lilllJJIlIIJilHIIltlAillAAAAlAHi (JlAAAlAlAl.Al.lA 4111 1 AX 1I1A11111 Hibraru $$q. JlolUg* 5 **Sp* U 'SdVfc ** >BNi ** A gift from Received * ' '** ; C ' s ' *K.i \ "^/-t *'^ \ X _ _ '\^ Lffltt ' T A^ :S '*=_ -~ - ^S^i/jS^T^Il ivojT'?**- 5" : " - <1 s* ;Mi^ yC' - J^i *&. \^m^^\m u v-^^JkiA 1 .^;--r,- . > ^\i jW^* : ' SO^ [jbraiy tewMexko College / jAqricultuit HtArfe % ! ' 5^ V N ""'^ ,;- ' ^ -^ /IV^jBJW r ^ M^.= i^A;i(7f, <5. -x^*^>^ :^A IfelMF ^^^^S^f^S ^.^-^^ <* " ^%t^^^^%^V^ H ' ' : ' r " ^ UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, Agricultural Experiment Station. CHAMPAIGN, NOVEMBER, 1890. BULLETIN NO. 12. FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. This article gives a record of experiments conducted during three years, in regard to the quantity of oats to sow per acre, the time and depth of sowing, and the manner of preparing the seed-bed; of experi- ments during two years in sowing oats and spring wheat together, and a test of a large number of varieties of oats. It is the aim to report and interpret facts obtained; no prophecy is made with regard to the future. There are no means of determining absolutely that these results will -be obtained again. Where, however, substantially the same results have been obtained during two or three years, the probabilities are that in this locality similar methods will in the future give similar results. The largest yield of grain was produced from sowing two and one- half bushels of seed in 1888 and 1890, and from three and one-half in 1889. The average yield was slightly larger when three and one-half bushels of seed were sown per acre. Between two and one-half and three and one-half bushels of seed per acre there was but little difference, in yield, and with four bushels the yield was not much less. In 1888 and 1889, a medium loose, and in 1890, a fairly compact seed-bed, gave the best results. A very compact and a very loose seed- bed have uniformly given the poorest results. The unplowed land gave this season better results than the plowed. The time of sowing has had in these tests a more marked influence on the yield than any other condition. The earlier sowings, with one exception the earliest, have uniformly given the best yields. In these tests sowing prior to April ist has given decidedly the best results. 354 BULLETIN NO. 12. {November, The depth of sowing giving the best results has varied from one to four inches, and has not been the same in any two seasons. No advantage has been found in sowing spring wheat with oats, either in the total quantity of grain produced or in the quality of the wheat. The percentage of wheat harvested was less than that sown. In 1890, the so-called dun-colored rust-proof varieties, Texas rust- proof, Texas red, and new red rust-proof, yielded the best; in 1889, they were among the poorest. Texas rust-proof gave the largest yield this season and the smallest yield last season. Giant yellow French, which gave the largest yield in 1889, yielded indifferently in 1890. Early Dakota white is the only variety which did especially well both seasons. There was an average of 66.2 per cent, of kernel in the berry of the seed, and 71.3 per cent, in the crop in 1890. The greatest difference of kernel in any two varieties was 15 per cent, in the seed sown, and 16 per cent, in the crop. Those varieties which contained the higher per cent, of kernel in the seed sown contained the higher average per cent, of kernel in the crop, but did not yield quite so well as those containing a less per cent, of ker- nel in the crop. The earlier ripening varieties yielded the most grain and the least straw and contained the least per cent, of kernel. On the whole, the open panicled or branching varieties and the closed panicled side oats, have yielded equally well. In 1890, the dun-colored varieties stood first in yield of grain, the black, second, and the white, third. In 1889 the white varieties stood first and the dun-colored, last. The dun-colored varieties have contained the largest per cent, of kernel. The yield was not materially affected by the length, plumpness, or by the weight of the berry, or the weight per bushel. Those varieties with long, slender, light berries and light weight per bushel contained appre- ciably the larger per cent, of kernel. In other words, those varieties which would have sold best on the market, or, what is less important, would have taken the premium at the fairs, did not yield better than the other varieties and did not have so high a food value. Experiment No. 12. Oats, Quantity of Seed per Acre. Seven contiguous plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast with welcome oats at the rate of from i to 4 bushels per acre, April 5, 1888, March 27, 1889, and April 2, 1890. The first two seasons the oats were sown on fall-plowed land and covered with a disk harrow and twice har- rowing. The last season a different tract of land was used and the land was plowed nine days before seeding. The land was rolled before seed- ing, and the oats were covered with a disk harrow and a common tooth harrow. The oats were blown down more or less each season, which some- what affected the amount of straw harvested. The plats sown at the rate 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 355 of one bushel and one and one-half bushels were generally a very little weedy. No essential difference was noticed in the time of ripening. The table gives results for the three years. TABLE SHOWING YIELD OF OATS FROM DIFFERENT AMOUNTS OF SEED, 1888, '89, '90. Seed per acre, bushels. Grain, per acre, bu. Straw per acre, Ib. Lb. per bu. 1888. 1889. 1890. Av'ge. 1888. 1889. 1890. Av'ge. 1889. 1890. i i-5 2 2-5 3 3-S 4 52.5 594 61.4 638 61.9 62.5 60.6 36.3 33 -i 42.5 43-8 47-2 52-1 50 6 25-3 21.6 75 29 i 27.5 247 21.9 38.0 380 40-5 45-5 45-5 46.4 44-4 3,820 4,400 4,540 4,860 5,220 4,400 4,260 4,600 3,800 4,000 3.000 4,400 4.100 3,200 2,820 1,740 1, 800 2,460 1,960 2, COO 2,O2O 3,747 3.313 3.447 3-440 3,86o 3,500 3,160 25-5 25 28 28 29 295 29.5 26 26.5 24 29 20 28 29 Experiment No. ij. Oats, Compact or Loose Seed- Bed. Three plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast April 6, 1888, at the rate of two and one half bushels per acre. In plat i, the oats were sown in fall-plowed land, and lightly covered with a disk harrow. The land was then rolled with a heavy garden roller and afterwards harrowed. Plat 2 was cultivated with a disk harrow before sowing; the oats were covered by disking once and once harrowing. Plat 3 was disked three times before sowing, once afterward, and then harrowed. The oats came up evenly and ripened at the same time. They were harvested July igth and threshed July 27th to 28th. March 27, 1889, four plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast with welcome oats at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre. In plat i, the oats were sown on fall- plowed land, and were covered by disking once and harrowing twice. In plat 2, the oats were sown on fall-plowed land and were covered by harrowing twice. Plats 3 and 4 were treated as were plats 2 and 3 in 1888. The oats came up and ripened evenly. They were down rather badly on plat I, less on plat 2, still less on plat 3, and were standing fairly on plat 4, this condition being due probably, to differences in the soil. They were harvested July igth and threshed August loth. April i, 1890, four plats each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast with welcome oats at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre. The land, which was used without previous preparation, was partly in the same exper- ment last year and partly in sorghum, each plat being equally so used. In plat i, the oats were sown without previous preparation. In plat 2, the land was disked once before sowing. In plat 3, the land was disked three times before sowing. In plat 4, the land was plowed four inches deep just before seeding. The oats were covered with the disk harrow, the driver walking while going over the plowed plat to prevent the oats being too deeply covered. The whole tract was afterwards harrowed with a common tooth harrow. On several square feet of plat i, considerable sweet clover sprung up, which was removed May 6th. July loth, the oats were harvested, when they were equally ripe and all were standing well. The oats were threshed July 22d. 356 BULLETIN NO. 12. [November, TABLE SHOWING YIELD OF OATS FROM DIFFERENTLY PREPARED SEED-BEDS, 1888, 1889, 1890. Seed-bed. 1888. 1889. 1890. Average. *d P O -) . 5" c^> r n 1-1 g S c/p 3 Jl p 5 * "I g 1 3 B Grain, per acre, bu. Cfl i-t 1 F| P o 1-1 _p f cr "O n t 0* cr 2- s P O EJ. F* P ~ H P j| CT^ . fD 1 P Lb. per bush O -t s. fi 1-1 P CO 1 J cr-o rt i P 1 3 j n 1 Very compact Compact .... Medium . 2 I 3 4 40 44-4 47.8 44.1 3,100 3,200 2,900 2,300 25-5 27 27.5 30 I 2 3 4 30.6 36.3 32.8 30-3 2,220 2,O4O 2,020 1,940 32 32 3 33 I 2 3 60 663 60.6 4, 1 80 5,38o 4,460 46.9 49 45 3, HO 3,433 2,900 Very loose . . . Experiment No, 14. Oats, Time of Sowing. Four adjacent plats, each 2x4 rods, were sown broadcast, at intervals of one week, from April 6 to April 27, 1888. In 1889, seven plats were sown at intervals of one week, from March i4th to April 25th. In 1890, twelve plats were sown, two each week, from March 22d to April 28th, the duplicate plats being six plats apart. Each season welcome oats were sown on fall-plowed land at the rate of two and one-half bushels per acre and were covered by use of a disk harrow and the common tooth harrow. May 5, 1890, the first and second weeks' sowings were nearly equal in growth; the third weeks' sowing smaller; the fourth weeks' sowing dis- tinctly smaller; the fifth weeks' still smaller; while the sixth weeks' sow- ing was just coming up. June 27th the first three weeks' sowings were fully panicled. July 2d the fourth and fifth weeks' sowings were fully panicled. July 7th the sixth sowing was fully panicled. The following table gives the results of the duplicate plats for 1890: TABLE SHOWING YIELD OF OATS FROM SOWINGS OF DIFFERENT DATES, 1890. O -( C/3 J O V. I-t 5 s I Average P p c Date of sow- 2 o-d' 3 Q. M 3 5' 5^ a, g? p tr. o cr "^ *"d ing, 1890. p -1 i-l 1 r P q Frc 1-1 ^ 3 S. * 3 *J P o 1-1 g ^ o- g 1-1 cr B*^ F S' ,? S" C j3 i* p * i-l 2 March 22... . i 466 3220 325 7 41.6 3060 31 44.1 3140 31-8 March 31 2 42.5 2920 31-5 8 47-8 3860 3-5 45.1 339 3i April 7. . . l 2640 27. C Q ^6.6 ^I4O 26.? 36 s 2800 2 7 April 16 j 4 29 4 ^ 3060 / O 27-5 7 IO o w v 30.6 *J " 2980 ~ v , j 27 *J J 30.0 7 3020 27-3 April 21 5 28.1 2580 27-5 II 28.1 2900 26 28.1 2740 26.8 April 28 6 18.3 2440 26 12 20 9 2640 27-5 19.6 2540 26.8 July 1 2th, the first three weeks' sowings were harvested; July i7th, the fourth weeks'; July igth, the fifth weeks'; and July 2ist, the sixth weeks'. July 24th to 28th, the oats were threshed. For details of the first two seasons see bulletin No. 7, p. 195. 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 357 The substantial agreement of the duplicate plats is quite striking. The first two weeks' sowings gave decidedly better results this season than any of the later sowings. A great many acres of oats were sown at a later date in this latitude and farther south. The percentage of kernel was determined in a five-gram sample taken from each plat, as follows: TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF KERNEL IN OATS GROWN FROM SOWINGS AT DIFFER- ENT DATES, 1890. "0 R5 o Date of 2 *!? 3 o 2 S"5 -i x-3 > 3 2 3 sowing, p" = 2 n 3 st 3 2 n & M March 22. . i 70.4 7 70.5 70.5 March 31. . 2 68.Q 8 69.2 69.1 April 7 3 63.1 9 64.9 64 April 16. . . 4 65-4 10 65-4 65-4 April 21. . . 5 68.2 ii 62.9 65.6 April 28. . . 6 62.5 12 63-8 63.2 The following table gives the yield of straw and grain per acre, for three years: TABLE SHOWING YIELD OF OATS FROM SOWINGS AT DIFFERENT DATES, 1888, 1889, 1890. 1 888. 1889. 1890. ~n ** P W "i rr - F S" 5* 1? *" p CT5 o n 3 g" "^ ** ! 3' Date of sowing. P O O 1 S" 5 - B n i s' 2, o O i s. 3.5 o ? P O o - 2 i n *- - 3 F rt p T 3 -I c cr 3 C D- ui n 2, sg CTQ S c O 1-1 "1 p P g' B fB |" 5^8 s C CL TI T3 Q^ Seed per acre, bu. Fw C p sr ft ?! r S- i Oats, 2. s. . 2Q C 24. 2 Oats, 1.25; wheat, i 5 20.3 5-2 3 Oats, 2.5; wheat, 0.5 35 16.2 2.8 4' Oats, 2.5; wheat, 0.25. ... 39 20. 2 I.Q 5 Oats, 2; wheat, 0.5 ...... 46 2"?. I 6 Oats, 2; wheat, 0.25 45 22.8 2.8 7 Oats, 2.25; wheat, 0.25... 38.5 20.8 1.2 X Wheat, 2 4^ Id ^ 9 Oats, 2.5 43 26.3 The preceding table gives the yield for 1890. From the above tables, it will be seen that in 1889 the six plats sown with varying mixtures of oats and wheat yielded an average of 57 pounds, while the two plats sown with oats alone averaged 65 pounds of grain. In 1890, the six plats sown with a mixture of oats and wheat gave an average of 42 pounds while the two plats sown with oats alone yielded 41 pounds. In 1889, the plat sown to wheat alone yielded 20.5 pounds, while in 1890 it yielded 43 pounds. It is evident that in these tests no appreciable increase in yield was obtained by sowing wheat and oats together. From the table given below, it will be seen that the quality of the wheat, as measured by the size of the kernel, was not increased, and that, in general, the percentage 3 6 BULLETIN NO. 12. [November, of oats harvested was greater than that sown. This would seem to indi- cate the better adaptability of the oat than of spring wheat to the condi- tions under which they were tested in this experiment. The following table gives the weight of 1,000 berries in grams and the per cent, by weight of berries in the seed and crop of the two grains in 1890. The wheat was so poor in 1889 as to make the results in this direction of little value. TABLE SHOWING WEIGHTS AND PERCENTAGES OF OATS AND SPRING WHEAT GROWN TOGETHER, 1890. < Wt. of i cxx) berries in grm Per cent, by weight of ber- ries in seed and crop. ? u> Wheat. Oats. Wheat. 0) n a P* o >-i o 7 c/: n n P" n 3 p i 2 3 4 6 9 19-3 *i-s 18.1 20.7 20.7 23-5 20.1 IOO 40 73 84 78 Si 83 i 7 65 74 83 80 81 87 18.4 18.1 18.0 21.9 21.3 19.1 21.4 60 27 16 32 *9 17 IOO 31 24 14 18 19 10 IOO 21-3 IOO 98 Experiment No. 84. Oats, Test of Varieties. In 1889, thirty varieties of oats were tested by this Station and the results reported in bulletin No. 7, p. 197. These varieties have been tested again in 1890 together with seventeen other varieties. In the following table are the varieties not tested in 1889. The land used in this experiment had been in corn three years. March 25, 26, 1890, the tract was plowed about four inches deep without TABLE GIVING NAMES OF VARIETIES FIRST TESTED IN 1890, AND ADDRESS OF SENDER OF SEED. No. plat. Name of variety. Name of sender. Postoffice. I and 48. Baltic white Johnson & Stokes Philadelphia. 2 and 54. Golden giant side W. A. Burpee Philadelphia. ~\ and ic.. Improved American... . Joseph Harris Rochester, N. Y. 4 and 56. White Swede. . . S. F. Leonard Chicago. 5 and 57. Early Lackawanna W. H. Maule Philadelphia. 6 and 58 Prince Edward's Island. James M. Thornburn New York. 7 and 59. Canada white James M. Thornburn. New York. Black Russian T. Chester . ... Champaign o. White bonanza T. Chester Champaign. 10. Texas red University farm Champaign. II. Black Highlander University farm Champaign. 12 and 52 2d Premium white S. D. LaRosh Pekin, 111. 13 and 60. White Victoria Kentucky Experiment Sta'n. Lexington, Ky. A.1 and 11. Prolific side Samuel Wilson Mechanicsville, Pa. A.Q White schonen Wisconsin Experiment Sta'n. Madison, Wis. CQ Swedish .... Wisconsin Experiment Sta'n Madison, Wis. Si- Improved white Russian Wisconsin Experiment Sta'n. Madison, Wis. 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 361 removing corn stalks. April ist it was rolled. April 2d the tract was divided into 60 plats each 2x4 rods. A space of from 2.5 to 5 feet was left between plats. Plats i to 48 and 52 to 60, inclusive, were sown with the varieties as specified in table p. 360. The oats were sown at the rate, by weight, of two and one-half bu. per acre. They were covered by going over the ground once with a disk harrow. April 8th, plats 49, 50, and 5 1 were sown with varieties which had not arrived when the other varieties were sown. DUPLICATE PLATS. The first question to be determined in tests of this kind is the degree of accuracy of the method employed and the probable limit of error. Eleven varieties were sown on two plats each. The duplicates were, on an average, about 20 rods apart, so arranged as to give the maximum variation likely to occur on the tract used. TABLE SHOWING YIELD OF DUPLICATE PLATS OF OATS, 1590. H T) 13 O * O c w rt . O" CO 3 A. 3 -t B- 3' o re c " O P J" era *"* cr 3 Name of variety. ft n 1-1 ?i n -i IT re 3. O * P s. s cr ^ 8 n ._. . B _ re n P B- o 2* i O n 7 7 re Baltic white 31 -9 7,8.8 7.47. 7. IO 7C . C 7.C 2.14 2.7,6 71.5173.2 Golden giant side 7.2 2 7.4 7. 7 l8 7. II 77 2Q ? 2.51 2.7.Q 70. i 78.2 Improved American 22 i; 27 C 7. Co 7 4C SB 27 2 82 2 ?<; 68 77?. 4 White Swede 7,1 .0 7.O.7, 2 60 I 78 7,7, C 7,7. . C 2. C,O 2-39 66.767.1 Early Lackawanna 2Q 7 7C Q 7. 4.1 2 C.4 7.7, c 7,7, 2.7,4 2. 18 68 i 7O.O Prince Edward's Island 7.C 7 28 6 2 ^7. 2 53 2Q 2Q 2 7,7. 2 O7 72 71 8 Canada white 42 2 7.O 6 ' r>9 2 ee 7.7. 7.7. 2 46 2 17 66 T 68 7, 2d Premium white . . . AA 1 7.7 2 7 7/1 2 55 7.4 7.O C. 2 33 2 24 66 9 6c 7 White Victoria 7.Q I 7.4 7 ">- if* 2 TO 7.7. 7,1 C 2 21 2. 02 68 9 60 c Prolific side . 7.7 c 7.7. I 7 nn 7. 7$ 7.2 28 5 2 IQ 2 O2 72.7, 70 o Welcome 38-8 41.22.57 1-94 3 28. 5 32 5 * 2.06 2. II 69.4 71.7 The average difference in yield of grain between two plats of the same variety was 5.3 bushels; the least difference, 1.6 bushels; and the greatest difference, n.6 bushels. If one variety in this test yields five bushels more than another, it does not 'necessarily indicate that the former was superior, even for this season, to the latter. Differences of twelve bushels per acre may be due to uncontrollable differences in the condition of *the test, although such differences are very much less likely to occur. It is worthy of note, however, that the variety which gave the largest yield was grown adjacent to that which gave the poorest yield, and that the five varieties yielding best were widely distributed over the tract used. There was in several cases a considerable variation in the number of pounds of straw for each pound of grain on the different plats of the same variety. 362 BULLETIN NO. 12. {November ; The greatest difference in the weight of a bushel of oats from two plats of the same variety was four pounds; the average difference about one and one-half pounds. It is probable that the number of pounds of oats in a bushel is less trustworthy than any other item given in the table. The chance of variation in the mere mechanical operation of obtaining the result is very great. With the exception of improved American (plats 3 and 55) the per- centage of kernel in the berries of oats of the same variety grown on different plats is substantially alike. The average difference is less than one and one-half per cent, and the greatest difference, 2.3 per cent. The samples of improved American contained, as did other samples, a con- siderable number of hull-less kernels and there seems to have been many more hull-less kernels in oats from plal 55 than from plat 3. In determining the per cent, of kernel in the berries of the several varieties ten grams of each sample were hulled and the weight of kernel and hulls obtained together with the number of berries. In order to test the accuracy 'of this method, four subdivisions of a sample of Clydesdale oats were analyzed as follows: Number of berries 446 446 436 435 Wt. of hulls in ten grams 3>56 3>456 3,361 3*356 Wt. of kernel in ten grains 6,486 6,494 6,594 6,612 Total weight 9.99 2 9>95 9'955 9,968 Per cent, of kernel 64.9 64.9 65.9 66.1 According to these results the method is accurate within about one per cent, or in other words the limit of error is about one per cent. VITALITY OF SEED. In 1889, twenty-eight varieties of oats, most of which had been received from seedsmen, were tested in the Geneva apparatus for 18 days at the mean temperature of 66.5 F. Ninety-three per cent, sprouted. A portion of the crop of 1889 was saved for the seed of the crop of 1890. Thirty-two samples, thus saved, were tested in the Geneva appar- atus first at a mean temperature 60.4.0 F., and again at essentially the same mean temperature 60. i F. The average vitality was 87 per cent, six per cent, less than that shown by the test of a year ago. Eleven additional varieties two samples of 100 berries each were tested at a mean temperature of 63.7 F. The average vitality was 93 per cent. PURITY OF SEED. In 1889, it was shown that the foreign mattter contained in the seed sent to this Station was less than two-tenths of one per' cent., and that the impurities were usually of the most harmless, nature, such as pits of straw, chaff, etc. Similar results have been obtained in those varieties which have been sent to this Station the present season. 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 363 SYNOPSIS OF VARIETIES. The early, medium, and late maturing are grouped on p. 364 accord- ing to their more striking characteristics, so that the reader may more readily understand the similarities and dissimilarities of the several varie- ties. This obviates the necessity of a description of each variety. It does not follow that all the names in one final group are but different names for the same variety. There are minor differences between some of the oats which may doubtless constitute variety characteristics; but for ordinary farm purposes these differences are probably unimportant. Those varieties which were harvested from July loth to i2th, are classed as early. Plat 59 is an exception. It was harvested July isth, which was doubtless an oversight, as the same variety on plat 7 was har- vested July nth. The medium maturing varieties are those harvested July i7th and i9th,and thelate maturing those harvested July 2ist and 23d. Where the oats are blown down badly it is often difficult to judge correctly as to the comparative ripeness of several varieties. There are some changes from the classification made in 1889. Early Dakota, centennial, and Hargetfs white are changed from medium matur- ing to early maturing. Egyptian has been changed provisionally from the open to the closed panicle group. Probably other changes will be made from year to year as the experiment progresses. YIELD. As was commonly the case with oats in this state in 1890, in the experiment under consideration the yield of grain was low, being for the sixty plats an average of 35.2 bushels per acre. The yield of straw was 3,063 pounds per acre. In 1889, the average yield per acre of grain from thirty-three plats was 41.2 bushels; of straw, 2,394 pounds. This year there were 2.8 pounds of straw for each pound of grain produced, while last year there were but 1.84 pounds of straw for each pound of grain. It is evident from this that the oats gave promise in the early part of this season of an abundant yield, but from some cause or causes the fulfill- ment of that promise was prevented. The problem is too intricate the effect of climatic conditions and the damage from insect depredations and from the prevalence of plant diseases have been too little studied, to make it possible to speak dogmatically with regard to the failure in this particular case. Suffice it to say that the rainfall (11.47 m O f r tne three principal months, April, May, and June, was but little below the normal for the whole season, but was in excess in April, somewhat deficient in May, and considerably more deficient in June, while the temperature for May and June was above normal; and that the oats were somewhat, although not in this case excessively, infested with the grain plant louse, Aphis avenae. The table on page 365 gives for the several plats, in order, the yield of grain per acre, beginning with the highest, while the table on pages 365-6 gives more details both with regard to the yield and quality of the grain. BULLETIN NO. 12. \_Novcmbcr, SYNOPSIS OF VARIETIES. Yield, bu. Texas rust proof 55 o ) f Dun.. . . \ Berry long -^ Texas red , 49 7 [-50.2 New red rust proof 45 o ) f Tt ! n J Earl y Dakota 48 8 j 8 _ Open panicle. . -j >Dg 1 Pringle's progress 48 I f 4-S f White Swede. : 31 i ] Early Lackawanna 32 8 White.. -| Canada white 364 White bonanza 37 7 Second premium 42 o White Victoria 36 9 Welcome 372 Berry short \ Clydesdale 32 8 ^35.7 H Hopetown 35 9 White wonder 35 6 Prize cluster 37 2 Badger queen 37 8 White Belgian 33 8 Hargett's white 34 4 Centennial 33 4 ] i. Closed panicle. \ Black . . \ Berry long { Black Russian 35 o f Black Russian 40 6 ] BUck .. i Berry ,ong \ EgSE?.]?."* J [Prince Edward's Island.. 32 o f Closed panicle. - J Berry long -{ Prolific side 35 3 , f Japan.... 40 3 IT, , | Baltic white.. ..'. 35 4 [ Berry short probstier 354 [Egyptian 35 9 J | Swedish 30 9 j f Berry short \ Wide awake 28 6 >28.i ( Improved American ... .24 8 ) f White .. \ ( White schonen 31 9 jf Ooen oanicle L Berr y long \ American banner 30 6 [ 30. 1 | American triumph 27 8 ) Black . . -{ Berry long -j Black Tartarian. 33 8 I" Ooen nanicle J Black ' 1 Berr y lon S 1' Cana d ia n black 34 4 ' le - ' j Dun.. . . -I Berry long -j Virginia winter. 20 o S I f Black . . -j Berry long -{ Black Highlander 36 3 1 I I [_ Closed panicle. -{ f Golden giant side 33 3 ] | Giant yellow French. . . .34 4 j [White .. -{ Berry long -{ Common mixed 31 9 ^30.3 | White Russian 266 j [Improved white Russian. 25 6 J It is a striking fact, as will be seen from the tables, on page 365, that many of the varieties yielded nearly alike. Thirty-three varieties yielded between thirty and forty bushels per acre; that is, they did not vary over five bushels above or below the average of all the varieties. Only five varieties, Texas rust proof, Texas red, Early Dakota, Prin- gle's progress, and new red rust proof stands conspicuously above the other varieties, Texas rust proof, stands somewhat ahead of any other. This i8 9 o] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 365 TABLE SHOWING COMPARATIVE YIELD OF VARIETIES OF OATS 1890. NAME OF VARIETY. Bo. per Acre. COMPARATIVE YIELD. 55 9 49 7 48.8 48.1 45-0 42.0 40.6 4 3 39 4 38.4 378 37-8 37-5 37-2 36.9 3&-4 36.3 35-9 35 9 35-9 35-6 35-6 35-4 35-3 35-o 34-4 34-4 34 4 338 33-8 33-8 33-8 33 4 33 3 32 8 32.0 3-9 3i-9 3'- 1 30.9 30.6 28.6 27.8 26.6 25.6 25.0 24.4 20. o Texas red Early Dakota Pringle's progress New red rust proof. ... Taoan ^Velcome . White bonanza. . . Canada white Black Highlander.. Hopetown Egyptian Black prolific Probstier Prolific side Black Russian. . . . Giant yellow French . . . Hargett's white Canadian black Clydesdale White Belgian. Welcome Black Tartarian Centennial Golden giant side Early Lackawanna Prince Edward's Island. Common, Mixed ^^hite Schonen White Swede Swedish American banner Wide awake American triumph White Russian Improved W. Russian . . Improved American... Improved American.. . . Virginia winter 366 BULLETIN NO. 12. [ November ; H Z . u Bd E 51 3 H Jk . . . G C . B . : : :i i : i : o o o ; c d . c . a ....:... i i i i :::';:: oo-o'o;-'-' Ed s c .2 |- M |sa|| 3||3||g||gg||| M pq g ^ .S .S ^ ^ .S ^ -a ^^' r g" a r g^'a-a'a-''' h 'H u CQ c/j ^/5 C^ CJ c^ C^ c/} I 111 11 till till K O IOM r^t^. M H- co O\OO HI ON ON rl-CXS ~ >O NO OO l^. UT* H .g . In crop. *? T? r * ONOO vC OO N vO 1^1 j^gg^SR 8 u^ co CO t>*vO t^ONin vO iO WiOt^u-> Z Z M nJS^ In seed. S^ji^ss-j: ^~ 10 T^* ro ^O*O ^^ ^* CO O N- N t^ ^O 04 Q< 8 e T ^- -" N O ^ rO^O "O CO ^OOO i/^ CO CO ^" O ^^ct?ON V ort^!-?Jo?^-?^ M O 2 .S In crop. w 2 It* V ej WMNNMNNN NNNNNNNNNNNWNN H H C 1-1 *-O ON ON IM ON ** 00 "^ to ONOO ON LO O N L*" C NO t^ ro ^ to w HI ro r-*.NO HI .^ M NtOOtONHitOx TfOO NO OO "1 N Q ;; J-j M In seed. N H, N N N fON N NNNNNNNNtNHivNNNN H H Ripe and cut ON HI ON HI O ONHI HI Q i H Q i-i M MM tN O ^ M O ON ON o 3 July- S & Height, feet. Tj-Tj-ro-'i-TftO'i-co 4ro^-Ti-Tj-'4-4'^-'4-44'4"^^ < 12 5 i j~ a u Pounds per bushel. S5?8RR^S UO *O >-O *-O co N O ^ COOO ^ t"** vooo T^ to O N CO co C4 CO co C4 CO CO co N co co CO f S z , Lb straw for rooo O O to N r-* T^ *OvO ^4" *-O ON^O co^f^TfvO t^rfO W N N N ON CO H W K M W each Ib. grain. CO to CON to N - H, NH,tOM N N NNN H, NNNN I 8 CO u H Straw, Ib. IH B oooooooo O OO N vO ^^O O 00 CO CO N N CO C^ N ** OOQOOOQOOOOOQO vO *O O *O *O O *O *O *O ^ ^ ^ N 'O H ON N 10 ON!^ CO N if) t> co **** ^^ 00 00 *O ON3O OO vO O CT VARIET ^3 Grain, bu. > jotoS P>?;jo3-3 t- ON*O ^* ONOO co *O i^lOO t^. tOOO O F DIFFERENT OF OATS o V 1 : l : : : :x .KH -T3 . u 3 . , . . . 0> Q u M of g M : ^ E SHOWING Yi ' U rt T3 ' ^" u pq HI N to f f>NO r^oo ON O 1-1 p to Tf "1NO r^OO ON O HI N g No. of plat. 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 367 a ; e . ' c. C..C..E c. cc.ee * :: o b '. ' o ' ; p p o p o o d _X' ' 3 ^ ' COOO vO ON CO CO I s * CO ^" *O*O *O OO ON wi ^^ t^ CO N 00 vO ON N N ^" CO OO CO ""> SO N O OO O ^^ O ON ^}*vO M" ON "- 1 u^ CO ** ^t"^O TfOO Th co O CO ^J" -- u"> t^ ^* t^ 10 NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNwNNNNwNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN \f) if) 10 to *O to to to to to to to to t/^ w> to to w^ to to to OOOO NT)-NTl- coco OOOOOOQOOOOO O ^J-OO N OO rj-l>5 N <}- -^- N O vO oo LOCO^O O^*t" O t^ONcO N rJ-00 00 vo *O 00 ^ ON >* OsOO >-" CO IOOO CO "> CO ONvO vo N N COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO' 368 BULLETIN NO. 12. \_November y variety gave the poorest yield in 1889. Giant yellow French, which last year gave the best yield, this year yielded indifferently. Early Dakota is the only variety which yielded especially well both seasons. It gave the second best yield last season, 51.3 bushels, and the third best yield this season, 48.8 bushels. QUALITY. The quality of the several varieties, as indicated by the ratio of kernel to berry has been studied again this season, and is shown in the table oa pages 366-7. There was an average of 66.2 per cent, of kernel in the seed and 71.3 per cent, in the crop. In 1889, there was 69.6 per cent, of kernel in the seed and 65.1 per cent, in the crop. In other words there was a decrease of 4.5 per cent, in 1889, and an increase of 5.1 per cent, in 1890, in the crop as compared with the seed. This season there were more kernels without hulls than last season, which was one reason for the increased percentage of kernel. Whether this was due to the conditions of growth or to the differences in handling cannot be told. In 1889, Canadian black had the largest per cent, of kernel, 78 i in the seed. In 1890, the same variety had the largest per cent, of kernel, 80.8, in the resulting crop. The least per cent, of kernel in the seed sown was 59, in black Tartarian and the least in the crop was 64.8, in Clydes- dale; and the per cent, was almost as low in black Tartarian. There was a difference of 15 per cent, between the highest and low- est per cent, of kernel in the seed, and a difference of 16 per cent, between the highest and lowest per cent, of kernel in the crop. It was shown in bulletin No. 7, p. 207, that these differences were a matter of some importance to the individual oat raiser and of vast importance when applied to the total crop of the United States. On thirty-four plats the varieties whose seed had in each case more than 65 per cent, of kernel and an average of 68.6 per cent, contained in the crop 72.8 per cent, of kernel. From twenty-four plats varieties whose seed had in each case less than 65 per cent, of kernel and an average of 62.8 per cent., contained in the crop 69.7 per cent, of kernel. The average yield of the former class was 34 bushels, while that of the latter was 36.6 bushels. That is, in 1890 those varieties whose seed had the largest per cent, of kernel averaged the largest per cent, in the crop. Unlike last year, however, those varieties having the less per cent, of kernel in the seed gave the larger crop of grain. On the thirty-six plats the varieties which had in the crop more than 70 per cent, of kernel, gave the same average yield as the varieties from twenty-two plats which had less than 70 per cent, of kernel in the crop. The average weight of the berries harvested was equal to that of those sown. It appears, therefore, that the deficiency in yield was due to a less number of berries rather than to a decrease in the weight of the berry. 1890.] FIELD EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS, 1890. 3 6 9 Thus it is seen that there is a wide variation in the yield, and to some, but apparently less extent, in the quality of individual varieties. The question arises, therefore, whether there is any traceable relation be- tween the more striking characteristics of the oat, as time of ripening, color, size, and shape of berry, weight per bushel, etc., and the yield and quality. The table below shows that the following were the facts in this experiment in 1890: TABLE SHOWING FOR DIFFERENT VARIETIES AS CLASSIFIED, YIELD, WEIGHT OF GRAIN, PKR CENT OF KERNEL, 1890. f Varieties Classified. X c -o^ p" oa si 5 'q 0> o l-h r cr ^ |p < n s o P-S ii P M s-F cr? m ^ -^ sa -s rs Lb. per bushel. Grams per 100 berries of seed. g"9 3 3 ll O^J l-h f( " Ii Per cent of ker- nel in seed. Per cent of ker- nel in crop. Maturing early 70 18.2 278? 2.72 12.5 2.l6 2.70 64.0 68.8 Maturing medium ?T 32. Q 12 5o ^.IO ^O. I Z.T. 5 2."?2 66.1 6q.o Maturing late o j^-y 10. 6 1546 7.7O 1O 6 2. 01 2. 70 7O.O 72.2 Berries, short, plump i 1 74.7 2918 2.66 ^2.2 2.47 2.77 6=;.o 77.1 Berries, long, slender .... ... 26 |7 35-9 34- 5 3253 1006 2.98 2.78 30.4 119 2-39 2. 1O 2.31 2.14 67.7 65 q 74.2 70 6 Berries, black () 7.C;.; 142O ^.oo 2Q-7 2.1,2 2. -14 67.5 73.o Berries, dun-colored 4 42.7 2O7O 2. SI 10.8 2. IQ 2 54 66.7 75.6 Panicles, open 1" 1S-6 ->88i 2.61 31.4 2.14 2.11 65.4 70.1 Panicles, closed 20 14.. 5 1427 1.14 11-5 2.2ft 2.11 67.7 73.8 Weight per bushel, 32 Ib. or more 2 ze.O 20 ?8 2.61 77.4. 2. I*. 2.14 65.2 6q.8 Weight per bushel, less than 12 Ib. ?8 14.4 1181 1.OI 20. 1 2.2? 2. 1O 67.1 72. Weight of seed per 100 berries, 2.25 grains or more 2 3.5.7 2801; 2.62 11.6 2. 52 2.12 660 60. Q Weight of seed per 100 berries, less than 2.25 grains >6 14.4 1284 1.OS 71. I 2. 05 2.11 66.4 77. Kernel in seed, 65 per cent or ? i 14. 2QQ2 2.85 71. 2.14 2.l6 68.6 72.8 Kernel in seed, less than 65 per cent -M 16.6 1178 2.75 71. 2.27 2.27 62.6 6o.7 Kernel in crop, 70 per cent or 6 7^.1 12O2 2.Q7 ^O.6 2.27 2.15 67.5 77. Q Kernel in crop, less than 70 per cent ->> 7"M 28qi 2.55 72.6 2.47 2.20 64.O 67.2 Date of Ripening. The extreme difference in the ripening of the several varieties was but thirteen days. The early ripening varieties yielded appreciably more grain than the medium maturing, and the medium maturing somewhat more than the late maturing. The yield of straw was in the reverse order, being over one-fourth more in the late than in the early maturing varieties, and the proportion of straw to grain was over one-half more. The percentage of kernel both in the seed and in the crop was the greatest in the late maturing and the least in the early maturing varieties. In regard to quality this agrees with the results of last season. Last sea- son there was no determinable relationship between the date of ripening and the yield. This season the yield of the early maturing varieties is 370 BULLETIN NO. 12. [November, increased by the fact that the three heavy yielding dun Varieties came into this group. If they are left out, however, the yield of the early maturing varieties is still considerably above the other varieties. Panicles. Those varieties with open or branching panicles yielded slightly more grain and considerably less straw than those with closed panicles, sometimes called side oats. Eight of the twelve varieties in the last group were black. The varieties with closed panicles had the largest per cent, of kernel both in the seed and the crop. Color. The black varieties yielded one bushel of grain and about 400 pounds more of straw per acre than the white varieties. The dun-colored varieties yielded about seven bushels of grain and 500 pounds of straw less per acre than the black varieties. One of the dun-colored varieties yielded 20 bushels only of grain, and is otherwise different from the remaining three. Omitting this one, the dun-colored varieties yielded about fifteen bushels more than the black varieties and sixteen more than the white varieties. The percentage of kernel was most in the dun-colored varieties and least in the white varieties. Last season the white varieties yielded decidedly the best and the dun-colored varieties the poorest. The dun- colored varieties had, last season and this, the largest per cent, of kernel; but the black instead of the white varieties, had the least per cent, of kernel. Plumpness of berry. The varieties with short plump berries did not yield quite so much grain or straw as those varieties with long slender berries. The per cent, of kernel was in favor of the latter both in the seed and the crop. Weight per bushel. The varieties which weighed 32 or more pounds per bushel yielded slightly more grain and less straw than those that weighed less than 32 pounds per bushel. The per cent, of kernel was distinctly in favor of varieties which weighed less than 32 pounds per bushel. The varieties with the heavier berries gave substantially the same results. GEORGE E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. THOMAS F. HUNT, B. S., Assistant Agriculturist. MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. At the request of the Illinois State Board of Agriculture, through Mr. E. E. Chester, superintendent of the dairy cattle department, Mr. E. H. Farrington, of this Station, made chemical analysis of the milk of the cows competing for certain prizes at the State Fair held at Peoria, Sep- tember 29 to October 3, 1890. These prizes were in two classes for cows 1890.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 371 under and over three years of age for each of the recognized dairy breeds, the awards to be made to cows whose milk, produced in 24 hours during the progress of the fair, should show the greatest quantity of fat. For these prizes 18 cows competed 6 Ayrshires, 5 Holstein-Friesians, !5 Jerseys, and 2 Shorthorns. All were pure-bred cattle; most, if not all, had recently been shown at a series of fairs in different states. The accompanying table presents, in part, the results of these tests: MILK YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF MILK OF Cows OF DIFFERENT BREEDS, ILLINOIS STATE FAIR, 1890. Breed. Age, yrs. Milk, Ib. in 24 hours. Fat, Ib. Fat, per cent. Total sol- ids, per cent. Solids, other than fat, per cent. 8 31.00 29.00 29.00 1.19 0.90 0.91 co O CO' 00 " M CO CO CO 13.12 II.OI 11.94 9.29 7.91 8.81 b 2 2 30.00 21.50 I7-50 0.95 0.70 0.61 3.10 3-25 3-48 11.46 11.65 12.87 8.30 8.40 939 26.3 .87 2.72 12. OO 8.68 3 4 4 25.00 27.00 17.50 1.47 1.71 1.18 5-40 6-33 6.74 15.46 14-77 15.80 10.06 8.44 Q.66 2 2 18.00 19.50 0.80 099 4-44 506 H85 14.65 10.41 9-59 Average 21.40 I IQ C.Cn I^.IO Q 51 Holstein Friesian 7 10 12 68.25 61.75 64.75 2-51 i-34 2.18 3-67 2.17 3.36 11.78 10.81 1 1. 80 8.II 8.64 8.5"? 6 2 37-50 5I-50 1.23 1.67 3-28 3-24 II. II 11.92 7-83 8.68 Average 56.75 1.78 3.14 1 1. 50 8.7.6 Shorthorn 9 24.50 0.95 3-87 12.31 8.44 6 21.50 0.83 3.86 12.63 8-77 Average 27 00 0.80 ?.86 12 47 8.61 * General average 3304 1.23 3-9 6 12.77 8.81 In studying this table it is well to bear in mind that the rule that a single trial cannot conclusively settle all questions at issue, is especially applicable to a test of this kind. The comparative standing of different cows of different breeds depends, in large degree, on conditions not shown in the table. Under the regulations of the State Board of Agri- culture the award was made on the quantity of fat produced without ref- erence to quantity or quality of food, time since calving, pregnancy, size of cow, etc. In a test of this kind it is difficult to secure equally credit- able representatives of the different breeds. In this test quantity of milk proved to be as important as large per- centage of fat. All the prizes were awarded to the cows giving the lar- gest quantities of milk in their classes. The milk of the first and second 37 2 BULLETIN NO. 12. \November, prize Jersey cows had not so large a percentage of fat as that of one other Jersey cow. The first prize young Aryshire cow had a slightly lower per- centage of fat in her milk than did the second prize cow in same class. In the case of the older Aryshire, Holstein, and Shorthorns, the cows giving the largest yield of milk had also the largest percentage of fat. Three of the Holstein cows gave yields of milk unusually large for a show-yard test averaging almost 65 pounds each, which was more than twice as much as was given by any cow of any of the other breed. The average milk yield of the five Holsteins was more than twice the average in any of the other breeds. This larger yield more than coun- terbalanced the lower percentage of fat, so that the average quantity of fat produced by the five Holsteins was greater than that produced by any cow of any of the other breeds and twice the average of either the Ayr- shires or Shorthorns. The average percentage of fat, of solids other than fat, and of total solids was lower than in either of the other breeds. One cow had a noticeably low percentage of fat. The Ayrshires were remarkably uniform in quantity and quality of milk, the four cows over three years old having but two pounds variation in milk yield, and comparatively little in percentage of fat. The average percentage of both fat and total solids was low. The Jerseys gave the smallest average yield of milk, but showed a high average percentage of fat, of total solids, and of solids other than fat. There was greater -variation in the percentage of fat in the milk of the Jerseys than in that of either of the other breeds. The two Shorthorn cows gave milk of almost identical composition, having a moderate percentage of fat and total solids. Their yield of milk was less than that of the Ayrshires and but very little larger than that of the Jerseys. The general average results, taking the 18 cows as one herd of mixed character as to breed and age, are interesting and make a creditable showing. An average milk yield of nearly 32 pounds per day, and almost one and one-fourth pounds of fat per cow, is above the average results obtained in practice. The differences to be found in such a herd are also well illustrated. Four of the cows gave an average of a little over two pounds of fat; four others a little less than three-fourths of a pound each. One-half the herd gave an average of about 1.6 pounds of fat; the other half about .85 of a pound each. The differences in the composition of the milk of different cows, or the average composition of that of cows of different breeds is much more important than appears, if we think of these differences in comparison with the milk as a whole. If we take the average percentage of fat in the milk of the cows of different breeds, it will be seen that, in equal quanti- ties the Jersey milk would have 78 per cent, more fat than the Holstein, 68 more than the Ayrshire, and 44 more than the Shorthorn. The differences in the milk of single cows is still more striking. In equal quantities the richest milk of a Jersey cow had 3.1 times as much fat as 1890.] MILK AND BUTTER TESTS. 373 that of the Holstein with exceptionally low percentage of fat; 2.1 times as much as that of one Aryshire; 1.7 times as much as that of either Shorthorn, and 1.5 times as much as that of one other Jersey. If the milk was bought on the basis of quantity of fat contained in it, a pound of the milk of this Jersey cow would be worth more than three times as much as a pound of the milk of the cow with the lowest per cent, of fat. If the milk was bought with sole reference to its value for butter making, it is possible there would be even more difference in value than is indicated by the differences in the fat. It is impossible to secure all the fat in the milk by any system of cream separation in practical use. The skim milk from different cows may show the same percentage of fat, but this is obviously a less percentage of the total fat in rich than in poor milk. As much as one per cent, of fat may be found in skim milk in some cases. This would be almost one-half the fat in the milk of one cow in this test, and less than one-sixth of that of one other. When milk is set under conditions favorable for cream raising, and especially when the centrifugal separator is used, the percentage of fat left in the skim milk is comparatively unimportant. Fat is not the only valuable element in milk. The other solids have also a decided value. Less difference is found in this test when the solids other than fat are compared with each other than in the case of the fat. The greatest difference in this respect in the milk of any two cows is a little less than 33 per cent.; while the greatest difference in the average milk of the cows of different breeds is 13 per cent, in favor of the Jerseys as compared with the Holsteins. It is a mistake to consider only quantity of milk or only per- centage of fat in the milk of a cow in determining her value. The four Holsteins giving the largest yield of milk were milked three times during the day noon, evening, and morning. It was notice- able that in each case the morning's milk of these cows showed a consid- erable less percentage of fat than in that given either at noon or at night. In one case the night milk showed 4.45 and the morning, 2.68 per cent, of fat. The one Holstein cow which was milked but twice, also had a less percentage of fat in the morning's than in the night's milk. Of the other 13 cows, six had less in the night and seven less in the morning milk. One Ayrshire cow showed only 2.12 per cent, of fat at night and 4.16 per cent, in the morning. With the care taken in securing a fair sample of milk in each case, and in analyzing the milk, there is no reasonable doubt that the percentages of fat given are correct; but the differences noted give additional emphasis to the fact that no single test can be con- clusive. Some interesting comparisons with the results at this trial are sug- gested by the results of the milking trials at the show of the British Dairy Farmers' Association, held in. London, the first week in October, partial reports of which have been received. At this show 39 cows went through the trial, lasting two days. In making the awards of prizes not only was 3 374 BULLETIN NO. 12. [November, the weight of fat considered, but the weight of solids other than fat, and of the whole milk, as well as the time since calving, were taken into ac- count, with a deduction of 10 "points" if less than three per cent, of fat was found in the milk given at any one of the four milkings. The accompanying table gives a summary of the results for the Shorthorn, Jersey, and Guernsey cows and heifers standing highest in their classes, and for a single cow of each of the following breeds: Ayrshire, Dutch, Red Poll, and Dexter Kerry, the only ones of which reports are at hand. MILK YIELD AND COMPOSITION OF MILK OF Cows OF DIFFERENT BREEDS, Show of British Dairy Farmers' Association, October, 1890. Breed and Class. -fc. ^ ** O _- Pr. p Fat, Ib. Fat, per cent. s|2 a- ? 1 P-h p a ~SP v n ~ r 51 *" :TW O pa r 3 Shorthorn cows (55-2 < 56.7 2.27 1.86 4. 10 1 .20 13-46 II 70 9 36 8 ?o Shorthorn heifer (59-7 20.2 2.04 i .32 3-44 4. 52 ii Si 14 OQ 837 Q 57 Jersey cows (31.9 1 2 7-8 1.89 I 7o 5-92 6 4 1 * *5 51 IS 6O 9 59 917 Jersey heifers (36.2 (30-4 J 2q. I 1.84 1.79 I 45 5 08 e 88 5 "" 4.08 1483 15 71 14 "}6 9 75 983 Guernseys (29-5 (49-2 J 7C.C 1.23 2 I 8 4-20 4.08 5 .01 13 08 13 02 14. 8^ 8 88 O - Dutch cow (26.4 45 I .2 1. 85 4-54 4.11 13 48 12 71 8 94 8 60 Ayrshire cow 4*.'* 1.88 4. 1C 12 9! 8 76 Red Poll Cow 2Q . I I . 14 7 .OQ II QC 8 86 Dexter Kerry cow 26.6 I 11 5.OO 11 56 8 56 * In striking contrast with the Peoria trial are the large yields of milk by the Shorthorn cows and the one Ayrshire, and the creditable quantity of fat produced by them. No one cow produced so much fat as the first prize Holstein-Friesian cow at Peoria. Eleven of the seventeen cows gave more than one and three-fourths pounds of fat in a day. The fuller report from which the above table is compiled shows more striking variations in the results in the milkings of the same cow. The daily milk yield of two or three cows varied more than five pounds in the two days. In the case of one Shorthorn cow the evening milk showed twice the percentage of fat found in the morning milk. This cow, No. 3 of the table, and the first prize Guernsey cow suffered a loss of 10 "points" because the fat in their morning milk was below 3 per cent. During the progress of this show the English Jersey Cattle Society made a test of churning one day's milk of each of 13 Jersey cows and heifers. The largest yields were 2.21 and 2.09 pounds of butter. Seven 1890] BUTTER AND MILK TESTS. 375 other cows gave more than 1.50 pounds. The largest yield of milk was 43.87 pounds. Of the milk of the first prize cow 14.28 pounds made a pound of butter. Of that of the cow giving the largest yield of milk, 28.36 pounds were required. The very creditable average result for the 13 cows and heifers was: 31 pounds milk, 1.67 pounds butter. One cow was in both tests. The result in butter was almost exactly the same as the average quantity of fat found in her milk during the two days' test. These two trials were of cows of different breeds competing for prizes. Equally striking differences may be found in farm dairies, and any farmer milking cows. has a direct interest in ascertaining the facts concerning them. Thus a dairy of 35 cows, near Urbana, was visited by a represent- ative of this Experiment Station, who weighed the milk from each cow and took a sample of it. This was done at each of the two milkings in 24 hours and the percentage of fat determined in the. 70 samples so collected. The cows were in their winter quarters, were of fair average weight, and in good flesh. Arranging the results according to the per cents of fat found shows that in the night's milk 2 cows gave milk having between 2 and 3 per cent, of fat. 21 " " " " " 3 " 4 9 " " " " " 4 " 5 " 3 " " " " " 5 " 6 In the evening's milk 5 cows gave milk having between 2 and 3 per cent, of fat. 14 " " " " " 3 " 4 " 9 " " " " " 4 " 5 2 " " " " " 5 " 6 I cow " " " over 6 " The average per cent, of fat per cow in the nighi's milk was 3.8; in the morning's, 4.2. Dividing the herd into lots of seven we find one fifth giving an aver- age of 5.35 per cent, of fat; while another fifth gave an average of 2.86 per cent, of fat only a little over one-half as much. The cows gave small yields of milk; the average per cow for 24 hours was 11.87 lb.; highest yield, 29 lb.; lowest yield, 5^ lb. The av- erage quantity of fat was 0.45 lb.; highest, i lb.; lowest, 0.25 lb. The importance of care in securing a fair sample of all the milk is shown by the following illustrations, purposely made extreme. A very small quantity of the first and also of the last milk drawn from each of three cows in the University herd was tested with this result: Per cent, of fat. First milk. Last milk. Holstein 2.0 6.2 Jersey i.o 9.9 Jersey 1.5 8.8 A sample of the combined milk of the three cows showed 4.9 per cent, of fat. G. E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. 376 BULLETIN NO. i2. [November y CREAM RAISING BY DILUTION. Experiment No. 115. A series of experiments was made in September last, to determine the effect of diluting milk with water when setting it for cream raising. As further experiments in this direction are to be made, the results are not given in detail. In these experiments the milk was set in glass vessels three inches in diameter, filled to the depth of 8 inches, a little more than one quart of. milk being used in each case. In one series of the experiments the milk was set when at 95 F.; in another at 90 F. The water added varied in the different trials from 530 F. to 57 F.; the air temperature from 46 F. (in the night) to 75 F. In every case the addition of water caused the cream to rise more quickly than when water was not added; and in all cases the time de- creased as the percentage of water increased. When the mixture was equal quantities of water and milk, nearly all the fat secured apparently rose within one hour, or one and one-half hours, the volume of cream decreasing after this time. . When no water was added the volume of cream continued to increase for at least ten hours. In one case about one-half the fat only rose in ten hours when no water was added, nearly one-half of the remainder rising after the milk was allowed to stand 16 hours longer; while nearly three-fourths rose in ten hours (probably much'less) when an equal quan- tity of water had been added to the milk and only a very small addi- tional percentage was secured because of the additional 16 hours' standing. When the water was added to the milk, especially if in equal volume, the cream not only rose more quickly, but the line of separation was quite distinct from the first hour. When no water was added the line of separation was indistinct for several hours. When the milk was set in moderately cool water the fat was more completely separated than when in the air, but here, as in the other case, the dilution with water hastened the rising of the cream and left a smaller percentage of fat. In trials with the milk of individual cows, it was proved that the cream rose much more completely from the milk of some cows than from that of others, not only when the milk of each cow was set by itself, but when an equal quantity of water was added. In the case of one Jersey cow, the skim milk had .93 per cent of fat; that of two Holstein cows, under like conditions, 1.24 and 1.35 respectfully. This when the undiluted milk was set for 15 hours. When an equal volume of water was added to the milk, the differences were much more marked and smaller percentages were in the milk of the Holstein. Corrected for the water added, the skim milk showed fat percentage as follows: Jersey, 1.21; Holsteins, .60 and , respectively. THE HESSIAN FLY. 377 These experiments do not make it probable that adding water to the milk is a desirable substitute for setting in cold or ice water. They do suggest that dilution may be helpful if ice or a considerable quantity of cold water cannot be secured. They do not clearly show the influence of a higher or lower temperature of the water added. The more rapid rising of the cream is an advantage, and the dilution and consequent lessened value of the skim milk is a disadvantage, of the dilution method. There is a possibility of being easily misled as to the gain from di- luting the milk. The cream not only rises more quickly, but is thinner; that is, contains less fat in a given volume than when no water is added, while the diluted skim milk will look bluer, and chemical analysis will, of course, show a less percentage of fat in it, because of the added water. G. E. MORROW, A. M., Agriculturist. E. H. FARRINGTON, M. S., Assistant Chemist. THE HESSIAN FLY. The very general occurrence of the Hessian fly this season in destruc- tive numbers in parts of central Illinois where it is but little known by the practical farmer, and where the most important preventive measures are not commonly understood, makes it desirable that a general account of the principal facts in its life history and economic relations should be now presented. The views of the history and habits of this insect current among those who suffer from its ravages, are often confused and largely erroneous, chiefly because the egg is minute and almost never seen by the ordinary observer, the young maggot being commonly mistaken for it, and be- cause very few have ever recognized or seen the adult winged insect. The Hessian fly is, in this state, practically a wheat insect only, its occurrence here in rye being merely occasional. Each generation goes through the four distinct stages of (i) the egg, (2) the maggot or larva, (3) the pupa or "flaxseed," and (4) the adult or winged insect. The injury is done wholly in the second of these stages, the "flaxseed" being dor- mant, a stage of transformation merely from the maggot to the winged fly and the latter being itself entirely harmless. [See plate, p. j8o.~\ There are always two destructive generations in a single year, and tinder some circumstances at least three. In fact, I have obtained evi- dence this spring from breeding cage and experimental work in the new 378 BULLETIN NO. 12. \November, insectary of this office, that there may be even four generations which at- tack the wheat with destructive effect, two in the spring and two in au- tumn. The principal injuries, however, are done by the last autumnal and the first spring generations. The eggs are a slender oval, about a fiftieth of an inch in length, and small enough to lie lengthwise in the grooves upon the upper surface of the leaf of the wheat. Those for the principal autumn brood of the maggots are laid most commonly upon the leaf of the young wheat. The maggot hatching from these makes its way down -the leaf to the base of its sheath near the root, and here this milk-white, oval, smooth larva remains almost motionless, until it gets its growth commonly in November after which it forms a tough, smooth, dark brown case, within which it spends the winter, still in the same position. From this case (the "flaxseed " above mentioned) the winged insect bursts forth about the first of the following April, in the form of a delicate, nearly black, two-winged fly or gnat, which has a very close resemblance to a small mosquito. The sexes pair at once, and the eggs for another generation are laid almost immediately in the field, the adults perishing soon thereafter. The maggots hatching from these spring eggs go through the same course of development, at the base of the stalk, behind the sheath of the leaf, and do the principal part of the damage noticed in the spring, caus- ing the well-known " crinkling " or falling down of the straw as the wheat heads out. Many of the winged flies of this brood hatch some time be- fore harvest, beginning to appear, in fact, by the end of May, and these lay eggs at once and give rise to a second spring brood, a fact clearly es- tablished this season by breeding experiments at Champaign. By harvest practically all are in the so-called flaxseed state, and the greater part of them remain behind in this condition in the stubble after the grain is cut. A few, however, are carried away with the" straw. From these harvest- time flaxseeds the fall generations descend, the first of them appearing either in the volunteer grain or in early sown wheat, and the second the hibernating generation already referred to in wheat of the regular crop. The laying of the eggs for the first of these generations certainly begins by September ist, and apparently somewhat earlier. The average length of life of one generation or brood (except the hibernating one), from any stage around to the same stage again, is about six weeks. It is, however, a fact of considerable economic interest that this di- vision into generations is not anywhere complete, but that flaxseeds of any generation may lie dormant during the whole life of a generation follow- ing, finally hatching with the descendents of their original contempora- ries. Thus, of those flaxseeds which form in May and June, some may give the winged fly in June and July and others not until September; and some of those which form in volunteer wheat in September, may hibernate and emerge the following spring. My experiments made to test the possibility that the Hessian fly will breed in wild and meadow grasses have thus far yielded negative results. 1890.] EXTERMINATION OF CANADA THISTLES. 379 This life history, complicated as it is, will repay careful study by every wheat farmer, for on it must be based all practical measures for the pre- vention of injury to the wheat. [See illustration, p. 380^ The most important general preventive and remedial measures are the following: I. As a large percentage of the insects remains in the stubble at harvest, in the flax- seed state, and as the flies which hatch from them later are weak and delicate, the ground may well be plowed as soon after harvest as practicable, and rolled to close the cracks through which the winged insects might escape. If the stubble can be made to burn, this will, of course, destroy the flaxseeds even more effectually. 2. The volunteer grain springing up in the fields must be closely watched, and meas- ures taken to destroy it about four weeks after its appearance, as it will otherwise assist to carry the insect through the summer in undiminished or perhaps larger numbers. The most convenient method of doing this will depend so much upon the season and the crop- ping planned, that each must select his method for himself. 3. Such of the flaxseeds as are carried away in the grain may be destroyed by heat- ing or burning the screenings from the thresher, if the wheat is threshed at once. 4. To prevent the wheat from becoming infested in fall by the first autumnal brood, and to escape as much of the second as possible, the sowing of the wheat may, with ad- vantage, be postponed as late as is consistent with its reasonable safety from winter- killingto the last of September or the first of October, according to the common prac-. tice in the southern half of Illinois. 5. The damage done by any but the severest kind of an attack will depend, other things being equal, on the fertility of the soil and the strength of the plant. If the latter be strong enough to send out from the root new and vigorous stalks to replace those killed by the maggots of the fly, a considerable amount of fly attack may be scarcely noticeable at harvest time. From this it follows that the maintenance of the fertility of the soil is often a measurable safeguard against loss. I have no doubt that the soluble commercial fertilizers applied in spring to infested fields would have a happy effect, whether with profit or not can only be tested by experiment. 6. Finally, other things being equal, those varieties of wheat with a stiff and flinty stem, and those which tiller somewhat freely from the root, will suffer least under fly at- tack the first because the straw will not so readily bend or break at the point weakened by the maggot; and the second because the flies of the second spring brood select fresh young shoots for the deposition of their eggs in preference to the older and tougher stalks, with the effect to kill only these valueless sprouts and to diminish by so much the injury to the heading stems. S. A. FORBES, Ph. D., Consulting Entomologist. CANADA THISTLES, THEIR EXTERMINATION. Experiment No. 92. The so-called Canada thistles are, in certain great areas of our coun- try, justly considered the worst weed-pests of tillable land. (Notwith- standing the popular name, the plant is of European origin and was early introduced throughout our eastern seaboards and thence more or less scattered westward.) Among all bad weeds they are pre-eminently bad 3 8o BULLETIN NO. 12. [November, Explanation of Plate. The Hessian fly and its transformations. A healthy stalk of wheat on the left, the one on the right dwarfed and the lower leaves beginning to wither and turn yellow; the stem swollen at three places near the ground, where the flaxseeds (A) are situated, between the stem and sheathing base of the leaf. a i e gg f t fie Hessian fly (greatly enlarged, as are all the figures except e and A); b, the maggot, enlarged, the line by the side, in this and other figures, showing the natural length; c, the flaxseed, puparium, or pupa case; >-: ^^-"ST T^ll X J%" ^*^r--r5a9r x^ y.4 <- -5vm4 ' '-,.._ : - ^a -'^KI ^ - ^ L ~ t * ^MW^W^* ;^4">^X- TN^v. 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