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 United States Department of AgricultuM®*'^^^’ 
 
 OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS—Circular No. 50. 
 
 A. C. TRUE, Director. 
 
 
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 PRELIMINARY PLANS AND ESTIMATES FOR DRAINAGE OF FRESNO 
 t DISTRICT, CALIFORNIA.! 
 
 By C. G. Elliott, Agent and Expert, Irrigation Investigatio7ts. 
 
 THE OBJECT OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 The object of the investigations made by the Office “of Experiment 
 |; Stations of the Department of Agriculture in the vicinity of Fresno, 
 
 I Cal., during the summer of 1902, was to secure data from which plans 
 
 •I 
 
 Ij'lifor the drainage of surplus underground water could be intelligently 
 ill made. The necessity for such drainage has been forced upon the 
 
 II attention of all observing fruit growers and vineyardists. The facts are 
 patent To everyone, but the particular remedy to be applied has not 
 
 ll'ibeen so clear by reason of the extent of territory involved, the surface 
 jllpand soil conditions peculiar to the section, and the elaborate improve- 
 llljlments which have become an essential part of the Fresno surroundings. 
 j|p|l|||!j All of these and possibly other conditions must be taken into consid- 
 jS erati in the development of any practical drainage plan. 
 
 The facts which emphasize the necessity of drainage and the difficul- 
 }ji||||i|it^ to be met in securing it may be briefly enumerated. The lower 
 jj|j||iji soil which formerly was dry and afforded ready drainage for water 
 III lip leaking from irrigating canals and that furnished by overirrigation of 
 liliillands which they serve, has become filled with water which shows at 
 Jjliyithe surface in the lower areas and at varying heights in the soil over 
 
 HHlillthe entire tract of cultivated land. This water table or plane of satu- 
 
 n*r!' 
 
 ijjjlljiration is not infrequently found within 2 feet of the surface, though 
 
 i|jlil|its height is variable during the growing season. The effect of this 
 
 Ijpcondition is to injure growing crops in two ways. First, by reason of 
 
 ipian excess of water in the soil, which is everywhere and at all times a 
 
 |j!|i;:hindrance to the proper growth and development of useful plants. It 
 
 lljiTots the roots of trees and vines and limits the productive depth of the 
 
 jilljsoil to that portion lying between the water table of the soil and the 
 
 ■‘*1!ilj.fe'Surface, thus cutting off a large part of the available fertility peculiar 
 1 11 iy* 
 
 i||j|ji{|to the soil of this district. Second, by reason of the excess of alkali 
 
 j !This report is based on surveys and plans made in 1902 by Prof. O. V. P. 
 :llllljpl|Stout, agent and expert, under the direction of Prof. Elwood Mead, Chief of 
 ||l|{||jj[rrigation Investigations, and is preliminary to a more complete report to be 
 ade hereafter. 
 
which the abundance of water has dissolved from the soil and which, 
 through the process of evaporation, has become concentrated at or near 
 the surface. This deposit has not been made in one or two years only, 
 but is the result of successive annual accumulations until in many 
 localities entire vineyards have })een destroyed and others are in the 
 various stages of decline. That the evil is growing and threatens the 
 final destruction of thousands of acres of valuable vineyard land is 
 shown by the observations and opinions of the most careful cultivators. 
 
 WILL DRAINAGE BE BENEFICIAL? 
 
 That drainage will remedy the evils mentioned, and particularly that 
 it will arrest the inroad of alkali and furnish a means for the reclama¬ 
 tion of land already injured from this cause, has been shown in many 
 publications of the Bureau of Soils of this Department and of the 
 California Experiment Station. The following local instances of the 
 beneficial effects of lowering the soil water are instructive in this 
 connection: 
 
 Land which adjoins deep drainage channels, as the Selma Ditch or 
 Kings River at Reedley, or land which occupies the higher portions of 
 the cultivated area is comparatively free from surface alkali. The 
 example found in what is known as the Selma Sand Hollow, a name 
 which is frequently used in referring to the most pronounced of the 
 ranges of depressions which are embraced in the area surveyed, located 
 in T. 16 S., 'R. 22 E., furnishes a striking illustration of the success of 
 drainage experiments. About fifteen years ago a number of interested 
 land owners became alarmed at the rise of the ground water in that 
 locality and combined in making this depression continuous by exca¬ 
 vating through the low, short bars which separated the ponds from one 
 another, thereby providing cheaply a drainage channel which has been 
 in effective operation ever since. The deep tule ponds situated in 
 various localities contain an abundance of seepage water which is 
 derived from land adjoining them and act as drainage receptacles 
 giving, for the present at least, satisfactory drainage of the soil. As a 
 rule the more level lands and those which lie farthest down the slope 
 are those which suffer most from the effects of alkali. 
 
 I 
 
 EXTENT AND RESULTS OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 The survey made by the Office of Experiment Stations in the Fresno 
 district was confined to a study of the engineering problems involved 
 in the proper drainage of this region, and its results are intended to 
 show what may be done to alleviate similar difficulties in irrigated 
 regions where like conditions are found. 
 
 The survey made during the summer and fall of 1902 covered a terri¬ 
 tory of 300 square miles, and was made for the purpose of determining 
 the surface slopes, investigating the position and kind of hardpan, the 
 
lO-vio.50 
 
 ^ plane of subsoil water, the action of existing drains, and the character 
 
 of such drainage water as could be obtained. Much information bear¬ 
 ing upon the problem was obtained and is used in forming conclusions 
 f relating to the value and methods of drainage. 
 
 The territory demanding the most urgent and immediate drainage is 
 that lying directly south and southwest of the city of Fresno, compris¬ 
 ing about 28 square miles of highly cultivated vineyard land, or that 
 which has been such. The surface slopes westerly, and in some instances 
 southwesterly, about 5 feet per mile. The main irrigating canals extend 
 in the direction of the greatest slope and parallel each other at intervals 
 of from three-quarters to one and one-half miles. There is no drainage 
 outlet nearer than the Fresno Slough, which is 15 miles distant, south¬ 
 westerly from the city of Fresno. The district for which surveys and 
 estimates have been made is bounded as follows: Beginning at the 
 intersection of California and Chestnut avenues, which is the northeast 
 corner of the district; thence westerly along California avenue; thence 
 southwesterly on the south side of the ridge to Cornelia and Fresno 
 avenues; thence south on Cornelia avenue to Washington avenue; 
 thence east on Washington avenue, across the Southern Pacific and 
 Santa Fe railroads to the southeast corner of sec. 32,‘T. 14 S., R. 21 E.; 
 thence north on the east line of secs. 32 and 29 to North avenue ; thence 
 west to Chestnut; thence north on Chestnut to California avenue, the 
 place of beginning. 
 
 DEPTH AND FREQUENCY OF DRAINS. 
 
 From investigations made here and elsewhere relative to the drainage 
 of irrigated land which has become wet by seepage, it is learned that 
 shallow drains, b 3 " which are meant those from 2 to 3j feet deep, do not 
 prevent the rise of alkali to the surface, nor in many cases make the 
 land sufficiently^ dry for the most profitable cultivation. A depth of 
 from 5 to 7 feet for main drains, it is believed, will lower the water line 
 to such a point that the accumulation of alkali at the surface will cease; 
 and when once the surface excess is disposed of by the well-known 
 methods of irrigation and cultivation, the land will be permanently 
 restored. 
 
 The distance apart at which the drains should be placed is one-half 
 mile in east and west parallel lines. At this distance they will be acces¬ 
 sible to owners of land on either side without great difficulty; and fur¬ 
 ther, it is believed that they will reduce the water level uniformly over 
 the entire area with the exception of such portions as have a persistent 
 hardpan stratum at a depth less than that of the drains. 
 
 GENERAL PLANS. 
 
 While the depth and distance apart at which it is wise to place the 
 main drains are quite clear, as determined by examinations so far made, 
 
 P 40195. 
 
there may be a choice of the kind of drains which it would be proper to 
 use for the main drainage. Underdrains constructed of draintile have 
 been sufficiently well tested at Fancher Creek Nursery and Sunnyside 
 Vineyard to prove that soil water will readily reach them and flow away 
 when an outlet is provided; and further, that they will reduce the water 
 level to a level approaching that of the floor level of the drains for a 
 distance not j^et determined. Deep, open ditches, when kept in good 
 condition, will relieve adjacent land of seepage and drainage water. 
 In either system the water must be disposed of constantly and not per¬ 
 mitted to accumulate and back up in the drains, thereby raising the 
 water line in the soil between them and partially defeating the object 
 of their construction. ' 
 
 PLAN NO. 1.— OPEN-DRAINAGE SYSTEM. 
 
 The open system for the district described must have an intercepting 
 outlet drain at the west which will receive and carry all water coming 
 from the district in a southwesterly direction toward Fresno Slough. It 
 should begin at the west side of sec. 17, T. 14, R. 20, extend southwest¬ 
 erly, as shown upon the map, in the direction of the greatest slope of 
 the land a distance of 6 miles, having a full depth of 7 feet; then with 
 a grade of Ij feet per mile for 2 miles, until the water is discharged 
 upon the surface of the ground at a point 40 feet lower than the surface 
 of the land where it started. This drain should be 12 feet wide on the 
 bottom, with side slopes of 1 to 1 for the entire distance. It may be 
 added that this ditch will be in line to receive drainage from the city of 
 Fresno, as well as from the district. 
 
 The drains for the district will consist of eight parallel, open drains, 
 one-half mile apart, extending from the eastern boundary of the district 
 directly west to the intercepting drain. They will have an average grade 
 of 5 feet per mile; will be from 5 to 8 feet deep, 4 feet wide on the bot¬ 
 tom, side slope of 1 to 1, and not less than 20 feet wide across the top. 
 They will be constructed on one side of the avenues or roads, the 
 excavated earth being thrown into the road and made into an embank¬ 
 ment next to the property line. Where the ditches cross roads, bridges 
 must be built; where they intersect irrigating canals, drains may be 
 carried underneath by boxing or sewer pipe; where they come in front 
 of and cut off entrance to private property, bridges must be built or the 
 drain must be boxed and covered. Where the ditches cross railroad 
 lines, large cast-iron culvert pipes may be used. All of these contin¬ 
 gencies must be provided for as well as the cost of right of way, where, 
 in some cases, the ditches do not follow roads. 
 
 The carrying out of this plan will involve the construction of 8 miles 
 of intercepting outlet ditch and 65j miles of interior or lateral ditches. 
 The estimate of the cost of this work, including bridges, right of way 
 
5 
 
 I 
 
 where public roads do not exist, organizing, legal and other expenses 
 
 may be stated as follows: 
 
 Estimate for open drains. 
 f INTERCEPTING OUTLET. 
 
 6 miles of ditches, bottom width 2 feet, depth 7 feet—25,977 cubic 
 
 yards per mile at 15 cents_ $23,379.00 
 
 1 mile of ditch, bottom width 12 feet, depth 5 feet—16,579 cubic 
 
 yards at 10 cents_ 1,658.00 
 
 1 mile of ditch, bottom width 12 feet, depth 3 feet—8,817 cubic 
 yards at 10 cents___ 882.00 
 
 25,919.00 
 
 LATERAL DRAINS. 
 
 [Estimate per mile.] 
 
 Average depth 7 feet, bottom 4 feet, side slopes 1 to 1— 
 
 15,048 cubic yards at 15 cents_$2,257.00 
 
 2 highway bridges at $75_ 150.00 
 
 6 farm entrance bridges at $50_ 300.00 
 
 2,707.00 
 
 _ 177,308.00 
 
 _ 1,150.00 
 
 _ 6,500.00 
 
 _ 3,563.00 
 
 214,440.00 
 
 Organization, engineering, superintendence, etc., 10 per cent_ 21,444.00 
 
 Total_____ 235,884.00 
 
 The construction difficulties which will be encountered in the execu¬ 
 
 tion of this plan are of a somewhat uncertain nature. It will be neces¬ 
 sary to make the excavations during the fall and early winter wffien 
 the soil w^ater is at its lowest stage. The intercepting ditch can proba¬ 
 bly be constructed with a floating dredge more expeditiously and 
 cheaply than by any other mrethod for the reason that sufficient water 
 will likely be developed for floating the machine, in which case the 
 work can be done at any season of the year. The parallel ditches may 
 probably be made either wholly or in part by dry-land machines. A 
 part of this work, however, will consist of the proper placing of the 
 excavated earth in the form of road embankments. Hardpan will be 
 an undetermined factor in the work, as will also spots of water-bearing 
 soil or quicksand. 
 
 The careful cleaning and care of these ditches will be essential to 
 their efficiency for they must be kept clear and in condition to permit 
 a ready flow of water over the bottom at all times. The loose character 
 of the soil and the rapid growth of vegetation will make this a w^ork 
 requiring constant vigilance. 
 
 PLAN NO. 2.— COVERED OR TILE-DRAIN SYSTEM. 
 
 The tile-drain system will not require the open intercepting drain as 
 an outlet. For this system the territory is divided into 18 subdistricts. 
 
 65i miles at $2,707_ 
 
 23 boxed crossings for irrigation canals at $50 
 
 Railroad-iron pipe culverts_ 
 
 Right of way 23f acres at $150_ 
 
averaging in size from 800 to 1,700 acres. Lines of tile ranging from 8 
 inches to 22 inches in diameter are laid in parallel lines along the ave¬ 
 nues corresponding to the system described for open ditches. The 
 ditches do not cross irrigation canals, except in a few instances. The 
 discharge from the drains is received in a sump located near a canal, 
 and is then lifted into it by a plant consisting of a suitable pump 
 operated by an oil engine. The quantity of water which the drains are 
 designed to carry and the pumps to lift is 2J cubic feet per second for 
 each square mile. The drains will be laid 7 feet deep, their size being 
 proportioned to the area which may be drained into the separate lines. 
 For the purpose of making the drains accessible, so that they may be 
 kept free from silt and roots, manholes constructed of redwood lumber, 
 2‘i by 4 feet, reaching 18 inches below the flow line of the drain, are 
 placed at intervals of 400 or 500 feet. The necessity for this provision 
 is quite apparent from an inspection of tile drains which have been laid 
 in the vicinity. Local experience is that if the drains be laid 16 feet 
 distant from a line of trees or vines but little difficulty from roots enter¬ 
 ing drains would be found. But this condition can not be met in this 
 system of drains; so that it will be necessary to make ample provision 
 for the constant scouring of the drains. They should be laid upon a 
 board bed, and provision has been made for this in the estimates. No 
 provision is made in the estimate for the purchase of right of way for 
 drains, since any inconvenience or loss resulting to land during construc¬ 
 tion will be more than compensated for by reason of the proximity of 
 the drains to the fields of the owners who will be inconvenienced. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF COST. 
 
 The newness of this class of work here, and the difficulty of getting 
 at the probable prices at which large drain tile can be obtained, give an 
 uncertainty to the estimate for this plan. In this estimate the cost of 
 pumping plant, manholes, material, labor, organization, legal fees, engi¬ 
 neering, and superintendence have been provided for; also, a liberal 
 price has been allowed for excavation because of the unknown and 
 indeterminate part which hardpan and caving soil will play in the con¬ 
 struction work. 
 
 The following units of cost have been used in making the estimate 
 of the cost of the execution of Plan No. 2: 
 
 Coat of tile drains per lineal foot. 
 
 
 SIZE OF TIEE. 
 
 
 8-ineh. 
 
 10-ineh.i 
 
 12-ineh. 
 
 14-inch. 
 
 IG-inch. 
 
 18-inch. 
 
 20-inch. 
 
 22-inch. 
 
 Cost of tile at Fresno_ 
 
 Other costs _ 
 
 Cents. 
 
 m 
 
 Idi 
 
 Cents. 
 
 20l 
 
 Cents. 
 
 27 
 
 21 i 
 
 Cents. 
 
 40 
 
 23l 
 
 Cents. 
 
 50 
 
 231 
 
 Cents. 
 
 GO 
 
 252 
 
 Cents. 
 
 70 
 
 292 
 
 Cents. 
 
 85 
 
 33 
 
 Total_ 
 
 321 
 
 422 
 
 481 
 
 G3l 
 
 732 
 
 852 
 
 992 
 
 118 
 
 
7 
 
 Cost of manholes, estimated at I j cents per lineal foot drain; sumps 
 at pumping stations, $90 each; pumping plants, $1,200 for the smaller 
 and $1,600 for the larger subdistricts. To the total cost of construction 
 5 per cent is added to cover incidental expenses, such as organization, 
 engineering, etc., which can not be itemized but which are a legitimate 
 and necessary part of the cost of the completed work. 
 
 Under this plan the subdistricts are designed and estimated as units 
 of the whole and the cost per acre of the territory included in each 
 does not in any way depend upon that of an adjoining suhdistrict. 
 Striking an average of the several subdistricts, the cost per acre is 
 estimated at $14.16. In this system all drains are of tile, and labor 
 and material estimated at present quotations. While the cost varies 
 somewhat for the different subdistricts, this may be regarded as a 
 fairly accurate estimate under existing conditions of values. There 
 will be approximately sixty miles of drains, making it a work of such 
 magnitude that it will enlist the best efforts of contractors. Each of 
 the separate subdistricts will require from 10,000 to 31,000 feet of 
 draintile, ranging from 8 to 22 inches in diameter. With respect to 
 the estimates of the cost of both plans it should be said that a more 
 minute canvass and examination of all the details will probably result 
 in a reduction of the estimates. It is intended to present the case 
 fairly and to name figures that will cover the cost. In the considera¬ 
 tion of new work for which there is no local price established the 
 tendency is to underestimate rather than otherwise. A cost of from 
 $13 to $14 an acre on all land included within the limits of a district 
 containing from 17,000 to 20,000 acres maj^ be regarded as an outside 
 estimate with a reasonable prospect of the final cost being 20 per cent 
 less. 
 
 COMPARISON OF THE TWO PLANS. 
 
 Plan No. 1 disposes of water by gravity into a large intercepting 
 outlet constructed for the purpose which will discharge the water into 
 the flat leading into the Fresno Slough. Plan No. 2 gathers water into 
 sumps at convenient points by means of tile drains and discharges it 
 by suitable pumps into existing irrigation canals. In both instances 
 the lowering of the soil water is to be accomplished by parallel drains, 
 one-half mile apart and from 5 to 8 feet deep. In the former plan 
 land will be taken up by open ditches, and the}^ must be crossed by 
 irrigation canals, public and private roads, and railroads, and provision 
 must be made for constant repairs and cleaning. In the latter plan 
 no land need be provided nor bridges built and maintained, but ample 
 provision must be made for scouring the drains and for operating the 
 pumps. This expense where several subdistricts are operated under • 
 one management may be placed at 25 cents per acre annually. In 
 Plan No. 1 the work should be organized and executed as a unit and 
 possesses the advantage that each drain may be extended farther east 
 
I 
 
 8 
 
 and be made available for an extension of territory at anj^ time the 
 people may so desire. In Plan No. 2 as many subdistricts may be 
 formed into one district as desired and the work of each subdistrict be 
 complete in itself. The difference in the cost of the work under the two 
 plans as estimated is not enough to enter seriously into the discussion 
 of the plans, but as far as cheapness is concerned the chances are in 
 favor of the second. 
 
 THE EFFICIENCY OF THE TWO PLANS. 
 
 There seems to be no evidence to show that either open or closed 
 drains will fail to lower water in seeped soils. Experience in Colorado 
 with either kind of drains is satisfactory in that respect. Observations 
 upon the water line made in March, 1903, for a distance of Bj miles along 
 Fruit avenue indicate that the rise is mainly uniform at different points, 
 and that while these points do not form a straight line they readily 
 show that if drains were placed at the one-half-mile lines as directed in 
 the plans described, the water line would lower between them with as 
 great uniformity as it now rises when there is no drainage. It may be 
 said in favor of the open-drain system that the ditches are made large, 
 not because it is expected that the drainage to be provided for will 
 require their full capacity, but for reasons of construction and mainte¬ 
 nance. They can not be kept open unless they have sufficient bottom 
 width to permit workmen to readily clean them, and further, ample 
 bottom width will give room for some temporarj^ obstructions caused 
 by crumbling sides without wholly obstructing the ditch. For this 
 reason there will be but slight risk of overcharging the capacity of the 
 ditches. The capacity of the tile system will be limited to the amount 
 of drainage which it is computed to carry, which is, as before stated, 2^ 
 cubic feet per second for each square mile. 
 
 The data thus far secured regarding the quantity of water which 
 should be removed from the soil daily are not as complete and reliable 
 as could be desired. The only definite measurements upon the rise of 
 the water table were obtained in March, 1903, from test wells located 
 half a mile apart along Fruit avenue, beginning at Church avenue and 
 continuing south. The rise noted at the several wells at the end of 30 
 da 3 ^s was as follows: 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Well No. 1_ 18 
 
 Well No. 2_ 13 
 
 Well No. 3_ 1(3 
 
 Well No. 4_ 11 
 
 Well No. 5_ 171 
 
 Well No. 6_ 181 
 
 Well No. 7_ 15 
 
 From this record it appears that the daily rise during the month of 
 March was one-half inch, which is greater than information previously 
 
obtained had given reason to believe. Should this prove to be a fair 
 criterion for computing the capacity of the drainage channels required, 
 it may be found that the tile system will be overcharged. There are 
 indications, however, that the water in some localities passes downward 
 to lower levels through channels in the soil occurring at irregular inter¬ 
 vals so that drains which collect water from one locality may part with 
 it at another before it reaches the final outlet. 
 
 USE OF DRAINAGE WATER. 
 
 The water which will be developed by any drainage system may be 
 useful for irrigation whether delivered to a ditch provided especially for 
 the purpose or mingled with the water in the irrigation canals. From 
 the information thus far obtained it is believed that in this region such 
 waters may be safely used for irrigation. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 This is the case briefly stated. The attempt has been made to pre¬ 
 sent the facts gathered in such a manner that the conclusions reached 
 can be understood by all. The drainage of these lands is practicable, ^ 
 though not without difficulties. The worth of the product of the land, 
 together with its value for homes, makes it well worth the cost. The 
 land which has suffered greatest injury is that which is regarded most 
 highly for the cultivation of vines. The fertility of the soil is unques¬ 
 tioned. The use of expensive fertilizers will not be required. No serious 
 disadvantage attends the cultivation of this vineyard soil except its lack 
 of drainage. While this difficulty was unlooked for when the land was 
 first improved, it is not one which may not be overcome, nor will the 
 expense of the necessary work be greater than has been incurred for 
 similar improvements elsewhere on land much less valuable and which 
 is now considered by the owners a most profitable and satisfactory 
 investment. 
 
 Recommended for publication. 
 
 A. C. True, Director. 
 
 Publication authorized: 
 
 James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 Washington, D. C., April 16, 1903.