3 , 4 , 5 n, 5 B,lCh 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 25 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 -Dec. 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 May 
 
 15-June 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 8 n, 8 s, lOn 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 155 
 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 30 
 
 In, 2 n, 4 , 6 , 9 
 
 Wild 
 
 302 
 
 
 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 741 
 
 Sept. 
 
 10 -Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 May 
 
 10 
 
 May 
 
 20 -June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 25 
 
 28 , 3 , 4 , 7, 8 n 
 
 Peanuts for nuts 
 
 278 
 
 Apr. 
 
 1 -Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 -Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 3 , 4 , 8 n, lOn 
 
 Popcorn 
 
 
 Apr. 
 
 l-I'hy 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 20 
 
 July 25-Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 Lanar, Fannin, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Guadalupe 
 
 Rice 
 
 462 
 
 J 4 ar. 
 
 25-June 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10 -Sept 
 
 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 Rye 
 
 23 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 -Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 1 -June 
 
 15 
 
 June 
 
 25 
 
 In, Is, 2 n, 2 s 
 
 Sorghum, Grain 
 
 5,154 
 
 Mar. 
 
 10 -July 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 July 25-Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 150 
 
 Mar. 
 
 10 -July 
 
 1 
 
 June 
 
 10 
 
 June 
 
 20 -Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 60 
 
 June 
 
 5 -July 
 
 10 
 
 Oct. 
 
 20 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 -Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 25 
 
 In, Is, 5 n 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 2,731 
 
 Sept. 
 
 1 -Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 May 
 
 25 
 
 June 
 
 2 -June 
 
 25 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 In, 2 n, 2 s, 4 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 
 
 1 
 
 Aug. 
 
 5 -Sept. 
 
 1 
 
 Sept 
 
 30 
 
 2 n, 6 
 
 Sweetclover 
 
 10,5 
 
 
 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 July 
 
 5 -July 25 
 
 Aug. 
 
 10 
 
 4 , 5 n, 8 n 
 
 Sudangrass 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 AiJg. 
 
 25 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 -Nov. 
 
 10 
 
 Nov. 
 
 25 
 
 In, Is 
 
 Hairy Vetch 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 May 
 
 25 - 
 
 June 
 
 5 -Jxine 
 
 20 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 4 , 5 n 
 
 78 
 
Table 59 .--Tennessee: Usual planting and hairvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 
 1962 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 Usual harvesting 
 
 dates 
 
 
 
 Crop 
 
 harvested 
 
 : Begins 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 Principal producing 
 
 acreage 
 
 : • Most active 
 
 : Ends 
 
 areas and counties 
 
 
 (000) 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 
 
 Barley 
 
 35 
 
 Sept. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 July 
 
 1 
 
 3, 4, 5 
 
 lorn, Grain 
 
 961 
 
 Apr. 20-June 20 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 5^^ 
 
 Apr. 20-June 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept, 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 28 
 
 Apr. 20-June 20 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 Dec. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 lotton 
 
 538 
 
 Apr. 20-May 25 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25 -Nov. 5 
 
 Dec. 
 
 5 
 
 1, 2, southern 
 part of 3 & 4 
 
 lowpeas for peas 
 
 5 
 
 May 10-June 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 15 
 
 Dec, 
 
 10 
 
 1, 2 
 
 toy, Alfalfa 
 
 177 
 
 
 May 1 
 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 5, 6 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 235 
 
 
 May 1 
 
 
 June 
 
 20 
 
 3, 4, 5 , 6 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 474 
 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 
 Sept 
 
 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 )ats. Fall sown 
 
 85 
 
 Sept. 1-Nov. 1 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-June 30 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 Statev/^ide 
 
 Spring sown 
 
 Mar. 15 -Apr. 15 
 
 Mostly for hay 
 
 
 
 5, 6 
 
 ^pcom 
 
 
 Apr. 20-June 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 Henry, Mont¬ 
 gomery, Stewart 
 
 ^e 
 
 9 
 
 Sept. 1-Oct. 20 
 
 June 1 
 
 June 10-July 1 
 
 July 
 
 5 
 
 3, 4, 5 
 
 lorghum. Grain 
 
 20 
 
 June 1-June 30 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20-0ct. 15 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1 
 
 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5 
 
 Silage 
 
 13 
 
 May 10-J\ine 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 30 
 
 Oct. 
 
 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 463 
 
 May 10-June 25 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 -Nov. 20 
 
 Dec. 
 
 10 
 
 1, 2 
 
 'obacco. Type 22 
 
 l4 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Cheatham, Dick¬ 
 son, Montgomery, 
 Robertson, 
 
 Stewart 
 
 Type 23 
 
 1.4 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Henry, Weakley 
 
 Type 31 
 
 67 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Aug. 20-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 3, 4, 5, 6 
 
 Type 35 
 
 2.1 
 
 May 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept, 20 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1 
 
 Macon, Robert¬ 
 son, Sumner, 
 
 Weakley 
 
 beat. Winter 
 
 107 
 
 Oct. 10-Rov. 30 
 
 June 10 
 
 June 15 -July 5 
 
 July 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 EED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LesxJedeza 
 
 37 
 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 5 -Nov. 25 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1 
 
 1, 2 , 3, 4, 5 
 
 Tall (Alta & Ky. 3l) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fescue 
 
 20 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 June 20-July 5 
 
 July 
 
 15 
 
 3, 4 
 
 Crimson Clover 
 
 8.5 
 
 
 May 25 
 
 June 1-June 10 
 
 June 
 
 15 
 
 (South Central) 
 
 79 
 
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 - 81 - 
 
 Orchard^ass : 2? Jijne 10 June 25-July 15 July 25 Loudoun, 
 
 * Fauquier, Page 
 
Table 63.—Washln^on: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
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 82 
 
Tableau.-- West Virginia: Usual planting and harvestiiig dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 19^ 
 
 harvested 
 
 acres 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 • Usual 
 
 .■ planting 
 
 .' dates 
 
 Usual harvesting dates : 
 
 Begins : Most active : Ends 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 15-Oct. 20 
 
 June 25 
 
 July 1-July 25 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 6 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 71 
 
 May 1-June 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Sept. 25-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 26 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept, 10 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statev/lde 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 127 
 
 
 May 25 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 3^+1 
 
 
 June 1 
 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Lespedeza 
 
 9 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Other 
 
 ihQ 
 
 
 June 15 
 
 
 Sept. 10 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 24 
 
 Apr. 10-May 20 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 25 -Aug 10 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Tobacco, Tj"pe 31 
 
 2.8 
 
 May 25-June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept .25 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Cabell, Lincoln, Mason, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Putnam 
 
 Wheat, Winter 
 
 18 
 
 Sept. 25-Oct. 20 July 10 
 
 July 15 -Aug. 5 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 6, Preston, Mason 
 
 Table 65.—Wyoming: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 i9& 
 
 harvested 
 
 acres 
 
 ( 000 ) 
 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 : Usual harvesting dates 
 
 : Begins : Most active : Ends 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 112 
 
 Apr. 
 
 5-May 20 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5-Aug. 20 
 
 Aug, 30 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Beans, dry 
 
 52 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 15 
 
 Sept. 10 Sept. 15 -Oct. 10 
 
 Oct, 10 
 
 1, 5 
 
 Com, Grain 
 
 8 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 15 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Nov. 1-Nov. 15 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 1, 2 , 5 
 
 Silage 
 
 39 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 15 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug, 20-Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 Forage 
 
 9 
 
 May 
 
 10-June 15 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. 30 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 Hay, Alfalfa 
 
 468 
 
 
 
 June 10 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 2, 3, 5 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 July 1 
 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 1. 2, 3, 5 
 
 Wild 
 
 444 
 
 
 
 July 15 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Other tame 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 Ju3y 1 
 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Oats 
 
 94 
 
 Apr. 
 
 0 
 
 OJ 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 I^e 
 
 7 
 
 Aug>. 
 
 20-Sept. 30 July 20 
 
 July 30 -Aug. 10 
 
 Aug, 15 
 
 5 
 
 Sugar beets 
 
 48.7 
 
 Apr. 
 
 5-May 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct, lO-Oct. 25 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 1, 5 
 
 Wheat, V/inter 
 
 187 
 
 Aug. 
 
 20-Sept. 30 July 20 
 
 Aug. lO-Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 5 
 
 2, 5 
 
 Spring 
 
 26 
 
 Apr. 
 
 5-May 10 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Aug. 30 
 
 1, 2, 5 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 3.5 
 
 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 10-Oct. 15 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 1, 2 
 
 Crested Wheatgrass 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 10-Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 5 
 
 83 
 
Table 66.—Wisconsin: Usual planting and harvesting dates by crops and principal producing areas 
 
 Crop 
 
 1962 
 
 harvested 
 
 acreage 
 
 (000) 
 
 Usual 
 
 planting 
 
 dates 
 
 \ Begins 
 
 Usual haiTrestlng dates ' 
 
 • • • 
 
 Most active * Ends 
 
 * • * 
 
 • • • 
 
 Principal producing 
 areas and counties 
 
 Barley 
 
 30 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 15 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Ftock, Walworth, Dodge, 
 
 Fond du Lac, Racine 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 6 
 
 May I'July 1 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Aug. 25 -Sept. 5 
 
 Sept. 15 
 
 Fond du Lac, Dodge, 
 Columbia, Waushara, 
 
 Eau Claire 
 
 Com, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grain 
 
 1,533 
 
 May 5-June 15 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 5-Oct. 30 
 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Silage 
 
 985 
 
 May 5-June 25 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 5-Sept. 15 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Forage 
 
 17 
 
 May 5-June 20 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept.lO-Oct. 1 
 
 Oct. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Flaxseed 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 Clo-tim 
 
 Wild 
 
 4 
 
 2,929 
 
 901 
 
 25 
 
 Apr. 15 -May 15 
 
 July 20 
 
 June 15 
 June 15 
 July 5 
 
 July 25 -July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 10 
 Sept. 10 
 Aug. 5 
 
 Ozaukee, Sheboygan, 
 
 Pierce, Brown, Bayfield 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Portage, Dodge, Mar¬ 
 quette, Green Lake, 
 Waushara 
 
 Oats 
 
 2,229 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Rye 
 
 23 
 
 Sept. 5-Oct. 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Portage, Dunn, Waushara, 
 Marquette, Adams 
 
 Soybeans 
 
 101 
 
 May 20-July 1 
 
 Sept. 25 
 
 Oct. 5-Oct. 20 
 
 Nov. 1 
 
 Dunn, Trenqpealeau, Pepin, 
 Eau Claire, Racine, 
 Walworth, Kenosha 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TVpe 5^ 
 
 4.9 
 
 May 25 -June I 5 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Dane, Rock, Columbia 
 
 Type 55 
 
 7.2 
 
 June 1-June 20 
 
 Aug. 20 
 
 Sept. 1-Sept. 10 
 
 Sept. 20 
 
 Vemon, Crawford, Monroe, 
 Richland, LaCrosse 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winter 
 
 31 
 
 Sept. 5-Oct. 1 
 
 July 10 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Racine, Washington, 
 
 Kenosha, Walworth, Ozaukee 
 
 Spring 
 
 17 
 
 Apr. 10-May 10 
 
 July 15 
 
 July 20-July 30 
 
 Aug. 15 
 
 Sheboygan, Ozaukee, 
 Walworth, Dane, D^ge 
 
 SEED CROPS: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alfalfa 
 
 4 
 
 
 Aug. 25 
 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Brown, Bayfield, Calumet, 
 Outagamie, Kewaunee 
 
 Red Clover 
 
 42 
 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Sept. 10-Sept. 20 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 Timothy 
 
 7.2 
 
 
 Aug. 1 
 
 Aug. 5-Aug. 15 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 Statewide 
 
 - 84 - 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1ME O—7«4-74« 
 
U^HTED STATES DEPARTMEIJT OF AGRICULTURE 
 STATISTICAL REPORTING SERVICE 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 20250 
 
 POSTAGE AND FEES PAID ] 
 U. S. DEPARTMINT OF AGRICULTOREl 
 
 OFFICIAL BUSINESS 
 
 
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UNiVERSIT: Gt ILLiNulS 
 aGRIC‘.JLT!J[sE LlDt^i'vi 
 
 FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 FOR GROUP FEEDING 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 284 
 
 % 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 FOR GROUP FEEDING 
 
 Prepared hy 
 
 Betty Peterkin and Beatrice Evans 
 
 Consumer and Food Economics Research Division 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 284 
 
 This handbook is an expansion and revision of 
 Appendix E of “Planning Food for Institutions/’ 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 16, U.S. Department of Agriculture 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This Handbook presents information helpful to food managers in esti¬ 
 mating quantities of foods to be purchased for group feeding in small and 
 large institutions. Data for food items, including many of the new market 
 forms, are presented for purchase units most commonly used. The latest 
 information on yields from the weight “as purchased” to the weight “as 
 served” was used to derive the estimated number of portions of specified sizes 
 from a purchase unit and the approximate number of purchase units needed 
 to serve 25 and 100 persons. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 Yield and weight data were developed in coopertion with the School 
 Lunch Division, Consumer and Marketing Service, and the Human Nutrition 
 Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, both of the U.S. Department 
 of Agriculture, and the Fish and Wildlife Service of the U.S. Department of the 
 Interior. Basic yield and weight data for many foods used in the preparation 
 of this buying guide for institutions were also used in the preparation of a 
 buying guide including foods and serving sizes appropriate for school lunches 
 under the National School Lunch Program, “Food Buying Guide for Type A 
 School Lunches,” Program Aid 270, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Revised 
 January 1964. 
 
 The authors express their appreciation to Dr. Eloise Gofer, a former 
 member of our staff, now with the Agricultural Extension Service, University 
 of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C. She did much of the original work for this 
 guide. Special thanks are due the many specialists throughout the Department 
 for their contributions. 
 
 USDA ACCEPTANCE SERVICE FOR QUANTITY BUYERS 
 
 The Consumer Marketing Service of the U.S. Department of Agri¬ 
 culture offers a special “acceptance service” to assist food buyers in 
 obtaining large volumes of food products tailored to meet their specific 
 needs. This service can be used in purchasing fresh and processed fruits 
 and vegetables, meats and meat products, poultry and eggs, and dairy 
 products. For further information, write to Deputy Administrator, 
 Marketing Services, Consumer and Marketing Service, U.S. Department 
 of Agricidture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 troduction_ 1 
 
 q)laiiation of terms used_ 1 
 
 jantities to purchase for 25 and 100 portions_ 3 
 
 Table 1.—Meat_ 3 
 
 Table 2.—Combination foods containing meat_ 8 
 
 Table 3.—Poultry_ 10 
 
 Table 4.—Combination foods containing poultry. _ 12 
 
 Table 5.—Fish and shellfish_ 13 
 
 Table 6.—Eggs_ 16 
 
 Table 7.—Nuts_ 17 
 
 Table 8.—Dairy products_ 18 
 
 Table 9.—Vegetables—fresh_ 20 
 
 Table 10.—Vegetables—canned_ 23 
 
 Table 11.—Vegetables—frozen_ 26 
 
 Table 12.—Vegetables—dried_ 28 
 
 Table 13.—Fruits—fresh_ 29 
 
 Table 14.—Fruits—canned_ 32 
 
 Table 15.—Fruits—frozen_ 34 
 
 Table 16.—Fruits—dried_ 36 
 
 Table 17.—Flour, cereals, and mixes_ 37 
 
 Table 18.—Bakery foods_ 40 
 
 Table 19.—Fats and oils_ 41 
 
 Table 20.—Sugar and sweets_ 42 
 
 Table 21.—Beverages_ 43 
 
 Page 
 
 Other useful information for estimating food quan¬ 
 tities_ 44 
 
 Table 22 .—Conversion factors for computing the 
 number of purchase units needed for portions of 
 
 various sizes_ 44 
 
 Table 23.—Cost per portion for food priced from 10 
 
 cents to $2 per purchase unit_ 44 
 
 Table 24.—Beef: Approximate percentage edible 
 meat from the carcass and wholesale cuts of 
 
 Choice, Good, and Standard grades of beef_ 45 
 
 Table 25.—Lamb: Approximate percentage edible 
 meat from the carcass and wholesale cuts of 
 
 Prime, Choice, and Good grades of lamb_ 45 
 
 Table 26.—Pork: Approximate percentage edible 
 meat from the carcass and wholesale trimmed cuts 
 
 from hogs of three weight groups_ 45 
 
 Table 27,—Vegetables and fruits: Approximate 
 amount of canned and frozen product obtained 
 from specified quantities of fresh vegetables and 
 
 fruits_ 46 
 
 Table 28.—Common can and jar sizes_ 48 
 
 Ounce equivalents in decimal parts of pound_ 48 
 
 Approximate scoop equivalents_ 48 
 
 Common food-measure equivalents_ 48 
 
 Government publications available_ 49 
 
 Index of foods in tables 1 though 21_ 51 
 
 ^ihington, D.C, 
 
 Issued June 1965 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 40 cents 
 
 iir 
 
FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE FOR GROUP FEEDING 
 
 repared by Betty Peterkin and Beatrice Evans, Consumer and Food Economics Research Division, Agricultural Research 
 
 Service 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 This food purchasing guide contains informa- 
 lon useful in estimating the number of purchase 
 nits of foods to buy to serve a specific number of 
 ortions. 
 
 Foods have been listed by major groups in 
 ibles 1 through 21. Within each group the 
 idividual foods are arranged alphabetically. For 
 ach purchase unit specified, these data are given: 
 i^eight of the unit of purchase, yield from weight 
 as purchased’’ to weight “as served,” size and 
 escription of portion, number of portions from 
 ach purchase unit, and the approximate number 
 f purchase units needed for 25 and 100 portions. 
 
 Table 22 presents an easy method for computing 
 le number of purchase units needed for portions 
 
 of sizes other than those given in tables 1 through 
 21. Table 23 gives an easy method for finding 
 the cost of a portion of food. 
 
 The yields of edible meat from the carcass of 
 wholesale cuts of beef, lamb, and pork given in 
 tables 24 to 26 are useful to institutions that raise 
 their own meat animals or purchase meat by the 
 carcass or wholesale cuts. The yields of canned 
 and frozen products from fresh vegetables and 
 fruits given in table 27 are useful to institutions 
 that produce and preserve their own vegetables 
 and fruits. 
 
 Table 28 gives the common can and jar sizes, 
 and on page 48 equivalents used frequently by 
 food planners are given. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED 
 
 Food as 'purchased. —Foods are described in the 
 )rms as purchased—fresh, frozen, canned, dried, 
 urther descriptive information that would affect 
 le yield is also given, such as; for meats—bone in, 
 one out; for carrots—with tops, without tops; 
 od for potatoes—to be pared, ready-to-cook. 
 
 Unit of purchase. —Sizes of cans, packages, or 
 ,:her containers and weights of units in common 
 3e in the wholesale and retail markets are given, 
 sually, data for the 1-pound unit are given; from 
 lese the yield of any weight purchase unit can be 
 3termined. 
 
 Weight per unit. —Weights given for purchase 
 nits refer to weights as purchased on the market, 
 egal weights for contents of such units as bushels, 
 igs, crates, and boxes may vary in different 
 Lates. The lowest of these weights is used to 
 isure that the specified portions can be obtained, 
 "eights for canned goods are the same as those 
 ven as net weight on the label. 
 
 Yield as served. —Yield as served refers to the 
 eight of food “as served” as a percentage of 
 eight “as purchased.” Absence of information 
 I this column means a weight yield was not used 
 ) determine the number of portions per purchase 
 nit. 
 
 The same item “as purchased” may have more 
 lan one yield, depending on the way it is served. 
 
 For example, 1 pound of fresh carrots without tops 
 will yield 0.75 pound cooked and 0.82 pound 
 grated raw. 
 
 The yield does not always refer to a serving that 
 is all edible. For example, because pork chops are 
 usually served with bone, the yield given is the 
 percentage of the “as purchased” weight repre¬ 
 sented by the cooked chop with the bone in. On 
 the other hand, the yield of the chuck roast, usually 
 served without bone, is the percentage of the 
 chuck “as purchased”—that is, cooked and served 
 without the bone. For meats, the yield of cooked 
 lean is given in an additional column. 
 
 The amount of ready-to-serve food obtained 
 from a given amount of food “as pm'chased” 
 may vary widely, depending on the size, grade, 
 and general condition of the food, discards in 
 preparation, and the method and time of cooking. 
 For yields given in this Handbook, it is assumed 
 that the food used is in good condition (free of 
 rot, insect infestation, bruising), that only usual 
 amounts are discarded in preparation, and that 
 usual cooking methods and time of cooking for 
 the food specified are used. 
 
 For yields given, discard of inedible material 
 such as bones, pits, and shells, except where 
 otherwise specified, is assumed. Also assumed 
 as discard are some foods that could be eaten 
 but are usually discarded, such as potato parings 
 and outer leaves of vegetables. 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 284, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 The yields presented in these tables were 
 obtained from Agriculture Handbook No. 102, 
 “Food Yields Summarized by Different Stages 
 of Preparation,” and unpublished data from the 
 Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Depart¬ 
 ment of Agriculture and from the Fish and Wild¬ 
 life Service of the U.S. Department of the Interior. 
 Yields for commercially prepared meat combina¬ 
 tions (table 2) are based on minimum meat 
 requirements for meat food products packed for 
 interstate shipment under Federal inspection. 
 Contents of cooked poultrj^ meat in poultry 
 products are based on regulations governing the 
 inspection of poultry and poultry products, 
 effective January 1, 1965. 
 
 Size and description of portion. —Weight or 
 volume of portion commonly used is given. 
 This ])ortion for most foods refers to the amount 
 served. For foods often used in combination 
 with other foods, such as canned milk, nonfat 
 dry milk, eggs, nuts, flour, and uncooked cereals, 
 a portion refers to a measure commonly called 
 for in institution recipes. 
 
 For meat, poultry, and fish, data for two sizes 
 of portions are given. The larger portion may 
 be appropriate for an adult serving; the smaller 
 may be sufficient for a child’s meal or a luncheon 
 menu. The size of meat portions is given (1) in 
 ounces of cooked meat as served including fat 
 and, in some cases, bone; and (2) in ounces of 
 cooked lean only. 
 
 For vegetables and fruits, the portion size is 
 generally the weight of cup rounded to the near¬ 
 est ounce. It is assumed that canned, cooked 
 fresh, and cooked dried fruits are served with 
 sirup, and that heated canned vegetables and 
 cooked fresh and frozen vegetables are served 
 drained. It is assumed that solid-pack fruits are 
 served without liquid. 
 
 Institutions that use a different portion size 
 than those given may adjust the amount to 
 purchase by the method given in table 22. 
 
 Portions per purchase unit. —In obtaining the 
 portions per purchase unit or the yield of a pur¬ 
 
 chase unit in portions, average quantities ( 
 refuse and usual weight losses in cooking ai 
 assumed. The number of portions may var 
 from that shown if the condition of the foo 
 purchased is poor or unusual waste occurs i 
 preparation and cooking. 
 
 To obtain the number of units to purchase, th 
 number of portions per purchase unit can b 
 divided into the number of persons to be servec 
 This may be the most practical method of compul 
 ing the amount to purchase if the institution dot 
 not serve 25 or 100 persons or easy multiples c 
 these numbers of persons. 
 
 For example, if 1 pound of meat will serve 2.5 
 portions of the size desired, the food manager c 
 an institution serving 580 persons may divide 58 
 by 2.57 to get the amount of meat needed—22 
 pounds. It is because of such use of these figures 
 and not because the figures represent this degre 
 of accuracy, that they have been carried to th 
 nearest one-hundredth of a portion. Had th 
 portions per pound of meat been rounded to th 
 nearest number of portions per pound (3), th 
 food manager would purchase only 193 pounds c 
 meat—33 pounds short of the best estimate of hi 
 needs. 
 
 The number of portions per purchase unit ca 
 be used with the cost of the purchase unit an 
 table 23 in obtaining the cost for one portion. 
 
 Approximate purchase units for 25 and 10 
 portions. —These columns represent 25 and 10 
 divided by the number of portions per purchas 
 unit in the preceding column. The resultin 
 number of purchase units is always carried to th 
 next even one-quarter (K) unit. Thus, the nun 
 ber of purchase units specified is always sufficien 
 if the yield and portion size are as shown in th 
 table. If the purchase units serve many portions 
 such as a bushel of apples or a No. 10 can of veg( 
 tables, this purchase unit may be very signif 
 cant. If the purchase unit serves few portions a 
 in the case of a pound of meat, the % purchas 
 unit is relatively unimportant. 
 
Table 1.—MEAT 
 
 FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 
 t-4 
 
 ^ 0 
 
 Q) <*-• 
 
 "S ® 
 
 d ^ 
 
 100 
 
 portions 
 
 ^ i-H 1-H 
 
 l^co 
 
 c-» 
 
 :5: 
 
 <» CD 00 
 TfC CO CO CM 
 
 tocDcDl>(N(MI>00 
 
 (N>-HiMHHCOeO(N>-H^ 
 
 00 CD !>. 00 
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 N.M 
 
 »Hrx 
 
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 CD to 
 
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 CO(M TjctOcDl^ 
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 s a 
 
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 O. o3 
 
 < « 
 
 25 
 
 portions 
 
 Number 
 
 lOK 
 
 8 
 
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 v.^ 
 
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 0'^0'^00c0t>'*t 
 
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 .2 
 
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 per 
 
 rcha 
 
 unit 
 
 -0 . . 
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 S 
 
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 CM CO (M CO 
 
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 0 
 
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 3 
 
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Table 1.—MEAT—Continued 
 
 6 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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Table 2.—COMBINATION FOODS CONTAINING MEAT 
 
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Table 5.—FISH AND SHELLFISH—Continued 
 
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Table 6 .—EGGS 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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Table 7.— NUTS 
 
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 FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 
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Table 8.—DAIRY PRODUCTS 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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Table 9.—VEGETABLES—FKESH 
 
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Table 10. — VEGETABLES—CANNED—Continued 
 
 24 
 
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Table 13.—FRUITS—FRESH—Continued 
 
 I 
 
 30 
 
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 37 
 
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Table 17.—FLOUR, CEREALS, AND MIXES—Continued 
 
 38 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 4, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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44 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION FOR ESTIMATING FOOD QUANTITIES 
 
 Table 22 . Conversion jactors for computing the number of purchase units needed for portions of 
 
 sizes 
 
 Portion size given 
 in purchase tables 
 (ounces) 
 
 1 . 
 
 2 . 
 
 3- 
 
 4. 
 
 5- 
 
 6 . 
 
 7. 
 
 8 . 
 
 Conversion factors for specified portion size, ounces 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 2 . 00 
 
 3. 00 
 
 4. 00 
 
 5. 00 
 
 6 . 00 
 
 7. 00 
 
 8 . 00 
 
 9. 00 
 
 . 50 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1. 50 
 
 2 . 00 
 
 2. 50 
 
 3. 00 
 
 3. 50 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 50 
 
 . 33 
 
 . 67 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1. 33 
 
 1. 67 
 
 2 . 00 
 
 2. 33 
 
 2. 67 
 
 3. 00 
 
 . 25 
 
 . 50 
 
 . 75 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1. 25 
 
 1. 50 
 
 1 . 75 
 
 2 . 00 
 
 2. 25 
 
 . 20 
 
 . 40 
 
 . 60 
 
 . 80 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1 . 20 
 
 1. 40 
 
 1 . 60 
 
 1 . 80 
 
 . 17 
 
 . 33 
 
 . 50 
 
 . 67 
 
 . 83 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1. 17 
 
 1. 33 
 
 1. 50 
 
 . 14 
 
 . 29 
 
 . 43 
 
 . 57 
 
 . 71 
 
 . 86 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1. 14 
 
 1. 29 
 
 . 12 
 
 . 25 
 
 . 38 
 
 . 50 
 
 . 62 
 
 . 75 
 
 . 88 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1 . 12 1 
 
 1 ( 
 
 10 
 
 ir 
 
 IK 
 
 I’j 
 
 -H 
 
 How To Use Table 22 : 
 
 This table is to be used to help determine the number 
 of purchase units if the size of portion is different from 
 that specified in tables 1 to 21 . For example, for 3- 
 ounce portions of snap beans, five No. 10 cans are required 
 (table 10 ); for other size portions, conversion factors in 
 this table can be used to determine the number of No. 10 
 cans required. 
 
 The figures in the left-hand column of the conversion 
 table represent the portion sizes given in tables 1 to 21 . 
 The figures across the top represent portion sizes that 
 may be desired. If a 4:-ounce instead of a 3-ounce portion 
 
 o-ounce line in the left-hand column of the conveni 
 table. Follow this line across to the factor in the 4-oum 
 column. Multiply this factor (1.33) by the numbeni 
 purchase units (five No. 10 cans) given in table 10 s 
 100. Thus: 5 (No. 10 cans) X 1.33=6.65 No. 10 ca 
 (round to 6 ^ No. 10 cans) to serve 100 people each £K 
 ounce portion. 
 
 _ Portion sizes in the purchase tables are sometimes gi i 
 m terms of tablespoons, cups, slices, etc. Any of tin 
 measures can be substituted for ounces in this converse 
 table and the same computations performed. 
 
 Table 2^.—Cost per portion for food priced from 10 cents to $2 per purchase unit 
 
 Price per purchase 
 unit (cents) 
 
 Cost per portion for indicated portions per purchase unit 
 
 10 . 
 
 15. 
 
 20 . 
 
 25- 
 
 30- 
 
 35. 
 
 40. 
 
 45- 
 
 50. 
 
 60. 
 
 70- 
 
 80- 
 
 90- 
 
 100 . 
 
 110 . 
 
 120 . 
 
 130. 
 
 140- 
 
 150- 
 
 160. 
 
 170. 
 
 180. 
 
 190. 
 
 200 . 
 
 How To Use Table 23: 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 -—!- 
 
 24 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 Cents 
 
 - 1 - 
 
 Ce.nts 
 
 2. 5 
 
 1. 7 
 
 1 . 2 
 
 1 . 0 
 
 0 . 8 
 
 0 . 6 
 
 0. 5 
 
 (J 
 
 3. 8 
 
 2. 5 
 
 1. 9 
 
 1. 5 
 
 1 . 2 
 
 . 9 
 
 g 
 
 
 5. 0 
 
 3. 3 
 
 2. 5 
 
 2 . 0 
 
 1. 7 
 
 1 . 2 
 
 1 0 
 
 
 6 . 2 
 
 4. 2 
 
 3. 1 
 
 2. 5 
 
 2 . 1 
 
 1 . 6 
 
 1 . 2 
 
 ]) 
 
 7. 5 
 
 5. 0 
 
 3. 8 
 
 3. 0 
 
 2. 5 
 
 1. 9 
 
 1. 5 
 
 ]J 
 
 8 . 8 
 
 5. 8 
 
 4. 4 
 
 3. 5 
 
 2. 9 
 
 2 . 2 
 
 1 8 
 
 i; 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 6 . 7 
 
 5. 0 
 
 4. 0 
 
 3. 3 
 
 2. 5 
 
 2 0 
 
 ]■ 
 
 11 . 2 
 
 7. 5 
 
 5. 6 
 
 4. 5 
 
 3. 7 
 
 2 . 8 
 
 2 . 2 
 
 ]) 
 
 12. 5 
 
 8 . 3 
 
 6 . 2 
 
 5. 0 
 
 4. 2 
 
 3. 1 
 
 2 5 
 
 5 
 
 15. 0 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 7. 5 
 
 6 . 0 
 
 5. 0 
 
 3. 8 
 
 3. 0 
 
 2 i 
 
 17. 5 
 
 11. 7 
 
 8 . 8 
 
 7. 0 
 
 5. 8 
 
 4. 4 
 
 3 5 
 
 21 
 
 20 . 0 
 
 13. 3 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 8 . 0 
 
 6 . 7 
 
 5. 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 .S' 
 
 22. 5 
 
 15. 0 
 
 11 . 2 
 
 9. 0 
 
 7. 5 
 
 5. 6 
 
 4 5 
 
 3 
 
 25. 0 
 
 16. 7 
 
 12. 5 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 8 . 3 
 
 6 . 2 
 
 5 0 
 
 4 ; 
 
 27. 5 
 
 18. 3 
 
 13. 8 
 
 11 . 0 
 
 9. 2 
 
 6 . 9 
 
 5. 5 
 
 4 
 
 30. 0 
 
 20 . 0 
 
 15. 0 
 
 12 . 0 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 7. 5 
 
 6 0 
 
 5 
 
 32. 5 
 
 21. 7 
 
 16. 2 
 
 13. 0 
 
 10 . 8 
 
 8 . 1 
 
 6 5 
 
 5 
 
 35. 0 
 
 23. 3 
 
 17. 5 
 
 14. 0 
 
 11. 7 
 
 8 . 8 
 
 7 0 
 
 5 
 
 37. 5 
 
 25. 0 
 
 18. 8 
 
 15. 0 
 
 12. 5 
 
 9. 4 
 
 7 5 
 
 6 ' 
 
 40. 0 
 
 26. 7 
 
 20 . 0 
 
 16. 0 
 
 13. 3 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 8 . 0 
 
 6 
 
 42. 5 
 
 28. 3 
 
 21 . 2 
 
 17. 0 
 
 14. 2 
 
 10 . 6 
 
 8 5 
 
 7 
 
 45. 0 
 
 30. 0 
 
 22. 5 
 
 18. 0 
 
 15. 0 
 
 11 . 2 
 
 9 0 
 
 7 
 
 47. 5 
 
 31. 7 
 
 23. 8 
 
 19. 0 
 
 15. 8 
 
 11. 9 
 
 9 5 
 
 7 
 
 50. 0 1 
 
 33. 3 
 
 25. 0 
 
 20 . 0 
 
 16. 7 
 
 12. 5 
 
 10 . 0 
 
 8 . 
 
 Determine the number of portions per unit of purchase 
 through use of the food item or from the column “Por¬ 
 tions per purchase unit,” in appropriate table. Locate 
 the column in the table above that is nearest to that 
 
 number. Then locate in that column the number horizo 
 tal to the price paid for the purchase unit in the left-hai 
 column. This number represents the approximate cost 
 a portion. 
 
FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 
 45 
 
 ble 24.—BEEF: Approximate percentage oj edible meat ^ from the carcass and wholesale cuts of Choice, 
 
 Good, and Standard grades oj beef 
 
 [Steers ranging from 11 to 21 months in age] 
 
 Beef 
 
 Grade of carcass 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Standard 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 85 
 
 Percent 
 
 84 
 
 Percent 
 
 82 
 
 lolesale cuts: 
 
 88 
 
 87 
 
 85 
 
 
 86 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Pnrpshank _ _ - - -- -- 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 r.nin pnH __ _ _ — 
 
 89 
 
 88 
 
 86 
 
 Round TiinHshflnk' _ — 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 82 
 
 Hiimn knuckle out _ _ _ _ - - — 
 
 87 
 
 86 
 
 84 
 
 ^hort, loin _ _ 
 
 90 
 
 89 
 
 87 
 
 ^tnuHinv rib _ __ 
 
 85 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 nlQt.A 
 
 90 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 The remaining percentage of beef consists of bone, ligament, and tendon. 
 
 BLE 25.—LAMB: Approximate percentage oj edible meat ^ from the carcass and wholesale cuts oj Prime, 
 
 Choice, and Good grades oj lamb 
 
 Lamb 
 
 rcass_ 
 
 lolesale cuts: 
 Breast and flank. 
 
 .eg- 
 
 join_ 
 
 'Jeck_ 
 
 iB.ib cut (9 ribs)- 
 Shoulder (3 ribs) 
 
 Grade of carcass 
 
 Prime 
 
 Choice 
 
 Good 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 86 
 
 83 
 
 82 
 
 89 
 
 86 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 87 
 
 86 
 
 79 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 80 
 
 87 
 
 85 
 
 84 
 
 * The remaining percentage of lamb consists of bone and ligament. 
 
 iBLE 26.—PORK: Approximate percentage oj edible meat ^ from the carcass and wholesale trimmed cuts 
 
 from hogs oj 3 weight groups 
 
 Pork 
 
 rcass_ 
 
 • lolesale cuts: 
 
 Bacon... 
 
 dam_ 
 
 dead, full cut_ 
 
 Loin_ 
 
 Shoulder, full cut 
 
 Bhoulder, ribs_ 
 
 Spareribs_ 
 
 , The remaining percentage consists of bone and skin. 
 
 !' The average yield of lard per hog slaughtered is 14 
 •cent per 100 pounds live weight. This percentage in- 
 
 Weight of carcass 2 
 
 200 pounds 
 live, 158 
 pounds dressed 
 
 225 pounds 
 live, 178 
 pounds dressed 
 
 250 pounds 
 live, 197 
 pounds dressed 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 53 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 40 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 58 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 eludes lard and rendered pork fat, and excludes bacon and 
 
 salt pork. 
 
46 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 
 47 
 
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48 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 84, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 28. —Common can and jar sizes 
 
 Container 
 
 Can size (Industry 
 term) 
 
 8 ounces_ 
 
 No. I picnic.. 
 No. 300_ 
 
 No. 303_ 
 
 No. 2_ 
 
 No. 2)^_ 
 
 No. 3 cylinder 
 
 No. 10_ 
 
 Consumer description 
 
 Average net weight or fluid 
 
 Average 
 
 Cans per 
 
 measure per can i (check label) 
 
 cups per 
 
 case 
 
 
 can 
 
 
 8 ounces__ __ . _ 
 
 Number 
 
 Number 
 
 1 
 
 48 and 72 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 10)4 to 12 ounces_ 
 
 lYi 
 
 lYi 
 
 2 
 
 14 to 16 ounces.. _ _ 
 
 16 to 17 ounces__ __ 
 
 1 pound, 4 ounces (20 ounces) 
 
 2Y 
 
 or 1 pint, 2 fluid ounces (18 
 fluid ounces). 
 
 
 
 1 pound, 13 ounces (29 ounces)__ 
 
 3H 
 
 24 
 
 3 pounds, 3 ounces (51 ounces) 
 
 SYi 
 
 12 
 
 or 1 quart, 14 fluid ounces 
 (46 fluid ounces). 
 
 
 
 6 pounds, 8 ounces (104 ounces) 
 
 12 to 13 
 
 6 
 
 to 7 pounds, 5 ounces Q17 
 ounces). 
 
 
 
 Principal products 
 
 Small cans—ready-to-.serve soups, 
 fruits, and vegetables. 
 
 Small cans—condensed soups, some 
 fruits, vegetables, meat, and fish. 
 
 Small cans—fruits, vegetables, somt 
 meat and poultry products, and 
 ready-to-serve soups. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Family size—juices, ready-to-serve 
 soups, and some fruits. 
 
 Family size—fruits and some vege¬ 
 tables. 
 
 “Economy family size”—fruit and 
 vegetable juices. Institutional 
 size—condensed soups, some 
 vegetables, and meat and poultry 
 products. 
 
 Institutional size—fruits, vegetables 
 and some other foods. 
 
 1 The label on one product may show net weight that 
 differs slightly from the label on another product in cans 
 or jars of identical size. (An example would be lima beans 
 
 (1 pound) and blueberries (14 ounces) in the same si. 
 can.) 
 
 Source: National Canners Association. 
 
 Ounces 
 
 1 _ 
 
 0 . 
 
 3lI"I 
 
 4 _ 
 
 5 _ 
 
 6 _ 
 
 7 _ 
 
 8 _ 
 
 Ounce equivalents in decimal parts of pound 
 
 Pound 
 0 . 06 
 . 12 
 . 19 
 . 25 
 . 31 
 . 38 
 . 44 
 . 50 
 
 Ounces 
 
 9_ 
 
 10_ 
 
 11 _ 
 
 12 _ 
 
 13 _ 
 
 14 _ 
 
 15 _ 
 
 16 _ 
 
 Poui 
 
 P 
 
 • t. 
 
 .( 
 
 .f 
 
 . i 
 
 .t 
 
 l.( 
 
 Scoop No.^ 
 
 6_ 
 
 8 _ 
 
 10 _ 
 
 12 _ 
 
 16_ 
 
 Approximate scoop equivalents 
 
 Level measure 
 
 - % cup 
 
 - }i cup 
 
 - % cup 
 
 - Yz cup 
 
 - Yi cup 
 
 Scoop No A 
 
 20 _ 
 
 24_ 
 
 30_ 
 
 40_ 
 
 Level measu 
 3)4 tablespoor 
 2 % tablespoor 
 tablespoor 
 lYs tablespoor 
 
 > A serving spoon may be used to replace a scoop. 
 Since serving spoons are not identified by number, it is 
 necessary to measure or weigh the quantity of food from 
 
 sizes of spoons used to obtain the approximate serving sis 
 desired. 
 
 3 teaspoons.. 
 2 tablespoons 
 
 4 tablespoons 
 6 tablespoons 
 8 tablespoons 
 
 Common food-measure equivalents 
 
 1 tablespoon 
 1 fluid ounce 
 Yi cup 
 Yz cup 
 Yi cup 
 
 16 tablespoons 
 
 1 cup_ 
 
 2 cups_ 
 
 2 pints_ 
 
 1 cup 
 
 8 fluid ounces 
 1 pint 
 1 quart 
 
FOOD PURCHASING GUIDE 
 
 49 
 
 GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE^ 
 
 00(1 Preparation 
 
 asic fish cookery. USDI Test Kitchen Series 2, 
 26 pp. 1948. 
 
 >ry beans, peas, lentils . . . modern cookery. 
 USDA Leaflet 326, 24 pp. (Rev. 1957.) 
 
 'ggs in family meals—a guide for consumers. 
 USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 103, 
 32 pp. 1965. 
 
 'reen vegetables for good eating. USDA Home and 
 Garden Bulletin No. 41, 16 pp., iUus. (Rev. 
 1964.) 
 
 low to cook clams. USDI Test Kitchen Series 8, 
 14 pp. 1953. 
 
 ^.ow to cook crabs. USDI Test Kitchen Series 10, 
 14 pp. 1956. 
 
 low to cook lobster. USDI Test Kitchen Series 11, 
 14 pp. 1957. 
 
 ^.ow to cook oysters. USDI Test Kitchen Series 3, 
 12 pp. 1953. 
 
 low to cook scallops. USDI Test Kitchen Series 
 13, 17 pp. 1959. 
 
 ^.ow to cook shrimp. USDI Test Kitchen Series 7, 
 14 pp. 1952. 
 
 [eatfor thrifty meals. USDA Home and Garden 
 ' Bulletin No. 27, 47 pp., iUus. (Rev. 1963.) 
 20 cents. 
 
 'otatoes in popular ways. USDA Home and 
 Garden Bulletin No. 55, 22 pp. 1957. 
 
 ^oot vegetables in everyday meals. USDA Home 
 and Garden Bulletin No. 33, 12 pp. 1961. 
 'omatoes on your table. USDA Leaflet 278, 15 
 pp. (Rev. 1964.) 
 
 ood Purchasing 
 
 resh and frozen fish buying manual. USDI 
 Circular 20, 50 pp. 1954. 
 hopper's guide to U.S. grades for food. USDA 
 Home and Garden Bulletin No. 58, 13 pp. 
 (Slightly rev. 1964.) 
 
 ^ Publications indicated for sale may be obtained only 
 om the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government 
 rinting Office, Washington, D.C., 20402; USDI publica- 
 ons may be obtained from the Bureau of Commercial 
 isheries, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, 
 '.C., 20240; USDA publications may be obtained from 
 le Office of Information, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 /’ashington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 Home Canning and Freezing 
 
 Home canning of fruits and vegetables. USDA 
 Home and Garden Bulletin No. 8, 48 pp., 
 illus, (Rev. 1964.) 
 
 Home canning of meat. USDA Home and Garden 
 Bulletin No. 6, 16 pp., illus. (Rev. 1958.) 
 
 Home freezing of fruits and vegetables. USDA 
 Home and Garden Bulletin No. 10, 48 pp., 
 illus. (Rev. 1964.) 
 
 Home freezing of poultry. USDA Home and 
 Garden Bulletin No. 70, 24 pp. (SI. rev. 
 1964.) 
 
 Nutrition 
 
 Food for fitness ... a daily food guide. USDA 
 Leaflet 424, 8 pp. (Rev. 1964.) 
 
 Food for groups of young children cared for during 
 the day. U.S. Children’s Bureau Pub. No. 386, 
 58 pp. 1960. 25 cents. 
 
 Foods your children need. U.S. Children’s Bureau 
 Unnumbered, 15 pp. 1958. 10 cents. 
 
 Nutrition and healthy growth. U.S. Children’s Bu¬ 
 reau Pub. No. 352, 35 pp. 1955. 20 cents. 
 
 Nutrition up to date . . . up to you. Reprint 
 from USDA Home and Garden Bulletin No. 1, 
 Family Fare, Separate 1, 28 pp., illus. (Rev. 
 1960.) 
 
 Nutritive value of foods. USDA Home and Garden 
 Bulletin No. 72, 30 pp. (Rev. 1964.) 
 
 Quantity Food Service 
 
 A guide for planning and equipping school lunch¬ 
 rooms. USDA Program Aid 292, 60 pp. 1956. 
 35 cents. 
 
 Fish cookery for one hundred. USDI Test Kitchen 
 Series 1, 44 pp. 1950. 
 
 Fish recipes for school lunches. USDI Test Kitch¬ 
 en Series 5, 15 pp. (Rev. 1959.) 
 
 Food buying guide for type A school lunches. 
 USDA Program Aid 270, 75 pp. 1964. $1.25. 
 
 Quantity recipes for type A school lunches {card 
 file). USDA Program Aid 631. 
 
 Recipes for quantity service. USDA Home Eco¬ 
 nomics Research Report No. 5, 225 pp. 1958. 
 $2.50. 
 
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INDEX OF FOODS IN TABLES I THROUGH 21 
 
 Page 
 
 monels- 17 
 
 pple butter, canned- 42 
 
 ople juice, canned- 32 
 
 oples: 
 
 canned_ 32 
 
 dried_ 36 
 
 fresh_ 29 
 
 frozen_ 34 
 
 Dplesauce: 
 
 canned_- 32 
 
 dried_ 36 
 
 pricots: 
 
 canned_ 32 
 
 dried_ 36 
 
 fresh_ 29 
 
 frozen_ 34 
 
 ^paragus: 
 
 canned_ 23 
 
 fresh_ 20 
 
 frozen_ 26 
 
 v'oeados, fresh_ 29 
 
 icon_ 5 
 
 inanas, fresh_ 29 
 
 ^ans, butter (lima) frozen_ 26 
 
 ^ans, dried: 
 
 canned_ 23 
 
 raw_ 28 
 
 ?ans, lima, green: 
 
 canned_ 23 
 
 fresh_ 20 
 
 frozen_ 26 
 
 'ans, snap, green or wax: 
 
 canned_ 23 
 
 fresh_ 20 
 
 frozen_ 26 
 
 *an sprouts, canned_ 23 
 
 ians with frankfurters in sauce, canned_ 8 
 
 ‘ans with ham in sauce, canned_ 8 
 
 ‘ans with meat in chili sauce, canned_ 8 
 
 .‘ef: 
 
 canned_ 5 
 
 dried_ 5 
 
 fresh or frozen_ 3 
 
 ief goulash: 
 
 canned_ 8 
 
 frozen_ 8 
 
 'ef stew, canned_ 8 
 
 ?ef with barbecue sauce, canned_ 8 
 
 ief with gravy, canned_ 8 
 
 ;et greens, fresh_ 20 
 
 ‘ets: 
 
 canned_ 23 
 
 fresh_ 20 
 
 scuit mix_ 39 
 
 ackberries: 
 
 canned_ 32 
 
 fresh_ 29 
 
 frozen_ 34 
 
 ackeye peas: 
 
 fresh__ 20 
 
 frozen__ 26 
 
 •ueberries: 
 
 canned_ 32 
 
 fresh_ 29 
 
 frozen_ 34 
 
 Jysenberries, canned_ 32 
 
 Bran flakes_ 
 
 Bran flakes with raisins_ 
 
 Brazil nuts_ 
 
 Bread_ 
 
 Broccoli: 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Brunswick stew, canned- 
 
 Brussel sprouts: 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Bulgar, cracked wheat_ 
 
 Butter_ 
 
 Cabbage, Chinese, fresh- 
 
 Cabbage, fresh_ 
 
 Cake: 
 
 mixes_ 
 
 ready-to-eat_ 
 
 Canadian bacon_ 
 
 Cantaloup, fresh_ 
 
 Carbonated drinks_ 
 
 Carrots: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Cashew nuts_ 
 
 Cauliflower: 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Celery, fresh_ 
 
 Cereals: 
 
 ready-to-eat_ 
 
 uncooked_ 
 
 Chard, fresh_ 
 
 Cheese: 
 
 Cheddar_ 
 
 cottage_ 
 
 cream_ 
 
 processed_ 
 
 Cherries: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Chestnuts_ 
 
 Chicken: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh or frozen_ 
 
 Chicken combinations, canned or frozen: 
 
 a la king_ 
 
 burgers_ 
 
 cacciatore_ 
 
 chop suey_ 
 
 chow mein_ 
 
 creamed_ 
 
 fricassee_ 
 
 minced, barbecue- 
 
 noodles or dumplings- 
 
 potpie_ 
 
 sliced with gravy- 
 
 stew_ 
 
 tamales_ 
 
 Chicken parts, fresh or frozen- 
 
 Chicory_ 
 
 Chili con came, canned- 
 
 Chili con came with beans, canned- 
 
 Chili mac, canned- 
 
 Page 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 17 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 37 
 
 41 
 20 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 18 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 51 
 
52 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Chop suey or chow mein vegetables with meat: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Chop suey vegetables, canned_ 
 
 Clam chowder_ 
 
 Clam juice_ 
 
 Clams: 
 
 fresh (live in shell)_ 
 
 fresh or frozen, shucked_ 
 
 frozen, breaded_' 
 
 minced_ 
 
 Cocoa_ 
 
 Coconut_~ 
 
 Cod, dried_ 
 
 Coffee_I'I_' 
 
 Collards: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_II_I~ 
 
 frozen_ ~~ 
 
 Cookies: 
 
 mixes_ 
 
 ready-to-eat_ 
 
 Corn: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_I_ "I" 
 
 frozen_ _ 
 
 Corn flakes_ 
 
 Corn grits_II_III.” I 
 
 Cornmeal_ I.I'I _ 
 
 Crabcakes, frozen_ 
 
 Crabmeat: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh or frozen_ 
 
 Crabs: 
 
 fresh (live in shell)_ 
 
 fresh or frozen (cooked in shell) _ _ 
 
 Crackers_ 
 
 Cranberries: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_11.II. Ill 
 
 Cranberry juice_ ” ” _ 
 
 Cream_' 
 
 Cucumbers, fresh_I.IIII.””II” 
 
 Dates, dried_ ~~ 
 
 Desserts, dry_ 
 
 Duck, fresh or frozen_I I .”II 
 
 Eggplant_ III”."1.1.1 
 
 Eggs-III.nil. ” I”"” 
 
 Endive_ 
 
 Escarole_ ”11111 
 
 Farina_II”.. II 
 
 Figs: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_I 
 
 Filberts_ 
 
 Fish: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 dried_I.IIII””I”.”II”I 
 
 fresh or frozen: 
 
 drawn_ 
 
 dressed_I. Ill II 
 
 fillets_ III”.'II 
 
 steaks_I I~I”~ 
 
 whole or round_~ 
 
 Fish (portions), frozen: 
 
 breaded_ 
 
 unbreaded_111.11 .II 
 
 Fish sticks, breaded_ 
 
 Flour_II..I””.” I” ”” 
 
 Frankfurters_ 
 
 Frosting mixes_ Il l'll ” 
 
 Fruit cocktail or salad: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 dried_IIIIII” I 
 
 Fruit juices. (See specific kind.) 
 
 Gefiltefish, canned_ 
 
 Page 
 
 9 Gelatin, flavored_ 
 
 9 Goose, fresh or frozen_ 
 
 23 Grapefruit: 
 
 14 canned sections_ 
 
 14 fresh_ 
 
 fresh segments_ 
 
 14 frozen sections_ 
 
 15 Grapefruit juice: 
 
 15 canned_ 
 
 14 frozen concentrate_ 
 
 43 Grape juice, frozen concentrate_ 
 
 17 Grapes, fresh_ 
 
 13 Hash, beef, canned_ 
 
 43 Honey_ 
 
 Honeydew melon_ 
 
 23 Hot bread mixes_ 
 
 20 Ice cream_ I_I.II 
 
 26 Jam__ 
 
 Jelly_ 
 
 39 Kale: 
 
 40 canned_ 
 
 fresh_I III 
 
 23 frozen_ 
 
 20 Kohlrabi, fresh_ 
 
 26 Lamb, fresh or frozen_ 
 
 38 Lamb stew, canned_ 
 
 37 Lard_ 
 
 37 Lemonade, frozen concentrate_ 
 
 15 Lemon juice: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 frozen concentrate_ 
 
 15 Lemons, fresh_ 
 
 Lentils_HI 
 
 14 Lettuce_IIII” 
 
 15 Lime juice, canned_I 
 
 40 Limes, fresh_I_ 
 
 Lobster, fresh or frozen (cooked in shell)”.”.' 
 
 32 Lobster meat, fresh or frozen_ 
 
 29 Lobster, spiny tails, frozen_I 
 
 32 Luncheon meats (all meat varieties)_I 
 
 18 Macaroni_ 
 
 21 Macaroni and beef in tomato sauce, canned 
 
 36 Mackerel, canned_ 
 
 42 Mangoes_ I._” 
 
 11 Margarine_III” 
 
 21 Marmalade_ 
 
 16 Meatballs with gravy: 
 
 21 canned_ 
 
 21 frozen_^ 
 
 37 Alelon, honeydew_ 
 
 Melon scoops, frozen.. 
 
 32 Milk_IIII.II.I! 
 
 29 Mixes: 
 
 17 cake_ 
 
 cookie_ H 
 
 13 frosting_IIII.I 
 
 13 hot bread_IIII. 
 
 piecrust_HI 
 
 13 Molasses_IIII” 
 
 13 Muffin mix_H 
 
 13 Mushrooms: 
 
 13 canned_ 
 
 13 fresh_HI 
 
 Mustard greens: 
 
 14 canned_ 
 
 14 fresh_HI” 
 
 14 frozen_ 
 
 37 Noodles_III "I” 
 
 7 Noodles with chicken, canned 
 
 38 Nuts_ Ilimillllll 
 
 Oats, rolled_IIII.” 
 
 33 Okra: 
 
 36 canned_ 
 
 fresh_III 111. II 
 
 13 frozen_ 
 
INDEX 
 
 53 
 
 Page 
 
 id tomatoes, canned- 23 
 
 canned- 24 
 
 ined_ 24 
 
 ed_ 28 
 
 3h: 
 
 green_ 21 
 
 mature- 21 
 
 juice; 
 
 ined_ 33 
 
 zen concentrate- 35 
 
 3h_ 30 
 
 sh segments_ 30 
 
 ndarin, canned_ 33 
 
 med_ 14 
 
 sh (live in shell)_ 15 
 
 sh or frozen, shucked_— 15 
 
 zen, breaded_ 15 
 
 I stew_ 14 
 
 _ 21 
 
 s_ 21 
 
 Ir. 
 
 med_ 33 
 
 ed_ 36 
 
 sh_ 30 
 
 zen_ 35 
 
 ced_ 33 
 
 i butter_ 17 
 
 13_ 17 
 
 med_ 33 
 
 sh_ 30 
 
 ried_ 28 
 
 reen; 
 
 ined_ 24 
 
 sh_ 21 
 
 zen_ 27 
 
 id carrots: 
 
 med_ 24 
 
 zen_ 27 
 
 ;- 17 
 
 ^3, green; 
 
 sh.___ 21 
 
 zen_ 27 
 
 (relish_ 24 
 
 (_ 24 
 
 iidy-to-eat_ 41 
 
 t mix_ 39 
 
 ng, fruit. (See appropriate fruit.) 
 
 ng, mix_ 43 
 
 itos, canned_ 24 
 
 ^ple: 
 
 med_ 33 
 
 sh_ 31 
 
 ■zen_ 35 
 
 pie juice: 
 
 med_ 33 
 
 I'zen concentrate_ 35 
 
 taned_ 33 
 
 [sh_ 31 
 
 laned_ 6 
 
 I red_ 5 
 
 Ish_ 6 
 
 ith barbecue sauce: 
 
 mned_ 9 
 
 i'waxed tub_ 9 
 
 ith gravy, canned_ 9 
 
 128 : 
 
 mned_ 24 
 
 • ied__ 28 
 
 Potatoes—Continued 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Prunes: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 dried_ 
 
 Pudding, instant mix_ 
 
 Pudding mix-- 
 
 Pumpkin: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 Radishes_ 
 
 Raisins_ 
 
 Raspberries: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Ravioli with meat in sauce, canned- 
 
 Rhubarb: 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Rice_ 
 
 Rice, puffed_ 
 
 Rice flakes_ 
 
 Rolls: 
 
 mix_ 
 
 ready-to-eat_ 
 
 Rutabagas, fresh_ 
 
 Salad dressing_ 
 
 Salad oil_ 
 
 Salmon, canned_ 
 
 Sardines, canned: 
 
 Maine_ 
 
 Pacific_ 
 
 Sauerkraut, canned- 
 
 Sausage- 
 
 Scallops: 
 
 fresh or frozen, shucked_ 
 
 frozen, breaded_ 
 
 Sherbet_ 
 
 Shortening_ 
 
 Shrimp; 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh or frozen (cooked and raw)_ 
 
 frozen, breaded- 
 
 Sirup: 
 
 blends_ 
 
 corn_ 
 
 maple_ 
 
 Soups; 
 
 canned_ 
 
 condensed_ 
 
 ready-to-serve_ 
 
 Spaghetti- 
 
 Spaghetti with meatbaUs and sauce, canned 
 Spinach: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Split peas_ 
 
 Squash, summer: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Squash, winter: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Strawberries: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Succotash: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Sugar- 
 
 Page 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 41 
 22 
 41 
 41 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 24 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 41 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 15 
 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 
 25 
 25 
 25 
 37 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 27 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 42 
 
INDEX 
 
 54 
 
 Sweetpotatoes: Page 
 
 canned_ 25 
 
 dried_ 28 
 
 fresh_ 22 
 
 frozen_ 27 
 
 Tamales, frozen_ 9 
 
 Tamales with gravy or sauce, canned_ 9 
 
 Tangerine juice, frozen concentrate_ 35 
 
 Tangerines, fresh_ 31 
 
 Tea- 43 
 
 Tomatoes: 
 
 canned_ 25 
 
 fresh_ 22 
 
 Tomato products: 
 
 catsup_ 25 
 
 chili sauce_ 25 
 
 juice, concentrate_ 25 
 
 Tuna, canned_ 13 
 
 Turkey: 
 
 canned_ H 
 
 fresh or frozen_ H 
 
 stuffed, whole, frozen_ 11 
 
 Turkey combinations, canned or frozen: 
 
 a la king_ 12 
 
 creamed_’’ 12 
 
 fricassee_ 12 
 
 Turkey etc.—Continued f. 
 
 potpie__ 
 
 sliced with gravy_' i 
 
 Turkey parts, fresh or frozen_! 
 
 Turkey rolls, frozen_' 
 
 Turnip greens: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 fresh_ III ' 
 
 frozen_ ^ 
 
 Turnip greens with turnips, frozen_ 11 III* j 
 
 Turnips, fresh_ 
 
 Veal, fresh or frozen_ IIII III ^ 
 
 Vegetable juices, canned. 
 
 Vegetables, mixed: 
 
 canned_ 
 
 frozen_ 
 
 Vienna sausage_ 
 
 Walnuts_ 
 
 Watercress, fresh_ 
 
 Watermelon, fresh_ 
 
 Wheat: 
 
 flakes_ 
 
 puffed_ 
 
 puffed, presweetened 
 
 rolled_ 
 
 shredded_ 
 
 whole_ 
 
 U.S. COVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICEiUSE 
 
 . 
 
- « 
 
4 
 
 { 
 
 < 
 
Agriculture Handbook No. 285 
 
 DRY BEAN PRODUCTION 
 
 \ in the 
 
 LAKE 
 
 ana 
 
 \ NORTHEASTERN 
 STATES 
 
 
 Asricultural Research Service 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Centers of dry bean production- 
 
 Limiting factors in bean production 
 
 Importance of good seed- 
 
 Seed sources- 
 
 Bean types and varieties- 
 
 Pea, or Navy- 
 
 Kidney- 
 
 Yellow Eye- 
 
 Miscellaneous- 
 
 Soil types- 
 
 Crop rotation- 
 
 Soil preparation- 
 
 Fertilization- 
 
 Inoculation- 
 
 Planting- 
 
 Cultivation- 
 
 Chemical weed control- 
 
 Harvesting- 
 
 Defoliation- 
 
 Production costs- 
 
 Marketing, cleaning, and grading. 
 
 Diseases_ 
 
 Insects- 
 
 Page 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 11 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 22 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 28 
 28 
 29 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 -1 
 
 This handbook contains information of the type formerly published 
 in Farmers’ Bulletin 2083, “Dry Bean Production m the Eastern 
 
 States.” 
 
 Trade names are used in this publication solely for the pur 
 pose of providing specific information. IVIention of a trade name 
 does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by 
 the U.S. Department of Agidculture or an endorsement by the 
 Department over other products not mentioned. 
 
 AVashington, D.C. 
 
 Issued August 1965 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printmg Office 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 15 cents 
 
DRY BEAN PRODUCTION 
 
 in the Lake and Northeastern States 
 
 By Axel L. Andersen, Crops Research DivUion^ 
 Agricultural Research Service ^ 
 
 Dry beans are an important item in the diet of the American people. 
 They are relatively inexpensive and highly nutritious, being high in 
 protein (20 to 25 percent), phosphorous, iron, and vitamin Bi. In the 
 United States, nearly 20 million 100-pound bags are produced an¬ 
 nually, and annual consumption is approximately 8 pounds for every 
 man, woman, and child. 
 
 CENTERS OF DRY BEAN PRODUCTION 
 
 Nearly half the dry beans produced in the United States come from 
 central Michigan and western New York (figs. 1 and 2). A small 
 quantity is produced in central Maine and in neighboring States.^ 
 The remainder is produced in the Western States. 
 
 Dry beans are very important as a cash crop. The Michigan crop 
 is valued at over $50 million annually. The New York crop is valued 
 at nearly $10 million and the Maine crop at slightly less than $1 
 million. 
 
 Dry bean production is expected to increase to supply the domestic 
 and foreign markets. 
 
 It has increased markedly in Michigan but decreased slightly in 
 I New York and Maine. Of the 9 million bags produced in 1963 in the 
 three States, Michigan produced 86 percent. New York 13.5 percent, 
 i and Maine 0.5 percent. 
 
 Data on dry bean production for Michigan (table 1) and New York 
 (table 2) from 1957 through 1963 have been summarized to illustrate 
 ; the production trends and the importance of the industry in the econ- 
 ! omy of the two States. Data by varieties are given in table 3. 
 
 Michigan produces over 99 percent of all the Pea (Navy) beans ^ 
 grown annually in the United States. Of all the Pea beans sold in the 
 United States for domestic consumption, 85 percent are sold in cans. 
 
 ^ The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance and suggestions provided 
 hy siHH-ialists at the Maine, Michigan, and New York Agricultural Exi)eriment 
 Stations and in various agencies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and 
 State departments of agriculture. 
 
 ’ The central Maine area includes parts of Kennebec, Penobscot, Piscataquis, 
 "and Waldo Counties. Each county harvested less than 500 acres in 1959. 
 
 * In Michigan the Pea bean is commonly referred to as the Navy bean. 
 
 3 
 
MICHIGAN 
 
 T * 
 
 1 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 GOGtaiC] § 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Luce 
 
 L ^ 
 
 IRON 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 OiCtriMSON 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 /MACRt^C 
 
 
 
 
 
 OKLTA 1 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /V » 
 
 \ \ 
 
 ACRES 
 
 BH 
 
 80,000-1,000,000 
 
 iSSB 
 
 60,000-80,000 
 
 
 40,000-60,000 
 
 
 20,000-40,000 
 
 
 10,000-20,000 
 
 mm 
 
 5,000-10,000 
 
 KnnswwI 
 
 1,000-5,000 
 
 L_l 
 
 500-1,000 
 
 r 
 
 
 MONROe 
 
 
 
 
 Figure 1.—Counties in Michigan with more than 500 acres of dry beans. Data 
 obtained from the 1060 U.S. Census of Agriculture. 
 
 The industry in Michigan is geared to serve the canning trade, not 
 only in the United States but in the foreign market as well. In 1963, 
 over 200 million pounds of Pea beans were exported, mostly for 
 canning. 
 
 Michigan-grown Dark Red and Right Red Kidney beans are sold 
 for both the dry package and the canning trade. Yellow Eye, Cran-: 
 berry, Pinto, and other beans are sold in the dry package form. 
 
 Only 50 percent of the Red Kidney beans produced in New \ ork . 
 are canned. From 5 to 15 percent are exported, and the remainder 
 are sold in dry packages. Nearly all the Black Turtle Soup beans aie 
 sold for export. A few are canned and sold as packaged beans. Other 
 New York varieties are sold mainly as dry beans. 
 
 4 
 
Figure 2.— Counties in New York with more than 500 acres of dry beans. Data 
 obtained from the 1960 U.S. Census of Agriculture. 
 
 LIMITING FACTORS IN BEAN PRODUCTION 
 
 Bean prices, like the prices of other agricultural commodities, vary 
 from season to season. Varieties that are under Government price 
 supports tend to fluctuate less in price, except when the supply is low. 
 Varieties of minor importance, such as Black Turtle Soup, Cranberry, 
 White Kidney, White Marrow, and Yellow Eye, have limited mar¬ 
 kets and are not included under the Government price support 
 program. Hence, their prices fluctuate considerably from year to 
 year. 
 
 Table 1.— Acreage^ yields production^ and value of dry heans in 
 
 Michigan^ 1957-63^ 
 
 Year 
 
 Acres 
 
 harvested 
 
 Yield 
 per acre 
 
 Produc¬ 
 tion 2 
 
 Value of 
 production 
 
 1957_ 
 
 1,000 acres 
 
 474 
 
 Pounds 
 
 740 
 
 1,000 bags 
 
 3, 508 
 5, 226 
 
 1,000 dollars 
 
 27,012 
 
 1958_ 
 
 536 
 
 975 
 
 33 ; 969 
 
 1959... 
 
 509 
 
 1, 260 
 
 1, 190 
 
 1, 360 
 
 6 ', 413 
 
 6, 248 
 7,358 
 
 7, 392 
 
 35 ; 913 
 36, 963 
 
 1960_ 
 
 525 
 
 1961_ 
 
 541 
 
 47 ; 091 
 
 1962... 
 
 573 
 
 i; 290 
 
 1, 480 
 
 47 ' 420 
 
 1963_ 
 
 573 
 
 8; 480 
 
 51 ; 000 
 
 
 ‘ Source: Michigan Agricultural Statistics Reporting Service. 
 ^ Bags of 100 pounds. 
 
 5 
 
T^vj 5 IE ^ — Arreaqe, yield, prodnrfion, n'nd valve of dry beam in 
 
 New York, 1957-63^ 
 
 Year 
 
 Acres 
 
 harvested 
 
 Yield 
 per acre 
 
 Produc¬ 
 tion 2 
 
 Value of ' 
 roduction I 
 
 1957 _ 
 
 1,000 acres 
 
 104 
 
 Pounds 
 
 1, 120 
 
 1,000 bags 
 
 1, 165 
 
 1,000 dollars j 
 
 8,932 
 
 9, 541 i 
 
 1958 ___ 
 
 114 
 
 1, 150 
 
 1, 311 
 
 1959 - - -- __ 
 
 89 
 
 940 
 
 837 
 
 9, 746 J 
 
 I960 - ___ 
 
 96 
 
 1, 270 
 
 1, 219 
 
 8, 777 
 
 1961 _ _ 
 
 87 
 
 1, 530 
 
 1, 331 
 
 10, 070 
 
 1962 _ _ 
 
 98 
 
 1, 300 
 
 1, 274 
 
 8, 876 
 
 1963 __ 
 
 82 
 
 1, 200 
 
 984 
 
 9, 530 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Source; Statistical Reporting Service, New York Crop Reporting Service, | 
 
 Albany, N.Y. 1- 
 
 2 Bags of 100 pounds. [ 
 
 Table 3.— Dry bean production by varieties for Michigan and, 
 
 Neio York, 1962-^3 ^ 
 
 Variety 
 
 Michigan 
 
 New 
 
 York 
 
 1962 
 
 1963 
 
 1962 
 
 1963 
 
 
 1,000 bags ^ 
 
 1,000 bags * 
 
 1,000 bags * 
 
 1,000 bags * 
 
 Pea (Navy).- -- 
 
 6, 696 
 
 7,480 
 
 30 
 
 41 
 
 Red Kidney 2. -- 
 
 460 
 
 700 
 
 884 
 
 785 
 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 Yellow Eve. __ 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 
 70 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 White AT arrow 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 26 
 
 Plnek Turtle. Sniin 
 
 
 
 317 
 
 99 
 
 Other. .. _ 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 11 
 
 21 
 
 Total__ — 
 
 7, 392 
 
 8, 480 
 
 1, 247 
 
 984 
 
 ' Source; Michigan Agricultural Statistics Reporting Service, Lansing, Mich. . 
 2 In 100-pound bags; cleaned basis. 
 
 2 The New York production was mainly Light Red Kidney beans. Michigan 
 production consisted of 340,000 bags of Dark Red Kidney beans and 120,000 bags • 
 of Light Red Kidney beans in 1962; and 500,000 Dark Red Kidney and 200,000 ' 
 Light Red Kidney beans in 1963. 
 
 The first factor for tlie prospective grower to consider is the avail- i 
 ability of a bean elevator in the locality for handling and marketing' 
 his beans. The next consideration is the type of bean to grow. This:; 
 will be determined by market preference and the ability of the dealer 
 to handle the beans. Many elevators are equipped to handle only one 
 or two types of beans. 
 
 All bean types are not in direct competition with each other. Pinto- 
 beans, for instance, are preferred by people of Mexican descent; most i 
 Yellow Eye beans are marketed in the New England and South' 
 Atlantic States; Cranberry beans are preferred in the Southeast; and 
 Red Kidney beans are used mainly for canning. 
 
 6 
 
Quality is more important than ever because of the competition 
 among types of beans. Great Northern and Pea beans compete in the 
 dry packaging trade througliout the country, but the canning trade 
 prefers the Pea bean because of its canning qualities. Since quality 
 is a major factor and since disease and weather conditions influence 
 quality, the susceptibility of varieties to disease and climate must be 
 considered in producing dry beans in the Lake and Northeastern 
 States. 
 
 Bean weevil infestations, precipitation, and the occurrence of hot, 
 dry winds during the flowering season determine the southern limits 
 of production. Length of the frost-free growing season determines 
 the northern limits. Because dry beans are a comparatively short 
 season crop, they are especially adapted to areas where the frost-free 
 growing season is from 105 to 120 days. 
 
 Extensive droughts during the growing season, and especially dur¬ 
 ing pod-setting time, can lower the yields considerably. Cool, wet 
 seasons are also highly unfavorable, because beans are easily injured 
 by excessive moisture and are subject to attack by diseases that thrive 
 under these conditions. Hot, dry winds during blossoming may cause 
 severe blossom drop and hence lower the yield considerably, or they 
 cause nonuniform ripening of the crop. Plants that lose many of their 
 first blossom generally set more blooms a week or 10 days later. Beans 
 are killed by freezing; however, they are adapted to a fairly wide 
 temperature range. Temperatures between 65° and 75° F. are the 
 most favorable for bean growing. 
 
 Soil types, drainage, crop sequence, and the availability of equip¬ 
 ment for growing and harvesting the crop are other factors to be 
 considered. 
 
 ' Anyone interested in the production of dry beans should consult his 
 county agricultural agent. Additional information may be obtained 
 from Extension Service specialists and State agricultural experiment 
 stations, as well as from industry representatives. Dates of planting, 
 rates of seeding, fertilizers, crop rotations, and varieties recommended 
 will vary considerably within an area. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF GOOD SEED 
 
 Probably the most critical item in the production of dry beans is 
 tlie quality of the seed. A number of important diseases can be car¬ 
 ried in or on the seed. These diseases are often responsible for the low 
 yield and poor quality in beans sold. 
 
 Also, mechanical injury, frost damage, and wet weather damage at 
 harvesttime prevent good germination of seed. Seed damaged by 
 rough handling during harvest or subsequent processing results in 
 .retarded, nonvigorous, stunted, or baldheaded plants. Electric-eye 
 sorters remove discolored beans, but not those that have been damaged 
 mechanically (cracked seedcoats and broken cotyledons). 
 
 7 
 
Many l>ean powers make the mistake of buying noiicertified seed, 
 because it is cheaper than certified seed. Noncertified seed may look 
 clean, but it may be carrying bacterial blight or the bean common 
 mosaic virus internally. The seed may also be carrying some an- 
 thracnose infection. It would be almost impossible to detect 20 or 
 30 anthracnose-infected beans in a 100-pound bag of beans. If dis¬ 
 tributed unifonnly throughout the field at planting time, the infected 
 beans would serve as a source of infection for the other beans in the 
 field. This could result in heavy crop loss if wet, humid weather 
 should occur during the growing season. The few extra dollai*s si)ent 
 for certified seed is one of the best investments that can be made to 
 insure a high-quality crop of better than average yield. 
 
 SEED SOURCES 
 
 Some of the dry bean seed used in the Lake and Northeastern 
 States comes from the arid regions of California and Idaho and the 
 remainder is produced locally. States in which certified seed of the 
 principal dry bean types and varieties is grown are indicated in 
 table 4. All certified seed has passed inspection for disease freedom, 
 quality, germination, and varietal purity by the seed-certifying agency 
 in the State in which it was produced. Specifications for certification 
 vary with the different States, but the standards are high in all States; 
 thus good-quality seed at the lowest possible cost is assured. 
 
 In Michigan, where bacterial blight is present and the annual re¬ 
 quirements for Pea bean seed alone is over 20 million pounds, bean 
 growers have to rely on locally produced seed. By following the 
 recommended cultural practices for disease control as outlined on page 
 31, Michigan seed producers have been able to supply growers with 
 certified Pea bean seed that is relatively free from bacterial blight and 
 other seedbome diseases. Tliis has been accomplished by contracting 
 for the production of breeders seed in Idaho. The Idaho-grown seed, 
 in turn, is planted for foundation seed in the upper part of the lower 
 peninsula of Michigan, in an area away from the principal bean-pro¬ 
 ducing areas in Michigan. The foundation seed fields are thoroughly 
 inspected for the presence of seedborne diseases and for varietal purity. 
 The following year the foundation seed is distributed to certified seed 
 producers throughout the bean area of Michigan. Before harvest, the 
 prospective certified-seed fields are inspected by the Michigan Crop 
 Improvement Association, the seed-certifying agency in Michigan. If 
 acceptable in the field, samples of the cleaned seed must be inspected 
 in the Crop Improvement Laboratory to be certain the seed meets all 
 the other requirements for certification. 
 
 A similar procedure is used for the production of certified Charle¬ 
 voix Dark Red Kidney seed (figs. 3 and 4), but restrictions are greater 
 as to the areas in which certified seed can be grown. (Inly seed fields 
 of the Charlevoix variety located north of an east-west line running 
 
 8 
 
Table 4. —Principal types and commercial varieties of dry heans 
 gro}cn in the Lake and Northeastern States, resistance or suscepti- 
 hility to certain diseases, and States in udiich certified seed is grown 
 
 
 
 Common seedborne diseases * 
 
 
 
 
 Anthracnose 
 
 strains 
 
 Bacterial 
 
 blights 
 
 Mosaic 
 
 2 
 
 state in 
 which 
 
 Type and 
 variety 
 
 Alpha 
 
 Beta 
 
 Gamma 
 
 Common and 
 Fuscous 
 
 Halo (Race) 
 
 BCM-1 
 
 BCM-15 
 
 BCM-123 
 
 certified 
 seed is 
 grown 
 
 Pea, or Navy 
 
 Sanilac_ 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Seaway_ — 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 and New 
 York. 
 Michigan. 
 
 Gratiot_ 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Michelite_ __ _ 
 Michelite-62- _ 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 R-S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R-S 
 
 R 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Saginaw. __ 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 and New 
 York. 
 Michigan. 
 
 Kidney 
 
 California Light 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 California 
 
 Red Kidney. 
 
 Michigan Dark 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 and 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 California 
 
 Red Kidney. 
 
 California Dark 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 and 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 California. 
 
 Red Kidney. 
 Charlevoix. __ 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 California 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 California. 
 
 White. 
 
 Yellow Eye 
 New York or 
 
 R-S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 (*). 
 
 Michigan 
 Yellow Eye. 
 Steuben Yellow 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 New York. 
 
 Eye. 
 
 Xew England 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 C). 
 
 Yellow Eye. 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Black Turtle 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 
 Soup. 
 
 Perrv Marrow .. 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 New York. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 California 
 
 Cranberry. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 
 
 Idaho. 
 
 ' S=suscoptihle; R = resistant; MR = moderately resistant. 
 
 ^ * Three strains of bean common mosaic attack beans. BCM-1.5, or Burk¬ 
 
 holder’s strain, attacks varieties resistant to the common BCM-1 and BCM-123 
 strains of the virus. 
 
 * Seed of this variety not certified. 
 
 ■2 
 
 7©9-26T O—65^ 
 
 9 
 
i 
 
 t 
 
 { 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 BN 23779 
 
 Figure 3.—Charlevoix (breeders seed) increase field in Magic Valley near Twin 
 Falls, Idaho. The environmental conditions in this and certain other areas 
 make it possible to produce bean seed comi>aratively free from bacterial blight. 
 
 BN 23780 
 
 Figure 4.— Charlevoix foundation seed field planted in northern lower Michigan 
 
 from breeders seed produced in Idaho. 
 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 ( 
 
 
 10 
 
through Clare County, INIich., are acceptable for certification. How¬ 
 ever, Charlevoix beans grown north of this line in Huron County are 
 not eligible for certification. 
 
 In Xew York the official seed-certifying agency for dry beans is the 
 “Xew York Certified Seed Growers Cooperative, Incorporated.” This 
 organization is comparable to the Michigan Crop Improvement Asso¬ 
 ciation, the official seed-certifying agency in Michigan. In Michigan 
 and Xew York seed standards are developed cooperatively by those 
 agencies concerned with certification. These include the colleges of 
 agriculture and the agricultural experiment stations at the respective 
 universities, the State seed laboratories, and the State departments of 
 agriculture. 
 
 BEAN TYPES AND VARIETIES 
 
 Dry beans vary in shape, size, and color. Figure 5 shows the more 
 important types grown in the Lake and Xortheastern States. 
 
 The Pea (Xavy) bean is the most economically important type 
 grown in Michigan. Over 7 million 100-pound bags were produced 
 in 1963. This was over 99 percent of the Pea beans produced in the 
 United States. Michigan also produces about 85 percent of Yellow 
 Eye and 98 percent of Cranberry beans. 
 
 Western Xew York leads in the production of Red Kidney beans. 
 That variety accounts for 75 percent of Xew York bean production. 
 The Black Turtle Soup variety accounts for another 20 percent. Small 
 quantities of Pea, White Kidney, Yellow Eye, and White Marrow are 
 produced. 
 
 Yellow Eye is the most economically important bean grown in 
 Maine. 
 
 Other bean varieties occasionally grown in limited quantities in the 
 Lake and Xortheastern States are Red Mexican, California Pink, 
 Jacobs Cattle, and Soldier. The last two varieties are grown in 
 Maine. 
 
 Table 4 lists the principal types and varieties of beans grown in 
 Michigan, Xew York, and Maine, the diseases to which they are resis¬ 
 tant, and the States in which certified seed is grown. 
 
 Pea, or Navy 
 
 All the Pea bean varieties grown for commercial production except 
 Michelite were developed and released through cooperative arrange¬ 
 ment between the Michigan State University Agricultural Experi¬ 
 ment Station and the Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research 
 Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Bush types 
 
 Bush-type Pea bean varieties have several characteristics in common. 
 They are upright and produce large numbers of flowers over an ex- 
 
 11 
 
tended period. The flowers are produced at the ends of determinant 
 branches set hi^h on the plant, so the ])ods are well ofl the ground at 
 maturity. The seed is white, round, and uniform. “Screenings" are 
 considerably less from the bush-type than from the vine-type beans, 
 because small beans are generally associated with nonuniform ripenin^r 
 of beans on a vine and the presence of Sclerotinia wilt (white mold), 
 which kills the beans prematurely. The number of beans discolored 
 
 BN 23781 
 
 Figure 5.—Principal dry bean types grown in eastern Uniteil States: .1, Light 
 Red Kidney; B, Pea (Navy) ; C, Yellow Eye (New England tyin*) : 1), Cran¬ 
 berry ; E, Dark Red Kidney; F, White Kidney; G, Marrow ; and //. Yellow Eye 
 (New York or Michigan type). 
 
 12 
 
BN 23782 
 
 Figure 6 .—Field of Sanilac beans in Bay County, Mich. Note the uprightness 
 of plants and the location of the flowers. This is characteristic of all bush- 
 type varieties derived from an X-ray mutant bean. 
 
 by fungal growth is also much lower in bush-type beans because they 
 can normally be pulled and threshed the same day. Vine-type beans, 
 on the other hand, normally have to be pulled at least 1 day before 
 threshing and are more subject to damage while in the windrow. 
 
 The bush-type Pea beans normally escape serious damage from 
 white mold or Sclerotinia wilt except during seasons of very high 
 relative humidities. The reason is that the foliage does not ordinarily 
 form a canopy over the row, as does the foliage of vine-type beans. 
 The improved aeration between the rows and around the plants lowers 
 the relative humidity and creates an environment less favorable for 
 infection and development of the fungus. 
 
 The history of the varietal development is also similar. Thus the 
 Sanilac and Seaway varieties were developed concurrently in a back- 
 crossing program in which the recurrent parents were selections ob¬ 
 tained from a cross between a small, early maturing, bush-type mutant 
 bean (obtained by treating Michelite seed with X-ray) and the Michel- 
 ito variety. The Gratiot variety is a selection from a cross between 
 Sanilac and a bush selection similar to Seaway. 
 
 Sanilac. —Sanilac^ (fig. 6) is a high-yielding, upright, midseason 
 bush bean released in 1956. The plants vary from 14 to 21 inches in 
 lieight and produce short determinant runners up to 14 inches in 
 length. The variety blooms in approximately 42 days and matures in 
 about 88 days. It is resistant to tlie alplia, beta, and gamma races of 
 tlie fungus that causes antliracnose and to bean common mosaic virus 
 
 M'over i)hoto show.s harvesting of a field of certified Sanilac beans near Sagi¬ 
 naw. Mich. 
 
 13 
 
races 1 and 1*23 (RCM-1 and RCM-123). Sanilac is susceptible to 
 BCM-15. It has Held resistance to halo hlioht hut it is susceptible to 
 coinnion and fuscous bacterial blights. 
 
 Sanilac is an F^BCb selection from a three-way cross in which a 
 hush-type mutant was the principal recurrent ])arent. Other bean 
 materials involved in the cross include a selection from Bohust X 
 Crawford, Emerson 847, and Emerson 7)3. 
 
 Seau'dy .—SeaAvay (fi^. T) is a lii^h-yieldin^, u})ri^i:ht, short-season 
 hush bean released in IhtU), The plants vary from 13 to 19 inches in 
 hei^rht. Unlike Sanilac, no short determinant runners are produced. 
 The variety blooms in about 39 days and matures in about 79 days. 
 
 Sea wav is resisttant to bean common mosaic virus races 1 , 15, and 
 123, hut is susceptible to the alpha race of the fungus that causes 
 anthracnose. It has field resistance to halo blight. 
 
 Seaway is an F 4 BC 4 selection from a cross in which a hush-type 
 mtttant Pea bean developed by X-ray was a recurrent parent in a 
 hackcrossing program. Topcrop, a mosaic-resistant snap l>ean with 
 the dominant or Corbett Kefugee type resistance to bean common 
 mosaic, was used as the initial parent to procure resistance. 
 
 
 nN 23783 
 
 Figure 7.— Field of Seaway bean.s in Tuscola County, Mich., planted in 3<S-inch 
 rows. I’lants are approximately 8 weeks old. 
 
 14 
 
Grat/ot .—Gratiot is a hi^h-yieldin^, iipriirht, midseason bush bean 
 released in 1962. It resembles Sanilac in most of its characteristics 
 blit has certain improvements. For example, it is the first bush-type 
 bean that successfully combines resistance to two major bean diseases— 
 anthracnose and mosaic. In addition, it has superior growth habit 
 and canning quality. 
 
 Gratiot is a sixth generation from a cross between Sanilac (anthrac¬ 
 nose resistant) and a high-yielding, mosaic-resistant, stiff-strawed, 
 upright bush selection with excellent canning quality. It is resistant 
 to the alpha, beta, and gamma races of the fungus that causes anthrac¬ 
 nose and to bean common mosaic virus races 1, 15, and 123. It is also 
 resistant to halo blight. 
 
 Vine types 
 
 —Michelite is a late-maturing bean that is grown in lim¬ 
 ited quantities in New York and Michigan. It is only partly resistant 
 to bean common mosaic virus 1 (BCM-l). It is less tolerant to dis¬ 
 eases that attack Pea beans than are any of the varieties described 
 earlier. In the Michigan Seed Certification program, it has been 
 replaced with Michelite-62. 
 
 Michelife-S2. —Michelite-62 is a uniform-maturing, full-season bean 
 selected from the old Michelite variety and released in 1961. It is 
 fully resistant to bean common mosaic virus races 1 and 123 but is 
 susceptible to race 15. It is susceptible to anthracnose but is fairly 
 tolerant to common bacterial blight. It has field resistance to halo 
 blight. 
 
 Saginaw .—^Saginaw is a high-yielding, disease-resistant, midseason, 
 vine-type bean released in 1961. This variety matures 4 or 5 days 
 earlier than does Michelite-62 and has excellent canning qualities. 
 Tlie plants stand up well and hold the pods well off the ground. The 
 thin-walled pods.thresh easily. 
 
 Saginaw is a selection from a cross involving two other plant selec¬ 
 tions, one with anthracnose resistance and the other with bean com¬ 
 mon mosaic resistance. Hence, it is fully resistant to two major bean 
 diseases. In addition, it is capable of producing a crop of beans on 
 soils with low quantities of available zinc (see discussion of zinc 
 deficiency, p. 20). 
 
 Kidney 
 
 California Light Red Kidney {Red Kidney 7811 ).—California 
 Ijight Red Kidney was introduced in 1937 by the California Agricul¬ 
 tural Experiment Station. It was developed from a cross between 
 Nagazura and Red Kidney backcrossed to Red Kidney. 
 
 Michigan Dark Red Kidney .—INIichigan Dark Red Kidney is an old 
 variety commonly grown in Michigan. Because it is very susceptible 
 to bacterial blight and anthracnose, planting western-grown seed is 
 recommended. 
 
 15 
 
California DarJc Red Kidney .—California Dark Red Kidney was \ 
 developed and released by the California Agricultural Experiment 
 Station. It is a selection from a cross between Michigan Dark Red ; 
 Kidney and Maui. 
 
 Charlevoix .—Charlevoix (fi^. 3 and 4) is an upright, dark red I 
 kidney bean with lone: slender pods. It was developed by the Micbipin | 
 State Univei-sity A^ricnltnral Experiment Station and the IT.S. De- 
 partment of A^ricnltnre and was released in 1960. In Micbiiran this 
 variety matures 7 to 14 days earlier than California Dark Red Kidney. , 
 It is resistant to the beta race of fnn^iis that causes anthracnose in 
 Red Kidney beans, a disease that formerly caused heavy losses to : 
 Michigan Dark Red Kidney beans. It makes a hi^h-quality canned 
 product. 
 
 The Charlevoix variety is a sixth generation selection from the cross : 
 Michigan Dark Red Kidney X Brazilian Red Kidney. I 
 
 California White Kidney .—California White Kidney is a selection 
 made from the old White Kidney variety. It was released by the ' 
 California Agricultural Experiment Station in 1943. ' 
 
 Yellow Eye 
 
 New York or Michigan Yellow Eye .—New York or Michigan Yel¬ 
 low Eye is a large, white, round to oblong bean. It is an old variety ; 
 with a large, yellow, oval spot on the hilum (“eye” of bean). 
 
 Sfeiihen .—Steuben is a selection made from the old New York or ' 
 Michigan Yellow Eye by the New York Agricultural Experiment : 
 Station. It was released in 1960. The variety has a slightly larger i 
 and more uniform seed and is a better yielder than is the parent 
 variety. 
 
 New England Yelloto Eye .—New England Yellow Eye or Old- 
 Fashioned Yellow Eye has an irregidar yellow pattern around the . 
 hilum. The pattern consists of a narrow strip of pigment from the 
 front of the micropyle to the apex of the bean and extends around , 
 the micropyle. It forms a horseshoe around the anterior end of the , 
 hilum. Furthermore, broad wings extend forward along the sides 
 of hilum from behind the caruncle. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Black Turtle Soup .—Black Turtle Soup (or Yenezuelan) is a black I 
 bean grown in limited quantities in New York. 
 
 Perry Marroic. —Perry' Marrow is a large, white bean develo})ed by , 
 the Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University and re- 
 leased to seed companies in 1921 for propagation. It was derived 
 from a cross between Wells Red Kidney and White Marrow. In 1942 ' 
 the seed on the market was found to be a mixture of Perry Marrow, 
 Pea, and other white beans. Reselections were made by the Cornell 
 
 16 
 
station and planted in the field in rows. The strain of Perry Marrow 
 <rrown for certification resulted from an increase of these selections. 
 
 Michigan Cranberry .—Michigan Cranberi-y is an old variety of the 
 ITorticnltural type. It is grown largely in Michigan. 
 
 Jacobs Cattle .—Jacobs Cattle is a large, red and white mottled bean 
 produced in Maine. 
 
 Soldier .—Soldier is a large, white bean with a small brownish red 
 “soldier" pattern around the hilum. It is somewhat more kidney 
 shaped and longer than is New England Yellow Eye. Soldier is 
 grown in iSIaine. 
 
 SOIL TYPES 
 
 Dry beans are suited to many soil types. They grow best in well 
 drained, sandy loam, silt loam, or clay loam soils high in organic 
 content. They are very sensitive to excessive soil moisture; under this 
 condition they are susceptible to diseases. Standing water will injure 
 the plants in a few hours. Where drainage is poor, tile drains are 
 essential to the production of good yields. Sandy soils are not well 
 suited for bean production; but by building up the organic content, 
 soils of this class produce good yields. 
 
 CROP ROTATION 
 
 Some system of crop rotation or crop diversification is usually neces¬ 
 sary to maintain high yields and quality of beans. A rotation with 
 at lejist 3- or 4-year intervals betw’een bean plantings on any one field 
 is a good practice. Successive cropping of beans is hazardous, because 
 of the danger of losses from diseases whose organisms are able to 
 survive in the soil or on plant refuse in the soil. For the same reason, 
 it is risky to spread bean straw- or manure from bean straw- onto land 
 immediately before beans are planted. 
 
 Although the bean is a legume, other legumes, such as alfalfa, sweet- 
 clover, red clover, and alsike clover, are grow-n in the bean rotation to 
 supply nitrogen and to replenish the organic matter in the soil. Dry 
 l>eans nonnally deplete the soil nitrogen, even though nitrogen-pro¬ 
 ducing bacteria develop in nodules on the root system. However, 
 they take less nitrogen out of the soil than do many other row crops. 
 A standard recommendation for rotations in the Lake and Northeast¬ 
 ern States is one or two row crops followed by small grains seeded to 
 a hay, pasture, or green-manure crop. 
 
 Crop sequence w-ithin a rotation is important in bean production. 
 Planting beans after certain crops may reduce the severity of bean 
 root rot and may increase yields. Investigations in Michigan suggest 
 that beans should follow- corn, w-heat, or a green-manure crop. A. 
 much higher incidence of root rot occurred when beans follow-ed barlev 
 and when beans follow-ed beans. 
 
 17 
 
Crop sequence can also atfect the expression of certain nutrient 
 deficiencies. For example, zinc deficiency is much more noticeable in 
 some varieties of beans planted after sugarbeets (fig. 8). The yields 
 of beans that show zinc-deficiency symptoms are also lower. Nutrient 
 deficiencies can be corrected by incorporating minor elements with the 
 fei’tilizei'S and applying them at planting time (fig. 9). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BN 23784 
 
 Figure 8.—Sanilac beans in Saginaw Comity. Mich., in IJKiU. A, Normal plants 
 following wheat; B, zinc-deficient plants fidlowing sugarheets in the rotation. 
 ( Plants in A were in the row next to B.) 
 
 18 
 
BN 23785 
 
 Figure 9. —Field of Sanilac beans growing in alkaline soils in Bay County, Mich., 
 to which zinc sulfate was applied at planting time. Two center rows did not 
 receive zinc. 
 
 ^Mien dry beans follow a legiiminons green-manure crop in a ro¬ 
 tation, the green-manure crop should be turned under before May 15. 
 Sweetclover should be plowed mider when it is 8 to 14 inches high. 
 During seasons of subnormal spring rainfall, delaying the plowing 
 under of the green-manure crop may damage the bean crop, because 
 the green-manure crop may use most of the available soil moisture. 
 
 SOIL PREPARATION 
 
 The same farm machinery is used to prepare the soil for planting 
 beans as is used for other row crops. Although the steps involved in 
 preparing the land for seeding may vary according to the previous 
 crop and the .soil type, establishment of a friable seedbed is the best 
 means for conserving soil moisture. 
 
 If a green-manure crop is not to be turned under, the type of soil 
 and the terrain determine to a great extent the time to plow. Fall 
 I)lowing usually provides a more friable seedbed in heavy soil. If 
 tliere is danger of wind erosion and water runoff during the winter 
 months, it is better to wait until spring to plow. A field cultivator 
 or a chisel-type cultivator plow may be substituted for the conven¬ 
 tional plow. 
 
 After the field is plowed, the disk and harrow are used to level the 
 .seedl)ed and control weeds. If the field was plowed early, secondary 
 tillage to control weeds is usually nece.ssary. Avoid packing the soil 
 by excessive preparation with heavy farm equipment. 
 
 19 
 
FERTILIZATION 
 
 Maximum l)eaii yields cannot be obtained unless an adequate and 
 balanced quantity of plant food minerals are present. Where the soil 
 cannot supply the elements necessary for hi^h yields, commercial fer¬ 
 tilizer should be used. 
 
 'Fo determine the amount and kind of fertilizer needed, the soil 
 should be tested for available soil nutrients. Fertilizer recommenda¬ 
 tions are based on the re.sults of soil tests, soil classification, })revions 
 croppinof history, crop to be ^rown, and expected yield per acre. New 
 York bean growers should follow the fertilizing recommendations 
 presented in the publication entitled “Vegetable Production Recom¬ 
 mendations,” which is published annually and cooperatively by the 
 New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
 N.Y., and the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, 
 Geneva, N.Y. Michigan bean growers should follow the directions 
 given in Michigan State University Extension Folder F-278, ‘"How 
 To Take Accurate Soil Samples,’" and Extension Bulletin E-loO, 
 ‘‘Fertilizer Recommendations for Michigan Crops.” Information on 
 soil classification can be obtained from published county soil survey 
 maps and reports that are available at the county offices of the Ex¬ 
 tension Service and the Soil Conservation Service. 
 
 The need for fertilizers depends not only on the natural fertility 
 of the soil, but on the other crops grown in the cropping system and 
 the fertilizers applied to these crops. Liquid fertilizers, which are 
 gaining in popularity in many areas, are just as effective as solid fer¬ 
 tilizers, provided they are used correctly. The recommended place¬ 
 ment of fertilizers for beans is 1 or 2 inches to the side and 2 inches 
 below the seed. The seed should not be in contact with the fertilizers, 
 because bean seed is very easily injured when it comes in direct contact 
 with fertilizer. 
 
 BN 23786 
 
 Figure 10.—Zinc deficiency in bean.s over tile line.s where cnlcareon.s subsoils 
 have been brought to surface during tiling operations. 
 
 20 
 
Zinc deficiency (figs. 8, 9, and 10) is becoming increasingly notice¬ 
 able in beans grown on the alkaline soils of the lake bed areas in Michi- 
 , gan. Zinc deficient plants are stunted; have shortened intemodes; 
 show excessive branching; and have small, somewhat pointed leaves 
 that are often distorted and necrotic along the edges. The deficiency 
 is especially noticeable in beans grown over tile lines, on spoil banks 
 where calcareous subsoil is mixed in with the surface soil, and in beans 
 that follow sugarbeets. Zinc-deficient soils should be supplied with 
 3 to 4 pounds of zinc per acre, applied in the band fertilizer. As a 
 preventive, 1 pound of zinc per acre is suggested. Michigan bean 
 , growers should be on the alert for new recommendations on the use 
 of zinc in their fertilizer program—-optimum rates, methods of formu¬ 
 lation, and methods of application. 
 
 Manganese deficiency (fig. 11) frequently occurs in Michigan soils 
 with a pH of 6.5 or higher. It may be corrected by including man- 
 ; ganese in the fertilizer. Commercial fertilizer containing 1, 2, or 5 
 l)ercent of manganese may be bought. The fertilizer should contain 
 enough manganese to supply 5 to 10 pounds per acre. 
 
 IVlien plant leaves show manganese or zinc deficiency, foliar sprays 
 may be tried. 'Water-soluble manganese sulfate should be applied at 
 a rate of 3 to 6 pounds per acre, and zinc sulfate at a rate of 1 to 2 
 pounds per acre. The nutrients may be mixed and applied in as little 
 ; as 30 gallons of water per acre. Zinc foliar sprays are often ineffective. 
 
 Xitrogen deficiency may occur in some rotations. It may be pre¬ 
 vented by applying 30 to 40 pounds of nitrogen per acre when the 
 plants have two or three true leaves. 
 
 Detailed information on the use of fertilizers in your localit}^ may 
 be obtained from your county agent, from Extension Service specialists 
 at the land-grant college or university in your State, or from your 
 State agricultural experiment station. 
 
 BN 23787 
 
 Figure 11. —Xornial Sanilac bean leaves (left) compared with mangane.se- 
 
 deticient Sanilac bean leaves (right). 
 
 21 
 
 I 
 
INOCULATION 
 
 Artificial inoculation of bean seed with nitrogen-fixing bacteria is 
 considered of no advantage. Tests in Michigan, Xew York, and else¬ 
 where on both old and new bean soil have shown no benefits from seed 
 inoculation. ! 
 
 PLANTING 
 
 A corn, l>ean, or beet drill with removable plates is generally used j 
 to plant beans (fig. 12). Beans should be planted only deep enough ! 
 to obtain good coverage and sufficient moisture to promote fast germi- i 
 nation and growth. If the beans are planted too deep, they may l)e > 
 damaged by seed decay and damping-off organisms and may be injured i 
 by the seed-corn maggot as a result of delayed emergence. i 
 
 Weather reports giving weekly forecasts should be helpful to the 
 bean grower in determining how and when to plant. The tem])erature I 
 for the period after planting should be warm (above 65° F.), so the ) 
 beans can germinate quickly. If the season is dry and there is little ■ 
 moisture in the surface soils and no immediate j)rospect of rain, the i 
 seeding rate should be increased and the beans shoidd be planted in > 
 contact with moisture even if this is 8 to 4 inches deep. Contact with I 
 moisture will assure quick germination. On the other hand, if there | 
 is a forecast of heavy rains and the soil is fine in texture, the beans ) 
 should be planted shallow (1 to inches). If the forecast is for cold ] 
 and wet weather they should not be planted until the weather is !; 
 favorable. ; 
 
 Planting dates vary in different localities. However, beans should I 
 not be planted until the soil temperature is above 65° F., a temperature • 
 that will assure immediate germination and emergence. All conditions • 
 
 BN 23788 1 
 
 Figure 12.—Planting bean.s with a four-row drill. With a planting drill of this ^ 
 type, fertilizer can be banded 1 or 2 inches to the side and 2 inches below the 
 .seed. Attachments for banding systemic imsecticides are easily mounted on jj 
 this equipment. j 
 
that favor rapid germination and emergence will minimize the 
 damages from fungus and insect injury. Generally, field beans are 
 planted from May 25 to June 15 in the Lake and Northeastern States. 
 If root rot is a problem, planting should be delayed until the soil is 
 warm (June 5 or later). Short-season beans are available in the Pea 
 bean types; they can be planted the latter part of June and still mature 
 in those areas where the average frost date is September 20 to 30. 
 
 l\ow widths of 28, 30, and 32 inches are ordinarily recommended. 
 The width most common in the Lake and Northeastern States is 28 
 inches. In experiments conducted in Michigan over a 6-year period, 
 it was found that beans grown in 28-inch rows yielded only slightly 
 less than those grown in 21- and 24-inch rows; the ditference was not 
 appreciable. Even increasing row width to 32 and 36 inches did not 
 lower yield appreciably for Seaway, Sanilac, and Michelite varieties. 
 By using wider row spacings, beans, corn, and sugarbeets can all be 
 planted in rows of the same width and the same tractor may be used 
 in planting and cultivating the three crops with a minimum of ad¬ 
 justment between crops. The time and labor saved may offset any 
 lower yields which may occur. Figure 7 shows Seaway beans planted 
 in 38-inch rows. The grower has been planting beans and corn in 
 38-inch rows. 
 
 Planting rates depend on variety, seed size, and width of row. 
 Following are the rates recommended by New York and Michigan 
 for rows 28 to 32 inches wide: 
 
 state and variety Pounds of seed 
 
 per acre 
 
 New York: 
 
 Red Kidney, Marrow, Yellow Eye-75 to 100 
 
 Pea, Black Turtle Soup_30 to 40 
 
 Michigan: 
 
 Red Kidney_80 
 
 Yellow Eye, Cranberry_60 
 
 Pea_30 to 40 
 
 Although these rates are considered too heavy by many growers, 
 they increase the chances of a good stand if there is much danger from 
 damping-off or the seed-corn maggot, or if the ground becomes 
 crusted. 
 
 CULTIVATION 
 
 The main purpose of cultivation is weed control. Weeds are readily 
 destroyed shortly after their emergence. At this stage, little root 
 development has taken place. Weed control should begin during the 
 preparation of the seedbed and should continue after the beans are 
 planted. Special weeders or a spike-tooth harrow may be used from 
 jhe second or third day after planting until the plants are 4 to 5 inches 
 tall. These implements should not be used at the time the plants are 
 emerging from the ground and while the stems still have the crook 
 
 23 
 
in them. At this stage the plants are brittle and easily injured. 
 Furthermore, the weeders should be used in the afternoons or when 
 the plants are less turgid and brittle, and therefore are less easily 
 broken. 
 
 If heavy rains pack the soil so the beans cannot emerge, the soil 
 surface should be loosened with a spike-tooth harrow, a rotary hoe, 
 or weeder to prevent complete loss of the beans. 
 
 Do not cultivate more frequently or deeply than is necessary to 
 control the weeds (fig. 13). Cultivate with care late in the season, 
 so as to avoid injuring the roots extending out between the rows just 
 beneath the soil surface. Injury to the feeding roots at blossoming 
 and pod-setting time may cause wilting of the plant, blossom and pod 
 drop, and an eventual reduction in yield. 
 
 Thorough cultivation does not always remove all the weeds in a 
 field. Weeds not removed by cultivating equipment should be re¬ 
 moved witli a sharp hoe or cut with a corn knife. eeds not only 
 interfere with crop growth but also hinder harvesting and curing of 
 the beans. 
 
 Never cultivate beans while they are wet from either dew or rain, 
 because disease organisms are more easily carried from plant to plant 
 by farm implements when the plants are wet. 
 
 CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL 
 
 Chemical weed control is recommended where weeds are difficult 
 to control by other methods. 
 
 BN 23789 
 
 Figure 13.—Cultivating I*ea beaii.s planted in 2S-inch rows, u.sing a four-row 
 
 cultivator. 
 
 24 
 
EPTC ® has been used successfully by several growers iu Michijjan 
 to control annual weeds on Red Kidney and Pea beans. It should be 
 applied l)efore 2:)lanting at a rate of 3 pounds per acre. Since the 
 material is extremely volatile, it should be worked into the soil imme¬ 
 diately after api:)lication. The most successful users ap^Dlied the 
 material as a S2')ray immediately ahead of the harrow or disk. New 
 York recommends EPTC for Red Kidney beans only and in the 
 granular form at a rate of 3 pounds of active ingredients per acre. 
 Tliis is equivalent to 60 j^ounds of 5-percent granular material per acre. 
 They suggest using it on a trial basis on other bean varieties. 
 
 DNRP ® amine salt can be used as a preemergence spray to control 
 annual weeds. If applied immediately after {planting, it should be 
 used at a rate of 41/2 pounds per acre (li/^ gallons of liquid concen¬ 
 trate). But if applied just before emergence, it should be used at a 
 rate of only 3 pounds per acre (1 gallon of liquid concentrate). To 
 reduce costs, the material can be aj^plied in a band spray. DNBP is 
 not effective when the soil is dry. Before applying granular material, 
 growers should determine how much active chemical they wush to 
 apj^ly per acre; then they should apjDly it at a unifoiTn rate—the same 
 amount of active chemical on each acre. 
 
 Sow thistle and Canada thistle have always been a menace to bean 
 growers. Many growers have successfully controlled these perennial 
 weeds by applying ^ to Yo pound of actual 2,4-D acre, 6 to 10 
 days before j^lanting. This practice is not recommended, however, 
 because, under certain conditions, the compound may injure the plants 
 and delay maturity. Furthermore, if EPTC is applied to the same 
 field, interactions between the two chemicals may injure the plants. 
 
 The effects of chemicals on both beans and weeds depend on soil type, 
 moisture, temperature, and type and variety of beans. For this rea¬ 
 son, it is advisable to consult your county agricultural agent, Exten¬ 
 sion Service specialist, or State agricultural experiment station before 
 attempting to use herbicides on beans. 
 
 HARVESTING 
 
 Harvesting is a crucial stage in bean production. To keep the 
 period between pulling and threshing (or combining) as short as pos¬ 
 sible, harvesting should be delayed until most of the [)ods are dry and 
 the beans have hardened, xllthough high temperature and humidity 
 sometimes damage mature beans while they are standing in the field, 
 these conditions generally cause greater and more frequent losses while 
 the crop is curing in windrows or bunches. The more immature the 
 crop is at the time of pulling, the longer the plants have to remain 
 
 “Chemical name: Ethyl N,N-di-n-propylthiocarl)amate. 
 
 * ('hemical name : Jffi-dinitro-o-Hec-hutylphenol. 
 
 ’’ Chemical name : 2Jf-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid. 
 
 25 
 
on the ground to mature, and the greater are the chances that the beans 
 may become moldy and discoloi*ed. 
 
 AVith modem equipment, two men can harvest 20 or 80 acres of dry 
 beans in 1 day. The beans are cut below the surface of the ground 
 with large steel blades mounted on a tractor (fig. 14), a process re¬ 
 ferred to as pulling beans. Pulling is followed by windrowing. Many 
 growers use a one-man tractor-drawn puller-windrower that pulls the 
 beans, elevates them and shakes off the stones and soil, and windrows 
 them all in one operation (fig. 15.) After the beans have cured, a one- 
 man self-propelled combine threshes them directly from the windrow 
 and discharges them into a tmck driven alongside (fig. 16). 
 
 The bush-type Pea bean varieties (Sanilac, Seaway, and Gratiot) 
 were developed to shorten the time necessary to leave the beans in the 
 windrow, or possibly to eliminate this need. If beans are left stand¬ 
 ing until all the plants are mature and the beans have dried down in 
 the pods, then the beans can be pulled and windrowed during the 
 morning hours while the plants are damp and the pods are tough. 
 This will reduce shattering of the beans. Pulling is immediately fol¬ 
 lowed by windrowing before the ])lants have a chance to dry out. 
 Later in the morning or early afternoon the l>eans should be ready for 
 threshing. Care should be taken not to pull more beans in the morn¬ 
 ing than can l>e readily threshed in the afternoon and evening. 
 
 The vine-type Pea beans and colored bean varieties ordinarily can¬ 
 not be pulled and threshed the same day. Curing can be speeded up 
 by turning the beans in the windrow daily, either by hand or with 
 the windrower. In fair weather most bean varieties are cured in a 
 day or two and are then ready for threshing. 
 
 BN 23700 
 
 Figure 14.—Four-row tractor-mounted cutting blades for harvesting beans. 
 Beans are cut about 1 inch below ground. 
 
 26 
 
• 9 - 
 
 BN ,23791 
 
 Figure 15.-—Pulling and windrowing Sanilac beans in Michigan with a harvester 
 
 and an attached windrower. 
 
 BN 23792 
 
 Figure 16.—Threshing beans from the windrow with a self-propelled combine. 
 
 Trucks can be loaded without stopping the combine, and the beans can be 
 
 hauled to farm storage bins or local elevators. 
 
 Tlie windrow method of curing works well if the weather is favor¬ 
 able. Occasionally wet, humid weatlier sets in during harvesting, and 
 additional curing is needed. Well-made stacks built around posts in 
 the field allow the beans to complete their curing from newly wind- 
 rowed plants. 
 
 Tlie stacking procedure is as follows; Drive a 7-foot steel fencepost 
 or lieavy stake firmly into the ground. Place a 1-foot layer of clean 
 straw around the jiost, making a circle about 3 feet in diameter. Build 
 tlie bean stack around tlie post with straight sides to a height of at 
 ^ least 2 feet alxive the top of the post. Tlie sides may be 6 inches wider 
 atthetoj) than at the bottom. 
 
 27 
 
I 
 
 A maximum of hi^h-qiiality beans can be obtained by stackinjr, 
 even though the beans are liarvested before they are uniformly ripe. 
 
 The grower sliould take the utmost precautions to prevent injury 
 to the beans during liarvest. Beans with cracked seedcoats are desir¬ 
 able neither for canning nor for seed. In fact, commercial canning 
 companies refuse to accept beans with a larg:e number of cracked .seed- 
 coats. Constant vigilance is required on the part of the combine 
 operator, who must adjust the speed of the cylinder so that all the , 
 beans are threshed but not injured. The drier the beans, the more 
 easily they are threshed and the more easily they are injured. Since 
 the amount of moisture in the beans can change considerably during * 
 the day, frequent adjustments may be necessary. Investigations at 
 Michigan State University showed that spraying the beans in the 
 windrow delays drying out during the day and reduces the damage ’ 
 that occurs to beans in the combine. Placing a damp, absorbent mate¬ 
 rial, such as damp sawdust or damp corncobs, to dry beans in the com¬ 
 bine hop{>er, truck, or bin adds sufficient moisture and weight to the 
 beans in 2 hours to prevent further damage in handling. j 
 
 DEFOLIATION 
 
 formally, it is not necessary to use chemical defoliants in field bean 
 production. However, natural defoliation is sometimes delayed or 
 does not occur uniformly on plants in the field. Where this is true, j 
 chemical defoliants are desirable. They speed up ripening and assist I 
 in uniform maturing of the crop. 
 
 Commercial formulations containing magnesium chlorate or .sodium | 
 chlorate and small quantities of boron or magnesium chloride should i 
 be applied at a time when the leaves are coloring and the beans in the 
 pod are well developed. The defoliant should l)e applied when tem¬ 
 peratures are above 60° F. and no rain is expected for at least 6 hours. 
 Chemical defoliants will probably be used to a much larger extent 
 should direct combining from the standing row become feasible. i 
 
 PRODUCTION COSTS 
 
 What does it cost to produce an acre of dry beans? Researchers in 
 Maine and New York determined the costs in 1958 and researchers in 
 Michigan in 1962. The Maine values are for Yellow Eye production. 
 New York for Light Red Kidney production, and Michigan for Pea 
 l)ean production. The growing and harvesting costs, which include 
 all fixed and variable costs, for Maine were $111.74 per acre. This 
 included a cleaning (picking) cost of $14.52. Michigan's $67.90 cost 
 per acre for dry bean production is based on estimated costs and 
 returns from Sanilac County. New York sampled the Cayuga-Seneca ^ 
 Counties area, where tlm costs were $77.65 per acre, and the Livingston- . 
 Wyoming Counties area, where the costs were $92.77 per acre. 
 
 28 
 
 1 
 
MARKETING, CLEANING, AND GRADING 
 
 The quality of the crop and the price at harvesttime determine for 
 most farmers whether they market the beans promptly after threshing 
 or store them on the farm. Many farmers, however, consistently fol¬ 
 low one ])ractice year after year regardless of price at harvesttime. 
 
 Limited space is available in most areas for commercial storage of 
 beans for farmers. Most commercial space is used by elevator interests 
 to store the beans they buy at harvesttime for processing and sale 
 throughout the rest of the year. 
 
 Since the combine has come into general use for harvesting beans, 
 most beans are delivered to country elevators in bulk by truck. The 
 beans are then weighed, sampled to determined quality and price, and 
 dumped into a pit for elevation into the elevator. 
 
 Pea beans are purchased from farmers on the basis of the price for 
 Choice Handpicked grade. The sample from a farmer’s load is 
 ‘‘picked” to sort the good beans from the splits, discolored beans, stones, 
 straw, and other foreign material. The amount paid to the farmer 
 for the load is determined by multiplying the original net weight of 
 his delivery in pounds minus the weight of the “pick” by the price per 
 pound for Choice Handpicked grade. From this price is subtracted 
 a picking charge per pound, which varies from year to year, and 
 depends on relative costs of operation. 
 
 Most country elevators process the beans by putting them over a 
 cleaner, stoner, and jigger or gravity mill, the extent of their process¬ 
 ing depending upon their facilities and the quality of the crop. 
 
 The condition of beans on hand largely determines the degree of 
 processing and the method of disposal of the beans by the country 
 elevator man. Following crops of good quality, he is often able to 
 process the beans sufficiently to meet the standard for No. 1 grade for 
 screened beans (see below) and ship direct to merchants and large 
 users in 100-pound bags. But when beans are of low quality and a 
 high proportion must be picked out because of discoloration, the coun- 
 tr}’ elevator man may not be able economically to process his beans 
 sufficiently to meet the higher grades. In this case he ships them in 
 bulk carloads to major processing terminals at which electric-eye sort¬ 
 ing machines pick the beans to a Choice Handpicked grade. 
 
 Beans are graded according to their quality by private. State, and 
 Federal inspectors. The State bean shippers associations maintain 
 their own inspection services for their members, but these are not 
 official so far as the State and Federal departments are concerned. 
 The State of New York adopted the United States Standards for in- 
 s])ection, whereas the State of JMichigan uses two standards, one based 
 ^on State regulations and the other on Federal regulations. The per¬ 
 centage of total defects permitted under United States Standards for 
 l)eans are given below. 
 
 29 
 
U.S. Grade 
 
 Percentage of defect/I (xplitit, damaged ( 
 heane, cnntranting clauftes, and for¬ 
 eign material)* permitted'^ 
 
 Handpicked or si>ecially processed beans: ^ 
 
 U.S. Choice Handpicked- 1- 5 
 
 U.S. No. 1 Handpicked_ 2. 0 
 
 U.S. No. 2 Handpicked- 4. 0 
 
 U.S. No. 3 Handpicked_ 6. 0 
 
 Screened beans: ” 
 
 U.S. No. 1_ 2.0 
 
 U.S. No. 2_ 4.0 
 
 U.S. No. 3_ 6.0 
 
 1 Data obtained from Consumer and Marketing Service. U.S. Dei>artment of 
 Agriculture, Revised United States Standards for Beans (effective Sept. 1, 19.o9). 
 “ Except Blackeye, Cranberry, and the various classes of lima beans. 
 
 ® Cranberry l>ean standards are 4.0, 6.0, and 8.0 percent, and Pinto bean 
 standards are 3.5, 5.0, and 8.0 i)ercent, for U.S. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 
 
 Two additional U.S. Standard grades of screened beans are U.S. 
 Substandard and U.S. Sample. The U.S. Substandard grade includes 
 tliose beans that do not meet the requirements of the U.S. Nos. 1, 2,! 
 and 3 or the U.S. Sample. The U.S. Sample grade includes beans, 
 of any of the classes that are musty, sour, heating, materially weath- i 
 ered, weevily, or are otherwise of low quality. 
 
 Michigan State standards are used in the sale of all Michigan beans i 
 except those that are sold to State agencies outside Michigan, to ] 
 Federal agencies, and for export (unless inspection under Michigan 
 standards of beans for export is requested). The percentage of total 
 defects permitted under Michigan Standards for dry edible beans is 
 given below. 
 
 Percentage of defects {eplita, damaged 
 Michigan Grade beana, contraating claaaea, and for¬ 
 
 eign material) permitted^ 
 
 Handpicked beans: ^ 
 
 Michigan Choice Handpicked- 1- 
 
 Michigan Prime Handpicked- 3. 0 
 
 Screened beans: * 
 
 Michigan No. 1_ 2. 0 
 
 Michigan No. 2_ 3. 0 
 
 '■ Data obtained from Michigan Department of Agriculture Regulation No. 
 .523, May 15, 1959. 
 
 “ Cranberry and Yellow Eye beans may contain an additional 2 percent split, 
 but otherwise sound beans of the same class in any of the established grades. 
 Total maximum tolerance for defects in Kidney beans shall be 2 percent in the 
 Choice Handpicked and No. 1 grades and 4 percent in Prime Handpicked and No. 2 
 grades. 
 
 xVn additional Michigan screened beans grade is Michigan Picking^ 
 Stock. It includes beans that do not meet the specifications for any 
 of the established grades. 
 
 l 
 
 30 
 
All beans, except those shipped as “picking stock” from one bean 
 ^lant to another for further processing, must be inspected before ship- 
 nent by a licensed bean inspector supervised by the State department 
 3f agriculture and must caiTy an inspection certificate citing the grade. 
 
 In Michigan the Department of Agriculture supervises the inspec- 
 ion service on the basis of an agreement or contract with the Michigan 
 Bean Shippers Association. These two agencies jointly (and solely) 
 "onduct the inspection service on the basis of official Michigan grades 
 ind standards. The same bean inspectors that are licensed by the 
 Michigan Department of Agriculture also do the inspection work 
 hat is based on U.S. standards. This is made possible by means of 
 i three-way agreement between the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 the Michigan Department of Agriculture, and the Michigan Bean 
 Shippers Association. The latter organization is located in Saginaw, 
 Mich. 
 
 Three colored types—Red Kidney, Cranberry, and Yellow Eye— 
 ire handled in most respects like Pea beans, except they are bought on 
 he basis of No. 1 grade and for the most part are processed to No. 1 
 P’ade. 
 
 Cull beans usually find a market among livestock feeders or feed 
 nanufacturers. Split beans become a sales problem, especially in dry 
 years, when the handling and processing cause a high percentage of 
 splits. 
 
 DISEASES 
 
 In some years, losses to bean growers from disease infestations 
 imount to several million dollars. Some bean growers have sustained 
 ‘omplete loss from disease. 
 
 In general, losses caused by bean diseases can be held to a minimum 
 oy following these cultural practices: (1) Plant disease-resistant va¬ 
 rieties when available; (2) use disease-free seed (certified seed is rec- 
 ammended); (3) practice at least a 3- or 4-year crop rotation; (4) 
 keep fields clean by plowing under bean refuse; (5) avoid working 
 in beanfields while they are wet; (6) treat the seed with recommended 
 chemicals to prevent damping-off, seed decay, and seed-com maggot 
 injury. Airborne diseases can be controlled by spraying the field with 
 chemical fungicides. 
 
 Because seed infection is not easily detected in colored beans, scruti¬ 
 nize colored beans before planting. Obtain certified seed if it is avail- 
 'ible. 
 
 The economically important diseases of beans are described fully 
 in Agriculture Handbook 225, “Bean Diseases—How To Control 
 Tliem.” A copy of this handbook can be obtained by writing to the 
 Office of Information, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
 D.C., 20250. 
 
 31 
 
INSECTS 
 
 I 
 
 For information on insects affecting the dry bean crop in the Lake ll 
 and Northeastern States, and on current recommendations for insect ^ 
 control, call or write your county agricultural agent, your State agri¬ 
 cultural extension service or agricultural experiment station, or the. 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Herbicides are poisonous to man and animals. Use them only when i 
 needed and handle them Avith care. Follow the directions and heed 
 all precautions on the labels. 
 
 Keep herbicides in closed, well-labeled containers in a dry place. I 
 Store them where they will not contaminate food or feed, and where i 
 children and pets cannot reach them. 
 
 x\.void repeated or prolonged contact of herbicides with the skin. , 
 xlvoid inhalation of herbicide dusts or mists. 
 
 xVvoid spilling herbicides on your skin, and keep them out of the 
 eyes, nose, and mouth. If any is spilled on skin or clothing, wash 
 it otf the skin and change clothing immediately. 
 
 When handling herbicides, wear clean, dry clothing. 
 
 Wash your hands and face before eating or smoking and immedi¬ 
 ately after completing herbicide application. 
 
 To protect fish and wildlife, do not contaminate lakes, streams, or 
 ponds with herbicide. Do not clean spraying equipment or dump 
 excess spray material near such water. 
 
 To minimize losses of honeybees and other pollinating insects, 
 make herbicide applications, when possible, during hours when the in-' 
 sects are not visiting the plants. Avoid drift of herbicides sprays to, 
 nearby crops or livestock. Avoid drift of herbicides into bee yards.; ■ 
 
 Empty containers are particularly hazardous. Burn empty bags and 
 cardboard containers in the open or bury them. Crush and bury 
 bottles or cans. 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1965 O—769-267 
 
 I 
 
 32 
 
Agriculture Handbook No. 286 
 
 CHEMICAL CONTROL 
 OF 
 
 PLANT-PARASITIC 
 
 NEMATODES 
 
 
 
 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 How nematocides work in soil_^_ 3 
 
 When to apply nematocides_ 5 
 
 Land preparation_ 6 
 
 Calibrating the equipment_ 6 
 
 Overall treatment_ 8 
 
 Row treatment_ 14 
 
 Strip treatment_ 17 
 
 Postplanting sidedressing treatment_ 18 
 
 Spot treatment_ 18 
 
 Drench and irrigation water application_ 18 
 
 Fumigating plant beds_ 20 
 
 Treatment of potting and rooting soil___ 22 
 
 Controlling nematodes in home gardens_ 23 
 
 Treating lawns, shrubs, and trees in home yards_ 26 
 
 Supplementary management practices_ 26 
 
 Chemical residues and plant tolerances_ 27 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 If pesticides are handled or applied improperly, or if un¬ 
 used parts are disposed of improperly, they may be injurious 
 to humans, domestic animals, desirable plants, and pollinat¬ 
 ing insects, fish, or other wildlife, and may contaminate water 
 supplies. LTse pesticides only when needed and handle them 
 with care. 
 
 IVhen using nematocides, follow the manufacturer’s di¬ 
 rections exactly. Ask your county agricultural agent or your 
 State agricultural experiment station for advice as to the best 
 method of application and possible harmful effects. Vari¬ 
 ations in soils and climate may affect the action of the 
 nematocides. 
 
 Handle nematocides with extreme care. Avoid prolonged 
 breathing of the fumes. Do not allow the liquid to come 
 into contact with the skin. If the liquid is accidentally 
 splashed on clothing, including gloves or shoes, remove the 
 garments without delay; do not wear them again until they 
 are washed, cleaned, or at least thoroughly aired for a day 
 or two. Never risk getting the material in your mouth. If 
 it is splashed in your eyes, wash it out with large quantities 
 of water and consult a physician. 
 
 Keep children and pets away from fumigated soil. Pot¬ 
 ting and rooting soil that has been treated with nematocides 
 should not be used until all traces of fumigant odor have 
 disappeared. 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued September 1965 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OflBoe 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 15 cents 
 
CHEMICAL CONTROL Of 
 
 PLANT-PARASITIC NEMATODES 
 
 By J. M. Good and A. L. Taylor, Crops Research Division, Agricultural 
 
 Research Service 
 
 Plant-parasitic nematodes occur 
 in all soils. When land is brought 
 under intensive cultivation, nema¬ 
 todes often become a serious prob¬ 
 lem. Chemical deterrents (nema- 
 tocides) have come into wide use as 
 an effective means of controlling 
 nematodes. 
 
 Nematode control is a matter of 
 economics. Only crops producing 
 high returns per acre, such as to¬ 
 bacco, truck crops, and orchard 
 crops, lend themselves to use of 
 nematocides. Many field crops, 
 such as soybeans, small grains, and 
 corn, do not have sufficient value 
 per acre to make chemical control 
 profitable. However, lawns, home 
 gardens, and other small plots can 
 usually be treated for a relatively 
 small investment in chemicals and 
 equipment. 
 
 Complete eradication of nema¬ 
 todes is seldom practical. Complete 
 eradication is attempted only when 
 
 land is under quarantine for dan¬ 
 gerous nematode species. In such 
 cases application rates may be four 
 to eight times those normally used. 
 For normal use, recommendations 
 are usually aimed at killing the larg¬ 
 est possible number of nematodes 
 with the smallest possible amount of 
 nematocide. In most cases the rec¬ 
 ommended dosage kills about 85 to 
 90 percent of the nematode popula¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Approximately 20 chemicals and 
 chemical mixtures are manufac¬ 
 tured for control of nematodes (see 
 table). This handbook does not in¬ 
 clude information on dosage. Cor¬ 
 rect dosage varies with the type of 
 chemical, the crop, the soil type, and 
 the method of application. County 
 agents, extension specialists, and 
 State experiment station specialists 
 can supply specific recommenda¬ 
 tions. Manufacturers’ directions 
 should be read carefully. 
 
 HOW NEMATOCIDES WORK IN SOIL 
 
 Most proprietary nematocides, 
 such as D-D (dichloropropene), 
 EDB (ethylene dibromide), DBCP 
 (dibromochloropropane), and MBR 
 (methyl bromide), are soil fumi¬ 
 gants with relatively high volatility. 
 In the soil, they form vapors that 
 move several inches from the point 
 of application; the distance of 
 movement is influenced by soil po¬ 
 rosity, particle size, soil tempera¬ 
 ture, soil moisture, and percent of 
 "Colloidal and organic matter. 
 
 The degree of kill is determined 
 by the concentration of the nema¬ 
 tocide in the soil and the length of 
 
 time the nematodes are exposed to 
 the killing fumes. These factors are 
 seldom under precise control of the 
 user. In practice, kill can best be 
 increased by increasing the appli¬ 
 cation rate. However, increasing 
 the application rate beyond a cer¬ 
 tain point does not increase the crop 
 yield. Recommended nematocide 
 dosages are those which have been 
 found by experiment to produce the 
 best crop yield increases with the 
 least amount of nematocide. In 
 most cases the recommended dosage 
 kills about 85 to 90 percent of the 
 nematodes. 
 
 3 
 
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 • Although a search for all trade names was made, some may have been omitted unintentionally. 
 > Also controls soil insects, weeds, and fungi. 
 
 * Also controls soil insects. Used as a drench or soak on turf and ornamentals. 
 
Because nematocide vapors move 
 through the soil, anything that re¬ 
 stricts the size of soil pore spaces 
 or creates a discontinuous system 
 will limit diffusion and reduce the 
 effectiveness of nematocide treat¬ 
 ment. Poorly prepared land has 
 limited pore space; well-prepared 
 land has a friable tilth that permits 
 diffusion of nematocide vapors into 
 all parts of the soil. 
 
 If soil moisture content is ex¬ 
 tremely high, pore spaces will be 
 tilled with water, which also re¬ 
 stricts diffusion of nematocides. 
 Best nematode control is obtained 
 when the soil moisture is about 80 
 percent of field capacity. Accord¬ 
 ing to rule of thumb, the soil mois¬ 
 ture should be suitable for good seed 
 germination when soil fumigants 
 are applied. Under these conditions 
 nematocide vapor moves readily in 
 soil. On the other hand, if the soil 
 is too dry when soil fumigants are 
 applied, results will be poor because 
 the vapors will escape from the soil 
 before appreciable kill can take 
 place. 
 
 A number of nematocides have 
 low volatility and cannot be con¬ 
 sidered true soil fumigants because 
 the active ingredients do not diffuse 
 through the soil to any great extent. 
 Dispersion of these chemicals de¬ 
 pends on mechanical mixing, or 
 
 movement by irrigation water and 
 natural rainfall. 
 
 Clay soils and soils high in or¬ 
 ganic matter require from 20 to 40 
 percent more nematocide for effec¬ 
 tive control than sandy soils. This 
 is because clay soils have more total 
 pore space to be filled with fumigant 
 vapor than sandy soils and because 
 colloidal and organic matter often 
 adsorb some of the fumigant vapors. 
 
 Most soil nematocides have some 
 effect on plant growth if improp¬ 
 erly applied—that is, they are poi¬ 
 sonous or phytotoxic. They may 
 prevent or delay germination or 
 emergence of seedlings, kill or dam¬ 
 age the roots of transplants, or have 
 other undesirable effects. Because 
 of this, time must usually be allowed 
 between application of the ne¬ 
 matocide to the soil and planting. 
 During this time, the chemical de¬ 
 composes, dissipates into the air, 
 or is leached out. 
 
 There are important exceptions 
 to this rule; some nematocides can 
 be applied at planting time or 
 around the roots of growing crops 
 that are tolerant to the nematocide. 
 But these same nematocides may be 
 highly toxic to other kinds of seeds, 
 transplants, or growing plants. 
 
 When properly used, nematocides 
 eliminate nematodes as a limiting 
 factor in plant growth and permit 
 normal, healthy plant growth. 
 
 WHEN TO APPLY NEMATOCIDES 
 
 Ix)cal soil and weather conditions 
 determine the time for application 
 of nematocides. 
 
 Preplanting applications of ne¬ 
 matocides are often made in the 
 early spring, 2 to 3 weeks before the 
 customary planting date. If cold, 
 wet weather persists, the interval be¬ 
 tween treatment and planting must 
 increased to guard against seed¬ 
 ling damage. 
 
 In northern parts of the country, 
 fall treatment usually gives better 
 nematode control than spring treat¬ 
 ment. All traces of chemical resi¬ 
 
 due will have disappeared by spring 
 planting time, thus precluding any 
 possibility of crop damage. Nema¬ 
 todes will not become reestablished 
 during the winter if no susceptible 
 crops are planted between treatment 
 and spring planting time. 
 
 In the Gulf Coast States, where 
 winters are generally mild, some 
 nematocides can be applied between 
 December and February with good 
 results. This allows ample time for 
 the chemicals to escape from the soil 
 before spring planting; at the same 
 time, the cool weather prevents 
 
 5 
 
chemicals from evaporating too 
 rapidly to achieve an etfective kill. 
 
 When soil temperatures are 75° F. 
 or higher at a 6-inch depth, soil 
 fumigants usually volatilize quickly 
 and escape from the soil before 
 lethal concentrations can be accumu¬ 
 lated in a sizable volume of soil. 
 On the other hand, if the soil tem¬ 
 perature is below 40° F. complete 
 volatilization and diffusion will not 
 occur. For best results, therefore, 
 the soil temperature slmuld be be¬ 
 tween 50° and 70° F. Chemicals 
 containing ethylene dibromide are 
 
 not effective if the soil temperature 
 is much below 50° F., and therefore 
 should not be applied during the 
 winter. 
 
 In areas of heavy rainfall, neina- 
 tocide application may have to be 
 delayed oecause of excess soil mois¬ 
 ture. If heavy rainfall follows ap¬ 
 plication, planting may have to be 
 delayed by as much as 4 weeks to 
 prevent crop damage. If you can 
 detect no fumigant odor at a soil 
 depth of 6 to 12 inches, the soil is 
 usually sufficiently free of fumigant 
 to permit planting of seeds. 
 
 LAND PREPARATION 
 
 Soil that is to be fumigated should 
 be prepared long enough in advance 
 of chemical treatment to allow de¬ 
 composition of all aboveground 
 plant parts as well as all roots and 
 tubers. The land should be mowed, 
 harrowed, and plowed to insure 
 quick rotting of plant refuse. 
 
 Undecomposed litter prevents 
 even distribution of chemicals, in¬ 
 terferes with fumigation equipment, 
 and prevents proper sealing of the 
 soil surface. Undecomposed plant 
 parts also contain nematodes and 
 nematode eggs; the plant fibers pro¬ 
 tect these nematodes and eggs from 
 contact with nematocide fumes. 
 
 Undecomposed litter in the sur¬ 
 face soil can be buried at the bottom 
 of the plow furrow by mounting a 
 disk hiller in front of the wing of 
 a moldboard plow. The disk moves 
 the top 2 or 3 inches of soil into the 
 bottom of the furrow ahead of the 
 
 main furrow slice (fig. 1). Similar 
 attachments are available for the til¬ 
 lage disk. The method buries litter 
 deep enough so that it will not clo" 
 fumigation chisels. 
 
 If weeds become reestablished fol¬ 
 lowing initial plowing, the land 
 should be harrowed or replowed a 
 few days before applying nema- 
 tocides. 
 
 Roots of many woody plants, par¬ 
 ticularly cotton, vines, and many 
 trees, will not decompose quickly. 
 In such cases it may be necessary to 
 grow nonwoody plants on the land 
 for at least 1 and preferably 2 years 
 before applying nematocides. This 
 will allow sufficient time for the 
 woody roots to decompose. In the 
 case of tree crops, such as citrus 
 and peaches, 2 years should always 
 be allowed for the roots to decom¬ 
 pose. 
 
 CALIBRATING THE EQUIPMENT 
 
 Application equipment must be 
 calibrated, or adjusted, so that the 
 correct amount of chemical will be 
 applied evenly over the entire field. 
 Inaccurate calibration is a common 
 cause of dissatisfaction with nema¬ 
 tocides. Overdosage results in de¬ 
 layed planting and, frequently, crop 
 damage and yield losses. If too 
 
 little nematocide is applied, control 
 will not be effective. 
 
 Read the manufacturer’s label 
 carefully, noting the recommended 
 dosage and metnod of application 
 for a given crop. The label will 
 show the percentage of active in¬ 
 gredient contained in the manufac¬ 
 tured formulation. If the recom- 
 
 6 
 
BN 24029 
 
 Figure 1 .—Surface litter can be buried in the bottom of the plow furrow where it will not 
 interfere with fumigation chisels. The litter is scraped into the furrow by the concave disks, 
 then covered with soil by the wings of the plows. 
 
 mended dosage is given as active 
 ingredient, the user will have to cal¬ 
 culate the amount of manufactured 
 formulation that will be needed. 
 
 Two principal methods of nema- 
 tocide application are (1) rowtreat- 
 Qient and (2) overall treatment. 
 Dosage recommendations for row 
 treatment are based on the amount 
 of nematocide needed per linear foot 
 of row. Thus wide-row spacings re- 
 ][uire less chemical than close-row 
 spacings. Recommendations for 
 overall treatment are based on the 
 amount of chemical needed to treat 
 1 square foot of soil; the spacing of 
 the crop grown on the soil is 
 irrelevant. 
 
 To calibrate tractor-m o u n t e d 
 equipment, the speed of the tractor 
 must first be determined. Meter de¬ 
 vices on the applicator can then be 
 adjusted to deliver the recommend¬ 
 ed amount of chemical in the time 
 
 required for the tractor to travel 100 
 feet. 
 
 Tractor speed can be easily meas¬ 
 ured by noting the number of sec¬ 
 onds required to drive the tractor 
 100 feet. The tractor should be 
 timed on the plowed field to be 
 treated, with the equipment at op¬ 
 erating depth. If the tractor has a 
 speedometer, its speed per second 
 can be calculated by multiplying 
 miles per hour by the factor 1.46. 
 Ten miles per hour, for example, 
 equals 14.6 feet per second. 
 
 Equipment manufacturers fur¬ 
 nish charts and graphs that aid in 
 calibrating, but these are of no value 
 if a pressure gage becomes inaccu¬ 
 rate, if substitute replacement parts 
 are used, or if equipment becomes 
 badly worn or damaged. The fol¬ 
 lowing formulas can be used to de¬ 
 termine the amount of chemical 
 needed for any method of applica¬ 
 tion. 
 
 7 
 
Formula for Liquids 
 
 In tlie formula below, B is the 
 width of treated band in inches, C 
 is the number of milliliters (cc) of 
 chemical applied per foot, R is the 
 distance between crop rows in 
 inches, and D is the distance between 
 applicator chisels in inches. The 
 numbers are constant factors. 
 
 Band application: 
 
 11.5XBXC 
 
 --=gallons per acre 
 
 Raia or furrow application: 
 
 138XC 
 
 —— = gal Ions per acre 
 
 Overall chisel application: 
 
 138 XC 
 
 —^— =gallons per acre 
 
 Liquid sprayed on soil surface: 
 
 11.5 X C=gallons per acre 
 
 Formula for Granules or Dusts 
 
 In the formula below, B is the 
 width of treated band in inches, G 
 is the number of grams applied per 
 foot, R is the distance between rows 
 in inches, and D is the distance be¬ 
 tween applicator disks or chisels in 
 inches. The numbers are constant 
 factors. 
 
 Band application: 
 
 96 X B X G 
 
 --= pounds per acre 
 
 Row andfurroiu application: 
 1152XG 
 
 —-= pounds per acre 
 
 Overall chisel application: 
 
 1152 XG 
 
 -— = pounds per acre 
 
 OVERALL 
 
 Overall treatment of soil consists 
 of applying nematocides evenly over 
 the entire field. Essential parts of 
 an overall fumigating machine are 
 the chemical storage tank, the meter¬ 
 ing device, delivery tubes, soil ap¬ 
 plicators and, usually, a smoothing 
 and firming drag. 
 
 Granules spread on soil surface: 
 
 96 X G=pounds per acre 
 
 The following formula for overall 
 chemical application as a drench or 
 in irrigation water can be used to 
 determine the amount of chemical 
 applied per acre: 
 
 0.027 X P X I=gallons or pounds ap¬ 
 plied per acre 
 
 In this formula, 0.027 is a con¬ 
 stant factor, P is parts per million 
 (ppm) or pounds or gallons of 
 chemical per 1 million gallons of 
 water, and I is number of acre- 
 inches of water applied, assuming 1 
 acre-inch is equal to 27,154 gallons 
 of water. 
 
 Several precautions should be 
 taken to insure accurate calibration 
 and application of nematocides. 
 The tractor should be moving for¬ 
 ward and the nematocide flowing be- 
 fore the fumigation equipment is 
 put into the ground; this will pre¬ 
 vent clogging of chisels. The en¬ 
 tire application system should be 
 checked periodically during opera¬ 
 tion to guard against leaks and stop¬ 
 pages. Rusty containers should 
 never be used for nematocides. 
 
 Chemical quantities are often ex¬ 
 pressed in terms of metric measure¬ 
 ment. Users may find it convenient 
 to know that the ordinary kitchen 
 measuring cup holds one-half pint 
 or 473 milliliters, that 1 pound is 454 
 grams, and that 1 ounce is 28.4 
 grams. (For more detailed conver¬ 
 sion information, see p. 28.) 
 
 TREATMENT 
 
 The most commonly used machine 
 is the chisel applicator. It consists 
 of shanks (or tines) spaced evenly 
 across a tool bar, or cultivator 
 frame, at intervals of 6 to 12 inches 
 (fig. 2). The applicator foot, or 
 chisel, can be of several designs; one 
 of the best is the chisel designed for 
 
 8 
 
BN 24031 
 
 Figure 2 .—Overall chisel applicator equipped with coil-regulated, gravity-flow application system. 
 Nematocide flows from the storage tank, through the metering coils, down the tubes, and into 
 the soil behind the chisels. 
 
 application of anhydrous ammonia. 
 File chisel will function best if the 
 shanks are staj^gered, with every 
 □ther shank several inches forward 
 or backward on the tool bar. This 
 helps keep the machine from chok¬ 
 ing with soil and trash. 
 
 (diisels may tend to clog in rocky, 
 stiff, or trashy soil. This difficulty 
 •an be overcome by using rolling fins 
 
 (colters) that cut through the soil 
 ahead of the chisels (figs. 3 and 4). 
 Backsweep chisels that will slip over 
 obstructions have been designed, but 
 they are sometimes difficult to keep 
 in the soil at the necessary depth. 
 
 Subsurface application of nema¬ 
 tocide can be made with a blade 4 to 
 6 feet wide that runs 6 to 8 inches 
 beneath the soil with its flat surface 
 
 770-822 
 
 9 
 
BN 24007 
 
 Figure 3 .—Overall pressure-applicator equipped with colters that cut through the soil ahead of 
 the chisels. The fumigant pump is driven by the groundwheel but provides accurate dosage 
 independent of ground speed. 
 
 bn stoio 
 
 Figure 4 .—Caterpillar tractor designed for large-scale application of nematocides in soil that is 
 
 heavy or contains obstructions. 
 
 10 
 
parallel to the soil surface (fig. 5). 
 Xozzles mounted under the blade 
 spray an overlapping pattern, mak¬ 
 ing possible the most uniform ap¬ 
 plication of soil fumigants that has 
 thus far been devised (1965). 
 
 The simplest machine to build is 
 the plow applicator. It consists of 
 a chemical applicator attached 
 either to a moldboard plow (fig. 6) 
 
 I or to a tillage disk. Two outlet 
 [tubes are usually required for each 
 furrow if a gravity-flow system is 
 used, but the entire bottom of the 
 furrow can be sprayed from a single 
 1 outlet if a pressure system is used. 
 The delivery tubes discharge chemi- 
 [cal into the bottom of the open fur¬ 
 row. The nematocide is covered in¬ 
 stantly by the plow. Best results 
 are usually obtained when the land 
 is prepared as if for planting, then 
 fumigated with the plow applicator. 
 
 Chemicals can be plowed under 
 as the land is initially broken if the 
 soil is a loose type and if surface 
 litter has been previously destroyed. 
 If large clumps and slices are 
 formed during plowing, soil fumi¬ 
 gants will escape prematurely 
 
 through the openings in the soil. 
 Soil such as this can be sealed by 
 light harrowing or cultipacking. 
 
 Nematocides are sometimes ap¬ 
 plied in granular form rather than 
 as liquids. Granular nematocides 
 can be applied with grain drills or 
 fertilizer spreaders. Granules 
 should be placed 4 to 6 inches deep 
 behind disks or fertilizer chisels 
 mounted 6 to 12 inches apart 
 (fig.T). 
 
 A less efficient method of apply¬ 
 ing granules is to spread them on 
 the soil surface and immediately in¬ 
 vert the soil by plowing. The plow 
 should have a disk that will scrape 
 surface soil into the bottom of the 
 furrow before the remainder of the 
 furrow is inverted (see fig. 1). If 
 this method of application is used, 
 two tractors with gangplows will be 
 needed to turn under tlie chemical 
 spread by one fertilizer spreader. 
 The spreading and plowing should 
 be done at the same time, especially 
 if a highly volatile chemical is being 
 used; otherwise, large amounts of 
 fumigant vapor will escape into the 
 air. 
 
 BN 24003 
 
 ^igur» 5.—Subsurface blade applicator used for applying nematocides as an overall treatment. 
 Chemical is sprayed from the bottom of the blade as soil passes over the blade. 
 
 11 
 
BN 24000 ; 
 
 Figure 6.—Gravity-flow system for plowdown application of fumigants. Two streams of fumi-, 
 gant run into each furrow ahecid of the covering plows. If a pressure system is used, the | 
 fumigant container can be mounted on the side or in front of the tractor. 
 
 bn 24005 
 
 Figure 7.—Fertilizer spreader modified for applying granular nematocides. The granular chisels 
 are mounted 12 inches apart. The drag smooths and Arms the soil after treatment. 
 
 12 
 
IjOw volatility nematocides, either 
 liquid or granular, can be mixed into 
 the soil with disk harrows or roto- 
 tillers (fig. 8). Volatile chemicals 
 should not be applied unless the soil 
 is to be immediately covered with 
 polyethylene sheeting (fig. 9). 
 
 In areas where crops of high 
 value are grown and where maxi¬ 
 mum nematode control is needed, 
 two applications of nematocide may 
 be practical. In such cases, the soil 
 
 is treated, then plowed, then treated 
 again. Thus surface soil, which re¬ 
 ceives little treatment the first time, 
 is plowed under and receives its 
 treatment on the second application. 
 The second treatment may be com¬ 
 bined with plowing by using a plow 
 applicator. If possible, different 
 nematocides should be used for each 
 of the two applications. For ex¬ 
 ample, dichloropropene might be 
 used for the first application and 
 
 — 
 
 J..*- 
 
 BN 23999 
 
 ^igure 8.—Rotofiller used to incorporate low-volatile nematocides into the soil. The nematocide 
 is sprayed on the surface of the soil ahead of the tiller blades. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jmii^ 
 
 A. * 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 ' 1 'T ’ 
 
 11 
 
 BN 24014 
 
 igur» 9.—Rototilling and covering soil with polyethylene in one operation. Nematocides are 
 
 sprayed on the soil in front of the rototiller. 
 
 13 
 
ethylene dibromide or dibromochlo- 
 ropropane for the second. This 
 procedure reduces the chance of res¬ 
 idues in the crop and lessens the 
 possibility of phytotoxicity. 
 
 Except when polyethylene sheet¬ 
 ing is applied, soil surfaces should 
 be smoothed and firmed after treat¬ 
 ment. Drags, spring-loaded soil 
 rakes, cultipackers, and bedshapers 
 are used for this purpose. 
 
 ROW TREATMENT 
 
 Row application of nematocides 
 is less expensive than overall appli¬ 
 cation. The commonest types oi ma¬ 
 chinery used for row application 
 are pictured in figures 10 through 
 13. Chemicals should be placed 6 
 to 12 inches deeper than tne orig¬ 
 inal soil surface, then covered with 
 a listed bed of soil formed by list¬ 
 ing plows mounted behind the fumi¬ 
 gation chisels. 
 
 Furrow applications of nemato- 
 cide are sometimes combined with 
 application of fertilizer in the drill. 
 The fumigant delivery tube is at¬ 
 tached behind the fertilizer opening 
 
 shovel, and the chemical is allowed 
 to run into the furrow. Both fumi¬ 
 gant and fertilizer are then covered 
 with a listed bed. The disadvantage 
 of this method is that the fumigant 
 usually is not applied at sufficient 
 depth for best results. 
 
 Granular nematocides can be 
 used in granular-row applicators 
 that have oeen developed for appli¬ 
 cation of insecticides. The ^anules 
 can be applied with a solid-:fcrtilizer 
 shank or behind an openii^ shovel 
 as a furrow treatment. Granular 
 nematocides also can be mixed with 
 fertilizer that is applied in the fur- 
 
 BN 23997 
 
 Figure 10.—A one-row, gravity-operated fumigant applicator. Soil is listed on the fumigant by 
 the iarge disk hillers. Multiple-unit machines can be constructed to treat more than one row 
 at a time. 
 
 14 
 
BN 24008 
 
 Figure 11 .—Combination plow for applying both fertilizer and nematocide. The nematocide is 
 applied behind the shallow subsoiling chisel; the colters open a furrow in which fertilizer 
 is applied; and the row is closed by the large disk hillers that form listed beds. Large multiple- 
 row plows are also available. 
 
 BN 24004 
 
 Figure ’2.—Two-row, gravity-flow fumigant applicator that injects nematocide in the row, covers 
 the chemical by means of the disk hillers, and firms the beds with press-wheels. 
 
 15 
 
row, but this method has one dis¬ 
 tinct disadvantage: The mixture is 
 usually applied at the depth best for 
 fertilizer, which is too shallow for 
 most nematocides. 
 
 A number of field and truck crops 
 are tolerant to dibromochloropro- 
 pane (DBCP). These crops can 
 therefore be treated with DBCP 
 during planting. When DBCP is 
 applied as a chisel or furrow treat¬ 
 ment at planting, the chemical 
 should be placed at a minimum 
 depth of 6 inches and at least 2 
 inches beneath the seed. Some 
 growers prefer to place the granu¬ 
 lar formulation about 2 inches to 
 either side and below the seed. This 
 minimizes the possibility of injury 
 to germinating seed. Application 
 of dibromochloropropane during 
 planting is generally not quite as 
 effective as a preplant application, 
 but operational savings usually com¬ 
 
 pensate for the less effective nema¬ 
 tode control. 
 
 Except when chemical is applied 
 during planting, listed row-beds are 
 used to seal volatile nematocides in 
 the soil. The beds should be ap¬ 
 proximately 15 to 24 inches wide at 
 the base and 8 to 12 inches higher 
 than the original soil surface (fig. 
 14). After the nematocide is ap¬ 
 plied, the bed should be left undis¬ 
 turbed for 7 to 21 days, the perioil 
 depending on the type of nemato¬ 
 cide used and on local weather and 
 soil conditions. The beds can be 
 leveled before planting by any of 
 several methods. Fertilizer can be 
 added by side placement before the 
 beds are leveled. V-shaped blades, 
 built-up sweeps, boards, or opening 
 I)lows and shovels can be used to 
 scrape the top part of the bed into 
 the middle of the row. If fertilizer 
 is added after nematocide treat- 
 
 B.N 24012 
 
 Figure 13 .—Cultivator frame equipped for applying fertilizer and granular nonphytotoxic nema- 
 tocide in the furrow at planting. The nematocide is distributed from the center hopper into 
 the furrows. The furrows are closed with soil by the scooters before seed is dropped by the 
 planters. 
 
 16 
 
BN 24002 
 
 igure 14 .—Listed row beds following treatment by the row method. The beds should not be 
 
 disturbed until planting. 
 
 nent, beds are opened with a large 
 •pening shovel, fertilizer is added, 
 nd the furrow closed with treated 
 oil. In this case special attention 
 nust be devoted to closing the fur- 
 ow with only the soil that has been 
 reated. 
 
 Nematocides of low volatility, 
 uch as diethyl pyrazinyl phos- 
 )horothioate, can be applied on rec- 
 immended crops as a band treat- 
 nent along the planting row. The 
 reated band should be 10 to 16 
 aches wide, and the chemical should 
 >e mixed with the surface soil by 
 ototilling or some similar stirring 
 aethod. The chemical moves down 
 n the soil following irrigation or 
 ainfall. 
 
 Wide-range soil fumigants can be 
 ised as row treatments for control 
 f nematodes, weeds, and soil fungi, 
 iome wide-range fumigants include 
 odium methyl dithiocarbamate 
 SMDC), dimethyltetrahydro thia- 
 iiazinethione (DMTT), D-D and 
 aethyl isothiocyanate mixture, and 
 aixtures of methyl bromide, chloro- 
 
 picrin, and propargyl bromide. 
 Row treatments provide a sterilized 
 band 10 to 12 inches wide along the 
 planting site. The treated area is 
 easily recontaminated with weed 
 seed unless the listed bed is care¬ 
 fully leveled and the untreated top 
 part of the bed screed into the 
 middle of the row. Soil from the 
 middle should not be moved into the 
 drill during the first, and possibly 
 the second, cultivation. 
 
 In some areas there is a growing 
 interest in furrow application of 
 specific pesticides for control of 
 nematodes, soil fungi, weeds, and 
 insects. A mixture of certain nema¬ 
 tocides, fungicides, herbicides, and 
 insecticides can he used. Applica¬ 
 tion costs are reduced when several 
 chemicals are applied at the same 
 time. This is usually done by ap¬ 
 plying the mixed chemicals in a fur¬ 
 row, with or without fertilizer. 
 Such applications are satisfactory 
 if the proper combination of chemi¬ 
 cals is used. 
 
 STRIP TREATMENT 
 
 Strip treatment is a modification 
 f overall treatment. Its use is 
 iinited to wide-row crops such as 
 rchards, vineyards, groves, and 
 ome nursery liner plantings. Most 
 f the equipment, methods, and 
 
 chemicals used for overall treatment 
 can be used for strip treatment. The 
 treated strip is usually 6 to 12 feet 
 wide and centered on the future 
 transplanting site. The total area 
 treated varies from i/4 fo V 2 the 
 
 17 
 
land area, the area depending on the 
 width of strips and the number of 
 strips per acre. 
 
 The only advantage that distin¬ 
 guishes this method from overall ap¬ 
 plication is a saving in the amount 
 of chemical used per acre. Its chief 
 disadvantage is the likelihood of 
 
 introducing nematodes to the treat¬ 
 ed area soon after planting by move¬ 
 ment of soil from adjacent untreated 
 areas. However, strip treatment 
 will usually prevent severe nema¬ 
 tode injury for 2 or 3 years after 
 establishment of a new orchard or 
 vineyard. 
 
 SPOT TREATMENT 
 
 Nematode damage in fields is of¬ 
 ten restricted to well-defined spots. 
 If surrounding areas are relatively 
 free of nematodes, these spots can 
 be treated individually. The plow 
 applicator can be used for spot treat¬ 
 ment simply by turning on the fumi¬ 
 gant applicator when the plow 
 
 asses through the infested area, 
 imilarly, nematocides suitable for 
 application during planting can be 
 released as the drill moves through 
 badly infested areas. Spots can also 
 be treated with an overall chisel ap¬ 
 plicator, after plowing but before 
 planting. 
 
 POSTPLANTING SIDEDRESSING TREATMENT 
 
 Whenever possible, nematode con¬ 
 trol should oe undertaken before 
 perennial crops are planted. Post¬ 
 planting treatment will often re¬ 
 store vigor and increase yields of 
 perenni^s in nurseries, orchards, 
 citrus groves, and vineyards but it is 
 a poor substitute for preplanting 
 treatments. Annual crops do not 
 usually benefit from postplanting 
 treatment. 
 
 Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 
 is the most commonly used post¬ 
 planting fumigant. Postplanting 
 sidedressing treatments can be ap¬ 
 plied in liquid or granular form 
 about 6 inches deep and to either 
 side of plants (fig. 15). The chemi¬ 
 cal should be applied through 
 chisels or behind an opening disk. 
 
 Furrows made by the applicators 
 must be closed with soil thrown by 
 scooters or sweeps. If backsweep 
 chisels are used, the furrows can be 
 closed by a press wheel. 
 
 Nonphytotoxic nematocides also 
 can be applied as a postplanting 
 treatment for established trees. An 
 offset chisel can be used to treat 
 close to tree trunks (fig. 16). The 
 areas between tree rows can be 
 treated with any standard chisel ap¬ 
 plicator. The chemical should be 
 applied as deep as possible but not 
 shallower than 6 inches. If irriga¬ 
 tion is available, seal the soil surface 
 with water; this will also move 
 water-soluble nematocides d o w n 
 around the roots. 
 
 DRENCH AND IRRIGATION WATER APPLICATION 
 
 Nematocides can be applied in 
 irrigation water as soaks or 
 drenches. To be effective, the chemi¬ 
 cal and water mixture must be car¬ 
 ried quickly and evenly into the soil. 
 Applying nematocides in irrigation 
 water has been highly successful in 
 the Western States in experimental 
 tests on cotton, grapes, and citrus. 
 
 The depth of penetration needed 
 for nematode control may vary from 
 as little as 6 to 12 inches for some 
 annual crops to Jis much as several 
 feet for deep-rooted crops or crops 
 grown in areas of unusually high i 
 evaporation. The nematocide-water 
 mixture should be applied as rap¬ 
 idly as possible; additional water 
 
 18 
 
BN 24001 
 
 ■Igure 15. —One-row chisel sidedressing applicator that can be used to place nonphytotoxic 
 
 nematocide on either side of plants. 
 
 BN 24016 
 
 igure 1 6.—Offset chisels used for treating close to living orchard trees. The chemical is injected 
 about 6 inches deep within inches of young trees. 
 
 19 
 
should be used to wasli the chemical 
 into the soil. The nematocide can 
 also be mixed with the full volume 
 of water needed for flood irriffation. 
 
 If irrigation water is applied in 
 furrows and ditches, nematocides 
 can be metered into flowing water at 
 standpipes, pumping stations, and 
 other points of turbulence. Nema¬ 
 tocides can be mixed with the w^ater 
 as it is shunted through centrifugal 
 pumps and returned to the stream. 
 It is then carried along rows quickly 
 and evenly. 
 
 Highly volatile nematocides 
 should not be applied through over- 
 
 FUMIGATING 
 
 Plant beds should be treated for 
 nematodes, fungi, weeds, and in¬ 
 sects. Several wide-range fumi¬ 
 gants are available for this purpose. 
 Procedures for applying wide-range 
 fumigants are simple but exacting; 
 therefore, the manufacturer’s direc¬ 
 tions on dosage, exposure time, and 
 precautionary measures should be 
 followed carefully. 
 
 A mixture containing 98 percent 
 of methyl bromide and 2 percent of 
 chloropicrin is one of the most popu¬ 
 lar wide-range fumigants. Before 
 the mixture is applied, the plant 
 bed to be treated should be covered 
 with polyethelene sheeting. The 
 
 head sprinkler systems because large 
 amounts of nematocide will evapo¬ 
 rate before penetrating the soil.; 
 Ix)w-vohitility nematocides can be 
 apj)lied by this method if the 
 sprinkling is continued long enough 
 to soak the chemical into the soil to 
 the required depth. 
 
 Fumigants such as dibromochlo-, 
 ropropane (DBCP) and sodium 
 methyl dithiocarbamate (SMDC) 
 can be applied to small areas by 
 sprinkling can or hose proportioner 
 provided they can be soaked into 
 the soil immediately by flooding or 
 sprinkling. 
 
 PLANT BEDS 
 
 sheeting should be supported several; 
 inches off the ground to permit free 
 movement of fumes under the cover, i 
 Boxes, clay pots, and bags of mulch¬ 
 ing material can be scattered on | 
 the soil to support the cover. The; 
 mulching material will thus be 
 fumigated along with the soil. 
 
 The plastic cover should be sealed 
 by laying the edges in a small fur¬ 
 row and covering with soil. Be 
 careful not to accidentally move this 
 untreated soil onto the treated area 
 when the cover is removed. 
 
 The fumigant must be released in 
 evaporation trays to keep it from 
 soaking into the ground. One evap- 
 
 BN 24009 
 
 figure 17 .—Methyl bromide gas being released by a Jiffy applicator under the polyethylene 
 cover. Note that the cover Is supported above ground and that all edges of the plastic ore 
 sealed with soil. 
 
 20 
 
oration tray should be used for each 
 100 square feet of area to be treated. 
 The recommended amount of fumi- 
 jant should be released in each tray, 
 jrases such as methyl bromide and 
 'hloropicrin are released under the 
 'over by means of a Jiffy applicator 
 (fig. 17) or some other suitable de- 
 i^ice for releasing gas from its con- 
 ainer (fig. 18). 
 
 BN 24013 
 
 igure 18.—Homemade applicator for 1-pound 
 cans of methyl bromide. Three nails are 
 driven into a piece of board to support the 
 can, and a single nail is driven through the 
 bottom of the board to purKture the can. 
 The applicator and evaporation tray are 
 placed under the polyethylene just before the 
 edges of the plastic are sealed with soil. 
 The chemical is released under the plastic 
 when the can is pressed down. 
 
 Some growers prefer to apply 
 le gas from large cylinders. The 
 mount of gas applied is regulated 
 y placing the cylinder on platform 
 mles. T\Tien the desired amount of 
 tiemical has been discharged, as de- 
 uroined by loss of weight of the 
 j^linder, the control valve is shut 
 ff, the application line discon- 
 ected, and the cylinder moved to a 
 8w application point. 
 
 Methyl bromide and other chemi- 
 ils can be injected by chisel, using 
 actor-drawn equipment. Equip¬ 
 ment of this type r^uires less labor 
 !id chemical and is well suited to 
 ■eatment of large areas. Plastic 
 )\’ers can be applied by hand or 
 
 laid mechanically by a spreader 
 mounted behind the chisel (figs. 
 19, 20). 
 
 If the plastic is laid by hand, the 
 treated area should not be larger 
 than can be quickly and easily cov¬ 
 ered after treatment. Lay the sheet 
 to one side of the area to be treated, 
 and seal one edge of the sheet in a 
 furrow. As soon as the chemical is 
 applied, pull the sheet across the 
 treated area and seal all edges. The 
 sheet should be positioned so that it 
 can be pulled in the direction the 
 wind is blowing. Supports are not 
 needed under the plastic. Large 
 fields should be treated in alternate 
 strips. After a treated strip has 
 been covered for 1 or 2 days, the 
 strip of soil adjoining it can be 
 treated. The covering on the first 
 strip can then be loosened at both 
 ends and along one edge, and the 
 sheet flipped over to cover the newly 
 treated soil. 
 
 A number of wide-range soil 
 fumigants are available in addition 
 to methyl bromide. Some of these 
 include sodium methyl dithiocarba- 
 mate (SMDC) and dimethyltetra- 
 hydro thiadiazinethione (DMTT), 
 and mixtures of D-D + methyl iso¬ 
 thiocyanate, D - D -t- chloropicrin, 
 and methyl bromide + propargyl 
 bromide + chloropicrin. 
 
 When properly applied, these 
 chemicals give results comparable to 
 those of methyl bromide. They are 
 usually less expensive and a little 
 easier to apply than methyl bro¬ 
 mide. They should be applied 4 to 
 6 inches deep with chisels mounted 
 6 to 10 inches apart on the tool bar 
 
 ni f'nP 
 
 In case of SMDC, DMTT, and the 
 D-D -|- methyl isothiocyanate mix¬ 
 ture, sprinkling the soil surface 
 with water after treatment gives 
 adequate sealing protection except 
 in the hottest weather. In many 
 soils, if temperature is low and soil 
 moisture high, no seal is required 
 other than dragging and smoothing 
 the surface after treatment. How- 
 
 21 
 

 BN 24011 
 
 Figure 19 .—Overall wide-range fumigant applicator that injects chemical through chisels. Pres¬ 
 sure from the nitrogen cylinder (right) is applied to the fumigant cylinder (left). After treat¬ 
 ment, the soil is immediately covered with the polyethylene sheet (extreme right). The 
 edges of the sheet are sealed with soil to hold the chemical in the soil. 
 
 ever, all of the other chemicals listed 
 above can be covered with plastic 
 sheeting after treatment for best 
 results. 
 
 SMDC and DMTT can be mixed 
 with water and sprinkled on the 
 soil. After treatment, the soil 
 should be immediately soaked with 
 irrigation water. The treated area 
 need not be covered with plastic 
 
 sheets, although control is usually 
 improved by this practice. 
 
 Plastic covers can be used several, 
 times if they are handled carefully, 
 dried after each use, and stored in a 
 dry, ratproof place. Old covers 
 should be examined for holes before 
 each use. Small holes can l)e 
 patched with masking tape or other 
 adhesive tapes. 
 
 TREATMENT OF POTTING AND ROOTING SOIL 
 
 Young plants that become in¬ 
 fected with nematodes and fungi 
 seldom thrive. Care should be 
 taken to eliminate these pests from 
 potting and rooting soil. 
 
 Small amounts of soil and com¬ 
 post material can be treated in 
 sealed containers. Garbage cans or 
 55-gallon steel drums with one head 
 
 removed suit the purpose. Soil 
 should be placed in the container in 
 12-inch layers and fumigant ap¬ 
 plied to each layer in doses recom¬ 
 mended by the manufacturer. 
 Three or four inches of air space 
 should be left at the top of the con¬ 
 tainer. The container should re¬ 
 main tightly covered for about 7 
 
 22 
 
BN 24006 
 
 gwre 20.—This overall chisel applicator injects chemicals and covers with polyethylene in one 
 
 operation. 
 
 ays. Then the soil should be aer- 
 ted. This can be done by spreading 
 le soil on a plastic sheet or clean 
 Dncrete, to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, 
 1 an open, well-ventilated area. 
 Fumigation chambers for large 
 mounts of soil can be constructed 
 rom concrete or wood. They 
 lould be less than 3 feet high and 
 lould contain a layer of soil 12 to 
 5 inches thick. Licjuid chemicals 
 lould be poured quickly over the 
 )il surface and the box sealed, 
 asses should be applied in a plastic 
 ibe running through the side of the 
 Dx. The top of the fumigation box 
 lould have a rubber gasket to in- 
 ire a tight seal. The top can also 
 
 be sealed with a piece of polyethyl¬ 
 ene held in place with masking tape 
 or strong cord. 
 
 A simple method of treating large 
 amounts of soil is to spread the soil 
 on a concrete slab or a plastic sheet 
 to a depth of 12 to 15 inches; cover 
 it with a plastic sheet, using pots, 
 tools or other objects to support the 
 cover; release the chemical; and seal 
 the edges of the sheet with soil. 
 This untreated sealing soil should be 
 carefully removed after treatment 
 so as not to recontaminate the 
 treated soil. After treatment aera¬ 
 tion can be hastened by stirring the 
 soil once or twice. 
 
 CONTROLLING NEMATODES IN HOME GARDENS 
 
 Nematode problems in home gar- crops are more susceptible to nema- 
 ms are generally worse than in todes than field crops. The princi- 
 irm land because many vegetable pies used for killing nematodes in 
 
 23 
 
gardeii sojl ai;e essentially the same 
 as for larger fields biit on a smaller 
 scale. The expense and effort of 
 controlling nematodes in garden 
 soil is usually offset by good crop 
 quality and high yields. 
 
 One of the simplest methods of 
 controlling nematodes is to apply 
 small quantities of nematocide in 
 holes about 6 inches deep, at inter¬ 
 vals spaced 12 inches apart. To 
 insure accurate spacing of the ap- 
 ])lications, the soil surface is marked 
 lengthwise and crosswise with a 
 rakelike marker (made by nailing 
 wooden teeth 12 inches apart on a 
 wooden boom attached to a handle). 
 The nematocide can be applied by 
 one of several methods. The most 
 convenient for small areas is to 
 punch a hole 6 inches deep at each 
 point where the marker lines inter¬ 
 sect, place a soil fumigant capsule 
 (usually containing ethylene dibro¬ 
 mide) in the hole, and cover it im¬ 
 mediately with soil. 
 
 Use of “handgun” applicators is 
 more satisfactory for larger areas 
 (fig. 21). The fumigant is squirted 
 
 BN 23098 
 
 Figure 21 .—Application of fumigant with a 
 handgun. Note that the soil has been 
 marked off into a 12-inch-square grid to in¬ 
 sure even, uniform treatment. 
 
 into the soil through an opening at 
 the bottom of a probe. Several in¬ 
 expensive handguns, or fumiguns, 
 are manufactured and come com¬ 
 plete with directions for calibration- 
 and use. 
 
 The furrow method of applica¬ 
 tion is convenient for treating gar-i 
 den soil and requires only impro-i 
 vised equipment. A furrow 6 to 8 
 inches deep is opened with a garden; 
 tractor, push plow, or hoe, and the 
 nematocide is poured into the open; 
 furrow from a fruit jar with two' 
 nail holes punched in the lid (fig.; 
 22 ). ^ ; 
 
 After the nematocide is placed in! 
 the bottom of the furrow it is im¬ 
 mediately covered with soil; then a 
 second furrow 12 inches to one side; 
 and parallel to it is opened. The, 
 application of the fumigant is re-i 
 peated in this manner until the 
 whole garden has been treated. 
 Granular formulations of nemato- 
 cides can be applied similarly in the 
 furrow by spreading weighed 
 amounts of granules in the bottom 
 of the furrow. The nematocide di-| 
 bromochloropropane can be easily; 
 applied as a granular formulation j 
 or mixed with fertilizer as a furrow j 
 treatment of home gardens. | 
 
 Mechanical nematocide applica¬ 
 tors can be attached to most garden 
 tractors. Essential components are 
 a fumigant metering device, deliv¬ 
 ery tubes, applicator frame, and; 
 small thin chisels (fig. 23). Only ' 
 tractors with large wheels and at? 
 least 4 hp have sufficient power, and; 
 if additional traction is needed,;!: 
 wheel weights and even mud chains 1 
 can be added. 
 
 Emulsifiable nematocides can be 
 applied by drench methods, hlosei 
 proportioners can be used to re^-j 
 late the amount of chemical applied, 
 in water (see “Drench and Irriga-,' 
 tion Water Application,” p. 18). 
 The manufacturer’s directions as to 
 the amount of water applied should 
 always be followed. 
 
 24 
 
^ BN 24026 
 
 jure 22.—Applying a soil fumigant by pouring it from a fruit jar into a furrow. Before the 
 fumigant is applied, the jar can be filled with a known quantity of water and the water 
 sprinkled in the furrow to determine how much chemical will be used per row. After ap¬ 
 plication of chemical, the furrow must be filled with soil immediately. 
 
 BN 24030 
 
 fure 23.—Garden tractor modified for applying soil fumigants. A fumigant pump is driven 
 3y a chain that is geared to the driving wheels. The rear wheels regulate depth of applica- 
 ■ion. The chisels are mounted 8 inches apart. 
 
 25 
 
It is possible to treat garden soil 
 by applying low-volatile nemato- 
 cides on the soil surface, and by har¬ 
 rowing or rototilling to work the 
 chemicals into the soil. Other 
 chemicals, such as granular dibp- 
 mochloropropane (DBCP), with 
 low to moderate volatility, can be 
 applied by this method, but the dos¬ 
 age will be at least twice that needed 
 for furrow or chisel injection. 
 
 Whatever the method used for i 
 applying nematocides in home gar -1 
 dens, the soil surface should be | 
 smoothed by raking or dragging 
 when the application is finished, i 
 Results will usually be improved by ' 
 sprinkling the soil surface with i 
 water immediately after raking. 
 This helps hold the chemical in the | 
 soil the length of time needed for| 
 nematode control. 
 
 TREATING LAWNS, SHRUBS, 
 
 In areas where nematodes are 
 known to be a problem, nematocides 
 should be applied before lawns, 
 trees, or shruhs are planted. This 
 insures establishment of healthy, 
 quick-growing plants. 
 
 If existing trees or ornamentals 
 become infected, they can be treated 
 with nonphytotoxic nematocides 
 such as dibromochloropropane 
 (DBCP) or dichlorophenyl diethyl 
 phosphorothioate (V-C 13). First, 
 old mulches should be raked away 
 and destroyed. Then an earth dam 
 should be constructed around the 
 plant. Nonphytotoxic nematocide 
 should be mixed as directed and 
 poured around the plant. Then the 
 dam should be filled with enough 
 water to soak the chemical into the 
 soil at least 12 inches deep. Finally, 
 the soil should be covered with fresh 
 mulching material. 
 
 AND TREES IN HOME YARDS 
 
 Infected plants can also be treated 
 with a handgun or by punching i 
 holes into the soil around the plant i 
 and adding the recommended dos -1 
 age of fumigant. In either case i 
 injections should be at 12-inch inter -1 
 vals. After injection, the soil | 
 should be sealed with a small i 
 amount of water. ! 
 
 Plants nearly dead from nema-i 
 tode damage should be dug up and, 
 destroyed. The site can then be 
 fumigated and replanted with a | 
 nematode-free plant. ^ 
 
 Lawns can be treated with a hose i 
 proportioner or sprinkling cp. i 
 The nematocide should be applied 
 to an area no larger than can bei 
 conveniently sprinkled immediately | 
 after treatment. Otherwise, most of i 
 the chemical may evaporate before i 
 it soaks into the soil. The soil i 
 should be soaked until wet at least 
 6 inches deep. > 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES 
 
 Good soil management helps con¬ 
 trol nematodes and reduces the need 
 for frequent nematocide treatment. 
 
 Crop rotation is the most effective 
 management practice that can be 
 used against nematodes. Nematode- 
 resistant crops should be grown as 
 frequently as possible to prevent 
 nematode increase. Susceptible 
 crops should not be grown year after 
 year on the same land. 
 
 Since nematodes continue to mul¬ 
 tiply in plant roots after harvest of 
 
 many crops, it is a good practice to 
 plow roots out of the ground and 
 leave them exposed to the sun and 
 wind for several days. This kills 
 nematodes by desiccation. 
 
 Summer fallow is sometimes used 
 as a means of controlling nematodes. 
 If the land is kept weed free by 
 harrowing or using nonselective 
 herbicides, the nematodes will grad- > 
 ually die of starvation. However, 
 this method may be as costly as use 
 of nematocides. It reduces soil 
 
 26 
 
.•ganic matter, and does not per- 
 anently rid the soil of all types of 
 irasitic nematodes. 
 
 In the Western deserts, nema- 
 *des can be contolled by withhold- 
 g irrigation water and not plant- 
 g crops for a single year. 
 Increasing organic matter in the 
 dl often helps reduce nematodes 
 V encouraging predatory, pa ra¬ 
 dio, and competitive soil orga¬ 
 
 nisms. Nematode-resistant cover 
 crops are excellent for this purpose. 
 
 Farmers should make every effort 
 to avoid introducing or spreading 
 nematodes. Nematode infestation 
 can be confined if care is taken not 
 to transport infested soil or plant 
 material from one field to another. 
 All plant materials purchased, 
 whether for farm, yard, or garden, 
 shoud be certified free of nematodes. 
 
 CHEMICAL RESIDUES AND PLANT TOLERANCES 
 
 Chemical residues from nemato¬ 
 des may remain in the soil for 
 trying periods, the period depend- 
 g on the type of chemical and the 
 'pe of soil. In some cases, these 
 isidues can be assimilated by 
 ants. The Food and Drug Ad- 
 ; inistration determines residue 
 •lerance levels—that is, the amount 
 P residue that a food or fiber may 
 )ntain without risk of injury to 
 le consumer. Tolerance levels are 
 iriodically summarized in the U.S. 
 epartment of Agriculture’s “Sum¬ 
 ary of Registered Agricultural 
 esticide Chemical Uses.” 
 Nematocides such as ethylene di- 
 'omide, methyl bromide, and di- 
 'omochloropropane leave appreci- 
 )le amounts of bromine residues in 
 le soil. Bromine residues are toxic 
 * some plants and are taken up by 
 hers. Onions, for example, are 
 ctremely sensitive to bromide resi- 
 ue. Forage and feed crops take up 
 romine and sometimes cause illegal 
 vels of bromine in the milk of 
 airy animals. 
 
 Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 
 luses severe damage to tobacco, 
 otatoes, sweetpotatoes, garlic, and 
 ime types of pepper. 
 
 Nematocides such as tetrachloro- 
 liophene, chloropicrin, and di- 
 iloropropane tend to raise the 
 
 chlorine content of soil, but when 
 they are used according to direc¬ 
 tions they do not cause excessive 
 levels of chlorine in edible portions 
 of plants. Tobacco treated with 
 chlorine compounds frequently has 
 a large amount of chlorine in the 
 leaves; this causes poor burning 
 quality. 
 
 Under some soil conditions, nema¬ 
 tocides may upset microbiological 
 relationships that affect soil fertil¬ 
 ity. Soil nitrification processes can 
 be delayed for as long as 12 weeks 
 in cool, wet soils with low pH and 
 poor nitrifying capacity. This 
 nitrification lag is associated with 
 high levels of ammonia-nitrogen, 
 which is toxic to some plants, and 
 with low nitrate-nitrogen, which 
 causes nitrate deficiency in many 
 plants. Use of nematocides, par¬ 
 ticularly soil sterilants, on alkaline 
 soils may cause a phosphorous defi¬ 
 ciency in some plants. 
 
 Under normal conditions of use, 
 nematocides present no serious 
 hazard as long as the manufacturer’s 
 directions and State experiment 
 station recommendations are fol¬ 
 lowed. The label on the nematocide 
 container gives dosages, conditions 
 of use, and crops ^proved for treat¬ 
 ment by the U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture. 
 
 27 
 
USEFUL INFORMATION 
 
 APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF FEET 
 OF ROW PER ACRE AT GIVEN 
 DISTANCE 
 
 Distance between tows 
 (inches) 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 Feet of row per acre 
 
 » 43, 560 
 29, 010 
 21, 758 
 17, 427 
 14, 526 
 12, 439 
 10, 853 
 9, 684 
 8, 714 
 7, 263 
 
 * One acre equals 43,660 square feet. 
 
 SOLID MEASURE 
 
 TRACTOR SPEED CONVERSIONS 
 
 Miles per hour Feet per minute Seconds per 100feet 
 
 2 176 34 
 
 220 27 
 
 3 264 23 
 
 3H 308 20 
 
 4 352 17 
 
 5 440 14 
 
 PERCENTAGE SOLUTION 
 
 Percent 
 
 Dilution or rates 
 
 P.p.m. 
 
 Orams per 
 lUer 
 
 1. 0 
 
 1:100 
 
 10, 000 
 
 10. 0 
 
 0. 1 
 
 1:1, 000 
 
 1, 000 
 
 1. 0 
 
 0. 01 
 
 1:10, 000 
 
 100 
 
 0. 1 
 
 0. 001 
 
 1:100, 000 
 
 10 
 
 0. 01 
 
 0. 0001 
 
 1:1, 000, 000 
 
 1 
 
 0. 001 
 
 U.S. Measure Converted to Metric System 
 
 1.0 pound =16 ounces =453.59 grams 
 0.06 pound =1 ounce =28.35 grams 
 0.04 ounce=1.0 gram 
 
 LIQUID MEASURE 
 
 U.S. Measure Converted to Metric System 
 
 1 gallon =4 quarts =3785 ml. (cc) 
 
 1 quart =2 pints (32 fl. ounces) =946 ml. 
 
 1 pint =2 cups (16 fl. ounces) =473 ml. 
 
 1 cup =16 tablespoons (8 fl. ounces) =236 ml. 
 
 2 tablespoons = 6 teaspoons (1 fl. ounce) =30 ml. 
 
 1 tablespoon =3 teaspoons ()4 fl. ounce) =15 ml. 
 
 1 teaspoon =5 ml. 
 
 0.87 ml. per square foot = 10 gallons per acre for area application 
 
 Trade names are used in this publication solely for the purpose of pro¬ 
 viding specific infoiTnation. Mention of a trade name does not constitute 
 a guarantee or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of 
 Agriculture or an endorsement by the Department over other products 
 not mentioned. 
 
 
 28 
 
 ☆ U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1965 O—770-822 
 
i\j2Ar. ^ ^ 
 
 university of ILLINOIS 
 agriculture library 
 
 AERIAL 
 APPLICATION 
 
 of Agricultural Chemicals 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK NO. 287 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office 
 Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price 20 cents 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Equipment_ 3 
 
 Aircraft_ 3 
 
 Application equipment_ 4 
 
 Mixing equipment_ 15 
 
 Loading equipment_ 17 
 
 Application_ I 9 
 
 Pilot_ 19 
 
 Application methods_ 21 
 
 Deposit pattern and swath spacing_ 26 
 
 Protection and storage of chemicals_ 30 
 
 Safe disposal of containers and chemicals_ 30 
 
 Empty containers_ 31 
 
 Surplus chemicals_ 33 
 
 Regulations_ 33 
 
 Pesticide products_ 33 
 
 Residue tolerances_ 35 
 
 Application laws_ 37 
 
 Chemicals_ 37 
 
 Classes_ 37 
 
 Formulations_ 43 
 
 Selection_ 44 
 
 Rate of application_ 46 
 
 Limitation or restriction_ 47 
 
 This handbook contains some information formerly in Farmers’ Bulletin 
 2062, “How To Spray The Aircraft Way.” 
 
 • 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued May 1965 
 
 2 
 
AERIAL APPLICATION of 
 
 Agricultural Chemicals 
 
 This handbook has t^yo uses—a 
 textbook in training agricultural 
 aircraft pilots and a reference guide 
 for aerial application operators. 
 
 Kegulations and even methods in 
 this relatively new industry vary 
 widely in the different States, but 
 the basic requirements for safe and 
 effective work apply equally in all 
 areas. Aerial applicators will bet¬ 
 ter serve the interests of agriculture 
 if they are well informed. Cer¬ 
 
 tainly, operators who know how to 
 handle agricultural chemicals safely 
 and usefully will be less likely to 
 have trouble. 
 
 Broad recommendations that ap¬ 
 ply generally often need to be modi¬ 
 fied to meet local situations. 
 Therefore, for the solution of your 
 special problem, draw freely on the 
 advice of your county agricultural 
 agent and State experiment station. 
 
 EQUIPMENT 
 
 Aircraft 
 
 'When you are planning to buy a 
 new aircraft for aerial application, 
 select the type best suited to per¬ 
 form the major part of the antici¬ 
 pated work. Do not consider only 
 the price; do not buy another type 
 originally designed for other pur¬ 
 poses merely because it is readily 
 available at nominal cost. 
 
 Incorporated into aircraft de¬ 
 signed specifically for aerial appli¬ 
 cation are many features to enhance 
 the safety of the pilot, increase the 
 versatility of the aircraft, and im¬ 
 prove the efficiency of operations. 
 Features you should look for are: 
 
 • Design that emphasizes pilot 
 comfort to reduce fatigue. 
 
 • Special ventilation to avoid pilot 
 exposure to agricultural chemicals. 
 
 • Good visibility in all directions. 
 
 • High performance with gross 
 loads. 
 
 • Ease of control during slow 
 flight. 
 
 • Partial aileron control during 
 stalls. 
 
 • Load placed forward of the pilot. 
 
 • Special fuselage design that al¬ 
 lows progressive collapse in an ac¬ 
 cident and includes a 40-G cockpit 
 that will fall outward. 
 
 • Sturdy structure for protection 
 in a turnover. 
 
 • Shoulder harness that hooks to 
 an inertia reel to allow free move¬ 
 ment. 
 
 • Landing gear equipped with wire 
 cutters. 
 
 • Cable to deflect wires over the 
 tail. 
 
 • Large removable panels to allow 
 easy cleaning, inspection, mainte¬ 
 nance, and repair. 
 
 3 
 
• Corrosion-resistant hoppers and 
 other components. 
 
 • Treated structures to resist chem¬ 
 ical corrosion. 
 
 • Quick-change dispersal appara¬ 
 tus to apply either dry materials 
 or liquids. 
 
 • Adjustable dispersal apparatus 
 that can produce a wide range of 
 droplet sizes, deposit patterns, and 
 application rates. 
 
 Application Equipment 
 
 SPRAYS 
 
 Tanks 
 
 Size and location .—Use a tank 
 that is large enough to hold a full 
 load and have enough space remain¬ 
 ing to allow for foaming. Locate 
 it as close as possible to the center 
 of gravity and anchor it securely to 
 the main structure of the fuselage. 
 Install baffles to reduce sloshing and 
 to add strength to the tank. 
 
 Shape .—The shape of the tank 
 should be such that it will drain 
 completely in flight and on the 
 ground. Materials that cannot be 
 drained in flight remain as ballast 
 that reduces aircraft performance 
 unnecessarily. 
 
 Install a valve in the low point 
 of the tank to help in calibration 
 and to allow purging it when you 
 change to another agricultural 
 chemical. A tank that can be 
 drained completely when the air¬ 
 craft is parked greatly simplifies 
 calibration of the spray system, 
 especially when you use low-volume 
 application rates. 
 
 Material .—The tank should be 
 built of or lined with a material re¬ 
 sistant to agricultural chemicals. 
 
 ^laterials that rust or corrode may 
 cause leakage problems or jflug 
 screens or nozzles. 
 
 Filler. —Bottom-filling attach- 
 ments are preferable. A large 
 opening in the top of the tank also 
 is desirable because it provides a 
 convenient entry for cleaning the 
 tank interior. It should be large 
 enough to allow filling from a 5- 
 gallon can or bucket without a 
 funnel. 
 
 Include a large fine-mesh screen 
 in the filler to catch sediment. The 
 screen is especially desirable if 
 water from ponds, reservoirs, or 
 ditches is used for mixing. Set the 
 screen down into the tank to pre¬ 
 vent splashing or flooding. 
 
 Agitator .—'Wlien you spray wet- 
 table powders that require agita¬ 
 tion, recirculation during ferry to 
 the worksite and during turn¬ 
 arounds usually will suffice. De¬ 
 sign the recirculation system so that 
 the return flow will wash the bottom 
 of the tank. 
 
 Air rent .—A large air vent is re¬ 
 quired to assure uniform flow dur¬ 
 ing spraying and to prevent tank 
 collapse or reduced flow when jetti¬ 
 soning a load. A large spring- 
 loaded flapper valve is satisfactory, 
 but a preferred vent is a tube in 
 the top of the tank, projecting up¬ 
 ward a few inches, then curving 
 downward and out through the bot¬ 
 tom of the fuselage. This type of 
 vent confines accidental overflow 
 during loading, so chemicals fall 
 free of the aircraft without con¬ 
 taminating the cockpit or loading 
 crew. It also keeps the chemicals 
 away from the pilot during applica¬ 
 tion maneuvers. 
 
 4 
 
Gage .—It is desirable to have a 
 spray tank quantity gage in the air¬ 
 craft. It should be accurate in 
 flight and when the aircraft is 
 parked. Some chemicals applied 
 by aircraft cannot be metered: nor 
 is it always possible to accurately 
 measure the quantity loaded into 
 the aircraft each time from large 
 mixing facilities. You can use the 
 gage in the aircraft for this meas¬ 
 uring. 
 
 The pilot can use a gage that is 
 accurate in flight to check on the 
 calibration. For example, as the 
 spraying progresses, he can check 
 the quantity applied on one or more 
 swaths, to each field, or several 
 fields. If the quantity used is too 
 little or too great, he can make an 
 immediate adjustment before con¬ 
 tinuing with the application. 
 
 Pumps 
 
 A pump in the spray system is 
 necessary to insure uniform and 
 proper flow rates at all times, to 
 assist in producing the desired at¬ 
 omization, and to keep wettable 
 powders in suspension. 
 
 A centrifugal pump is preferred 
 by most operators because it is 
 available in many sizes, handles all 
 kinds of spray chemicals with mini¬ 
 mum wear, produces pressures up 
 to 70 pounds per square inch, and 
 can be operated without a relief 
 valve. Mount a centrifugal pump 
 lower than the bottom of the spray 
 tank so that it will be self-priming 
 and will not lose its prime during 
 spraying. 
 
 Carefully consider the size of the 
 pump when equipping an aircraft. 
 A pump with too little capacity will 
 
 require reducing the swath spacing 
 to assure adequate deposit on the 
 crop. This increases the amount of 
 flying needed to complete a job and 
 reduces efficiency. A centrifugal 
 pump with a pumping capacity 
 considerably greater than required 
 often has trouble because the impel¬ 
 ler cavitates. IVlien this occurs, air 
 gets into the system and calibration 
 becomes erratic. You should in¬ 
 stall an air bleed line in the high 
 point of the impeller section to in¬ 
 sure full and positive flow at all 
 times. This line should return to 
 the top of the spray tank. 
 
 A rotary-gear pump is positive 
 displacing, self-priming, and capa¬ 
 ble of producing pressures up to 
 200 pounds per square inch. A 
 pressure-relief valve or bypass must 
 be incorporated into the spray sys¬ 
 tem to relieve the pressure or bypass 
 the chemical when the spray valve 
 is turned off. Do not use a rotary- 
 gear pump for applying wettable- 
 powder suspensions, because such 
 suspensions usually wear the teeth 
 and sidewalls and may cause the 
 pump to seize. 
 
 Pump Power Sources 
 
 Power sources used to drive spray 
 pumps include windmills, hydraulic 
 motors, electric motors, belt or gear 
 drive off the aircraft engine acces¬ 
 sory section, and, on large aircraft, 
 gasoline engines. 
 
 Windmills are by far the most 
 common power source, and many 
 kinds are available. They may be 
 made of wood, metal, or plastic. 
 The number of blades ranges from 
 two to six. Some have adjustable 
 blades to allow variation in pump 
 
 5 
 
speed or to compensate for the dif¬ 
 ference in operating speeds when 
 used on different aircraft types. 
 Some have full-feathering blades so 
 that the pump can be stojjped with¬ 
 out a brake. When selecting a 
 windmill, give consideration to the 
 type that will turn the pump at its 
 most efficient speed during normal 
 operations. 
 
 Equip the windmill propeller 
 with a brake so that the pilot can 
 stop the pump when the spray valve 
 fails to cut off. Stopping the pump 
 saves pump wear and may save the 
 pump and its attachments if a blade 
 is thrown or damaged. 
 
 Hydraulic drive is often used on 
 larger aircraft on which a windmill 
 may be difficult to attach. Hydrau¬ 
 
 lic motors develop considerable 
 })ower. You can install them inside 
 the aircraft, thus eliminating the 
 parasitic drag caused by external 
 drive systems. Hydraulic drives 
 are used on smaller aircraft when 
 considerable i^ower is needed or 
 when it is desirable to keep as much 
 of the spray installation as possible 
 inside the aircraft. 
 
 Other power sources—electric 
 motors, power takeoffs, and gaso¬ 
 line engines—to drive spray pumps 
 are quite limited in use. 
 
 On airplanes that are operated at 
 90 miles per hour or faster, an elec¬ 
 tric drive system that develops suffi¬ 
 cient power to apply 1 gallon per 
 acre is rather heavy and causes a 
 considerable load on the electrical 
 
 HYDRAULIC DRIVE SYSTEM 
 
 1. Hydraulic pump. 2. Hydraulic motor. 3. Reservoir, 2-gallon capacity. 4. Vent; should 
 be routed through belly. 5. Manifold. 6. Pressure gage; may be attached while adjusting 
 relief valve. 7. Pressure relief and unloader valve, 900 pounds per square inch. 8. On-off 
 valve; can be controlled from cockpit. 9. Accumulator—50 to 60 pounds of air pressure per 
 square inch. 10. Speed-control valve is a sharp-needle valve; can be controlled from cockpit 
 if it is desirable to regulate motor speed. 
 
 6 
 
system; however, on slower aircraft 
 and with lighter application rates, 
 electric drives have been satisfac¬ 
 tory. 
 
 A power takeoff system is also 
 heavy, especially when equipped 
 Avith a clutch so that the pump can 
 be stopped. 
 
 Gasoline engines are often used 
 to drive spray pumps installed in 
 large aircraft, especially when it 
 is necessary to pump more than 100 
 gallons per minute. Carefully se¬ 
 lect the type to be installed. Use an 
 engine and pump combination that 
 is manufactured as a unit. The 
 manufactured pump-engine units 
 usually are engineered to provide 
 many years of trouble-free service. 
 
 Install a switch to stop the en¬ 
 gine within convenient reach of 
 the pilot (or copilot) while he is 
 seated in the cockpit. Provide a 
 throttle so that the pilot (or copilot) 
 can control the speed of the pump 
 engine during flight. A self-starter 
 on the engine, controllable from the 
 cockpit, is desirable, especially 
 when the engine is located where a 
 crewmember cannot reach it during 
 flight. 
 
 For increased safety, ventilate the 
 area around the engine to avoid ac¬ 
 cumulation of fumes and to assure 
 adequate cooling of the engine. 
 Route the exhaust pipe to the out¬ 
 side and well clear of any parts that 
 may be damaged by heat. Pipe 
 gasoline overflow from the tank or 
 carburetor to the outside to fall 
 clear of the aircraft. Connect the 
 pump to the spray system with flex¬ 
 ible connections to eliminate line 
 breakage caused by engine and other 
 vibration. 
 
 Screens 
 
 Incorporate a screen in the spray 
 installation. This screen should be 
 big enough to insure unrestricted 
 flow when the spray system is de¬ 
 livering its maximum output. Lo¬ 
 cate it between the tank and pump, 
 especially on rotary-gear pump in¬ 
 stallations, to protect the gears of 
 the pump. If the screen is located 
 elsewhere, it should precede the on- 
 off valve so that foreign material 
 will not scar the valve surfaces and 
 cause it to leak. Include another 
 valve, so that the screen can be 
 cleaned without draining the spray 
 tank. 
 
 Keep available several screen 
 sizes to use for specific purposes. 
 When the spray is to be finely atom¬ 
 ized and the orifice in each nozzle 
 is tiny, use a fine-mesh screen. If 
 you use coarser droplets and larger 
 nozzle orifices, you can use coarser 
 screens. 
 
 Each nozzle also should have a 
 screen in it so that the orifice will 
 not become plugged. 
 
 Clean all screens frequently. 
 This is especially important when 
 water from ponds, streams, or lakes 
 has been used in mixing, or when 
 chemicals have been mixed in open 
 containers. 
 
 Dispersal Equipment 
 
 Boom and nozzle .—This is the 
 most common system used, because 
 of its many advantages. You can 
 produce a large variety of deposit 
 patterns by shifting location of the 
 nozzles on the boom. Different 
 droplet sizes can be produced by 
 changing the size and type of orifice 
 
 7 
 

 
 
 
 
 .i. .1, 
 
 Biplanes of the AgCat type. 
 
 Multiengine planes, like the Douglas DC-3. 
 
 1 
 
 Rotary-wing craft—the helicopters. 
 
 in each nozzle, the core in each 
 nozzle, the direction of the nozzle in 
 relation to the airstream, and the 
 pump pressure. 
 
 In most planes, the pilot can see 
 the boom if it is located 3 or 4 inches 
 behind the trailing edge of the wing 
 (lower wing of a biplane). There¬ 
 fore, he can see whether all nozzles 
 are functioning properly during 
 spraying and whether any are leak¬ 
 ing or dribbling when the spray is 
 
 shut off. A boom in this location 
 creates little drag and practically 
 eliminates the risk of snagging it 
 on brush or tall weeds. 
 
 The boom also may be located 
 about a foot below the wing of a bi¬ 
 plane or low-wing monoplane or in¬ 
 side the wung with a pipe extended 
 down out of the wing at each nozzle 
 location. 
 
 For spraying that is done 1 to 10 
 feet above the crop, you can use a 
 boom approximately three-fourths 
 as long as the wingspan. In fact, 
 if the boom is much longer than 
 that, too much spray may get into 
 the wingtip vortices and spoil the 
 swath pattern. In spacing the 
 nozzles for spraying from this 
 height, group a few nozzles close 
 together 3 or 4 feet to the right of 
 the aircraft centerline. Place no 
 nozzles in the area 3 or 4 feet left 
 of center. This is to unify the de¬ 
 posit in the center of the swath that 
 would otherwise be distorted by 
 the propeller vortex. From these 
 points outward, space nozzles pro¬ 
 gressively closer together as the 
 boom tips are approached. For ap¬ 
 plications from a greater height, 
 you can space nozzles uniformly 
 throughout the boom length. 
 
 8 
 
Deposit tendency: Pattern distorted by propeller airstream. 
 
 When the material to be sprayed 
 is a type that requires reducing 
 drift to a minimum, limit the nozzle 
 span so that the outboard nozzles 
 are no farther apart than about two- 
 thirds of the wingspan. This will 
 greatly reduce the amount of spray 
 that is picked up in the wingtip 
 vortices. 
 
 Droplet sizes can be varied in a 
 number of ways; one way is to 
 change the orifice in each nozzle. 
 Pump pressure can be used to vary 
 droplet sizes to some extent—in¬ 
 creasing pressure reduces droplet 
 size and reducing pressure increases 
 
 droplet size. In addition, droplet 
 size can be varied by changing the 
 direction of the nozzle orifice in 
 relation to the airstream. For ex¬ 
 ample, when the same orifice and 
 pump pressure are used, the coars¬ 
 est droplets can be made by aiming 
 the orifice straight back; somewhat 
 smaller droplets can be mRde by 
 aiming the orifice straight down¬ 
 ward; and the finest droplets can 
 be made by aiming the orifice for¬ 
 ward and downward at about 45°. 
 Do not aim the orifice forward and 
 downward at less than 45°, because 
 aiming it more directly into the air- 
 
 770-443 0-65-2 
 
 9 
 
Droplet size can be varied by changing the 
 direction of the nozzle orifice in relation to 
 the airstream. 
 
 This for medium droplets. 
 
 This for finest droplets. 
 
 Not this (spray collects on structure). 
 
 stream will cause some of the spray 
 to collect on the body of the nozzle 
 or attachments and fall in large 
 drops. This wastes materials. 
 
 WTien attaching booms and 
 nozzles, it is important to position 
 them so that spray will not strike 
 the aircraft, any of its structure, or 
 the boom attachments. If the spray 
 strikes any of these, it will collect 
 and fall off in large drops, and thus 
 waste materials. In addition to this 
 waste, some chemicals will corrode 
 the surfaces of the aircraft. 
 
 To insure rapid filling of the 
 boom, immediate flow from each 
 nozzle, and quick and positive cut¬ 
 off, install a bleed line in each end 
 of the boom. Attach the other end 
 of the bleed line to the top of the 
 spray tank. With the assurance 
 that there will be an immediate full 
 flow from each nozzle, you will not 
 need to prime the spray system on 
 the way to the field to be treated. 
 It is such incidents as priming 
 spray systems on the way to the 
 worksite, draining the system on re¬ 
 turn to the airstrip, and leakage that 
 cause criticism of aerial applica¬ 
 tors. When spray is released dur¬ 
 ing ferrying, the pilot often does 
 not know whether it will fall harm¬ 
 lessly or into a sensitive area. 
 
 Rotating devices .—Some opera¬ 
 tors use rotating devices in prefer¬ 
 ence to booms and nozzles. These 
 are better suited for spraying a 
 liquid with a high sediment content 
 or one that is especially thick and 
 gooey. Generally, the droplets are 
 more uniform. 
 
 Several types of rotating devices 
 are used—screens, disks, and 
 brushes. Spray liquid flows to the 
 
 10 
 
Spinning brush dispersal system. 
 
 center of the unit and sprays out 
 by centrifugal force. Droplet sizes 
 are varied by rotating the device 
 faster to decrease droplet size and 
 slower to increase droplet size. 
 Rotation speed is controlled by ad¬ 
 justing the pitch of the drive pro¬ 
 peller. You also can vary droplet 
 size by changing screen or wire 
 brush size—the finer the screen or 
 wire brush, the finer the droplets. 
 
 While the rotating disk and brush 
 installations usually use a gravity- 
 flow system, most rotating screen 
 installations use a pump. A pump 
 assures uniform flow at all times. 
 It also permits installing the dis¬ 
 persal unit at a location higher than 
 the low point of the spray tank. 
 
 YTien only two rotating devices 
 are installed on an aircraft, it may 
 be necessary to fly at least 25 feet 
 high to permit the spray to fill in 
 the center and produce a uniform 
 deposit pattern. Uniformity de¬ 
 pends also on how fine the spray is 
 and how wide apart the two units 
 are mounted on the aircraft. For 
 low-level w’ork, usually four or 
 more dispersal units are required to 
 provide swath uniformity. 
 
 Dual-spray system. — Invert 
 emulsions, often used with weed¬ 
 killers, can be applied by using a 
 dual-spray system. One tank is 
 provided for oil and chemical and 
 one tank for water. Two pumps, 
 one for each liquid, and two booms 
 
 running parallel are used. The 
 booms are connected by mixing noz¬ 
 zles. Mixing, forming, and dis¬ 
 persing the materials take place at 
 the nozzle where the oil and water 
 systems converge. The droplets are 
 usually coarser and drift less than 
 in sprays produced by the other 
 systems. Thus, this method is use¬ 
 ful where drift must be held to a 
 minimum. 
 
 You also can apply invert emul¬ 
 sions with a horizontally mounted, 
 hollow^ spinning disk that has noz¬ 
 zles at the circumference. 
 
 F/ow Controls 
 
 Plumbing .—Aluminum or stain- 
 less-steel tubing is preferred for 
 most installations. The inside of 
 common steel or iron tubing usu¬ 
 ally rusts or corrodes from chemi¬ 
 cal use, especially when the aircraft 
 stands idle for several months. 
 Unless common steel or iron tubing 
 is thoroughly cleaned with steel ro¬ 
 tary brushes before reuse, flakes of 
 rust and corrosion deposits will 
 break loose and plug nozzle screens 
 and nozzles. 
 
 Hoses are less likely to blow oflP 
 if the ends of tubes are beaded. 
 Keep lines as clear of sharp bends 
 as possible. Be sure they are large 
 enough to carry the maximum an¬ 
 ticipated output. Use chemical- 
 resistant hoses and change them as 
 soon as swelling or cracking of the 
 surface appears. Use good-quality 
 hose clamps. 
 
 Valves .—Use a positive-cutoflf 
 valve to eliminate dribbling when 
 shutting off the spray at the end of 
 the runs or when flying over pas¬ 
 tures, ponds, lakes, streams, or other 
 
 11 
 
PRECAUTIONS 
 
 It is extremely important to pre¬ 
 vent unintentional escape of agri¬ 
 cultural chemicals from the spray 
 system. Leakage inside the fuse¬ 
 lage may cause corrosion or may 
 come in contact with the pilot. If 
 the chemicals used are highly toxic 
 to man or give otf poisonous fumes, 
 they can be extremely dangerous. 
 Leakage outside the aircraft may 
 contaminate pastures, crops, water, 
 and other sensitive areas. Inspect 
 the entire spray system frequently; 
 replace bad hoses; repair cracked or 
 loose fittings; find and correct chaf¬ 
 ing points; clean screens and noz¬ 
 zles; check pump seals and stop 
 mechanisms. Keep system clean. 
 
 After you use material in suspen¬ 
 sion, flush and thoroughly clean the 
 spray system to make certain all 
 settlings are removed. After you 
 use weedkillers, neutralize the sys¬ 
 tem with household ammonia and 
 clean and rinse thoroughly before 
 applying insecticides; be particu¬ 
 larly careful in rinsing if the crop 
 to be treated is one that is sensitive 
 to weedkillers. Whenever you 
 clean or flush an aircraft and its 
 dispersal apparatus, be careful that 
 drainage or runoff will not contami¬ 
 nate any reservoirs, ponds, streams, 
 grazing areas, or other sensitive 
 areas. 
 
 areas that must not be sprayed. A 
 valve that incorporates the suck- 
 back feature also reduces the risk of 
 dribbling nozzles. 
 
 Locate the handle that controls 
 the on-off valve near the throttle 
 
 so that the pilot can operate both 
 conveniently. The preferred 
 method is to move the handle for¬ 
 ward to turn it on. 
 
 Equip each nozzle with a check 
 valve to keep the nozzle from drib¬ 
 bling when the spray is shut off. 
 Clean these check valves frequently 
 and reg-ularly. If you use the dia¬ 
 phragm type, change diaphragms 
 at regular intervals. 
 
 When a positive-displacement 
 pump is installed in the spray sys¬ 
 tem, you must use a pressure-relief 
 or bypass valve. The valve is also 
 useful for making fine pressure ad¬ 
 justments when calibrating the 
 spray system. 
 
 DRY MATERIALS 
 
 Hopper 
 
 Size .—The hopper should be 
 large enough to be filled to capacity 
 without having to level the materi¬ 
 als or push them forward or into 
 corners. When this is necessary to 
 load the last few hundred pounds, 
 time is lost, and, invariably, mate¬ 
 rials are spilled on the ground and 
 into the cockpit. Locate the hop¬ 
 per as close to the center of gravity 
 as possible and anchor it securely to 
 the main structure of the fuselage. 
 
 Shape .—Be sure the slopes of the 
 hopper walls are steep enough to 
 insure uninterrupted flow of the 
 entire load to the outlet. Too little 
 slope will cause some materials to 
 lodge, resulting in erratic flow or 
 materials remaining in the hopper. 
 A slope of approximately 40° from 
 horizontal is recommended. If a 
 smooth material is used in hopper 
 construction, the slope can be pos¬ 
 sibly 5° less. 
 
 12 
 
Material .—Hoppers may be built 
 of riveted or welded aluminum. 
 Many are lined with fiber glass; 
 others are built entirely of fiber 
 glass. A desirable feature of fiber¬ 
 glass hoppers is that they are trans¬ 
 lucent and the hopper contents are 
 usually visible to the pilot. This as¬ 
 sists him in checking on the dis¬ 
 persal rate. Use a method of con¬ 
 struction that will make the hopper 
 liquidtight. This will provide a 
 hopper that will not leak dust or 
 liquid and permit the aircraft to be 
 used for spraying by replacing the 
 spreader with a pump, boom, and 
 nozzles. 
 
 Filler 
 
 Make the loading door as large as 
 practical to facilitate rapid loading 
 and to reduce spillage. The door 
 should fold forward, if possible, to 
 permit loading from either side. 
 Do not use sliding doors, because 
 materials often get into the tracks, 
 making them difficult to operate and 
 sometimes preventing them from 
 being closed tightly. This could be 
 dangerous if the pilot is seated in 
 an oj>en cockpit behind the hopper. 
 
 Agitator 
 
 Equip the hopper with an agita¬ 
 tor when sticky or lumpy materials 
 are to be dispersed. A properly de¬ 
 signed and functioning agitator as¬ 
 sists in obtaining uniform flow of 
 the hopper contents. Design the 
 agitator so that it can be disengaged 
 when free-flowing materials are to 
 be applied. 
 
 Windmills on gearboxes are used 
 to turn the agitators in almost all 
 installations. A gearbox with a 
 
 gear ratio of about 48 to 1 will 
 handle a large variety of materials. 
 A small wooden propeller is usually 
 all that is needed to turn the gear¬ 
 box. Do not use metal fans, unless 
 they are especially designed or rein¬ 
 forced, because of the damage that 
 can be caused if a blade should 
 break off. Broken blades have been 
 known to pass through the aircraft. 
 
 When materials that may pack in 
 the hopper throat are to be dis¬ 
 persed, you may have to include a 
 device that will stop the agitator 
 when the gate is closed. You can 
 do this by using a brake attached 
 to the windmill and connecting the 
 brake control to the hopper handle, 
 so that closing the gate will also 
 stop the agitator. You can also do 
 this with a full-feathering windmill 
 or a clutch to disengage the geatbox 
 from the agitator. 
 
 Air Vent 
 
 Install an air vent in the hopper. 
 This is particularly important if 
 the hopper and loading door are 
 liquidtight. Without a vent, flow 
 rates are erratic and, at high appli¬ 
 cation rates, there is danger of col¬ 
 lapsing the hopper walls. Attach 
 the vent at a high point in the hop¬ 
 per. Attach a tube to the vent and 
 route it down through the bottom of 
 the fuselage. 
 
 Gates and Gate Stop 
 
 The gate that controls the output 
 of the materials should move free¬ 
 ly, be warpproof and sturdy, and 
 provide a tight seal when closed. 
 Design it so that, when opened, the 
 flow of materials to both sides will 
 be uniform. 
 
 13 
 
Make all linkage in the gate-con¬ 
 trol mechanism snug, so that, once 
 adjusted, the open gate will always 
 stop in the same place regardless of 
 the number of times it is opened, 
 whether it is slammed open, or 
 opened slowly. 
 
 An adjustable gate handle stop 
 is needed so that, once adjusted, the 
 gate opening and calibration will 
 remain the same. A long, fine- 
 thread bolt to control the gate stop 
 provides easy adjustment. A 
 coarse-thread bolt or slotted short- 
 leverage mechanism is not sensi¬ 
 tive enough for precise adjustments. 
 When the control gate is also 
 used for emergency release of the 
 load, the gate stop must be designed 
 so that it can be flipped out of posi¬ 
 tion to permit the gate to be opened 
 wide. 
 
 Low-Rate Application Baffle 
 
 When it is necessary to apply ma¬ 
 terial at very low rates, install a 
 saw-toothed or slotted baffle or simi¬ 
 lar device directly above the control 
 gate. This makes the gate move¬ 
 ment less sensitive and simplifies 
 calibration. 
 
 In designing such a baffle, ar¬ 
 range the openings so that mate¬ 
 rials will fall between all vanes of 
 the spreader. Make all the open¬ 
 ings somewhat smaller than may 
 be necessary until after you have 
 made swath checks. If the deposit 
 pattern does not have the desired 
 shape, you can raise low points in 
 the pattern by increasing the size 
 of the relative slot in the baffle. 
 This way, you will not need to alter 
 the vanes in the spreader and pos¬ 
 sibly alter the deposit patterns at 
 
 higher application rates for which 
 the spreader was designed. 
 
 Spreader 
 
 A spreader eliminates streaking, 
 produces a pattern that will result 
 in uniform treatment of an area, 
 and produces a swath as wide as 
 possible. Wide swaths reduce the 
 amount of flying required to treat 
 an area and provide somewhat more 
 overlap, thus reducing the risk of 
 skips when a pilot does not fly 
 straight lines or when a flagman 
 does not measure the spacing accu¬ 
 rately. 
 
 The spreader in most common use 
 is one suspended beneath the hop¬ 
 per and the fuselage where the air- 
 stream can pass through it. Hopper 
 contents that fall through the gate 
 opening are blown out at the rear of 
 the spreader. Vanes within the 
 spreader deflect the materials later¬ 
 ally. Lateral adjustment of the 
 vanes permits adjustments of the 
 deposit pattern. 
 
 IVhile some spreaders are fan 
 shaped, that is, wider at the outlet 
 than at the inlet, some have a split 
 or divided outlet, and some are 
 shaped like an airfoil and positioned 
 beneath the aircraft like an addi¬ 
 tional wing. A well-known exam¬ 
 ple of the latter type is the Trans¬ 
 land Swathmaster. 
 
 Trade names are used in this pub¬ 
 lication solely to provide specific 
 information. Mention of a trade 
 name does not constitute a guaran¬ 
 tee or warranty of the product by 
 the U.S. Department of Agriciil- ^ 
 ture. 
 
 14 
 
A centrifugal type of spreader 
 is used on some helicopters. Mate¬ 
 rials are fed to a vaned horizontal 
 rotating disk that flings the mate¬ 
 rials laterally to produce the swath. 
 The disk is usually rotated by elec¬ 
 tric motor. 
 
 Other spreaders are being de¬ 
 veloped (1965). One is a spreader 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 An aircraft that is to be used as 
 a duster must be sealed carefully to 
 prevent dust from getting into the 
 cockpit, fuselage, and wings. Place 
 flexible boots over all push-pull 
 tubes, cables, or moving mecha¬ 
 nisms that extend through the 
 structure at locations where dust 
 may enter the aircraft. Some 
 chemicals are dangerous if they are 
 inhaled by the pilot, come in con¬ 
 tact with his skin, or get on his gog¬ 
 gles to obscure his vision. Some 
 chemicals are highly corrosive to 
 aircraft structure. 
 
 If the aircraft hopper is to be 
 used as the spray tank too, seal all 
 spray connections at the hopper to 
 prevent the dry materials from en¬ 
 tering and plugging them. 
 
 Because many chemicals are cor¬ 
 rosive, thoroughly clean the hopper 
 and interior of the aircraft fre¬ 
 quently. This is especially impor¬ 
 tant if the aircraft may be idle for a 
 few weeks following a period of use. 
 
 When you load the aircraft with 
 dry materials that may become 
 lumpy or that may contain foreign 
 materials that would not pass 
 through the gate opening, use a 
 screen to break up the lumps and 
 clean the materials as they are 
 loaded. 
 
 built inside a low-wing aircraft; 
 the air velocity required to move 
 the materials through it is provided 
 by an engine-driven turbine. An¬ 
 other type is an endless belt housed 
 in a long airfoil suspended beneath 
 the aircraft. The airfoil is slotted 
 and the materials are raked off the 
 belt at each slot in quantities re¬ 
 quired to produce the desired de¬ 
 posit patterns. 
 
 Mixing Equipment 
 
 Dusts and granules, baits, and 
 fertilizers are usually ready for ap¬ 
 plication when packaged by the 
 formulating plants; however, many 
 liquids for making sprays require 
 mixing. Some sprays are made 
 from wettable powders that are 
 mixed with water; some have stick¬ 
 ers added to them; some are con¬ 
 centrates that must be diluted with 
 oil or water; and some may be com¬ 
 binations of two or more materials 
 that are mixed together and diluted 
 with oil or water. 
 
 Most liquid chemicals applied by 
 aircraft can be mixed readily by cir¬ 
 culation. A few require slow-turn¬ 
 ing paddles in the tank to assist in 
 the mixing. 
 
 MIXING TANK 
 
 Use a cylindrical mixing tank— 
 a cylinder has no corners in which 
 wettable powders may lodge. The 
 top should have an opening large 
 enough so that powders can be 
 emptied into the tank conven¬ 
 iently from 50-pound bags or 
 drums. Cover the opening with a 
 heavy screen to keep debris from 
 falling into the tank; a screen re- 
 
 15 
 
cessed below the opening or bor¬ 
 dered by sideboards will facilitate 
 fast dumping of the powder. The 
 tank should have a capacity some¬ 
 what larger than the maximum 
 amount that is planned to be mixed 
 at one time. This will allow ample 
 space for sloshing without the risk 
 of overflowing the tank. 
 
 If you use circulation mixing, at¬ 
 tach the return line at the bottom 
 of the tank in such a way that cir¬ 
 culation will cause the mixture to 
 swirl. This will eliminate the 
 foaming that results when the re¬ 
 turn flow is directed on top of the 
 mixture. Also, the return flow 
 washes the bottom of the tank to 
 prevent some materials from set¬ 
 tling out. 
 
 If a tank is mounted horizontally 
 and there is a question of whether 
 circulation is adequate, a tube with 
 a series of holes drilled into it may 
 be mounted horizontally a few 
 inches above the bottom of the tank. 
 Attach the tube so the flow from the 
 holes is directed downward at an 
 angle to the bottom. 
 
 MEASURING 
 
 Make provision to accurately 
 measure the quantities mixed and 
 loaded into each aircraft. Since 
 meters cannot be used to measure 
 some materials, because of their 
 abrasiveness, use a calibrated meas¬ 
 uring stick, calibrated sight gage, 
 petcock, or other acceptable means 
 of measurement. 
 
 If the mixing tank is mounted on 
 a trailer or truck for convenient 
 transport between worksites, pro¬ 
 vide support for the load when the 
 tank is filled. Do this with jacks 
 
 or blocks. When you move a fully 
 loaded portable tank from one work¬ 
 site to another, be sure to use a truck 
 that is strong enough to support the 
 load; be sure, also, that the top of 
 the tank is sealed tightly to avoid 
 sloshing through the filler or other 
 opening. 
 
 CIRCULATION PUMP 
 
 If the mixing is to be done 
 through circulation only, pumps 
 should have adequate capacity to 
 forcefully agitate the entire con¬ 
 tents of the tank—materials will be 
 mixed more rapidly and risk of ap¬ 
 plying poorly mixed chemicals will 
 be reduced. A %-inch centrifugal 
 pump is adequate for a 100-gallon 
 tank. Increase pump size and ca¬ 
 pacity proportionately as the tank 
 size is increased. 
 
 Through valves and additional 
 plumbing, the circulation pump also 
 may be used to fill the mixing tank 
 with diluent and to load the air¬ 
 craft. If you use the pump to draw 
 water from ponds or streams, ex¬ 
 treme care is necessary to insure that 
 none of the mixture is allowed to 
 flow back through the intake line 
 and contaminate the water source. 
 
 MIXING PADDLES 
 
 If you use paddles for mixing, 
 mount them to clear the bottom of 
 the tank by only an inch or two. 
 Mixing can begin when small 
 amounts of liquid are put in the 
 tank and can continue through fill¬ 
 ing and until the tank is almost 
 emptied. The paddles should have 
 a diameter no more than half the 
 diameter of the tank. This is ade¬ 
 quate to mix a full tank as well as 
 
 16 
 
a partly filled tank, and small- 
 diameter paddles make it easier to 
 mix materials that foam Avhen the 
 paddles break the surface of the 
 liquid. 
 
 In a paddle-type mixer, you must 
 be able to vary the speed of the pad¬ 
 dles. Some materials do not go 
 into suspension as easily as others 
 and may require fast agitation. 
 Some materials need slow agitation. 
 A mixture, once mixed, usually 
 needs only slow agitation to keep it 
 in suspension. 
 
 STRAINER 
 
 Install a large-capacity strainer 
 with coarse screen in the loading 
 line to catch any unmixed solids or 
 foreign material. 
 
 SEALS 
 
 Use liquidtight packings to seal 
 each shaft that passes through the 
 wall of the tank. 
 
 OTHER EQUIPMENT 
 
 A mixing facility should have 
 equipment to lift or handle full bar¬ 
 rels or other large or heavy contain¬ 
 ers that must be emptied into the 
 mixing tank. Added to the danger 
 of injury to workers if they lift or 
 move such containers is the possibil¬ 
 ity that dropped containers might 
 burst and spill concentrates on 
 Avorkers or contaminate the mixing 
 area. This could be extremely haz¬ 
 ardous Avith concentrates of some 
 chemicals. 
 
 Measuring cans, faucets, and 
 racks are needed to measure the cor¬ 
 rect amount of technical or concen¬ 
 trate materials from barrel con¬ 
 tainers. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Wear clean protectiA^e clothing 
 during all mixing operations. Use 
 respirators appropriate to the chem¬ 
 ical being mixed. Keep on hand an 
 adequate supply of replacement fil¬ 
 ters. Clean Avater, soap, toAA^els, eye- 
 Avash and cup, first-aid kit, and salt 
 and other antidotes should be avail¬ 
 able at all times during mixing 
 operations. 
 
 Make sure all Avorkers thoroughly 
 understand the nature of the chemi¬ 
 cal being handled, the precautions 
 to be observed, the antidotes, and 
 the procedures to be folloAved in the 
 event of spillage. Contact a doctor 
 and a hospital in the area and ex¬ 
 plain the work being done so that 
 they may become familiar with the 
 treatment required in an emergency. 
 Post the names of the doctor and 
 hospital at the mixing site. Wlien 
 chemicals highly toxic to man are 
 used, haA^e at least two men present 
 at all times to assist each other and, 
 above all, to observe each other for 
 symptoms of possible overexposure 
 to the chemical. 
 
 When organophosphates are 
 mixed frequently, all AA’orkers 
 should take blood cholinesterase 
 tests at regular intervals. To deter¬ 
 mine the normal cholinesterase 
 level, haA^e a test made before they 
 handle the material. 
 
 Loading Equipment 
 
 Good loading equipment can add 
 greatly to the efficiency of an aerial 
 application operation. Of primary 
 importance are rapid loading and 
 
 770^43 0 - 65-3 
 
 17 
 
cleanliness of operations. Inspect 
 loading equipment and service it 
 frequently to keep it in first-class 
 operating condition. 
 
 Provide workers who do the load¬ 
 ing with appropriate clothing and 
 devices that will protect them from 
 exposure to the materials. Be sure 
 they understand the precautions to 
 be followed and be sure they know 
 the antidotes to be used. 
 
 SPRAYS 
 
 Use a centrifugal pump for load¬ 
 ing sprays, since it can pump a large 
 variety of chemicals with minimum 
 wear. Speed of loading will depend 
 on the capacity of the pump. The 
 speed of the pump should be con¬ 
 trollable, so that materials that 
 foam easily can be loaded at a 
 slower rate. Placing the loading 
 nozzle below the surface of the 
 liquid or using a bottom-loading 
 system will practically Eliminate 
 foaming when such materials are 
 handled. 
 
 Use meters to measure solutions 
 and other liquid mixtures that will 
 not excessively wear the meter mech¬ 
 anisms. When loading abrasive 
 sprays, use sight gages in the mix¬ 
 ing tank and aircraft to determine 
 how much is loaded. 
 
 Strainers in the loading system 
 will remove foreign materials that 
 may plug nozzles or the aircraft 
 spray system. You should have 
 several screen sizes, since all chemi¬ 
 cals will not pass readily through 
 fine-mesli screens. Use a screen size 
 appropriate for the aircraft disper¬ 
 sal system. 
 
 Tim plumbing used to hook up a 
 loading sy.stem should include as 
 
 much tubing as is practical. Use 
 chemical-resistant hose for the rest 
 of the plumbing. Tlie loading hose 
 should be long enough to permit 
 some leeway in parking the aircraft 
 for loading. A short hose could 
 easily result in lost time if careful 
 maneuvering is necessary to get the 
 aircraft into loading position. A 
 long enough hose may allow avoid¬ 
 ing possible collision with equip¬ 
 ment while maneuvering into load¬ 
 ing position. 
 
 Use quick-action, positive shutoff 
 valves to start and stop the flow of 
 materials being loaded. When 
 specific quantities are to be loaded, 
 such valves are particularly useful. 
 If you use a quick-disconnect cou¬ 
 pling, it should be leakproof and a 
 type that will not release liquid each 
 time it is disconnected. 
 
 DUSTS 
 
 Since only small aircraft are used 
 for dusting, the dusts are usually 
 loaded into the aircraft by hand. 
 Dusts usually flow easily and 
 seldom require screening during 
 loading. 
 
 GRANULES, SEEDS, AND DRY 
 FERTILIZERS 
 
 When quantities of these mate¬ 
 rials are to be dispersed, you can 
 save considerable time by using a 
 good mechanical loader. Mechan¬ 
 ical loading usually provides a 
 much cleaner operation than hand 
 loading because more time can be 
 devoted to emptying each bag or 
 carton into the loader. Invariably, 
 the rush during hand loading re¬ 
 sults in materials being left in the 
 containers, being thrown over the 
 
 18 
 
side of the aircraft—sometimes in¬ 
 to the cockpit—or being blown over- 
 l)oard in the wind or the propeller 
 blast. 
 
 Commonly used loaders are belt, 
 chain, or auger types and gravity- 
 flow lioppers that can be raised 
 above the aircraft. Blower loaders 
 are not recommended, because mate¬ 
 rials blown into hoppers may pack 
 so tightly they will not flow when 
 the gate is opened. 
 
 Belt loaders are fast and will 
 handle a large variety of materials. 
 When materials that contain oil 
 cause the belt to become slippery, 
 ■small cleats on the belt or daily 
 washing of the belt will improve 
 performance. Belt loaders will not 
 break, grind, or shatter granules be¬ 
 ing loaded. 
 
 Chain or auger loaders will grind 
 ar break up some granules, such as 
 those made of clay; however, they 
 ire satisfactory for loading other 
 granulated materials. These load- 
 .Brs must be quite large, must have 
 more powerful engines, and must 
 be driven fast to approach the load¬ 
 ing speed of the belt type. It is 
 more difficult to lubricate chains 
 and augers because the bearings are 
 inside and exposed to the abrasive- 
 less of materials being loaded. 
 
 Overhead hopper loaders are 
 ideal if the aircraft load is limited 
 to 1,200 pounds and the area above 
 the loading door is not obstructed. 
 This loader usually consists of a 
 boom mounted on the front or rear 
 of a i/^-ton truck from which is sus¬ 
 pended a hopper capable of holding 
 one plane load, and that can be 
 raised and lowered by cable and 
 power takeoff or hydraulically. 
 The hopper is lowered for conven¬ 
 ient loading from the ground or 
 from a truck, then raised as the 
 loader is maneuvered up to the air¬ 
 craft, and lowered until its snout en¬ 
 ters the hopper loading door; then, 
 the contents are released into the 
 aircraft hopper in a few seconds. 
 You can use hopper loaders for 
 rapid loading of all dry materials. 
 For some moist materials, a hopper 
 made of rubberized cloth is ideal. 
 Care and skill are required by the 
 operator of a hopper loader to avoid 
 damaging the aircraft during 
 maneuvering and loading opera¬ 
 tions. 
 
 Screen all granulated mate¬ 
 rials before loading them into air¬ 
 craft. This is necessary to break up 
 any clods and remove debris. A 
 two- to four-mesh screen is satis¬ 
 factory for most materials. 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 Pilot 
 
 The pilot is the key to efficient 
 ind successful aerial application. 
 The importance of his training, 
 ibility, skill, judgment, and com¬ 
 
 petence cannot be overemphasized. 
 The aircraft must be operated in a 
 proper and approved manner at all 
 times. 
 
 The pilot must be able to deter¬ 
 mine the best direction to spray a 
 
 19 
 
block and be adept at low-level 
 navigation. 
 
 He must be trained in crop recog¬ 
 nition, not only to insure that he 
 is treating the right field but, more 
 importantly, to insure that drift 
 will not damage or leave an unde¬ 
 sirable residue on crops or fields 
 adjoining or dowiiAvind from the 
 one being treated. 
 
 The pilot must be able to use good 
 judgment in relating the amount of 
 material applied to the size of the 
 area treated. 
 
 He must be acquainted with each 
 chemical he is applying; that is, he 
 must know how to handle it safely, 
 the clothing and devices that should 
 be worn for protection, antidotes 
 that will be required in the event 
 of accidental overexposure, special 
 precautions that must be observed 
 when applying it, where it can be 
 used safely, and the hazards if ap¬ 
 plied improperly or in the wrong 
 places. 
 
 The pilot must know something 
 about how weather affects the ap- 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Wear shoulder harness and a 
 good-quality, well-fitted crash hel¬ 
 met at all times during aerial ap¬ 
 plication operations. These two 
 safety items have saved more lives 
 than all others. 
 
 Wear a respirator if the chemical 
 being applied is dangerous. Use a 
 filter or canister of a type appro¬ 
 priate for the chemical being used. 
 Selecting the respirator carefully 
 will pay dividends in its efficiency, 
 usefulness, and wearing comfort. 
 If one is needed for extended pe¬ 
 riods during hot weather, use a res- 
 pirator-and-crash-helmet combina¬ 
 tion that is ventilated with forced 
 air. If the equipment is uncom¬ 
 fortable, the pilot is tempted to 
 Avork Avithout it. This can be ex¬ 
 tremely dangerous. After use, 
 clean this equipment and store it 
 Avhere it Avill not be damaged. 
 
 Wear clean clothing at all times. 
 Many materials are highly toxic to 
 man and can be absorbed through 
 
 the skin. Stress personal cleanli¬ 
 ness at all times. 
 
 When using rubber or rubberized 
 gloves, keep the insides clean at all 
 times. A mistake that is often 
 made is remoA’ing the gloA*es to ad¬ 
 just or clean a nozzle or to do some 
 other close Avork, then slipping the 
 soiled hands back into the gloves. 
 This can be extremely dangerous, 
 because gloves may cause the hands 
 to SAveat; Avith the pores thus 
 opened, the chemical is easily ab¬ 
 sorbed through the skin of the 
 hands. 
 
 When you use organophosphates, 
 you should take blood cholinesterase 
 tests at regular intervals. To de¬ 
 termine the normal cholinesterase 
 level, take the initial test before 
 handling the material. 
 
 During loading operations, get 
 out of the aircraft and move to an 
 upAvind position to avoid fumes; be 
 particularly careful av h e n the 
 chemicals used are toxic to man and 
 the aircraft is being loaded from 
 the top. 
 
 20 
 
plication of sprays and dnsts to 
 crops. He must be able to antici¬ 
 pate when chemicals will drift and 
 when they may not settle into the 
 crops readily. 
 
 The pilot must be experienced 
 with his aircraft, the maneuvers 
 that can be performed safely and 
 those that must be avoided, the 
 maximum load it can carry safely, 
 and the load limit from short, 
 rough, temporary airstrips; above 
 all, he must know his own limita¬ 
 tions in the aircraft he is operating. 
 
 Application Methods 
 
 The normal procedure is to fly 
 back and forth across the area being 
 treated in straight, parallel lines. 
 In areas too rugged or steep for the 
 pilot to hold a uniform altitude and 
 speed in both directions, the flight 
 lines should follow the contours of 
 the slopes. In mountainous terrain, 
 where occasional areas are too 
 hemmed in to permit contour fly¬ 
 ing, make all treatments downslope. 
 Upslope treatments are extremely 
 dangerous; never attempt them. 
 IMienever possible, make the flight 
 lines or swaths crosswind, to assist 
 in overlap and uniformity of cov¬ 
 erage, and lengthwise to the area, 
 to reduce the number of turn¬ 
 arounds. Begin treatments on the 
 downwind side of the area so that 
 you can make each successive swath 
 without flying through chemicals 
 suspended in the air from previous 
 swaths. 
 
 SWATH MARKING 
 
 To insure uniform coverage and 
 to avoid excessive overlap or strip¬ 
 ping of the area, provide proper 
 
 marking to guide the pilot on each 
 swath. The most common method 
 is to use a flagman at each end of 
 the field. After each swath, the 
 flagman moves over a distance equal 
 to the predetermined swath spac¬ 
 ing. The flagman determines this 
 distance by pacing, using a meas¬ 
 ured line, or counting rows of row 
 crops. 
 
 When the aircraft can be flown 
 parallel to the rows of crops with 
 straight rows, one flagman may suf¬ 
 fice. When the area is more than 1 
 mile long, use enough flagmen so 
 that the pilot can see at least one 
 flag or marker at all times. 
 
 THE TURNAROUND 
 
 This maneuver is performed more 
 often than any other during aerial 
 applications and, when poorly exe¬ 
 cuted, causes a large percentage of 
 the accidents, many of them fatal. 
 It requires careful execution, be¬ 
 cause the aircraft has often just 
 climbed over an obstruction and 
 immediately turned downwind at a 
 considerable angle of bank. This 
 puts the aircraft in a low-speed, 
 high-drag angle of attack condition 
 and the pilot usually is looking back 
 to orient his turn for the next swath. 
 Thus, the turn must be coordinated 
 and performed smoothly. 
 
 Where possible, do not start the 
 turnaround at the end of each swath 
 until after pulling up over obstruc¬ 
 tions and leveling off; complete the 
 turnaround before dropping in over 
 the obstructions on the next swath. 
 Start the turnaround by turning 45° 
 downwind, leveling off for several 
 seconds, then making a smooth co¬ 
 ordinated reversal of 225°. The 
 
 21 
 
I 
 
 Flight path during turnaround. 
 
 number of seconds you spend in 
 level flight is determined by the 
 swath spacing or distance the air¬ 
 craft must move over, maneuvera¬ 
 bility of the aircraft, power, load 
 remaining, wind, temperature, ele¬ 
 vation, and other factors that may 
 reduce the safe turning speed. As 
 you continue the last of the turn, 
 orient yourself in time to line up for 
 the next swath. It is during this 
 part of the turn that pilots often 
 encounter difficulty, and you need 
 careful timing to avoid fast or in¬ 
 tricate maneuvering to get into 
 position. 
 
 Avoid snapped reversal, lowball, 
 or wingover turns at all times. 
 
 When you must make a turn in 
 the opposite direction—that is, up¬ 
 
 wind first—you need more space 
 and time to complete the turn. 
 
 Whenever possible, avoid turn¬ 
 arounds over a residence, farm 
 buildings, penned poultry or live¬ 
 stock, watering places, ponds, and 
 reservoirs. Be particularly careful 
 if the dispersal apparatus shutoff is 
 not always positive. 
 
 FERRYING 
 
 Fly at least 500 feet high during 
 ferry flights between the airstrip 
 and worksite, whether loaded or 
 empty. Avoid flight over farm 
 buildings, scattered residential 
 areas, and penned poultry or live¬ 
 stock. Too often, because of the 
 noise they make or their mere pres¬ 
 ence, agricultural aircraft are ac- 
 
 22 
 
cased of damaging' or contaminat¬ 
 ing property. 
 
 SPEED 
 
 Control of speed during aerial 
 application is important. Calibra¬ 
 tion of dispersal apparatus is actu¬ 
 ally rate of flow per minute. No 
 device is available that changes flow 
 rate automatically and proportion¬ 
 ately as the speed of flight changes. 
 Once the dispersal apparatus has 
 been properly calibrated, keep the 
 speed constant during each swath 
 irun to insure uniform coverage of 
 the area. Increasing the speed will 
 result in too light a deposit. De¬ 
 creasing the speed will result in 
 overdosing. 
 
 HEIGHT 
 
 The height of flight usually is de¬ 
 termined by the form of chemical 
 material. Sometimes the type of 
 material determines the height of 
 flight; weedkillers are an exam¬ 
 ple—drift of these chemicals cannot 
 be tolerated. Arrange nozzles and 
 adjust distributors to produce the 
 desired deposit pattern with the ma¬ 
 terial being applied from the flight 
 level you select. Keep this height 
 constant during each swatch run to 
 obtain uniform coverage of the 
 treated area. 
 
 Seeds usually are applied from 
 wingspan height. 
 
 Wlienever you can increase the 
 light level up to a height equal to 
 he wingspan without increasing the 
 Irift hazard or sacrificing penetra- 
 ion benefits, you should do it. The 
 idded height usually increases the 
 >wath width and safety of opera¬ 
 tions. There is less danger of 
 
 striking objects hidden near the 
 crop level. The pullup over ob¬ 
 structions is not as high, steep, or 
 abrupt; this greatly reduces the 
 risk of stalling or misjudging the 
 nearness or height of the obstruc¬ 
 tion. Likewise, reentry to the field 
 is not as steep, abrupt, or low; the 
 risks of stalling when you go in as 
 close to the obstruction as possible 
 after crossing over it and of mis¬ 
 judging the drop to the crop level 
 are reduced, too. In the event of an 
 engine malfunction, the added 
 height provides some leeway to ma¬ 
 neuver and possibly effect a safe 
 landing. 
 
 APPLICATION AROUND 
 OBSTRUCTIONS 
 
 When there are powerlines or 
 telephone lines within or on the end 
 of the area being treated, common 
 practice is to fly under them if the 
 application height is lower than 
 10 feet and there are no additional 
 obstructions between the lines and 
 the ground. IVIien you fly around 
 them, exercise extreme caution; 
 make certain there are no diagonal 
 brace wires or other lines that may 
 be difficult to see. 
 
 Wlien you must pull the aircraft 
 up over an obstruction at the end 
 of the field, shut off the dispersal 
 apparatus before the pullup is 
 started. This may be one or two 
 swath widths from the end of the 
 field. After the turnaround, drop 
 the aircraft in over the obstruction 
 to the proper application height, 
 and turn on the dispersal apparatus 
 at a point even with the point where 
 the other swath was shut off. 
 After you run all the parallel 
 
 23 
 
swaths, finish treating the field by 
 flying one or two swaths, as needed, 
 across the end of the field and paral¬ 
 lel to the obstruction. 
 
 \^lien there is an obstruction 
 along the side of the field, fly the 
 aircraft parallel to the obstruction, 
 as close to it as is safely possible, 
 at a height appropriate for the ma¬ 
 terial being applied. 
 
 T^Hien there is an obstruction, 
 such as an occasional tree or pole, 
 within a field, and the height of 
 flight is 10 feet or less, approach the 
 obstruction in the same manner as 
 one at the end of the field—that is, 
 shut off one or two swath widths 
 from the obstruction. After mak¬ 
 ing the pullup, make a 360° turn 
 before dropping in on the other side. 
 This is necessary to control the 
 speed sufficiently to avoid overshoot¬ 
 ing the other side. After working 
 past the obstruction, you can run 
 one or two swaths on both sides to 
 complete the treatment around the 
 obstruction. 
 
 Treating the areas around the ob¬ 
 structions in this manner will pre¬ 
 vent skips or overdosing. 
 
 DRIR 
 
 Drift is the movement of released 
 material from a path of vertical de¬ 
 scent caused by air movement. 
 
 You cannot completely eliminate 
 drift when you apply dusts or 
 sprays by aircraft. You can, how¬ 
 ever, reduce the quantity and extent 
 of drift. 
 
 The necessity for controlling 
 drift depends on the circumstances 
 prevailing at the time and place of 
 application. Special precautions 
 will be needed if the material beinsr 
 
 o 
 
 applied is hazardous to adjacent 
 or nearby areas—susceptible crops, 
 crops for which a residue tolerance 
 is in effect, reservoirs, streams, hu¬ 
 man beings, livestock, pastures, and 
 buildings. 
 
 The main factors that influence 
 the distance the material will drift 
 are particle size, specific gravity, 
 evaporation rate, height of release, 
 horizontal air movement, A^ertical 
 air movement, temperature, humid¬ 
 ity, and aerodynamic forces created 
 by the aircraft. 
 
 The rate of fall of particles 
 through the air is affected by their 
 size and specific gravity. Small, 
 lightweight particles fall very 
 slowly. For example, a 5-micron 
 (1 micron=0.001 millimeter or 25 
 microns=0.001 inch) drop of water 
 would require 5i/^ hours to fall 50 
 feet in still air as compared to only 
 55 seconds for a 100-micron drop 
 under the same conditions (disre¬ 
 garding evaporation). 
 
 The average particle size of dusts 
 is considerably smaller than that of 
 sprays. Dusts, therefore, tend to 
 drift farther than sprays. If there 
 is a choice between dusts or sprays, 
 always use sprays to reduce drift 
 hazards. This will not always be 
 possible, since there are situations 
 where dusts may provide more ef¬ 
 fective plant coverage than sprays 
 for control of certain plant diseases. 
 Also, some sprays may be phyto¬ 
 toxic (poisonous to plants). 
 
 Oil-spray droplets tend to drift 
 farther than water-spray droplets 
 because they usually are lighter and 
 thus remain airborne for a longer ^ 
 period. The rate of evaporation of 
 water-base sprays is higher than 
 
 24 
 
that of oil-base sprays unless anti- 
 evaporant materials are added to 
 the formulation. 
 
 With present commercial spray 
 iquipment and spray formulations 
 now available (1965), all small par- 
 :icles cannot be eliminated. A 
 3oarse spray has a wider range of 
 dzes (a higher maximum) than a 
 nne spray. Although a coarse 
 ipray will drift less than a fine 
 ^pray, the coarse spray results in 
 narrower swaths with fewer drops 
 :)er unit of area. AWien the aver¬ 
 age drop size is doubled, the num- 
 ner of drops in a gallon will be 
 "educed to one-eighth the original 
 lumber. 
 
 If thorough coverage is required 
 for control of a specific pest, coarse 
 sprays may not be economical or ef¬ 
 fective. For some herbicides, how- 
 wer, coverage may not be critical, 
 md moderately coarse sprays can be 
 effective. To reduce drift, the 
 itomization should be no finer than 
 s necessary to do an effective job. 
 
 The main factors affecting the 
 iistance a particle may drift while 
 t is falling are height of release and 
 lorizontal and vertical air move- 
 nent. For example, a 50-micron 
 iroplet of water will drift about 890 
 *eet while falling 50 feet in a 3-mile- 
 ler-hour wind. Doubling either the 
 leight or the windspeed should 
 louble the distance. 
 
 Height of flight of the plane 
 ibove the crop should not be greater 
 han that required for effective 
 ateral distribution of the material 
 icross the swath and safety of oper¬ 
 ation. This may vary from a few 
 'eet over low-growing crops to 100 
 ‘eet or more over mountainous for¬ 
 
 est areas. Reducing the height of 
 flight will reduce the drift. 
 
 Weather conditions directly affect 
 the direction, amount, and distance 
 of drift. Except under calm condi¬ 
 tions, you can readily determine the 
 wind direction in the field. Avoid 
 applications when the wind is blow¬ 
 ing toward susceptible crops. You 
 may have to cease operations until 
 conditions change. You can make 
 windspeed readings in the field with 
 small pith-ball windmeters. Con¬ 
 sult weather forecasts whenever pos¬ 
 sible. One danger from drift is 
 that unpredictable changes in air 
 movement may occur to move the 
 drift in an unexpected direction. 
 
 During early-morning and late- 
 evening hours, the air temperature 
 differential between ground and 10 
 to 20 feet above ground is consider¬ 
 ably less than during the middle of 
 the day. As the ground warms up, 
 ground air temperatures increase 
 above that of the air at 10 to 20 
 feet. This warmer air rises and sets 
 up convection and thermal air cur¬ 
 rents to lift small particles, which 
 may be carried to some distant 
 point before they settle out. Avoid 
 application when this condition 
 exists. 
 
 Calm conditions wdth a high in¬ 
 version (ground air 2° to 5° cooler 
 than air above) may cause the small¬ 
 est spray drops or dust particles to 
 remain suspended in this layer of 
 cold undisturbed air and eventually 
 move out of the area before coming 
 to rest. Avoid application under 
 this condition. 
 
 Because of the aerodynamic 
 forces set up by the aircraft moving 
 
 25 
 
through the air, spray or dust re¬ 
 leased within 3 to 5 feet of the wing- 
 tips of fixed-wing aircraft may be 
 moved outward and upward by the 
 wingtip vortices and be moved out 
 of the treated area by the wind. 
 
 On spray planes, limit the boom 
 length to three-fourths of the wing¬ 
 span so that spray will not be 
 emitted near the wingtips. Use 
 leakproof on-off spray valve and 
 dusttight hopper feed gate to elimi¬ 
 nate dribbling in turns or ferry 
 flights. 
 
 Deposit Pattern 
 and Swath Spacing 
 
 Test dispersal apparatus to deter¬ 
 mine the swath spacing and whether 
 adjustments are necessary to pro¬ 
 duce the desired deposit patterns. 
 The widths of swaths vary with dif¬ 
 ferent materials, the altitudes from 
 which they are released, and the 
 dispersal apparatus. Use materials 
 for swath checking that are as simi¬ 
 lar as possible to those that will be 
 used on the job. For example, lime 
 can be used in lieu of insecticidal 
 dust, dyed water or oil in lieu of 
 some sprays, and inert clay gran¬ 
 ules in lieu of treated granules. 
 Make the final check with the mate¬ 
 rial that will be used. 
 
 You can check deposit patterns 
 in several ways. A common prac¬ 
 tice is to use dyed water for water- 
 mixed sprays and catch the spray 
 on clean 4- by 5-inch cards or long 
 strips of adding machine paper. 
 The droplets will spread less on a 
 
 hard-finish paper and you will ge 
 some indication of the droplet size 
 
 The same procedure can be fol 
 lowed when running swath check 
 v, ith oil or you can use oil-sensitivi| 
 dyed cards. With these, the oil i 
 not dyed and the droplets was): 
 small spots on the cards. 
 
 You can use pans or trays t( 
 catch granules. 
 
 DUST 
 
 Since almost all dusting is dom 
 with the aircraft wheels at croj 
 level, the swath spacing used is usu 
 ally equal to the wingspan of th( 
 aircraft. Sometimes, you can in 
 crease this somewhat through tin 
 use of a special spreader. Quiti 
 often, when treating row crops, tin 
 spacing is adjusted to coincide witf 
 a given number of rows. This en-t 
 ables a flagman to count rows foi 
 his spacing rather than to measure 
 or pace the distance. 
 
 Swath checks are seldom made 
 with dust other than to assure there 
 is no streaking. If streaking oc¬ 
 curs, make adjustments to the 
 spreader or distributor rather than 
 increase the height of flight. In-: 
 creasing height increases the drift 
 hazard. 
 
 When conditions are such that 
 you cannot apply dust from crop 
 level because of obstructions in and 
 around the field being dusted, con¬ 
 sider using another form of chem¬ 
 ical. 
 
 SPRAYS AND GRANULES 
 
 The normal procedure for deter¬ 
 mining the deposit pattern and 
 
 26 
 
■wath spacing with sprays and 
 rranules is as follows; Place a num- 
 )er of cards or pans in a straight 
 ine perpendicular to the line of 
 light, adjust the dispersal appara- 
 us to put out the estimated rate re- 
 [iiired, and fly the aircraft over the 
 •ards or pans at its assigned height 
 md speed. After crossing them, 
 iiaintain a straight and level course 
 or approximately one-half mile to 
 ivoid distorting the deposit pattern. 
 
 iprays 
 
 Water-mixed sprays on croplands 
 isually are applied from low levels 
 0 reduce evaporation. Swath 
 pacing seldom is much wider than 
 he wingspan of the aircraft. In 
 i no-wind condition, sw’ath width 
 isually increases with altitude until 
 oil reach a height approximately 
 •qual to the wungspan. Little is 
 gained by flying much higher, and 
 he spray becomes more difficult to 
 leposit on the intended area. 
 
 Water-mixed sprays on forest and 
 ■ange lands usually are applied 
 Tom wingspan height, and the 
 iwath spacing that can be used for 
 his height usually is equivalent to 
 hree to four times the wingspan. 
 
 Usually, you apply an insecticidal 
 )il spray from wingspan height 
 vith swath spacing equivalent to 
 'our times the wingspan. Apply 
 lerbicide at lower altitudes and nar- 
 ower swath spacing. 
 
 When you disperse invert emul- 
 'ions, run swath checks in advance 
 o determine the spacing, since so 
 nuch depends on the type of dis- 
 lersal apparatus used. 
 
 Granules 
 
 Because of the wide variation in 
 granule sizes and types used, run 
 swath checks with each type to de¬ 
 termine the deposit pattern and 
 swath spacing to be used. Gran¬ 
 ules usually are applied from wing¬ 
 span height to get as wide a swath 
 as possible. 
 
 When you make swath checks 
 with granules, the best method is to 
 use containers or trays of equal sur¬ 
 face area placed at 5-foot intervals 
 across the line of flight. Alumi¬ 
 num dishpans or similar containers 
 usually are used for this. Visual 
 checking of the deposit in each pan 
 can be deceiving; so you should 
 check the pattern more accurately. 
 
 One method you can use is to ob¬ 
 tain a precision-bore glass tube 
 (i^-inch inside diameter) closed at 
 one end. Pour the contents of the 
 first pan into the tube. While hold¬ 
 ing the tube vertically, place a sheet 
 of paper behind the tube and make 
 a mark on it equal to the height of 
 the contents in the tube. After 
 emptying the tube, pour the con¬ 
 tents of the second pan into the tube 
 and mark the height on the paper. 
 Make the second mark 1/4 to 3/8 
 inch away from the first mark. 
 Follow this procedure with each 
 consecutive pan. Connecting the 
 marks with a line will graphically 
 show the deposit pattern. 
 
 You can make a more elaborate 
 device with a case containing about 
 20 of these tubes, set side by side 
 with a small space between. If you 
 pour the contents of each pan into 
 each respective tube, you will get a 
 picture of the deposit pattern. 
 
 27 
 
Case with glass tubes to show granule deposit pattern. 
 
 The span of receptacles that 
 catches materials is considered the 
 overall swath. Use careful judg¬ 
 ment in considering the number of 
 receptacles that should be included 
 in the swatch. Do not include re¬ 
 ceptacles that do not contain at least 
 a reasonable deposit commensurate 
 with the application rate, desired 
 pattern, type of material, purpose 
 of the treatment, and other factors. 
 
 Do not confuse overall swath with 
 effective swath. Generally, overall 
 swath is the total span of materials 
 deposited in one swath; effective 
 swath is the span of materials where 
 there is sufficient deposit to obtain 
 the desired results. The effective 
 swath may be less than one-half of 
 the overall swath. 
 
 Conduct tests to determine the ef¬ 
 fective swath and spacing to be 
 
 used during calm or as near to caln 
 conditions as you can find. If then 
 is any measurable wind, fly the air 
 craft directly into the wind during 
 the tests so that the drift does no 
 widen the swath. 
 
 DEPOSIT PATTERNS 
 
 Carefully consider the deposit 
 pattern that you select for use 
 Obviously, you should not use a rec 
 tangular deposit pattern, for it h 
 impossible to fly the aircraft sf 
 straight that there would be no skif 
 or overlap. The pattern shoulc 
 have sloping sides. 
 
 When you use a trapezoidal pat 
 tern, deposit will be uniform if th( 
 aircraft is spaced properly ano 
 evenly. Deposit will be less dis¬ 
 torted when you have uneven spac 
 
 28 
 
ng than with the rectangular pat- 
 em. 
 
 You can obtain the ultimate in 
 leposit uniformity by using a pat- 
 ern shaped like an isosceles tri- 
 mgle and by spacing the aircraft 
 it one-half of the overall swath. 
 [Tiis pattern is the most desirable 
 rhen you apply granules as soil 
 reatments and desire perfect uni- 
 ormity. When you use this pat- 
 ■ern, deposit will be least distorted 
 >y uneven flight lines or spacing, 
 ight shifting winds, gusts, or other 
 actors. 
 
 Once you select the deposit pat- 
 ern, it is important to space the air- 
 raft the correct distance on each 
 uccessive swath to obtain uniform 
 overage of the area being treated, 
 hretching a swath beyond the 
 >oint where adequate overlap or 
 niform coverage is obtained is 
 alse economy. "VWien you do this, 
 ght deposits occur where there is 
 isufRcient overlap and the risk of 
 
 skips increases. If you apply suf¬ 
 ficient material to provide an ade¬ 
 quate deposit in the light overlap 
 area, you apply too much material 
 in the center. This is wasteful and 
 results in overdosing. 
 
 CALIBRATION 
 
 After you achieve the desired de¬ 
 posit pattern and determine the 
 swath spacing, you must calibrate 
 the dispersal apparatus accurately 
 so that you apply the correct 
 amount of material per acre. 
 
 Calibration is a function of swath 
 spacing, speed (time) or measured 
 distance, and application rate per 
 acre. You can calibrate equipment 
 by timing the flow rate of a meas¬ 
 ured quantity or checking the num¬ 
 ber of swaths that can be made with 
 a measured quantity in a field of 
 known length. 
 
 You can calculate calibration re¬ 
 quirements by referring to the fol¬ 
 lowing charts: 
 
 Computation of Acreage and Materials 
 
 . . Length of swath in miles x width of swath in feet 
 
 FORMULA: Acres covered^ - - -- 
 
 The number of acres in a swath of given width and length can be determined from the chart below. 
 
 (ample: An aircraft with a 40-foot effective swath treats a strip 1 mile long. To find the number of acres 
 How the 40-foot vertical column down until it intersects the 1-mile line. The answer to the nearest tenth is 
 I acres. For swath widths other than those shown, interpolate or use combinations of the figures shown. 
 
 To determine the amount of chemical required, multiply the acres by the desired rate of application. 
 
 ACREAGE CHART 
 
 Swath length 
 (miles) 
 
 30' 
 
 swath 
 
 35' 
 
 swath 
 
 40' 
 
 swath 
 
 45' 
 
 swath 
 
 50' 
 
 swath 
 
 75' 
 
 swath 
 
 100' 
 
 swath 
 
 200' 
 
 swath 
 
 300' 
 
 swath 
 
 500' 
 
 swath 
 
 1. 
 
 .9 
 
 1.1 
 
 1.2 
 
 1.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 2.3 
 
 3.0 
 
 6.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 15.2 
 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.0 
 
 4.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 12.1 
 
 18.2 
 
 30.3 
 
 1. 
 
 2.7 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.1 
 
 4.6 
 
 6.8 
 
 9.1 
 
 18.2 
 
 27.3 
 
 45.4 
 
 
 3.6 
 
 4.2 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 9.1 
 
 12.1 
 
 24.2 
 
 36.4 
 
 60.6 
 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.8 
 
 10.9 
 
 12.1 
 
 18.2 
 
 24.2 
 
 48.5 
 
 72.7 
 
 121.2 
 
 
 10.8 
 
 12.6 
 
 14.5 
 
 16.4 
 
 18.2 
 
 27.3 
 
 36.4 
 
 72.7 
 
 109.1 
 
 181.8 
 
 
 14.4 
 
 16.8 
 
 19.4 
 
 21.8 
 
 24,2 
 
 36.4 
 
 48.5 
 
 97.0 
 
 145.4 
 
 242.4 
 
 
 18.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 24.2 
 
 27.3 
 
 30.3 
 
 45.5 
 
 60.6 
 
 121.1 
 
 181.8 
 
 303.0 
 
 29 
 
Aircraft Calibration 
 
 FORMULA: Acres per ^ width x miles per hour 
 
 1,000 
 
 • jI'u shows the rate, in acres per minute, at which spray of dry material can be anolied when sw. 
 
 known. For swath widths or aircraft speeds other than those shown interpola 
 m.iHinlv"Ihe'"“‘ figures shown. To find the rate of fiow in gallons per minute or pounds per ml^m 
 
 “i hftu';® hy the number of gallons or pounds per acre to be applied. 
 
 ^ '"!'® ?®'’ hour aircraft has a 40-foot effective swath. Follow the vertical 40-foot column do« 
 
 until the figure opposite 100 miles per hour is intersected. The aircraft would cover 8 0 acres oer minute If 
 8*0 or"s®n be applied per acre, the aircraft should be calibrated to disperse liquid at the rate ofV 
 
 8.0 or 8.0 uailons per minute. If 10 pounds of dry material is to be applied per acre, the aircraft should be cal 
 brated to disperse material at the rate of 10 x 8.0 or 80 pounds per minute. aircraii snouia De cal 
 
 ACRES-PER-MINUTE CHART 
 
 
 30' 
 
 35' 
 
 40' 
 
 Speed (m.p.h.) 
 
 swath 
 
 swath 
 
 swath 
 
 75... 
 
 4.5 
 
 5.2 
 
 6.0 
 
 80... 
 
 4.8 
 
 5.6 
 
 6.4 
 
 85... 
 
 5.1 
 
 5.9 
 
 6.8 
 
 90. 
 
 5.4 
 
 6.3 
 
 7.2 
 
 95 
 
 5.7 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.6 
 
 100.. 
 
 6.0 
 
 7.0 
 
 8.0 
 
 no.. 
 
 6.6 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 120.. 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.6 
 
 130.. 
 
 7.8 
 
 9.1 
 
 10.4 
 
 140_ 
 
 8.4 
 
 9.8 
 
 11.2 
 
 150_ 
 
 9.0 
 
 10.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 45' 
 
 swath 
 
 50' 
 
 swath 
 
 75' 
 
 swath 
 
 100' 
 
 swath 
 
 200' 
 
 swath 
 
 300' 
 
 swath 
 
 500- 
 
 swat 
 
 6.7 
 
 7.5 
 
 11.2 
 
 15.0 
 
 30.0 
 
 45.0 
 
 75. 
 
 7.2 
 
 8.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 16.0 
 
 32.0 
 
 48.0 
 
 80. 
 
 7.6 
 
 8.5 
 
 12.7 
 
 17.0 
 
 34.0 
 
 51.0 
 
 85. 
 
 8.1 
 
 9.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 36.0 
 
 54.0 
 
 90. 
 
 8.5 
 
 9.5 
 
 14.2 
 
 19.0 
 
 38.0 
 
 57.0 
 
 95. 
 
 9.0 
 
 10.0 
 
 15.0 
 
 20.0 
 
 40.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 100. 
 
 9.9 
 
 11.0 
 
 16.5 
 
 22.0 
 
 44.0 
 
 66.0 
 
 no. 
 
 10.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 18.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 48.0 
 
 72.0 
 
 120. 
 
 11.7 
 
 13.0 
 
 19.5 
 
 26.0 
 
 52.0 
 
 78.0 
 
 130. 
 
 12.6 
 
 14.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 28.0 
 
 56.0 
 
 84.0 
 
 140. 
 
 liS. 5 
 
 15.0 
 
 22.5 
 
 30.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 90.0 
 
 150. 
 
 PROTECTION AND STORAGE OF 
 
 CHEMICALS 
 
 KeejD chemicals and chemical con¬ 
 tainers in a separate building or 
 room or in an enclosure. Use this 
 storage area exclusively for chemi¬ 
 cals and empty chemical containers. 
 Buildings or rooms should be dry, 
 ventilated, and under lock and key. 
 Fence in outside storage areas to 
 protect children and animals and 
 to discourage pilferage. 
 
 Remove only the amount of 
 chemicals needed for 1 day's opera¬ 
 tion, and be sure to return empty 
 
 containers (and any unused chemi¬ 
 cal) to the storage area at the end 
 of each day. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Do not store herbicides or defoli¬ 
 ants in the same room with insecti-' 
 cides. Volatile materials such as 
 2,4r-'D and its derivatives can con-' 
 taminate other chemicals. Chlorate 
 salts can create a fire or explosion 
 hazard. 
 
 SAFE DISPOSAL OF CONTAINERS AND 
 
 CHEMICALS 
 
 Careful disposal of empty chemi¬ 
 cal containers and surplus chemicals 
 is as important as using the chemi¬ 
 cals safely. You can harm yourself 
 and others and contaminate the area 
 
 around you if you do not follow safe 
 disposal procedures. 
 
 “Empty'' containers can be a haz¬ 
 ard to children and pets. Barrels 
 and drums converted into livestock 
 
 30 
 
eed troughs, water storage tanks, 
 ir raft floats become sources of con- 
 amination of feed and water. If 
 discarded in the line of water run- 
 !.ff, these containers can pollute 
 )onds and streams. 
 
 Your responsibility as a chemical 
 iser continues until you safely dis- 
 ►ose of chemical containers and any 
 urplus chemicals. 
 
 Empty Containers 
 
 Your choice of disposal methods 
 nd necessary precautions will de- 
 )end on the type of container and 
 acilities available. Regardless of 
 he disposal plan you follow, how- 
 ver, you can lessen the amount of 
 lazard by— 
 
 * Draining any chemical remain- 
 ng in the container into a pit dug 
 n sandy soil isolated from water 
 ources. 
 
 * Rinsing glass and smaller metal 
 ontainers several times with the 
 iiluent being used and including 
 he rinse in your spray. 
 
 > Keeping lids and bungs tightened 
 t all times when containers are not 
 •eing used. 
 
 * Keeping all empty containers in 
 
 secure storage area until they can 
 
 •e disposed of safely. 
 
 Large metal drums can be dis- 
 »osed of most safely and easily by 
 eturning them to the supplier or 
 el ling them to a cooperage firm 
 quipped to handle toxic materials, 
 '’hemical containers also can be 
 afely disposed of locally at public 
 lumps, incinerators, or private dis- 
 >osal sites. 
 
 PUBLIC DUMP OR 
 INCINERATOR 
 
 If disposal is at a dump or in¬ 
 cinerator, notify the operator of the 
 nature of the material so that he 
 can take any necessary precautions. 
 Before leaving the disposal site, 
 remoA^e lids and bungs, break glass 
 containers and chop holes in the 
 top, bottom, and sides of metal con¬ 
 tainers with a sharpened pickax. 
 Breaking and puncturing contain¬ 
 ers Avill make it less likely that an 
 unauthorized person will remove 
 them from the dump and attempt to 
 convert them to other uses. Bury 
 containers left at public dumps. 
 
 PRIVATE DISPOSAL SITES 
 
 If suitable public disposal facil¬ 
 ities are not available and contain¬ 
 ers cannot be returned to a supplier 
 or sold to a cooperage firm, select 
 ’ a disposal site that Avill be used only 
 for surplus chemical and chemical 
 containers. Do not use an area that 
 might later be returned to cropland. 
 The site should be away from homes, 
 Avells, streams, and crops and live¬ 
 stock. Level ground is best be¬ 
 cause residue will be absorbed 
 through the soil and Avill be less 
 likely to be carried aAvay in Avater 
 runoff. Do not locate the site on 
 the Avatershed of a public Avater sup¬ 
 ply or Avhere livestock have access 
 to it. 
 
 BURNING 
 
 Burn paper bags, cardboard box¬ 
 es, and plastic containers after you 
 make sure that smoke Avill not drift 
 
 31 
 
over nearby homes, people, and live¬ 
 stock. Be particularly careful that 
 you do not stand in the smoke. If 
 you pour used crankcase oil over 
 the containers before lighting, they 
 will burn easily. (Caution: Some 
 municipalities have restrictions 
 against burning. Consult local au¬ 
 thorities before burning containers. 
 Do not burn containers that have 
 held herbicides, such as 2,4-D and 
 its derivatives. 'Wdien these herbi¬ 
 cides volatilize, the resulting vapor 
 may damage nearby plants, crops, 
 and shrubbery. Also, herbicides or 
 defoliants containing chlorates may 
 explode when heated.) 
 
 You can decontaminate metal and 
 glass containers by burning. After 
 removing lids, use a sharpened pick¬ 
 ax to chop holes in the top, bottom, 
 and sides of metal containers. 
 Build a heap of scrap wood, dry 
 brush, or anything else that will 
 make a hot fire. Then place con¬ 
 tainers on the pile and start the fire. 
 
 Heat containers until they are red 
 hot and hold them at that temper¬ 
 ature (800° to 1,200° F.) for at 
 least 5 minutes. 
 
 You can construct your own in¬ 
 cinerator for burning small con¬ 
 tainers from a 55-gallon drum. Re¬ 
 move one end from the drum and 
 punch holes in the sides, leaving 
 room at the bottom of the drum to 
 hold the fuel. Fuel oil or used 
 crankcase oil will provide complete 
 combustion, yet is safe to use if 
 handled carefully. 
 
 CLEANING 
 
 If burning is not possible, a 
 thorough rinsing procedure will 
 
 eliminate much of the pesticide resii 
 due and hazard. Here is the rec; 
 ommended rinsing procedure: 
 
 Carefully rinse empty containei 
 with water and detergent. Allmj 
 water and detergent to remain ip 
 the container for 15 minutes witj 
 intermittent agitation. Pour rins| 
 .solution into a pit dug in sandj 
 soil. The following shows rinsin;! 
 solutions for containers of thre! 
 sizes: 
 
 Container 
 
 size 
 
 (gallons) 
 
 Water 
 
 (quarts) 
 
 Detergent 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 tablespoons, 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 Vi cup. 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 1 cup. 
 
 Rerinse 
 
 container for another 1 
 
 minutes with the same amount o 
 water and detergent. Again pou 
 rinse solution into the pit. Inver 
 container and let it drain for 1 
 minutes into the pit. 
 
 Flush drum thoroughly wit 
 clean water. (Caution: Althoug 
 they may appear to be complete!,, 
 free of residue, do not use these con 
 tainers for storing human or anima 
 food or water.) 
 
 HERBICIDE CONTAINERS 
 
 Break glass containers and cho) 
 holes in the top, bottom, and side 
 of metal containers so they canno 
 be reused or collect water. I 
 sharpened pickax is best for thi 
 purpose. 
 
 Bury all broken or puncturec 
 containers to a depth of 18 inche 
 at a safe disposal site or take then 
 to a dump Avhere they will be cov 
 ered with soil. 
 
 32 
 
liTURN TO SUPPLIER OR SALE 
 TO COOPERAGE FIRM 
 
 If you plan to turn containers 
 (er to the supplier or cooperage 
 Im, tighten the bungs, rinse the 
 (ums off with water, and keep 
 tern in the storage area until they 
 le picked up. Many of these 
 cums rust rapidly and lose their 
 vine after more than one season; 
 lake sure they are collected by the 
 (operage firm as soon as possible, 
 ou can obtain the names and loca- 
 t)ns of established cooperage firms 
 :om your chemical dealer or for- 
 lulator. 
 
 Surplus Chemicals 
 
 Keep surplus chemicals in the 
 original containers in the storage 
 area until they can be disposed of 
 safely. If you cannot give surplus 
 chemicals to a responsible person 
 in need of such material, pour them 
 into a hole dug in the ground and 
 cover with dirt to a depth of at least 
 18 inches. Observe all precautions 
 recommended for private disposal 
 sites. Do not take surplus chemi¬ 
 cals to a public dump or incinerator. 
 Pour leftover spray mixture into a 
 pit dug in sandy soil. 
 
 REGULATIONS 
 
 Two distinct types of regulations 
 •rtain to pesticides. Some regula- 
 ons pertain to the labeling and 
 :arketing of pesticide products; 
 •hers pertain to the users of pesti- 
 des. Labeling and marketing con- 
 ols of such products operate at 
 ►th the Federal and State levels. 
 3sticide-use regulations, however, 
 ■e administered only at the State 
 '■ local level, and no Federal con- 
 ols govern the user or applicator. 
 
 Pesticide Products 
 
 Few, if any, products are more 
 osely regulated than those in- 
 nded for use as pesticides. The 
 ederal Insecticide, Fungicide, and 
 odenticide Act, which is adminis- 
 i*ed by the U.S. Department of 
 griculture, regulates those prod- 
 'ts sold in interstate commerce. 
 
 while State laws regulate the same 
 products at the local level and also 
 regulate pesticide products that are 
 manufactured and sold within the 
 same State. 
 
 FEDERAL REGULATIONS 
 
 The following is a brief summary 
 of the Federal law and its require¬ 
 ments : 
 
 Title 
 
 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, 
 and Kodenticide Act, as amended. 
 
 Enforcement Agency 
 
 Pesticides Regulation Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture, Wash¬ 
 ington, D.C., 20250. 
 
 Coverage 
 
 Algaecides, germicides, fungi¬ 
 cides, herbicides, insecticides, nema- 
 
 33 
 
tocides, plant defoliants, plant 
 desiccants, plant regulators, roden- 
 ticides, amphibian and reptile poi¬ 
 sons or repellants, bird poisons or 
 repellants, fish poisons or repel¬ 
 lants, mammal poisons or repel¬ 
 lants, and invertebrate animal poi¬ 
 sons or repellants that are marketed 
 or shipped in interstate commerce, 
 imported, exported, or sold in the 
 District of Columbia or any of the 
 territories. 
 
 Duration of Registration 
 
 Kegistration is effective for 5 
 years from date of registration, at 
 which time it is canceled or ex¬ 
 tended for an additional 5 years. 
 
 Registration information 
 
 1. To comply with the act, a label 
 must show— 
 
 • Name of product. 
 
 • Name and address of manufac¬ 
 turer, registrant, or person for 
 whom manufactured. 
 
 • Net contents. 
 
 • Ingredient statement (name and 
 percentage, by weight, of each ac¬ 
 tive ingredient, and total percent of 
 inert ingredients or name of each 
 active and each inert ingredient in 
 descending order and relative abun¬ 
 dance in each category and the total 
 percentage of inert ingredients). 
 
 • Warning or caution statement. 
 
 a. An economic poison must show 
 warnings pertaining to ingestion, 
 skin absorption, inhalation, and 
 flammability or explosion, 
 ft. Economic poisons that are 
 toxic to man must show 
 “POISON” in red on a contrasting 
 background, “DANGER,” skull and 
 crossbones, and statement of anti¬ 
 
 dote, including directions to call 
 physician immediately (in immeo 
 ate vicinity of skull and crossbon| 
 and “POISON”). ' 
 
 • Tlie registration number assign(^ 
 
 to the product. ' 
 
 • Directions for use (optional c 
 label, may appear on accompanyirir 
 printed or graphic matter). I 
 
 2. Other information that may 1 
 required is— 
 
 • Data to support any or all clain' 
 on the labeling. 
 
 • A complete statement of the coni 
 position of the product, includin' 
 the percentage, by weight, of eac 
 of the active and inert ingredient 
 if such information does not appes 
 on the label. 
 
 • Any pertinent information aboi 
 inert ingredients. 
 
 • Any other information pertainin 
 to physical or biological property 
 of the product. 
 
 Coloration 
 
 Standard and basic lead arsenafi 
 calcium arsenate, magnesium arse 
 nate, zinc arsenate, zinc arsenifi 
 barium fluosilicate, sodium fluorid< 
 and sodium fluosilicate shall be col 
 ored or discolored. The hues, vai 
 lies, and chromes specified are thos 
 contained in the Munsell book o 
 color, Munsell Color Co., Baltimore 
 Md. 
 
 Obtaining Registration 
 
 A manufacturer must submi 
 copies of his labeling and adequat 
 research data to support all the 
 claims made for the product. Th« 
 labeling and supporting data an 
 carefully reviewed by specialists t( 
 determine the following: 
 
1. "Will the product be effective 
 lainst the pests named on the la¬ 
 dling, and can it be used effectively 
 ithout causing damage to the 
 cops or objects to which it is 
 2 'plied ? 
 
 2. Does the label bear warning 
 i d (^aution statements that are ade- 
 (ate, when complied with, to pro¬ 
 mt injury to the user or other per¬ 
 ms or beneficial animals that are 
 t posed? 
 
 3. Will the directed use of the 
 joduct leave illegal residues on 
 
 l.rvested food or feed ? 
 
 If the specialists involved are 
 (nvinced that the product can be 
 led effectively and safely without 
 living illegal residues on food or 
 :ed when label warnings and di- 
 ictions are carefully followed, it 
 i acceptable for registration. 
 
 STATE REGULATIONS 
 
 Forty-eight States have laws that 
 gulate the marketing of pesticides 
 ithin the respective States. All 
 lese State laws require that the 
 •oducts subject to their provisions 
 : ust be registered with the control- 
 ig State agency in the same man- 
 ,ir as described for the Federal 
 w. The scope of products covered 
 I the various State laws is shown 
 table 1. 
 
 Most of the control officials are 
 embers of and take an active part 
 the functions of the Association 
 ■ American Pesticide Control Of- 
 '.ials. This association attempts to 
 tablish uniform requirements and 
 avoid conflicts between the vari- 
 is State laws and the Federal law. 
 model State law has served as a 
 ittern for those States changing 
 
 or adopting a pesticide law; in sum¬ 
 mary, this law parallels the sum¬ 
 mary of the Federal law, with minor 
 changes adapting it to the State 
 level. These changes are indicated 
 in table 1. 
 
 Residue Tolerances 
 
 The Federal Food, Drug, and 
 Cosmetic Act authorizes the Food 
 and Drug Administration of the 
 U.S. Department of Health, Edu¬ 
 cation, and Welfare to set tolerances 
 for residues of pesticides that may 
 legally remain in or on food or feed. 
 That agency has set up the follow¬ 
 ing procedure for establishing toler¬ 
 ance. 
 
 1. When a manufacturer applies 
 to the U.S. Department of Agricul¬ 
 ture for registration of a product 
 under the Federal Insecticide, 
 Fungicide, and Eodenticide Act 
 with directions for use on a food 
 crop in a manner that will leave 
 residues on the harvested food, he 
 is told that registration will not be 
 issued until a tolerance is estab¬ 
 lished to cover the residues. 
 
 2. The manufacturer must then 
 assemble and submit to the Food 
 and Drug Administration residue 
 data to show conclusively the level 
 of residues likely to result and tox¬ 
 icity data to prove that such resi¬ 
 dues on the food would be safe. 
 
 3. The U.S. Department of Agri¬ 
 culture must certify to the Food and 
 Drug Administration that the pesti¬ 
 cide is useful for the proposed use 
 and express an opinion on the ade¬ 
 quacy of the residue data. Special¬ 
 ists in the Food and Drug Adminis¬ 
 tration then carefully evaluate the 
 
 35 
 
Table 1.— Summary of Pesticide {Economic Poisons) Laics 
 
 Products covered 
 
 State 
 
 Insecticides 
 
 Fungicides 
 
 Rodenticides 
 
 Herbicides 
 
 Defoliants and 
 
 desiccants 
 
 Plant regulators 
 
 Registratio 
 
 required 
 
 Alabama__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Alaska_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arizona__ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 V 
 
 Arkansas_ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 V 
 
 California___ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 Colorado_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Connecticut_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Delaware_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 District of Columbia ‘_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Florida_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 v 
 
 V 
 
 Georgia__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Hawaii_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Idaho__ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Illinois_ _ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Indiana_ 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Iowa_ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Kansas_ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Kentucky_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Louisiana_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Maine_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Maryland_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Massachusetts_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Michigan_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Minnesota__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Mississippi__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Missouri__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Montana_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 Nebraska_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Nevada__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 v 
 
 New Hampshire_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 New Jersey_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 New Mexico__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 New York_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 North Carolina_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 NorthDakota_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Ohio_ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Oklahoma_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Oregon__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Pennsylvania_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Rhode Island_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 South Carolina_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 South Dakota_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 Tennessee__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Texas_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Utah_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Vermont_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Virginia_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Washington_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 West Virginia_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Wisconsin__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Wyoming._ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 Puerto Rico_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act applies. 
 
 36 
 
to determine whether a toler- 
 tice is justified. 
 
 4. If the residue and toxicity data 
 i e found to be adequate, the toler- 
 jice is established and the Depart- 
 lent of Agriculture can issue regis- 
 lation. If the data are determined 
 T be not adequate to justify the pro- 
 )sed tolerance, the Food and Drug 
 .dministration will refuse to estab- 
 ?h the proposed tolerance and may 
 itablish a tolerance at a lower level 
 
 a zero tolerance if the data war- 
 nt such action. In no case will the 
 ood and Drug Administration es- 
 blish a tolerance greater than is 
 “eded to cover the residue result- 
 g from the proposed use. 
 
 5. "WHien a pesticide is registered 
 ►r use on a food crop on the basis 
 
 a zero tolerance or on a no- 
 sidue basis, it means that the 
 rected use will not leave residues 
 i the harvested food at levels that 
 in be detected by chemical ana- 
 sis. This has often meant that 
 
 the development of a more sensitive 
 method invalidates the zero toler¬ 
 ance or no-residue acceptance. 
 
 Application Laws 
 
 Federal Aviation Agency regula¬ 
 tions control all aerial operations; 
 in addition, some State laws must 
 be observed when pesticides are 
 applied. 
 
 Many of the States have pesticide- 
 use laws that require custom appli¬ 
 cators to be licensed or to obtain 
 a permit from the State prior to 
 the application of such products. 
 Table 2 lists those States that have 
 such laws, and the extent of cover¬ 
 age. As shown, the requirements 
 of various State laws vary widely. 
 You are responsible for determining 
 which laws apply to your operations 
 in a particular State or locality. 
 You should learn the requirements 
 of such laws in order to comply with 
 them. 
 
 CHEMICALS 
 
 Agricultural chemicals vary 
 idely in toxicity, chemical prop- 
 dies, and biological activities, 
 urrently (1965), more than 600 
 dive chemical ingredients are em- 
 loyed in the control of pests, 
 hese range from certain plant de- 
 vatives that are relatively low in 
 )xicity to many extremely toxic 
 impounds. 
 
 Classes 
 
 BOTANICALS 
 
 General description and use .—A 
 umber of chemical compounds are 
 
 derived from plant tissues and used 
 rather effectively as insecticides and 
 rodenticides. More common plant 
 derivatives that might be applied 
 by aerial applicators include pyre- 
 thrins, rotenone (derris), nicotine, 
 sabadilla, ryania, and possibly 
 strychnine. The last named is a 
 rodenticide; the others are insecti¬ 
 cides. 
 
 Relative toxicity and mode of 
 action .—The toxicity of plant de¬ 
 rivatives used as pesticides varies 
 from pyrethrins, which have a very 
 low degree of toxicity to warm¬ 
 blooded animals, to highly toxic 
 
 37 
 
Table 2.— State Laws and Regulations Relating to the Use of Pesticid 
 
 Generally {1965') 
 
 State 
 
 
 Products 
 
 covered 
 
 Users 
 covered ‘ 
 
 -1 
 
 Licenses or permit 
 required * 
 
 Insecticides 
 
 Fungicides 
 
 1 
 
 Herbicides 
 
 1 
 
 Rodenticides 
 
 others 
 
 Aerial applicators 
 
 Ground applicators 
 
 Aerial appUcators 
 
 Ground appUcators 
 
 others 
 
 Alabama__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 (') 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 ." ■ 
 
 Arizona__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (®) 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Arkansas_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 California_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 (4) 
 
 Colorado_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 (3 5) 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Connecticut_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (6 2) 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 (0 
 
 Florida_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Hawaii_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 (4 8 
 
 Idaho_ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 ix 
 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 V 
 
 lUinois_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 (*) 
 
 (») 
 
 (») 
 
 («) 
 
 
 Indiana_ __ __ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (0) 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 Iowa__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Kansas_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Kentucky_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Louisiana__ __ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Massachusetts_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (10) 
 
 
 
 “P), 
 
 Michigan__ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Minnesota.. 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Mississippi_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (') 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Nevada__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 («) 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 New Hampshire_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 New Mexico__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 New York_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 (9 10) 
 
 
 
 
 (i 1C 
 
 North Carolina_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 All 
 
 
 AU 
 
 
 
 North Dakota__ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 C) 
 
 AU 
 
 
 AU 
 
 
 
 Ohio_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 («) 
 
 
 (*) 
 
 
 f») 
 
 Oklahoma_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (®) 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 \ J 
 
 Cu 
 
 V J 
 
 Oregon_ 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 (‘) 
 
 Rhode Island_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 South Dakota_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Tennessee_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Texas_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 (4 8- 
 
 Utah__ _ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 All 
 
 Cu 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 Vermont_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 All 
 
 AU 
 
 
 Washington_ 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 (3 6) 
 
 AU 
 
 AU 
 
 Cu 
 
 Cu 
 
 
 W isconsin__ _ 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 (10) 
 
 (10) 
 
 (10) 
 
 (10) 
 
 (10) 
 
 Puerto Rico_ 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 («) 
 
 (*) 
 
 (“) 
 
 (») 
 
 (•) 
 
 -i 
 
 * All—All users (those treating their own land and custom applicators); Cu^ 
 Custom applicators only. 
 
 2 Sprays or methods used to improve the condition of trees. 
 
 * Plant-growth regulators and defoliants. 
 
 ^ Owner of land treated. 
 
 ® Nematocides. 
 
 * Fertilizers and seeds. 
 
 ^ Tree experts. 
 
 * Manufacturers and dealers. 
 
 ® Director of Department of Agriculture has authority to restrict use. See statut 
 Pertinent only to application of chemicals to water and to noncrop areas. S 
 statute. 
 
 38 
 
, impounds, such as strychnine and 
 icotine. ]\Iost of these compounds 
 re readily absorbed through the 
 igestive tract or respiratory sys- 
 3m and some through the skin as 
 •ell. The most common troubles 
 acountered in the use of many of 
 :ie plant derivatives consist of der- 
 latitis, irritation to the eyes, and 
 'ritation to nasal membranes, 
 'hese troubles are fairly common 
 mong individuals who are sensi- 
 [iive to these compounds. The 
 ^mptom produced most often by 
 ctual poisoning is stimulation of 
 le nervx)us system, leading to con- 
 ulsions and paralysis in severe 
 oisoning. However, trouble in- 
 olving pyrethrins, rotenone, and 
 ther plant derivatives that are low 
 1 toxicity results from individuals’ 
 eing allergic rather than from the 
 irect toxicity of the compounds. 
 
 CHLORINATED HYDRO¬ 
 CARBONS 
 
 General description and use .— 
 liis group of chemicals includes a 
 irge number of insecticides and a 
 imited number of herbicides that 
 lave been introduced since World 
 Var II. Their use as insecticides 
 aries widely as does their toxicity 
 D warm-blooded animals. DDT is 
 ne of the most widely used and per- 
 laps the best known chemical in this 
 ^oup. Because the symptoms of 
 )oisoning and the mode of action 
 aay differ between the various 
 hemicals of this group, the follow- 
 ng discussion will be based largely 
 n DDT as an example. DDT is 
 eadily absorbed through the diges¬ 
 
 tive tract and respiratory system. 
 Dry formulations of DDT are not 
 absorbed through the skin to any 
 significant degree; however, certain 
 liquid formulations are readily 
 absorbed through the skin. 
 
 Many of the other chemicals in 
 this group are readily absorbed 
 through any of these portals. These 
 chemicals act on the central nervous 
 system; however, the exact manner 
 in which they do so is not clearly 
 understood. 
 
 Many of the chlorinated hydro¬ 
 carbons are readily stored in body 
 fat when absorbed either in a single 
 large dose or in repeated smaller 
 doses. The chemicals stored in the 
 fat appear to be largely inactive, 
 because the total amount stored in 
 an experimental animal may be 
 greater than the amount required 
 to cause death if given as one dose. 
 They are gradually eliminated from 
 body fat when further absorption 
 is discontinued. Elimination from 
 the body fat is largely through 
 urine and feces, although some is 
 through milk or perspiration. 
 
 ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS 
 COMPOUNDS 
 
 General description and use .— 
 Many of the modern pesticides that 
 are derived from phosphoric acid 
 are known as organic phosphorus 
 compounds. These chemicals are 
 used primarily as insecticides; they 
 have some use as nematocides and as 
 plant defoliants. The different 
 compounds vary widely in effective¬ 
 ness against a given pest. In gen¬ 
 eral, organic phosphorus com¬ 
 pounds kill insects quickly, and the 
 
 39 
 
residues left from the treatment dis¬ 
 sipate rapidly. 
 
 Relative toxicity and mode of ac¬ 
 tion .—The toxicity of organic phos¬ 
 phorus compounds varies from 
 mahithion, which is relatively low in 
 toxicity, to tepp (tetraethyl pyro¬ 
 phosphate), which is extremely 
 toxic. Most chemicals in this group 
 are readily absorbed through the 
 skin, digestive tract, or respiratory 
 system, or all of these. 
 
 Even though these chemicals have 
 a wide range in toxicity levels, they 
 can be used safely by applicators 
 who recognize poisoning symptoms 
 and heed the precautions given on 
 the pesticide container label. 
 
 The organic phosphates affect the 
 nervous system when absorbed into 
 the body in significant amounts. 
 The main action is the lowering of 
 the cholinesterase in the body. 
 
 Because many of the symptoms of 
 poisoning appear before the blood 
 cholinesterase level drops, or may 
 persist after the cholinesterase level 
 has returned to normal, you must 
 know these symptoms. At first, the 
 affected person shows a loss of appe¬ 
 tite, nausea, vomiting, abdominal 
 pain or cramps, sweating, tears, 
 salivation, pinpointing of the pupils 
 of the eye, and a mild headache. 
 TVTien the degree of poisoning is 
 somewhat greater, there is severe 
 headache, heart spasm, shortness of 
 breath, tight chest, paleness or even 
 a bluish skin, and a loss of sphincter 
 control. 
 
 Because of the similiarity between 
 the symptoms caused by a decreased 
 cholinesterase and the symptoms of 
 other diseases, the doctor may diag¬ 
 nose an affected person as having 
 
 summer flu or a heat stroke. T(1 
 prevent confusion, wear some sorii 
 of identification, such as a dog ta^: 
 identifying you as one who workii 
 with organic phosphorus com 
 pounds. Be certain that a record o; 
 any contamination and any treat* 
 ment in the field accompanies tht 
 affected person so that the doctol 
 may more intelligently treat him. 
 
 The use of atropine minimizes al 
 these effects. Symptoms that an 
 not affected by atropine include ner 
 vousness and twitching of thi 
 tongue, eyelid, face, neck, and eyi 
 muscles. In patients who an 
 severely poisoned without successfu 
 treatment, these symptoms are fol 
 lowed by weakness, flaccidity, anc 
 paralysis. No treatment is effec 
 tive. Finally, the brain is affectex 
 with initial stimulation, followed bj 
 deep depression, severe headache 
 giddiness, tension, apprehension 
 foreboding, tremors, drowsiness 
 mental confusion, slurring o: 
 speech, convulsions, coma, anc 
 death. 
 
 Different chemicals in this group 
 vary in the length of time requirec 
 for pK)isoning when absorbec 
 through the skin. For example 
 tepp, phosdrin, and para-oxon in 
 the same amounts required to cause 
 death when taken by mouth can 
 cause death in 10 to 30 minutes 
 when placed on the skin. Para- 
 thion, diazinon, and certain others 
 in this group must be converted in 
 the body to the toxic compound, and 
 death may occur as late as 24 to 4? 
 hours after contamination. Knowl¬ 
 edge of the time required to cause 
 symptoms and death is, of course 
 of vital importance to the physician. 
 
 40 
 
Alcohol increases the effects of 
 ohosphorus poisons. The effects of 
 ilcohol are depressing, as are the 
 effects of the poisons, and a person 
 rho has been taking alcohol is much 
 nore susceptible to the effects of 
 )rganic phosphate pyoisoning. 
 
 CARBAMATES 
 
 General description and use .— 
 several of the modern fungicides, 
 lerbicides, nematocides, and insecti- 
 ides are in this group. One of the 
 lost widely used and perhaps the 
 ■est known is carbaryl (Sevin), 
 rhich is widely used as an insecti- 
 ide and to a limited extent as a 
 •lant regulator. Carbaryl is highly 
 ixic to bees, and you should take 
 are to avoid application in areas 
 .’here bee activity is high. Notify 
 eekeepers near the area to be 
 reated in advance of the applica- 
 on of this insecticide. In addition 
 1 the insecticide carbaryl, the 
 iiemicals in this group that are 
 kely to be applied by aircraft in- 
 lude the fungicides ferbam, maneb, 
 abam, zineb, and ziram. 
 
 Relative toxicity and mode of 
 ction. —The carbamates are gen- 
 rally low in toxicity to warm- 
 looded animals when compared to 
 irtain chemicals in the chlorinated 
 ydrocarbon and organic phos- 
 horus group. 
 
 Carbaryl is readily absorbed 
 irough the skin, digestive tract, or 
 ispiratory system. 
 
 These chemicals act as inhibitors 
 f cholinesterase in the same man- 
 t^r as explained for the organic 
 hosphorus compounds. However, 
 le action of carbamates on cholin- 
 iterase is much shorter in duration 
 
 than that of organic phosphorus. 
 For this reason, normal levels of 
 cholinesterase in the blood can be 
 restored much faster, and measure¬ 
 ments of blood cholinesterase may 
 appear normal a short time after 
 poisoning. Carbamates are readily 
 metabolized in the body and do not 
 accumulate as do certain chlori¬ 
 nated hydrocarbons. 
 
 Signs and symptoms of poison* 
 ing are not as clearly defined as in 
 organic phosphorus compounds or 
 the chlorinated hydrocarbons. If 
 absorbed in amounts sufficient to 
 cause acute poisoning, symptoms 
 produced by carbamates include 
 constriction of the pupils, saliva¬ 
 tion, muscular incoordination, and 
 cramps, followed by profuse sweat¬ 
 ing. In acute poisoning, atropine 
 sulfate is the antidote and recovery 
 usually is rapid and complete. 
 Field experience with carbamates 
 has been relatively free from acci¬ 
 dental poisoning. 
 
 PHENOXY HERBICIDES 
 
 General description and use .— 
 This group is often referred to as 
 growth regulator herbicides and 
 includes such chemicals as 2,4-D, 
 2,4,5-T, Silvex, and MCPA. These 
 are available as acids; however, 
 they are more commonly used as 
 esters or salts. The derivatives 
 vary in form as well as in action 
 as herbicides. The esters are, in 
 general, volatile. Do not use them 
 close to beneficial crops or plants 
 that are susceptible to their action. 
 The salts have no herbicidal volatil¬ 
 ity and there is no danger from 
 vapor drift. In addition to their 
 use as herbicides, these chemicals 
 
 41 
 
are used to a limited degree as plant 
 regulators. 
 
 Different plants vary widely in 
 susceptibility to this group of 
 herbicides. 
 
 Relative toxicity and mode of 
 action. —The chemicals in this 
 group are generally low in toxicity 
 to warm-blooded animals. They 
 are readily absorbed through the di¬ 
 gestive tract and possibly through 
 the respiratory system. They are 
 not absorbed through the skin to 
 any appreciable extent. Although 
 these chemicals disrupt the physio¬ 
 logical functions of certain plants, 
 their presence does not affect hor¬ 
 mones in animals. The exaxjt man¬ 
 ner in which the phenoxy herbicides 
 act in the animal or human body is 
 not clearly understood. 
 
 The oral dose required to produce 
 symptoms of poisoning in man is 
 estimated as 3 to 4 grams of the 
 active chemical. These chemicals 
 are readily eliminated from the 
 body, and recovery seems to be 
 rapid and complete. Occasionally, 
 an allergic individual may have 
 dermatitis if exposure is continued. 
 
 ARSENIC 
 
 General description and use .— 
 Several arsenic compounds have 
 been widely used as insecticides, 
 herbicides, and rodenticides. Ar¬ 
 senic has been used as a pesticide for 
 more than 200 years and still is used 
 extensively in some areas. Its use 
 as an insecticide has declined since 
 the introduction of chlorinated hy¬ 
 drocarbons and organic phosphorus 
 compounds. However, its use as a 
 herbicide has increased in recent 
 years. 
 
 Relative toxicity and mode of 
 action. —Arsenic compounds, in 
 general, possess a high degree of 
 toxicity to warm-blooded animals. 
 However, this toxicity varies with 
 the solubility of the arsenic and the 
 formulation of the pesticide prod¬ 
 uct. Some organic arsenic com¬ 
 pounds are relatively low in toxic¬ 
 ity. Arsenic is absorbed chiefly 
 through the respiratory system and 
 digestive tract. However, some ar¬ 
 senic is absorbed through the skin, 
 especially when the skin is broken, 
 as in eczema or other forms of der¬ 
 matitis. When absorbed into the 
 bloodstream, arsenic acts as a proto¬ 
 plasmic poison. It tends to block 
 the capillaries and prevent enzymes 
 and oxygen from reaching the tis¬ 
 sues. This action is strongest in 
 the intestines, regardless of the 
 route of absorption of arsenic. 
 
 Arsenic is responsible for more 
 accidental poisoning than any othei 
 chemical and has been for many 
 years. The signs and symptoms of 
 arsenic poisoning are abdominal 
 pain and vomiting. These often 
 start within an hour after ingestion 
 the speed of action depending or 
 the amount ingested. In severe 
 poisoning, death may be delayed 
 11/2 to 3 days, and sometimes as lon^ 
 as 14 days. The victim of arsenie 
 poisoning experiences severe dehy 
 dration similar to that caused by 
 cholera, and death often result.' 
 from a severe drop in blood pres 
 sure. If the victim recovers fron 
 arsenic poisoning, he may expen 
 ence severe dermatitis or neuritn 
 accompanied by pain and tender¬ 
 ness of the limbs. Persons who an 
 continuously exposed to arsenic an 
 
 42 
 
kely to have small amounts stored 
 i the liver and kidneys and espe- 
 ially in the hair. Arsenic is gradu- 
 lly excreted through the urine. 
 
 Formulations 
 
 Proper formulation of agricul- 
 iral chemicals increases their effec- 
 veness and may change the hazard 
 ) applicators and handlers. Drift 
 otential is affected by the formula- 
 on. Difference in formulation of 
 chemical may change its solubil- 
 y, volatility, specific gravity, tox- 
 aty to plants, and numerous other 
 laracteristics. The addition of 
 ther substances, such as surface- 
 ctive agents (surfactants), may 
 Iter considerably the effectiveness 
 f an agricultural chemical. 
 Agricultural chemicals are for¬ 
 mulated to be applied as solutions, 
 rnulsions, suspensions, granules, 
 nd dusts. 
 
 SOLUTIONS 
 
 A solution is a physically homo- 
 eneous liquid mixture of two or 
 lore substances. The salts of many 
 hemicals are soluble in water. For 
 sample, the sodium and amine 
 ilts of 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and silvex 
 in be dissolved in convenient 
 mounts of water for spraying. 
 Similarly, the active chemical form 
 f some chemicals is oil soluble. For 
 sample, chemicals insoluble in 
 ’ater, such as aldrin, heptachlor, 
 nd malathion, may be dissolved in 
 il for application. Two or more 
 ifferent chemicals sometimes may 
 « dissolved in the same solvent for 
 imultaneous spray application, 
 lowever, some chemicals when so 
 
 dissolved in the same solvent form 
 precipitates that will clog sprayer 
 filters and nozzles. To avoid this, 
 mix a small quantity of the chem¬ 
 icals in the solvent in the same pro¬ 
 portion as that to be used in the 
 final spray mixture and observe for 
 precipitates before mixing a large 
 amount in the sprayer. 
 
 SUSPENSIONS 
 
 Suspensions usually consist of a 
 finely ground wettable powder dis¬ 
 persed in a liquid. Some chemicals 
 are nearly insoluble in both water 
 and oillike substances, and concen¬ 
 trated solutions and emulsions can¬ 
 not be prepared. Many of these 
 chemicals can be finely ground and, 
 with the addition of a surfactant, 
 can be dispersed in water and oil 
 carriers. Such suspensions usually 
 have a “cloudy” appearance. 
 
 Most suspensions require agita¬ 
 tion to prevent settling of the solid 
 particles. The smaller the solid 
 particle, the slower the rate of set¬ 
 tling. If the solid particles have 
 about the same specific gravity as 
 the liquid, the rate of separation is 
 reduced. 
 
 Agricultural chemicals formu¬ 
 lated as wettable powders include 
 carbaryl, DDT, malathion, para- 
 thion, atrazine, and monuron. 
 
 EMULSIONS 
 
 Emulsions are formed by the dis¬ 
 persal of one liquid in another, with 
 each maintaining its original iden¬ 
 tity. Agitation usually is required 
 to promote emulsification and to 
 prevent separation. Choosing liq¬ 
 uids of approximately equal den¬ 
 sity reduces the tendency to sepa- 
 
 43 
 
rate. Surfactants usually are 
 required to facilitate emulsification, 
 which makes possible the mixing of 
 reactive chemicals without forming 
 precipitates. 
 
 Oil-soluble chemicals often are 
 formulated so that they form emul¬ 
 sions when vigorously agitated in 
 Avater. For example, ester formula¬ 
 tions of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T and emul- 
 sifiable concentrates of DDT, para- 
 thion, and others usually are mixed 
 with water to form oil-in-water 
 emulsions. Emulsions appear 
 “milky.” 
 
 Water-in-oil emulsions of vary¬ 
 ing viscosity can be prepared with 
 special surfactants. These often 
 are referred to as invert emulsions. 
 When the proportion of water to oil 
 is increased, the liquid becomes more 
 viscous. By carefully controlling 
 the proportions of water and oil in 
 invert emulsions, we can prepare 
 sprayable viscous liquids. Special 
 equipment usually is required for 
 dispersing invert emulsions. Invert 
 emulsions may reduce the amount 
 of spray drift. 
 
 DUSTS 
 
 Finely ground chemicals, either 
 alone or mixed with finely ground 
 diluents, are dispersed for control 
 of insects and plant diseases. Be¬ 
 cause of the drift hazard, herbicides 
 are not applied as dusts. 
 
 The relatiA^e effectiveness of dusts 
 versus sprays depends on several 
 factors, including the kind of chem¬ 
 ical, pests involved, wind, and type 
 of crop. Some fungicides are more 
 effective in dusts than in liquid 
 form; the reverse is true wdth some 
 other chemicals. Therefore, make 
 
 the decision to apply dust or spray 
 formulations after considering th'i 
 relative effectiveness of the indi¬ 
 vidual chemicals and the relativi 
 hazards involved. 
 
 GRANULES 
 
 These are formed by impregnat 
 ing coarsely ground dry carriers 
 such as attapulgite clays, vermicu 
 lite, or other inert material, witl 
 the chemical. Such formulation: 
 should be dust free and usually in 
 volve little or no drift hazard, anc 
 residues remaining on plants maj 
 be reduced because most of the ma- 
 terial falls directly to the soil 
 Granular agricultural chemicah 
 are usually effective against the or^ 
 ganisms on or in the soil. Certair 
 ones are absorbed by the plant and 
 are effective through systemic 
 action. 
 
 BAITS 
 
 Baits are prepared by mixing in 
 secticides with various carriers anci 
 an attractant that will cause the in¬ 
 sects to eat the poisoned bait 
 Equipment for applying baits is 
 similar to that used for applying 
 granular formulations. 
 
 Selection 
 
 RELATIVE HAZARDS 
 
 When you select a material, con¬ 
 sider the relative toxicity of agricul¬ 
 tural chemicals that can be used tc 
 accomplish the control objective. 
 Choose an effective chemical that 
 minimizes hazards to operators, tc 
 nearby crops, to farm animals and 
 wildlife, and to the consumer of the 
 product being treated. 
 
 44 
 
Chemicals in concentrated form 
 re more hazardous to applicators 
 nd handlers than when diluted, 
 landle concentrates with the ut- 
 lost care. Know the precautions 
 nd follow them. 
 
 Of all agricultural chemical 
 ormulations used, dust is the most 
 ifficult to contain and to con- 
 rol. It “billows up” in handling, 
 t settles on everything, including 
 le skin of operators, and may be 
 ihaled by handlers. It drifts to 
 eighboring nontarget areas and 
 rops. Use dust only when the tox- 
 ?ity hazard is relatively low and 
 'hen the chemical is more effective 
 1 this than in other forms. Be- 
 ,iuse of the nature and hazards in- 
 olved, follow to the letter the 
 ;)ecific instructions outlined for the 
 arious dust formulations. 
 
 Usually, the oil-soluble formula- 
 on of a specific chemical is more 
 azardous to operators than the 
 'ater-soluble formulation, because 
 is more readily absorbed through 
 le skin. Insoluble formulations 
 re less hazardous than water- 
 )luble materials. 
 
 EFFECTIVENESS 
 
 The effectiveness of specific 
 aemicals varies with the organisms 
 ) be controlled, their stage of 
 rowth and growth activity, the cli- 
 latic conditions, and the vegetation 
 i the area that may intercept the 
 lemical. A chemical may be effec- 
 ve against one organism or group 
 f organisms, but completely inef- 
 ■ictive against others. For in- 
 ^ance, Mexican bean beetles may 
 irive on insecticides that wipe out 
 
 grasshoppers, whereas seed-com 
 maggots may need still another kind 
 of treatment. DDT for control of 
 aphids on potatoes in Oregon gave 
 poor results—67 to 73 percent con¬ 
 trol. Against leafhoppers on Rus¬ 
 sian thistle in southern Idaho, it 
 gave 99 percent control. Therefore, 
 it is important to know the orga¬ 
 nisms to be controlled in selecting 
 your chemical. 
 
 Of equal importance, the time of 
 application or stage of development 
 of the organism to be controlled 
 may influence selection. For in¬ 
 stance, one herbicide may be effec¬ 
 tive for controlling weeds if applied 
 after the weeds emerge. For others, 
 the reverse may be true. Similarly, 
 some contact herbicides are effective 
 as foliage sprays only when the tem¬ 
 peratures are high but are less ef¬ 
 fective under high temperatures 
 when used as soil-applied preemer¬ 
 gence herbicides. You must be 
 completely familiar with the chemi¬ 
 cals you are using, the organisms 
 you are attempting to control, and 
 the precautions required in the safe 
 use of the specific chemical. 
 
 PERSISTENCE 
 
 It cannot be said categorically 
 that persistent herbicides should or 
 should not be used. Obviously, the 
 the more persistent the herbicide, 
 the more difficult it whll be to cor¬ 
 rect mistakes in application and to 
 eliminate the chemical from the soil 
 once it is applied. At the same 
 time, the hazards associated with 
 repeated applications of less-per¬ 
 sistent chemicals over a period of 
 time to give continued control of 
 organisms may exceed the hazard 
 
 45 
 
of making a single application of 
 a more persistent chemical. In 
 making such decisions, base them 
 on information resulting from re¬ 
 search on the relative effectiveness 
 of the various chemicals available, 
 the potential good results from 
 their use, and their potential haz¬ 
 ards. If a single treatment of a 
 short-lived chemical will solve the 
 problem at hand, then it is obvious 
 that the chemical has advantages. 
 
 RESISTANCE 
 
 Continued use of a single chemical 
 may result in selectively developing 
 a population of organisms that are 
 resistant to it. If more than one 
 chemical is effective against an or¬ 
 ganism, alternation of materials 
 may delay or prevent development 
 of resistant strains. The same por¬ 
 tion of an insect population seldom 
 is resistant to two or more classes 
 of chemicals. 
 
 COMPATIBILITY 
 
 Combinations of some kinds of 
 chemicals result in injury to the 
 crop. For instance, substituted 
 urea herbicides and certain sys¬ 
 temic organic phosphorus insecti¬ 
 cides may result in poor stands of 
 cotton under some conditions. 
 Therefore, it is important to know 
 the interacting effects of chemicals 
 applied to crops. However, it 
 often is possible to apply two or 
 more kinds of chemicals at the same 
 time if they are compatible. For 
 instance, you may be able to apply 
 a mixture of a fungicide and an in¬ 
 secticide and thus reduce the over¬ 
 all cost of controlling diseases and 
 insects. 
 
 In addition to verifying the con 
 patibility of such chemicals for i 
 specific use, you must know if tr 
 two agricultural chemicals will pnl 
 cipitate or cause other trouble i 
 applied in mixture. If there is an 
 question, mix a small quantity c 
 the two chemicals in the same prt 
 portions to be used in the spra 
 application. If, after the mixtui 
 stands for a time, no precipitaj 
 forms or other obvious bad effe* 
 appears, you may assume that yc 
 can mix the chemicals for appl 
 cation. 
 
 EFFECT ON NONTARGET 
 ORGANISMS 
 
 Minute quantities of some chem 
 cals may kill plants or cause e? 
 treme growth abnormalities an 
 may leave prohibited residues o 
 food crops in nearby areas. A. 
 ways take precautions to prever 
 drift that will cause economic loj 
 in neighboring areas and that ma 
 result in damage claims against yoi 
 
 Rate of Application 
 
 Best results will require using th 
 minimum suggested rate that wi! 
 give satisfactory control. Ovei 
 application may result in plant ir 
 jury and certainly will increase th 
 risk of illegal residues on food crop 
 and the hazards to animals an 
 wildlife in the target area. Appl} 
 ing less than the recommended rat 
 will result in poor control of pest-' 
 Follow the instructions on the con 
 tainer label and the advice of loca 
 agricultural authorities when yo 
 decide on the rate to use. 
 
 46 
 
Limitation or 
 Restriction 
 
 Illegal residues may persist in 
 rops if you apply chemicals too 
 tear harvesttime. Tolerances for 
 pecific crops are established on the 
 •asis of directions requiring a mini- 
 lum number of days that must 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Know Common Antidotes and 
 Safety Measures 
 
 Because you are likely to be ex¬ 
 posed frequently to small amounts 
 f pesticides that may have an ac- 
 umulative effect, you should de- 
 elop certain safety habits. Some 
 eneral considerations that should 
 e a part of your daily routine are— 
 Pesticides are poisonous to man 
 ad animals. Use them only when 
 eeded and handle them with care, 
 'ollow the directions and heed all 
 recautions on the labels. 
 
 Avoid repeated or prolonged con- 
 ict of pesticides with the skin, 
 void inhalation of pesticide dusts 
 r mists. 
 
 Always wear protective clothing 
 id respiratory devices as stated on 
 le label. Make sure they meet the 
 iquirements as described on the 
 1 ^ 1 . 
 
 Wash your hands and face before 
 iting or smoking and immediately 
 ^er completing pesticide applica- 
 on. 
 
 Keep soap and water available at 
 le landing strip or loading area. 
 Change clothing regularly and 
 Bquently. 
 
 Avoid spilling pesticide on your 
 
 must elapse between the last treat¬ 
 ment and harvest. This informa¬ 
 tion appears on the container label. 
 Comply with these restrictions. 
 
 Tolerances for a given chemical 
 may vary for different crops or, in 
 fact, the chemical may not be ap¬ 
 proved for some crops. Therefore, 
 be sure that the proposed use ap¬ 
 pears in the recommendations on the 
 label. 
 
 skin, and keep it out of the eyes, 
 nose, and mouth. If any is spilled 
 on clothing or skin, change clothing 
 immediately and thoroughly wash 
 exposed skin with soap and water. 
 
 • Keep pesticides in closed, well- 
 labeled containers in a dry place. 
 Store them where they will not con¬ 
 taminate food or feed, and where 
 children and pets cannot reach 
 them. 
 
 • To protect fish and wildlife, do 
 not contaminate lakes, streams, or 
 ponds with pesticide. Do not con¬ 
 taminate wells or other drinking 
 water. Do not clean spraying 
 equipment or dump excess spray 
 material near such water. 
 
 • To minimize losses of honey bees 
 and other pollinating insects, make 
 pesticide applications, when possi¬ 
 ble, during hours when the insects 
 are not visiting the plants. Avoid 
 drift of pesticides into bee yards. 
 
 • Empty containers are particu¬ 
 larly hazardous. Burn empty bags 
 and cardboard containers in the 
 open or bury them. When you 
 burn them, make sure the smoke 
 will not drift over nearby homes, 
 persons, or livestock. (Some 
 municipalities have restrictions 
 against burning—consult the local 
 
 47 
 
authorities.) Crush and bury bot¬ 
 tles or cans. 
 
 Locate Poison Control Centers 
 
 Many communities and practi¬ 
 cally all larger cities have a poison 
 control center. These centers have 
 information readily available on 
 antidotes or first-aid actions to be 
 taken in poisoning cases. Know 
 the location and phone numbers for 
 poison control centers in your work¬ 
 ing areas, so you can tell physicians 
 where added information on treat¬ 
 ment may be available. Report ac¬ 
 cidental poisoning cases to the 
 nearest center. 
 
 Read the Label 
 
 A chemical that has been regis¬ 
 tered as described earlier will bear 
 a label that is the best available 
 guide to safe and proper use. Al¬ 
 ways read the label on the container 
 before applying any chemical and 
 follow its instructions carefully. 
 Give special attention to warnings 
 and cautions that tell you to store 
 the product, how to handle it, and 
 how to apply it safely. The label 
 also will tell if there is a need for 
 using a respiratory device with a 
 reference to information on the type 
 needed for the particular chemical. 
 Further information on respiratory 
 devices for protection against cer¬ 
 tain chemicals may be obtained 
 from the U.S. Department of Ag¬ 
 riculture, 'Washington, D.C. 20250. 
 
 These warnings and cautions on 
 the label will list needed first-aid 
 treatments and antidotes that 
 should be applied to a victim of 
 accidental poisoning. These first- 
 aid treatments and antidotes vary 
 
 considerably between the different 
 chemicals and sometimes betweer 
 different formulations of the same 
 chemical. Therefore, it is imprac¬ 
 tical to attempt to list them in thie 
 handbook. "Wlienever they are re¬ 
 quired, they will be listed on the 
 chemical label; read the instruc¬ 
 tions on the container label and be 
 prepared to follow them. 
 
 Because you may be exposed tc 
 chemicals within the enclosure of 
 the cockpit, be aware of all signifi¬ 
 cant warning symptoms of poison¬ 
 ing. Although the precautions on 
 the label are adequate when fol¬ 
 lowed to prevent injury to the 
 ground handler, the fact that ex¬ 
 posure within the cockpit is unique 
 requires that certain additional pre¬ 
 cautions must be taken by the aerial 
 applicator. Blurred vision, water¬ 
 ing of the eyes, or other symptoms 
 as described earlier are of vital im¬ 
 portance to you. When you first 
 notice such symptoms, stop flying 
 immediately and wait until such 
 symptoms are completely relieved 
 before resuming. 
 
 Remember that many agricul¬ 
 tural chemicals are poisonous. 
 Therefore, consider them in the 
 same way you consider loaded guns. 
 They can be used to kill pests, but 
 they are never to be handled or used 
 carelessly. Many aerial applica¬ 
 tors have used toxic compounds for 
 many years without incident, be¬ 
 cause they have always treated 
 these poisons with the respect they 
 deserve. 
 
 Additional information on the 
 safe use of pesticides may be ob¬ 
 tained from your county agricul¬ 
 tural agent. 
 
 48 
 
 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 19S5 O—770-<43 
 
METHODS OF 
 
 
 
 
 SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 With Special Reference 
 to Strontium 90 Contamination 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 288 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 

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CONTENTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Preparation of samples_ 1 
 
 Ammonium acetate extraction of soil_ 2 
 
 Ashing of plant material_ 3 
 
 Determinations on ammonium acetate extracts of soil and solu¬ 
 tions of plant ash_ 4 
 
 Calcium and magnesium_ 4 
 
 Strontium by flame photometry_ 8 
 
 Strontium by X-ray fluorescence emission spectrometry__ 12 
 
 Sodium and potassium_ 13 
 
 Determinations on separate samples_ 14 
 
 pH of soil_ 14 
 
 Organic matter content of soil_ 15 
 
 Exchangeable hydrogen_ 16 
 
 Available and fixed strontium 90 in soils_ 17 
 
 Strontium 90 in plants_ 22 
 
 literature cited_ 23 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued August 1965 
 
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METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 With Special Reference to Strontium 90 
 
 Contamination 
 
 By W. R. Heau), R. G. Menzel, H. Robeets, Jb., and M. H. Fbeee, Soil and Water 
 Conservation Research Division, Agricultural Research Service^ 
 
 This handbook contains procedures for determining soil properties 
 necessary to the uptake of strontium 90 from soil by plants. By these 
 methods can be determined the amount and kind of exchangeable 
 cation, pH, and amount of organic matter in soil, as well as the amount 
 of major cation and strontium content of plants. The application of 
 the analytical results obtained is not discussed, because it depends 
 primarily on the purpose for which the samples were taken. 
 
 The procedures were taken directlr from the literature or were 
 developed in part or entirely by the u.S. Soils Laboratory. Caution 
 should be used in universally applying these procedures, since some of 
 them were developed for specific materials. This is especially true 
 for strontium determination, both natural and radioactive, in that 
 interference from other elements might have different effects on ma¬ 
 terials other than plants and soils. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SAMPLES 
 
 Soil sarnples are prepared for determination of exchangeable alkali 
 and alkaline earth cations by extraction with ammonium acetate. 
 Separate soil samples are used for determination of pH, organic 
 matter content, and exchangeable hydrogen. A much larger sample 
 is used for determination of available and fixed strontium 90. 
 
 Spread the field sample (at least 10 pounds) of soil on heavy paper 
 and allow to dry until it can be crushed and sieved easily. Sieve the 
 5oil through a quarter-inch mesh screen. Mix before subsampling by 
 rolling on a large sheet of paper. Discard large roots, rocks, and 
 ather extraneous material after weighing. 
 
 Samples of plant materials should be dried for preservation and 
 aetter subsampling. Air-drying may be satisfacto^, but drying in 
 I forced-draft low-temperature oven (below 70° C.) is preferred. 
 A.ir-dried samples require a moisture determination and, in some 
 ^ses, certain parts of the plant will not dry in a reasonable time, 
 cutting thick plant parts such as petioles, stems, or roots into small 
 segments or slices will greatly increase their drying rate. Unless the 
 
 ^ ^ The preparation of this handbook was supiwrted in part by the U.S. Atomic 
 Energy Commission. 
 
 1 
 
2 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 entire sample is to be analyzed, the plant material must be finely 
 ground to facilitate proper subsampling. Also, the organic fraction 
 of the plant material is much easier to destroy if the sample is finely 
 divided. The grinding is usually done in a Wiley mill ^ or similar 
 apparatus, using a 30- or 40-mesh screen. 
 
 Plant materials are prepared for analysis by dry combustion. This 
 is recommended because large samples are usually required for de¬ 
 termination of strontium 90 and they are much easier and safer to 
 handle by dry combustion. The determination of alkali and alka¬ 
 line earth cations may be made on aliquot parts of the sample taken 
 after the ash has been dissolved. 
 
 Ammonium Acetate Extraction of Soil 
 
 Equipment 
 
 ( 1 ) Carboy—18 liters. 
 
 ( 2 ) Erlenmeyer flask—250 ml. 
 
 (3) Mechanical shaker. 
 
 (41 Suction flask —1 liter. 
 
 ^5) Buclmer funnel—No. 1 (5.6-cm. inside diameter). 
 
 ( 6 ) Filter paper—Whatman No. 42 or equivalent (5.5-cm. 
 diameter). 
 
 (7) Spatula. 
 
 ( 8 ) Beaker—400ml. 
 
 (9) Fluted watchglass. 
 
 ( 10 ) Hotplate. 
 
 ( 11 ) Volumetric flask —100 ml. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Neutral ammonium acetate (NH 4 OAC), 1 N: Mark the 
 carboy at the 18-liter level. Fill it three-fourths full with distilled 
 water. Add 1,037 ml. of concentrated acetic acid (HOAc) and 
 1,215 ml. of concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 OH). After 
 mixing and cooling this solution, measure the pH of a small aliquot. 
 If acid, return the aliquot to the carboy and add 5 to 10 ml. of con¬ 
 centrated ammonium hydroxide, mix thoroughly, and take the pH 
 reading again. Decrease the amount of ammonium hydroxide used 
 as the pH approaches 7. If the solution is basic, add small incre¬ 
 ments of concentrated acetic acid in place of ammonium hydroxide. 
 If the solution is only slightly basic, bubbling air through the solu¬ 
 tion for several hours usually lowers the pH to 7. Dilute to a volume 
 of 18 liters. 
 
 (2) Nitric acid (HNO3)—concentrated, reagent grade. 
 
 (3) Perchloric acid (HCIO4)—concentrated, reagent grade. 
 
 ( 4 ) Nitric acid, 0.1 N ; Dilute 114.5 ml. of concentrated nitric 
 acid and make up to 18 liters in a carboy with distilled water. 
 
 “ Trade names are used in this publication solely for the purpose of providing ^ 
 specific information. Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee 
 or warranty of the product by the U.S. Department of Agriculture or an endorse¬ 
 ment by the Department over other products not mentioned. 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 3 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Put 25 g. of the sieved sample into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask; add 
 100 ml. of 1 iV neutral ammonium acetate, stopper, and let stand over- 
 ni| 2 :ht. Larger amounts of soil should be extracted if the texture is 
 very sandy or if the soil is very acid. Increase the amount of soil 
 proportionately as the amount of extracting solution is increased. For 
 best results, mix the sample by frequent shaking, either by hand or in 
 a mechanical shaker. 
 
 Set in place a 1-liter suction flask and a Buchner funnel containing a 
 circle of Wliatman No. 42 filter paper, 5.5 cm. in diameter. Add a 
 small amount of water to the funnel and apply suction until the paper 
 is set. Do not allow the paper to become dry. Kapidly swirl the 
 soil and ammonium acetate mixture. Pour enough of this mixture 
 on the set filter paper to just cover the paper, allow to stand for a 
 few seconds, and then turn on the suction. When this solution has 
 been pulled through, add the rest of the suspension rapidly. If this 
 procedure is done carefully, the filtrate will be clear. If the filtrate 
 is cloudy, turn off the suction and pour the filtrate back in the funnel. 
 This inay have to be done several times with some soils. Mix the 
 remaining suspension in the flask and add to the Buchner funnel when 
 possible. Soil allowed to become dry may develop cracks and con¬ 
 sequently will not leach properly. If cracks develop, use a spatula 
 to close them before adding more liquid. 
 
 Rinse the Erlenmeyer flask with small amounts of ammonium ace¬ 
 tate and add the rinse to the Buchner funnel when no more liquid is 
 standing on the soil, but before it becomes dry. Continue rinsing un¬ 
 til 250 ml. of leachate is collected in the suction flask. Allow the soil 
 to drain well before stopping suction. 
 
 Pour the leachate into a 400-ml. beaker and rinse the suction flask 
 several times with distilled water, adding the rinses to the beaker. 
 Cover the beaker with a fluted watchglass. Evaporate the solution to 
 dryness on a hotplate. When the material is dry, add 20 ml. of con¬ 
 centrated nitric acid and 5 ml. of concentrated perchloric acid and 
 evaporate to dryness again. One acid treatment should destroy the 
 organic matter. If not, again add 10 ml. of concentrated nitric acid 
 and 2 ml. of concentrated perchloric acid and evaporate to dryness. 
 Wlien the beaker is cool, add about 50 ml. of 0.1 JV nitric acid, which 
 should dissolve most of the solids. Filter through Whatman No. 42 
 filter paper into a 100-ml. volumetric flask. Wash the beaker and 
 residue with small amounts of 0.1 N nitric acid until almost 100 ml. 
 of solution is collected in the volumetric flask. Make to volume with 
 distilled water and mix thoroughly. 
 
 Ashing of Plant Material 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Porcelain evaporating dish—No. 9 (265-mm. diameter). 
 
 (2) Electric muffle furnace, with automatic temperature control. 
 
 (3) Watchglass (12-inch diameter). 
 
 (4) Hotplate. 
 
 (5) Funnel—long stem (100-mm. outside diameter). 
 
4 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (6) Filter paper—Whatman No. 42 or equivalent (18.5-cm. 
 diameter). 
 
 (7) Volumetric flask—500 ml. 
 
 (8) Erlenmeyer flask—250 ml. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Hydrochloric acid (HCl)—concentrated, reagent grade. 
 
 (2) Hydrochloric acid, 1 N: Dilute 85 ml. of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid to a volume of 1 liter with distilled water. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Ash the plant material in an electric muffle furnace at 550° C. for 16 
 hours. _ Two hundred grams of plant material can conveniently be 
 ashed in a No. 9 porcelain evaporating dish. Tlie ash should be white 
 if oxidation of the organic material is complete. Gray or dark-colored 
 ash indicates incomplete oxidation. Remuffling after cooling and 
 aeration will oxidize the sample more completely. 
 
 Place a 12-inch watchglass on the porcelain dish, leaving a small 
 opening through which enough distilled water is added to moisten 
 the^ ash. Then add concentrated hydrochloric acid to cover the ash. 
 This procedure minimizes loss of ash caused by splattering. After the 
 reaction has subsided, rinse the material on the watchglass into the 
 porcelain dish. Place the uncovered dish on the hotplate and evapo¬ 
 rate carefully to dryness. Cool and dissolve the sample with several 
 hundred milliliters of 1 A hydrochloric acid. Filter through Wliat- 
 man No. 42 filter paper, using a long-stem funnel. Wash the dish and 
 undissolved material collected on the filter paper with additional 1 N 
 hydrochloric acid until a volume of 500 ml. is collected in the volumetric 
 flask. Discard the undissolved residue. 
 
 Put a 100-ml. sample from 500 ml. of the ash extract in a 250-ml. 
 Erlenmeyer flask. Keep for determination of alkali and alkaline 
 earth cations. The remaining 400 ml. is used for the determination of 
 strontium 90. 
 
 DETERMINATIONS ON AMMONIUM ACETATE EX¬ 
 TRACTS OF SOIL AND SOLUTIONS OF PLANT ASH 
 
 Calcium and Magnesium 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Pipets—1,5,15, and 20 ml. 
 
 (2) Beakers—250 ml. 
 
 (3) Microburet. 
 
 (4) Fluorescent lamp. 
 
 (5) Magnetic stirrer and stirring bar (optional). 
 
 (6) pH meter. 
 
 (7) Hydrion paper. 
 
 (8) Funnel—long stem (7.0-cm. outside diameter). 
 
 (9) Hotplate. 
 
 (10) Filter paper—MTiatman No. 42 or equivalent (5.5-cin. 
 diameter). 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 5 
 
 Reagents 
 
 ( 1 ) Standard calcium solution: Dissolve 0.5004 g. of special “low 
 magnesium” reagent grade calcium carbonate (CaCOs), dried at 
 150° C., in 5 ml. of approximately 6 N hydrocliloric acid (HCl) and 
 dilute to a volume of 1 liter. This solution is 0.005 molar. 
 
 ( 2 ) Buffer solution: Dissolve 67.5 g. of ammonium chloride 
 (NH 4 CI) in 200 ml. of distilled water, add 570 ml. of concentrated 
 ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 OH), and dilute the solution to a volume 
 of 1 liter with distilled water. 
 
 (3) Masking reagents (each of the following solutions must be 
 stored in separate containers) : 
 
 (a) Cyanide solution: Dissolve 1 g. of potassium cyanide 
 (KCN) in 100 ml. of distilled water. 
 
 (b) Hydroxylamine-hydrochloride solution: Dissolve 5 g. of 
 hydroxylamine-hydrocliloride (NHaOH-HCl) in 100 ml. of distilled 
 water. 
 
 (c) Potassium ferrocyanide solution: Dissolve 4 g. of reagent 
 grade potassium ferrocyanide (K 4 Fe(CN) 6 ‘ 3 H 20 ) in 100 ml. of 
 distilled water. 
 
 (d) Triethanolamine—reagent grade. 
 
 (4) Eriochrome Black T. indicator: Dissolve 0.2 g. of Eriochrome 
 Black T. (EBT) in 50 ml. of methanol. Prepare a fresh solution 
 every 3 weeks. 
 
 (5) Standard EDTA solution: Dissolve 1.8613 g. of disodium 
 ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) (molecular weight=372.254) in 
 distilled water and dilute the solution to a volume of 1 liter. This 
 solution is 0.005 molar. Its titer will change if stored in glass con¬ 
 tainers but not in polyethylene. 
 
 ( 6 ) Standard magnesium solution: Dissolve 0.1216 g. of reagent 
 grade magnesium turnings in dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute to 
 a volume of 1 liter. This solution is 0.005 molar. 
 
 (7) Calcon indicator: Dissolve 20 mg. of Calcon in 50 ml. of 
 methanol. Prepare a fresh solution weekly. 
 
 ( 8 ) Sodium hydroxide, 10 -percent solution: Dissolve 10 g. of 
 reagent grade sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in 100 ml. of distilled water. 
 
 (9) Sodium tungstate solution: Dissolve 20 g. of sodium tung¬ 
 state (Na 2 W 04 * 21120 ) in 100 ml. of distilled water. 
 
 Procedure (7, 2, 3, 4, 9) ^ 
 
 Standardization of EDTA .—Pipet 5-ml. aliquots of the standard 
 calcium solution into each of three 250-ml. beakers and bring the 
 volume to approximately 150 ml. with distilled water. Pipet 15 ml. of 
 buffer solution, 10 drops of each masking reagent, and 10 drops of EBT 
 indicator. Titrate the solution with EDTA, with stirring, to a perma¬ 
 nent blue, using a microburet under a fluorescent lamp. Although 
 stirring by hand is satisfactory, the use of a Teflon-coated magnetic 
 stirring bar activated by a magnetic stirring apparatus is much more 
 convenient. Repeat titration with three 5-ml. aliquots of standard 
 magnesium solution. This standard serves to check the validity of the 
 calcium titration. 
 
 * Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Literature Cited, p. 23. 
 771 - 799—65 - 2 
 
6 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 The EDTA should also be standardized, using Calcon as the indica¬ 
 tor. Pipet three 5-ml. aliquots of standard calcium solution into 
 three 250-ml. beakers and bring the volume to approximately 150 ml. 
 with distilled water. Add 10 drops of each masking reagent, then 
 pipet 1 ml. of 10-percent sodium hydroxide or an amount sufficient to 
 raise the pH to 12 or slightly higher. Check with a pH meter or 
 Hydrion paper. Add 5 drops of Calcon indicator and titrate from a 
 red to a permanent blue with EDTA under the same conditions as 
 above. All microburet readings should agree within 0.05 ml. 
 
 Titrate three blanks with each standardization. The EDTA 
 should be standardized every time a new set of samples is to be 
 titrated. This titration not only rechecks the standardization of the 
 EDTA but also indicates the presence of contamination in the micro¬ 
 buret, pipets, and beakers. 
 
 Calcium Plus Magnesium .—Place an aliquot containing 1 to 2 mg. 
 of calcium plus magnesium in a 250-ml. beaker and dilute to about 
 150 ml. with distilled water. Pipet 15 ml. of buffer solution and 10 
 drops of each masldng reagent. Allow a few minutes for the reactions 
 to take place, especially for the formation of manganese ferrocyanide. 
 Warming will speed this reaction. Add 10 drops of the EBT indi¬ 
 cator and titrate in the same manner and to the same color as when 
 the EDTA was standardized. 
 
 If the end point is difficult to obtain, probably too much phosphate 
 is present. (See comments.) To overcome this difficulty, use the 
 following procedure: To a new aliquot, add 10 drops of each masking 
 reagent as before. Add a known excess amount of the standardized 
 EDTxV. Experience will indicate the amount of EDTA necessary. 
 Bring the solution to the necessary pH value by adding 15 ml. of the 
 buffer solution. The pH of this smution should be 10. If there is 
 any doubt because of high salt or acid content in the original aliquot, 
 check with the pH meter and add more buffer to bring to pH 10. Heat 
 the solution on a hotplate to near boiling for several minutes to speed 
 up the reaction, cool, add 10 drops of EBT indicator, and titrate from 
 a blue to a permanent red with the standard calcium solution. 
 
 Calcium .—Place an aliquot containing 1 to 2 mg. of calcium in a 
 250-ml. beaker and dilute to a volume of about 150 ml. with distilled 
 water. Add 10_ drops of each masking reagent and enough 10-percent 
 sodium hydroxide (usually about 1 ml.) to raise the pH to 12 or 
 slightly higher. Check with a pH meter or Hydrion paper. Add 5 
 drops of Calcon indicator and titrate the solution from red to blue 
 with standardized EDTA. 
 
 If the end point is difficult to obtain because of the presence of 
 phosphate, to a new sample add the masking reagents and a known 
 but an excess amount of EDTA. Bring the pH up slowly to 12 with 
 10-percent sodium hydroxide. Then heat the solution to near boiling 
 for several minutes, cool it, add 5 drops of Calcon indicator, and 
 titrate the solution from blue to red with a standard calcium solution. 
 
 Magnesium .—Place an aliquot containing 2 to 4 mg. of magnesium 
 in a 250-ml. beaker and add enough distilled water to make a total 
 volume of about 100 ml. Pipet 20 ml. each of the buffer solution 
 and sodium tungstate solution. Check with a pH meter and add more 
 buffer solution to bring to pH 10. Heat the beaker and contents for 
 1 hour without boiling, cool, and filter the contents through IVhatman 
 No. 42 filter paper. Wash the paper and precipitate with a solution 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 7 
 
 containing 50 ml. of buffer solution per liter. Add 10 drops of each 
 masking reagent. Allow a few minutes for the reactions to take place. 
 Add 10 drops of the EBT indicator and titrate from a red to a per¬ 
 manent blue. Heating slightly will speed the magnesium end point. 
 
 Calculation of Results .—If the EDTA solution has been carefully 
 prepared from a pure material, the following relationships are true: 
 Each milliliter of EDTA is equivalent to 0.005 mM of cation whether 
 the cation is calcium, magnesium, or the sum of the two. Also, each 
 milliliter of EDTA is equivalent to 0.2004 mg. of calcium or calcium 
 plus magnesium expressed as calcium, or 0.1216 mg. of magnesium or 
 calcium plus magnesium expressed as magnesium. 
 
 Since the commercial form of EDTA may contain varying amounts 
 of adsorbed water and other impurities, the following ^nations are 
 used to calculate the millimoles of calcium plus magnesium, calcium, 
 or magnesium in the bulk sample, depending on the conditions under 
 which the titration was made. 
 
 Standardization of EDTA: 
 
 (Millimoles of standard cation used in titration) 
 
 (Milliliters of EDTAstandard —^milliliters of EDTAbiank) 
 
 =concentration of EDTA in terms of millimoles per milliliters 
 
 Evaluation of sample: 
 
 Concentration of standardized EDTAX (milliliters of EDTAgampie— 
 milliliters of EDTAbiank) Xaliquoting factor=millimoles of cation 
 in total sample 
 
 If an excess of EDTA was added to overcome phosphate inter¬ 
 ferences, these equations are used to obtain the total millimoles of 
 cation in the sample. From this value subtract the number of milli¬ 
 moles of standard calcium used in the back titration, giving the milli¬ 
 moles of cation originally in the aliquot taken. 
 
 The usual procedure is to obtain the millimoles of calcium plus 
 magnesium and then determine the millimoles of either calcium or 
 magnesium. The millimoles of the other cation are obtained by 
 subtraction. 
 
 Comments 
 
 The nature of the material may make some modifications necessary. 
 The amounts of reagents used are sufficient for most conditions that 
 may be encountered. However, in the presence of large amounts of 
 iron or aluminum, more masking reagents may be required. It may 
 be even necessary to remove a large excess of iron or aluminum by the 
 classical hydroxide precipitation. When abnormally large amounts 
 of phosphate are present, a separation or removal of phosphate is rec¬ 
 ommended before the titration. Increasing or decreasing the amount 
 of indicator may help some workers to see the end point better. 
 
 As little as 10 p'.p.m. of phosphate will interfere with the calcium 
 titration. This concentration is rarely found in soil extracts, but it 
 will be commonly found in plant tissue digests, particularly from seeds. 
 
8 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 The stability constant of calcium phosphate is less than that of calcium- 
 versenate; therefore, EDTA will dissolve calcium phosphate, but the 
 process is slow. In the procedure p-enerally used, calcium phosphate 
 IS formed before sufficient EDTA has been added. In the titration 
 then a permanent blue, which indicates the end point, cannot be main¬ 
 tained while calcium phosphate is dissolving. This makes the titra¬ 
 tion impractical. 
 
 In some rare instances the magnesium concentration may be as large 
 or larger than the calcium concentration, causing a poorly defined 
 color change at the end point when titrating calcium alone. In this 
 case, the calcium indicator is adsorbed on the magnesium hydroxide 
 particles, making the color change many shaded and difficult to see. 
 A protective colloid such as Carbocel may be added to prevent the ad¬ 
 sorption of the dye { 10 ). It has also been found that if most of the 
 EDTA is added before the pH is raised, the color change at the end 
 point is sharp and easily seen (7). 
 
 The amounts of extractable or total barium or strontium in some 
 soils may be large enough to interfere. Although calcium may be sep¬ 
 arated from barium and strontium, the procedures are difficult. Both 
 barium and strontium form EDTA complexes of low stability; there¬ 
 fore, unless their concentrations approach that of calcium, the degree 
 of interference will be small. 
 
 Strontium by Flame Photometry 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Equipment necessary for determining calcium. 
 
 (2) Pipets—5 and 10 ml., graduated, blowout type. 
 
 (3) Centrifuge tubes—40 ml., heavy duty. 
 
 (4) Water bath—2-liter beaker, with metal cover punched out 
 to support centrifuge tubes. 
 
 (5) Centrifuge. 
 
 (6) Electric muffie furnace, with automatic temperature control. 
 
 (7) Fritted glass filter assembly; From a 15-ml., 20-mm. di¬ 
 ameter, coarse porosity filter funnel (Corning, type 36060), remove 
 the part above the glass frit with a glass saw and grind level the re¬ 
 maining frit. Cut a 5-cm. chimney from a length of glass tubing (18- 
 mm. inner diameter) and grind one end level. Mount the filter funnel 
 in a suction apparatus, place a filter pad on the fritted glass, and center 
 the ground end of the chimney carefully over the fritted glass. During 
 filtration, the assembly is held tightly together by means of rubber- 
 bands and wire hooks. 
 
 (8) Suction apparatus—Nylab filter bell. 
 
 (9) Filter paper—glass-fiber or conventional paper (2.1-cm. 
 diameter). 
 
 (10) Flame photometer—D.U. Beckman model, with photo¬ 
 multiplier attachment and hydrogen-oxygen burner assembly. 
 
 (11) Beakers—5 ml. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Strontium standard solutions: A series containing 0, 0.5,1.0, 
 2.0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 p.p.m. of strontium and 500 p.p.m. of calcium 
 is made up in 0. 1 A hydrochloric acid. A stock solution of strontium 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 9 
 
 chloride should be standardized by gravimetric determination of 
 strontium sulfate. Standard calcium solution, as prepared for the 
 determination of calcium (p. 4), may be used to make this series of 
 strontium standards. 
 
 (2) Reagents necessa^ for determining calcium (p. 4). 
 
 (3) Hydrochloric acid, approximately 6 N: Dilute 500 ml. of 
 concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) to a volume of 1 liter with dis¬ 
 tilled water. 
 
 (4) Oxalic acid, 5 percent: Dissolve 100 g. of oxalic acid 
 (H 2 C 2 O 4 ) in 2 liters of distilled water. 
 
 (5) Indicator solution: Phenol red, 0.1 percent in 1 :1 ethyl al¬ 
 cohol : Dissolve 0.1 g. of phenol red in 100 ml. of a solution containing 
 52 ml. of ethyl alcohol and 48 ml. of water. Methylene blue, 0.2 per¬ 
 cent : Dissolve 20 mg. of methylene blue in 100 ml. of water. Mix these 
 two solutions at a rate of one part of phenol red and two parts of 
 methylene blue. 
 
 ( 6 ) Ammonium hydroxide: Dilute 250 ml. of concentrated am¬ 
 monium hydroxide (NH 4 OH) to a volume of 1 liter with distilled 
 water. 
 
 (7) Washing solution: To make 1 liter, mix the following in¬ 
 gredients in the proportions given: 20 ml. of concentrated ammonium 
 hydroxide, 326 ml. of distilled water, 326 ml. of ether, and 326 ml. of 
 ethyl alcohol. 
 
 (8) Hydrochloric acid, 0.1 N: Dilute 17.2 ml. of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid to a volume of 2 liters with distilled water. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 The strontium determination is made on a solution containing 500 
 p.p.m. of calcium, which for convenience should have a volume of 
 about 15 ml. From the following calculations the number of milliliters 
 of soil or plant extract (see Preparation of Samples) needed is 
 obtained. 
 
 (1) If milliequivalents of calcium per 100 g. of soil is known, 
 
 (milliequivalents of calcium per 100 g. of soil) ^ 
 
 4 
 
 = milligrams per 100 ml. 
 (milligrams per 100 ml.) X10=parts per million 
 500X15 
 
 Therefore, 
 
 (parts per million) 
 
 =number of milliliters needed. 
 
 150 
 
 aliquot. 
 
 (milliequivalents of calcium per 100 g. of soil) 
 
 (2) If parts per million of calcium in the extract is known, 
 
 _ 7,500 _,. , 
 
 (parts per million of calcium) ^ ‘ 
 
 For convenience, take the aliquot to the nearest 0.5 ml. and adjust the 
 final volume to contain 500 p.p.m. 
 
10 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 288, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Pipet the calculated aliquot into a 40-ml. centrifuge tube and 
 dilute to about 20 ml. with distilled water. Add 1 ml. of 6 A hydro¬ 
 chloric acid and 2 ml. of 5-percent oxalic acid and place in a gently 
 boiling Avater bath. Remove the tube from the bath after its contents 
 have reached about 90° C. (equilibrium with boiling water bath) and 
 add 5 drops of the mixed indicator solution. Add ammonium hydrox¬ 
 ide dropwise, mixing continually with a swirling motion until the 
 solution just changes from a green to a blue. Calcium oxalate should 
 start precipitating shortly after the hydroxide is added. Replace the 
 tube in the boiling water bath for 30 minutes. The addition of small 
 amounts of ammonium hydroxide may be necessary from time to time 
 to keep the suspension slightly basic (just blue). Cool the tube and 
 suspension and centrifuge for 20 minutes at about 1,500 r.p.m. 
 
 Decant the supernate carefully and lay the tube on a slant for 
 10 minutes to facilitate drainage. Wipe the lip of the tube with a 
 tissue to remove the last drops and suspend the oxalate precipitate by 
 stirring with a jet of 5 ml. of washing solution. Centrifuge, decant, 
 and drain once again. 
 
 Allow the precipitate to air-dry overnight. Heat the samples at 
 least 1 hour at 525° C. in a muffle furnace. At this temperature cal¬ 
 cium and strontium oxalate are converted to carbonates, also any iron 
 or aluminum present is converted to the dehydrated oxides. Wlien the 
 samples are cool, dissolve the precipitate in 0.1 N hydrochloric acid. 
 The number of milliliters of hydrochloric acid necessary is calculated 
 to the nearest 0.01 ml. as follows: 
 
 (Parts per million of calcium in original sample) 
 
 500 
 
 X aliquot=milliliters 
 
 of 0.1 A hydrochloric acid required 
 
 If iron, manganese, and aluminum were present in the original sam¬ 
 ple in any appreciable amounts, they will appear as precipitates in the 
 sample and must be removed. The precipitates are easily removed by 
 filtering. The removal is essentially quantitative if done shortly after 
 the carbonate sample is dissolved. A fritted glass filter assembly with 
 suction apparatus is convenient, in that the assembly may be rapidly 
 washed with acid and dried with ether or alcohol between samples. 
 Tlie actual filtering surface may be either glass-fiber or conventional 
 filter paper. Glass-fiber paper has the advantage of retaining little 
 of the liquid fraction. 
 
 If the filtered sample is cloudy or colored, the sample should be 
 refiltered or dried and muffled. When a clear solution is obtained, 
 determine the calcium as previously described. If the initial titration 
 or estimation of calcium, pipeting, and precipitation procedure were 
 done properly, the calcium concentration should be 500 p.p.m. If the 
 present titration is not within 20 p.p.m. of 500 p.p.m., the sample must 
 be concentrated or diluted. 
 
 A D.U. Beckman photometer is used to estimate strontium in a hy- 
 drogen-oxvgen flame. Allow at least a 30-minute warming-up perioil 
 with the selector switch at check. Set the oxygen pressure at 10 p.s.i. 
 and the hydrogen pressure at 3 p.s.i., with the control associated with 
 the instrument, and light the flame. For stability of the pressures, it 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 11 
 
 is best to have at least 20-p.s.i. pressure showing on the low-pressure 
 gages of the oxygen and hydrogen tanks. Use full photomultiplica- 
 tion and set the switch accordingly. The blue tube is set into position 
 according to the instructions furnished by the manufacturer. Always 
 ke^ the galvanometer at zero with the dark current control. 
 
 The following settings are made initially; Wavelength dial to 
 460.7 irifi, slit width at 0.03 mm., transmittance reading at 100, and 
 sensitivity control at midpoint. Aspirate several 5-ml. beakers full 
 of water. Place a 5-mL beaker of the most concentrated standard 
 solution in position to be aspirated. Open the shutter and move the 
 wavelength dial slightly. A deflection of the galvanometer needle 
 to the left indicates that the original wavelength setting was wrong. 
 Adjust until a very slight turn of the dial in either direction results 
 in the galvanometer needle deflecting to the right. Close the shutter 
 after each reading and check the dark current setting. 
 
 Produce a standard curve as follows: Set the transmittance dial at 
 100 and aspirate the most concentrated standard. Zero the galva¬ 
 nometer needle with the dark current control, open the shutter, and 
 zero the needle with the sensitivity control. Close the shutter, remove 
 the sample, and rinse the burner with distilled water for a few sec¬ 
 onds. Put the next most concentrated standard solution in position. 
 Make the reading by moving the transmittance dial until the galva¬ 
 nometer needle is at zero. Keset the instrument at 100-percent trans¬ 
 mission with the most concentrated standard solution before each 
 new reading is made. Obtain transmittance readings for standards 
 by this process. Plot the transmittance reading against the concen¬ 
 tration of the standard and calculate the equation of the line. 
 
 Pour the unknown into a 5-ml. beaker and aspirate through the 
 burner assembly for a few seconds. Discard the remainder, refill 
 the beaker, and replace under the flame. Obtain the reading by 
 turning the transmittance dial until the galvanometer needle is at 
 zero. After every six to eight determinations of unknown samples, 
 adjust the instrument with a standard sample in the range of the 
 unknowns. 
 
 Comments 
 
 Adjustments to be made and precautions to be taken before and 
 during every determination: 
 
 (1) Oxygen pressure, 10 p.s.i. 
 
 (2) Hydrogen pressure, 3 p.s.i. A change in pressure, as indi¬ 
 cated by the width of the hydrogen pressure gage needle, is sufficient 
 to give incorrect measurements. 
 
 (3) Dark current must be zero before and after each measurement. 
 If not, measure again. 
 
 (4) Any yellowish tint to the flame usually indicates the presence 
 of sodium. 
 
 Possible factors contributing to incorrect results are as follows: 
 
 (1) Phototube positioning switch not completely in or out. 
 
 (2) Plugged burner is usually indicated by aspiration continuing 
 a short time after the solution is removed from the siphon tube. Also, 
 the measurements are approximately the same value. Unplug the 
 burner as follows: Turn off the hydrogen, leaving the oxygen on. 
 Carefully push a wire (found with instrument) up the siphon tube; 
 
12 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 never start from the top. If this does not solve the problem, the 
 burner assembly may need repair and should be returned to the 
 manufacturer. 
 
 (3) Slit width may have been accidentally changed. 
 
 Strontium by X-ray Fluorescence Emission Spectrometry 
 
 Equipment 
 
 1 1 ) Mortar (agate) and pestle. 
 
 2 ) Pipet— 1 ml. 
 
 3) Glass stirring rod. 
 
 4) Spatula. 
 
 5) Sample holder: Modified so that an aluminum alloy frame, 
 0.05 inch thick, can be slid into the holder and supported along the 
 edges only. The center of the frame is cut out to match the open¬ 
 ing in the holder. The bottom side of the frame is covered with 
 0.00025-inch Mylar film stretched tight and cemented to the frame 
 with rubber cement. The irradiation beam is carefully centered so 
 that no part of the holder or frame is irradiated. 
 
 ( 6 ) Microscope slide. 
 
 (7) Philips Norelco X-ray spectrograph, with FA-60 tungsten 
 X-ray tube. The X-ray beam excites secondary X-rays from the 
 sample. These are collimated to an analyzing crystal, then to a scin¬ 
 tillation detector with linear amplifier and fast scaler. The X-ray 
 tube is operated at 50 kv. and 40 ma. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 ( 1 ) Strontium standard solutions: From a stock solution (see 
 reagents for Strontium by Flame Photometry) prepare dilutions 
 containing 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, and 200 fig. of strontium per 
 milliliter of solution. 
 
 (2) Ethyl alcohol (C 2 H 5 OH)—95 percent. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Ash 100 g. of plant material, as described under Preparation of 
 Samples. Record the weight of the ash and transfer the ash to an 
 a^ate mortar, grind with a pestle, and mix to obtain a homogeneous 
 mixture. 
 
 Prepare standard samples in an identical manner, except pipet 1 ml. 
 of standard strontium solution (e.g., 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 150, and 
 200 fig. of strontium) into a mortar containing a slurry of 1 g. of ash 
 and 20 ml. of 95-percent ethyl alcohol. Mix the slurry thoroughly 
 with a glass stirring rod, dry overnight at 70° C., and mix thoroughly 
 with mortar and pestle to obtain a homogeneous fine powder. 
 
 Transfer the powdered ash with a spatula to the aluminum alloy 
 frame, backed with Mylar film, of the sample holder, level off with 
 the edge of a glass microscope slide, and smooth with the flat side of 
 the microscope slide to give a uniform surface for reflectance. About 
 one-half gram of ash is required to fill the frame. It is not necessary 
 to weigh definite amounts of the sample, nor is it desirable to pack the 
 sample into the frame. 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 13 
 
 Place the filled frame in the sample irradiation chamber of the 
 spectrograph. Scan the first sample of a series by setting the goni¬ 
 ometer to run automatically over the desired range (about 20° or 30° 
 2 ^) in order to obtain a picture of the area for a background and thus 
 avoid choosing an angle for background with interference from other 
 lines, up to the fifth order. The strontium Ka line appears at 25.15° 
 20, whereas the position of 25.90° is usually used for a background 
 reading. 
 
 For quantitative analysis, use the peak-to-background ratio (P/B) 
 of intensities as a measure of the strontium concentration. Obtain this 
 ratio by setting the goniometer at 25.15° and recording the time nec¬ 
 essary to measure 51,200 counts, then setting the goniometer at the 
 background position (25.90°) and recording the time required for 
 51,200 counts. Convert the recorded times to counts per second, and 
 calculate the ratio of the counts per second at the strontium peak to 
 the counts per second at the background position. 
 
 Prepare a standard curve from measurements of the P/B in samples 
 with added strontium. On the scan that was made, draw a straight 
 line connecting the background on one side of the strontium peak to 
 the background on the other side. Usually the background directly 
 under the peak (25.15°) is higher than the one measured at 25.90°. 
 This difference must be accounted for in determining the unknown 
 amount of strontium originally present in the standard samples. The 
 ratio of the count rate of the background at 25.15° to the count rate at 
 25.90° is called B/B. Subtract it from the P/B for the samples with 
 added strontium. Then plot the net P/B versus the added strontium. 
 Draw a straight line through the points and extrapolate to the nega¬ 
 tive X axis, which has the same scale as the positive X axis. This 
 intercept gives the micrograms of strontium originally present. 
 
 Make a standard curve of the observed P/B to the total strontium 
 (original plus added). Determine the strontium content of the un- 
 Imown samples from their measured P/B in terms of micrograms of 
 strontium per gram of ash. Multiply this by the weight of the ash 
 and divide by the weight of the plant material to obtain the micro¬ 
 grams of strontium per gram of plant material. 
 
 The sensitivity for strontium is estimated to be between 2 and 3 
 p.p.m., and the error is estimated to be about plus or minus 8 percent. 
 
 Sodium and Potassium 
 
 Equipment 
 
 Flame photometer—D.U. Beckman model, with photomultiplier 
 attachment and hydrogen-oxygen burner assembly. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Sodium standard solutions: Dissolve 2.542 g. of oven-dry 
 reagent grade sodium chloride (NaCl) in distilled water and dilute 
 to a volume of 1 liter. This stock solution contains 1,000 p.p.m. of 
 sodium. Dilute appropriate volumes of stock solution with distilled 
 water to prepare a series of solutions containing 0,1, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, 
 30,40, and 50 p.p.m. of sodium. 
 
14 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (2) Potassium standard solutions: Dissolve 1.907 g. of oven-dry 
 reagent grade potassium chloride (KCl) in distilled water and dilute 
 to a volume of 1 liter. This stock solution contains 1,000 p.p.m. of 
 potassium. Dilute appropriate volumes of stock solution with distilled 
 water to prepare a series of solutions containing 0, 1, 2.5, 5, 10, 15, 20, 
 30,40, and 50 p.p.m. of potassium. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Sodium and potassium may be estimated by using the red or blue 
 phototube. The settings for each tube are given in table 1. 
 
 Table 1. —Settings for red and blue 'phototubes for estimating sodium 
 
 and potassium 
 
 Item 
 
 Red phototube 
 
 Blue phototube 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Potassium 
 
 Wavelength_____m/x-- 
 
 Slit width___mm__ 
 
 Photomultiplier setting_ 
 
 587 
 
 15 
 
 Off 
 
 3 
 
 767 
 
 0. 04 
 Off 
 
 3 
 
 587 
 
 0. 02 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 767 
 
 0. 05 
 Full 
 
 2 
 
 Resistor switch position__ 
 
 In all cases oxygen pressure is 10 p.s.i. and hydrogen pressure is 
 Sp.s.i. 
 
 In the U.S. Soils Laboratory the blue phototube is used and all 
 procedures are the same as for strontium, except the settings given 
 here. 
 
 DETERMINATIONS ON SEPARATE SAMPLES 
 
 pH of Soil 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Beaker—50 ml. 
 
 (2) pH meter. 
 
 (3) Glass stirring rod. 
 
 Procedure (8) 
 
 To a 20-g. sample of soil in a 50-ml. beaker, add 20 ml. of distilled 
 water and stir the suspension several times at regular intervals for 
 about an liour.^ Measure the pH of the soil suspension with the glass 
 electrode, stirring well just prior to immersing the electrode deep into 
 the suspension. 
 
 Comments 
 
 Soil-water ratios ranging from 1: 0.5 to 1:10 have been proposed for 
 the determination of the pH of soils. The pH of most soils increases 
 with dilution, usually attaining approximately a constant value at 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 15 
 
 1:5. There is little justification for using soil-water ratios wider 
 than 1:1. The pll measurements of soils at a moisture content below 
 that of the moisture equivalent are subject to several inherent errors 
 and also make mandatory the use of a special glass electrode and pH 
 meter. 
 
 Organic Matter Content of Soil 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Erlenmeyer flask—500 ml. 
 
 (2) Burets—50- and 100-ml. dispensing burets for acid. 
 
 (3) Pipet—automatic 10 ml. 
 
 (4) Asbestos. 
 
 (5) Dropping bottle. 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Potassium dichromate, 1 N : Dissolve 49.04 g. of reagent grade 
 potassium dichromate (K 2 Cr 207 ) in water and dilute to a volume of 
 1 liter. 
 
 ( 2 ) Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 )—not less than 96 percent. 
 
 (3) Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)—85 percent, U.S.P. grade. 
 
 (4) Barium diphenylaminesulfonate indicator: Prepare a 0.16- 
 percent aqueous solution. 
 
 (5) Ferrous sulfate, 0.5 N: Dissolve 140 g. of reagent grade fer¬ 
 rous sulfate (FeS04-7H20) in water, add 40 ml. of concentrated sul¬ 
 furic acid (H2SO4), cool, and dilute to a volume of 1 liter. Standard¬ 
 ize this reagent each day by titrating against 10 ml. of 1 A potassium 
 dichromate, as given under Procedure. 
 
 Procedure (8) 
 
 Transfer a weighed quantity of soil (ground to pass a 0.5-mm. 
 sieve), containing 10 to 25 mg. of organic carbon into a 500-ml. Erlen¬ 
 meyer flask, and add 10 ml. of 1 A potassium dichromate. Then add 
 rapidly 20 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid from the 100-ml. dispens¬ 
 ing buret, directing the stream into the solution. Immediately swirl 
 vigorously by hand for 1 minute and let the flask stand on a sheet of 
 asbestos tor about 30 minutes. Then add 200 ml. of water, 10 ml. 
 of phosphoric acid from the 50-ml. dispensing buret, and 10 drops of 
 barium diphenylaminesulfonate indicator. 
 
 Proceed with the titration as follows: Add the ferrous sulfate until 
 the solution is purple or blue, then add the ferrous sulfate in small 
 amounts of about 0.5 ml. until the color flashes to green with little or 
 no warning. Add 0.5 ml. of 1 A potassium dichromate to restore an 
 Bxcess of dichromate, and complete the titration by adding ferrous 
 sulfate drop by drop to a light-green end point. If more than 8 ml. 
 of the available 10 ml. of potassium dichromate is reduced, the deter¬ 
 mination should be repeated with less soil. 
 
 Percentage of organic matter in soil sample= 
 
 (milliliters of 1 A potassium dichromate (reduced )) y Q 
 
 (grams of sample) 
 
16 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Comments 
 
 Tlie estimation of soil organic matter based on the use of the con¬ 
 ventional empirical factor for converting organic carbon to organic 
 matter may be subject to considerable error, even when the organic 
 carbon is determined accurately by the more tedious dry-combustion 
 method. For this reason, the more rapid chromic acid-titration 
 method is now widely used. Despite its simplicity, it has been shown 
 to give results that agree closely with those obtained by the dry- 
 combustion method when applied to a wide variety of soils. 
 
 In this method the soil is digested with a mixture of chromic and 
 sulfuric acids making use of the heat of dilution of sulfuric acid. 
 Consequently, it is necessary to add the sulfuric acid rapidly and to 
 cool the flasks unifonnly on a sheet of asbestos. The unpublished 
 results of M. Peech indicate that the volume of the potassium dichro¬ 
 mate solution and the concentrated sulfuric acid may be reduced to 
 half that specified in the procedure without significantly affecting the 
 results, provided, of course, that the size of the soil sample is propor¬ 
 tionately reduced. 
 
 The color change of the optional D-phenanthroline indicator occurs 
 at a much higher oxidation-reduction potential, and this indicator is 
 theoretically superior to diphenylamine. With certain soils, however, 
 the color change of diphenylamine is more easily observed than that 
 of <9-phenanthroline; hence, both indictors are recommended. The 
 aqueous solution of barium diphenylaminesulfonate indicator is 
 much more stable than that prepared by dissolving diphenylamine in 
 concentrated sulfuric acid. 
 
 Nitrates interfere only if present in quantities in excess of 5 percent 
 of the carbon content. Carbonates, even when they constitute 50 
 percent of the soil, do not affect the results. Since elemental carbon, 
 as charcoal or coal, is practically unattacked in this method, this 
 source of error is eliminated. Interference due to significant quan¬ 
 tities of chlorides can be overcome by adding silver sulfate to the 
 plfuric acid, or a correction can be made if the quantity of chlorides 
 is known. When chlorides are present in quantities less than the 
 niolecular equivalent of carbon, 1.25 g. of silver sulfate should be 
 dissolved in each 100 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid. 
 
 Exchangeable Hydrogen 
 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Erlenmeyer flasks—125 and 250 ml. 
 
 (2) Gooch-type filter funnel—15 ml., 2-cm. diameter, coarse 
 porosity (Corning, type 36060). 
 
 (3) Filter paper—glass-fiber or conventional paper (2.1-cm. 
 diameter). 
 
 Reagents 
 
 (1) Buffer solution: Barium chloride (BaCl2’2H20), 0.5 N. 
 and triethanolamine, 0.2 N: Dilute 100 ml. of commercial triethanol¬ 
 amine (specific gravity 1.126, about 8 N) with 1,000 ml. of distilled 
 water and partially neutralize with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 17 
 
 adjust to pH 8.1-8.2 (this requires approximately 360 ml. oi 1 N 
 hydrochloric acid). Make up to a volume of 2 liters with water and 
 mix with 2 liters of a solution containing 250 g. of barium chloride. 
 Protect from the carbon dioxide of the air. 
 
 (2) Eeplacement solution: Barium chloride: Dissolve 250 g. of 
 barium chloride in 4 liters of distilled water, add 10 ml. of buffer 
 solution, and mix. 
 
 (3) Sodium hydroxide, 0.01 N: This solution need only be ap¬ 
 proximate. Weigh 0.4 g. of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and dissolve 
 in 1 liter of distilled water. 
 
 (4) Bromcresol green, 0.04 percent: Triturate 0.1 g. of the indi¬ 
 cator with 14.3 ml. of 0.01 N sodium hydroxide and dilute the mixture 
 to a volume of 250 ml. with distilled water. 
 
 (5) Methyl red, 0.02 percent: Triturate 0.04 g. of the indicator 
 with 1.5 ml. of 0.01 N sodium hydroxide and dilute to a volume of 
 200 ml. with distilled water. 
 
 (6) Standard hydrochloric acid, 0.10 N: Dilute 8.35 ml. of con¬ 
 centrated hydrochloric acid to a volume of 1 liter with distilled water. 
 Standardize this solution against a standard base by accepted 
 procedures. 
 
 Procedure (8) 
 
 Place 10 g. of soil in a 125-ml. Erlenmeyer flask, add 25 ml. of buffer 
 solution, and allow the flask to stand for one-half hour, mixing the 
 contents occasionally by swirling. Transfer to a Gooch-type filter 
 funnel containing a moist filter paper disk and filter into a 250-ml. 
 Erlenmeyer flask. Use an additional 25 ml. of buffer solution to 
 aid in the transfer of all the soil to the funnel. Leach the soil with 
 100 ml. of the replacement solution by adding small increments. This 
 filtration and leaching should not be completed in less than 30 
 minutes. 
 
 To the leachate, add 10 drops of bromcresol green and 2 drops of 
 methyl red. Titrate with 0.10 N hydrochloric acid. The end point 
 can be chosen as any point during the progressive color change from 
 a bluish green through violet to pink. This end point should be 
 checked against a blank containuig 50 ml. of buffer solution and 100 
 ml. of replacement solution and titrated to the same end point with the 
 0.10 N hydrochloric acid. This end point should be reached when 
 titrating the soil extracts. All calculations are made with this blank 
 determination as a reference. 
 
 Available and Fixed Strontium 90 in Soils 
 Equipment 
 
 (1) Erlenmeyer flask—2 liters. 
 
 (2) Buchner funnels (6- and 8-inch diameter). 
 
 (3) Filter paper—Whatman No. 42 or equivalent. 
 
 (4) Suction flasks—1 and 2 liters. 
 
 (5) Beakers—150 and 800 ml., 2 and 3 liters. 
 
 (6) Hotplate. 
 
 (7) Funnel—long stem (9-cm. diameter). 
 
18 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 8, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 A 
 
 Fiquee 1.— Assembly of sample holder. 
 
 (8) Platinum evaporating dish—50 ml. 
 
 (9) Electric muffle furnace, with automatic temperature control. 
 
 (10) Mortar and pestle. 
 
 (11) Glass stirring rod. 
 
 (12) Indicator paper. 
 pH meter. 
 
 (14) Ice bath—crushed ice in water. 
 
 (15) Mechanical stirrer. 
 
 (16) Glass wash bottle. 
 
 (17) Fritted glass filter assembly (see equipment for Strontium 
 by Flame Photometry). 
 
 (18) Glass-fiber filter pad—2.1 cm. 
 
 (19) Sample holder (see fig. 1) : Machine an aluminum disk 
 38 mm. in diameter and 4 mm. thick so that it has a 3-mm. well (wall 
 thickness 3 mm.) and a hole in the center of the well 23 mm. in diam¬ 
 eter (F). Make an aluminum ring (B) approximately 32-mm. outer 
 diameter, 29-mm. inner diameter, and 3 mm. high so that it fits loosely 
 in the well. Use a steel disk (D) 28 mm. in diameter and 3 mm. thick 
 as backing for the sample. Assemble the parts as follows: Glue the 
 Saran film (A) to the aluminum ring (B). Center the 2.1-cm. glass- 
 fiber filter pad (C), on which the sample has been collected, on the 
 steel disk (D). Place the aluminum ring (B) over the steel disk (D) 
 so that the Saran film holds and protects the sample. Invert the ring 
 (B) and the disk (D) and cover with the Saran film (E). Place the 
 well of the machinecl aluminum disk (F) over the Saran film (E) 
 and press down so that all other parts fit into the well. Trim any 
 excess Saran film (E) with a sharp knife. The exact size of the' 
 sample holder may be varied to fit the automatic sample-changing 
 equipment. The sample is then ready to count. 
 
 (20) Low-background G.M. counting equipment. 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 19 
 
 Reagents 
 
 ( 1 ) Strontium nitrate, 2 N: Dissolve 3,810 g. of strontium ni¬ 
 trate (Sr(N 03 ) 2 ) in distilled %Yater and dilute to a volume of 18 
 liters with distilled water. 
 
 ( 2 ) Hydrochloric acid: For 6, 2, 1 , and 0.2 N, dilute 9 and 3 
 liters and 1,500 and 42 ml., respectively, of concentrated hydrochloric 
 acid (HCl), each one to a volume of i 8 liters with distilled water. 
 
 (3) Nitric acid (HNO 3 ) —concentrated, reagent grade. 
 
 (4) Yttrium carrier: Dissolve 4 g. of yttrium oxide (Y 2 O 3 ) in 
 5 ml. of concentrated nitric acid. After the reaction is complete, di¬ 
 lute to a volume of 200 ml. Check the radioactive purity of this 
 reagent. xVdd 1 ml. of reagent solution to 200 ml. of distilled water, 
 add 5 ml. of concentrated nitric acid, allow to stand for 14 days, and 
 milk as given under Procedure. If contaminated, the yttrium ni¬ 
 trate solution can be purified by following the procedures used in 
 the Health and Safety Laboratory (6). 
 
 (5) Sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) —concentrated, reagent grade. 
 
 (6) Sodium carbonate (Na 2 C 03 )—reagent grade. 
 
 (7) Ammonium hydroxide, 4 N: Dilute 670 ml. of concentrated 
 ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 OH) to a volume of 2,500 ml. with dis¬ 
 tilled water. Ammonium hydroxide, 1 percent: Dilute 180 ml. of 
 concentrated ammonium hydroxide to a volume of 18 liters with 
 distilled water. 
 
 ( 8 ) Acetic acid, glacial (HOAc). 
 
 (9) Sodium dichromate, 1 M: Dissolve 298 g. of sodium dichro¬ 
 mate (Na 2 Cr 207 - 2 H 20 ) in water and dilute to a volume of 1 liter. 
 
 ( 10 ) Barium chloride, 0.5 M: Dissolve 61 g. of barium chloride 
 (BaCl 2 ' 2 H 20 ) in water and dilute to a volume of 500 ml. 
 
 ( 11 ) Potassium cyanate (KCNO)—reagent grade. 
 
 ( 12 ) Ammonium oxalate: Add approximately 50 g. of ammo¬ 
 nium oxalate ((NH 4 ) 2 C 204 *H 20 ) to 1 liter of water. An excess of 
 salt should remain on the bottom after equilibrium is obtained by 
 frequent shaking. 
 
 (13) Ethyl alcohol (C 2 H 5 OH)—95 percent. 
 
 (14) Standard strontium 90: Radioactive solution standard type 
 RS 90 obtained from Nuclear Chicago Corporation, Standards Section. 
 
 (15) Potassium chloride (KCl)—reagent grade. 
 
 Procedure 
 
 Extraction of Soil .—Place 1 kg. of soil in a 2 -liter Erlenmeyer flask 
 wifh 1 liter of strontium nitrate solution. The concentration of stron¬ 
 tium nitrate is adjusted so that 3 liters of it contains strontium equiva¬ 
 lent to 10 times the total exchangeable cations of the soil, which were 
 previously determined by the ammonium acetate method for bases 
 and the barium chloride-triethanolamine method for hydrogen (p. 
 16). The strontium nitrate solution is easily made up for each sample 
 from a stock solution of 2 A strontium nitrate. Stir the soil and 
 solution well and allow to stand overnight. Filter through an 8 -inch 
 Biichner funnel, using Whatman No. 42 paper, into a 2 -liter suction 
 flask. After the soil has drained, resuspend it in 1 liter of the stron¬ 
 tium nitrate solution for that soil, and filter again after 2 to 6 hours. 
 This time the filtration will be much slower, and the sample may be 
 divided about equally between two Buchner funnels. Wash the soil 
 
20 AGRICULTUKE HANDBOOK 2 88, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 with the third 1-liter part of the strontium nitrate solution. Combine 
 the extracts in a 3-liter beaker and evaporate to dryness on a hotplate. 
 These extracts contain the available fraction of the strontium 90. 
 
 Place the extracted soil in a 3-liter beaker and add 1.5 liters of 6 
 hydrochloric acid. Stir well and allow to stand for 5 days on a hot¬ 
 plate at 70° to 80° C. Filter through an 8-inch Buchner funnel, wash¬ 
 ing with 1 liter of 1 yV hydrochloric acid. Combine the extracts in a 
 3-iiter beaker and evaporate to dryness on a hotplate. This material 
 contains the fixed fraction of strontium 90. Discard the extracted 
 soil. 
 
 Treatment of Extracts .—The small amount of organic matter in 
 the strontium nitrate extract can be destroyed easily by adding 100 
 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric acid and evaporating to dryness. 
 Dissolve the sample in 500 ml. of water containing 5 ml. of concentrated 
 nitric acid and filter through Whatman No. 42 paper into an 800-ml. 
 beaker. Add 1 ml. of yttrium nitrate solution containing 20 mg. of 
 yttrium. The sample is now ready for removal of natural radioactive 
 contaminants. 
 
 If the soil sample contained approximately 200 meq. or greater of 
 calcium and magnesium, the strontium nitrate extract wull need to be 
 carried through the strontium sulfate precipitation procedure as de¬ 
 scribed below for the hydrochloric acid extract. The large amount 
 of strontium present will require splitting the sample to attain com¬ 
 plete strontium precipitation. To check this, more sulfuric acid may 
 be added to the filtrate to see if additional strontium sulfate forms. 
 The strontium sulfate from all subsamples is combined for the fusing 
 process. 
 
 Tlie hydrochloric acid extract contains large quantities of alumi¬ 
 num, iron, silicon, and organic matter, as well as the desired strontium, 
 and requires the following treatment: Add 100 ml. of concentrated 
 nitric acid. After the reaction has subsided, begin heating gently to 
 avoid loss of the foaming sample. Evaporate the solution to dryness. 
 Dissolve the precipitate in 200 ml. of 6 E hydrochloric acid, heating 
 as necessary. Dilute with 400 ml. of water and filter through a 6-inch 
 Buchner funnel into a 1-1 iter suction flask. Transfer the filtrate into 
 a 2-liter beaker and add 50 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid to precipi¬ 
 tate the strontium sulfate. Digest the precipitate on the hotplate for 
 several hours, and filter through a long-stem funnel with Wliatman 
 No. 42 filter paper. 
 
 Transfer the paper and precipitate to a platinum evaporating dish 
 and burn off the filter paper in a muffle furnace wuth the door open 
 and temperature about 200° C. After the filter paper is charred, close 
 the door and increase the temperature to 500° for 1 hour. Weigh the 
 strontium sulfate and mix thoroughly with an equal weight of sodium 
 carbonate, using a mortar and pestle. Place the mixture in a platinum 
 evaporating dish and fuse it in a muffle furnace at 900°. After 1 
 hour at this temperature, turn off the furnace and allow the dish to 
 cool inside the furnace. The cake then comes easily out of the dish. 
 Place it in a 800-ml. beaker with 400 ml. of water, heat gently, and 
 break up the cake with a glass stirring rod. W^hen the cake is com¬ 
 pletely broken up, an undissolved residue of strontium carbonate 
 remains. Filter through Whatman No. 42 filter paper in a 9-cm. 
 funnel. Dissolve the strontium carbonate in 200 ml. of 2 A hydro- 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 21 
 
 chloric acid, and remove the small undissolved residue by filtration 
 through Whatman No. 42 paj^r in a 9-cm. funnel. Add 1 ml. of 
 yttrium nitrate solution containing 20 mg. of yttrium. 
 
 Removal of Natural Radioactive Contaminants .—Some soils contain 
 radioactive contaminants that interfere with the determination of 
 strontium 90, particularly in the hydrochloric acid extract. These are 
 principally daughters of radium 226 and thorium 232. Scavenges with 
 yttrium hydroxide and barium chromate remove most of the con¬ 
 taminants. The barium chromate scavenge is done by the method of 
 homogeneous precipitation {S ). 
 
 Heat the extracts and precipitate yttrium hydroxide by adding 4 N 
 ammonium hydroxide to pH 8, using either indicator paper or a pH 
 meter to check the pH. Digest the samples for 1 hour after the precip¬ 
 itate is formed. The precipitate often contains noticeable quantities 
 of manganese oxide, ferric %droxide, and aluminum hydroxide. Fil¬ 
 ter through Whatman No. 42 paper in a 9-cm. long-stem funnel, main¬ 
 taining a column of liquid in the funnel stem to speed the filtration. 
 
 For the barium chromate scavenge, acidify the filtrate with 5 ml. 
 of concentrated nitric acid and add 1 ml. of acetic acid, 1 ml. of 1 M 
 sodium dichromate, and 2 ml. of 0.5 M barium chloride. Adjust the 
 pH of the extracts to 2.0-2.5 by adding ammonium hydroxide. Cool 
 the extracts in an ice bath while using a mechanical stirrer. Stir 3 g. 
 of potassium cyanate, dissolved in a little water, into the extract. 
 After 3 to 6 hours of continuous stirring and when the pH of the ex¬ 
 tract has risen to 5.0-5.2, filter through Whatman No. 42 paper and 
 discard the precipitate. It is necessary to repeat the barium chromate 
 scavenge at least once. Add 5 ml. of concentrated nitric acid, 1 ml. of 1 
 M sodium dichromate, 2 ml. of 0.5 M barium chloride, adjust the pH to 
 2.0-2.5, and proceed as for the first barium chromate scavenge. Add 
 5 ml. of concentrated nitric acid and 1 ml. of yttrium nitrate solution 
 to the extracts and heat to remove the dissolved carbon dioxide. Pro¬ 
 ceed with the final yttrium hydroxide scavenge, as indicated in the 
 preceding paragraph. Put aside the extracts for buildup and milking 
 of yttrium 90. 
 
 Milking of Yttrium 90 .—The yttrium 90 radioactive daughter of 
 strontium 90 is easily separated from the large amount of strontium 
 in the two extracts. Since yttrium 90 has a half-life of 64.6 hours, 
 it reaches 97 percent of its equilibrium value with strontium 90 in 2 
 weeks after any separation. Thus, milkings can be made repeatedly. 
 Each time the extracts are put aside for buildup of yttrium 90, they 
 are acidified with concentrated nitric acid and 20 mg. of yttrium is 
 added. 
 
 Heat the sample and precipitate yttrium hydroxide as for the 
 yttrium hydroxide scavenge. After digestion and filtration, dissolve 
 the yttrium hydroxide in a minimum quantity of hot 0.2 N hydro¬ 
 chloric acid, which is directed on the precipitate as a stream from a 
 wash bottle. Collect the yttrium chloride solution in a 150-ml. beaker. 
 Heat, add 5 ml. of saturated ammonium oxalate solution, and adjust 
 the pH to 6.0. Allow the precipitated yttrium oxalate to digest about 
 1 hour. Then filter through a small fritted glass funnel, catching the 
 precipitate on a 2.1-cm. glass-fiber filter pad. Diy the precipitate by 
 washing with 95-percent ethyl alcohol. Transfer it to a sample holder 
 (fig. 1) for the radioactivity determination. 
 
22 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 8, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 The radioactiA'ity determination is made witli an end window G.M. 
 tube. Use anticoincidence circuit and shielding to obtain background 
 counts of 1.5 to 2.0 c.p.m. 
 
 Count the sample four times over a 2-week period. Two of these 
 counts should be within the first 3 days after the yttrium hydroxide 
 precipitation. Make the third count approximately o days "after the 
 precipitation and the final count after 10 days. 
 
 For each count a standard deviation is calculated according to the 
 following equation: 
 
 Standard deviation^ b^g. + A sample ' 
 
 t 
 
 Where AVg = total count of background in time {t) 
 
 ■^sampie= total count of Sample in time {t) 
 
 The count per minute plus or minus its standard deviation is plotted 
 against the theoretical fraction of yttrium 90 left. This fraction is 
 determined from its radioactive decay constant. For example, one- 
 half is left 65 hours after precipitation of yttrium hydroxide and one- 
 fourth is left 130 hours after precipitation. The time interval for 
 radioactive decay is taken as the midpoint of each of the four counting 
 periods. If the sample is uncontaminated, a straight line will result, 
 which intercepts the abscissa at zero, showing no yttrium 90 left. The 
 extrapolated line to the ordinate becomes the disintegrations per min¬ 
 ute of strontium 90 per original soil sample when the appropriate 
 efficiency factor is used. 
 
 The efficiency factor is obtained by taking a solution containing a 
 known amount of strontium 90 through the entire procedure. This 
 factor should be rechecked every 2 months. Potassium chloride is used 
 as a working standard. The weight of potassium chloride used is 
 estimated from the count rate of the samples being analyzed. One 
 gram of potassium is equivalent to 1,776 disintegrations per minute. 
 The potassium chloride standard and background counts should be 
 made every 2 days. 
 
 Strontium 90 in Plants 
 
 The strontium 90 determination for plant material is basically the 
 same as described in the preceding section for soils. Strontium 90 is 
 brought into solution, interfering ions are eliminated, and yttrium 90 
 is separated. The amount of plant material used will vary according 
 to its strontium 90 content. With low-background counting equip¬ 
 ment, 1 picocurie is about the minimum that can be determined accu¬ 
 rately. Ten or more picocuries are desirable for a quicker and more 
 accurate determination. 
 
 Several hundred grams of plant material are generally used to obtain 
 high enough count rates for a convenient radioactivity determination. - 
 Thus, other ions may be sufficiently concentrated so as to cause inter¬ 
 ference with the chemical procedure. Phosphate and sulfate may in¬ 
 terfere, but they can easily be removed by following the strontium 
 
METHODS OF SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS 
 
 23 
 
 siilfate precipitation procedures given in the preceding section pertain¬ 
 ing to the treatment of the hydrochloric acid (HCl) extract of soil. 
 Calcium may interfere in the filtration of the strontium sulfate. In 
 this case the supemate is decanted, while still hot, from the strontium 
 sulfate precipitate. The supernate is filtered quickly and the material 
 on the filter paper is recombined with the strontium sulfate. 
 
 The plant material may be contaminated with fresh fission products, 
 which could interfere in the yttrium 90 radioactivity measurement. 
 The interfering fission products can be eliminated by following the 
 yttrium hydroxide and barium oxalate scavenge procedures described 
 in the preceding section. The yttrium 90 milking procedure and ra¬ 
 dioactivity measurement are performed as given in the preceding 
 section. 
 
 LITERATURE CITED 
 
 (1) Cheng, H. H., and Kuetz, L. T. 
 
 1960. SOIL MAGNESIUM ANALYSIS, ELIMINATION OF INTEEFEEENCE IN EDTA 
 TITRATION OF EXCHANGEABLE SOIL MAGNESIUM. JOUT. Agr. and 
 
 Food Chem. 8 : 24-26, 
 
 (2) Cheng, K. L., and Bray, R. H. 
 
 1951. DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM IN SOIL AND PLANT 
 MATERIAL, Soil Sci, 72: 449-458, 
 
 (3) Conners, J. J. 
 
 1950. ADVANCES IN CHEMICAL-COLORIMETRIC METHODS, AmOr. Water 
 Works Assoc. Jour. 42; 33-39. 
 
 (4) Diehl, H., Goetz, C. A,, and Hack, C. C. 
 
 1950. THE VERSENATE TITRATION FOR TOTAL HARDNESS. Amer. Water 
 
 Works Assoc. Jour. 42: 40-48. 
 
 (5) Gordon, L. 
 
 1952. PRECIPITATION FROM HOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION. Analyt. Chem, 
 24: 450-462. 
 
 (6) Health and Safety Laboratory, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. 
 
 1957. MANUAL OF STANDARD PROCEDURES. N.Y. Oper. Off. G-03-02-01, 
 
 [n.p.]. 
 
 (7) Lewis, L, L., and Melnick, L. M. 
 
 1960. DETERMINATION OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM WITH (ETHYLENEDI- 
 NiTRiLO) TETRAACETATE. Analyt. Chem. 32:1123-1127. 
 
 (8) Peech, M., ALEXANDiai, L. T., Dean, L. A, and Reed, J. F. 
 
 1947. METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS FOR SOIL-FERTILITY INVESTIGATIONS. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Cir. 757, 25 pp. 
 
 (9) Pribil, R. 
 
 1954, KOMPLEXOMETRISCHE TITRATIONEN (CHELATOMETRIE) DIE MASKIERING 
 VON ALUMINUM UNO EISEN BEI TITRATIONEN GEGAN ERICOCHROM- 
 scHWARz T AL8 INDICATOR. Collect. Czechoslovak Chem. Commun. 
 19 : 465-469. 
 
 (10) SCHOUWENBURG, J. C. VON. 
 
 1960. MICRO-EDTA TITRATION OF CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM INTERFERENCE, 
 
 Analyt. Chem. 32: 709-710. 
 
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 RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: 
 VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 1 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 289 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 
 I 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
><* v’ 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: 
 VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 FOLLOW THE LABEL ' 
 
 U S. »trAITM(NI OF ACmCUlTURE 
 
 Agriculture Handbook No. 289 
 
 Agricultural Research Service 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Washington, D.C. Issued 19«« 
 
 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price .$1. 
 
CONTRIBUTORS 
 
 C. Koy Adair, leader, Rice Investigations, Crops Research 
 Division, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, 
 Md. 
 
 J. G. Atkins, plant pathologist. Crops Research Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, Beaumont, Tex. 
 
 II. M. Beacheli., formerly, research agronomist. Crops 
 Research Division, Agricultural Research Service, 
 Beaumont, Tex.; now, plant breeder. Varietal Im¬ 
 provement Department, International Rice Research 
 Institute, Los Banos, Philippines. 
 
 N. S. Evatt, associate agronomist, Rice-Pasture Research 
 and Extension Center, Texas Agricultural Experi¬ 
 ment Station, Beaumont, Tex. 
 
 T. R. Everett, formerly, leader. Rice Insects Investiga¬ 
 tions, Entomologj’ Research Division, Agricultural 
 Research Service, Baton Rouge, La.; now, associate 
 professor, Louisiana State University. Baton Rouge, 
 La. 
 
 V. E. Green, Jr., associate agronomist, Everglades Ex¬ 
 periment Station, Florida Agricultural Experiment 
 Station, Belle Glade, Fla. 
 
 Nelson E. Jodon, research agronomist. Crops Research 
 Division, Agricultural Re.search Service, Crowley, La. 
 
 T. H. Johnston, re.search agronomist, Crops Re.search I 
 Division, Agricultural Research Service, Stuttgart, j 
 Ark. 
 
 D. S. Mikkelsen, as.sociate agronomist. University of I 
 California, Davis, Calif. 
 
 M. D. Miller, assistant state director, Agricultural Ex¬ 
 tension Service, University of California, Davi.s, 
 Calif. 
 
 W. C. Shaw, formerly, leader. Weed Investigations in I 
 Agronomic Crops, Crops Research Division, Agricul¬ 
 tural Research Service, Beltsville, Md.; now, interde¬ 
 partmental pesticides coordinator, I^.S. Department 
 of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 
 
 R. J. Smith, Jr., research agronomist. Crops Research 
 Division, Agricultural Research Service, Stuttgart, 
 Ark. 
 
 J. R. Thysell, formerly, research agronomist. Crops Re¬ 
 search Division, Agricultural Research Service, Biggs, 
 Calif.; now, agronomist. Crops Research Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, Brookings, S. Dak. 
 
 B. D. Webb, research chemist. Crops Research Division, 
 Agricultural Research Service, Beaumont, Tex. 
 
 Trade names are used in this publication solely for the purpose of providing specific information. 
 Mention of a trade name does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture or an endorsement by the Department over other products not mentioned. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction _ 
 
 History of rice in the United States_ 1 
 
 Distribution of rice in the United States_ 3 
 
 Acreage, yield, and production of rice in the 
 
 United States_ 3 
 
 Selected references_ 4 
 
 Distribution and origin of species, botany, and 
 
 genetics _J_ 5 
 
 Distribution of the species of Oryza and origin 
 
 of cultivated rice_ 5 
 
 Description and development of the rice plant 
 
 and classification of cultivated varieties_ 6 
 
 Description of plant _ 7 
 
 Development of plant_ 8 
 
 Classification of varieties_ 9 
 
 Genetics_ 9 
 
 Selected references_ 16 
 
 Rice breeding and testing methods in the United 
 
 States _ 19 
 
 History and objectives_ 19 
 
 Cultural methods and equipment for breeding 
 
 rice in the United States_ 20 
 
 Breeding methods_ 24 
 
 Introduction _ 24 
 
 Selection _ 25 
 
 Hybridization_ 25 
 
 Irradiation _ 28 
 
 Breeding for agronomic characters_ 28 
 
 Testing for milling, cooking, and processing 
 
 qualities_ 33 
 
 Milling quality_ 33 
 
 Cooking and processing qualities_ 35 
 
 Breeding for disease resistance_ 38 
 
 Blast_ 39 
 
 Brown leaf spot_ 39 
 
 Narrow brown leaf spot_ 40 
 
 Straighthead _ 40 
 
 White tip_ 40 
 
 Hoja blanca _ 40 
 
 Description of varieties_ 42 
 
 Short-grain varieties _ 42 
 
 Medium-grain varieties_ 44 
 
 Long-grain varieties_ 45 
 
 Other kinds of rice_ 47 
 
 Performance of varieties_ 47 
 
 Choosing the variety_ 49 
 
 Varietal response to seeding date_ 51 
 
 Results of tests with older varieties_ 51 
 
 Results of tests with newer varieties and 
 
 selections_ 52 
 
 Production of seed rice_ 56 
 
 Origin of high-quality seed rice_ 56 
 
 Classes of seed in a certification program- 56 
 Cleaning, grading, and processing seed rice 59 
 
 Standards for seed certification_ 61 
 
 Selected references _ 62 
 
 Soils and fertilizers_ 65 
 
 Types of soils used for rice production- 65 
 
 Arkansas _ 65 
 
 Louisiana_ 65 
 
 Texas _ 65 
 
 California _ 65 
 
 Chemistry of flooded soils- 67 
 
 Fertilizers _ 69 
 
 Southern rice area_ 69 
 
 California _ 71 
 
 Selected references_ 72 
 
 Culture_ 74 
 
 Rotation or cropping systems_ 74 
 
 Arkansas _ 75 
 
 Louisiana_ 76 
 
 Mississippi _ 77 
 
 Missouri_ 73 
 
 Texas _ 73 
 
 California _ 79 
 
 Land leveling and seedbed preparation_ 79 
 
 Land grading and leveling_ 79 
 
 Seedbed preparation_ 81 
 
 Seedbed preparation as related to method 
 
 of seeding_ 32 
 
 Construction of levees_ 83 
 
 Seed and seeding_ 34 
 
 Seed quality_ 34 
 
 Source of seed_ 85 
 
 Seed treatment _ 85 
 
 Time of seeding_ 1 _ 86 
 
 Rate of seeding_ 87 
 
 Method of seeding_ 88 
 
 Transplanting rice_ 91 
 
 Irrigating and draining_ 91 
 
 Amount of water required_ 92 
 
 Source of water_ 92 
 
 Quality of water_ 93 
 
 Water temperature and oxygen content_ 94 
 
 Water control methods_ 95 
 
 Water management _-_ 97 
 
 Draining for harvest_ 99 
 
 Harvesting, drying, and storing_ 99 
 
 Harvesting _ 99 
 
 Drying and storing_ 103 
 
 Selected references_ 106 
 
 Weeds and their control_ m 
 
 Rice diseases _ 113 
 
 Major diseases_ 113 
 
 Blast_ 113 
 
 Brown leaf spot_ 114 
 
 Narrow brown leaf spot_ 114 
 
 Root rot_ 115 
 
 Seedling blight_ 116 
 
 Stem rot _ 116 
 
 Straighthead _ 117 
 
 White tip_ 117 
 
 Minor diseases _ 118 
 
 Bordered sheath spot _ 118 
 
 Hoja blanca _ 118 
 
 Kernel smut_ 119 
 
 Kernel spots_ 119 
 
 Leaf smut_ 119 
 
 Selected references_ 120 
 
 Insects and their control_ 121 
 
 Rice water weevil_ 121 
 
 Rice stink bug- 121 
 
 Grape colaspis_ 122 
 
 Other pests of rice_ 122 
 
 Selected references_ 124 
 
 111 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 By C. Roy Adair 
 
 Kice, a leading cereal crop in many countries, 
 is grown on all continents. It often is consitlered 
 to be a tropical crop, although it is grown in both 
 the temperate and the tropical zones in Africa, 
 Asia, Xorth America, Oceania, and South Amer¬ 
 ica. and in the southern part of Europe. About 
 93 percent of the world rice crop was produced 
 in Asia during the 5-year period ending in 1900 
 (table 1). Only slightly more than 1 percent was 
 produced in the United States during this period. 
 The United States is, however, the leading rice- 
 producing country in North America and is sec¬ 
 
 ond to Bi'azil in the Western Hemisphere. Other 
 leading rice-producing countries, outside of Asia 
 and adjacent islands, are United Arab Republic 
 (Egypt) and Malagasy Republic (Madagascar) 
 in Africa, and Italy and Spain in Europe. 
 
 Rice yields vary widely among the rice-produc¬ 
 ing countries (table 1). Yields generally are 
 much highei' in temperate than in tropical 
 zones, not only because of differences in climate 
 but also because of differences in cultural prac¬ 
 tices and in varieties grown. 
 
 Table 1 .— Rice acreages productic^n. and yield per acre for each continent and selected countrieSs^ 
 
 averages for 5-year penod,, 1956-60 
 
 Continent and country 
 
 Acreage 
 
 Production 
 
 Yield 
 
 A«i)i 
 
 IsOOO acres 
 
 258,000.4 
 
 81,353.2 
 
 8,050.2 
 
 8,091.6 
 
 6,615.0 
 
 MilUon pounds 
 
 427,330.2 
 
 99,106.7 
 
 32,845.4 
 
 12,496.2 
 
 9,539.7 
 
 574.4 
 
 Founds per acre 
 
 1,656 
 
 1,218 
 
 4,081 
 
 1,544 
 
 1,442 
 
 3,452 
 
 1,240 
 
 982 
 
 India 
 
 .Tapan 
 
 South America 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Peru 
 
 166.4 
 
 Africa 
 
 7,808.0 
 
 400.0 
 
 9,68(5.0 
 
 392.6 
 
 Congo 
 
 United Arab Repubiic (Egypt) 
 
 North America 
 
 695.4 
 
 2,825.0 
 
 2,832.4 
 
 6,985.3 
 
 4,073 
 
 2,473 
 
 MeYi<*o 
 
 315.6 
 
 582.0 
 
 1,844 
 
 United States 
 
 1,.501.8 
 
 4,946.2 
 
 3,294 
 
 Europe 
 
 860.6 
 
 3,4,34.8 
 
 3,991 
 
 Italy 
 
 32,5.6 
 
 1,440.3 
 
 4,423 
 
 Spain 
 
 157.6 
 
 841.7 
 
 5,341 
 
 Oceania 
 
 117.2 
 
 330.9 
 
 2,823 
 
 Australia 
 
 50.2 
 
 240.7 
 
 4,795 
 
 World total 
 
 277,702.8 
 
 4(50,263.4 
 
 1,657 
 
 
 
 
 Source: 
 
 U.S. Dermrtiiient of Agriculture. Agricultural Stati.stic.s: 
 
 1958, p. 21; 1959, p. 22; 1990, p. 22; 19(51, p. 22. 
 
 History of Rice in the United States 
 
 Rice has been grown in the United States siiu*e 
 the latter part of the 17th century Trial 
 
 plantings of rice were made in Virginia as early 
 as 1609 (4). Apparently other plantings were 
 made in the colonies along the South Atlantic 
 coast from that time on, and ricegrowing was 
 firmly established in South Carolina about 1690. 
 
 Until about 1890, rice in the United States was 
 grown principally in the Southeastern States, al¬ 
 though some was grown along rivers in the South 
 Central States. Experimental plantings were 
 
 ^ Italic numbers in parentlieses refer to Selected Ref- 
 erence.s, p. 4. 
 
 made in the prairie section of southwest Louisiana 
 from 1884 to 1886 (7), and rice culture became 
 established in that area about 1888. Production 
 then increased rapidly in that part of Louisiana, 
 and in the adjacent part of Texas. Some rice was 
 grown along rivers in Arkansas in early years, 
 but it did not become an important cash crop in 
 the State until after 1904 (P), when ricegrowing 
 was started in Grand Prairie. Experimental 
 plantings were made near Butte Creek in the Sac¬ 
 ramento Valley in California in 1909 (<?), and 
 rice became established as a commercial crop in 
 that area about 1912. Rice production has been 
 of considerable importance in the delta area of 
 Mississippi since about 1948 {2), 
 
 1 
 
AdRICULTURE IIANDROOK 2 89, U.S. DEIT. OF ACJRIOULTURE 
 
 O 
 
 SECTION AND ACRES 
 
 COUNTY 
 
 NORTHEAST 
 
 Clay . 7,770 
 
 Croighead,.16,935 
 
 Crittenden.6,439 
 
 Cross. 34,060 
 
 Faulkner. 318 
 
 Greene.5,406 
 
 Independence.85 2 
 
 Jackson . 20,200 
 
 Lawrence . g 25) 
 
 Mississippi .1,505 
 
 Poinsett. 38,400 
 
 Randolph.2,100 
 
 St, Froncis. 17,840 
 
 White.1,140 
 
 Woodruff.19,760 
 
 CENTRAL 
 
 Arkonsas.76,150 
 
 Clark. 400 
 
 Conway. 114 
 
 Hot Spring. 470 
 
 Jefferson . 17,046 
 
 Lee.8,395 
 
 Lonoke . 39,000 
 
 Monroe.14,000 
 
 Perry .981 
 
 Phillips ..5,068 
 
 Prairie.39,570 
 
 P u lo s k i.1,855 
 
 SOUTHEAST 
 
 Ashley .6,429 
 
 Chicot . 9,603 
 
 Desha .14,000 
 
 Drew .4,594 
 
 Lincoln .9,410 
 
 SOUTHWEST 
 Lafayette 
 Little River 
 Miller 
 
 2,000 
 
 TOTAL ACRES.,. 
 ARKANSAS 1963 
 
 430,061 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 SECTION AND ACRES 
 
 COUNTY 
 
 EAST 
 
 Bowie . 559 
 
 Chambers.43,503 
 
 Hardin. 1,004 
 
 Jasper. 86 
 
 Jefferson. 62,294 
 
 Liberty. 37,540 
 
 Newton.73) 
 
 Orange.4,972 
 
 CENTRAL 
 
 Brazoria. 54,003 
 
 Ft. Bend.19,203 
 
 Galveston.12,143 
 
 Harris. 34,889 
 
 Woller. 15,038 
 
 WEST 
 
 Austin.2,865 
 
 Calhoun.4,287 
 
 Colorado. 35,599 
 
 Jockson. 27,153 
 
 Lavaca.6,194 
 
 Matagarda.44,846 
 
 Victoria. 5,083 
 
 Wharton. 52,740 
 
 TOTAL ACRES 
 TEXAS 1963 
 
 464,732 
 
 SECTION AND ACRES 
 
 COUNTY 
 
 SACRAMENTO VALLEY 
 
 Butte. 55,202 
 
 Coluso.74,125 
 
 Glenn.40,846 
 
 Placer.3,050 
 
 Sacramento. 10,126 
 
 Sutter.5 7,789 
 
 Yolo. 25,062 
 
 Yuba. 12,549 
 
 SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY 
 
 Fresno 20,818 
 
 Kern .3,435 
 
 Kings.197 
 
 Modern. 2 745 
 
 Merced.7 429 
 
 San Joaquin.7 453 
 
 S t a n i s I 0 u ..2 2 6 0 
 
 Tulare. 544 
 
 TOTAL ACRES. 
 
 CALIFORNIA 1963 
 
 323,630 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 COUNTY acres 
 
 Bolivar.. 
 
 Coahoma. 
 
 De Soto.. 
 
 Hancock . 
 
 Humphreys. 
 
 Leflore . 
 
 Quitman. 
 
 Sharkey . 
 
 Sunflower. 
 
 Tallahatche""* 
 
 Tate . 
 
 Tunica.. 
 
 Washington**" 
 TOTAL ACRES 
 MISSISSIPPI 1963 
 
 21,400 
 •• 1,664 
 *•1,639 
 
 .... 184 
 
 ** 1,935 
 ■* 3,874 
 "1,408 
 " 1,150 
 ”4,300 
 •"*510 
 ••• 246 
 
 • 2,895 
 
 * 9,427 
 
 50,632 
 
 SECTION AND ACRES 
 
 PARISH 
 
 NORTH 
 
 East Carroll.5,267 
 
 Grant.185 
 
 Madison.896 
 
 Morehouse.5,949 
 
 West Carroll.1,185 
 
 RIVER 
 
 Ascension.1,316 
 
 Assumption.196 
 
 Iberville. 323 
 
 Lafourche. 54 
 
 St. James.1,472 
 
 St. John.1,436 
 
 Tensas. I26 
 
 TECHE 
 
 Avoyelles. 2,770 
 
 Iberio. 6,500 
 
 Lafayette.9,530 
 
 Rapides.574 
 
 St. Martin.4,060 
 
 St. Mory.3,100 
 
 SOUTHWEST 
 
 Acad io. 9 3,500 
 
 Allen. 24,000 
 
 Beauregard.4,943 
 
 Caicos ieu.65,088 
 
 Cameron.13,337 
 
 Evangeline. 39,640 
 
 Jefferson Davis- .95,692 
 
 St. Landry.16,945 
 
 Vermillion.114,800 
 
 TOTAL ACRES..,. 
 LOUISIANA 1963 
 
 E Uii KK 1 . Distribution of the United States rice acreage in the principal producing States. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 3 
 
 Distribution of Rice in the United States 
 
 Although rice is probably the leading food 
 crop of the world, it is a major crop in the United 
 States in certain areas only. Rice production in 
 the United States is centered in the Southern 
 States of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and 
 Texas and in California. It is the principal cash 
 crop in many counties and parishes (fig. 1). 
 Small amounts of rice also are grown in Missouri, 
 Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Tennessee. Some 
 rice has been grown in each of the States in 
 Southeastern United States. 
 
 In the United States, satisfactory rice crops 
 require (1) high temperature, especially rela¬ 
 tively high mean temperatures during the grow¬ 
 ing season; (2) a dependable supply of fresh 
 water for irrigation; (3) a terrain that is level 
 enough to permit flood irrigation but that slopes 
 enough so that surface water can be readily 
 drained; and (4) soil that will hold water well 
 because of its fine texture, or a subsoil through 
 which loss by seepage is small ( 6 ). These cli¬ 
 matic and soil conditions prevail in the areas 
 where rice is grown in the United States. 
 
 Rainfall and humidity during the growing sea¬ 
 son are comparatively high in the Southern 
 States, so less irrigation water is required there 
 than in California ( 1 ). Irrigation water is sup¬ 
 plied from streams, from reservoirs where water 
 is impounded in winter and early spring, and 
 from wells. To produce optimum yields, proper 
 cultural practices must be followed. These prac¬ 
 tices include preparing a suitable seedbed, main¬ 
 taining a uniform depth of irrigation water, 
 providing sufficient soil nutrients for optimum 
 growth, and controlling insects and diseases and 
 weeds and grasses. Good-quality seed of adapted 
 varieties must be used to maintain quality and to 
 produce high economical yields. For safe stor¬ 
 age, the rice must be harvested at the right stage 
 and dried to the proper moisture level. 
 
 Acreage, Yield, and Production of Rice 
 in the United States 
 
 In the 5-year period ending in 1963, Arkansas 
 produced 24.89 percent of the total United States 
 rice crop; Louisiana, 24.26 percent; California, 
 24.12 percent; Texas, 23.99 percent; Mississippi, 
 2.47 percent; and Missouri, 0.26 percent { 8 ). The 
 United States has been self-sufficient in rice pro¬ 
 duction since 1917, and now is one of the leading 
 rice-exporting countries of the world. 
 
 Rice acreage in the United States (fig. 2) in¬ 
 creased from a 5-year annual moving average of 
 301,000 acres in 1899 to 1,105,000 acres in 1922. 
 It then declined until 1936. The 5-year annual 
 
 Figure 2. —Harvested acreage of rice in the United 
 States (5-year annual moving average), 1899-1963. 
 
 moving average acreage increased each year until 
 1955, when it was 2,106,000. The peak acreage of 
 2,550,000 was reached in 1954. The annual acre¬ 
 age then declined until 1957, when it was 
 1,340,000. Starting in 1958, acreage increased 
 slightly each year until 1963, when it was 
 1,765,000. 
 
 Yield per acre (fig. 3) in the United States in¬ 
 creased from a 5-year annual moving average of 
 1,091 pounds per acre in 1899 to 3,563 pounds per 
 acre in 1963. This gradual increase in yield per 
 acre has been brought about by improved cultural 
 practices, such as better rotations, weed control, 
 and irrigation and fertilization practices; better 
 machinery, which led to improved and more time¬ 
 ly field operations; better methods of controlling 
 diseases and insects; and improved varieties. 
 Average yields have fluctuated from year to year, 
 with a long-term upward trend. However, there 
 have been short jieriods when average yields de¬ 
 clined. The 5-year annual moving average yield 
 per acre increased gradually from 1899 to 1940, 
 but six times during this period the 5-year aver¬ 
 age yield was lower than that of the previous 
 year. Yields declined from 1941 to 1945. Labor 
 and equipment were scarce during the war years, 
 and the acreage was expanded to include some 
 
4 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 1899 1909 1919 1929 1939 1949 1959 1969 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Figure; 3. —Yield per acre of rice in the United States 
 (5-year annual moving average), 1899-19(53. 
 
 fields with poor soil. These factors may have 
 accounted for the lower yields in this period. The 
 5-year average yield per acre increased each year 
 from 1946 through 1963. Higher rates of fertil¬ 
 izer application and other improved cultural 
 practices increased yields during this period. 
 
 Production of rice (100-pound bags) in the 
 United States in 1718 was estimated to be over 
 79,000 bags of rough rice { 5 ). Production in¬ 
 creased to nearly 3,5 million bags in 1849. It 
 then declined to about 637,000 bags by 1871. By 
 1899, production had increased to 3.4 million 
 bags. 
 
 The 5-year annual production increased to 19,4 
 million bags in 1922. Production declined until 
 1926 and then increased slightly. However, it 
 remained within the range of 14 to 20 million 
 bags until 1936. The annual production fluctu¬ 
 ated from year to year but with an upward trend 
 during the period from 1937 to 1954 when pro¬ 
 duction reached a high of 64.2 million bags. 
 Annual production declined until 1958 and then 
 increased each year until 1963 when the annual 
 
 production was 69.3 million bags, and the 5-year 
 annual moving average was 59.3 million bairs 
 (% 4 ). 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (1) Adair, C. R., and Engi-er, Kyle. 
 
 1955. THE IRRIGATION AND CT’LTURE OF RICE. lu 
 Water, U.S. Dept. Agr. Y'earbook of Agr., 
 pp. 389-394. 
 
 (2) -Miller, M. D., and Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1962. RICE IMPROVEMENT AND CULTURE IN THE 
 UNITED STATES. Adv. ill Agron. 14: 61-108. 
 
 (3) Chambliss, C. E. 
 
 1912. A PREIJMINARY REPORT ON RICE GROWING IN 
 THE SACRAMENTO VALLEY. U.S. Dept. Agr., 
 
 Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 97, 10 pp. 
 
 (4) Cray, L. C., and Thompson, E. K. 
 
 1941. HISTORY OF AGRICULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN 
 
 U.S. TO 1860. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. 
 430. [Reprinted in 2 v.] Peter Smith, 
 New York. 
 
 (5) Holmes, G. K. 
 
 1912. RICE CROP OF THE UNITED STATES, 1712-1911. | 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Statis. Cir. 34, 11 pp. j 
 
 (6) Jones, J. W., Dockins, J. O., Walker, R. K., and i 
 
 Davis, W. C. j 
 
 1952. rice production in the southern states. I 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 2043, 36 pp. 
 
 (7) Knapp, S. A. 
 
 1899. THE PRESENT STATUS OF RICE CULTURE IN 
 THE UNITED STATES. U.S. Dept. Agl*., Bot. 
 Div. Bui. 22, 56 pp. 
 
 (8) United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 1963. RICE. ANNUAL MARKET SU.MMARY, 1(K>.‘>. 
 
 U.S. Agr. Market. Serv. AMS-277, 47 pp. 
 
 (9) ViNCENHELLER, W. G. 
 
 1906. RICE GROWING IN ARKANSAS. Ark. Agr. 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 89, pp. 119-129. 
 
 YEAR 
 
 Figi RE 4.—Production of rice in the United States 
 (5-year annual moving average), 1899-1963. 
 
DISTRIBUTION AND ORIGIN OF SPECIES, BOTANY, AND GENETICS 
 
 By C. Roy Adair and Nelson E. .Todon 
 
 Distribution of the Species of Oryza 
 and Origin of Cultivated Rice 
 
 Species of Oryza have been reported from all 
 continents except Europe and from many of the 
 larger islands. Roschevicz {5S) ^ reported a com¬ 
 prehensive study of the genus, and he concluded 
 from his study that there were 20 species of 
 Oryza. Chevalier {15) reported a similar study 
 in which he recognized 22 species. Chatterjee 
 {IS) later summarized the information on Oryza 
 and listed 28 species. Tateoka (6‘4) summarized 
 the information on species of Oryza in 1!)()8 and 
 recognized 22 valid species. The 18 species that 
 were recognized by both Chatterjee {IS) and 
 
 Tateoka (6‘4) are listed in table 2. 
 
 Five species were recognized by Chatterjee {IS) 
 but not by Tateoka {GJ^) so they were not listed 
 in table 2. These are O. granulata Nees & Arn. 
 ex Hook. f.; O. 'perennis Moench; 0. .sativa L. 
 var. fatua Prain; 0. stapfi Roschev.; and 0. 
 suhulata Nees. Four species were recognized by 
 Tateoka {GJf.) but not by Chatterjee {IS) so they 
 were not listed in table 2. These are O. angasfi- 
 Hubbard; O. harth/i A. Cheval.; O. lorgi- 
 glumh Jansen; and O. Tui\.pogen Griff. The 
 chromosome number of tlu* s])ecies of Oryza as 
 reported by Kihara (So) and the ilistribution as 
 reported by Chatterjee (ij) also are shown in 
 table 2. 
 
 Fable 2. — Species. chromomr)'i.e nnmher, and distrihution of Orvza 
 
 Species 
 
 1. O. 
 
 2 . 0 . 
 
 3. O. 
 
 4. 0. 
 
 5. O. 
 G. O. 
 
 7. 0. 
 
 8 . O. 
 
 9 . 0 . 
 
 10. O. 
 
 11 . (). 
 
 alta Swallen_ 
 
 australiensis Domin_ 
 
 brachyanthn A. Cheval. & Roelir. 
 brevilif/ulata A. Cheval. & Roehr. 
 
 coarctata Roxh._ 
 
 eichingcri Peter_ 
 
 glnberrima Steucl. _ 
 
 grandiglumis (Doell) Prodoehl _ 
 
 latifolia Desv._ 
 
 meyeriana (Zoll. & Mor.) Haill. 
 minuta Presl_ 
 
 12. O. officinalis Wall, ex Watt 
 
 13. O. perrieri A. Camus_ 
 
 14. O. punctata Kotschy ex Steud. 
 
 15. O. ridleyi Hook. f._ 
 
 IG. 0. sativa L._ 
 
 17. O. scMechteri Pilger_ 
 
 18. 0. tisseranti A. Cheval._ 
 
 Chromo¬ 
 some No. 
 (2n) 
 
 24 and 48 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 48 
 48 
 24 
 
 24 and 48 
 48 
 24 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 48 
 
 24 and 48 
 
 Distribution 
 
 South America and Central America. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 West Tropical Africa and Central Africa. 
 
 West Tropical Africa. 
 
 India and Burma. 
 
 East Africa. 
 
 West Tropical Africa and Central America.i 
 South America. 
 
 Central America, South America, and West Indies. 
 .Java, Borneo, Philippines, and Siam. 
 
 Malay Peninsula, Philippines, Sumatra, .lava, and 
 Borneo. 
 
 India and Burma. 
 
 ^Madagascar. 
 
 Northeast Tropical Africa. 
 
 Malay Peninsula, Siam, Borneo, and New Guinea. 
 India and Indo-China. 
 
 New Guinea. 
 
 Central Africa. 
 
 ’ P.l. 2G9G30. Collected in El Salvador by H. M. Beachell and identihed by Eugene Gi-itlith, Ci-ops Re.scarch 
 Division, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Md., and .1. R. Swallen, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Roschevicz {oS) divided the species of Oryza 
 into four sections on the basis of morphologic 
 characters and geographic distriluition. Kiharii 
 {So) modified this grouping to include species not 
 reported by Roschevicz. 
 
 In 19G3, a committee ^ reviewed the classifica- 
 
 ' Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Selected Refei'- 
 ences, p. IG. 
 
 -This committee was appointed at the Rice Genetic 
 Symposium convened at the International Rice Re.search 
 Institute. Los Banos, the Philippines. The members were 
 S. Sampath. India; T. Tateoka, .lapan; and M. T. Hen¬ 
 derson, United States. 
 
 tion and nomenclature of Oryza and recommended 
 that standards be adopted and used uniformly. 
 This committee recognized 19 valid species of 
 Oryza. Seventeen of these species are listed in 
 table 2. The species not recognized by this com¬ 
 mittee that is listed in table 2 is O. grandtglumis. 
 The other two species recognized by this com¬ 
 mittee are O. angustifoT/a and O. hmgighiiais. 
 The committee also believed that certain aspects 
 of taxonomy in Oryza are uncertain. These are: 
 (1) The relation and nomenclature among the 
 taxa commonly designated as 0. sativa var. fatua 
 
 5 
 
6 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEI’T. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (or /. spontanea Koschev.) and O. perennis 
 (Asiatic, American, and African) subspecies and 
 varieties; (2) the relation of the form commonly 
 desi^ated O. stapfii to 0. glaberrhna and O. hve- 
 vUigulata; (3) the relation between O. gramdafa 
 f. and O. meyeriana; (4) the relation between O. 
 alia and O. grandiglumis; and (5) the status of 
 the taxa previously designated 0. uhanghe/iisis 
 Chev. and O. inaJampuzhaensis Krish. and Chand. 
 The committee also believed that the form com¬ 
 monly designated 0. suhuJata should be excluded 
 from Oryza and should be recognized as Rhyn- 
 choryza siihul-ata (Nees) Baill. 
 
 Chatterjee [llf.) reviewed the literature on the 
 origin and distribution of wild and cultivated 
 rice. He concluded that the eastern part of 
 India, Indo-China, and part of China could be 
 considered the area where cultivated rice {Oryza 
 sativa) originated. Chatterjee further concluded, 
 as did Roschevicz {53)^ that for the genus as a 
 whole or the section Sativa Roschev., the center 
 of origin is Africa. He was of the opinion that 
 O. alta^ 0. atbstraliensis^ 0. hrachyantha^ 0. 
 eichingeri^ O. grandiglumis^ 0. latifolia^ 0. min- 
 uta^ O. perrieri^ 0. schlechteri^ 0. sabulata, and 
 0. tisseranti had little part in the ancestry of cul¬ 
 tivated rice. This view seems to be based either 
 on the fact that these species do not cross with 
 0. sativa or on the fact that they occur naturally 
 in areas far removed from the center where rice 
 cultivation originated. 
 
 Many investigators have studied and discussed 
 the origin of the genus Oryza and of cultivated 
 rice {13, U, 15, 35, 1^6, 1^8, 50, 53, 55, 56, 67, 70). 
 It is generally concluded that the original ances¬ 
 tral species may no longer exist and that present 
 varieties evolved through progressive stages from 
 known wild species {56). 
 
 Nandi {55) and Sakai {55) proposed that a 
 species with a haploid number of five chromo¬ 
 somes was the ancestor of 07'yza. This proposal 
 was rather widely accepted. Nandi {55) observed 
 that in the somatic complement having 24 chro¬ 
 mosomes there were two members of eight types 
 and four members of two types. The maximum 
 association in second metaphase was two groups 
 of three and three groups of two. It was con¬ 
 cluded from this observation that the haploid 
 genome of the present 0. sativa is composed of 
 two original five-paired species belonging to two 
 different ancestral genomes in which two chro¬ 
 mosomes were duplicated. 
 
 Later, Shastry, Rao, and Misra {60) identified 
 12 pachytine bivalents in a strain of O. sativa. 
 based on their length and arm ratios. This find¬ 
 ing seems to cast considerable doubt on the val¬ 
 idity of the supposition “that 0. sativa is a sec¬ 
 ondarily balanced allo-tetraploid which origin¬ 
 ated through hybridization between two different 
 five-paired species in which two chromosomes 
 
 were duplicated, probably due to meiotic irregu¬ 
 larities ill the hybrid. This followed by a subse- 
 (pient doubling of the chromosomes attained the 
 secondary balance of n=12, the present existing 
 number of O. sativa’'’ {55)- 
 
 Sampath and Rao {56) “inferred that Oryza 
 perennis is the ancestral form of cultivated rices, 
 having given rise to 0. sativa in Asia and 0. gla- 
 herrima in Africa by human selection,” These 
 authors were of the opinion that 0. hreviligulata 
 and O. sativa var. fatua are of collateral descent 
 from O. perennis. The present types that are 
 classified as O. sativa var. fatua or spontanea 
 show morphologic differences that may be due to 
 genetic transfer from cultivated rice. From this 
 it is inferred that these wild forms are derived 
 from hybrids with cultivated rices and are not 
 the progenitors of cultivated rice. Instead it has 
 been strongly suggested {55, 56, 70) that an inter¬ 
 mediate type may be the immediate ancestor of 
 O. sativa. 
 
 Description and Development of the 
 Rice Plant and Classification 
 of Cultivated Varieties 
 
 Cultivated varieties of O. sativa are divided 
 into groups on the basis of several characters. 
 The principal division is on the basis of sterility 
 of the hybrid. Kato and others {33, 35) observed 
 that in crosses of certain varieties from the tem¬ 
 perate zone and certain varieties from tropical 
 areas, the hybrids had a high percentage of sterile 
 florets. The hybrids between varieties within 
 these two groups were as fertile as self-pollinated 
 parent varieties. 
 
 They proposed that the temperate zone varieties 
 be named japonica and the tropical zone varieties 
 indica. Kato and others {35) observed no differ¬ 
 ence between japonica and indica varieties in 
 chromosome number and behavior or in pollen 
 formation. However, in the hybrid, pollen for¬ 
 mation was abnormal. Serological investigations 
 showed differences between japonica and indica 
 varieties. 
 
 Later, Terao and Midusima {66) noted that 
 another group of varieties, principally from trop¬ 
 ical islands of Southeast Asia, were intermediate. 
 This last group is referred to as bulu. 
 
 It appeared from the earlier studies that the 
 varieties could be divided into three distinct 
 groups based on sexual affinity, Mizushima {39), 
 however, determined that this was not true and 
 that sexual affinities among varieties from these 
 groups varied gradually from one extreme to the 
 other. 
 
 Oka {55) compared 147 varieties from widely 
 different geographic areas on the basis of a num-- 
 ber of morphologic and physiologic characters 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND I’RODUGTION 
 
 ( 
 
 and by observing sexual affinity in hybrids. From 
 these studies, he placed the 147 varieties tested 
 into indica (continental) and japonica (insular), 
 lie subdivided the japonica gi-oup into “tropical- 
 insular” and “temperate-insular.” 
 
 In a review on reports of sterility in hybrids 
 between indica and japonica varieties, Shastry, 
 Kao, and Misra {60) explained sterility on the 
 
 basis of chroniosome structural differences, lethal 
 genes, inversions, paracentric inversions, genic 
 mutations, and cryptic structural hybridity. 
 
 There are many morphologic differences be¬ 
 tween typical japonica, indica, and bulu varieties 
 (table 3). Varieties that are known to be pro¬ 
 genies of hybrids are intermediate in many 
 respects. 
 
 Table 3. duLvacters of jdponicci, mdicci^ a/nd hulu Tice vavieties 
 
 Character 
 
 .Japonica 
 
 Indica 
 
 Bulu 
 
 Crain .shape 
 
 Short 
 
 TiOnp’ 
 
 Lh rge. 
 
 Second foliar leaf: 
 
 
 
 Length 
 
 Short 
 
 TiOtie 
 
 Long. 
 
 Small. 
 
 Light green. 
 
 Angie _ _ 
 
 Small 
 
 I .a rep 
 
 Foliage color 
 
 Dark ereen 
 
 Light green 
 
 Culm: 
 
 
 Stiffness 
 
 Stiff 
 
 Not .stiff 
 
 Stiff. 
 
 Upright. 
 
 Long. 
 
 Erectness 
 
 Upright 
 
 Spreading 
 
 Length 
 
 Short 
 
 T.one 
 
 Flag leaf: 
 
 
 
 Angle 
 
 Medium 
 
 TTnri eht 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Broad and long. 
 
 Shape 
 
 Narrow and shnrt 
 
 Narrow and long 
 
 Degree of emergence 
 
 
 of upper node. 
 
 Medium 
 
 Well emerged 
 
 Not emerged. 
 
 
 Number of tillers 
 
 Many 
 
 iVlanv 
 
 Few. 
 
 Variable. 
 
 Many. 
 
 Pubescence 
 
 Pnbe.scent 
 
 Variable 
 
 None 
 
 Awns 
 
 None 
 
 Panicles: 
 
 
 Number 
 
 Many 
 
 IVJany 
 
 Few. 
 
 Heayy. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Many. 
 
 Weight 
 
 Heayy 
 
 Short 
 
 Lierht 
 
 Length 
 
 T./oh£r 
 
 I)ensit;y' 
 
 Dense 
 
 Medium 
 
 Branching of rachis 
 
 Few 
 
 Medium. 
 
 
 
 Source: Nagai (^0). 
 
 Description of plant 
 
 The principal parts of the rice plant are a 
 fibrous root system, culms, leaves, and panicles. 
 
 The fibrous root system extends outward and 
 downward from the base of the plant. Adventi¬ 
 tious roots that arise from the lower nodes of the 
 culms are finely branched. The extent of the root 
 system and the size of the roots vary with variety 
 and type of culture. 
 
 The culm and leaves develop from the plumule. 
 The culm consists of the nodes, which have solid 
 centers (septum), and the intemodes, which are 
 hollow. The culms of most varieties of Oryza 
 saliva are erect or ascending, although there are 
 procumbent types. Varieties range in height 
 from less than 15 to more than 96 inches (37 to 
 240 centimeters) although varieties grown in the 
 United States range from 36 to 54 inches. The 
 culms vary in diameter at the base from 5 to 15 
 millimeters. The number of nodes in the culm 
 ranges from 13 to 16 (<?^), and the number is 
 significantly correlated with length of growing 
 season. Usually, four internodes elongate; the 
 upper internode (peduncle) is usually the long¬ 
 est, and it bears the panicle. 
 
 The leaves of the rice plant are flat and range 
 from 7 to 20 milimeters wide. The coleoptile 
 usually is considered to be the first leaf. It has 
 stomata but few chloroplasts. The mature foliage 
 leaf consists of the sheath at the base, which sur¬ 
 rounds the culm for some distance; the blade, 
 which is set at an angle with the sheath; the 
 ligule; and the auricles. The junction of the 
 sheath and blade often is called the collar or 
 junctura. The swollen zone at the base of the 
 sheath where it joins the culm is the pulvinus. 
 
 The panicle of most varieties is fairly dense 
 and drooping. There is, however, much inter¬ 
 varietal variation, since the panicle ranges from 
 open to very compact and from erect to drooping. 
 From one to three or sometimes more branches 
 arise alternately or somewhat in whorls at each 
 node of the peduncle. The rachilla bears the 
 spikelet, and each rachilla arises on the same side 
 of the rachis. Each rachilla usually has a single 
 spikelet, although some varieties may have two or 
 more spikelets on a rachilla. The spikelet is 
 laterally compressed, is one flowered, and articu¬ 
 lates below the outer glume. 
 
 The two outer glumes usually are short, that is, 
 less than one-third the length of the lemma, al- 
 
8 
 
 AGRIGULTUIUE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AORICULTUKE 
 
 tlioiipli there are types that have ^luines as lon^ 
 as tlie leninia or longer. The lemma (inferior or 
 lower flowering glume) is rigid, keeled, and tliree 
 nerved, and has two additional thin, marginal 
 nerves that can l)e seen only in section. The 
 apicnlns or ti}) of the lemma is sometimes pro¬ 
 longed to form the awn. The palea (sn})erior or 
 upper flowering glume) is similar to the lemma, 
 hut narrower. It has two nerves near the margin 
 and a thin midnerve that can be seen only in sec¬ 
 tion. The flower is composed of a one-carpellate 
 pi.stil with a bifurcated, plumose slender style; 
 and six stamens with yellowish, four-lobed, two- 
 celled anthers. The principal parts of the cary- 
 opsis (brown rice) are the embiTo and endo¬ 
 sperm and the covering tissues. 
 
 Development of plant 
 
 Kice seed germinates rapidly when moisture, 
 temperature, and oxygen are optimum. The em¬ 
 bryo, which consists of the organs that develop to 
 produce the rice plant, lies in a slanting position 
 at the base of the grain on one side of the endo¬ 
 sperm. The endosperm contains the stored food 
 that nourishes the developing .seedling until the 
 roots have developed sufficiently to obtain nu¬ 
 trients from the soil. 
 
 At germination, the coleorhiza pushes through 
 the pericarp, leaving a cavity. The primary root 
 soon elongates, fills the cavity, and then pushes 
 through the coleorhiza. d'he root extends upward 
 for a short distance and then turns down. About 
 this same time, the coleoptile emerges and rapidly 
 elongates. The epicotyl below the coleoptile also 
 elongates. Elongation varies with the depth the 
 seed is planted. It elongates enough to bring the 
 base of the coleoptile to the surface of the soil. 
 When the coleoptile emerges from the soil, it 
 splits on the side opposite the scutellum, and the 
 foliage leaves soon appear. Usually in about 2 
 days, two adventitious roots start to develop in 
 the meristematic zone on the side opposite the 
 scutellum. A third adventitious root may appear 
 later at the coleoptile divergence opposite the two 
 older ones. Lateral roots soon develop from the 
 primary and adventitious roots {71). 
 
 The main axis of the plant, often called the 
 primary tiller, is differentiated rapidly. The 
 meristematic region is at the base of the inter¬ 
 nodes; this is typical of all grasses. With three 
 early (130-day) United States varieties, tillering 
 started within 8 weeks after germination, and all 
 tillers that produced panicles were formed within 
 a 3-week period (.^). Japonica varieties started 
 to tiller about 14 days after transplanting and 
 tillering was completed in 23 to 25 days {32). 
 Tndica varieties started to tiller about 14 days 
 after transplanting, and all tillers were initiated 
 in 3 to 5 weeks from this time, depending on the 
 
 length of growing period of the variety {49). 
 Tillers develop from buds in the axil of the node 
 and the arrangement is alternate {32., 49)- Japon¬ 
 ica varieties {32) develop secondary tillers from 
 the buds at nodes 3 or 4 to 10. Tillers from node 
 10 often do not produce panicles. Tertiary tillers 
 may develop from buds at nodes of the secondary 
 tillers. 
 
 Panicle formation starts when all nodes have 
 been formed. The length of the period from 
 seeding or transplanting to the starting of panicle 
 formation varies with the length of growing 
 period of the variety. The period up to forma¬ 
 tion of the panicle priniordium constitutes the 
 “vegetative” stage. It is this period that accounts 
 for the variation in length of growing period 
 among varieties. Formation of the panicle pri- 
 mordium starts about 50 days after seeding for 
 very early United States varieties and about 100 
 days for later United States varieties. The pe¬ 
 riod from formation of the panicle priniordium to 
 emergence of the panicle from the sheath ranges 
 from 24 to 31 days for indica varieties {49) and 
 from 28 to 36 days for japonica varieties (5). 
 
 For indica varieties, the panicle primordium 
 can be noted when it is 0.125 to 0.25 millimeters 
 long. By the time it is 0.5 millimeters long, 
 “hemispherical excrescences are observed at the 
 base” {49). The hemispherical excrescences rep¬ 
 resent the branches of the panicle. Rudiments of 
 the spikelet on either side of the basal axis are 
 perceptible when the panicle primordium is 5.0 
 millimeters long. The panicle priniordium then 
 elongates, and the spikelets are differentiated 
 progressively from the tip down to the base of the 
 panicle. Spikelets in the tip and middle of the 
 panicle have reached maximum length by the 
 time the panicle has completed its elongation, 
 which is 15 to 20 days after formation of panicle 
 priniordium. The spikelets at the base of the 
 panicle complete their elongation by the time the 
 panicle emerges from the sheath {49). 
 
 Similar results were reported for a variety from 
 the Philippines {30). Anthesis starts the first 
 day of emergence of the panicle. It begins with 
 the flowers at the tip of the panicle and continues 
 progressively at the tip of each branch of the 
 panicle. The greatest number of flowers open 
 the second or third day after the panicle emerges. 
 Anthesis occurs over a period of 6 to 10 davs, 
 varying with iveather and variety. It usually 
 occurs from midmorning to shortly after noon. 
 The time differs with variety, location, and 
 weather (-5, 52). Pollen is shed just before or at 
 the time the flower opens. 
 
 The formation and development of the embryo 
 of a japonica variety {65) and of a variety from 
 the Philippines {30) has been described. The 
 process is similar in both varieties. Juliano and 
 Aldania {30) reported that “development of the 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 1 ) 
 
 nie^asporange, megaspore mother cell, and em¬ 
 bryo is normal and follows very closely those 
 reported by other investigators. The embryo sac 
 is of the normal octomicleate type.’' These inves¬ 
 tigators also observed that “clevelopment of the 
 ; microsporange is normal and follows those re¬ 
 ported in many angiosperms"; that “division of 
 ' the microspore mother cell is successive’’; and 
 that “long before anthesis the young microspore 
 contains two coats, a thin peripheral cytoplasm, 
 wherein a single nucleus is embedded, and a single 
 germ pore.’’ Double fertilization occurs about 12 
 hours after anthesis {65). In a japonica variety, 
 the caryopses reach maximum length in about 12 
 days after flowering, maximum width or breadth 
 (dorsoventral diameter) in about 22 days, maxi¬ 
 mum thickness (lateral diameter) in about 28 
 days, and maximum dry weight in about Ha days 
 {37). Similar results were obtained for Thiited 
 States varieties; air-dry kernel weight and per¬ 
 centage of germination were maximum about H.5 
 days after the first panicles emerged from the 
 sheath {61). 
 
 Classification of varieties 
 
 Cultivated varieties of rice belong to the genus 
 Oryza L., tribe Oryzeae, and family Gramineae. 
 Most cultivated varieties are in the species Oryza 
 sativa L., although varieties of the species 0. 
 glabeimma are cultivated in Africa. 0. sativa is 
 an annual; but when moisture and temperature 
 are optimum and in the absence of disease, plants 
 have survived and produced grain for 20 years 
 or more. 
 
 All varieties of rice grown in the Ignited States 
 are in the species 0. sativa L. The commercial 
 varieties are classified on the basis of (1) length 
 of growing season, (2) size and shape of the 
 grain, and {?>) chemical character of the endo¬ 
 sperm. Ito and Akihama {22) further classified 
 varieties on the basis of plant height, straw 
 strength, disease resistance, and color of various 
 plant parts. 
 
 On the basis of length of growing season, 
 Cnited States varieties grown in the Southern 
 States are divided into four groups: (1) Very 
 early (100-115 days) ; (2) early (116-130 days) ; 
 (3) midseason (131-155 days) ; and (4) late (156 
 days or more). The length of growing season is 
 somewhat longer in California than in the South. 
 The difference in length of growing season be¬ 
 tween these two areas is caused by day length 
 and temperature. 
 
 The United States varieties are divided into 
 three grain size and shape classes: short (Pearl), 
 medium, and long. The more slender long-grain 
 varieties sometimes are considered a fourth class. 
 . Examples of the respective groups are Caloro, 
 Xato, Bluebonnet 50, and Rexoro. (See “Rice 
 
 Breeding and Testing Methods in the United 
 States,” p. 31.) 
 
 On the basis of chemical characters, rice types 
 are divided into waxy (glutinous; endosperm 
 contains no amylose) and common (ordinary 
 starchy; endosperm contains amylose as well as 
 amylopectin). Only a very small acreage of 
 waxy rice is grown in the United States. The 
 l)ercentage of amylose in the starch in the endo¬ 
 sperm of varieties grown in the United States 
 varies rather widely. (“See Rice Breeding and 
 'resting Methods in the Cnited States,” ]). 38.) 
 
 A more detailed system is needed to classify the 
 many varieties and lines used in breeding studies. 
 Much work has been done to devise objective 
 methods of classifying rice varieties. Previous 
 work was summarized and a proposal for classi¬ 
 fying rice varieties was formulated by a special 
 committee in India {21). The committee pro¬ 
 posed that rice varieties be classified on the basis 
 of qualitative and quantitative characters. Nagai 
 {J^0) reviewed systems used to classify rice var¬ 
 ieties. These systems were followed rather closely 
 in the Food and Agriculture Organization, 
 “IVorld Catalogue of Genetic Stocks—Rice,” {!) 
 and subsequent supplements. The classification 
 system used in the United States includes the 
 items in these systems with certain modification 
 and additions. 
 
 Genetics 
 
 Varieties of ordinary cultivated rice, being 
 largely self-pollinated, remain uniform and con¬ 
 stant if care is taken to preserve pure seed. Mu¬ 
 tations, chromosome changes, and natural cross¬ 
 ing, however, have brought into existence a wide 
 diversity of types and varieties that affect every 
 part and function of the plant. Plants may be 
 short or tall enough to grow in deep water; may 
 have colored pigments of various shades dis¬ 
 tributed in different patterns over the plant; may 
 tiller little or profusely; may have long and 
 slender or short and round grains, with or with¬ 
 out awns; and may have translucent or opaque 
 kernels that differ in chemical composition. Also, 
 the life cycle of one jilant may be three times as 
 long as that of another. 
 
 Differences that can be sorted into distinct con¬ 
 trasting classes make possible the study of segre¬ 
 gation and recombination as well as linkage i-ela- 
 tionships of genes, which are the units of heredity. 
 For convenience in publishing genetic studies, 
 differences that have individual efforts great 
 enough to be recognized are assigned gene sym¬ 
 bols. 'Fo promote uniform usage among rice 
 geneticists, the International Rice Commission of 
 the Food and Agriculture Organization of the 
 United Nations has adopted and recommended 
 the gene symbols listed below {2). 
 
10 
 
 AGIUCULTUIIE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Inherited differences, such as plant height, that 
 are not clear cut but that grade from one extreme 
 to another involve the interaction of several genes 
 that have similar effects, but the actual numlier 
 and the individual contribution of the genes in¬ 
 volved remain uncertain. 
 
 Gene symbols adopted and recommended 
 for rice ^ 
 
 A 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 1) 
 
 A. A-*, a 
 
 al 
 
 An 
 
 au 
 
 = allelic anthocyanin activator genes 
 (complementary action with C genes 
 produces red or purple in apiciiliis) 
 
 - all)ino - 
 - Awned 2 
 
 = rudimentary auricle 
 
 be 
 
 Hd 
 
 Bf 
 
 I-Bf 
 
 bg 
 
 Bh 
 
 bl 
 
 bn 
 
 = l)rittle culm 
 
 = Beaked hull (tip of lemma recurved 
 over palea) 
 
 = Brown furrow (dark brown color in 
 furrows of lemma and palea). See 
 lU 
 
 = Inhibitor of dark brown furrow 
 = coarse (big) culms 
 = Blackhull (complementary genes )2 
 = physiologic diseases showing dark 
 brown or blackish mottled discolora¬ 
 tion of leaf 
 
 = bent node—culm forms angle at node 
 
 C. C“, 
 
 C»'. c 
 
 C alone 
 
 CA 
 
 CAP 
 
 En-C 
 
 Ce 
 
 chi 
 
 Cl 
 
 els 
 
 clw 
 
 = allelic basic genes for anthocyanin 
 color: higher alleles have pleiotropic 
 expression in internode 
 = tawny colored apiculus 
 = red or purple colored apiculus 
 = completely and fully purple colored 
 apiculus 
 
 = Enhancer of C 
 ^ Cercospora i-esistance 
 = chlorina (chlorophyll deficiency) 
 
 = Clustered spikelets, also super clus¬ 
 ter 
 
 = cleistogamous spikelets 
 = claw-shaped spikelets. See tri and 
 Bd 
 
 d 
 
 da 
 
 Dn 
 
 Dn2 
 
 Dng 
 
 Dp 
 
 dw 
 
 dwarfs ,2 about I /3 to 1/2 height or 
 normal; discrete classes in segregat¬ 
 ing populations 
 = double awn 
 
 = Dense or “compact”; very close ar¬ 
 rangement of spikelets (vs. normal 
 panicle) ; epistatic to Ur. See Lx, 
 also Cl 
 
 = Den.se vs. lax 
 = Normal vs. lax 
 
 = Depressed palea and underdeveloped 
 palea 
 
 deep water paddy, so-called floating 
 rice 
 
 1 Recommended by the Eighth (lOoO) FAD Interna¬ 
 tional Rice Commission Working Party on Rice Produc¬ 
 tion and Protection ; the list includes present revisions. 
 
 2 More than one gene involved ; subscripts to be sup¬ 
 plied b.\ workers as needed. Letter subscripts are sug¬ 
 gested for complementary genes, numeral subscripts for 
 genes having phenotypically similar effects and also for 
 polymeric genes. 
 
 E 
 
 Ef 
 
 Ell¬ 
 
 er 
 
 Ex 
 
 F 
 
 Fgr 
 
 fs 
 
 c, 
 
 s 
 
 gh 
 
 gl 
 
 Gm 
 
 II 
 
 II*", IF. 
 IP, IP 
 
 I 
 
 He 
 
 hsp 
 
 I 
 
 I- 
 
 K 
 
 = Early llowering (low photo.sensitiv- 
 ity).2 See Lf 
 
 = Enhancer (intensifier). Precedes 
 symbol of character affected 
 = erect growth habit, recessive to 
 spreading or procumbent. See dw, la 
 = Exerted vs. enclosed panicle 
 
 = Fragrant flower 
 = fine stripe 
 
 = long glume 2 exceeding % length of 
 the spikelet 
 
 ^ goldhull (golden yellowhull, reces¬ 
 sive to straw color.) See Wh 
 = glabrous (nonhairy) leaf. See Lh 
 = semi-dominant long glume. More ex¬ 
 treme and less regular in expression 
 than g. Epistatic to g 
 green and white stripe; see fs, v. 
 
 (II or h is suggested to denote hull, i.e., 
 lemma and palea) 
 
 = allelic genes for nonanthocyanin col¬ 
 ors of lemma and palea appearing 
 only in the presence of Gh ; goldhull 
 colors appear with gh 
 = Ilelminthosporium resistance 
 = hull spot 
 
 = positive vs. negative staining with 
 iodine-potassium iodide solution 
 = inhibitor (precedes symbol of char¬ 
 acter inhibited) 
 
 (K or k is suggested to denote kernel, 
 i.e., caryopsis) 
 
 I. 
 
 1 - 
 
 la 
 
 Ld 
 
 Lf 
 
 Ig 
 
 Lh 
 
 Ik 
 
 Imx 
 
 lu 
 
 Lx 
 
 Lxo 
 
 me 
 
 mp 
 
 N 
 
 nal 
 
 nl 
 
 nk or I-Nk 
 O 
 
 0 
 
 I* 
 
 P 
 
 Pan 
 
 Pg 
 
 Ph 
 
 Pi 
 
 (1 (as second letter of a symbol) is 
 suggested to denote leaf.) 
 
 = lethal (precedes symbol of character t 
 having lethal effect) 
 
 = lazy. See er 
 
 Lodging ; 
 
 = Late flowering (highly photosensi¬ 
 tive ).2 See Ef ; 
 
 = liguleless (auricle and collar also 
 absent) ~ 
 
 = very hairy (long hair) dominant to j 
 
 ordinary pubescence. See gl ; 
 
 = grain length (long grain) 2 ■ 
 
 = extra lemma ^ 
 
 = lutescent , 
 
 Lax vs. normal panicle. See Dn 
 = Lax vs. compact ■ 
 
 = multiple embryos (polyend)ryonic) ' 
 
 = multiple pistils (polycaryoptic) ; 
 
 mottled leaf; see bl 
 
 ’ » 
 
 = narrow leaf | 
 
 = neck leaf i 
 
 = notched kernel \ 
 
 = open hull (parted lemma and palea) j 
 
 (P (as first letter of a .symbol) is sug¬ 
 gested to denote anthocyanin color.) 
 Exceptions : Ph, Pi i 
 
 = Gompletely purple apiculus (comple- ( 
 
 mentary action with C and A) • 
 
 = Purple auricle, basic to Pig 
 ^ Purple outer glumes 'i 
 
 = Phenol staining of hull and bran j 
 
 = Piricularia resistance 
 
KICK IN THE UNirai) STATES: vaiui:ties and production 
 
 11 
 
 Pin 
 
 = Riirple iiiternode. See (’ 
 
 wba 
 
 = white core (endosperm) 
 
 Rl 
 
 = Rurple leaf. See Rw 
 
 Wh 
 
 = Whitelmll, epistatic to gh 
 
 Rla 
 
 = Rurpleleaf apex (complementary ac¬ 
 tion with C and A) 
 
 wx 
 
 Y 
 
 = waxy (glutinous) endosperm 
 
 RIk 
 
 = Rurple ligule. See Ran 
 
 .y 
 
 = yellow leaf 
 
 I-Rl 
 
 = colorless leaf except margin 
 
 i-y 
 
 = lethal yellow, al.so xantha 2 
 
 Rn 
 
 = Rurplenode 
 
 z 
 
 Rr 
 
 = Rurplehiill (lemma and palea) 
 (complementary action with CAR) 
 
 z 
 
 = zebra stripe 
 
 u 
 
 Prp 
 
 Ps 
 
 Psh 
 
 Pu 
 
 P\v 
 
 Px 
 
 Uc 
 
 R(1 
 
 ri 
 
 Rk 
 
 rl 
 
 s 
 
 Sc 
 
 Se 
 
 Sh 
 
 Sk 
 
 sn 
 
 spr 
 
 T 
 
 = Purple pericarp 
 
 Purple stifiuia (coiuplemeutary ac¬ 
 tion with CAP) 
 
 = Purple sheath 
 = Purple pulviuus 
 = Purplewash. See PI 
 -= Purple axil 
 
 = Rrown pericarp (basic to Kcl) 
 
 = Red pericarp (compleiiieutary action 
 with Rc) 
 
 = verticillate (whorled) arraugeiuent 
 of rachis (“rinshi” character) 
 
 = Round spikelet (kernel) 
 
 = rolled leaf 
 
 = sterility 2 
 
 = Sclerotium orj/zac i-esistance 
 = Photosensitivity. See Ef, also Lf 
 = Dominant shattering as in drop-seed 
 or wild types vs. difflcult or inter¬ 
 mediate threshing. See th 
 = Scented kernel 
 = sinuous neck. See Ur 
 = spreading panicle branches 
 spreading growth habit; see er, also la 
 .snperclnstered spikelets: see Cl 
 
 (T is suggested to denote plant height 
 (“Tallness”) except where controlled 
 hv dwarfing genes.) See d 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 I-T 
 
 = short nondwai’f plant vs. tall 
 
 
 tb 
 
 = tipburn yellow 
 
 
 Tf 
 
 = Tough dehulling 
 
 
 th 
 
 = shattering or easy threshing reces- 
 
 
 sive to difficult separation. See 
 
 Sh 
 
 tl 
 
 = twisted leaves 
 
 
 tri 
 
 = triangular hull (spikelet). See clw 
 
 Ur 
 
 = Undulate rachis vs. normal. See 
 
 sn 
 
 V 
 
 = virescent, also green and white 
 
 wb 
 
 stripe. See fs 
 = white belly (endosperm; 
 
 Plant colors have been studied more extensively 
 than other characters in rice because they are 
 readily classified, and it is possible to analyze pre¬ 
 cisely the genic action and interaction. From the 
 economic standpoint, colors are of limited import¬ 
 ance. Red bran color usually is objectionable as 
 a mixture in ordinary white rice; purple bran 
 varieties are used locally for rice wine or special 
 preparations; purple leaf varieties have been dis¬ 
 tributed for growing in red-rice infested areas, 
 so that the weedy type may be identified in the 
 seedling stage and pulled out. 
 
 The segregation and interaction of color genes 
 in Japanese varieties have been analyzed thor¬ 
 oughly (62). Purple (anthocyanin) colors, if 
 present, ordinarily are manifest at least in the 
 apiculus. The gradations from dark purple to 
 pink and colorless were found to be controlled by 
 five allelic chromogen genes, C®, C®p, C®*, C®*', 
 and c. However, C genes alone produce no color 
 in the flowering stage but are responsible for 
 brown colors in decreasing intensity, which ap¬ 
 pear as the spikelet matures. 
 
 Activator gene A also must be present to con¬ 
 vert the basic color pigment to purple anthocy¬ 
 anin. There are three allels at the A locus. A 
 third gene P, present in all but a few varieties, 
 brings out distinct coloration. The numerous 
 colors produced in the apiculus by the interac¬ 
 tions of the C and A allels in the presence of P 
 are shown in table 4. 
 
 The C® allel in the presence of A and A*^ also 
 has pleiotropic effect, producing color in the inter¬ 
 node. C allels with A and also less distinctly 
 with result in colored outer glumes. 
 
 Table 4. _ Apiculus colors resulting from interaction of C and A allels in the presence of the 
 
 P gene in Japanese rice 
 
 Activator 
 
 allels 
 
 C® 
 
 CBP 
 
 CBt 
 
 CBr 
 
 c 
 
 Color at time 
 indicated 
 
 A 
 
 AO 
 
 a 
 
 J Rurple 
 (Rurple 
 
 S Deep red 
 (Brown 
 ) Colorless 
 (Dark brown — 
 
 Red purple- 
 
 Red purple- 
 
 Red 
 
 Light brown __ 
 Colorless 
 
 Brown- 
 
 Red 
 
 Red 
 
 Orange tinge — 
 Yellow tinge __ 
 Colorless 
 
 Light brown __ 
 
 Pink 
 
 Colorless- 
 
 Orange tinge __ 
 
 Colorless 
 
 Colorless 
 
 Yellow tinge — 
 
 Colorless 
 
 _do_ 
 
 _do_ 
 
 do 
 
 do 
 
 _do___ 
 
 Flowering. 
 
 Maturity. 
 
 Flowering. 
 
 Maturity. 
 
 Flowering. 
 
 Maturity. 
 
 Source: Takahashi (62). 
 
 Combinations of C and A are basic to the 
 appearance of color in other parts of the plant as 
 well as in the apiculus. Purple color of inner 
 
 glumes (lemma and palea), leaves, and nodes was 
 shown to result from the complementary action 
 of C and A with Pr, PI, and Pn, respectively. 
 
12 
 
 A<;RICULTURE handbook 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF A(}RICULTURE 
 
 The expected segregation ratio in the of a 
 cross between a line witli purple apiculus and 
 inner glumes and a completely colorless line is 
 given below to illustrate the many color patterns 
 that appear as the result of recombinations of 
 color genes. 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 (je)ie combinations Color patterns 
 
 27 C A Pr-Purple apiculus and glumes. 
 
 9 (’ A pr-Purple apiculus, colorless glumes. 
 
 It C a Pr-Brown (tawny) apiculus and 
 
 glumes. 
 
 (’ a pr-Itrown (tawny) apiculus, colorless 
 
 glumes. 
 
 U5 c-All combinations with c are color¬ 
 
 less. 
 
 M any of the segregation ratios previously re¬ 
 ported in publications in Japan and other coun¬ 
 tries can now be reinterpreted with fewer as¬ 
 sumptions in accordance with the above analysis. 
 Other workers had recognized two basic comple¬ 
 mentary color genes, but the pleiotropic action 
 and the existence of multiple allels had not been 
 fully realized. 
 
 Indian workers (50) have established an allelic 
 series for another set of glume colors: H™, 
 mottled; IF, piebald; H®, green changing to straw 
 at maturity; and H^, dark furrow color. These 
 colors ajipear only in the presence of the gene for 
 strawhull color, (ih; and with gh, only goldhull 
 coloi's ajipear. 
 
 Purple bran appears in varieties apparently 
 lacking pigmentation in all other parts and seg¬ 
 regates in 3:1 ratios in crosses with colorless bran. 
 A cross between a purple bran line that carried a 
 gene for red bran and a colorless line gave 9 
 pur])le-red :3 j)urple :3 red:l colorless (9). The 
 red underlaid the purple in such a way that it 
 was })ossible to separate the first two classes. A 
 cross between a purple bran line having colorless 
 vegetative parts and a line having ordinary bran 
 and partly purple leaves segregated in the Fa 
 generation in a ratio of 13 colorless or partly 
 ])urple leaves to 3 fully purple leaves. The 
 results show that an inhibitor gene restricts ex¬ 
 pression of full j)urple leaf color. Purple leaf 
 appeared only in the presence of purple bran. 
 
 Red rice varieties are grown in southern India, 
 in Ceylon, and in other areas; but red-rice mix¬ 
 tures in white milled rice detract from the 
 a])pearance. "Work reported from Jajjan (J7) 
 showed that red bran color required two genes 
 for expression. A gene Rc for brown bran is 
 basic, and with Rd the bran is bright red. Rd 
 and A are closely linked; this makes it appear 
 that the apiculus color gene is basic for red. In 
 a cross between a red line of the genetic constitu- 
 fion C A Rd Rc and colorless C a rd rc, the segre¬ 
 gation is 9 red bran, colored apiculus :3 colorless 
 bran, colored apiculus :3 brown bran, colorless 
 
 apiculus:! both bran and apiculus colorless. In 
 this cross, red bran is found only Avith colored i 
 apiculus and brown bran only with colorless. In i 
 the cro.ss C A Rd Rc X c aVd Rc, on the other ; 
 hand, red bran occurs with and without colored 
 apiculus; but brown bran never occurs with col¬ 
 ored apiculus. The Fg ratio is 9 red bran, colored | 
 apiculus :3 brown bran, colorless apiculus :3 red j 
 bran, colorless aiDiculus:! both bran and apiculus I 
 colorless. j 
 
 The exi.stence of A^arieties Avith life cycles that I 
 range from as short a period as 3 months to about ' 
 10 inonths contributes greatly to the Avide adapt- i 
 ability of rice to different areas and conditions. ■ 
 A arieties are classified for fime of floAvering as j 
 photosensitive or as insensitiA^e. The photosen- ; 
 sitiA’e class includes late-maturing varieties, Avhich ' 
 remain in a vegetatiA'e stage Avhile the days are ' 
 long but probably enter the floAvering stage Avhen : 
 the night period reaches a critical length. In 
 Ceylon, differences in A’arietal response to A’aria- 
 tions of less than an hour in day length were 
 found and AA’ere controlled by one dominant gene j 
 for sensitivity (if). Early A'arieties tend to enter ; 
 the floAvering stage after the completion of a 
 fairly constant A^egetativ’e stage. , 
 
 In Japan, a series of six maturity genes domi- . 
 mint for lateness and haAung accumulatiA^e effects | 
 have been postulated (49). The action of these ! 
 genes is conditioned by temperature. Sampath 
 and Seshu (57) reported an Indian study that ' 
 dealt Avith crosses of tAvo A\arieties from Japan 
 Avith photosensitiA-e Indian varieties. One Japa- j 
 nese variety Avas insensitive and the other ; 
 photosensitiA^e in Japan; but under the tempera- i 
 ture and day length conditions at Cuttack, India, ' 
 both floAvered early (48 and 68 days from seeding, ; 
 respectiA'ely). The Fi plants of crosses of the | 
 
 Indian ATarieties Avith the insensitiA'e Japanese ; 
 
 variety floAvered early, and segregation in the Fa ' 
 generation AAais 3 early :1 late or 15 early :1 late. ' 
 HoAveA’er, in crosses betAveen the photosensitiA'e 
 Japanese variety and Indian A^arieties the Fi ' 
 
 plants floAA’ered late and segregation in the F-j ! 
 
 generation Avas 1 early :3 late or 1 early :15 late’ j 
 
 It AA’as assumed that in the crosses with die photo- | 
 
 sensitiA'e parent, genes iiiAmh^ed in temperature ^ 
 
 resjionses and modifying the photoperiodic re- ; 
 
 spouse AA’ere segregating. These authors cite a ! 
 
 Japanese study in Avhich a gene for late floAvering ' 
 
 Avas found to be epistatic to one for early : 
 
 floAvering. j 
 
 In Louisiana, a cross betAveen A’arieties that } 
 headed in 90 and 125 days Avas studied (8). The 
 Fo segregation Avas bimodal and indicated the I 
 action of one major gene for earliness. j 
 
 Disease resistance can be analyzed genetically ■ 
 
 if distinctly resistant and susceptible classes ? 
 
 occur. Specialized races of fungus diseases must ■ 
 
 be taken into account; usually segregation is best ’ 
 
RICE IX THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AN^I) PRODUCTION 
 
 13 
 
 cleterniined following inoculation with cultured 
 spores of individual races. Single and duplicate 
 genes for resistance to four races of Cercospora 
 onjzas I. ]\liyake, the fungus that causes narrow 
 brown leaf spot, have been determined {27). Xo 
 linkage was found between genes for Gercospora 
 resistance and the chromosome marker genes C 
 apiculus color, furrow color, gh goldhull, and 
 wxwaxy(^t?). 
 
 Several types of genetic segregation have been 
 reported for inheritance of resistance to Piri- 
 ciilaria oryzae Cav., the fungus that causes blast. 
 As early as 1922, resistance was reported to be 
 controlled by a single dominant gene {Jfi). PIow- 
 ever, no work has been reported on segregation of 
 resistance to established races. In 1960, a labora¬ 
 tory study of three crosses was reported from 
 India (7). Survival was controlled by one or 
 two dominant genes, but the surviving plants and 
 the parents showed rather high degrees of 
 susceptibility. 
 
 Awns are a conspicuous morphologic character. 
 Although little is known of their physiologic 
 value to the plant, they are supposed to be asso¬ 
 ciated with general hardiness {50) and to offer 
 some protection against pests. Awns are objec¬ 
 tionable in threshing and handling the grain. 
 The development of awns varies considerably 
 with environmental conditions. Varieties that 
 show mere tip awns at moderate levels of fertility 
 may develop much more prominent awns at 
 higher levels. In Louisiana, the Caloro variety 
 develops awns when seeded very early but may be 
 practically aAvnless when seeded late. In the Fa 
 generation, ratios of awned to awnless plants of 
 3:1, 15:1, and 9:7 have been reported from India, 
 Japan, and the L nited States. These ratios show, 
 respectively, that single, duplicate, and comple¬ 
 mentary genes act to produce awns. A study in 
 California {28) shovred that fully awned plants 
 differed from awnless by iavo genes, fully awned 
 from partly awned by one gene, and partly awned 
 from awnless by one gene. 
 
 iVlost rice varieties have pubescent leaves and 
 hulls, although a few are essentially glabrous. 
 Pubescence has been eliminated from the vari¬ 
 eties grown in the Southern United States. In 
 most varieties, a single gene pair G 1 :gl controls 
 the development of plant hairs on all outer sur¬ 
 faces of the ])lant. However, some varieties have 
 some pubescence on the leaf surface, although the 
 lemma and palea are smooth. Xagao, Takahashi, 
 and Kinoshita reported the segregation in 
 
 crosses of the latter type with ordinary pubescent 
 Japanese types. Three classes of pubescence plus 
 glabrous appeared in the Fg generation in ratios 
 of 9 :3 :3 :1 and 27:9 : 21 :3. It was concluded that 
 two genes Ilk and Hk together but not singly 
 bring about the development of hairs on the leaf 
 surfaces even in the presence of gl. 
 
 The strength of attachment of spikelets to their 
 pedicles is of practical importance to the grower. 
 Shattering (shedding) of grain in the wind, 
 which occurs in red rice, would make it impos¬ 
 sible to harvest the crop; whereas at the other 
 extreme, which occurs in some of the Japanese 
 varieties, the attachment is so tight that in com¬ 
 bining much grain would remain on the straw. 
 Types that thresh free of the straw yet do not 
 shatter easily are needed for mechanized harvest. 
 Easy threshing Sh is dominant to intermediate 
 or tough threshing sh; but, on the other hand, 
 tough threshing is dominant to intermediate 
 threshing. 
 
 Multiple gene inheritance of grain length was 
 reported in a study in the United States {29 ). In 
 crosses of short X medium, short X long, and 
 medium X iong types, variation in length in the 
 F 2 generation was continuous. Similar results, 
 also showing transgressive segregation, were ob¬ 
 tained for breadth of grain. 
 
 Tillering ability is of great importance where 
 rice is transplanted, but much less so where direct 
 seeding at relatively high rates is practiced. 
 Kamiah and Rao {50) reported from India that 
 the Fi plants of three crosses were intermediate 
 for number of tillers per plant, and the F 2 prog¬ 
 enies showed transgressive segregation. In one 
 cross high correlation between the number of 
 tillers in F 2 plants and their respective F 3 prog¬ 
 enies indicated that the controlling genes are 
 limited in number—probably no more than three 
 or four. In another cross the occurrence of num¬ 
 erous F 3 progenies, each comparatively uniform 
 in number of tillers, led to the same conclusion. 
 
 Standing ability or lodging resistance is a com¬ 
 plex character that is difficult to measure in in¬ 
 heritance studies. In a study reported from 
 India the F 2 progenies of a cross segregated 
 3 lodging:! nonlodging, but the latter were low 
 tillering and late maturing. 
 
 In Louisiana, a cross between an early-matur¬ 
 ing, medium-grain selection and the late-maturing 
 variety Rexoro indicated transgressive segrega¬ 
 tion for yield (<§). F 4 lines were recovered that 
 had yields significantly higher than those of the 
 high-yielding parent, but none had yields sig¬ 
 nificantly lo\ver than those of the low-yielding 
 parent. Higher yield was strongly associated 
 with earlier maturity. Xo correlation was found 
 between yield and spikelet length and breadth, or 
 between vield and grain weight. 
 
 In correlation studies from other countries 
 Ramiah and Rao {50) indicate association of 
 higher yield with number of tillers, number of 
 grains per ear, and plant height. 
 
 Genetic information on the quality character of 
 rice is very limited, although the single gene seg¬ 
 regation between common and waxy types was 
 one of the first characters studied. The inherit- 
 
14 
 
 A(JRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEIT. OF AGRICUL'rURE 
 
 r 
 
 38 
 
 ->V. 
 
 46 
 
 -/V. 
 
 
 40 
 
 /V. 
 
 WAXY 
 
 22 
 
 41 
 
 /v_ 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 wx 
 
 Cl 
 
 PURPLE LEAF 
 
 ACTIVATOR 
 
 LONG GLUME 
 
 INHIBITOR 
 
 DWARF 
 
 FINE STRIPE 
 
 52 
 
 /— 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 A 
 
 
 \ 
 
 28 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 
 38 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 ■ \/ 
 
 49 
 
 A 
 
 
 / 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 \/ 
 
 1 
 
 31 ,7, 
 
 24 
 
 ^2 
 
 30 
 
 A 
 
 ds 
 
 
 PI 
 
 Ig Ph 
 
 
 ft] 
 
 27 
 
 —\ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 LAZY 
 
 
 A Rd 
 
 30 
 
 A 
 
 Pn 
 
 
 
 la 
 
 
 1 " 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 
 NECKLEAF 
 
 
 d. 
 
 g 
 
 
 Rc 
 
 
 
 nl 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 BLACKLEAF 
 
 1 
 
 bl 
 
 
 
 
 Ps 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 18 
 
 
 28 
 
 \ 
 
 
 BRITTLE 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 46 
 
 A . 
 
 gL 
 
 
 
 be 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 ■ ■ \ 
 
 GLABROUS 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 fs 
 
 
 
 Dn 
 
 
 gl 
 
 
 
 FlGl KE 
 
 -Kice linkage 
 
 groups. 
 
 
 Pr 
 
 39 
 
 th 
 
 ds 
 
 48 
 
 /V 
 
 44 
 
 
 dgAni 
 
 An 
 
 iuice of anivlose content as indicated by tlie iodine 
 value was studied in a cross of Toro (hi^h iodine 
 value) X Texas Patna (low iodine value) {o8). 
 'File value in the Fi generation was low, indicat¬ 
 ing partial dominance. A bimodal distribution 
 was obtained in the F 2 , indicating dominance of 
 one major gene for low iodine value. An asso¬ 
 ciation was shown between low iodine value and 
 colored apiculus; the latter is also a character of 
 the low iodine parent. Recovered lines with high 
 
 iodine value Avere much more numerous in the 
 early-maturing than in the late-maturing group. 
 
 Idnkage refers to the closeness of association in 
 inheritance of genes located on the same chro¬ 
 mosomes. Genes controlling characters that seg¬ 
 regate into clear-cut classes and that are viable 
 are useful for determining linkage relationships. 
 Several of the genes for color are suitable marker 
 genes. Easily classified morphologic characters 
 dependent on single genes ai-e also useful, includ- 
 
lUCE IN THE UNITED STATES I VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 15 
 
 iii^ some of the more conspicuous characters such 
 as awns, lon^ outer flumes (of which recessive 
 and semidominant types are known), pubescence, 
 neckleaf, liguleless, lazy (ageotropic), brittle 
 culm, numerous dwarfs, waxy endosperm, and 
 viable types of chlorophyll deficiencies. 
 
 In a report from Japan_, Nagao and Takahashi 
 {Jt2) presented data that established 12 linkage 
 groups, representing, as expected, the number of 
 chromosomes found in rice. Takahashi {63) has 
 since amplified the information on the linkage 
 groups. The linkage diagrams (maps) shown in 
 
 figure 5 are based on the Japanese results. Data 
 from other studies and reviews (^, 23^ 2If., 25^ 38, 
 63)^ are provisionally included with the groups to 
 which they appear to belong. Linkages between 
 genes that have been reported but not definitely 
 located on the respective chromosomes are listed 
 in table 5. Linkages between genes that have 
 been reported but have not been assigned to a 
 linkage group are also shown in table 5. Link¬ 
 age maps of rice are much less complete than 
 those of barley and maize. 
 
 1 ABiiE o. Linkages not defiTiitely located on, the respective chromosomes 
 
 Linkages tentatively 
 assigned to groups 
 
 I’ercentage 
 recombina¬ 
 tion 1 
 
 Authority 
 
 WAXY GROUP 
 
 
 
 wx vs. Pla 
 
 45 
 
 Nagao and Taka¬ 
 hashi ( 42 ). 
 
 C vs. Hf 
 
 29 
 
 Ramiah and Rao 
 {50), 
 
 C vs. Se 
 
 16 
 
 Chandraratna (16). 
 
 C vs. Lf 
 
 32 
 
 Yamaguchi (68). 
 
 C vs. dp 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Nagamatsu and 
 Ohmura.i 
 
 C vs. n 
 
 do 
 
 Do.i 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 1 vs. doi 
 
 2 17? 
 
 wx vs. Xj 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Oka (1953).! 
 
 wx vs. Vi 
 
 do 
 
 Do.i 
 
 PURPLE LEAP GROUP 
 
 
 
 PI VS. An 
 
 29? 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 PI vs. lop 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Nagamatsu and 
 Ohmura, 1961.i 
 
 Ig vs. Wh 
 
 8 
 
 Jodon (24,25). 
 
 Ig vs. Xa 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Nishimura.i 
 
 Pr vs P 
 
 32? 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 P vs. (black.spot)_ 
 
 33? 
 
 Do. 
 
 Pi‘ vs. Ig 
 
 30 
 
 Richharia and 
 others (51). 
 
 Pr vs. Px 
 
 9 
 
 Do. 
 
 Px vs Psh 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 
 Pr vs. gh 
 
 32 
 
 Jodon (24,25). 
 
 Pr vs. h 
 
 36 
 
 Do. 
 
 gh vs. Wh 
 
 Unknown 
 
 Do. 
 
 Ps vs. Pr 
 
 _do_ 
 
 Hsieh (26). 
 
 d vs. PI 
 
 rlo 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Pi vs. Ig 
 
 do 
 
 ACTIVATOR GROUP 
 
 
 A vs. hn 
 
 23 
 
 Hsieh (19). 
 
 bn vs. d 9 o 
 
 28 
 
 Do. 
 
 doo vs. Igt 
 
 16 
 
 Do. 
 
 Igt vs. bn 
 
 30 
 
 Do. 
 
 A vs. doo _ 
 
 37 
 
 Do. 
 
 Rd vs. Pin 
 
 21 
 
 Ramiah and Rao 
 (56). 
 
 LONG GLUME GROUP 
 
 
 
 dg VS. d7 
 
 39 
 
 Nagao and Taka¬ 
 hashi ( 42 ). 
 
 g vs. Rk 
 
 8 
 
 Kadam and D’Cruz 
 {31). 
 
 Apic vs. g 
 
 17 
 
 Do. 
 
 Linkages tentatively 
 assigned to groups 
 
 Long Glume Group- 
 Coil 
 
 Rk vs. I-An_ 
 
 Pin vs. Rc_ 
 
 Re vs. L4?_ 
 
 INHIBITOR GROUP 
 
 Ps VS. Psh_ 
 
 Ps VS. Apic_ 
 
 A pic vs. Psh_ 
 
 Ps vs. Pr_ 
 
 DWARP GROUP 
 gh VS. Allg- 
 
 gh vs. P or Pr. 
 
 PINE STRIPE GROUP 
 
 None _ 
 
 LAZY GROUP 
 
 La vs. d_ 
 
 NECKLEAF GROUP 
 
 nl vs. An_ 
 
 GLABROUS GROUP 
 g] VS. _ 
 
 LINKAGES NOT 
 ASSIGNED TO 
 LINKAGE GROUP 
 
 Rk VS. An_ 
 
 Bh vs. An_ 
 
 Bh vs. Pin?_ 
 
 Percentage 
 recombina¬ 
 tion 1 
 
 31? 
 
 Unknown 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 o 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 An vs. d_ 
 
 Pr? vs. Pig?_ 
 
 Pr? vs. Pin_ 
 
 Purple collar vs. Prp 
 
 Unknown 
 
 32? 
 
 39 
 
 14 and 24 
 21 
 17 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 Unknowm 
 
 -do- 
 
 -do- 
 
 Authority 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 Ramiah and Rao 
 {50). 
 
 Yamaguchi {69). 
 
 Chao {12). 
 
 Shaft and Aziz {59). 
 Do. 
 
 D’Cruz (17). 
 
 Nagao and Taka¬ 
 hashi {It2). 
 Jodon and Chilton 
 {26). 
 
 Nagamatsu and 
 Ohmura.i 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 Nagao and Taka¬ 
 hashi {lf2). 
 
 Anandan (6’). 
 
 Kuang {36). 
 
 Parnell, Ranga- 
 swami Ayyangar, 
 and Ramiah (47). 
 
 Kuang {36). 
 
 Hebert (18). 
 
 Do. 
 
 Breaux (9). 
 
 Comeaux (16’). 
 
 Jodon (unpub¬ 
 lished). 
 
 Do. 
 
 Ramiah and Rao 
 {50). 
 
 1 As reported by Takahashi {63). 
 
 2 Kntries followed by question marks have not been verified and may be changed as more information becomes 
 available. 
 
16 
 
 A(;KICI'LTURI': IIAXDHOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AORICrLTURE 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (I) Anonymous. 
 
 lOoO. WOKI.D CATALOGUE OF GENETIC STOCKS-RICE. 
 
 Food and Agr. Organ. United Nations, 30 
 pp. [Mimeographed.] 
 
 (11) - 
 
 1963. RICE GENE SYMBOLIZATION AND LINKAGE 
 GROUT’S. U.S. Agr. Res. Serv. ARS 34-28, 
 o6 pp. 
 
 (3) .\DAIR, C. R. 
 
 1034. STUDIES ON BLOOMING IN RICE. AgrOll. 
 Jour. 2(): 065-973. 
 
 (4) - 
 
 li>36. STUDIES ON GROWTH IN RICE. AgrOIl. JOUT. 
 
 28: 506-514. 
 
 (5) Akimoto, S., and Togari. Y. 
 
 1939. VARIETAL differences IN I’ANICLE DEVELOP¬ 
 MENT OF RICE WITH REFERENCE TO EARLY OR 
 LATE TRANSPLANTING. Ci’op Sci. Soc. Ja¬ 
 pan, Proc. 11(1) ; 7-14. 
 
 (6) Anandan, M. 
 
 1928-33. RPTS. ON AGR. STAS., MADRAS DEPT. AGR.. 
 ADUTURiA, 1927-28 AND 19,32-33. [Original 
 not seen. Reported by Ramiah and Rao 
 (50).] 
 
 (7) Bhapkar, D. G., and D’Cruz, R. 
 
 1960. INHERITANCE OF BLAST RESIST.VNCE IN RICE. 
 
 Poona Agr. Col. Mag. .51(2): 23-25. 
 
 (8) Bollich, C. N. 
 
 1957. INHERITANCE OF SEVERAL ECONOMIC QUANTI- 
 TATiYTc CHARACTERS IN RICE. Unpublished 
 thesis, Ph.L)., La. State Uuiv. 
 
 (9) Breaux, Norris. 
 
 1940. CHARACTER INHERITANCE. FACTOR INTERAC¬ 
 TION, AND I.INKAGE RELATIONS IN THE Fo OF 
 A RICE CROSS. Unpublished thesis, Ph.D., 
 Dept, of Agron., La. State Univ., 38 pp. 
 
 (10) Chandraratna, M. F. 
 
 1953. .4 GENE FOR PHOTOPERIOD SENSITIVITY IN RICE 
 
 LINKED WITH APicuLus COLOUR. Nature 
 171 : 1162-1163. 
 
 ( II ) - 
 
 19,55. GENETICS OF PHOTOPEUIODIC SENSITIVITY IN 
 RICE. Jour. Genet. .53 : 215-223. 
 
 (12) Chao. L. F. 
 
 1928. LINKAGE sTUTiiEs IN RICE. Genetics 13 : 
 133-169. 
 
 (13) Chatterjee, D. 
 
 1948. A MODIFIED KEY AND ENUMERATION OF THE 
 SPECIES OF ORYZA LINN. Indian Jour. Agr. 
 Sci. 18(3) : 185-192. 
 
 (14) - 
 
 1951. NOTE ON THE ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF 
 WILD AND CUU.TIVATED RICES. Indian Jour. 
 Genet, and Plant Breeding 11(1) : 18-22. 
 
 (15) Chevalier, A. 
 
 1932. nouvelle contribution a l’etude syste- 
 MATiQUE DEs ORYZA. Rev. de Bot. Appl. et 
 d’Agr. Trop. 12 : 1014-1032. 
 
 (16) Comeaux. D. J. 
 
 1946. AN INHERITANCE AND LINKAGE STUDY OF 
 VIRESCENCE AND OTHER FACTORS IN RICE, 
 
 ORYZA sATivA. Unpublished thesis. La. 
 State Univ., 50 pp. 
 
 (17) D’('’ruz, R. 
 
 1960. A LINKAGE BETWEEN TWO BASIC GENES FOR 
 ANTHOCYANIN COLOUR IN RICE. Sci. and 
 
 Cult. [India] 25: 534-5.36. 
 
 (18) Hebert, L. P. 
 
 1938. A GENETIC STUDY OF COLOR AND CERTAIN 
 OTHER CHARACTERS IN RICE. Unpublished 
 thesis. La. State Univ., 57 pp. 
 
 (19) IISIEH, S. C. 
 
 1960. GENIC ANALYSIS IN RICE. 1. COLORATION 
 GENES AND OTHER CHARACTERS IN RICE. 
 
 Acad. Sinica Bot. Bui. 1 : 117-132. 
 
 ( 20 ) -— 
 
 1961. ANALYSIS OF GENES FOR BLAST DISEASE RE¬ 
 SISTANCE CAUSED BY PIRJCT’LARIA ORYZAE. 
 
 Symp., Studies on Cause of Low Yield 
 of Rice in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Re¬ 
 gions, Proc. Spec. Puli. Taiwan Agr. Res. 
 Inst. 3: 45-52. 
 
 (21) Hutchinson, J. B., Ramiah, K., and Members of 
 Two Special Subcommittees. 
 
 1938. THE description of crop-plant characters 
 
 AND THEIR RANGES OF V.VRIATION. INTRO¬ 
 DUCTION. Indian Jour. Agri. Sci. 8(5) : 
 567-569; ii. variability in rice. 8(5): 
 592-616. 
 
 (22) Ito, H., and Akihama, T. 
 
 1962. AN approach for the symbolization of 
 COLORS in rice PLANTS AND ITS ADOPTION 
 FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF RICE VARIETIES. 
 
 Jap. Jour. Breeding 12: 221-225. [In 
 Japanese. English summary.] 
 
 (23) JoDON, N. E. 
 
 1948. SUMMARY OF RICE LINKAGE DATA. U.S. 
 Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., Soils, and 
 Agr. Engin., 34 pp. [Mimeographed.] 
 
 (24) - 
 
 1955. PRESENT STATUS OF RICE GENETICS. Agr. 
 Assoc. China, Jour, (n.s.) 10: 5-21. 
 
 (25) - 
 
 1956. PRESENT STATUS OF RICE GENETICS. Agr. 
 Assoc. China, Jour, (n.s.) 14: 69-73. 
 
 (26) -and Chilton, S. J. P. 
 
 1946. SOME CHARACTERS INHERITED INDEPEND¬ 
 ENTLY OF REACTION TO PHYSIOLOGIC RACES OF 
 CERCOSPORA ORYZAE IN RICE. Amer. Soc. 
 
 Agron. Jour. 38 : 864-872. 
 
 (27) - Ryker, T. C., and Chilton, S. J. P. 
 
 1944. INHERITANCE OF REACTION TO PHYSIOLOGIC 
 RACES OF CERCOSPORA ORYZAE IN RICE. 
 
 Amer. Soc. Agron. .Tour. 36: 497-507. 
 
 (28) Jones, J. W. 
 
 1933. INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS IN RICE. Jour. 
 Agr. Res. 47 : 771-782. 
 
 (29) - Adair, C. R., Beachell, H. M., and Davis, 
 
 L. L. 
 
 1935. INHERITANCE OF EARLINESS OF LENGTH OF 
 KERNEL IN RICE. Amer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 
 27: 910-921. 
 
 (30) Jlt-iano, j. B., and Aldama, M. J. 
 
 1937. MORPHOLOGY' OF ORYZA SATIVA LINNAEUS. 
 
 Philippine Agr. 26: 1-134. 
 
 (31) Kadam, B. S., and D’Cruz, R. 
 
 1960. GENIC ANALYSIS IN RICE. III. INHPIRITANCE 
 OF SOME CHARACTERS IN TWO CLUSTERED 
 VARIETIES OF RICE. Indian .Tour. Genet, and 
 Plant Breeding 20 : 79-84. 
 
 (32) Katayama, Tukuda. 
 
 1931. ANALYTICAL STUDIES OF TILLERING IN PADDY- 
 RICE. Jour. Imp. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1(4) : 
 327-374. [English summary, 371-374.] 
 
 (33) Kato, S., Kosaka, H., and Hara, S. 
 
 1928. ON THE AFFINITY OF RICE VARIETIES AS 
 SHOYVN BY' THE FERTILITY' OF HYBRID PLANT.S. 
 
 Kjusu Imp. Univ., Fakult. Terkult. Bui. 
 Sci. Rpt. 3: 132. [In Japanese.] 
 
 (34) - — Kosaka, H., and Hara, S., and others. 
 
 1930. ON THE AFFINITY OF THE CULTIVATED VARI¬ 
 ETIES OF RICE PLANTS, ORYZA SATIY’A L. Kj'- 
 
 ushu Imp. Univ., Dept. Agr. Jour. 2(9): 
 241-276. 
 
inCE IX THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 (SH) Kihara. II. 
 
 11)55). CONSIDERATIONS ON THE ORKllN OF CULTI¬ 
 VATED RICE. Scikcii Zilio. It): tiS-83. 
 
 (3)5) Kuang. H. II. 
 
 1951. STUDIES ON RICE CYTOLOIiY AND GENETICS AS 
 WEI.L AS BREEDING WORK IN CHINA. AKI'OD. 
 
 .lour. 4.3: 387-397. 
 
 (37) Matsuda, K. 
 
 1929. ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF RICE KERNELS. 
 XCgakii Kwailio (Sci. Agr. Soe. [Japaiil 
 .lour.), No. 314, 34 pp. 
 
 (38) Matsuura, H. 
 
 1933. ORYZA SATivA. His A Bibliographical Mon- 
 ograpli on Plant Genetics (Genic Analy¬ 
 sis), 1900-1929. Ed. 2, pp. 240-265. Hok¬ 
 kaido Imp. Univ., Sapporo. 
 
 (39) Mizushima, U. 
 
 1948. STUDY ON sexual affinity among rice 
 varieties, ORYZA SATIVA L. I. ANALYSIS OF 
 AFFINITY OF JAPANESE. AMERICAN, AND JAV¬ 
 ANESE VARIETIES. Seibutu 3(2) : 41-52. 
 
 (40) Nagai, I. 
 
 1959. JAPONICA RICE. ITS BREEDING AND CULTURE. 
 843 pp. Yokendo, Ltd., Tokyo. 
 
 (41) Nagao, S. 
 
 1951. genic analysis and linkage relation¬ 
 ship OF CHARACTERS IN RICE. Iti Demei’ec, 
 M., ed., Adv. in Genet. 4: 181-212. 
 
 (42) -and Takahashi, M. 
 
 1963. TRIAL CONSTRUCTION OF TWELVE LINKAGE 
 GROUPS IN JAPANESE RICE. Hokkaido Imp. 
 Univ., Faculty Agr. Jour. 53: 72-130. 
 
 (43) - Takahashi, M., and Kinoshita, T. 
 
 1960. GENETICAL STUDIES ON RICE PLANT. XXV. 
 INHERITANCE OF THREE MORPHOLOGICAL 
 CHARACTERS. PUBESCENCE OF LEAVES AND 
 FLORAL GLUMES, AND DEFORMATION OF 
 EMPTY GLUiiES. Hokkaido Imp. Univ., 
 Faculty Agr. Jour. 51: 299-314. [In Eng¬ 
 lish. 1 
 
 (44) Nandi, H. K. 
 
 1936. THE CHROMOSOME MORPHOLOGY, SECONDARY 
 ASSOCIATION AND ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED RICE. 
 
 Jour. Genet. 33(2) : 315-336. 
 
 (45) Oka, H. I. 
 
 1958. INTERVARIETAL VARIATION AND CLASSIFICA¬ 
 TION OF CULTIVATED RICE. Indian Jour. 
 Genet, and Plant Breeding 18(2) : 79-89. 
 
 (46) --and Chang, W. T. 
 
 1962. RICE VARIETIES INTERMEDIATE BETWEEN WILD 
 AND CULTIVATED FORMS AND THE ORIGIN OF 
 THE JAPONICA TYPE. Acad. Sinica Bot. 
 Bui., 3(1) : 109-131. 
 
 (47) Parnell, F. R., Rangaswami Ayyangar, G. N., 
 and Ramiah, K. 
 
 1917. THE INHERITANCE OF CHARACTERS IN RICE. 
 I. India Dept. Agr. Mem., Bot. Ser. 9 : 
 75-105. 
 
 (48) Ramiah, K., and Ghose, R. L. M. 
 
 1951. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF CULTIVATED 
 PLANTS OF SOUTH ASIA—RICE. Indian Jour. 
 
 Genet, and Plant Breeding 11(1) : 7-13. 
 
 (49) —-and Narasimhan, M. 
 
 1936. DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES IN RICE. I. Madras 
 Agr. Jour. 24(2) : 50-66. 
 
 (50) -and Rao, M. B. V. N. 
 
 19,53. RICE BREEDING AND GENETICS. Indian Coun¬ 
 cil Agr. Res. Sci. Monog. 19, 360 pp. 
 
 (51) Richharia, R. H., Misro, B., Butany, W. T., and 
 Seetharaman, R. 
 
 17 
 
 1960. LINKAGE STUDIES IN RICE (ORYZA SATIVA L.) . 
 
 Euphytica 9: 122-126. 
 
 (5L') Rodrigo. P, A. 
 
 1925. POLLINATION AND THE FLOWER OF RICK. 
 
 Philippine Agr. 14(3) : 1,55-171. 
 
 (.53) Roschevicz, R. ,1. 
 
 1931. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF RICE. 
 
 Bill. Appl. Bot., Genet., and Plant Breed¬ 
 ing 27(4) : 1-133. [English summary, pp. 
 119-133.] 
 
 (54) Sakai, K. 1. 
 
 1935. CHROMOSOME STUDIES IN ORYZA SATIVA L. 
 
 I. THE SECONDARY’ ASSOCIATION OF THE 
 
 iiEioTic CHROMOSOMES. Jap. .Toui’. Genet. 
 11(3): 145-156. [English summarv, p. 
 154.] 
 
 (55) Sampath, S., and Govindaswami, S. 
 
 1958. WILD RICES OF ORISSA-THEIR RELATIONSHIP 
 
 TO CULTIVATED vARiETEs. Rice News Teller, 
 July. 
 
 (56) -and Rao, M. B. V. N. 
 
 1951. INTERRELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SPECIES IN 
 THE GENUS ORY’ZA. Indian Jour. Genet, and 
 Plant Breeding 11: 14-17. 
 
 (57) --and Seshu, D. V. 
 
 1961. GENETICS OF PHOTOPERIOD RESPONSE IN BICE. 
 
 Indian Jour. Genet, and Plant Breeding 
 21: 38-42. 
 
 (58) Seetharaman, Ramaswamy. 
 
 1959. THE INHERITANCE OF IODINE VALUE IN RICE 
 AND ITS ASSOCIATION WITH OTHER CHARAC¬ 
 TERS. Ph.D. Diss., La. State Univ., 65 pp. 
 
 (59) Shafi, M., and Aziz, M. A. 
 
 1959. THE INHERITANCE OF ANTHOCY’ANIN PIG¬ 
 MENT IN THE OUTERGLUilE AND APICULUS 
 
 OF RICE. Agr. Pakistan 10: 217-232. 
 
 (60) Shastry, S. V. S., Rao, D. R. R., and Misra, R. N. 
 
 1960. PACHYTENE ANALYSIS IN ORYZA. I. CHRO¬ 
 MOSOME iioBPHOLOGY IN ORYZA SATIVA. In¬ 
 dian Jour. Genet, and Plant Breeding 
 20(1) : 15-21. 
 
 (61) Smith, W. D., Deffes, J. J., Bennett, C. H., and 
 others. 
 
 1938. EFFECT OF DATE OF HARVEST ON YIELD AND 
 MILLING QUALITY OF RICE. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Cir. 484, 20 pp. 
 
 (62) Takahashi, M. 
 
 1957. ANALYSIS ON APICULUS COLOR GENES ESSEN¬ 
 TIAL TO ANTHOCY’ANIN COLORATION IN RICE. 
 
 Hokkaido Imp. Univ., Faculty Agr. Jour. 
 50: 266-302, 6 plates. [In English.] 
 
 (03)- 
 
 1964. LINKAGE GROUPS AND GENE SCHEYIES OF SOME 
 STRIKING YIORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS IN 
 
 JAPANESE RICE. In Rice Genetics and Cy¬ 
 togenetics, Symp. Proc., Internatl. Rice Res. 
 Inst., Los Banos, Philippines, pp. 215-236. 
 Elsevier Pub. Co., Amsterdam, London, and 
 New York. 
 
 (64) Tateoka, T. 
 
 1963. TAXONOillC STUDIES OF ORY’ZA. III. KEY TO 
 THE SPECIES AND THEIR ENUYIERATION. Bot. 
 
 Mag. Tokyo 76: 165-173. 
 
 (65) Terada, S. 
 
 1928. EMBRYOLOGICAL STUDIES IN ORYZA SATIVA L. 
 
 Hokkaido Imp. Univ., Col. Agr. Jour. 
 19(4) : 245-260. [In English.] 
 
 (66) Terao, H., and Midusima, U. 
 
 1939. SOME CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CLASSIFICA¬ 
 TION OF ORYZA SATIVA L. INTO TWO SUB¬ 
 SPECIES SO-CALLED ‘JAPONICA’ AND ‘iNDICA.’ 
 
 Jap. Jour. Bot. 10(3) : 213-258. 
 
18 
 
 ACxRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (GT). Ting. Ying. 
 
 104{). ORIGINATION OK THE RICE CULTIVATION IN 
 CHINA. Rice Expt. Sta., Sun Yat.sen Univ., 
 Canton, China. Col. of Agr., Agron. Bui. 7, 
 Bub. series III, 18 pp. [Resume in Eng¬ 
 lish.] 
 
 (G8) Yamaguchi, Y. 
 
 1021. ETUDES D’H^REDITE SUR LA COULEUR DES 
 GLUMES CHEZ LE Riz. Bot. Mag. [Tokyo] 
 3o: 106-112. [English review in Internatl. 
 Rev. Sci. and Bract. Agr. [Rome] 12: 
 1399-1401.] 
 
 (69)- 
 
 1929. FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE KNOWL¬ 
 
 EDGE OK THE SECOND (S.M.) LINKAGE GROUP 
 
 IN RICE. Nogaku Kenkyu [Studies in 
 Agr. Sci.] .Japan 13: 13.5-172. [In .Tap- 
 anese. ] 
 
 (70) Yeh, B., and Henderson, M. T. 
 
 1961. CYTOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN CUL¬ 
 TIVATED RICE, ORYZA SATIVA L., AND FIVE 
 WILD SPECIES OF ORYZA. Crop Sci 1 • 445- 
 450. 
 
 (71) Yung, C. T. 
 
 1938. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY OF THE SEEDLING 
 OF THE RICE PLANT. Bot. Gaz. 99(4) • 
 786-802. 
 
RICE BREEDING AND TESTING METHODS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Hy C. Roy Adair, II. M. Beachell, Nelson E. Jodon, T. H. Johnston, ,1. R. Thysell, 
 V. E. Green, Jr., B. D. Webb, and J. G. Atkins 
 
 History and Objectives 
 
 Rice improvement in the United States has been 
 discussed by Jones and the descriptions and 
 
 performance of varieties developed have been 
 reported by several authors (i, 2, £5, J-5, 
 
 52, 67, 58, 59, 67 ). Although some work to im¬ 
 prove United States rice varieties was done before 
 1909, it was not until about then that compre¬ 
 hensive, cooperative rice-breeding studies were 
 started in the United States. Objectives of the 
 rice-breeding program and methods used have 
 been described (7, 18, 55, 69). According to a 
 report by the Rice Millers Association,^ all rice 
 varieties grown in the United States in 1963 
 evolved from these cooperative rice-breeding 
 experiments. 
 
 Although introductions were made by indi¬ 
 viduals after the original introductions into South 
 Carolina in the I7th century, little effort was 
 made by Federal or State agencies to improve 
 rice varieties until work was started by the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture in 1899. At that time 
 Seaman A. Knapp, an explorer in the Division of 
 Botany, introduced from Japan 10 tons of Kiushu 
 rice that was distributed in southwestern Louisi¬ 
 ana and probably in eastern Texas, where he ar¬ 
 ranged farm demonstrations of rice varieties and 
 cultural methods. Many varieties were intro¬ 
 duced and tested by Department workers on 
 demonstration farms in Louisiana and Texas, and 
 later in Arkansas and California, before the es¬ 
 tablishment of rice experiment stations in these 
 States. 
 
 The Rice Experimental Station at Crowley, 
 La., was established in 1909. The Biggs Rice 
 F’ield Station at Biggs, Calif., (now the Rice 
 Experiment Station) and the Rice Experiment 
 Station at Beaumont, Tex., (now the Rice-Pas¬ 
 ture Research and Extension Center) were estab¬ 
 lished in 1912. The Rice Branch Experiment 
 Station at Stuttgart, Ark., was established in 
 1926. Rice investigations were started at the 
 Delta Branch Experiment Station, Stoneville, 
 Miss., about 1951. Rice-breeding investigations 
 are conducted cooperatively by the U.S. Depart¬ 
 ment of Agriculture and the State agricultural 
 
 1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Selected Ref¬ 
 erences. p. (52. 
 
 2 Shown printed in Rice Jour. GG(12) : 14-15. 1963. 
 
 experiment station at each of these locations. The 
 rice-breeding studies were started in Louisiana in 
 1909, in California in 1912, and in Arkansas in 
 1931. Although a comprehensive rice-breeding 
 program was not started in Texas until 1931 and 
 in Mississippi until 1958, some breeding work had 
 been done in these States before these dates. 
 
 Most of the early work consisted of testing 
 selections from foreign introductions and com¬ 
 mercial fields. Many varieties, such as Caloro, 
 Colusa, Fortuna, Nira, and Rexoro, were devel¬ 
 oped and released from 1909 to about 1937. 
 
 S. L. Wright, a farmer in Louisiana, developed 
 seveial rice varieties by selection. These varieties 
 probably were progenies of natural hybrids be¬ 
 tween varieties, such as the long-grain Honduras 
 and the short-grain Shinriki. The most widely 
 grown varieties developed by Wright were Blue 
 Rose and Early Prolific, which are medium- 
 grain types, and Edith and Lady Wright, which 
 are long-grain types. None of these varieties 
 were grown in 1963, but they were the leading 
 varieties in the southern rice area from about 
 1915 to 1940. 
 
 During the early years, no attempt was made 
 to improve varieties by hybridization. Although 
 a few hybrids had been made at experiment sta¬ 
 tions in the southern rice area at an earlier date, 
 it was not until after 1922 that this method of 
 breeding was used. 
 
 The primary objective in rice breeding in the 
 United States is to develop varieties that will 
 assure a maximum and stable production of the 
 types of rice required by producers and con¬ 
 sumers. Emphasis is given to developing short- 
 season varieties. Short-, medium-, and long-grain 
 types—with a wide maturity range within each 
 grain type class—should be developed. The ob¬ 
 jectives of that program are to develop varieties 
 that (1) germinate quickly and grow rapidly in 
 the seedling stage; (2) tolerate low temperature 
 in the germinating, seedling, and flowering stages 
 and tolerate low irrigation water temperatures 
 during the entire growing season; (3) are re¬ 
 sistant to alkaline and saline soils and to salt in 
 the irrigation water; (4) are resistant to diseases 
 and insects; (5) have short, stiff straw and resist 
 lodging; (6) respond to and make efficient use of 
 maximum rates of fertilizer; (7) mature uni- 
 
 19 
 
20 
 
 AGRICULTURi: HAXDHOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OK ACJRICULTUPvE 
 
 fonnly and produce seed that has a jieriod of 
 donnancv so that the fjrain will not <rerininate 
 when harvest is delayed by rain; (8) produce 
 maxiinnin field and milling yields when grown 
 under a wide range of environmental conditions; 
 and (9) have the desired cooking and processing 
 ([ualities required by domestic and foreign trade. 
 
 Each of these objectives is important in each 
 rice-producing area in the Ihiited States, although 
 some of the objectives ai‘e more important in one 
 area than in another. For example, cold toler¬ 
 ance, especially tolerance to cold irrigation water, 
 is more important in California than in the south¬ 
 ern rice area. Disease resistance, on the other 
 hand, is more important in the sourhern rice area 
 than in California. 
 
 Cultural Methods and Equipment 
 for Breeding Rice in the United States 
 
 Land for rice-breeding experiments should be 
 of uniform soil type and topography. A gradual 
 and uniform slope is desirable to afford reason¬ 
 
 ably rapid drainage when nece.s.sary. However, j 
 the sloj)e should be such that blocks of three- ! 
 tenth acre or larger can be uniformly irrigated 
 without contour levees. ^ 
 
 In the Lnited States it is customary to locate ! 
 roadways at 200- to 300-foot intervals running in i 
 the direction of the fall of the land and wide i 
 enough to accommodate field equi])ment and other ; 
 \ ehicles. The road ditches are used for di-aina<re I 
 and are paralleled by border levees. The entire ^ 
 area should be graded to a uniform sloj)e before 
 roadways and irrigation laterals are constructed. : 
 Cross leA’ees at designated })oints divide the field 
 into areas of approximately one-tenth acre that | 
 can be irrigated or drained independently (fig. 0). ; 
 Larger blocks can be formed by eliminating one ! 
 or more cross levees. Irrigation laterals pai-allel 
 roadways and are located midway between the 
 roadways or directly adjacent to one side of the | 
 roadways. 
 
 Kicefield machinery is used to build levees. In 
 heavy clay soils, a steel-bladed levee builder (fig.. ; 
 
 Figure 6.— Seeded nursery plots. Some of the plots are irrigated. 
 
RK’E IX THE ITXITEI) STATES; VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 21 
 
 Figvke 7.—Constructiug levees in the nursery with a 
 steel-bladed levee builder. 
 
 7) is used; in the more loamy soils, a disk-type 
 levee builder (tig. 8) is used/ Usually the cross 
 levees have an 8- to 10-foot base. A concrete 
 levee packer is useful in packing newly con¬ 
 structed levees. A concrete tile, 4 to 0 inches in 
 diameter, is phiced at the lower end of each block 
 to drain the water into the road ditch so that it 
 will hold the irrigation water. The tile is closed 
 with a metal plate. Sometimes plastic tube 
 siphons are used to irrigate from the lateral or 
 to drain the water into the road ditch. 
 
 In the southern rice area, it is customary to 
 plow down the cross levees after each rice crop 
 and to cultivate the fields with ricefield ecjuip- 
 nient. The irrigation laterals and border levees 
 may or may not be torn down. After cross levees 
 have been plowed down, the areas are disked or 
 plowed ancl are leveled with a land plane. A 8- 
 year rotation system is practiced in Arkansas and 
 Louisiana. In Arkansas, the land may be cro])ped 
 to soybeans the first year. The soybeans may be 
 harvested or turned under or dfsked into’ the 
 ground as green manure, after which a winter 
 grain crop may be sown. The gi'ain crop may be 
 overplanted with lespedeza the following spring. 
 The grain crop is harvested in early summer, and 
 the lespedeza is harvested for hay or seed in the 
 summer or fall. The field is plowed or disked, 
 and land is leveled during the winter and early 
 spring preparatory’ to seeding rice the following 
 year. In Louisiana, the land is fallowed wdien 
 not in rice. 
 
 A 3-year rotation system is also practiced in- 
 
 Texas. It consists of 1 year of rice followed by 2 
 years of summer fallow. The first summer after 
 rice is grown and harvested, the field is fallowed 
 and then clover or ryegrass is sowti in the fall. 
 The crop is harvested for hay or seed in the 
 spring, and the field is summer-'fallowed through¬ 
 out the second summer. Land is leveled during 
 the second summer as time and weather permit. 
 
 On clay soils the cross levees are reconstructed 
 in the late fall or winter before the fields are 
 seeded again with rice. After cross levees are 
 constiTicted, the land is prepared by using lift- 
 type implements attached to a lightweight farm 
 tractor. On silt loam soils the cross levees may 
 be made immediately after seeding. 
 
 In California, a 2-year rotation generally is 
 used in rice-breeding nurseries. The land is 
 plow’ed in the winter or early spring after the 
 rice crop has been grown and harvested. The 
 fields usually are irrigated one or more times dur¬ 
 ing the summer when they are not cropped to rice 
 to germinate weed, grass, and rice seeds. The 
 field is cultivated after each irrigation to destroy 
 the plants that emerge. 
 
 Permanent levees are maintained in some of 
 the areas used for rice nurseries. In other areas, 
 plastic levees are used, or earthen levees are con¬ 
 structed with a bulldozer or front-end loading 
 tractor each year before seeding. 
 
 Weeds and grass are controlled on lateral and 
 drainage ditch banks, levees, and alleyways in rice 
 by spraying with a contact herbicide. 
 
 Various types of seeding equipment are used. 
 
 H 
 
 Figure 8. —Constructing levees in the nur.sery with a 
 disk-type levee builder. 
 
22 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 In field plot varietal experiments, seeds are sown 
 with small grain drills or specially equipped 
 drills. In yield trials on nursery plots or in 
 experiments where multiple seed sources are in¬ 
 volved, belt-type seeders (fig. 9) or other readily 
 cleaned drills are used for seeding. Breeding 
 nurseries involving numerous panicle-row selec¬ 
 tions are sown by dribbling seed into a single¬ 
 row manually operated drill (fig. 10) or a multi¬ 
 ple-row power-operated drill. 
 
 On experimental plots uniform application of 
 known amounts of fertilizer materials is difficult. 
 A basal application of phosphorus and potassium 
 may be applied with a conventional fertilizer dis¬ 
 tributor before seeding rice or to one of the other 
 crops grown in rotation with rice. Although the 
 fertilizer usually is distributed by a tractor- 
 drawn implement, it may be distributed by air¬ 
 plane. In the southern rice area, the nitrogen 
 fertilizer for breeding trials usually is applied as 
 a topdressing, although sometimes part or all is 
 applied at seeding time. 
 
 Various methods and devices have been used 
 to apply fertilizer to rice grown in breeding 
 nurseries. Weighed amounts of fertilizer are 
 applied by hand as a topdressing. Mechanized 
 fertilizer distributors have been tried with only 
 limited success. Most devices are slower than 
 hand application, do not apply or distribute uni¬ 
 form amounts of fertilizer, and can be used only 
 on relatively dry soil. 
 
 At Stuttgart, Ark., a manually operated 
 “planter” is used to apply nitrogen fertilizer be- 
 
 Fua uK !>.—Helt seeder, mounted on a small tractor, used 
 for seeding nursery yield experiments. 
 
 Figuke 10.—Manually operated seeder used to seed 
 
 selections. 
 
 tween alternate rows when the soil is dry (fig. 11). 
 At Crowley, La., a single-row seeder that has an 
 agitator-type fertilizer attachment with a sep¬ 
 arate shoe places fertilizer just below the seed. 
 
 For a number of years a fertilizer distributor 
 attached to a 3-row seeder was used at Beaumont, 
 Tex. This drill used regular grain drill fertilizer 
 distributor parts. Top-feed and other hopper- 
 type distributors have been used with limited suc¬ 
 cess to topdress plots. A force-feed type dis¬ 
 tributor that drops the fertilizer on the soil sur¬ 
 face is fairly successful (fig. 12). Cross-plot fer¬ 
 tilizing with this type distributor appears to be 
 desirable in overcoming irregularities of distri¬ 
 bution. 
 
 Because rice nurseries are likely to be muddy at 
 harvesttime, mechanical harvesting equipment is 
 not used. Hand sickles are used to harvest small 
 plots; combine harvesters may be used to harvest 
 large plots. 
 
 Bundles from small plots are air dried by hang¬ 
 ing in a drying shed or by using heated-air driers. 
 When dried by heated air, the bundles are placed 
 in drying trays as harvested and dried over a tun¬ 
 nel or rack-type drying unit with forced heated 
 
RICE IN THE UNII'ED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 23 
 
 Figuke 11.—A distributor used to apply nitrogen ferti¬ 
 lizer between the rows as a topdressing. 
 
 air (fig. 13). Bundles are left in the trays until 
 the grain is ready to be tlireshed. 
 
 Bundles from large plots are threshed in a 
 Vogel thresher (fig. 14) or a modified Kansas- 
 type nursery thresher (fig. 15). Sometimes the 
 concave teeth are removed to reduce breakage. 
 Threshing rice is primarily a stripping action, 
 and breakage is avoided when concave teeth are 
 not used and cylinder speed is reduced. Break¬ 
 age caused by improper adjustment of the 
 thresher should be avoided because it causes a 
 bias of grain yield and milling quality. 
 
 In some instances, bundles are placed on the 
 cross levees for a few hours after cutting and are 
 threshed the same day. The threshed grain is 
 placed in cloth bags and artifically dried with 
 forced air heated to between 90° and 100° F. 
 
 Threshed samples usually are cleaned before 
 weighing for yield determinations. It may also 
 be necessary to break off awns and attached frag¬ 
 ments of rachises. This is accomplished by ]ilac- 
 ing the sample in a .section of automobile inner- 
 tube and pounding several times. An easily 
 cleaned aspirator, dockage machine, or small fan¬ 
 ning machine can be used to remove foreign ma¬ 
 terial. If the threshed samples are relatively free 
 from foreign material, the grain weight can be 
 obtained before cleaning. 
 
 Maintenance of viable seed of varieties and 
 breeding lines is important in a rice-breeding 
 program. The main causes of rapid deteriora¬ 
 tion of seed viability are moisture content of the 
 seed and storage temperature. A method of dry¬ 
 ing the seed and storage facilities with low hu¬ 
 midity and low temperatures are needed. 
 
 The moisture content of the grain is probably 
 more important than temperature in retaining 
 viability. Kice with a moisture content of 10 
 percent or below (wet basis) retained viability 
 for several years at Beaumont, Tex. The tem¬ 
 perature in the storage room ranged from 70° to 
 90° F., and the relative humidity was below 50 
 percent most of the time. 
 
 The moisture content of rough rice can be re¬ 
 duced to 4.7 percent (wet basis) when stored 42 
 days over a saturated solution of lithium chloride 
 (60). The moisture content of rice can be re- 
 cluced to about 6 percent with a silica gel drying 
 unit (fig. 16). Rice reduced to this moisture 
 content probably will retain viability for 5 years 
 or longer when stored at room temperatures. 
 
 At Beaumont, Tex., seed of rice varieties, breed¬ 
 ing lines, and genetic stocks is dried in a silica 
 gel drier to about 6-percent moisture and stored 
 with silica gel in sealed 1.2-cubic foot metal con¬ 
 tainers at about 34° F. About 2 pounds of silica 
 gel is put in each container. An indicator, such 
 as cobalt chloride crystals or paper, that changes 
 
24 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULITTRE 
 
 I'KiOKK LS.—Drying bundles of rice in trays witli forced 
 
 heated air. 
 
 color with increase in moisture is used, so that an 
 inciva.s(‘ in moisture is easil_y detected. The silica 
 ♦fel is usually changed every 2 years. Seed can l)e 
 stoi-ed in polyethylene ha^s with silica ^el. How- 
 e\a'r, since these ha^fs do not exclude all tlie 
 moisture, the silica j^el must be chaiio^ed more 
 freciuent ly. 
 
 At Ci'owley, La., and Beltsville, Md., seed is 
 stoi-t‘d at a temperature of about 0° F. Seed 
 stoi-ed in this manner has retained its viability 
 for more than 20 years. 
 
 Breeding Methods 
 
 d'he three major breeding methods commoidy 
 used for small ^rain hav’e been used in rice 
 br(H'din<r These are (1) introduction of 
 
 vari(*ties from foreign countries, (2) selection of 
 pniv lines from commercial and introduced varie- 
 tie.s, and (3) creation of new varieties bj’ hybridi¬ 
 zation followed by selection. Irradiation breed¬ 
 ing- also has been used in the Fnited States. 
 
 'I'he \arieties now irrown in the United States 
 were develo])ed by usin^ ])ro<rressively the three 
 major methods. Foi- example, the (Iiilfi-ose vai’i- 
 ety was selected from the progeny of a cross 
 between a selection from an introduced variety 
 and a pure line selection from a commercial 
 variety. 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The introduction of varieties from other coun¬ 
 tries has been and still is an important source of 
 germ plasm for rice breeders in the United States. 
 Some of the introduced varieties have been de- 
 veloj)ed by breeders in the country of origin, and 
 others h;ive been indigenous varieties grown for 
 many years by farmers in the country of oriffin. 
 
 Figure 14.—Thre.shing breeder seed witli a Vogel thresher. 
 
 xVccording to Jones (JJ), few varieties were 
 introduced h’om about 1085 to 1889. It became 
 evident then that the varieties being groAvn in 
 the luiited States were not as productive as 
 varieties grown in other countries. Starting 
 about 1800 and continuing to the present, many 
 varieties have been introduced. Jones (JJ) listed 
 and described nine varieties that were intro¬ 
 duced from other countries and grown in the 
 United States. These were Carolina Gold, Caro¬ 
 lina White. Early A\'ataribune, Honduras, Kiu- 
 shu. Omachi, Onsen, Shinriki, and Wataribune. 
 About 1905, Asahi was introduced from Japan by 
 T. M. Sabora, a Texas rice farmer. lie increased 
 this variety for commercial production about 
 1940 (J7). Thus, there have been at least 10 
 introduced vaiaeties that have been grown rather 
 extensively. None of these varieties are now of 
 commercial impoi-tance. 
 
 Varieties now introduced into the United States 
 are gi-own the first year in a greenhouse away 
 from rice production centers to avoid the intro¬ 
 duction of diseases and insects. The seed ])ro- 
 duced in the greeidiouse then is sown in a single¬ 
 row plot at one of the rice experiment stations. 
 Notes are taken on such characters as seedling 
 vigor, straw strength, plant height, length of 
 growing season, grain type, kernel characters, 
 and reaction to di.seases and in.sects. Whether 
 the variety is a jiure line or consists of mechanical 
 or hybrid mixtures is also noted. Varieties that 
 apjiear to have no desirable characters are dis¬ 
 carded. Varieties that have some but not all 
 desirable characters are held in reserve for pos¬ 
 sible future use in the breeding program. Varie¬ 
 ties that look promising in all respects in the 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 25 
 
 Figcrk 15.—Threshing bundles of rice from nursery yield 
 experiment with a modified Kansas nursery thresher. 
 
 Figure Ifi. —Silica gel drying apparatus for drying small 
 
 samples of rice. 
 
 preliiiiiiiary trials are tested for at least 8 years 
 in replicated yield trials and are evaluated for 
 disease reaction and cooking quality. When a 
 variety is proved to be superior to connnercial 
 varieties, the seed is purified and increased and 
 seed of the new variety is distributed to farmers. 
 
 Selection 
 
 Selections from introduced or commercial vari¬ 
 eties have been an important source of rice varie¬ 
 ties in this country. Practically all of the 
 varieties grown in the United States from 1920 
 to about 1945 were developed by this method. 
 
 Jones (J'5) named the breeders who partici¬ 
 pated in this work from about 1900 to about 1980. 
 Most of these breeders were employees of the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. Chambliss and 
 Jenkins (25) listed and described six varieties 
 that were developed by selection. These are 
 Acadia, Delitus, Evangeline, Salvo, Tokalon, and 
 Vintula. These six varieties were not grown ex¬ 
 tensively but probably were important for a few 
 years in local areas in Louisiana. Ten other var¬ 
 ieties developed by selection and listed and briefly 
 described by Jones (A5) are Blue Rose, Caloro, 
 Colusa, Early Prolific, Edifh, Forfuna, Lady 
 Wright, Xira, Rexoro, and Shoemed. Other 
 varieties developed by pure line selection are Con¬ 
 way (^.9), Sunbonnet (J^), Bluebonnet 50 (57), 
 and lola. Latex, Mortgage Lifter, Storm Proof, 
 and Zenith (58). Other selections have been 
 made by farmers and grown locally for a few 
 years. 
 
 Selection is a relatively easy method for breed¬ 
 ing rice, but it takes many years to develop a 
 variety by this method. The procedure is to 
 select a large number of plants or panicles froni 
 a variety that consists of diverse types. These 
 selections are sown in single-row plots and care¬ 
 
 fully observed for the principal characters. If a 
 selection from the jirogeny of a hybrid is segre¬ 
 gating, desirable plants or panicles are selected 
 and sown in single-row plots the second year. 
 IVhen promising lines are breeding true to type, 
 they are tested in replicated yield trials in the 
 same manner as introductions. When a selection 
 is proved to be outstanding, it is named, the seed 
 supply is purified and increased, and if is released 
 for commercial production. 
 
 JMost of the varieties developed by the selection 
 method have been replaced by newer varieties, 
 although there are a few notable exceptions. In 
 19(58, Bluebonnet 50 was the leading variety in 
 the South, and Rexoro was grown rather widely 
 in Louisiana and Texas. Caloro was the leading 
 variety in California, and Colusa also was widely 
 grown in that State. 
 
 Hybridization 
 
 Varieties developed by the selection method 
 were a vast improvement over the varieties they 
 replaced, but varieties developed by this method 
 did not have all the desired characters. Since 
 about 1922 rice breeders in the United States 
 have used the hybridization method of rice breed¬ 
 ing, and hundreds of crosses have been made. 
 
 Three systems are followed in the hybridization 
 method of breeding rice. These are: (1) Two 
 varieties are crossed and the ])rogeny grown in 
 pedigreed rows or bulk plots until pure lines are 
 selected; (2) the backcrossing system in which 
 two varieties are crossed and the Fi plants crossed 
 to one of these varieties and repeated for four 
 or five times; and (8) the multiple crossing sys¬ 
 tem in which four or eight varieties are cro.ssed 
 in pairs, followed by crossing tbe Fi plants from 
 the different combinations so that after two or 
 three rounds of crossing, Fi jilants are obtained 
 that contain some genes from each of the parent 
 
26 
 
 A(iHICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 varieties, These systems may also be modified in 
 various ways. 
 
 (’rossin(; Techniques. —The two basic tech¬ 
 niques used for making rice crosses are the clip¬ 
 ping and the hot water method. There are sev¬ 
 eral modifications of the clipping method but in 
 each case a part of the lemma and palea is re¬ 
 moved. In the hot water method the panicle is 
 emersed in hot water. 
 
 An example of the clipping technique that has 
 been widely used was described by Jones {55) and 
 may be summarized as follows: In the morning 
 before the rice begins to bloom, or in the after¬ 
 noon after the daily blooming period has passed, 
 all except 10 to 20 spikelets are removed from the 
 female panicle. The upper part of the lemma and 
 palea of the remaining spikelets are clipped off at 
 about a 45° angle. This removes about half of 
 the lemma but only the tip or none of the palea 
 so the anthers can be easily removed with fine- 
 pointed forceps. The emasculated panicle then 
 is tagged and covered with a glassine bag. The 
 same day or the next day between 9 :00 a.m. and 
 2:00 p.m., depending somewhat upon the weather, 
 the emasciilated panicles are pollinated. Plants 
 of the variety to be used as the male parent are 
 examined, and a panicle that has spikelets about 
 to bloom is taken. A spikelet that has the 
 anthers pushing up toward the tip of the floret 
 is opened, and an anther or two are placed in the 
 emasculated flower. Usually the anthers are 
 broken open and the pollen is dusted on the 
 stigma. This process is repeated until all flowers 
 have been pollinated. After pollination, the pani¬ 
 cle is again enclosed in the bag and the designa¬ 
 tion of the parents and the date of pollination 
 are written on the tag. 
 
 A modification of the clipping method has been 
 used at the Rice-Pasture Research and Extension 
 (Vnter, Beaumont, Tex. In this method, the tips 
 of the lemma and j)alea are clipped ofl‘ at right 
 angles to the longitudinal axis of the spikeTet. 
 The anthers then are removed by vaccum, by 
 means of a fine glass nozzle connected to a vac¬ 
 uum ])ump that is driven by an electric motor 
 o])erating from a storage battery. Emasculating 
 is done in the early morning or in the late aftei^ 
 noon; and ])ollinating, bagging, and tagging are 
 completed in the same manner as in the clijiping 
 method described by Jones (55). 
 
 Another technique that has been used for cross¬ 
 ing rice is a modification of a method developed 
 for wheat and barley (85). In this method, the 
 lemma and palea are clipped at right angles to the 
 longitudinal axis of the spikelet at a point just 
 above the ti]i of the stigma. This cuts the an¬ 
 thers, and it is not necessary to remove them. 
 The florets are clipped early in the morning or in 
 the afternoon, and then the emasculated panicle 
 is covered with a fairly large glassine bag. Later 
 
 that day or the next day, pollen from a male 
 panicle that has many florets just starting to 
 bloom is dusted on the stigmas of the emasculated 
 panicle. Before pollination the bottom of the 
 inverted bag on the emasculated panicle is slit so 
 that it can be spread open and can serve more or 
 less as a funnel while the pollen is being applied. 
 The bag then can be closed, folded over, and 
 fastened with a paper clip. The pollinated pani¬ 
 cle is then tagged to show the designation of the 
 parents and the date of pollination. 
 
 As a result of the elevated temperature within 
 the bag, seed set may be poor in crosses made by 
 clipping the floret. In an effort to devise a tech¬ 
 nique for making a cross that would not require 
 bagging the female panicles, Jodon (39) devel¬ 
 oped the hot-water method for emasculating rice 
 flowers. In this method, the female panicle is 
 immersed in water at a temperature of 40° to 
 44° C. for 10 minutes in the morning before any 
 of the florets have opened. This critical tem¬ 
 perature renders the pollen grains ineffective but 
 does not prevent the normal functioning of the 
 female portion of the rice florets. Within a few 
 minutes after the panicle is removed from the 
 warm water, the florets that would have bloomed 
 later that day open. These florets can be pol¬ 
 linated in the same manner as in the clipping 
 method. Spikelets that already have been pol¬ 
 linated and spikelets that do not open are clipped 
 off. Spikelets at the base of the panicle usually 
 are immature and can be left to produce mother 
 seed. It may not be necessary to bag the panicle, 
 because the lemma and palea usually close in 
 about 45 minutes. Thus, they usually are closed 
 before other plants start to shed pollen. The pol¬ 
 linated panicle then is tagged to show the desig¬ 
 nation of the parents and the date of pollination. 
 
 Single Crosses. —The crossed seeds are planted 
 in a greenhouse in the fall after the cross is made 
 or in the field the next spring. Wlien the Fj 
 plants are grown in the greenhouse during the 
 winter, a year is saved because the F 2 population 
 can be grown in the field the year after the cross 
 is made. 
 
 Usually several Fi plants are grown to assure 
 that typical parental strains were used in making 
 the crosses. The cross should be made so that the 
 Fj plant can be distinguished from the female 
 parent variety. For example, when pubescent X 
 nonpubescent varieties are crossed, the nonpube- 
 scent variety should be used as the female parent. 
 El plants should be propagated vegetatively until 
 it is known that they are not needed for addi¬ 
 tional seed production or other purposes. Vegeta¬ 
 tive propagation of Fi plants is also helpful in 
 obtaining increased quantities of F 2 seeds. 
 
 Seeds from the Fi plants are spaced thinly or 
 space sown in rows 12 inches or farther apart. 
 When space sown, seeds are placed 3 to 6 inches 
 
KICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 27 
 
 iipart ill the row, so the F 2 plants can be examined 
 individually for plant characters and disease 
 reaction. A further advantage of space seeding 
 Fo poiuilations is that all the seed produced by a 
 selected F 2 plant can be harvested and used for 
 ( 1 ) preliminary quality tests on milled samples 
 (5 to 10 grams), (2) growing at different loca¬ 
 tions or dates of seeding to obtain information 
 on reaction to diseases and to photoperiod and 
 other environmental influences, and ( 8 ) seedling 
 tests in greenhouse or growth chamber for blast 
 reaction and seedling hardiness. In important 
 crosses where known genetic variables can be 
 identified, early-generation testing has proved 
 very effective. 
 
 The rice-breeding procedures used in the F 3 
 and subsequent generations usually are governed 
 by particular circumstances such as available per¬ 
 sonnel, physical facilities, financial considera¬ 
 tions, urgency of a particular development, 
 number of characters involved, and mode of 
 inheritance. 
 
 The pedigree system has been more widely used 
 than other systems of handling hybrid progenies, 
 although modifications of the pedigree and bulk 
 systems are frequently followed. 
 
 In the pedigree system, the F 2 plants are care¬ 
 fully examined in the field and laboratory. The 
 selections that appear to be satisfactory for all 
 characters studied are sown in individual rows 
 (8 to 16 feet long and 12 inches apart) the 
 next spring. Seeds are spaced thinly in rows. 
 Space seeding is seldom used for F 3 and later 
 generations. 
 
 When facilities and circumstances permit, a 
 system of multiple screening of selections may be 
 used. Desirable plants are saved from the F 2 
 progenies in the field, and each plant is threshed 
 individually. A small jiortion of the grain of 
 each is milled, and plants having chalky kernels 
 are discarded. Milled samples from the remain¬ 
 ing plants are tested in the laboratory to deter¬ 
 mine cooking quality. Undesirable plants are 
 eliminated, and the seeds of each of those remain¬ 
 ing after the double screening are divided into 
 three parts. One part (about 25 seeds) of each 
 is tested for reaction to hoja blanca under con¬ 
 trolled conditions. Another part is seeded late in 
 the field under conditions believed to be favorable 
 for the development of blast. The third part is 
 seeded in the breeding nursery to observe agro¬ 
 nomic characters and to provide seed for further 
 testing of lines surviving the multiple screening. 
 This screening method eliminates many undesir¬ 
 able lines in the F 3 generation. 
 
 The F 3 lines are carefully examined through¬ 
 out the growing season and usually from 6 to 15 
 panicles are selected from lines that have the 
 desired plant and grain type and that appear to 
 be resistant to diseases. The quantity of seed 
 
 from each panicle is seldom sufficient for seeding 
 at more than one or two locations. Small samples 
 for quality tests and a few seeds for disease 
 nurseries may be obtained by bulking part of the 
 seed from each of the 6 to 15 panicles harvested 
 from a given F 3 line. The remaining panicles in 
 a line may be harvested in bulk to provide addi¬ 
 tional seed for testing the line for resistance to 
 straighthead, hoja blanca, and blast; and for 
 seedling hardiness, grain quality, or other char¬ 
 acters. The F 4 lines are handled in much the 
 same manner as the F 3 lines. Usually from 3 to 
 6 selected panicles of each line are sown in 
 panicle-row plots the following year. 
 
 Early-generation testing is continued until it 
 is reasonably certain that the lines are no longer 
 segregating for the characters under study. 
 From 10 to 15 panicles are selected from non¬ 
 segregating rows, and then the rows are harvested 
 and threshed in bulk. Part of the seed from the 
 harvested rows is used for more extensive labora¬ 
 tory grain quality tests. 
 
 Lines that have suitable grain type are then 
 tested in a preliminary yield trial. Some lines 
 may be discarded because of lack of vigor, weak 
 straw, disease susceptibility, undesirable cooking 
 quality, or other undesirable characters. Lines 
 that are heterozygous for one or more characters 
 but otherwise appear to be desirable are replaced 
 by pedigree sublines selected from later genera¬ 
 tion panicle rows. True breeding lines usually 
 can be isolated in six to eight generations. The 
 true breeding lines then are tested for at least 3 
 years to determine yielding ability, disease resist¬ 
 ance, time of maturity, plant height, stiffness of 
 straw, and cold tolerance, and to check thoroughly 
 milling, processing, cooking, and other characters. 
 Lines that prove to be superior to existing varie¬ 
 ties in one or more characters are then named, the 
 seed is purified and increased, and the seed of the 
 new variety is distributed to growers. 
 
 The bulk system has been used to a limited 
 extent, particularly where time and space were 
 limiting factors. True breeding lines usually 
 can be obtained in fewer generations when the 
 pedigree method is used. 
 
 In the bulk system of breeding, the Fi plants 
 are grown and the F 2 populations are sown in the 
 same manner as in the pedigree method. The F 2 
 population is harvested and threshed in bulk. 
 Progenies from each cross may be kept separate 
 or the ])rogenies from several crosses with similar 
 parentage may be combined. From 10 to 25 rod 
 rows are grown in F3. They are harvested and 
 threshed in bulk and sown on a similar size plot 
 the next year. This procedure is followed for 
 each succeeding generation until Fe or F 7 . In 
 bulk-hybrid populations, special care should be 
 taken to be sure that desirable plant types are not 
 being eliminated through natural selection. For 
 
28 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 example, tall and profuse-tillering types tend to 
 eliminate short types (6). 
 
 The bulk system often is modified in various 
 ways. For example, if there is a differential 
 plant reaction to a natural or artifically induced 
 infection of a serious disease, a bulk is made uj) 
 by selecting the resistant plants. Plants that 
 make u]) the bulk are sometimes tested for proc¬ 
 essing and cooking quality. Where the parents 
 differ in grain type, panicles having the desired 
 grain types are selected in bulk or the bulked 
 seed is graded on the basis of length and width, 
 and the desired grain type is saved. This opera¬ 
 tion might be repeated for several generations. 
 AVhen unfavorable weather or a shortage of help 
 makes selections in rhe field impossible, a com¬ 
 posite niay be harvested and panicles selected in 
 the laboratory. In this case, the grain from 
 selected plants is combined for seeding the bulk 
 plot the next year. 
 
 In California, progenies from each cross are 
 sometimes grown in small, water-seeded plots 
 ^vhere the material is seeded under conditions 
 similar to those of the commercial ricefields. 
 This method aids the breeder in selecting plants 
 that emerge readily through deep water. Also, 
 when rice is water seeded, some varieties do not 
 develop sufficient roots, and plants may tend to 
 lean as the grain matures. Thus, when rice is 
 water seeded in breeding studies, plants may be 
 evaluated for resistance to this type of lodging. 
 
 Each year the material may be subjected to 
 natural selection pressures in an attempt to elimi¬ 
 nate undesirable types. Examples of natural 
 selection pressures are: Harvesting before late 
 plants are mature if short-season types are de¬ 
 sired; seeding under conditions where straight- 
 head is likely to occur; or inoculating with 
 Ajj'helenc'hoides hesseyi Christie (sometimes called 
 A. oryzae Yokoo) to eliminate plants susceptible 
 to white tip. After six or seven generations, a 
 large number of plants or panicles are selected, 
 preferably from a sj^ace-planted population. The 
 plants are carefully examined and only those that 
 apjiear to have strong straw, disease resistance, 
 and ^ood grain type are selected. Seeds of the 
 selections are then examined in the laboratory 
 much the same as seeds from F 2 plants are ex¬ 
 amined, and those that appear to have the desired 
 kernel characters are sown in single-row plots the 
 next year. The selections are then handled in the 
 same manner as advanced-generation selections 
 obtained by the pedigree method. 
 
 Many rice varieties have been developed in the 
 I nited States by the hybridization method. A"a- 
 rieties that were named and released are as fol¬ 
 lows: Arkrose, Belle Patna, Bluebonnet, Calady, 
 Century Patna 231, Cody, Delrex, Gulfrose, Tiii- 
 jn-oved Bluebonnet, Kamrose, Lacrosse, Magnolia, 
 Missouri B-500, Xato, Xorthrose, Xova, Prelude, 
 
 K-I), Kexark, R-X, Saturn, Texas Patna, Toro, 
 TP 49, and Vegold. Many of these varieties were 
 not in commercial production in 1963, although 
 varieties developed from crosses comprised about 
 85 percent of the Thiited States acreage that year. 
 
 Backcross. —The backcross system or a modifi¬ 
 cation of the typical backcross system is success¬ 
 fully used to some extent in rice breeding in the 
 T nited States. As with other small grains, this 
 system is used when it is desired to transfer one 
 gene or a small number of genes to a fairly well- 
 adapted variety. This system has not been used 
 as widely with rice as with other small grains. 
 Commercial rice production methods in the 
 United States have undergone periodic changes 
 (combine harvesting, increased fertilizer use, new 
 herbicides) that have resulted in rather drastic 
 changes in plant-type requirements. Because rice 
 breeders have had to search for divergent types, 
 the use of standard varieties as recurrent parents 
 in a formal backcross program has been pre¬ 
 vented. As production methods become more 
 stable and satisfactory plant types are developed, 
 and as rice breeding progresses in the United 
 States, the backcross method may be used more 
 generally. Adair, Miller, and Beachell (7) de¬ 
 scribed briefly the development of hoja blanca 
 resistant, long-grain types by backcrossing. 
 
 Calrose (d7), a medium-grain variety, was de¬ 
 veloped by this method of breeding. 
 
 jVIultiple Cross. —Multiple crossing has been 
 used very little by rice breeders in the United 
 States. Several varieties have been developed 
 from rather complex crosses, but none of these 
 were selected from a population obtained from 
 systematically crossing four or more varieties. 
 
 Irradiation 
 
 Irradiation breeding has been employed in the 
 United States. Several mutants that may be use¬ 
 ful in breeding programs have been obtained in 
 this manner, but no varieties have been developed. 
 
 Breeding for Agronomic Characters 
 
 Rice often is seeded early in the spring when 
 the soil temperature is low, or it may be sown in 
 water that is below the optimum temperature. 
 Thus, seedling vigor is an important character 
 of rice varieties, and it is desirable to study seed¬ 
 ling vigor and cold tolerance concurrentlv and to 
 combine the two characters in a rice variety. 
 
 At optimum temperatures, indica varieties gen- 
 erally grow faster in the seedling stage than do 
 japonica varieties. However, some of the japon- 
 ica varieties are more tolerant to low tempera¬ 
 tures, and seedlings of these cold-tolerant janonica 
 varieties inay grow and develop faster than seed¬ 
 lings of indica varieties when the temperature of 
 the soil or water is low. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 29 
 
 Vigor and cold tolerance of seedlings are 
 studied under controlled conditions (68) and in 
 the Held. In the controlled studies, the seeds are 
 sown in water and the temperature is maintained 
 at 60° F. The length of longest leaf at about -U) 
 days is the criterion used to judge tolerance and 
 vigor. The varieties aiid lines that are vigorous 
 and cold tolerant under controlled conditions are 
 tested in the field. Field experiments are con¬ 
 ducted by water seeding in fields where the irriga¬ 
 tion water is cold, or by drill seeding early in the 
 spring. Because variability is high under field 
 conditions, results for a particular experiment are 
 not always dependable. But over a period of 
 years, useful information can be obtained on the 
 performance of varieties under these adverse 
 conditions. 
 
 Varieties also differ in their response to low 
 temperatures during the flowering stage. This 
 character of rice varieties and breeding lines is 
 studied by seeding late, so that pollen develop¬ 
 ment and flowering occur when the temperatures 
 are low. In Texas, when temperatures are below 
 the optimum in October when rice is flowering, 
 hardy varieties, such as Caloro, continue to de¬ 
 velop; whereas cold-sensitive varieties, such as 
 Bluebonnet 50 and Century Patna 231, may not 
 produce seed. 
 
 Rice varieties also vary in response to high 
 concentration of salts in the irrigation water and 
 in the soil. Varietal response to salt was studied 
 at Stuttgart, Ark., and Beaumont, Tex. At 
 Stuttgart, on soils with a high salt content. Ark- 
 rose produced 4,180 pounds per acre and Blue¬ 
 bonnet 50 produced 3,172 pounds. On soils with 
 lower concentration of salts, Arkrose produced 
 4,531 pounds per acre and Bluebonnet 50 pro¬ 
 duced 3,838 pounds. At Beaumont, with a con¬ 
 centration of sodium chloride of about 2,500 
 parts per million in the irrigation water, Caloro 
 produced 1,789 pounds of grain per acre, whereas 
 Toro produced only 842 pounds. When no salt 
 was added to the irrigation water, Caloro pro¬ 
 duced 4,820 pounds per acre and Toro 3,716 
 pounds. 
 
 The Beaumont studies were conducted in 1/10- 
 acre blocks of Beaumont clay soil. Approxi¬ 
 mately 2,500 parts per million of salt was main¬ 
 tained in the irrigation water by adding sodium 
 chloride. Frequent additions of salt were needed 
 because of dilution from rains and soil moisture 
 exchange. As much as 15,000 pounds of salt per 
 acre was used during the 70- to 80-day test. Salt 
 was first added to the irrigation water when the 
 rice plants were about 45 days old. 
 
 Under these conditions an attempt was made to 
 grow breeding lines in single-panicle rows as well 
 as to conduct yield tests in replicated nursery 
 plots. Widely different responses occurred be¬ 
 cause of weather conditions during blooming and 
 
 immediately thereaffer. When blooming occurred 
 during periods of cloudy weafher and modei-ate 
 temperatures, 2 )i"ictically all lines showed good 
 seed sets. When tenq:)eratures were high and 
 humidity was low, iiractically all lines showed 
 2 :)oor seed sets. After several years, the test was 
 abandoned because it required a great amount of 
 time and effort and provided little information. 
 
 Varieties that produce maximum yields must 
 have relatively short and sturdy straw, so that the 
 rice does not lodge before harvest (fig. 17). 
 Jai^onica varieties have smaller and shorter culms 
 and shorter, narrower, and darker green leaves 
 than do most indica varieties. Although there 
 are exceptions, japonica varieties generally pro¬ 
 duce higher yields than do indica varieties; this 
 indicates that morphologic characters might be 
 associated with grain yield. The japonica varie¬ 
 ties have tough but willowy stems. The less 
 willowy straw character of the indica varieties is 
 preferred since this type is less likely to lodge. 
 
 For several years, rice breeders have been 
 searching for plants with short, slender stems; 
 with erect, relatively narrow, dark-green leaves 
 of intermediate length; and with low jiercentages 
 of sterility at high rates of nitrogen fertilization. 
 Strains approaching this description have been 
 selected from crosses between a Taiwan variety, 
 Tainan-iku No. 487 (P.I. 215,936),^ and United 
 States varieties. Ten short-stature selections from 
 these crosses were grown in a variety-fertilizer 
 test in 1961. They averaged 4,224 pounds of 
 rough rice per acre at the 160-pound nitrogen 
 rate and 3,367 pounds at the 80-pound rate. The 
 highest yielding strain yielded 5,658 pounds at 
 the 160-pound rate and 4,022 pounds at the 80- 
 pound rate, compared with Bluebonnet 50, an 
 indica type variety, which yielded 3,448 and 
 
 Figuke 17.—A field of Caloro rice showing serious lodging. 
 
 3 P.I. refers to the accession number assigned to foreign 
 introductions by the Crops Research Division, Agricultural 
 Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 
 
30 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 2,916 pounds, respectively, at the two rates of 
 nitrogen fertilization. 
 
 In an effort to find short-stature types possess¬ 
 ing superior yielding capacity, varieties that com¬ 
 bine extremely narrow and erect leaves and small 
 stems have been crossed. 
 
 Short-strawed plants have been found in hybrid 
 and irradiated populations, as mutations from 
 varieties, and in introductions from foreign coun¬ 
 tries. In Arkansas, naturally occurring dwarf 
 types were saved from C.I. 9187,'* a high-yielding, 
 lodging-resistant, early long-grain experimental 
 variety that has short straw and narrow leaves. 
 Crosses were made with Bluebonnet types to im¬ 
 prove milling quality, and dwarf and semidwarf 
 types were saved for testing. 
 
 The short-stature types showed considerable 
 variation in plant height because of the degree of 
 internode elongation. Club and grassy dwarfs 
 seldom grow more than 12 to 18 inches tall. Since 
 grains are shortened and frequently are otherwise 
 distorted, they are of no economic value. Some 
 intermediate-height, dwarf-type lines exhibit 
 varying degrees of grain distortion. Other inter¬ 
 mediate-height, dwarf-type lines appear to pro¬ 
 duce grains of normal size and shape. 
 
 All of the dwarf-type plants examined ap¬ 
 peared to have the normal number of nodes. The 
 reduced height was governed by the extent of ; 
 internode elongation, including the peduncle (in¬ 
 ternode just below panicle). In all but one 
 dwarf-type selections examined, all internodes of 
 the stem, including the peduncle, showed reduced 
 elongation when compared with normal height 
 plants. An exception to this elongation pattern 
 was observed in a dwarf plant selected at Beau¬ 
 mont, Tex., in 1955, from an irradiated popula¬ 
 tion of Century Patna 231. The panicles of this 
 selection were normal in length and floret num¬ 
 ber, and the peduncles were of about normal 
 length. The lower internodes showed only minor 
 elongation; this resulted in an extremely short 
 and sturdy plant. 
 
 The grains of the dwarf were of normal length 
 but appeared to be slightly tapered. This dwarf 
 was crossed with normal Bluebonnet 50, Century 
 Patna 231, Rexoro, and Texas Patna. Dwarf- 
 type selections resembling the original strain were 
 recovered in about a 3 normal :1 dwarf-type ratio 
 in all crosses. The original and the dwarf-type 
 selections from the crosses were tested in yield 
 experiments and invariably showed about 15- to 
 20-percent lower yields than did normal strains. 
 All the dwarf-type strains showed considerably 
 more sterility than did the normal strains, which 
 was probably responsible for the reduced yields. 
 
 C.I. refers to the accession number used in the Cereal 
 Crops Research Rranch, Crops Research Division, Agri¬ 
 cultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agricul¬ 
 ture. 
 
 The cause of the increased sterility was not de¬ 
 termined. This promising dwarf type will be 
 studied further. 
 
 Generally a high rate of nitrogen fertilizer is 
 applied to rice-breeding nurseries to select types 
 that respond to fertilizer and that resist lodging. 
 When pure lines are isolated, they are then tested 
 at two rates of nitrogen fertilization. Usually a 
 randomized, split-plot design is used with varie¬ 
 ties as the main plots and with nitrogen rates as i 
 subplots (fig. 18). 
 
 At Stuttgart, Ark., a continuing experiment 
 designed cooperatively by the agronomist, the i 
 plant breeder, and the plant pathologist has been ' 
 established to compare outstanding experimental 
 varieties with commercial varieties they might be 
 expected to replace. Varieties are tested in ma¬ 
 turity groups and receive nitrogen fertilizer at a 
 number of rates and times. The varieties are 
 checked closely for grain yields and disease reac¬ 
 tion, lodging, and other characters in the field. 
 Milling yields and chalkiness of the grain and 
 kernels resulting from the various treatments are 
 also checked. To develop a satisfactory nitrogen 
 fertilization program for each variety so that it 
 will give consistently high grain yields with a 
 minimum of lodging and disease, possible new 
 varieties are tested 2 or 3 years as part of a final 
 evaluation before their release. 
 
 In fertilizer-variety tests at Stuttgart, Ark., 
 C.I. 9434, a very short-season, experimental long- 
 
 Figuke 18.—C.I. 9446 fertilized at two rates: Left, 200 
 pounds of nitrogen per acre produced a yield of 5,707 
 pounds of rice per acre; right, 40 pounds of nitrogen 
 per acre produced 3,942 pounds of rice per acre. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 31 
 
 ^rain variety, produced 5,992 pounds of grain per 
 acre coinparecf with 5,839 pounds produced by 
 Bluebonnet 50. In both tests the treatment in¬ 
 cluded 200 pounds of nitrogen per acre, but C.l. 
 9434 produced this relatively high grain yield in 
 45 days less time than did Bluebonnet 50; and 
 the straw of C.l. 9434 was 14 inches shorter. 
 
 The results from these experiments indicate 
 that it will be possible to develop short-strawed, 
 nonlodging varieties that respond to high rates of 
 fertilizer. Notes on breeding lines and strains in 
 yield tests recorded about 30 and 60 days after 
 seeding and at maturity provide valuable infor¬ 
 mation on plant type. By using symbols, brief 
 notes are obtained on (1) habit of growth of 
 leaves (erect to spreading); (2) color of leaves 
 (light to dark green) ; (3) leaf width (narrow to 
 wide); (4) plant or seedling height (short to 
 tall); and (5) degree of tillering (low to high). 
 Calculating sterility percentage by counting the 
 number of sterile and fertile florets on selected 
 panicles of breeding lines appears to have merit. 
 
 The grain yield of breeding lines and experi¬ 
 mental varieties is determined by using replicated 
 nursery plots. For comparison, standard varie¬ 
 ties are included in each trial. The experimental 
 design is a complete randomized block, usually 
 with four replications. The plots are about 1 rod 
 (5 meters) long and three or four rows wide. 
 Usually the rows are spaced 9 inches apart in the 
 4-row plot or 12 inches apart in the 3-row plot. 
 The plots are trimmed to a uniform length before 
 harvesting. For yield determination, the center 
 row is harvested in the 3-row plot, and the two 
 interior rows are harvested in the 4-row plot. 
 One or both of the border rows may be harvested 
 in order to have a larger sample for milling and 
 cooking tests. 
 
 An alternate method is the use of 4-row plots 
 usually 15 or 16 feet long with a 12-inch spacing 
 between rows. An 8-foot segment from the two 
 center rows is harvested. By careful harvesting, 
 the remainder of the plot is left standing for later 
 observations and for collection of panicle samples. 
 
 In California, where the rice on all farm fields 
 is sown broadcast in the water, the method used 
 for testing varieties is somewhat different. The 
 rice is sown in the water by hand. 
 
 The design used for preliminary trials is a com¬ 
 plete randomized block with three or four repli¬ 
 cations. The individual plots are a single row, 
 12 to 16 feet long, with the rows spaced about 24 
 inches apart. The preliminary trial gives infor¬ 
 mation on the ability of the variety to emerge 
 through the water, straw strength, and other 
 characters. The best varieties then are tested in 
 randomized, quadruplicated plots large enough to 
 be harvested with a small combine. 
 
 Time of maturity (length of growing season) 
 is an important consideration in the breeding pro- 
 
 grtun. Although early and very early types have 
 gainecl favor in recent years, a complete range of 
 maturity types is maintained. 
 
 Partial dormancy in rice is desirable, so that 
 rice does not germinate if rain and humid weather 
 occurs at harvesttime or if plants are badly 
 lodged. -Seed of nondormant varieties will germi¬ 
 nate before cutting if there is a prolonged period 
 of rain after the grain is ripe. It sometimes is 
 desirable to break dormancy of seeds soon after 
 harvest. This is necessary in the case of crossed 
 seeds to be planted in the greenhouse in the winter 
 or other breeding material to be grown during the 
 off season in another region. This can be done 
 by treating in a 0.10- to 0.05-percent solution of 
 sodium hypochlorite for 24 hours or by heating 
 in shallow, open containers for 3 to 5 days at 47° 
 to 50° C. 
 
 Rice varieties in the United States are divided 
 by grain size and shape into three types. These 
 are short- (Pearl), medium-, and long-grain 
 types. The more slender, long-grain varieties are 
 sometimes considered as a fourth type. Examples 
 of each type are Caloro, Nato, Bluebonnet 50, and 
 Rexoro, respectively. The grain type can be 
 visually classified; but for more critical compari¬ 
 sons of varieties and for classification, more exact 
 mpsurements are needed. At the Cooperative 
 Rice Quality Laboratory at Beaumont, Tex., the 
 various grain types are characterized objectively 
 according to length, width, length/width ratio, 
 thickness, and grain weight. Dimensions of 
 rough (paddy), brown, and milled (head) rice 
 grains are measured and reported in accordance 
 with the following definitions : 
 
 (1) Length of awnless rough rice is the 
 straight-line distance (millimeter) from the point 
 of disarticulation of the grain, which is below the 
 outer glumes, to the tip of the apiculus (fig. 19, 
 B). For awned rough rice the tip of the lemma 
 is the reference point. Length for brown and 
 milled rice is the distance between the most dis¬ 
 tant tips of the kernel, including the embryo of 
 the brown rice kernel (fig. 19, A). 
 
 (2) Width (dorsiventral diameter) for rough 
 rice is the distance (millimeter) across the lemma 
 and palea at the widest point (fig. 19, B). Width 
 for brown and milled rice is the distance across 
 the kernel at the widest point (fig. 19, A). 
 
 (3) Thickness (lateral diameter) for rough 
 rice is the distance (millimeter) from one out¬ 
 side surface of the lemma to its opposite at the 
 thickest point (fig. 19, D). Thickness for brown 
 and milled rice is the distance from one side of 
 the kernel to its opposite side at the thickest 
 point (fig. 19, C ). 
 
 By modifying a photographic enlarger, a device 
 was built for measuring the length and width of 
 rice (fig. 20). The enlarger was mounted on a 
 box with three sides that were painted black on 
 
32 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDHOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEIT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Fku’rk U).—Points from which rice grain and kernel 
 measurement should he made. 
 
 tlie inside. A black cloth was placed over the 
 o])en side of the box to exclude most of the li^ 2 ;ht, 
 so tliat a distinct image of the rice grain would 
 appear on the white grid. IMinute adjustments 
 were made to obtain a magnification of exactly 
 10 times. 
 
 Figure 20.—Device for measuring rice grains and kernels. 
 
 The light source was a 6- or 12-volt cold, sealed- : 
 beam, automobile spotlight. The spotlight had a 
 smooth surface, so that light or shaded areas , 
 would not be projected on the grid. Any cold i 
 light source of similar intensity should be . 
 satisfactory. ' 
 
 A 50-mm.F/4.5 liminized lens was used. This ■ 
 lens made it possible for the enlarged image ; 
 (lOX) to be projected on a grid that was less i 
 than 24 inches from the lens. ' 
 
 A glass slide that held 10 grains was placed in ! 
 the light field just above the bellows and the 50- | 
 millimeter lens. A millimeter scale was placed ' 
 on the glass slide. The image of the millimeter 
 scale was magnified 10 times and made possible i 
 accurate focusing before use. The adjustable I 
 bellows to which the 50-millimeter lens was at- < 
 tached made it possible to obtain a clear-cut , 
 image. The enlarged images of the rice grain i 
 were measured to obtain the length and width, j 
 The thickness of the rice grain was determined f 
 by using a micrometer caliper graduated in milli- I 
 meters. The micrometer was placed in a small ! 
 vice attached to a table. A sheet-metal tray at ' 
 the base of the micrometer, to catch grains : 
 dropped during the operation, is useful. : 
 
 If similar equipment is not available, a random f 
 sample of 10 grains or kernels can be placed ; 
 adjacent on transparent tape in the desirecl posi- ! 
 tion for the particular measurement, and the total 
 length, width, or thickness can be measured wdth ' 
 a fair degree of accuracy by using a transparent - 
 ruler. i 
 
 s 
 
KICK IN THE UNITED STATES: VAKIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 33 
 
 The length, width, and thickness of milled 
 kernels are determined by measuring 15 whole 
 kernels selected at random from a representative 
 sample. The coefficient of variation for each 
 dimension is calculated for each of 15 kernels to 
 determine the nniformity.of size and shape. Size 
 and shape classes for brown kernels are as 
 follows: 
 
 Length 
 
 Size claasifivation {Millimeters i 
 
 Extra lonjt (EL)_Over!..") 
 
 Lctiif; (L)-(1.61 to T.f) 
 
 Medium (M)_.^>.51 to 6.6 
 
 Short (S) - Up to 5.5 
 
 Length/ 
 
 Shape classitiedtion width ratio 
 
 Slender-Over 3 
 
 •Medium _2.1 to 3 
 
 Bold -Up to 2.1 
 
 The average length, length/width ratio, thick¬ 
 ness, and 10()-grain weight of rough, brown, and 
 milled (head) rice for each of 18 varieties are 
 tabulated in table 6. 
 
 Testing for Milling, Cooking, 
 and Processing Qualities 
 
 The determination of milling, cooking, and 
 processing qualities of hybrid progenies, breeding 
 lines, and neiv varieties is an essential part of the 
 rice-breeding program. New varieties that are 
 relea.sed for commercial production must meet 
 established standards for these qualities. Certain 
 cooking and processing qualities are historically 
 associated with specific grain types. For ex¬ 
 ample, most of the long-grain varieties grown in 
 the United States cook dry and flaky, and some 
 are used for specific processed products. The 
 short- and medium-grain varieties grown in the 
 United States are more moist when cooked than 
 are the long-grain varieties and are used for spe¬ 
 cific processed products such as dry cereals. Thus, 
 it is desirable that a new variety have the same 
 cooking and processing qualities as the variety it 
 replaces. 
 
 Milling Quality 
 
 The objective of rice milling is the removal of 
 hulls, bran, and germ with a minimum breakage 
 of the endosperm. The milling process generally 
 consists of four fundamental operations: (1) 
 Cleaning the field-run rough rice to remove such 
 things as mud lunq)s, rice stems and leaves, 
 weed seeds and stems, and other foreign matter; 
 
 (2) shelling the cleaned rice to remove the hulls; 
 
 (3) scouring the brown rice to remove the coarse 
 outer layers of bran, white inner-bran, aleurone 
 layers, and germ; and (4) grading the mixture 
 of whole and broken milled kernels according to 
 size classes known as head rice (whole-grain 
 milled kernels), second head (larger pieces of 
 broken milled kernels), screenings (smaller pieces 
 of broken milled kernels), and brewers rice (very 
 small pieces of broken milled kernels) (7, 16). 
 In modern rice mills, all operations in the rice¬ 
 milling process are performed mechanically with 
 a minimum amount of manual labor, including 
 the transfer of rice from one machine to another 
 for the next series of operations. Fraps (30), 
 Geddes (<?/, pp. 204-3-2051), Kik and Williams 
 {62), Wayne (5/), and, more recently, Kester 
 (61) have described the commercial milling of 
 rice as practiced in the United States. Additional 
 information describing rice milling and proc¬ 
 essing equipment has been published by the Food 
 and Agriculture Organization of the United Na¬ 
 tions {9, 2Jf .). 
 
 The milling quality of rice is based on the yield 
 of head rice obtained, since it is usually the milled 
 product of the greatest monetary value. Yields 
 of head rice vary widely, depending on variety, 
 grain type, cultural methods and other environ¬ 
 mental factors, and the drying, storing, and mill¬ 
 ing conditions. The yield of total milled kernels 
 (head rice and all sizes of broken kernels) is im¬ 
 portant, too, and this yield is influenced by the 
 proportion of hulls and the amount of fine par¬ 
 ticles of broken kernels unavoidably included in 
 the bran fraction during the milling process. 
 
 In rice-breeding programs, rigid laboratory 
 milling tests are required to insure that any new 
 variety released will consistently produce high 
 yields of head rice and total milled rice. At the 
 
34 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 I'able 6.— Grain cluiracters far 18 rice varieties groian in Unifartn Yield Nurseries 
 
 in Arkansas and Texas^ 1959-61 
 
 [Values are averages and are for first cutting only] 
 
 Grain type and variety 
 
 Grain form i 
 
 Grain characters 
 
 Length 
 
 Ratio 
 
 L/W 
 
 Thickness 
 
 100-grain 
 
 weight 
 
 
 
 Millimeters 
 
 
 M illimeters 
 
 Orams 
 
 Short-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fRougli 
 
 7.3 
 
 2.0:1 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 Caloro 
 
 ^ Brown 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.7:1 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.3 
 
 
 i Milled 
 
 4.9 
 
 1.8:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 (■Rough 
 
 7.1 
 
 1.9:1 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.8 
 
 Codv 
 
 J Brown 
 
 5 4 
 
 1 7 ‘1 
 
 9 1 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.7:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 [’Rough 
 
 7.2 
 
 1.9:1 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.8 
 
 t'olusa 
 
 ^ Brown 
 
 5.4 
 
 1.7:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.0 
 
 1.8:1 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 Medium grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [■Rough 
 
 8.4 
 
 2.6:1 
 
 2.2 
 
 3.1 
 
 Ark rose 
 
 ] Brown 
 
 6.3 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.2:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 7.8 
 
 2.4:1 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.5 
 
 ('alrose 
 
 -{Brown 
 
 5.9 
 
 2.2:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.6 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 8.0 
 
 2.5:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.5 
 
 Gulfrose 
 
 Brown 
 
 6.3 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.9 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 8.3 
 
 2.5:1 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.6 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 J Brown 
 
 6 3 
 
 O Q .1 
 
 1 8 
 
 9 1 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.9 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 7.3 
 
 2.4:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.1 
 
 Nato 
 
 t Brown 
 
 5.8 
 
 2.2:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.7 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.3 
 
 2.2:1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 7.7 
 
 2.4:1 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.4 
 
 Northrose 
 
 .{ BrowTi 
 
 5 8 
 
 2 1 "1 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 ft 
 
 
 (Milled 
 
 5.4 
 
 2.2:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 7.8 
 
 2.4:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.3 
 
 Zenith 
 
 -{ Brown 
 
 6 0 
 
 2 3*1 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 A 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 5.7 
 
 2.3:1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 Long-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 8.7 
 
 3.7:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 J Brown 
 
 6 8 
 
 3 4 •! 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 7 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6^5 
 
 3.4:1 
 
 1.’6 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 9.6 
 
 3.8:1 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.5 
 
 Bluebonnet 50 
 
 [ Brown 
 
 7 2 
 
 3 4-1 
 
 1 7 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6^8 
 
 3^4 :1 
 
 i!6 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 9.1 
 
 3.9:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.1 
 
 Centurv Patna 2.11 
 
 J Brown 
 
 7 0 
 
 3 4-1 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.5 
 
 3.4:1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 8.8 
 
 3.9:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.1 
 
 Rexoro 
 
 J Brown 
 
 7 1 
 
 3 6 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 7 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.5 
 
 3.5:1 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 8.9 
 
 3.6:1 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.4 
 
 Sunbonnet 
 
 Brown 
 
 7 2 
 
 3 3 1 
 
 1 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.7 
 
 3.3:1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.8 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 9.1 
 
 4.0:1 
 
 1.7 
 
 2.0 
 
 Texas Patna 
 
 Brown 
 
 7 1 
 
 3 6-1 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 6 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.6 
 
 3!6:1 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 9.0 
 
 3.8:1 
 
 1.9 
 
 2.2 
 
 Toro 
 
 Brown 
 
 7 1 
 
 3 4-1 
 
 1 7 
 
 1 7 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.5 
 
 3.3:1 
 
 i.’s 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 [Rough 
 
 9.4 
 
 4.0:1 
 
 1.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 TP 49 
 
 Brown 
 
 73 
 
 3 7-1 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 8 
 
 
 [Milled 
 
 6.7 
 
 3.6:1 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.7 
 
 ’ Rough = unhulled grain; brown =>= grain with hull removed; milled = whole grain milled kernels with hull, 
 bran, and germ removed. 
 
KICK IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 35 
 
 Cooperative Rice Quality Laboratory at Beaii- 
 nioiit, Tex., three methods are available for esti¬ 
 mating the milling quality of rice varieties and 
 selections. The method used depends on the 
 amount of rice available for testing. The official 
 grading method for determining the milling qual¬ 
 ity of rough rice by United States standards, 
 described by Smith {78, 79, 80, 81) and adapted 
 to laboratory conditions, gives the breeder com¬ 
 parative information regarding milling quality of 
 the more advanced selections grown in larger 
 plots. The method requires 1,000 grams of rough 
 rice for each determination. 
 
 A modification of the official method requires 
 only a 125-gram sample {19) to estimate the 
 milling quality of rice and enables the breeder to 
 check milling quality at very early stages of selec¬ 
 tion. The samples of rough rice are sealed in 
 glass jars and kept at room temperature for at 
 least 24 hours to bring the moisture content to 
 equilibrium before the rice is milled. The mois¬ 
 ture content is determined, a 125-gram sample of 
 the rice is hulled in a McGill slieller, and the 
 broAvn rice is weighed. The weight of the hulls 
 is determined by subtracting the weight of the 
 brown rice from the weight of the rough rice. 
 
 The brown rice sample is milled in a small 
 McGill miller for 30 seconds, using a 14-pound 
 weight over a steel plate that covers the rice. The 
 sample is immediately milled a second time for 
 30 seconds, using a 4-pound weight. This second 
 milling gives a high polish to the rice kernels but 
 causes little additional breakage. The milled ker¬ 
 nels are sealed in a glass jar to prevent unneces¬ 
 sary breaking due to rapid or uneven cooling. 
 The bran is screened through a 20 X 20 mesh wire 
 screen to recover the small, broken kernels that 
 passed through the miller screen. The finely 
 broken kernels thus recovered are aspirated and 
 added to the milled kernels. The milled kernels 
 are weighed when the rice has cooled to room 
 temperature. The weight of the bran and polish 
 is the difference between the weight of brown 
 rice and the weight of total milled rice. 
 
 The whole kernels are separated from the total 
 milled portion with a sizing device developed by 
 the Grain Division, Consumer and Marketing 
 Ser vice, T".S. Department of Agriculture. This 
 device makes use of two indented plates, with flat- 
 bottom holes, tilted at a slight angle and shaken 
 by an eccentric mechanism. During the shaking 
 motion, the rice travels the length of the top 
 sloping plate and drops onto the bottom sloping 
 plate. Whole kernels drop off the end into a 
 container; broken kernels fall into the indents in 
 the plates. Plates with specific size indents are 
 used for each grain type. Results usually are 
 reported as percentage of hulls, bran, head rice, 
 and total milled kernels. 
 
 A method also is available for milling very 
 small samples of rice {76). This method can be 
 used to mill the rice from one panicle. The rough 
 rice sample is thoroughly cleaned and hulled in a 
 McGill sheller, and a 5-gram sample is weighed 
 for milling. The weighed sample is put into a 
 test tube with 3 grams of abrasive (40- to 60-mesh 
 fused white aluminum oxide or clean, sharp, 
 white quartz sand). The stoppered test tube is 
 mounted in the test-tube miller, which holds 80 
 test tubes, and is shaken for 45 minutes at a speed 
 of approximately 390 strokes per minute. The 
 samples then are removed and polished in a small 
 sample polishing machine (77). This method of 
 milling small samples not only gives information 
 on the milling quality of individual plant selec¬ 
 tions but also provides a milled sample to use for 
 preliminary tests of the physical and chemical 
 properties of the kernel. 
 
 The average milling yields of hull, bran, total, 
 and head milled kernels for each of 18 varieties 
 grown in the Uniform Yield Nurseries in Ar¬ 
 kansas, Louisiana, and Texas from 1958 through 
 1961 are tabulated in table 7. Estimated yields 
 were determined according to the modified pro¬ 
 cedure of Beachell and Halick {19). 
 
 Cooking and Processing Qualities 
 
 Rice varieties differ greatly in cooking and 
 processing qualities. Among the domestic varie¬ 
 ties the quality of home-cooked rice has been 
 described as varying from very sticky to flaky 
 {lf.6). Fully cooked grains of typical United 
 States short- and medium-grain varieties are 
 usually somewhat sticky, relatively firm, and tend 
 to stick together. Typical long-grain varieties 
 usually cook to a flaky state with a minimum of 
 splitting and do not tend to stick together. Other 
 terms used to subjectively describe cooking qual¬ 
 ity are moist or clry, soft or firm, and mealy or 
 chewy. Since different cultural groups prefer 
 different textures, there is a rather widespread de- 
 inand for all types for use as home-cooked table 
 rice. 
 
 There is also a demand for all types of rice for 
 use in the widely different prepared products. 
 Processors of rice prefer different textures for 
 their various products and also specific qualities 
 adapted to the processes themselves. According 
 to Kester {61), a substantial amount of the do¬ 
 mestic rice crop is processed into various kinds of 
 prepared foods such as parboiled rice, quick-cook¬ 
 ing rice, breakfast cereals, canned rice, canned 
 soups, canned rice and vegetable mixtures, dry 
 soup mixes, enriched baby foods, and frozen 
 dishes. Rice flour is used in various processes, 
 and broken rice is often used in brewing. Typical 
 long-grain varieties are preferred for many par¬ 
 boiled and quick-cooking products, and specific 
 
AOKICn/rUKE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEI*T. OF AOlUCULTURE 
 
 :J() 
 
 'Fabi.e 7. —MiUing yields for 18 rice varieties grown in Uniform, Yield Nursei'ies 
 
 in Arkansas,) Louisiana, and Te:xae^ 1958-61 
 
 [Values are averages and are for first cutting only] 
 
 Grain type and variety 
 
 Milling yields ^ 
 
 Milled rice 
 
 Head rice 
 
 Hulls 
 
 average 
 
 Bran 
 
 average 
 
 Total 
 
 average 
 
 Average 
 
 Range 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 .Short-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caloro 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 
 58-72 
 
 Codv 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 72 
 
 67 
 
 58-71 
 
 Colusa 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 73 
 
 65 
 
 42-75 
 
 .Medium-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .\rkrose 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 71 
 
 63 
 
 33-70 
 
 Calrose 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 71 
 
 69 
 
 63-72 
 
 Gulf rose 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 65 
 
 58-70 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 71 
 
 66 
 
 63-72 
 
 Nato 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 72 
 
 68 
 
 63-73 
 
 Northrose 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 68 
 
 64 
 
 59-69 
 
 Zenith 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 70 
 
 64 
 
 53-71 
 
 l.ong-grain ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 50-69 
 
 Bluel)onnet .W 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 52-68 
 
 Century Patna 231 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 67 
 
 62 
 
 50-67 
 
 Rexoro 2 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 68 
 
 52 
 
 36-61 
 
 Sunhonnet 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 71 
 
 62 
 
 50-71 
 
 Texas Patna 2 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 68 
 
 58 
 
 48-65 
 
 Toro 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 71 
 
 67 
 
 60-70 
 
 TP 492 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 52-62 
 
 1 Total milled rice is the head rice and all sizes of broken kernels. Head rice is the whole grain milled kernels. 
 
 2 Grown only in Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 lon^-^rain varieties are preferred for certain 
 canned sonp products. Medium- and short-^rain 
 varieties are more suitable for dry breakfast 
 cereals and for use in baby foods and in brewing:. 
 The short-g:rain types exclusively are used for 
 making: jfutTed rice. 
 
 Althoug:li in the United States each g:rain type 
 is g:eneraHy associated with sjiecitic cooking; and 
 processing: (qualities, notable varietal exceptions 
 within each g:rain type have been reported; and 
 the nontypical cooking: and processing quality of 
 these grain-type exceptions in relation to meas¬ 
 ured differences in some chemical and ])hysical 
 qualities of the rice grain has been discussed {HO, 
 33). 
 
 In rice-breeding programs, cooking and proc¬ 
 essing quality is considered to be an important 
 measure of the suitability of a variety or selection 
 for specific purposes. At the Cooperative Rice 
 Quality Laboratory at Beaumont, Tex., results of 
 specific chemical and physical tests collectively 
 .serve as indices of cooking and processing qual¬ 
 ities. The results guide the rice breeder in select¬ 
 ing lines that combine the desired cooking and 
 processing qualities and agronomic features. The 
 merit of this type of evaluation has been clearly 
 demonstrated. 
 
 Some of the chemical and physical tests are the 
 determination of amylose content {87).) starch- 
 iodine-hlue value (<?^), gelatinization tempera¬ 
 ture {33)) type and extent of disintegration of 
 whole milled kernels in contact with dilute alkali 
 {65)) and amylograph pasting qualities {33). 
 
 The amylose content of rice, particularly of 
 long-grain types, has recently been associated 
 with cooking quality (7/, 87). The inve.stigations 
 of Williams and others {87) showed that the 
 long-grain domestic varieties known to cook dry- 
 flaky usually had the highest amylose content; 
 whereas the amylose contents of the short- and 
 medium-grain varieties investigated were some¬ 
 what lower. The glutinous (waxy) varieties con¬ 
 tain virtually no amylose. The simple, rapid, and 
 somewhat empirical starch-iodine-hlue test {3Ji.) 
 is particularly useful in breeding programs for 
 estimating the relative amylose content of early- 
 generation breeding material. 
 
 The gelatinization temperature of rice is be¬ 
 lieved to he closely related to cooking quality. 
 The amylograph studies {33) shoAved that most 
 short- and medium-grain varieties gelatinized at 
 loAA’er temperatures than did most of the long- 
 grain varieties investigated. These results Avere 
 confirmed by granule SAvelling and birefringence 
 
lUCE IN THE UNITED STATES ; VARIETIES AND RKODUCTION 
 
 37 
 
 end-point temperature (BEPT) determinations 
 
 'I he reaction of milled rice kernels in contact 
 with dilute alkali has been used to classify the 
 cooking quality of rice {56^ 83). The type and 
 extent of disintegration of whole milled rice ker¬ 
 nels in contact with dilute alkali were reported 
 more recently {65). Two distinct reactions were 
 noted: (1) Spreading where the kernels disinte¬ 
 grated into small granules and spreading to sev¬ 
 eral times the original kernel size; and (2) clear¬ 
 ing where the starch is solubilized with a loss of 
 opacity. Spreading and clearing were evaluated 
 on a numerical scale from 1 (minimum) to 7 
 (maximum). A slight-to-moderate reaction was 
 characteristic of most domestic long-grain varie¬ 
 ties and a more pronounced reaction was charac¬ 
 teristic of most short- and medium-grain varieties. 
 A very high correlation between the alkali reac¬ 
 tion and gelatinization temperatures has been 
 observed {33). 
 
 The pasting quality of several domestic varie¬ 
 ties as determined with the amylograph have been 
 described {33). In general, amylograph curves 
 of rice varieties were typical of those of other 
 cereal starches, but they showed appreciable dif¬ 
 ferences among the varieties studied. Long-grain 
 varieties with the highest amylose content usually 
 showed the greatest increases in viscosity when 
 cooled to 50° C. Amylograms of most short- and 
 medium-grain varieties generally exhibited rela¬ 
 tively shorter gelatinization times. 
 
 Notable varietal exceptions within each grain 
 type were observed by Halick and Kelly {33). 
 For example, the long-grain varieties Rexark and 
 Toro had amylose contents, gelatinization tem¬ 
 peratures, and alkali spreading and clearing reac¬ 
 tions similar to those of typical short- and 
 medium-grain varieties. These long-grain varie¬ 
 ties are also thought to resemble the typical short- 
 and medium-grain varieties more in cooking qual¬ 
 ity than they do other long-grain varieties. Of 
 all the varieties tested. Century Patna 231, a long- 
 grain variety, and Early Prolific, a medium-grain 
 variety, had the highest gelatinization tempera¬ 
 ture and were the most resistant to the action of 
 dilute alkali. In general, these varieties have not 
 been widely accepted for certain types of cooked 
 rice and processed products. 
 
 Average values for some of the physical and 
 chemical characters of 18 rice varieties grown in 
 the Uniform Yield Nurseries in Arkansas, Louisi¬ 
 ana, and Texas, from 1958 through 1961, are 
 tabulated in table 8. Environmental and other 
 factors influence these qualities to some extent; 
 however, within a limited range, the values are 
 representative of each variety. In the rice-breed¬ 
 ing program, characters of new selections are al¬ 
 ways compared with comparably grown commer¬ 
 cial varieties. Some of the physical and chemical 
 
 characters of the short- and medium-grain varie¬ 
 ties listed in table 8 are a relatively low amylose 
 content, a relatively low gelatinization tempera¬ 
 ture, a very pronounced alkali reaction, and a 
 relatively low viscosity of the cooked paste Avhei. 
 cooled to 50° C. The typical long-grain varieties 
 are qualified by a relatively high amylose con¬ 
 tent, an intermediate gelatinization temperature, 
 a slight-to-moderate alkali reaction, and a maxi¬ 
 mum increase in viscosity of the cooked paste 
 when cooled to 50° C. Of the typical long-grain 
 types, the late-maturing varieties Rexoro, Texas 
 Patna, and TP 49 consistently had the highest 
 amylose content, the lowest peak viscosity, and a 
 maximum viscosity of the cooked paste when 
 cooled to 50° C. These varieties are preferred 
 for certain canned soup products. The non- 
 typical cooking and processing quality of Century 
 Patna 231 and Toro, both long-grain varieties, has 
 been discussed previously. 
 
 Physical and chemical grain quality evaluation 
 tests are invaluable to the plant breeder in de¬ 
 veloping varieties with specific processing and 
 cooking quality. The specific tests used depend 
 on the quality variables of the particular hybrid 
 population in question and the purpose for which 
 the end product is to be used. 
 
 The results of the starch-iodine-blue and the 
 alkali digestion tests enable the plant breeder to 
 classify early-generation hybrid lines as to gela¬ 
 tinization temperature of starch and relative 
 amount of amylose. Promising advanced-genera¬ 
 tion lines are evaluated from data obtained in 
 analytical tests for amylose and protein content, 
 pasting qualities using an amylograph, and cook¬ 
 ing, parboiling, and canning tests. In certain 
 crosses where it is essential to retain a specific 
 pasting quality or parboiling and canning char¬ 
 acter, it may be necessary to obtain amylograph 
 data on early-generation lines to make certain 
 that the desired qualities are recovered. Such 
 tests are usually conducted on a relatively small 
 number of samjiles because of the quantities of 
 grain required and the time used in performing 
 the tests. Parboiling and canning tests using 5 
 to 10 grams of rough rice can be conducted on 
 rather large numbers of samples if necessary, but 
 the cost is relatively high. 
 
 The cross Gulf rose X Bluebonnet 50 is an ex¬ 
 ample of how quality tests aid in the rice-breeding 
 program. In this cross, the objective was to 
 develop a long-grain Bluebonnet 50 type possess¬ 
 ing the hoja blanca resistance of Gulf rose. Gulf- 
 rose ordinarily shows a low gelatinization tem¬ 
 perature and relatively low amylose content, 
 whereas Bluebonnet 50 ordinarily shows inter¬ 
 mediate gelatinization temperature and relatively 
 high amylose content. 
 
 A large number of long-grain types resem¬ 
 bling Bluebonnet 50 were saved from the F 2 plant 
 
38 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table 8. —Physical and chemical characters of yniUed kernels for 18 rice varieties grovm 
 in Uniform Yield Nurseries in Arkansas^ Louisiana^ and Texas^ 1968-61 
 
 [Values are for first cutting only] 
 
 
 Physical character 
 (naste viscositvl 1 
 
 
 Chemical characters 
 
 
 (irain type and variety 
 
 
 
 
 Gelatini¬ 
 
 zation 
 
 
 
 Peak 
 
 Cooled to 
 
 Amylose 
 
 .AlKUll Xt'UeLlUIl'' 
 
 
 50° C. 
 
 content - 
 
 tempera¬ 
 ture 2 
 
 Spreading 
 
 Clearing 
 
 
 Bruhender 
 
 Units 
 
 Brabender 
 
 Units 
 
 Percent 
 
 ° C. 
 
 
 
 .Sliort-graiii: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caloro 
 
 850 
 
 690 
 
 19 
 
 66 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 (’odv 
 
 950 
 
 690 
 
 17 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Colusa 
 
 840 
 
 690 
 
 18 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 .Mediurn-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arki'ose 
 
 820 
 
 660 
 
 21 
 
 64 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Cali’ose 
 
 900 
 
 680 
 
 19 
 
 65 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 (Julfi'ose 
 
 750 
 
 660 
 
 19 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 920 
 
 700 
 
 14 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Nato 
 
 f)G0 
 
 640 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 •Noi’throse 
 
 820 
 
 630 
 
 15 
 
 67 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Zenith 
 
 860 
 
 710 
 
 19 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 I.ong-grain : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 820 
 
 770 
 
 26 
 
 70 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Bluebonnet 50 
 
 790 
 
 730 
 
 24 
 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Centui’v Patna 281 
 
 950 
 
 730 
 
 16 
 
 77 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Rexoi’o 
 
 600 
 
 750 
 
 28 
 
 69 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 8uid)onnet 
 
 810 
 
 740 
 
 26 
 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 Texas Patna 
 
 630 
 
 760 
 
 28 
 
 71 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Toro 
 
 870 
 
 740 
 
 17 
 
 65 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Tl' 49 
 
 690 
 
 770 
 
 28 
 
 69 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1 Average Uniform Yield Nursery in Texas, 1958-61. 
 
 2 Uniform Yield Nurseries grown only in Arkansas and Texas. 
 
 3 Reaction in 2.0 percent potassium hydroxide solution. 
 
 population. A portion of the grain from each 
 plant saved was milled in a test-tube miller. The 
 milled samples were visually examined for grain 
 texture, size, and shape; and alkali digestion and 
 iodine-blue values were determined. Samples 
 showing grains of intermediate gelatinization 
 temperature and relatively high amylose (an 
 iodine-blue value of 25 or below) were saved for 
 hoja blanca testing. In the F 3 plant generation, 
 a bulk made up of 15 or more panicles was again 
 milled, and the quality tests were repeated. The 
 strains that appeared satisfactory agronomically 
 after F 5 or F^ plant generations were increased 
 for yield testing; and at this stage other quality 
 tests for characters, such as analytical amylose 
 and protein content and pasting viscosity, were 
 made. 
 
 Breeding for Disease Resistance 
 
 d'he easiest, most practical, and least exjiensive 
 way to control rice diseases is to use resistant 
 varieties. Considerable research has been done in 
 
 the United States on the reaction of rice varieties 
 to the various rice diseases and on developing 
 resistant varieties. Much of this work has been 
 reviewed {13^ IJf). The symptoms, control meas¬ 
 ures, and importance of the rice diseases occur- ' 
 ring in the United States are given in the section f 
 ‘‘Rice Diseases,” p. 113. Methods used to breed ■ 
 resistant varieties are presented in this section. : 
 
 Certain basic principles apply to breeding for 
 disease-resistant varieties of a crop. Techniques 
 to create an epiphytotic of the disease and to ’ 
 evaluate and record the response of the plant to ' 
 the causal organism must be developed. Then the f 
 available varieties and breeding lines must be [ 
 tested to determine sources of resistance to the ' 
 causal organism. Resistant varieties can then be • 
 crossed with varieties possessing other desirable 
 characters, the progenies can be tested, and the !■ 
 resistant lines can be isolated. Where a resistant • 
 variety has few attributes other than resistance to i 
 the disease under study, it may be used as the 5 
 donor variety in a backcross program. In order 
 to develop efficient breeding techniques, the mode \ 
 of inheritance of reaction to causal organisms - 
 must be determined. ' 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIJ:S AND PRODUCTION 
 
 39 
 
 Blast 
 
 Hlast, caused by the fungus Firicularia oryzae 
 (\iv., is an important disease of rice. Much re¬ 
 search has been done on it in the United States 
 and in other rice-producing countries. Physio¬ 
 logical races of P. oryzue that occur in the United 
 States (6'4) make the breeding of resistant varie¬ 
 ties more complex than if races did not occur, 
 (ienes for resistance to each race that is known to 
 occur in the United States are available, but not 
 all are present in any one variety. 
 
 A satisfactory method for inoculating plants 
 {8) and a system of rating reaction have been 
 developed (^4)- Many varieties in the AYorld 
 Uollection and breeding lines have been tested 
 under controlled conditions for reaction to specific 
 races of P. oryzae. Uniform trials have been con¬ 
 ducted in the field under a wide range of en¬ 
 vironmental conditions {IS). Some studies on 
 the genetics of reaction to P. oryzae have been 
 made {13. 66), but information is not available on 
 the genetics of reaction to all races. 
 
 An accelerated program of testing and breeding 
 rice for resistance to blast in the United States 
 was started in 1959. The initial tests consisted 
 largely of screening in the greenhouse the more 
 promising varieties and selections for reaction to 
 races 1 and 6 . Later, many other breeding lines 
 from Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas rice experi¬ 
 ment stations were screened. Material grown in 
 the field and harvested in the late summer or 
 early fall is available for greenhouse testing from 
 Xovember through March. 
 
 The method used for developing blast-resistant 
 varieties in the United States {IS) is as follows: 
 
 (1) Seeds from F3 or F4 progenies of crosses 
 between varieties possessing the desired resistance 
 genes are saved. 
 
 (2) Seedlings from these progenies are inocu¬ 
 lated in the greenhouse to determine reaction to 
 race 6. Susceptible selections are not tested 
 further. 
 
 (3) Seedlings that are resistant to race 6 are 
 then inoculated in the greenhouse with race 1 . 
 
 (4) Selections that carry resistance to races 1 
 and 6 are sown in the field for further evaluation 
 of field and grain characters. Many of the less 
 desirable lines are eliminated at this stage. 
 
 (5) Seedlings of the selected lines are inocu¬ 
 lated in the greenhouse with races 1 and 6 to con¬ 
 firm resulfs of previous tests. 
 
 ( 6 ) Selections that are resistant to races 1 and 
 6 then are inoculated with races 2 or 4, 7, 8 , 16, 
 and 19, as time and facilities permit. 
 
 (7) Selections that are resistant to all races are 
 then grown in the field in observation rows or in 
 yield tests for further evaluation as potential 
 new rice varieties. 
 
 Selections that are resistant to the desired races 
 
 of blast but do not appear promising for develop¬ 
 ing an improved commercial variety are crossed 
 with a suitable variety or strains. Testing for 
 reaction to blast is then repeated. This operation 
 may be repeated several times, or until suitable 
 plant types occur. 
 
 Many breeding lines have been tested, and 
 promising strains of all grain types have been de¬ 
 veloped to combine resistance to several of the 
 more common races of blast found in the United 
 States. In Arkansas, in greenhouse tests. Nova 
 was resistant or moderately resistant to most of 
 the races of blast. In field tests, it was con¬ 
 siderably more resistant than was Nato. Nova 
 was released in 1963 jointly by the Crops Re¬ 
 search Division, Agricultural Research Service, 
 U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Arkan¬ 
 sas Agricultural Experiment Station {4S). 
 
 Brown Leaf Spot 
 
 Brown leaf spot, caused by the fungus Helmin- 
 thosporium oryzae B. de Haan, is a common 
 disease of rice in humid areas. In 1941 a report 
 was published (^) concerning the mode of inherit¬ 
 ance of resistance to Helminthosporium in a cross 
 of a moderately resistant and a susceptible vari¬ 
 ety. Inoculation with conidia was used to induce 
 infection. All gradation from moderately resist¬ 
 ant to susceptible occurred in the segregating pop¬ 
 ulations. This indicated that the reaction was 
 controlled by several genes lacking dominance. 
 
 The reaction of seedlings grown in the green¬ 
 house showed a fairly close relationship with that 
 of mature plants grown in the field and suggested 
 the possibility of early elimination of a large pro¬ 
 portion of susceptible segregates in breeding for 
 resistance ( 4 ). 
 
 According to Nagai {66), he and Kara studied 
 an especially susceptible mutant, and susceptibil¬ 
 ity proved to be due to a single recessive gene in 
 crosses of a very susceptible and a normal plant. 
 
 A breeding program to develop varieties resist¬ 
 ant to brown leaf spot was begun at Beaumont, 
 Tex., about 1938. C.I. 9515, a resistant but 
 agronomically undesirable strain selected from a 
 cross made at Beaumont in 1938, was crossed with 
 popular long-grain commercial varieties in 1945. 
 Resistant selections from the 1945 crosses were 
 crossed to commercial long-grain varieties in 
 1959. Selecting for resistance was started in the 
 F 3 population by saving the more resistant plants 
 in rows showing the best resistance, along with 
 other desirable quality. A highly susceptible 
 spreader variety was sown adjacent to each selec¬ 
 tion. Differences in disease reaction were relative 
 and were more apparent between panicle rows 
 than among individual plants. Resistance was 
 based on the number and size of spots. The 
 studies indicated that inheritance is not simple 
 
40 
 
 ACJHICULTUKE HANDHOOK 2 8U, U.S. DEI’T. OF A(JR1('ULTURE 
 
 iuid j)robal)ly involves several genes. Selecting 
 for resistance was continued through several gen¬ 
 erations or until apparent true breeding lines 
 were established. Resistant lines possessing good 
 agronomic characters were selected from the 1959 
 crosses. 
 
 Narrow Brown Leaf Spot 
 
 Narrow brown leaf spot, caused by the fungus 
 Cercosporu oryzae I. Miyake, is a common disease 
 of rice in the Southern States. There are phy¬ 
 siological races of the causal fungus ^£6. 73, 7If., 
 75),^ l)ut genes for resistance for each race are 
 available. The mode of inheritance of reaction to 
 C. oryzae has been studied 1^5^ 177), No link¬ 
 age between genes for reaction to Cercospora and 
 those for expression of five qualitative characters 
 was found {1^5). Most of the work on the devel¬ 
 opment of -resistant varieties has been 
 
 done in the field under conditions of natural in¬ 
 fection. Selection is based on type of lesion and 
 i-elative severity of infection. In Louisiana, a 
 number of resistant selections were obtained when 
 Hlue Rose was crossed or backcrossed to Rexoro, 
 although both parental varieties were susceptible 
 to one or more races. 
 
 Straighthead 
 
 Straighthead is a physiological disease that 
 occurs under certain environmental conditions in 
 the Lnited States. A breeding program to de¬ 
 velop straighthead-resistant varieties was begun 
 in the United States in 1953, at Eagle Lake, Tex. 
 The method of testing consists simply of drill 
 seeding the test entries in an area with a soil type, 
 such as Hockley fine sandy loam, conducive to 
 straighthead development and keeping the nurs¬ 
 ery test area continuously submerged after the 
 initial irrigation {82). The reactions of the 
 American rice varieties (/f, 12) served as a basis 
 for selecting parental varieties for resistance in a 
 breecling program. Straighthead resistance is 
 relative, and none of the varieties tested are 
 immune or highly resistant. The resistance of 
 Bluebonnet, Bluebonnet 50, Lacrosse, Prelude, 
 and Toro is derived directly or indirectly from 
 Fortuna, selected from the Pa Chiam variety 
 obtained from Taiwan. C.I. 5094, selected from 
 the Sinanpagh variety from the Philippines, 
 served as the source of resistance in Texas Patna 
 and the original Century Patna. 
 
 Tesling selections from several crosses was 
 begun in 1954. For example, straighthead- 
 resistant .selections were recovered from a cross of 
 Bluebonnet (resistant) X Century Patna 231 
 (susceptible) and from backcrosses to Century 
 Patna 231. Although a number of the straight¬ 
 head-resistant selections from the Century Patna 
 231 crosses were promising and were seriously 
 
 considered as new varieties, none were released. 
 Belle Patna, from a ditferent cross, was re¬ 
 leased as a new variety in 1961 {23). This 
 variety has Bluebonnet as its source of straight- 
 head resistance. 
 
 In the breeding progi’am, straighthead-resistant 
 selections have been obtained readily by selecting 
 panicles from resistant or segregating lines for 
 ^testing in panicle rows. The number of genes 
 involved in straighthead reaction was not estab¬ 
 lished, but inheritance appeared to be relatively 
 simple in crosses within the long-grain groups of 
 varieties. Resistance seems to be dominant {12). 
 
 White Tip 
 
 White tip, first ob.served in Louisiana before 
 1930, was considered to be a physiological disease 
 until 1949, when it was found to be caused by a 
 seedborne, foliar nematode, Aplielenchoides hes- 
 f^eyi Christie {27). However, by that time con¬ 
 siderable progress had been made in selecting for 
 resistance in nurseries in which the disease oc¬ 
 curred rather consistently each year. 
 
 After white tip was found to be caused by a 
 .seedborne nematode, various methods were used 
 to insure infection in order to determine the 
 reaction of varieties and selections to white tip. 
 These methods consisted of including heavily 
 infested seed of susceptible varieties as spreader 
 rows, using rice hulls containing large numbers 
 of nematodes, or introducing nematodes from 
 laboratory cultures into the irrigation water. 
 Atkins and Todd (75) determined reaction of 
 many rice varieties in the United States to white 
 tip. No studies have been made on the genetics 
 of inheritance. 
 
 Hoja Blanca 
 
 Hoja blanca is a virus disease of rice that oc¬ 
 curs in the IVestern Hemisphere. In 1957, a 
 large number of United States varieties and selec¬ 
 tions, as well as introduced varieties, were tested 
 for hoja blanca reaction under conditions of 
 natural infection in Cuba and Venezuela {10). 
 On the basis of marked differences in disease 
 reaction in the nursery tests, Arkrose, Asahi, 
 Colusa, Lacrosse, Mo. R-500, and several experi¬ 
 mental varieties were designated as sources of 
 hoja blanca resistance for use in breeding. 
 
 Since both resistant and susceptible entries 
 ^yere found among a number of advanced-genera¬ 
 tion selections from two crosses having Lacrosse 
 as one parent, it was concluded that the genes for 
 resistance could be readily transferred in crosses. 
 Other studies showed that resistance was geneti¬ 
 cally controlled and could be transferred to varie¬ 
 ties of all grain types {22) and that resistance 
 was dominant {21). Since 1957, other lines re¬ 
 sistant to hoja blanca have been recovered from 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 41 
 
 several crosses between susceptible and resistant 
 parents. Thus far, none have been released as 
 varieties. 
 
 Gulf rose, released in 1960 as a hoja blanca- 
 resistant variety (i, £8), was an increase of a 
 selection rated as resistant in the 1957 and subse¬ 
 quent tests. Nova, released in 1963, also a hoja 
 blanca-resistant variety ( 4 ^), was an increase 
 from a selection rated as resistant in early tests. 
 
 Testing and breeding for resistance to hoja 
 blanca are being continued in cooperation with 
 Government and private agencies in several Cen¬ 
 tral and South American countries. Much of the 
 testing of varieties and breeding lines for reac¬ 
 tion to hoja blanca has been done under conditions 
 of natural infection in the field. This work has 
 been done in foreign countries where epiphytotics 
 of the disease usually occur. Hybrid and back- 
 cross plants and progeny lines also are tested in 
 the greenhouse where plants are inoculated with 
 viruliferous vectors. Since resistance to hoja 
 blanca is dominant, backcross plants that carry 
 resistance can be identified in greenhouse tests. 
 Backcross seeds are planted in the greenhouse or 
 field. As soon as the plants tiller, they are di¬ 
 vided and part of the plant is tested for reaction 
 to hoja blanca. The reaction can be determined 
 by the time the plant flowers, so that plants carry¬ 
 ing resistance can be identified and used as par¬ 
 ents in the backcross program. 
 
 The pedigree method, the backcross method, 
 and a modification of these two methods were 
 used in Texas to develop long-grain varieties 
 resistant to hoja blanca. The material used in 
 the pedigree method was obtained by crossing the 
 long-grain variety Bluebonnet 50 and several 
 promising long-grain hybrid selections with 
 the hoja blanca-resistant varieties Gulf rose and 
 Tainan-iku Xo. 487 (P.I. 215,936). The Fi 
 plants were grown in the greenhouse during the 
 winter of 1957-58, and the F 2 populations were 
 grown in the field during the summer of 1958. 
 In the fall of 1958, the seeds from 353 carefully 
 selected F 2 plants were saved. A few grams of 
 grain from each selection were milled in a test- 
 tube miller, and alkali digestion and iodine-blue 
 tests were performed. In 1959, progenies from 
 each F 2 plant were grown in Colombia, Cuba, 
 and Venezuela to test their reaction to hoja 
 blanca; at Eagle Lake, Tex., to test their reaction 
 to straighthead; and in the nursery at Beaumont, 
 Tex., to advance each selection on a pedigree basis 
 and to select on the basis of plant type and vigor. 
 
 In 1960, scientists at Beaumont selected 507 
 panicles from the better F 3 lines grown in 1959. 
 Seed from each of these selections was sent to 
 Colombia for further hoja blanca testing and 
 progeny of each was grown in the breeding nurs¬ 
 ery at Beaumont. About 20 panicles were har¬ 
 
 vested from each row, and this grain was used to 
 determine the cooking and processing quality of 
 the F 4 lines. 
 
 Excellent hoja blanca readings from Colombia 
 were obtained on the F 4 lines tested in 1960, as 
 well as the F 5 and Fo lines tested in 1961 and 
 
 1962. Hoja blanca-resistant selections were tested 
 further for reaction to straighthead at Eagle 
 Lake, for reaction to blast of seedlings at Beau¬ 
 mont, and for quality behavior in the cooperative 
 Rice Quality Laboratory at Beaumont. 
 
 In 1962, a number of the more promising strains 
 carrying hoja blanca resistance were grown in 
 advanced yield trials at Beaumont. From the 
 crosses made in 1957, hybrid selections of early 
 and midseason maturity and short-, medium-, and 
 long-grain types that are promising for resistance 
 to hoja blanca are now available for extensive 
 testing. 
 
 In the modification of the backcross method 
 used in the hoja blanca breeding program, the 
 Fi plant of the cross Bluebonnet 50 X Gulf rose 
 was backcrossed to Bluebonnet 50 in 1958. A 
 total of 31 backcrossed seeds produced plants. 
 The seeds from each plant were sent to the hoja 
 blanca testing laboratory, then located at Cama- 
 guey, Cuba, and backcross populations carrying 
 hoja blanca resistance were identified. Space- 
 planted populations of each backcross line also 
 were grown in the breeding nursery at Beaumont 
 in 1959, and plants were selected from the lines 
 that were promising for hoja blanca resistance. 
 In 1960, F 3 lines were tested for hoja blanca re¬ 
 action in Colombia, and for straighthead reaction 
 at Eagle Lake. F 2 lines were also sown at Campo 
 Cotaxtla, near Veracruz, Mexico, in the fall of 
 1959; and two crops per year were obtained 
 through 1961. Selections from the Mexico nurs¬ 
 ery were sent to Colombia for testing for hoja 
 blanca reaction and to Beaumont for grain qual¬ 
 ity testing. By the end of 1961, many long-grain 
 selections promising for hoja blanca resistance 
 were available for extensive testing at Beaumont. 
 Long-grain selections of early and midseason 
 maturity that are resistant to hoja blanca and 
 straighthead and that possess Bluebonnet milling, 
 processing, and cooking qualities were tested for 
 yield and other field characters at Beaumont in 
 
 1963. 
 
 Since hoja blanca resistance is dominant, Blue¬ 
 bonnet 50 was used as the recurrent parent in the 
 modified backcross method. The ho]a blanca re¬ 
 action of Fi backcross plants was obtained at the 
 hoja blanca testing laboratory at Baton Rouge, 
 La. In 1963, Fi plants with four backcrosses to 
 Bluebonnet 50 were tested for hoja blanca reac¬ 
 tion. Some of these plants are similar to Blue¬ 
 bonnet 50 in plant and grain type and they are 
 resistant to hoja blanca. 
 
42 
 
 ACKICULTUKE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEIT. OF AORU'ULTURE 
 
 Description of Varieties 
 
 The names and accession numbers of the 18 
 varieties reported in this section of the hand¬ 
 book are listed in table 9. These include the prin¬ 
 cipal commercial varieties in the United States. 
 
 Short-Grain Varieties 
 
 In 1963, about 12.3 percent of the total rice 
 acreage in the Ibiited States was sown with short- 
 ^rain (Pearl) varieties."'’ In Arkansas, Louisiana, 
 Mississippi, and Texas only 0.08 percent of the 
 crop produced was the short-^rain type, whereas 
 in California, 67.7 percent was this type. 
 
 The commercial short-grain varieties grown in 
 yield tests were Caloro, (k)dy, and Colusa. Rough 
 rice and milled kernels of each of these three va¬ 
 rieties are shown in figure 21. These and other 
 short-grain varieties have rather slender culms, 
 narrow (about %-inch) leaf blades, and yellow 
 or straw-colored rough hulls enclosing the kernels. 
 A plant of Caloro is shown in figure 22. Wlien 
 milled, short-grain varieties usually yield as high 
 a percentage of head rice (whole grain milled) as 
 do the medium-grain varieties and higher than 
 do the long-grain varieties. Short-grain varieties 
 are not grown in the Southern States because the 
 varieties available are not well adapted for this 
 area and there is little demand in this area for 
 rice of this type. 
 
 Caloro. —Caloro was selected from Early 
 Wataribune in 1913 at the Biggs Rice Field Sta¬ 
 tion, Biggs, Calif., and was distributed in the 
 
 ^ See footnote 2, p. 19. 
 
 spring of 1921. It is an early to midseason, 
 partly awned variety that heads and matures uni¬ 
 formly in California and produces relatively high 
 yields with reasonably good milling quality on 
 either virgin soil or old ricelands. It is the lead¬ 
 ing variety grown in California, yields well in 
 Arkansas (5(9, 57, 67) and Missouri (63), and 
 yields reasonably well in Louisiana and Texas. 
 Although it appears to be adapted for growing 
 under a wide range of conditions, it is grown 
 principally in California. Caloro is the most 
 important short-grain variety grown in the 
 United States, 
 
 Cody.— Cody (57) was selected from the cross 
 Colusa X Lady Wright at the Biggs Rice Field 
 Station, Biggs, Calif. Seed of Cody was tested 
 in Missouri and then increased and distributed to 
 growers in Arkansas in the spring of 1944. Cody 
 is an early-maturing, awnless variety that can be 
 grown in all rice-producing States. It yields and 
 mills well in the absence of diseases. It has been 
 grown on a small acreage in Arkansas but has 
 not been grown in California. 
 
 Colusa.— Colusa (25) was selected in 1911 at 
 the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., from 
 Chinese, a variety introduced from Italy in 1909 
 by Haven Metcalf. It was tested at the Biggs 
 Rice Field Station, Biggs, Calif., and distributed 
 in 1917 and 1918. Colusa is an early-maturing, 
 awnless variety of reasonably good milling qual¬ 
 ity that heads and matures rather uniformly and 
 that produces relatively high yields on fertile 
 land. In California it is much less productive 
 than Caloro on old riceland of average fertility. 
 However, when nitrogen fertilizer is applied at 
 
 Figure 21. —Rough rice and nailed kernels of (A) Caloro, (B) Cody, and (C) Colusa. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 43 
 
 Figure 22. — Plants of (A) Caloro, (B) Nato, and (C) Rexoro. 
 
 Table 9. — Name, C.I. number^ FAQ number^ and registration number for reported rice varieties 
 
 Grain type and variety 
 
 C.I. 
 
 number i 
 
 FAO 
 number 2 
 
 Registration 
 number 2 
 
 Uniform 
 group ■* 
 
 Short-grain ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caloro 
 
 1561-1 
 
 211 
 
 5 
 
 IV 
 
 Cody 
 
 8642 
 
 212 
 
 20 
 
 I 
 
 Colusa 
 
 1600 
 
 213 
 
 8 
 
 I 
 
 Medium-grain: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arkrose 
 
 8310 
 
 207 
 
 1 
 
 IV 
 
 Calrose 
 
 8988 
 
 1013 
 
 6 
 
 IV 
 
 Gulfrose 
 
 9416 
 
 1339 
 
 
 I 
 
 i'agnolia 
 
 8318 
 
 216 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 Nato 
 
 8998 
 
 1133 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 Northrose 
 
 9407 
 
 1364 
 
 
 I 
 
 Zenith 
 
 7787 
 
 206 
 
 19 
 
 I 
 
 Long-grain: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 9433 
 
 1334 
 
 
 VI 
 
 Bluebonnet 50 
 
 8990 
 
 1012 
 
 3 
 
 III 
 
 Century Patna 231 
 
 8993 
 
 1014 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 Rexoro 
 
 1779 
 
 214 
 
 14 
 
 V 
 
 Sunbonnet 
 
 8989 
 
 1019 
 
 15 
 
 III 
 
 Texas Patna 
 
 8321 
 
 221 
 
 16 
 
 V 
 
 Toro 
 
 9013 
 
 1134 
 
 18 
 
 III 
 
 TP 49 
 
 8991 
 
 1020 
 
 17 
 
 V 
 
 1 Accession number, Cereal Crops Research Branch, Crops Research Division, Agricultural Research Service. 
 
 2 Accession number. World Catalogue of Genetic Stock.s—Rice. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 
 Nations. 
 
 2 Registration number, American Society of Agronomy—U.S. Department of Agriculture (48). 
 
 •* Uniform Yield Nursery Group number. 
 
 fairly high rates, it produces as much as Caloro. 
 Colusa yields well in Missouri and fairly well on 
 fertile land in Arkansas, but it frequently lodges 
 
 when the crop is heavy. Colusa has been for 
 many years, and still is the most popular early- 
 maturing variety grown in California. 
 
44 
 
 A(;KIGULTURE handbook 289, U.8. DEIH'. OF A(Jia<'UI/rUHE 
 
 Medium-Grain Varieties 
 
 In 1963, 47.5 percent of the rice acreage in the 
 Fnited States was sown to niedinin-grain varie¬ 
 ties.® In California, 32.3 percent of the rice acre¬ 
 age was sown to this type. Of the total rice pro¬ 
 duction in the Ignited States, Xato made up 38.6 
 percent. Zenith 0.1 percent, and the Koses (prin¬ 
 cipally Arkrose, Calrose, Gulfrose, and North- 
 rose) 8.7 percent. 
 
 The principal medium-grain varieties grown in 
 the yield tests were Arkrose, Calrose, Gulfrose, 
 Magnolia, Nato, Northrose, and Zenith. Rough 
 rice and milled kernels of each of these seven var¬ 
 ieties are shown in figure 23. These varieties, 
 with the exception of Calrose, have rather stout 
 culms and relatively wide (about %-inch) leaf 
 blades. A plant of Nato is shown in figure 22. 
 When milled, medium-grain variefies usually 
 yield more head rice (whole kernels) than the 
 long-grain variefies yield. 
 
 Arkrose.-— Arkrose {57) was selected at the 
 Rice Branch Experiment Station, Stuttgart, Ark., 
 
 ® See footnote 2, p. 19. 
 
 from the cross Caloro X Blue Rose. Arkrose was 
 distributed in 1942. Arkrose matures about a 
 week earlier than Supreme Blue Rose, and in 
 some sections of Arkansas it is meeting the de¬ 
 mand for a Blue Rose type. Arkrose yields well 
 and is relatively easy to thresh. It is similar to 
 Blue Rose in milling and table quality. It is 
 more difficult to dry artificially than are most 
 long-grain varieties. Arkrose has been grown in 
 Arkansas and, rarely, in Texas. 
 
 Calrose.-— Calrose {57) was selected at the 
 Biggs Rice Field Station, Biggs, Calif., from the 
 cross Caloro X Calady backcrossed to Caloro. It 
 is a partly awned variety very similar in growth 
 habit and maturity to Caloro. In California, 
 Calrose appears to be equal to Caloro in yielding 
 capacity and in milling quality. It stands up 
 well, matures evenly, and is as easy to combine as 
 Caloro. Calrose was grown on a small acreage 
 for the first time in 1948, and in 1963 it was 
 grown on 32.3 percent of the California rice 
 acreage. 
 
 Gulfrose.— Gulfrose was selected from the 
 cross Bruinmissie selection X Zenith at the Rice- 
 
 Figure 23.—Rough rice and 
 milled kernels of {A) 
 Arkrose, (li) Calro.se, 
 (C) Gulfrose, (/>) Mag¬ 
 nolia, {E) Nato, (F) 
 Northrose, and (G) Ze¬ 
 nith. 
 
RICE IN THE ITNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 45 
 
 Pasture Research and Extension Center, Beau¬ 
 mont, Tex., in 1953, and released in 1960 {1). 
 It is similar to Zenith in plant and grain type 
 but matures a few days earlier. Gulf rose is re¬ 
 sistant to hoja blanca. This was the principal 
 reason for releasing it since none of the leading 
 United States varieties grown at that time were 
 resistant. Gulfrose was grown on a limited acre¬ 
 age in the southern rice area in 1963. 
 
 Magnolia.— Magnolia {57) was selected at the 
 Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., from the 
 cross Improved Blue Rose X Fortuna. It was 
 released in 1945. It is an early-maturing variety 
 that matures about the same time as Zenith. 
 Magnolia usually heads and matures evenly and 
 it combines more readily than Zenith. Under 
 favorable conditions it produces relatively high 
 yields, with good milling quality. The grain can 
 be dried satisfactorily. Magnolia appears to be 
 adapted for growing throughout the southern 
 rice area. 
 
 Xato.— Nato was selected from the cross 
 (Rexoro X Purple-leaf) X Magnolia at the Rice 
 Experiment Station, Crowley, La. It was re¬ 
 leased in 1956. It is an early-maturing variety 
 with comparatively short, strong straw; it pro¬ 
 duces good field and mill yields; and it is suit¬ 
 able for making dry cereals and for other uses for 
 which varieties of similar type are adapted {IfS). 
 Xato was the leading rice variety in the United 
 States in 1963. 
 
 XoRTHROSE. —Xorthrose was selected in 1955 
 from the cross Lacrosse X Arkrose and released 
 from the Rice Branch Experiment Station, Stutt¬ 
 gart, Ark., in 1962. It is an early-maturing var¬ 
 iety, and its outstanding characters are its short, 
 stiff straw and high grain yields. Because of its 
 tendency to be slightly chalkier than Xato and 
 because of its occasional low yields of head rice, 
 X'orthrose was not designated for general produc¬ 
 tion. Instead it was designated a special-purpose 
 variety for relatively late seeding in northeast 
 Arkansas where its earliness and high degree of 
 lodging resistance are urgently needed (5^, 63). 
 
 Zenith. —Zenith (57) was selected from Blue 
 Rose in 1930 by Glen K. Alter, near DeWitt, Ark. 
 In 1931, several selections were tested in the co¬ 
 operative breeding program at the Rice Branch 
 Experiment Station, Stuttgart, Ark. Of these 
 selections, Arkansas 141-8 proved to be the best; 
 it was named Zenith and distributed in 1936. 
 Zenith is an early-maturing, awnless variety, and 
 it is uniform in heading and in maturing. In 
 1954, Zenith was grown on over 50 percent of the 
 rice acreage in the Southern States. It has since 
 been replaced by the shorter strawed, smooth¬ 
 hulled Xato variety. Strains similar to Zenith 
 have been isolated from Early Prolific. 
 
 Long-Grain Varieties 
 
 In 1963, 49.1 percent of the rice ])roduced in 
 Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas was 
 the long-grain type.'^ The leading long-grain 
 varieties were Bluebonnet 50 and Sunbonnet, 
 comprising 33.5 percent of the southern acreage; 
 Belle Patna, 10.6 percent; Rexoro, 2.9 percent; 
 and Century Patna 231 and Toro, each 1.1 
 percent. 
 
 The principal long-grain varieties grown in the 
 field tests were Belle Patna, Bluebonnet 50, Cen¬ 
 tury Patna 231, Rexoro, Sunbonnet, Texas Patna, 
 Toro, and TP 49. Rough rice and milled kernels 
 of each of these eight varieties are shown in figure 
 24. Most of these varieties have rather large 
 culms and relatively wide (about %-inch) leaf 
 blades. A Rexoro plant is shown in figure 22. 
 Because of the long growing season required, 
 Rexoro, Texas Patna, and TP 49 are grown only 
 in Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 Belle Patna.— Belle Patna was selected from 
 the cross Rexoro X (Hill selection X Bluebonnet) 
 at the Rice-Pasture Research and Extension Cen¬ 
 ter and was released in 1961 {2). It is a very 
 early-maturing, slender-grain variety with cook¬ 
 ing quality similar to Rexoro. 
 
 Bluebonnet 50.^ — Bluebonnet 50 was selected 
 from Bluebonnet in 1950 at the Rice-Pasture 
 Research and Extension Center. Bluebonnet 
 was a progeny of the cross Rexoro X Fortuna 
 Seed of Bluebonnet 50 was distributed in 1951. 
 Bluebonnet 50 is a midseason variety. It has 
 relatively short, stiff straw, and the grains are 
 partly awned. It yields and mills well and has 
 good cooking quality, being comparable to Rexoro 
 and Texas Patna in those characters. The grain 
 of Bluebonnet 50 is thicker than that of Rexoro 
 but is more slender than that of Nira. Blue¬ 
 bonnet 50 is well suited for harvesting by the 
 combine-drier method. 
 
 Century Patna 231.—Century Patna 231 (57) 
 was selected in 1946 from a cross between Texas 
 Patna and a selection from the cross Rexoro X 
 Supreme Blue Rose at the Rice-Pasture Research 
 and Extension Center. It was released to 
 farmers in the spring of 1951. It is an early- 
 maturing, slender-grain variety. Century Patna 
 231 usually matures about 3 days later than 
 Zenith. It has rather short straw and narrow, 
 semidrooping leaves, and tillers exceptionally 
 well. Century Patna 231 is moderately resistant 
 to the common races of the fungus causing the 
 narrow brown leaf spot disease, so the leaves and 
 stems remain alive for some time following ma¬ 
 turity. In cooking quality. Century Patna 231 
 is inferior to Bluebonnet 50, Rexoro, and Texas 
 Patna. 
 
 See footnote 2, p. 19. 
 
46 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 24—rough rice and milled kernels of (A) Belle Patna, (B) Bluebonnet 50, (C) Century Patna 231, (/>) 
 
 Rexoro, (F) Sunbonnet, (F) Texas Patna, (0) Toro, and {H) TP 49. 
 
 Rexoro.— Rexoro {25) was selected in 1926 at 
 the Rice Experiment Station, Crowley, La., from 
 the Maron^-Paroc variety introduced from the 
 Philippine Islands in 1911 by the U.S. Depart¬ 
 ment of A^ricnltiire. Rexoro was distributed by 
 the Department in cooperation with the Louisiana 
 Agricultural Experiment Station in 1928. Rex¬ 
 oro is a stilf-strawed, late-maturing, slender- 
 grain rice that yields and mills well for a variety 
 of this type. The cooking quality is very good. 
 
 Sunbonnet. —Sunbonnet was selected from 
 Bluebonnet at the Rice Experiment Station, 
 Crowley, La., and released in 1953 (4^). Sun¬ 
 bonnet is similar to Bluebonnet in plant char¬ 
 acters, although somewhat taller than Bluebonnet 
 50. Sunbonnet is similar to Bluebonnet in cook¬ 
 ing quality but is usually slightly superior in 
 milling quality. 
 
 Iexas Patna. —Texas Patna {57) was .selected 
 in 1935 at the Rice-Pasture Research and Exten¬ 
 sion Center from the cross Rexoro X C.I. 
 5094. Seed of Texas Patna was distributed to 
 growers in 1942. Texas Patna is similar to Rex¬ 
 
 oro but grows slightly taller, matures about 10 
 days earlier, and has a more translucent grain. 
 It yields and mills well. Because Texas Patna is 
 slightly taller than Rexoro, it is more inclined to 
 lodge when grown on rich land. It is well suited 
 for combining and the ^rain is easy to dry. Texas 
 Patna is ^own principally in the Eagle Lake 
 section of Texas and to a limited extent in 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Toro.— Toro was selected from a cross in which 
 the varieties Bluebonnet, Blue Rose, and Rexoro 
 were the parents. It was developed at the Rice 
 Experiment Station, Crowley, La., and released 
 in 1955 {42). It is similar to Bluebonnet 50 in 
 plant height and straw strength. It yields and 
 mills well, but it is about as hard to thresh as 
 Zenith. The grain type is similar to that of Blue¬ 
 bonnet, but the cooking quality of these two va¬ 
 rieties is different. Toro, when cooked, is firmer 
 than Bluebonnet but not as dry and flaky. 
 
 TP 49.—TP 49 {48) was selected from the 
 cross Texas Patna X (Rexoro X C.I. 7689) at the 
 Rice-Pasture Research and Extension Center 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIE'ITES AND TRODUCTION 
 
 47 
 
 and released in 1951. It is a late-maturing, 
 slender-grain variety, similar to Texas Patna 
 except that it has shorter and stronger straw and 
 somewhat thicker grain. 
 
 Other Kinds of Ri ce 
 
 Most of the rice varieties grown in the United 
 States are generally called common varieties; that 
 is, they have no distinctive flavor or odor when 
 cooked, and the starch in the endosperm contains 
 both amylose and amylopectin. There are, how¬ 
 ever, minor acreages of two other kinds of rice^— 
 aromatic or scented, and glutinous or waxy. 
 
 Aromatic or Scented. —Varieties having a dis¬ 
 tinctive odor and flavor somewhat like popcorn 
 when cooked are known as aromatic or scented 
 varieties; they are cultivated widely in India and 
 other southeast Asian countries. Scented rices are 
 said to be low yielding; but because they are 
 greatly esteemed, they may sell at twice the price 
 of other rices of fine quality. The odor and 
 flavor are assumed to be due to an aromatic sub¬ 
 stance. Since aroma is sometimes noted in the 
 growing crop, it is not limited to the endosperm. 
 The aroma occurs in waxy as well as in ordinary 
 types of rice. 
 
 Two varieties, Delitus and Salvo, were selected 
 from introductions released in the United States. 
 Delitus has been grown commercially, and at¬ 
 tempts have been made to place it on the market. 
 A cross between Rexoro and Delitus produced Del- 
 rex and R-D, which fully retain the flavor. R-D 
 is a productive, medium-late variety that should 
 make possible profitable marketing of scented rice 
 as a food specialty. C.I. 9483, an early-maturing 
 selection from R-D X Rexoro-Zenith, has im¬ 
 proved milling quality and a more translucent 
 endosperm. 
 
 Geutinous or Waxy.— Waxy varieties, com¬ 
 monly called glutinous, differ from common var¬ 
 ieties in that they contain only amylopectin starch 
 in the endosperm. Glutinous rice is grown on 
 about 1,000 acres in California each year. It is 
 grown as a specialty crop, and the acreage needed 
 to meet market demands has been small. His¬ 
 torically, the principal use of glutinous rice has 
 been for preparing oriental ceremonial foods and 
 confections. In some countries, glutinous rice is 
 harvested slightly green, is lightly parched before 
 milling, and is used as a breakfast food. Recent 
 research has shown that glutinous rice flour may 
 find a special use in the frozen food industry. 
 The flour, when made into foods for freezing, 
 such as white sauce and desserts, resists syneresis 
 (separation or weeping) when thawed after 
 freezing. 
 
 Mochi Gomi is the variety of this type grown 
 in California. It is a short-grain, midseason 
 variety. Compared to Caloro, it has about the 
 same straw strength and is about 6 inches shorter. 
 
 The glumes are less pubescent, and the grain 
 matures 5 to 10 days later. The waxy-white ker¬ 
 nels are opaque. 
 
 Performance of Varieties 
 
 The performance of rice varieties is studied at 
 several rice experiment stations in the southern 
 rice area and in California. The grain yields and 
 milling quality data reported for the southern 
 rice area in this bulletin were obtained from the 
 Uniform Yield Nurseries from 1951 through 1961. 
 In these nurseries, varieties are grown in 3- or 
 4-row, randomized, quadruplicated, drill-seeded 
 plots. These nurseries were grown each year in 
 Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, and in some 
 years in Florida and Mississippi. Yields re¬ 
 ported for California were obtained from drill- 
 seeded, quadruplicated nursery plots except in 
 1960 and 1961, when the rice was seeded in the 
 water. 
 
 Entries in the Uniform Yield Nurseries grown 
 in the southern rice area are grouped according 
 to grain type and length of growing season. The 
 six groups are: I, short- and medium-grain 
 early varieties; II, long-grain early varieties; 
 III, long-grain midseason varieties; IV, short- 
 and medium-grain midseason varieties; V, long- 
 grain late varieties; and VI, medium- and long- 
 grain very early varieties. There usually were 
 14 entries in each group, many of them experi¬ 
 mental varieties. Group numbers of the 18 va¬ 
 rieties reported in this section of the handbook 
 are in table 9, p. 43. 
 
 The varietal experiments at each location were 
 on soil that was typical of large areas in the re¬ 
 spective States. In Florida the tests were made 
 on Everglades peaty muck soil. Crop rotation, 
 seedbed preparation, time and rate of seeding, 
 fertilization, and weed control used for these ex¬ 
 periments were practices that were thought to 
 be optimum for each area. 
 
 Average grain yields in table 10 were obtained 
 from 1951 through 1961 at the following loca¬ 
 tions: Rice Branch Experiment Station, Stutt¬ 
 gart, Ark.; Everglades Experiment Station, 
 Belle Glade, Fla.; Rice Experiment Station, 
 Crowley, La.; Delta Branch Experiment Station, 
 Stoneville, Miss.; Rice-Pasture Research and 
 Extension Center, Beaumont, Tex.; and Rice 
 Experiment Station, Biggs, Calif. The actual 
 number of years each variety was tested is 
 shown. The yield of each variety is compared 
 with the yield of one or two standard varieties 
 that were grown throughout the entire period. 
 
 In Arkansas, the short-grain varieties all pro¬ 
 duced the highest average yields except those of 
 the medium-grain varieties Arkrose and North- 
 rose. All medium-grain varieties except Mag¬ 
 nolia produced higher average yields than did 
 
48 
 
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RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 49 
 
 most of the long-^rain varieties. Century Patna 
 231 produced nearly tlie same average yield as 
 the medium-grain varieties, but the other long- 
 grain varieties produced lower average yields. 
 
 In Florida, none of the short-grain varieties 
 produced an average yield that was as high as 
 that of the higher yielding medium- or long- 
 grain varieties. Of the medium-grain varieties, 
 Nato produced the highest average yield. The 
 long-grain variety Sunbonnet produced the high¬ 
 est average yield of any variety. 
 
 In Louisiana, Cody was the only short-grain 
 variety that produced an average grain yield 
 comparable to the yields of the higher yielding 
 medium- and long-grain varieties. The highest 
 yielding medium-grain varieties were Nato and 
 Zenith, except for Northrose, which was grown 
 only 4 years. Of the long-grain varieties, Cen¬ 
 tury Patna 231 and Toro produced high average 
 yields. The late-maturing, long-grain varieties 
 Rexoro, Texas Patna, and TP 49 produced quite 
 low yields. 
 
 In Mississippi, Caloro produced the highest 
 average yield of the short-grain varieties tested, 
 but the other two short-grain varieties produced 
 quite low yields. Arkrose, Calrose, and North- 
 rose produced highest average yields of the me¬ 
 dium-grain varieties tested. The average yield of 
 these three varieties was somewhat higher than 
 that of the long-grain varieties. Of the long- 
 grain varieties. Century Patna 231 produced the 
 highest yield. All long-grain varieties except 
 Belle Patna produced higher average yields than 
 did many of the commonly grown medium-grain 
 varieties. 
 
 In Texas, the short-grain varieties Cody and 
 Colusa produced average yields comparable to 
 the higher yielding medium- and long-grain va¬ 
 rieties. Of the medium-grain varieties, Nato and 
 Arkrose produced highest average yields except 
 for Northrose, which was grown only 4 years. 
 Sunbonnet, Bluebonnet 50, and Toro produced 
 highest average yields of the long-grain varieties. 
 
 In California, Colusa and Calrose produced 
 slightly higher average yields than did Caloro. 
 
 The average number of days from seeding to 
 maturity, average plant height, estimated straw 
 strength, and pubescence and color of hull for the 
 18 varieties included in this handbook are given 
 in table 11. 
 
 Milling quality was determined each year for 
 the varieties grown in the Uniform Yield Nurs¬ 
 eries. Included in table 7, p. 36, are the average 
 milling yields of hulls, bran, total, and head rice 
 for each of 18 varieties grown in the Uniform 
 Yield Nurseries in Arkansas, Louisiana, and 
 Texas for the years 1958-61. Milling yields were 
 determined according to the modified procedure 
 of Beachell and Halick {19), Treatment and 
 preparation of Uniform Yield Nursery samples 
 
 before milling was described in the section “Test- 
 ing for Milling, Cooking, and Processing Quali¬ 
 ties,"' p. 33. The average milling yields of hulls 
 ranged from 18 percent for the short-grain varie¬ 
 ties Caloro and Colusa to 21 percent for the 
 long-grain variety Century Patna 231. Average 
 bran yields ranged from 9 percent to 13 percent. 
 In general, bran yields were lower for short- and 
 medium-grain varieties than for long-grain va¬ 
 rieties. Northrose, a newly released, special-pur¬ 
 pose, medium-grain variety yielding an average 
 of 12 percent bran, was an exception. The late- 
 maturing, long-grain varieties Rexoro and Texas 
 Patna grown only in Louisiana and Texas pro¬ 
 duced the highest bran yields (13 percent) of any 
 of the varieties tested. 
 
 The average yield of total milled rice varied 
 from 67 percent for Century Patna 231 to 73 
 percent for Caloro and Colusa. Short-grain va¬ 
 rieties, as a group, produced slightly higher 
 yields of total milled rice than did medium- and 
 long-grain varieties. The medium-grain variety 
 Northrose and the long-grain varieties Century 
 Patna 231, Rexoro, and Texas Patna gave the 
 lowest total milled rice yields. 
 
 Head rice yields for the varieties listed in ta¬ 
 ble 7 are reported as average values and as indi¬ 
 vidual minimum and maximum (range) values. 
 Average yields of head rice varied widely among 
 the varieties, from 52 percent for Rexoro to 69 
 percent for Calrose. In general, the average 
 yield of head rice was highest for the short- and 
 medium-grain varieties and lowest for the long- 
 ^rain varieties. Toro, a long-grain variety yield¬ 
 ing 67 percent of head rice, was an exception. 
 The milling quality of this variety has been noted 
 in earlier publications (7P, Jil). Individual 
 minimum and maximum values of head rice 
 yields also varied widely. This variability was 
 evident, not only among varieties but also within 
 the varieties. Individual minimum head rice 
 yields ranged from 33 percent for Arkrose to 63 
 percent for Calrose, Magnolia, and Nato; where¬ 
 as individual maximum values ranged from 61 
 percent for Rexoro to 75 percent for Colusa. 
 
 Choosing the Variety 
 
 Several factors affect the choice of a variety. 
 These are listed by Johnston, Cralley, and Henry 
 {51) as market demand, satisfactory yielding 
 ability, location, proposed seeding date, soil fer¬ 
 tility or anticipated fertilizer practices, relative 
 maturity, susceptibility to diseases that may oc¬ 
 cur, and seed supply. Growers of large acreages 
 may wish to sow two or three varieties that differ 
 in date of maturity and grain type in order to 
 extend the harvesting period and to provide rice 
 of different types for the market. 
 
 A grower should carefully consider market re- 
 
■Plant characters for 18 rice varieties grown at 6 locations during the 11-year period^ 1951-61 ^ 
 
 50 
 
 AGRICtnLTUKE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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 1 Years of test: Arkansas, 1951-61; Florida, 1953-56; Louisiana, 1951-61; Mississippi, 195&-61; Texas, 1951-61; and California, 1951-61. 
 
 2 Average seeding date: Arkansas, May 7; Florida, March 31; Louisiana, April 17; Mississippi, May 18; Texas, April 24; and California, May 6. 
 2 Ba.sed on results for Arkansas and Texas. 
 
 < R = pubescent; S = glabrous. 
 
 ® 2-year average. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 51 
 
 (jiiirements in selectin^r varieties to grow. He or 
 his marketing agent may have difficulty in selling 
 his rice if it is of poor quality, even though 
 locally the variety may produce high yields. 
 Also, growing a short- or medium-grain variety 
 on a limited basis in an established long-grain 
 district, for example, can pose real problems to 
 the grower, driers, warehousemen, and millers 
 to prevent mixtures of the ditferent types. 
 
 Seeding rice on highly fertile soil, such as 
 newly cleared woodland, “new ground,” or a field 
 used as a reservoir just before being seeded to 
 rice, would necessitate the choice of a stiff- 
 strawed variety that would be less likely to lodge. 
 Even on old riceland low in natural fertility, if 
 a grower anticipates using heavy rates of nitro¬ 
 gen fertilization, with part of it applied rela¬ 
 tively late, such a practice may make it desirable 
 to choose a relatively early-maturing variety. 
 Growers in the northern part of ricegrowing 
 areas in the United States are limited to early- 
 maturing varieties because of the somewhat 
 shorter growing season and cooler night tempera¬ 
 tures than those prevailing farther south. It 
 may be desirable to avoid a given variety because 
 of its susceptibility to a certain disease when rice 
 is to be grown under conditions known to be 
 favorable for development of that disease. 
 
 Varietal Response to Seeding Date 
 
 By Nelson E. Jodon 
 
 Results of Tests With Older Varieties 
 
 Growers need to know how rice varieties will 
 respond when sown at various dates. They should 
 be able to tell the probable effect on yield, days 
 to full maturity, plant height, milling quality, 
 and other characters. Date-of-seeding tests have 
 been conducted at Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, 
 and California rice experiment stations. 
 
 At Stuttgart, Ark., an experiment was carried 
 on for 5 years with 10 varieties seeded at three 
 dates (5). The average seeding dates were April 
 20, May 11, and June 5. Bluebonnet and Blue 
 Rose yielded well from the first two seedings but 
 usually matured too late when seeded in June. 
 Arkrose yielded about the same from each of the 
 seeding dates. The highest average yields from 
 the latest seeding were made by Cody and Zenith, 
 which have shorter growing seasons. 
 
 Most varieties sown in June in Arkansas risk 
 injury by possible October frosts, although Ark- 
 rose and Zenith seeded in mid-June and Caloro 
 and Cody seeded late in June have produced 
 satisfactory yields (51). Xato should be seeded 
 before the first of June and Bluebonnet by May 
 25. In the northern part of the State, seeding 
 should be 7 to 10 days earlier. 
 
 In an Arkansas experiment, Arkrose and Blue 
 
 Rose matured in shorter periods of time when 
 sown late than did Bluebonnet (3). Varieties 
 that res])onded to the shortened days of late sum¬ 
 mer by heading at nearly the same date whether 
 seeded early or late were termed photosensitive. 
 They also headed out quickly and uniformly. 
 Length of time required for the photosensitive 
 varieties to reach the heading stage decreased 
 with each delay in the seeding date; plant height 
 also decreased. Varieties that did not continue 
 to shorten their growing period in response to 
 late seeding were termed indifferent. 
 
 In Louisiana, the maximum number of days 
 to flowering resulted from seedings on March 1 
 or March 15, except for the variety Caloro (37), 
 in an experiment reported in 1936. The mini¬ 
 mum for all varieties was from June 15 seedings. 
 The difference between maximum and minimum 
 days to flowering was a varietal characteristic. 
 Some varieties tended to have a comparatively 
 fixed growing period; others tended to head at 
 a certain date late in the season, and if sown 
 late, their growing periods were shortened mate¬ 
 rially. The maximum number of days from first 
 heading to full maturity was 45; this number 
 added to the number of days to flowering for 
 each variety gave the total length of the growing 
 period. 
 
 Another field plot experiment with six varieties 
 was conducted over a 5-year period in Louisiana 
 and reported in 1944 (38). The seeding dates 
 were approximately the 15th and the 1st of each 
 month from March 15 to June 15. Best yields 
 were obtained from April 1 and May 1 seedings. 
 Lower yields were obtained from June seedings 
 than from April and May seedings. 
 
 The rice varieties Bluebonnet, Magnolia, Rex- 
 oro, and Zenith were grown in a date-of-seeding 
 test in Louisiana and reported in 1953. In all, 
 27 seedings were made on dates as early as Feb¬ 
 ruary 20 and as late as June 20 in the years 1941 
 to 1952 (40). Usually, four seedings were made 
 each season. A tabular guide (40) for use in 
 planning seeding schedules gave, for alternate 
 days during the planting period, the growing 
 season midpoint date (latest date to topdress), 
 date of first heading, date when mature for com¬ 
 bining, and total length of the growing period. 
 
 Nine varieties were seeded monthly from mid- 
 Alarch to mid-July in a 3-year experiment con¬ 
 ducted at Beaumont, Tex., (72) and reported in 
 1954. A^ields of early varieties showed no defi¬ 
 nite relation to seeding date, but midseason va¬ 
 rieties gave markedly lower yields from May 
 and later seedings. Late varieties gave the best 
 yields from the earliest seedings and failed to 
 mature from June and July seedings. 
 
 Effects of 10-hour daylight periods on length 
 of growdng period were studied in Texas (17). 
 The day length was reduced by covering the 
 
52 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 plants part of each day. Similar results were 
 obtained from the 10-, 20-, and 30-day periods 
 of short-day treatment. Two groups of varieties, 
 termed sensitive and less sensitive, were com¬ 
 pared. Varieties in the sensitive group showed 
 a marked reduction in the number of days from 
 seeding to heading when the treatments began 
 about 50 days after seeding. The less sensitive 
 varieties in general responded only slightly 
 from the 50-day treatment but responded more 
 when the treatments were started 60 to 80 days 
 after seeding. The response depended on the 
 variety. Reduction in length of growing period 
 was accompanied by reduction in number of 
 tillers and panicles, plant height, and straw and 
 grain weight. 
 
 At Biggs, Calif., a date-of-seeding test was 
 conducted for 9 years Three seedings of 
 
 the Wataribune variety were made each year, 
 beginning as early as possible in the spring. The 
 seedings were made at 2-week intervals. In all 
 but 1 year’s test, the highest yields were obtained 
 from the earliest seeding. 
 
 Results of Tests With Newer Varieties 
 and Selections 
 
 Tests similar to those reported in 1953 {J^O) 
 were continued in Louisiana in the 9 years from 
 1953 through 1961 (^4, pp. 8-25). In these ex¬ 
 periments, seedings V’ere made each year in 
 March, April, May, and June. Each year the 
 seedings were made to coincide with peaks of 
 planting operations on farms in the area. En¬ 
 tries included varieties from four maturity 
 groups. These included Nato (early), Sunbonnet 
 and Toro (midseason). Blue Rose and R-D 
 (medium late), and Rexoro (late). They mature 
 in about 120, 135, 150, and 165 days, respectively. 
 Extra early types (100-day group) were first 
 included in 1957. One or two standard varieties 
 representative of each maturity group were tested 
 throughout the 9-year period. Each year addi¬ 
 tional entries of current interest were included. 
 
 Data for individual varieties are used in the 
 following discussion of length of life cycle. Data 
 for yield, height, and milling quality were aver¬ 
 ages of a standard variety and two other varieties 
 or selections belonging to each of the four ma- 
 turit}' groups, except in the late group. In the 
 late group, data for only Rexoro and one selec¬ 
 tion were used for 2 of the years. The early 
 group included Nato and two other varieties; the 
 midseason group, Sunbonnet, Toro, and one other 
 variety; the medium-late group. Blue Rose, R-D, 
 and one other variety; and the late group, Rexoro 
 and one other variety. Thus, the three varieties 
 included in maturity-group averages for each 
 month of the seeding period were the same in 
 any 1 year; but, aside from the standard variety. 
 
 they were not necessarily the same from year 
 to year. 
 
 Length of Life Cycle in Relation to Seed¬ 
 ing Date.— Average number of days from seed¬ 
 ing to first heading by monthly seeding date for 
 six varieties representing four maturity groups 
 are summarized in table 12. Date of first head¬ 
 ing was used as the criterion of the length of 
 growing season of varieties, since it can be de¬ 
 termined more precisely than date of maturity. 
 The length of the period from first heading to 
 maturity ranged from 35 to 40 days for the varie¬ 
 ties listed. During warm w^eather, however, va¬ 
 rieties that head very evenly may ripen in 30 
 days after the tips of panicles first emerge from 
 the boot; whereas late in the growing season, the 
 period from panicle emergence to full maturity 
 may be 45 to 50 days. 
 
 Relative heading dates of five of the six varie¬ 
 ties were fairly constant when sown at succes¬ 
 sively later dates, although the number of days 
 from seeding to heading was progressively fewer. 
 Nato headed 14 to 18 days earlier than Sunbonnet 
 or Toro. Sunbonnet and Toro headed 12 to 19 
 days earlier than R-D. Rexoro was 9 to 17 days 
 later than R-D. The number of days from seed¬ 
 ing to heading for Blue Rose decreased more 
 than some varieties as seeding was delayed. Blue 
 Rose headed 1 day later than R-D when sown 
 in March; but when sown in June, it headed 19 
 days earlier than R-D and 7 days earlier than 
 Sunbonnet. 
 
 The reduction of length of life cycle of Blue 
 Rose from successive seedings is an example of 
 photoperiodic response. This response is gov¬ 
 erned by the length of the dark period during 
 the 24-hour day. Blue Rose may be termed pho¬ 
 tosensitive and the other varieties may be said 
 to have relatively indexible growing seasons be¬ 
 cause their life cycles tend to remain constant in 
 length once a certain minimum has been reached. 
 For example, Nato seeded in June reached ma¬ 
 turity in only 4 days less time than when it was 
 seeded in May. 
 
 Low temperatures in the early spring retard 
 germination and seedling development, thus ex¬ 
 tending the length of the life cycle. Average 
 lengths of life cycles from April seedings were 
 17 days less than from March seedings. Those 
 from May seedings were only 8 days less than 
 from April seedings, and those from June seed¬ 
 ings were only 9 days less than from May seed- 
 ings. 
 
 The greater reduction in number of days from 
 seeding to maturity in April as compared with 
 March seeding was caused by greater temperature 
 differences that occur between April and later 
 seeding dates. The further reduction obtained 
 from May and June seedings probably was 
 largely the result of photoperiodic response. Be- 
 
DATE OF SEEDING 
 
 RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 53 
 
 Table 12.— Average days from seeding to first heading of 6 rice varieties representing maturity 
 groups^ when sown in each of the ^ months of the planting period in the years from 1953 to 1961 
 
 Maturity group and variety 
 
 Time of seeding 
 
 Average 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May 
 
 .Tune 
 
 Early: 
 
 Days 
 
 Days 
 
 Days 
 
 Days 
 
 Days 
 
 Nato 
 
 103 
 
 88 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 87 
 
 Midseason: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sunbounet 
 
 118 
 
 103 
 
 98 
 
 93 
 
 103 
 
 Toro 
 
 118 
 
 102 
 
 96 
 
 90 
 
 102 
 
 Medium-late: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blue Rose 
 
 137 
 
 115 
 
 102 
 
 86 
 
 110 
 
 R-D 
 
 136 
 
 121 
 
 115 
 
 105 
 
 119 
 
 Late: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rexoro 
 
 153 
 
 137 
 
 127 
 
 114 
 
 133 
 
 Average 
 
 128 
 
 111 
 
 103 
 
 94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cause of slow ripening late in the growing season, 
 very late seedings tend to lengthen the life cycle 
 rather than reduce it. 
 
 Seven varieties that mature in from 100 to 165 
 days were sown at four successive dates each year 
 from 1953 to 1961. The response of these varie¬ 
 ties is shown in figure 25. The upper part of the 
 
 curve for each variety, representing the earlier 
 part of the planting period, tended to be steep, 
 because when the weather warmed in the spring, 
 the length of the period from seeding to heading 
 was rapidly reduced. Further reduction in time 
 until heading for five of the seven varieties pro¬ 
 ceeded at a slower but comparatively uniform 
 
 DATE OF HEADING 
 
 Figure 25 .—Heading date in relation to seeding date of 7 adapted varieties grown at Crowley, La., from 1953 to 1961. 
 
54 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 rate through the remainder of the season. Con¬ 
 sequently, the curves indicating the response of 
 those five varieties are roughly parallel. 
 
 I:}lue Kose and C.I. 6001 had steeper curves 
 than did the other five varieties. This reflected 
 greater sensitivity to photoperiod. C.I. 6001 was 
 later than K-1) and Rexoro when seeded early 
 but became earlier from subsequent seeding. Blue 
 Kose was later than Sunbonnet when seeded early 
 but became earlier from subsequent seeding. 
 
 Early-maturing varieties do not show the char¬ 
 acteristics of photoperiodic response, otherwise 
 they would not head during the long days of 
 June and July. Or possibly the critical length 
 of the dark period is much shorter for them than 
 for the more sensitive later varieties. 
 
 All varieties have a vegetative stage of devel¬ 
 opment during which they are not photosensi¬ 
 tive. The less sensitive midseason and later 
 varieties may have a longer vegetative stage than 
 do the early varieties. 
 
 Sensitive and short-season (early) varieties 
 may be seeded later than less sensitive midseason 
 or late varieties. However, Arkrose and Caloro 
 are the only sensitive varieties now in production. 
 Any of the less sensitive varieties can be used for 
 successive seedings because the plants mature in 
 the order seeded, and the fields can be harvested 
 without conflict. 
 
 Data obtained from date-of-seeding experi¬ 
 ments may be used to predict time of maturity 
 of rice varieties. This information makes it pos¬ 
 sible to schedule seedings so that different fields 
 and varieties may be harvested consecutively. 
 The aiiproximate dates of maturity of eight va¬ 
 rieties when sown at 10-day intervals, March 1 
 to June 30, in southwest Louisiana are shown in 
 table 13. 
 
 Yields in Relation to Seeding Date.— Aver¬ 
 
 age yields of variety groups by monthly seeding 
 dates are summarized in table 14. Production 
 of the early varieties varied but little because of 
 date of seeding. INIidseason and medium-late 
 varieties were less productive from June seedings 
 than from earlier seedings. Yields from May 
 seedings of Rexoro and other late varieties were 
 reduced. Yields from June seedings were un- 
 profitably low or were complete failures. 
 
 Probably Rexoro should not be seeded after 
 about May 20 at the latest (J6>), and April seed¬ 
 ing is preferred. Currently, no medium-late va¬ 
 rieties, such as Blue Rose, are in production. 
 These have been replaced by early-maturing, 
 medium-grain varieties. The midseason varieties 
 Bluebonnet 50 and Sunbonnet may be seeded in 
 Louisiana as late as the first week of June with 
 satisfactory results. Nato and other early varie¬ 
 ties may be seeded in Louisiana at any time from 
 early March to the end of June with expectation 
 of profitable yields. In some years blast may be 
 serious during the warm humid weather in the 
 summer months. During years when this disease 
 is prevalent, there may be a reduction in stand 
 of late-sown susceptible varieties. There may at 
 the same time be a reduced yield from early- 
 sown, short-season varieties caused by the rotten- 
 neck phase of blast. 
 
 Plant Height in Relation to Seeding Date. 
 —Average plant heights of four groups of varie¬ 
 ties by monthly seeding ranges are summarized 
 in table 15. Midseason and late varieties were 
 taller than were early varieties. Midseason va¬ 
 rieties seeded in June and late varieties seeded 
 in May and June were shorter than when seeded 
 earlier. Adair (J) reported that in Arkansas 
 later seedings produced shorter straw, and Beach- 
 ell {17) found a marked reduction in plant 
 
 Table 13. —Approxinmte dates of rriaturity of 8 rice varieties when sown at 10-day intervals 
 
 in southwest Louisiana 
 
 Seeding date 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 Gulfrose 
 
 Nato 
 
 Bluebonnet, 
 Sunbonnet, 
 or Toro 
 
 Texas Patna 
 
 Rexoro 
 
 Mar. 1 
 
 7-13 
 
 7-25 
 
 7-28 
 
 8-13 
 
 9-8 
 
 9-18 
 
 10 
 
 7-17 
 
 7-27 
 
 7-30 
 
 8-15 
 
 9-11 
 
 9-20 
 
 20 _ 
 
 7-22 
 
 8-2 
 
 8^ 
 
 8-22 
 
 9-15 
 
 9-25 
 
 30 
 
 7-26 
 
 8^ 
 
 8-9 
 
 8-27 
 
 9-21 
 
 10-2 
 
 Apr. 10 _ . 
 
 8-2 
 
 8-13 
 
 8-16 
 
 8-31 
 
 9-27 
 
 10-6 
 
 20 
 
 8-9 
 
 8-21 
 
 8-22 
 
 9-5 
 
 10-3 
 
 10-13 
 
 30 
 
 8-14 
 
 8-27 
 
 8-30 
 
 9-15 
 
 10-7 
 
 10-19 
 
 May 10 _ 
 
 8-21 
 
 8-31 
 
 9-5 
 
 9-21 
 
 10-13 
 
 10-25 
 
 20 
 
 8-29 
 
 9-^ 
 
 9-15 
 
 10-1 
 
 10-18 
 
 10-30 
 
 30_ 
 
 9-5 
 
 9-12 
 
 9-24 
 
 10-11 
 
 10-25 
 
 11-^ 
 
 June 10 
 
 9-13 
 
 9-23 
 
 9-30 
 
 10-18 
 
 11-3 
 
 11-15 
 
 20 
 
 9-26 
 
 10-4 
 
 10-9 
 
 10-25 
 
 11-12 
 
 (D 
 
 30__ 
 
 10-8 
 
 10-16 
 
 10-17 
 
 11-4 
 
 (D 
 
 (D 
 
 1 Failed to mature. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 55 
 
 Table 14. —Average yields of 3 rice varieties in each of If. maturity groups^ from seedings made in each 
 of the U months of the planting period in the years from 1953 to 1961 
 
 Time of seeding 
 
 Maturity groups 
 
 Average 
 
 Early 
 
 Midseason 
 
 Medium-late 
 
 Late 
 
 
 Pounds per acre 
 
 Pounds per acre 
 
 Pounds per acre 
 
 Pounds per acre 
 
 Pounds per acre 
 
 March 
 
 2,771 
 
 2,740 
 
 2,634 
 
 2,521 
 
 2,667 
 
 April 
 
 2,674 
 
 2,744 
 
 2,852 
 
 2,324 
 
 2,649 
 
 May 
 
 2,604 
 
 2,632 
 
 2,826 
 
 2,172 
 
 2,568 
 
 June 
 
 2,623 
 
 2,395 
 
 2,452 
 
 1 1,197 
 
 2 2,167 
 
 Average 
 
 2,668 
 
 2,628 
 
 2,691 
 
 3 2,054 
 
 
 1 Late varieties failed in 1954 and 1957. 
 
 2 Average of June seedings, late group excluded, 2,490. 
 
 3 Average of late varieties, June seeding excluded, 2,339. 
 
 Table 15. —Average plant heights of 3 rice varieties in each of 4 . maturity groups^ from seedings made 
 in each of the 4 months of the planting period in the years from 1953 to 1961 
 
 Time of seeding 
 
 Maturity groups 
 
 Average 
 
 Early 
 
 Midseason 
 
 Medium-late 
 
 Late 
 
 March 
 
 April 
 
 May- - _ 
 
 June 
 
 Average 
 
 Inches 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 Inches 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 47 
 
 46 
 
 Inches 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 49 
 45 
 
 Inches 
 
 49 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 45 
 
 Inches 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 47 
 45 
 
 44 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 
 height of varieties that headed in response to a 
 10-hour photoperiod. 
 
 The reductions in average heights from later 
 seedings, as shown in table 15, correspond to re¬ 
 duced yields in the respective months, as shown 
 in table 14. 
 
 A correlation of 0.25 between height and yield 
 within individual varieties from seedings in the 
 earlier months indicates that higher yields tend 
 to be associated with greater plant heights from 
 early, medium, or late seeding dates. This does 
 not mean that short-strawed varieties necessarily 
 tend to be low yielding. However, among fields 
 of the same variety, plants with taller straw are 
 likely to be higher yielding than those with 
 shorter straw. Exceptions to this generalization 
 may occcur when nitrogen fertilizer is applied at 
 different times. 
 
 Mill iNG Quality in Relation to Seeding 
 Date. —Average percentages of head rice from 
 varieties representative of four groups are sum¬ 
 marized according to monthly seeding date in 
 table 16. No comparison can be made of the 
 average milling quality of these groups because 
 
 of the lack of correspondence in grain type of 
 the varieties within groups. 
 
 March seeding resulted in low percentages of 
 head rice, probably because of higher tempera¬ 
 tures during the maturation period. Ripening 
 is hastened in hot weather, and more chalky 
 grains are produced. Also, rapid changes in 
 temperature and moisture tend to cause check¬ 
 ing of the grain. Compared to March seedings, 
 April and May seedings gave improved milling 
 quality. The average percentage of head rice 
 was 3 percent higher from May than from April 
 seedings. 
 
 The average percentages of head rice from 
 May and June seedings were equal. However, 
 the midseason and especially the late varieties 
 were lower in milling quality from June seed¬ 
 ings, probably because of effects of low tempera¬ 
 tures late in the season. 
 
 The early and medium-late, medium-grain va¬ 
 rieties tended to give increasingly higher per¬ 
 centages of head rice from each successive seed¬ 
 ing. Thus, apparently improved milling quality 
 is a major advantage of late seeding. 
 
56 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Table Average percentages of head rice from satnples of 3 rice narieties m each of 4 maturity 
 groupSy from seedings made in each of the If, mo-)it]is of the planting penod in the years fronx 1953 
 
 Time of seeding 
 
 Maturity groups 
 
 .Average 
 
 Early 
 
 Mid.season 
 
 Medium-late 
 
 Late 
 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 Percent 
 
 March 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 49 
 
 47 
 
 52 
 
 April 
 
 60 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 55 
 
 May 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 57 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 June 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 58 
 
 48 
 
 58 
 
 Production of Seed Rice 
 
 By T. H. Johnston 
 
 Origin of High-Quality Seed Rice 
 
 According to Wise (55), new and superior 
 varieties of crops make their intended contribu¬ 
 tions to agriculture only “when the seed stocks 
 of such crops reach the farmer varietally pure, 
 in a viable condition, free of noxious weeds, in 
 adeijuate quantities and at a reasonable price.’' 
 
 To produce this high-quality seed, a grower 
 must have a source of superior seed of a well- 
 adapted variety. Promising new strains are 
 compared to standard varieties continually at the 
 rice experiment stations to determine their adap¬ 
 tation. When an experimental strain proves to 
 be superior to standard varieties, it is increased 
 for release to growers. 
 
 Formerly each farmer could obtain a small 
 amount of seed of a new or standard variety and 
 thereafter produce his own seed. However, mod¬ 
 ern harvesting and processing methods, including 
 bulk drying and storage, have increased the 
 possibility of mixing. These methods and the 
 use of more specific types of varieties that dif¬ 
 fer in maturity, grain type, and processing and 
 cooking quality have emphasized the need for 
 sources of pure seed. As a result, the seed cer¬ 
 tification program now in effect in each major 
 rice-producing State is an important part of the 
 rice industry. 
 
 “Minimum Seed Certification Standards” {36) 
 states: 
 
 The purpose of Seed Certification is to maintain and 
 make available to the public sources of hifjh quality 
 seeds and propagating materials of superior varieties 
 so grown and distributed as to Insure genetic identity. 
 Only those varieties that contain superior germ plasm 
 are eligible for certification. Certifiefl seed is high in 
 varietal purity and of good seeding value. 
 
 Varieties eligible for certification have resulted either 
 from natural selection or through systematic plant 
 breeding. In either case without a planned method of 
 maintaining genetic purity, there is grave danger of 
 losing varietal identity. 
 
 Varietal puritj’^ is the first consideration in seed cer¬ 
 
 tification but other factors, such as weeds, diseases, 
 viability, mechanical purity and grading are also im¬ 
 portant. One of the most effective methods of prevent¬ 
 ing the wider distribution of weeds is to plant weed- 
 free seed. Adverse effects of plant diseases can be re¬ 
 duced by planting clean seed from disease-free fields. 
 Properly cleaned and graded seed is easier to plant and 
 gives more uniform .stand.s. 
 
 Seed certification is designed, therefore, to maintain 
 not only the genetic purity of superior crop varieties, 
 l)ut also reasonable standards of .seed condition and 
 quality. 
 
 It also is stated in this publication : 
 
 Only those varieties that are ai)proved l)y a State or 
 Oovernmental agricultural experiment station and ac¬ 
 cepted by the certifying agency shall l)e eligible for 
 certification. 
 
 In general, before a variety is approved by an 
 experiment station, it must be tested thoroughly 
 (usually for a minimum of 3 years), and it must 
 show merit as a new variety in production, dis¬ 
 ease resistance, or some other outstanding 
 character. 
 
 Classes of Seed in a Certification Program 
 
 The classes of seed usually included in a cer¬ 
 tification program are breeder, foundation, reg¬ 
 istered, and certified. These are described by the 
 International Crop Improvement Association 
 {36) as follows: 
 
 (1) Breeder seed is seed directly controlled by 
 the originating, or, in certain cases, the spon.sor- 
 ing plant breeder or institution, and which pro¬ 
 vides the source for the initial and recurring 
 increase of foundation seed. 
 
 (2) Foundation seed shall be seed stocks that 
 are so handled as to most nearly maintain spe¬ 
 cific genetic identity and purity and that may 
 be designated or distributed by an agricultural 
 experiment station. Production must be care¬ 
 fully supervised or approved by representatives 
 of an agricultural experiment station. Founda¬ 
 tion seed shall be the source of all other certified 
 seed classes, either directly or through registered 
 seed. "VWiite tags are used to designate this class 
 of seed. 
 
 (3) Registered seed shall be the progeny of 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 57 
 
 foundation or registered seed that is so handled 
 as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and 
 purity and that has been approved and certified 
 by the certifying agency. Purple tags are used 
 to designate this class of seed. 
 
 (■f) Certi-fied seed shall be the progenies of 
 foundation, registered; and, in some cases, pre¬ 
 viously certified blue tag seed that is so handled 
 as to maintain satisfactory genetic identity and 
 purity and that has been approved and certified 
 liy the certifying agency. Blue tags are used to 
 designate this class of seed. 
 
 For the production of the various classes of 
 certified seed, it is necessary to have clean land 
 and to prevent mixtures in seeding, harvesting, 
 and processing. Although careful roguing of all 
 fields to remove undesirable weeds, other crops, 
 or offtype plants increases the production costs, 
 it is necessary. 
 
 The production of breeder and foundation seed 
 is an integral part of the cooperative rice-breed¬ 
 ing projects of the U.S. Department of Agricul¬ 
 ture and the Agricultural Experiment Stations. 
 The production and certification of registered 
 and certified seed are not a part of the breeding 
 program. 
 
 Breeder Seed Production. —After an experi¬ 
 mental variety of rice has been developed in the 
 coordinated breeding program and has been 
 proved sufficiently outstanding, procedures are 
 begun to purify it and to provide a seed supply 
 for possible release to growers for commercial 
 production. 
 
 Procedures differ at the various experiment 
 stations but the steps included usually are some¬ 
 what as follows: (1) From 100 to 500 panicles 
 are selected from the interior rows of nursery or 
 field plots of the experimental variety; (2) these 
 panicles are weighed and the weight is added to 
 the plot weight so as not to cause inaccurate plot 
 yield reports; (3) each panicle is inspected and 
 any having offtype seeds is discarded; (4) each 
 panicle typical of the variety is tlireshed indi¬ 
 vidually; and (5) the seeds are placed in a small 
 envelope. 
 
 The following year the seed from each panicle 
 that passed the screening test is sown in a single 
 row from 4 to 20 feet long and 12 to 24 inches 
 apart. In some cases there are 3-foot alleys be¬ 
 tween ranges of rows to facilitate careful inspec¬ 
 tion and roguing. The block of panicle rows of 
 each variety is isolated from those of varieties 
 similar in maturity so as to eliminate natural 
 crossing and subsequent segregation for offtypes. 
 
 After the seedlings emerge, they are carefully 
 inspected at intervals to identify any offtype 
 plants or rows. Rows that show offtype plants 
 or any apparent differences at any stage are re¬ 
 moved immediately or tagged for removal before 
 harvest. In the early seedling stage, special em¬ 
 
 phasis is given to noting albino seedlings or vari¬ 
 able plant types. Later in the season special 
 attention is paid to uniformity of vegetative 
 growth and heading within and among rows. 
 During the ripening period, careful observations 
 are made to detect differences in plant type, plant 
 height, panicle type, pubescence, color of apex or 
 apiculus, and grain type. If the entire group of 
 panicle rows appears uniform, the rows are har¬ 
 vested in bulk. 
 
 However, if considerable variability attributed 
 to genetic segregation is evident or if numerous 
 offtype plants are found, then it may be neces- 
 saiy to make further selection of rows for puri¬ 
 fication. This may be done by selecting from 
 within a block of rows individual rows that ap¬ 
 pear to be uniform in appearance and that typify 
 the variety being increased. 
 
 The grain from 30 to 50 or more such rows 
 (families) may be harvested separately after 25 
 to 100 panicles are selected from each row. A 
 number is assigned to each family for maintain¬ 
 ing its identity. The following year, from 10 to 
 20 or more rows may be sown from the bulk seed 
 of each family, or a similar number of panicle 
 rows from panicles saved from each family row 
 may be used instead of the bulk. 
 
 An alternate method would be to select a few 
 panicles from all rows that appear to be typical 
 of the variety and grow three to six panicle rows 
 of each row. 
 
 The panicles saved from each family row are 
 examined individually for offtypes and are grown 
 by seeding each family in a group or block of 
 3 to 25 or more panicle rows. As before, the 
 rows are observed for offtype or undesirable type 
 plants in the seedling and later stages. If several 
 offtypes are found within a family or if the rows 
 within a family tend to be variable or are not 
 typical of the variety, the entire family may be 
 eliminated. If there still appears to be too much 
 variation in the material, it may be necessary to 
 again select individual rows from families most 
 similar in plant type. Several rows may be se¬ 
 lected from each of several families, again identi¬ 
 fying the families and subfamilies, and the sub¬ 
 families grown in panicle-row blocks the following 
 year. Usually at this stage the material is suffi¬ 
 ciently uniform, so that there are only a few off¬ 
 types to discard or eliminate. 
 
 If a variety needs to be released as soon as 
 possible because of a disease emergency, for ex¬ 
 ample, one procedure would be to increase and 
 release seed at an earlier stage and at a designa¬ 
 tion lower than foundation seed. Purification of 
 the variety could be continued and foundation 
 seed could be released as soon as it becomes 
 available. 
 
 It may be desirable to check the processing 
 and cooking quality of the bulk seed from each 
 
58 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 family row used in the purification increase. 
 Useful quality tests are the alkali digestion {65) 
 and iodine-blue tests The final bulk rep¬ 
 
 resenting all the family lines should be grown 
 in variety trials to determine the overall per¬ 
 formance of the mass-selected strain. 
 
 One method used to produce breeder seed of 
 established varieties is to select panicles from the 
 best available source of seed of that variety, such 
 
 as a field being grown for production of foun¬ 
 dation seed. Depending on the facilities avail¬ 
 able and the amount of seed desired, individual 
 panicles may be selected in quantities varying 
 from 500 to possibly 5,000. These panicles are 
 carefully inspected and those that are typical for 
 the variety are threshed individually and head 
 rows are grown (fig. 26). 
 
 One procedure that has helped to eliminate 
 
 Figuke 26 .—Breeder seed head-row block. 
 
 natural crosses with other varieties has been to 
 seed the block of breeder panicle rows within the 
 area of a foundation field of the same variety. 
 Pjach row must be e.xamined carefully through¬ 
 out the growing season and atypical rows elimi¬ 
 nated. Failure to eliminate a row with a few 
 ofl'tyjie plants will adulterate the seed produced, 
 and it must be discarded. Typical rows are 
 ■ diked. The family method described for se- 
 lec! ‘ g new varieties may be necessary if a com¬ 
 mercial variety becomes badly mixed. But this 
 
 method should be used as a last resort, since 
 severe mass selection may result in genetic altera¬ 
 tion of the original variety. 
 
 An alternate method used for the production 
 of breeder seed of established varieties is to start 
 with the best source available and, depending on 
 the amount of breeder seed desired, to carefully 
 handpick a given quantity of seed to eliminate 
 grains that appear to be offtype or to have other 
 undesirable characteristics. This handpicked 
 seed can be drilled thinly, possibly at one-fourth 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STAINES : VARIEITES AND TRODUCTION 
 
 59 
 
 the normal rate, in rows 50 to 150 feet long, 
 spaced 12 or more inches apart. This increase 
 block then is observed very carefully at intervals 
 throughout the growing season, and oti'type plants 
 are eliminated. This method is much less time 
 consuming than the panicle-row method and ap¬ 
 pears to be quite satisfactory for well-established 
 varieties that have been purified several times 
 previously. This method may be preferred to the 
 panicle-row method, since there is less chance of 
 genetic alteration. 
 
 A system that w'as inaugurated at Beaumont, 
 Tex., in 1962 may eliminate growing breeder 
 seed panicle rows of a variety after a pure source 
 of breeder seed is established. Under this sys¬ 
 tem the plant breeder produces a fairly large 
 quantity of seed from panicle rows or family 
 blocks that is true to type for the variety. This 
 seed is cleaned and put into 50- to 100-pouiid 
 containers and is placed in storage under condi¬ 
 tions suitable for maintaining the viability for 
 at least 10 years. One or more units from stor¬ 
 age can be sown each succeeding year to produce 
 foundation seed. 
 
 The advantage of this method is that once a 
 variety is purified, a continuing source of seed 
 of known purity is available. To carry this sys¬ 
 tem one additional step, a portion of the seed 
 used to produce the seed for storage is saved and 
 stored under conditions suitable for retaining the 
 viability for more than 25 years. Each 5 to 10 
 years, or as needed, a portion of this remnant 
 seed may be sown to produce another supply of 
 breeder seed identical to that originally stored. 
 
 Foundation Seed Production. —Foundation 
 seed usually is the first year increase from breeder 
 seed. Foundation seed is produced on fields that 
 have not growui another variety or a lower class 
 of the same variety during the 2 previous years. 
 Preventing mixtures throughout the various 
 phases of seed production requires very close 
 attention when several varieties are handled with 
 the same equipment. To facilitate roguing of 
 foundation seed fields, a space is left every few 
 feet by stopping up one or more of the holes in 
 the farm-type grain drill used for seeding. Such 
 fields should be rogued several times during the 
 last part of the growing season. Insofar as pos¬ 
 sible, foundation seed fields are managed to pro¬ 
 duce satisfactory grain yields without excessive 
 vegetative growth and to minimize lodging. It 
 is impossible to satisfactorily rogue a field in 
 which an appreciable amount of lodging has 
 occurred. 
 
 The release of foundation seed to growers 
 usually is handled through a committee or seed 
 council or similar organization that allots the 
 seed to carefully selected growers, often on the 
 basis of rice acreage within a county or parish. 
 Sometimes the seed is turned over to a seed grow¬ 
 
 ers' organization or crop improvement associa¬ 
 tion. Sometimes foundation seed is distributed 
 directly to growers from the State agricultural 
 experiment station. For new varieties or for old 
 varieties in short supply, requested amounts of 
 seed may be reduced in proportion to the amount 
 that is requested. 
 
 Cleaning, Grading, and Processing Seed Rice 
 
 Cleaning and processing seed rice is an exact¬ 
 ing operation that requires specialized equipment. 
 Where conditions and facilities permit, it is de¬ 
 sirable to delay harvesting seed rice until the 
 moisture content is below 20 percent. If the com¬ 
 bine harvester is carefully adjusted, the rough 
 rice coming from “clean” fields may be relatively 
 free of stems, weed seeds, and trash so that it can 
 be unloaded and safely elevated directly into 
 aerated bins without prior aspirating or scalping. 
 In such case the seed rice is placed in hopper- 
 bottom bins and aerated with an excess of air to 
 dry the grain or at least keep it from heating. 
 Where necessary, the air may be heated to facili¬ 
 tate drying of the seed rice to a moisture level 
 sufficiently low for safe storage. If rice coming 
 from the field contains considerable foreign ma¬ 
 terial, it may be advisable to partly clean it with 
 a scalper-aspirator machine before putting it in 
 the bin for aeration. In some locations, facilities 
 and conditions require that the rough rice be 
 dried before it can be safely stored. This dry¬ 
 ing may require that the rice be passed through 
 the drier several times. Frequently the rice is 
 aspirated between passes to remove foreign mat¬ 
 ter and light-weight, immature grains. Extreme 
 care must be exercised to prevent mechanical 
 mixing if the drying and cleaning facilities are 
 used for more than one variety of rice. 
 
 The first step in the cleaning and grading 
 process is to put the rice through a fanning mill, 
 which has the following parts: (1) a wind aspi¬ 
 rator that removes light grain, hulls, and other 
 light-weight foreign material; (2) a screen with 
 large perforations that removes any remaining 
 sticks, stems, mud lumps, or large weed seeds; 
 and (3) a finely perforated screen that removes 
 the finer broken rice grains, small weed seeds, 
 and other small particles of foreign material. 
 It may be necessary to put the rice through the 
 cleaner a second time to remove less easily sepa¬ 
 rated material such as shelled rice grains and 
 weed seeds or an excess of light-weight, under¬ 
 developed grains. 
 
 The next step is a grain-length separation that 
 may be accomplished either by a disk or an in¬ 
 dented cylinder-type machine. Small pockets or 
 indents in revolving disks or cylinders retain the 
 shorter length grains (including broken grains 
 and hulled grains) slightly longer while the grain 
 is lifted by the revolving disk or cylinder. A 
 
60 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 28 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 special compartment collects and eliminates the 
 rejected material from the grain. 
 
 I'he third step in the cleaning and grading 
 process is a diameter or width separation that 
 removes any large diameter rice grains, weed 
 seeds, or foreign materials. For this operation 
 either a vertical screen or a perforated cylinder 
 grader is used. The grains of normal diameter 
 pass through the screen perforations while the 
 grains of larger diameter, the weed seeds, or for¬ 
 eign materials are retained and thus removed 
 from the sample. For successful length and 
 width separations, the sample should be free from 
 sticks, stems, and other foreign materials because 
 such materials will interfere with the proper 
 functioning of the machine. 
 
 The length and diameter grading of seed rice 
 has been extremely useful in removing the larger 
 diameter red rice grains from seed of long-grain 
 varieties. The use of these graders has been 
 important in the control of red rice. In medium- 
 and short-grain varieties, the only means of red 
 rice control is the use of red rice free seed and 
 land, since no economical method of separation 
 has as yet been devised. In some instances long- 
 grain red rice types have occurred in the long- 
 grain varieties. Whenever a lot of long-grain 
 seed rice has a mixture of long-grain red rice, it 
 should be discarded immediately and not used 
 
 for seed. The propagation of seed containing 
 long-grain red rice will soon result in a wide in¬ 
 festation of the soil with long-grain red rice 
 strains and will further complicate the mainte¬ 
 nance of pure seed production. 
 
 Following the diameter-grading operation, the 
 seed rice usually is treated with a fungicide and 
 often with an insecticide and placed in well- 
 marked 100-pound bags. The seed is then ready 
 for distribution to selected growers. 
 
 Each of the rice experiment stations has a 
 plant for processing seed rice. These plants are 
 designed to make the installations as nearly self¬ 
 cleaning as possible. They are being constantly 
 improved as new and iniiiroved equipment and 
 methods are developed. Gravity movement of 
 bulk seed is used whenever possible. Steel or 
 metal-lined bins with smooth walls and gravity 
 flow metal hopper bottoms simplify cleaning 
 the facilities. Belt conveyors are preferred to 
 other types because of ease of cleaning. 
 
 The seed rice processing plant at Stuttgart, 
 Ark., was described by Williams (86). It in¬ 
 cludes a concrete dump pit, a truck hoist, a 6D- 
 hundredweight-per-hour drier, two bucket-type 
 elevators, ten 450-hundredweight bins, two half¬ 
 size working bins, cleaning equipment, a seed 
 treater, and 3,500 square feet of sack storage 
 space (fig. 27). In addition, seven 35-hundred- 
 
 Figuke 27.—Rice seed processing plant at Stuttgart, Ark. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 61 
 
 weight bins are available for small lots of breeder 
 seed. All bins are of steel construction and are 
 equipped with aeration. 
 
 Small portable cleaning units without eleva¬ 
 tors or conveyors frequently are used for clean¬ 
 ing small lots of breeder seed. These small lots 
 usually are dried on sack driers or small labora¬ 
 tory driers to further reduce hazards of mixing. 
 Various sizes and types of seed-cleaning and han¬ 
 dling equij^ment are described in detail by Har- 
 mond, Klein, and Brandenburg (S5). 
 
 Standards for Seed Certification 
 
 The standards for field inspection and labora¬ 
 tory analysis of seed samples for seed certifica¬ 
 tion are summarized in tables 17 and 18. These 
 reflect the ranges in the standards for the seed 
 certification agencies in the Southern States of 
 Arkansas (Arkansas State Plant Board), Loui¬ 
 siana (Louisiana Department of Agriculture and 
 Immigration), Mississippi (The Mississippi Seed 
 Improvement Association), and Texas (The State 
 Seed and Plant Board, Texas Department of 
 Agriculture), and in California (California Crop 
 Improvement Association). 
 
 In some States lots of seed that contain seed- 
 transmissible diseases will not be certified, and in 
 
 other States lots of seed of this type must be 
 reported. 
 
 In order for the rice to be eligible for certifi¬ 
 cation, the seed rice field must not have had an¬ 
 other rice variety or the same variety of lower 
 class growing on it the previous 2 years. The 
 field also must be isolated from other ricefields. 
 When the seed rice field is drill seeded, the mini¬ 
 mum isolation distances range from 10 to 29 feet 
 with a ditch, fence, roadway, or other definite 
 boundary. When the field is sown broadcast 
 with ground equipment, the minimum isolation 
 distance is 50 feet. When the adjoining field is 
 seeded by airplane parallel to the seed rice field, 
 the minimum isolation distance is 100 feet. When 
 adjoining fields are seeded by airplane at right 
 angles to the seed rice field, the minimum isola¬ 
 tion distance is one-fourth mile. In California, 
 all ricefields that are to produce certified seed 
 must be marked before April 15 at the corners 
 and at one-fourth-mile intervals by red or other 
 vivid colored flags that are 3 feet square. 
 
 Specific requirements and standards are estab¬ 
 lished for each State and a list of these is avail¬ 
 able from each of the official certifying agencies. 
 In general, they are concerned with application 
 procedures, field and harvest inspection, post¬ 
 harvest seed movement, seed processing, and offi¬ 
 cial sampling. 
 
 Table 17 .—Ranges among major HcegTowing States in standards for -field inspection of rice for 1962 
 
 Factor 
 
 Standards for each class 
 
 Foundation 
 
 Registered 
 
 Certified 
 
 Other varieties - definite 
 
 Per acre 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Per acre 
 
 0 to 160 plants 
 Up to 160 heads 
 
 0 
 
 0 to 8 plants 
 
 Per acre 
 
 10 to 200 plants. 
 Up to 480 heads. 
 0. 
 
 0 to 18 plants. 
 
 Other varieties - similar grain tvpe 
 
 Curly indigo and other highly objectionable weeds 
 
 Red rice . 
 
 
 Table 18 .—Ranges among major ricegroxoing States in standards for cleaned seed of rice for 1962 
 
 Standards for each class 
 
 Factor 
 
 Pure seed (minimum) _ 
 
 Other varieties - definite (maximum) 
 
 Other varieties - doubtful (maximum) 
 
 Other crop seed (maximum)_ 
 
 Curly indigo, coffeebean, field bindweed 
 
 Other noxious weeds (maximum)_ 
 
 Red rice (maximum) _ 
 
 Total weed seed (maximum) _ 
 
 jlnert matter (maximum) _ 
 
 termination (minimum) _ 
 
 iloisture (maximum) _ 
 
 Foundation 
 
 98 to 99 percent 
 0 
 
 0 to 7 per pound 
 0 to 1 per pound 
 0 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 to 0.05 per cent 
 
 ■1 to 2 percent 
 80 to 85 percent 
 14 percent 
 
 Registered 
 
 98 to 99 percent 
 0 to 1 per 5 pounds 
 
 0 to 10 per pound 
 1 to 2 per pound 
 0 
 0 
 
 0 to 1 per 2 pounds 
 0 to 0.1 percent 
 
 1 to 2 percent 
 80 to 85 percent 
 14 percent 
 
 Certified 
 
 98 to 99 percent. 
 
 3 per 5 pounds to 
 5 per pound. 
 
 0 to 20 per pound. 
 2 to 5 per pound. 
 0 . 
 
 1 in 2 pounds. 
 
 0 to 1 per pound. 
 
 5 per pound to 0.1 
 percent. 
 
 1 to 2 percent. 
 
 80 to 85 percent. 
 14 percent. 
 
62 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (1) Anonymous. 
 
 19G0. GULFBOSE ... A NEW BICE VABIETY BESI8T- 
 ANT TO HOJA BLANCA DISEASE. TeX. AgT. 
 
 Expt. Sta. Leaflet 484, 4 pp. 
 
 ( 2 ) - 
 
 1961. BELLE PATNA ... A NEW SHOBT-SEASON, 
 LONG-GBAIN BICE VABIETY'. TeX. AgT. Expt. 
 
 Sta. Leaflet L-512, 4 pp. 
 
 (8) Adaib, C. R. 
 
 1940. EFFECT OF TIME OF SEEDING ON YIELD, MILL¬ 
 ING QUALITY, AND OTHEB CHABACTEBS IN 
 
 BICE. Amer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 32 : 697- 
 706. 
 
 (4) - 
 
 1941. INHEBITANCE IN BICE OF BEACTION TO HEL- 
 MINTHOSPOBIUM OBYZAE AND CEECOSPOBA 
 
 OBYZAE. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 772, 19 
 19 pp. 
 
 (5) -and Cealley, E. M. 
 
 1950. 1949 BICE YIELD AND DISEASE CONTROL TESTS. 
 
 Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. Ser. 15, 20 pp. 
 
 (6) -and Jones, J. W. 
 
 1946. effect of environment on the character¬ 
 istics OF PLANTS SURVIVING IN BULK HYBRID 
 POPULATIONS OF RICE. Anier. Soc. Agron. 
 Jour. 38: 708-716. 
 
 (7) -Miller, M. D., and Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1962. BICE improvement and culture in the 
 UNITED STATES. Adv. in AgTon. 14 : 61- 
 108. 
 
 (8) Anderson, A. L., Henry, B. W., and Tullis, E. C. 
 
 1947. factors affecting infectivity', spread, and 
 
 PERSISTENCE OF PIRICULABIA OBYZAE CAV. 
 
 Phytopathology 37: 94-110. 
 
 (9) Aten, A., and Faunce, A. D. 
 
 1953. EQUIPMENT FOR THE PROCESSING OF RICE. 
 FAO Devlpmt. Paper 27, 55 pp. 
 
 (10) Atkins, J. G., and Adair, C. R. 
 
 1957. RECENT' discovery OF HOJA BLANCA, A NEW 
 RICE DISEASE IN FLORIDA, AND VARIETAL RE¬ 
 SISTANCE TESTS IN CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 Plant Dis. Rptr. 41: 911-915. 
 
 (11) - Beachell, H. M., and Crane, L. E. 
 
 1956. REACTION OF RICE VARIETIES TO STRAIGHT- 
 HEAD. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Prog. Rpt. 
 1865, 2 pp. 
 
 (12) - Beachell, H. M., and Crane, L. E. 
 
 1957. TESTING AND BREEDING AMERICAN BICE VARI¬ 
 ETIES FOB RESISTANCE TO STRAIGHTHEAD. 
 
 Internatl. Rice Comn. Newsletter 6(2) : 
 12-15. 
 
 (13) - Bollich, C. N., Johnston, T. H., and others. 
 
 1963. BREEDING FOB BLAST RESISTANCE IN THE 
 UNITED STATES. Blast S.vmp. Proc., Inter¬ 
 natl. Rice Res. Inst., Los Banos, Philip¬ 
 pines. July. 
 
 (14) -and Jodon, N. E. 
 
 1963. ASPECTS OF BREEDING RICE FOB RESISTANCE 
 TO DISEASES, PARTICULARLY BLAST (PIRICU- 
 
 LARiA oryzae). Intematl. Rice Comn. 
 Newsletter, Spec, issue, 10th Pacific Sci. 
 Cong. Symp., pp. 41-52. 
 
 (15) -and Todd, E. H. 
 
 1959. WHITE TIP DISEASE OF RICE. IH. YIELD 
 TESTS AND VARIETAL RESISTANCE. Phyto¬ 
 pathology 49: 189-191. 
 
 (16) Autre Y', H. S., Grigorieff, W. W., Altschul, A. M., 
 and Hogan, J. T. 
 
 1955. RICE milling effects of milling condi¬ 
 tions on breakage of rice grains. Jour. 
 Agr. and Food Chem. 3 : 593-599. 
 
 (17) Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1943. EFFECT OF PHOTOPEBIOD ON BICE VARIETIES 
 GROWN IN THE FIELD. Jour. Agr. Res. 66: 
 325-340. 
 
 (18) - 
 
 1959. BICE. In Matz, S. A., ed.. The Chemistry 
 and Technology of Cereals as Food and 
 Feed, pp. 137-176. Avi Pub. Co., Inc., 
 Westport, Conn. 
 
 (19) -and Halick, J. V. 
 
 1957. BREEDING FOR IMPROVED MILLING, PROCESSING 
 AND COOKING CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE. In¬ 
 ternatl. Rice Comn. Newsletter 6(2) : 1-7. 
 
 (20) - and Halick, J. V. 
 
 1957. PROCESSING AND COOKING QUALITIES OF RICE 
 AND METHODS FOR THEIR DETERMINATION. 
 
 Presented Sixth meeting. Working Party 
 on Rice Breeding, IRC, FAO, Vercelll, 
 Italy, 9 pp. 
 
 (21) -and Jennings, P. R. 
 
 1961. MODE OF INHERITANCE OF HOJA BLANCA RE¬ 
 SISTANCE IN BICE. Rice Tech. Working 
 Group Proc., pp. 11-12. 
 
 (22) -- Jodon, N. B., Johnston, T. H., and others. 
 
 1959. BREEDING RICE VARIETIES FOB RESISTANCE TO 
 THE VIRUS DISEASE HOJA BLANCA. Inter¬ 
 natl. Rice Comn. Newsletter 8(3) : 6-9. 
 
 (23) - Scott, J. E., Evatt, N. S., and others. 
 
 1961. BELLE PATNA, Rice Jour. 64(6) : 6-8, 24- 
 26. 
 
 (24) Borasio, L., and Gariboldi, F. 
 
 1957. ILLUSTRATED GLOSSARY OF RICE PROCESSING 
 EQUIPMENT. FAO, Rome. 
 
 (25) Chambliss, C. E., and Jenkins, J. M. 
 
 1923. SOME NEW VARIETIES OF RICE. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Dept. Bui. 1127, 17 pp. 
 
 (26) Chilton, S. J. P., and Tullis, E. C. 
 
 1946. A NEW RACE OF CERCOSPORA OBYZAE IN RICE. 
 Phytopathology 36: 956-952. 
 
 (27) Cralley, E. M. 
 
 1949. WHITE TIP OF RICE. (Abstract) Phyto¬ 
 pathology 39: 5. 
 
 (28) Crane, L. E. 
 
 1959. NEW RICE variety, “gulfrose,” introduced. 
 Rice Jour. 62(13) : 2-3, 17. 
 
 (29) Davis, L. L. 
 
 1950. CALIFORNIA RICE PRODUCTION. Calif. Agr. 
 
 Ext. Ser. Cir. 163, 55 pp. 
 
 (30) Fraps, G. S. 
 
 1916. THE COMPOSITION OF RICE AND ITS BY-PROD¬ 
 UCTS. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 191, 41 pp. 
 
 (31) Geddes, W. F. 
 
 1951. RICE. MILLING. In Jacobs, M. B., ed.. The 
 Chemistry and Technology of Food and 
 Feed Products. 3 v. Interscience Pub., 
 Inc., New York. 
 
 (32) Halick, J. V., Beachell, H. M., Stansel, J. W., 
 and Kramer, H. H. 
 
 1960. A NOTE ON THE DETERMINATION OF GELATINI- 
 ZATION TEMPERATURES OF RICE VARIETIES. 
 
 Cereal Chem. 37 : 670-672. 
 
 (33) -and Kelly, V. J. 
 
 1959. GELATINIZATION AND PASTING CHARACTERIS¬ 
 TICS OF RICE VARIETIES AS RELATED TO COOK¬ 
 ING BEHAVIOR. Cereal Chem. 36; 91-97. 
 
 (34) -and Keneaster, K. K. 
 
 1956. THE USE OF A STARCH-IODINE-BLUE TEST AS A 
 QUALITY INDICATOR OF WHITE MILLED RICE. 
 
 Cereal Chem. 33 : 315-319. 
 
 (35) Harmond, j. E., Klein, L. M., and Brandenburg, 
 N. R. 
 
 1961. SEED CLEANING AND HANDLING. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr., Agr. Handb. 179, 38 pp. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 63 
 
 (36) International Crop Improvement Association. 
 
 1959. MINIMUM SEED CERTIFICATION STANDARDS. 
 Pub. 19, 111 pp. Chambers Printing Co., 
 Clemson, S.C. 
 
 (37) Jenkins, J. M. 
 
 15)36. EFFECT OF DATE OF SEEDING ON THE LENGTH 
 OF THE GROWING PERIOD OF RICE. La. Agl'. 
 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 277, 7 pp. 
 
 (38) -and Jones, J. W. 
 
 1944. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH RICE IN 
 LOUISIANA. La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 384, 
 39 pp. 
 
 (39) JODON, N. E. 
 
 1938. EXPERIMENTS ON ARTIFTCIAL HYBRIDIZATION 
 OF BICE. Amer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 30 : 294- 
 305. 
 
 (40) - 
 
 1953. GROWING PERIOD OF LEADING RICE VARIETIES 
 WHEN SOWN ON DIFFERENT DATES. La. Agr. 
 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 476, 8 pp. 
 
 (41) - 
 
 1955. IMPROVING VARIETIES OF RICE AND SORGHUM. 
 47th Ann. Prog. Rpt., La. Rice Expt. Sta., 
 pp. 83-87. 
 
 (42) - 
 
 1955. SUNBONNET AND TORO. 2 NEW MIDSEASON 
 LONG-GRAIN RICE VARIETIES. La. Agr. Expt. 
 
 Sta. Bui. 499, 12 pp. 
 
 (43) - 
 
 1957. NATO. AN EARLY MEDIUM-GRAIN RICE. La. 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Cir. 47, 14 pp. 
 
 (44) - 
 
 1961. PEBFOBilANCE OF RICE VARIETIES IN 1961. 
 53rd Ann. Prog. Rpt., La. Rice Expt. Sta., 
 162 pp. [Processed.] 
 
 (45) -and Chilton, S. J. P. 
 
 1946. SOME characters INHERITED INDEPEND¬ 
 ENTLY OF REACTION TO PHYSIOLOGIC RACES 
 OF CERCOSPORA OBYZAE IN RICE. Amer. SoC. 
 Agron. Jour. 38 : 864-872. 
 
 (46) - and de la Houssaye, D. A. 
 
 1949. RICE VARIETIES FOR LOUISIANA. La. Agr 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 436, 15 pp. 
 
 (47) - Rykeb, T. C., and Chilton, S. J. P. 
 
 1944. inheritance of reaction to physiologic 
 
 RACES OF CERCOSPORA ORYZAE IN RICE. Amer. 
 
 Soc. Agron. Jour. 36 : 497-507. 
 
 (48) Johnston, T. H. 
 
 1958. registration of rice varieties. Agron. 
 Jour. 50 : 694—700. 
 
 (49) - Adair, C. R., Templeton, G. E., and others. 
 
 1963. NOVA and VEGOLD . . . NEW RICE VARIETIES. 
 
 Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 675, 23 pp. 
 
 (50) -and Cralley, E. M. 
 
 1955. RICE VARIETIES AND THEIR YIELDS IN ARKAN¬ 
 SAS, 1948-1954. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 
 Ser. 49, 20 pp. 
 
 (51) - Cralley, E. M., and Henry, S. E. 
 
 1959. PERFORMANCE OF RICE VARIETIES IN ARKAN¬ 
 SAS, 1953-1958. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. 
 Ser. 85, 31 pp. 
 
 (52) - Templeton, G. E., Wells, J. P., and Henry, 
 
 S. E. 
 
 1962. NOBTHROSE, A NEW SPECIAL-PURPOSE RICE 
 VARIETY FOB ARKANSAS. Rice Jour. 65(8) : 
 10, 12-14, 18-19. 
 
 (53) - Templeton, G. E., Wells, J. P., and Henry, 
 
 S. E. 
 
 1962. NOBTHROSE RICE-A SPECIAL-PURPOSE, STIFF- 
 
 STBAWED EARLY VARIETY FOR ARKANSAS. 
 
 Ark. Farm Res. 11(2) : 2. 
 
 (54) Jones, J. W. 
 
 1923. RICE experiments at the biggs rice field 
 STATION IN CALIFORNIA. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 Dept. Bui. 1155, 60 pp. 
 
 (55) - 
 
 1936. improvement in rice. U.S. Dept. Agr 
 Yearbook 1936: 415-154. 
 
 (56) - 
 
 1938. THE “alkali test’’ as a quality indicator 
 OF MILLED RICE. Amer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 
 30: 960-967. 
 
 (57) - Adair, C. R., Beachell, H. M., and others. 
 
 1953. BICE varieties and their yields in the 
 UNITED STATES 1939-50. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Cir. 915, 29 pp. 
 
 (58) - Jenkins, J. M., Nelson, M., and others. 
 
 1941. RICE VARIETIES AND THEIR COMPARATIVE 
 YIELDS IN THE UNITED STATES. U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Cir. 612, 34 pp. 
 
 (59) - Jenkins, J. M., Wyche, R. H., and Nelson, 
 
 M. 
 
 1938. RICE CULTURE IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 1808, 29 pp. 
 
 (60) Karon, M. L., and Adams, Mabelle E. 
 
 1949. hygroscopic equilibrium of rice and rice 
 FRACTIONS. Cereal Chem. 26: 1-12. 
 
 (61) Kester, E. B. 
 
 1959. RICE PROCESSING. In Matz, S. A., ed.. The 
 Chemistry and Technology of Cereals as 
 Food and Feed, pp. 427-461. Avi Pub. 
 Co., Inc., Westport, Conn. 
 
 (62) Kik, M. C., and Williams, R. R. 
 
 1945. THE nutritional improvement of white 
 RICE. Natl. Res. Council Bui. 112, 76 pp. 
 
 (63) King, B. M. 
 
 1937. THE utilization of WABASH CLAY (GUMBO) 
 SOILS IN CROP PRODUCTION. Mo. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Res. Bui. 254, 42 pp. 
 
 (64) Lattebell, Frances M., Tullis, E. C., and Collier, 
 
 J. W. 
 
 1960. PHYSIOLOGICAL RACES OP PIRICULARIA ORY¬ 
 ZAE CAV. Plant Dis. Rptr. 44 : 679-683. 
 
 (65) Little, Ruby R., Hilder, Grace B., and Dawson, 
 Elsie H. 
 
 1958. DIFFERENTIAL EFFECT OF DILUTE ALKALI ON 
 25 VARIETIES OF MILLED WHITE BICE. Cereal 
 Chem. 35: 111-126. 
 
 (66) Nagai, I. 
 
 1959. JAPONICA BICE. ITS BREEDING AND CULTURE. 
 843 pp. Yokendo Ltd., Tokyo. 
 
 (67) Nelson, M., and Adair, C. R. 
 
 1940. BICE VARIETY EXPERIMENTS IN ARKANSAS. 
 Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 403, 28 pp. 
 
 (68) Obmrod, D. P., and Bunter, W. A., Jr. 
 
 1961. THE EVALUATION OF RICE VARIETIES FOR COLD 
 WATER TOLERANCE. Agron. Jour. 53 : 133- 
 134. 
 
 (69) POEHLMAN, J. M. 
 
 1959. BREEDING RICE. VARIETAL HISTORY OF RICE 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. His Breeding Field 
 Crops, pp. 174-189. Henry Holt and Co., 
 Inc., New York. 
 
 (70) Ramiah, K. 
 
 1933. INHERITANCE OF FLOWERING DURATION IN 
 BICE (oRYZA SATTVA L.). Indian Jour. Agr. 
 Sci. 3: 377-110. 
 
 (71) Rao, B. S., Vasudeva Mubthy, A. R., and Subbah- 
 MANYA, R. S. 
 
 1952. THE amylose and the amylopectin con¬ 
 tents OF RICE AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON 
 THE COOKING QUALITY OF THE CEREAL. In¬ 
 dian Acad. Sci. Proc. 36B: 70-80. 
 
 (72) Reynolds, E. B. 
 
 1954. research on rice production in texas. 
 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 775, 29 pp. 
 
 (73) Rykeb, T. C. 
 
 1943. physiologic specialization in cercospora 
 ORYZAE. Phytopathology 33 : 70-74. 
 
G4 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEP1\ OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (74) Kykkr, T. C. 
 
 1947. NEW PATHOGENIC RACES OF CERCOSPORA ORY- 
 ZAE AFFECTING RICE. (Abstract) Phyto- 
 
 pathologrj' 37: 19-20. 
 
 (75) -and Cowart, L. E. 
 
 1948. DEVELOPMENT OF CERCOSPORA-RESISTANT 
 STRAiNs OF KICK. (Abstract) Phytopathol¬ 
 ogy 38: 23. 
 
 (76) Scott, .1. E., Webb, B. D., and Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1964. RICE TEST-TUBE MILLER. Ci’op Sci. “Brief 
 
 Articles” 4: 231. 
 
 ( 77 ) - Webb, B. D., and Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1964. SMALL SAMPLE RICE POLISHING MACHINE. 
 
 Crop Sci. “Brief Articles” 4; 232. 
 
 (78) Smith, W. D. 
 
 1955. THE USE OF THE CARTER DOCKAGE TESTER TO 
 REMOVE WEED SEEDS AND OTHER FOREIGN 
 MATERIAL FROM ROUGH RICE. Rice Jour. 
 
 58(9) : 26-27. 
 
 (79) - 
 
 1955. THE USE OF THE MCGILL S HELLER FOR RE¬ 
 MOVING HULLS FROM ROUGH RICE. Rice 
 
 Jour. 58(10) : 20. 
 
 (80) - 
 
 1955. THE USE OF THE MCGILL MILLER FOR MILL¬ 
 ING SAMPLES OF RICE. Rice JOUT. 58(11) : 
 20 . 
 
 (81) - 
 
 1955. THE DETERMINATION OF THE ESTIMATE OF 
 HEAD RICE AND OF TOTAL YIELD WITH THE 
 
 USE OF THE SIZING DEVICE. Rice Jour. 
 58(12) : 9. 
 
 (82) Todd, E. H., and Beachell, H. M. 
 
 1954. straighthead of rice as influenced by 
 
 VARIETY AND IRRIGATION PRACTICES. TeX. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Prog. Rpt. 1650, 3 pp. 
 
 (83) Warth, F. J., and Darabsett, D. B. 
 
 1914. THE FRACTIONAL LIQUEFACTION OF RICE 
 STARCH. Mem. Dept. Agr. India, Cheiu. 
 Ser. 3: 135-147. 
 
 (84) Wayne, T. B. 
 
 1930. modern rice milling as practiced in the 
 world’s largest complete mill. Food 
 Indus. 2: 492-495. 
 
 (85) Wells, D. G., and Caffey, H. R. 
 
 1956. SCISSOR EMASCULATION OF WHEAT AND BAR¬ 
 LEY. Agron. Jour. 48: 496-499. 
 
 (86) Williams, F. J. 
 
 1957. AT THE RICE BRANCH E.XPERIMENT STATION 
 
 ... A NEW SEED PROCESSING PLANT. Ark. 
 
 Farm Res. 6(5) : 2. 
 
 (87) Williams, V. R., Wu, W. T., Tsai, H. Y., and 
 Bates, H. G. 
 
 1958. varietal differences in amylose content 
 OF RICE STARCH. Agr. Food Chem. 6(1) : 
 47^8. 
 
 (88) Wise, L. N. 
 
 1954. RESEARCH IN SEED PROCESSING. AlUer. SOC. 
 Agron. 1954 Annual Meetings Agron. Abs., 
 p. 91. 
 
SOILS AND FERTILIZERS 
 
 By D. S. Mikkklsen and N. S. Evatt 
 
 Types of Soils Used for Rice Production 
 
 Rice, a semiaquatic plant, must be maintained 
 under flooded conditions during part or all of 
 the growing season to minimize weed competition 
 and to provide high yields. Because of these 
 water requirements, the ideal soil types for rice 
 production are those that conserve water. Usu¬ 
 ally clay and clay loams, silty clay loams, or silt 
 loams are considered most desirable. Soils with 
 a high clay and silt content provide conditions 
 for slow water percolation. ()ther soils, includ¬ 
 ing organic soils, can be used if they possess a 
 hardpan or claypan capable of maintaining up to 
 8 inches of floodwater. Rice soils should be capa¬ 
 ble of easy surface drainage also, since many 
 aspects of mechanization require removal of the 
 surface water. 
 
 Apart from the aspects of water conservation, 
 light-textured clay and silt soils are generally 
 preferred because of their generally favorable 
 fertility and chemical and physical properties 
 conducive to the satisfactory growth of rice. 
 These soils, when drained, adequately support the 
 mechanical equipment used in rice production. 
 Soil requirements for rice are not demanding, 
 but the soil should be fertile and capable of sat¬ 
 isfactory management. 
 
 Rice does not have a critical soil pH require¬ 
 ment, although the best producing soils have val¬ 
 ues between 5.5 and 6.5. In this i-ange of pH 
 values, nutrient availability is generally good; 
 and toxicities from such things as aluminum, 
 iron, sulfides, and sodium do not generally occur. 
 The soil pH in the rice root zone normally in¬ 
 creases from 0.5 to 1.5 pPI units when placed 
 under flooded conditions, and it decreases when 
 the excess water is removed. This increase of 
 pH influences the uptake of nutrients and plant 
 development. Use of some fertilizers, particu¬ 
 larly prolonged use of ammonium nitrogen 
 sources, increases soil acidity. It is not uncom¬ 
 mon for soil pH to decrease as much as 2 pH 
 units where ammonium nitrogen sources have 
 been used in rice production for 15 to 20 years. 
 
 Salinity problems are sometimes encountered 
 ill areas where soluble salts have accumulated or 
 where a poor quality of irrigation water is used. 
 Sea water that is intruded into rivers and wa¬ 
 terways or that is brought in by storms of hur¬ 
 ricane force may be a source of excess salinity. 
 
 Because rice can grow in flooded soils, it is oc¬ 
 casionally used as a reclamation crop. Varie¬ 
 ties difler in tolerance to salinity, but all are 
 attected by the salt concentration of the soil so¬ 
 lution in the root zone. The etfects of salinity 
 on rice depend somewhat on its stage of devel¬ 
 opment when it is exposed to saline conditions. 
 Studies of salinity effects indicate that rice is 
 most tolerant during germination and is most 
 sensitive during the 1- to 2-leaf stage. Salt tol¬ 
 erance apparently increases during the tillering 
 and elongation stages but decreases during the 
 flowering stage. Results of field experiments 
 have indicated that high soil salinity occurring 
 at planting time may seriously impair yield by 
 reducing germination and stand establishment. 
 
 Most rice soils, often referred to as heavy soils 
 because of their high clay and silt content, pre¬ 
 sent special management problems. These in¬ 
 clude tillage and seedbed preparation, mainte¬ 
 nance of organic matter and soil structure, 
 adequate drainage for essential mechanized rice 
 operations and for other crops planted in rota¬ 
 tion, green manure crops, fertilizer application, 
 and weed control. Management of rice soils is 
 discussed in the section “Culture,'' p. 74. 
 
 The soils most widely used in rice production 
 in the United States are of alluvial origin [32)} 
 Brief descriptions of the soils used for rice in 
 the principal rice-growing States are given be¬ 
 low. 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Crowley silt loam, Calhoun silt loam, and 
 Sharkey clay are the principal soils used for rice 
 production in Arkansas {21). Other soils are 
 sometimes used. 
 
 Crowley Silt Loam.— The surface of Crowley 
 silt loam is gray to brown. It is underlain with 
 a gray or yellowish-gray silt loam that changes 
 with depth into a gray silty clay and finally into 
 a heavy clay usually mottled with yellow and 
 red. Crowley silt loam in its virgin state has a 
 fairly high organic matter content, but it is low 
 in })hosphorus and is strongly acid. 
 
 Caliioux Silt Loam.— Calhoun silt loam is a 
 
 ^ Italic number.s in parentheses refer to Selected liefer- 
 ences, p. 72. 
 
 65 
 
AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 ()G 
 
 lijjlit ^riTiy to almost white shallow soil under¬ 
 lain with a compact drah or yellowish-drab clay, 
 ddiis soil is common in lowlands in eastern Ar¬ 
 kansas. Calhoun silt loam is low in total nitro¬ 
 gen and j)hosph()rns, and it is acid to strongly 
 acid. Kice is commonly grown on Calhoun silt 
 loam in the “North-end” of the Arkansas rice 
 area. 
 
 Sharkey Clay.— The surface soil of Sharkey 
 clay is a dark, drab, or grayish-brown silty clay 
 usuall}^ mottled with brown. This is underlain 
 at varying depths with a drab, steel-gray or blue, 
 sticky clay. Sand is frecpiently found in the 
 surface layer. Sharkey clay occurs commonly in 
 the ^Mississippi Kiver bottoms. It is known as 
 “buckshot land” because it granulates and forms 
 a crumb structure. It can be plowed when wet; 
 and as it dries out, it breaks down into granules 
 or into clods that are easily slaked by rain. 
 Under natural conditions this soil is poorly 
 drained, and the natural vegetation is hardwood 
 and cypress. In the virgin state it is well sup¬ 
 plied with nitrogen and phosphorus, and it is 
 slightly acid to neutral in reaction. In recent 
 years, Sharkey clay has been widely used for rice 
 in the IMississippi Valley. 
 
 Other Soils. —Other soils sometimes used for 
 rice production in Arkansas are Waverly silt 
 loam, and Waverly, Miller, and Portland clay 
 soils. Because these soils usually have poor nat¬ 
 ural drainage, they have come into use for rice 
 production only in recent years. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 According to Walker and Miears (35), the 
 principal soils used for rice production in Loui¬ 
 siana are the Crowley, Midland, and Beaumont 
 soils. 
 
 Crowley" Soils. —Soils of this type found in 
 Louisiana are the same as soils of this type in 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Midland Soils. —The Midland soils, which gen¬ 
 erally are alluvium deposited by the Red and the 
 Mississippi Rivers, are deep and poorly drained 
 (5). The surface soil is gray to dark gray and 
 strongly acid. The subsoil is strong-brown to 
 light olive-brown, heavy, silty clay mottled with 
 gray. It is very strongly acid to mildly alkaline. 
 
 Midland-Crowley' Mixed Soils.— Soils that 
 are a mixture of Midland silt loam. Midland 
 silty clay loam, and Crowley silt loam are used 
 for rice in Louisiana. Fertility and organic mat¬ 
 ter content of the soils are moderate, and surface 
 runotf, infiltration, and permeability are slow (5). 
 
 Beaumont Clay".— Beaumont clay soil is acid, 
 poorly drained, and very slowly permeable (28). 
 It occurs mainly in southwest Louisiana and in 
 Texas, east of the Trinity River. 
 
 Texas 
 
 In addition to Beaumont clay soil which com¬ 
 prises about one-fourth of the riceland in Texas, 
 rice is grown on Lake Cliarles clay, Bernard 
 clay loam, Edna fine sandy loam, Hockley fine 
 sandy loam, and Katy fine sandy loam (28). 
 
 Lake Charles Clay".— Lake Charles clay is 
 the principal heavy soil in the rice belt west of 
 the Trinity River in Texas. It comprises prob¬ 
 ably one-third to one-half of the rice acreage 
 around Houston, Angleton, Bay City, and El 
 Camjio. Lake Charles clay is darker and more 
 granular than Beaumont clay. It is slightly acid 
 to mildly alkaline in reaction, with a pH of 
 6 to 8. 
 
 Bernard Clay Loayi.— Bernard clay loam is 
 similar to Lake Charles clay but is more loanw 
 and slightly less dark, and it occurs on slightly 
 higher elevations. It is found both east and west 
 of the Trinity River in Texas. This soil is 
 slightly acid to neutral in reaction, with a pH 
 of () to 7. 
 
 Edna Fine Sandy" Loam. —Edna fine sandy 
 loam has a grayish, sandy surface and is under¬ 
 lain at a depth of 6 to 12 inches by a heavy, gray 
 claypan. It is found principally in the western 
 and southwestern parts of the Texas rice belt. 
 
 Hockley' Fine Sandy" Loam.— The Hockley 
 soils form a narrow belt along the northern part 
 of the rice area from Cleveland, in Liberty 
 County, westward through Hockley, Sealy, and 
 Eagle Lake to western Victoria County, Texas. 
 These sandy loam soils are underlain by friable, 
 sandy clay subsoils. They are slightly more 
 sloping and better drained than are the Katy 
 soils, and they require more irrigation water 
 than do the Katy soils. 
 
 Katy Fine Sandy- Loam. —Kat}^ fine sandy 
 loam occurs in large level areas adjacent to Lake 
 Charles soils and in the flatter portion between 
 the slightly more sloping and better drained 
 Hockley soils. 
 
 California 
 
 Stockton and Sacramento clay (27) and Wil¬ 
 lows ( 14 ) are the principal soils used for rice 
 production in California. However, sei-eral other 
 soils are also used. 
 
 Stockton Soils.^— Stockton adobe clay is one 
 of the principal soils used for rice culture in 
 California. The surface soil is dark-gray or 
 black clay, 5 to 16 inches deep. 'When wet, it is 
 dense and plastic, but it shrinks in drying and 
 develops large blocks separated by wide cracks. 
 The upper part of the dark, grayish-brown, heavy 
 clay subsoil is similar in structure and consist¬ 
 ency to the surface soil but is calcareous. The 
 subsoil has slightly more colloidal clay and less 
 organic matter than the surface soil. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 67 
 
 Sacramento Soils. —Sacramento clay soil oc¬ 
 cupies low-lying flood plains and is derived from 
 transported material of mixed geological origin. 
 It was developed under poorly drained, marshy 
 conditions. The dark-gray or dark, brownish- 
 gray surface soil, 14 to 24 inches deep, is coarse 
 and lumpy. It is heavy textured, and contains 
 varying quantities of completely or partly de¬ 
 cayed organic matter. The transition to a vari¬ 
 able subsoil, made up of stratified layers of min¬ 
 eral and organic soil material, is rather abrupt. 
 
 W iLLOws Soils. —Willow soils consist of stream 
 sediment, usually reddish or yellowish brown or 
 dark brown, deposited along the courses of minor 
 creeks or in the waters of temporary lakes, and 
 underlain by brown to light-brown, compact and 
 relatively impervious subsoils. 
 
 Other Soils. —Other California soils fre¬ 
 quently used for rice production include Gene- 
 vera, Meyers, and Yolo of sedimentary alluvial 
 origin; Marvin, Merced, and Sycamore of mixed 
 alluvial origin; and San Joaquin of granitic al¬ 
 luvial origin. 
 
 Chemistry of Flooded Soils 
 
 In the production of rice, the benefits of flood¬ 
 ing the soil are recognized wherever the crop is 
 gpwn. Senewiratne and Mikkelsen (29) re¬ 
 viewed the literature and provided evidence that 
 flooding enhances foliar development, tillering, 
 and earlier flowering and increases yield of rice 
 when compared with nonflooding irrigated cul¬ 
 ture. The superior growth of rice under flooded 
 conditions can be attributed in part to the effects 
 of the aquatic environment; but the chemical 
 characteristics of flooded soils are of major im¬ 
 portance in the development of the crop. 
 
 The most distinguishing characteristic of a 
 flooded soil is the presence of standing water 
 during part or all of the growing season. The 
 layer of floodwater, creating waterlogged con¬ 
 ditions, exerts profound changes in the physical, 
 chemical, and biological status of the soil. The 
 immediate effect of flooding is a drastic curtail¬ 
 ment of gaseous exchange between the atmosphere 
 and the soil. Water fills the soil pores, reducing 
 oxygen entry and often allowing accumulation of 
 gaseous products of anaerobic decomposition. 
 Carbon dioxide concentrations build up in the 
 flooded soils, together with methane, hydrogen, 
 nitrogen, and various oxides of nitrogen. 
 
 Entry of oxygen is not completely restricted 
 but is confined largely to a thin layer of soil at 
 the soil-water interface (£3). Oxygen arises 
 from gaseous exchange with the atmosphere and 
 as a product of photosynthesis of phytoplankton 
 and hydrophytes. 
 
 Pearsall (£4-) and Pearsall and Mortimer {£5), 
 
 working with naturally flooded soils and lake 
 muds, determined that there were significant dif¬ 
 ferences between the soil at the soil-water inter¬ 
 face and the soil immediately beneath. Flood- 
 water containing some dissolved oxygen main¬ 
 tained a thin surface layer of soil in an oxidative 
 condition with soil color characteristics and 
 physico-chemical and biological properties dif¬ 
 ferent from those of the soil beneath. Oxidation- 
 reduction potentials in the oxidative layer ex¬ 
 ceeded 320 to 350 millivolts at a pH of 5.0 and 
 contained such oxidized chemical radicals as 
 nitrates, sulfates, ferric, and manganic ions. The 
 underlying soil was conspicuous by the absence 
 of oxygen and the concomitant presence of the 
 reduced forms of chemical radicals such as am¬ 
 monium, ferrous iron, and manganous manga¬ 
 nese; nitrogen gas and its oxides; and various 
 sulfides, including hydrogen sulfide. The oxida¬ 
 tion potentials were generally below 350 milli¬ 
 volts at a pH of 5.0 in the reducing layer. Mik¬ 
 kelsen and Finf rock (17) showed that reducing 
 conditions in Stockton clay develop about 3 days 
 after a soil is flooded. Patrick and Sturgis (£3) 
 showed that when soils are flooded, the soil oxy¬ 
 gen disappears within a few hours and may be 
 nearly absent at depths exceeding about one-half 
 inch. 
 
 The oxidation-reduction status of the soil un¬ 
 der flooded conditions is governed by several 
 factors, including the rate of oxygen exchange, 
 microbial activity, the soil content of decompos¬ 
 able organic matter, and the base saturation 
 status. 
 
 Flooding has been shown to increase the soil 
 pH. The increase depends partly on the initial 
 pH value and organic matter content of the soil, 
 and on the period of submergence. The pH in¬ 
 crease varies usually between 0.5 and 1.5 pH 
 units. Reed and Sturgis (£6) showed that the 
 pH increase in flooded soils they studied varied 
 from_ 0.82 to 1.55 pH units, depending on soil 
 conditions and initial pH values. Generally, soils 
 with a low pH and with high soil organic matter 
 composition undergo the greatest pH changes 
 when flooded. The cause of the pH increase is 
 not completely understood but has been attrib¬ 
 uted variously to increased ammonium compo¬ 
 sition, soluble ferrous, and manganous hydrox¬ 
 ides, which neutralize the exchangeable hydrogen 
 ions in the soil. 
 
 Another generally observed result of flooding 
 is the increased specific conductance of the soil 
 solution. The phenomenon is well established, 
 but detailed information is lacking on the spe¬ 
 cific nature of the increased composition of dis¬ 
 solved solids in the soil. The increase in the 
 concentration of ammonium, iron, and manga¬ 
 nese ions, and in the bases displaced by these 
 ions from the soil exchange complex may in part 
 
68 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEIT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 account for the increased specific conductance. 
 The increased comjiosition of carbon dioxide, 
 especially at high pH values, would increase the 
 bicarbonate ion concentration. 
 
 Several mechanical properties of soils, includ¬ 
 ing permeability, plasticity, cohesion, and consist¬ 
 ency, are changed by flooding. Ordinarily, these 
 changes do not adversely influence the growth of 
 rice. Allison (2) showed that the permeability 
 of a flooded soil is influenced by the amount of 
 air entrapped during submergence. He noted 
 that permeability decreased after flooding but 
 increased again as air trapped in the soil was 
 released. At a later period after flooding, per¬ 
 meability may again decrease if bacteria-pro- 
 duced material blocks the pores and restricts wa¬ 
 ter movement. 
 
 Sturgis (31) called attention to possible dele¬ 
 terious effects of flooding on soil structure. He 
 cited evidence that low productivity of some 
 Louisiana soils was caused by deflocculation dur¬ 
 ing flooding. The specific factors associated with 
 the deflocculation were not reported. 
 
 In addition to other effects, flooding has an 
 important influence on soil temperature and con¬ 
 sequently affects the growth of rice both directly 
 and indirectly. The high sjiecific heat and high 
 heat of vaporization of water prevent its tem¬ 
 perature from dropping as fast or as low as does 
 air temperature. Under some circumstances, this 
 modification of the plant environment may en¬ 
 hance the growth of rice. 
 
 Upland soils with good aeration usually main¬ 
 tain diverse populations of microflora and micro¬ 
 fauna. These organisms decompose organic mat¬ 
 ter from which they derive energy and liberate 
 carbon dioxide. They exert a heavy demand for 
 nutrients, especially nitrogen, as they produce 
 cellular material. ITnder flooded conditions, the 
 normal soil complement of actinomycetes, fungi, 
 bacteria, algae, and protozoa is modified to pro¬ 
 duce a microflora consisting principally of anaer¬ 
 obic bacteria, some facultative anaerobes, and a 
 modified population of algae. The anaerobic 
 forms have a much lower energy requirement 
 than do the aerobic forms and consequently de¬ 
 compose organic matter at a slower rate. The 
 slower decomposition of organic matter under 
 flooded conditions is partly responsible for the 
 development of peat in bogs and marshes. The 
 modification in the soil microflora and micro¬ 
 fauna is only temporary, and normal populations 
 develop when drainage and aeration are main¬ 
 tained. 
 
 The decomposition of organic matter proceeds 
 at a slower rate in flooded soils than in upland 
 soils, and the end products are different. Tenney 
 and Waksman {33) showed that the decomposi¬ 
 tion of cornstalks under flooded conditions pro¬ 
 ceeds at about half the usual rate; and with more 
 
 resistant materials, high in limin, decomposition 
 under flooded conditions is delayed to a much 
 greater extent. In well-drained soils, the end 
 products of organic matter decomposition are 
 principally carbon dioxide, nitrates, and sul¬ 
 phates. Under flooded conditions, the end prod¬ 
 ucts include methane, hydrogen, various organic 
 acids, ammonium ions, nitrogen and its various 
 oxides, amines, mercaptans, and hydrogen sulfides. 
 
 The rate of organic matter decomposition in 
 soils depends on the kind of organic constituents 
 and their nitrogen content and the carbon-nitro¬ 
 gen ratio. Ordinarily, if nitrogen is adecjuate 
 for microbial function, nitrogen is mineralized, 
 and if carbonaceous materials are in excess, nitro¬ 
 gen is immobilized. Data from various sources 
 indicate that organic matter decomposition under 
 anaerobic conditions proceeds at lower total nitro¬ 
 gen values than the 1.2- to 1.5-percent nitrogen 
 values established under aerobic conditions and 
 that immobilization of nitrogen does not occur 
 except at higher carbon-nitrogen values than the 
 approximate 15:1 established for well-drained 
 soils. In well-aerated soils, the mineralization of 
 organic matter gradually increases nitrate pro¬ 
 duction. In flooded soils, the mineralization proc¬ 
 ess produces ammonium ions. The number of 
 ammonium ions reaches a plateau value rather 
 rapidly and then declines rather sharply. 
 
 The occurrence of two distinct layers—an oxi¬ 
 dative layer at the soil-water interface and a re¬ 
 duction layer immediately beneath—exerts a sig¬ 
 nificant influence on agronomic factors associated 
 with rice production. These layers should be 
 taken into account in seedbed preparation, crop 
 residue management, fertilization, cultivation, and 
 water management. 
 
 Two types of nitrogen transformations occur in 
 flooded soils, depending on whether oxidizing or 
 reducing conditions prevail. In the thin oxidiz¬ 
 ing layer at the surface, the nitrogen transforma¬ 
 tions are similar to those that occur in well- 
 drained soils. Organic matter in this layer is 
 mineralized to ammonium ions and ultimately to 
 nitrate ions by the action of highly specialized 
 autotropic micro-organisms. The nitrate ions are 
 used by either plants or micro-organisms. They 
 may be immobilized, depending on the carbon- 
 nitrogen ratio of the organic matter; or they may 
 be moved into the underlying reducing zone by 
 leaching. The nitrogen status of the reducing 
 zone is characterized by the denitrification of 
 nitrates and the accumulation of ammonium ions. 
 The ammonium ions that are produced by the 
 more sluggish bacterial microflora are not re¬ 
 duced and provide the reservoir of nitrogen for 
 use by the rice crop. Nitrates that move into or 
 originate in this layer are reduced to nitrites and 
 finally to nitrogen gas or its oxides. These gases 
 ultimately escape into the air. This reduction of 
 
KICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 69 
 
 nitrates is favored by low oxygen tensions and the 
 ])resence of oxidizable organic matter. Janssen 
 and Metzger {10) have amply demonstrated that 
 nitrate nitrogen accumulates in well-drained soils, 
 in contrast with flooded soils where ammonium 
 ions accumulate. 
 
 The practical significance of the differentiation 
 of distinct oxidation and reduction layers is ap¬ 
 parent in results demonstrating the poor efficiency 
 of nitrate-nitrogen fertilizer sources in continu¬ 
 ously flooded soil and the desirability of fertilizer 
 placement of ammonium nitrogen sources {20). 
 Nitrate nitrogen that is applied as a basal ferti¬ 
 lizer application or that develops in the oxidation 
 layer is largely lost through leaching and subse¬ 
 quent denitrification. Where reducing conditions 
 develop after flooding, drilling ammonium nitro¬ 
 gen several inches into the soil before flooding 
 provides good retention and availability of the 
 nitrogen for the rice crop {17). 
 
 Flooding a soil often provides conditions for 
 the increased availability of both the native phos¬ 
 phorus and that applied as fertilizer. Evidence 
 of this is obtained in both the uptake of phos¬ 
 phorus by rice and the increased solubility of 
 phosphorus, as shown by soil-test extraction meth¬ 
 ods (/J, 20.) 30). Factors that appear to be asso¬ 
 ciated with increased phosphoms availability 
 include pH modification, reduction of insoluble 
 ferric phosphate to the more soluble ferrous form, 
 hydration and subsequently increased hydrolysis 
 of ferric and aluminum phosphates, and increased 
 displacement of soluble phosphorus by formation 
 of complex ion and substitution of organic anion. 
 
 Sulfur in organic forms or as the sulfate ion is 
 ultimately reduced, at least in part, to sulfides in 
 flooded soils. Sulfate reduction is accomplished 
 by anaerobic bacteria that are active over a wide 
 range of soil pH and operate under low oxidation- 
 reduction potentials. Hydrogen sulfide, the end 
 product of bacterial reduction, may occur free in 
 gases produced in flooded soils and may accumu¬ 
 late in amounts toxic to rice. This occasionally 
 occurs in light-textured soils under extreme re¬ 
 ducing conditions and in the presence of large 
 amounts of readily decomposable organic matter. 
 Normally, soils contain sufficient active iron to 
 completely precipitate the sulfide ion as ferrous 
 sulfide. 
 
 Iron, a prominent constituent of the soil, occurs 
 in primary minerals, hydrated oxides, silicate 
 clays, and various organic complexes. When a 
 soil is flooded, the iron undergoes considerable 
 changes in solubility, which is greatly influenced 
 by anaerobic bacteria. The extent of the change 
 is also a function of the organic matter content, 
 the low oxidation-reduction potential, and the 
 soil reaction. Ferric iron, which predominates in 
 well-drained soils, is reduced to the ferrous form, 
 especially as hydroxides and carbonates. Decom¬ 
 
 posable organic matter in the soil enhances the 
 reduction process. With sustained flooding, equil¬ 
 ibrium develojis between the soil and the soil 
 solution, with a significant increase in soluble 
 and exchangeable iron. Both mineral and organic 
 salts of iron appear in the soil solution. Ordinar¬ 
 ily, the abundance of soluble iron does not ad¬ 
 versely affect the growth of rice; but situations 
 may exist where toxicities or nutrient antagonism 
 may impair growth. 
 
 Manganese chemistry of the soil is not well 
 understood. Its forms are dynamic in equilib¬ 
 rium, depending on such factors as pH, oxidation- 
 reduction status, the presence of organic matter, 
 and microbial activity. Manganese occurs in 
 three valence forms, with some compounds con¬ 
 taining manganese in two valence forms. In some 
 resj^cts, the behavior of manganese in the soil is 
 similar to that of iron. In flooded soils, the high¬ 
 er oxides of manganese are reduced to soluble and 
 exchangeable ions. Biological reduction occurs 
 independent of soil pH if low oxidation-reduction 
 potentials exist. Decomposing organic matter re¬ 
 duces manganese, especially in the lower soil pH 
 range. It is unusual for soil manganese in flooded 
 soils to affect growth of rice adversely. High 
 levels of soluble and exchangeable manganese in 
 the soil may be toxic to sensitive crops grown in 
 rotation after rice. 
 
 Fertilizers 
 
 Southern Rice Area 
 
 The proper use of fertilizers on rice increases 
 yield from 30 to 50 percent in the southern rice 
 area. Practically the entire rice area in Louisiana 
 and Texas requires additions of commercial fer¬ 
 tilizers for economical yields. This is also true 
 with most of the rice soils in Arkansas, particu¬ 
 larly in the traditional ricegrowing area of the 
 Grand Prairie region; however, the newer rice 
 bottomland soils in the delta areas of Arkansas 
 and Mississippi may not require fertilizer during 
 the first year or two of rice cropping. 
 
 Commercial fertilizers were not used exten¬ 
 sively in the southern rice area before World War 
 II. In fact, results from many of the soil fertil¬ 
 ity tests conducted in the early thirties showed 
 negative yield responses from fertilizer applica¬ 
 tions {12). This was usually true when various 
 rates and ratios of nitrogen and phosphorus had 
 been applied at seeding. This method of appli¬ 
 cation greatly stimulated weed and grass growth 
 before the rice plants became established, and this 
 competition often severely reduced rice yield. 
 However, the real worth of commercial fertilizers 
 became apparent with the gradual improvement 
 of irrigation and drainage facilities, improved 
 land preparation, mechanized harvesting equip¬ 
 ment, the development of varieties suitable for 
 
70 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEIT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 meclianization, and the greatly increased use of 
 the airplane for applying fertilizers. Fertilizers 
 were also greatly improved. Pelleted or prilled, 
 granular, and large crystalline, high-analysis fer¬ 
 tilizers are available and are ideally suited for 
 application with the airplane or with improved 
 ground equipment (7, 3). 
 
 Knowledge of previous cropping history and a 
 soil test are useful in determining the amount and 
 kind of fertilizer to use on rice in some Southern 
 States {4-, ^S). Specific fertilizer recommenda¬ 
 tions vary considerably between States and from 
 area to area Avithin States, or even from farm to 
 farm within the same area. The rice variety, 
 water management, methods of weed control, and 
 other managerial variables affect use of fertilizers 
 (15). Various rapid, chemical, soil-testing meth¬ 
 ods are used effectively to determine the fertilizer 
 and lime requirements of rice soils (^). Chemical 
 determination can be made on soil reaction (pH), 
 percentage of organic matter, and the available 
 phosphorus, potassium, and calcium; and the 
 salinity hazard can be noted. The nitrogen level 
 is usually estimated from the organic matter con¬ 
 tent. Results of these tests obtained from air- 
 dried soil samples can be interpreted with reason¬ 
 able accuracy, provided basic information is avail¬ 
 able on the complex chemical changes known to 
 occur under submergence. All this information is 
 of value in determining fertilizer requirements 
 for rice in southern rice areas. 
 
 Nitrogen is used at somewhat higher rates in 
 Arkansas than in the other States. Rates above 
 100 pounds per acre of actual nitrogen are rather 
 common, particularly on the soils of the Grand 
 Prairie (34). Some differences in the fertilizer 
 requirements of rice varieties are recognized, with 
 the stiffer strawed varieties being capable of using 
 and withstanding higher rates of nitrogen with¬ 
 out lodging. Phosphorus and potash are usually 
 applied on the basis of a soil test. The nitrogen 
 requirements for rice grown in the delta areas of 
 Arkansas and Mississippi seldom exceed 60 to 80 
 pounds per acre. These newer soils frequently 
 require no fertilizer during the first year or two 
 of rice production. 
 
 The timing of fertilizer application on rice is 
 very important. Most rice farmers in Louisiana 
 and Texas prefer a somewhat earlier application 
 of the total amount of fertilizer than do farmers 
 in Arkansas and Mississippi (34). For all States, 
 however, it is generally conceded that all of the 
 phosphorus and potassium and part of the nitro¬ 
 gen should be applied as near to seeding time as 
 possible. In Louisiana and Texas, the remaining 
 nitrogen should be applied before the rice has 
 completed half of its growth period. In Arkan¬ 
 sas, a nitrogen application about 60 to 70 days 
 before harvesting has produced good results. 
 Thus, the timing depends to a large extent on the 
 
 total growth period of the particular rice variety. 
 
 The rice soils in Louisiana and Texas are gen¬ 
 erally deficient in phosphorus and in organic mat¬ 
 ter (35). Thus additions of from 20 to 40 pounds 
 of phosphoric acid per acre and from 40 to 80 
 pounds of nitrogen jier acre are usually necessary 
 for the economical production of rice. In most in¬ 
 stances, no potash is required. The small areas of 
 sandy soils in both States, however, sometimes 
 respond to a 20- to 40-pound per acre application 
 of potash. 
 
 When applying fertilizer as a topdressing on 
 rice growing in heavy soils, placing it on dry soils 
 is usually preferred to placing it on wet or flooded 
 soils. Soon after the fertilizer is applied, the 
 fields are flooded; thus the water is an effective 
 carrier to move the fertilizer into the root area. 
 If scarcity of irrigation Avater, weed infestations, 
 rains, or timing difficulties prevent flooding, the 
 rate of application, particularly of nitrogen, is 
 increased slightly to compensate for reduced effi¬ 
 ciency. The rate for nitrogen should be increased 
 about 5 to 10 percent on wet soils and perhaps 
 10 to 15 percent on flooded soils (28 ). 
 
 Applying a large amount of fertilizer directly 
 Avith the seed is hazardous, since germination may 
 be reduced or emergence may be delayed. The 
 time of seedling emergence directly influences 
 the flooding date and thus becomes important in 
 controlling grass weeds. These problems do not 
 ordinarily occur if the fertilizer is placed 2 to 3 
 inches below the seeds. 
 
 Limited research on the mineral deficiency 
 symptoms of rice has been conducted in the 
 United States. Olsen (22) reported typical foliar 
 symptoms due to deficiencies of nitrogen, phos¬ 
 phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron 
 in three greenhouse experiments. A deficiency of 
 each of these elements, except calcium, reduced 
 tillering. Reduced tillering caused by nitrogen 
 deficiency Avas particularly pronounced. All ele¬ 
 ments reduced root and top development; potas¬ 
 sium and nitrogen deficiencies caused the most 
 severe reductions. 
 
 The sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, and po¬ 
 tassium used in southern rice areas vary widely 
 and to a large extent depend on the cost of ap¬ 
 plication and physical condition of the fertilizer. 
 
 Ammoniacal forms of nitrogen are generally 
 preferred to the nitrate forms; hoAveA^er, com¬ 
 pounds containing both sources, such as ammo¬ 
 nium nitrate or mixtures of ammonium nitrate 
 and urea in liquid form, are considered equal on 
 an equivalent nitrogen basis to such materials as 
 ammonium sulfate, ammonium phosphate, urea, 
 and ammonium chloride. Because of the lower 
 cost of application, there is a definite trend to¬ 
 ward the use of high-analysis fertilizers. Anhy¬ 
 drous ammonia is a good source of nitrogen for 
 rice, although it is difficult to apply Avith ground 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 71 
 
 equiiinient during wet periods. Application in 
 water is satisfactory only when i)recise watering 
 methods are used, since uniform distribution of 
 the material depends on having a uniform dis¬ 
 tribution and depth of water. 
 
 Idiosphorus is usually supplied in the form of 
 superphosphate (either 20 or 46 percent) ammo¬ 
 nium j)hos])hate, or diammonium phosphate. 
 Kock phosphate is sometimes used and is satis¬ 
 factory. 
 
 Muriate of potash (KCl) is the common source 
 of potassium. Only limited quantities of potas¬ 
 sium sulfate are used, although it is considered 
 equal to muriate of potash. 
 
 In areas where crops preceding rice have been 
 fertilized with phosphorus and potash, residual 
 amounts of these elements may be sufficient for 
 one or perhaps two consecutive rice crops. 
 
 Kesearch has been conducted with minor ele¬ 
 ments; however, no positive effects on yields or 
 milling quality have been reported. 
 
 Addition of limestone has not been necessary 
 for rice grown on moderately to slightly acid 
 (pH 5.0 to 6.5) soils. Of equal importance is 
 the fact that no detrimental effects on rice yields 
 have been noted from adding lime, which is 
 usually added at the rate of 1 to 2 tons per acre 
 on crops rotated with rice. 
 
 The long growing seasons in southwestern Lou¬ 
 isiana and southeastern Texas permit the produc¬ 
 tion of a ratoon or stubble crop, particularly by 
 the earliest maturing rice varieties seeded around 
 the middle of April. Research in Texas (5) has 
 shown that for best results, additional nitrogen, 
 usually about three-fourths of the amount ap¬ 
 plied to the first crop, should be applied immedi¬ 
 ately after first harvest. This practice consist¬ 
 ently gave rice yields that were one-third to 
 one-half as much as the original crop. Ordinar¬ 
 ily, fertilizers containing phosphorus and potas¬ 
 sium need not be applied, since residual quantities 
 of these elements applied to the first crop fulfill 
 the ratoon requirements. 
 
 California 
 
 Fertilizers, particularly nitrogen, increased 
 rice yields in the earliest experiments conducted 
 in California, in 1914-16 {11). Dunshee (7) 
 continued rice fertilizer research, and it was 
 greatly expanded by Davis and Jones {6) from 
 1925 through 1937. They showed that nitrogen 
 fertilizers improved yields significantly on Stock- 
 ton clay adobe. Applications at the time of seed¬ 
 ing were more effective than were later applica¬ 
 tions. They also reported that phosphate and 
 potassium fertilizers did not increase yields on 
 Stockton clay adobe. 
 
 More recent fertilizer research has demon¬ 
 strated the need for nitrogen on all soils except 
 those on which a good leguminous green manure 
 
 crop is grown {18). Phosphorus fertilizers have 
 increased yields on the brownish-red terrace soils 
 bordering the Sacramento and the San Joaquin 
 Valleys. Some basin soils after years of crop- 
 ping 2^roduce better rice yields when ])hosphorus 
 is included with nitrogen. In some areas, usu- 
 ally parts of large fields, where alkali salts have 
 accumulated and where the soil reaction exceeds 
 pH 8.5 in a 1:10 soil-water paste, dramatic re¬ 
 sponses have been obtained from various iron 
 sources {9). 
 
 Rice was fertilized in California before 1953 
 by broadcasting either on the dry seedbed before 
 flooding and planting or, more commonly, 
 on the water by airplane after seeding. Ferti¬ 
 lizer placement work of Mikkelsen and Finfrock 
 {17) demonstrated that nitrogen broadcast on the 
 soil surface or applied to the flooded fields was 
 not used efficiently by rice. Broadcast nitrogen 
 was lost through nitrification and subsequent 
 denitrification. However, ammonium nitrogen 
 drilled 2 to 4 inches into the soil, where reducing 
 conditions developed 3 to 5 days after flooding, 
 remained in the soil and was continuously avail¬ 
 able to the rice plants. 
 
 The time of applying fertilizer before flooding 
 is important, since nitrification is known to be 
 undesirable both before and during flooding. 
 Mikkelsen {16) established that nitrification oc¬ 
 curs if ammonium nitrogen is drilled into a warm, 
 moist, aerated seedbed before flooding. As much 
 as 60 percent of the ammonium nitrogen can be 
 converted to nitrate in 7 days of typical spring 
 soil temperatures. 
 
 Split application of nitrogen, with part placed 
 in the soil before flooding and the rest used as a 
 topdressing during the period of panicle forma¬ 
 tion, has proved effective in some regions of the 
 world. Topdressing experiments in California 
 rice production have shown no superiority over 
 preplant soil application {19). Where the seed¬ 
 bed application of nitrogen was not sufficient to 
 maintain normal color and growth of rice, sup¬ 
 plemental applications have been profitable. For 
 effective use of topdressed nitrogen on California 
 rice varieties, the application should be made no 
 later than 50 to 60 days after planting. 
 
 Phosphate fertilizer should be applied before 
 flooding, usually simultaneously with nitrogen. 
 Phosphorus does not move appreciably from 
 where it is applied; this makes placement in the 
 root zone of great importance. 
 
 The quantity of nitrogen fertilizer used in rice 
 production varies from 30 to 120 pounds of actual 
 nitrogen per acre. This is supplied as one of the 
 commercially available ammoniacal sources such 
 as ammonium sulfate, urea, anhydrous ammonia, 
 or ammonium phosphate sulfate mixtures. On 
 soil low in nitrogen, as much as 80 to 120 pounds 
 of nitrogen per acre (400 to 600 pounds of ammo- 
 
72 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 niiuii sulfate) is often used. Soils of avera^^e 
 fertility, producing about 50 hundredweight of 
 {)addy rice, usually receive applications of GO to 
 80 pounds of actual nitrogen. 
 
 On most California rice soils, aj)|)lications of 
 40 to GO pounds of actual P 0 O 5 per acre will sup¬ 
 ply the ]ihos])horus needs of rice. Some residual 
 effects have been observed on subsequent crops, 
 but the carryover from a single application may 
 not be suhicient for best yields during a second 
 year. In areas where phosphorus is needed, the 
 added growth and yield often require that addi¬ 
 tional nitrogen be supplied. Where rice produces 
 better growth with phosphorus, it is generally 
 advisable that nitrogen rates be increased 25 to 
 50 percent. 
 
 Experiments to determine the best nitrogen 
 sources for rice have been conducted over a long 
 period. Davis and Jones {6) compared ammo¬ 
 nium sulfate, Ammo-Phos, Leunasalpeter, urea. 
 Ammo Phos Ko, Leunaphos, Calurea, and cyan- 
 amide during 1932-3G. They concluded that 
 ammonium sulfate Avas the most profitable. Ex¬ 
 periments in Avhich nitiugen from different 
 sources was drilled into the soil before flooding 
 are reported by Mikkelsen and Miller {19). In 
 yield comparisons Avith ammonium sulfate rated 
 as 100 , ammonium chloride ranked 97, cyanamide 
 92, urea 90, aqua ammonia 85, anhydrous am¬ 
 monia 83, and ammonium nitrate 57. Aqua am¬ 
 monia and anhydrous ammonia are good nitrogen 
 sources but in loose dry seedbeds they sometimes 
 do not })erforni as Avell as do dry materials be¬ 
 cause of volatilization losses. 
 
 Ingebretsen and others {9) reported that in 
 alkali spots Avhere rice ordinarily died soon after 
 emergence, broadcast applications of ferric sul¬ 
 fate corrected iron deficiency and ])roduced ex¬ 
 cellent yields. Subsequent tests Avith other mate¬ 
 rials indicated that iron oxide, modified and 
 natural iron sulfides, and ferrous sulfate likewise 
 corrected the deficiency. Usually 125 to 250 
 pounds of actual iron from these sources corrects 
 the iron deficiency. 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (1) Adair, C. IL, and Engler, Kyle. 
 
 1955. THE IRRIGATION AND CULTURE OF RICE. Itl 
 
 Water, U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook of Agr., 
 pp. 389-394. 
 
 (2 I Allison, L. E. 
 
 1947. EFFECT OF MICROORGANISMS ON PERMEABILITY 
 (»F SOIL UNDER PROLONGED SUBMERGENCE. 
 
 Soil Sci. 03 : 439-450. 
 
 (3) llEACHELL, H. M. 
 
 1959. RICE. In Matz, S. A., eel., The Chemistry 
 and Technology of Cereals as Food and 
 Feed, pp. 137-176. Avi Pub. Co., Inc., West- 
 port, Conn. 
 
 (4) Heacher, K. L. 
 
 1955. S.YMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF PADDA' SOILS. 
 Internatl. Kice Comn. Meeting Proc., FAO, 
 l*enang, Malaya. 
 
 (5) 
 
 ( 0 ) 
 
 (7) 
 
 ( 8 ) 
 (9) 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 ( 11 ) 
 
 ( 12 ) 
 
 (13) 
 
 (14) 
 
 (15) 
 
 ( 10 ) 
 
 (17) 
 
 (18) 
 
 (19) 
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 ( 21 ) 
 
 ( 22 ) 
 
 (23) 
 
 (24) 
 
 Clark, II. L., Haley, G. .T., Hebert, E. .7., and others. 
 
 1902. SOIL SI’RVEY OF ACADIA PARISH, LOUISIANA. 
 U.S. Soil Conserv. Serv. in coop. La. Agr. 
 Expt. Sta. Ser. 1959 No. 15, 57 pp. 
 
 Davis, L. L., and Jones, J. W. 
 
 1940. FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH RICE IN CALI¬ 
 FORNIA. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Pul. 718. 
 
 21 pp. 
 
 I lUNSHEE, C. F. 
 
 1928. RICE EXPERIMENTS IN THE SACRAMENTO VAL¬ 
 LEY. 1922-1927. Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Pul. 
 454, 14 pp., illus. 
 
 Evatt, N. S., and Peachell, H. M. 
 
 1902. SECOND-CROP RICE PRODUCTION IN TE.XAS. 
 
 Tex. Agr. Prog. 8(0) : 25-28. 
 
 Ingebretsen, K., [Martin, W. E., Vlamis, James, 
 and Jeter, Hoy. 
 
 1959. IRON DEFICIENCY OF RICE. Calif. Agr. 13: 
 6-7, 8, and 14. 
 
 Janssen, George, and Metzger, W. H. 
 
 1928. transformation of nitrogen in rice soil. 
 Ainer. Soc. Agron. Jour. 20: 4,59-476. 
 Jones, J. W. 
 
 1923. RICE EXPERIMENTS AT THE BIGGS RICE FIELD 
 STATION IN CALIFORNIA. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Dept. Pul. 1155, 00 pp., illus. 
 
 - Dockins, j. O., Walker, R. K., and Davis, 
 
 W. C. 
 
 1952. RICE PRODUCTION IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Pul. 2043, 36 pp., 
 illus. 
 
 McGregor, A. J. 
 
 1953. PHOSPHATE MOVEMENT AND NATURAL DRAIN¬ 
 AGE. Jour. Soil Sci. 4: 80-97. 
 
 Mann, C. W., Warner, J. F., Westover, H. L., and 
 Fergl'son, j. E. 
 
 1911. SOIL SURVEY OF THE WOODLAND AREA, CALI¬ 
 FORNIA. U.S. Dept. Agr., Pur. Soils, Soil 
 Survey Adv. Sheet 1909, 57 pp. 
 
 [Miears, R. j. 
 
 1958. FERTILIZER AND CULTURE PROBLEMS. RlCP 
 Tech. Working Group Proc. 8: 17-19. 
 Mikkelsen, D. S. 
 
 1902. NITROGEN FERTILIZATION OF .lAPONICA RICE 
 
 IN CALIFORNIA. Rice Jour. 65(3) : 8-13. 
 - and Finfrock, D. C. 
 
 1957. AVAILABILITY OF AMMONIAC’AL NITROGEN TO 
 LOWLAND RICE AS INFLUENCED BY FERTILIZER 
 PLACEMENT. Agroii. .Tour. 49 : 296-300. 
 
 - Finfrock, D. C., and Miller, M. D. 
 
 1958. RICE FERTILIZATION. Calif. Agr. Pixpt. Sta. 
 Ext. Serv. Leaflet 90, 12 pp., illus. 
 
 - and Miller, [M. D. 
 
 1963. NITROGEN FERTILIZATION OF RICE IN CALIFOR¬ 
 NIA. Calif. Agr. 17 : 9-11. 
 
 Mitsui, Shingo. 
 
 1954. INORGANIC NUTRITION, FERTILIZATION AND 
 SOIL AMELIORATION FOR LOWLAND RICE. 107 
 
 pp. Yokendo Ltd., Tokyo. 
 
 Nelson, Martin, Sachs, W. H., and Austin, R. H. 
 1923. THE SOILS OF ARKANSAS. Ark. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Pul. 187, 83 pp., illus. 
 
 Olsen, K. L. 
 
 1958. MINERAL DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS IN RICE. 
 
 Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Pul. 605, 11 pp. 
 Patrick, W. IL, Jr., and Sturgis, M. P. 
 
 1955. concentration and move.ment of oxygen 
 
 AS RELATED TO ABSORPTION OF AM.MONIUM 
 AND NITRATE NITROGEN BY RICE. Soil Sci. 
 
 Soc. Amer. Proc. 19: 59-62. 
 
 Pears.yll, W. H. 
 
 1938. THE SOIL COMPLEX IN RELATION TO PLANT 
 COMMUNITIES. 1. OXIDATION-REDUCTION PO¬ 
 TENTIALS IN SOILS. Jour. Ecol. 26: 180-193. 
 
lUCE IN THE UNITED STATES : V'ARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 73 
 
 (25) I’KARSALL, W. H., and Mortimer, C. H. 
 
 1939. OXIDATION-REDUCTION POTENTIALS IN WATER¬ 
 LOGGED SOILS, NATURAL WATERS AND MUDS. 
 
 Joiir. Ecol. 27 : 483-501. 
 
 (20) Reed, J. F., and Sturgis, M. B. 
 
 1939. chemical characteristics of the rice area 
 OF LOUISIANA. La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bill. 307, 
 31 pp. 
 
 (27) Ketzer, J. L., Glassey, T. W., Goff, A. M., and 
 Harradine, F. F. 
 
 1951. SOIL SURVEY OF THE STOCKTON AREA, CALI¬ 
 FORNIA. U.S. Dept. Agr. in coop. Univ. 
 Calif. Agr. Expt. Sta. Ser. 1939 No. 10, 121 
 
 pp. 
 
 (28) Reynolds, E. B. 
 
 1954. research on rice production in texas. 
 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 775, 29 pp. 
 
 (29) Senewiratne, S. T., and Mikkelsen, D. S. 
 
 1961. physiological factors limiting growth 
 
 AND YIELD OF ORYZA SATIVA UNDER FLOODED 
 CONDITIONS. Plant and Soil 14: 127-146. 
 
 (30) Shapiro, R. E. 
 
 1954. the EFFECT OF FLOODING ON AVAILABILITY OF 
 SOIL PHOSPHORUS YIELD. AND PHOSPHORUS 
 AND NITROGEN UPTAKE BY RICE. FoUrth In- 
 
 ternatl. Rice Comn. Proc., Tokyo. [Mimeo¬ 
 graphed paper.] 
 
 (31) Sturgis, M. B. 
 
 1936. CHANGES IN THE OXIDATION-REDUCTION EQUI- 
 LIBRIl'M IN SOILS AS RELATED TO THE PHYSI¬ 
 CAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOILS AND THE 
 GROWTH OF RICE. La. Agr. Expt. sta. Bui. 
 271, 37 pp. 
 
 (32) - 
 
 1957. MANAGING SOILS FOR RICE. In Soil, U.S. 
 Dept. Agr. Yearbook of Agr., pp. 658-663. 
 
 (33) Tenney, F. G., and Waksman, S. A. 
 
 1930. COMPOSITION OF NATURAL ORGANIC MATERIALS 
 AND THEIR DECOMPOSITION IN THE SOIL. V. 
 DECOMPOSITION OF VARIOUS CHEMICAL CON¬ 
 STITUENTS IN PLANT MATERIALS, UNDER 
 
 ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS. Soil Sci. 30: 143- 
 160. 
 
 (34) Thompson, L., Maples, R., Wells, J., and others. 
 
 1962. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RICE FERTILIZATION IN 
 SOUTHERN STATES. Rice Joui’. 65 (1) : 5, 6, 
 and 40. 
 
 (35) Walker, R. K., and Miears, R. J. 
 
 1957. THE COASTAL PRAIRIES. In Soil, U.S. Dept. 
 Agr. Yearbook of Agr., pp. 531-534. 
 
CULTURE 
 
 By T. IT. Johnston and M. D. Miller 
 
 I\ice has been grown as a ooinmercial crop in 
 the United States since the latter part of the 
 17th century. Kice cultural methods used from 
 that time until the present have been reviewed 
 by Adair, Miller, and Beachell (5).^ The}^ 
 traced the evolution of cultural methods from 
 the use of hand labor for clearing timber from 
 the land, for digging canals and ditches, for 
 plowing with a hoe, for seeding, harvesting^ and 
 threshing, through the use of animal power 
 (oxen, mules, and horses) for binding and thresh¬ 
 ing the rice. Then came steam-jiowered thresh¬ 
 ers. Today, several large “rice-special” diesel- 
 and gas-})owered tractors and self-propelled com¬ 
 bines may be used on one farm. Much of the 
 seeding and most of the fertilizing and spraying 
 is now done by airplanes that can cover several 
 hundred acres a day. 
 
 Much of the increase in rice production per 
 acre can be attributed to improved cultural meth¬ 
 ods made ])o.ssible by the invention and manufac¬ 
 ture of the specialized equipment. The major 
 rice areas of the United States are now described 
 as the most highly mechanized farming areas in 
 the world. 
 
 Along with improvements in machinery and 
 farming methods have come other innovations, 
 including use of reservoirs for ini])roved water 
 supply and, more recently, underground pipelines 
 to eliminate many open canals. 
 
 Kotation or cro])j)ing systems; land leveling 
 and seedbed preparation; seed and seeding; irri¬ 
 gating (fig. 28); and harvesting, drying, and 
 storing methods have been develojied and im¬ 
 proved through research. Many branches of 
 science have contributed to the development and 
 adaptation of new and inqiroved methods, equip¬ 
 ment, and facilities now used in rice culture. 
 
 Rotation or Cropping Systems 
 
 In most rice-])roducing areas of the United 
 States, crops are rotated because under continu¬ 
 ous cropping the soil usually becomes depleted 
 in fertility and in organic matter. The resulting 
 deterioration of the physical condition of the soil 
 makes seedbed preparation especially difficult. In 
 addition, the soil usually becomes progressively 
 
 1 Italic uuiiibers in parentheses refer to Selected liefer- 
 fiices, p. 100. 
 
 Figure 28.—A ricefield showing the canal that supplies the 
 
 irrigation water. 
 
 infested with weeds and diseases that lower the 
 yield and quality of the rice. 
 
 In the early years in the Carolinas, rice was 
 grown continuously in the same field with only 
 occasional rest . Later, ricefields in that 
 area sometimes were planted to oats in the fall, 
 followed by potatoes the next year. Some farm¬ 
 ers grew rice and cotton in alternate years. This 
 helped to control weeds in both crojis. 
 
 In the early years in the South Central States, 
 fields were cropped to rice year after year until 
 the rice yields became low and the quality poor 
 because of the mixtures of weed seed and red 
 rice in the threshed grain. Fields then were 
 allowed to lie idle for 1 or 2 years, and then 
 were again jmt back into rice. This helped to 
 increase rice yields but did not control the weeds 
 satisfactorily. Therefore, ricefields were grazed 
 during the years that they were “laid-out.” This 
 practice helped to control grass and weeds but 
 did not control red rice. Some farmers jiracticed 
 summer-fallowing for a year or two between rice 
 crops and in this way controlled weeds and red 
 rice more effectively than when the fields were 
 idle. 
 
 iNIodern riceland cro])ping systems are based 
 on information gained from controlled experi¬ 
 ments and from grower experience. The ])re- 
 ferred system for any farm depends on soil type. 
 
 74 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 75 
 
 local climatic conditions, and economic considera¬ 
 tions, 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Rotation experiments were begun in 1927 at 
 the Rice Branch Experiment Station, Stuttgart, 
 Ark. Because of the numerous factors known to 
 affect rice yields, many rotations were tried, 
 along with several combinations of delayed seed¬ 
 ing, tillage for weed control, and summer-fal¬ 
 lowing. Results included the following (93, 9J^) : 
 
 (1) In 2-, 3-, and 4-year rotations, best yields 
 were obtained when rice was grown not more 
 than half the time. 
 
 (2) Rice rotated with fallow or early planted 
 soybeans (for beans or hay) or lespedeza (for 
 hay) produced 1,000 pounds more rice per acre 
 in the year it was grown than when rice was 
 grown continuously. Over a 7-year period of 
 continuous cropping, rice yields declined 180 
 pounds per acre, 
 
 (3) The best 3-year rotation was 1 year of 
 soybeans, followed by a winter vetch cover crop, 
 and 2 years of rice. Rice yield increase was 
 greatest the first year. 
 
 (4) As compared to continuous rice, 4-year 
 rotations of soybeans-oats-rice gave large yield 
 increases in the first year of rice, but only half 
 as large an increase in the second year of rice. 
 
 (5) Rice yields were significantly increased by 
 plowing down legume green manure crops, in¬ 
 cluding soybeans, lespedeza, and hairy vetch 
 (Vida villosa Roth) immediately preceding the 
 rice crops. All green manure treatments in¬ 
 creased rice yield more than did chemical fertil¬ 
 izer applied to the preceding crop in the rotation. 
 
 Simmons (US) reviewed Arkansas rice rota¬ 
 tion research, discussing 3-, 5-, 6-, and 8-year 
 systems. These systems involved rice on the land 
 for half of the time or less and soybeans, oats, 
 lespedeza, or hairy vetch the rest of the time. 
 
 Perkins and Lund (100) listed ways in which 
 good rotations would benefit the farmer, but cau¬ 
 tioned that these rotations would not replace 
 mineral plant food elements such as phosphorus 
 and potassium. They stated that legumes may 
 supply considerable nitrogen, but more nitrogen 
 may be needed. They also stated that rotations 
 will aid in disease and insect control, but other 
 control measures may be required. 
 
 In 1947 the order of frequency of crops in the 
 Arkansas rice area was rice, oats, lespedeza, soy¬ 
 beans, corn, and cotton (120). The most preva¬ 
 lent cropping systems on small rice farms in 
 Arkansas were 4 or 6 years long, with rice being 
 grown on the land for 2 or 3 consecutive years 
 (90, 91). These systems included growing rice 
 and leaving the land idle, a rotation of rice, oats, 
 and lespedeza, and a rotation of rice and soy¬ 
 beans. Returns to the operators were slightly 
 
 higher with only one-third of the land in rice 
 than with one-half of the land in rice, if other 
 crops such as oats, lespedeza, and soybeans were 
 grown and harvested to supplement income. 
 
 Forty percent of the operators of large rice 
 farms followed a cropping system including rice 
 and oats, with the oats in many cases being over¬ 
 seeded with lespedeza; and almost all operators 
 had some fallow and idle land. Approximately 
 25 percent of the farmers produced soybeans, and 
 about 35 percent produced beef cattle. The sec¬ 
 ond most common rotation was rice-oats-lespe- 
 deza-soybeans, with 42 percent of the land being 
 used for rice under this cropping system. 
 
 In 1962, the crops most often grown in rota¬ 
 tion with rice in Arkansas were soybeans and 
 oats. Legume green manure crops were used in¬ 
 frequently. In recent years, 1 or 2 years of les¬ 
 pedeza in a rice rotation has sometimes led to 
 considerable damage to rice from the so-called 
 lespedeza worm, grape colaspis, Maecolaspis 
 flavida (Say). However, chemical controls for 
 this insect have been developed by Rolston and 
 Rouse (107). 
 
 The rotation of rice with reservoirs used for 
 fish production and as a source of irrigation wa¬ 
 ter has been practiced in Arkansas (Ji-6). In 
 some instances, the rotation has produced sub¬ 
 stantial increases in rice yields, even without the 
 use of commercial fertilizer on the rice crops. 
 The rotation may include 2 years of fish and 2 
 years of rice or 1 year of fish and 1 or 2 years of 
 rice. Leaving a reservoir in fish for longer than 
 2 years is usually unsatisfactory because the ac¬ 
 cumulated fertility results in excessive vegeta¬ 
 tive growth of the rice the first year after fish. 
 In some cases, even 2 years in fish results in ex¬ 
 cessive vegetative growth and severe lodging of 
 the following rice crop. 
 
 Experiments by Sims (117, 118) indicate that 
 a large part of the increased vegetative growth 
 of rice may be attributed to the accumulation of 
 ammonium nitrogen in the soil during the period 
 the reservoirs were in water and fish. Excessive 
 vegetative growth of rice may be avoided by 
 growing a row crop such as soybeans, grain 
 sorghum, or corn in the rotation the first year 
 following fish or water and then growing rice 
 the second year. In one field test on a clay soil 
 that had been in fish 2 years, all of these crops re¬ 
 duced the ammonium nitrogen content of the 
 soil from 175 pounds per acre at seeding time to 
 40 pounds per acre at harvest. Rice grown on 
 the experimental area the second year did not 
 lodge. 
 
 In ricefields where high soil fertility resulted 
 in excessive early vegetative growth, draining 
 the fields and allowing them to dry thoroughly 
 before the development of the rice panicles 
 (heads) at the early jointing stage of growth 
 
7G 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 28 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 helped retard later vegetative growth of the rice 
 and helped reduce lodging. 
 
 Green reviewed the problems of fish farm¬ 
 ing and stated that haphazard raising of fish 
 must be supplanted by more scientific production 
 and marketing practices. 
 
 Green and White {1^7) recently have compared 
 three selected 4-year rice rotations in eastern 
 Arkansas. These rotations were fish-fish-rice- 
 rice, soybeans-soybeans-rice-rice, and idle-fallow- 
 rice-rice. Combinations of buffalo and bass were 
 the fish species most commonly stocked. These 
 studies indicated that a total of 881 pounds of 
 buff'alo and 181 pounds of bass per acre must be 
 produced and marketed during the 2-year fish 
 period for this system of land management to be 
 as profitable as the soybean-rice rotation. This 
 level of production is considerably higher than 
 that reported by the 35 fish-rice farmers whose 
 operations were included in the study. 
 
 Preliminary experiments conducted at the Rice 
 Experiment Station at Crowley, La., showed that 
 good-quality catfish could be produced under 
 conditions similar to those in flooded ricefields 
 without major disease or parasite problems 
 {128). To help answer some of the complex 
 problems encountered in the growing of fish and 
 in the use of fish-rice rotations, a Fish Farming 
 Experimental Station was established in 1961 at 
 Stuttgart, Ark., by the Fish and Wildlife Serv¬ 
 ice of the U.S. Department of the Interior. In 
 cooperation with the University of Arkansas, ex¬ 
 periments have been initiated to determine suit¬ 
 able management and fertilization practices 
 {116). 
 
 Sullivan (136) reported that some Arkansas 
 farmers in recent years have started to rotate 
 water and crops. Their fields are kept flooded 1 
 or 2 years and then seeded to rice. According to 
 Sullivan, benefits under this system include in¬ 
 creased organic matter content of the soil, im¬ 
 proved physical soil characteristics, improved 
 weed control, and improved recreational and 
 wildlife facilities. 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Reporting on early experiments in rice pro¬ 
 duction in southwestern Louisiana, Chambliss 
 and Jenkins {19) in 1925 stated: “Good drain¬ 
 age, good tillage, and proper rotation make un¬ 
 necessary the application of any commercial fer¬ 
 tilizer to the Crowley silt loam at the present 
 time.” Results obtained at the Crowley Rice 
 Experiment Station from 1913 to 1923, inclu¬ 
 sive, showed that rice in rotation with soybeans 
 averaged 2,384 pounds per acre, as compared 
 with 1,243 pounds per acre for continuous rice. 
 Efficient drainage and good tillage, supplemented 
 by the organic matter added to the soil by plow¬ 
 ing under mature soybean plant remnants after 
 
 harvest, gave greater returns than were obtained 
 from commercial fertilizer applied to the rice 
 crop. In addition, the soil was left in a loose, 
 friable condition, which facilitated the prepa¬ 
 ration of a better rice seedbed. 
 
 Jenkins and Jones {62) in 1944 pointed out 
 that the rice crop, like other cereals, responds to 
 appropriate cultural methods and rotation sys¬ 
 tems. At the time their experiments were started 
 in 1934, the rice crop normally was grown in 
 alternate years or once in 3 years on land fal¬ 
 lowed or left in stubble pasture for 1 or 2 years. 
 In 2-year rotations, the highest yields of rice 
 were obtained following Italian ryegrass, clov¬ 
 ers, or stubble pasture. Another experiment 
 demonstrated how other crops grown in the ro¬ 
 tation may influence rice yield. The average 
 yield of rice following cotton that had been 
 dusted with calcium arsenate was 30 percent 
 below the yield following cotton that had not 
 been dusted. The reduced yield apparently was 
 due to the adverse residual effect of the cal¬ 
 cium arsenate upon the ensuing rice crop. Reed 
 and Sturgis {lOJ^.) in 1936 showed that arsenic 
 toxicity symptoms in the rice plants are similar 
 to those of straighthead in which case florets 
 may be distorted and seed set may be reduced 
 markedly. 
 
 The average yields of cotton and soybeans in 
 a 3-year rotation of cotton, soybeans, and rice 
 were too low to be profitable, and the average 
 yields of rice was slightly less from this rotation 
 than from the better 2-year rotations. 
 
 In 4-year rotations consisting of rice 2 years 
 followed either by 2 years of cotton (fertilized 
 and not fertilized) or by 2 years of native pas¬ 
 ture (fertilized and not fertilized), the yields of 
 rice were not increased by fertilizing; but the 
 rice following native pasture yielded somewhat 
 more than did the rice following cotton. 
 
 In 10-year rotations of 5 successive rice crops 
 following 5 years each in (1) improved pasture, 
 (2) native pasture, (3) corn plus soybeans, or 
 (4) cotton, the 4-year average yield per acre of 
 rice w^as 2,192 pounds following improved pas¬ 
 ture; 2,120 pounds following native pasture; 
 2,052 pounds following corn plus soybeans; and 
 1,444 pounds following cotton dusted with cal¬ 
 cium arsenate. 
 
 On land cropped continuously to rice for 49 
 years, the average annual yields for successive 
 5-year periods during the last 30 of the 49 years 
 ranged from 1,102 to 1,440 pounds per acre. Fluc¬ 
 tuations in the 5-year average yields apparently 
 were due to variations in climatic conditions and 
 were not the result of depletion of the soil fer¬ 
 tility, according to Jenkins and Jones {62). 
 
 'Walker and Sturgis (4Ji) reported in 1946 
 that pasture-rice rotation experiments begun in 
 1938 and conducted on three soil types of the 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 77 
 
 prairie rice area of Louisiana showed that a 12- 
 ; month grazing program could be developed. They 
 stated that up to that time the rotation of im- 
 i proved pasture with rice definitely was the best 
 means found of increasing rice yields and of 
 improving the soil productivity of the area. Also, 
 where proper management practices were used, 
 yields of beef from improved pastures exceeded 
 yields from unimproved pastures by more than 
 150 pounds per acre. In addition, turning under 
 improved-pasture sod ahead of rice crops in- 
 , creased rice yields 1,000 to 1,800 pounds per acre. 
 
 Black and Walker {16) reported in 1955 on a 
 5-year rotation experiment that was established 
 at five locations in Louisiana, from 1946 to 1953, 
 on four soil types. The results of these five ex- 
 , periments substantiated earlier work on pasture- 
 rice rotation in southwest Louisiana. They found 
 that if improved pastures are established, it is 
 desirable to provide contour levees and irriga¬ 
 tion during dry periods, so that full benefits can 
 be received from the relatively large investment 
 required to establish improved pastures. Also, 
 it was necessary to obtain a minimum of 3 years’ 
 grazing from an improved pasture before plant¬ 
 ing it to rice, since an improved pasture produces 
 only about two-thirds as much in the first year 
 as in the second and third years, and the initial 
 cost of an improved pasture is fairly high. Black 
 and Walker concluded that in southwest Louisi¬ 
 ana a long-time rotation of improved pasture 
 and rice is superior to the more common rotation 
 ; of 1 year of rice followed by 1 year of native 
 , pasture. 
 
 Davis, Sonnier, and White {2Jf.) in 1963 de¬ 
 scribed an experiment initiated in 1953 to deter¬ 
 mine the optimum length of time for pasture- 
 rice rotations in southw’^est Louisiana. Rotations 
 included 1 year native or improved pasture and 
 1 year rice; 2 years improved pasture and 1 year 
 ' rice; 3 years improved pasture and 2 years rice; 
 
 and 4 years improved pasture and 2 years rice. 
 ! Fertilization practices varied according to needs 
 shown by soil tests and good agronomic practices. 
 I In this study, length of rotation and pasture 
 ' treatment had little effect on yield of rice. This 
 > is believed to be the result of using more fertilizer 
 li and the fact that existing soil conditions were 
 ! somewhat better in this experiment than in earlier 
 t experiments in the area. Improved pastures in 
 : the rotation increased the yield of beef more than 
 I 500 percent. 
 
 In reporting on an economic appraisal of farm 
 j practices and rotation programs on Louisiana 
 rice farms, Mullins {88) in 1954 pointed out that 
 the most common rotation at that time was 1 year 
 of rice and 1 or 2 years of native pasture. Some 
 [. longer rotations were being used such as rice 2 
 I years and improved pasture 3 or 4 years. In the 
 I longer rotations a smaller proportion of the crop¬ 
 
 land was in rice each year, but the increase in 
 rice yields was sufficient to maintain about the 
 same total volume of rice production on the 
 farm. 
 
 A rotation of rice for 2 years and temporary 
 pasture for 3 years gave an average rice yield of 
 2,600 pounds per acre, as compared with 1,950 
 pounds per acre from rice alternated with native 
 pasture in a 2-year rotation. When rice was 
 grown for 2 years following 3 years of tempo¬ 
 rary pasture, the estimated average rice yield 
 for the 2 years was about 3,250 pounds per acre. 
 Leaving land in pasture for a fourth year added 
 an additional 150 pounds per acre to this aver¬ 
 age rice yield. In addition, the quality of rice 
 improved and this, combined with higher pro¬ 
 duction of beef feeding on the temporary pas¬ 
 ture, gave substantially higher net return to rice 
 farmers. 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Thompson and Waller {137) in 1952 suggested 
 using rotations of rice-soybeans-soybeans or rice- 
 lespedeza(for hay or grazing)-soybeans in Mis¬ 
 sissippi. As recently as 1962, Anderson and 
 McKie {11) cautioned growers about substan¬ 
 tially decreased yields from growing continuous 
 rice and suggested that a field be held out of rice 
 for 2 to 4 years, during which time the weed 
 population should be reduced. Rice was com¬ 
 monly grown 2 years and was followed by fal¬ 
 low or soybeans. Some growers also used wheat 
 and oats in the rotation. 
 
 Mullins {89) in 1960 pointed out that in Mis¬ 
 sissippi rice is grown in the delta area on clay 
 soils. When a relatively short rotation period 
 of 2 to 3 years is used, farmers generally sum¬ 
 mer-fallow about as much land as they seed to 
 rice. The fallowed land requires little prepara¬ 
 tion for seeding the next spring. Rice is not 
 grown on the same field for the second year in 
 such rotations, and rotational crops such as soy¬ 
 beans or small grains usually are omitted. 
 
 Some growers use a 5- or 6-year rotation, with 
 rice 2 years and then no rice for 3 or 4 years. 
 When delta rice farmers use longer crop rota¬ 
 tion systems, at least half of the rice each year 
 is seeded on land that grew either rice or other 
 crops the previous year. Where rice followed 
 rice, a few operators burned the stubble to facili¬ 
 tate land preparation for the second year of rice. 
 In these longer rotations, the major crop grown 
 in rotation with rice was soybeans. The next 
 most commonly grown crop was wheat. On a 
 small number of farms, oats were grown. 
 
 Where adequate surface drainage was avail¬ 
 able, wheat and oats were well adapted to the 
 clay soils of the rice farms in Mississippi. These 
 small grain crops fit reasonablly well into the rice 
 rotation programs. They usually were seeded on 
 
78 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 land that had lain idle and had been fallowed the 
 previous summer or on land from which early- 
 maturing soybeans had been harvested. Small 
 grains following soybeans did not always pro¬ 
 duce satisfactory yields because there was only a 
 short time to prepare a suitable seedbed. This 
 sometimes delayed seeding of small grains and 
 the delay often led to damage from winterkill¬ 
 ing. "Where the harvesting of small grain was 
 not delayed, it was possible to double crop the 
 land with late-planted soybeans. Because of the 
 risk, some growers preferred to summer-fallow 
 the land before seeding rice or soybeans the fol¬ 
 lowing spring. 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Experiments in Missouri reported by King 
 {74) in 1937 demonstrated that crop rotation 
 was essential to continued high rice yields on 
 Wabash clay (gumbo) soils. In a 6-year period, 
 yields on continuous rice plots dropped to 450 
 pounds per acre because of infestation with 
 weeds. Kice yields were as high from a 2-year 
 rotation of rice and soybeans as from 4-year 
 rotations that included rice and other crops such 
 as soybeans, wheat, clover, and corn. 
 
 Texas 
 
 In a review of research on rice production in 
 Texas, Keynolds {105) stated: “High yields of 
 rice have not been sustained by growing rice on 
 the same land every year. Nor has the growing 
 of cultivated crops in rotation with rice proved 
 practical in most of the Texas rice belt.” 
 
 It is a common practice to grow rice 1 or 2 
 years and to follow this with several years of 
 razing beef cattle on volunteer vegetation, 
 ometimes the land is merely left idle for 2 years 
 or more. When rice follows unimproved pasture 
 or idle land, the improved physical condition and 
 the increased organic matter content of the soil 
 increase rice yields. 
 
 Workers at the Beaumont station started re¬ 
 search on rotations and cropping systems in 1913. 
 From 1931 to 1941, a number of rotations were 
 tried. The average yields of rice per acre were 
 as follows: continuous rice, 1,072 pounds; con¬ 
 tinuous rice with fall-seeded sourclover {MeJilo- 
 tus indica (L.) All.), 1,194 pounds; rice 1 year 
 and idle 1 year, 1,613 pounds; rice 1 year, fal¬ 
 low' 1 year, 1,635 pounds; rice 1 year, cotton 1 
 year, 1,707 pounds; rice 1 year, soybeans 1 year, 
 1,618 pounds; rice 1 year, sesbania 1 year, 1,726 
 pounds; rice 1 year, crotalaria 1 year, 1,642 
 pounds. 
 
 Studies from 1943 to 1945 indicated that rota¬ 
 tions of alyceclover for pasture and rice were 
 more satisfactory than were other rotations. Rice 
 following alyceclover produced 2,500 to 2,860 
 
 pounds per acre, as compared with 1,800 pounds 
 where the rice did not follow clover. These re¬ 
 sults led to investigations started in 1946 on the 
 rapid, low-cost conversion from rice to improved 
 pasture in rice-pasture systems. 
 
 As reported by Reynolds {105)^ Moncrief and 
 Weihing found it practical to convert from rice 
 to pasture by broadcasting grass and clover seed, 
 without seedbed preparation, in standing rice at 
 the last draining about 10 days before harvest 
 and in rice stubble after harvest. The levees 
 and drainage ditches used to irrigate and drain 
 the rice w'ere used to irrigate and drain the 
 improved pastures. In the more humid areas a 
 mixture of dallisgrass and clover (Louisiana 
 white, Persian, and large hop) was successful. 
 In drier areas Hubam sw'eetclover w'as a more 
 satisfactory legume. It was found that bermuda- 
 grass usually volunteered. Ryegrass, tall fescue, 
 and cereals w'ere seeded successfully at the last 
 draining of the ricefields and in the rice stubble. 
 Lespedeza could be established by broadcasting 
 the seed in rice stubble in late February or early 
 March. 
 
 Rice yields follow'ing improved pastures were 
 increased by 20 percent or more. In addition, as 
 much as 200 pounds of annual beef gains per acre 
 were obtained on the improved pastures, as com¬ 
 pared with less than 50 pounds on unseeded, un¬ 
 fertilized pasture fields. The clovers and ber- 
 mudagrass, and sometimes dallisgrass, volun¬ 
 teered after the rice crop to provide grasses and 
 legumes for the next pasture period. In some 
 cases, pasture seed and hay could be harvested 
 from these fields. 
 
 In summary, Reynolds {105) stated: “The sev¬ 
 eral possible rice-pasture systems of farming have 
 not been fully evaluated. How'ever, such sys¬ 
 tems as 2 years rice, 3 years pasture; 2 or 3 years 
 rice, several years pasture; 1 year rice, 2 to 3 
 years pasture seem to be w'orth considering in 
 systems to maintain and improve soil tilth and 
 productivity between rice crops, as well as for 
 providing year-long grazing of nutritious forage 
 for beef cattle on rice farms.” 
 
 In a report on their studies of year-long graz¬ 
 ing in the rice-pasture system of larming, Weih¬ 
 ing, Moncrief, and Davis {146) reported that 
 the unimproved pastures w’ere grazed only 201 
 days during the year, whereas the improved pas¬ 
 tures W'ere grazed the full 365 days. In addition, 
 the carrying capacity of the improved pastures 
 was about three times that of the unimproved 
 pastures from April 14 to November 7, 1949; and 
 gains on the improved pastures were nearly four 
 times those on unimproved pastures. Manage¬ 
 ment practices, including fertilization and inocu¬ 
 lation of clover seed, w’ere important in estab¬ 
 lishing improved pastures. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 79 
 
 p]vatt and Weihing (33) reported that rice fol¬ 
 lowing improved pastures produced 650 to 800 
 pounds more per acre than did rice following 
 unimproved pastures when equal amounts of fer¬ 
 tilizer were used. The rotations included in this 
 study were (1) rice and unimproved pasture in 
 alternate years; (2) improved pasture 3 years, 
 rice, unimproved pasture, rice; (3) improved 
 pasture 4 years, rice 2 years; and (4) improved 
 pasture 5 years, rice 3 years. 
 
 Ratooning is the harvesting of a second grain 
 crop from regrowth of the first rice stubble. The 
 practice is only possible when well-adapted short- 
 season varieties are grown and the area enjoys 
 about 280 frost-free days (4-^). About 35 per¬ 
 cent of Texas rice acreage was ratooned in 1963.^ 
 
 Evatt and Beachell {32) discussed ratoon crop¬ 
 ping of short-season rice varieties in Texas. They 
 reported that the technique appears to be a prac¬ 
 tical means of increasing rice yields, provided 
 varieties that mature the first crop in 100 to 105 
 days are used. It requires about 70 to 80 days 
 to produce the second crop if all operations are 
 properly executed. 
 
 Although ratooning now appears to be a prac¬ 
 tical and possibly profitable operation in United 
 States areas having a suitable climate, expert 
 management is required. Evatt and Beachell 
 (32) have shown that the stubble of the first 
 crop should be at least 16 to 18 inches h^h. Leav¬ 
 ing a shorter stubble delays recovery. Significant 
 yield increases have been obtained from the ra¬ 
 toon crop by applying up to 120 pounds of nitro¬ 
 gen per acre immediately after the first harvest. 
 The stubble is reflooded when regrowth is 18 to 
 20 inches high. Using the early variety Xato, 
 these authors reported 4,048 pounds per acre 
 from the first crop and 2,382 pounds per acre 
 from the ratoon harvest, for a total of 6,430 
 pounds per acre from a single seeding. 
 
 California 
 
 Xo clear-cut rotation pattern has yet become 
 established for California riceland (^8) for the 
 following reasons: 
 
 (1) The soil used for rice production generally 
 is inherently quite fertile. Hence, with the rela¬ 
 tively short cropping history as compared with 
 other rice States, soil nutrient depletion, with 
 the exception of nitrogen, has not yet proved a 
 limiting factor. 
 
 (2) Xo serious rice disease has appeared to 
 date to force a rigid crop rotation program for 
 disease control purposes. 
 
 (3) The rapidly advancing knowledge of weed 
 control, crop fertilization, and other improved 
 cultural practices has made it possible to crop 
 
 * Evatt, N. S. Texas A & M University, Beaumont, Tex. 
 19C4. [Correspondence.] 
 
 ricelands for a jieriod of 3 to 10 years continu¬ 
 ously and still obtain increasing yields. In 1920, 
 (California's average rice yield was 2,295 pounds 
 j)er acre; in 1963, it was 4,505 ])ounds })er acre. 
 
 A number of cash crops are well adapted for 
 growing in rotation with rice in California. The 
 ones most commonly grown are those providing 
 the best immediate economic advantage. One 
 rotation involves rice; spring- or early summer- 
 plowed fallow; and fall-sown wheat, oats, or 
 oats and vetch. Another includes rice; spring- 
 sown grain sorghum or field beans; and fall- 
 sown wheat, oats, or oats and vetch. Safflower 
 may be grown in rotation with rice but produc¬ 
 tion usually is more successful when this crop is 
 grown the second, rather than the first, year after 
 rice. 
 
 Two rotational cash crops are sometimes har¬ 
 vested the same year. lYheat or oats may be 
 followed by irrigated grain sorghum, field beans, 
 or safflower. For successful double cropping on 
 riceland, all operations must be expertly timed. 
 
 Other crops used occasionally on the better 
 quality, medium-textured riceland soils include 
 sugarbeets, melons for seed, tomatoes, and alfalfa. 
 
 Williams, Finfrock, and Miller (149) reported 
 that purple vetch (Vida atrojnir'purea Desf.), 
 burclover (Medicago hispida Gaertn.), horse- 
 beans (Vida faba L.), and field peas (Pisum 
 a/rvense L.) were commonly used in ricelands for 
 winter-grown cover crop and green manure. They 
 reported that leguminous green manures were 
 grown and turned under on about one-fifth of 
 California’s riceland and that the practice is ex¬ 
 panding rapidly. 
 
 Land Leveling and Seedbed Preparation 
 
 Jones and others (69) reported that most land 
 on which rice is grown is comparatively level, 
 with a gentle slope toward the drainage chan¬ 
 nels. The cost of developing for irrigation lands 
 with from 0.01- to 0.50-percent slope usually is 
 economical. A competent surveyor is employed 
 to locate the irrigation canal, drainage ditches, 
 and field levees. Improper location of canals, 
 ditches, and levees may cause serious losses, since 
 it may result in faulty irrigation and poor drain¬ 
 age. Irrigation canals should be large enough to 
 supply ample water promptly when needed. 
 Drainage ditches should likewise be large enough 
 to dispose of water rapidly. 
 
 Land Grading and Leveling 
 
 A general discussion of land leveling for irri¬ 
 gation has been published by Bamesberger (7J). 
 Technical reports of land grading (land forming) 
 for surface irrigation by (jattis, Koch, and McVey 
 (40) and Marr (82) discuss the factors to con¬ 
 sider before land grading is undertaken. These 
 
80 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEI»T. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 include the determination of crops to be grown, 
 the suitability of the land for surface irrigation, 
 the location and amount of water available, the 
 capabilities of various types of land-grading 
 equipment, methods of calculating for land gi'ad- 
 ing, and methods of computation of cut and fill. 
 
 In developing land for rice, it usually is cus¬ 
 tomary to move enough earth to eliminate hum¬ 
 mocks or ridges and to fill sloughs and hollows. 
 Properly leveled land drains more quickly in the 
 spring, so that seed bed preparation can be started 
 earlier. Land leveling also makes it possible to 
 maintain a uniform depth of 4 to 8 inches of 
 water within levees, to control weeds better, and 
 to drain the water rapidly if necessary during 
 the growing season and for harvest. When a 
 field is properly graded, irrigation levees can be 
 made straight and perpendicular to the slope of 
 the land. This practice reduces the amount of 
 land devoted to levees, decreases tillage and har¬ 
 vest costs, and usually increases yield. After 
 a field has been adequately graded, it can be 
 maintained by annual land planing or floating 
 before seeding the rice. 
 
 Wasson and Walker {l^S) pointed out that 
 
 many types of land-moving machines are avail¬ 
 able and that the majority of these give good 
 results. Mullins {89) found that Mississippi 
 farmers were using land planes or similar land¬ 
 leveling devices to improve the surface condition 
 of their fields but that this operation usually was 
 performed on only a part of their land each year. 
 Reynolds {105) reported that land leveling'with 
 land planes or other land-leveling devices is 
 coming into greater use in Texas. He empha¬ 
 sized that leveling increases the uniformity of 
 contours between levees and results in better 
 drainage and water depth control. These condi¬ 
 tions are essential to obtain and maintain uni¬ 
 form stands of rice. 
 
 Land planing or floating of riceland usually 
 is done after heavy disking, field cultivating, or 
 other means of working the ground. It may be 
 alternated with other operations until the land 
 is suitably level. Often land planing is the last 
 operation before preparing the final seedbed and 
 seeding. The field then should be in suitable 
 condition for accurate surveying of the levees 
 (fig. 29). 
 
 In 1962, Faulkner and Miears {35) described 
 
 Figure 29.— Leveling ricefield with (A) large land plane and (B) small land plane. 
 
 methods for leveling riceland in water. They 
 found that ridges and depressions can be leveled 
 more easily and more effectively by flooding the 
 land and working the machinery in the water. 
 Because of the plowsole found in most rice 
 soils, equipment can be supported under flooded 
 conditions. Through using the water as a sup¬ 
 plemental moving agent, greater amounts of soil 
 can be moved more efficiently than when the field 
 is dry leveled with the same equipment (fig. 30). 
 
 Faulkner and Miears described two methods 
 commonly used in water leveling riceland. One 
 is to build a levee around small land areas and 
 eliminate all other levees within the field. The 
 other, normally used in large fields, is to remove 
 every second levee and level within the remain¬ 
 ing areas. With either method, the soil is worked 
 into a loose seedbed and, after being flooded, is 
 
 Figure 30.—Leveling ricefield in water with small land 
 
 plane. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 81 
 
 moved with ;i blade and a tractor of 50 horse- 
 j)ower or greater. The blade can be a one-blade 
 land leveler with float removed or it can be any 
 other blade approximately 10 feet wide pulled 
 at a right angle to the direction of travel. Faulk¬ 
 ner and Miears recommended flooding only the 
 land that can be leveled in 1 day, since soil be¬ 
 comes compacted when partly Avorked and then 
 alloAved to remain under water overnight. They 
 suggested leveling the land to within 0.2 foot 
 between levees for good water control. This al¬ 
 lows a minimum water depth of 4 inches and a 
 maximum dejith of 6.4 inches. They found that 
 water depths of less than 4 inches were ineffec¬ 
 tive in controlling grasses, whereas depths of 
 more than 6.4 inches in Louisiana may injure the 
 rice and result in greater pumping cost for the 
 increased volume of water. Leveling in water 
 normally was difficult where the terrain varied 
 more than 0.6 foot. No extreme changes in soil 
 characteristics were observed after leveling in 
 water. Analyses showed that the soil generally 
 was more uniform in both physical and chemical 
 characteristics after leveling in the water. One 
 advantage was that this uniformity of soil al¬ 
 lowed a better determination of needed plant 
 nutrients based on analyses of soil samples. 
 
 Seedbed Preparation 
 
 Jones and others { 69 ) reported that when 
 plowed under, rice stubble and weed growth de¬ 
 compose readily in the fall and winter if proper 
 drainage is provided. This decomposition aids 
 in the preparation of a good seedbed. In recent 
 years in Arkansas, growers have found it satis¬ 
 factory to disk rice stubble immediately after 
 harvest to mix the vegetative matter Avith the 
 soil. Sometimes a roller-packer rather than a 
 disk harroAv is used to break down the stubble 
 so it is in contact Avith the soil, then the levees 
 may be closed and alloAved to catch winter rain- 
 Avater that is left on the land until late Avinter 
 or early spring. At this time the fields are 
 drained; and as soon as they are dry enough, the 
 land is either ploAved Avith a moldboard or disk 
 ploAv or Avorked Avith a heaA\y disk harrow, de¬ 
 pending on the condition of the stubble and the 
 soil. 
 
 Mullins ( 89 ) reported that land preparation 
 operations on the heavy soils of the delta in 
 Mississippi are performed with offset disks, 
 heaA'y tandem disks, and various types of har- 
 roAvs. The usual sequence is one or tAvo times 
 over Avith the offset disk, then three or more 
 times over Avifh the tandem disk at varying time 
 interA^als. Spike-tooth or spring-tooth harroAvs 
 are commonly used after each cutting with the 
 disk or for the final operation before seeding. 
 
 The seedbed for rice is prepared much the 
 same as the seedbed for other small grains. The 
 
 procedures generally folloAved are given by Davis 
 { 26 ), Finfrock and Miller { 96 ), Jones, Davis, 
 and Williams { 68 ), rlones and others { 69 ), and 
 Reynolds { 105 ). The primary aim is to destroy 
 weeds and to provide a suitable seedbed. Whether 
 it should be rough or melloAv on the surface will 
 be governed by the seeding method used. If the 
 rice is to be soAvn in the Avater, the soil surface 
 before Hooding should be dry and rough; if it 
 is to be drilled, the soil surface should be mellow 
 and smooth. 
 
 Depending on the crop that precedes rice in 
 the rotation, it may be desirable to ploAv the land 
 in the fall or early spring. If rice is to folloAv 
 soybeans or similar cultivated crops, only a lim¬ 
 ited amount of land preparation may be neces¬ 
 sary since the soil may be in fairly good physical 
 condition after the cultivated crop has been har¬ 
 vested. Reynolds { 105 ) reported that early ex¬ 
 periments on time and depth of ploAving at the 
 Beaumont, Tex., station indicated that soil 
 ploAved 5 to 8 inches deep in the fall or spring 
 produced someAvhat larger yields of rice than 
 did soil plowed only 2 inches deep. There Avas 
 little difference in yield of rice betAveen summer, 
 fall, and spring plowing. HoweA’’er, summer, 
 fall, or early winter plowing did have the advan¬ 
 tage OA’'er spring ploAving in that labor Avas dis¬ 
 tributed over longer periods. Land that was 
 ploAved in the fall formed a better tilth and was 
 easier to prepare for seeding by disking and har- 
 roAving the folloAving spring than was land 
 ploAved in the spring. Depending on the condi¬ 
 tion of the soil, riceland generally is ploAved with 
 heaA’y disk or moldboard ploAvs (fig. 31). 
 
 Disk ploAvs generally are used when the soil 
 is dry and harcl. When the soil is moist and in 
 good condition for plowing, moldboard plows 
 are very satisfactory. In Arkansas, the use of 
 moldboard plows has decreased in favor of vari¬ 
 ous types of disk plows, Avhich can coA^er the 
 ground more rapidly and which may leave a 
 smoother surface that will require less leveling 
 or floating. 
 
 Reynolds { 105 ) reported that summer ploAving 
 frequently is practical in Texas on fields infested 
 Avith red rice or other Aveeds. After summer 
 ploAving, the land may be leveled and disked or 
 harroAved as needed for weed control. Land 
 ploAved in the fall usually is left rough until 
 spring, then it is disked and harroAved prepara¬ 
 tory to seeding. It is desirable to o])en drainage 
 furrows through a field after the last tillage 
 operation in the fall to provide adequate surface 
 drainage. Some farmers Avait until the first 
 heavy rain of the fall Avhen some Avater is stand¬ 
 ing on the land to make the drainage furroAvs 
 so that natural drainage channels can be located. 
 A small grader, a bedder, or a one-bottom ploAv 
 may be used to make this drainage furroAV. Usu- 
 
82 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEIT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 31.—Preparing the seedbed : A, Moldboard plow; 
 
 B, field cultivator with spike-tooth harrow attached; 
 
 C, disk harrow. 
 
 ally it is not necessary to plow in the sprin^r the 
 fields that were plowed the previous suniiner or 
 fall, except on poorly drained soil or during 
 seasons of heavy rainfall. 
 
 In general, land plowed in the spring should 
 be disked and harrowed as soon as possible after 
 plowing to break up any large lumps and clods, 
 to prevent baking or crusting, and to avoid sub¬ 
 sequent difficulty in preparing the seedbed. In 
 
 Texas, experience has shown that heavy soils, 
 such as lieainnont clay and Lake Charles clay, 
 generally require more subsequent tillage, such 
 as disking and harrowing, to obtain a desirable 
 seedbed when jdowed in the spring than when 
 plowed in the fall or early winter (105). 
 
 Usually California ricelands are spring plowed 
 to a depth of 4 to 6 inches, after the stubble of 
 the previous crop has been partly reduced by 
 burning. The straw may be burned in the fall 
 immediately after rice harvest if dry weather 
 continues long enough. Spring-plowed soils make 
 a better seedbed if allowed to dry for a week to 
 10 days after plowing before beginning the final 
 seedbed operations. Davis (B6) reported that 
 water-seeded rice germinates better, has more 
 seedling vigor, and produces a heavier crop when 
 sown on a seedbed that is dry during the finish¬ 
 ing operations. A seedbed prepared under moist 
 conditions for water seeding induces algae (scum) 
 development, increases weed problems, and fre¬ 
 quently results in a poor stand because of poor 
 germination and seedling vigor. 
 
 Finfrock and Miller (36) reported that a good 
 winter-grown vetch cover crop aids in drying out 
 riceland soil, thereby making it possible to pre¬ 
 pare the seedbed earlier. Cover crops turned un¬ 
 der for green manure are usually plowed down 
 with a moldboard or a disk plow. For best re¬ 
 sults in California, the plant material should be 
 completely covered with 4 to 6 inches of soil, 
 according to Williams and others (14S, 149). 
 
 Seedbed Preparation as Related to Method 
 of Seeding 
 
 Rice may be seeded either by drilling on dry 
 ground, or by broadcast seeding with an endgate 
 seeder or airplane on dry ground or in flooded 
 fields. The final seedbed preparation is influ¬ 
 enced by the method of seeding to be used. If 
 fields are to be water seeded, growers sometimes 
 are able to prepare a fairly good seedbed in the 
 late fall or winter and to erect their levees at 
 this time. When this is possible, very little land 
 preparation other than harrowing is necessary in 
 the spring. In the Southern States, if the field 
 is to be clry seeded with a drill or with an end- 
 gate seeder or broadcast by airplane, the final 
 preparation of the field includes working over 
 the levees while the field is worked. When rice 
 is to be seeded, the final pre])aration just ahead 
 of the drill usually is done with a spring-tooth 
 or disk harrow behind which is drawn a spike- 
 tooth harrow. This gives a mellow firm seedbed, 
 and the moisture is held near the surface so the 
 seed usually will germinate soon after seeding 
 without irrigating the field. A roller-packer may 
 be used in order to break up clods before drilling 
 and to firm the soil after drilling to help retain 
 moisture. Usually, the levees are reseeded after 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 83 
 
 they liave been parti}' rebuilt, and the seed then 
 is covered by the final buildin^j of the levees with 
 a levee disk or a pusher-type levee maker. 
 
 If rice is to be broadcast seeded on dry ground, 
 the final seedbed preparation leaves the surface 
 rough and somewhat cloddy. The seed usually is 
 covered by a shallow working with a spring- 
 tooth, spike-tooth, or disk harrow. Seed on the 
 levees is covered by the final working with the 
 levee disk or pusher. In most cases, precipita¬ 
 tion following seeding is necessary to bring 
 about germination and emergence of the rice 
 seedlings. 
 
 If a field is to be water seeded, the final seed¬ 
 bed preparation depends somewhat on soil type. 
 On sandy or silt loam soil, a mellow, firm seed¬ 
 bed similar to that for drilling should be pre¬ 
 pared. Levees are constructed and are seeded 
 just before the final working with a levee disk 
 or pusher. The remainder of the field is worked 
 between the levees with a spring-tooth harrow, 
 which leaves fairly deep furrows into which the 
 seeds fall as they settle through the water. 
 
 When rice is water seeded on clay or very fine 
 silt loam soil, the seedbed should be fairly rough 
 with a clod size ranging up to 4 inches in diam¬ 
 
 eter. This is done in California by harrowing 
 twice with a heavy spike-tooth harrow followed 
 by dragging with a heavy wooden drag. A 
 rough seedbed helps prevent drifting of water- 
 sown seed. As the clods slake down after flood¬ 
 ing and seeding, a fine film of soil may cover the 
 seed. In the South, the levees usually are seeded 
 separately. In California, the levees are con¬ 
 siderably higher and larger and are not seeded. 
 
 Some farmers have been successful in prepar¬ 
 ing their land in relatively stale water by draw¬ 
 ing spring-tooth or spike-tooth harrows through 
 the fields in the mud or in fairly deep water. 
 Other growers who have attempted this method 
 have found it very unsatisfactory. 
 
 Construction of Levees 
 
 Ricefields are divided by levees into subfields, 
 called paddies or bays (cuts). Levee construc¬ 
 tion is an important operation in preparation for 
 growing rice because levees are the key device for 
 regulating water depth in ricefields. They must 
 be located accurately and must be well constructed 
 in order to maintain a uniform depth of water 
 within each paddy (fig. 32). 
 
 Figure 32.— Making levees with (^1) disk, {B) pusher, and (C) plastic. 
 
84 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDROOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 The levees are constructed on the contour, that 
 is, on lines of equal elevation. They should be 
 located by an experienced surveyor or operator 
 who uses an accurate instrument. Because a 
 smooth soil surface is needed for accurate location 
 of the levees, the surveying should be done imme¬ 
 diately after the field has been floated. On flat 
 land, the difference in elevation between levees is 
 0.1 to 0.2 foot, and on steep, sloping land it is 0.3 
 foot (-S7', 69). In fields where the levees run 
 parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind, 
 it is desirable, especially if the paddy is large, to 
 build wind levees at right angles to the direction 
 of the prevailing wind. These levees are not tied 
 into the border or contour levees. Their function 
 is to reduce the effect of the wind and thereby 
 decrease wave action and reduce the possibility of 
 levees being washed out. 
 
 The levee should be compact and high enough 
 to hold the water at an average depth of 3 to 6 
 inches in the paddy. In the Southern States, the 
 levees have gently sloping sides, so that they may 
 be crossed with cultivating and harvesting equip¬ 
 ment. Here, the levees are completed after the 
 rice is drilled. Levees of this type are considered 
 very efficient, for an entire field can be cultivated, 
 seeded, and harvested as a single unit. 
 
 In California, the levees are higher and have 
 steep sides so as to hold a deeper flood; and the 
 areas between pairs of levees must be harvested 
 as a field or unit. This increases farming costs 
 because it increases machinery-maneuvering time. 
 In addition, the land area devoted to high levees 
 is nonproductive. 
 
 In the Southern States, the base of the levee 
 commonly is made by plowing one round with a 
 3-bottom plow. Levees are constructed with a 
 levee disk usually mounted on the rear of a large 
 tractor, or commonly with a single- or double¬ 
 blade })usher on clay soils. The levee base is 
 built as early as possible, so that it will become 
 compact before flooding time. This is especially 
 important on heavy clay soils on which levee con¬ 
 struction often is difficult. Compact, well-settled 
 levees reduce seepage and are less likely to be 
 washed out by excess water from heavy rains. 
 Well-constructed levees, properly repaired after 
 seeding, facilitate irrigation and eliminate much 
 expensive hand shoveling. Much of the work of 
 installing levee gates and closing the gaps at the 
 ends of the levees is done with pickup blades or 
 scoops mounted on small tractors. This elimi¬ 
 nates much of the hand labor formerly required. 
 
 In California, a V-type diker or soil crowder 
 that is 14 to 16 feet wide in front and 4 feet wide 
 in the back is used to build levees. Two or more 
 heavy-duty, crawler-type tractors are used to pull 
 the diker. The levees usually are from 30 to 36 
 inches high when freshly made and settle to be¬ 
 tween 16 to 20 inches. Levees usually are made 
 
 in the fall with a base of 5 to 6 feet and are 
 allowed to settle during the winter. A bulldozer 
 or a tractor with a front-end scoop is used to 
 close the gap at the water control boxes and at 
 the end of each levee. 
 
 Lewis and others (75) and Scott and others 
 (7A?) reported on the possibility of using rice 
 levees made of plastic film in lieu of levees made 
 of soil. Their studies show that plastic levees 
 are physically feasible. Their commercial fea¬ 
 sibility probably depends on the development of 
 a machine to economically install the plastic 
 levees. Prototype, privately developed machines 
 to install plastic levees mechanically were oper¬ 
 ated experimentally in California in 1962 and in 
 1963. 
 
 Seed and Seeding 
 
 The choice of seed and the use of suitable seed¬ 
 ing methods are an important part of rice culture. 
 To achieve a high level of production, the variety 
 to be grown must be adapted for the area. After 
 deciding on the variety, it is necessary to select a 
 lot of rice seed that is free from varietal mixtures, 
 does not contain red rice and weed seed, is high in 
 percentage of viable seed, and has high bushel 
 weight. All rice-producing States now have a 
 rice seed certification program designed to pro¬ 
 vide high-quality seed for the rice industry. 
 
 Before 1941, when combine harvesting, artificial 
 drying, and bulk storage were begun in the south¬ 
 ern rice area, there was little incentive to develop 
 a seed rice industry. Varietal mixtures resulting 
 from handling were not serious when binders, 
 stationary threshers, and sack storage were used. 
 Seed rice usually was saved from fields or parts 
 of fields of known varietal purity. Weed seeds 
 and trash were removed by fanning mills and 
 disk or cylinder graders usually owned and op¬ 
 erated by private or grower organizations. How¬ 
 ever, as combine harvesting, artificial drying, arid 
 bulk storage developed, varietal mixtures became 
 serious. It was at this time that seed production 
 and processing developed into a specialized busi¬ 
 ness. Today, much of the seed rice sown in the 
 Southern States is given specialized attention 
 during growing, harvesting, drying, and process¬ 
 ing. As a result, the seed rice industry is well 
 developed today. Foreign demand for seed of 
 high quality has further stimulated the develop¬ 
 ment of the seed rice industry. Substantial quan¬ 
 tities of seed rice are exported annually to Central 
 and South American countries. 
 
 Seed Quality 
 
 Numerous workers have stressed the desirability 
 of using seed rice of good quality (18, 27, 70,121^). 
 Good seed should be well matured and free from 
 red rice, immature and hulled or broken grains, 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 85 
 
 seed of other varieties, and weed seeds. The seed 
 should be cleaned and <^raded to remove hulls, 
 trash, and other foreign matter. Also, good seed 
 should germinate satisfactorily and should pro¬ 
 duce strong sprouts. Using seed that germinates 
 poorly may result in uneven stands, uneven ripen¬ 
 ing, and low field yields of poor milling quality. 
 
 Smith reported in 1940 that seed lots 
 
 used on 29 farms were examined, and only 4 were 
 found to lie free of weed seeds and red rice. 
 Today, most rice seed is thoroughly cleaned and 
 graded. Consequently, it is free of weed seed and 
 has only a trace of hulled or poorly filled grains. 
 
 Much emphasis has been placed on the import¬ 
 ance of eliminating red rice from planting seed 
 (^, 70). Red rice is objectionable because the red 
 bran is not completely removed in milling. This 
 results in an unattractive appearance when milled. 
 Also, the grain size, shape, and milling quality 
 are inferior. Red rice tillers profusely and shat¬ 
 ters easily, and seeds that have become buried in 
 the soil have been known to remain viable for 
 several years (fP, JfB ). When rice seed containing 
 red rice was seeded several years in succession on 
 the same land and red rice was not controlled, 
 over 50 percent of the harvested grain was red 
 rice {2). In a ricefield in Louisiana, over 500 red 
 rice grains were found in the top 6 inches of each 
 square foot of soil.^ 
 
 The importance of using seed free from red rice 
 cannot be overemphasized because as long as red 
 rice is being sown, it cannot be eliminated from 
 the fields. Based on a seeding rate of 80 pounds 
 per acre, seed containing 5 red rice grains per 
 pound would probably result in approximately 
 200 red rice plants per acre. At the Beaumont 
 Rice-Pasture Research and Extension Center, 
 land was cropped 2 consecutive years, in 1946 
 and 1947, and seed was used that contained ap¬ 
 proximately two red rice grains per pound. The 
 grain harvested the first year contained about 18 
 red rice grains per pound and that harvested the 
 second year contained over 125 grains.^ 
 
 Seed rice free from red rice was nearly non¬ 
 existent until 10 years ago. Screen graders, 
 which effectively grade seed rice on a grain 
 diameter basis, have been effective in removing 
 the broader red rice grains from long-grain var¬ 
 ieties. The screen graders, along with the pro¬ 
 duction and increase of seed stocks free from red 
 rice, have effectively controlled red rice. In a 
 few instances, slender red rice grains that can¬ 
 not be separated from long-grain varieties have 
 been observed. Whenever a seed lot that con¬ 
 tains such types is observed, it should be dis¬ 
 carded immediately. 
 
 ^ Baker, J. B. Loiii.siana State Univ., Baton Rouge, 
 La. 1963. [Correspondence.] 
 
 •* Beachele, II. M. Rice-Pasture Research and Exten¬ 
 sion Center, Beaumont, Tex. 1963. [Unpublished data.] 
 
 Red rice grains are difficult to remove from 
 short- and medium-grain varieties because of the 
 similarity in diameter between those varieties and 
 red rice. Since red rice grains cannot be effec¬ 
 tively removed from the medium- and short-grain 
 varieties, it is essential to use seed free from 
 red ricel 
 
 The origin of high-quality seed rice and the 
 certification of rice seed is discussed in the sec¬ 
 tion on “Rice Breeding and Testing Methods in 
 the United States,” p. 56. 
 
 Source of Seed 
 
 Jones and others {67) studied the effect of en¬ 
 vironment and source of seed on yield and other 
 characters of a group of varieties at four rice ex¬ 
 periment stations in Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, 
 and California. They concluded that seed source 
 had no appreciable effect on grain test weight, 
 germination of seed, average grain and kernel 
 weights within a variety, proportion of hulls, and 
 milling quality. In summary, they stated that 
 “local seed of good quality, free of mixtures and 
 weed seed, is as productive as that obtained from 
 other rice-producing States.” 
 
 Seed Treatment 
 
 Finfrock and Miller {36) reported that Cali¬ 
 fornia growers usually soak their rice seed in a 
 sodium hypochlorite solution at the rate of 1 gal¬ 
 lon of household bleach (5.25 percent of NaOCl) 
 per 100 gallons of water. In addition to provid¬ 
 ing some protection against seedling diseases, the 
 chemical deactivates germination inhibitors lo¬ 
 cated in rice hulls. 
 
 Mikkelsen and Sinah (5J) reported the pres¬ 
 ence of six compounds in the hulls of Caloro rice 
 that diffuse into the embryo and inhibit germina¬ 
 tion when present in large amounts. Compounds 
 identified included vanillic acid, ferulic acid, 
 p-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumoric acid, p-hy- 
 droxybenzaldehyde, and possibly idoleacetic acid. 
 In low concentrations, these chemical substances 
 stimulate germination and ensuing growth. 
 Leaching the seed by soaking with water reduces 
 the concentration to stimulatory levels. The 
 probable action of sodium hypochlorite solution 
 is to modify these inhibitors so that seedling 
 growth is stimulated. 
 
 Garrison {39) reported on work with other 
 small grains conducted by Earhart. Results 
 showed that there is a definite need for all small 
 gi'ain seed to be completely processed, including 
 thorough cleaning and treating. For every 100 
 field-run seeds put in the ground, only 58 healthy 
 plants were produced. When seed from the same 
 lot was cleaned, 65 healthy plants were produced; 
 and when the seed was both cleaned and treated, 
 72 healthy plants were produced. Field experi¬ 
 ments comprising two rice varieties, sown at two 
 
86 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 dates at eacli of three locations for 2 yeai*s, 
 showed an average survival of 61 percent for 
 seed treated with two commonly used seed-treat¬ 
 ment chemicals, compared with 52 percent for 
 untreated seed {12). 
 
 Information on the treatment of rice seed to 
 prevent seedling blight is given in the section 
 “Rice Diseases," j). 118. 
 
 Time of Seeding 
 
 Seeding of rice in the United States begins 
 when the weather becomes warm enouirh for 
 germination and seedling growth. In Arkansas, 
 Mississippi, JNIissouri, and California, where the 
 growing season is comparatively short, seeding 
 usually is done in April and May, within a period 
 of 8 to 5 weeks. Near the Gulf Coast in Louisi¬ 
 ana and Texas, rice can be sown from early March 
 to late June—although most seeding is done in 
 April. 
 
 The length of seeding period depends mostly 
 on the length of life cycle of the available varie¬ 
 ties. Essentially it is the difference between the 
 length of the growing season for rice in an area 
 and the shortest period of time required to ma¬ 
 ture a crop. 
 
 Seeding time also is influenced, directly or in¬ 
 directly, by favorable weather conditions for land 
 preparation and seeding operations, methods of 
 seeding, fertilizer jiractices, availability of fresh 
 water, temperature of water, cold tolerance of 
 varieties, and time of maturity of varieties in re¬ 
 lation to date of seeding. 
 
 Adair and Cralley (5) stressed that the proper 
 seeding date for each variety is important. They 
 stated that no rice variety should be sown until 
 the mean daily temperature rises to about 70° F. 
 They and Johnston and others (d5, 66) reported 
 that because of the relatively long growing period 
 of several of the varieties then available, it was 
 necessary to seed these varieties in Arkansas by 
 late April or early May. Other, shorter season 
 varieties had a wider range of seeding dates. 
 However, when any variety then available was 
 sown in Arkansas after the first week in June, 
 there was a risk that the crop might fail to ma¬ 
 ture if there was an early frost. However, with 
 the development of the very early-maturing var¬ 
 ieties Belle Patna and Vegold, mid-June seedings 
 appear to be relatively safe, even in northern Ar¬ 
 kansas. Johnston and others (^J) suggested that 
 these two varieties be seeded in northern Arkan¬ 
 sas from about June 1 to 10, in central Arkansas 
 from about June 1 to 20, and in southern Arkan¬ 
 sas from June 1 to 25. Johnston, Cralley, and 
 Henry {66) emphasized that a relatively “safe'’ 
 seeding date may depend to a considerable extent 
 on anticipated water management and fertilizer 
 
 practices. They pointed out that heavy rates of 
 nitrogen fertilization, particularly when applied 
 late, tend to delay maturity. 
 
 Results from date of seeding experiments indi¬ 
 cate that there is a comparatively long period in 
 the South during which rice can be sown and still 
 produce satisfactory yields. It is possible and 
 often advisable to spread the seeding time of cer¬ 
 tain varieties so that the harvest can be extended 
 over a longer period. However, Adair (J), who 
 studied the effect of time of seeding on yield and 
 milling quality in Arkansas, concluded that most 
 of the early and midseason varieties produced rice 
 of better milling quality when they matured late 
 in September or early in October than when they 
 matured before September 15. Jodon {63) stated 
 that since the approximate number of days re¬ 
 quired from seeding to maturity is known for all 
 commercial varieties, it may be desirable to base 
 the date of seeding on the number of days re¬ 
 quired for maturity, so that the rice will mature 
 in the fall when the weather is usually dry and 
 pleasant for harvest. Rice maturing* after the 
 temperatures have lowered somewhat may be of 
 better milling quality. When rice matures during 
 extremely hot weather, considerable sun checking 
 may result and low head rice yields may be pro¬ 
 duced when the grain is milled. 
 
 Chambliss {18) stated that in the prairie areas 
 of Louisiana and Texas, most of the rice is sown 
 from April 1 to May 15. However, he pointed 
 out that May 1 was approximately the best date 
 for sowing rice on the prairie because of the cold 
 Aveather that sometimes prevails during April. 
 According to Jones and others {69)., rice usually 
 is sown in the Southern States from April 1 to 
 May 80. But if conditions are favorable, some 
 seeding is done in March and as late as June 30. 
 Rice germinates more quickly when soAvn in the 
 late spring, when temperatures are relatively 
 high, than when sown earlier. Also, late seeding 
 has an advantage in that the weeds that have 
 started growth can be killed by cultivation before 
 seeding of the rice crop. 
 
 Reynolds {105) stated that time of seeding rice 
 in Texas ranges from March 1 to late June but 
 that most of the rice acreage is seeded in April 
 and May. He pointed out that the actual time 
 of seeding may depend on several factors, such 
 as the weather, method of seeding, soil condition, 
 and maturity group of the variety. Some varie¬ 
 ties can tolerate cool weather in the spring better 
 than others and will thereby produce better stands 
 Avhen seeded relatively early. He further re¬ 
 ported that the yield of certain varieties showed 
 a marked decrease when seeding was delayed 
 beyond certain dates. He concluded from tests 
 at Beaumont that the late-maturing varieties 
 should be seeded as early as practicable to insure 
 satisfactory yields. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 87 
 
 In California, the period for seeding rice is 
 more concentrated than it is in the South. Some 
 rice is sown in California soon after April 1 and 
 some as late as June 15, but most of it is sown 
 from April 15 to May 15 {^6). When rice is 
 sown as late as May 30 in California, it should 
 be fertilized at a moderate rate, and preferably 
 a short-season variety such as Colusa should be 
 grown. 
 
 Very early seeding entails certain hazards such 
 as loss of stands due to seedling blight or drown¬ 
 ing out of drilled rice. Early growth is slow, 
 prolonging the period from seeding to harvesting. 
 Isolated early-maturing fields may be attacked 
 by concentrations of insects, rodents, or birds. 
 Rice that matures early during hot and dry 
 weather tends to have lower milling quality. 
 
 Relatively early seeding in the Southern States 
 helps assure an adequate supply of water to 
 mature the crop before a summertime shortage of 
 water or, in limited areas where it occurs, before 
 the intrusion of salt water. Water is available 
 for early-seeded rice in all areas, although in 
 California the water may be too cold. Early- 
 seeded rice may tiller more, may compete more 
 effectively with weeds, and may escape insects and 
 diseases to some extent. When rice can be har¬ 
 vested early in the season, it usually is possible 
 to avoid seasonal congestion at the driers and to 
 find a ready market. Also, early seeding of short- 
 season varieties usually allows time for the pro¬ 
 duction of a stubble crop in southern Louisiana 
 and Texas. Because of the somewhat shorter 
 growing season and cooler fall temperatures, 
 results and observations indicate that such double 
 cropping (ratoon cropping) is not a safe practice 
 in Arkansas in most years (^J). 
 
 However, even the customary April seeding 
 often is subjected to unfavorable conditions for 
 establishing stands. Varieties that have short 
 growing seasons mature during hot weather if 
 seeded at the average time, and in some seasons 
 the quality is poor. Localized summer wind 
 storms and rainstorms may cause lodging with 
 resulting loss of yield and increased cost of 
 combining. Often at the peak of the season more 
 rice is ready for harvest than the driers have 
 capacity to process, and the rice that waits in the 
 field is in danger of deteriorating. 
 
 Rice matures in a shorter time when sown late 
 than when sown early. Delaying seeding or using 
 varieties that require long growing seasons per¬ 
 mits harvesting to be done in the normally cool 
 autumn weather when there may be fewer show¬ 
 ers and when the driers are less likely to be 
 crowded. Later maturing rice usually is better 
 quality as long as the temperatures are not too 
 low for normal development of the grain. De¬ 
 laying seeding also allows time for additionfll 
 cultivation to reduce weed and red rice infesta¬ 
 
 tion. On land that has been in winter or peren¬ 
 nial pasture crops, a delay in date of seeding 
 provides a longer grazing period and makes pos¬ 
 sible the preparation of a better seedbed. 
 
 Late seeding also has disadvantages. There 
 may be a greater possibility of injury by root 
 maggots, armyworms, and stem borers. Weather 
 conditions may be more favorable to the blast 
 fungus at the time the young plants are suscepti¬ 
 ble. Stem rot may be more severe late in the 
 season. The crop is exposed to early fall storms, 
 likely to be the most damaging of the season. 
 Cold weather may reduce quality and yield if 
 harvest is extremely late. Isolated late-maturing 
 fields probably are more exposed to damage by 
 concentrations of birds and other pests than are 
 extra early fields. 
 
 Clearly, there is no ideal time for seeding. In 
 Louisiana and Texas especially, where the seed¬ 
 ing period is long and there are several varieties 
 to choose from, the date of seeding demands care¬ 
 ful consideration. This is true whether one field 
 is to be seeded to a single variety or a large acre¬ 
 age is to be allotted among two or more varieties. 
 
 Rate of Seeding 
 
 Factors that enter into a determination of the 
 proper rate of seeding include seed size and qual¬ 
 ity, condition of the seedbed, fertility of the soil, 
 date of seeding, and variety. In the southern rice 
 area, the seeding rate is about 90 to 110 pounds 
 per acre when drilled and about 115 to 150 pounds 
 per acre when sown broadcast on dry soil or in 
 the water. In California, Avhen rice is sown in 
 the water, seeding rates average about 150 pounds 
 and range from 125 to 200 pounds (dry weight 
 basis) per acre. 
 
 The number of rice seeds ranges from 14,000 to 
 22,000 seeds per pound, depending on the variety. 
 With a seeding rate of 150 pounds per acre, seeds 
 are sown at the rate of about 50 seeds per square 
 foot. Excellent yields have been obtained from 
 populations ranging from 8 to 30 plants per 
 square foot. Seeding rates that provide plant 
 populations between these extremes apparently 
 do not influence yields. Extremely dense stands 
 lodge more readily than do optimum stands. Rice 
 in dense stands heads and matures more uni¬ 
 formly than does rice in thin stands with abund¬ 
 ant tillering. Weed control is more difficult in 
 thin stands, so seeding rates should be higher in 
 fields infested with weed seed. Relatively high 
 seeding rates usually are used on land on which 
 many rice crops have been grown previously. 
 
 In early tests in Arkansas, Nelson (93) tried 
 11 rates of seeding, using recleaned seed, seeded 
 with a grain drill. The results showed no marked 
 preference for any rate. Although denser stands 
 and fewer weeds were obtained from the higher 
 rates of seeding, higher yields resulted from the 
 
88 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICUI^TURE 
 
 lower rates of seeding. The highest average 
 yields were obtained from sowing approximately 
 70 pounds of seed per acre. 
 
 Simmons [115) reported that later studies 
 at the Arkansas Kice Branch Station at Stuttgart 
 indicated that the best rate for drill seeding was 
 00 to 110 pounds per acre and that about 110 to 
 135 pounds per acre was best wlien the seed Avas 
 broadcast. 
 
 Chambliss (75), reporting on early experiments 
 at the Crowley, La., Kice Experiment Station, 
 found that the largest yields and the best quality 
 of milled rice were obtained from the Honduras 
 variety by drilling 80 pounds of seed to the acre. 
 Other varieties available at that time could be 
 seeded at a slightly lower rate. He pointed out 
 that less seed may be used when the crop is sown 
 in late Hay if the seedbed is well prepared, since 
 better germination is obtained Avith higher tem¬ 
 peratures prevailing. The quantity to be sown 
 dejiends on the method of seeding, variety, char¬ 
 acter of the seedbed, soil fertility, and vitality or 
 germination of the seed. If rice is broadcast on 
 wet land or on a poorly prepared seedbed, the 
 rate of seeding should be increased. If seed of 
 loAv vitality is used, then the seeding rate should 
 be increased accordingly. Seeding at too low 
 a rate resulted in excessive tillering, irregular 
 ri])ening, and reduced grain yields. 
 
 Keynolds {105) stated that in Texas the rate of 
 seeding ranges from 60 to 125 pounds per acre, 
 with the average about 90 pounds. The rate of 
 seeding varies greatly in different parts of the 
 rice belt of Texas. In the more humid areas, 
 higher rates of seeding are used than in the west¬ 
 ern counties where rates as low at 60 pounds per 
 acre frequently are used. xVt Beaumont, from 
 191-1 to 1918, seeding 100 pounds per acre pro¬ 
 duced slightly higher yields of rough rice than 
 seeding 60 and 80 pounds per acre. Experiments 
 Avere conducted there from 1950 to 1952 to deter¬ 
 mine the optimum rate of seeding rice under 
 seA’eral levels of soil fertility. Bluebonnet 50 Avas 
 broadcast at rates of 45, 90, 135, and 180 pounds 
 per acre. Fertilizers Avere applied on the surface 
 with a fertilizer-grain drill at the time of seeding. 
 There Avere no significant differences in the aA^er- 
 age yields of rough rice from the seeding rates of 
 90, 135, and 180 pounds per acre, but the yields 
 from these rates were significantly higher than 
 those from the 45-pounds per acre rate. As in 
 earlier experiments, the optimum rate of seeding 
 Avas about 90 pounds per acre. Where weeds are 
 troublesome, heavier rates of seeding usually give 
 better results. 
 
 Jones and others {69^ 7t?), summarizing rate of 
 seeding experiments with drilled rice under 
 favorable conditions, indicated that 80 pounds of 
 seed per acre usually is sufficient to give good 
 stands. Yields are seldom materially increased 
 
 and sometimes may be reduced if more than 80 
 pounds per acre is soAvn. They pointed out that 
 under ordinary conditions, 90 to 100 pounds of 
 recleaned viable seed soAvn Avith a drill or 110 to 
 150 pounds soAvn broadcast is sufficient to give 
 good stands. They stated that the rate of seed¬ 
 ing should be sufficiently high to produce stands 
 that are thick enough to help check Aveed groAvth 
 and also to prevent late tillering. The latter 
 often results in irregular ripening and grain of 
 inferior quality. 
 
 Method of Seeding 
 
 SeA'eral methods are used to seed rice in the 
 United States. On dry soil rice may be soAvn II /2 
 to 2 inches deep Avith a grain drill, or broadcast 
 and disked or harroAved to cover. When soil 
 moisture is not sufficient for germination and 
 groAvth, the field may be flushed. The Avater is 
 drained immediately because the rice seedling 
 cannot emerge through both 1 to 3 inches of soil 
 and 4 to 8 inches of Avater. Rice also is broadcast 
 in Avater by airplanes (fig. 33). SeA^eral modifica¬ 
 tions of the Avater-seeding method are used. Kice 
 is not transplanted in the United States. 
 
 Simmons {1115) reported in 1940 that the tAvo 
 methods of seeding being used in Arkansas at the 
 time of his report were the broadcast and the drill 
 methods. The broadcast method had been most 
 popular since it did not require much machinery, 
 and it Avas used extensiA^ely in neAv rice areas. He 
 pointed out that drilling was being used widely 
 
 Figure 33. —Airplane being loaded with seed rice, Avith 
 tanks used for soaking seed in the foreground, and 
 ricefields ready to be seeded on each side of landing 
 strip. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 89 
 
 on old riceland. Advantages of drilling over 
 broadcast seeding were that less seed was required 
 for a good stand and that the seed could be put 
 down at a nniform depth and rate, which make a 
 more uniform stand possible. Simmons pointed 
 out that nniform stands are important because 
 they insure even maturity. Grain maturing 
 evenly will have a better grade, and consequently 
 will usually command a better price. He further 
 stated that when rice was seeded with a grain 
 drill, a depth of 1 to 2 inches normally should be 
 used. Deeper seeding sometimes resulted in a 
 poor stand, especially if the soil was clay tex¬ 
 tured, cold, or inclined to crust after rains. 
 
 Jones and others (69) also reported that shal¬ 
 low seeding is preferable to deep seeding on a 
 rough seedbed or a fine mellow seedbed that is 
 inclined to crust after rain. Surface crusts may 
 be broken by a light harrowing or by irrigating 
 to permit the seedlings to emerge. 
 
 Nelson (94) reported in 1944 in Arkansas that 
 seeding rice broadcast on the surface of the soil 
 and irrigating immediately gave large increases 
 in yields of rice over the usual method being used 
 at that time. He pointed out that even larger 
 , average increases in yield were obtained when the 
 , soil was flooded and the seed broadcast in the 
 water. He indicated that both methods could be 
 used to produce higher yields of rice if the prac¬ 
 tical difficulties involved in seeding large areas 
 by these methods could be overcome. The yield 
 increase apparently was due to the control of 
 grass. 
 
 Mullins {89) found that in Mississippi, where 
 ground equipment was common, rice was seeded 
 after the first levee-building operation was per¬ 
 formed and before the levees were raised to the 
 desired height. Seeding was done with endgate 
 seeders by approximately 50 percent of the farm¬ 
 ers who were surveyed, and grain drills were used 
 by the remainder of those using ground equip¬ 
 ment. By 1958, about 20 percent of the farmers 
 seeded some rice in the water with planes, and 
 the practice appeared to be more common in 1959. 
 
 ater seeding often was used during the later 
 weeks of the planting season when quick germi¬ 
 nation and effective grass control are particularly 
 important. Some farmers reseeded their levees 
 after the final levee-building operation, but the 
 majority did not. 
 
 Reynolds {^05) reported that a depth of 1 to 2 
 inches was best when rice was seeded with a grain 
 drill. In experiments conducted at Beaumont, 
 Tex., from 1914 to 1918, placing the seed 2 inches 
 deep produced slightly higher yields of rice than 
 placing the seed 1 or 3 inches deep. There 
 usually was less rotting from shallow seeding than 
 from deep seeding, especially if irrigation was 
 ' necessary to germinate the rice seed. Seed could 
 be planted deeper on sandy soils, such as Katy 
 
 and Hockley soils, than on clay soils, such as 
 Beaumont clay and Lake Charles clay. 
 
 Reynolds {105) pointed out that rice usually was 
 seeded in Texas with a grain drill but that aerial 
 seeding was increasing rapidly and that 110,000 
 acres were seeded by plane in 1953. He stated 
 that broadcast seeders were used to some extent. 
 On rough, dry seedbeds, rice frequently was 
 broadcast with endgate seeders or with a drill 
 with the disks removed. In either case, the land 
 was then harrowed after seeding and was irri¬ 
 gated. When seeding was done on dry land, 
 fields usually were harrowed after seeding and 
 then flushed to bring about germination. The 
 fields were resubmerged in time to control the 
 growth of weeds and grass. 
 
 The seeding of rice in water was started in 
 California as a way to control barnyardgrass 
 {Echmochloa spp.) {6). At first rice was sown 
 with a tractor-drawn endgate broadcast seeder, 
 but this method was not very satisfactory. Air¬ 
 plane seeding was attempted first near Merced, 
 Calif., in 1929, for reseeding a field of rice. A 
 fair stand of rice and a satisfactory yield were 
 obtained. Several growers in California seeded 
 their rice from an airplane in 1930. Now air¬ 
 plane seeding is the common practice on Cali¬ 
 fornia’s 300,000 acres of rice. 
 
 According to Finfrock and Miller {36), the 
 usual practice in California (1964) is to soak the 
 seed for 18 to 24 hours in a sodium hypochlorite 
 solution (see “Seed Treatment,” p. 85), drain for 
 24 to 48 hours, and seed by airplane into fields 
 that have just been flooded to a depth of 6 to 8 
 inches. Seed rice will absorb the maximum 
 amount of water in 18 to 24 hours. 
 
 Soaked seed is used instead of dry seed. Soak¬ 
 ing starts the germination process before seeding. 
 More important, because it is heavy, the soaked 
 seed sinks into place when it hits the water. Thus 
 the seed does not drift and unseeded areas are not 
 left in the field. Fields remain continuously 
 flooded until drainage for harvest. 
 
 Modifications of water-seeding methods broadly 
 adapted to use in the sourthern rice area have 
 been developed. Slusher {119, 120) extensively 
 discussed the use of aircraft to seed rice in 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Adair and Engler {6) described the water- 
 seeding method as used in Arkansas as follows: 
 The land usually is plowed in winter and a seed¬ 
 bed is prepared in the spring by disking two or 
 three times and then harrowing. Frequently, the 
 soil also is tilled to a depth of about 8 inches with 
 a field cultivator to provide aeration and space 
 for applying cool irrigation water that contains 
 dissolved oxygen. Oxygen is essential for early 
 root development. The levees are completed after 
 the soil is worked with the field cultivator and 
 the field is then cultivated between the levees with 
 
90 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.8. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 a spring-tooth harrow, which leaves shallow fur¬ 
 rows and ridges that help to reduce drifting of 
 the seed. The levees may or may not be seeded 
 before final going over with the levee disk. 
 Floodgates are then put in, the field is sub¬ 
 merged to a depth of 4 to 6 inches, and the rice 
 is sown from an airplane. Seeding is done as 
 promptly as possible, since poor stands usually 
 are obtained when the water has been on the 
 field longer than about 4 days before seeding. 
 
 d'he airplane operator is guided by flagmen, 
 one at each end of the field, who pace off the 
 distance (about 30 feet) that the plane can sow 
 in one trip across the field. Depending on the 
 length of growing season of the variety being 
 grown and the desires of the operator, the water 
 may be drained from the field after 5 weeks or 
 more to control the rice water weevil, to prevent 
 straighthead, or to provide dry soil for topdress¬ 
 ing with fertilizer {G). Occasionally, draining 
 at an earlier date may be necessary. However, 
 unless specific conditions exist that require early 
 draining, it is advisable to drain late because 
 high grain yields have been obtained when flood 
 water was left on fields until shortly before har¬ 
 vest {93). 
 
 From tests with water-seeded rice on clay soil 
 in Arkansas, Hall {50) suggested the following: 
 
 (1) A disk harrow is effective in preparing the 
 seedbed. On the last trip over, a spring-tooth 
 harrow should follow the disk harrow so that 
 prominent furrows are left in the seedbed to 
 catch the seed and reduce the drift. 
 
 (2) The field should be flooded as rapidly as 
 possible with a minimum of 4 to 6 inches of 
 water to control grass. xVll levees should have 
 a gate or spillway so as to make and maintain 
 a constant level of water and prevent the levees 
 from breaking because of added pressure from 
 heavy rains. 
 
 (3) The field should be seeded immediately 
 after the 4- to fi-inch depth of water is obtained. 
 In the test conducted, there was no significant 
 difference in plant stand densities obtained due 
 to seeding in clear or in muddy water that 
 cleared within 24 hours after seeding. Likewise, 
 presoaking the seed showed no significant differ¬ 
 ence from seeding with dry seed. It was found 
 that seed treated with a fungicide or insecticide, 
 or both, had less tendency to float than did un¬ 
 treated dry seed. 
 
 (4) After seeding, the full flood of 4 to 6 
 inches of water should be maintained for 5 to 6 
 weeks. Lowering the water depth or draining 
 the field soon after seeding allows grass to be¬ 
 come established with the rice, thus defeating 
 the purpose of water seeding. A rate of 135 
 pounds of seed per acre gives a sufficient number 
 of plants, so that the loss due to w’ave action is 
 
 much less than loss from weeds due to draining 
 the field. 
 
 (5) After a period of 6 weeks or more, the 
 field may be drained for midseason nitrogen 
 fertilization. 
 
 A few growers in Arkansas pregerminate the 
 seed by soaking it before seeding. In one method 
 the seed is placed in a grain cart such as that 
 used to haul the rice from the combine at harvest¬ 
 time. The grain cart is filled with water, or 
 water is kept running through the seed for sev¬ 
 eral hours. Then the water is drained and the 
 rice is left in the grain cart overnight. The fol¬ 
 lowing day it is angered into the hopper of the 
 plane for seeding. In another method the seed 
 is soaked in bags in a canal for a somewhat 
 longer period, up to 36 hours. 
 
 Faulkner (SJt.) compared different practices for 
 water seeding rice in Louisiana. These included 
 
 (1) pregerminated seed compared with dry seed, 
 
 (2) cloddy seedbed compared with seedbed that 
 had been smoothed in water, and (3) draining 
 irrigation water 3 to 5 days following seeding 
 compared with leaving a full flood of water and 
 allowing the rice to emerge through the water. 
 
 He reported slightly higher grain yields when 
 the seed was soaked to ])regerminate it before 
 seeding in the water. He found that a small 
 percentage of the dry seed floated in the water 
 and settled in low spots, whereas the pregermi¬ 
 nated seed remained well in place on both the 
 cloddy and smooth seedbeds. However, he 
 pointed out that pregerminating seed requires 
 additional labor and expense and also requires 
 a short interval between germination and seeding. 
 
 Faulkner found that the average yield of rice 
 produced from the smooth or the rough seedbeds 
 was approximately the same. However, there 
 were some indications that the working of the 
 soil in water reduced the germination of grass 
 seed and thereby reduced the resulting competi¬ 
 tion. Also he found that soils that were worked 
 in the water dried more quickly when the water 
 was drained and caused the top one-fourth inch 
 of soil to curl, thereby pulling the young seed¬ 
 lings from their root anchorage. Such conditions 
 would require that the area be flushed. 
 
 In this series of experiments, Faulkner found 
 that good stands of rice, along with excellent 
 control of red rice and grasses, could be obtained 
 by leaving a full flood of water on the field until 
 the rice had emerged through the water and was 
 strong enough to stand free from the water. 
 The yield results from 1959 indicated that about 
 500 pounds more rice per acre was jiroduced 
 where the water was allowed to remain on the 
 field than where it was drained a few days after 
 seeding. Faulkner thought that on the clay soils 
 it might be more difficult to obtain a good stand 
 of rice using the continuous flooding method, but 
 
lilCE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 91 
 
 that additional experiments would be necessary 
 to determine this. 
 
 The most common method of land iireparation 
 for water seeding in Texas in 1954, according to 
 Reynolds {105)^ was plowing and disking to kill 
 the vegetation. The land was then left in a 
 rough condition until seeding, at which time the 
 field was irrigated until the water barely cov¬ 
 ered the land. It was then harrowed to muddy 
 the water. Harrowing to muddy the water be¬ 
 fore seeding is seldom done early in the season, 
 because dry north winds cause the soil surface 
 to dry rapidly. This drying curls and cracks 
 the soil surface before the seedlings become 
 rooted. The seed usually was soaked in bags in 
 a canal for 24 to 36 hours, removed from the 
 water and allowed to drain, and then sown by 
 airplane on the water. Some farmers drained 
 their fields as soon as possible after sowing, 
 whereas others might delay draining as much as 
 36 hours. Experiments conducted by Wyche and 
 Cheaney {150) during 1954 at the Rice-Pasture 
 Research and Extension Center showed that 
 under the conditions of the test, soaking the 
 seed, muddying up the water, time of removing 
 the water after seeding, and depth of the water 
 up to 8 inches had no effect on the yield of 
 water-seeded rice. They felt that it would be a 
 good farm practice to leave the surface of the 
 soil slightly rough in order to lessen the drift 
 of seed when water seeding rice. 
 
 From observations made on experimental tests 
 and on commercial fields, little if any difference 
 in suitability to water seeding has been noted 
 among varieties. However, in Arkansas where 
 the soils are alkaline, or the water contains ex¬ 
 cess salts, the medium-grain varieties in general 
 have been damaged less from these adverse con¬ 
 ditions when water seeded than have the long- 
 grain varieties, especially the Bluebonnet group. 
 Hall and Thompson {51) pointed out that these 
 problem areas that are colloquially referred to 
 as alkaline have been brought about, on culti¬ 
 vated lands, by the use of well water containing 
 excess salts combined with restricted internal 
 drainage of the soil. Some of these troublesome 
 soils have shown a pH of 7.0 to 7.5, whereas 
 others have been below 7.0. This indicates that 
 pH alone is not a completely reliable indicator 
 of such problem soils. 
 
 Nelson {92) conducted an investigation to de¬ 
 termine the uniformity of distribution of seeds 
 and fertilizers from airplane distributors and 
 studied the extent to which rate of application, 
 materials distributed, and flight altitude affected 
 uniformity of distribution. He concluded that 
 a fairly good distribution is possible with well- 
 designed equipment if a few ])recautions are fol-. 
 lowed. Characteristic dejmsit patterns should 
 be determined before a new or modified distrib¬ 
 
 utor is first used. From the deposit jiatterns 
 obtained, optimum flagging intervals can be de- 
 termijied that will allow for an overlap sufficient 
 to maintain a uniform application or seeding 
 rate. For proper overlapping of swaths, a 
 ground crew is necessary. For uniform distri¬ 
 bution a flagman should be stationed at each end 
 of the field, and each flagman should be equipped 
 with two long markers connected with a rope or 
 chain length equal to the flagging interval dis¬ 
 tance. It is necessary that the flagging interval 
 be measured correctly and that the airplane fly 
 directly over the two flags. Recently, many 
 growers have measured these flagging distances 
 or intervals and have marked them with stakes 
 or small flags on wires so that the flagman will 
 not need to measure the distance. 
 
 Transplanting Rice 
 
 Yields of direct-seeded and transplanted rice 
 were compared in a study conducted by Adair 
 and others (7) in the major United States rice 
 areas during a 3-year period starting in 1937. 
 Three varieties were included in the experiment 
 at three rice experiment stations in the Southern 
 States, and two varieties were included at the 
 California Rice Experiment Station. High yields 
 of transplanted rice often obtained under intense 
 culture in certain countries had led to a more or 
 less common belief that yields of transplanted 
 rice generally are higher than those from direct 
 seeding. Advantages claimed for transplanting 
 were listed and discussed. It was pointed out 
 that high-quality, stiff-strawed varieties already 
 were being grown by machine methods in several 
 countries. During the 3 years of these tests, the 
 average yields of some of the varieties at some 
 locations were significantly higher from direct 
 seeding than from transplanting. None of the 
 varieties at any of the stations produced signifi¬ 
 cantly higher average yields when transplanted 
 than when directly sown. These workers con¬ 
 cluded that the principal reasons for transplant¬ 
 ing are not to increase yields but to better use 
 land and labor in densely populated countries in 
 which the tillable land area is limited and the 
 labor supply is plentiful. 
 
 Irrigating and Draining 
 
 Flood irrigation is used for all rice grown in 
 the United States. The soil is submerged in 4 to 
 8 inches of water most or all of the time from 
 seeding or shortly after, until the grain is nearly 
 ripe. This period may extend from 60 to 90 or 
 more days, depending on method of seeding and 
 variety grown (5, 69). Although the water re¬ 
 quirement for rice is high, Jones and others {69) 
 stressed that good surface drainage is as neces¬ 
 sary for successful rice culture as is a dependable 
 supply of fresh irrigation water. 
 
92 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Haskell (o^) pointed out in 1915 that a plenti¬ 
 ful and easily accessible water supply is the first 
 requisite where rice is to l)e "rown. He also em¬ 
 phasized the importance of ]n-oper use of avail¬ 
 able water. He su^^ested that under certain con¬ 
 ditions, it was beneficial to control the flow of 
 fresh water so that it traveled the entire length 
 of each cut. I’his circulation resulted in more 
 uniform water tem])erature and helped to con¬ 
 trol al^ae (scum) and insects. He also stressed 
 the importance of judicious water management 
 in reducing the effects of certain diseases and 
 other jiroduction hazards. 
 
 Amount of Water Required 
 
 'File water re(piirement of the Hnited States 
 rice cro]) is conq)aratively hi^h because the fields 
 are continuously flooded for so much of the grow¬ 
 ing season. Rice will not produce a profitable 
 crop on stored soil moisture or infrequent rains, 
 as will other cereals ((S). When tried in the 
 United States or when used elsewhere, the up¬ 
 land system of rice culture generally results in 
 yields of only -30 to 70 percent of those obtained 
 from flooded rice grown under similar soil and 
 climatic conditions. 
 
 Senewiratne and Mikkel.sen (/-/4) suggested 
 that differences in growth res])onses of flooded 
 and unflooded rice may be due to differences in 
 auxin metabolism. They found that plants grown 
 under unflooded conditions had a low catalase 
 activity and a high peroxidase activity, which 
 favored accelerated auxin degradation. They 
 suggested that high manganese levels in plants 
 grown under unflooded conditions affect the in- 
 dolacetic oxidase mechanism and result in re- 
 tardetl growth and depressed grain yields. Rice 
 grown with ammonium nitrogen (flooded) col¬ 
 lected small amounts of manganese, whereas 
 plants grown with nitrate nitrogen (typical of 
 upland rice) contained much more manganese, 
 (dark, X earjiass, and Specht (^7), however, con¬ 
 cluded that “‘the better growth of rice in sub¬ 
 merged as compared to ui)land culture in at least 
 some soils is due to greater Mn availability under 
 submerged soil conditions.'’ 
 
 Jones and others (ff9) indicated that from 2.8 
 to 3.8 acre-feet of water normally was required 
 to produce a rice crop in the Southern States. 
 About one-third of this is supplied by rainfall 
 during the growing season. Robertson (/09) re¬ 
 ported from early observations that the total sea¬ 
 sonal use of water for rice in California normally 
 ranged from 4.3 to 14.8 and averaged 8.2 acre- 
 feet. After a ricefield is flooded, a considerable 
 amount of water is required to maintain an opti¬ 
 mum depth in the field. Water is added periodic¬ 
 ally to compensate for losses due to transpiration 
 by plants, evaporation from the water surface, 
 deep percolation, and spillage. These losses will 
 
 vary, depending on amount of plant growth, solar 
 radiation, temperature, Avind, relative humidity, 
 soil type, and rate of inflow of water into the 
 field. A rate of flow equal to 1 cubic foot per 
 second (450 gallons per minute) for each 50 
 acres being irrigated usually is required to main¬ 
 tain water leA^els on ricefields in (California (S7). 
 
 The apparently lower water requirement for 
 rice in the Southern States as compared to Cali¬ 
 fornia is related to naturally occurring climatic 
 differences in the evapotranspiration losses from 
 ricefields between the two areas. Whereas the 
 relative humidity during the growing season is 
 quite high in the Southern States, it is compara¬ 
 tively low in California. In California, a vege¬ 
 tation-free water surface will lose from 5 to 6 
 acre-feet in 12 months, whereas this loss in south¬ 
 ern rice areas may be less than half this amount. 
 
 Source of Water 
 
 It is estimated that 30 to 35 percent of the 1962 
 rice acreage in the United States was irrigated 
 from wells. Adair and Engler (9) stated that 
 over 40 percent of the 1953 rice acreage received 
 well water. Since that time, however, numerous 
 additional reservoirs have been constructed. 
 Many of these reservoirs were constructed in 
 Arkansas. The reservoirs are filled with runoff 
 water before the ricegrowing season. Other 
 important sources of irrigation water are rivers, 
 bayous, lakes, and drain ways. 
 
 Adair and Engler (6) discussed the early irri¬ 
 gation of rice and rejiorted that in 1894 the first 
 large irrigation plant was established near 
 Crowley, La. After failures of some pumps, a 
 somewhat larger centrifugal pump was installed 
 in 1896. This pump delivered 5,000 gallons of 
 water per minute, which was enough for the rice 
 acreage planted at that time. During the next 
 few years, many pumping plants were installed 
 on the streams in southwestern Louisiana and 
 southeastern Texas. By 1901 some pumping 
 plants in operation delivered up to 45,000 gallons 
 of water per minute. 
 
 Diesel engines came into common use for pump¬ 
 ing water after 1919 (6). Convenience, low labor 
 requirements, and reasonable initial and operating 
 costs hai^e since caused a shift to electric power 
 and natural gas power for irrigating rice. In 
 Arkansas in 1955, nearly 50 percent of the 1,800 
 irrigation installations were powered by elec¬ 
 tricity. In Louisiana, of a total of 1,061 wells, 
 450 were powered by diesel engines, 212 by na¬ 
 tural gas, 105 by electric motors, and the re¬ 
 mainder by other units. In some cases water is 
 pumped or relifted by means of the power take¬ 
 off unit on tractors. 
 
 Historically, most areas in the world where 
 water is pumped from wells have experienced 
 declining water tables. This problem, as related 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES I VARIETIES AND RRODUCTION 
 
 93 
 
 to Arkansas rice production, was studied by 
 En<rler, Thompson, and Kazmann (30). Sug¬ 
 gested remedies included the use of deep wells 
 (900 to 1,000 feet) that normally supply more 
 wafer than shallow wells (100 to 150 feet) and 
 the use of small reservoirs. Engler (£9) reported 
 that during a 30-year period, the decline in water 
 level for the Grand Prairie area of Arkansas 
 averaged about three-fourths foot per year, which 
 caused an annual decline in capacity of shallow 
 wells of 20 to 25 gallons per minute. Various 
 methods of replenishing underground water sup¬ 
 plies on the farm are discussed by Muckel {87). 
 
 Gerlow and Mullins (42) pointed to the value 
 of small, 20- to 40-acre farm reservoirs in con¬ 
 serving surface runoff water to supplement or 
 replace well water for rice irrigation. Another 
 development designed to conserve water (whether 
 from Avells or elsewhere) has been the increasing 
 use of underground concrete or Incite irrigation 
 pipelines (laid about 30 inches beneath the soil 
 surface) to transport irrigation water for rice 
 and the accompanying rotational crops. Pipe¬ 
 line irrigation greatly reduces the rodent damage 
 that characterizes open irrigation systems. In 
 addition, it greatly reduces evaporation and seep¬ 
 age losses. Aside from the important aspect of 
 Avater conservation, it has been calculated that, 
 for each 1,000 feet of open canal replaced with a 
 pipeline, 2.8 acres of land are returned to crop 
 production (3). 
 
 Adair and Engler (6) pointed out that pump¬ 
 ing from bayous supplies most of the surface 
 Avater in Louisiana and Texas. According to 
 Anderson and McKie (U), sources of rice irriga¬ 
 tion Avater in Mississippi are shalloAv Avells (90 
 to 100 feet) and surface Avater from lakes or 
 streams. Diversion from large streams is the 
 main source of Avater for rice irrigation in Cali¬ 
 fornia. It is estimated that less than 5 percent 
 of the California rice acreage is irrigated from 
 wells. 
 
 Quality of Water 
 
 For successful rice production it is very import¬ 
 ant that the ai^ailable water be of suitable quality. 
 Rice irrigation Avater should be relatively free of 
 dissoh’ed salts that are toxic to rice plants. The 
 characteristics of irrigation Avater that determine 
 quality include (1) total concentration of soluble 
 salts; (2) relatiA^e proportion of sodium to other 
 cations; (3) concentration of boron or other toxic 
 elements; and (4) under some conditions, the 
 bicarbonate concentration as related to the con¬ 
 centration of calcium plus magnesium. Other 
 important factors to consider are the initial salin¬ 
 ity of the soil, the effect of internal drainage on 
 the flooded soil, and the total salt content of the 
 soil. Finfrock and others (37) described good- 
 quality rice irrigation Avater thus: 
 
 Specific Electrical Conductivity 
 
 (K X 10®) -less than 750 
 
 Boron, parts per million_less than 1 
 
 S.A.R. index (tendency to form 
 alkali soil) -less than 10.0 
 
 When high sodium water is regularly used 
 each groAving season, it may deflocculate the soil, 
 so that stickiness, compactness, and impermea¬ 
 bility increase. The defiocculated soil is difficult 
 to cultivate and usually produces low yields. 
 
 Pearson {96, 97) described the point of great¬ 
 est importance as the nature of the soil solution 
 or saturation extract found in the zone of rice 
 roots. If soil saturation extracts have a conduc¬ 
 tivity index of 4 to 8 millimhos, the yield of 
 Caloro rice may be reduced 50 percent. 
 
 Rice is very tolerant of salt during germina¬ 
 tion, but rice seedlings are very sensitive to salin¬ 
 ity during early development (1 to 2 leaves) and 
 are progress!A^ely less so at 3 to 6 Aveeks of age 
 {96, 99). When soils are strongly saline, having 
 an excessively high concentration of sodium, cal¬ 
 cium, or potassium, the concentration of salts in 
 the soil solution (including the standing Avater) 
 may be so great that it will injure or kill the 
 seedling rice {98). Excessii’e salt concentration 
 results in restriction in doAviiAvard percolation; 
 therefore, the floodwater is subject to a longer 
 period of evaporation Avith an ensuing increase 
 in salt concentration. Thus, AA^ater having a 
 higher salt concentration enters the soil, and the 
 salt concentration of the soil solution is increased. 
 
 Adair and Engler {6) reported that salt wa¬ 
 ter put on dry soil damages a ricefield more than 
 if salt water is used to replenish, the water sup¬ 
 ply in a field that has been watered with fresh 
 water. The reason given was that the salt was 
 more concentrated in the dry soil, and more of 
 it moved into the root zone, Avhere it Avas taken 
 up by the plants. They indicated that rice 
 grown on clay soils may not be injured as much 
 by salt water as is rice grown on lighter soils, 
 because less water is used and less is lost by 
 seepage. 
 
 The rice plant can tolerate higher concentra¬ 
 tions of salt in the later stages of groAvth, al¬ 
 though very high concentrations may kill the 
 plants or make them sterile. Some varieties of 
 rice are more tolerant to salt than are others 
 and may make satisfactory yields when the wa¬ 
 ter contains salt concentrations of 75, 150, 200, 
 and 250 grains per gallon in the tillering, joint¬ 
 ing, booting, and heading stage, respectively. It 
 is believed that some of the iieAver varieties 
 Avould be damaged seriously by such amounts of 
 salt {6). 
 
 Irrigation water pumped for rice from shal- 
 loAv AA^ells in Arkansas and other States fre¬ 
 quently has a comparatively high sodium con- 
 
94 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICUI.TURE 
 
 tent as compared with water coming from surface 
 streams. Kapp {71) suggested that the source 
 and chemical composition of rice irrigation wa¬ 
 ter sliould be considered from both the imme¬ 
 diate etl'ect on the cuiTent crop and the long- 
 range productivity of the soil. In greenhouse 
 and field experiments he found that sodium 
 chloride added to rice soil injured germination 
 and residted in lowered production of vegetation 
 and grain. The addition of 5,700 parts per mil¬ 
 lion of sodium cldoride to the soil only slightly 
 reduced vegetation, but completely prevented 
 grain formation. In field trials, 825 pounds of 
 sodium chloride per acre hindered germination, 
 and 3,Ji00 pounds per acre reduced rice grain 
 yield. 
 
 Water from the shallow wells in Arkansas 
 containing 75 parts per million calcium and 22 
 parts per million magnesium has caused some 
 riceland soils to increase in alkalinity from an 
 original pll of about 5.0 up to as high as 8.0. 
 The change from a highly acid to a highly al¬ 
 kaline reaction is due to the annual addition of 
 about 1,500 pounds per acre of limestone equiva¬ 
 lent. The increase in alkalinity has lowered the 
 availability of phosphorus in the soil. If a new 
 source of water low in dissolved minerals is ob¬ 
 tained, such changes may be reversed {6). Such 
 water may be obtained from installing a deep 
 well or constructing a reservoir and catching sur¬ 
 face runoff water. However, as long as the un¬ 
 favorable soil condition exists, delaying the ini¬ 
 tial flood and following a routine of alternate 
 draining and reflooding at 4- or 5-day intervals 
 until the plants are about 6 weeks old have given 
 fairly satisfactory relief in Arkansas. 
 
 When the rainfall is below normal in the 
 Gulf Coast area of Louisiana and Texas, the 
 water level in the streams that supply irrigation 
 water often is so low that brackish water en¬ 
 croaches from the Gulf. The concentration of 
 chloride salts may become so high that the yield 
 and quality of rice is reduced or the crop is 
 ruined. Adair and Engler {6) pointed out that 
 several workers had shown that water contain¬ 
 ing more than 35 grains of salt per gallon (600 
 parts per million) should not be used to irrigate 
 young rice if the soil is dry and if the water is 
 to remain on the field. Rice watered continu¬ 
 ously with water containing 35 and 75 grains of 
 salt per gallon was reduced in yield about 25 and 
 70 percent, respectively, and the rice was of 
 lower quality than when water containing only 
 25 grains per gallon was used. 
 
 Water quality in California ricefields was stud¬ 
 ied by Stromberg and Yamada {135). Tliey 
 found that water that contained a high total of 
 soluble salts killed rice plants. However, when 
 a field showing initial symptoms of dying was 
 immediately flushed out with quantities of wa¬ 
 
 ter low in total salts, the plants soon recovered. 
 Water low in total salts was used for the re¬ 
 mainder of the season, and a normal crop of 
 grain was produced. 
 
 In California, rice culture has proved useful 
 in reclaiming saline soils, provided the fields to 
 be reclaimed are first engineered to drain well. 
 iNIackie {77) reported that one rice crop grown 
 in Imperial clay near Imperial, Calif., reduced 
 the saline content 72 percent to a depth of 6 feet. 
 In his experiments he found the usual reduction 
 in saline content from the first rice crop to be 
 one-third to two-thirds. Overstreet and Schulz 
 {95)., in a series of San Joaquin Valley tests, 
 concluded that rice culture serves as an efficient 
 means of reclaiming nonsaline soil containing 15 
 percent or more of exchangeable sodium. 
 
 Water Temperature and Oxygen Content 
 
 The temperature of water with which rice is 
 irrigated has a profound effect on the plants, 
 Adair and Engler {6) reported that the tem¬ 
 perature of rice irrigation water pumped from 
 wells and from streams frequently is 65° E. or 
 lower. When such cool water goes directly into 
 the field, the rice growing near the water inlet 
 usually is retarded and may ripen as much as 
 7 to 10 days later than the rest of the field. 
 Raney, Hagan, and Finfrock {103) showed that 
 with the building of high dams on the major 
 California streams, the temperature of water 
 available for rice irrigation from surface streams 
 had dropped to 51° or less. 
 
 The temperature of the irrigation water should 
 be not less than 70° F. nor more than 85° for 
 best results, Rane}^ {102) showed that the crit¬ 
 ical seasonal threshold of water temperature for 
 normal growth of Caloro rice was near 69°. 
 When the mean temperature was 5° lower, ma¬ 
 turity was delayed 30 days beyond the normal 
 160 days. Rice yield was highest when the mean 
 water temperature was 80°. At water tempera¬ 
 tures above 85°, yield was reduced and root de¬ 
 velopment was poor, probably because of low 
 oxygen content of the water. 
 
 Chapman and Peterson {20) studied under¬ 
 water rice seedling establishment in relation to 
 temperature and dissolved oxygen. Under lab¬ 
 oratory pot culture they found water tempera¬ 
 tures in the range of 77° to 84° F. most favorable 
 for the effective establishment of rice in static 
 culture. Emergence of the shoot from the water 
 was most rapid at 84°, but the development of 
 the root system and the penetration of the soil 
 were favored by temperatures as low as 68°. 
 Exposure to a water temperature of 104^ for 
 12 hours or more was lethal to pregerminated 
 Caloro rice seed. They concluded that it seemed 
 unlikely that dissolved oxygen deficiency would 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 95 
 
 Figube 34.—Headgate that controls flow of water from canal into ricefleld. 
 
 be a limiting factor in seedling establishment in 
 the field even at 95°, if currently recommended 
 seeding rates were used and the water had an 
 initial oxygen content of at least 5 to 6 parts per 
 million. 
 
 Ehrler and Bernstein (£8) reported that at a 
 constant root temperature of 64.4° F., Caloro 
 shoot growth was twice that at 86° and root 
 ^owth was one and a half times as great; how¬ 
 ever, grain yield was only three-fourths as much 
 it the lower root temperature. No significant 
 interaction was found between root temperature 
 ind cationic concentration or cationic rates. 
 
 Seeds germinate slowly when the temperature 
 IS less than 70° F. Water now available for rice 
 irrigation in some areas, including northern Cali¬ 
 fornia, may be colder than this, ranging down 
 :o 51° or less. Such cold water will retard and 
 lower the germination of rice sown in the water 
 md will retard the development of plants so that 
 ;he stand may be thin and crop maturity will be 
 lelayed near the inlet to the field. According to 
 Raney, Hagan, and Finfrock {103)^ field studies 
 iver a 3-year period showed that plant-free 
 
 water-warming basins, 6 to 12 inches deep, equal 
 in size to 2 percent of the area to be served, 
 successfully and economically 'raised the mean 
 water temperature of 60° to 70°. 
 
 Water Control Methods 
 
 Methods of transporting and controlling irri¬ 
 gation water for rice production have evolved 
 over the years. They vary in different rice- 
 producing areas but tend to follow a general 
 pattern. 
 
 In most cases water is conveyed from the 
 pumps, streams, or reservoirs in canals from 
 which it is diverted into laterals, into field 
 ditches, and finally into the field checks or pad¬ 
 dies. Water is usually delivered to the highest 
 point in the field by canals or pumps. It passes 
 into successively lower paddies through metal 
 levee gates or levee control boxes or openings in 
 the levees. These gates or boxes provide perma¬ 
 nent control of maximum water depth in each 
 paddy. 
 
 Water that overflows or is drained from the 
 
96 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 lowest paddy may be caught in drainage ditches 
 or canals and recirculated or moved into other 
 canals or drainage ditches. Some fields have a 
 canal along one side so that each paddy can be 
 watered separately from this canal. Finfrock 
 and others (37) described in detail the rice irri¬ 
 gation control structures used in California. 
 
 Canal Gates. —Gates in the irrigation canals 
 of the California ricegrowing areas are simple 
 structures of wood or concrete (fig. 34). In the 
 vertical fixed portion of the structure, slots are 
 provided so that short planks (flash boards) can 
 be inserted or removed as desired to raise or 
 lower the w^ater level at the diversion point into 
 the field. Inlet structures to the field may con¬ 
 sist of similar slotted wooden structures or screw- 
 type metal gates. The latter commonly are used 
 in the southern rice area. 
 
 Levee Boxjes or Gates. —Water is controlled 
 within the field with boxes or gates set at con¬ 
 venient locations in the levees. In the southern 
 
 rice area, metal levee gates with adjustable pan¬ 
 els are in common use in some localities (fig. 35). 
 Variations that may be used include single planks 
 or boards or metal panels which are forced into 
 the soil across a narrow cut through a levee to 
 keep the water at the desired level. In Califor¬ 
 nia, the levees are usually considerably larger 
 than those in the Southern States. The wooden 
 or metal boxes are placed along the more acces¬ 
 sible side of the field. Flash boards of various 
 widths are added or removed to regulate the 
 water to the desired depth. Boxes must be 
 properly constructed and installed so they will 
 not be washed out (fig. 36). 
 
 Depth Stakes. —To gage the water level in a 
 paddy or check, a depth stake is driven into the 
 soil within a suitable distance of the levee box 
 or gate. The stake is set so that the bottom of 
 an 8-inch red band is at the average elevation 
 of the ground surface in the paddy. If a 5-inch 
 flood is desired, then 3 inches of the red band is 
 
 Figuke 35.—A ricefield in Arkansas that is irrigated and ready to be seeded, showing the gates used to regulate the 
 
 flow of water from one check to another. (Photo by Copeland.) 
 
RICE IN THE UNITOD STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 97 
 
 Figxire 36.—Levee box used in California to regulate 
 flow of water from one check to another in ricefleld. 
 
 left showing. The stake is painted white at the 
 top, so that if an 8-inch flood is desired, only the 
 white band is left exposed. 
 
 Construction of access roads around riceflelds 
 helps to (1) cut production costs because equip¬ 
 ment can be moved more easily into the field; 
 (2) control water better and more economically; 
 and (3) control mosquitoes by reducing seepage 
 problems, by making it easier to control weeds 
 where mosquitoes breed, and by enabling mos¬ 
 quito abatement employees to reach troublesome 
 spots. 
 
 Protection of Irrigation System. —Once they 
 are engineered and installed, riceland irrigation 
 and drainage structures are subject to damage 
 from use, the elements, and insect or animal 
 pests; but countermeasures can be employed. In 
 large, flat paddies or checks, wind levees may be 
 constructed between the normal-interval levees to 
 decrease wave action. Their judicious place¬ 
 ment in areas subject to strong winds may be 
 very beneficial. So-called alkali levees built 
 from soil high in sodium and other salts fre¬ 
 quently are subject to washouts or breaks when 
 fields are flooded. Heavy applications of gyp¬ 
 sum on such areas before pulling the levees help 
 to stabilize the soil and greatly reduce the chances 
 of breaks. Plastic sheeting or various types of 
 laminated paper also ,can be used to cover weak 
 areas in levees. Soil is plowed or shoveled onto 
 the edges of the material to prevent its floating 
 when the field is flooded^ Certain pests, such as 
 muskrats, field mice, Norway rats, crayfish, and 
 large insects, often inhabit canal and drainage 
 ditchbanks, as well as contour levees. Their bur- 
 rowings may result in levee or bank leaks or 
 breaks and heavy water loss. Major structures, 
 such as weirs, can be protected to some extent by 
 
 trapping or poisoning the pests. In California 
 fields where the large levees sometimes are in¬ 
 habited by crayfish and muskrats, the problem 
 has been solved by using sheep to graze the 
 vegetation from the levees. 
 
 Water Management 
 
 The application and management of water is a 
 key operation in rice farming {89). The princi¬ 
 pal functions of water cover are to control weeds, 
 to condition the soil and provide a favorable 
 enviromnent for rice growth, and, especially in 
 California, to serve as a temperature regulator by 
 minimizing the effect of the large variations be¬ 
 tween daytime and nighttime air temperatures. 
 
 Systems of water management for rice produc¬ 
 tion vary widely, depending on method of seed¬ 
 ing, soil type, climate, crop rotation, diseases, and 
 insects. A very important aspect of water man¬ 
 agement is good drainage. This includes drain¬ 
 age of winter rainwater as well as periodic drain¬ 
 age during the growing season. In years when 
 riceland is used for rotational crops, the crops 
 may be drowned if drainage is poor. Seedbed 
 preparation and fall harvest can be expedited by 
 a good drainage system. Drainways around and 
 through the field that connect with main drainage 
 ditches leading to natural drainage channels are 
 essential. These ditches should be large enough 
 and deep enough to allow the removal of large 
 quantities of water quickly. When it is necessary 
 to preirrigate or to flush irrigate to bring about 
 emergence of rice, good drainage plays a key role 
 in getting a good stand quickly by expediting 
 fieldwork and reducing seed rot losses {8, 69). 
 Good drainage of riceflelds and adjacent areas 
 and ditches also is of prime importance in elimi¬ 
 nating mosquito-breeding areas. 
 
 Essentially there are two broad systems of 
 water management, depending on the method of 
 seeding. The first broad system of water man¬ 
 agement revolves around drilling or broadcast 
 seeding on “dry” ground. Where necessary, seed¬ 
 ing is followed by flushing to bring about uni¬ 
 form emergence, and the first flood is applied 
 later. This system is often used in the southern 
 rice area. With the second broad system of water 
 management, fields are flooded just before aerial 
 seeding and usually remain flooded until they are 
 drained for harvest. This system is used in Cali¬ 
 fornia, and with modification also is used in the 
 southern rice area. In the southern rice area 
 (especially in Texas), where rice is water seeded 
 on heavy soils, some growers drain as soon as 
 possible after seeding; others may delay draining 
 for 36 hours. After stand establishment, irriga¬ 
 tion practices are essentially the same as for 
 drilled rice (8). 
 
 Unless rice is water seeded and the flood is 
 maintained, a flood is applied about as soon as the 
 
98 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 crop is old enough to withstand submergence. As 
 a means of weedy grass control, ricefields on the 
 lighter soils in Arkansas often are flooded as soon 
 as the rice has emerged. If the fields are free of 
 weedy grasses or if these grasses have been 
 chemically controlled, the land may not be sub¬ 
 merged until the rice seedlings reach a height of 
 4 to 6 inches, ffones and others {69) indicated 
 that at this stage the land is submerged to a depth 
 of 2 to 4 inches. As the plants grow taller, the 
 depth of water gradually is increased until it 
 reaches 4 to 6 inches. During the rest of the 
 growing season or until the land is drained before 
 harvesting (except for special reasons), the water 
 may be held on the land at a depth of about 5 
 inches. To maintain this constant depth, addi¬ 
 tional water should be applied to replace that lost 
 by evaporation, transpiration, and seepage. 
 
 Reasons for draining ricefields during the 
 gi'owing season and allowing the soil to dry in¬ 
 clude (1) control of algae (scum); (2) control of 
 rice water weevil; (3) prevention of straighthead 
 (blight); (4) control of aquatic weeds such as 
 mudplantain (ducksalad) ; and (5) application 
 of nitrogen fertilizer. On saline or alkaline soils 
 it may be necessary to drain fields several times 
 early in the growth of the rice to allow the plants 
 to become well established. 
 
 Arkansas.— Adair, Miller, and Beachell {8) 
 reported that water management is similar in 
 Arkansas and Louisiana. Depending on grow¬ 
 ing conditions and grass control methods being 
 used, the first flood may be applied as the rice is 
 emerging, or it may be delayed for 2 or 3 weeks. 
 The majority of ricegrowers in Arkansas drain 
 their fields about midway in the growth of the 
 rice and allow the soil to dry before applying 
 nitrogen fertilizer. The fields are then reflooded, 
 and observations indicate that nitrogen is taken 
 to the rice roots as the water soaks into the soil. 
 This results in more efficient use of the fertilizer. 
 
 Hall {50) described the water-seeding method 
 used by some Arkansas growers. Seed is broad¬ 
 cast by plane into fields immediately after the 
 application of 4 to 6 inches of water. The flood 
 may be held for about 6 weeks before draining for 
 the midseason application of nitrogen fertilizer. 
 Other growers may drain their fields soon after 
 the seed is sprouted and reflood after a few days. 
 If fields are left drained for several days, heavy 
 stands of grass weeds may become established. 
 When rice is water seeded on heavy clay soils, 
 this early draining is a common practice. The 
 fields then are reflooded after about 3 days and 
 the flood is maintained until midseason. 
 
 In a series of greenhouse experiments. Hall 
 {^) found that unless rice plants were fertilized, 
 the practice of draining and drying the soil and 
 then reflooding did not increase grain produc¬ 
 tion on soil low in organic matter. 
 
 Louisiana.— Jenkins and Jones {62) found 
 that in date-of-submergence experiments in Loui¬ 
 siana, the highest average yields were obtained on 
 land submerged 20 days after the seedlings had 
 emerged. In a discontinuous and continuous sub¬ 
 mergence experiment, early continuous submerg¬ 
 ence (10 days after seedling emergence) of the 
 land gave higher average yields than did inter¬ 
 mittent drying of the land followed by continuous 
 submergence. 
 
 In Louisiana, water seeding is not common; but 
 where it is practiced, the water is drained when 
 the rice seedlings are one-half inch long, accord¬ 
 ing to Wasson and Walker (iJ5). It then is 
 allowed to grow until flooding is needed. Drilled 
 rice may be flushed if necessary for uniform ger¬ 
 mination. Normally the rice is not flooded until 
 it is 6 to 8 inches tall, and then only to a depth 
 of 41/2 inches. Fields are drained as necessary 
 for topdressing with fertilizer and for pest 
 control. 
 
 Mississippi.— Mullins {89) stated that rice in 
 the delta area of Mississippi is kept flooded for 
 90 to 120 days during the growing season, depend¬ 
 ing on variety and seeding date. The first flood 
 is applied as early as possible after the rice seed 
 germinates and a stand is established. This may 
 be about 2 weeks after seeding or, if germination 
 is slow, possibly 3 weeks after seeding. Applica¬ 
 tion of the first flood requires close attention to 
 avoid breakage of levees and to stabilize the water 
 at the desired, level. If the levees are accurately 
 located and well constructed, relatively little time 
 is required to apply the first water; otherwise, 
 labor requirements may be much higher. Mullins 
 reported that most fields were drained after 3 to 
 4 weeks under flood and the soil was allowed to 
 dry for several days. This permitted the roots 
 of the rice plant to become more firmly estab¬ 
 lished and also stimulated additional tillering. 
 He suggested that if grass was well under control 
 at this time, fertilizer could then be applied. 
 
 Texas.— Reynolds (,105) stated that where rice 
 is seeded with a grain drill on heavy soils, the 
 fields usually are flushed (irrigated) for germina¬ 
 tion if water is available and if the soil has not 
 been saturated by rain. Flushing usually is 
 practiced in areas irrigated from canals, since the 
 fields can be covered rapidly. Sandy soils and 
 soils irrigated from wells usually are not flushed. 
 After fields are flooded, irrigation water may be 
 drained off once or twice during the growing 
 season to permit fertilization and to control water 
 weeds and insects. The time and number of 
 drainings may vary, depending on the length of 
 maturity of the variety, the presence of weeds 
 and insects, and the supply of irrigation water. 
 Where there is a shortage of water for reflooding, 
 the fields usually are not drained. If irrigation 
 is required to germinate the seed, the field is 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 99 
 
 promptly drained after this flushing. Where rice 
 is seeded witli an endgate seeder, the land is then 
 harrowed and irrigated and the irrigation water 
 is drained off shortly thereafter. It has been 
 found from tests and general observations that 
 satisfactory rice stands-are not obtained if seeds 
 are covered by both soil and water, so that drain¬ 
 ing water from fields where the seed is covered 
 with soil is extremely important. 
 
 Morrison {85) found little difference in the rice 
 yields at Beaumont when the total amount of 
 water used ranged from 46 to 73 inches. He con¬ 
 cluded that the use of 45 to 50 inches of water 
 would be just as satisfactory as the use of larger 
 amounts. These results generally agree with 
 those reported by Jones and others {69). It was 
 further concluded {85) that the depth of water 
 does not seem to be of much importance where 
 weeds are not a problem. Draining ricefields once 
 during the growing season increased the yield of 
 rice considerably. 
 
 Evatt {31) reported that preliminary tests con¬ 
 ducted at the Rice-Pasture Research and Exten¬ 
 sion Center in 1956 and 1957 showed significantly 
 reduced rough rice yields of the Century Patna 231 
 variety with use of deep water (10 to 12 inches), 
 compared with use of average depths of water of 
 from 4 to 6 inches from late tillering to maturity. 
 He found that the temperature variation was 2 to 
 4° F. greater under the shallow water than under 
 the deep water. Yields from superimposed fer¬ 
 tilizer factorials showed no significant fertilizer- 
 water depth interactions in 1956. However, in 
 1957 yields were less from both nitrogen and 
 phosphorus treatments under the deeper water. 
 
 California. —In California where japonica- 
 derived varieties predominate, ricefields normally 
 are rapidly flooded to a depth of 6 to 8 inches just 
 before seeding. Then they are seeded with pre¬ 
 soaked seed immediately after flooding to enable 
 the developing young rice plants to compete effi¬ 
 ciently with soil organisms for available oxygen 
 and with weeds for space and nutrients {36). 
 The water is maintained at that depth until it is 
 drained for harvest. Water may be lowered to 
 about a 3-inch depth for weed control and at 
 stand-establishment time during cool weather. 
 If the soil in the field contains excessive amounts 
 of salts, the water may become sufficiently saline 
 as to be toxic to the rice seedlings. In such cases 
 the water may be drained from the field and fresh 
 water applied immediately. The continuous flood 
 system comonly used in California was developed 
 to control weeds, principally watergrass, and to 
 fit the fertilizer requirements of rice {38., 83). 
 
 Draining for Harvest 
 
 Draining at the proper time before harvest is 
 necessary to dry the soil enough to support har¬ 
 vesting equipment. It is equally important to 
 
 hold the water on the land long enough to permit 
 the rice to reach projier maturity. 
 
 The time to drain depends on the type of soil, 
 drainage facilities, and seasonal weather condi¬ 
 tions. Some soils dry and crust quickly after 
 drainage; others dry slowly. I^ss time is re¬ 
 quired to dry the soil early in the season when 
 temperatures are higher and the days are longer 
 than is required later in the fall. Growers soon 
 fainiliarize themselves with the drying time of 
 their soil, so that they can judge when to drain 
 the fields to permit harvesting and yet not let the 
 crop suffer for lack of soil moisture. 
 
 Usually the land may be drained when the rice 
 is fully headed and the heads are turned down 
 and are ripening in the upper parts. This stage 
 ordinarily will be about 2 to 3 weeks before the 
 crop is ready to cut. The date when the rice will 
 be ready for harvest can be estimated by observ¬ 
 ing the date of first heading (when approxi¬ 
 mately one-tenth of the rice heads have emerged). 
 Rice in the South normally requires 35 to 45 days 
 from first heading to maturity. In California, 
 crops of average yield will be ready for harvest 
 about 45 days from the first heading. Heavy 
 crops with yields of 5,000 pounds or more per 
 acre may require as many as 55 days from first 
 heading to maturity. 
 
 Water intake should be discontinued a few days 
 before final drainage. The water already on the 
 field will then recede slowly. This lessens lodging 
 and does not overtax the drainage system with 
 excessive water. In the South the field may be 
 drained by removing the levee gate panels or by 
 “cutting” the comparatively small levees with 
 hand shovels. Levee gates sometimes are upended 
 or may be removed from the fields before harvest. 
 Dynamite is used quite extensively in California 
 for opening levees to permit draining of ricefields 
 before harvest. The levees are blown where they 
 cross the drains tlmt are installed within the 
 fields. The dynamiting, which requires experi¬ 
 enced powdermen, is started at the lower end of 
 the field. 
 
 Harvesting, Drying, and Storing 
 
 Harvesting 
 
 Most rice grown in the United States now is 
 directly harvested with self-propelled combines. 
 It is then dried artifically before storing or mil¬ 
 ling. A small amount of seed rice is cut, swathed, 
 and threshed from the windrow when the seed 
 has dried down to 12 percent moisture or less. 
 Direct combining and artificial drying is the 
 most efficient and economical way of harvestino^ 
 rice. Careful adjustment of the combine and 
 proper drying methods result in grain having 
 highest milling quality and commercial value. 
 
100 
 
 AGRICULTURE HAXDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Before adoption of direct combining, the 
 United States rice industry used three other har¬ 
 vest methods, according to Smith {12Jf). These, 
 in order, were (1) harvesting by hand with a 
 sickle or cradle, and then stationary threshing; 
 (2) cutting with team-drawn or ultimately with 
 tractor-drawn grain binders, handshocking the 
 bundles, and then engine-powered stationary 
 threshing; and (3) cutting with a tractor-drawn 
 header or swather, followed by threshing from 
 the windrow (when the grain was dry) with a 
 pickup combine. 
 
 Direct combining was first tested in Arkansas 
 and Texas in 1929 {126). According to Bainer 
 {13), approximately 3,000 acres of rice were har¬ 
 vested by combines in 1929 in California, and 
 nearly 35,000 acres in 1931. The combined har¬ 
 vester-thresher had been developed primarily for 
 wheat, and the first models were not well suited 
 to ricefield conditions. Low wet spots, weed 
 patches, and high, narrow levees made combine 
 harvesting difficult. 
 
 At the same time that combine harvesting was 
 first being tried, tests were being conducted on 
 artificial drying of rice {126). Even with the 
 problems encountered in combining and artificial 
 drying of rice, numerous advantages were cited. 
 These included: (1) In one operation rice is re¬ 
 moved from fields with no danger of weather 
 damage; (2) very little loss of rice is sustained 
 through shattering; (3) rice of high milling 
 quality can be obtained regardless of weather 
 conditions at harvest; and (4) all the rice can be 
 thoroughly and uniformly dried, making it safe 
 for storage either in bulk or in sacks. Also, it 
 was pointed out that artificially dried rice usually 
 is more uniform in quality because of the thor¬ 
 ough mixing during the drying operations. 
 
 Additional advantages of the combine method 
 over the binder, as pointed out by Slusher and 
 Mullins {121) were (1) the elimination, to a large 
 extent, of the need for outside labor for harvest; 
 (2) less chance for loss from destructive wildlife, 
 principally blackbirds and ducks; (3) possibility 
 of salvaging a much higher percentage of crop in 
 case of storm or wind damage; and (4) report¬ 
 edly less field loss. These authors found that 
 hand labor used in harvesting was reduced from 
 slightly more than 11 hours per acre with the 
 binder to from 2.4 to 3.6 hours with the combine 
 method, depending on the size of the machine 
 used. They reported that 400 acres of rice ap¬ 
 proaches the maximum seasonal acreage that a 
 grower can safely plan on harvesting with one 
 12-foot self-propelled combine. Slusher {120) 
 indicated that the usual crew for the self-pro¬ 
 pelled combine method consisted of one man on 
 the combine, one man with a tractor and grain 
 cart to haul grain from the combine to the truck, 
 and two men and trucks to haul grain to the drier 
 
 or elevator. One such crew^ usually could harvest 
 about 16 acres of rice per 10-hour day. 
 
 Mullins {89) emphasized that the time required 
 and the cost of harvesting depend largely on the 
 weather at harvesttime. Heavy rains and wind 
 often cause excessive lodging and create unfavor¬ 
 able surface conditions for operating combines 
 and other equipment. Severely lodged rice may 
 be harvested with combines that have adjustable 
 pickup reels. When this is necessary, the combine 
 must be operated at a much lower speed across a 
 field, which greatly increases the time required 
 for harvesting. 
 
 In a study of a large number of samples that 
 included the effect of method of harvest on rice 
 mill yield and grade, it was concluded that there 
 was little difference between the combine method 
 and the binder-thresher method of harvest as it 
 related to the market value of the rice obtained. 
 
 Most rice now is handled in bulk {122), al¬ 
 though some, especially that being saved for seed, 
 still is sack dried. The conversion from sacking 
 rice in the field to bulk handling was accentuated 
 by increasing costs and scarcity of sacks and hand 
 labor. 
 
 Today the self-propelled rice combine har¬ 
 vesters are equipped with relatively large bins or 
 hoppers for collecting the threshed grain (fig. 
 37, A). The hoppers then are emptied by mechan¬ 
 ically angering the rice into self-propelled “bank- 
 outs” or tractor-drawn carts that take the rice to 
 waiting field-side trucks (fig. 37, B). Rice then 
 is hauled to driers (figs. 37, C and 37, D) or to 
 aeration bins (fig. 38) where it is unloaded by use 
 of grain augers or other bulk-handling methods. 
 
 Hurst and Humphries {61) discussed harvest¬ 
 ing of rice with combines and pointed out that 
 care should be taken not to crowd the feed. Be¬ 
 cause rice straw is heavy and green at harvest, the 
 ground speed of the machine should be slow 
 enough to avoid clogging. Since the rice kernel 
 is very susceptible to cracking, the cylinder should 
 be run at a slower speed than for other cereal 
 crops. Allowing a small percentage of kernels to 
 crack may be necessary to thresh out a maximum 
 yield. 
 
 Special self-propelled rice combines used in 
 California are equipped with crawler tracks that 
 enable the machine to cross wet spots, small 
 ditches, and low levees. In rainy seasons, wide 
 w'ooden mud cleats are bolted on ito the tracks to 
 increase the support for the harvester. Self- 
 ropelled combines used in the ricefields in the 
 outh usually are equipped with large tires with 
 mud lugs so that they can be operated over the 
 sloping levees. 
 
 In recent years, specially designed rice com¬ 
 bines have been built by the major farm ma¬ 
 chinery manufacturers in the United States and 
 are being used in the ricefields of the South and 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 101 
 
 Figure 37.— A, Cutting and threshing rice with a combine harvester that is loading the rice into a “bank-out” or 
 grain cart; B, transferring the rice from the “bank-out” into a truck in a road at field side; C, trucks loaded with 
 rice waiting to unload at a farm drier; B, unloading the rice at the drier. 
 
 the West. These high-powered machines com¬ 
 monly have 12- to 16-foot headers and can be 
 operated under extremely muddy conditions. 
 They can be adjusted to do a thorough job of 
 threshing with a minimum of shelling and crack¬ 
 ing of the grain. Most combines now are 
 equipped with straw choppers, which cut up the 
 rice straw as it leaves the combine, and a dis¬ 
 tributor, which spreads the straw particles uni¬ 
 formly over the stubble to facilitate plowing 
 under. 
 
 The effect of combine adjustment on harvest 
 losses of rice was studied by McNeal (79). He 
 found that there were four types of combine losses 
 —cutter bar, cylinder, rack, and shoe. To obtain 
 maximum grain yields, it was necessary for the 
 cylinder bars and the concave to be in good con¬ 
 dition and for the concaves and other parts of 
 the combine to be properly adjusted. He con¬ 
 cluded that combine ground speed should be re¬ 
 duced to one-half mile per hour when the rice 
 is badly lodged. He indicated that the operator 
 
102 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 38. —Bin drying combined rice on the fai-m. 
 
 is the most important factor in preventing high 
 combine losses. The height at which the rice was 
 cut was very important, since the proper amount 
 of straw served as a cushion to the grain in the 
 threshing process, and resulted in a lower cylin¬ 
 der loss and less hulling and breakage. 
 
 Curley and Goss found that combine 
 
 losses also may be due to overloading or improper 
 machine adjustment or a combination of the two. 
 Overloading as a result of excessive ground speed 
 usually is the major cause for excessive loss in all 
 sizes of combines. 
 
 Their tests in rice indicated that total combine 
 loss including reel shattering should be less than 
 5 percent of the gross yield if the machine is 
 properly adjusted and operated. Thus, the loss 
 from a 6,000 pound per acre yield should not 
 exceed 300 pounds. A high loss of unthreshed 
 grain usually resulted from improper cylinder or 
 concave adjustments, or from both. High loss of 
 threshed seed came from poor separation in the 
 straw walkers and cleaning shoe. They found 
 that under California conditions reel shattering 
 losses normally were insignificant in rice as com¬ 
 pared with other small grains. 
 
 Curley and Goss suggest that several loss checks 
 should be made on a machine in a given area to 
 determine the effect of adjustment or change in 
 ground speed. Detailed recommendations for ma¬ 
 chine and procedural adjustments for harvesting 
 rice under California conditions also are listed by 
 these workers. 
 
 Moisture Content of Grain at Harvest.— 
 Smith and others {127) pointed out that rice must 
 be of high milling quality to command a premium 
 price, and that for this high quality and for 
 maximum grain yields, rice must be cut at the 
 proper stage of maturity. If the crop is har¬ 
 vested when immature, field yields usually are 
 reduced and the breakage in combining and mil¬ 
 ling is excessive because of the light, chalky ker¬ 
 nels. If the crop is left in the field until over¬ 
 
 ripe, the kernels may check. This causes severe 
 breakage during combining and milling and a 
 reduction in the yield of fead rice (whole ker¬ 
 nels). Smith and others emphasized that when 
 rice has reached the proper stage, harvesting 
 should proceed rapidly, since loss of moisture in 
 standing rice may be very rapid. In rice har¬ 
 vested at the proper stage, the grains were fully 
 mature in the upper portions of the panicle and 
 in the hard-dough stage at the base. Few, if any, 
 chalky kernels were found in rice harvested at 
 this stage of maturity. When such rice was prop- ; 
 erly dried, germination was satisfactory for seed 
 purposes. j 
 
 Bainer {13), Davis {25), Kester {72), McNeal i 
 {80), and Smith and others {125, 126, 127) have ! 
 reported results of research relating sta^e of I 
 
 maturity (moisture content) of the gram to 
 proper harvesttime. Although their findings 
 varied, they were in general agreement that maxi¬ 
 mum yield of head rice was obtained when rice 
 was harvested at a moisture content of about 18 
 to 24 percent and then immediately dried to be¬ 
 tween 13 and 14 percent. 
 
 Varieties differ in the range of harvesttime 
 moisture content at which they yield the best 
 quality milled rice. McNeal {80) reported that 
 a range in moisture content of 16 to 22 percent 
 provided the highest yield of head rice for Rex- 
 ark and that a range of 17 to 23 percent provided 
 the highest yield for Zenith. Davis {25) reported 
 that the best range for Caloro was 20 to 25 per- ! 
 cent, and Kester {72) and Kester and Pence {73) \ 
 
 reported that the best range for Calrose was 22 to ! 
 
 27 percent. Their work showed that for every ft 
 1-percent reduction in kernel moisture while the S 
 unharvested grain was left in the field, the decline I 
 in head rice yield from the maximum was 1.4 h 
 percent for Caloro, 0.9 percent for Calrose, and V 
 1.0 percent for Colusa. 
 
 Most ricegrowers determine the moisture con- 
 tent of hand-harvested samples of their rice be- 9 
 fore beginning harvest. Determinations usually 
 are made with electrically operated moisture 9 
 meters, which they own or which are available at 9| 
 the commercial driers. 9 
 
 Although kernel moisture content at harvest- 9 ! 
 time strongly influences rice quality and milling 9 
 characters, environmental factors that affect the fl 
 plant physiologically during the growing season "B 
 also influence quality. Halick (4^) has shown 9 
 that a variety that ripened under lower tempera- S 
 tures (81° to 84° F.) produced higher head rice B 
 milling yields than did rice that ripened earlier B 
 in the season under higher temperatures (90° to fl 
 94°). Stansel, Halick, and Kramer {13Jf.) found 
 that high temperatures (90° day and 80° night) B| 
 increased chalkiness in all four varieties studied 9 | 
 (Century Patna 231, Bluebonnet 50, Toro, andBf 
 a glutinous variety). California rice quality^* 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 103 
 
 studies {73) showed that certain crop fertilization 
 practices could result in declines in kernel char¬ 
 acters such as weight, water uptake, hot-paste 
 viscosity, and whiteness. Thus, when harvesting 
 for maximum quality, many factors must be con¬ 
 sidered; but certainly moisture content of grain 
 at harvesttime is among the most important. 
 
 Preharvest Chemical Drying. —Results from 
 experiments with the preharvest application of 
 chemical desiccants to speed the drying of rice in 
 the field have been reported by Addicott and 
 Lynch (P), Hinkle {57, 68, 69), Smith, Hinkle, 
 and Williams {723), Tullis {739), and Williams 
 {747). All materials were applied as sprays when 
 the rice contained from 20 to 27 percent mois¬ 
 ture. Materials tested at varying concentrations 
 included (1) sodium chlorate-borate mixtures; 
 (2) magnesium chlorate; (3) disodium 3,6- 
 endoxohexahydrophthalate (alone and with am¬ 
 monium sulfate) ; (4) sodium monochloroacetate; 
 (5) S, S, S,-tributyl phosphorotrithioate; (6) 
 sodium pentachlorophenate; (7) di-nitro-O-sec- 
 butylphenal compounds (alone and in combina¬ 
 tion with aromatic oils); and (8) aromatic oils 
 alone. Some of the chemicals studied by these 
 investigators hastened the drying of rice in the 
 field. However, none were entirely satisfactory 
 because the milling quality was reduced, the ker¬ 
 nels were discolored, or the chemical imparted an 
 off-flavor to the rice. 
 
 Desiccants are used occasionally to hasten the 
 drying of seed rice. However, no grower should 
 use a desiccating chemical on his maturing rice 
 crop until he has checked with his local agricul¬ 
 tural authorities to determine its legal status with 
 reference to chemical residue tolerances. Laws 
 are strictly enforced in this regard, and an entire 
 crop could be impounded if it exceeds the legally 
 established chemical residue tolerances. 
 
 Drying and Storing 
 
 For the proper drying of rice, moisture must be 
 removed from inside the kernel {23). If rice is 
 dried too rapidly or if the temperature of the 
 drying air is too high, quality is seriously im¬ 
 paired. To prevent internal checking or breaking 
 of the kernels from drying too rapidly, drying 
 usually is done in three to five stages. In each 
 stage the rice passes through the drier and then 
 is tempered in a bin, so that the kernel moisture 
 will equilibrate. 
 
 Bainer {73) published one of the earliest ac¬ 
 counts of artificial drying of combine-harvested 
 rice. He concluded that rice could be dried suc¬ 
 cessfully by artificial means but that the tem¬ 
 peratures in the drier should not exceed 100° F. 
 
 Smith and others {726) reported on early re¬ 
 search on artificial drying of rice in Arkansas and 
 Texas. They concluded that a drying-air tem¬ 
 perature of 120° F. could be used without injur¬ 
 
 ing the rice if the moisture content was reduced 
 only about 2 percent at each drying operation and 
 the rice was allowed to remain in storage 12 to 24 
 hours between drying periods. However, when 
 necessary to dry a given lot of rice in one opera¬ 
 tion, the drying-air temperature should not exceed 
 110 °. 
 
 From experiments conducted with combined 
 rice in 1944, 1945, and 1946, McNeal {78) con¬ 
 cluded that in most cases the head rice yield was 
 increased and the total drying time was decreased 
 as the number of dryings w^as increased from one 
 to four at temperatures ranging from 100° to 
 150° F.; and the tempering period between dry¬ 
 ings was important, since it gave the moisture in 
 the grain an opportunity to equalize and thereby 
 reduced drying time. On the basis of more recent 
 experiments, McNeal {87) concluded that the 
 most desirable drying combination appeared to be 
 four dryings at 120°. 
 
 In 1953, Aldred {70) summarized research on 
 drying and storing rough rice in the Southern 
 States. This summary covered work conducted 
 by the Agricultural Experiment Stations in 
 Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas, and by the U.S. 
 Department of Agriculture. This author gives 
 information on volume of air used in column- 
 type and bin-type driers; number of stages to 
 use in drying rice; temperature of the air for 
 drying; depth of rice when dried in bins; length 
 of time rice can be held before drying; and the 
 use of fumigants to protect rice from storage 
 insects. 
 
 A comprehensive review of research in the 
 United States on conditioning and storing rough 
 and milled rice through 1958 {23) was published 
 in 1959. This review cited 74 specific references 
 and included participation by 36 contributors. 
 
 Types of Driers. —Driers can be classified by 
 type as (1) continuous flow, including mixing and 
 nonmixing; and (2) batch, including bins and 
 potholes. Driers can also be classified as multi¬ 
 pass and uni-pass. Multi-pass is a continuous- 
 flow system; uni-pass is a batch system. 
 
 Wasserman and others {7Jt.2) reported that 
 mixing-type driers are of many designs. Two of 
 the most popular mixing-type driers are the baffle 
 design and the Louisiana State University (LSU) 
 design {7). In the baffle design, rice is conducted 
 downward in a zigzag path by means of baffles, 
 while heated air is forced through the grain. In 
 the LSU design of the baffle drier, layers of 
 inverted-V-shaped air channels are installed in 
 a bin with alternating air-inlet and air-exhaust 
 channels. Each layer is offset, so that the tops of 
 the inverted V’s split the streams of grain as it 
 flows down between the channels. Drying air 
 passes from the air-inlet channels through the rice 
 and out the air-exhaust channels {7^2). 
 
 Wasserman and others {7}i!2) stated that the 
 
104 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 nonmixing columnar type drier is the simplest 
 and most commonly used. In this drier, rice 
 descends between two parallel screens set 4 to 6 
 inches apart while heated air is blown through 
 the screens and intervening rice. No appreciable 
 mixing occurs, and the effect is similar to drying 
 in a static bed with a depth equal to the distance 
 between the screens. 
 
 According to Morrison, Davis, and Sorenson 
 {86), bin drying refers to drying grain in storage 
 bins usually at depths of 6 to 8 feet. Normally 
 the grain is dried in the same bin in which it is 
 stored, which makes the method particularly 
 suited to on-farm installations. In contrast, aera¬ 
 tion is defined as the procedure used to cool and 
 ventilate grain during storage to maintain qual¬ 
 ity. This is accomplished by turning the grain 
 at frequent intervals, by transferring the grain 
 from one bin to another, or by circulating air 
 through the stored grain. Although drying may 
 be accomplished with unheated (normal atmos¬ 
 pheric) air under favorable conditions, a source 
 of supplemental heat should be available during 
 periods of high humidity. 
 
 Bin drying, consisting of drying with unheated 
 air but supplemented with artificial heat, is used 
 in on-farm installations, especially for seed rice. 
 Supplemental heat refers to heat added to atmos¬ 
 pheric air for limited temperature rise, usually 
 less than 20° F., to accomplish drying within a 
 maximum permissible time to prevent spoilage. 
 Barr and others {16), Henderson {53, 5If,, 55), 
 Hildreth and Sorenson {56), Sorenson {129,130), 
 and Sorenson and Davis {131), all discuss the 
 requirements for successful bin drying and its 
 limitations. 
 
 Sorenson, Davis, and Hollingsworth {132) 
 pointed out that some rice for seed is dried in pot¬ 
 hole-type sack driers. 
 
 McNeal {81) describes two distinct procedures 
 in use for commercial rice drying. These are the 
 multi-pass system and the uni-pass system. In 
 the multi-pass driers, air heated to approximately 
 120° F. is passed through a continuously moving 
 column of rice in three or more passes. During 
 the first pass a predetermined amount of moisture 
 is removed; then the rice is stored for about 24 
 hours to allow the moisture to equilibrate 
 throughout the individual kernels. As many ad¬ 
 ditional passes are used as are necessary to reduce 
 the moisture content of the rice to a safe storage 
 level. 
 
 In uni-pass driers, air heated to 110° F. or 
 higher is passed continuously through the column 
 of rice in one operation until the moisture content 
 of the grain is reduced to safe storage level. This 
 system employs a pack 10 inches thick, and the 
 direction of the heated drying air is reversed at 
 regular intervals and the drying is accomplished 
 in one pass. 
 
 Sources of Heat for Driers. —The amount of 
 heat required for warming the air used by a rice 
 drier depends on the initial temperature and mois¬ 
 ture content of the air. The approximate quan¬ 
 tity of heat required to raise the temperature of 
 each 1,000 cubic feet of air and its moisture 1° F. 
 is about 18.1 B.t.u.’s. To take care of initial air 
 temperature, heat losses, and periods of above 
 average humidity, results of experiments at 
 Crowley, La., indicated that the heat source 
 should provide 2 B.t.u.’s per minute for each cubic 
 foot of air used. The most satisfactory source of 
 heat was found to be natural or butane gas. It 
 was pointed out that gas burners are relatively 
 inexpensive and are easily regulated to maintain 
 a desired air temperature. Also, since a clean 
 flame is produced, the burner can be directed 
 toward the inlet to the blower and the products of 
 combustion allowed to pass through the drier {!). 
 
 Drying Rate and Temperature. —Unlike most 
 cereals, rice is consumed primarily as unbroken 
 kernels, so that the market value for whole ker¬ 
 nels is much greater than that for broken kernels. 
 Therefore, to avoid breaking the rice kernels, 
 much more care is required in drying rice than in 
 drying other cereals. The drying rate of rice 
 depends on the rate of migration of moisture 
 from the inside to the outside of the kernel. As 
 the rice kernel is dried, the outer portion shrinks, 
 setting up stresses and strains. When too much 
 moisture is removed too rapidly, checking or 
 shattering of the kernel results. To reduce this 
 effect, rice is dried with air at 100° to 130° F. in 
 two or more stages or passes through the drier. 
 Between passes through the drier, the grain is 
 held in a bin to allow the moisture to equilibrate 
 throughout the individual kernels. This temper¬ 
 ing relieves stresses and strains and facilitates 
 drying in the next pass. Laboratory-scale studies 
 with California-grown rice showed how drying- 
 air temperature and number of passes through 
 the drier affected head rice yield and total drying 
 time. The relation of these factors has been 
 represented on a single diagram to serve as an 
 operating guide in the drying of rice {IJt^). 
 
 Effects of High Temperatures on Seed Via¬ 
 bility.— McFarlane, Hogan, and McLemore {76) 
 studied the effects of heat treatment on the via¬ 
 bility of rice. They also surveyed the literature 
 involving rice and other grains. Germination 
 tests confirmed that the effects of high tempera¬ 
 tures on the viability of naturally moist rough 
 rice were much the same as for other kinds of 
 seed similarly treated. General observations in¬ 
 cluded the following: (1) For a given sample of 
 rice, the zone of heat damage (beginning of heat 
 damage to loss of viability) is narrow’; (2) the 
 resistance of rough rice to impairment of its via¬ 
 bility by heat varies inversely as its moisture 
 content; and (3) when viability of rice is dam- 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 105 
 
 aged by heat, loss in germination vigor is ap¬ 
 parent before loss in germination capacity. 
 
 In artificial drying experiments with seed rice, 
 good results were obtained by continually rotat¬ 
 ing the seed from bin to drier to another bin until 
 dry. An inlet air temperature of 120° F. and a 
 20-minute drying period were used. This method 
 reduced drier capacity somewhat but eliminated 
 the possibility of mold or fungus attacking the 
 germ of warm, damp rice between drying periods 
 (/). McNeal {78) showed that germination per¬ 
 centages were reduced when rice was dried at air 
 temperatures above 130°. 
 
 Improving Efficiency of Commercial Driers. 
 —Recent studies have shown how commercial 
 drier capacity could be increased by about 50 per¬ 
 cent and head rice yield by 2.5 percent without 
 significant additional capital outlay or increased 
 operating costs {101^ 133, IJtS, llfJf). Depending 
 on the physical characters of the drying equip¬ 
 ment, a combination of increased rate of fiow 
 through the driers (up to 50 percent) and higher 
 drying temperatures (up to 150° F. for Caloro 
 rice) IS used to achieve increased drier efficiency. 
 The findings are based on tests with rice varie¬ 
 ties in southern areas as well as in California. 
 
 Calderwood and Hutchinson {17) conducted a 
 series of experiments at Beaumont, Tex., to de¬ 
 termine how best to hold freshly harvested rice 
 until it could be dried. These studies, as well as 
 those of Hutchinson and Willms {60), also in¬ 
 cluded the use of unheated air to effect economies 
 in rapidly cooling rice during the tempering 
 periods between passes in the heated air column 
 driers. Long-grain rice, with an initial moisture 
 content below 20 percent, aerated with 0.43 cubic 
 feet per minute per 100 pounds, showed no change 
 in grade when held in temporary aerated storage 
 for 10 days before drying. Medium-grain Gulf- 
 rose, with an initial moisture content oi 23 per¬ 
 cent, aerated with 0.43 cubic feet per minute per 
 100 pounds, was not damaged when stored for 3 
 days. Another lot, with an initial moisture con¬ 
 tent of 22 percent, aerated with 1.24 cubic feet 
 per minute per 100 pounds for 7 days before dry¬ 
 ing, showed a sharp drop in grade. 
 
 Infrared Drying of Rough Rice. —As long ago 
 as the early 1940’s, Texas and California rice- 
 growers experimented with industrial infrared 
 lights as a heat source for drying rice. By 1948 
 California workers had reached the conclusion 
 that infrared rice drying was no faster than con¬ 
 vection-type driers, and was not as efficient.^ In 
 their six experiments, 7,300 B.t.u.’s were required 
 to remove 1 pound of water from rice, whereas 
 convection-type sack rice driers then in use were 
 using 2,000 B.t.u.’s. 
 
 ® Unpublished reports from the University of California, 
 Department of Agricultural Engineering. 
 
 Infrared drying of rice has not yet become es¬ 
 tablished commercially but interest continues. 
 Schroeder {109, 110) and Schroeder and Rosberg 
 {111, 112) reported on laboratory rice-drying 
 experiments. Varieties apparently respond dif¬ 
 ferently. The drying rate for the 15-, 20-, and 25- 
 second irradiation periods ranged from 1.2 to 1.9 
 grams of water removed per second of irradiation 
 for Nato and from 1.3 to 1.6 grams for Magnolia. 
 Tilton and Schroeder {138) found that rice wee¬ 
 vils and lesser grain borers in rough rice could be 
 controlled by irradiation with infrared lights. 
 They postulated that using gas-fired infrared 
 heating for drying rough rice would have the 
 additional benefit of killing all stages of these 
 stored-rice insects during the rice-drying process. 
 
 In utilizing on-farm bin drying and storing, the 
 rice farmer is assuming considerable responsibil¬ 
 ity for items that he pays someone else to assume 
 when he employs commercial facilities. These 
 include (1) considerable supervision over a long 
 period of time to oversee the drying, particularly 
 if he uses unheated air; (2) greater chance of rice 
 deterioration; (3) protection of the rice from 
 insect, bird, and animal pests; and (4) protec¬ 
 tion against rain or flood damage. Offsetting 
 these are usually lower cash outlays per unit vol¬ 
 ume of rice dried and stored. 
 
 Dachtler {23) emphasized that the use of the 
 proper airflow rate to dry rice with unheated air 
 is of primary concern in bin drying rice. Air 
 must be supplied at a rate to complete drying 
 before the rice is damaged by mold growth or 
 other causes. Recommendations developed from 
 tests in the Southern States and in California are 
 summarized by Dachtler {23). Supplemental 
 heat is not recommended as a standard practice 
 for bin drying. However, it is desirable to have 
 the necessary equipment available for use during 
 prolonged periods of adverse weather. This nor¬ 
 mally will include extended periods of high hu¬ 
 midity (above 75 percent). The temperature of 
 the air entering the rice may be raised 10° to 15° 
 F. above the ambient temperature. A maximum 
 of 95° is recommended in Texas, and a maximum 
 of 80° to 85° in California. Supplemental heat 
 should be used until the moisture content of the 
 top foot of rice is reduced to 15 percent. After 
 the moisture is reduced to this level, unheated air 
 should be used to complete the drying to a safe 
 storage level. During the time unheated air is 
 used, the fan should be operated only when the 
 relative humidity is less than 75 percent, which 
 usually will be during daylight hours on clear, 
 bright days. 
 
 Aerating Stored Rice. —According to Hutch¬ 
 inson and WiUms {60), the practice of aerating 
 grain came into widespread use in the Southwest 
 between 1955 and 1960. They indicate aeration 
 is used (1) to maintain the quality of undried 
 
106 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 28 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 grain until it can be moved through the drier, (2) 
 to remove harvest or drier heat, (3) to remove 
 small amounts of moisture (1 to 2 percent), and 
 (4) to maintain the quality of grain during stor¬ 
 age. Aeration is defined as the moving of air 
 through stored grain at low airflow rates (gen¬ 
 erally between one-tenth and one-fifth cubic feet 
 per minute per 100 pounds) for purposes other 
 than drying, to maintain or improve its value. 
 Several types of aeration systems are described, 
 as^are methods of operation and controls. 
 
 Aldred {10) presented the following conclu¬ 
 sions regarding storage and aeration of rice: 
 
 (1) Based on information to date (1952), rice- 
 in bulk storage should be turned once every 2 
 months during the winter and at least once a 
 month during the summer. 
 
 (2) With proper aeration, rice with a moisture 
 content of 18 to 24 percent can be kept for a 
 week or 10 days without spoilage. 
 
 (3) For retaining rice with a moisture content 
 of 18 to 24 percent before drying, 2 cubic feet 
 per minute per 100 pounds is adequate. After the 
 rice has been partly dried, one-half cubic foot 
 per minute per 100 pounds is adequate. 
 
 (4) Kice with a moisture content below 16 per¬ 
 cent can be kept several months in either cool or 
 warm weather with the aid of aeration. 
 
 As pointed out by Dachtler {23), practically 
 all rough rice is stored in bulk, although sack 
 storage is practical for relatively small lots and 
 for seed rice. A maximum moisture content of 
 12 percent is recommended for seed rice, but up to 
 14 percent usually is safe in bulk storage. The 
 length of the storage period for rice depends on 
 market conditions, but it usually is from 5 to 8 
 months. For any common-type storage bin, any 
 type of construction material is satisfactory if it 
 results in a storage structure that will keep the 
 grain dr^, cool, and free of insects and other pests 
 and if it provides job safety and convenience 
 while moving and inspecting the grain. Dachtler 
 warned that if dried rough rice is to be stored for 
 a few months or longer or if damp rice is to be 
 held before drying, the storage structure should 
 be equipped for aeration. 
 
 Insect Infestation of Stored Rice. —Insect 
 infestation generally occurs after rice is in stor¬ 
 age, since most rice harvested and dried by mod¬ 
 ern methods is relatively free of insects upon en¬ 
 tering storage {23). Insect control practices that 
 are used before and during storage have been 
 developed through research and are widely ap¬ 
 plied. Emphasis now is being placed on the use 
 of protective treatment. Chemicals are now 
 available that can be mixed with or sprayed on 
 the rice as it is stored and that will protect it 
 against invading insects yet leave no residues 
 harmful to human beings {108, llfi). For infor¬ 
 
 mation about the use of these chemicals, contact 
 your local agricultural authorities. 
 
 Stored rice is subject to attack by a number of 
 insects. The lesser grain borer {Rhyzopertha 
 dominica (F.)), the Angoumois grain moth 
 {Sitotroya cerealeUa (Oliv.)), and the rice weevil 
 {Sitophilus oryzae (L.)) attack sound rough rice 
 kernels. The cadelle {Tenehroides mauritanicus 
 (L.)), the saw-toothed grain beetle {Oryzae ^hilus 
 surmamensis (L.)), the flat grain beetle {Crypto- 
 lestes pus Ulus (Schon.)), the red flour beetle ( 7'ri- 
 bolium castaneum (Herbst)), and the confused 
 flour beetle {T. conjusum (Duv.)) attack broken 
 or dehulled kernels. Moths that infest the sur¬ 
 face of bulk or bagged rough rice and spin web¬ 
 bing in profusion include the Indian-meal moth 
 {PJodia interpunctella (Hbn.)), the almond moth 
 {Ephestia cautella (Wlkr.)), and the rice moth 
 (Corcyra cephalonica (Staint.)). In storing bran 
 and milled rice, control of the bran bugs, includ¬ 
 ing the flour beetles, is important {108, llfi). 
 
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RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
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 Finfrock, D. C., and Miller, M. D. 
 
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 L. J. 
 
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 M. D. 
 
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 Garrison, R. H. 
 
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 Gay, B. 
 
 1961. ‘RATOONING’ METHODS OF A TEXAS RICE 
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 Goss, W. L., and Brown, E. 
 
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 Gray, L. C., and Thompson, E. K. 
 
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 Green, B. L. 
 
 1961. FISH farming ; past, present, future. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Econ. 3(4) : 1, 2. 
 
 -- and Mullins, T. 
 
 1959. USE OF reservoirs for production of fish 
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 Halick, j. V. 
 
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 Hall, H. V. 
 
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108 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
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 (71) Kapp, L. C. 
 
 1947. THE EFFECT OF COMMON SALT ON RICE PRO¬ 
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 1937. THE UTILIZATION OF WABASH CLAY (GUMBO) 
 SOILS IN CROP PRODUCTION. Mo. Agr. Expt. 
 
 Sta. Bui. 254, pp. 12-32. 
 
 (75) Lewis, D. C., Scott, V. H., Mueller, K. E., and 
 others. 
 
 1962. NEW RICE LEVEE CONCEPTS. Rice Jour. 65(4) : 
 6-15. 
 
 (76) McFarlane, V. H., Hogan, J. T., and McLemore, 
 T. A. 
 
 1955. EFFECTS OF HEAT TREATMENT ON THE VIA¬ 
 BILITY OF RICE. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 
 1129, 51 pp., illus. 
 
 (77) Mackie, W. W. 
 
 1943. RICE IN the imperial VALIJEV (CALIFORNIA). 
 Imp. Rice Growers’ Coop. Assoc. [Un¬ 
 numbered Rpt] 
 
 (78) McNeal, -Xzin. 
 
 1949. ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF COMBINED RICE. Ark. 
 Agr. Expt Sta, Bui. 487, 30 pp. 
 
 (79) - 
 
 1950. EFFECT OF COMBINE ADJUSTMENT ON HAR¬ 
 VEST LOSSES OF RICE. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 Bui. 500, 26 pp., illus. 
 
 (80) - 
 
 1950. WHEN TO HARVEST RICE FOR BEST MILLING 
 QUALITY AND GERMINATION. Ark. Agr. 
 
 Expt. Sta. Bui. 504, 41 pp. 
 
 (81) - 
 
 1961. EFFECTS OF DRYING TECHNIQUES AND TEM¬ 
 PERATURES ON HEAD RICE YIELDS. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 640, 22 pp., illus. 
 
 (82) Marr, j. C. 
 
 1957. GRADING LAND FOR SURFACE IRRIGATION. 
 
 Univ. of Calif. Div. Agr. Sci. Cir. 438, 48 
 pp., illus. 
 
 (83) Mikkelsen, D. S., Finfrock, D. C., and Miller, 
 M. D. 
 
 1958. RICE FERTILIZATION. Calif. Agr. Expt. sta. 
 Ext. Serv. Leaflet 96, 12 pp., illus. 
 
 (84) -and Sinah, M. N. 
 
 1961. GERMINATION INHIBITION IN ORYZA SATIVA 
 AND CONTROL BY PREPLANTING SOAKING 
 
 TREATMENTS. Crop Scl. 1 : 332-335. 
 
 (85) Morrison, S. R. 
 
 1953. RICE IRRIGATION TESTS AT THE BEAUMONT 
 STATION, 1952. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Prog. 
 Rpt. 1542, 2 pp. 
 
 (86) - Davis, W. C., and Sorenson, J. W., Jr. 
 
 1954. bin drying of rice at the rice-pasture 
 experiment station, 1953-54. Tex. Agr. 
 Expt. Sta. Prog. Rpt. 1670, 9 pp. 
 
 (87) Muckel, D. C. 
 
 1959. REPLENISHING UNDERGROUND WATER SUP¬ 
 PLIES ON THE FARM. U.S. Dept. Agr. Leaflet 
 452, 8 pp., illus. 
 
 (88) Mullins, T. 
 
 1954. ECONOMIC APPRAISAL OF FARMING PRACTICES 
 AND ROTATION PROGRAMS ON LOUISIANA RICE 
 
 FARMS. La. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 491, 40 
 pp. 
 
 (89) - 
 
 1960. PRODUCTION PRACTICES, COSTS AND RETURNS 
 FOR MAJOR ENTERPRISES ON RICE FARMS IN 
 THE DELTA AREA OF MISSISSIPPI. MlSS. 
 
 Agr. Expt. sta. Bui. 595, 24 pp. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 109 
 
 (1)0) Muluns, T., and Siajsher, M. W. 
 
 1950. COMPARISON OF FARMING SYSTEMS FOR SMALL 
 RICE FARMS IN ARKANSAS. Ark. Agr. Expt. 
 
 Sta. Bui. 498, 44 pp., illus. 
 
 (91) -and Slusher, M. W. 
 
 1951. COMPARISON OF FARMING SYSTEMS FOR LARGE 
 RICE FARMS IN ARKANSAS. Ark. Agr. Expt. 
 
 Sta. Bui. 509, 40 pp. 
 
 (92) Nelson, G. S. 
 
 1961. AERIAL APPLICATIONS OF GRANULAR AND PEL¬ 
 LETED MATERIALS AND SEEDS. RlCO Jour. 
 
 64(7) : 26-27. 
 
 (93) Nelson, M. 
 
 1931. PRELIMINARY REPORT ON CULTURAL AND FER¬ 
 TILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH RICE IN ARKAN¬ 
 SAS. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 264, 46 pp. 
 
 (94) - 
 
 1944. ROTATION, CULTURAL AND IRRIGATION PRAC¬ 
 TICES AFFECTING RICE PRODUCTION. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 445, 45 pp. 
 
 (95) Overstreet, R., and Schulz, R. K. 
 
 1958. THE EFFECT OF RICE CULTURE ON A NON¬ 
 SALINE SODIC SOIL OF THE FRESNO SERIES. 
 
 Hilgardia 27(12) : 319-332, illus. 
 
 (96) Pearson, G. A. 
 
 1959. FACTORS INFLUENCING SALINITY OF SUB¬ 
 MERGED SOILS AND GROWTH OF CALORO RICE. 
 
 Soil Sci. 87(4) : 198-206. 
 
 (97) - 
 
 1961. THE SALT TOLERANCE OF RICE. Intematl. 
 Rice Comn. Newsletter 10(1) : 1^. 
 
 (98) -and Ayers, A. D. 
 
 1960. RICE AS A CROP FOR SALT-AFFECTED SOIL IN 
 PROCESS OF RECLAMATION. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 
 Prod. Res. Rpt. 43, 13 pp., illus. 
 
 (99) -and Bernstein, L. 
 
 1959. SALINITY EFFECTS AT SEVERAL GROWTH 
 STAGES OF RICE. Agron. Jour. 51 : 654-657. 
 
 (100) Perkins, W. R., and Lund, C. F. 
 
 1950. CROP ROTATION ON RICE FARMS. Ark. Agr. 
 Ext. Serv. Leaflet 134. 
 
 (101) PoMiNSKi, J., Wasserman, T., Spadaro, J. J., and 
 others. 
 
 1961. improtoments in commercial drying of 
 
 SOUTHERN GROWN RICE. I. ZENITH-A 
 
 medium-grain VARIETY. Rice Jour. 64(9) : 
 10, 12-13, 16-17. 
 
 (102) Raney, F. C. 
 
 1959. warming basins and water temperature. 
 Calif. Rice Res. Symp. Proc., Albany, Calif., 
 pp. 20-23. 
 
 (103) - Hagan, R. M., and Finfrock, D. C. 
 
 1957. water temperature in irrigation. Calif. 
 Agr. 11(4) : 19, 20, 37, illus. 
 
 (104) Reed, J. F., and Sturgis, M. B. 
 
 1936. TOXICITY FROM ARSENIC COMPOUNDS TO RICE 
 ON FLOODED SOILS. Amei’. Soc. Agron. Jour. 
 28: 432-436. 
 
 (105) Reynolds, E. B. 
 
 1954. RESEARCH ON RICE PRODUCTION IN TEXAS. 
 
 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 775, 29 pp., illus. 
 
 (106) Robertson, R. D. 
 
 1917. irrigation of rice in California. Calif. 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 279, pp. 253-270, illus. 
 
 (107) Rolston, L. H., and Rouse, Phil. 
 
 1960. control of grape colaspis and rice water 
 
 WEEVIL BY SEED OR SOIL TREATMENT. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. sta. Bui. 624, 10 pp. 
 
 (108) Rouse, Phil, Rolston, L. H., and Lincoln, C. 
 
 1958. INSECTS ... IN FARM-STORED RICE. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 600, 25 pp. 
 
 (109) SCHROEDER, H. W. 
 
 1960. INFRA-RED DRYING OF ROUGH RICE. II. 
 
 SHORT GRAIN TYPE—CALROSE AND CALORO. 
 
 Rice Jour. 63(13) : 6-8, 25-28. 
 
 ( 110 ) 
 
 ( 111 ) 
 
 ( 112 ) 
 
 (113) 
 
 (114) 
 
 1961. INFRA-RED DRYING OF ROUGH RICE. HI. 
 
 MEDIUM-GRAIN TYPE-NATO AND MAGNOLIA. 
 
 Rice Jour. 64(1): 11-12, 24-27, illus. 
 
 -and Rosberg, D. W. 
 
 1959. DRYING ROUGH RICE WITH INFRA-RED RADIA¬ 
 TION. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. MP-354 (May), 
 4 pp. 
 
 -and Rosberg, D. W. 
 
 1960. INFRA-RED DRYING OF ROUGH RICE. I. LONG- 
 GRAIN TYPE—REXORO AND BLUEBONNET 50. 
 
 Rice Jour. 63(12): 3-5, 23-27, illus. 
 Scott, V. H., Lewis, D. C., Fox, D. R., and Babb, 
 A, F. 
 
 1961. PLASTIC LEVEES FOR RICE IRRIGATION. Calif. 
 
 Agr. 15(11) : 8, 9. 
 
 Senewiratne, S. T., and Mikkelsen, D. S. 
 
 1961. PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS LIMITING GROWTH 
 AND YIELDS OF ORYZA SATIVA UNDER UN¬ 
 FLOODED CONDITIONS. Plant and Soil 14: 
 127-146. 
 
 (115) 
 
 (116) 
 
 (117) 
 
 (118) 
 
 (119) 
 
 ( 120 ) 
 
 ( 121 ) 
 
 ( 122 ) 
 
 (123) 
 
 (124) 
 
 (125) 
 
 (126) 
 
 (127) 
 
 (128) 
 
 Simmons, C. F. 
 
 1940. RICE PRODUCTION AND RICELAND USES IN AR¬ 
 KANSAS. Ark. Agr. Ext. Serv. Cir. 424, 
 
 16 pp. 
 
 Sims, J. L. 
 
 1961. FISH-RICE PROJECT PLANS. Rice Jour. 
 64(7) : 22. 
 
 1964. NITROGEN AVAILABILITY IN RICE FIELD AND 
 RESERVOIR SOILS. Ark. Farm Res. 13(2). 
 
 1964. GROWTH OF ARABLE CROPS AS A MEANS OF 
 REDUCING AVAILABLE NITROGEN IN RESERVOIR 
 
 SOIL. Ark. Farm Res. 13(3). 
 
 Slusher, M. W. 
 
 1953. THE USE OF AIRPLANES ON RICE FARMS IN 
 ARKANSAS. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 541, 
 20 pp. 
 
 1955. ENTERPRISE COSTS AND RETURNS ON RICE 
 FARMS. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 549, 34 
 pp., illus. 
 
 -and Mullins, T. 
 
 1948. MECHANIZATION OF THE RICE HARVEST. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. Ser. 11, 32 pp., illus. 
 -and Mullins, T. 
 
 1952. RICE MILL YIELD AND GRADE IN RELATION TO 
 
 VARIETY AND METHOD OF HARVEST. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 526, 36 pp., illus. 
 Smith, R. J., Jr., Hinkle, D. A., and Williams, 
 F. J. 
 
 1959. pre-harvest desiccation of rice with 
 CHEMICALS. Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 619, 
 16 pp., illus. 
 
 Smith, W. D. 
 
 1940. HANDLING ROUGH RICE TO PRODUCE HIGH 
 GRADES. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 
 1420, 21 pp., illus. 
 
 - Deffes, j. j., Bennett, C. H., and Hurst, 
 
 W. M. 
 
 1930. DRYING COMBINE HARVESTED RICE ON THE 
 FARM. U.S. Dept. Agr., U.S. Grain Stand¬ 
 ards Act-Grain Investigations 57, 20 pp. 
 
 - Deffes, J. J., Bennett, C. H., and others. 
 
 1933. ARTIFICIAL DRYING OF RICE ON THE FARM. 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 292, 24 pp., illus. 
 
 - Deffes, J. J., Bennett, C. H., and others. 
 
 1938. EFFECT OF DATE OF HARVEST ON YIELD AND 
 MILLING QUALITY OF RICE. U.S. Dept. Agr. 
 Cir. 484. 20 pp. 
 
 Sonnier, A. 
 
 1960. catfish, crayfish and rice. Rice Jour. 
 63(5) : 6, 8, 9, illus. 
 
110 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 89, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 (129) Sorenson, J. W., Jr. 
 
 1957. SUPPLEMENTAL HEAT FOR DRYING RICE IN 
 FARM STORAGE BINS. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta., 
 Dept. Agr. Engin., 9 pp. [Processed Rpt.] 
 
 (130) - 
 
 1958. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DRYING AND STORING 
 RICE IN FARM STORAGE BINS. TeX. Agr. 
 
 Expt. Sta., Dept. Agr. Engin. [Processed 
 Rpt.] 
 
 (131) -and Davis, W. C. 
 
 1955. DRYING AND STORING ROUGH RICE IN FARM 
 STORAGE BINS, 1954-55. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 Prog. Rpt. 1819, 8 pp. 
 
 (132) - Davis, W. C., and Hollingsworth, J. P. 
 
 1948. drytng rice in sacks. Tex. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Prog. Rpt. 1138, 4 pp. 
 
 (133) Spadaro, j. j. 
 
 1961. EVALUATION OF WRRL DRYING METHODS ON 
 SOUTHERN RICE. Second Conf. on Rice Util¬ 
 ization Proc., May 18-19. U.S. Dept. Agr., 
 Agr. Res. Serv. ARS 74-24, pp. 22-23. 
 
 (134) Stansel, j. W., Halick, J. V., and Kramer, H. H. 
 
 1961. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON HEADING 
 DATES AND GRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF RICE. 
 
 Rice Tech. Working Group Proc., June 29 
 to July 1, Lafayette, La. MP 488, pp. 
 14-15. 
 
 (135) Stromberg, L. K., and Yamada, H. 
 
 1955. WATER QTJALITY IN RICE FIELDS. Calif. Agr. 
 9(3) : 10. 
 
 (136) Sullivan, K. B. 
 
 1960. WATER IS A ‘crop’ WITH ROTATION RESER¬ 
 VOIRS. Ark. Farmer 62(8) : 4, illus. 
 
 (137) Thompson, W. R., and Waller, T. M. 
 
 1952. GROWING RICE IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. 
 
 Miss. Agr. Ext. Serv. Pub. 219, 6 pp. 
 
 (138) Tilton, E. W., and Schroeder, H. W. 
 
 1961. THE EFFECT OF INFRARED RADIATION ON IM¬ 
 MATURE INSECTS IN KERNELS OF ROUGH RICE. 
 
 Rice Jour. 64(9) ; 23-25. 
 
 (139) Tullis, E. C. 
 
 1951. HERBICIDES FOR ACCELERATING MATURATION 
 OF RICE. South. Weed Conf. Proc. 4: 1-2. 
 
 (140) United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 1957. CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS OF STORED RICE. 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Agr. Handb. 129, 30 pp., 
 illus. 
 
 (141) Walker, R. K., and Sturgis, M. B. 
 
 1946. A TWELVE-MONTH GRAZING PROGRAM FOR THE 
 RICE AREA OF LOUISIANA. La. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Bui. 407, 19 pp. 
 
 (142) Wasserman, T., Ferrel, R. E., Brown, A. H., and 
 Smith, G. S. 
 
 1957. COMMERCIAL DRYING OF WESTERN RICE. Ce¬ 
 real Chem. Today 2(9) : 251-254. 
 
 (143) -Ferrel, R. E., Kaufman, V. F., and others. 
 
 1958. IMPROVEMENTS IN COMMERCIAL DRYING OF 
 WESTERN RICE. I. MIXING TY'PE DRYER— 
 LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY' DESIGN. RiCe 
 
 Jour. 61(4) : 30-32, 34-36, 38; 61(5) : 40, 
 42-46. 
 
 (144) -Ferrel, R. E., Kaufman, V. F., and others. 
 
 1958. IMPROVEMENTS IN COMMERCIAL DRYING OF 
 
 WESTERN RICE. II. NON-MIXING COLUMNAR- 
 
 TYPE DRYER. Rice Jour. 61(7) ; 9-12, 14. 
 
 (145) Wasson, R. A., and Walker, R. K. 
 
 1955. LOUISIANA rice. La. Agr. Ext. Serv. Ext. 
 Pub. 1182, 16 pp., illus. 
 
 (146) Weihing, R. M., Moncrief, J. B., and Davis, W. C. 
 
 1950. YEARLONG GRAZING IN THE RICE-PASTURE SYS¬ 
 TEM OF FARMING. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. 
 Prog. Rpt. 1280, 4 pp. 
 
 (147) Williams, A. H. 
 
 1952. pre-harvest drying of rice by chemical 
 TREATMENT. Down to Earth 8(2) : 2-3. 
 
 (148) -and Finfrock, D. C. 
 
 1962. EFFECT OF PLACEMENT AND TIME OF INCOR¬ 
 PORATION OF VETCH ON RICE YIELDS. Agron. 
 
 Jour. 54(6) : 547-549. 
 
 (149) - Finfrock, D. C., and Miller, M. D. 
 
 1957. GREEN manures AND CROP RESIDUES IN 
 MANAGING RICE SOILS. Calif. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Ext. Serv. Leaflet 90, 6 pp. 
 
 (150) Wyche, R. H., and Cheaney, R. L. 
 
 1955. water seeding of rice. Tex. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Prog. Rpt. 1778, 3 pp. 
 
 CAUTION.—If pesticides are handled or applied 
 improperly, or if unused parts are disposed of im¬ 
 properly, they may be injurious to humans, do¬ 
 mestic animals, desirable plants, pollinating in¬ 
 sects, fish or other wildlife, and may contaminate 
 water supplies. Use pesticides only when needed 
 and handle them with care. Follow the directions 
 and heed all precautions on the container label. 
 
WEEDS AND THEIR CONTROL 
 
 By R. J. Smith, Jr., and W. C. Shaw 
 
 Losses in tlie rice crop due to weed competition 
 amount to more than $60 million each year. In 
 addition, farmers spend almost $24 million each 
 year to control weeds. Among the w^eeds that 
 cause severe losses in rice are bamyardgrass 
 {Echinoohloa spp.), red rice {Oryza sativa L.), 
 signalgrass {Brachiaria spp.), sprangletop [Ley- 
 tocKloa spp.), sesbania {Seshania exaltata (Raf.) 
 Cory), curly indigo {Aeschynomene virginica 
 (L.) B.S.P.), Mexican-weed {Caperonia casta- 
 neaefolia (L.) St. Hil.), gooseweed {Sphenoclea 
 zeyJanica Gaertn.), redstem {Ammmwda coc- 
 cinea Rottb.), ducksalad {Hetera/nthera spp.), 
 bulrush (Beirpu^ spp.), umbrellasedge {Cyperus 
 spp.), spikerush {Eleocharis spp.), and various 
 species of algae. 
 
 Conditions favorable for growth of rice also 
 are favorable for growth of these weeds. Weeds 
 in rice produce an abundance of viable seeds; and 
 once weeds infest the soil, they are difficult to 
 remove. The best approach to weed control is to 
 prevent weed infestations by seeding weed-free 
 rice and by removing scattered weed seedlings 
 from the field before they produce seed. Even 
 after weeds infest the soil, however, they can be 
 effectively controlled by selected cultural and 
 chemical methods. 
 
 Weed control is the primary aim of many cul¬ 
 tural practices. Herbicides—notably propanil 
 and the phenoxy herbicides—have been used in 
 conjunction with good farming practices for con¬ 
 trolling weeds and have greatly increased the 
 effectiveness of the cultural practices. As chem¬ 
 ical methods of weed control change—and they 
 are changing rapidly—cultural practices also will 
 change. 
 
 ^ Certain young grass and broadleaf weeds in 
 rice were effectively controlled in 1959 by pro¬ 
 panil [3,4-dichloropropionanilide]. Propanil is 
 very selective, and rice is not injured by high 
 rates applied soon after emergence. In 1961 rice 
 farrners in the major ricegrowing States used pro¬ 
 panil as a postemergence weed killer in commer¬ 
 cial fields on about 20,000 acres. Because pro¬ 
 panil controlled grass weeds so effectively in 1961, 
 and because it was recommended by the agricul¬ 
 tural experiment stations in Arkansas, Missis¬ 
 sippi, and Texas, rice farmers treated approxi¬ 
 mately 250,000 acres in 1962. Overall, goodTo- 
 excellent grass and weed control and significant 
 
 improvement in rice yields were obtained in more 
 than 90 percent of the fields treated in 1962. 
 
 Propanil controls bamyardgrass, including 
 the species Echinochloa cmsgalli (L.) Beauv., E. 
 colonum (L.) Link, and E. cruspavonis (H.B.K.) 
 Schult.; and other grasses, including crabgrass 
 {Dlgitaria spp.), Texas-millet [Panicum texanum 
 Buck!.), paragrass {P. purpurascens Raddi), and 
 sigialgrass {Brachiana spp.). Propanil also con¬ 
 trols certain young annual broadleaf weeds in¬ 
 cluding sesbania, curly indigo, gooseweed, and 
 redstem; and young annual sedges, including 
 spikerush, umbrellasedge, and Fimbristylis spp. 
 Propanil controls all these weeds most effectively 
 when they are in the early vegetative stage of 
 growth. 
 
 Propanil kills the cells of grass-weed and 
 broadleaf-weed plants by contact action. It is 
 usually applied when both the weeds and the rice 
 are in the early stages of development. Barn- 
 yardgrass and other grass weeds are controlled 
 most effectively when propanil is applied in the 
 2- to 3-leaf stage, or when the grass is 2 to 3 
 inches tall. However, rapidly growing grass 
 weeds in highly fertile soil and deep water may 
 be controlled satisfactorily when the grass weeds 
 have four or more leaves. 
 
 Propanil should be applied according to the 
 developmental stage of the grass weed rather than 
 that of the rice. However, a reasonably heavy 
 stand of rice should be growing before treatment; 
 otherwise if replanting is necessary, the effective¬ 
 ness of the herbicide is lost. 
 
 Irrigation stimulates the growth of grass weeds 
 and makes them more susceptible to propanil, but 
 water should not be standing on fields when pro¬ 
 panil is applied because propanil cannot reach 
 weeds covered with water. Fields treated with 
 propanil should be flooded 1 to 4 days after treat¬ 
 ment to increase the activity of the herbicide on 
 bamyardgrass and to prevent bamyardgrass and 
 other grass-weed plants from reinfesting the field. 
 
 Propanil may be applied with either ground or 
 aerial equijpment. Aerial equipment has the 
 advantage because fields may be sprayed when 
 the soil is too wet to support ground equipment, 
 and also levees do not present a problem as with 
 ground equipment. The spray solution of pro¬ 
 panil should cover the weeds adequately and uni¬ 
 formly but should not be allowed to drift onto 
 nearby areas where it can injure field crops such 
 
 111 
 
112 
 
 AGRICULTrRE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEl’T. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 as cotton and soybeans and certain horticultural 
 and ornamental plants. Young cotton and soy¬ 
 bean plants are susceptible to propanil until they 
 are 8 to 10 inches tall and can be killed or injured 
 severely enough to reduce yields greatly. 
 
 Postemergence treatments with phenoxy herbi¬ 
 cides control most broadleaf and aquatic weeds 
 and many sedges that infest rice. Grass weeds 
 are not controlled. Phenoxy herbicides are often 
 used by commercial ricegrowers, and more than 
 half of the rice crop in the United States is 
 sprayed each year for broadleaf-weed control. 
 
 Phenoxy herbicides used for controlling broad¬ 
 leaf weeds in rice include 2,4-D [2,4-dichloro- 
 phenoxyacetic acid], MCPA [2-methyl-4-chloro- 
 phenoxyacetic acid], 2,4,5-T [2,4,5-trichlorophe- 
 noxyacetic acid], and silvex [2-(2,4,5-trichloro- 
 phenoxy)propionic acid]. These herbicides are 
 applied as either amine salt or low-volatile ester 
 formulations at rates of 1/2 to II /2 pounds per acre 
 acid equivalent. The rate depends on the weed 
 species and the stage of growth of the rice. 
 
 Response of rice to phenoxy herbicides is af¬ 
 fected chiefly by the stage of development of the 
 rice plant. Very young rice is injured severely 
 or even killed by 2,4-D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T, and 
 silvex. Rice in late-jointing, booting, or heading 
 stages may be injured severely. Rice in the late- 
 tillering or prejointing stages is usually unin¬ 
 jured by phenoxy herbicides. Rice responds 
 ditferently to these various postemergence herbi¬ 
 cides. It is most “tolerant” to 2,4,5-T, less “tol¬ 
 erant” to silvex and IVICPA, and least “tolerant” 
 to 2,4-D. 
 
 Weeds also respond differently to 2,4-D, 
 MCPA, 2,4,5-T, and silvex. When several spe¬ 
 cies varying in susceptibility to a herbicide are 
 present in one ricefield, mixtures of phenoxy 
 herbicides may be used advantageously. Weeds 
 are usually most susceptible to phenoxy herbi¬ 
 cides when they are young and growing rapidly. 
 Therefore, it is important to treat weeds as soon 
 as the rice is adequately “tolerant” to the herbi¬ 
 cide—usually about 7 weeks after rice emerges. 
 
 Water management affects the response of 
 weeds to phenoxy herbicides. Herbicides are 
 less effective in reaching weed plants that are 
 covered by water, and herbicides cannot effec¬ 
 tively control weeds that are growing slowly be¬ 
 cause of dry soil. Therefore, herbicides should 
 be applied soon after draining, while weeds are 
 growing rapidly. If the field is flooded too soon 
 after spraying or if rain falls immediately after 
 spraying, the herbicide is washed off the weed 
 plants and cannot control their growth. 
 
 Phenoxy herbicides are sprayed uniformly to 
 the field with low-gallonage sprayers attached to 
 ground or aerial equipment. Care must be taken 
 not to injure other crops such as cotton, soy¬ 
 beans, and tomatoes and valuable trees, shrubs, 
 and ornamental plants. All major rice-produc¬ 
 ing States strictly regulate aerial applications of 
 phenoxy herbicides. Most States regulate ground 
 applications. These laws prohibit the use of 
 high-volatile esters of 2,4-D, MCPA, 2,4,5-T, and 
 silvex. Definite regulations as to equipment, 
 herbicide formulations, wind velocity, records, 
 responsibility, and liability must be observed. 
 Before spraying rice with postemergence herbi¬ 
 cides, farmers and custom applicators should be¬ 
 come familiar with State laws so they can com¬ 
 ply with them. 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 CAUTION.—Before being used for applying insecti¬ 
 cide or fungicide, spray equipment that has been used 
 for applying 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCPA, or silvex should be : 
 given a special cleansing with ammonia or with acti- ; 
 vated charcoal and detergent. For detailed instruc¬ 
 tions, consult your State extension weed specialist. I 
 
 Certain algae may be controlled with applica¬ 
 tions of small copper sulfate crystals applied in 
 the early stages of scum development. Differ¬ 
 ences in the species of algae and in local water 
 and soil conditions determine the amount of con¬ 
 trol possible. Copper may be toxic to fish, so 
 care must be taken if water from treated rice- 
 fields is collected in reservoirs containing fish. 
 
RICE DISEASES 
 
 By .1. G. Atkins 
 
 Rice diseases are economically important in 
 the rice crop in the southern rice area (3).'^ tlx- 
 cept for seedling disorders, these diseases are of no 
 importance in California. Annual losses in lADui- 
 siana and Texas average about 8 percent. Dis¬ 
 eases are important in rice, but they are not as 
 disastrous in rice as in many other crops. Al¬ 
 though average losses in most fields are rather 
 low, losses in individual fields from specific dis¬ 
 eases are sometimes high. 
 
 Most of the world’s important rice diseases are 
 known to occur in the United States. Excep¬ 
 tions are the rice dwarf and rice stripe viruses, 
 bacterial leaf blight, and certain physiological 
 
 disturbances reported from Japan and other Asi¬ 
 atic countries. A few minor diseases caused by 
 fungi are also not known to occur in the United 
 States. 
 
 The severity of specific diseases is influenced by 
 varietal susceptibility, fertilization, soil type, and 
 environmental conditions. Losses from certain 
 diseases can be reduced or held to a low level by 
 the use of resistant varieties, better cultural and 
 management practices, and seed treatment. Dis¬ 
 eases shift in prevalence and severity with 
 changes in varieties. The reaction of 18 rice 
 varieties to some diseases in the United States 
 are shown in table 19. 
 
 . Table 19.— of rice varieties to some diseases of rice in the United States 
 [R — resistant; MR = moderately resistant; MS = moderately susceptible; S = susceptible; VS = very susceptible] 
 
 Grain type and variety 
 
 Blast 
 
 Browm leaf 
 spot 
 
 Narrow brown 
 leaf spot 
 
 Straighthead 
 
 White tip 
 
 Hoja blanca 
 
 Short-grain: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caloro 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Cody 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Colusa 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 Medium-grain: 
 
 
 
 
 Arkrose 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 vs 
 
 R 
 
 Calrose 
 
 vs 
 
 MS 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 vs 
 
 s 
 
 Gulfrose 
 
 R, S 
 
 MS 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 Magnolia 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Nato 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 MS 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Northrose 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 MR 
 
 s 
 
 MR 
 
 Zenith 
 
 R, S 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 Long-grain: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belle Patna 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Bluebonnet .^f) 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 g 
 
 Century Patna 231 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 VS 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Rexoro 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 VS 
 
 vs 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Sunbonnet 
 
 MS 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 vs 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Texas Patna 
 
 . s 
 
 s 
 
 vs 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Toro 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 TP 49 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 MS 
 
 VS 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 Major Diseases 
 
 Blast 
 
 Blast, caused by the fungus Piricularia ory- 
 zae Cav., occurs in all ricegrowing areas of the 
 world and is the most damaging disease of rice 
 (fig. 39). Blast in the Lhiited States is about as 
 old as the rice crop itself—it caused trouble 
 
 1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to S-'lected Refer¬ 
 ences, p. 120. 
 
 shortly after rice was introduced into South 
 Carolina {22) and then into Louisiana {18). 
 Losses from blast were light from about 1935 to 
 1955; however, in the southern rice area, par¬ 
 ticularly Louisiana, seriously infested fields have 
 been found each year since 1955 {9). Blast has 
 been one of the chief factors in preventing suc¬ 
 cessful rice culture in southern Florida. 
 
 When the fungus attacks the leaves, the dis¬ 
 ease results in leaf blast. Symptoms are elon¬ 
 gated or spindle-shaped leaf spots with grayish 
 
 113 
 
114 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEI’T. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Figure 39. —The long, narrow spots on the leaves and the 
 infection at the base of the panicle, which caused it to 
 break over, are typical symptoms of blast. (Photo cour¬ 
 tesy of G. E. Templeton.) 
 
 centers and brown margins. Under severe dis¬ 
 ease conditions, nearly all leaves are killed and 
 many young jilants are killed or severely dam¬ 
 aged. Young plants are also killed by infection 
 of the sheath tissues, which turn brown. Gener¬ 
 ally, all plants in a ricefield are not uniformly 
 ati'ected. In some areas the plants are killed, 
 but in others they are affected less severely. 
 The leaves are susceptible from the seedling 
 through the early-tillering stage of growth. Un¬ 
 der flooded soil conditions, the leaves are less 
 susceptible in the late-tillering stage of growth 
 and at heading. As a result, severely diseased 
 fields of young rice appear to recover later when 
 the plants become older and progress through 
 the vegetative growth stages. 
 
 Head blast, also called rotten neck, results 
 from the attack of the fungus after emergence 
 of the panicle (head) from the boot or top leaf 
 sheath. The peduncle (the top node and inter¬ 
 node) and the branches of the panicle are very 
 suscejitible to attack. Typically, the peduncle 
 shows a necrotic, brown area that prevents move¬ 
 ment of food into the developing grain. The 
 grain produced in affected panicles varies from 
 nearly normal amounts to none, depending on 
 the time of infection in relation to flowering. 
 As infection weakens the structural tissues of 
 the peduncle, the panicles frequently break over 
 to give the condition known as rotten neck. 
 
 Atmospheric moisture conditions are of pri¬ 
 mary importance in infection and spread of the 
 fungus that causes blast {19). Frequent rains, 
 heavy nightly dews, and high relative humidities 
 favor disease development. Severe outbreaks of 
 the disease occur after periods of rainy weather. 
 
 Rice plants under high levels of nitrogen fer¬ 
 tilization are susceptible to blast. Plants grow¬ 
 ing under nonflooded or upland conditions are 
 more susceptible than those growing under 
 flooded or irrigated conditions {19). For this 
 reason, blast is often heavier on the levees and 
 on or around knolls or other high areas in the 
 ricefield than it is on the low areas. 
 
 All United States rice varieties are susceptible 
 to one or more of the 10 pathogenic races of P. 
 oryzde known to occur in the southern rice area 
 {If.., 20). However, Rexoro, Texas Patna, and TP 
 49 usually escape infection because they are late 
 maturing. Under average field conditions. Blue¬ 
 bonnet 50 and Sunbonnet are less severely in¬ 
 fected than are several other varieties, and losses 
 are lighter. Arkrose, Caloro, Calrose, Colusa, ! 
 Nato, and Northrose are consistently susceptible, j 
 Gulf rose and Zenith are resistant to most races. ' 
 The reaction of 18 varieties to 10 races is given ’ 
 in table 20. ' 
 
 Brown Leaf Spot 
 
 Brown leaf spot of rice is caused by Flelm'm- 
 thosporium oryzae B. de Haan, the same fungus 
 that causes seedling blight. The spots occur 
 chiefly on the leaves but are frequently on the 
 hulls (fig. 40). The leaf spots are oval to cir¬ 
 cular and grayish brown to black. 
 
 Brown leaf spot is prevalent in the southern 
 rice area. Under good cultural conditions, dam¬ 
 age is slight on vigorous plants. Weak plants 
 with yellowish leaves, caused by low nitrogen 
 levels, root damage, or other factors unfavorable 
 for good nitrogen nutrition, are often severely 
 damaged by brown leaf spot. 
 
 All commercial rice varieties are susceptible to 
 brown leaf spot. Bluebonnet 50 is generally 
 more susceptible than are most other varieties. 
 Management and fertilizer practices that pro¬ 
 mote good growth reduce losses. 
 
 
 Narrow Brown Leaf Spot 
 
 Narrow brown leaf spot in rice, caused by the j 
 fungus Cercospora on'yzae I. Miyake, is one of 
 the most prevalent rice diseases in the southern 
 rice area. The leaf spots are narrow or linear 
 and light to dark brown (fig. 41). When se¬ 
 vere, the leaves die, one after another, beginning 
 with the lower leaves. In most seasons, infec¬ 
 tion does not become severe until late August or 
 September. Early-maturing rice varieties, when 
 sown early, tend to escape heavy infection. 
 
 Rice varieties show marked differences in sus¬ 
 ceptibility. Several pathogenic races or strains 
 of C. oryzae occur in the United States {23). 
 Bluebonnet 50, Rexoro, and Texas Patna are 
 susceptible varieties. Under average field con¬ 
 ditions, Century Patna 231, Gulfrose, Nato, Toro, 
 and TP 49 are fairly resistant. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 115 
 
 Fable 20.—Reaction of rice varieties to the races of Piricularia oryzae Gav. in the United States 
 _ lIv = resistant; MR = moderately resistant; S = susceptible] 
 
 Grain type and variety 
 
 Short-grain ; 
 
 Caloro_ 
 
 Cody_ 
 
 Colusa_ 
 
 Medium-grain: 
 
 Arkrose_ 
 
 Calrose_ 
 
 Gulfrose_ 
 
 Magnolia_ 
 
 Xato_ 
 
 North rose_ 
 
 Zenith_ 
 
 Long-grain : 
 
 Belle Patna_ 
 
 Bluebonnet 50_ 
 
 Century Patna 231 
 
 Rexoro_ 
 
 Sunbonnet_ 
 
 Texas Patna_ 
 
 Toro_ 
 
 TP 49_ 
 
 Race 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 MR 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 K 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 MR 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 S 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 S ' 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 R 
 
 R 
 
 Figuke 40.—Oval to circular lesions on rice leaves are 
 symptoms of brown leaf spot. 
 
 Figure 41.—Linear lesions on rice leaves are symptoms of 
 narrow brown leaf spot. 
 
 Root Rot 
 
 Koot rot of rice is a general diseased condi¬ 
 tion in which the roots grow poorly, darken with 
 necrosis, or die. As decay progresses, the leaves 
 cease to grow normally and turn yellow. Af¬ 
 fected plants generally show heavy brown leaf 
 
IIG 
 
 AGRICULTURE IIAXDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 spot because of their inipairect physiological 
 condition. 
 
 Several soil fungi may cause root rot. Damage 
 is more severe when nematodes and. root mag¬ 
 gots feed on the roots. Plants growing in saline 
 soil and alkali spots in fields are also affected. 
 
 Losses from root disorders can be held to a 
 minimum through good cultural and fertilizing 
 practices that maintain the plants in a vigorous 
 condition. Draining the field and permitting the 
 soil to dry stimulates growth of new roots. For 
 many years growers have used this practice to 
 control root maggots and straighthead in con¬ 
 junction with topdressing ajiplications of nitro¬ 
 gen. 
 
 Seedling Blight 
 
 Fungi in the soil and on or in the seed cause 
 seedling blight of rice (fig. 42). These fungi 
 reduce emergence and kill or weaken fhe planf 
 after emergence. Low soil temperature and high 
 soil moisture, combined with seedborne fungi, or 
 combinations of the two, make stand establish¬ 
 ment difficult. 
 
 Satisfactory stands are generally obtained 
 through use of good-quality seed treated with a 
 fungicide and seeded under conditions favor¬ 
 able for rapid emergence. Atkins, Cralley, and 
 Chilton (7) reported that thiram, chloranil, 
 dichlone, and a number of organic mercui'ys gave 
 best results. Seedling blight caused by Helm'm- 
 fho.spor'ntm oryzae —the fungus that causes 
 brown leaf spot—can be partly controlled by 
 using one of the mercury fungicides. Each of 
 the chemicals listed is available in different 
 preparations. 
 
 WARNING 
 
 The materials recommended here for treating rice 
 seed should be considered poisonous to man and ani¬ 
 mals. Care should be taken in handling and using 
 them. Read the label placed on each container by the 
 manufacturer and follow his instructions regarding 
 safety measures. All workmen operating seed-treating 
 equipment should be carefully taught how to use the 
 chemicals and should be warned against carelessness. 
 Sacks of treated seed should always be properly la¬ 
 beled. Care should be taken to prevent any treated 
 seed from being used as food or feed. 
 
 Stem Rot 
 
 'Fhe stem rot fungus Lepiospluierki sahnnii 
 Ciitt. {^Sclerofhim oryzae Catt.) lives in the soil 
 as sclerotia from one season to another up to 6 
 years {SO) (fig. 48). Typically, rice plants are 
 attacked in the advanced-growth stages. Ini¬ 
 tially, the fungus invades the sheath tissues near 
 the water level and produces dark areas. The 
 
 
 
 Figure 42.—Three blighted rice seedlings and, at right, , 
 a healthy seedling. 
 
 Figure 43.—Rice culms showing sclerotia of the stem 
 rot fungus. (Photo courtesy of G. E. Templeton.) 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES: VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 117 
 
 fiinjrus progresses inward to the cnlni. The 
 nodes and internodes turn dark and weaken. 
 Many of the plants lodge because of rotten culms. 
 The plants are weakened or killed before ma¬ 
 turity. Little grain is produced and its quality 
 is reduced. 
 
 None of the rice varieties are highly resistant 
 to stem rot {IJf.). Rexoro is perhaps the most 
 susceptible variety. Some of the medium-grain 
 varieties are resistant or intermediate in reaction. 
 The early-maturing varieties tend to escape se¬ 
 vere damage if seeded early. High rates of 
 nitrogen fertilizer increase the susceptibility of 
 plants to stem rot damage, but potassium fer¬ 
 tilizers reduce damage. 
 
 Straighthead 
 
 Straighthead, sometimes called blight, is a non- 
 parasitic or physiological disease of rice. Diag¬ 
 nostic symptoms are observed only in the panicles. 
 The panicles remain upright at maturity because 
 of lack of grain development (fig. 44) ; hence, 
 the common name of straighthead. The shape 
 of the palea and lemma, which later form the 
 hulls, is distorted, particuarly in the long-grain 
 varieties. It is similar to a parrot beak, crescent, 
 or half moon. Hull distortion may or may not 
 be conspicuous in the short- and medium-grain 
 varieties. 
 
 Straighthead is caused by unknown soil con¬ 
 ditions associated with prolonged submergence 
 of the soil with water. Undecayed organic ma¬ 
 terial and arsenic in the soil are also factors. In 
 
 general, rice grown on the lighter or sandy soils 
 is more subject to straighthead than rice grown 
 on the heavier clay soils. 
 
 For many years, ricegrowers have followed the 
 practice of draining and drying the soil to pre¬ 
 vent straighthead {27). The fields are drained, 
 dried, and reflooded just before panicle forma¬ 
 tion. This period is about 50 days after seedling 
 emergence for Century Patna 231, a susceptible, 
 early-maturing variety {13). However, the best 
 control measure is to use resistant varieties. 
 
 The numerous rice varieties have been classi¬ 
 fied as to straighthead reaction {6). Belle Patna, 
 Bluebonnet 50, Lacrosse, Texas Patna, and Toro 
 are resistant. Nato is intermediate in reaction 
 and is seldom affected. 
 
 White Tip 
 
 White tip of rice is caused by an ectoparasitic, 
 foliar nematode, Aphelenchoides hesseyi Christie 
 (fig. 45). The nematodes are seedborne and live 
 from one crop to the next in the seed rice. After 
 rice is sown, the nematodes become active and 
 move into the growing point of the young rice 
 plants. In this protected location, the nematodes 
 feed and reproduce. The feeding by large num¬ 
 bers of nematodes injures the developing leaves 
 and panicles before emergence. The injury is 
 later observed as white, necrotic leaf tips and 
 small, usually sterile panicles. Grain yields in 
 susceptible plants are greatly reduced. 
 
 Several methods may be used to control white 
 
 Figure 44.—Erect panicles with sterile florets are typi¬ 
 cal of rice plants affected with straighthead. 
 
 Figure 45. — Lelt, healthy rice panicle; right, panicle 
 affected with white tip. 
 
118 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 tip. Resistant varieties or nematode-free seed 
 may be sown. Cralley {15) and Todd and At¬ 
 kins {28) have described hot-water treatments 
 that control white tip very effectively. They are 
 not practical for general use. However, they 
 can be used by the rice experiment stations for 
 treating small lots of base seed used in founda¬ 
 tion seed programs. Emergence through water 
 following water seeding controls white tip {16). 
 This practice can also be used to clean up small 
 lots for seed production. 
 
 Several rice varieties are resistant to white tip 
 (table 1). In general, the long-grain varieties 
 are resistant and most of the short- and medium- 
 grain varieties are susceptible {12). Although 
 white tip was an economically important dis¬ 
 ease in the southern rice area for many years, it 
 is no longer important. 
 
 Minor Diseases 
 
 Bordered Sheath Spot 
 
 Bordered sheath spot in rice is caused by 
 Rhizoctoma oryzae Ryker & Gooch. The sheath 
 spots are large, 2 to 6 centimeters long, and fre- 
 (piently encircle the sheath. The margins of the 
 spots are reddish brown. During wet weather, 
 the leaves of rice plants in small areas, 2 to 6 
 feet in diameter, are killed by Rhizoctonia spp. 
 
 Hoja Blanca 
 
 Hoja blanca, or white leaf, is a virus disease 
 of rice that is transmitted by a planthopper, 
 Sogata orlzicola Muir. Leaf symptoms are one 
 or more white stripes along the leaf blade or a 
 whitening of the entire leaf blade (fig. 46). 
 Diseased plants are generally reduced in height. 
 
 Figure 46. —Rice leaves affected with hoja blanca. 
 
 The panicles are reduced in size and often fail 
 to emerge completely from the boot. The palea 
 and lemma are generally distorted in shape and 
 later turn brown. Most florets are sterile. Since 
 the diseased plants produce few, if any, seed, the 
 panicles remain upright instead of bending over 
 like those of normal plants (fig. 47). 
 
 Hoja blanca occurs only in the Western Hemi¬ 
 sphere. I^-eaf symptoms are similar to those of 
 the stripe virus disease of Japan, but the two 
 diseases differ {8). Hoja blanca was first recog¬ 
 nized as a new rice disease in 1956 {2). Severe 
 yield losses were reported from Cuba, Venezuela, 
 and other countries of Latin America. The dis¬ 
 ease and insect vector were found in 1957 in 
 Pdorida (J), in 1958 in southern Mississippi {10), 
 and in 1959 in Louisiana {11). An eradication 
 program was initiated after each finding of the 
 insect vector. In 1960 and 1961, neither the dis¬ 
 ease nor the insect vector was found in the south¬ 
 ern rice States. In 1962, A. orizicola was again 
 found and collected in southern Louisiana {!). 
 
 Yield losses from hoja blanca in the United 
 States have been negligible. Unless the disease 
 and insect vector become established and cause 
 economic losses, no control measures need be con- 
 
 Fiqube 47. —Rice panicles affected with hoja blanca. 
 
RICE IN THE UNITED STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 119 
 
 sidered b}' individual rice producers. Arkrose, 
 Colusa, and Gulf rose are resistant to hoja blanca. 
 
 Kernel Smut 
 
 Kernel smut of jdce is caused by one of the 
 smut fungi, Neovossiu harclayana Bref. {31). 
 Part or all of the endosperm is replaced by a 
 black mass of smut spores (fig. 48). One to sev¬ 
 eral grains per panicle are affected. Other plant 
 parts are not affected. The disease is easily over¬ 
 looked in the field. It can be seen when rains 
 wash the black spores over portions of the pani¬ 
 cle or when the smut spore mass expands between 
 the two hulls with absorption of moisture from 
 dew or rain. 
 
 The black smut spores germinate and produce 
 sporidia. When the rice flowers open at pollina¬ 
 tion, the sporidia enter. The fungus then invades 
 the developing grain, grows, and produces its 
 spores. Infection is not systemic in the rice 
 plant, as it is with several other cereal smut fungi 
 {2If.). Although the smut spores are seedborne 
 (that is, they are carried into a field along with 
 the seed), they are not directly responsible for 
 later smut infection. Kernel smut is more preva¬ 
 lent in rainy seasons and in fields receiving fairly 
 high rates of nitrogen fertilizer {25). Nitrogen 
 applied late in the season also increases the inci¬ 
 dence of kernel smut. 
 
 No satisfactory controls for kernel smut are 
 known at present. Seed treatment by chemicals 
 or hot water is ineffective. All long-grain varie¬ 
 ties are susceptible. Most of the medium-grain 
 
 Figubk 48.—Rice panicle with several florets affected by 
 
 kernel smut. 
 
 varieties, except Nato, generally show less kernel 
 smut. 
 
 Kernel Spots 
 
 Discolored or dark areas and spots occur on 
 the kernels of brown and milled rice. This ker¬ 
 nel discoloration is generally associated with 
 dark, discolored hulls. Curvularin lunata 
 (Wakk.) Boed., Fusarium spp., Altermiria spp., 
 Trichoconis caudata (Appel & Strunk) Clem- 
 ments, and Hehninthosporium oryzae are the 
 fungi most commonly isolated {29). Feeding 
 punctures of the immature grains by stink bugs 
 also cause kernel spots {17). 
 
 At the time of some of the earlier studies 
 {21., 26, 29), rice was binder harvested and 
 placed in shocks. The change in harvesting 
 methods from the binder to the combine has 
 probably reduced losses from kernel spots. 
 
 Leaf Smut 
 
 Leaf smut, caused by Entyloma oryzae H. & P. 
 Syd., is a common but minor rice disease in the 
 southern rice area (fig. 49). The disease may be 
 recognized by numerous, small, black sori on the 
 leaves. The disease becomes more prevalent as 
 the rice plants approach maturity. 
 
 Figube 49.—Leaf smut on rice leaves. 
 
120 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (1) Anonymous 
 
 1962. INSECT CARRIER OF HO.TA BLANCA RICE DIS¬ 
 EASE REAPPEARS IN LOUISIANA. RiCO JOUF. 
 
 65(12) : 22. 
 
 (2) Adair, C. R., and Ingram, J. W. 
 
 1957. PLANS FOR THE STUDY OF HOJA BLANCA—A 
 NEW RICE DISEASE. Rice JouF. 60(4) : 12. 
 
 (3) Atkins, J. G. 
 
 1958. RICE DISEASES. U.S. Dept. AgF. FaFmei's’ 
 Bui. 2120, 14 pp. 
 
 (4) - 
 
 1962. PREVALENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF PATHO¬ 
 GENIC RACES OF PIRICULARIA ORYZAE IN THE 
 UNITED STATES. Phytopathology 52: 2. 
 
 (5) -and Adair, C. R. 
 
 1957. RECENT DISCOVERY OF HOJA BLANCA, A NEW 
 BICE DISEASE IN FLORIDA, AND VARIETAL RE¬ 
 SISTANCE TESTS IN CUBA AND VENEZUELA. 
 
 Plant Dis. RptF. 41: 911-915. 
 
 (6) —-- Beachell, H. M., and Crane, L. E. 
 
 1956. REACTION OF RICE VARIETIES TO STRAIGHT- 
 HEAD. Tex. AgF. Expt. Sta. PFOg. Rpt. 
 1865, 2 pp. 
 
 (7) - Cralley, E. M., and Chilton, S. J. P. 
 
 1957. UNIFORM RICE SEED TREATMENT TESTS IN 
 ARKANSAS, LOUISIANA, AND TEXAS. Plant 
 
 Dis. RptF. 41: 105-108. 
 
 (8) - Goto, K., and Yasuo, S. 
 
 1961. COMPARATIVE REACTIONS OF RICE VARIETIES 
 TO THE STRIPE AND HOJA BLANCA VIRUS 
 DISEASES. Intei’nl. Rice Conin. Newsletter 
 10(4) : 5-8. 
 
 (9) - JODON, N. E., and Bollich, C. N. 
 
 1962. TE.STING AND BREEDING FOR BLAST-RESISTANT 
 RICE. La. Agr. 5(4) : 14-15. 
 
 (10) - Kramer, ,1. P., and Hensley, S. D. 
 
 1958. HOJA BLANCA AND ITS INSECT VECTOR FOUND 
 ON RICE IN A SECOND AREA IN THE UNITED 
 STATES. Plant Dis. Rptr. 42 : 1414. 
 
 (11) - Newsom, L. D., Spink, W. T., and othei-s. 
 
 1960. OCCURRENCE OF HOJA BLANCA AND ITS VEC¬ 
 TOR, SOGATA OBIZICOLA MUIR, ON RICE IN 
 
 LOUISIANA. Plant Dis. RptF. 44 : 390-393. 
 
 (12) -and Todd, E. H. 
 
 1959. WHITE TIP DISEASE OF RICE. III. Y'lELD 
 TESTS AND VARIETAL RESISTANCE. PliytO- 
 
 pathologj’ 49: 189-191. 
 
 (13) Cheaney, R. L. 
 
 1955. EFFECT OF TIME OF DRAINING OF RICE ON THE 
 PREVENTION OF STRAIGHTHEAD. TeX. AgF. 
 
 Expt. Sta. PFOg. Rpt. 1774, 5 pp. 
 
 (14) Cralley, E. M. 
 
 1936. RESISTANCE OF RICE VARIETIES TO STEM ROT. 
 
 Ark. AgF. Expt. Sta. Bui. 329, 31 pp. 
 
 (15) 
 
 (16) - 
 
 1956. A NEW CONTROL MEASURE FOB WHITE TIP. 
 
 Ark. Fai’m Res. 5(4) : 5. 
 
 (17) Douglas, W. A., and Titllis, E. C. 
 
 1950. INSECTS AND FUNGI AS CAUSES OF PECKY 
 BICE. U.S. Dept. AgF. Tech. Bui. 1015, 20 
 pp. 
 
 (18) Fulton, H. R. 
 
 1908. DISEASES AFFECTING RICE IN LOUISIANA. La. 
 AgF. Expt. Sta. Bui. 105, 28 pp. 
 
 (19) Kahn, R. P., and Libby, J. L. 
 
 1958. THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND 
 PLANT AGE ON THE INFECTION OF RICE BY 
 THE BLAST FUNGUS, PIRICULARIA ORYZAE. 
 
 Phytopathology 48: 25-30. 
 
 (20) Lattebell, Frances M., Tullis, E. C., and Col¬ 
 lier, ,1. W. 
 
 1960. PHYSIOLOGIC RACES OF PIRICULARIA ORYZAE 
 CAV. Plant Dis. Rptr. 44 : 679-683. 
 
 (21) Martin, A. L., and Alstatt, G. E. 
 
 1940. black kernel and white tip of rice. 
 Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 584, 14 pp. 
 
 (22) Metcalf, H. 
 
 1906. A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE BLAST OF 
 RICE WITH NOTES ON OTHER RICE DISEASES. 
 
 S.C. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 121, 48 pp. 
 
 (23) Ryker, T. C. 
 
 1943. PHYSIOLOGIC SPECIALIZATION IN CERCOSPORA 
 ORYZAE. Phytopathology 33 : 70-74. 
 
 (24) Templeton, G. E. 
 
 1961. LOCAL INFECTION OF RICE FLORETS BY THE 
 KERNEL SMUT ORGANISM, TILLETIA HORRIDA. 
 
 Phytopathology 51: 13()-131. 
 
 (25) - Johnston, T. H., and Henry, S. E. 
 
 1960. kernel smut of rice. Ark. Farm Res. 
 9(6) : 10. 
 
 (26) Tisdale, W. H. 
 
 1922. seedling blight and stack-burn of rice 
 
 AND THE HOT-WATER SEED TREATMENT. U.S. 
 
 Dept. Agr. Dept. Bui. 1116, 11 pp. 
 
 (27) -and Jenkins, J. M. 
 
 1921. STRAIGHTHEAD OF RICE AND ITS CONTROL. 
 
 U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bui. 1212, 16 
 
 pp. 
 
 (28) Todd, E. H., and Atkins, J. G. 
 
 1959. WHITE TIP DISEASE OF BICE. II. SEED TREAT¬ 
 MENT STUDIES. Phytopathology 49: 184- 
 188. 
 
 (29) Tullis, E. C. 
 
 1936. FUNGI ISOLATED FROM DISCOLORED RICE KER¬ 
 NELS. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 540, 11 
 
 pp. 
 
 (30) -and Cralley, E. M. 
 
 1941. LONGEVITY OF SCLEROTIA OF THE STEM-ROT 
 FUNGUS LEPTosPHAERiA sALviNii. Phyto¬ 
 pathology 31: 279-281. 
 
 (31) -and Johnson, A. G. 
 
 1952. synonymy of tillebtia horbida and neo- 
 vossiA BABCLAYANA. Mycologia 44: 773- 
 788. 
 
 1949. 
 
 WHITE TIP OF RICE. (Abstract) Phyto¬ 
 pathology 39: 5. 
 
INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 
 
 By Teavis Everett 
 
 Rice Water Weevil 
 
 Tlie rice water weevil {Lissorhoptrus ory- 
 zophilus Kiiscliel) occurs in most of the rice¬ 
 growing areas of the United States. The adult 
 weevil (fig. 50) is grayish brown and about one- 
 eighth inch long. It overwinters in finely matted 
 grasses growing in the vicinity of ricefields. In 
 the spring it migrates into the ricefields and 
 feeds on newly emerged plants, making slitlike, 
 longitudinal feeding scars on the upper surface 
 of the leaves. Eggs are laid in the leaf sheaths 
 of rice plants. Larvae feed on the roots of rice 
 plants and cause severe injury by pruning the 
 root system. The young larvae, or root maggots 
 as they are commonly called, are milky white, 
 legless, and about one-half inch long when fully 
 grown. 
 
 Since the immature stages of the rice water 
 weevil are spent entirely under water among the 
 rice roots, many of the larvae may be destroyed 
 by drainage {6)} However, this practice is not 
 recommended for controlling the root maggots 
 because it is unreliable and also impractical in 
 areas where water supplies are not abundant. 
 
 1 Italic numbers in parentheses refer to Selected Refer¬ 
 ences, p. 124. 
 
 The rice water weevil can be effectively con¬ 
 trolled with insecticides. 
 
 Rice Stink Bug 
 
 Practically all ricefields in Arkansas, Louisi¬ 
 ana, and Texas are infested with the rice stink 
 bug {Oehalus pugnax (Fabricius)). The adult 
 stink bug (fig. 51) is a straw-colored, shield¬ 
 shaped insect about one-half inch long. It passes 
 the winter as an adult in tlie refuse near the sur¬ 
 face of the ground in clumps of grass. It emerges 
 from winter quarters in the spring and feeds on 
 grasses and sedges. Two or three generations 
 may be produced there before it migrates to rice 
 soon after the rice begins to head. The eggs, 
 shaped like short cylinders, are deposited on the 
 leaves, stems, or heads of the rice, on grass, on 
 Mexican-weed, and on other weeds. The eggs 
 are usually laid in clusters of 10 to 40 in 2 rows. 
 
 FhGUBE 50.—Adult rice water weevil. 
 
 Figure 51.—Adult rice stink bug. 
 
 121 
 
122 
 
 AGRICULTURE HANDBOOK 289, U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 are ^jreeii when first laid, and change to reddish 
 black before hatching. The freslily hatched 
 nymph is nearly round, about II /2 millimeters 
 long and 1 millimeter wide. The head, thorax, 
 legs, and antennae are black; the abdomen is red 
 with two elongate black spots running crosswise. 
 The young stink bugs remain together near the 
 eggshells until after the first molt. Then they 
 seek separate feeding places, generally on grass 
 or on rice panicles, where they suck the juice 
 from the developing kernels. Feeding in the 
 milk stage of rice produces empty glumes, where¬ 
 as feeding in the soft-dough stage causes “pecki- 
 ness” of grain or seed sterility (4). 
 
 Since infestations build up on grasses earlier 
 in the season, control of grasses in the field and 
 mowing the areas around the field help reduce 
 the potential population for infesting rice. Two 
 hymenopterous egg parasites, Ooencyrtus anasae 
 (Ashm.) and Telenomus podisi Ashm., are at 
 times very helpful in reducing stink bug popu¬ 
 lations late in the season. 
 
 Grape Colaspis 
 
 The grape colaspis {Maecolaspis -flavida 
 (Say)), called lespecleza worm by ricegrowers, 
 sometimes reduces plant stands severely in Arkan¬ 
 sas and Louisiana {9). It passes the winter in 
 the young larval stage. In the spring the larvae 
 make their way toward the soil surface where 
 they feed on germinating seeds or seedlings. 
 Heavy infestations may reduce stands so severely 
 plat reseeding is necessary. The larvae pupate 
 in the soil and emerge as pale brown, elliptical 
 beetles about one-eighth inch long. Adults of 
 the grape colaspis lay their eggs in the soil 
 around the roots of grasses growing in lespedeza 
 or other leguminous crops. Rice planted follow¬ 
 ing these crops is subject to damage. 
 
 Other Pests of Rice 
 
 Several otner pests occasionally cause serious 
 damage to rice. 
 
 The rme leaf miner {Hydrellia griseola var. 
 scapvlasis Loew) is a pest of rice in California 
 (7). Maggots of this fly feed in the leaves of 
 young rice plants and destroy the leaf tissue. 
 Infested leaves turn brown and lie prostrate on 
 the water. This pest is seldom present in suffi¬ 
 cient numbers to warrant control measures. 
 
 Grasshoppers are found in nearly all ricefields, 
 but seldom are present in sufficient numbers to 
 cause severe damage (2). They feed on the 
 leaves, culms, and grain of rice. 
 
 Sporadic outbreaks of the fall armyw'orm 
 {^podoptera fnigiperda (J. E. Smith)) (fig. 52) 
 have been recorded at irregular intervals and in 
 
 Figure 52. —Fall army worm: A, Male moth; B, right 
 front wing of female moth; C, moth in resting posi¬ 
 tion ; D, pupa; E, full-grown larva. A, B, D, E about 
 X 2 ; C slightly enlarged. ' 
 
 widely separated localities. It feeds on leaves 
 and stems of unflooded rice. Submerging the 
 nee crop is usually effective in controlling this 
 insect. 
 
 The rice stalk borer [ChiJo plejadellus Zincken) 
 (fig. 53) and the sugarcane borer {Diatraea sac- 
 charalis (Fabricius)) (fig. 54) both occur in rice- 
 
 Figure 53.— Rice stalk borer: A, Adult; B, larva. 
 
 About X 3. 
 
 » 
 
 k 
 
KICE IN THE UNITFJ) STATES : VARIETIES AND PRODUCTION 
 
 123 
 
 Figure 54.—Adult female sugarcane borer. 
 
 fields in Louisiana and Texas (3). These borers 
 tunnel inside the stem throughout the growing 
 season and interfere with normal growth and 
 development of the plant. They may also weaken 
 the stem so that it breaks off or lodges before 
 harvest. Stalk borer damage is first noticeable 
 on the rice plant at time of heading when sterile 
 heads with white panicles, or white heads as they 
 are commonly called, appear. The eggs of both 
 species of borers are parasitized by tlie minute 
 wasp {Trichogramnia minutum Riley), which 
 helps reduce insect populations. Plowing under 
 rice stubble in the spring destroys some of the 
 overwintering borers. Grazing with cattle or 
 flooding rice stubble fields reduces the number of 
 hibernating borers. Ricefields should be separated 
 as far as possible from corn and sugarcane be¬ 
 cause these two crops serve as a breeding place 
 for the sugarcane borer. 
 
 The planthopper {Sogata orizicola Muir) is 
 potentially a very important pest of rice. It is 
 the only known vector of hoja blanca, the rice 
 disease that has become the scourge of rice pro¬ 
 duction in several Latin American countries. 
 S. orizicolu was first reported in the United 
 States in 1957. Although the planthopper was 
 found in Mississippi in 1958 and in Louisiana in 
 1959 (7) and in 1962, neither it nor the disease it 
 transmits has become established in the Lmited 
 States. Apparently the vector cannot survive the 
 cold weather that sometimes occurs in the rice¬ 
 growing areas of this country. 
 
 The chinch bug {Blissus leucoyterus (Say)) 
 (fig. 55) is present in Arkansas, Louisiana, and 
 Texas (3). It has entered ricefields in large 
 numbers and seriously injured the young rice 
 plants before they were submerged. Both adults 
 and nymphs attack rice. The feeding of bugs 
 causes the plants to wither and die. Chinch 
 bugs feed mainly on the stems, just above the 
 surface of the ground. They may be controlled 
 by submerging the infested field. The insects 
 spend the winter in dry grass, straw, and other 
 material that affords them shelter. Plowing un¬ 
 der such material in the fall or winter reduces 
 
 ^ ^ ^ A 
 
 ^ iff IT * 
 
 Figure 55. —Chinch bugs. Enlarged. 
 
 the number of bugs emerging the following 
 spring. 
 
 The tadpole shrimp {Triops longicaudatus 
 (LeConte)), although not an insect, is sometimes 
 a pest in California {10). Damage occurs shortly 
 after fields are flooded and when eggs laid in 
 fields the previous year hatch. Shrimp larvae 
 at first feed on organic matter in the soil; but 
 as they mature, they dislodge and feed on young 
 rice plants. The shrimp matures in 8 to 10 days 
 and may produce a second generation. 
 
 For information on the insecticides currently 
 recommended for control of rice insects, consult 
 your county agent. State agricultural experiment 
 station, or the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 
 Washington, D. C. 20250. 
 
 PRECAUTIONS 
 
 Insecticides are poisonous. Use them only 
 when needed and handle them with care. Fol¬ 
 low the directions and heed all precautions on 
 the container label. Insecticides should be kept 
 in closed, well-labeled containers, in a dry place 
 where they will not contaminate food or feed 
 and where children and pets cannot reach them. 
 Avoid repeated or prolonged contact with skin 
 and inhalation of dusts and mists. Methyl 
 parathion and phosphamidon should be applied 
 only by persons experienced in handling and ap¬ 
 plying poisonous chemicals. Operators exposed 
 to sprays containing methyl parathion and phos¬ 
 phamidon should wear half masks equipped with 
 cartridges of a type approved by the U.S. De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture. Wear clean, dry cloth¬ 
 ing, and wash hands and face before eating or 
 smoking. Wlien handling concentrates, avoid 
 spilling them on the skin and keep them out of 
 the eyes, nose, and mouth. If any is spilled, 
 wash it off the skin and change clothing immedi¬ 
 ately. If it gets in the eyes, flush with plenty 
 
124 
 
 AGRICULTURE IIAXDHOOK 2 8 9, U.S. DEI>T. OF AGRICULTURE 
 
 of water for 15 minutes and frei medical atten¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Avoid drift of insecticide sprays or dusts to 
 nearby crops, livestock, or bee yards. Sprays or 
 dusts applied by airplane and other power equip¬ 
 ment are especially likely to drift. Do not allow 
 poultry, dairy animals, or meat animals to feed 
 on plants or drink water contaminated by drift 
 of insecticides. Do not clean spraying equipment 
 or dump excess spray material near streams, 
 lakes, or ponds. 
 
 Do not apply— 
 
 Aldrin or malathion within 7 days before 
 harvest. 
 
 Carbaryl (Sevin) ^ within 14 days before 
 harvest. 
 
 Methyl parathion within 15 days before har¬ 
 vest. 
 
 Phospharnidon within 21 days before harvest. 
 
 Dieldrin within 30 days before harvest. 
 
 Do not apply DDT to rice after heads start 
 to form. 
 
 Do not feed rice straw to dairy animals or ani¬ 
 mals being finished for slaughter if the rice straw 
 has been treated with DDT, phospharnidon, or 
 toxaphene. 
 
 Do not feed rice straw to livestock if the rice 
 straw was treated with aldrin within 30 days of 
 harvest or with dieldrin within 20 days of harvest. 
 
 2 Sevin should not be applied to rice that has been or 
 will be treated with DPA herbicide. 
 
 Selected References 
 
 (1) Atkins, J. G., Newsom, L. D., Spink, W. T., and 
 others. 
 
 OCCURRENCE OK HOJA BLANCA AND ITS INSECT 
 VECTOR, SOGATA ORIZICOLA MUIR, ON RICE IN 
 
 LOUISIANA. Plant Dis. Rptr. 44 : 390-393. 
 (2) Bowling, C. C. 
 
 1960. CONTROL OK RICE STINKBUGS AND GRASSHOP¬ 
 PERS ON RICE. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta. Prog. 
 Rpt. 2132, 6 pp. 
 
 (3) Douglas, W. A., and Ingram, J. W. 
 
 1942. RICE FIELD insects. U.S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 
 632, 32 pp. 
 
 (4) -and Tullis, E. C. 
 
 1950. INSECTS AND FUNGI AS CAUSES OF PECKY 
 RICE. U.S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bui. 1015, 20 
 
 pp. 
 
 (5) Grigarick, a. a., Lange, W. H., and Finfrock, 
 D. C. 
 
 1961. CONTROL OF THE TADPOLE SHRIMP, TRIOPS 
 LONGICAUDATUS, in CALIFORNIA RICE FIELDS. 
 
 Jour. Econ. Ent. 54 : 36-40. 
 
 (6) IsELY, Dwight, and Schwardt, H. H. 
 
 1934. THE RICE water WEEVIL. Ark. Agr. Expt. 
 Sta. Bui. 299, 44 pp. 
 
 (7) Lange, W. H., Jr., Ingebretsen, K. H., and Davis, 
 L. L. 
 
 1953. RICE LEAF MINER. Calif. Agr. 7(8) : 8-9. 
 
 (8) PORTMAN, R. F., and Williams, A. H. 
 
 1952. CONTROL OF MOSQUITO LARVAE AND OTHER 
 PESTS IN RICE FIELDS BY DDT. Jour. Econ. 
 
 Ent. 45: 712-716. 
 
 (9) Rolston, L. H., and Rouse, Phil. 
 
 1960. CONTROL OF GRAPE COLASPIS AND RICE WATER 
 WEEVIL BY SEED OR SOIL TREATMENT. Ark. 
 
 Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 624, 10 pp. 
 
 (10) Rosenberg, L. E. 
 
 1947. APUS AS A PEST IN CALIFORNIA RICE FIELDS. 
 
 Calif. Dept. Agr. Bui. 36(2) : 42-48. 
 
 ☆ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRI N T I NG OFF ICE : 1966 -O 780—396 
 


 
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