M . FI L.GO naL t EcoIoqcclI ‘Dis -tri b tri-io n 0-f flnimcL I Life, In /) jnc,GL,. ) I \ / * I ; THE ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL LIFE IN AFRICA BY VEDA FERN LEONARD A. B. University of Illinois 1919 THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS IN ZOOLOGY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1921 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS THE GRADUATE SCHOOL June o. 191TI I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY . Veda. Fern Leonard ENTITLED The Ecological Distribution of Animal Life ..in A f rica . BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR Recommendation concurred in* — Committee ' on Final Examination* ^Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s / y f if V* v. - -3- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page I. INTRODUCTION 3 II. COMMUNITIES A. Extreme Desert ------------------- 7 Sahara; Damara; Conclusions. B. Semi-Desert -------------------- 13 Angola Coast; Sudan Semi-Desert; Kalahari; Karoo; Atlas Intermont Plateaus; Conclusions. C. Steppe ----------------------- 32 Somaliland; Abyssino-Eritrean Foothills; Egyptian Su- dan; Hoogeveld; Gazaland and Mozambique; Conclusions. D. Alpine Steppe ------------------- 34 E. Savanna ---------------------- 36 Boschveld; Sudanese Savanna; Zambesi Basin and Unyam- wezi; East African Mountain Region; Conclusions. F. Deciduous Savanna-Forest -------------- 46 Drakenberg; Abyssinian Highlands; Light Forests and Parks; Conclusions. G. Temperate Evergreen Forest ------------- 54 Mediterranean Africa; South Cape of South Africa. H. Tropical Evergreen Forest ------------- 57 Guinea Coast; Congo Basin. III. Summary and General Conclusions ----------- 63 IV. Appendix of Scientific Names of Animals ------- 65 V. Acknowledgment and Bibliography ----------- 78 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/ecologicaldistriOOIeon - 3 - THE ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL LIFE IN AFRICA I. Introduction A thorough study of the ecological distribution of ani- mal life in Africa would involve many phases, such as the physiolo- gical condition of animals which determined their reactions, and a tabulation of all the habits which exhibited reactions to the environment. My study, however, has been restricted to a consider- ation of a few habits, v/hich, it is hoped, may show some of the responses of animal life to the plant and climatic influences surrounding it. The method of procedure has been to collect facts about animal life of Africa, and from these to select the ones which have the greatest ecological significance. These facts have been obtained from the works of numerous African travelers. (See Bibliography) . For the purpose of discussion, I have divided Africa arbitrarily into eight regions, distinguished by their type of vegetation and climate. These are Extreme Desert, Semi-desert, Steppe, Alpine Steppe, Savanna, Savanna-Forest , Temperate Ever- green Forest, and Tropical Evergreen Forest. These large regions in turn have been divided into areas, sometimes separated geo- graphically but similar in type of flora and climate. ■ My purpose has been to study the habits of the animals of these regions, to determine, when possible, the relationship between the factors, vegetation and climate, and (a) size of herd, (b) time of birth of young, (d) daily rhythm, and (d) social ten- dencies, as expressed in pure (homogeneous) and mixed groups. The survey of each region will follow approximately this outline: 1. Region 1) Climate a) Temperature (1) daily rhythm (2) annual rhythm b) Rainfall (1) daily rhythm (2) annual rhythm 3) Vegetation 3) Animals a) List of animals and habits 4) Local regions 5) General Statement The data on climate I have secured largely from Knox's "Climate of Africa"; that on plant and animal life from the books listed in the bibliography. The regions which have been occupied ' ■5 y ' |. a -5- long by the white man, have had their fauna and flora so modified that definite facts concerning original conditions are hard to obtain; this is particularly true of the Cape region and of North-west Africa, about Morocco, Algeria, and Tunis. The map is intended to indicate the location of the places mentioned, and the approximate extent of the plant -climatic regions. Explanation of Terms: After the animals listed I have used symbols which are to be interpreted as follows: 1. size of herd a - 1,-3 b - 3-10 c - 10-50 d - 50 or more 3. time of year when young are born a. 1st quarter ( January-March) b. 2nd quarter c. 3rd quarter d. 4th quarter f. any time 3. daily rhythm a. diurnal, active during the day. b. crepuscular, active about sunrise and sunset. c. nocturnal, active at night. - 6 - 4. social tendencies a. pure (homogeneous) herds b. mixed herds lb would then mean that the animal went about singly or in pairs; 3b, that the young were born between April and June, etc. The term "significant figures" applies when they have been obtained for 40 percent or more of the animals of a region. (See Table I). ■ . il — 7 “ II. COMMUNITIES A. Extreme Desert The desert is here defined to include regions having a- bout 254 mm. of rainfall annually, and a scattered xerophytic vege- tation. It consists roughly of two large regions, the Sahara and Damara deserts. 1 . Sahara a. Climate The Sahara is not an absolutely rainless region as it is sometimes supposed. In the North-central part rain falls usually in September, but it has also been reported in November and Decem- ber. In the Hoggar Highlands (9-9500 feet) rain falls only once in 3 - 4 years. In the Air region on the other hand rain usually falls between June and October, the amount and time both being var- iable. In the Adgar mountain region rains with tornadoes occur three to four times a year from May to the middle of August; it is very dry the rest of the year. Occasional tornadoes in the Southern Sahara may also bring rain in July and August; it is very dry otherwise. Due to the lack of moisture in the air, there is gener- ally a large daily variation in temperature as well as an annual one. A temperature of 50° C. is not uncommon in summer at midday, and 0° C. in winter at early morning. b. Vegetation The dearth of vegetation is due not only to such a cli- . ' - 8 - mate but also to the soil, which in some areas forms a rocky desert, in others a pebble or gravel surface, and in still others sand dunes. The vegetation of the desert proper consists largely of thorn bush and coarse grasses growing in the valleys or channels. In the northern part plants begin to grow in January, and are best from February to April, after which the sun burns up all but the deeper rooted forms. Plants include the agul, kharit bush, tamarisk, zilla, march, zygophyllum, cleome, acacias, Abyssinian aloe, and tabbes grass. In channels occur rank grass, rushes, and bushes. In rainy years may be found Leobordia, Pulicaria, Brochia, Forskalea, An- chusa. Reseda, and Lotus arabicus. The colocynth is a medicinal plant. Others here are 3enna, aromatic Artemesia, Calatropis tree, and Baernia cor data. At oases are coarse grass, thorn bushes, doum- and date- palms, sunt trees, and half a. c. Animals The mammals of this area include the fox (la), common fennec (la, 3c, 4a), hyrax (la), spiny mice, Egyptian jerboa (3c), sand mice (3a, 3c), broad-tailed jerboa (3c, 4a), and Barbary mouse . The birds of the Sahara include migrating buzzards, gold- en eagle, goshawk, Falco tinnunculus, F. fledeggi, hen-harrier, mountain swallow, desert lark, Bucanetes githagineus, Dromolaea leucura, Saxicola lugens, S. deserti, stone curlew, plover, desert oourser, Curaorius isabellinu3, ostrich, Capri mulgus aegyptius, Otis bubara, Merops apiaster', M. persicus, Drymoeca saharae. Cra- ter opus numidious, Calandritua brachydactyla. Reptiles are Eremias, Aoanthoclactylus, ground agamas, mountain monitors, snakes, Psammophis sibilans, Coelopeltis mon- spessularia, Zamenis hippocrepis, Lacerta pater, and Scincus offi- cinalis. Invertebrates include Cicindela, Copris, Onitis, Ateuchus sacer, Anthis sexmaculata, A. venator, Colias, Pieris, painted-lady butterflies, wild bees, Vespa and Eumenes (wasps), fleas, Psyche caterpillars and sand wasps. Eprepia pulchra, ants, flesh fly, hoverer fly, dragon fly, locusts, crickets, Empusa, mantis, hemip- tera, centrotus, bird spider, camel tick, poisonous tick, red water- mite, and a large scorpion are others. d. Local Regions. Oases The mammals at the oases are the Egyptian jackal (la, 3c), gray fox (la), hyaena (la, 3c), wolf, Loder ' 3 gazelle (3c), and hare (3c). Birds include the hoopoe, palm doves, sparrow Passer hispaniolensis, golden-crested crane, teal, jack-snipe, sandgrouse, wild pigeon, duck, quail, snipe, heron, marabou, black and white ibis, and geese. e. General Statement There are immense numbers of insects although the species are few. As a whole they cluster about the desert flowers and in ■ ‘ ' . - 10 - the more rocky parts where water is sometimes present. Locusts occur everywhere and at all seasons, but are much more numerous and destructive in some years than in others. Desert animals are chiefly nocturnal, and go about singly or in pairs. (Table I). The rodent group is prominent here, and one form, the jerboa, exhibits a physiological condition suited to desert life by becoming torpid in damp or rainy seasons. The frog, scorpion, and insects 3 how an opposite reaction and are torpid in dry sea- sons. 2. Damara Desert The other desert tract is the Damara desert on the west- ern coast of German South-west Africa. a. Climate The climate is characterized by a fairly even tempera- ture. At Swakopmund the mean daily temperature at 7 A. M. varies between 17 and 9.6° C. through the year; at 2 P. M. between 20.5 and 13.6° C; and at 9 P. M. between 18 and 11.2° C. The tempera- ture at Walfish Bay is subject to sudden change; thick fogs and mist are common in morning and evening. The rainfall is comparatively slight. At Luderitz Bay the annual rainfall is 20 mm., at Walfish Bay 8 mm., at Swakopmund 21 mm., and at Zesfontein 74 mm. At Walfish Bay the total precipi- tation for four years was 84 mm., one year there being no rain - 11 - whatever. In general, there is a oold dry season from May to Sept- ember, a hot season from October to April, and a wet season from January to March. The rate of absorption and evaporation is very great . b. Vegetation In the Damara desert there are often large sandy tracts without vegetation. In depressions or troughs are thorn bushes and tress, while scattered over the plain is the characteristic Welwitschia mirabilis. Other plant forms belonging to this region are Acantho- sicyos horrida, Pachipodium, Sesamothamnus, Myrothamnus, Echino- thamnus pechueli, and Adansonia digitata. Around Walfish Bay are the naras, (a creeper with gourds), tamarisk tree, a few dew plants, Acacia giraffa, sand reeds, and on rocks, air plants with scarlet flowers. c . Animals Among the mammals of this region are the lion, gazelle, klip springer, zebra, gemsbok, giraffe, rhinoceros, and field mice. Birds include Francolinus adspersus, fly catchers, and social grosbeaks. Smaller life consists of fleas, several species of bush tick, lizards, beetles, many butterflies, a wasp-like fly, and swarms of scorpions, which are dormant till the approach of the rainy season. - 12 - About Walfish Bay occur many waterfowl: geese, ducks, cormorant 3 , pelicans, flamingoes, and sandpipers. Along Swakop river course are parrots. 3. Conclusions - Desert The desert has a fauna whose animals are either almost independent of water or can remain torpid till the time of rain. They are chiefly nocturnal, go about in small parties, and do not associate or mix with other forms. ■ -13- B. Semi -Desert A 3 a transition between desert and steppe, occur three kinds of semi- or steppe-desert, (a) shrub covered, (b) succulent, (c) grass-tree semi-desert. The first or shrub covered, is found on the coastal region of Angola, and in a broad strip of land 300 mile 3 wide, extending east to west across the continent just south of the Sahara. 1. Angola Coast a. Climate The temperature at Mossamedes, in Angola, ranges from 30° C. in the hot season to 5.5° C. between June and September. At Loanda the annual rainfall is 270 mm., and the rainy 3 ea 3 on is from November to May. Clouds and mist are common. b. Vegetation The vegetation of this region consists largely of euphor- bias and low plants. The welwitschia is present in the southern part of this area, occurring as far north a 3 14° S. Latitude. Other characteristic plants are a leafless creeper Cassytha, very abundant on bushes and trees, stunted grass, Sanseviera angolensis, orchilla weed, shrubby jasmine, Bimba tree, and Hydnora (a parasite), c . Animals The mammals present here are Anubis baboon (4a), lion (la, 3c, 4a), brov/n hyaena (la, 3c), eland (lc, d, 3a, 4a), spring- bok (id, 2d, 3a, 4a), Angola pali, Damara dikdik, white-lipped I = — - ... \\ . -14- duiker, zebra, buffalo, porcupine (la, 3c), armadillo, and ant- bear (3o). d. General Statement The tortoise hibernates in holes in the rocks during the cacimbo or cold season. Insect life is usually scarce and appar- ent for only a few weeks in the hot season. The mantis, cater- pillars, dull moths, and butterflies are the chief forms seen. The food of the Anubis baboon is chiefly the welwitschia, a curious plant never having more than two leaves, which split into ribbon-like strands. The baboon eats the woody stem and other exposed parts. 2 . desert . Sudan Semi-Desert The strip south of the Sahara is known as the Sudan Semi- a. Climate At Kayes in upper Senegal the mean annual temperature is 29.4° C; the mean range 14.3° C. The highest monthly means are 42° C. in April and May, and the lowest 16.6° C. in January. The temperature rises from January to May, falls in June to the mean annual temperature, increases to October, then falls again till the minimum is reached. August is the rainiest month, al- though the heaviest rains occur in September and October. The mean annual rainfall at Kayes is 736.6 mm. In Northern Nigeria the nights are cold most of the year. The daily range of temperature in December and January is 37.8^ - -15- 15.6° C; in April 45.6° - 25.6° C. Rains may occur from June to September, but are slight exoept in August, when there is generally one wet week. In the Bayuda desert, west of Khartoum, rains are uncer- tain, but usually occur in June, July, or August. There may be several years without rain and then a deluge. Khartoum has a mean annual rainfall of ICS. 7 mm. a year; Kassala 2S4.6 mm. b. Vegetation The vegetation of the Nubian coast consists of suada and patches of Avicennia. Westward near the Nile occur Scrophularaceae, grass and shade acacias. In Dar-Fur the characteristic plants are a coarse and a fine grass, mimosas, desert box, euphorbias, candle- trees, senna, camomile and Sahara melon. Thorny tracts of pollard bushes, irregular loose shrubs and small trees are sprinkled over prairies of Al-Fah grass in some regions. Under these 3hrubs may grow scrophularia, campanula, mimosas and grasses. c. Animals The mammals of the Sudan Semi-desert are the lion, jackal, hyaena (la), addax, Dama gazelle, oryx (id), white oryx (4a), beira (la), Dorcas gazelle, giraffe, hare, rabbit, gundi (3a), and jerboa. Birds of the region are pheasants, guinea fowl, wild goose and duck, pigeon, snipe, magpie, owls, turtle dove, vulture, and ostrich. Lower vertebrates include 2-horned viper, rhinoceros -16- viper, boa constrictor, tortoise (in arid parts), oily lizard, and frogs which are dormant except at the time of rains. Invertebrates are represented by beetles, formicide and myrmicide ants, hornet, gray night and afternoon moths, termites, locusts, walking sticks, house flies, camel flies, sand fleas, camel ticks, scorpions, centipedes, crimson spider and Galeodes. The gazelle is almost the only large animal seen in the poor parts, although the tortoise and lizard are present there. Birds are most frequent in low thorny thickets and channels. 3. Kalahari The succulent semi-desert comprises areas in South Africa known as the Kalahari and Karoo. The Kalahari is roughly the plateau of Central and Western South Africa north of the Orange river . a. Climate The winter in this region is from April to September. The temperature varies at Kuruman from 21.1° and 22.8° C. from Nov- ember to January, to 1,1° and 1.7° C. in June and July. The mean daily range is 1S.S 0 C.j the monthly range 26.6° C. The rains occur between November and April, and the amount may range from 482 to 635 mm. b. Vegetation The vegetation characteristic of the Kalahari is poa grass, acacia thorn bushes, and succulents, scattered everywhere . ' -17- but in the valleys and dry salt pans. In thickets in the stream beds are aristida and andropogen grass, tree euphorbias, aloes and sage brush. At the salt pans grow arrow grass and baobab, sur- rounded by dense bush forest. In the northern parts are many baobabs and mopani woods. c. Animals Mammals of this region are the brown hyaena (la, 3c), harnessed jackal (3c), Burchell's cat, gray jackal (3c), lion (la,b, 3b, o), giraffe, wild swine, quagga zebra (2c, 4b), gemsbuck (lc), kudu (la, b), eland (la,b,d, 2b, 4a), Zulu hartebeest, gazelle, striped gnu, springbok (2d, 4a), duikerbok, steinbok (2d), blesbok (2c, 4a), and pa^Ja. Birds are usually about the salt pans and include the wild geese, wild ostriches, storks, guinea fowl, starling, grunter, ducks, spoonbill and great horned owl, weaver bird, francolin, grouse, and otis kori. Other animals present are large serpents, puff-adder, tortoise, and tiger snails, termites, wild bees, green larvae and wasps. e. General Statement The giraffe and steinbok can live for six to seven months far from water. Some forms, particularly the zebra, blesbok, and steinbok were once present hers in vast herds, but these have been largely depleted by the white man. . . -18- The kudu, eland and giraffe are migratory; the former keeps to the rivers in the dry season, scattering over the desert when rains come; the eland migrates eastward in February and March, and the giraffe goe3 to the mountain woods at the first of the drought . 4. Karoo The Karoo, the second of the succulent semi-deserts occu- pies the plain south of the Orange river, in the central part of South Africa. a. Climate As in the Kalahari, the coldest weather occurs in June and July; the warmest in January and February. In the Southern Karoo the mean temperature for February is 24.3° C,, for July 10.6° C.; the daily range is large and fairly regular. The average amount of cloud is 36% ; the annual rainfall is 268.2 mm. In West Central Karoo the mean temperature ranges from 15.4° in summer to 10° C. in winter. The heaviest rains fall in March; the annual rainfall is 228.9 mm. In East Central Karoo the mean temperature is 17.2° C. The absolute range of temperature at Gra&f Reinet is from 42.2° C. to -1.3° C. At Cradock in Northern Karoo, the mean annual tempera- ture is 16.7° C.j the mean ranges from 22.4° C. in February to 10° C. in June and July. There is very little rain in the Western part, and about 27.9 mm. in the Central part. b. Vegetation The vegetation of the Karoo comprises, in general, bush . . : -19- covered hills and plains with succulents and low herbs; trees are scarce except along stream courses. Specifically the plants of this region are tufted karoo plant, beibosch and brachbosch (all food plants), cineraria, mimosa. Pelargonium, Marguerites, aloes, wild asparagus, a profusion of prickly pear, finger poll, wild tobacco and candlebush. About Richtersveld are many succulents, - one, a m e s erabr y an t h emum , is the size of a cabbage. At the mouth of the Orange river grow pelargonium, heliophila, Roredula, and gazania of a variety of species. The plains in Great Bushmanland are covered with heavy headed shocks of toa grass in summer, while on the hill- sides and at the meeting of hill and plain are immense dragon aloes, quiver-trees and shrubs, (Rhus). c. Animals The mammals of this region include a monkey, Chacma bab- oon, jackal (la, b, 3c), leopard (3c), badger (3c), pencilled mun- goose, red meercat (3a, 4a), gray meercat (3a, 4a), wild cat (3c), oryx. Cape (Zulu) hartebeest (lc, d. Sc, d), eland (la, b, d, 3b, 4a), gazelle, gem3bok (lb), springbok (lb, d, 2d, 4a), brown duiker, bontebok (id), klipspringer, steinbok (2d), gnu (4b), hippopotamus, desert mice, rock rabbit, African jumping hare (3a, d, 3c, 4a), por- cupine (la, 2a, d, 3o), ant bear (3c), and ant-lion. Birds of this region are the white-eared bustard, kapok vogeltje, buzzard, night flying grouse, sand grouse, pheasants, paauw, "Knorhaan” bustard, Dikkop bustard, red-winged and gray- winged partridges, honey bird, bee-eater, ibis, falcon, aas vogel, owl, goat-sucker, butcher-bird and golden oriole. “iTT— , — .■ ■ ■ ■ i i - 20 - Among the lower vertebrates are horned adder, yellow co- bra, night adder, coral snake, tree snakes, lizards, chameleon and speckled toads. Invertebrates include centipedes, scorpions, large tarantulas, blue fly, Jolopis gariepino (beetle), J. pneumora, lo- cust, butterfly, moth and mantis. d. General Statement The springboks here are about twice the size of the desert animals. These migrate annually across the desert in search of green food. Winter rain3 occur in the mountains between Bush- manland and the coastal desert, and a3 the young are born in winter the does migrate to obtain food. During the treks the rams congre- gate in separate herds. The sand grouse come in early morning from the desert in incredible numbers to drink at the pools or springs, and then has- ten back. Around rocky cliffs occur centipedes, scorpions, taran- tulas (often in hundreds) lizards and rock-rabbit 3 . 5. Atlas Interm ont Plateaus The third type of semi-desert is the grass-tree semi- desert or Atlas Intermont Plateau. This region, as its name sug- gests, consists of the plateaus between the Northern and Saharan Atlas and south of the latter. a. Climate Here the largest amount of rain falls in spring; July and August are usually rainless. High extremes of temperature are == ssss a === ==-=: — . ■ ' 1 -31- experienced which may range from -10° C. in winter to 40° C. in summer when the sirocco is blowing. The annual rainfall for Mor- occo is 381 - 433 mm., for Biskra 300.6 mm., and for Batna 398.8 mm. b. Vegetation The high plains are covered with scattered tufts of alfa or esparta grass. These are broken up in some places by dry river- beds leading to innumerable salt-lake3 or "shotts." The river beds are covered chiefly with small bunches of wormwood; the salt lakes are surrounded by fleshy salt-bushes or succulents. On small dunes occur desert grass or "drinn" (aristida pungens) . Trees when pres- ent are in isolated, thin orchards in the more fertile moist hollows, and are the size and shape of such shrubs as batoum pistacio and thorny jujube tree. c. Animals The mammals of this region are the Arui (la, b, 4a), Nu- bian ibex, Bubal hartebeest, Dorca3 gazelle. Atlas gazelle, Dama (Addra) gazelle, and Barbary striped mouse. 6. Conclusions - Semi-desert. In some parts of the Semi-Desert various antelopes are said to have once existed in immense numbers, - the oryx in the Sudan Semi-desert, the springbok, zebra, blesbok, and bontebok in the Kalahari and Karoo. As a reaction to the seasons an annual mi- gration on the part of the eland, kudu and giraffe in the Kalahari, and the springbok in the Karoo occurs. ■ ' - 22 - 1 C. Steppe 1. Somaliland The steppe is the third large vegetational area. It may be of two sorts, a bush steppe and a grass steppe. Belonging to the first kind is a region called Somaliland, which includes the Italian Somaliland, *a part of Abyssinia adjoining it, most of British East Africa and some of German East Africa. a. Climate In Italian Somaliland, the winds from the N. E. monsoon blow from November to April, and a south wind replaces it from May to October. The climate is essentially that of the southern hemis- phere, the summer being cooler than the spring. At Mogdishu the morning temperature varies from 25° and 28° C. in spring to 21° and 33° C. in summer. At Logh, March and April are the hottest months, July the coldest one, and the daily range of temperature is consider- able and variable. There are two rainy seasons. For the coastal strip of British East Africa the annual range of temperature is between 21 and 33° C. As a whole the tem- perature is high but not excessive; the relative humidity is also high. On the highlands there is a range of 10 - 26.7° C. There are generally two wet seasons, one from November to December, the other from March to May. From July to September are cold months. There is a tendency to sterility and a deficiency in rainfall and vegetation in the southwest toward the German frontier, and in the north around Lakes Baringo and Rudolph. -23- In the interior plateaus of German East Africa, on the east 3hore of Victoria Nyanza and in Masailand, the precipitation is small. At Shiratu the annual rainfall is 645.2 mm.; the dry season occurs between July and October; the rainy season between November and May; there is but little rain in January. b. Vegetation The vegetation of Somaliland proper consists of a sprink- ling of umbrella acacias and other low thorn trees; at places, bushes form open scrub, and in moister spots occur light acacia woods with stiff grass as undergrowth. The plants here are candel- abra euphorbia, aloe, tamarix, calotropis, indigo, and salvadora. In Jubaland, between Kismayu and the Lori an Swamp is a vegetation resembling that of Somaliland, but generally richer. From the coast inward may be seen successively green and thorn scrub, yak trees, acacias and mimosas; high bush alternating with meadows; in valleys yak, mimosas, creepers, green shrub, tall grass and flowers; and on plateaus wait-a-bit thorn bush and ground cacti. At swamps occur the umbrella tree, acacias, euphorbias, conifers, waja trees, doum palm, msuaki bush and elephant grass. British East Africa north and east of Victoria Nyanza comprises the desert nyika and highland veldt zones. The former has a flora composed of scattered thorn bush, euphorbias, aloes, sansevieras, baobab, doum palm, flat-topped acacias and Commiphora. Grassy plains and absolute desert are rare. The veldt comprises rolling prairies of grass with scattered growths of acacias and candelabra euphorbias. -24- North-eastern German Ea3t Africa haa a flora similar to the nyika, composed of bush acacia, euphorbias, terminalias, suc- culents and monkey-bread trees. c. Animals The mammals of this region are a monkey, doguera baboon (led), silver-backed jackal, leopard (3c), civet cat (la, 3c, 3c), hunting dog (2b-c, 3ab, 4a), pigmy jackal, lion (la, b, 2f, 3c), chita (la, 3b, 4a,), spotted hyaena (la, b, 3c, 4a), Swaynes harte- beest (id), Coke hartebeest (2d, 4b), Neumann's hartebeest, Jackson hartebeest, Uganda hartebeest, Nakuru hartebeest, Tora hartebeest, (la,b,3c), Somali dikdik (la, 4a), Salt's dikdik, Phillip's dikdik, Gunther's dikdik, Swayne's dikdik, white-spotted dikdik, Harar dik- dik, Kirk dikdik, gerenuk (la, b, 3c, 4b) , Grant's gazelle (lb,c,2b,rb) Speke's gazelle, Pelzeln's gazelle (lb), Peter's gazelle, Sommer- ring's gazelle, Thomson's gazelle (la, o), Clark's gazelle (lb, 2c), topi (lc), beisa oryx (lb, c,d, 2a, 3b) , hartebeest (lb,d, 3f , 4b) , Bo- hor reedbuck, arrola (la, c, 2d, 3b) , lesser kudu (qa,b,3b), waterbuck (lb,c,3b), kudu (lb, 2d, 3b, 4a) , impalla (lb, c, 2d, 3b, c) , bushbuck, (qa, 3c), Haggard's oribi, eland (lb, c, 2d, 3b) , wildebeest (lc,2c,3a, c), klipspringer, steinbok (la, 3ac), kob (lc), roan (3a, c), Kenia oribi (la,b,3a, c), mountain reedbuck (la,b, 3b,c^suni, duiker (la), Urori duiker, fringe-eared antelope, 5-horned giraffe, Somali gir- affe (lb,c), Kilimanjaro giraffe, elephant (lb), Grevy's zebra (lb,c,2b,c,4b) , wart hog (2f,3b), buffalo (lb,d). Cape buffalo, quagga zebra (lb,d,4b), bush-pig (2b, 3c, 4a), gundi, Naked sand-rat. I -25- The birds of this region are hornbill, vult urine guinea- fowl, crane, pelican, guinea fowl, francolin, marabou stork, teal, honeybird, dove, white egret, weaver-bird, corncrake, miredrum, heron, golden cuckoo, night-hawks, kestrel hawks, Egyptian goose, kingfisher, clapper-bills, ibis, goadsucker, tick-birds, white peli- cans, and buffalo birds. A large green snake and a frog are the only small animals I have found mentioned. Invertebrates include mosquito, fly, wood-lice, giant spider, white moth, and locusts. d. General Statement The Arrola or Hunter's Hartebeest is not found west of 40° E. Longitude, or north of 0°35' S. Latitude and is essentially a desert dweller. Grant's gazelle is another form almost independ- ent of water. In general, the dense bush and lack of water in South Jubaland allow only bu3h-loving animals, who are fairly independent of water, to live there. Elephants frequent the river forests in the rainy season. The rains make an enormous difference in animal distri- bution. With their approach, the animals scatter widely over the plains, but in time of drought they keep fairly close to the water supplies. The rainy season is preeminently the time for the birds to rear their young, and waterways at that time are alive with this kind of life. Several animals in this area associate in herds of 50 to as many as 200; there is, however, about an even distribution of the number of species among the small and large sized groups. Table 1. - 36 - The larger part of the animal 3 are either crepuscular or nooturnal. The elephant manifests an annual rhythm by keeping to the forests in the rainy season; the wildebeest migrates in thous- ands during the drought . The hunting dog is the only carnivore which goes about in packs of considerable size. 2. Abyssino-Eritrean Foothills. The second region belonging to the bush-steppe is called Abyssino-Eritrean foothills. This consists of hills and terraces separating the low Somali plains from the highlands and extends from Cape Guard afui along the hilly ranges of Eritrea and northern Abyssinia. a. Climate On the Eritrean plateaus, 3-5000 ft., the mean annual shade temperature varies between 15 and 35° C. The climate is fairly warm. Abundant rain storms occur, especially in July and August during the afternoon and night. In the maritime zone there is little rain. The mean annual temperature there is 31.4° C . , ranging from a mean of 25.5° C in January to 36.9° C. in June. At Berbera the absolute maximum temperature is 46° C., and the absolute minimum 5° C.; at Zeila corresponding figures are 41. l w C. and 17.2° C. The annual rainfall at Massau is 184,2 mm. In the Haud and Nogel plains districts rains occur in April and May, and September and October. -37- b. Vegetation This region has a more varied, vegetation than Somaliland proper. Grass, thorn-bush, and acacia scrubs, orchard-like wood- and grass-land are specific forms. Characteristic here are also candelabra euphorbia, aloes, dragon trees, andenium trees and gum acacias. On the dry hills of Eritrea are forests of balsam trees, leafless except for a few weeks in the year. In the cloud belt are forests of junipers, podocarpus, and tree -heaths alternating with pastures. c. Animals The mammals of this region are the Nisnas monkey, Nubian Ibex (3b, c), Abyssinian ibex. Salt's dikdik (la, 3c), Phillip' 3 dik- dik, Beira (la), Erythraean gazelle, Sommerring's gazelle, Isabelle gazelle, and African wild as 3. d. General Statement The breeding season of the Nubian Ibex is September; after this the males leave the herds until the rainy season, returning in October and November. 3. Egyptian Sudan The Egyptian Sudan constitutes a third bush-steppe area. Extending southward from the Libyan desert, across the Nile to the Abyssinian plateau and to Lake Rudolph; this region is somewhat transitional, approaching in the south the savanna types. ■ . -28- a. Climate In the Sudan, the summers are very hot with a maximum temperature of 53.2° C., but the nights are always oool and the pre- vailing winds in the Nile valley are from the north except in the rainy season. On the Blue Kile, the rainy season is from May through October. March to May is the hot season, August to October still hotter, and December to January cool. South of here to the Sobat River, the rainfall is heavy, increasing from north to south. The rainy season lasts from May to November. On the White Nile plain the dry season lasts from October to the middle of June; rains are abundant from June to October. In Kordofan the rains last from mid- June to the end of October. b. Vegetation In this region the thorny vegetation increases to make a vast thicket in the plains and valleys, while grass, shrubs and small trees are on the hills. Here occur monkey-bread tree, "os- trich” and "giraffe" trees, and cactus ropes among the thickets. Acacia arabica and thorny kittur bush, Aoacia mellifera, are char- acteristic here. Along the river banks are forests of sunt, Acacia arabica, heglig (Balanites aegyptiaca), hashab, and thickets of A. nubica and Kittur bush. Along the Blue Nile grow babanus, Ano- geissus leiocarpus, baobabs, Sterculiacinerea, African mahogany, rubber-producing lianas, and prairies of tall coarse grass. c. Animals The mammals of this region are Schlegel’s guenon, Nisnas — Ji -29- guenon, Arabian baboon (id), yellow baboon, chita (la, 3a) red- tailed mungoose, Coke's hartebeest (2d, 4b), Mrs. Gray's waterbuck (id), Tora hartebeest, Lelwel hartebeest (lb,c,2a), Abyssinian oribi (la,b,3b), white-eared kob (id), Bohor reedbuck, tiang, Abys- sinian defassa, Heuglin's gazelle. Mongala gazelle, bushbuck, white rhinoceros (la,b,3b,c), wart hog (3b), giraffe (lb,c) and buffalo lb,c) . 4. Hoogeveld. The Hoogeveld belongs to the grass 3teppe and includes the South African plateau of 4-5500 feel elevation, between the Kalahari desert and the Drakenberg Mountains. a. Climate Here the rainfall diminishes from east to west. In the Transvaal the mean annual rainfall at Heidelberg is 732-9S9 mm., at Pretoria 635-762 mm. and at Klerksdorp 381-335 mm. Below the high veldt (5-6000 ft) the rainfall is uncertain. In the middle veldt (4-5000 ft.) steady rains are rare, and tropical thunderstorms in- crease. Winter, the dry season, is shorter on the middle veldt than on the high veldt. At Johannesburg, May to August are the driest and coolest months, the rains occurring from September or October to February. The daily range of temperature is large. In the Orange Free State, the mean annual rainfall for the whole area is 610 mm., but the rain cannot be depended upon. The driest season is from June to September, the hottest December to February, the coldest from June to July. Bloemfontein has a -30- maximum temperature of 38.7° C., a minimum of -5.6° C. b. Vegetation The vegetation ia composed largely of short scattered grasses with richer vegetation in the valleys. In higher places grow long grass, Euphorbiaceae, camel-thorn acacias ana mimosas; near mimosa-bordered crags are small aloes, stapelias, cactus-like euphorbias, sycamore, wood sorrel, fern, mosses and lichens. On the plains are red lilies, and lilies of other kinds, white-thorned mimosa shrub3, and a temperate zone flora of Campanula, Saponaria, Veronica and umbellif erous Euphorbiaceae . In the woods are blue bush, wild pomegranate, beech, "wild syringa, M wild olives, karee trees, mohatta and marethwa bushes, aloes and several kinds of mimosas. c. Animals The mammals here are the vervet (la, 2a, 3a), hunting dog 2b, 3b, c, 4a), lion (la,b, 2a, 3b, c) , wild cat (3c), leopard (la, 3d, 3c), lynx, Burchell's cat. Cape otter, genet (la, 3c), black- 3 triped weazel, spotted hyaena (la, b, 2a, 3c), rock badger (2d, 3b), gazelle (3c), steinbok (3d, 3b), grysbok (la, 2c, f, 3b) , blaauwbok, striped gnu (3d, 3b, c, 4b) , blesbok antelope (2c, 4a), springbok, reedbuck (la,b,2c), klipspringer (la, 2a, d, 3c) , tsessebe, black gnu (lc,d), Burchell's zebra (id, 2d, 3b, 4b), wild swine (4a), great shrew mice, Rhyzaena (lc), ground porcupine (la, 2a, 3c), reed rats (lad, 3c, 4a), short-tailed pangolin (la, 3c), and earth-pig (3c). The birds which have been seen here are the crowned -31- guinea fowl, Colius lsucotis, South African blue-gray turtle-dove, ox-bird, laughing dove, white-eared bustard, golden oriole. South African 3tarling, weaver bird, red-legged plover, small bustard, pheasants, long-tailed black and white shrikes, hornbill, brown carrion hawk 3 , red falcon, fork-tailed kite, wood hoopoe, falcons of several kinds, sparrow hawk, owls, darters, several varieties of crows, cormorants, starlings, thrush, wag-tail, reed-sparrow, wood- pecker, sunbird, bee-eater, kingfisher (2 sp.), lory, cuckoo, swal- low, red-backed shrike, goat- sucker, hammerhead, great Cape par- tridge, guinea-fowl, sedge-warbler, social finch, fire-finch, long- tailed king-finch, secretary bird, and goat chafer. Lower vertebrates are frog, lizard, chameleon, three kinds of land tortoises, cobra, (green, black, and yellowish), black snake, yellow cobra-capella and Melierax canorua. Arthropoda present hers include the locust, sand beetle, ground beetle, leaf beetle, many kinds of moths, spider, bark bee- tles, large winged ants, rose beetle, Longicorn, cicada larvae, steel-blue wasps, and humble bee. d. General Statement A large part of the animals whose habits are known, bring forth their young in the South African summer, or the rainy season. Here as in Somaliland most of them are crepuscular or nocturnal. (Table I). 5. Gazaland and Mozambique. The last bu3h-grass steppe region is that in the provinces of Gazaland and Mozamb i que . -32- a. Climate In Mozambique there are four seasons: December to mid- January are dry, heavy rains fall from January to April, there are light rains in May and June, and the remaining months are without rain. On the whole, rains are greater along the coastal belt and mountains about Lake Nyasa than in the intervening country. At Baroma there is no rain from May to October, 751 mm. fall between November and February, and only .5 mm. in April. Mopea has a mean annual rainfall of 784-1405 mm., Mozambique of 838 mm., and the Zambesi basin 889 mm. At Mopea the mean temperature for the year is 34.9° C., the mean daily range 12.5° C., the absolute maximum 44.4° C., and the absolute minimum 6.11° C. At Delagoa Bay in Gazaland, rains occur from September to March and April. North to the Zambesi they are between November and April. At Beira heavy rains occur between December and Febru- ary. The interior of Gazaland north of the Limpopo river to 20° South Latitude is almost rainless. At Lourenco Marques the mean annual rainfall is 717 mm. The mean temperature there is 24.1° C; the absolute maximum 38° C., and the absolute minimum 9.5° C. b. Vegetation Except about the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers the vegetation is poor, consisting of open bu3h of the thorn type and scant wiry grass, c. Animals The mammals of this region are the Mozambique monkey, Sykes guenen, Peter's guenon, great galago (3c), rock jumping shrew. - 33 - Livingstone 1 s suni, Robert’ 8 duiker, Heck's duiker, Peter's oribi and impalla. 6. Conclusions - Steppe. Many of the animals of the steppe are nocturnal and crepuscular. The number of species of herbivorous animals is lar gest in this region. Often the herds are mixed. -34- D. The Alpine Steppe. By the term Alpine Steppe I have included the regions of the higher mountain peaks of Kilimanjaro, Ruwenzori, and Kenya. a. Climate In the Kenya forest region the climate is healthful and invigorating, but during at least half the year there is a great contrast between the northern and southern slopes. On the latter frequent hailstorms occur from April to June; December to Febru- ary is the dry season, March to May the rainy, and June to August the misty season. In the Kilimanjaro district at Moshi (3750 ft.) the mean annual temperature is 20.7° C. At Ruwenzori in June rains fall almost daily. b. Vegetation The vegetation on the lower slopes of Mt. Ruwenzori re- sembles that of the tropical evergreen forest. Higher, at 10-11,000 feet, heaths, blackberry brambles, bamboo, ferns and lycopodium are characteristic. Senecios and lobelias are abundant between 11- and 12,500 feet, while about the lakes and at elevations be- tween 10- and 12,000 feet grow many wild flowers. On the peaks are only mosaes, lichens and a few grasses. Kenia at 10,000 feet, has a vegetation consisting largely of flowers and high grass; in the Meru forest are high trees, woody creepers and dense undergrowth. - 35 - c. Animals The mammals of this part are the guereza, baboon, bats, rock-badgers, genet, leopard, Thomson's gazelle, bongo (lb), dik- dik, Coke's hartebeest, oryx, mountain reedbuck, bushbuck, duiker, klipspringer , rhinoceros, zebra, bush-pig, forest hog (la,b), mar- mots and rats. Birds include turacoes, tawny eagle, parrot, a few ducks, crows, hawk, and sparrows. Invertebrates are represented by nsuroptera, diptera and worms. . - 36 - E . Savanna . The next large vegetational area la the tropical savanna, which has a vegetation of grass and scattered trees, with the grass predominating. 1. Boschveld First under this area may he considered the Boschveld, because it has a flora intermediate between the steppe and savanna. The Boschveld is the region south of the Zambesi and extending into Northern Transvaal, and includes most of Southern Rhodesia. a. Climate In Southern Rhodesia there are only two seasons, summer from October to March, and winter from April to September. The winter is dry, 95 percent of the precipitation occurring in summer. The average annual rainfall for Mashonaland is 955 mm., for Mata- beleland 5S9 mm. The mean annual temperature at Salisbury is 18° C. at Gwelo 18.2° C., at Tuli 21.8° C. The mean temperature of the warmest month increases from 21.2° C. at Salisbury to 27.1° C. at Tuli. The mean daily range of temperature is greater in winter than in summer. b. Vegetation On the velt is long green grass, sometimes 12 feet high; on rocky kopjes are many varieties of native trees. The dense forests in places are succeeded by extensive grasslands. Acacias and mopani trees are characteristic hers. -37- "I c. Animals The mammals hsre are the lion (2c, 3b), serval (2c, 3c) leopard, wild dog, wild cat, jackal (3c), chita (la, 2c, d, 3b, 4a), sable (lb, c, 2a, 3b, 4a), tsessebe (2c), eland (2b, c), Cape duiker (la), inyala (2c, d), waterbuck (lb, c,2e, 3b) , kudu, puku (lb, c, 2d, 3b) roan (la, b, 2c, 3a) , elephant, giraffe (lb,c,2d), white rhinoceros (lb, 3b), steinbok, quagga zebra, hippopotamus, wild pig, and por- cupine . The birds include the ostrich, guinea-fowl, partridge, dove, wood-pigeon, night- jay, and locu3t-bird. Other animal life includes the crocodile and locusts. d. General Statement There is a fairly even distribution of species as regards the size of the groups. Most of the young are born in the South African summer. The larger percent are crepuscular. (Table I). 2. Sudanese savanna Just below the Sudan Semi-desert and extending from Sene- gal to the upper Nile basin is a savanna belt called the Sudanese Savanna. With that I shall consider an area called Futa-Jallon, a tableland between the Niger and Guinea, whose vegetation is sa- vanna, due largely to the destruction of the forests rather than to climate or soil. a. Climate Kayes, the warmest place in Senegal, has a mean annual . I m $3 - I I . ■ -38- temperature of 29.4° C . , a mean maximum in April and May of 36.6° C., and a minimum in January of 22.3° C. There are three seasons, a hot dry one from March to May, a moist rainy one from July to Sep- tember, and a dry cool season from November to February. At Gambaga in northern Tcgoland, the mean maximum tem- perature is 31.5° C., the mean minimum 22.3° C. For Fort Archam- bault corresponding figures are 34.1° and 20. 4 U C. In the lower Eahr-el-Jebel region, the hottest season is in March and April, the coldest in September (the rainy season). In the northern territories of the Gold coast, the wet season is from April to October, with SC $ of the rainfall from July to September. The annual rainfall is 1163 mm. In French Equatorial Africa there is a dry season of 4-5 months, an intermediate one from March to June, and a principal rainy season from June 15 to October 15. At Ft. Archambault the annual rainfall is 1059 mm., at Ft. Crampel 1270 mm., and at Gam- baga 1163.3 mm. b. Vegetation The savanna north of the Gambia river consists of park- like areas with luxuriant grass, herbs and rich forests in river valleys, and occasional shady trees in the open plains. About Lake Chad are vast grass prairies, with bush of gum-arabic acacias and tamarinds, open grass spaces with palms on the river banks, and occasional baobabs, many mimosas, and mopani trees. At the mouth of the river emptying into it are dense growth of papyrus. At Irena the grass reaches a height of 10 feet. On mountain slopes f* -39- bamboos, euphorbias, and Borassus palms are seen. The Bahr-el- Ghazal region is a sparsely wooded country with long grass 13 feet high. c. Animals The mammals of this region are the lesser white-nosed monkey, Demidoff's galago, Senegal galago (la, 3c), great baboon, white-winged bat, spotted hyaena (la, 3c), striped hyaena (la, 3c), lion, night hyaena, white-tailed mungoose, rock-badger, serval (3c), Western hartebeest (lb, c, 2a, 3b), burrewa, red-fronted gazelle, Sing- sing water buck (la,b,2d,), oribi (la), crowned duiker, roan (lb, 3a, c). Buff on’s kob (id), duiker, bushbuck (la, 3c), grass antelope, pallah, topi (id, 2a, d, 4b), Gambian oribi, equine ante- lope, dwarf antelope. Lord Derby's eland, Bohor reedbuck (4b), ele- phant, white rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe (lb, c), hog, wild boar, wart hog. Birds here are spur-winged geese, heron, egret, ibis, stork, guinea-fowl, otis, bee-eaters, four kinds of fisher-birds, green parrots, turaccu, eagle, darter, cormorant, duck, many kinds of lapwing, snipe, water-hens, gulls, sandpipers, thrush, hcoded- raven, bearded vulture, Balaeniceps Rex, humming birds, francolin, wattle duck, golden-crested crane, pelican, marabou, Nile geese, slipper-beak, black and rose colored stork, hawk, gray falcon, white-breasted Abyssinian raven, little carrion vultures, widow ducks, rail and sparrows. Lower vertebrates are the crocodile and a gigantic puff adder. Among the invertebrates are mosquitoes, flies, gnats, and moths. ■ ■ -40- d. General Statement Here as elsewhere the game usually assembles at the river courses in the dry season; the gazelles form an exception to this rule. Peculiar to the Gazelle and central Bahr-el-Jebel rivers is Balaeniceps Rex, a bird 4 feet high with wings 6 feet across. Its food is fish. It builds its nest of ambatch- stalks close to the open water in the rainy season. It is solitary. Buff on' s kob sometimes forms herds of several thousands near the marshes. In the dry season it keeps to the flats. The topi or korrigum is also often found in herds of a thousand or more. 3. The Zambesi basin and Unyamwezi. The plateau about the Zambesi basin and north to Lake Victoria through Unyamwezi has a vegetation largely savanna. a. Climate In northwest Rhodesia the daily range of temperature in the valleys is from 43.2° to 34.4° C., and may be higher in Novem- ber. In the rainy season the daily range is from 37.8° to 32.2° C. Rains occur from January to March with an average of 774.7 mm. a year. The amount is less in the plateau sections. b. Vegetation The savanna vegetation is composed largely of acacia, mimosa, thin forests of mopani trees, euphorbias, kigelias, native -41- mahogany and native teak. The river vegetation is often luxuriant and quite tropical. Plants present there are reeds, water-plants, small water-lilies, oonvolvulus, moshungulu, sycamores and figs. About Victoria Falls occur thickets of sare palms, long grass, fan palms and baobabs. Nearby are sycamores, mimosas, thick creepers, palm bushes, ferns and moss. c. Animals The mammals here are Stair's guenon, Moloney '3 guenon, Chacma baboon (id, 3a, 4a), palm civet, black-backed jackal (la, 2c, 3c), leopard (la, 3c, 3c), lion, hyaena (spotted) (la, 3c), otters (la), bushbuck, roan, Rhodesian yellow-backed duiker, impalla, water-busk, tsessebe, kudu, sable, inyala. Walker's duiker, Nyasa blue duiker, Johnston's duiker, Sharpe's steinbok, lechwe (lc,d,2d, 3c, 4a), black lechwe (lb), puku (lc,d,2d,3b) , reedbuck (lb, 4a), striped gnu (lc, 2d, 3b, c, 4b) , Livingstone's suni (la, b, 3d, 3b) , orbe- ki gazelle, Zulu hartebeest, CraW3hay's defassa, elephant, zebra, buffalo, Johnston's bush pig, hippopotamus (3c), giraffe. Birds which may be seen here are the South African poch- ard, fish-eagle, heron, egrets, pelicans, two kinds of geese, ibis, duck, kingfisher, three kinds of plover, francolin, guinea-fowl, scopus, saddle storks, Plectropterus, spurred geese, darter, cormor- ant, bee-catcher, cuckoo, bald buzzard, silver heron, purple heron, spoonbills, sandpiper, three kinds of mews, speckled black and white skimmers, and marabou. The only smaller life I find mentioned are snakes and butterflies. -42- d. General Statement The hippopotamus keeps to the middle of the stream dur- ing the day* going to pasture at night. It is very particular in its choice, often going 8-8 miles along the river-banks and has sometimes been found ten or more miles from the water. It was once common in South Africa and is still found in the rivers of Natal and Kaffraria, but not south of the Limpopo river in central South Africa. Larger herds seem less frequent here than in the steppe. Many forms are crepuscular, more are nocturnal. Most of those whose habits are known bring forth their young between October and December, or just before the rainy season. (Table I). The tsessebe may assemble in herds of 200 towards the end of the dry season. 4. East African Mountain Region The other region belonging to the tropical savanna and in some places transitional between it and the tropical deciduous savanna forest is the East African Mountain Region, including the mountain and plateau region of British ana German East Africa, U- ganda, North-East Rhodesia, and North Portugese East Africa. a. Climate In Uganda at Entebbe the absolute maximum temperature is 32.2° C., the absolute minimum 12.8° C., and the rainfall is 1501 mm. a year. In British East Africa at Machako the hottest month ■ -43- has a mean maximum of 24.4° C.; the coldest a mean minimum of 9.4° C. The highlands of Machako have a mean annual rainfall of 881.4 mm. There are generally two wet seasons, from November to January, and March to May. In the region north of Nairobi and Kenia the rainfall amounts to 1016-1270 mm. with a tendency to sterility near the Rift Valley. In German East Africa at Tabora the mean maximum tempera- ture is 30.2° C., the minimum 16.9° C. The annual rainfall there is 675.6 mm., at Ujiji 830.6 mm. From November to April is the rainy season, with but little rain in January. In Nyasaland on the highlands the annual range of temper- ature is from 36° C. to 4.4° C. At Blantyre 1422.4 mm. of rain falls a year; in the low plains the maximum temperature may be 46° C. before rains. The rains occur from November to May; on the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau the annual rainfall is 1778 mm., for Kar- onga 1270 mm. b. Vegetation Uganda is largely a savanna country with patches of for- est. The vegetation consists of grass 10 feet high, mimosas, mo- pani, kigelias, euphorbias and low ferns. The valley bottoms around Entebbe have luxuriant forests, swamps of gigantic papyrus and aqua- tic plants, areas of dense yellow grass 10-20 feet high, which are in some places replaced by herbaceous vegetation and many flowers. Trees are acacia, mimosa, euphorbias, erithryna and spathodea. Raphia and Borassus palms, cassia and dracaena overgrown by climb- ing plants and giant lianas. Between Nairobi and Entebbe, in the -44- mountainous country, ars forests of juniper and other evergreens. The mountains in British East Africa are largely forest-covered j the rivers have a vegetation of palms, thorn trees, papyrus, flow- ering creepers, grass and aloes. Toward Lake Tanjanyika are grassy plains with euphorbias, gum-acacias, aloetic plants and papyrus, while in the valleys grow lianas, creepers, fern, moss, grass, cane, t Borassus palms, teak, tamarind and owendi. c . Animal s The mammals present here are the white-tailed colobus, (2o, 4a), Schmidt's guenon, red crested guereza, Ruppell's guereza, Langheld's baboon, yellow baboon, East African baboon, long-nosed jumping shrew (4 species), lion (lb, 2f), rock badger, leopard, hyaena (la, 3c), mungooses, black leopard, small-spotted serval, white-tailed mungoose, striped hyaena, black-backed jackal (la,b,3c) chita (la, 3a, b, 4a), Bohor reedbuck (la,b, 3b), waterbuck (lb,c, 3b), mountain reedbuck (lb, 3c), Buff on's kob, bushbuck (la, 3a, 3c), steinbok, topi (la, 4b), roan (3a-c), yellow-backed duiker, Lich- tenstein's hartebeest (3d), impalla (lc, 3d, 3a, 4a), situtunga (3c) red antelope, klipspringer, defassa (lb, c, 3a, 4a), Uganda duiker, Coke's hartebeest (4b), brindled gnu (lc, 3d, 3b, c, 4b), eland, Thomas' dikdik, Kirk's dikdik, pigmy antelope, Thomson's gazelle, oryx, Grant's gazelle (lc,d, 2a, d, 4b), gerenuk, Cotton's oribi, lesser kudu (ia,b, 3b), Jackson hartebeest, suni, hippopotamus (lb,c, 3c, 4a), buffalo (lc,d, 3a), wart-hog (3c), elephant, moun- tain zebra (id), black rhinoceros (la,b, 3b), giraffe (lc), Gravy's j zebra. Grant's zebra, forest hog, flying squirrel, and Cape hare 1 ■ A . -45- (2a, d). The birds of this region are the swallow, guinea fowl, dove, Egyptian geese, sandpipers, darter, heron, blue kingfisher, grouse, bustard, roller, bee-eater, heron, avocet. Marabou storks, finch-like birds, Colymbu3 capensis, thicknees, Balearica regulorum, jacana, Hemipodes, spotted barn owl, night jars, parrots, several kinds of pigeons, large plantain eater, glossy ibis, vulturine guinea fowl, sand grouse, pelican and sea-eagle. Other vertebrates are the crocodile, lizard, and chamel- eon. ticks. Invertebrates are the tsetse fly, scorpion, spider, and d. General Statement Manifestations of annual rhythm appear in the reactions of the black rhinoceros which is diurnal only in the wet season, and of the rock-badger which migrates from the mountains (its home in the dry season) to the more arid parts in the wet. The impalla is in small parties in the summer; in the winter the males and females herd together. 5. Conclusions. Savanna. j < Several antelopes of this region 3 how an annual rhythmic j response to the dry season by assembling at such times in large herds along the river courses. The carnivores which prey on them also collect here . When the rains come the large herds often breaks up and scatter in small parties over the plain. 1 -46- F. Deoiduoua Savanna- Forest . 1. Drakenberg I have used the term deciduous savanna-f orest s for the park-like regions intermediate between the savanna and dense trop- ical forests. These are of two kinds: temperate and tropical. Illustrating the first type are the Drakenberg mountains and Kaf- f raria. a. Climate The climate for this region i3 largely temperate. At Port St. Johns the absolute maximum temperature is 40° C. in October the lowest temperature 4.4° C. At Umtata the highest recorded tem- perature is 43. 4 U in November, the lowest -6.1° C. As a whole for Kaff raria the mean for the hottest month is between 22.5° C. in the low districts, and 16.1° C. in the higher parts; the mean for the coldest month is 8.3° C. At Bremerdorp in Swaziland (2,100 ft.) the annual rainfall is 957.6 mm., at Harrismith (Orange Free State) 769 mm. At Durban on the coa3t of Natal, the mean annual temper- ature is 21.5° C., an increase over the cities to the south. The absolute maximum is 43.7° C; the absolute minimum 5.4° C.; June to I August are the coldest months, and November to March the hot ones. The mean annual rainfall i3 1041 mm. Howick (3,400 ft.) has an ab- solute maximum of 38.9° C., a minimum of -6.1°. The mean annual rainfall is 745 mm.; that for Natal as a whole is 853 mm. In South-East Africa King William's Town has an absolute minimum of 2.2° and a mean temperature for the coldest month of -47- 13.2° C. The absolute maximum for Lovedale was 45.3° C. in Decem- ber. The average rainfall for the whole region is 660 ran. ; Decem- ber to March are the rainiest months, July the driest. At Port St. Johns rain falls in all months, but May to August are the driest. The annual and monthly rainfall are both quite variable. b. Vegetation The vegetation between Grahamstown and Cradock consists of low bushes, chiefly lard-trees, on detached hills of the high tableland, and a profusion of acacias, hedgethorns and other mimo- sas and weeping willows in the valleys. About Port Elizabeth grow figs, marigolds, trusses, rush- es, dwarf shrub, and euphorbias; on the downs, heaths, reeds, lil- ies, gladioli , and mosses are abundant; near lagoons are aloes, marigolds, ranunculuses, and a fleshy kind of convolvulus. On the whole there is a luxuriant growth of tropical shrubs, ferns, and creepers wherever there is moisture. c. Animals The mammals of this part are the Cape vervet (la,c, 2a, d, 3a), Maholi galago, Great galago (3c), Samango guenon, Chacma baboon (id, 2a, d, 3a, 4a), (Golden) mole, gray wild cat (3c), black spotted genet (la, 2c, 3c), large gray mungoose (la, 3c), caracal (2c, 3c) side-striped jackal (la, 2b, c, 3c), African pole-cat (la, 3c), chita (la,b, 3a, c), otter, weazel, banded mungoose, brown hyaena, striped hyaena, fox, spotted hyaena (la, 2c, 3c), lion . • * . . . i * , , • , . ' . , , . , ■ , , • • : ' , , , , . ' , •' ' . -48- (la,b, 2a, 3b, c), leopard (la, 2c, d, 3c), gazelle, inyala (la,b, 2c, 3c), tse8sebe, oribi (la,b, 2d), gray reedbuck (lb,c, 2d, 3c, 4a), Cape duiker (la), klipspringer , mountain reedbuck (la,b, 3c), rooyebuck gazelle (lb, 3c), red duiker (la, 2d, 3b, c), blue duiker (3b),. steinbok (la, 2a, d, 3a), bushbuck (la, 2a, d, 3c), kudu (2d, 4a), roan (lb, 2a), hyrax, sable (lc, 2c), wart-hog (lb, 2d, 3b, c, 4a), white rhinoceros, bushvark (lb,c, 2d, 3a, c), blackvark, buf- falo (id, 2a, d, 3b, c, 4a), elephant (id, 3b, c, 4a), hare (2a), jer- boa, ground squirrels, porcupine (la, 2a, d, 3c), cane rats (2c,d, 3c, 4a), jumping mice, rabbit, gigantic field mouse, short-tailed armadillo and earth-pig. Birds present here are several kinds of bustard, guinea fowl, partridges, sand grouse, snipe, plover, wild duck, wild geese, divers, long- tailed sun bird, hawk, shrike, reed warbler, red and yellow finches and weaver-birds. Lower vertebrates are the giant lizard, tortoise, puff- adders, cobras, horned vipers, coral snakes, and green water snakes. Scorpions, spiders, beetles and bees are among the in- vertebrates here. d. General Statement The elephants frequent the mountains in the long droughts, but are in the drier open country in the wet season. The bush-pig which is diurnal in the wet season is nocturnal at other times. The smaller groups predominate here, and most of the ani- j mals a,re nocturnal. A large number of the young are born in the South African summer, between October and March. (Table I). | m3S^i -49- 2. Abyssinian Highlands. The highlands of Abyssinia illustrate the tropical type of savanna-forest. a. Climate The climate of this region is typically tropical, except as modified by the higher peaks. At Harar (6,000 feet), the tem- perature extremes for the year are 17.2 and 27.8° C. At Ankober (6,200 feet) the mean maximum temperature is 15.9°, the mean mini- mum 10° C. At Addis Abbaba (8,000 feet) the mean temperature for the year is 15.7°, the mean minimum 8.9° C. and the mean monthly range -2° C. On the plateau the principal rainy season is from July to October, at Kaffa and Shoa from June to mid-September; the / heaviest rains fall in July and August. Light rains occur in March, April and half of May. The annual rainfall at Addis Abbaba is 1183 mm. , at Gondar 1010 ram. b. Vegetation The plateaus are generally treeless, but on the slopes and in the gorges are thorn bush and trees. The rainfall and ele- vation may produce richer vegetation in other parts. At an elevation of 3,000 feet, there are mountain weeds, dracenas and euphorbias. The vegetation on the seaward side of the; mountain consists of numerous succulents, giant Kolkwal and four smaller species, Stapelia,s, Caraib, Sanseviera, Lassav (a Capparid). On the other side of the mountains only the lower part of the val- leys has a luxuriant vegetation. Acacias grow close together, and , . . . . ■ . r • . . , • -50- gigantic clumps of green Salvadora are characteristic here. On the slopes are millions of euphorbiae and dracaenae with beard moss on the branches, an abundance of sulphur-colored lichens on rocks, and beds of moss. Wild olive trees, Abyssinian aloe, tabbes grass and acacias are also abundant. i c. Animals The mammals of this area are Ruppell's guereza (lc), gri- vet, Boutourlini ' s guenon, Dusky gelada (3a), Thoth baboon, Gelada baboon (id), Arabian baboon (id), doguera baboon (id), zebra mun- goose, variegated jackal, cuberow, Tora hartebeest, Abyssinian oribi, Bohor reedbuck, Abyssinian ibex, Erlanger’s dikdik, Aelian's wart-hog (lb, 3c), and buffalo. The desert cricket is the only small form I find men- tioned. d. General Statement Baboons as a whole are very gregarious here. The gelada ranges in large troops to a height of 7-8000 feet. The Arabian baboon forms parties of 200, while the doguera baboon may have as many as 1-2000 in a group. 3. Light Forests and Parks of Tropical Africa The tropical type of deciduous savanna- forest includes also the light forests and parks of tropical Africa, surrounding the equatorial evergreen forests, and occurs on the hinterland of Upper Guinea, on the water sheds of the Shari, Bahr-el-Ghazal and . . . . . . , . , - • . , • . . , -51- Congo "basins and in the valleys of the Kasai and Lualaba rivers. a. Climate To go land has two well-marked rainy seasons, one from April to July, the other from September to December; these are separated by dry seasons. The mean annual temperature of the coast is 26° C, of the interior 23° C. At Bismarkburg the mean tempera- ture is 24.9° C. ; the mean maximum 29.6° and the mean minimum 21. 5°C, The rainfall on the coast is 698 mm. yearly; inland it is 1193- 1498 mm. At Lokoja in Worth Nigeria, the highest temperature is 38.8° C. in February; the lowest 10° C. in November. At Zungeru the highest temperature is 41.6° C. in March, the lowest 12.8° C. in November. The rainy season is from April to October, with July to September the wettest months. On the lower Congo near the mouth there are two rainy seasons, one from October to May, the other from June to September. At Luluabourg, there is a large daily range of temperature, but a uniform monthly mean. The mean maximum temperature is 32.2° C. in October; the mean minimum 20.6° C. The annual rainfall here is 1 541 mm. b. Vegetation In the western parts of this region are plains covered with turf and various herbs, patches of lichens and Anona trees. The plants of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and tributary regions are water- lilies, red bindweed, tall tamarinds, euphorbias, potamogeton, tra- pa, yellow ottelia, ferns, Stephegyne, vallisneria (forming a sward) J -52- climbing passion flower, acacia, candelabra-euphorbiae and kigeleae. On the upper tributaries of the Congo occur papyrus, reeds, cane, acacias, eschinomenae , sycamore, teak, mvule and meofu. The Congo region below Stanley Falls belongs to this area. Characteristic there are guinea palm, plantains, tall grass, orchid, dwarf palm, pandanus, oil palms, mangrove trees, dragon trees, Camoensia and cannas. c. Animals The mammals of this region are the Patas guenon (id), Dia- dem guenon, rump-spotted guenon, green monkey, Cape vervet, Guinea baboon, Senegal galago, genet (la, 3c), civet, zebra ichneumon, African wild cat (3c), lynx, serval (3c), caracal, leopard (la, 3c), red buffalo ( la,b, 3b, 4a), Western hartebeest, white-eared kob (id), red- flanked duiker, situtunga (la, 3c, 4a), gemsbok, Hegoleh ante- lope, waterbuck, Vaughan’s kob, eland, tsessebe (lb, 2d), banded duiker, harnessed antelope, bushbuck, wild hog, hippopotamus (lb,c, 3c), elephant, wart hog (3b,c, 4a), giraffe (lb,c), rock-rabbit (3b), I tan squirrel and ant-bear. rail, sparrow, kingfisher, white egret, spur-winged geese, vulture, barbet, African woodpecker, Egyptian geese, blue roller, hornbill, p lan tain-eater, golden cuckoo, bulbul, pigeon, parrots, love-birds, wax-bills, pelican, marsh bird, bee-eater, Balaeniceps Rex, fishing eagles, giant heron, pratincole and fly-catcher. The giant python and other snakes, lizard and crocodile are the chief lower forms here. Birds present here are the saddle-billed stork, sand-piper, -53- Sand-flies and swallow-tailed butterflies are among the insects. d. General Statement The wart-hog is crepuscular and nocturnal in hot weather. 4. Conclusions - Deciduous Savanna-Forest Significant figures show that most animals are in small herds of ten or less. They are largely nocturnal and go about in pure herds. 1 -54- G. The Temperate Evergreen Forest. 1. Medi terranean Africa. The next large division is that of the temperate ever- green forest, with chiefly winter rains. The most northern of these districts is what is termed Mediterranean Africa, that part between the Atlas ranges and the sea. a. Climate In the Sahel or maritime zone of Algeria, the hot season lasts from June to August with a mean of 26° C. The rains are win- ter rains occurring between September and May. At Algiers the mean maximum temperature is 22.7° C. ; the mean minimum 15.3° C. At Mog- ador in Morocco, the temperature is seldom above 25° C. due to the North-east trades; the annual rainfall there is 406 mm. At Fez the mean summer temperature ranges between 15-16° C. The rains in Morocco are from September to March; Tangier has 312 mm. a year. b. Vegetation The vegetation here formed originally an open woodland and shrubland of hard- leaved evergreens and wiry grass. In the Tell valley were forests of Aleppo pines, cork oaks, white oaks, and olive clumps. The undergrowth consisted of numerous evergreen shrubs c . An ima Is The mammals of this region are the Barbary macaque (id), lion, panther, bear, jackal, hyaena (la, 3c), wild boar (lb, 3c), . .. , i n it'X'r: ■ 1 b l ; t< ' , . r ‘ . .X At r. ‘ : a -,A, ; : H ;jJ * . « ■* ■ . . , , , , , ' , -55- antelopes, gazelle, mouflon, red deer, fallow deer, and European squirrel ( la, 3a) . Birds present here include the Spanish sparrow, eagle, red phalarope, falcon, vulture, thrush, swallow, starling, pigeon, partridges, quail, heron, pelican, swan, duck, grebe, and stork. Other animal life there is the lizard, tortoise, chamel- eon, leech, and locust. d. General Statement The wild hoar goes to the hills in the hot weather, re- maining till September. 2. South Cape of South Africa. The other area of temperate evergreen forest is that on the South Cape of South Africa, and a strip called Knysna forest extending fromMossel Bay to Algoa Bay. a. Climate This coastal strip is a region of winter rains and a hot dry summer. The absolute maximum temperature ranges between 40 and 44° C. ; the absolute minimum between 3.9° and -3.9° C. The mean annual rainfall at Port Elizabeth is 502 mm. , at Mossel Bay 424 mm. , and at Knysna 711 mm. b. Vegetation The predominating type of vegetation here is heaths, of which there are over 400 species. Other plants include various . < -56- Pro teaceae , rhenoster, arum, iris, geranium, leucadendron and ar- genteum. c. Animals The hontehok (lh,c, 2c, 4a), elephant, and golden mole are the only animals I find for this area. -57- H. Tropical Evergreen Forest. The last large division consists of the tropical ever- green forests of the Congo River basin, and the West African coast from Sierra Leone to the mouth of the Congo. These are separated by a drier tract in To go land. 1. Guinea Coast. a. Climate The climate of the Guinea Coast is chiefly characterized by periods of greater and lesser rain. In Liberia the heavy rains fall between April and July, the lesser rains from July to Septem- ber, heavy ones again from September to mid-November, then there is a dry period to March. The Ivory Coast has four seasons; a dry one November 15 to March 15; lesser rain to May 15; lesser rain to July 15, and heavier rain to November 15. Sierra Leone has no cold weather; any extremes occur dur- ing the rainy season. The total rainfall here in 1900 was 4445 mm. Freetown has an average mean temperature of 27.2° C. ; the highest shade temperature is 35-37.1° C. in February and March, the lowest 19.1 - 19.4° C. in January. Grand Bassara on the Ivory Coast has a mean temperature of 26.7° C. , and an average of 1930-2413 mm. of rain a year. b. Vegetation The vegetation of the Guinea Coast is that of a tropical . ■ « , . , ■ . A . ' ... ; . . . . . -58- rain forest and consists of the water tree, Guinea pepper tree, silk-cotton tree, trees of the orders Connaraceae and Papilionaceae, Rhynhosea, Lonchocarpus , Berlinea acuminata, Funumia elastica, palms and figs. Other forms belong to the Zingeberaceae , Maranta- ceae, arum, rushes, bamboos, ferns, lycopodiums, water-lilies, Hib- iscus, Combretum, Dissotis, Smeathmannia, pawpaw, mussaende, or- chids, Dracaena, and calamus. c. Animals The mammals here include a great many primates as well as other forms. The former include Bosnian's potto (3c), king or bay monkey, crested colob, black colob, Ursine colob, (la), white- thighed colob, sooty mangabey ( and four other species), chimpanzee, patas guenon, others belonging to the Genus Cercopithecus are hoch- eur monkey, and the following guenons: lesser white-nosed, Butti- kofer’s, Martin’ 3 , Ludio, Stampfli’s, red-eared, moustached, Syke's, Campbell's (id), bearded, Liana, Palatine, and green monkey (la,b). j i Lemur and baboons include awantibo (3c), Allen’s galago (3c), Demi- doff’s galago (3c), mandrill (id), and An ub is baboon. Fruit-eating bats are of the genera Megaloglossus, Hyp- signathus, Roussettus, Epomophorus (4 species). Insect-eating bats are horseshoe-bat, false vampire, leaf-nosed bat, Nycteris hispida and N. grandis, Vespertilio stampflii and V. nanus, Pipistrellus minutus and P. tenuipinnis, and Kerivoula africana. Other mammals include the shrews (2 sp.), leopard, small I spotted serval, linsang, palm civet (3c), genet (la, 3c), slender mungoose and ichneumon, clawless otter, spotted-necked otter, 59- African tiger cat, cusimanse, Gambian mungoose, the following duikers Cephalophus: yellow-backed, Jentink’s, bay, black-faced, *hite- bellied, Ogilby’s, Brook’s, Peter’s, banded, Maxwell's, black; dusky kob, tree hyrax (3c), water chevotrain (3c), bongo, harnessed ante- lope (3c), royal antelope (la), West African hartebeest, elephant, pigny hippopotamus, red river-hog, red buffalo, Senegalese buffalo, fulgent flying squirrel, six species of true squirrel, Stanger’s squirrel, pigmy flying squirrel, ground squirrel, pigmy squirrel, dormice, Ghueti, true mice:- brown rat, common black rat, Alexan- drine rat, Mus musculo ides, Barbary mouse, -pouched rat, porcupine, tufted- tailed porcupine, ground pig, armadillo, long- tailed pango- lin, and phatagin. Birds here are Agelestes guinea fowl, Liberian glareole, jacana, plover, flamingo, geese, ibis, heron, eagle, white-and-black fishing vulture, hawk, plantain eater, gray parrot, owl, roller, kingfisher, and hornbill. Lower vertebrates include crocodiles of three types, puff- adders, cobras, pythons, geckos, skink, red and blue agamas, moni- tor lizard, turtles, and three kinds of true frogs. Invertebrates include among the Crustacea, -crabs , cray- fish, and hemit crabs, among the spiders, -My galomorph, Nephila, Aranaethra, Heteropoda, and also centipedes, Scolopendra, and Geo- philus. In the termite hills may be found a blind lizard, blind amphibians ( Geo trypetes) , large earthworms, and beetles. Other insects are cockroaches, grasshoppers, crickets, mantis, ordinary butterflies and beetles, and flies, bees, wasps, and ants. -60- d. General Statement Liberia boasts the largest scorpion in the world, 6 l/2 inches long. Insects are numerous and in some cases larger than the same species in other localities. The termites take their nuptial flights in November and December. 2. Congo Basin. a. Climate The Congo basin has a climate similar to that of the Guinea Coast. In equatorial parts rains occur almost daily. At Bolobo, (on the Congo), the mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 28.8° to 31.7° C. ; the minimum 21.1° - 23° C. In Equateur district around Coquilhatville, the absolute maximum temperature is about 34.5° C. early in April and March, and the absolute mini- mum about 17.5° C. in July. The daily range may be large, but the monthly means do not vary much. The rainfall increases inland; at No uve lie -An vers it is 1651 ram. , at Ireba 1827 mm. , and at Libre- ville 2286 mm. yearly. b. Vegetation The tropical rain forest is a maze of creepers, shrubs, and large trees, whose broad branches are so closely interlaced that they shut out the daylight. The undergrowth often reaches a height of 20 feet. The vegetation of the Congo is quite varied, and includes the umbrella tree, dragon tree, strychnine tree, anona,| copal, flowering combretum, bombax, dwarf bamboos, creepers, , i ' . ' , . . . . , • . . . , - 61 - i! hymenocardiae , blue gladiolas, ground orchids, amaryllides, parin- arium, alcomeae, and rotang lianas. In the Cameroon region grow lianas, ferns, epiphytes, rotang and raphia palms, Phrynium, Maranthen, elk-hom fern, Angre- cum, Kickxias, Peki tree, fungi, monodoras, albizzia, and tree ferns. Near the coast are also afromomum and macrolobium. On the Congo tributaries are Sterculiae, Boswelliae, Caesalpineae , fig trees, Artocarpeae, Euphorbiaceae , Rubiaceae; plants of the sec- ond and third rank are large-leaved figs, Papilionaceae and Rubia- ceae; shrubs include Oncoba, Phyl lan thus, Celastrus, Acacia atax- acantha; creepers are modecca, Cissus, Coccinea, prickly smilax, Dioscoreae andHelneae. Other plants are ferns 12 feet high, amoraa and costus jungles, elephant-ear ferns 50 feet in height, Angraeca, Usneae, twining pepper, and moss. Still other trees are the Tre- culia, muscat nut, West African cam-wood, and mulberry. c. Animals The mammals of this region are the white-necked monkey, white-thighed colob, small gray monkey, black colob, Ursine colob, Gorilla (3a), bald chimpanzee, common chimpanzee (lb, 4a), and many monkeys of the genus Cercopithecus: malbrouck, talapoin, green, mona, Erxleben's, black-fo tted, De Brazza's, - black manga- bey, mandrill (id), large baboon, lemur (3c), Allen's galago (3c), sphynx, baboon, pale-colored galago, Demidoff's galago, leopard, lion, striped hyaena, black-backed jackal (la), civet cat, African tiger cat, bush antelope, Bongo (la,b, 3a, b), waterbuck, black- heeled antelope, little tufted antelope, okapi (la, 2b, 3c), , . , ' , , . . ' « , , -62- bangana, many duikers: yellow-backed, Ituri yellow-backed, Ituri red, Alexander’s, Weyn’s, Leopold’s, chestnut; Gosling’s oribi, Bates' pigmy antelope, elephant, red buffalo (lb, 3b, 4a), hippo- potamus, forest hog, coney, squirrel, flying squirrel, rats, shrew mice, and porcupines. Birds present here are the Marabou stork, Balearic crane, flamingo, spur-winged goose, wild duck, divers, kingfisher, egret, glossy ibis, snipe, pelican, stork, whydah, green pigeon, plantain eater, Gypohierax vulture, and green parrot. Reptiles here are python, green viper, puff-adder, and monitor. Insects include myriapedes, beetle, "hot-water" ant, ter- mite, and mantis. d. General Statement Of the primates the lemurs are entirely noctornal and arboreal. Most of the monkeys are also arboreal, but the gorilla, chimpanzee, and baboons are largely terrestrial. The python is fond of water, and will lie for hours with only his head or nostrils exposed. Usually he gorges and fasts alternately, and has been known to go for eighteen months without food. , , , • . , . .. , :v. : < , « , ■ , ■ , • . , . ■ * , , - , , . . , . -63- III. Summary and General Conclusions 1. Antelopes while most abundant in the semi-desert, steppe, and savanna are present in all regions, and in any part form at least 1/8 of the large animals there. 2. The larger herds are found in the semi-desert, steppe, and sa- vanna. The limiting factors in the other regions are probably food supply in the arid parts, and density of vegetation in the forests. The game animals of the forest go in 1-2’ s to 10* s. 3. Antelopes are sometimes in mixed herds in the semi-desert, steppe, and savanna. Often the old males are driven from the herds of their own species; they then join a herd of different animals, become solitary, or form small parties. 4. Generally large herds are diurnal and crepuscular; small are nocturnal. 5. In the steppe and savanna animals display an annual rhythm by alternately congregating and scattering about the water supplies in accord with the dry and wet seasons. 6. Animals which by their migrations show an annual rhythmic re- sponse are the kudu, eland, springbok, wildebeest, Nubian ibex, Buffon’s kob, elephant, and wild boar. 7. The young of herbivorous animals are generally born in the rainy season, those of the carnivores in the dry. 8. No carnivores are independent of water to the extent that herbi- vores are ; they are therefore few in the arid parts. The in- crease of small carnivores with wooded conditions seems due to the increase of small life, and the presence of water. tt I fit M ‘ . J. ’ / « • . * - ' . ' . .• •- . . • ■ • * . ■ • , , 'L • • , ■ ■ , ' . . -64- 9. Carnivores usually go in small groups and are nocturnal. 10. There are some animals present in three or more of the large regions, which suggest by such a distribution that they are less dependent than the others on vegetation and climate. Such are the springbuck, duikerbok, bushbuck, and giraffe. Others wide- ly distributed are usually in well-watered local regions; these are the hunting dog, lion, reedbuck, impalla, kudu, waterbuck, and elephant. 11. The pig and its nearly related forms seem to be forest, in one case bush, animals. All but the wart-hog frequent forests, and it is crepuscular and nocturnal in hot weather. The scarcity or absence of sweat-glands is probably the determining factor here. 12. Monkeys are present in all parts except the extreme desert, but are comparatively rare except in the tropical evergreen forests. The number of species there equals the sum of those present in all the other regions. 13. Bats are chiefly in forested parts. 14. All significant figures show animals to be nocturnal; there are probably different factors producing this result in the differ- ent regions. 15. The proportion of carnivores, herbivores and rodents in the different regions varies as follows: Desert - - - 2:1:5 Savanna- forest - - ~ - 24 : 45 : 10 Semi-desert- 10 :28 : 8 (Temperate evergreen)- 5 : 8 : 0 Steppe - - - 16 :88 :10 Tropical evergreen - - 15 : 39 : 11 Savanna - - 15 : 73 : 2 , . , « . • nt j . . ' 65 IV. Appendix of Scientific Names of Mammals Monkeys- Primates. Cerocopithecus : Lesser white-nosed monkey . . C. Stair’s guenon C. Moloney's guenon C. Schmidt' 8 guenon C. Nisnas monkey C. Schle gel’s guenon C. Mozambique monkey C. Syke's guenon C. Peter's guenon C. Cape verve t C. Samango guenon C. Grivet C. Eouterlini's guenon C. Patas guenon C. Diadem guenon C. Rump-spotted guenon C. Green monkey C. Hocheur monkey C. Buttikofer's guenon C. Martin' s guenon C. Ludio guenon C. Stampfli's guenon C. Red-eared guenon C. petaurista Schreb. stairzi Sclo. mol one yi Sclo. schmidti Matsch. pyrrhonotus Hempr. and Ehrenb. neglectus Schleg. rufoviridis Geoffr. albigularis Syk. ochraceus Pet. pygerythrus F. Cuv. samango Sundev. (griseoviridis) sabaeus L. bout our 1 ini i Gigl. pata3 Schreb. leucampyx Fisch. opisthostictus Scl. sabaeus - callitrichus Geoffr. I nictitans L. buettikoferi Jent. martini Waterh. ludio Gray stampfli Jent. erythrotis Waterh. • ' • . •- . . t • • • • • • • • V - M ... .. * . . . . - . ♦ JL. t . ' -.rs , - * » * . « ■ i i ■- • » • • • . v jt ■ * < .. . >. i . . . • • F • ♦ * r • . . - / • \ . . . . . ■ . • - . . . tO: r v' r. (• “ - f -<• P • • ' r ' . ( - r*r; - • • • < . r > -t r.r u . . . '■’t r ‘ *.T * ■ ' - ) . . . . vr 1 . . . . . • ’* * ■ * . . 1 t" r ' F * « • • 66 Moustached guenon Campbell ' s guenon Bearded guenon Diana guenon Palatine guenon Malbrouck monkey Talapoin monkey Mona monkey Erxleben's monkey Black-footed monkey De Brazza’s monkey Colobus. White-tailed colobus . . . . Red-crested guereza Bay monkey Crested colob Elack colob Ursine colob White- thighed colob Cercocebus Black raangabey Sooty mangabey Anthropopithecus Eald chimpanzee Chimpanzee Gorilla Barb ary macaque C. cephus L. C. campbelli Waterh. C. pogonias Penn. C. diana L. C. palatinus Wagn. C. cynosurus Scop. C. talapoin Erxl. C. rnona Schreb. C. erxlebeni Puch. C. nigripes Du Cnail. C. brazzae - C. negiectus. C. caudatus Thom. C. rufomitratus Pet. C. ferrugineus Shaw C. (cri status) verus Van Eened. C. sat anus Waterh. C. ur sinus Ogil. C. vellerosus Is. Geoffr. C. aterrimus Oud. C. fuliginosus Geoffr. A. calvus Du Chail, A. troglodytes L. Gorilla gorilla Wym. Macacus inuus L. 67 Galago Demidoff's galago G. Senegal galago G. Great galago G. Allen’s galago G. Papio Langheld' s baboon P. East African baboon P. Anubis baboon P. Chacma baboon P. Pogue r a baboon P. Arabian baboon P. Yellow baboon P. Thoth baboon P. Guinea baboon P. Mandrill P. The r c op i the cub Dusky gelada T, Gelada baboon T. Perodictus Awantibo P* Bosnian’s potto P. demidoffi Fisch. senegalensis Geoffr. crassicaudata Geoffr. alleni Baterh. langheldi Matsch. ibeanus Thorn. anubis F. Cuv. and Geoffr. porcarius Brun. doguera Puch. and Schimp. hamadryas L. babuin Desm. thoth Ogil. sphinx L. (mormon) maimon L. (gelada) obscurus Heugl. gelada Rupp. calabar ensis Smith potto Geoffr. Bats. Fhite-winged bat Rycticejus albofuscus Megaloglossus Hypsignathus Allen. 6S Shrews. Rock jumping shrew Long-nosed jumping shrew . . . . Golden mole Carnivora. Fox Fennec Egyptian (gray) jackal Harnessed jackal . . . Silver-backed jackal . Pigmy jackal Elack-backed jackal Roussettus Gray. Epomophorus Eenn. Rhinolophus aethiops Pet. Megaderma frons Geoffr. Hipposiderus fuliginoeus Phyll and Eonap. Nyceteris hispida Pet. N. grandis Pet. Vesper tiio stampfli V. nanus Pipistrellus minutus P. tenuipinnis Kerivoula africana Gray. Macroscelides tetradactylus Rhynchocyon- 4 sp. Chrysochloris Crocidura- 2 sp. Wagl. Canis famelicus C. zebra C. lupaster C. adustis C. variegatus C. mengesi C. mesomelas Schreb. ' ' • . . - r ■ ■ . l.i AO f. 1 > • i « 69 Cuberow Lion Burchell's cat Leopard . . . . (Gray) wild cat Small-spotted serval Caracal African tiger cat Brown hyaena Spotted hyaena Striped hyaena Pencilled mungoose Red- tailed mungoose White-tailed mungoose Ichneumon Slender mungoose Mungoose Banded mungoose Zebra mungoose Cusimanse Gambian mungoose Badger Gray meercat Ci ve t cat Hunting dog Chita C . si me ns i s Rupp . Felis leo L. F. nigripes F. pardus L. F. ocreata F. Servalina F. caracal F. celidogaster Hyaena brunnea H. crocutas Erxl. H. hyaena L. Cynectes Herpes tea sanguineus H. alb icau data H. pluto H. gracilis Edeogale crassicaudata Pet. E. puisa Crossarchus fasciatus Crossarchus zebra C. obscurus Geoffr. and Cuv. C. gambianus Mellivora capensis True. Suricata tetradactyla. Viverra civetta Lycaon pictus Temm. Cynallurus jubatus . . . . .. 70 Genet Palm civet Pear Linsang . . . . Palm civet Clawless otter Spotted-necked, otter . . . Ungulates. Bubal hartebeest Swayne's hartebeest . . . . Coke hartebeest Neumann’s hartebeest . . . Jackson hartebeest . . . . Uganda hartebeest Nakuru hartebeest Lichtenstein’s hartebeest . . . . E. lichtensteini Pet. Tora hartebeest Zulu hartebeest Western hartebeest . . . . Red buffalo B . nanus Lelwel hartebeest Bontebok Blesbok Topi Tsessebe Arrola Somali dikdik I 1 ... . 71 Salt’s dikdik . . . Phillip's dikdik . Dam sir a dikdik . . . Gunther's dikdik Swayne's dikdik . . white-spotted dikdik Harar dikdik . . . Kirk dikdik .... Thomas' dikdik . . Erlanger's dikdik . Duikerbok Brown duiker . . . Red duiker .... Blue duiker .... Red-flanked duiker Johnston's duiker . Yellow-backed duiker Uganda duiker . . . White-lipped duiker Banded duiker . . . Jentink's duiker Bay duiker Black-faced duiker . Whi te-bellied duiker Ogilby's duiker . . Brook's duiker . . Peter's duiker . . Madoqua sal ti ana Blainv. M. phillipsi Thom. M. damarensis Gunth. M. guentheri Thom. M. swaynii Thom. M. nasoguttata M. hararensis M. kirki Gunth. M. thomasi M. erlangeri Cephalophus grimmia L. C. C. natalensis C. monticola Thunb. C. rufilatus C. johnstoni C. sylvicultor C. aequatorialis C. leucochilus C. doriae C. jentinki C. dorsalis Gray C. nigrifrons C. leucogaster C. ogilbyi C. brookei C. callipygus * • 72 Maxwell's duiker Black duiker Ituri yellow-hacked duiker . . . Ituri red duiker Alexander's duiker Weyn' s duiker Leopold's duiker Chestnut duiker Robert's duiker Heck's duiker Urori duiker Crowned duiker Rhodesian yellow-backed duiker . Walker's duiker Nyasa blue duiker Dama gazelle Grant's gazelle Speke '3 gazelle Pelzeln's gazelle Peter ' s gazelle Sommerring' s gazelle Thomson' 3 gazelle Dorcas gazelle Red-fronted gazelle Loder's gazelle Heuglin's gazelle Mongala gazelle c. maxwell i c. niger c. i turiensis centralis c. claudi c. weynsi c. leopoldi c. castaneus c. robertsi hecki c. lugens c. coronatus Gray c. coxi walkeri c. nyasae Gazelle dama G. grant i Brook. spekei Blyth. G. pelzelni Kohl. Gr* soemmerringi Cretzsch G. thomsoni Gunth. G. dorcas L. G. ruf ifrons G. G. tilonura 73 Erythraean gazelle Isabelle gazelle Atlas gazelle Lechwe Black lechwe Crawshay's defassa Waterbuck Vaughan's kob Dusky kob White-eared kob Abyssinian defassa Singsing waterbuck (defassa) . . Kob Puku Euffon's kob Mrs. Gr ay 1 s wa t e rb uck Harnessed antelope Situtunga Bashbuck Eland Lord Derby's eland Arui Nubian ibex Abyssinian ibex Addax Oryx White oryx G. isabella G. cuvier i Cobus leche C. smithemani C. defassa crawshayi C. ellipsiprymnus Ogil. C. vaughani C. nigricans C. leucotis Lecht. and Pet. C. defassa typicus C. unctuosus Lauril. C. C. vardoni Livingstone C. coba C. maria Gray Tragelaphus scriptus T. spekei T. scriptus Tauro tragus oryx T. derbianus Ovis lervia Capra nubiana Cuv. C. vali Addax nasomaculata Oryx beisa Rupp. 0. leucoryx Gemsbok Oryx gazella L. Beira Dorcotragus megalotis Meng. Kudu Strepsiceros strepsiceros Pall Lesser kudu . . S. imberbis Blyth. Striped gnu Connochaetes taurinus Burch. Black gnu C. gnu Ziramermann Steinbok Rhaphiceros campestris Thunb. Sharpe's steinbok R, sharpei Grysbok R. melanotis Gray reedbuck Cervicapra arundinum Eodd. Bohor reedbuck C. bohor. Rupp. Mountain reedbuck C. fulvorufula Red buffalo Bos caffer thierrvi Buffalo B. caffer Senegalese buffalo E. caffer planiceros Cape buffalo B. caffer typicus Hegoleh antelope Neo tragus madoqua Royal antelope N. pygmaeus Bates' pigmy antelope N. batesi Livingstone's suni N. livingstonianus Suni N. moschatus Cotton's oribi Oribia cottoni Thom. Gosling's oribi 0. goslingi Peter's oribi 0. hastata Abyssinian oribi 0. montana Cretzschmar Haggard's oribi 0. haggardi Thom. Kenia oribi 0. kenyae 75 Gambian oribi 0. nigricaudata Gerenuk Lithocranius walleri Brook. Clark' 8 gazelle Arnmodorcas clarkei Thom. Klipspringer Oreotragus (saltator) oreotragus Zimmer. Springbok AntidLorcas euchore marsupialis Zimmer. Angola pali Aepyceros petersi Boca. Irapalla A. melampus Mouflon Ovis musimon Pall. Red deer Cervus elaphus Fallow deer C. dama L. Tree hyrax Procavia dorsalis Water chevrotain Dorcatherium aquaticum Bongo Boocercus euryceros Thom. Okapi Ocapia johnstoni Blaauwbok Hippotragus leucophaeus Sable H. niger Roan H. equinus Mountain zebra Fquus zebra L. Grevy' s zebra E. grevyi Milne Edw. Grant's zebra Burchell's zebra African wild ass E. asinus somalicus Sclater Quagga zebra Giraffe Giraffa Camelopardalis L. 5-horned giraffe Somali giraffe G. reticulata Rhinoceros Rhinoceros . ’ . . . 76 1 White rhinoceros Elephant Hippopotamus Pigmy hippopotamus .... Red river-hog Johnston's hush-pig . . . Bush-pig Wart-hog Wild swine Forest hog Rodents Spiny mice Egyptian jerboa Sand mice Broad-tailed jerboa . . . . . . Platycercomys Barbary mouse Field mouse Gundi . . Ctenodactylus gundi Gundi . . Pectinator spekii Blyth. Naked sand rat Shrew mice Striped mice Reed rats Jumping mice . . . . Gigantic field mouse Brown rat Common black rat . . 77 1 Alexandrine rat Pouched rat Ground squirrel Tan squirrel European squirrel Fulgent flying squirrel . . . . True squirrel 6 sp Stanger's squirrel Pigmy flying squirrel Ground squirrel . Pigmy squirrel Porcupine Rabbi t Rock rabbit African jumping hare Marmot Cape hare Dormice Ghueti Mus musculoides emesi Hel. Cricetomys gambianus Waterh. Sciurus vulgaris L. Anomalurus fulgens Xerus erythropus lacustris Thom. Nannosciurus minutus Hystrix cristata L. Lepus saxatilis Pedetes cafer Pall. Graphiurus crassicaudata G. nagtglasii Edentates Armadillo Phatagin Long-tailed pangolin . Short-tailed pangolin . Ant-bear, (earth pig ) Ground pig Manis gigantea M. tricuspis Rafin. M. longicaudata Orycteropus afer Geoffr. Thrynomys swinderenianus V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT AND BIBLIOGRAPHY It is a pleasure to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. V. E. Shelf ord, under whose direction this study has been made . - 79 - Anderson, Karl Johan- 1857. Lake Ngami ; or Explorations and discoveries during four years' wanderings in the wilds of southwestern Africa. New Yo rk. Baker, Sir Samuel White. 1868. The Albert N'yanza, Great Basin of the Nile, and Ex- plorations of the Nile sources. Philadelphia. Bartholemew, J. G. 1917. The Advanced Atlas of Physical and Political Geography, Oxford Uni. Press. London. Doubleday, Page and Co's. 1917. Geographical Manual and New Atlas. New York. Dracopoli, I. N. 1914. Through Jubaland to the Lorian Swamp. Philadelphia. Dugmore, A. Radcliffe. 1910. Camera Adventures in the African Wilds. New York. Du Plessis, J. 1917. Thrice through the Dark Continent. London, de Filippi, Filippo. 19 09. Ruwenzori. London. Fo rbes , Henry 0. 1896. Lloyd's Natural History, Vol. 1, 2. London. Friedrich, Adolph. 1913. From the Congo to the Niger of the Nile. London. Hardy, M. E. 1920. The Geography of Plants. Oxford. , 1 . , . . . . , t -eo- Ho lu b , Dr . Iknil. 1881. Seven Years in South Africa. London. Hurst, H. E. 1910. A Journey from Wadi Haifa to Aswan; A Journey in the Western Desert of Egypt. Cairo Scientific Journal, 4: 8-10; 268-278. Johnston, H. H. 1884. The River Congo. London. 1906. Liberia. London. Klunzinger, C. B. 1878. Upper Egypt; Its People and its Products. New York. Knox, Alexander. 1911. The Climate of the Continent of Africa. Cambridge. Kdnig, Alexander. 1893. Tierleben in der Algierischen und Tunisischen Sahara. Lydekker, Richard. 1908. The Game Animals of Africa. London. New Natural History. 1, 2, 3. New York. Martin, Annie. 1891. Home Life on an Ostrich Earn. New York. Monteiro, Joachim John. 1875. Angola and the River Congo. London. Monteiro, Rose. 1891. Delagoa Bay, its Natives and Natural History. London. Passarge, Siegfried. 1908. Sudafrika. Eine Landes- Volks- und Wirtschaf tskunde. Leipzig. -81- ■ Roosevelt, Theodore and Heller, Edmund. 1914. Life Histories of African Game Animals. Hew York. Schillings, C. G. 1903. Flashlights in the Jungle. New York. Schweinfurth, Dr. Georg. 1874. The Heart of Africa, Three Years’ Travel and Adventure in the Unexplored Regions of Central Africa. New York. Scully, W. C. 1915. Lodges in the Wilderness. New York. Selous, Frederick Courtenay. 1908. African Nature Notes and Reminiscences. London. Solynous, B. 1880. Desert Life, Recollections of an Expedition in the Soudan. London. Stanley, Henry M. 1879. Through the Dark Continent. New York. St evenson-Hamilton, Major James. 1912. Animal Life in Africa. London. Waihel, Dr. Leo. Lehensformen und Lehensweise der Tierwelt im tropischen Afrika. Mittelungen der Geog. Sos. im Hamburg, 27. Hamburg. Ward, Rowland. 1914. Records of Big Game. London. Reg Extrerr Sahara . Oases . Damara . Semi-I] Angola C Sudan Se Kalahari Karoo Atlas III Steppe Somali Is Abyssinc Egypt iar Hoogeve] ! Mo zambiq Alpine Sava nr Boschve] i Sudanese Zambesi East Aft Savant Draken.be Abyss ini Light Fc Temper MediterJ : South Cs Tropic Guinea. (\ Congo Bs TABLE I. Region Extreme Desert Sahara Dases Darnara Number of mammal s in region 8 6 8 Semi-Desert Angola Coast Sudan Semi-desert. . . . Kalahari Karoo Atlas Intermont plateaus Steppe Somaliland Abyss ino -Eritrean Foothills . Egyptian Sudan Hoogeveld lozambique and Gazaland . . Alpine Steppe Savanna Boschveld Sud, nese Savanna Zambesi Basin 13 1 4 15 27 7 68 10 22 31 10 21 24 37 37 East African Mountain Region 61 Savanna- Forest Drake nberg Abyssinian Highlands . Light Forests and Parks Temperate Evergreen Forest Mediterranean Africa ... South Cape of South Africa Tropic M Evergreen Forest I Guinea Coast Congo Basin 55 18 37 13 3 Q8 57 Size of herd Time of birth Daily Rhythm % whose~J habits known 0 0 0 29 14 20 13 14 47 13 41 39 0 10 47 19 82 32 45 10 09 23 33 4 p, are 1- 2 3- 50 50 75- 50 40- 20 50- 50 55- 52 100 33- 45 83- 25 50-100 43- 71 71 29-- 50- 25 30- 35 65- U" 50 67 33 75 40- 30 Social Tendencies 1 0-^0 of 1/0 50+kno- -u 1 st 2nd 3rd 4 th any % time known d. cr . n. * known pure 1 mixed 12 100 38 100 25 1 nn 0 67 100 1 6 100 0 25 50 7 1 00 21 100 14 100! 50 0 14 60 i 50 14 100; 25 25 25 20 | oq 40 -20 20 ^0- 100 ox 80 20 60-- 60 21 17 17 33 30 22 78 28 88 12 0 14 100 1 42-- 15 25 1 6 1 4 39 30 39 1 1 56 27 68 | 32 ' 0 a y 100 33-- 45 . 9 ^0 50 50 r>~ 20 50- 20 n 50 50 8 p 51 25 12 31 6 6o 5 30 65 26 75 oc; — -j 0 1 1 1 0 - 0 57 73 o o o 8 64 73 12 75 13 33 100 OQ 1 1 50 50 50 19 29 71 14 60 40 35-- 33 n 1 7 84 39 13 40- 67 26 67 35 60 20 16 50 10 33 20 4 r - 55 21 O 31 31 12 40 17 1 50 ;47 47 68 09 1 85 05 100 50 0 10 ;50 ' 50 20 100 25 12 3 100 24 33 67 16 100 0 23 33 *7 P 100 100 33 100 33 100 25 0 <*> 1 no 4 100 10 33- 50 5° 5 100 — — GOODE’S SEr GOODE’S SERIES OF BASE MAPS AND GRAPHS . AFRICA ON THE SINUSOIDAL PROJECTION, NO. Copyright 1920, by the University of Chicago