THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS 
 LIBRARY 
 
 From the collection of 
 James Collins, 
 Drumcondra, Ireland. 
 Purchased, 1918. 
 
 03Z 
 
 N63p 
 
THE PEOPLE’S SELECT 
 CYCLOPAEDIA 
 
The People’s Select 
 Cyclopedia 
 
 CHARLES NISBET 
 
 ITtmifon 
 
 TIODDER AND STOUGHTON 
 27 PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 MQ^CXCVII 
 
 --4-A A g,- 
 
Butler & Tanner 
 The Selwood Printing Works 
 Frome and London 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 Chronology or Time Reckoning 
 The Current of Civilisation 
 
 I. Egypt.. 
 
 II. Babylonia and Assyria ... 
 
 III. Phoenicia ....... 
 
 IV. Carthage ....... 
 
 V. Palestine ....... 
 
 VI. Greece ........ 
 
 VII. Rome ........ 
 
 VIII. Heroes of History. 
 
 IX. The Royal Family . 
 
 X. Presidents of the United States 
 
 page 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 13 
 23 
 31 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 — 
 
 
 XI. Living Notabilities 
 
 61 
 
vi 
 
 Chapter I. 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL 
 
 Stages in the Progress of Geography . 
 
 Stages in the Progress of Geography { continued ) 
 General Geographical Determinations . 
 
 Lands still Available for European Settle¬ 
 ment . 
 
 Geography and History. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 The Body and its Constituent Parts 
 Nutrition, or Intake and Output of Energy 
 
 Nervous System. 
 
 Hair and Nails. 
 
 How the Character of every Organisation is 
 not Local, but Equally Diffused Through¬ 
 out all its Parts ....... 
 
 Comparative Statures, etc. ...... 
 
 Longevity and Fecundity." . 
 
 page 
 
 70 
 
 74 
 
 80 
 
 89 
 
 91 
 
 96 
 
 99 
 
 106 
 
 116 
 
 118 
 
 129 
 
 131 
 
1 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 vii 
 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Prehistoric Economy .... 
 
 PAGE 
 
 139 
 
 II. 
 
 Domestication of Plants and Animals 
 
 146 
 
 III. 
 
 Manufactures .... 
 
 156 
 
 IV. 
 
 Money . 
 
 166 
 
 V. 
 
 Commerce . 
 
 170 
 
 VI. 
 
 Trade Guilds and Trade Unions 
 
 177 
 
 VII. 
 
 Economy is Economical only so far as Subser- 
 
 
 
 VIENT TO THE INTERESTS OF HUMANITY PURE 
 
 and Catholic .... 
 
 180 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Calendar .... 
 
 195 
 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Writing Materials .... 
 
 209 
 
 II. 
 
 Evolution of the Alphabet 
 
 212 
 
 III. 
 
 Printing, Books, Publishers, and Newspapers 
 
 217 
 
 IV. 
 
 Names .... 
 
 227 
 
 V. 
 
 Language and History 
 
 237 
 
 
 # 
 
 
 
 SOCIAL 
 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Salutations and Meals . 
 
 249 
 
 II. 
 
 Marriage, Courtship, Wedding Ceremonies, etc. 
 
 256 
 
 III. 
 
 Dancing and Harvest Home . 
 
 268 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 viii 
 
 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 FA( 
 
 Chapter I. Numeration and Notation.2 
 
 II. Problems. 2 
 
 III. The Metric System and Tables of Weights and 
 
 Measures..2! 
 
 SPORTS 
 
 Chapter I. Egyptian and Greek Sports „.31 
 
 II. Games and Plays.31 
 
 1 
 
 III. The Sports of Merrie England and Sports on ] 
 
 the Continent . . . , . . . .311 
 
 IV. Cycling.32 
 
 a 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OR TIME RECKONING 
 
 Era.— The event which a nation or group of nations talce for common 
 starting-point of their career, whereon all after events of their history 
 depend, constitutes their era. 
 
 Private Era —The event constituting an era in public life corre- 
 sponds in uhe life of the individual to the event which, more than anv 
 other, conditions his present and, as he believes, all his future-until 
 at any rate some still more revolutionary crisis in his life supersede 
 that era and constitute for him a completely new epoch. There is a 
 tide (era) in the affairs of each man, as of each nation. 
 
 (<x) Birth.- Such private era many a man may take to be his birth 
 an event the importance of which (to himself) has not been superseded 
 by any later experience. The son of Chatham, e.g., was from birth 
 determined to become Pitt. Nor did any accident or incident arise 
 to thwart or divert m any way that determination. And so Pitt he 
 did become. His personal era was his birth. At the end of his fortieth 
 year Pitt was ]ust forty years’ growth of the being he was born. 
 Hvery event of his life ranged itself in due historical sequence to that 
 era. itach day in his even life was the direct and equal successor of 
 the foregoing day, and the. direct and equal predecessor of the next 
 o owing day. The man in the full ripeness of his years was the 
 altogether natural completion of the child. 
 
 Marriage .-— Another person recognises how all the later course 
 . hls llfe .^ fces (for better or for worse) from the event of his mar- 
 nage a crisis called m German, Hochzeit, i . e ., high-tide or heyday 
 1 Lite . lo such person his marriage is an era. Marriage is often 
 spoken of as the making or the unmaking of a man. No longer a 
 son or dependent of the house of his parents, he is now himself 
 ounder and head of a new House. Among many nations a man w*as, 
 ind is accounted a person of no importance till married. Marriage is 
 e end of nearly all novels—the one three-volume business of hero and 
 lerome. I hat goal reached, the new couple start from a completely 
 lew era, dating a history beyond the precincts of the novelist, who, 
 mererore, at this epoch modestly retires. 
 
 (e) Conversion. Still another might be disposed to count the 
 
 1 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 2 
 
 course of his later life in relation to an event deemed by him of still 
 more importance than either his natural birth or his marriage; the 
 epoch of his “ Conversion ”, the event superseding all his past and 
 determining all his future. Then it was he first “came to himself 
 Till tlien he was not. Since then only has he lived. 
 
 (d) First Sight of the Alps. —Samuel Rogers, exaggerating a private 
 sentiment, thinks a man would be disposed to take the event of his 
 first sight of the Alps for the era of his life, and to count all other 
 events as so long before, or so long after, that great dividing 
 epoch. 
 
 ( e ) Public Appointment. —The date of appointment to an office, 
 determining his professional or public life, might, by some other man 
 of the world, be deemed of more consequence to him than any other 
 personal experience, and so constitute for him his private era. 
 
 Special Eras. — Birth or Accession of First Magistrate. —At a crude 
 stage of civilisation a tribe was content to date its experiences from 
 the birth or the official accession of its actual chief; or a nation its 
 national events from the birth or the accession of its actual king. 
 And, in point of fact, the accession of a chief or of a king has often¬ 
 times been a new era in the history of a tribe or a nation. In Great 
 Britain Acts of Parliament are still dated from the accession of the 
 Sovereign under whom the acts were passed. Act “60 Victoria,” is 
 an act passed in the sixtieth year of Queen Victoria’s reign, i.e., in 
 
 1897. 
 
 In the democracy of Athens the chief magistrate was the Archon, 
 and in the republic of Rome there were two chief magistrates, called 
 the Consuls; the Archon and the Consuls being both alike chosen 
 for one year. And, in the case of both, it was usual to date public 
 events in connection with the magistrates in whose year of office 
 (Archonship or Consulship) they happened. Caesar, e.g., in the 
 second chapter of his Gallic War , dates the conspiracy of Orgetorix : 
 “ M. Messala et M. Pisone Coss.”—during the consulship of M. 
 Messala and M. Piso. 
 
 Such eras are, however, available for only very narrow bounds of 
 space and time. With the expansion of a nation’s views and its range 
 of intercourse, more comprehensive bases of chronology become 
 needed. 
 
 General Eras. —The principal eras that have found wide accept¬ 
 ance are— 
 
 1. The Chaldcean or Babylonian, the era of Nabonassar, after 
 which were reckoned the astronomical observations made at Babylon, 
 a point of time identical with 26th February, 747 B.c. This era is the 
 basis of all the computations of Ptolemy (2nd century a.d.), and was 
 largely in use till after the Christian era. 
 
CHRONOLOGY OR TIME RECKONING 3 
 
 2. The Era of the Olympiads. —Olympiads were periods of four 
 years each, the Greeks celebrating their national games every four 
 years on the plain of Olympia in Elis. The first Olympiad dates 
 from the year in which Koroibos (Coroebus) was prize-winner in the 
 games. The era of the Olympiads begins, in terms of our era, 1st 
 July, 776 b.c. The Olympiad reckoning did not come into general 
 adoption till the 3rd century b.c., and ended a.d. 440. 
 
 3. The (supposed) Em of the Foundation of the City of Rome, 21st 
 April, 753 B.c., the third year of the 6th Olympiad. A later Roman 
 reckoning was from the first day of the year following the conquest 
 of Spain by the Emperor Augustus, a reckoning long in use in 
 Africa, Spain, and Portugal (in Portugal as late, it is said, as 1415 
 A.D.), 1st January, 38 B.c. 
 
 4. The Christian Era, dating from the midnight between the 31st 
 December and the 1st January immediately following the birth of 
 Christ, according to the determination of Dionysius Exiguus. The 
 beginning of the Christian era corresponds to the fourth year of the 
 194th Olympiad, and the 753rd year of the building of Rome. Dio¬ 
 nysius, the author of this chronology, belonged to the 6th century of 
 our era, and it is now generally admitted that his reckoning fixes the 
 event some four years too late. That is to say, the year 1897 a.d. 
 ought to count as 1901 a.d. This era came into use in England 
 before the close of the 8th century, and was generally adopted in 
 Europe by the 10th century. 
 
 5. The (supposed) Era of the Creation of the World. —What 
 more appropriate starting point from which to date events connected 
 with the history of the world than the beginning of the world 
 itself—the moment of its formation? But when was this world 
 formed ? 
 
 The only written record thereof is in Genesis. Now there are 
 more than two hundred different computations, all based on the record 
 of Genesis; computations ranging from as low as 3483 B.c. to as high 
 as 6984 b.c. The chief calculations fixing the date of the creation, 
 which have found large acceptance, are— 
 
 (a) Archbishop Usher's reckoning, which calculates the creation 
 at 4004 b.c. 
 
 (h) The Era of Constantinople, adopted by Russia, 5508 B.c. 
 
 _(c) The Era of Antioch, 5502 b.c. 
 
 (d) The Era of Alexandria, or Abyssinian Era, 5492 b.c. 
 
 (e) The Jewish Era, 3760 b.c. 
 
 6. The Mahometan Era of the, Hegira, i.e., flight of the Prophet 
 Mahomet from Mecca, 16th July, 622 a.d. 
 
 7. The Julian Era, 4713 B.c. This era, devised about 1583 a.d. 
 by Joseph Scaliger, is the product of 19, the lunar cycle, into 28, the 
 solar cycle, into 15, the Roman indiction. It^ comprises therefore a 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 4 
 
 period of 7980 years, and is the only epoch established on an astrono¬ 
 mical basis. It is convenient in the comparison of periods exceeding 
 in length that of our era. 
 
 Calendar. —Sun and moon. Given then an era or fixed point of 
 time, how are events before and after to be determined in relation 
 thereto ? That is, how are their different intervals of time from that 
 fixed point of time to be exactly measured ? To count by generations 
 of men is all too indefinite. What is the length of a generation ? It 
 varies at different latitudes and at different ages of the world. 
 
 Are there no measures of time, confined to no particular parts of 
 the globe, nor to particular times in its history, but common to the 
 whole planet and applicable at all times alike ; measures always exact, 
 never needing revision or readjustment at any chronometrical office, 
 but always the same, never losing, never gaining ? Such measures 
 are afforded by the secular facts of the relation of the earth to the sun 
 and to the moon. The sun and the moon are the measurers-in-chief 
 of human affairs. These it is that divide for all men the endless and 
 otherwise unpartitioned time into days and months and years. 
 
 (See Calendar, pp, 195-208.) 
 
 THE CURRENT OF CIVILISATION 
 ITS EARLY COURSE 
 
 I. EGYPT 
 
 The earliest type of civilisation of which there remains any record, 
 and fount in great measure of all after forms of civilisation, was 
 evolved on the banks of the Nile. As, without being 
 T CivnFsaSon, f aware of his accomplishment, the bourgeois gentil- 
 homme spoke prose, so, without suspecting it, does the 
 world of to-day still rehearse the forms of civilised life elaborated 
 many thousands of years ago in Egypt. And a man is a man only 
 in so far as he live his life, not passively, like a beast, but actively, 
 with the distinct intelligence of how he comes by it. All of the 
 present a man has is only the past he has appropriated and cultivates 
 anew. 
 
 In accordance with the general law of political growth, the State 
 dii a ^ so grew gradually, and not without pain, by 
 
 corporation of the incorporation of a great number of States once 
 many states is at independent, each under a chief or king. The first to 
 ^ne^Egjrptian 6 weld Upper and Lower Egypt (each itself once an 
 state. agglomerate of States) into one kingdom was Menes, 
 
EGYPT 5 
 
 who built the town of Memphis, and founded the Memphite Dynasty, 
 some five thousand years B.c. 
 
 This date, then, may be taken as the beginning of Egyptian and 
 universal (documentary) history, as the very first lift of the his¬ 
 torical curtain on mankind, the earliest historic glimpse 
 F Cui^ui 11 ? ooo n humanity attainable from this late date. And yet 
 years ago. by tha.t time had the Egyptians been probably at least 
 five millenniums in occupation of the Nile Valley. They 
 had already got into material adjustment to their habitat, and had 
 laid out the principal canals for regulation and distribution of the 
 waters of the inundation. Already had they attained mastery of a 
 magnificent architecture and an admirable portrait sculpture. Already 
 were they in current practice of the principal handicrafts, and, still 
 more to the credit of their culture, of the mystery of writing. The 
 tomb of Ti, a nobleman of the 5th Dynasty, and so dating from 
 about 3500 b.c., is adorned with bas-reliefs. These still exhibit to 
 
 Agriculture us the Egyptians of five to six thousand years ago toil¬ 
 ing in the field, under the hot sun, ploughing, hoeing, 
 shearing the golden corn with sickle, binding it in sheaves, driving 
 oxen over it on the threshing-floor, storing the grain. We also admire 
 goldsmiths at their craft, first weighing the metal, 
 'HaSicrafts 0f then melting it in the furnace, and so on; potters 
 kneading the clay, others moulding it into the form of 
 vases and other dishes, of a variety of shapes. We see boatmen, 
 too, on the river spreading their nets. Elsewhere, again, we contem¬ 
 plate sculptors hewing mighty blocks of stone into the 
 c p ure ' forms of the human body, and others giving a final 
 polish to the statue. So many of our industries are already shaped 
 and all busy at work ! 
 
 The United Kingdom of Egypt lasted about five millenniums. A 
 later United Kingdom is not yet a century old, and 
 
 T Kingdom d was yesterday debating whether it were not already 
 time to break up! The duration of the Egyptian 
 Monarchy is distributed into periods. - 
 
 I. The First Empire, comprehending the first six dynasties from 
 Menes, ending about 3500-b.c. The pyramid forms the characteristic 
 T , Pvramidc . feature of the First Empire; and to this period belong 
 the great sphinx of Gizeh (if perhaps it do not date 
 even before Menes), the Great, the Second, and the Third Pyramid. 
 In September, 1896, the British Museum received two large libation 
 vases, one inscribed with the name of Khufu, of the 4th Dynasty, 
 some 6000 years ago, builder of the great pyramid at Gizeh. The 
 vases, of soft limestone, tapering slightly towards the bottom, and 
 with long necks surmounted by a flat ridge, stand a little over three 
 feet high. 
 
6 HISTORICAL 
 
 Thereafter follows a period of four dynasties whose history is a 
 blank. 
 
 II. The Middle Empire, from the 11th to the 17th Dynasty, or 
 from about 3000 to 1700 b.c. The seat of government was no 
 
 Obelisks longer Memphis but Thebes. The obelisk is a cha¬ 
 racteristic of this period. The oldest extant obelisk, 
 marking the site of Heliopolis, near Cairo, dates from the early part 
 of this period. The obelisk, called Cleopatra’s needle, by the Thames, 
 Joseph’s Canal s ^ 00( ^ originally at Heliopolis. To this period belongs 
 also the construction of the Balir Yusuf (or canal of 
 Joseph), still in use, which tapped the Nile at first a mile above 
 Derut. Thence in sinuous course the canal ruus 270 miles north to 
 El-Lahun, whence it sends off a branch across the hills into the basin 
 (or lake) Moeris, whereby was created the province of Fayum, still the 
 most fertile part of Egypt. In the Bibliotheque Nationale, at Paris, 
 is the Prisse Papyrus (the papyrus found by M. Prisse 
 T ?n thfWorid° k d’Avennes), “the oldest book in the world,” dating 
 from the 11th Dynasty (3000 B.C.), of bold cursive 
 character in black ink, “unequalled for size and beauty.” It con¬ 
 tains in its eighteen pages copies of two documents of the 3rd and 
 the 6th Dynasty respectively. Papyrus (paper) was therefore in 
 writing use in Egypt some 6,000 years ago. It was towards the end 
 of the Middle Empire that a family of Semites, calling themselves 
 the children of Israel, came from the land of Canaan 
 The Children of an( j pitched their abode in the land of Goshen, a land 
 
 srae in e the geography of which is now well identified in the 
 eastern part of the Delta. 1 
 
 III. The New Empire from the beginning of the 18th Dynasty, 
 i.e. from the beginning of the 17th century b.c. The seat of this 
 Empire, too, was Thebes. Under the 18th and the 19th Dynasty, 
 covering together a period of some 400 years, Egypt attained its 
 maximum of prosperity and expansion. Its boundaries were ad¬ 
 vanced East as far as the Euphrates, and North as far 
 
 EgypUariEinpire. as Orontes (to the north of Palestine), while the 
 Holy Land was itself occupied by Egyptian garrisons. 
 To the south, also, Egypt incorporated the Sudan. It is rather 
 remarkable how, in modern times, again, Egypt, down to the revolt 
 
 1 The Delta, deriving its name from the fourth letter of the Greek alpha¬ 
 bet, is, of course, the land watered by the mouths of the Nile. Now reduced 
 from seven to two, they sprawl northwards from a point thirteen miles 
 north of Cairo (in the time of Herodotus from Kerkasoron, three miles 
 north from Cairo) for nearly 200 miles through the broadening area of 
 their accumulate deposit, till at the Mediterranean coast the base of the 
 Delta extends as an arc of about 160 miles’ circumference. 
 
EGYPT 7 
 
 of the Madhi in 1882, claimed Sovereignty over the whole of 
 The s<idan was Sudan and Nubia, to the extent of nearly one 
 
 an Egyptian Pro- million square miles. This was the Egyptian pro- 
 V 4OX) al ears’a 00 o tO v ^ nce un( ler the administration of Emin Pasha. As 
 I ’ ' the saying runs, history is always repeating itself. 
 
 I Under Thothmes According to Dr. Birch, the conquests of Thothmes III. 
 
 hi., Egypt (say (1600 B.c.), the ‘Egyptian Alexander,’ comprehended 
 I “placedits^ron- the then known world, including Arabia, S yria, Baby- 
 
 tier where it Ionia, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, the isles of the Danai 
 pleased.” (the Archipelago), Libya, etc. On the walls of Queen 
 Hatasu’s temple of Deir-el-Bahari we may still admire a pictorial 
 description of a great expedition sent, about 3,500 years ago, to the 
 Land of Punt, conjectured to be the present Somali- 
 E Land t of D ptmt he ^ anc ^- Most of the finest remains of the innumerable 
 temples bestrewing the banks of the Nile derive from 
 this period—Deir-el-Bahari, Karnak, Medinet Habu, etc., etc. 
 
 A canal connecting the Nile with the Bed Sea was constructed in 
 the 18th Dynasty, leaving the great river at Zagazig 
 Ca to Red^ea. 16 an d emptying into Lake Timsah. This canal was 
 reopened by de Lesseps when cutting the Suez Canal. 
 The zoo Ptian Ender the same dynasty a royal botanical and zoologi¬ 
 cal garden was laid out at Thebes. 
 
 IY. Persian Egypt. — In 525 b.c. Cambyses, King of Persia, 
 entered the land of the Nile. Thence till 414 b.c. 
 Eg p P rsia. der Egypt was a dependency of Persia. After a short 
 interval of independence Egypt again fell under Per¬ 
 sian rule till 332 b.c. 
 
 Y. Greek Egypt. —In 322 b.c. Egypt dropped out of the hands of 
 Alexandria T ers i a into those of Alexander the Great, who (as one 
 of his marks imprinted on the land) founded the still 
 flourishing city of Alexandreia. Psammetichos I., founder of the 
 26th Dynasty, 665 B.c., was a Carian Greek, and from his time may 
 be dated the beginning of Greek influence in Egypt. Thenceforward 
 Naukratis Greek adventurers swarmed into the rich Nile-land, 
 and the flourishing Greek colony (or rather factory) 
 of Naukratis, with its numerous Greek temples, was founded in the 
 7th century b.c. and endowed with special privileges. This city was 
 unearthed, 1884, by Mr. Petrie. 
 
 Twelve Greek sovereigns, known as the Ptolemies (counted as I., 
 II., III., etc., in succession), ruled Egypt from 323 to 30 b.c. They 
 were distinguished patrons of learning and the arts, and the schools 
 and libraries of Alexandria became the chief asylum of Greek wisdom, 
 shedding into the surrounding darkness the kindly light of humane 
 culture. 
 
8 HISTORICAL 
 
 Many MSS. of classic literature have, thanks to the Egyptian 
 Exploration Fund, recently risen out of their graves in Egypt. 
 
 if Aristotle’s long-lost Constitution of Athens, e.g., is 
 Greek Culture. now restored. And only the other day the “extinct” 
 works of the poet Bacchylides (who flourished about 
 450 b.c. ) escaped their long entombment, and now, safe in the British 
 Museum, will, after 2,000 years’ silence, resume their chant to a far 
 larger audience than they ever before enjoyed. And how many more 
 classics in underground Egypt still await their resurrection! The 
 Ptolemies frankly adopted the religion of their new habitat, and not 
 only restored many magnificent old temples but added to them new 
 and splendid sanctuaries—as at Denderah, Edfu, Esneh, and Philai. 
 
 Roman Egypt. —Egypt was Roman (yet without ceasing to be 
 Greek) from 30 B.c. to 640 a.d. Cleopatra, the last of 
 S under ! Ro t me! eS Ptolemies, fell before the arms of Octavius (Augus¬ 
 tus), and so Egypt became a Roman province. Zenobia, 
 Queen of Palmyra, annexed Egypt 270 a.d., but shortly thereafter 
 Rome recovered her supremacy. 
 
 Later Egypt.— In 641 a.d. Egypt became the conquest of the 
 Arabs. In 1171 the famous Saladin founded the Ayub Dynasty. In 
 1250 Eybek founded the dynasty of the Turkish Mameluks. In 
 1517 Egypt became the prize of the Turks, who still claim suzerainty 
 over the land, though a Sultan’s firman of 1873 renders the Khedive 
 practically independent. 
 
 Monuments of Ancient Egypt. —Architectural monuments stretch 
 five hundred miles in continuous succession along both banks of the 
 Nile, from Abu-Simbel in Nubia to Memphis—ruins 
 know°Egypt° s tiL betokening a stupendous majesty of architecture 
 and wonderful mastery of sculpture. This study resusci¬ 
 tates a forgotten age in the history of humanity, and dates a new era 
 in the life of their student. It is now an accepted maxim that the 
 way to knowledge runs, no longer first and foremost via Athens and 
 Rome, but via Egypt. Knowledge at date implies knowledge of 
 Egypt. To know anything is to know it at its source and in its history. 
 And, seeing the civilisation of to-day derives in large part from Egypt, 
 it is necessary to the true appreciation and appropriation of our 
 civilisation to trace it back to its fountain-head in Egypt; “to drink 
 of the Nile at its source” ( Nilum a fonte bibere). Nothing existing 
 but derives from an immemorial past, and the measure in which any 
 man truly possesses any possession is the measure to which he knows 
 its origin and history. “ The Great Temple of Karnak has a first 
 propylon 360 feet wide, giving access to an open court 239 by 275 feet, 
 with columns on either side and a double row' in the middle. Another 
 
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 
 
 9 
 
 great portal admits to the Hall of Columns, 170 feet long by 329 feet 
 wide; its ruined roof held up by 134 columns, 12 of them 62 feet 
 high and 12 feet diameter ; the rest 42 feet high and 9 feet thick 
 the work of Setil. and his son, Rameses II. of the 19th Dynasty (say 
 about 1400 B.C.). 
 
 The architectural world, lying deep buried along both banks of the 
 Nile, bespeaks a people of the far bygone times that did not think 
 meanly and cheaply of the life of man, but rather piously and sub¬ 
 limely. 
 
 II. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA 
 
 Babylonia and Assyria, occupying the plain between the two rivers, 
 the Euphrates and the Tigris, are geographically, as they were 
 long also politically, one country. In the Old Testa- 
 Pla,inof^the Twi n - m e nt the plain is known as Aram Naharaim, i.e. Syria 
 between the rivers, and in the time of the Greek 
 Seleukidai (312-65 B.c.) the plain was called Mesopotamia, i.e. Mid¬ 
 river (land). 
 
 The earliest records show us the part of the plain afterwards called 
 Babylonia in occupation of a Turanian (Mongolian) people. The more 
 Sumir and Akkad, southerly part of this plain was called Sumir (in 
 ' Genesis, Shinar ), and was inhabited by the Sumerians, 
 with Ur on the Euphrates (birthplace of Abraham) for their capital. 
 The more northerly part was called Akkad, and inhabited by the 
 Akkadians, with Akkad (or Agade ) for their capital, of the same stock 
 with the Sumerians. 
 
 This Mongolian people, hailing originally from Elam (to the east 
 of the lower course of the Tigris), we find in possession of Chaldaea 
 some 4000 years b.c. By that time they had invented 
 C Writing m the cuneiform (i.e. wedge-shaped) writing, deciphered 
 in modern times within half a century ago. The 
 Mongolian occupants of the happy valley of the twin-rivers were con¬ 
 quered by a Semitic people (of the same race as the Hebrews). A 
 stone-whorl from Sepharvaim (to the north of Agade), 
 Babylonia dates now i n the British Museum, bears the name of the 
 from about 2,700 Semitic Sargon I., king of the city of Akkad about 
 3800 B.c. Sumir and Akkad became united into the 
 Semitic kingdom of Babylonia about 2700 B.c. The city Babylon (the 
 Greek rendering of the Semitic name Babilu, meaning the Gate of 
 God ; under the Akkadians the town was called Kadimirra ) first became 
 the seat of Empire under Khammuragas, who, about 2,200 B.c., con- 
 nected the Euphrates and the Tigris by the Nar-Malka 
 ar- a ’a ana. Q ana ^ extending across North Babylonia, and joining 
 the Tigris about thirty miles below the present town of Bagdad. In 
 continuous use till the 7th century a.d., this great waterway and 
 
IO HISTORICAL 
 
 irrigation work is now represented by the Yusifieh and Amram 
 Canals. 
 
 The following are epochs in the history of Babylonia and Assyria :— 
 Iu720 b.c., Sargon ‘‘ the Tartan” (i.e. General-in-Chief), who bad 
 usurped the throne of Assyria, captured Samaria, and 
 Samaria 01 carried over 27,000 of the inhabitants into Gozan and 
 Media, placing an Assyrian governor over the residue. 
 He next seized Babylon, and in the British Museum are tablets dating 
 from his reign of Babylonia. Capturing Carchemish 
 e 1 1 es - (on the Euphrates) 717 b. c., Sargon overthrew the power 
 of the Hittites. 1 Sargon’s son, Sennacherib, conquered Phoenicia 
 701 B.C., and laid waste Judaea, capturing forty-six cities. In 675 B.c., a 
 war began ending in the Assyrian conquest of Egypt 
 onques o gypt. an( j distribution into twenty-six satrapies responsible 
 
 to the Assyrian monarch. Under Assur-bani-pal, who mounted the 
 . throne, 669 b.c., Assyria reached its maximum of 
 
 mpireo ssyria. g m pj re ^ embracing Egypt, Phoenicia, Armenia, and 
 Susiana (or Elam, with Susan or Shushan for capital). Under 
 Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B.c.), Babylon regained her supremacy. 
 The City of Babylon was rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar, and most of the 
 temples of the kingdom restored. In 599 B.c. Nebuchadnezzar con¬ 
 quered Jerusalem, and, eleven years later, carried most 
 Conquest of of the inhabitants captive to Babylon. After a siege 
 .Jerusalem and thirteen years (one of the longest on record), he made 
 himself master also of Tyre, 572 B.c. In 538 B.c. 
 Babylonia surrendered to the Medes and Persians under Cyrus. 
 Babylonia and Assyria thus became a satrapy of the Persian Empire. 
 Near Arbela the Persian monarch was defeated, 331 b.c., by Alex¬ 
 ander the Great, who died at Babylon, 323 b.c. 
 
 In 312 b.c. Assyria was incorporated with the Kingdom of the 
 Seleukidai (i.e. descendants of Seleukos, son of an officer of Philip II. 
 
 of Makedonia, father of Alexander the Great). This 
 kingdom had Seleukeia (Seleucia) on the right (or 
 west) bank of the Tigris, about forty miles north-east of Babylon, for 
 its capital. In the first century before and after Christ, Seleucia 
 flourished as a splendid city of 600,000 inhabitants; all of it now left 
 are long lines of earthen ramparts, inclosing the mere vestige of for- 
 
 1 The Hittites, a Mongolian people, like the Akkads of Chaldasa, long 
 held sway over northern Syria and all Asia Minor, with Carchemish on 
 the Euphrates and Kadesh on the Orontes for capitals. Only in quite 
 recent times have they been discovered by the moderns. The inscriptions 
 recording their history are still only in process of bem? read. It will 
 be remembered how Uriah, soldier of an honourable public spirit, proof 
 against all King David’s seductive stratagems, was a Hittite. Whether 
 his beautiful wife was also a Hittite is not said. 
 
 Seleucia. 
 
PHOENICIA ii 
 
 mer habitations. Babylon was conquered by the Parthians 140 b.c., 
 and became part of the Persian Empire. In 651 a.d., 
 Babylon and on the overthrow of the Sassanides (reigning in Persia 
 ‘rSSi^uS from a.d. 226), Babylon became the seat of the Maho¬ 
 metan Caliphs till 1258. Since 1638 Babylon has, 
 together with Assyria, been subject to Turkey. According to Ptol¬ 
 emy (139-161 a.d.), observations of eclipses were made 
 s ronomy. * n jfobylon as early as 2228 b.c. Babylonian observa¬ 
 tions of ten lunar eclipses and three conjunctions of planets and fixed 
 stars are still extant, one of them dating from 721 B.c., and two 
 others from the following year. Herodotus reports that from the 
 Babylonians the Greeks learned the use of the gnomon or dial and 
 the polos (an instrument like a dial). 
 
 The Babylonians were distinguished for their textile, dyed, and 
 variegated stuffs (“the goodly Babylonian garments” of the Bible), 
 Artg and for their cutting of gems. The perfumed oint¬ 
 ments of Babylon were also greatly in request. The 
 Greek system of weights and coinage—“talent,” “mina,” and 
 “drachma” (whence our dram) —is almost certainly of Babylonian 
 derivation. The Babylonian gold weight, the mina, is repeated in 
 tablets of Tel-el-Amarna, in Hebrew, in Arabic, in Greek, and in 
 Latin. The Babylonian gold shekel,mina,, is of nearly the same 
 weight with our sovereign. The half silver shekel or drachma, =^0 
 gold shekel, is prototype of our silver shilling. 
 
 III. PHCENICIA 
 
 Long the foremost naval and commercial power of the world, Phoe¬ 
 nicia occupied, as its mother-land, a slip of soil on the eastern shore 
 of the Mediterranean, sloping westwards from the 
 Country er " mountains of Lebanon and Bargylos, and stretching 
 from Laodikeia (Laodicea) on the north to the prom¬ 
 ontory of Carmel on the south, about 200 miles long north and south, 
 by from 8 to 30 miles broad east and west: in all not more than 
 3,000 square miles. This rim of coast land is traversed by many 
 streams tumbling westwards into the sea, among them Adonis (now 
 Nahr-el-Ibrahim) , the “ smooth Adonis ” of Milton’s Paradise Lost. 
 The Phoenicians must have early lighted on this narrow, fruitful, 
 well-watered and well-timbered selvage of shore land. 
 Settlement. The Greek historian, Herodotus, was told at Tyre how 
 its temple of Melkarth (the Greek Herakles) was, to¬ 
 gether with the city itself, founded 2750 B.c. 
 
 Cooped in by mountains to their back, barring all enlargement of 
 home accommodation to the fast-thriving race, but with the wide sea 
 Sea Life * n ^ ron ^ beckoning them to its ample blue expanse and 
 and Trade, plenty of choice lands beyond, the Phoenicians from the 
 
12 HISTORICAL 
 
 beginning took to seafaring. And they had the trading instinct in their 
 blood. Calling themselves Kena, they are of the same race with the 
 Canaanites, the Assyrians, and the Hebrews. A recently discovered 
 Moabite stone bearing an inscription of thirty-four lines, now in the 
 Louvre (Paris), shows how, 900 b.c., the Moabites, Phoenicians, and 
 Hebrews were all of the same tongue. 
 
 Like Greece in after times, Phoenicia consisted of an aggregate 
 of independent cities or States. The two leading 
 A of‘states. ate States were Sidon and Tyre. The former, figuring 
 in the Old Testament as “ Great Sidon” and cele¬ 
 brated in Homer, was the first to attain wealth and renown, but was 
 later on overtaken and surpassed by Tyre, originally a colony of 
 Sidon, the “ daughter of Sidon ” (Isaiah xxiii. 12). 
 
 Phoenicia came early into touch with Egypt. Thothmes III. (of 
 the 17th century b.c.) marched seven times against Syria, and among 
 the 107 cities from Gaza northwards, which he claims to have taken, 
 we find the Phoenician cities Berytos (Beyrut), Arvad, 
 Tn Egypt yt ° an( I Byblos. He also set up Egyptian governors to 
 collect tribute from Phoenicia. About 1000 B.c. 
 we find Hiram, King of Tyre, in friendly alliance with Solomon of 
 Israel. Together they drove a lucrative trade as far 
 ^ofomon* as Ophir at the mouth of the Indus. 1 Hiram supplied 
 the “ Cedar of Lebanon”, floated to Joppa and thence 
 carried to Jerusalem for the building of the Temple and Solomon’s 
 Palace, whereto he sent also cunning workmen in gold, silver, brass, 
 stone, timber, purple, graving, etc. (1 Kings v., etc.). 
 
 In 8L2 B.c. Tyre and Sidon became tributary to Assyria. In 701 
 B.c. Sennacherib (see p. 10) captured Sidon and 
 Sub,i Powers 0ther other Phoenician cities. In 572 b.c. Tyre fell, after 
 thirteen years’ siege, to Nebuchadnezzar (see p. 10). 
 In 537 B.c. Phoenicia became a satrapy of Persia. Tyre, captured 
 by Alexander the Great (332 B.c.), Phoenicia was absorbed in the 
 empire of the Seleukidai (seep. 10). In 47 B.c. it was engrossed 
 in the Homan Empire. In 1516 a.d. it was annexed to the Ottoman 
 Dominion. 
 
 Colonies.— The first of the Phoenician Colonies was Cyprus, “ the 
 land of Chittim”, the Greek Kition, one of the nine chief cities of 
 Cyprus, lying only seventy miles off the coast, and valuable for its 
 copper mines. The name copper is itself derived from 
 Copperas land Cyprus, i.e . in its Greek form Kijpros. Seeing the 
 Phoenician settlers brought with them to Kypros the 
 Babylonian Cuneiform writing, found on Greek coins of the island 
 
 1 Prof. Duncker calculates Solomon’s share in the profits o£ the “ three 
 years’ expedition” to those far-away golden lands at about three millions 
 sterling—not a bad return. 
 
PHOENICIA 
 
 13 
 
 of as lp,te date as the 5th century B.c., Cyprus must have been 
 colonised before the Phoenicians had yet produced their purely alpha¬ 
 betic adaptation of the earlier writing. That is, Cyprus must 
 have been colonised before the 11th century b.c. The island of 
 Kythera. Kythera (now Cerigo) also must have been early 
 colonised. Utica (or Itylce ) on the north African 
 lca " coast was founded 1100 B.c. This thriving settlement 
 soon got flanked by many others, such as Hippo, Zaritus, Had- 
 rumetum, but most of all by Carthage, destined to 
 ar u age. eclipse all other Phoenician States and to mount to 
 the pinnacle of power. On the coast of Spain (then occupied by 
 the Iberians, from whom are descended the modern Basques), 
 Gades Phoenicia planted Abdera, Gades, now Cadiz (men¬ 
 tioned by Herodotus as “a city in the ocean beyond 
 the Pillars of Herakles”), Malaga, Tarsis (by the Greeks called 
 Tarshish etc. etc Tartessos, in the Scriptures Tarshish, later Carteia) 
 
 ' about the Guadalquivir. In Sicily it founded 
 Panormus; in Sardinia, Caralis. 
 
 Trade. —From the 15th century B.c. the Phoenicians were the 
 carriers of the world’s trade from Babylonia on one side to Egypt 
 on the other. Tyre is celebrated in Isaiah (xxiii. 8) as “the crown¬ 
 ing city, whose merchants are princes and whose traffickers are the 
 honourable of the earth”. By the 10th century b.c. Phoenicia traded 
 by land with the Euphrates, Armenia, etc., by sea with Egypt, 
 Greece, Italy, North Africa, Spain, and Gaul. By the 6th century 
 Phoenician Trade B,c * ^ 10en i c i au bottoms floated from the mouths of the 
 stretches all the Indus on one side to the coasts of Devon and Corn- 
 way from the wall on the other. The Phoenicians had the exclusive 
 of cornwaii° aSt trade of the spices of Arabia in the time of Herodotus 
 (5th century b.c.) if not earlier. And, among the 
 spices, Herodotus specifies not only frankincense and myrrh, but also 
 cinnamon and cassia, now not found nearer than Ceylon, though in 
 these early times the north-east corner of Africa, opposite Arabia, 
 was called the cinnamon region . 
 
 Arts. —It was Phoenicia, as everybody knows, that cleared writing 
 Alphabet. °t its ideographic and syllabic stage, and reduced it to 
 pure alphabetic signs. The works of art in Homer— 
 Sidonian skill. Achilles’ iprize to the fastest runner, the silver bowl 
 presented by Menelaos to Telemachos, the Trojan 
 Queen’s dress, etc.—are Phoenician. Also of Phoenician design are 
 
 „ . _ . the decorations of Solomon’s Temple. Tyrian purple 
 
 Tynan Purple. wag ^ fame Qf ftU tbe world> Jn search of fcbe Bbell . 
 
 fish {murex), from which they extracted the purple dye, the Phoe¬ 
 nicians ransacked their own seas and the seas all round Cyprus, 
 Kythera, etc. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 14 
 
 IV. CARTHAGE 
 
 Founded by Tyrian colonists, as tbe JEneid (I. 33S, et seq.) also 
 tells, 814 b.c., Carthage grew to be, for a time, the richest and 
 mightiest State in the world. 
 
 Colonies.— She took up into her all the strength of her mother and 
 more. By the 4th century B.C. she had extended her rule from the 
 Af , borders of Kyrenaike on the east to beyond the Pillars 
 
 of Herakles (Straits of Gibraltar) on the west. The 
 Phoenician colonies on the Afric coast became all hers. And not 
 only did Carthage exact tribute in money from her colonies on 
 the coast, but also tribute in kind from the bordering tribes of the 
 Hinterland. 
 
 Outside of Africa, Carthage held Gades (Cadiz) with its silver 
 mines in the interior and a chain of factories to east and west. Off 
 Settlements in Spanish coast, she had the islands of Ebusus 
 Spain and all ( Iviza ) and the Balearides. As early as the 7th cen- 
 round the West tury B.c., Carthage planted colonies at Caralis ( Ca - 
 e 1 erranean. an d other points of Sardinia. She also took 
 
 possession of Sicily, and, though latterly she had to yield up the 
 eastern half to the strenuous Greeks, she yet retained the west and 
 north-west to herself. Also the islands of Aegates (west of Sicily), 
 Melite (Malta), Gaulos (Gozo), and Cossyra, were occupied and 
 exploited. 
 
 Trade. —The trade of Carthage ranged from Sierra Leone and the 
 Cassiterides (tin-islands) of the Cornish coast on the west to the Mala¬ 
 bar coast on the east. Carthage negotiated the purple 
 Th the World ° f Tyre, the H nen of Egypt, the gold and pearls of the 
 East, the copper of Kypros, the iron of Elba, the 
 silver of Spain, the tin of Cornwall, the frankincense of Arabia, 
 the ivory and slaves of the interior of Africa, the wines of Greece. 
 Like the kindred Jews, the Carthaginians had a decided talent for 
 finance. They improved on the gold and silver bar currency by the 
 invention of token-money. The State revenues of Carthage*exceeded 
 those of Rome, and might compare with those of the great power of 
 Persia, 
 
 In Heidelberg Library is a Greek MS., the Teri'ploos (circum¬ 
 navigation), claiming to be the translation of a narrative by the 
 Carthaginian Hanno of a voyage made by him towards 
 Wes a t S Afrfca S the close of the 6th century B.C. along the west coast 
 of Africa. Another Periploos, still extant, bearing 
 the name of the Greek Sky lax, and supposed to date from about 
 350 B.c., tells us that the island of Kerne on the African coast, twelve 
 
PALESTINE 15 
 
 days’ voyage from the Straits, was the seat of a considerable trade 
 carried on by Phoenician merchants with the Ethio- 
 F Kerne. at pian natives of the mainland, from whom, in exchange 
 
 for pottery, ornaments of stone, ointments, and other 
 wares, they obtained ivory and the skins of lions, panthers, etc. 
 
 Wars with Greece. —All-engrossing Carthage came into collision 
 first with the rising power of Hellas. In Sicily a great Cartha¬ 
 ginian army was, in 480 B.c., overthrown by Gelon 
 T* 1 ' 6 and °f Syracuse at Himera. Seventy years afterwards 
 
 insiciiy anS Himera fell into the hands of the Carthaginian 
 Hannibal, son of Gisco. In 396 b.c. Syracuse was 
 blockaded by a Carthaginian army; but this siege was raised by 
 Dionysius, the Greek tyrant of Syracuse. 
 
 Wars with Rome. —A treaty between Carthage and Rome in 509 
 B.c. fixed Fair Promontory (identified with Cape Bonin Tunis) 
 as the limit beyond which the Romans should not sail, 
 Punic^Wars. while on their side the Carthaginians pledged them¬ 
 selves not to harm any Latin city. It was impossible, 
 however, that Rome, with such capacity of expansion in her, should 
 remain permanently cramped inside any such narrow limit. Un¬ 
 avoidable collision between the two Powers ripened into the con¬ 
 troversy, which was to be the mistress of the world. The struggle 
 is distributed into three great Carthaginian or Punic ( i.e . Phoeni¬ 
 cian) wars—(1) 264-241; (2) 218-201; (3) 149-146 B.c. For sea- 
 strong Carthage, rich in money, in ships, and resources, needed Roman 
 smiting and smiting and smiting, three long and desperate rounds, 
 before she would yield to die. And in Hamilcar and his lion- 
 brood, especially the great Hannibal, Carthage had generals of such 
 craft and capacity as compelled the admiration even of her strong 
 enemy. At last, though, mighty Rome had her way, 
 Gravit n shifts an( ^ ^6 Q aeen the Mediterranean, who had long 
 to a the y Tib8r. S reigned the mistress of the world, was razed to the 
 ground. The centre of gravity shifted from North 
 Africa to the Tiber. 
 
 V. PALESTINE 
 
 The Land of the Israelites, to which the Bible assigns Dan for its 
 northern and Beersheba for its southern limit, was a strip of country 
 lying along a part of the furthest eastern shore of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, not more than 140 miles long by 40 miles average breath ; in all 
 some 6,000 square miles, less than the area of Wales. If in influ¬ 
 ence among the greatest, in material magnitude Palestine is among 
 the least, of all the States in the history of the world. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 16 
 
 Abraham, the head patriarch of the nation, migrated, about 2000 
 B.c., from Ur of the Chaldees (once capital of Sumir— 
 
 Mi Egypt? t0 see P* '9) to the south of Canaan. Thence Abraham’s 
 grandson Jacob, with his wives and sons and their 
 children, seventy souls in all, removed to the land of Egypt and 
 settled in Goshen. Thanks to the Egyptian Exploration Fund, the 
 land of Goshen has been well identified. It was situate between the 
 Nile and the Red Sea, in the nome of Arabia, bounded by Zagazig on 
 the north-west, Tel-el-Kebir on the north-east, and Belbeis on the 
 south. The mound Tel-el-Maskhutah in the Wady Tumilat (now 
 occupied by the Freshwater Canal), has been identified as the site of 
 Pithom, one of the treasure cities built by the Israelites. After a 
 sojourn in Egypt of about 210 years, according to 
 T Canaan° calculations based on Old Testament records (Exod. 
 
 vi. 16-25), though Exodus xii. 40 gives the* period as 
 430 years, the Israelites made their escape from Egypt, about 1350 
 B.c., and journeyed to the land of Canaan, which they succeeded in 
 capturing from the inhabitants. 
 
 Long under theocratic government by Judges, Palestine was 
 formed into one kingdom under Saul, 1067 B.c. Under 
 Monarchy! Lavid, 1051-11, and Solomon 1011-971 B.c., the king¬ 
 dom of Israel reached its maximum of solidarity and 
 expansion. On the death ,of Solomon the monarchy split into a 
 duarchy : the kingdom of Judah composed of the tribes of Judah and 
 _ . . . _ . Beniamin ; the kingdom of Israel of the remaining 
 
 ten tribes. 1 he separate kingdom or Israel comprised 
 nineteen reigns, and lasted 250 years, till 720 b.c. In 724-21 b.c., Sa¬ 
 maria, the capital of Israel, fell to the arms of Assyria, and Shalmaneser 
 IV. “ carried Israel away into Assyria and put them in cities of the 
 Medes”. The Captivity was completed by Sargon, Shalmaneser’s 
 successor (see p. 10), who, 720 B.c., carried most of the ten tribes 
 captive into the mountainous region of Media, and filled up the 
 vacated places by colonists, drafted thither from North Syria and 
 Cbaldaea. Judah lasted as a separate kingdom through twenty reigns, 
 till 588 B.c. In that year Nebuchadnezzar carried the King of Judah, 
 Captivity w itb P r i nces > captains and able men of the land, 
 captive to Babylon. Jerusalem (the life’s blood of the 
 Jews—if I do not love thee, O Jerusalem!) was sacked, and a third 
 deportation made of its citizens. 
 
 The captivity of Judah lasted till 538 B.C., when, the kingdom of 
 Babylon having become the prize of Persia, Cyrus, the King of Persia, 
 gave the Jewish exiles permission to return to the land 
 
 R Babyion° m °f their forefathers. The second temple of Jerusalem 
 was completed 517 B.c., and the waste cities of Judah 
 began to get rebuilt and repeopled. About 458 b.c. Ezra headed a 
 
PALESTINE 
 
 1 7 
 
 second migration from Babylon, and, thirteen years later, Nehemiali 
 became governor of Jerusalem for twelve years, till 432 B.c. The books 
 of the Old Testament are thought to have been collected and arranged 
 by Ezra 458-450 b.c. The Old Testament history ends with the 
 prophet Mala hi, about 420 b.c. About 409 B.c. a temple was set up 
 by the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim, as a rival to that of Jerusalem, 
 and the separation between the pure Jews and the mixed race of 
 Samaritans became accentuated. Alexander the Great having taken 
 Tyre, 332 b.c., Jerusalem also submitted to his sove- 
 the e ptoiemies! r re ^ 1J ty. After his death Ptolemy became King of 
 Eg>pt, and, probably about 320 B.c., he made himself 
 master also of Jerusalem, sett ing many thousands of Jews in Alex- 
 andriaand Kyrene. Under the second Ptolemy (seep. 7) the Hebrew 
 Scriptures were translated by ! ews living in E^rypt into Greek, the 
 Septuagint Version, as it is called, the earliest Greek version of the 
 Old Testament, the one read and quoted by Christ and his Apostles. 
 The Hebrew Text, whereof this version is a translation, is itself no 
 longer extant. 
 
 Antiochus III., King of Syria (from 223 B.c.), conquered Palestine 
 Under s ria an( ^ annexe( l ^ to the dominion of the Seleukidai. 
 
 His successor, Antiochus IV., captured Jerusalem, 
 170 B.c., plundered the Temple, dedicated it to Zeus (Jupiter), built 
 a gymnasion in the Jewish capital, and endeavoured to force the 
 Greek Cult on the abhorrent Jews. In 164 B.c. Judas 
 The imposed Cult Maceabaeus, of the Hasmonean Dynasty,recovered Jeru¬ 
 salem and re-established the Jewish ritual. This 
 dynasty ruled till the accession of Herod I. (an Edomite). I 11 63 
 B.c., Jerusalem fell to the Roman legions under Pom- 
 e acca ees. p 0 y Going to Rome, Herod obtained a decree of the 
 R of m jerusaiem re Senate constituting him King of Judaea, 40 B.c.; and, 
 three years later, he took Jerusalem, putting to death 
 the last male representative of the Hasmonean line. After his death, 
 4 B.c., the year of the birth of Christ, the kingdom was divided among 
 his four sons as tetrarchs. Pontius Pilate became, 26 a.d., procu¬ 
 rator of Judaea, and it was during his procuratorship that Christ 
 suffered Crucifixion. In 41 a.d. Herod Agrippa became King of 
 Judaea and Samaria, and, on his death, Palestine, under the name of 
 Judaea, again became part of the Roman province of Syria, governed 
 by a procurator appointed by the Emp- ror (Claudius I.). In 70 a.d. 
 Jerusalem was sacked by the Romans under Titus, “notone stone 
 left upon another ”. In 130 a.d. Hadrian rebuilt Jerusalem, calling 
 it JElia Capitolina , and erected in it a temple to Jupiter—what a 
 new Jerusalem ! Claiming t<> be the Messiah, Bar-Cochba took Jeru¬ 
 salem 132 a.d., but was killed in war against Julius Severus, 135. 
 Thereupon followed the final desolation of Judaea, the final separa- 
 
 2 
 
18 HISTORICAL 
 
 tion between Israel and tbe land wherewith from earliest memory 
 they were passionately identified, the dispersion of the 
 Je wish<Disper- j ews a R over the ear tfi— an( j Rothschilds, Hirsches, 
 Levys, Glucksteins, etc., engrossing the wealth of the 
 capitals of the world, and, as token of their shrewder finance and 
 disposition to overreach their Gentile persecutors, the embodiment 
 in all languages of general words such as to “jew”, “ juiverie ”, etc. 
 
 The Jewish Factor in History.— One of the smallest States, at 
 its utmost expansion but the paltriest patch of land, no bigger than 
 a German grand-duchy, a united kingdom for less than a century, iso¬ 
 lated from all other States, insignificant to the last degree in arms, 
 in arts, in enterprise, in navigation and commerce, in every quality 
 that attracts the observation of the world, a nation the bulk of which 
 was always relapsing into idolatry, the heart-break of its great men, 
 Palestine was and remains a first-rate power, a transcendent influ¬ 
 ence, not second to Greece nor Rome, nor the State that sweeps all 
 round the globe. The Bible is of the Jews, and Christianity, to 
 which all the Great Powers render formal homage, and Paul. In 
 modern times, Spinoza in a new way continues the succession of the 
 patriarchs and prophets and apostles. His is the standpoint of pure 
 contemplation, raised high above the turbid strata alike of joy and of 
 sorrow. In music likewise—in Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Rubinstein 
 —we still hear somewhat of the current deriving from Moses and the 
 song of the Egyptian deliverance, the sweet lyre of Israel, the 
 mighty trumpet of Isaiah. And how much, for one item, is the Bible 
 inwrought into the substance and structure of all the languages of 
 Europe at home and abroad ! And in each case the Biblical is the 
 more virile element. Luther’s Bible is still the standard of German, 
 the pith and marrow of the language. Biblical English, too, is Eng¬ 
 lish. And the Christian churches all profess (whether bona ficle or 
 not) that Christ (the fulness of Jewish history, ‘‘ the fulness of the 
 times ”) constitutes all the man of any man, all the life of any life, 
 all the salvation (or health) of any man or any State. 
 
 VI. GREECE 
 
 Greece and Europe. —The history of civilised Europe begins with the 
 history of Greece. It was Greece that absorbed the earlier civilisa¬ 
 tions of the East, and through Greece have these civilisations, cul¬ 
 tivated and refined by Hellenic genius, been transmitted to the later 
 civilisations of the world. 
 
 Greece and Egypt, —Recent exploration in Egypt has brought to 
 light evidence of connection between Greece and Egypt from times 
 
GREECE 
 
 19 
 
 as early as 2500 and 1500 B.c. Traces of connection between the two 
 countries at later dates, and before the time of Homer, have also been 
 dug up. From the time of Psammetichos I., about 665 B.c. (see p. 7), 
 may be dated the epoch of a more positive and intimate connection 
 between the two lands. 
 
 Homeric Greece. —The earliest concrete picture of the land of 
 manifold myriad isles and peninsulas set in the Mediterranean Sea is 
 the one of immortal freshness presented in the two poems, the Iliacl 
 and the Odyssey of Homer, dating from about the 9th century 
 B.c. —if net much earlier. In Homer the Greeks are called by the 
 names of Achai-ans, the dominant people, Argei-ans (people of Argos 
 in the Peloponnesos), and Danai-ans (named after Danaos, king of 
 Argos). 
 
 Doric Invasion.— About 1000 b.c., a people called Dorians, hailing 
 immediately from Doris, whereinto they had migrated from Thessaly, 
 arta poured across the Corinthian Gulf and took posses- 
 p ’ sion of the Peloponnesos, driving the Achaians into the 
 northern part of the peninsula and establishing their capital at Sparta. 
 
 Names. —Greece is a Homan, not a native, name, designating pro¬ 
 perly a branch of the race in Epeiros (north-west of Greece), and 
 therefore nearest to Italy and the Homans. Only in 
 
 butHeUenes after-Homeric times were all the far-stretching lands 
 inhabited by the Greeks, mother-country and colonies 
 as well, known by the name of Hellas, and all its people as Hellenes. 
 
 An Aggregate of States. —Intersected by chains of mountains 
 into a network of valleys, Greece composed, not one State, but many 
 independent States. It is only in modern times, since 1830 of our 
 era, that Greece became one independent kingdom. Each city was a 
 State (polity) by itself. For the purposes, however, of common wor¬ 
 ship and common offence and defence, a number of States often 
 leagued themselves together under the leadership of the one recog¬ 
 nised as the strongest. Among the principal states of Greece were, 
 in pre-Homeric times, Argos with its capital, Mykenai; in historic 
 times Sparta, Corinth, Megara, Athens, Thebes, etc. 
 
 Colonies. —From pre-Homeric times the Greeks swarmed out 
 colonies to the east and to the west. Among the earliest were those 
 sown on the western seaboard of Asia Minor : (1) the iEolian Settle- 
 iEoiians men ^ of twelve cities in the north, constituting a 
 
 ionians, and League celebrating its annual festival at Smyrna. (2) 
 Dorians ° f The Ionian League of twelve cities, the most im- 
 sia mor. p 0 r j- an t 0 f the Asiatic Greek settlements. Smyrna, of 
 H^olian origin, became a member of the Ionian League about 700 B.C. 
 
Naukratis. 
 
 20 HISTORICAL 
 
 (3) The Doriau League of six cities on the coast of Caria and the 
 Milesian Colonies neighbourmg islands Miletos, the chief Ionian city 
 all round the or Asia, became, m its turn, the prolific mother of as 
 Black Sea, many as eighty colonies, it is said, fringing the coasts 
 e c., e c. a p romi( j the Hellespont, the Propontis (Sea of Mar¬ 
 mora), and the Euxine or Black Sea ; among them, Sinope ( Sinoub ), 
 Trapezons ( Trebizond ), Abydos, Parion, Kyzikos, Istros ( Istere ), 
 Tyras, Odessos (7ama). Also Tanais, at the month of the Don ; 
 and, on the Caucasian shore, Phasis and Dioskourias. In Egypt 
 the Milesians in the 7th century planted Naukratis 
 (see p. 7). All Thrace (Roumelia), too, became bor¬ 
 dered by the sea with Greek colonies—Potidaia, Akanthos, Stageira 
 (birthplace of Aristotle, the Stageirite), Argilos, 
 CoSiies 11 Abdera, Maroneia (Marogna —its wines known to 
 Homer) ; towns issuing very beautiful coins, such as 
 may still be admired in the British Museum, Byzantion ( Con¬ 
 stantinople] ) was a Dorian colony founded 658 B.C. To 
 yzan ion. wes t } as early as 1000 B.C., Hellenes began to plant 
 
 themselves along the coast of Italy. The whole of the southern part 
 of the long peninsula, now known as Otranto, Basili¬ 
 cata, and Calabria, rejoiced, from the 6th century B.c., 
 in the name of Greater Greece {Megale Hellas). In Sicily were planted 
 the prosperous cities of Syracuse, Akragas ( Agrigentum ), etc. Still 
 further west, Massalia ( Marseilles ) was founded 600 
 B.c., a flourishing city, which threw out branches, 
 taking root at Nikaia {Nice) and Monoikou {Monaco ). 
 On the Afric shore, again, Kyrene was founded, 
 636 B.c., ruling over the extensive coast-land called 
 Kyrenaike. Thus was the Mediterranean Sea studded 
 all round with Hellenic plantations, and its blue waters 
 furrowed in every direction by Hellenic keels. 
 
 Persian Wars. —Cyrus, King of Persia, having conquered Kroisos 
 (Croesus), King of Lydia, came for the first time in hostile conflict 
 with the Asiatic Greeks. Athens was prompt to offer her Ionian 
 kinsmen help in their resistance of Persia; as in more recent times 
 she has not been slow in offering Crete help against a worse Power. 
 Marathon. And s ° 5 ^90. B.c., the Persian king Darius sent a 
 
 big army to crush Athens—which, however, got well 
 beaten at Marathon by the Athenians under Miltiades. In 480 b.c. 
 
 300 Spartans under Leonidas contended a whole day 
 long at Thermopylai against the overwhelming host of 
 Persia under Xerxes. Like the 600 Pbokaian Marseillese after them, 
 the 300 Spartans knew how to die {savent mourir), and one man in 
 possession of that knowledge is worth how many thousands ignorant 
 
 Greater Greece. 
 
 Marseilles, 
 Nice, Monaco. 
 
 Kyrene. 
 
 The Greek 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Thermopylai. 
 
GREECE 
 
 21 
 
 of the secret! The same year, at Salamis, Xerxes’ fleet was shat- 
 Salamis. tered to pieces chiefly by the Athenians under Therni- 
 " stokles. In 479 Xerxes’ army got its final drubbing at 
 a aia. Piataia from the Greeks under the Spartan Pausanias, 
 while his armada was wrecked off Mykale by the little Greek fleet. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War (431-404 b.c.) was a life-and-death 
 struggle for the mastery between the two leading States of Greece— 
 Athens and Sparta. The other States of Greece all 
 day Sicily?* ranged themselves on one side or the other. The chief 
 theatre of the war was in Sicily, where, 413 b.c., the 
 army and fleet of Athens suffered nameless catastrophe from the 
 Peloponnesians under Gylippos. 
 
 In 404 b.c. Athens, the imperial city of arms and 
 Athe sparta ldS t0 arts, the city under the peculiar protection of the wise 
 and warlike Athene, surrendered to unlettered and un¬ 
 graceful Sparta. 
 
 Sparta and Thebes. —Iron Sparta was now mounted to the head¬ 
 ship of Greece. But in 3/1 B.c., at the battle of Leuktra, the 
 Spartans were in their turn discomfited by the Thebans 
 And to P Thebes ieldS un( ^ er Epaminondas, and for a short while Boiotian 
 (boorish) Thebes enjoyed the distinction of the chief 
 State of Greece. 
 
 The Makedonian Supremacy.— In 338 b.c. the united forces of 
 the Athenians and the Thebans were irretrievably defeated at the 
 battle of Chaironeia by Philip II. of Makedonia, who 
 SpartaandThebes Ihereby became master of Greece. Alexander, Philip’s 
 and ail the Greek son, overthrew the Persians in the three pitched battles 
 St Makedom d . t0 °, f Granikos (334), Issos (333), and Arbela (331). 
 
 Tyre and Phoenicia fell (332), the same year in which 
 Egypt also surrendered, and the foundation of Alexandreia was 
 decreed. Thereby did the Greek language and culture 
 the Makedonian. diffused all over the civilised world; all the world 
 Empire. became Greek. After Alexander’s death, 323 B.c., the 
 wide Makedonian Empire came to be divided among 
 Egypt,' 8 and Anti- his generals. Egypt (with appendages) became the 
 ochos (founder of prize of Ptolemy. Seleukos founded the Great Empire 
 ochfg^Syria!* having Seleucia on the Euphrates for its capital (see 
 p. 10). The son of Seleukos, Antiocho3 I., became 
 King of Asia 280 b.c. 
 
 In 146 B.c. Greece became a Roman province. Conquered physi- 
 Rome Con uers ca ^y hy Rome, Greece intellectually conquered her 
 °Greece n but rS conqueror. Rome rendered grateful homage to the in- 
 Greece Conquers tellectual and artistic superiority of Greece, and became 
 .er Conqueror. an en th us iastic disciple of Greek culture. All the 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 o 2 
 
 rising intelligence of Rome pilgrimaged to Greece. All that in Rome ; 
 aspired to intellectuality, feminine as well as masculine, read, spoke, I 
 and wrote Greek. Cicero’s friend was distinguished as the “Attic” j 
 (Atticus) in compliment to his Greek scholarship. The Upper 
 classes of Rome learnt Greek in the nursery. Greek was the language ! 
 of fashionable conversation. Greek tutors were sure of flattering i 
 consideration and handsome remuneration in Rome. The house of 
 L. Lucullus, e.g., was a rendezvous for Hellenic literati, almost as much 
 as was the Alexandrian Museum. Roman literature and art owe 
 their inspiration to Greece. Virgil is the Roman 
 ^and^rt Second- 6 cultivation of Homer; Cicero of Demosthenes ; Horace 
 ary to Greek, of Alkaios, Sappho, and Pindar; Roman satire of the 
 Greek Satyric drama. The serious Latin drama, too, 
 was from the beginning under Greek influence. The first written 
 pieces were taken from the Greek, and, even when the Romans 
 adopted national subjects, their treatment still reflected the Greek 
 pattern; often large portions were borrowed in a lump from Greek 
 plays. The glorification of art still in vogue in our day is in part a 
 tradition of the fashion set by Rome. What is Greek is therefore 
 native ; what Latin, therefore artificial. 
 
 Wide and lasting as the world itself is the cosmic genius of Greece. 
 
 All the world still goes to Greece for its schooling in 
 rh Th tr.? ath f li + C h Otters, in art, in philosophy, in politics, in culture 
 Greek Genius. 6 generally. Knowledge of the Greek language is itself 
 a catholic culture. The intellectual and artistic 
 element of every civilised language is Greek. Through Homer, 
 Aischylos, Euripides, Socrates, Plato, Aristoteles, Plutarch, as also 
 through her extant sculptures, Greece still reigns one of the greatest 
 Powers of the world. A whole humane culture is Palestine and 
 Greece. And who studies Greece will admire how much Palestine 
 too is included in it. 
 
 Palestine and Greece. —The way of all humanity leads through 
 Palestine and Greece. The more the matter is searched, the more 
 will it be found that all civilisations, all the world over, all its long 
 succession through, have all been at least tending in the way of 
 Palestine and Greece, in the way of conclusions to which it is the 
 glory of Palestine and Greece to have given their typical expression. 
 The two gather up into them the substance of all that went before ; 
 in them the earlier civilisations all unite. The office, as of the Jewish 
 Law, according to Paul, so of the other-civilisations as well, is that of 
 a pedagogue to lead the way to Christ. Per varios casus, per tot 
 discrimina rerum, tendunt in Christum et Athenas. Unwittingly and 
 erringly, they yet all aimed at Christ. Christ is the fulfilment of 
 the Law and the pagan civilisations. Egypt and the early civilisations 
 
ROME 
 
 23 
 
 l may each be summarily expressed in terms of Palestine and Greece. 
 
 These name the highest crises of human history. A man’s historic 
 I sense may be accurately measured by the emotion with which he 
 responds to these two words of highest experience and import. Who 
 is not yet come up to these two man-making epochs has yet to learn 
 what it is to live. He is not yet born. All the man any man is—is 
 the Palestine and Greece he has appropriated and is cultivating anew. 
 Palestine and Greece constitute the great divide in history. What 
 was of worth before led thither. What is of worth since derives 
 ! thence. “Christianity” (the consummation of Jewish history), 
 says Goethe, “was a height the human race was destined to 
 attain, and from which, attained, there is no retrogression”. More 
 pressing and important business has not any man than that - of 
 cultivating a connection with, an interest in, Palestine and Greece ; 
 “ unless in relation thereto, nothing else is of any value ”. 
 
 All humane education includes these two : Palestine, by way of 
 discipline; Greece, by way of happy development and completion. 
 And all new-fangled schemes of education that would leave out of 
 account these two stages have yet to learn the lesson of history; 
 they prescribe a course out of the way of the historic line. As, in 
 order to be born physically the man of to-day, it is necessary to 
 repeat in brief the previous stages of organic development. So, in 
 order to be born intellectually the man of to-day, it is necessary to 
 make one’s way through the stages by which the present is reached. 
 The one and only handle of the present is the past. There is no 
 knowledge whatever of the present but by way of the past. And the 
 past (holding in it all the present and the future) is Palestine and 
 Greece. 
 
 VII. ROME 
 
 At first a settlement of the Latin Ramnes (Romans) on the Palatine 
 Hill, by the river Tiber, Rome gradually incorporated 
 T nfogofRonS n " settlements on the neighbouring hills. 
 
 Like the Greek city or State, Rome was at first 
 governed by a king with Senate and Popular Assembly. About 509 
 A Kingdom Bc * -^ ome expelled its kings, and substituted two 
 magistrates, called at first Praetors, then Consuls, 
 a Republic. chosen f or one year; the Senate and Popular Assembly 
 continuing to act by way of counterpoise to the Consular authority. 
 
 Patricians and Plebeians. —The Roman people were early dis¬ 
 tinguished into the two classes of Patricians (the 
 The Actual and families of the early settlers—the “happy possessors ”), 
 
 * possessors' and Plebeians (those, of later incorporation, who, 
 too late for the first “ divide”, had yet a good appetite 
 
24 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 for the appropriated honours and possessions). The first Plebeian 
 Th* piPhPiarA 0 attain the dignity of Consul was L. Sextius, 366 B.c. 
 
 Consul. In b.c. 172 tbe two Consuls were both Plebeian, 
 _ ,. a precedent repeatedly followed. In 443 b.c. the 
 
 censorship was mstuuted, consisting ot two censors. 
 At first limited to taking every lustrum (of five years) a registration 
 Census and Over- th e citizens in respect of name, age, property, 
 sight of Public whether married or single, and, if married, the number, 
 Moral \Vorks PubiiC names ’ an( ^ a £ es the children, the offb-e was giadu- 
 ally extended to the oversight oj 'public morals and 
 superintendence of the collection of the public revenue and the execu¬ 
 tion of public works. The taking of the census merely dates from the 
 
 establishment of the constitution of Servius Tullius about 550 F.c. 
 The sixth class of citizens according to Servius Tullius’ distribution 
 consisted of proletarii and capite censi, the latter enrolled, not by 
 the value of their estates, but simply by their polls. The censorship 
 lasted over 400 years, but under the empire disappeared as a separate 
 office. The business of the enrolment of the citizens and the super¬ 
 vision of their morals, the Emperor Augustus took over into his own 
 hands. 
 
 Roman Dominion. —By 283 b.c. the Roman dominion had spread 
 itself over the whole of the Peninsula, with the 
 Rome Sole Mis- exception of some Greek cities in the south, which 
 tr peninsuia the t°° got absorbed 266 B.c. 
 
 Struggle with Carthage.— Next, outside of Italy, 
 came the desperate struggle with Carthage, a struggle distributed 
 
 Punic Wars int ° three S reat Punic wal>s : ( X ) 264-241 B.C. ; (2) 
 
 wars. 218 _ 201 . (3) 149-146 B.c. (see p . 15 ). 
 
 Roman Conquest. —The following dates mark the progress of 
 Roman Conquest. After three wars Makedonia fell 
 ^om^erfgrosses’ to Rome 168 B.c. By 150 B.c. Roman arms had con- 
 Makedonia*sp’ain, quered Spain. In 133 b.c. Attalos III. of Pergamos 
 Pontus^Britain 1, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. The war 
 with Mithridates, King of Pontus, opened 88 B.c., 
 closed with his defeat by Pompey, 66 B.c. It was not, however, con¬ 
 stituted a Roman Province till about 62 a.d. In the years 58-49 
 B.c., C. J. Caesar subdued all Gaul; 54 b.c. he invaded an island 
 off the coast of Gaul called “Britain”. 
 
 The Civil War between Pompey and Caesar ended at 
 ^mpey yields to the battle of Pharsalia, 48 b.c., in Pompey’s overthrow. 
 
 Assassination . 8 Put at the head of the Government of Rome, 48 B.c., 
 Caesar was murdered 44 b.c. 
 
ROME 
 
 25 
 
 The Empire. —After Caesar’s assassination the Roman dominion 
 was parted among a triumvirate ; Italy and the West 
 Octavius Augustus becoming the portion of Octavian, the East that of 
 the of r Rome Per ° r Mark Antony, Africa that of Lepidus. Lepidus soon 
 lost Africa and was exiled. Next, Antony defeated at 
 Aktion (Actium) 31 B.c., Octavian, assuming the cognomen of 
 Augustus, became, 28-27 B.c., sole Emperor, “Princeps et Im- 
 perator”. In 330 a.d. Constantine transferred the 
 Capital ofRome, capital of the empire from Rome to Byzantium, 
 “Rome on the Bosporos”, henceforward called Con¬ 
 stantinople (City of Constantine). 
 
 In 364 the empire was broken up into a western and an eastern 
 empire, respectively under Yalens and Yalentian. 
 into Western and ^he division of the eastern and the western 
 
 m ° Eastern! a empire was made in 395, when Arcadius, the son ot* 
 Theodosius, became Emperor of the East at Constanti¬ 
 nople, and Honorius, his brother, Emperor of the West, living chiefly 
 in the strong fortress of Ravenna. In 476 may be 
 dated the end of the Western Empire; in that year 
 e ’ Rome was taken by the German Odoacer, who pro¬ 
 
 claimed himself King of Italy. Theodoric, King of the East 
 Goths, overthrew Odoacer and reigned in Italy 493-526. 
 
 Out of the dissolution of the Roman Empire gradually grew the 
 Modern States of Europe. The Eastern Empire ended 
 Gr^k d Emuerors w ith the capture of Constantinople and the death of 
 ' Constantine XIII., 29th May, 1453. 
 
 Extent and Duration of the Roman Empire.— At its maximum 
 The Roman expansion the Roman Empire comprehended all Europe 
 Empire in Europe, within the Rhine and the Danube, including Greece, 
 in 1 Africa the Balkan peninsula, Spain, Gaul, Western Germany 
 
 and Britain. In Asia it embraced all the lands west 
 of the Euphrates, and beyond the Euphrates it included Assyria, 
 Partliia, Armenia, and Albania. In Africa it took in Egypt, Car¬ 
 thage, Numidia, and Mauritania. The empire ex¬ 
 tended over 2,000 miles in breadth from the walls of 
 Antoninus (between Forth and Clyde) and the northern limits of 
 Ducia to Mount Atlas and the Tropic of Cancer. In length it ex¬ 
 tended more than 3,000 miles, from the Western Ocean to the 
 Euphrates. It was situate in the finest part of the 
 Situation 8 temperate zone, between the 24th and the 56th degree 
 of north latitude, and contained in all about 1,600,000 
 square miles of for the most part fertile and well-cultivated land. In 
 magnitude the British Empire far outdoes the Roman. Excluding 
 protectorates, the British Empire takes in 9,093,991 square miles, 
 
 Its Extent. 
 
26 HISTORICAL 
 
 and, including protectorates and spheres of influence, 11,324,391 
 square miles, or nearly two-ninths of the land sur- 
 and°British ^ ace sl°I> e * Tike Rome, Britain too has known 
 
 Empire. how to pick out the choicest parts of the earth, so that 
 
 the other Powers of Europe, wakening up at this late 
 hour with a keen appetite for long-delayed colonial possessions, 
 find, not without some natural irritation, almost everything worth 
 having already in British clutches. 
 
 As a political empire Rome lasted eleven centuries at Rome (753 
 B.C.-364 a.d.), and eleven centuries more at Byzantium (364-1448 
 Duration Of Rome A * D *)‘. As a religious empire Rome has long lorded, 
 as a Political and and still lords, it over a yet larger dominion than that 
 aS Empire 10US °* its P a g an predecessor. The spiritual empire of 
 Rome may be dated from 321 a.d., when Constantine 
 practically proclaimed Christianity the religion of the empire. In 
 606 a.d. the title of Pope, first adopted by Hyginus 139 a.d., became 
 restricted to the Prelate of Rome. In 708 the world first knelt 
 down to kiss the Pope’s sacred toe. The Holy Roman Empire, 
 dissolved 1806, was in a manner resuscitated 18th January, 1871, 
 when William I. of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor, i.e. 
 properly head of the Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 THE IMPRESS OF ROME 
 
 How much the figure of Rome, fC tlie Eternal City,” is still im- 
 Th rf OPn9 i pressed on Europe (at home and abroad) is in part 
 e ' instanced by certain names. The Pope or Bishop of 
 
 Rome, e.g., still calls himself by the name of Pontiff, and his reign 
 a Pontificate. Pontiff names originally each of the five heads of the 
 Pagan Cult. The chief of the College, Pontifex Maximus, held the 
 office of highest dignity in a sense at once political 
 Pontiff anlf Trans- an< l religious. When Rome became an Empire, the 
 mission of the Emperors constituted themselves also chief Pontiffs. 
 Title of°Rome. 1ShOP Tilius Caesar was chief Pontiff. Under Constantine, 
 Christianity, as world-religion, united itself with 
 Rome as world-empire. The Bishop (or Pope) of Rome accordingly 
 became dowered with the imperial title of Pontiff. The Empire, too, 
 on its part, after its declarative adoption of Christianity, came, under 
 Otho I., likewise to assume the title of Holy Roman 
 Roman Empire Empire—“ Holy,” in contradistinction to the super¬ 
 seded Pagan. The Christianity of the empire became 
 its paramount characteristic, and the temporal authority of the 
 empire subordinate therefore to its spiritual. Charlemagne was 
 accordingly crowned, and the first to be crowned, Emperor of the 
 West at Rome by the Pope, 800 a.d., and in 962, when Otho I. was 
 crowned Emperor by the Pope, the title of Holy Roman Empire was 
 
ROME 
 
 27 
 
 conferred on his dominion. The ceremony of coronation conspicu¬ 
 ously attests the subordination of the temporal 
 tion e ceremon°ies* empire to the spiritual Power. Besides the sword, 
 and subordination globe, and sceptre of temporal power, the Emperor 
 ° f E ?ope° r t0 received at coronation a ring as the symbol of his faith ; 
 
 he was ordained a deacon, he assisted the Pope in cele¬ 
 brating Mass, he partook as a clerical person of communion in both 
 kinds, he was admitted a Canon of St. Peter and St. John Lateran. 
 The Emperor also swore to cherish and defend the Holy Roman 
 Church and her Bishop. And, after the reading of the Gospel, the 
 Pope prayed, “ Deus, qui ad prsedicandum seterni regni Evangelium 
 imperium Romanum prseparasti, prsetende famulo tuo Imperatori 
 nostro arma cselestia” (God, who in order to the preaching of the 
 Gospel of the Eternal Kingdom hast prepared the Roman Empire, 
 shield Thy servant our Emperor with Thy celestial arms). Among 
 the Emperor’s official titles, too, were “Defender and Advocate of 
 the Christian Church,” “Head of Christendom,” “Temporal Head 
 of the Faithful,” “ Protector of Palestine and of the Catholic Faitli ” 
 (see Bryce’s Holy Rom. Emp., p. 106). The union of Church and 
 State, of world-religion with world-empire, which the Pope sub¬ 
 stantiates in his person, he also delegated to the person of Pipin, 
 King of the Franks (752-68), when he (the Pope) 
 
 ! ^ector°EcciesS* constituted him defender and protector of the Church 
 (Defensor et Protector Ecclesiae). To the ancient 
 I Frankish mode of election, according to which the chief was raised 
 on a shield amid the clash of arms, there were added the Roman 
 diadem and the Hebrew rite of anointing. Pipin was also declared 
 by the Pope “Patrician of the Romans” (Patricius Romanorum). 
 Introduced by Constantine, the title “Patrician” named, not an 
 j office, but a rank the highest after Emperor and Consul, usually con- 
 i ferred on provincial governors of the first class, and afterwards on 
 I barbarian potentates by way of compliment— e.c/., on Odoacer, Theo- 
 doric, Sigismund. The title “ Patrician ”, conferred by the Pope on 
 I the Frankish Pipin, was meant to include the obligation of the 
 | ' . Frankish king to defend the temporal interests of the 
 
 Fidei r i) a efensor a Church. The title of Defender of the Faith (Fidei 
 Defensor), borne by our Queen, derives from that dis- 
 j tinction of honour conferred first on Henry VIII. by Leo X., in 
 | recognition of his tractate in defence of the Church of Rome against 
 | Luther the heretic. 293 Popes have reigned at Rome. 
 
 The name CJESAR was first applied to a boy, for what reason it 
 ! would now be hard to tell with any certainty. Perhaps because he 
 came into the world with a full head of hair (Ccesaries), 
 ^Privafaf Namef or through a Ccesarian operation. Anyhow, it wks at 
 first an altogether private name, carrying with it no 
 
28 HISTORICAL 
 
 distinction of honour. Thence the name got extended to his family 
 and posterity. Jalius Cfesar made the name illustrious. 
 C3esa trious niUS " And therefore, to add lustre to their dignity, the 
 Emperors of Rome assumed each the title of Caesar. 
 When, however, 136 a.d., the Emperor Hadrian adopted H31ius 
 Verus, the latter assumed the title of Caesar. Thence- 
 An Ti?i P e enaI forth in the Western, and afterwards also in the 
 Eastern, Empire, the title was borne by the heir-ap¬ 
 parent to the throne, “ Augustus ” continuing to be the exclusive 
 name of the reigning emperor. 
 
 When the Empire became the prize of the Teutonic race, the Teu¬ 
 tonic emperors became, of course, emperors of the Holy Roman 
 Empire. And, as the pagan emperors had each 
 Emperor^are styled himself Caesar, it was meet that the title of 
 also Caesars, the succeeding Christian Teutonic Emperors should 
 
 not lack that supreme distinction. The Christian em¬ 
 perors, too, were therefore all “Caesars”—or “Kaisers”, as it is now 
 spelt. The Holy Roman Empire, dissolved 1806, was reconstituted 
 under William I., 1871. The present Kaiser is the 
 Ka?er tS butnot third °f the reconstituted Caesars of the Holy Roman 
 of Christendom, Empire. And, Deutscher Kaiser though he be, and 
 n ° r b of ti? e rrant apparently not much personally disposed to eclipse his 
 Roman Pontiff, imperial authority, he yet hardly arrogates the right to 
 the supreme temporal power of all Christendom, nor 
 holds the writ to such extensive jurisdiction from the spiritual Pontiff 
 of Rome. 
 
 The Emperors of Russia (representing the Byzantine or Greek 
 division of the Roman Empire), not to be behindhand, have also 
 Czar. donned the majestic title of Caesar, or, as they spell it, 
 Czar (Tzar). The title Czar was partially used by the 
 Grand Duke Ivan III., 1462-1505, and by his son Basil. It was for¬ 
 mally assumed by Ivan IV. in 1547. The wife of the Czar shares the 
 honour in her title of Czarina (applied to her in the Protestant Mer¬ 
 cury 1717); the eldest son in the title of Czarevitch ; the wife of the 
 Czarevitch in her title of Czarevna. 
 
 Lastly (and a trifle late in the day ?) our Queen Victoria, too, has 
 Kaisar-i-Hind (since 1876) had her bright name farther illustrated 
 by the decoration of Caesar—Kaisar-i-Hind—“Vic¬ 
 toria the Caesar (or Caesarina) of India”. 
 
 The title EMPEROR (Imperator) would seem to have been the 
 peculiar award conferred on a General in the field when, after a victory, 
 his soldiers hailed him by that acclamation. Henceforth he ap¬ 
 pended the distinction “ Imperator” bo his name, a title used also by 
 civilians in addressing him. No officer serving under the direct com¬ 
 mand of another might accept that address, nor, after laying down 
 
ROME 
 
 29 
 
 his imperium, was any one allowed to retain the title, nor might it be 
 imperator Title assumed by the Consul in the discharge of civic func- 
 at 1 st only of tions. Yet during the last fourteen years of his life 
 the Victorious c^ggr constantly styled himself Imperator. For from 
 J ?efdt 2 nd, of the day of his victory over the Helvetii, B.c. 58, down 
 J i 4 iU eaS S run° r ^'° ^is death, b.c. 44, he was continuously vested with 
 ningf 3 rd S , inthe the imperium, first as pro-Consul, then Consul (48 
 city as well as b.c.), then Dictator. Under Julius Caesar the title of 
 4th* a pier- Imperator came, too, to be no longer, as theretofore, 
 
 manent Title of restricted to one of military distinction, but to compre- 
 Supreme Power. ] ieu( j SU p reme power, civil as well as military. Contrary 
 to rule and precedent, Caesar retained the title in the city ( domi) as 
 well as outsidothe walls ( militice ). In this sense of unrestricted au¬ 
 thority the title was assumed by his, successors. It was in this sense 
 that, B.c. 29, Octavius Augustus received the name of Imperator, and 
 he it was that first shifted the title from a cognotnen to a praenomen, 
 i.e. he placed the title before and not after his name. In 12 b.c. he 
 was further invested with the title of Supreme Pontiff, the chief of 
 religion in the Empire. Church and State became thus united in one 
 head. After Augustus, the Supreme Pontificate continued to be 
 conferred by a vote of the Senate on each new em- 
 1T Emperora°in peror. 1 At the present time among the Sovereigns of 
 Europe. Europe there are three Emperors—of Austria, Germany, 
 and Russia ; or may we add a fourth—Victoria Caesar 
 (or Caesarina, including Imperator or Imperatrix) of India ? 
 
 The constitutional claim of Rome to Empire world-wide and world- 
 lasting is voiced in Virgil: “ To them ” (the Romans), says almighty 
 Jove, “ I assign Empire limitless in extent and dura- 
 R Wrft to Rule 6 ti° n ; theirs is dominion without end” ( JEneid , I. 
 the World. 278-9). And again : “ Thine be it, O Roman, to rule 
 the nations with imperial sway. To impose the ways of 
 peace, to protect the vanquished, and to subdue the proud ; these be 
 thy arts” ( JEneid , VI. 852-54). Or, in the Mediaeval Version: 
 “ Roma Caput Mundi Regit Orbis Frena Rotundi”—Rome, the capi¬ 
 tal of the world, holds the reins of the round globe. 
 
 1 Charles the Great assumed the style of “ Carolus Serenissimus Augus¬ 
 tus, a Deo Coronatus, Magnus et Pacificus Imperator ” (Charles, most 
 Serene Augustus, crowned by God, the great and pacific Emperor). After¬ 
 wards' Carolingian Emperors usually bore the title simply of “Imperator 
 Augustus”. In England the Saxon and Anglian kings too began in the 
 8th and 9th centuries to call themselves “ Imperatores ** and “ Basileis ” of 
 Britain. Before the Conquest the English kings usually donned, by pre¬ 
 ference, the Eastern (Greek) title of Basileus. Outdoing his predecessors, 
 Edgar (959-975) assumed the style of Basileus et Imper ator of Britain, a 
 title pretending to a sovereignty over all the nations of Britain correspond¬ 
 ing to the claim of the Roman Emperor to sovereignty over all the States 
 of Christendom. 
 
30 HISTORICAL 
 
 CITY OF ROME 
 
 A document, in the shape of an official almanack, is still extant 
 giving statistics of Rome at the beginning of the 4th century a.d. 
 
 The city was then divided into 14 wards, comprising 
 Baths^’Bakeries! i n a U 314 parishes, 44,300 houses, 1,682 palaces, 967 
 baths, 1 and 252 bakeries. London, according to the 
 census of 1891, has an area of 74,672 acres, 544,977 inhabited houses, 
 and, including confectioners, 25,758 bakers. 
 
 In addition to other circuses in Rome, the Circus Maximus, in the 
 time of Caesar 1,875 ft. long by 625 ft. wide, gave accommodation 
 
 The Roman 150,000 persons according to Dionysius, but 260,000 
 
 Circus, Races, according to Pliny. The shows exhibited in the circus 
 SP Se t a’Fi a hts and ^ nc ^ a( l e( l : 1* Chariot and horse races—four chariots to 
 ea lg s ' one race, and twenty-four races to one day ; 2. Athletic 
 sports, consisting of foot races, leaping, wrestling, throwing the quoit, 
 and hurling the javelin. For one of the above, boxing was sometimes 
 substituted. Roman youths spent a part of each day practising 
 these sports, as also riding and swimming, in the Campus Martius 
 (Champs de Mars). 3. Sham fights on horseback; 4. Sham battles, 
 in which infantry, cavalry, and elephants contended; 5. Sea fights ; 
 6. Conflicts of wild beasts. 
 
 Athens, Rome, and Jerusalem.— Three cities are recognised as 
 the three chief centres of human history, the three points at which 
 are the experiences of the human race concentred, and whence are 
 the ruling motives of the race derived : Athens, Rome and Jeru¬ 
 salem. These three are roundly distinguished from one another as 
 intellect, will, and conscience. What the world has thought, is 
 Athens. What the world has done, is Rome. How the world has 
 solved the mystery of human destiny, is Jerusalem. As far as one 
 have appropriated the history of these three, there is in him no crisis 
 in the long pathetic travail of the human race sunk into oblivion. 
 Human life at date is still the appropriation and cultivation of these 
 three. 
 
 It will help the formation of some idea of the greatness of Rome to 
 consider the still prominent inscription of her figure on the face, 
 physical and moral, of Europe : in the great highways, still in the 
 main the old Roman roads, intersecting the continent and the island 
 of Great Britain—Watling Street, e.g., from Kent to Cardigan Bay, 
 “ streets ” themselves being Roman “strata” ; in the Roman camps 
 and circumvallations included in almost every landscape of Europe 
 (London Wall, Wallsend, Antonine’s Wall, etc.) ; in the thousands 
 
 1 The baths of Caracalla (begun 212 a.d.) accommodated about 1.600 
 bathers. The baths of Diocletian on the summit of the Quirinal accom¬ 
 modated 3,600 bathers. 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 31 
 
 of towns whose names still tell of their Roman foundation—in Eng¬ 
 land alone how many “chesters”, Roman Castra!; in the mighty 
 ruins of castles, aqueducts, bridges, baths, etc., picturesquely bestrew¬ 
 ing Europe; in the numberless Roman coins, potteries, and other 
 relics filling the museums of nearly every town of Europe (at home 
 and abroad), and still embedded in the strata, whereon modern 
 Europe rests; in the remains of Roman ironworks in various parts of 
 Britain, such as the smelting furnaces of the Forest of Dean. Nor 
 less morally does imperial Rome still rule European (and ultra- 
 European) politics, diplomacy, institutions, laws. And how has she 
 imposed her language on all civilized tongues ! In the wide English- 
 speaking world Latin has permanently taken possession of the 
 bigger half of the vocabulary, and has very seriously retrenched, 
 if not wholly eliminated, the grammatical (or formative) element of 
 Anglo-Saxon. France, Spain, Italy (in Europe and out of it), Belgium, 
 the half of Switzerland, Roumania, South America, etc., all know no 
 tongue but Roman. 
 
 The official administrative practice of the Romans, inherited by 
 the Papal Court, set the rule to all Christendom. The official terms 
 chirograph, autograph, authentic, protocol, catalogue, etc., borrowed 
 by the Romans from the Greeks, passed into the official language 
 of all the Christian courts. Diploma itself (from diploos double), 
 like the German Bogen , refers to the folding of the parchment, in 
 contradistinction to the roll. Is “ diplomacy”, then, definable as the 
 duplicative art (duplicity) in contradistinction to sLn-plicity P 
 
 The Roman language, not comparable with Greek in the way of 
 happy spontaneity, in the way of pure literature and artistic com¬ 
 pleteness, is yet a type of robust strength. And, frankly secondary 
 to Greek though Roman literature be, yet does also Roman literature 
 witness to the native majesty of Rome. The soldierly commentaries 
 of Caesar (with their brief Veni, vidi , vici), the long majestic march 
 of Virgil, the sonorous periods of Cicero ; these too register the con¬ 
 stitutional imperium of the Roman personality. 
 
 VIII. HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 Greek 
 
 Homer. —The universally acknowledged Father of Poetry, of 
 Literature proper and catholic—for down to this day literature 
 universal is under the spell of the Homeric influence and accomplish¬ 
 ment. Of the Achaian (Hellenic) seaboard of Asia Minor. Of all the 
 seven places claiming the honour of his birth, Aiolian Smyrna the 
 most likely ; and of the 9th or 10th century b.c., if not much earlier 
 still. The Iliad and Odyssey, unanimously accredited to Homer, 
 
32 HISTORICAL 
 
 present the most perfect and the completest, as also the h'alest 
 and freshest, image of a time singularly humane and wholesome. 
 Homer is, in a sense unique and apart, humanity integral and com¬ 
 plete ; no other poetry is so rejuvenating and redintegrating. 
 
 Hesiod. —Boiotian poet of the 8th century b.c. Extant are Works * 
 and Days, giving practical advice in husbandry, and Theogony, a 
 genesis of the world and genealogy of the gods. 
 
 Sappho. —Poetess, 7th century b.c. “The tenth Muse”, “ burn¬ 
 ing Sappho”. Only two short poems have survived “Christian” 
 destruction. “Her every word complete and inexpressibly winning.” 
 
 Pindar.—522-442 b.c., of Boiotia. Great lyric poet. His varied 
 measures disport over a wide range, but his Hymns to the Victors in 
 the great games alone survive in full. He seems to have been a i 
 master of the grand style. To try to rival Pindar, says Horace, is to 
 fly with waxen wings ; he sweeps like a torrent swollen with rains 
 down the mountain’s side. When Alexander the Great destroyed 
 Thebes, he yet spared Pindar’s house. 
 
 Aischylos (525-456 b.c.). —The Persians got a taste of his mettle at 
 Marathon. Fought also at Artemision, Salamis, and Plataia. Pro¬ 
 duced some seventy-eight plays of a high and earnest tone, whereof 
 seven remain. 
 
 Sophokles (495-406 b.c.). —At the age of twenty-seven won the 
 tragic prize over Aischylos. Seven of his tragedies extant. His 
 Oedipus King , Prof. Jebb characterises as “in one sense the master¬ 
 piece of Attic tragedy 
 
 Euripides (480-406 b.c.). —According to Aristotle, “the most 
 tragic of all the poets.” Nineteen of his plays extant. Many of the 
 miserable enslaved Athenians that survived the tragedy of Syracuse 
 won, it is said, the pity of their masters by reciting from memory 
 passages of Euripides. 
 
 Themistdkles (about 514-449 b.c.). —Leader of the Athenians 
 against Persia. To his courage and resourcefulness is due the 
 magnificent victory of Salamis and the naval supremacy of Athens; 
 he is therefore a distinguished factor in the history of the world. 
 
 Like our “ Hal ” or C. J. Fox, he was a wild colt in youth, and to 
 the end a somewhat questionable character. 
 
 Aristeides (died about 468 b.c.). —One of the ten generals at the 
 battle of Marathon, he induced the others to yield the undivided 
 command to Miltiades. In his zeal of the public service supported 
 his opponent Themistokles by both action and counsel. Tax- 
 assessor of the Greek States, he not only resisted enriching himself, 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 33 
 
 but laid down office poorer than when he took it up. Universally 
 accorded tne title of “ The Just 
 
 Heroddtos (484-400 B.c.).—“ The Father of History”, on whom the 
 world has since depended for its knowledge of the early East and of 
 the whole civilised world of his time. His style is that of a lively 
 narrator, characterised by simplicity and natural grace. 
 
 Perlkles (about 495-429 b.c.). —To know how much history can be 
 packed into the life of one man, or how much one man can be to 
 men, read Perikles. He raised Athens to an imperial State and to 
 be the School of Hellas and the world for all time, and counted his 
 magnificent public service as but a holiday tasE A man great in 
 action, in statemanship, in personal presence and influence, and well 
 abreast of the best culture of the time. Leader of the people, he 
 was not led by tham, but without stooping addressed them from a 
 height, not fearing to oppose and even rebuke them. His oratory, 
 like Chatham’s, matched the strongest forces; when he spoke it 
 thundered and lightened. Gathered about him in his home all the 
 eminent men of his time. 
 
 Thoukydides (471-402 b.c.). —One of the greatest historians. 
 Earnest, thoughtful, impartial. Wrote the history of the Pelopon¬ 
 nesian war, in which he bore a part. 
 
 Aristophanes (444-380 b.c.). —Great comic poet. Self-licensed 
 censor of his age, he rained his unrestrained pungent satire on the 
 foremost figures of the new-fangled time. Eleven of his comedies 
 are extant. 
 
 Epameinondas (about 418-362 b.c.).— A Boiotian, though the 
 Boiotians were laughed at as a dull folk by the*\)ther Greek States. 
 Raised Thebes from the thraldrom of Sparta to the leadership of 
 Greece; a man, moreover, of noble behaviour in all relations. 
 When his friend and fellow-citizen, Pelopidas, could not persuade 
 Epameinondas to share his wealth, the former gave up his wealth to 
 share Epameinondas’ poverty and live happy in plain clothes on 
 slender fare and hard work. Won the great victory of Leuktra, 
 371 b.c., but fell mortally wounded at Mantineia, 362 B.c., in the full 
 career of victory. 
 
 Socrates (468-399 b.c.).— His homely, thick-set figure, broad face, 
 pug-nose, and thick lips gained him the nick-name of Satyr. Of an 
 imperturbable and even aggressive bonhomie, there was yet latent 
 in him a fund of choler well under control. At first followed his 
 father’s trade, that of a statuary, but the last quarter of a century at 
 least of his life was given up to the office of public conversation. Of 
 a hardy habit, Socrates went barefoot and in the same shabby dress all 
 
 3 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 34 
 
 seasons of the year, and living on the coarsest fare needed less money 
 than any other man. A formidable soldier, he served with credit 
 at Potidaia, at Delion, and at Amphipolis. Nor, in the interests of 
 justice, was he afraid to oppose the tyranny either of the people or 
 of express tyrants. Held fast to his mission of convincing the world, 
 more particularly its popular leaders, of the ignorance on which all 
 their “ knowledge” rested. Unmasked popular prejudices, election 
 by ignorant votes for one thing. Would on no account serve the 
 wishes of the people, but only their true betterment. Taught with¬ 
 out pay. Publicly accused and asked why sentence of death should 
 not be pronounced against him, he pleasantly claimed the highest 
 honour of the State. Might easily have escaped execution. In the 
 easiest and gentlest manner, without the least fear or change of 
 colour or feature, Socrates cheerfully drank off the poison. 
 
 Plato (427-347 b.c.). —Philosopher, whose thought has long mightily 
 influenced, and still greatly influences, the conscience and reason of 
 men. Almost adored by the best men as the “ divine Plato ”. His 
 literature distinguished by its catholicity of thought and finish of 
 style. Pupil of Socrates. The last ten years of his master’s life, 
 travelled far and wide, gathering in store of ideas. On his return to 
 Athens taught at the Academy a band of disciples, mainly in the 
 way of his master Socrates, by conversation. His beautiful writings, 
 all in the form of dialogue, have come down to us complete. 
 
 Aristoteles (384-322 b.c.) .—A masterly encyclopaedic mind, disposing 
 easily of the whole intellectual stock of the world and adding to it; like 
 Bacon, “taking all knowledge for his province”. To Aristoteles the 
 schools owe in large part the still current distinctions, definitions, and 
 formulas, in accordance with which the subjects of thought are dis¬ 
 criminated. “ Subject” itself, e.g., is the Latin rendering of Aristo¬ 
 teles’ To Hypofceimenon; “matter” of his hyle ; “principle” of his 
 archer “faculty” of his dynamis , etc., and down to comparatively 
 recent times Aristoteles’s passed for the last authoritative word on all 
 scholastic questions. His Rhetoric is still an excellent book for 
 pleader or speaker. If Plato know man, Aristoteles knows men. If 
 Plato be synthesis, Aristoteles is analysis. Born at Stageira. Re¬ 
 moved in his eighteenth year to Athens, where he became the “ intel¬ 
 lect of the Academy ” of Plato. At fifty opened his Lykeion (Lyceum), 
 where he taught his scholars, the Peripatetics. Dominated the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 Demosthenes (382-322 b.c.). —Bears the palm over all the world for 
 oratory. Of a delicate make. His maiden powers of speech were 
 tried on his trustees, who had smuggled most of his patrimony into 
 their own pockets ; and it took no little oratory to make a part dance 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 35 
 
 back into bis. Greece was like to be swallowed up of Macedonia, and 
 Demosthenes set bis thundering tongue against Philip’s sharp sword. 
 Steel conquered in the end, almost to the astonishment of Philip 
 himself. Demosthenes’ eloquence is as restrained and pure as it is 
 magnificent. 
 
 Alexander (356-323 b.c.). —Conqueror of the world. The first to 
 bring Asia under dominion of Europe, and to open India to the West. 
 Born on the day his father’s horse won the Olympic prize. A mere 
 stripling, he rode the fiery Boukephalos, which no groom dared speak 
 to. Was brought up on the Iliad, which through the rest of his life he 
 carried about with him everywhere as his cherished Bible. Had 
 Aristotle for his most eminent tutor. Settled in succession Greece, 
 Thrace, Thebes, and Persia. No mere vulgar warrior. All the land 
 conquered in Asia he inoculated with the Greek learning, and in his 
 conquests consulted the interests of geography, science, and com- 
 merce. A great landmark in history. His figure imprinted itself into 
 the imagination of all mankind, and he names the Alexandrine verse. 
 
 Phoklon (402-317 b.c.). —Elected Strategos or general, i.e. head, 6f 
 the Athenian State forty-five times, and without so much as once 
 himself appearing at the election—an unequalled record of duration 
 ' of occupancy of highest office. He did not court popularity, nor 
 say pleasant things to or about the people. Like Socrates, he went 
 always barefoot and without upper garment. He would draw water 
 for himself, and, if while carrying the water he met a foreign am¬ 
 bassador, he was not the least put out. He recognised the power of 
 Macedonia to be greater than Greece, and so took a side in politics 
 opposite to that of Demosthenes. 
 
 Plutarch (about 50-120 a.d.). —A universal favourite. He is not 
 ' only in everybody’s library but has written himself into the memory 
 of mankind (non solum fuit in manibus hominum, at etiam human! 
 generis memoriam occupavit). Born at Chaironeia, but not an ex¬ 
 ample of Boiotian stupidity. A great reader in his youth ; natively 
 related to all sorts of men. Lived in Italy for nearly forty years, 
 f teaching the Greek language and philosophy. Retired at the decline 
 of life to Chaironeia, where he penned his fifty Lives , fourteen lost. 
 Never became proficient in Latin. Author also of Morals. His Lives 
 supplied material to Shakspeare, whose signature appears on an 
 extant English copy. Lives Englished 1579 ; Morals, 1603. 
 
 Euclid (about 300 b.c.). —Taught mathematics at Alexandria. 
 Digested the determinations of his predecessors into the works bear¬ 
 ing his name. 
 
 Archimedes (287-212 b.c.). —Mathematical genius. Found out 
 (“Eureka”) how a body immersed in a fluid displaces a volume 
 
 i 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 36 
 
 equal to its own bulk. Invented compound pulley, endless screw, 
 Archimedean screw. Constructed a theory of the floating of bodies, 
 whereto, says Lagrange, little has since been added. 
 
 Jewish 
 
 Moses (about 14th century b.c.). —Educated in the Egyptian court. 
 Headed the revolt of the Jews against Egyptian oppression, and led 
 them to Canaan, there to conquer a settlement. Founder of the 
 “ Mosaic Law”, and teacher of a monotheistic cult. The first to 
 compile into a book the Hebrew traditions, the book of Genesis , with 
 its unique flavour of the fore-world ; the shepherd who first taught 
 the chosen seed how heaven and earth rose out of chaos. 
 
 David (11th century b.c.). —Of short stature, ruddy countenance, 
 swift-footed, strong and active. Herding his father’s sheep in the 
 desert of Judah, and in early manhood chased by Saul as a partridge 
 among the mountains, David grew up into a man of extraordinary 
 vitality, not over well disciplined, religious, poetic, warlike, amatory. 
 He was fond of music, and skilled in playing the harp. The Psalms 
 of the Old Testament bear his name, though many are of other origin. 
 The pastoral idyll, the twenty-third Psalm, is undoubtedly his. The 
 prevalent tone of the Psalms is one of splendid vitality, spiritual and 
 physical. u Bless the Lord, O my soul; and, all that is within me, 
 bless His holy Name”. 
 
 Isaiah (7th or 8th century b.c.). —Greatest of the Hebrew prophets. 
 “ Not the ritualism of the law, but purity of heart and life. Your 
 sacrifices, your Sabbaths, your calling of assemblies . . . they are 
 iniquity”. Scornful in his sarcasm against idols. “With part of a 
 tree a man will kindle himself a fire to roast meat, and the rest he 
 maketh a god ”. There is a magnificence of imagery in Isaiah, such 
 as delighted Pope and Byron. 
 
 Paul (died about 66 a.d.). —The great apostle of Christianity, which 
 he interpreted as universal religion, the only consummation at once 
 of Jewish and of Gentile history. Born at Tarsus in Kilikia, a city 
 important politically, commercially, and as a seat of Greek learning. 
 Enjoyed the Roman franchise. As Hellenist, spoke and wrote 
 Greek, and able to quote from the Greek poets. Yet brought up a 
 Hebrew of the Hebrews, and trained in the school of Gamaliel at 
 Jerusalem. At first bitterly opposed to the new sect called Chris¬ 
 tians. While on a persecuting mission to Damascus, it struck him, 
 in a blinding flash of revelation, how this Jesus of Nazareth was in 
 very truth the fulfilment of the law and the prophets, at once con¬ 
 summation of the spiritual tendencies of Judaism and satisfaction of 
 the aspirations of the weary Roman world. Cleared away the local 
 
 rj 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 37 
 
 and temporary elements of Judaism, and raised Christ out of sectarian 
 limitations into the universal Christ. From some 120 Christians 
 before Paul entered on his mission, Christianity before his martyrdom 
 counted many churches in Asia and Europe, and disciples in Caesar’s 
 household itself. 
 
 Augustine, Luther, Calvin, the strong men of the Christian church, 
 hold directly of Christianity as formulated by Paul. 
 
 Phcenician 
 
 Hannibal (217-183 b.c.). —One of the greatest generals that ever 
 lived. Only nine years old, he swore eternal enmity to Rome, and 
 accompanied his father Hamilcar to Spain to shape it into a Cartha¬ 
 ginian Empire. 218, did the famous passage of the Pyrenees and Alps 
 into Italy. Beat the Romans at Ticinus, at Trebia, at Trasymenus, 
 and still again (very thoroughly) at Cannae. Then the tide turned. 
 At last, hopelessly beaten at Zama, he ended his life 183. .Com¬ 
 manders, from Scipio to Napoleon, all do homage to the genius of 
 Hannibal. 
 
 Roman 
 
 P. C. Scipio (about 234-183 b.c.).— In the course of four years 
 | completely cleared Spain of the Carthaginians. And through all 
 ; displayed such humanity as begot in the Spaniards a strong desire to 
 | have him for their king. The darling of Rome, he was consul at 
 1 the age of twenty-eight. Finally wrecked Hannibal at Zama, 202. 
 
 | Obtained a triumph and the surname Africanus. 
 
 Cato, M.P., the Censor (about 234-149 b.c.).— Soldier at seventeen. 
 Qumstor in Africa under Scipio, whose prodigal ways provoked Cato’s 
 virtuous rebuke. Thrifty husbandman, he tilled his own acres. 
 Censor 184. A born censor, of severe look and caustic words. 
 Dressed coarsely, ate plainly, and set the degenerate world the pattern 
 of pristine perfection. 
 
 Pompey (106-48 b.c.). —Fought at seventeen under his father. His 
 successes in Sicily and Africa won him the title of “ The Great ” and 
 a triumph. In 67 B.c. swept the Pirates out of the Mediterranean. 
 Defeated Mitliridates, and made Pontus a Roman province. One 
 of the Triumvirate. Crassus dying, the question of “ Pompey or 
 Caesar” was decided at Pharsalia, 43 B.c., against Pompey. 
 
 Caesar (100-44 b.c.). —“The foremost man of all this world”. 
 Raised, 59 B.c., to the government of Gaul, Caesar in ten years re¬ 
 duced Gaul,from Pyrenees to Rhine and the now “ British Channel”, 
 into a grateful Roman province, destined to be the heir of Roman 
 civilisation. 55 and 54, made runs across to Britain. Crossed the 
 Rubicon, and settled Pompey at Pharsalia, 48. Restored Egypt to 
 
38 HISTORICAL 
 
 Cleopatra, alone able to subdue Caesar. 44, Dictator and assassi¬ 
 nated. 
 
 Cicero (106-43 b.c.). —Orator. Educated in Greek and in law. 
 Soon a distinguished pleader, first especially in his prosecution of 
 Verres. Consul, 63. Sided with Pompey against Caesar till Pharsalia 
 changed his view. His attacks on Antony provoked his own death. 
 Copious, persuasive, and conspicuously moral eloquence. 
 
 Lucretius (99-55 b.c.). —Author of De Rerum Natura, a poem of 
 7,400 lines. “All things proceed as they ;must, according to the 
 eternal nature of their elemental particles ”. 
 
 Virgil (70-19 b.c.). —Received the best education of the day at 
 Cremona, Milan, and Rome. Greek culture. Lived wholly for litera¬ 
 ture under benignant patronage of Augustus. His works the greatest 
 monument of the solidity, conscientiousness, and dignity of the 
 Roman humanity. The fulness of Rome, the completion and majesty 
 of Latinity. Honoured in his lifetime as national poet, dearly be¬ 
 loved by Horace, reverenced as “Master” by Dante; in the Middle 
 Ages, and still among the Latin races, the “greatest of poets ”. 
 
 Horace (65^8 b.c.). —Courtier-poet, with a very perfect sense of the 
 (conventional) world. Fitted to adorn society and relieve its ennui. 
 Nor without manlier sense—were not court favour and the good 
 things of this life so attractive. Carjpe diem —the present moment 
 is our own. 
 
 Livy (59 B.C.-17 a.d.). Wrote the history of Rome in 142 books, 
 of which thirty-five extant. Flowing and majestic style. 
 
 Pliny the Elder (23-79 a.d.).— Author of Naturalis Historia— 
 Encyclopaedia, as he calls it, of the natural science of his time, a work 
 clearly recognising the unity of Nature, and so of all the sciences. 
 “ Speculation about things supersensual is but beating the air ”. 
 
 Juvenal (end of 1st century a.d.). — Great Satirist. Inveighs 
 fiercely, though coarsely, against the luxury, corruption, and merce¬ 
 nariness of the time. 
 
 Tacitus (about 56-120 a.d.) —Wrote History of Rome, Annuls, Life 
 of Agricola, and Manners of the Germans. Sadly sensible of Roman 
 corruption, in contrast whereto he draws his touching picture of 
 Germanic manliness. His style the standard of brevity. 
 
 Antoninus Pius (86-161 a.d.). —Fifteenth Emperor of Rome. His 
 reign of twenty-two years one of good government, peace, and general 
 well-being. A man of excellent character, private and public. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius (121-180 a.d.). —Succeeded Antoninus Pius, who 
 had adopted him. Of a disposition at onoo most amiable and 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 39 
 
 stoical. Gentle as a Christian—not in name, but in deed. His 
 heart was all in his study and shrank from war. Yet at the call ot 
 duty and despite enfeebled health he spent his last thirteen years 
 warring with the Northern barbarians. His Meditations, penned in 
 camp ainid the toils and perils of war, is one of the prized books of the 
 world. 
 
 Arabian 
 
 Mahomet (570-632 a.d.).— Prophet. Born at Mecca. Married at 
 twenty-five Kliadija, a rich and noble woman of Mecca, fifteen 
 years his senior. At forty, announced his revelation. First convert 
 his wife, then others of his family. In three years, forty believers. 
 Hejira, 13th September, 622. Re-entered Mecca, 630, at head of 
 army. His book The Koran. 
 
 MODERN 
 
 Continental 
 
 St. Augustine (354-430 a.d.).— Formulated the Roman Catholic 
 Church. Masterly and incisive of intellect, undaunted and affection¬ 
 ate of heart. To the pure intellect of Plato, too, he responded with 
 unquenchable ardour. Settled, also with the help of physical 
 argument and even of fire, the heretic Manichseans and Pelagians 
 (that would deny the transmission of Adam’s sin !), etci Not yet 
 eighteen, he was father of a bastard. . Author of Confessions , City of 
 God. His thought continued in Calvin. 
 
 Gregory, the Great (about 550-604 a.d.). —Pope, 590. Sent 
 Augustine as Christian missionary to England. Author of Pastoral, 
 translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred. Truly a humane man. 
 
 Charlemagne (742-814 a.d.).— Sole Sovereign of the Franks, 771. 
 After long war, 772-804, reduced to his rule the heathen Saxons 
 between Rhine and Elbe. King of Lombardy, 774. Annexed Spain 
 south of Ebro, 812. Emperor of the Romans, 800. Heroic man, ot 
 great stature and noble presence. German (Charlemagne is frenchi- 
 fication of name) ; he spoke Latin and read Greek. Studied astro¬ 
 nomy, music, and physics. 
 
 Dante (1265-1321).—Florentine. At nine, smitten by Beatrice. 
 Early wrote poetry, and absorbed all the science of his time. At 
 twenty-four fought at Campaldino. Married, 1290, Gemma Donati. 
 Banished Tuscany, 1302, on pain of being burnt alive if he returned. 
 A wanderer his last twenty years. Supreme poet “ who had seen 
 Hell”, whose certainty of hell was his own absolute conviction, the 
 hell of indignation burning in the heart of him ; sceva indignatio. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 40 
 
 Joan of Arc (1402-1431 ).—“ The Maid of Orleans ”. To free 9 
 poor down-trodden France, left the care of the cattle, and at head of an 
 army raised the siege of Orleans. So turned the tide of war. At ;; v 
 last sold to the English, she met undaunted the fate of being burnt 
 as a witch. 
 
 Thomas-a-Kempis (1380-1471).—Born at Kempis, near Diissel- 
 dorf. Author of Imitation of Christy the purest expression of 
 mediaeval Christianity. Over two thousand editions and translations. 
 
 “ More than seven years I have each morning read a chapter of I 
 a-Kempis ” (Comte). 
 
 Petrarch (1304-1374).—Distinguished poet of the Renaissance. 
 Florentine. Crowned with laurel, 1341. 
 
 Boccaccio (1313-1375). — Florentine. In life-long friendship | 
 with Petrarch. Wrote Decameron , much of which is imported by j 
 
 Chaucer, De Genealogia Deorum, and Life of Dante. A Boccaccio of 
 1471 fetched at a sale in 1812, £2,260. 
 
 Froissart (1337-1410). — Born at Valenciennes, 1337. Be¬ 
 friended by Queen of Edward III. of England. Travelled all over 
 Western Europe. Personally known to Chaucer. Wrote the 
 Chivalrous deeds of arms between England and France. 
 
 Columbus (1436-1506).—Gave to the Earth her western half. 
 Religious, heroic, imaginative man. Born at Genoa. “ At a very 
 tender age I took to navigation ”. Sailed the seas as far as Iceland. 
 The Earth a sphere, he resolved on reaching India by the West. 
 After eight years’ weary solicitation, found a patron in Ferdinand 
 and Isabella. Set sail from Palos, August 3, 1492, 120 adventurers 
 all told. After endless anxieties, reached the Bahamas October 12. 
 Bringing home a New World (yet himself ignorant of the fact), he 
 re-entered Palos, March 15, 1493. Columbus made three more 
 such voyages. Donor of half the Earth, he died in poverty; and now 
 the happy possessors—feast to his memory ! 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).—Born near Florence. A uni¬ 
 versal genius, the earliest great master of the modern manner in Art. 
 His Treatise on Painting has been translated into all European 
 languages. 
 
 Erasmus (1467-1536).—Accomplished scholar of the Reformation, 
 yet had no mind to formally break with Roman Catholicism. Bom 
 at Rotterdam. Professor of Divinity at Cambridge, and friend of 
 More, Colet, etc. Published, at Basle, first edition of New Testament 
 in Greek, 1516. Praise of Folly wittily handles the abuses of the 
 Church. “We hear cries of Gospel everywhere ; we should like to 
 see a little Gospel morality”. 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 n'lBBy-" - - 
 
HEROES. OF HISTORY 41 
 
 Ariosto (1474-1533).—Eminent poet of the Renaissance. Born in 
 Ferrara. Wrote Orlando and Satires. 
 
 Copernicus (1473-1543).—Published, though yet only as a con¬ 
 jecture, his new Astronomy, with sun, not earth, for centre. Born 
 'in Thorn, a Polish town. Taught mathematics at Bologna and 
 Rome. 
 
 Raphael (1483-1520).—Happiest genius, consummate painter, 
 hitherto only admirable to criticism. Born at Urbino. Fifty-two 
 frescoes of the Bible, cartoons, etc., etc. ; in all some 120 Madonnas, 
 
 80 portraits, 200 other easel pictures, 600 studies and drawings, 100 
 mural compositions, besides works of sculpture and designs. All 
 within a life of thirty-seven years ! 
 
 Luther (1483-1546).—Head of religious Reformation. Born at j 
 Eisleben. Monk at Erfurt, 1505, Priest, 1507- Professor of j 
 Philosophy at Wittenberg, 1508. Nailed his 95 Theses to the church 
 door, 1517. Burnt Pope’s bull, 1520. Made his defence at Worms 
 before Charles V., 1521. “ Be as many devils in Worms as tiles on 
 
 the houses, I will go ”. Married, 1525, the emancipated nun, Katha- 
 rina von Bora. Man of robust humanity. Translated the Bible into 
 doughty German. His Talle-Talk racy and idiomatic. 
 
 Rabelais (1483-1553).—Born in Touraine. Monk at nine. B. M. 
 of Montpelier, 1530. Wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel , a satire 
 of full and unrestrained mirth, grotesque, riotous, pungent, on the 
 papacy and the follies of the time. 
 
 Michael Angelo (1475-1564).—Eminent sculptor, architect, painter, 
 poet, man. Born near Arezzo. Executed a great deal of the 
 noblest art—Sistine Chapel, Dome of St. Peter’s, Last Judgment, 
 etc. Wrote also noble poetry. A bachelor. His love for Vittoria 
 Colonna, beautiful and sacred. And withal lived eighty-nine. Person, 
 manner, relations, works, all alike betoken unequivocally a great and 
 earnest humanity. “No man can think of Michael Angelo and be 
 cynic ”. 
 
 Titian (1477-1576).—Head of Venetian school of painting. Passed 
 his whole life in Venice, and in the society of eminent men. And 
 lived a century but one year. A master of colour and portrait 
 painting. 
 
 Calvin (1509-1564).—Distinguished theologian of the Reformation. 
 Spiritual successor of Augustine. Born at Noyon. Law student at 
 Orleans, where he first knew the Scriptures. 1536 published his Chris- 
 tiance Religionis Institutio. At Geneva set up, 1541, a stringent 
 theocracy under which Servetus was, 1553, burnt for a heretic. “ Men 
 are not equal to one another, but the difference between man and 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 42 
 
 man is deep as liell and wide as eternity. Every man is on the way 
 either to blessedness everlasting or to perdition everlasting. Straight 
 the gate and narrow the way that leadeth to life. Nothing comes 
 of chance, but all and everything is only of absolute predestination. 
 All is as God wills.” 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1571).—Florentine. Sculptor and gold¬ 
 smith. Master worker in all metals. Worked, not as a mercenary, 
 but as a free man, with heart and art and intellect. An aggressive 
 personality. His autobiography in its every sentence smacks of the 
 man, vernacular and characteristic. 
 
 Camoens (1524-1579).—Poet of Portugal. His Lusidas published 
 when he was forty-eight. Died in poverty. 
 
 Tintoretto (1518-1594).—Italian painter. Among his many works 
 are— Crucifixion, Miraculo dello Schiavo, Marriage at Cana, etc. 
 
 Montaigne (1533-1592).—A very honest sceptic, sworn not to say 
 he was sure of that of which he was not sure. Que scais-je P His 
 Essays, translated into all languages, are part of the stock of every 
 library, public and private, the pure transcript of his own experience, 
 not words but things; a book the reader unmisgivingly trusts. An 
 extant English copy bears Shakspeare’s signature. 
 
 Torquato Tasso (1544-1595).—Italian Epic poet, of literary, not 
 Homeric, style. A morbidly sensitive nature, anxiously polishing 
 his stanza. His work the perfection of literary finish. Greatest 
 poem, Gerusalemme Liberata. 
 
 Tycho Brahe (1546-1601).—Astronomer. Born in Denmark. 
 Studied the stars for twenty years from Uranienborg Observatory 
 erected by the king. Prepared the way for Kepler. 
 
 Cervantes (1547-1616). — Author of the pathetic-comical Don 
 Quixote , translated into all languages. Distinguished himself in the 
 sea-fight of Lepanto, 1571. Quitted the Navy for literature, 1584. 
 Excellent man and wise writer, died in poverty 23rd April—ten days 
 before Shakspeare’s final 23rd. 
 
 Galileo (1564-1642).—Eminent in natural science. Born in Pisa 
 three days before Michael Angelo’s death; died in the year of 
 Newton’s birth ; in personal touch with Milton. Mathematical 
 professor at Padua, 1592. From early years he was bent on the 
 accurate measurement of the natural forces. Self-assured how the 
 infinite universe was all of the same stuff. Resolved the Milky Way 
 into so many stars. 22nd June, 1633, forced to abjure his Copernican 
 astronomy. 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 43 
 
 Kepler, John (1571-1630).—Eminent astronomer. Born in Wlir- 
 temberg. Enthusiastic Copernican, he set himself the task of 
 rationalising the movements of the members of the Solar system. 
 Two years Tycho Brahe’s assistant. 
 
 Kepler’s three laws:—(1) Radius vector traces out on plane of 
 orbit equal areas in equal times; (2) Elliptic orbit of planets, the 
 sun one of the foci; (3) squares of periodic times proportional to 
 cubes of mean distances. It would, says Coleridge, take two or 
 three Galileos and one Newton to make one Kepler. 
 
 William of Orange (1553-1584).—Leader of the Netherlands in 
 their revolt from Spain and organisation into a Republic. Brought 
 up under Charles V., whose trusted counsellor he became. Elo¬ 
 quently conversible, yet so discreet of tongue as to be entitled “ The 
 Silent”. Wise and temperate statesman, above partisanship and 
 sectarianism; of patient, steadfast, heroic will. Assassinated by 
 instigation of Philip II. 
 
 Rubens (1577-1640).—Flemish painter, distinguished as subject, 
 portrait, animal, and landscape painter. His productions number 
 from 2,000 to 3,000, gay of colour, animated with the exuberant 
 vivacity of their author, excelling in sense of colour. Reynolds 
 appraises Rubens as “ perhaps the greatest master in the mechanical 
 part of the art Married (second time) at fifty-three a beautiful girl 
 of sixteen, whose portrait it was a pleasure for him to reproduce. 
 
 Descartes (1596-1650).—Influential philosopher. Born in Touraine. 
 Early took to mathematics. At battle of Prague, 1620. Settled at 
 Amsterdam, 1629. To Descartes existence and its proof was thought. 
 Cogito ergo sum, thought is existence. Thing is thought ; res= 
 logos, thought or word. Just as the sense of the perfect whereto 
 alone is anything and everything referable, implies the fact, i.e. God. 
 Thought out brilliant mathematical formulas. 
 
 Corneille (1606-1684)).—Founder of French classical drama. Born 
 at Rouen. Trained for the Bar. 1629, removed to Paris, where his 
 comedy Melite had a distinguished run. Produced in all some thirty- 
 three dramas. Supreme dramatist in the stately, conventional, 
 French sense. The rigid <£ rules ” trammel but cannot invalidate the 
 writer’s genius. In Corneille is no base thought. 
 
 Pascal (1623-1662).—Born in Auvergne. Still a boy, he took spon¬ 
 taneously to mathematics. At sixteen wrote a treatise on Conic 
 Sections, and at nineteen invented Calculating Machine. Made bril¬ 
 liant experiments in physics. From 1654 austere pietist. Nowhere 
 does French display its accomplishments more happily than in his 
 anti-Jesuitical Letters ; argument all conclusive as a demonstration 
 of Euclid, deft, flexible, and clear, set forth with gaiety of temper, 
 
| 44 HISTORICAL 
 
 | lightness of touch, raillery impalpable and penetrating as mush, if, 
 
 | perhaps, not so grateful to Jesuit nostrils. To the Letters Voltaire 
 refers the era of the fixation of French. 
 
 Moliere (1622-16/3).—Comic dramatist. Parisian. Theatrical actor, 
 manager, and author. Within fourteen years produced thirty plays, 
 still extant. To his quick eye for the incongruous, all the world was 
 a comedy; and his comedies, produced with such ease and in quick 
 ' succession, were only a sample. Yet is comedy hound up with 
 i tragedy ; and, if Moliere genially laughed at all the world, he had in 
 I turn to stand being malignantly laughed at by many who resented 
 i his mockery, and would fain turn the laugh against Moliere, and all 
 | the more that they had not the tithe of his laughing talent. His 
 ! private life, too, entangled with actresses, was far from being all 
 | comedy. Much the other way, it was embittered with tragic tears, 
 j To steal the honeyed rose of life without the thorn, beat also 
 j Moliere’s cunniug, however much he had a mind to try it. 
 
 Spinoza (1632-1677).—Philosopher. Amsterdam Jew. Rejected by 
 the beautiful van den Ende, he found richest consolation in philo¬ 
 sophy. Refused professorship and Louis XIV.’s offer of a pension. 
 His affection was turned all away from illusion to the eternal 
 substance. From that inviolate Refuge he tranquilly contemplated 
 the processes of life, its pleasures and pains. How grateful to Goethe 
 to fly life’s fever and breathe the inviolable calm of Spinoza! 
 
 Leibnitz (1646-1716).—Philosopher, grappling, like another Aris- 
 toteles, with all the problems of his time. Born at Leipzig. In 
 Paris made the personal acquaintance of Arnauld, Malebranche, and 
 Huygliens ; in London of Newton, Boyle, etc. Invented Differential 
 Calculus. 1676-1716, librarian to Duke of Hanover. Taught also 
 howxhe actual must be the best of all possible worlds. 
 
 Montesquieu (1689-1755).—Author of Spirit of Laws . Born near 
 Bordeaux. 
 
 Peter the Great (1672-1725).—Czar of Russia, who imparted a 
 new and Western impulse to his semi-Asiatic empire. Sole sove¬ 
 reign, 1689. Re-organised army and created a navy, wresting: the 
 Baltic provinces from Sweden. In Holland and England 1697-8, 
 working for some time as a common shipwright. Founded Schools 
 of navigation and mathematics; also, 1703, St. Petersburg. 1707 
 married his mistress Catherine, living personally as a heathen. 
 
 Voltaire (1694-1778).—Supreme French litterateur. “What the 
 18th century thought was Voltaire ”. Inspired by unqualified indig¬ 
 nation against the ‘ Christian Church ’, whereon he poured the inces- 
 sint torrent of his destructive wit. Of exuberant literary activity— 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 % 
 
 : 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 45 
 
 producing poems, plays, histories, philosophical pieces. Born at Paris. 
 Twice thrown into the Bastille ; the second time after a horse-whip¬ 
 ping from Due de Bohan, smarting from a witty rebuke of Voltaire. 
 1726-9 in England, where he figured brilliantly, making the acquain¬ 
 tance of Pope, Bolingbroke, Newton, etc. Studied also Economics, 
 and made such stock investments as to yield him latterly some 
 £7,000 a year ( = £20,000 now). Next twenty years at Cirey with 
 “the divine Emilie”, the Marquise de Chatelet. 1750-53, feted by 
 Frederick II. at Berlin. 1755-78, in continuous literary activity at 
 Ferney. 
 
 Frederick II. (1712-1786).—“The Great.” “What the 18th cen- 
 ! tury did was Frederick”. Made a nation and a great State of Prussia. 
 
 I One of the greatest of generals. In three great wars: 1740-2, 
 
 j 1744-5,1756-62. In the last, “ the seven years’ war”, defended his 
 little sandy patch of Prussia, open on all sides, single-handed against 
 the rest of armed Europe ; the confederated powers of Austria, 
 France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony, and most other German States, 
 aided from England. Peace secured, he toiled with his unresting 
 activity for the prosperous development of his kingdom, now com¬ 
 prising Silesia; personally inspecting every branch of the public 
 service into its smallest details, and open to personal audience of 
 any of his subjects. Affectionately reverenced by his people as Vater 
 Fritz. Yet his literary tastes were all French, and, while he did 
 Voltaire all the honours in Berlin, pooh-poohed the ridiculous pre¬ 
 tentions of Lessing and Goethe. 
 
 Swedenborg (1688-1772).—Man of commanding intellect. Born 
 at Stockholm. Visited England, Holland, France, and Germany. 
 Accomplished engineering feats, and disposed, Aristotelian-wise, of 
 problems in physics, physiology, and philosophy. From 1743, in 
 mystic communion with the invisible world. “ All nature is a depen¬ 
 dency, a condition of man, of human thought ”. 
 
 D’Alembert (1717-1783).—Distinguished mathematician. Co-oper¬ 
 ated with Diderot on Encyclopedic. As a man of clean and upright 
 walk* will well bear comparison with his fellow-savants. 
 
 Diderot (1713-1784).—Editor-in-chief of Encyclopedic. Author of 
 Neveu, de Rameau (translated by Goethe), 1 Pensees, The Blind, Deaf. 
 etc., etc. Wielded an astonishingly versatile pen, with a dash of 
 audacious humour in it. 
 
 Buffon (1707-1788).—Naturalist. Born in Burgundy. 1749-88 
 
 appeared his Histoire Naturelle in thirty-six volumes, a work of 
 1 Has just been translated into English. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 46 
 
 genial science, heartily adopted into most European languages. 1739, 
 director of Jardin du Roi. 
 
 Linnseus (1707-1778). Classic classifier of natural history. A 
 Swede. Visited Holland, England, and Paris. His Systerna Naturce 
 first published, 1735, and in successive editions till 1770; the first 
 leading thread through the maze of nature ; basis for every later more 
 digested plan. 
 
 Rousseau, J.-J. (1712-1778).—Genevese. Ran away when sixteen 
 from his apprenticeship as engraver. Taken up, as “ pauvre petit 5 * and 
 more, by Madame de Warens. After strange ventures became a musi¬ 
 cal composer and litterateur in France. Thin-skinned. From the 
 disease of civilisation he sought refuge in uncultivated nature. How 
 much wholesomer is nature unsophisticate than sophisticate civilisa¬ 
 tion and culture ! To rove alone the untilled earth was bliss to 
 Rousseau ; then only was he himself. Penniless, supperless, without 
 prospect of breakfast, he laid him down at nightfall on the bare earth 
 (outskirts of Lyons) to wake up in delight late next morning—to a 
 bountiful breakfast provided by Providence ! His Nouvelle Heloise set 
 all female France a-sighing, also after the greying and too combustible 
 author. He tells the story of his vagabond life, as no one else has 
 ever done before or since, in his Confessions, one of the books of 
 destiny. 
 
 Laplace (1749-1827).—Mathematician and astronomer. His “ three 
 laws” solved the mechanical problem of the solar system. His tidal 
 theory is estimated by Airy as one of the most splendid achievements 
 in mathematics. Among other works, Mecanique Celeste, Systeme 
 du Monde (including Nebular Hypothesis), Mouvement et figure des 
 Planetes. 
 
 Lessing (1729-1781).—Stalwart deliverer of German literature from 
 the French yoke. Germaniser of Germany, that still lives on his im¬ 
 pulse. Very valiant man of letters, whose words have the ring of a 
 most doughty personality. His prose, German to the core, is far from 
 cumbrous, but, more serious and more laden with meaning than nor¬ 
 mal French, yet disports itself with a clearness, directness, nimble¬ 
 ness, and vivacity not surpassed by the happiest French. A universal 
 scholar. Forerunner of German classics. Laocoon, Minna v. Barn - 
 helm, Emilia Galotti, Nathan der Weise. 
 
 Mirabeau (1749-1791).—The most massive Frenchman of his time, 
 drawing all around him as his tributaries. Lived passionately and 
 at large, prodigal of himself. How much life he could live into 
 twenty-four hours! Several times imprisoned by his exasperated 
 father under lettres de cachet. At the gathering of the States- 
 General, mounted at once into the ruling figure. Controller of the 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 47 
 
 Revolution so long as he lived. The king ordering the Third Estate 
 to vote apart from the other two orders, Mirabeau there and then 
 undauntedly started, headed, and carried resistance. He could not 
 brook “ that beast of a word, impossibility And yet he died early, 
 to yield up the government to Robespierre. 
 
 Kant (1724-1804).—Founder of the Critical or Transcendental 
 Philosophy. Born at Ronigsberg, of Scotch ancestry. Professor 
 from 1770. His philosophy claims to achieve in the science of 
 thought a revolution tantamount to the Copernican in astronomy. 
 Time and space are modes of thought , precedent condition of all ex¬ 
 perience. The objective world is the externalisation of man’s mind ; 
 how is aught perceptible unless in relation to the perceiver? A 
 bachelor, barely five feet tall, “ a bundle of bones ”. 
 
 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang (1749-1832).—■“ Vous etes un liomme ” 
 was Napoleon’s response to his first sight of Goethe. The most Catho¬ 
 lic litterateur of his time. Absorbed and integrated all the thought 
 of his day, and reproduced it all in its most finished literary form. 
 Of “happy blood ”, he was affirmatively related to all sorts of men— 
 and women. From earliest years entered into intimate personal 
 relations with all people around him. All his contemporaries of 
 worthy distinction he made his own personally and then intellectu¬ 
 ally. He was the completest literary integration of his age. He 
 lived all lie wrote, and more. His works are almost each the literary 
 elaboration of a personal experience of his own. Born at Frankfort- 
 on-Main. Studied at Leipzig and Strasburg, with at least one 
 affair-of-the-heart at each. 1773, wrote Gotz von Berlichingen (which 
 awakened a response in a certain Edinburgh lawyer), and next year 
 Werther, inspiring suicidal longings in young men. 1775, settled at 
 Weimar, which he made a kind of literary Mecca. Here riotous ex¬ 
 periences at first. Wrote Egmont 1786, and Iphigenia 1787, while 
 in fits and starts Faust was already engrossing his thoughts. 
 Ten years’ love of Charlotte, wife of Oberstallmeister von Stein, 
 1776-86. Escape into Italy 1786-88; art and another Liebsclwft. 
 1791, back to Weimar and the direction of the Court Theatre. 
 Charlotte von Stein now declined; and Christiane Yulpius, a 
 plump Hebe, rose in the ascendant, though he did not formally 
 marry her till 1806. 1794 yielded Wilhelm Meister, and next year 
 
 delightful Hermann und Dorothea. First part of Faust complete 
 appeared 1808 ; Wahlvemvandtschaften, 1808-9 ; Wanderjahre, 1821, 
 etc., etc. “ Reward was never in our thoughts, all our prize was 
 merit”. 
 
 In Goethe the spiritual and the sensuous “kiss each other”. 
 Never knew, it is to be feared, any decisive “ conversion,” nor felt any 
 temptation to crucify the flesh, but lent unmisgiving ear to her 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 48 
 
 grateful behests—never broke with naive “ Sinnlichkeit ”. His 
 “Elegies” curiously correspond to Shakspeare’s “ Sonnets ” ; both 
 alike naked and alike unashamed in their nakedness. The only differ¬ 
 ence is that Goethe is h^ippy in his temperate love, but Shakspeare 
 full of forebodings in his demonic passion. 
 
 Schiller, J. C. F. von (1759-1805).—A noble but much more re¬ 
 stricted poet than his friend Goethe, he awakens more enthusiasm in 
 German youth than Goethe. Goaded by the storm and stress of the 
 time and his straitened lot, he made vent for himself in the Robbers 
 performed 1782. Long thereafter continued to feel the pinch of 
 poverty, till in 1788 the Duke of Weimar reached him a friendly 
 hand. 1790, married. Lived, thenceforch, wholly to his art. From 
 1794 in friendliest communication with Goethe. Wrote Glockenlied, 
 Wallenstein , Wilhelm Tell, Aesthetic Essays. 
 
 Hegel (1770-1831).—Idealistic philosopher. Born at Stuttgart. 
 1801-6, taught in Jena University ; highly appreciated by Goethe. 
 Professor of philosophy at Heidelberg 1816, and at Berlin 1818. 
 “The sensuous world was the manifestation of intelligence, and 
 existed only in relation to intelligence. History was all a unity and 
 the successive generations were consecutive, all causally related to 
 each other.” 
 
 Napoleon (1769-1821).—Dismembered the States of Europe and 
 frightened Use and Wont beyond full recovery. “ The tools to the 
 man. that can handle them”. Kings and possessors founding on 
 parchment and not on their personal qualifications are no longer so 
 bold as before. Born in Corsica. Distinguished at school in mathe¬ 
 matics, history, and geography, but not in “ornamental studies”. 
 1793, captured Toulon. 1796, married widow Josephine de Beau- 
 harnais, whom he loved. In command of the army of Italy he ac¬ 
 complished the peace of Campo Formio, 1797. First Consul, 1799. 
 Emperor, 1804. Divorcing Josephine, married, 1809, Maria Louisa of 
 Austria. Europe at Waterloo at last subdued its scourge, 1815. 
 
 Cuvier (1/69-1832).—Naturalist. Formulated the unity of every 
 organism, how each part is correlated with all the others, and how 
 any modification of one part involves commensurate modification of 
 all the others. His classification of organisms is based more emphatic¬ 
 ally on differences of essential structure and not of superficial appear¬ 
 ance. He further connected anatomy of extant structures with that 
 of extinct. Born at Montbeliard. 1803, Secretary of the Academy 
 of Sciences. 1832, Minister of the Interior. 
 
 Niebuhr (1776-1831).—Applied a more critical sense to the study 
 of history. His three volumes of Roman History give a more 
 enlightened interpretation. Born at Copenhagen. 1798-9, studied at 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 49 
 
 London and Edinburgh. Before the age of thirty versed in twenty 
 languages. 1810-12, lectured on Roman history. 1816-23, Prussian 
 Ambassador at Papal Court. 
 
 Sand, Georges (nom de 'plume ), (1804-1876).—Nee A. L. Aurore 
 Dupin. An exceedingly prolific writer. The story of her Bohemian 
 life, and the one hundred stories and more into which she re-spun that 
 irregular yet withal human life, held all Europe in lively attention in 
 her time. Of a wide and genial temperament, she brought to the 
 appreciation of all life “ the sentiment of the ideal life that consti¬ 
 tutes all the worth of the everyday actual ”. All life was interesting 
 to her, and with what charm has she invested the old provinces 
 of Central France! , 
 
 Victor Hugo (1802-1885).—Imperious revolutionary poet of France, 
 His Cromwell, 1827, emphatically announces his emancipation from 
 the yoke of the French pseudo-classical school. He was the first 
 great poet of France to respond with a whole voice to Shakspeare; 
 somewhat of the oceanic capacity he recognises in Aischvlos, Isaiah, 
 and Shakspeare was in him also. However theatrical his dramas 
 and romances, his verse is universally admired for its demonic 
 energy, its range of mood and temperament, its sway of rhythm and 
 rhyme, its words of spiritual fire. 
 
 English 
 
 Alfred (849-901).—Found England terribly disorganised, overrun 
 by the Danes; left it settled, the Danes reduced to peace, his kingdom 
 of Wessex enlarged, and the foundation laid to the consolidation of 
 all England into one kingdom. Born at Wantage, Berks. Visited 
 Rome 853, and again with his father, 855. Learnt to read, 861. 
 Married, 868, the daughter of JEthelred, ealdorman of the Gainas. 
 871, King of Wessex, and fought the Danes at Wilton. In 878, after 
 completely routing the Danes, made peace with their king, Guthrum, 
 Watling Street in the main dividing the dominions of the two 
 kings. 886, fortified London. 893, nominal overlord of all England. 
 Throughout the rest of his reign he had peace on land, and with his 
 improved navy was able to cope with the Vikings still infesting the 
 Channel. Greatly loved wisdom, and gathered round him wise men, 
 also from abroad. Highly improved the status of the Church, and 
 founded monasteries and schools. Translated into Anglo-Saxon 
 Orosius, Bede, Boethius, and Pastoral. 
 
 William I. (1028-1087).—“ The Conqueror ”. Bastard son of Robert 
 III., Duke of Normandy. Born at Falaise. Visited Edward the Con¬ 
 fessor in England, 1051. Ruled efficiently his Duchy of Normandy, 
 conquering, 1063, the county of Maine. Having been promised by 
 
 4 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 50 
 
 Edward the Confessor the succession to the English Crown, he resolved 
 on disputing the right to it with Harold, who, not of the blood-royal of 
 England, yet on the death of Edward mounted the English throne, with 
 consent of the Witenagemot. Accordingly met and conquered Harold 
 at Hastings, 1066. Ruled England with a strong but, in the main, 
 also just hand, carrying also the English sentiment with him. His 
 Domesday Book, 1085-6, a very thorough inventory of the property of 
 England. “Not so much as a cow, nor a swine, that was not set 
 down in his writ”. Severe, he was yet, after the witness of an 
 Englishman, mild to good men who loved God. Under William the 
 Church in England was raised, and learning greatly revived. 
 
 Wallace, William (1274-1305).—Scottish patriot. Routed forces 
 of Edward I. in battle of Stirling, 1297. Appointed governor of 
 Scotland. Defeated at Falkirk. Betrayed and executed, 1305. 
 “At Wallace’ name what Scottish blood but boils up in a springtide 
 flood ?” 
 
 Bruce, Robert (1274-1329).—Deliverer of Scotland from English 
 rule. Joined the Scottish revolt under Wallace. At Bannockburn, 
 1314, totally routed the army of Edward II. By Treaty of Northamp¬ 
 ton, 1328, England recognised the independence of Scotland. 
 
 Dunbar (about 1480-1520).— Scottish poet. Itinerant friar, 
 preached in England and Picardy. Wrote The Thrissil and the 
 Rois in commemoration of marriage of James IY. of Scotland with 
 Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. Of a very pithful and nervous 
 strain, as strikingly picturesque as either Burns or Carlyle. Master 
 of many moods—pathetic, humorous, religious, satirical. The an¬ 
 tithesis of sensuous love on one hand, and transcendent love, the love 
 of God, on the other, is nowhere more happily expressed than in 
 Dunbar’s Merle and Nightingale. Its conclusion in the triumph of 
 holy love is deeply religious. 
 
 Wycliffe (1325-1384).—Forerunner of Reformation. Translator of 
 Bible. Yorkshireman. After holding a succession of livings in the 
 Church became, 1374, rector of Lutterworth. In 1378 there fell out 
 the double Popedom, and Wycliffe, already inimical to the Church’s 
 greedy encroachments, now set himself to expound wherein consisted 
 all the substance, and so the truth and justification of Confession 
 and of Absolution. He found the Eucharist also defunct of virtue, 
 and disowned the claim of the priests “to make the body of Christ”. 
 He also proclaimed how “the one and only substantial title to outward 
 property was the correspondent inward personal worth to own it and 
 so use it”. 
 
 Chaucer (1340-1400).—The first great Anglo-Norman poet, register¬ 
 ing the union of English and Norman. Born in Thames Street, 
 
 
 
 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 51 
 
 London ; son of a vintner. Lived in close connection with Court. In 
 Canterbury Tales looks with genial, equal eye on all classes and con¬ 
 ditions of men in his time, always in the most favourable light. Admn- 
 ing heartily all that is manly and daring in man, and worshipping with 
 tender chivalry all that is lovely.and womanly in woman, Chaucer yet 
 dramatically sympathises also with baser creatures, viewing the world 
 also from their standpoints. Chaucer’s writing everywhere breathes 
 the air of cheerfulness, hopefulness, joyfulness. Everywhere you 
 feel the blow of vernal, temperate breezes. 
 
 “ Hearkneth the blissful briddes how they sing. 
 
 And see the gladsom flowres how they spring ; 
 
 Ful is myn hert of revel and solas ”. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas (1478-1535).— Londoner. Latin and Greek 
 scholar. Friend of Colet, Linacre, Erasmus. Of upright character, 
 unimpeachable conduct, genial temper, pleasant wit, cultivated mind, 
 and business ability. Speaker of House of Commons, 1523 ; Lord 
 Chancellor, 1529. Executed, 1535 : “ I pray you see me safe up, and 
 for my coming down I will shift for myself”. Wrote Utopia and 
 History of Richard III. Among the earliest Grecians of England. 
 
 Knox, John (1505-1572).—Reformer, who, as much as any single 
 man, has printed his mark into Scotland. Organised Scotch 
 Presbyterianism, and, on as liberal a footing as he could secure 
 against greedy landlords, the parochial educational system. His 
 whole life was one of trial, toil, and battle. “ Never feared the face 
 of man ”, but boldly denounced evil in high places. French prisoner 
 for eighteen months, and one winter a galley-slave. A kindly Scot 
 and true; a dry vernacular humour qualifies his most serious 
 writing. 
 
 Buchanan, George (1506-1582).— Ripe scholar, master of aLatinity 
 ; that compelled the admiration of Johnson, who, Englishman, would 
 I yet own Buchanan “ tli e first man of genius his country produced . 
 His Psalms are a wonderfully fine rendering in Latin. Translated 
 Medea and Alcestis. Wrote Jephthes and Baptistes, De Jure 
 Regni apud Scotos , and Rerum Scoticarum Historia. Tutored James 
 I. of England at least into a scholar, if not a wise man. Educated at 
 St. Andrews and Paris. 1529, professor in College of St. Barbe. 
 Tutor to Earl of Cassillis, 1532, and to James Y.’s natural son, 153/. 
 Escaping his Catholic persecutors, he became professor of Latin at 
 Bordeaux, and had Montaigne among his pupils.. Intimate with the 
 elder Scaliger. Professor in Coimbra University. Tutor to young 
 Queen Mary. 1566, principal of St. Leonard’s College, St. Andrews. 
 
 Elizabeth (1534-1603).—Queen of England from 1558.. Every 
 inch a Queen. Had all her father’s imperious will, and, mistress of 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 | 5 2 
 
 herself, knew when to yield and how to yield with dignity, so as even 
 to strengthen her authority by yielding : ‘‘Yield, not at all on com¬ 
 pulsion, but so glad to find that your will is really my own”. 
 Gathered round her the wisest counsellors and was unfeignedly 
 dreaded and admired of the highest personages at Court. Raleigh 
 witnesses how, though in sensuous flourish of beauty obscured by 
 her seductive cousin, yet in the more immaterial essence of beauty—in 
 spiritual grace and majesty—she outmatched Mary. “Never thought 
 in my heart but tended to my people’s good”. Read with pleasure 
 and appreciation Latin and Greek with her “ dear Ascham ” ; spoke 
 Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish; “understood Greek, Dutch,and 
 Scotch ” (Kentzner, eyewitness, 1598). Educated at Hatfield, under 
 care of Grindal and Ascham. Had her rival, Queen Mary, executed, 
 1587. 
 
 Sidney, Philip (1554-1586).—“A very perfect gentle knight”. Of 
 Kent. After a severe course of studies, made the tour of the Contb 
 nent, returning versed in Italian literature, but unsoiled in morals. 
 At first a favourite at Court, he retired, 1580, to his sister’s at 
 Wilton, and there penned Arcadia. Killed at Zutphen, to the grief 
 of England, in wdiom so much of her hope was extinguished. Wrote 
 Defence of Poesy and Astrophel and Stella (published 1591). 
 
 Spenser, Edmund (1552-1599).—The poet of Christian English 
 chivalry. Of a noble family. “A poor scholar” of Merchant Taylors’ 
 School, then sizar of Cambridge. Published, 1579, the SKepheards ’ 
 Calendar, first-fruits of Elizabethan poesy, a loug advance on 
 Chaucer in harmony and majesty of verse, in spirituality and culture. 
 Intimate friend of Sidney and Raleigh. At last, 1580, secretary to 
 Lord Grey de Wilton. From 1588 at Kilcolman Castle, Ireland, 
 granted to him along with adjacent lands. 1596, appeared last part 
 of Faerie Queen. 1598, his house having been burnt down by the 
 mutinous Irish, he escaped to London to die. 
 
 Raleigh (1552-1618).—Ornament of Queen Elizabeth’s Court, ac¬ 
 complished knight of arms, bold adventurer, scholar, poet. Devonian. 
 1584, attempted to settle Virginia. Introduced into Ireland the 
 cultivation of the potato. Did very distinguished service in the 
 destruction of the Armada, 1588. Led an expedition to Orinoco, 
 1595. Captured Fayal, 1597. A prisoner the last thirteen years of his 
 i life, during which he wrote the History of the World. At the scaffold he I 
 smilingly remarked how “ the axe was a sharp medicine yet a sure cure ”. | 
 
 Jonson, Ben (1574-1637).—Dramatist. “ The greatest man after 
 Shakspeare in that dramatic age”, says Coleridge. His Epicoene 
 Dry den preferred to all other plays. In verse and prose, masculine 
 ! and characteristic. Laid down the law to his fellow-poets—his 
 “sons of the tribe of Ben”. In wit-combats at the Mermaid, 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 53 
 
 “ ’twas a treat to witness Ben with his ponderous learning and logical 
 understanding obstinately endeavouring to hold his own against 
 Shakspeare, who had so much the advantage of him in quick wit 
 and invention”. With all his combative temper and formidable 
 classicality, he has yet penned some of the daintiest songs in English. 
 His prose, too, is for pith and wit comparable with that of his 
 honoured friend Bacon, whose luminous eloquence he much admired. 
 Born at Westminster, but, it appears, descended of an Annandale 
 Johnstone family. Classically educated. Soldier. Stage connection 
 from 1597. Killed a player in a duel. Besides a great number of 
 plays, wrote an English Grammar. “ O Rare Ben Jonson ! ” 
 
 Shakspeare (1564-1616).—The highest glory of Elizabethan Eng¬ 
 land. At eighteen married Anne Hathaway, eight years his senior, 
 by whom he had three children. 1587, went to London, leaving his 
 family at home, and joined a troupe of actors. In 1592, a fairly suc¬ 
 cessful actor. In 1593, published Venus and Adonis. About this time 
 he must have penned also some of his painfully passionate Sonnets , 
 registering what strange private experiences of his own !—he still a 
 young man brimful of a superlative vitality, and his wife and three 
 children far away in leafy Warwick. Record of his personal life in 
 London there is none, and no man can tell how he spent his time out 
 of the theatre. 1590-1610 dates the period of the production of his 
 wonderful dramas, in which the whole range of humanity in its every 
 variety, mood and accent, encompassed by a sensuous universe of 
 every zone and season and light and shade, finds its most vivid and 
 veracious portraiture : here is the soul and body of humanity, and the 
 voice and face of nature, as never before nor since. Not the best 
 literature other than Shakspeare is comparable with him ; Goethe is 
 artificial in comparison with this creative energy. In his “ practical 
 affairs” he seems to have been fairly prosperous ; he held a share in 
 Blackfriars Theatre. We hear also of his building a new theatre. 
 Retired, yet some years short of fifty, to his native Stratford, where 
 he purchased the best house, and lived in comparative affluence.- 
 Died of fever at the age of fifty-two, and was buried at Stratford, 
 leaving no record of himself personally. Bequeathed his wife his 
 second-best bed. 
 
 Bacon (1561-1626).—Gave a new impulse, method, and direction 
 to science, weaning man from the wordy disputations of the schools 
 to immediate converse with physical nature. “ The mind of man 
 to be a holy temple whose exemplar was the universe ”, The object 
 of science was the dominion of nature to the use of man. And 
 Bacon's idea of utility was not of the merely economic or sensuous 
 sense to which Macaulay would restrict it. Bacon’s is a catholic 
 mind, “ taking all knowledge for its province ”. In physiology he 
 
54 HISTORICAL 
 
 notes as analogues the fins of fishes, the feet of quadrupeds, the feet 
 and wings of birds. In geography he marks the analogy between 
 Africa and South America in their common southern extension from 
 an isthmus and termination in a promontory; between the Old and 
 the New World broadening northwards and tapering southwards. 
 Notes also analogues between rhetoric and music, mathematics and 
 logic, etc. In Advancement of Learning , he maps out the world of 
 knowledge, showing the many spacious blanks and suggesting how to • ^ 
 fill them in. Born in London. When a boy, Queen Elizabeth would 
 often call him “ her young Lord-Keeper”. 1582, called to the Bar. 
 
 M.P. for Melcombe Regis, 1584; for Taunton, 1586; Liverpool, 
 
 1589; Middlesex, 1593; Southampton, 1597- 1618, Lord Chancellor 
 and Verulam. 1621, convicted of accepting bribes and disgraced. £ 
 Died in making an experiment on snow. 
 
 Cromwell (1599-1658).—Head of English Puritanism, and Pro¬ 
 tector of Great Britain and Ireland. “ In body compact and strong, 
 about 5 feet 10 inches in height, with a head which you might see 8 
 
 was a vast treasury of natural parts, with a temper exceeding fiery ^ 
 
 but under strong moral restraint, and compassionate even to^ an 
 effeminate measure. A larger soul, I think, hath seldom dwelt in a 
 house of clay than his was” (John Maidstone, officer in Cromwell’s 
 household and M.P.). Clarendon allows “he was not a man of 
 blood”. A manifesto of the Irish prelates warns the common people 
 not to be deceived by any show of clemency in his Irish campaign. -j 
 Born at Huntingdon, great-grandson of Sir Richard Cromwell, who I 
 was the nephew of Thomas Cromwell, “the Mauler of Monasteries” 
 under Henry VIII. Studied at Cambridge University, and, when 
 Protector, able to talk Latin with foreign ambassadors. A splendid 
 horseman, and as little ashamed as our Rosebery of the possession of fl 
 a good horse. In the Long Parliament, 1640, as M.P. for Cambridge. 
 Captain of Horse, 1642. Himself an Ironside, organised the Iron¬ 
 sides who never knew what it was to be beaten, but whenever and 
 wherever engaged beat continually. Purged the Commons of its 
 Royalists and brought the king to execution. Cleared out the 
 Rump, 1653. From December, 1653, Protector. 
 
 Milton (1608-1674).—Puritan poet, who lived up to the lofty level 
 of his verse. At twenty-four, M.A., and master of Latin, Greek, 
 Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanish ; skilled also in music and in 
 fencing ; a very perfect scholar. At thirty, made the tour of France 
 and Italy, received with high distinction by Grotius, Diodati, Galileo, 
 etc. 1640-60, served the Commonwealth. Blind (from the age of 
 43), fallen on evil days, on evil days fallen and evil tongues, he 1 
 accomplished Paradise Lost, 1667 ; Paradise Regained and Samson 
 Agonistes , 1670. Thrice married—not happily. 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 55 
 
 Locke, John (1632-1704).—Expounder of sensational philosophy. 
 The mind of man prior to experience was a pure blank, tabula rasa. 
 Notions or ideas, whereof knowledge is built up, came to a man all 
 from without. The elements of all knowledge were perceptions, t.e., 
 'ideas received from without. Innate ideas, principles of morality 
 or religion, there are absolutely none in the mind. Locke makes sport 
 of the Freedom of the Will. “ Am I free to will my will; might 
 I will to will another will than I will ? ” Early studied Bacon. His 
 Letters on Toleration, written 1667; his Essay concerning Human 
 Understanding, 1690; and his Thoughts on Education, 1693, all 
 spoke the very mind of the time, and were at once widely accepted. 
 Of weak health, his last fifteen years (1689-1704) spent with much 
 felicity at Oates (Essex) with Sir Francis and Lady Masham. 
 
 Hume (1711-1776.)—“The Saul among English philosophers” (Kant). 
 
 : Developed sensational philosophy to its conclusion in scepticism. 
 “ To be absolute and certain, knowledge must refer to things object¬ 
 ively existent, and the relations it determines among them be, not 
 precarious, but indubitable. Or knowledge respects (1) the validity 
 of its objects, and (2) the validity of the relations it determines among 
 them ”. Hume then demonstrated how these two conditions of know¬ 
 ledge were wholly wanting. Thus was the mind of man brought to a 
 state of profound doubt and scepticism. Born in Edinburgh; the 
 paternal mansion, a modest farmhouse in Berwickshire. His mmd ear ly 
 turned to philosophy. Published Treatise on Human Nature, 1/38 ; 
 Essays, 1742-52; Principles of Morals, 1751; History of England, 
 1754-61. Hume “ had the greatest simplicity of mind and manners 
 with the utmost benevolence of temper”, says Jupiter Carlyle. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790) .—One of the founders of the 
 United States; statesman; man of science; man of sound common- 
 sense, constitutional equilibrium, practical activity. Born Boston, 
 Massachusetts. In his twelfth year an apprentice-printer, and im¬ 
 proved his opportunities by reading Plutarch, Defoe, Locxe, etc. 
 Shifted to Philadelphia in 1723, and in 1725 went to England, staying 
 eighteen months and making friends. Returning to America, he soon 
 became sole proprietor of a printing business, which prospered m Iris 
 hands. Married, 1730. Began to publish Poor Richard’s Almanack, 
 1732, which, brimful of good sense, good humour, and public spirit, 
 grew more and more widely popular. Brought his mind to bear also 
 on physical problems, and, 1752, demonstrated the identity of light¬ 
 ning and electricity. His whole career was one of consequential and 
 increasing success. Successful in diplomacy, he carried Independ¬ 
 ence. Lived eighty-four years of eupeptic felicity, in happy relations 
 with himself and everybody, dying full of honours, the best appre¬ 
 ciated man of all the world. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 56 
 
 Johnson, Samuel (1709-1784).—His literary works, solid and monu¬ 
 mental, are yet subordinate to his character as a man. Born at 
 Lichfield, son of a bookseller and High Churchman. Scrofulous, he 
 was in childhood “ touched ” by Queen Anne. At Pembroke College, 
 Oxford, 1728-31, miserably poor, but flung out of the window a pair 
 of new boots laid at his door. A few months in 1732, unhappy 
 usher in Market Bosworth School. Drifted into irregular literary 
 work. In spite of his drear poverty, married, in 1735, Mrs. Porter, 
 aged 46, and opened a school at Edial, near Lichfield, an un¬ 
 successful enterprise. Repaired with his pupil Garrick, 1737, to 
 ; London. 1740-43, reported parliamentary debates in Gentleman 7 s 
 I Magazine. 1747-54, at work on the Dictionary , writing also Rambler , 
 concluded 1752, when his wife died. On his mother’s death, in 1759, 
 wrote Rasselas to defray funeral expenses. 1762, had a pension of 
 1 £300 a year settled on him. Relieved of the necessity of writing, he 
 | unburdened himself as literary dictator for the remaining twenty- 
 ! two years in sententious speech, few venturing to challenge his 
 j deliverances. At Johnson’s Court from 1765 and in Bolt Court from 
 ! 1777 he kept in his house an uncommon needy “ Seraglio ”. 1773, 
 
 : made, with Boswell, the tour of the Hebrides. 1779 and 1781, pub- 
 | lished the Lives of the Poets. He was much more than he wrote ; a 
 ! man of kind, true, and massive manhood. 
 
 Washington, George (1732-1779).—Founder and first President of 
 the United States. American Bayard sans peur et sans reproclie. 
 His mind, says Jefferson, was slow in operation, with little of in¬ 
 vention or imagination, but sure in conclusion. In war he profited 
 from councils, deciding what was best and planning his battles 
 judiciously. He maturely weighed every consideration; but, once 
 ! decided, he was not to be thwarted from his purpose. Incapable of 
 ! fear, he was impervious to any sense of personal danger. In his 
 conduct he was of an integrity unimpeachable, unbiassed by any 
 motives of interest, of friendship, or of hatred. Not given to 
 eloquence, if called upon unexpectedly to express an opinion, he was 
 short and embarrassed. Of a fine and noble person, he was perfect in 
 horsemanship. His schooling included the three R’s, some geometry, 
 and athletic sports; but he was wholly innocent of Latin, Greek, or 
 any tongue other than his native English. Married 1759, and 
 managed his estates well and thriftily. Would not have broken with 
 England if principle had not been involved. Commander-in-chief, 
 1775 ; first President, 1789. Refused a third election. A religious 
 man ; his one watch-word duty. A perfect hero to Lafayette. 
 
 Watt (1736-1819).—Inventor of the steam-engine, and so far 
 initiator of the modern industrial world. Born at Greenock. Set 
 up as a mathematical instrument maker within the precincts of 
 
HEROES OF HISTORY 
 
 57 
 
 Glasgow University, 1757, enjoying tlie regard of Adam Smith, 
 Black, and Simson. His experiments in steam date from 1758, and 
 in 1769 he obtained a patent for a steam engine. 1774, partner with 
 Boulton at Soho works. Henceforth his career was one of steady 
 expanding success. Not a mere departmental man, he had a mind 
 appreciative of every line of inquiry, a true and wide acquaintance 
 with literature. Full of honours he reached the age of eighty-four. 
 
 Nelson, Horatio (1758-1805).—Great naval hero. Born at Burn¬ 
 ham Thorpe parsonage. Entered navy at age of thirteen. 1773-4, 
 sailed with Captain Phipps on Polar Expedition. 1780, he gained 
 distinction in the West Indies and at the Leeward Islands. Married, 
 1783, Mrs. Nisbet, While he was before Calvi, Corsica, where (1794) 
 he lost an eye, his name was the terror of the Mediterranean. In 
 1798 he destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir. In 1801 he gained 
 the battle of Copenhagen. His crowning achievement was his victory 
 at Trafalgar, bought with his own life, 1805. 
 
 Burns, Robert (1759-1796).— The poet of Scotland, whose poetry, 
 more than all other literature, has immortalised all that is character¬ 
 istic of Scotland : its language, its foster-nurse of poverty (no more 
 in these days of “Scotch millionaires”), its thrift, its perfervid 
 patriotism, its clannishness, its piety, its blend of whisky and religion, 
 its familiar handling of serious things, its weird mythology, its sub¬ 
 dued pathos, its sardonic fun, its hardy eating, its hodden-grey 
 clothing. But for Burns the Scotland that Scots all the world 
 over cherish as a religion might fade into a vague memory. In 
 Burns the auld Scotch Scotland will last as long as the world. If 
 “ Kailyaird” novels still find a kindly soil, they have in large part 
 Burns to thank for it. Born in a clay-biggin’, still standing, on the 
 banks of Doon, near Ayr. His inflammable heart first kindled, 
 when fifteen, by bonnie, sweet, sonsie Nelly Blair. 1784, a father 
 while unhappily not yet a married man ; his Holy Willy’s Prayer 
 provoked the Kirk Session to level their artillery at his head. 1786, 
 first edition of his poems; married, by acknowledgment, Jean 
 Armour. 1787-8, distracted life in Edinburgh. 1790, exciseman; 
 his income, including various perquisites, about £90 a year. 5 ft. 
 10 in. tall, Burns was a man of Berserkar strength and commanding 
 presence. His flashes of poetry are but gleams out of a great fire of 
 vitality, which, ecconomised, might have been of historic service to 
 his country at large. Had in him, says Carlyle, the capacity of a 
 king of men—an authentic Prime Minister of Britain. 
 
 Scott, Walter (1771-1832).—Founder of the historical novel. The 
 most universally popular author of the century. Has rendered 
 Scottish scenery, history, and character perennially interesting to all 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 ! 58 
 
 j the world. “The greatest story-writer of the age,” said Goethe, 
 j 1831; “ all in the Waverley Novels is great—material, effect, char- 
 j acter, execution ”. Born at Edinburgh. Did not attain accurate 
 scholarship in classics, but learnt to read Latin, French, German, 
 and Italian. Called to the Bar, 1792. His vacations he turned to 
 account in traversing highland and lowland; sensitive to landscape, 
 the faces of men and women, types of character, manners ; storing up 
 ballads, traditions, legends of the soil. Translated Gotz von Ber- 
 lichingen, 1799. Published Border Minstrelsy, 1802, followed up by 
 the Last Minstrel, Marmion, and Lady of the Lake. Not till 1804 
 did he publish Waverley and set the world a-wondering who was the 
 author. Thenceforth the romances poured forth in rapid, continuous 
 succession, the interest in them never abating. Absolutely free of 
 j literary jealousy, he was only too generous in his appreciation of his 
 ! brothers of the press. In illness dictated the Bride of Lammermoor, 
 i which, printed, he did not recognise as his own. 
 
 Carlyle (1795-1881).—“A moral force of great importance. There 
 is in him much for the future, and we cannot foresee what he will 
 produce and effect” (Goethe). Darwin, not a personal admirer, 
 esteemed his faculty of picturesque narration far intenser and truer 
 than Macaulay’s. When, in advanced years, storing materials for 
 Frederick, he made reconnaissance of the immense territory, nothing 
 escaped his eye ; he drank up the ground like a sensitized plate and 
 developed the image in an artistic sense. His battles of Frederick 
 are a military text-book. Worked in “ terrible earnest”. Wrote in a 
 white heat. Had the saving element of humour, and in his fiercest 
 invective never lost a “sense of the other side”. His Frederick 
 Emerson calls the wittiest book of the century; certainly no novel 
 is more alive : here we see Voltaire (to quote only one of its hundreds 
 of character) face to face in all attitudes. Carlyle’s style is sur¬ 
 charged with energy, and he disposes of the largest copia verhorum. 
 Could not abide the echo writing and speaking ; therefore preached 
 I silence, by pen in forty volumes, besides many and copious letters, by 
 word of mouth in the intervals. “ In every respect a highly interest¬ 
 ing man” (Goethe). 
 
 Darwin (1809-1882).—He has furnished, not the science alone, but 
 the general thinking of the present day with its key-word, Evolution, 
 Development. Confine your reading to the literature proper of the 
 century, and you will yet mark a broad distinction between the 
 books of date prior and the books of date subsequent to the 
 publication of the Origin of Species. Scott, Wordsworth, Coleridge, 
 Macaulay, Carlyle, Thackeray, Dickens, and other vaunted names ot‘ 
 the earlier half of the century know little or nothing of the new 
 password in its new sense. Now the new leaven is everywhere in 
 
THE ROYAL FAMILY 59 
 
 ferment. It has not even spared the Church, not the very Primate 
 himself. A young writer, especially, flourishes evolution in every 
 other sentence at least, to show how he is “ up to date 
 
 IX. THE ROYAL FAMILY 
 
 Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United King¬ 
 dom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, 
 Empress of India (in India, Kaisar-i-Hind), born at Kensington 
 Palace , 24th May, 1819; succeeded to the Throne 20th June, 1837, 
 on the death of her uncle, King William IV.; crowned 28th June, 
 1838 ; and married , 10th February, 1840, to his late Royal Highness 
 Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel, Prince Consort, 
 Duke of Saxony, Prince of Coburg and Gotha, who was born 26th 
 August, 1819, and died 14th December, 1861. Her Majesty has had 
 issue— 
 
 1. H.I.M. Victoria, Empress Frederick of Germany, Princess Royal, 
 b. Nov. 21, 1840; m. Jan. 25, 1858, to Frederick , Crown Prince of 
 Prussia, afterwards German Emperor (b. Oct. 18, 1831, died June 15, 
 188S) and has had issue—William, reigning German Emperor, b. 
 Jan. 27, 1859, m. Feb. 27, 1881, to Princess Augusta of Schleswig- 
 Holstein, and has six sons and a daughter; Charlotte, b. July 24, 
 1860, m. Feb. 18, 1878, to Hered. Prince of Saxe-Meiningen; Henry, 
 b. Aug. 14, 1862, m. May 24, 1888, to his cousin, Princess. Irene of 
 Hesse; Sigismund, b. Sept. 15, 1864, d. June 18, 1866 ; Victoria, b. 
 April 12, 1866, m. Nov. 19, 1890. to H.S.H. Prince Adolphe^of 
 Schaumburg-Lippe; Waldemar, b. Feb. 10, 1868, d. March 27, 1879 ; 
 Sophia Dorothea, b. June, 14, 1870, m. Oct. 27, 1889, to the Duke of 
 Sparta; and Margaret, b. April 22, 1872, m. Jan. 25, 1893, to Prince 
 Fredk. of Hesse-Cassel. 
 
 2. H.R.H. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, b. November 9, 1841, 
 m. March 10, 1863, to the Princess Alexandra (b. Dec. 1,1844), eldest 
 daughter of the King of Denmark, and has had issue —Albert Victor, 
 Duke of Clarence, b. Jan. 8, 1864, d. Jan. 14, 1892 ; George Frederick, 
 Duke of York, Captain lt.N., b. June 3, 1865, m. July 6, 1893, Prin¬ 
 cess Victoria Mary (“May”) of Teck (b. May 26, 1867), and has 
 issue Edward, b. June 23, 1894, and Albert, b. Dec. 14, 1895 ; Louise, 
 b. Feb. 20, 1867, m. . July 27, 1889, to the Duke of Fife—issue 
 Alexandra, b. May 17, 1891, and Maud, b. April 3, 1893; Victoria, b. 
 July 6, 1868; Maud, b. Nov. 26, 1869, m. July 22, 1896, to Charles, 
 2nd son of the Crown Prince of Denmark; and Alexander , b . April 6, 
 d. April 7, 1871. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 60 
 
 3. H.R.H. Alice Maud Mary, b. April 25, 1843; m. July 1, 1862, to 
 H.R.H. Ludivig IV., Grand Duke of Hesse ( b . September 12, 1837, d. 
 March 13, 1892) ; d. Dec. 14,1878; her issue being—Victoria Alberta, 
 b. April 5, 1863, m. April 30, 1884, to Prince Louis of Battenberg, 
 r.n. ; Elizabeth, b. Nov. 1, 1864, m. June 15, 1884, to the Grand 
 Duke Serge of Russia; Irene, b. July 11, 1866, m. May 24, 1888, to 
 her cousin, Prince Henry of Prussia, brother of the German Emperor; 
 Ernst Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse, b. Nov. 25, 1868, m. April 19, 
 1894, to Grand-duchess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; Fried¬ 
 rich, b. Oct. 7, 1870, d. June 29,1873; Alix Victoria, b. June 6,1872, 
 m. Nov. 26, 1894, to Nicholas II., Czar of Russia, and has issue, Olga, 
 b. Nov. 15, 1895. 
 
 4. H.R.H. Alfred Ernest Albert, Duke of Edinburgh and Duke of 
 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, b. August 6, 1844; Admiral of the Fleet; m. 
 Jan. 23, 1874, to the Grand Duchess Marie ,of Russia ( b . Oct. 17, 
 1853), and has issue—Alfred, b. Oct. 15, 1874; Marie, b. Oct. 29, 
 1875, m. Jan. 10, 1893, to Ferdinand, Crown Prince of Roumania, 
 and has issue—Carol, b. Oct. 15, 1893, and Elizabeth; Victoria 
 Melita, b. Nov. 25, 1876, m. April 19, 1894, to Ernst Ludwig, Grand 
 Duke of Hesse, and has issue; Alexandra, b. Sept. 1, 1878, m. 1896, 
 to Ernst, Hereditary Prince of Hohenlohe - Langenburg; and 
 Beatrice, b. April 20, 1884. 
 
 5. H.R.H. Helena Augusta Victoria, b. May 25, 1846; m. July-5, 
 1866, to Prince Frederick Christian C. A. of Schleswig-Holstein (5. 
 Jan. 22, 1831), and has had issue—Christian V., Lt. King’s Roy. 
 Rifles, b. April 14, 1867 ; Albert J., b. Feb. 26, 1869; Victoria L., b. 
 May 3, 1870; Louise A., b. Aug. 12, 1872, m. July 6, 1891, to Pr. 
 Aribert of Anhalt. 
 
 6. H.R.H. Louise Caroline Alberta, b. March 18,1848; m. March 21, 
 1871, to John, Marquis of Lome ( b . Aug. 6, 1845), eldest son of Duke 
 of Argyll. 
 
 7. H.R.H. Arthur W. P. A., Duke of Connaught, b. May 1, 1850 ; 
 Commander-in-Chief at Aldershot; m. March 13, 1879, Princess 
 Louise Margaret (6. July 25, 1860), daughter of the late Prince 
 Friedrich Karl of Prussia, and has issue — Margaret, b. Jan. 15, 
 1882; Arthur, b. Jan. 13, 1883 ; Victoria Patricia, b. March 17, 1886. 
 
 8. H.R.H. Leopold G. D. A., Duke of Albany, b. April 7, 1853; m. 
 April 27, 1882, to Princess Helen (b. Feb. 17, 1861), daughter of the 
 late Prince Georg of Waldeck, d. Mar. 28, 1884, his issue being— 
 Alice Mary, b. Feb. 25,1883; Leopold Charles Edward G. A., Duke 
 of Albany, b. July 19, 1884. 
 
PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES 61 
 
 9 H.R.H. Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodora, 6. April 14, 1857; m. 
 July 23, *1885, to Prince Heinrich Moritz of Battenberg (&. Uct. o, 
 1858 • d. Jan. 20, 1896), and has issue—Alexander Albert, R Not 23, 
 1886 • Victoria Eugenie Julia Ena, 6. Oct. 24 > 188 [ ; Leopold Arthur 
 Louis, ft. May 21, 1889 ; and Maurice Victor Donald, ft. Uct. -1, lsyi. 
 
 X. PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 George Washington, 1789-97. 
 
 John Adams, 1797-1801. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 1801-9* 
 
 James Madison, 1809-17. 
 
 James Monroe, 1817-25. 
 
 John Quincy Adams, 1825-29. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, 1829-37- 
 Martin Van Buren, 1837-41. 
 
 William H. Harrison, March-April, 1841. 
 John Tyler, 1841-45. 
 
 James K. Polk, 1845-49. 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 1849-50. 
 
 Millard Fillmore, 1850-53. 
 
 Franklin Pierce, 1853-57. 
 
 James Buchanan, 1857-61. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, 1861-65. 
 
 Andrew Johnson, 1865-69. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, 1869-77* 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes, 1877-81. 
 
 James A. Garfield, March-September, 1881. 
 Chester A. Arthur, 1881-85. 
 
 Grover Cleveland, 1885-89. 
 
 Benjamin Harrison, 1889-93. 
 
 Grover Cleveland, 1893-97. 
 
 William McKinley, 1897. 
 
 XI. LIVING NOTABILITIES 
 
 Albani, Madame.— Celebrated vocalist. Nee Emma la Jeunesse in 
 Montreal. Debut at Messina, 1870. Highly successful m Wagner-. 
 
 I ian opera. 
 
 Alma-Tadema, Lawrence, R.A.— Born Donryp, Netherlands, 1836. 
 i In England since 1873; R.A. since 1879. 
 
 Balfour, Right Hon. A. J.— Born 1848. Private Secretary to Lord 
 j Salisbury, 1878-80 ; Secretary for Scotland, 1886-7; Chief Secre- 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 62 
 
 tary for Ireland, 1887-91; First Lord of the Treasury, 1891-2, and 
 again since 1895. Author of A Defence of Philosophic Doubt , Essays ' 
 and Addresses , Foundations of Belief , etc. Captain of Golf Club of 
 St. Andrews, 1894-5, etc., etc. 
 
 Barrett, Wilson. —Actor. Born in Essex, 1846. Debut at Halifax. 
 Lessee of the Grand Theatre, Leeds, 1878. Took Court Theatre, 
 London, 1879; Princess’s, 1881. Played Hamlet, 1884. In 1885 
 produced, in co-operation with Henry A. Jones, Hoodman Blind, 
 and, in co-operation with Clement Scott, Sister Mary , 1886, etc. 
 Visited United States, 1889, and again 1893. 
 
 
 Barrie, J. M. —Novelist and dramatist. Born Kirriemuir, Forfar- * 
 shire, 1860. M.A. of Edinburgh, 1882. With a pen instinct at once 1 
 of the pathetic and the comic, or rather of both indistinguishably . 
 interfused, he has written Scotch novels : Auld Licht Idylls, When r ,\ 
 a Man’s Single, A Window in Thrums, Margaret Ogilvy (1896), etc.; & 
 also some happy comedies, Walker, London ; The Professor’s Love- s j 
 Story, etc. Married Miss Mary Ansell, July 9, 1894. 
 
 Bernhardt, Rosine Sarah. — Eminent actress. Born Paris, 1844, of 
 Jewish parentage. Entered Paris Conservatoire, 1858. Debut at ‘ 
 Theatre Fran£ais in Racine’s Iphigenie . Achieved a notable success 
 as Marie de Neuberg in Buy Bias, and a still greater in Le Sphinx, , j 
 March, 1874. Authoress of L’Aveu. Married, 1882, to M. Damala, 
 a Greek—not for long. 
 
 Besant, Sir Walter. —One of the most successful novelists of the 
 time. Born Portsmouth, 1838. Graduated at Cambridge. Pub¬ 
 lished, 1868, Studies in Early French Poetry • 1873, French Hu- \ 
 morists, etc. In co-operation with James Rice began, 1871, a * 
 successful series of romances, among them Ready-Money Mortiboy, 
 dramatised, and played at Court Theatre. Of his many effective 
 novels, All Sorts and Conditions of Men gave the impulse which 
 raised People’s Palace in East End. First chairman of Executive 
 Committee of Incorporated Society of Authors. Knighted 
 May, 1895. 
 
 Bismarck, Karl Otto. —Born Schonhausen (Brandenburg), April 
 1,1815. At University of Gottingen and Greifswald. 1846, Mem¬ 
 ber of Prussian Diet. 1851, entrusted with the Legation at Frank¬ 
 fort. 1859-62, Prussian Ambassador at St. Petersburg. 1862, 
 Ambassador at Paris, and, five months later, First Minister of Prussian 
 Crown. As result of his policy and action, Austria, 1866, retired from 
 Germany. Count, 1865, receiving a valuable estate in Luxembourg. 
 1867, organised North German Bund. Carried to a triumphant 
 conclusion Franco-German war, German consolidation, and Prussian 
 headship of restored Holy Roman Empire in person of William I., 
 
LIVING NOTABILITIES 
 
 63 
 
 January 18 1871. ^ ^,7^. “"d” hrto^aTe 
 
 life P Marcli 17,1890— though the German Emperor has s'^e found 
 that to lay a Bismarck on the shelf is more than a mere official 
 formality. 
 
 Black William. —Failing as landscape-painter on canvas, sue- 
 ceded to XSion as laSd and sea-scape painter m literature ; no 
 novels more happily render mountain and moor or the ind*able 
 
 sea, whether asleep or in storm. Born << Ye ken oor 
 
 Love or Marriage, 186/ ; Daughter of Heth, 187 1. j( e 
 Scotland weel, but whan are ye gaun to write a book . (oariyie; 
 
 Booth William.— “General” of Salvation Army, which he es- 
 tahhshed ™ Born Nottingham, 1829. Author of In Darkest 
 England. 
 
 Braddon Mary Elizabeth.— Authoress of fifty to sixty hovels, 
 among the’best known Lady AMs Secret ant London Pnde 
 
 (1896) ; also of drama Griselda (1873). Born 183/. 
 
 Cavendish Spencer C.— Eighth Duke of Devonshire. Born 1833. 
 oavenaibu, op -iqqi w ar Spcretarv. 1866. Postmaster- 
 
 Succeeded L to^ u kedom, f fo ° Irelan d, 1871-4. Secretary 
 
 General, 8 7 • p f Rossendale Division of Lanca- 
 
 ^Lord ^President ofthe Council, 1895. Married, 1892, 
 Louise, Duchess of Manchester. 
 
 Chamberlain, Joseph.— Born 1836. Married first, 1861, Miss 
 Harriet Kenrick, who died 1863; second, 1868, Miss Florence Ken- 
 • a l 11 -l fliirii 1888 Miss Mary Endicott. M.P. toi 
 
 Birmingham, 1876. President of Board of Trade, 1880-5. Colonial 
 Secretary since 1895. Pillar of Unionism in the Midlands ; formid¬ 
 able in attack and unflinching in defence. 
 
 Steof Penicuik, 1886. Published T/ie Si 
 and since then a rapid succession of mostly Kailyand novels, 
 Grey Man in September, 1896. 
 
 Dufferin and Ava (Frederick Temple).— Most accomplished diplo¬ 
 matist, well substantiating his lineal descent from Sh endan. 
 Commissioner to Syria, 1860. Governor-General of Canada, 18/2 8. 
 Ambassador at St. Petersburg, 1879-81. Viceroy of India, 1884 8. 
 Ambassador at Paris, 1892-6. An accomplished man of affairs; 
 “success organised”. Peer since 1888. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 64 
 
 Edison, Tliomas Alva.— Eminent inventor. Dutch on father’s 
 side, Scotch on mother’s. Bom Ohio, 1847. At twelve a railway 
 newsboy. 1863, constructed an automatic telegraph repeater. 1865, 
 printed a hook on electricity. His numerous inventions include 
 quadruples and sextuplex telegraphic transmission, microtasimeter 
 aerophone and megaphone, electric pen, railway, and lighting, tele¬ 
 phone, phonograph, etc. 
 
 Gladstone, The Right Hon. William Ewart— Born Liverpool, 
 December 29, 1809. At Oxford University, 1829-31. M.P. for 
 Newark, 1832. Maiden speech in House of Commons, May 17, 1833. 
 Married, 1839, Catherine Glynne, of Hawarden Castle. 1834, Junior 
 Lord of the Treasury. 1841, Vice-President of Board of Trade, under 
 Peel. 1847, M.P. for Oxford University. 1852, Chancellor of Ex¬ 
 chequer, and again in 1855. First Premier, 1869. The only English¬ 
 man Premier for four Administrations. Retired March 3, 1894. 
 Author of Studies in Homer, Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture , 
 English version of Odes of Horace, and a new edition of Butler’s 
 Works, etc., etc. “Grand Old Man”, of exuberant vitality and 
 boundless capacity of action. 
 
 Ibsen, Henrik.— Dramatist and poet sui generis. Born Skien, 
 Norway, 1828. Studied medicine at Christiania University. 1850, 
 produced the play Catilina. 1851-2, director of the Norske Theatre 
 at Christiania, during which period he produced numerous plays. 
 His Doll’s House, produced at the Olympic, London, July, 1889; 
 Rosmersholm, at Vaudeville, February, 1891; Master Builder , per¬ 
 formed in England 1893. 
 
 Irving, Sir Henry. —Born John Henry Brodribb, near Glaston¬ 
 bury, 1838. Debut at Sunderland Theatre, 1856. Won distinction as 
 “ Digby Grant” in Two Roses, and celebrity as “ Hamlet” in 1874. 
 Now universally recognised to be at the head of the profession, and a 
 serious interpreter of Shakspeare. Knighted 1895. 
 
 Jameson, Dr. L. S. —Leader of Raid into South African Republic. 
 Son of Scotch Writer to Signet. In the seventies at the Diamond 
 Fields, where he acquired a well-earned reputation as physician, par¬ 
 ticularly in coping with “Camp Fever”. Entered service of Char¬ 
 tered Company, and became Administrator for their territories in 
 Mashonaland and Matabeleland. For his share in Raid (see Kruger) 
 was tried in England and sentenced to fifteen months’ imprisonment, 
 but has since been released on the ground of ill-health. Man of good 
 gallantry. 
 
 Kelvin, Lord.— Born William, son of Professor James Thomson, 
 June 25, 1824, at Belfast. Fellow of Cambridge, 1845. Professor of 
 Natural Philosophy in Glasgow University, 1846. Peer since 1892. 
 
LIVING NOTABILITIES 
 
 65 
 
 Now that Helmholtz is dead, he is generally recognised as the 
 greatest mathematician and physicist of his time. Apart from his 
 manifold contributions to pure science, he was the main hand in the 
 practical accomplishment of submarine telegraphy. Among his 
 numerous inventions are his quadrant and portable electrometers, 
 siphon recorder, etc. Helmholtz, his Continental brother m science, 
 observes bow be bas rendered electrical phenomena as precisely 
 measurable as magnetic or galvanic forces. 
 
 Kruger S. J. Paul. —President of South African Republic. Born 
 Rastenburg, 1825. President, 1882. Next year re-elected for five 
 years, andlgain in 1888. In 1886 goldfields, since estimated of im¬ 
 mense value, discovered in Transvaal, Johannesburg at their centre; 
 consequent greedy rush thither. At call of Uitlandeis (Out- 
 'landers), aggrieved at denial of equal rights with the established 
 Boers, Dr. Jameson from Bechuanaland made raid, since repudiated 
 by British Government, across frontier with 700 men and guns, De¬ 
 cember 29, 1895. The President was, however, not caught nap¬ 
 ping, and Raid ended in surrender January 2, 1896. 
 
 Laurier,Sir Wilfrid. —Premier of Canada since 1896, the first French- 
 Canadian to attain that position. Born 1841, at St. Lin. Called to 
 the Bar 1864, he rapidly rose to eminence m his profession. Elected 
 as Liberal to the Quebec Provincial Assembly m 1871, he at once 
 became a foremost figure in the Council; a charming personality 
 wielding a persuasive eloquence. Elected in 1874 to the Federal 
 Assembly, he became distinguished as the “ silver-tongued Launer . 
 On Mr. Blake’s retirement he succeeded him as Liberal leader. At 
 the Jubilee festivities his Canadian reputation was well substantiated 
 by the impression he made in London. 
 
 Lecky, W. E. H.— Distinguished political writer. M.P. for Dublin 
 University since December, 1896. Born Dublin, 1838. M.A. of 
 Dublin University, 1863. Author of Leaders of Public Opinion m 
 Ireland 1861; Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe, 1865 ; 
 European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne, 1869; Democracy 
 and Liberty, 1896; etc., etc. 
 
 Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., M.P.— Born London, 1834. Distin¬ 
 guished both as an able man in the public service and as a man of 
 science. Among the important public measures he has carried are 
 the Bank Holidays Act. His scientific works include Prehistoric 
 Times, Origin of Civilisation, works on Ants, Bees, and Wasps; 
 Pleasures of Life, Beauties of Nature, etc. 
 
 Max Muller, The Right Hon. Frederick.—A ripe scholar of a 
 poetic faculty rejoicing in the concrete, he has done yeoman-service 
 in the cause of the redintegration of Eastern and of Western thought 
 
66 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 into Indo-European, and in opening up communication between the 
 higher walks of learning and common life. His works are the 
 common property of all English- and German-speaking lands. To 
 his efforts—as much, at least, as to any other’s—is due the foundation 
 in 1890 of a school of Oriental languages in London. Writes an 
 English which few native writers can rival. Born Dessau, 1823, son 
 of German poet and librarian. Graduated, Leipzig, 1843. Studied 
 Sanskrit, and published translation of Hitopadesa, 1844. Came to 
 England, June, 1846, and, 1847, appointed by East India Company 
 to edit Rig-Veda. Taylorian Professor at Oxford, 1854. First Pro¬ 
 fessor of Comparative Philology in Oxford, 1868. Editor of Sacred 
 Books of the Bast. 
 
 McKinley, William. —President of the United States since March, 
 1897. Born of Scotch parents, Ohio, 1844. Fought as major in the 
 Civil War. Called to Bar, 1868. In House of Representatives, 1877, 
 taking Protectionist side; the McKinley Act passed, 1890. Elected 
 President, as champion of a sound currency, November, 1896. 
 
 Meredith, George. —Unique poet and novelist. Born in Hampshire, 
 1828. Published a volume of poems, 1851, and since many thoughtful 
 novels in a style not familiar to the public taste. 
 
 Morley, Right Hon. John. —Distinguished as journalist, littera¬ 
 teur, and politician. Born Blackburn, 1838. Called to the Bar, 
 1873. M.P. for Newcastle twelve years, but defeated 1895. Elected 
 for Montrose, 1896. Author of Critical Miscellanies , Voltaire , 
 Diderot and Encyclopaedists, Rousseau, Cobden, etc., etc. 
 
 Nansen, Dr. Fridtjof. —Born at Froen, near Christiania, Norway, 
 October 10, 1861. At Christiania University, 1880. On a voyage 
 round Spitzbergen and Iceland, 1882. Crossed Greenland, 1888. 
 Long meditating a Polar Expedition which should utilise the Polar 
 currents, such as he conceived them, Nansen designed the good ship 
 Fram, aiid on June 24, 1893, set out on his historic adventure. The 
 Fram, answering his calculations, sure enough drifted northwards, 
 and on Christmas Eve, 1894, passed the highest north previously 
 reached. Leaving the ship, March 14,1895, Nansen and Johannesen, 
 with three sledges and no fur clothing, made a dash Polewards, and 
 attained 86° 14' N., within 226 miles of the Pole, 170 miles nearer 
 than the highest previous record. After more than three years’ 
 absence, Nansen with Johannesen arrived at Vardo, August 13, 1896, 
 and shortly after the Fram too anchored on the coast of Norway, 
 after reaching 85° 57' N. In 1889 Nansen married Eva Sars, and 
 has one daughter. His home is at Lysaker. Has published First 
 Crossinq of Greenland, Farthest North , etc. 
 
LIVING NOTABILITIES 
 
 67 
 
 oTkZI Speaks French! 
 
 Germ a,n, Italian, and English. 
 
 Oscar II -King of Sweden and Norway since September 18, 1872. 
 Oscar 11 . ^m 0 „ ran d SO n of Napoleon’s famous general, 
 
 “Ouida" (Mdlle. Louise de la Rame).-Born Bury St. Edmunds, 
 1840. Her stories mostly laid in Italy, where she resides. 
 
 Patti Madame.— The favourite prima donnA of the day. Born 
 Madrid’ 1843. First appearance in London, 1801, as Amina, in 
 fomnambula. In 1895, after ten years absence, reappeared at 
 Covent Garden. 
 
 Reid The Right Hon. Sir G. H. — Premier of New South Wales since 
 1894 Born It Johnstone, Renfrewshire, 1815. Went to Melbourne 
 1852. Called to New South Wales Bar, he wasTJw' Free- 
 East Sydney, 1880. Minister of Education, 1883._ His £we Miee 
 Trade Essays o-ained him the honorary membership of the hob den 
 Club. Hk Jubilee visit of 1897 well seconded in England his 
 Australian reputation. 
 
 Rhodes, Cecil P. C. Born in England. Going ^ Africa became 
 director of diamond mines at Kimberley, and known as The diamond 
 King ”. Prime Minister at the Cape, July 17,1890, to January 1898. 
 Gave 1891, £10,000 to cause of Home Rule. Has worked m the 
 direction of a united South Africa, comprising ail the counHy 5?^ 
 of the Zambesi. Till 1896 chairman of British South Africa Com¬ 
 pany. Has stamped his name Rhodesia on Soutn Africa. 
 
 Roberts of Kandahar and Waterford, Frederick Sleigh -Brilliant 
 soldier idol of the Army. Peer since .1892 Born 1832. Distin¬ 
 guished service in Indian Mutiny, receiving Victoria Cross, 
 his many exploits, his rapid march from Cahul to Candahar in the 
 Afghan War one of the most brilliant of modern times. 
 
 Ronts:en Wilhelm Conrad.—Professor of Physics in Wurzburg 
 University.’ His new application of the X rays only a continuation 
 of the work of Hertz and Lenard, who experimented with these rays 
 several years before. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 68 
 
 Rosebery, A. P., K.G., 5th Earl of.— Born 1847. Married, 1878, 
 Hannah, daughter of Baron de Rothschild, who died November, 1890. 
 Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1886, and again August, 1892. 
 Chairman of L.C.C., 1889-90. Premier, March, 1894. Resigned 22nd 
 June, 1895. “ Cleared the air” and resigned leadership of Liberal 
 
 party, 1896, his attitude on the Armenian Question differing from 
 that of Mr. Gladstone. Author of Monograph on Pitt. Keeps a 
 first-rate racing stud. A speaker witty and weighty. 
 
 Russell of Killowen, Lord. —Long the most brilliant member of 
 the Bar. Lord Chief Justice, 1894. Peer, 1894. Born at Newry. 
 M.P. for South Hackney, 1885-94. 
 
 ! 
 
 Salisbury, Marquis of (Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne Cecil, 
 K.G., etc.). —Distinguished statesman, weighty speaker, formidable 
 debater, brilliant writer, and able student of science. Born February 
 3, 1830. Secretary of State for India, 1866-67. Minister and Foreign 
 Secretary, 1885-86. Prime Minister, June, 1886, to January, 1887; 
 1887-92 ; and since 1895. His efforts to cultivate Venezuelan Boun¬ 
 dary Dispute into an Arbitration League with United States have for 
 the present missed a satisfactory conclusion in United States Senate. 
 
 Spencer, Herbert. —Evolutionist philosopher. Author of First 
 Principles, Principles of Biology, Sociology, Ceremonial, Political 
 and Ecclesiastical Institutions, Data of Ethics, etc., etc., translated 
 into many languages, and studied abroad as much as in England. 
 
 Stanley, Henry M. —Distinguished traveller. Born, Denbigh, 1841. 
 Sailed as cabin boy to New Orleans, where he was adopted by 
 Stanley. During American Civil War, reporter to New York Herald. 
 1868, went as war correspondent to Abyssinia. 1871, found Living¬ 
 stone. 1877, opened up the Congo. 1887-90, successfully conducted 
 the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. Published In Darkest 
 Africa, etc., etc. Married Miss D. Tennant, 1890. M.P. for Lambeth 
 since 1S95. 
 
 Terry, Miss Ellen.— Favourite actress. Born Coventry, 1848. 
 Debut, 1858. Has been twice married, and is now widow for the 
 second time. 
 
 Tolstoi, Count Leo.— Novelist and social reformer. Born, 1828, in 
 Toula, Russia. At the age of twenty-three, entered the Army, and 
 accompanied his brother to the Caucasus. In the Crimean War 
 commanded a mountain battery at Sebastopol. Resigned his com¬ 
 mission, 1856. Author of War and Peace , Anna Karenina, Christ’s 
 Christianity , Kreutzer Sonata, etc. 
 
 
 
 
 
LIVING NOTABILITIES 
 
 69 
 
 Ward, Mrs. Humphry. — Tendenz novelist. Made a sensation by 
 Robert Elsmere, which would account historically for the supernatural 
 in the Bible. Grand- daughter of Dr Arnold, of Rugby. Born 
 Tasmania, 1851. Married, 1872, T H. Ward, now on Times staff. 
 Hon. Secretary of University Hall. Latest work, Sir George Tressady, 
 1898. 
 
 Wilhelm II (Third Head of the Reconstituted Empire).— Born 
 27th January, 1859. Emperor, June 15,1888. Married, 1881, Princess 
 Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein. Accepted Bismarck s re¬ 
 signation, 1890. Congratulated Kruger on frustration of Jameson 
 Raid. Not disposed to abate his dignity as Emperor. 
 
 Wolseley, Viscount Garnet Joseph.— Commander-in-Chief of the 
 British Army since November, 1895. Born Dublin, 1833. Entered 
 army, 1850. On the staff in the Indian Campaigns of 18o/-59. In 
 the China War, 1860. Commanded RedRiver Expedition, 18/0 ; 
 Ashantee War, 1873-74; South African War 18/9 ; Egyptian War, 
 1882 • Soudan Campaigns, 1884-85. Author of Soldier s Pocket-Book, 
 Life ’of Dube of Marlborough, etc., etc. Has been several times 
 wounded. Enthusiastic soldier. Peer since 1885. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 CHAPTER, I 
 
 STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Ancient World 
 
 1. In the naive eyes of the Homeric age, the earth was a fiat round 
 disc crumped up as a mountainous ridge at its circular rim, round 
 which rolled the continuous current of ocean, the 
 Cosmogony 0 source of all the waters on the earth, its fountains 
 and rivers and wells. Overcanopying the earth, 
 stretched the concave “ brazen ” firmament. And, to hold up the 
 solid vault and keep it from dropping down on the land of human 
 habitation, there stood up the tall “ pillars of Atlas ” resting on the 
 firm earth. In the morning the sun emerged out of his ocean-bed 
 and again at night plunged back into the billowy flood. But how he 
 managed to get back again next morning to the point whence he 
 started on his upward journey the day before, Homer vouchsafes no 
 explanation. The stars, too. followed the course of the sun and bathed 
 each day in the waters of Ocean. The constellation of the “ Bear ” 
 (or the “ Wagon’ 5 —which, too, Homer names it) did not, however, 
 set, but “kept turning round in the same place, and alone had no 
 share in the baths of Ocean ”, In Homer we find the “ late-setting 
 Bootes” (Arcturus) and the “Pleiades” and the “Hyades” and 
 the “ mighty Orion ”. “ Asia ” as yet names only the marshy mead 
 
 of the Lydian river Kayster. “ Libya” (the Greek name 
 ° ofHomer nita later denoting Africa) is but a small portion of the 
 land to the west of Egypt. In the Homeric hymn to 
 Apollo (at least two centuries later than the Iliad and the Odyssey) 
 “Europe” is confined to continental Greece, to the exclusion 
 of the Peloponnesos and the islands. Homer is altogether at home 
 i in the geography of the .ZEgean Sea and surrounding lands, including 
 the islands to the west of Greece, and those in the south of the 
 iEgean—Crete, Rhodes, Carpathos, Cos, Nisyros, etc. Known to 
 Homer is also the Nile by the name of “ Aigyptos ” (Egypt), as also 
 Egyptian “Thebes” with its “hundred gates, through each of 
 which daily pass two hundred men with their horses and chariots”. 
 Of the “ ^Ethiopians ” or black-faced men tp the south of Egypt 
 Homer had heard tell, and there had come to his ears also marvellous 
 
 70 
 
STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 71 
 
 0 . op.™,;..” in the far South that had every year to wage 
 baUk with the ^cranes that winged their flight thither from the 
 
 wi 2 “ te i r „Hesw ra». c .« 
 
 Geography widens 3 . Next in the 7th century B.c., hy repor o 
 With the Progress , , sciuadron of ships manned by Phoenicians, 
 
 oi the centuries, dotes q f N eclio n . (who had attempted to 
 
 connect by a “nal the Nile and the Red Sea), circumnavigated 
 ^rinLi^ndenrkiletos (611-547 B.c.) is e-dited with the con- 
 
 Maps recorded i Q 0 f Miletos. Herodotos tells us bow the Milesian 
 
 ,—rte-s r:s 
 
 let out how it was a gurney whole 
 
 Geography grows w 0 rld—Europe, Asia, Egypt, and Libya. Mapping 
 with Commerce. mugt have beeQ * m pract i C e in much earlier times still. 
 
 As Mr Eavenstein remarks, it is bard to understand bow without the 
 among the remark bow tbe forwardest commercial city, 
 
 aud o"h g er a w“Tknown places. A little t°tic1 fin Expeditio^ 
 
 Athens was intoxicate with the project of the Sicilian Expedition, 
 ttie Athenians, Thonkydides tells ns, drew maps of Sicily and the 
 mainland coasts, and described to one another their plans of conques . 
 
 5 In Heidelberg University is a MS. Periplous (circum-nayiga- 
 tion) the Greek text apparently of a Phoenician tablet, describing 
 Hon), tne ^ VQyage ^ fte Cartbaginlan Hanno, with. 30,000 
 
 Two Voyages : one co lonists, in tbe 5tb century B.C., from the Pillar., ot 
 southwards along tt southwards along tbe west coast ot Africa. 
 
 SS northwards SJaneonsly with this%oyage, the Carthaginian 
 along West nav ;„ ator Himilco, sailed northwards from Cades 
 pe ' along the western shores of Europe. The northern 
 expedition, says F. Avienns, who professes to have consulted the 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 72 
 
 narrative of Himilco’s voyage, penetrated to the (Estrymnides 
 (Scilly Islands), rich in tin and lead, thence to the Hibernian 
 Island, whence they reached the Island of Albion. The Tar- 
 tessians (i.e. people of Gades), says Avienus, carried on trade with 
 the (Estrymnides. 
 
 6. The enlarged world of Herodotos’ ken (about 481-400 b.c.), 
 whose travels compassed some 1,700 miles east and west, by about 
 
 as many north and south, was bounded on the north 
 herodotos ° f by Ike Amber region of the Baltic, with which MassaZia 
 (Marseilles) was in constant communication; on the 
 east by about the limits of the Persian Empire ; on the south by the 
 Indian Ocean and the Bed Sea ; on the west by the Atlantic. 
 Herodotos’ “ Africa ” ends on the south side with the parallel of the 
 southern limit of the Bed Sea. 
 
 7. By about 460 b.c. the globular shape of our planet was appre¬ 
 hended by Parmenides of Elea (a city of Italian or “Greater” 
 Greece). 
 
 8 . The Periplous of Skylax, deriving from the earlier part of the 
 4th century b.c., earliest geographical work extant in a complete 
 
 state, describes the Mediterranean coast-lands. 
 G Me S dnerranean e Starting from the Pillars of Herakles, the Periplous 
 Coast. follows the northern coast as far as the mouth of the 
 Tanais (Don), and thence coasts Asia and Africa west¬ 
 wards back to the starting-point. 
 
 9. Eudoxos of Kmdos (Caria), 4th century b.c., first furnished 
 Mathematical ma fhe ma ti c al demonstration of the spherical shape 
 demonstration of the earth afore asserted by Pythagoras and Par- 
 °f the Earth’s memdes. He further marked off* the globe into the 
 
 pnerici y. g ve zones with which it is still checkered. 
 
 10 . In the 4th century, Dikaiarchos of Messana ( Messina — 
 
 Italian Greece) introduced the parallel, of Bhodes 
 idea of lines of as a line of division between the northern and the 
 Latitude and southern habitable worlds. The parallel was further 
 Longitude. intersected at right angles by lines representing 
 meridians. 
 
 11. Pytheas of Massalia (about 330 B.c.), sailing northwards, 
 
 explored the island of “ Britain stretching far away 
 to the north ”, and, still further north, another island 
 P Horizon. called “ Thule ” (Orkneys, Shetlands, Iceland ?). Here 
 for the first time history catches distinct sight of the 
 island of Britain looming up at the outskirts of the world. 
 
 12. Thanks to Alexander, geography greatly widens its area, 
 pushing its boundaries east as far as the Indus and north as far 
 as the Oxus. Nearchos, his general, explored also the coasts from 
 the mouth of the Indus to the Persian Gulf (326-5 b.c.). Collec- 
 
STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 73 
 
 The widened 
 World of 
 Alexander. 
 Geographical 
 Collection. 
 
 tion was also diligently made of natural products to ^enfcfor 
 scientific elaboration to Alexander s tutor, the Stagei- 
 rite Aristotle. Alexander’s enlarged world got re¬ 
 gistered in the geographical works of Dikaiarchos, 
 
 whose maps are praised by Cicero. 
 
 13. Eratosthenes of Kyrene (276-196 B.C.) was the 
 first to draw lines parallel to the Equator, and, by a measuiement 
 extended over 15° of latitude, to attempt a measurement of the 
 earth’s circumference. The earth ot his Geographica 
 The Equator as a /- n three books) stretches north to Thule, east to 
 base Of Latitude. gout ^ to the “Cinnamon Region ” (the angle 
 
 of Africa opposite Arabia), and west to Promontorium Sacrum 
 (Cape StpYincentp (162 _ 145 Bx 3 i nven ted the planisphere 
 
 —method of representing the heavens on a plane, and 
 Planisphere. discovered the precession of the equinoxes. His cata¬ 
 logue of the stars is extant in Ptolemy’s Almagest. 
 
 15 Strabo, 54 B.C.-20 A.D., has left us a most valuable geogra¬ 
 phical bequest in his Geographica of seventeen books, 
 r 5S2KS.. Still extant, all but the seventh, of which last there 
 
 Geographic*. remaing Qnly a bave epitome . 
 
 16. The Roman arms conquered new provinces also for geography. 
 A survey of the Roman Empire initiated by Julius Caesar was com¬ 
 pleted in the reign of Augustus by Agnppa (63-12 
 The Roman Map B c \ ass isted by the best geometricians of the day. 
 ° f ittnwaries On the itinerary surveys was based a map of the world 
 ■\yhich was painted in a portico. Whether the map 
 was furnished with parallels and meridians, we do not know. Of the 
 Roman road-maps, Itineraria jpicta, showing the routes in the Em¬ 
 pire, we have a specimen in P exiting er's Tablet, now at Vienna, de¬ 
 riving from the 3rd century, and found in a library at Speyer in the 
 15th century. Still extant is a plan of Rome engraved on slabs 
 of marble on a scale of 1: 300. In order to its ready 
 
 Plan of Rome. 
 
 or maruie oll a suaie ui x . uw. ^ 
 
 consultation by Roman citizens, it was fixed against a 
 wall of the Roman Town Hall. , , 
 
 17 . The geography of Pliny (first four of his thirty-seven books ot 
 
 * . Historia Naturalis) comprises notices of arctic regions 
 
 Phnys Geography. g can di nav i a n l an ds, the Atlas mountains, the 
 
 Niger, the insular determination of Ceylon. 
 
 18. Ptolemy, the great Alexandrian astronomer,. about loO a.d. 
 His charts and topography are based on lines of latitude and longi¬ 
 tude, but compiled almost wholly from itineraries. 
 
 Pt 0 le bo y ok TeXt ‘ His work in eight books, the great authority on the 
 science down into the 15th century, comprehends 
 Europe west and east; Africa; Western Asia or Asia Minor; Asia 
 
_ 
 
 74 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Major; India; the Golden Chersonese (Peninsula of Malacca), 
 Serica (north-west of China, whence silk was obtained), Sinai (south 
 part of China), and Taprobane (Ceylon). 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (continued) 
 
 The Modern World 
 
 19. In the end of the 9th century a.d. Iceland, colonised from Nor- ^ 
 way, obtains entry into geography. In 986 Bjorni, sailing from .V/, 
 Early Norse Dis- Iceland to join his father in Greenland, made too far 
 covery of America, south, but sighted America. He is the first historic 
 Measurement of a % ure to sail the eastern coast of North America. In 
 Degree of the the 9th century Al-Mamum, son of the famous Harun- 
 Meridian. al-Rashid, undertook on the plain of Mesopotamia the 
 measurement of a degree of the meridian. 
 
 20. Marco Polo, end of 13th century, gave to Europe, in his 
 Eastern Lands Travels, finished 1298, a vast store of information on 
 
 the hitherto unknown countries of the far East. 
 
 21 . The property of the magnet to point to the north was known 
 in the 11th century. In 1185 the magnet got poised on a pivot. In 
 
 1302 Gioja of Amalfi attached it to a compass-card, 
 its h utfiifation for ex ^ibiting the direction of the winds. And, still in the 
 Navigation. 12th century, the Italians utilised it for their maritime 
 surveys, and in course of time produced a series of • 
 charts on which are delineated with remarkable fidelity the shores 
 frequented by them, from the recesses of the Black Sea on one side 
 to the mouth of the Rhine on the other. 
 
 22. In 1486 the Portuguese commander Dias rounded 
 Hopegivento I^e sou fl iern point of Africa, calling it Cabo Tormen- 
 the World. toso. But this name King Joao II. changed to the 
 happier “ .Cape of Good Hope”. 
 
 23. On the basis of Ptolemy’s tables, the eastern shores of Asia 
 were pushed immensely beyond their actual limits. And it was with 
 the view of making the wealthy trading marts of China 
 Unveiled ? 1 that in 1492 Columbus embarked on the most historic j 
 of all voyages. This adventure gave to the eastern 
 half of the world its western half, and, no more theoretically alone 
 but also sensibly, rounded our earth into a globe. Hence the United 
 States, Canada, potatoes, tobacco, a new era for the doubled and 
 awakened world, an era of Bacon, experiment, and Greater Britain, 
 an era affecting the condition of every man since and now alive. 
 
STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 75 
 
 24. In 1498 sailing by way of the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco de 
 24. in 14ya, reached the shores of India. By this lucky 
 
 Entire Sea-route VO yage be ab once cancelled all the_ inconvenience, 
 bet 3 n E cS° pe delay, and expense of land travel, and transferred to 
 the sea the whole burden of carriage between Europe 
 
 aD 2ih *111^513, from the top of a mountain Nunez de Balboa looked 
 down on the Pacific rolling between Western America and Eastern 
 Asia, and annexed it to geography, taking possession of the ocean 
 
 "TpivtshTpTiTnder Magellan entered the straits thenceforth 
 befring his name, October, 1520. Three of them launching into the 
 Pacifie°reached the Philippines 1521. Continuing the voyage by way 
 of tbeCape of Good Hope, Sebastian del Cano with 
 Thou hast first one ship and eighteen survivors put m again at ban 
 surrounded me. L ^ence the five ships started. The first his ;> 
 toric circumnavigation of the globe. “Primus circnmded.sti me 
 (thou hast first surrounded me), says the Earth to.Sebastian.. f 
 27. Not long after 1500 (under final persuasion or 
 The Earth be- Copernicus) the earth shifted from the centre of the 
 co "of S the Sun!^ e solar system to the position of a planet, nmety-two 
 million miles off, revolving round the sun. 
 
 ■ 28. The problem of measuring the ship’s progress “ 
 
 tempted by the Romans. The revolutions of a paddle-wheel dragged 
 behind the ship were used to estimate speed, lhe 
 Ship’s Log. , Qn whicll dead-reckoning might be confidently 
 carried out, is first described in Bourne’s Regiment for the Sea, pub- 
 
 llS 29. d By cnd of the 16th century the western shores of the North 
 Atlantic were completely explored as far as t } ie ^ ol T ap , nd 
 
 1576-85 Frobisher and Davis eydored Labrador 
 Eastern Shore Of t | ie wes t coas t of Greenland. In 1616 Baton, wno 
 Lab«idor?G?een- names Baffin’s Bay, reached 78° N.latitude. n e 
 1m<i 7s;n., and me century the Spaniards gave to geography me 
 Pacific islands. Ma the Society Islands, and the New Hebrides 
 
 30. Sailing out of Plymouth 1577, Drake threaded Magellan s 
 Straits, and, after making the Moluccas, held straight 
 First English across the Indian Ocean, and shot again into Plymouth 
 
 Circumnavigation, acros^ ^ November) 15 g 0 . The first English 
 
 elrth’s' standing to the other celestial bodies was, on the 
 Copernican basis, further elaborated by the discoveries 
 
 The Earth’s f Galileo and Kepler, culminating m Newtons law 
 Position revised, or uameo huu tP • 1 • Pviwrirtia 
 
 Universal 0 f universal gravitation, published m Ins JrTin ]? , 
 
 Gravitation, 
 
76 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 32. Geography benefited in the way of scientific precision by Gali- 
 Teiescope Pendu- leo ’ s Mention of the telescope, 1610; by Huygens’ 
 lum-ciock. Spiral- construction of the pendulum-clock, 1657; and Hooke’s 
 
 S Lc?^arithms h ' s Pi ra l-spring watch, 1676. Napier’s invention of lo- 
 ogan ms. g ar itbms, facilitating computations, served the cause 
 also of geography. 
 
 33. The first glimpse we get of Canada is the establishment of a 
 
 fishing station by some Basque, Normandy, and Brit- 
 Nova s<f<rtiaT tany sailors on the bank of Nova Scotia and in the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, about 1504. In 1525 the river- 
 lands of the St. Lawrence Gulf were formally taken possession of in 
 the name of France. In 1534 the famous French sailor, Jacques 
 .. Cartier, landing near the Miramichi River, New Bruns- 
 the r st e Lawrence wick, sailed up the St. Lawrence Gulf, and, in name 
 aS fa £ e a ai Mont ' ^ ie -^ renc k monarch, claimed all the lands he sighted 
 on the mainland. Next year he gave the name of St. 
 Lawrence to the channel which he discovered on St. Lawrence’s day 
 (August 10). On the 2nd October of the same year he reached the 
 town of Hochelaga, which he called Mont Royal (Montreal). From 
 1602 to 1635 Samuel de Champlain laboured diligently at the coloni- 
 Ouebec founded sa ^ on Canada, founding the city of Quebec, 1608. 
 and. 6 Explorations His memoirs and map of the country are still extant, 
 thence in all From Canada as centre explorations radiated in all 
 Direc ions. directions: north to Hudson Bay, west to the Lakes, 
 south-west to the Mississippi. Richelieu’s charter gave to the 
 French Company entire jurisdiction over a “ New France”, of no 
 pinching limits but ranging from Florida to Hudson Bay, the wide 
 domain between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico receiving in 1673 the 
 name of Louisiane , in honour of Louis XIY. Not less generous was 
 James I.’s charter, which conferred on the English merchants the 
 territory from 40th to 48th parallel and from Atlantic to Pacific. 
 
 The counter- treaty Utrecht in 1713 sought to settle the 
 
 Claims of France counter-claims of French and English by conceding to 
 and England the latter a part of Acadia (Nova Scotia), Newfound- 
 a readjusted by 1 land, and Hudson Bay Territories, and confining the 
 1 JJ® at Y? f . Pari ? former to Canada, Cape Breton Island, with Miquelon 
 France^utof and St. Pierre, together with certain rights of fishery 
 America alto- 0I1 the Newfoundland coast—rights giving rise to recent 
 S the Frenchfeft e friction between France and England. By Wolfe’s 
 in Canada their capture of Quebec, 1759, the whole of Canada was lost 
 and^raditafns 6 ' to France. The English rule of the land dates accord¬ 
 ingly from the accession of George III. Dispossessed 
 of “ New France”, the French have yet left their blood, language, 
 and traditions in Canada. A census of Canada in 1722 showed 25,000 
 French in the colony; 7,000 at Quebec and 3,000 at Montreal. In 
 
STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 77 
 
 1791 Canada was divided into Upper and Lower Canada, which were 
 united in 1867. Large provinces have since been sue- 
 How Canada has (jgggiygly etd-ded* till now CsixiEtdcL Gnibr&cGS 3; dominion 
 grown big. of 3)456 ggg squar e miles, with a population in 1891 
 
 of 4,833,239, of whom 1,404,974 speak French. . 
 
 34 . In 1498 Columbus reached the coast of Pana, north ot the 
 Orinoco. Two years later the coast of Brazil was ex- 
 Sh America plored. Soon most of the north and east coast became 
 . £ nown> Tin 1513? however, when Balboa crossed the 
 isthmus and beheld the South Pacific, the land was supposed to form 
 part of Asia. In 1520 Magellan made the passage of the straits 
 Magellan’s bearing his name. On an exploring expedition to the 
 Straits, Peru, the SO uth of Panama, Pizarro arrived in 1526 at Peru, which 
 At became the conquest of Spain in 1533, a conquest which 
 Paraguay. l e d to the discovery of the Amazon, 1540. By 1546 
 the Parana and the Paraguay were included in geography. Northern 
 Chili became the geographical and political conquest 
 Northern Chili. q£ Spain> 1535 _ 46# The gearch £or E1 Dorado in the 
 
 16th and 17th century opened up wide regions in the interior of New 
 Granada and Venezuela. In 1800 Humboldt explored 
 The Land £ ] ie Orinoco, and in the course of five years opened up 
 ° P ti?mboidt y a vast extent of territory in Venezuela. Colombia, 
 Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, astronomically determin¬ 
 ing more than 700 positions and carefully mapping out the new tern- 
 
 tC> 35*. In Africa, Bruce (1770) discovered the Abai source of the Blue 
 Nile, then considered the main current of the Great 
 River. In 1795, and again in 1805, Park explored the 
 Niger. A further survey of that river was made by 
 Macgregor in 1832. The southern end of the conti¬ 
 nent was opened up by missionaries like Moffat, but 
 most of all by Livingstone, who by 1856 had trodden 
 about 11,000 miles of ground till then mostly altogether unexplored, 
 penetrating northwards as far as Lake Ngami at 20 S. latitude. 
 In 1871, along with Stanley, he found the river Rusizi flowing into 
 the north of Lake Tanganyika. Starting from Zanzi- 
 Lake Tanganyika. Burton an( j Speke in 1857 had discovered Lake 
 Tanganyika. In 1863 Speke and Grant found a source of the Nile m 
 Lake Victoria Nyanza. West of Victoria, Baker m 
 Victoria Nyanza. lg64 ^ gcovere ^ the Albert _ Nyanza. In 1874-7o 
 Albert Nyanza. Cameron crossed tropical Africa from east to west. 
 MwutanNzige. In 1875 Stanley discovered the Mwutan Nzige. 
 
 Striking the Lualaba at Nyangwe he made his way 
 down stream, and in the autumn of 1877 arrived at the mouth of the 
 Congo, thereby demonstrating the identity of the Lualaba and 
 
 Blue Nile. 
 
 Niger. 
 
 South Africa. 
 
78 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the Congo. In 1877-79 Serpa Pinto crossed from JBenguela to 
 
 The Congo. Durban in Natal. In 1884 Thomson from Mombasa, 
 
 going by way of Kilimanjaro, journeyed across Masai 
 Africa crossed. Land to the Victoria Nyanza. In 1887-90, at the head 
 of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition, Stanley sailed 
 up the Congo, traversed a vast, almost impenetrable, primeval forest 
 in the darkest heart of Africa, discovered a new 
 r °Alri?a arkeSt source of the Nile, restored to their true place in maps 
 the legendary Mountains of the Moon, and gave a new 
 bay to the Victoria Nyanza. 
 
 Discovered in the 16th century by the Portuguese, Australia was, in 
 16G4, named New Holland by the Dutch that had already surveyed 
 much of its coast-line. Britain, in the person of 
 D AusSia° f Dampier, first sighted the Australian Continent 1688. 
 
 In 1770 Cook made a careful survey of the whole of 
 the east coast, from Gipps’ Land on the south-east to Cape York in 
 the north, giving their names to Botany Bay, New South Wales, and 
 other places. Sydney as a convict settlement was founded 1788. 
 Bass Strait between Australia and Tasmania points back to Surgeon 
 Bass, who with Flinders sailed its waters in 1790. 
 fxpioration. Ei 1801-5 Flinders further surveyed Moreton Bay 
 (Queensland), Gulfs of Spencer and St. Vincent in the 
 south, and parts of the north coast. Port Phillip (at the head of 
 which stands Melbourne) was the discovery of Lieut. Murray in 1802. 
 The blanks still left in the exploration of the Australian coast were 
 filled up by the Beagle (carrying Charles Darwin on board), 1837-43. 
 Since 1813 the opening up of the interior has been strenuously 
 endeavoured; and the history of its exploration is a 
 Exploration, record of heroic suffering and heartbreaking effort. 
 
 In 1815 the Lachlan River (tributary of the Murrum- 
 bidgee) was traced for 300 miles. Next, Oxley pushed through New 
 South Wales into Queensland, laying open the Brisbane River. In 
 1824 Hume made his way overland from Sydney to Port Phillip. 
 In 1829 Sturt joined the Murrumbidgee to the Murray. In 1831-36 
 Mitchell explored Eastern Australia, opening up the fairest and richest 
 part of Victoria. In 1840 Eyre, after exploring the eastern shores 
 of Lake Torrens, accomplished a distressing march of 1,209 miles 
 from Adelaide to King George’s Sound. In 1844-45, following up 
 the Darling River, Sturt penetrated to within a degree of the tropic. 
 At the same time Leichardt followed up the watercourses of the east 
 coast chain from the Darling Downs to Port Essington. In 1854 
 Austin made the sources of the Gascoyne, Western Australia. In 
 1881-62 McDowall Stuart first crossed right through the central axis 
 of Australia from south coast to north, opening up a track for the 
 overland telegraphic line of 1872. The terra ignota lying between 
 
STAGES IN THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHY 79 
 
 tlie overland line and the western fringe of Australia has been crossed 
 by Warburton 1873, by J. Forrest 1874, by Giles 1875-6, by Saunders 
 and Adam 1876, by A. Forrest 1879. There still remain in the 
 heart of Western Australia some 260,000 square miles of completely 
 unknown land, besides other blocks scored by only a few exploration 
 lines. 
 
 The settlement of the Moreton Bay distinct dates from 1825, of 
 Western Australia from 1829, of Southern Australia from 1834, of 
 Port Phillip district from 1835. Port Phillip was con- 
 G °AusSS? ° f stituted a separate province under the name of Vic¬ 
 toria in 1850, and in 1859 Queensland was set up on 
 its own basis. 1851, the year of the discovery of gold, dates an era 
 in the history of Australia, the beginning of a great inrush of 
 immigration, which swelled the population from 267,000 at that date 
 to 1,298,667 in the course of sixteen years. 
 
 36. On the 13th July, 1607, Henry Hudson made 80° 23' N. This 
 mark held the top record for 166 years, at the end of which, in 1773, 
 J. C. Phipps overshot that level by 23', attaining a 
 Exploration. N. latitude of 80° 46'. This register was surpassed on 
 24th May, 1806, by William Scoresby, who scored 
 81° 30' N. The next to top the record was Payer, who on the 12th 
 April, 1874, touched on Franz Josef Land, 82° 05' N. 
 The last Twelve On the 30th June, 1871, F. Meyer, of the United 
 Awtfp ■ States, got -just a neck ahead of that goal, reaching 
 Repulse Harbour, Greenland, 82° 09' N. The year 
 before, on the 30th August, 1870, C. F. Hall attained 82° 11' N. 
 On the 23rd July, 1827, W. E. Parry reached 82° 45' N., the sixth 
 record from Nansen’s. The British Polar Expedition of 1875 
 reached Floeberg Beach, 82° 25' N. On an exploring trip from Floe- 
 berg Beach, Lieut. Aldrich, on the 25th September, 1875, gained 
 82° 48' N.—the fifth step in descent from Nansen. Another party, 
 under command of (now Admiral) Markham, set out from Floeberg 
 Beach to make for the North Pole. Having gained Cape Henry, 
 82° 55' N., Markham, with two sledges and seventeen men, took the 
 frozen Polar sea, 10th April, 1876. After making with great diffi¬ 
 culty seventy-three miles, the party had to abandon one of their two 
 boats, but the other was dragged ahead over indescribably rugged 
 ice-floes. Disease overtook them, and five of the seventeen, disabled 
 by scurvy, had to be carried on a sledge. Still they pressed polar- 
 wards, and, 12th May, 1876, reached 83° 20' N., the fourth record in 
 descent from Nansen’s. The next higher record is an American 
 mark scored 13th May, 1882, by Lockwood and Brainard, of the 
 “Lady Franklin Expedition”. This expedition set forth from St. 
 John’s, Newfoundland, 7th July, 1881, twenty-three of the strongest 
 men of the United States; it returned, July, 1884, six skeletons. 
 
8 o 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 This record has now been degraded from topmost to third rung in 
 the descending scale of Arctic discovery by the Nansen Expedition. 
 
 In the From-, Otto Sverdrup and ten more reached to within a few 
 minutes of 86° N. Lastly, we have the highest register of all made 
 by Nansen and Johannesen, who, on the 7th April, 1895, attained 
 86° 13' N. lat. 
 
 37. In the Antarctic regions Biscoe discovered Enderby Land 
 
 Enderby Land a ! 1(i ^ ral t am Land, 1830-32. In 1840 Dumont d’Ur- 
 
 Graham Land.’ ville attained 66° 30' S. The same year Boss gained 
 78° 4' S., and, next year, forcing his way through 
 R vme d and f RoS" ^ oe . s more than 1,000 miles wide, he was arrested by 
 an icy barrier at 78° 10' S. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 GENERAL GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINATIONS 
 
 1. The shape of the earth is that of an ellipsoid; its equa¬ 
 torial diameter 7926*6 miles, but its polar only 7899*6 miles. That is, 
 the equatorial exceeds the polar diameter by 27 miles, or of 
 the mean diameter. Equatorial circumference=24,899 miles; 
 meridional = 24,856 miles. Total area — 197,000,000 sq. miles. 
 Total volume = 260,000,000,000 cubic miles = (approximately) 
 
 ! 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons. Mean density (the density of 
 
 pure water at 4° C.,=39‘2° F., being taken as unit) =5*5. 
 
 2. The earth makes an elliptic revolution round the sun. 
 
 Maximum distance (in June) of the earth from the sun=94,500,000 I 
 
 miles; minimum distance (in December) =91,250,000 miles. The 
 difference between the two, 3,250,000 miles, represents the eccen¬ 
 tricity of the earth’s orbit or the measure of its deflection from a 
 circle. The earth’s one satellite, the moon, holds a mean distance 
 from the earth of 238,800 miles. 
 
 3. The surface of the earth is not perfectly smooth, but \ 
 slightly puckered and dimpled, like the rind of an orange. The 
 highest point of the globe is Mount Everest, 29.000 feet above sea- 
 level. Leaving out parts of Tibet, elevations of so much as 15,000 
 feet are confined to very narrow bands in the highest mountain 
 ranges or to isolated peaks. The area above 12,000 feet is about 
 
 2 per cent, of the land-surface; the area above 6,000 feet occupies 
 less than 9 per c^nt. ; the area lying between 1,500 and 6.000 feet < 
 above sea-level occupies about 36 per cent, of the whole surface; the 
 land-area between sea-level and 1,500 feet above it, about 54 per 
 cent. The following are the respective elevations of the continents : 
 Europe, 939 ft.; Asia, 3,073 ft.; North America, 1,888 ft.; South 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINATIONS 81 
 
 America, 2,078 ft.; Australia, 805 ft. The mean height of land 
 surface above sea-level is about 2,250 ft. The deepest sea-sounding 
 known is that obtained in 1896 by H.M.S. Penguin at 30° 28' S. 
 by 17639° W., viz. 5,155 fathoms=30,930 ft.=5'858 miles. The 
 same ship found also 5,147 fathoms, and, at 23° 39' S. by 175*04° 
 W., 5,022 fathoms, when the wire broke. The line from sea-level to 
 lowest depth of the earth’s solid surface is therefore nearly 2,000 ft. 
 longer than from sea-level to topmost height. The depth from 
 highest to lowest point of the earth’s solid surface is 59,930 ft. = 11 
 miles, 1,850 ft.=y|o of the earth’s mean diameter. About 5 per 
 cent of the sea-area is less than 600 ft. deep; a little less than 5 per 
 cent, is more than 3,000 ft. deep; 77 per cent, has a depth of between 
 6,000 and 18,000 ft. Mean depth of sea=12,500 ft.=2 miles, 
 1,940 ft. 
 
 4. The earth’s surface is distributed between 55 million miles 
 land and 142 water. That is, the land-area above sea-level occupies 
 about 28 per cent., the hollow, sea-covered area about 72 per cent., 
 of the whole surface. Were all the land reduced to sea-level, and 
 the removed mass spread out on the chasms of our ocean, the 
 average depth of the sea would be lessened by only about T \. Or 
 reduce the solid crust of earth all to one level, and the whole envelope 
 of the globe would be one sea of two miles depth. About 50 per 
 cent, of all the land-surface of the earth lies in the Temperate Zone; 
 about 40 per cent, in the Torrid; and about 10 per cent, in the 
 Arctic. The land-area lies mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. 
 
 The Equator traverses land for only one-sixth of its length. The 
 parallel of 57° S. encounters no land at all, but makes one entire 
 round of sea. Part the world into two hemispheres, one having the 
 English Channel for its centre, the other New Zealand for centre. 
 The former hemisphere contains about seven-eighths of all the land- 
 area, and its proportion of land to sea is 12:13. The latter hemi¬ 
 sphere, taking in only about one-eighth of the land-area, encompasses 
 three-quarters of the sea-surface of the globe, and its proportion of 
 land to sea is 1:12. 
 
 The Sea. —The sea is marked off into oceans, and their respective 
 areas, according to Dr. John Murray, are as follow :— 
 
 Sq. miles. Per cent. 
 
 Pacific (from Arctic Circle to 40° S.). . , 58,100,000 40*54 
 
 Atlantic (from Arctic Circle to 40° S.) . . 30,150,000 21*04 
 
 Indian (reaching southwards to 40° S.) . . 18,100,000 12*63 
 
 Southern (from 40° S. to Antarctic Circle). 27,300,000 19*05 
 Arctic (within the Arctic Circle) .... 5,000,000 3*49 
 
 Antarctic (within the Antarctic Circle) . . 4,650,000 3*25 
 
 These oceans have the following average depths:—Pacific, 2,500 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 82 
 
 fathoms; Atlantic, 2,200 fathoms; Indian, 2,300 fathoms ; Southern, 
 2,200 fathoms; Antarctic, 630 fathoms; Arctic, 630 fathoms. 
 
 The greatest recorded depth is 5,155 fathoms at 30° 28' S. by 
 176'39° W. 4,655 fathoms has been sounded in Tuscarora deep, east 
 of the Kurile Islands; 4,475 fathoms in the North Pacific; 4,170 
 fathoms off the west coast of Chili; 4,561 fathoms in the Atlantic 
 (West Indies). 
 
 Temperature of the Land.— The variations of heat and cold with 
 change of season and the alternation of day and night are greatly 
 reduced at a depth of 100 fathoms under the surface, and still further 
 reduced lower down. At 300-400 fathoms depth an approximately 
 unvarying temperature is found. The chronic inner heat of the 
 globe increases about 1° F. for every fifty or sixty feet below the 
 surface. 
 
 Temperature of the Sea. —The temperature of the surface water of 
 the ocean varies with latitude, and ranges from 28° F. in the Polar re¬ 
 gions to 86° (or a little higher) in the Equatorial regions. The great 
 mass of the ocean consists of cold water under 45° or 40 c F. At a little 
 below half a mile from the surface the water in the tropics has a tem¬ 
 perature generally below 40°. At a little over a mile depth, the water 
 in all latitudes alike has a nearly constant uniform temperature near 
 freezing-point. This fact is due to flow of icy water from the Polar area 
 towards the Equatorial regions, along the sea-floor, to which, by reason 
 of its greater density, it sinks. This statement does not, however, 
 apply to seas cut off by barriers from the great ocean basins. In the 
 Pacific, the Indian, and the Atlantic Ocean, the bottom temperature 
 ranges from 32° to 36° F. Into the Mediterranean, on the other hand, 
 cut off from the Atlantic by a shoal reaching to within 200 fathoms of 
 the surface, all water of a temperature lower than about 55° F. is 
 prevented from passing. The temperature of the Mediterranean 
 from 200 fathoms down to 2,000 fathoms is therefore about 55° F. 
 In the Sulu Sea (between Borneo and the Philippines) the tempera¬ 
 ture from 400 to 2,500 fathoms deep is 50*5°. 
 
 Heavy rains or the influx of rivers will also affect the temperature of 
 the sea to within 100 fathoms from the surface. 
 
 Circulation of the Water of the Sea. — Of the moisture evapo¬ 
 rated from the sea, 6,500 cubic miles, it is calculated, is returned 
 thither annually by rivers. And, to the soluble salts suspended in 
 this mass of river water, the sea in all probability owes its salt¬ 
 ness. 
 
 The saltest waters lie in the regions of greatest evaporation—in the 
 Bed Sea, the Mediterranean, and, the trade-wind regions of the great 
 ocean basins. One of the warm places of the earth is the region of 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINATIONS 83 
 
 the Dead Sea, a sea losing by evaporation, it is calculated, about one 
 million tons of water each day. 
 
 The Longest Rivers in the World. —General von Tillo gives the 
 /following estimates of the eight longest rivers of the world : (i) 
 Missouri-Mississippi, 4,194 miles; (2) Nile, 4,020; (3) Yang-tse- 
 Kiang, 3,158; (4) Amazon, 3,063; (5) Yenisei-Selenga, 2,950; (6) 
 Amur, 2,920 ; (7) Congo, 2,883; (8) Mackenzie, 2,868. 
 
 In the Royal Geographical Society's Proceedings , E. Heawood, 
 leaving out of account the minor windings of these rivers, arrives at 
 the following order and lengths : (1) Nile, 3,100 miles ; (2) Yang- 
 tse-Kiang, 2,750; (3) Yenisei-Selenga, 2,700; (4) Amazon, 2,600; 
 (5) Mississippi, and (6) Congo, each 2,500; (7) Amur, 2,200; (8) 
 Mackenzie, 1,800. In respect of direct distance from source to mouth, 
 the Nile far surpasses any other river. 
 
 The Mediterranean. —The largest enclosed sea in the world, the 
 Mediterranean, is connected with the open ocean only by the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, nine miles wide at the Pillars of Herakles. Since 1869, 
 however, it communicates, by the Suez Canal, also with the Red Sea 
 and the Indian Ocean. Extending east and west from 6° W. to 36° E., 
 or nearly 2,200 miles long ; north and south from 46° N. to 30° N., or 
 from 8 to 500 miles broad, the Mediterranean (including the Black 
 Sea) has a shore-line of 4,500 leagues, an area of upwards of a million 
 square miles, and a volume of 709,800 cubic miles. The annual 
 volume of the rivers discharging into it is estimated at 226 cubic 
 miles, all of which and more is evaporated annually. Two currents, 
 one overlying the other, are continuously pouring through the Strait 
 of Gibraltar. The upper and more copious flows in from the Atlantic 
 at a rate of nearly three miles an hour, supplying the deficiency of 
 the rain-fall (precipitation + river-discharge) against evaporation. 
 The under-current is continuously flowing out of the Mediterranean 
 at the rate of about one and a half miles an hour. The general tem¬ 
 perature of the Mediterranean, from fifty fathoms depth to the 
 bottom, is almost constantly 56° F. Practically a tideless sea, there 
 is yet in many places a distinct rise and fall, due, however, to winds 
 and currents more than to lunar attraction. The “ Pola Deep ” 
 between Malta and Crete is 2,187 fathoms deep, and a depression to 
 the east of the island of Rhodes 2,110 fathoms. 
 
 In Scripture the Mediterranean is called the “ Hinder Sea” 
 (Deut. xi. 24), as being behind a person in Palestine looking east; 
 “ Sea of the Philistines” (Exod. xxii. 81), and “The Great Sea” 
 (Num. xxxiv. 6, etc.). Chaucer, too, names it the “ Greete Sea” 
 (Cant. Tales , Prol. 1. 59). To the Greeks it was ‘‘the Sea” or “the 
 Great Sea”; to the Romans, the “Mare Internum” or “ Intesti- 
 num ”. The name “ Mediterranean ” occurs first in Solinus. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 84 
 
 Climate. —Elements of climate are— 
 
 1. Geographical Latitude, or distance from the Equator. 
 Heat diminishes and variations of climate increase with increase of 
 distance from the Equator. In the Equatorial regions the earth is 
 warmest, and, barring the alternation of rainy and dry season, the 
 temperature there is practically uniform all the year round. The 
 measure of solar heat received by any part of the earth is in direct 
 proportion to the perpendicularity, in inverse proportion to the 
 obliquity, with which the sun’s rays strike it. Yet at Tornea, in Lap- 
 land, the obliquity wherewith the sun’s rays, even in summer, slant 
 so far north is compensated by the duration of the sun’s irradiation in 
 summer, when the sun hardly ever dips below the horizon, rendering 
 that place as hot sometimes as the torrid zone itself. 1 
 
 2. Elevation above Sea-level. Heat diminishes with increase 
 of altitude in a manner precisely corresponding to the reduction of 
 heat with increase of distance from the Equator. Apart from modify¬ 
 ing circumstances, the temperature cools 1° F. with every 800 feet 
 of ascent. On the Andes and the Himalayas, e.g., we have on a 
 smaller scale, from base to summit, all the successive zones of climate 
 belting the earth from the Equator towards either pole. 
 
 3. Local Configuration and situation relative to sea, winds, 
 
 etc. Owing to the great thermal capacity, absorbent 
 of e the Sahara an( i radiating, of sandy plains, the heat of the Sahara 
 and of the Sea. Desert, e.g., is excessive. The heat on the other hand 
 absorbed by the sea gets so diffused in the mass that 
 islands, peninsulas, and maritime places generally enjoy comparative 
 insular and equableness of temperature. How different, e.g., the 
 inland Climate, climate of Britain or New Zealand from that of Cen¬ 
 tral Asia. We accordingly distinguish between in¬ 
 sular and inland climate. Vegetation, again, absorbing heat for 
 organic development withdraws so much from the absorption and 
 radiation of the soil. A new ploughed field gives out much more 
 heat at a rapid rate than a field of pasture. How much heat is 
 stored up in vegetation is witnessed in part in the combustion of 
 coal. 
 
 The climate, again, of North-west Europe is affected by the general 
 
 1 So great is the heat spent by the sun that, according to Professor 
 Young, were a solid column of ice two and a quarter miles in diameter to 
 be built up from the earth ninety-three million smiles high to the sun, a 
 single second of the sun’s concentrated heat upon it would dissolve and 
 melt it; “one swing of the pendulum, the ice-column would be water; 
 seven more swings, vapour ”. The mechanical power of a single ray of 
 sunshine on each square foot of the earth’s surface has been calculated to 
 amount on the average to about fifty tons raised a mile high yearly. And 
 so much mechanical power might be all utilised in vegetable and animal 
 vitality! 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINATIONS 85 
 
 surface-flow of the Atlantic in a north-easterly direction from the 
 North west hot e fl ua l° r i a l zone. In the Northern Hemisphere 
 Europe is affected north and east winds blow cold; south and west winds 
 by the Water-flow are mild. People in Britain and Continental Europe 
 from the Equator. ( ji s |-j I1 g U i s | 1 between an east and north exposure and 
 a south and west aspect. In South Europe the winds from the 
 burning deserts of Africa are distinguishable from the winds off the 
 snowy Alpine heights. The snow-line, again, of the 
 on h b e oth 0 sfdes n of Himalayas reaches down 4,000 feet lower on the 
 the Himalayas, southern than on the northern side. The southern 
 side is lashed by the heavy rainfall caused by breakage 
 of the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean. 1 The vast 
 taible-lands of Central Asia, on the other hand, give to the northern 
 side extreme drought and summer heat. 
 
 4. Cultivation of the Soil. In his report for 1887, the British 
 Consul at Bussorah records how with the substitution of date and 
 wheat cultivation for that of rice, malarious fever had 
 affects Climate? grown comparatively rare in his district, and the 
 sallow complexions and suffering looks universal before 
 were no longer to be seen. Again, by merely transplanting euca¬ 
 lyptus from Australia, regions hitherto fatal to Europeans have been 
 rendered sweet and wholesome. 
 
 Dense smoke-fogs also affect mortality. In London, the mortality 
 for the week ending December 6, 1873, was 23 per 1,000. The 
 week following, when a very dense fog prevailed from 8th to 12th, 
 the mortality, rose to 27 per 1,000, and the week after to 38 per 
 1,000 ; while in the fog-week a great many cattle also died at the 
 cattle show. During a dense fog in the week of January-February, 
 1880, the mortality in London was 2,000 over the average. In a 
 heavy fortnight’s fog in 1886, the mortality in London mounted to 40 
 per 1,000. 
 
 Climatic Zones of the Himalayas. —1. The plain below covered 
 with rice, millet, etc. 2. The mountain base swathed with umbra¬ 
 geous forests of almost wholly tropical trees, giving 
 
 Zones^ontlie 0 cover to elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger, as also pea- 
 
 Himaiayas. cock and gay-coloured birds; the tree-stems roped 
 round with dark climbing aroids ; the ground beneath 
 matted and heaped with a tangled growth of undershrubs and 
 creepers, tree-ferns, orchids, etc. 3. Higher up, opener ever-green 
 
 1 Whereas Britain gets on an average about 25 inches of rainfall a year, 
 Stanley’s “ Darkest Africa ” gets three times that amount or 75 inches. 
 But that is nothing to some parts of the eastern Himalayas, which come 
 in for 800 inches, or thirty-two times Britain’s share. At Cherrapungi as 
 much as 30 inches of rain fell in every twenty-four hours during five suc¬ 
 cessive days in 1841. 
 
86 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 | 
 
 woods ; lofty pines, rhododendrons, oaks, laurels. 4. Still higher, 
 forests of deciduous trees of surpassing size and beauty, crowning 
 hill-tops and fringing river-courses, intermingled with flowering 
 shrubs and abundant herbaceous plants. The arboraceous vegeta¬ 
 tion usually ends at 12,000 to 13,000 feet above sea-level. 5. Region 
 of open pastures, luxuriantly gemmed with gentian, primula, anemone, 
 ranunculus, etc. 6. At 14,000 to 15,000 feet high, a bare and treeless 
 desert, with here and there a bush one or two feet tall. 7- Tibetan 
 plateau of salt marshes, abode of marmot, lagomys, ounce, lynx, etc. 
 
 Temperatures. —The coldest natural temperature hitherto registered 
 on the earth’s surface is— 88*8° F. ( i.e ., 120*8° below freezing point), 
 a natural Tom. observed January, 1886, at Verkhoyansk, in Siberia 
 perature of 120° (.67° 34' N., and 133° 51' E.). At the same place the 
 below Freezing lowest monthly mean (January) for the years 1869- 
 °* n ‘ 1872, 1883-1887; was — 61*2° F., its highest monthly 
 
 mean (July) 58*6° F., and its annual mean 1*3° below zero, or 32*3° 
 below freezing point. For the same years the average January 
 temperature in Marcliinskoe was 47*5° below zero (79*5° below freez¬ 
 ing point). In North-west India, on the other hand, 
 A temperature th e thermometer in free shaded air sometimes reaches 
 o. l ^ an , | 25 ° and its monthly mean, calculated over several 
 years, is fully 110° F. In the Sahara 133° has been registered. 
 
 The following are (1) the highest monthly, (2) the lowest monthly, 
 (3) the mean annual temperature, of various places, according to 
 
 Challenger Report: 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 Mean 
 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Monthly 
 
 Annual 
 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 . . 50*3° 
 
 Greenwich . . 
 
 63*6° (July) . 
 
 . 38*8° (Jan.) . 
 
 Edinburgh. . . 
 
 58° (July) |. . 
 
 . 36-9° (Dec.) 
 
 . . 46*4° 
 
 Falmouth . . . 
 
 00-9° (Aug.) . 
 
 . 417° (Dec.) 
 
 . . 51*2° 
 
 Paris .... 
 
 66° (July) . . 
 
 . 37° (Dec.) . , 
 
 . . 50*8° 
 
 Nice. 
 
 72-6° .... 
 
 . 45'4°(Jan.). 
 
 . . 58*6° 
 
 Vienna .... 
 
 68*5° (July) . 
 
 . 29-6° (Jan.) . 
 
 . . 48*8° 
 
 Berlin .... 
 
 66*7° (July) . 
 
 . 32-8° (Dec. & Jan.) 48'5° 
 
 St. Petersburg . 
 
 63*7° (July) . , 
 
 . 17*2° (Jan.). , 
 
 . . 38*7° 
 
 Rome .... 
 
 76*6° (July) . . 
 
 . 44*8° (Jan.). , 
 
 . . 59*7° 
 
 Calcutta . . . 
 
 84*6° (May) . . 
 
 66*9° (Dec.). , 
 
 . . 78*3° 
 
 New York. . . 
 
 73*6° (July) . . 
 
 30*3° (Jan.). , 
 
 . . 51*4° 
 
 Chicago. . . . 
 
 72*9° (July) . . 
 
 25*5° (Jan.) . . 
 
 . . 49*4° 
 
 According to the latest estimates, the continents as a whole are 
 Climates of 3° ^ en ^- colder than the oceans between 90° N. and 
 Continents and 50° S. The New Continent is 3° Cent, colder than 
 Oceans. the Continent. The Atlantic is 2*6° colder than 
 
 the Pacific. The following is Tillo’s classification of the continents 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINATIONS 87 
 
 and oceans according to their mean annual and monthly tempera¬ 
 tures, in degrees Centigrade :—: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Africa 
 S. America 
 Australia . 
 Indian Ocean . 
 Pacific Ocean . 
 All Oceans 1 
 Atlantic . 
 
 Old Continent. 
 All Continents 1 
 New Continent 
 Asia and Europe 
 N. America 
 
 Mean 
 Temp. 
 + 26-4° 
 + 23 0° 
 + 22-3° 
 + 20-4° 
 + 19*6° 
 + 18-3° 
 + 17*0° 
 + 15-8° 
 + 15-0° 
 +12-9° 
 + 10 - 0 ° 
 + 4*7° 
 
 Mean 
 
 January. . Temp. 
 Australia . . + 29‘4° 
 
 S. America . +25'1° 
 
 Africa . . +23*7° 
 
 All Oceans 1 . +17'9° 
 
 All Continents 1 +7’3° 
 
 Old Continent . +6 - 4° 
 
 New Continent +5*3° 
 Asia and Europe —3*0° 
 N. America . — 8‘7° 
 
 Mean 
 
 July. Temp. 
 
 Africa . . +271° 
 
 Old Continent . +2P5° 
 
 Asia and Europe + 23‘1° 
 All Continents. + 22 ’9° 
 
 S. America . + 20'9° 
 
 New Continent +20'2° 
 N. America . +19*7° 
 
 All Oceans . +19*2° 
 
 Australia . . -f 16'4° 
 
 In a comparison of the climates of London, Sumburgh Head (at 
 south of Shetlauds, 500 miles north of London), Stornoway (an 
 island of Lewis, 500 miles north of London), and 
 T 0 h f e “ s Nairn (400 miles north of London), for 119 days, from 
 Sumburgh Head, November, 1887, to March, 1888, General Stracliey 
 NaS! 0 com y pared. i' oun( l that Stornoway had secured 19 day-degrees of 
 ’ heat above 42° F. more than London, or about 14 per 
 cent, more, and had experienced 80 day-degrees below 42° F. less 
 than London, or about 9 per cent. less. On the whole, assuming 
 42° F. as a neutral temperature from which to reckon, the winter in 
 London for these 119 days had experienced nearly 12 per cent, more 
 cold than the station in the Hebrides, and about 12 per cent, less heat. 
 Nairn, on the same basis, had had 7 per cent, more heat than London, 
 but also nearly 18 per cent, more cold. Sumburgh Head had 30 per 
 cent, less heat than London, but only 3 per cent, more cold. Yet out 
 of the 119 days it rained at Stornoway for 109, whereas in London 
 rain fell on only 71 days. On the other hand, Stornoway enjoyed, in 
 the 119 days, bright sunshine for 248 hours, but London for only 137. 
 
 Scafell, in Cumberland, is the wettest district of England, upwards 
 of 200 inches of rain falling in the coursfe of one year. In his 
 British Rainfalls, Mr. J. Symons notes, in the same district, Seath- 
 waite, where the average yearly rainfall of nine .years was 128*03 
 inches, and Sprinkling Tarn with 115*22 inches. In 1889 the rainfall 
 of Seathwaite is said to have been 208 inches, with 217 rainy days. 
 
 Given the constituents of a soil, and the amount of moisture, heat, 
 and sunshine it receives, it is but a problem in equations to deter¬ 
 mine what crop and what amount thereof is in its capacity. For, of 
 course, all the latter is in the former ; the seed serves only as medium 
 for transmutation (chemical change) of the former into the latter. 
 
 1 I.e. between 90° N. and 50° S. lat. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 88 
 
 Wheat may be grown in Europe up to about 60° N. lat., but east¬ 
 wards through Asia to the Pacific only to about 40° N. In America 
 wheat is growable in the north-west territories of Canada up to about 
 60° N., but in the east will hardly thrive beyond 44° N. An inch of 
 rain, it should be considered,=6,271,640 square inches of rain to the 
 acre=say only 22,000 gallons=220,000 lbs.=100 tons. The of 
 an inch of water is therefore equal to one ton to the acre. 
 
 Trade-Winds.— The heated air round the Equatorial belt ascending, 
 its vacated place is supplied by an inrush of colder air from the Poles. 
 
 How Wind blows Tllis air > too >. g ettin g in its turn. heated and ratified, 
 Equatorwards and ascends, to give place to a fresh inrush of denser air. 
 
 g We S 3twlrd t s ed £or tlie ear th’s rotation, there would be two con¬ 
 
 stant currents of air blowing direct, one from the 
 north, the other from the south, towards the Equator. The earth is, 
 however, in continuous revolution on its axis from west to east, its 
 velocity being greatest, at the Equator, and diminishing with the dis¬ 
 tance from it. The air blowing from the Poles is, therefore, arriving 
 successively at places of successively greater velocity than itself. 
 
 A North Trade ^at sa y> a ^ r f rom the Poles cannot on its 
 
 and a south Trade, southward course keep up with the eastern whirl of 
 the earth. And so the north wind, instead of blow¬ 
 ing to a point on the Equator straight south of its northern starting- 
 point, lags all along the road, and so, relatively to the earth, blows 
 from north-east to south-west. Similarly the wind from the South 
 Pole blows from south-east to north-west. These two opposite currents 
 are in force on all open oceans, one to a distance of about 30° N., the 
 other to about 30° S., of the Equator, blowing from north-east in the 
 Northern, from south-east in the Southern, Hemisphere. Since the time 
 of Columbus’s first voyage, these winds have been known and utilised 
 as “trade-winds They do duty with most uniformity on the Atlan¬ 
 
 tic and the Pacific Ocean, blowing on the Atlantic between 9° and 
 30° N. (a North Trade), and between 4° and 22° S. (a South Trade) ; 
 on the Pacific between 9° and 26° N., and between 4° and 23|° S. 
 In the vicinity of land, however, their course gets so far distracted. 
 
 The region wherein these two counter-winds meet and neutralise 
 
 Belt of calms. ea °P other is the Belt of Calms, 4° or 5° lat. broad, 
 across Atlantic and Pacific. This “ Calm Belt” is, 
 however, marked also by a terrific discharge of all the moisture of 
 the two winds, heavy rains and thunder-storms occurring almost 
 daily. 
 
 Population of the Earth. —A new edition of the Bevolkerung der 
 Nrde, published 1891, after an interval of nine years, gives the follow¬ 
 ing:— 
 
COLONISABLE LANDS 89 
 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Po pulation 
 per Sq. Mile. 
 
 Europe (without Iceland, NovaZembla, 
 and the Atlantic Islands). 
 
 3,756,850 
 
 357,379,000 
 
 92 
 
 Asia (without the Polar Islands) . . 
 
 17,044,182 
 
 825,954,000 
 
 48 
 
 Africa (without Madagascar, etc.) . . 
 
 11,277,325 
 
 163,953,000 
 
 14 
 
 America (without the Polar Islands) . 
 
 14,801,400 
 
 2,971,440 
 
 121,713.000 
 
 8 
 
 Australia (Mainland and Tasmania) . 
 
 3,230,000 
 
 1 
 
 Oceanic Islands . 
 
 733,120 
 
 7,420,000 
 
 10 
 
 Polar Regions. 
 
 1,730,830 
 
 80,400 
 
 — 
 
 Totals . . 0 
 
 62,315,147 
 
 1,479,729,400 
 
 28 
 
 The above table shows an increase of fbrty-five millions over 1882, 
 the difference, however, being due, not entirely to actual changes in 
 the population, but more to accurate data having become available. 
 The table, it will be noticed, credits Africa with a population greater 
 by forty millions than that of Mr. Ravenstein’s estimate (see below). 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 LANDS STILL AVAILABLE FOR EUROPEAN 
 SETTLEMENT 
 
 In a paper read in 1890 before the Geographical Section of the British 
 Science Association, Mr. E. G. Ravenstein calculates (1) the present 
 population of the world and its probable increase; (2) the area of the 
 globe cultivable for food and other necessaries of human life; (3) the 
 total population the cultivable area would be able to maintain. 
 
 Present Population.— The world’s population in 1890 he estimates:— 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 To a Sq. Mile. 
 
 Europe . . 
 
 389,000,000 
 
 101 
 
 Asia 
 
 830,000,000 
 
 57 
 
 Africa. 
 
 127,000,000 
 
 11 
 
 Australasia. 
 
 4,730,000 
 
 1*4 
 
 North America. 
 
 89,250,000 
 
 14 
 
 South America . . . ; . 
 
 36,420,000 
 
 5 
 
 Totals .... 
 
 1,467,600,000 
 
 31 
 
 The total population of the above table is exclusive of 300,000 in 
 the Polar Regions. 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 90 
 
 Cultivable Area. —The area of the land-surface of the globe, exclu¬ 
 sive of the Polar Regions (4,888,800 square miles), Mr. Ravenstein 
 distributes as follows :— 
 
 
 Fertile Region. 
 
 Steppe. 
 
 Desert. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 Asia.. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Australasia . . . 
 
 North America. . 
 
 South America . . 
 
 2,888,000 
 
 9,280,000 
 
 5,760,000 
 
 1,167,000 
 
 4,946,000 
 
 4.228,000 
 
 667,000 
 
 4,230,000 
 
 3,528,000 
 
 1,507,000 
 
 1,405,(00 
 
 2,564,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 2,226,000 
 
 614,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 45,000 
 
 3,555,000 
 
 14,710,000 
 
 11,514,000 
 
 3,288,000 
 
 6,446,000 
 
 6,837,000 
 
 Total .... 
 
 28,269,000 
 
 13,901,000 
 
 4,180,000 
 
 46,350,000 
 
 The first or “ fertile ” region of this table is not to be understood 
 as consisting exclusively of fruitful fields. Within it lie also moun¬ 
 tains such as the agriculturist will never attack, sandy tracts capable 
 of supporting only forests, and even steppes or poor savannahs unfit . 
 for aught but cattle-rearing. In Europe (exclusive of Russia and 
 Turkey) not quite 40 per cent, is under the plough, 18 per cent, is 
 described as meadows and pasture lands, and 23 per cent, is wood¬ 
 land. The remaining 20 per cent, is under water or built upon, or 
 consists of barren waste. Some of the “ wastes ” could doubtless be 
 rendered productive, and efforts in that direction are being made in 
 different parts of Europe. The forest-area it is, however, not advis¬ 
 able to reduce. The second region, the “ steppes ”, consists of poorer 
 grass lands, but embraces also large areas capable of being rendered i, 
 highly productive, especially where means of irrigation are avail¬ 
 able. In the third region there are also fertile oases, though few and 
 far between. 
 
 The Possible Population. —At present Continental Europe from 
 North Sea and Atlantic to the Black Sea supports on the average 
 156 inhabitants to the square mile. Some of the countries included 
 within this area, Germany and France e.g., import, it is true, large ! 
 quantities of food stuffs, but such deficiency of self-support is com¬ 
 pensated by Hungary, Roumania, and Bulgaria, which at present 
 yield a surplus of food stuffs. In Asia, again, India supports a popu¬ 
 lation of 175 to the square mile, and yet exports increasing supplies 
 of wheat. In China there are 295 to the square mile, in Japan 264. 
 
 In these countries the standard of living, it may be objected, is very 
 low in comparison with our standard, yet, in Mr. Ravenstein’s opinion, 
 it is not likely to undergo any material change in the near future, 
 being a question as much of climate as of inherent disposition. 
 Taking these countries, then, as a whole and as fairly representative 
 
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 91 
 
 of the “fertile” regions, Mr. Ravenstein finds their mean popula¬ 
 tion 207 to the square mile. Let this figure be taken for basis, then 
 the fertile regions of the globe ought to be able to support 5,851 
 millions of human beings, an estimate Mr. Ravenstein believes to be 
 moderate. 
 
 The “steppes”, again, with their large tracts of cultivable land, 
 should be capable of supporting 10 inhabitants to the square mile, 
 yvhile the “ deserts ” would be peopled to their utmost capacity by 
 but 1 inhabitant to the square mile. Add the possible population of 
 the steppes and the deserts, and you reach the maximum possible of 
 population on the globe at 5,994 millions. 
 
 On the question of the colonisation of tropical regions by Europeans 
 Mr. Ravenstein is not disposed to sanguine views. The permanent 
 occupation of such areas by white men could, he thinks, be the result 
 only of a series of stages (or generations) of acclimatisation. And a 
 tendency in this way we find in the fact that Germans and Belgians 
 are pouring into France, Frenchmen shifting into Africa, Arabs 
 pushing from the Mediterranean shores into the Sudan, the Sudanese 
 pressing forward into Bantu Africa. Iu Southern Africa, again, the 
 Cape Dutch have migrated to the Transvaal, and European migration 
 is reaching out even within the tropic towards the Zambesi. More¬ 
 over, it is not necessary for the consumers of food to live in the lands 
 producing them, and the tropical regions can be cultivated and made 
 available for Europe without the presence of European settlers. 
 
 Increase of Population. —On the basis of sufficiently trustworthy 
 data, Mr. Ravenstein concludes that by the close of this century the 
 1,468 millions of 1890 will have grown to 1,587, and these in 1950 to 
 2,332, in 2000 to 3,426, in 2072, i.e. 175 years hence, to 5,977 millions. 
 That is to say, our earth will be able to yield food enough to support 
 its human population for the next 175 years. And therefore the im¬ 
 mediate prospect of starvation may be comfortably relegated to £# 
 later generation. 
 
 CHAPTER Y 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 1. The Opening Up of Tkade Routes 
 
 Fluvial, self• irrigating (annually self-renewing) lands are those of 
 (1) the Hoang-Ho and Yang-tse-Kiang; (2) the Indus and the 
 Ganges; (3) the Tigris and Euphrates—all three in 
 cfvSisatkms. Asia; (4) the Nile. These regions were accordingly 
 the cradles of the earliest ciyilisations of the world, 
 viz. the Chinese, the Hindu, the Chaldaean and Assyro-Babylonian, 
 
GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the Egyptian. The first three regions are cut off from one another 
 by high mountain ranges and plateaus, but between the third and the 
 fourth there is easy communication by way of Syria and Palestine. 
 While, therefore, the first three long continued independent of one 
 another, the last two were in intercourse with each other from a very 
 remote time. 
 
 Trade between the East and the West is distributable into three 
 Trade between s ^ a £ es : (H when the trade-area was confined to the 
 the East andthe eastern and southern shores of the Mediterranean 
 West: Three (inclusive of the Persian Gulf), a period ending with 
 stages. the foundation of Carthage about 800 B.c. ; (2) when 
 the trade-area comprised the whole of the Mediterranean, including 
 the Persian Gulf and Red Sea on one hand and the North Sea and 
 Baltic on the other, a period ending with the 15th century A.D., when 
 the Cape of Good Hope route and America were both opened to the 
 commerce of the world ; (3) the Oceanic Period of the last 400 years, 
 still lasting. 
 
 The people to first negotiate the trade between the East and the 
 West were the Sabaeans (called Sheba in Gen. x. 28 ; 
 a aean ra ers. xxv etc.) inhabiting the south coast of Arabia. 
 For centuries they monopolised the commerce of India, supplying 
 goods to Mesopotamia aud Syria, to Egypt and Ethiopia. Silks 
 from China and gems from India were also carried overland to 
 Chaldsea and Assyria. Baktra (Balkh), in Afghan Turkestan, at 
 the centre of the transit trade, grew up “ The Mother of Cities”. 
 Later, the Phoenician cities, lying midway between East and West, 
 traded with the ports of Arabia and the shores of India, becoming 
 established centres for the distribution of Indian goods. 
 
 In the early part of the second period the Phoenician trade extended 
 . . T . from the shores of India on the East to the tin mines 
 cemcian r e. ^ Q ornwa p { n the West and the amber coasts of the 
 Baltic in the North (see p. 14). On the capture of Tyre by Alexander 
 . (332 b.c.), the carrying trade of Phoenicia became the 
 
 ^ife Carrying inheritance of the Greeks. The Greek merchants got 
 Trade of the Indian goods from Arab traders at the South Arabian 
 World ‘ ports. Borne thence to Myos Hormos and Berenike 
 on the western shores of the Bed Sea, they were carried by camel 
 across the desert to the river Nile, then floated down stream and by 
 canal to Alexandria, for distribution along the Mediter- 
 6 re RoiU;e ade " ranean coast-lands. This was the established route 
 till Egypt became annexed to Borne (30 B.c.). 
 
 On the rise of imperial Borne, that city became the 
 Alexandria the ultimate centre of all trade-routes. Alexandria con- 
 C °Capital! al tinued to be the commercial capital, the emporium for 
 the distribution to Europe of Asiatic goods. Such was 
 
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 93 
 
 the intercourse of Rome with the far East that in the time of 
 Augustus an embassy of the Seres (Chinese) came to 
 between^hina ^ ome > ail( ^ 166 a.d. Marcus Aurelius sent an em- 
 andRome. bassy to China, followed by repeated embassies, till 
 the Arabs barred the way. In the time of Pliny, the 
 yearly Roman imports from Asia were valued at one hundred million 
 sesterces (about £800,000). Three lines of communication ran from 
 China across the desert of Gobi, the southern one passing over the 
 Pamir and through Badakhshan to Balkh. 
 
 On the break-up of the Roman Empire, Byzantion (Constanti- 
 The B zantines no P^ e ) came i n f° r the succession to the negotiation 
 become n the eS of the commerce between East and West, a possession 
 intermediaries Byzantion maintained until the ports of Italy, France, 
 and e west aSt an( l Spain entered into direct trade with the Mediter¬ 
 ranean ports, to which the produce of the East found 
 
 its way. 
 
 In the 6th century a.d. the Sassanian Empire (Persia) allowed an 
 exchange of products between East and West at only three points : 
 Artaxates, for goods from Central Asia; Nisibis, for those from 
 Central Asia by the Tigris route; and Kallinikon (Rakka), for those 
 coming by way of the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates. Later, the 
 merchants of Sogdiana (Samarcand and Bokhara), to avoid Persia, 
 passed round the north of the Caspian to meet the merchants of 
 Byzantion on the shores of the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea. 
 
 Next, in the 7th and the 8tli century, the carrying trade by sea 
 The Trade by l an( l became the prize of the conquering Arabs. 
 
 Land and Sea Bagdad (in Asiatic Turkey) became the centre for the 
 en g rossed by the distribution to the West of the products of the East. 
 
 By sea, the Arabs were in direct communication with 
 Cape Comorin (in the south of India), Ceylon, and as far as the delta of 
 the Yang-tse-Kiang; in Canton Arabs almost outmatched the natives. 
 
 The produce of the East brought by the Arabs to Mediterranean 
 ports was distributed by the Venetians, who, in the first quarter of 
 Venice negotiates the 15th century, had the carrying trade of the Medi- 
 the Trade terranean exclusively in their hands. Venetian fleets, 
 b and e the E East Pe g uar( Ied hy war-galleys, made regular voyages to Con¬ 
 stantinople and the Black Sea, to Syria and Egypt, 
 to. Spain and Portugal, to France and Holland. Their mercantile 
 shipping in the 14th century exceeded 3,000 vessels, 300 of them each 
 over 700 tons burthen. 
 
 Later, Genoa, Pisa, and other towns came to share with Venice the 
 Mediterranean trade. 
 
 The problem of a direct sea route to India was at last solved (and 
 pot by chance, but by science) by Vasco da Gama, 1498. Saving 
 no end of freightage by use of this rout4, Lisbon became famous 
 
94 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 as tlie cheapest market and the richest commercial city in all 
 The Cape route Europe, while erst luxurious Venice, left wholly out 
 leaves Venice of the swim, sauk like a fish stranded on the beach. 
 Lis^orfbecomes Erom Lisbon the stores of the Orient were carried to 
 middleman be-° Antwerp, which too soon flourished into the emporium 
 Wes^tm more d ETorthern Europe—a city soon to become renowned 
 northern cities for its cultivation of art, the happy metropolis of 
 break the painters, such as Matsys, Rubens, Vandyck, Teniers, 
 monopo y. Before long, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and a city on the 
 banks of the Thames ceased to be content to have to go to Spain and 
 Portugal for the supply of eastern products. They at first sought 
 India by the north of Europe or the north of America (the north-east 
 or north-west passage), and then challenged the title of Spain and 
 Portugal to a monopoly of the southern sea route. And so gradually 
 the centre of commerce shifted northwards. 
 
 The opening of the Suez Canal in 1870, diverting an ever-increasing 
 proportion of the traffic from the Cape route, has caused and is 
 The Suez Canal in caus i n £ a redistribution of the centres of trade, to the 
 turn diverts trade prejudice (in a commercial sense) of England, on whom 
 fron ?-oute Cape Europe 110 longer depends for the transmission of 
 e ‘ eastern goods, and to the advantage of Mediterranean 
 ports. How much more economical is the Suez than the Cape route 
 may be estimated by the fact that a round voyage, formerly requiring 
 from six to eight months, can now be made in sixty days. 
 
 And, further, to save going round by Gibraltar, 
 theSuezroute 3 there is in contemplation the project of cutting a canal 
 right through France, from the Bay of Biscay to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 2. How the New World has Reacted on the Old 
 The immeasurable expanse of rolling virgin land in North America, 
 with its incalculable capacities, stimulated, as it still continues to 
 stimulate, to the utmost the energies of the enterprising immigrants 
 from Britain and all parts of Europe. Forests, prairies, steppes have 
 been rapidly transformed into fruitful fields. On the waters of the 
 great Hudson River the first steamer ploughed commercially its 
 weather-independent way. On the shores of the river was the Norse 
 telegraph first brought into action. 
 
 Of vegetable products all the world owes to America, to name the 
 more prominent, potatoes, tobacco, Indian corn, cacao, vanilla, and 
 the many ornamental plants of our houses and gardens. Our log¬ 
 wood, mahogany, and other useful and decorative woods we derive 
 from the New World. Of animal products, guano and the wool of 
 the alapaca and the vicuna come from South America; cochineal 
 from Mexico and Guatemala; furs and fish from North America. 
 
GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 95 
 
 How much does American cotton clothe the nations of the Old World 
 and provide them a livelihood! How much do the flour, wool, and 
 meat of America, competing with the farm-products of Europe, save 
 Europeans from high prices and scarcity ! In mineral products, 
 again, how greatly are the markets and exchanges of Europe affected 
 by the gold, silver, copper, lead, petroleum, saltpetre of America! 
 (See also under Economical, pp. 151-2.) 
 
 3. How a Part Names the Whole 
 
 In the Homeric 'Hymn to Apollo, “ Europe” as yet designates only 
 Continental Greece,'to the exclusion of the Peloponnesos and the is¬ 
 lands. In Homer, “ Asia” names only the marshy mead by the Lydian 
 river Kayster. “ Libya” (later, the Greek name for Africa) names 
 in Homer only the north-east angle of Africa, west of Egypt. Africa 
 was the name used by the Romans for the district round Carthage 
 forming the Roman province of Africa. The Graikoi were an Epeirot 
 tribe in the west of Greece, nearest Italy; the Romans extended the 
 name of Greece to the whole peninsula. France names originally the 
 kingdom in Northern Gaul founded (488 a.d.) by Hlodowig (Clovis). 
 The Isle of France, the French province which included Paris, denoted 
 at first only the island on the Seine on which was built Paris, still called 
 ‘‘La Cite”. Holland, figuring in 866 as Holtland ( i.e . Woodland), 
 named at first the forest region round Dordrecht belonging to the 
 Counts of Friesland. Schwytz names first a village, then the small can¬ 
 ton in which it is situate, then the whole land, Switzerland. Prussia 
 names first the eastern corner of modern Prussia, its inhabitants in the 
 10th century being called Prutheni or Pruzzi, a Lettish name. Persia 
 (a Roman form of the Greek Persis ) names originally the small district 
 of Parsa (now Fars or Pars), the cradle of the Persian Monarchy. 
 Hence also the Parsees or fire-worshippers. Scotland is named from 
 the Scots who in the 5th century crossed from Ireland (then Scot¬ 
 land) to Argyleshire. The Angles, similarly, gave name to all 
 England. The name “ Germans” was, it now appears, given by the 
 (Keltic) Belgians to the (Keltic) people of the Ardennes. The 
 names “ German” and “Germany” are specially of English use, and, 
 in use in England, mainly since the time of Henry VIII. Before then 
 the people were known in England as Almains and Dutchmen. The 
 native names for country and people are Deutschland and Deutsche. 
 The French names are Allemagne and Allemands; the Spanish, 
 Alemania and Alemanes. St. Lawrence named first (August 10, 1535) 
 the channel between Anticosti Island and mainland, thence the name 
 was extended to the Golfo Quadrado (Square Gulf of St. Lawrence), 
 and further to the great river entering it. Montreal was the name 
 originally given (2nd October, 1535) to the Indian town of Hochelaga. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE BODY AND ITS CONSTITUENT PARTS 
 
 The animal body in the more developed stage consists of a framework ! 
 of bones; a muscular mechanism operating its movements; a diges- 
 ...... . tive apparatus elaborating the raw material of food 
 
 the Animal Body, into substance tor the body, in continuous process or 
 
 waste, to appropriate ; a circulatory system distributing j 
 the life-fluid elaborated out of the food to the regeneration of all the 
 impaired parts of the body; a nervous system, with specialised : 
 organs of sense, interpreting, working, and governing all the rest. 
 
 The living animal body moves spontaneously, one part on another, 
 the whole from one position to another; movements co-ordinate with ; 
 
 and influenced by change in its environment. It 
 °oftheiiving 8 kindles and spends heat, seeking to maintain itself at 
 Animal Body, a certain equable temperature. It takes occasionally 
 into itself stuffs corresponding to its own composition, 
 having potential energy capable of being liberated through oxidation 
 or other chemical change. It is continually taking in the surround¬ 
 ing air, appropriating oxygen out of it and exhaling the rejected part. 
 
 It is continually casting out of itself waste matter; substances 
 oxidised and used up, and substances taken in but not appropri¬ 
 ated. 
 
 In the adult human body there are, inclusive of thirty-two teeth, 
 some 249 separate bones. The male skeleton, fresh and moist, 
 averages about 20 lbs. weight ; dried, about 10 lbs. 
 lie e e on. q^e substance of which it is made has a specific gravity 
 of one quarter that of wrought iron. Bone is distinguished by a 
 quality to resist crushing greater than that of any 
 "Admirable 3 other organised tissue, greater even than the resistance 
 Properties. of many metals, while its elasticity and infrangibility 
 (or rather resistance against breakage) are also very 
 great. A cube of bone, one square inch in surface, will bear four 
 The Muscles tons’ weight without being crushed. Attached to the 
 bones there are some 260 pairs of muscles, amounting 
 The Canai ntary ^8 Mbs. P ure ly contractile material. The alimen¬ 
 tary canal, beginning at the opening of the mouth, 
 
 96 
 
THE BODY AND ITS CONSTITUENT PARTS 97 
 
 traversing the length of the trunk, and ending at the opening of the 
 anus, is some 28 feet long. 
 
 In the adult there is an average of about 12 lbs. of 
 Quantity, Pro- blood, T \ to a Ys of the entire body-weight; about y 
 portion,'and 0 f ft ft the veins, f in the capillaries, and f in the 
 Distribution. ar {- er i es> The heart of an adult man is about the size 
 of his closed fist, some 5 in. long by in. maximum breadth, and 
 2\ in. thick. It varies in weight from 10 to 12 oz. in 
 The Heart, the male, from 8 to 10 oz. in the female. Or, as others 
 M Feminine n put it, its average weight is some 292 grammes in men ; 
 
 in women about J- less. The relative weight of the 
 Wirch is more ^ ear ^ ^0 res ^ the body P u ^ down as yfg in 
 madeupof 6 men, yfy in women: also as yfg of the whote body- 
 Heart, Man or we ight of woman and only T fg of the body-weight of 
 oman . man< Yet Macalister, giving the volume of the mascu¬ 
 line heart as 270 cubic centimetres and of the feminine heart as only 
 190, credits man with a heart T fo of- his entire body-weight, but 
 woman with one only of her whole weight. No doubt, as with 
 men, some women have more heart and some less. 
 ? and Chambers' Yentrally situate in the chest, between the two lungs, 
 of the Heart, its shape is that of an inverted cone ; its base directed 
 upwards, backwards, and to the right; its apex down¬ 
 wards, forwards, and to the left. The heart has four chambers : the 
 left and the right auricle in the upper portion ; the left and the right 
 ventricle in the lower. In the adult, the heart beats 
 ^ndssfon^f ’ * rom @5 to 75 times per minute, the time of a com- 
 Biood, and Work, plete beat being about '8 second. Say that a man 
 of 140 lbs. weight has in him Ilf lbs. (=5,302 cubic 
 centimetres) blood. Then with each beat the heart sends out about 
 172 cubic centimetres (about 6 oz.) into the aorta (the common trunk 
 of the arteries of the body). The equivalent therefore of the total 
 blood in the body passes through the heart in some thirty pulsations. 
 The right auricle receives all the impure blood, while the left gets 
 replenished with purified blood from the lungs. The entire work of 
 the heart in twenty-four hours is estimated at about 75,000 kilo¬ 
 gramme-metres (a kilogrammetre being, of course, the amount of 
 energy needed to lift a kilogramme 1 metre high), or about one-fifth 
 of the total work of the body, or, as Foster puts it, the amount of 
 work done by a moderately heavy man in making the ascent of 
 Snowdon. As young people know, the heart is highly 
 The i § e |'jj ; e and susceptible. It sighs with longing, it dilates with joy, 
 Susceptibilities, it is wrung with anguish, it is broken with grief, it 
 stops on the receipt of a shocking letter. All the 
 emotions are registered in its action. Nor is this susceptibility con¬ 
 fined to the heart proper; it is shared more or less by the whole 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 circulatory system. Everybody (not yet shameless) knows how the 
 How to Blush sense °f shame, causing the muscular walls of the 
 surface blood-vessels of face and neck to relax, paints 
 itself in the virginal phenomenon of blushing. Nor less does 
 fear, causing vascular contraction, hang out the white flag in the . 
 face. 
 
 Situate in both sides of the chest, the right the shorter and broader 
 of the two, the lungs are of a spongy structure, con- 
 TheLungs; tractile and expansile. The right lung weighs about 
 1 Membrane S ’ 24 oz. ; the left, 21. The pleura pulmonalis is 
 Trachea^Bronchi, the membrane investing the lung; the pleura costalis 
 Capillary Vessels, lines the wall of the chest. The air is conveyed to the 
 lungs through the trachea or windpipe, whichlextends 
 from the lower part of the larynx to the third dorsal vertebra, where 
 it parts into two bronchi carrying air, one to each lung. The air- 
 cells of the lungs, estimated at 725 millions, have a superficial area 
 of about 90 square metres, or 100 times the surface of the body. 
 
 Each act of respiration includes (1) inspiration, (2) expiration, (3) 
 
 . pause. The number of respirations per minute varies 
 
 espira ion. w ^h a g e . * n liew _k ornj 35 to 44 ; fifth year, 26 ; 
 
 fifteenth to twentieth year, 20; twentieth to twenty-fifth 
 Respiration and y ear> t8; twenty-fifth to thirtieth year, 16. The volume 
 of air which the chest holds after an ordinary inspira¬ 
 tion is reckoned to average about 230 cubic inches. 
 The air in the lungs is distinguished into :—(1) Resi¬ 
 dual air, i.e. the air still remaining in the lungs 
 Residual, Tidal, a fter the fullest possible expiration, calculated at 100 
 andReserveAir. cubic inches. (2) Tidal air, the air passing in and 
 out of the chest in calm breathing, about 30 cubic 
 inches. (3) Complemental air, the air that can still be inhaled 
 after an ordinary inspiration, about 100 cubic inches. (4) Reserve 
 air, the air that can still be exhaled, after an ordinary outbreathing, 
 by a forcible expiration, about 100 cubic inches. The 
 Difference be- expired is warmer than the inspired air, is charged with 
 and^xpfre^Air aqueous vapour, and contains 4 to 5 per cent, less oxy- 
 and how much gen, but about 4 per cent, more carbonic acid gas than 
 ^vitiates. 11 does inspired air. In an hour’s breathing an adult 
 man vitiates, to the extent of about 2 per cent., 350 
 cubic feet of air. A healthy man consumes daily about ^ lb. of car¬ 
 bon, equal to about 10 oz. of coal. Or in twenty-four hours an 
 adult man gives out about 800 grammes (12,300 grains) of C O2, and 
 consumes about 700 grammes (11,000 grains) of O. 
 
 The amount of carbonic acid exhaled varies with varying states. 
 The following estimate has been made :— 
 
 Air in the Lungs. , 
 
NUTRITION 
 
 99 
 
 Per minute. 
 4'99 grains 
 5-91 „ 
 
 1810 „ 
 25*83 „ 
 
 44*97 „ 
 
 During sleep 
 Lying down . 
 
 Walking two miles an hour 
 s) three ,,. 3i 
 Tread-mill exercise 
 Many worms breathe only through the skin. In Echinoderms, re¬ 
 spiration is effected by the tube-feet and sometimes also by hollow 
 skin-gills. 
 
 The blood is composed of minute solid bodies, called corpuscles, 
 floating in a liquid, the plasma. The corpuscles are some of them 
 red, some white. The red are flattened and, in 
 Camp<St?on Red mammals, bi-concave disks, each about ^oo an inch 
 and white Cor- in diameter. The red are much more numerous than 
 P R S dCorTmacieg f th e white, in a proportion varying in different bodies 
 e ' and estimated at from 400 to 500 red to 1 white, making 
 
 up about 36 per cent, of the blood in man, or about 5 lbs. weight, 
 and numbering about 5 millions per cubic millimetre. The red cor¬ 
 puscles are much alike in form in all mammals. In the camel tribe, 
 however, they are bi-convex. They differ, however, in size, and by this 
 difference it has been attempted, also in criminal cases, to distinguish 
 human blood. Hitherto, however, the red corpuscles in the blood of 
 man, of monkey, and of dog, have not been successfully discriminated. 
 
 In Molluscs the blood is white, and hence they are 
 ^WhitedivereV 1 ca ^ ec ^ white-blooded; in mammals, birds, reptiles, 
 and fishes, it is red. The expression “ white-livered” 
 is sometimes applied to a man, not altogether in a complimentary 
 . sense. In 1,000 parts of blood, 790 are composed of 
 0 ’ water, 140 of haemoglobin, 60 of albumen, 8 of salts, 
 and 2 of fibrin. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 NUTRITION, OR INTAKE AND OUTPUT OF 
 ENERGY 
 
 Nutrition is the process whereby matter outside the body gets 
 elaborated into the substance of the body. The food a man eats 
 to-day is to-morrow he, his blood and flesh, and, like 
 eachiJody draw? the res ^ him, will be spent in heat, and in action 
 out of its Environ- proper to himself—in speaking, walking, working, all 
 D proper a to^tand Sa ^ er his own proper manner of being. What, out of 
 gives out the Ap- the materials at its disposal, an organism will appro- 
 agam°m theWay P r ^ a ^ e > an( l what it will make of the appropriation, is 
 proper to it. the determination of the character of that organism. 
 
 In the same soil, and sharing the same air, sunshine, 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 ioo 
 
 warmth, and kindly care of cultivator, are planted and grow up, 
 side by side, say hemlock and turnip. Circumstanced and educated 
 in every respect perfectly alike, can they refuse to grow up alike in 
 disposition ? Hemlock will grow up hemlock, turnip turnip, and 
 neither will ever be persuaded to incline to the way of the other. In 
 like wise will aloe, educate it how you will, grow up aloe, beetroot 
 beetroot. So, too, a thorn will neither be compelled nor coaxed 
 into growing figs, nor a fig-tree be corrupted into growing thorns. 
 Be her pasture ever so bitter, the cow will yield sweet milk. 
 Even so, too, and by the very same law, a good man out of the 
 good treasure of his heart bringetli forth that which is good, an 
 evil man that which is evil. Out of the same food one man grows 
 a fair, another a dark complexion; one a straight, another a snub 
 nose. Out of the same food, the same education, the same con¬ 
 ditions, a good man evolves good, a bad man bad, actions. The 
 process of nutrition includes: (1) eating and drinking, 
 Nutrition^ an( ^ the absorption of oxygen 1 contained in the air; 
 
 (2) digestion; (3) absorption of the food into the 
 blood ; (4) circulation of the blood to supply the wasting tissues with 
 a continuous stream of refreshment, and to drain away from them 
 the waste matter. 
 
 The body is in continuous process of waste-repair, 
 Combustion* destruction-reconstruction, or, as it may also be cor¬ 
 rectly put, of combustion sustained by continuous 
 
 supply of fuel. 
 
 The temperature of the adult human body averages about 98° F. or 
 a little more; that of the wolf is 3° or 4° lower ; that of the arctic fox 
 5° or 6° higher. The temperature of birds varies from 
 the HumanBody, in the gull and other aquatic animals to nearly 
 of Animals, Birds, 112° in the swallow. Fishes in general are only 2° or 3° 
 FiSh ina^is° rmS ’ warmer than the Avater they swim in. Yet tunny and 
 bonito, swimming in water 80^°, have been found with 
 a temperature of 99° F. Worms, leeches, slugs, snails, are all, too, 
 one or two degrees warmer than the surrounding air. During hiber¬ 
 nation (winter-sleep— Winterschlaf, as the Germans 
 T HnSrnaSon. ln ca ^ it) the temperature of animals Avill sink to a degree 
 little above that of the environment—to as low as even 
 
 1 The composition of air, 77 parts of nitrogen+21 oxygen + 2 other 
 matters, was ascertained by Priestley, 1774. In 1894 Lord Rayleigh and 
 Professor Ramsay discovered argon in the air. In 1877 air was, by 
 pressure and intense cold, compressed by Raoul Pictet, of Geneva, into 
 a liquid. In 1885 Professor Dewar exhibited, at the Royal Institution, 
 liquid air, and in 1893 solid air in the form of ice. The pressure of the 
 atmosphere, discovered by Galileo, 1564, was found by Pascal, 1647, to vary 
 with the height. 
 
NUTRITION 
 
 ioi 
 
 12° frost. By maintenance of low temperature, frogs and amphibious 
 reptiles may be kept dormant for years—and then resuscitated into 
 life. The temperature of the human body differs in 
 Variation of Tem- different parts, and varies with variation of state. The 
 P piuman e Bodyl e surfaces of hands and feet are cooler than of other 
 parts, the liver often rising to as high as 105° F. The 
 temperature is lowest about 3 a.m. ; highest about 3 p.m. In fever, 
 the temperature may mount to as high as 115° F. In general, 99^° 
 to 101° is symptomatic of a feverish state ; beyond 103°, highly 
 feverish. 
 
 In order to its digestion and the liberation of its heat, the food, if 
 cold, needs the application of so much heat, as well as action, of the 
 body. Intended mainly in the way of fuel, food, instead 
 the°Heat out of adding to the store of the body’s heat, at firsb, there- 
 Food, the Body has fore, withdraws to itself so much from it. Just as a 
 Heatto the Food l um P coal, put into a fire, at first draws to itself so 
 ’ much of the heat the fire was radiating into the room. 
 And, as the brighter is the fire the more rapidly does it consume the 
 fresh coal, so the brighter the vitality of the body the greater is the 
 rate at which the digestion of the food proceeds. As, again, a fire, 
 if too low, will not burn up the new lump, but rather get quenched 
 by it, so will the vitality of the body, if too-low, not consume the 
 food, but be so much damped down by it. 1 Food taken warm 
 accordingly costs the body Jess expense to digest than if taken 
 cold. 
 
 Not by the most vital nutriment can any body be nourished, but 
 only so far as it appropriate the nutriment to its own substance. It 
 The Body cannot 1S > sa y ^ ie l eas t> doubtful whether it be possible to 
 get any Nourish recruit an exhausted body by direct infusion of another’s 
 m the best Food° f Uood. Unless, indeed, the new current poured into the 
 unless by_ appro- languid and depleted veins undergo digestion in the 
 ow^substanr^ s l UD g s ? 3 For, as the one body differs from the other, so 
 the one blood from the other, and two different bloods 
 cannot be the property of one body. Just as, intellectually, no man 
 derives benefit from another’s thought, however excellent it be, till he 
 have first made it his own, i.e. y brought it into identical relation with 
 
 1 Let waste or hunger reduce a living body down to three-fifths of its 
 substance, the body has then not strength enough left in it to rally, but 
 must die. It is health that makes health. He that hath to him shall be 
 given, but from him that hath not! 
 
 2 It has been ascertained by actual experiment that if a piece of negro 
 skin be inserted into a vacant spot in the skin of a white, the new patch, if 
 it take on at all, must grow white in identity with the skin incorporating it. 
 Contrariwise, be a white skin-patch clapped into a vacancy in negro skin, 
 the white insertion must eitfier negrify into identity with the new body into 
 which it has been admitted, or die off. 
 
102 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 his past and present. As, moreover, the appropriation of food is pro¬ 
 portionate to the energy with which the body acts on it, so is the 
 appropriation of say a book proportionate to the activity of mind 
 brought to bear on it. The purpose of food or of a 
 e ea mg. k 00 k j s a iik e to sustain the vitality or temperature. 
 And as the normal temperature of the body is to be measured, not by 
 heat received from outside, but by its own self-evolved heat, so is the 
 emotion or warmth the reader enjoys from a book no true measure of 
 his vitality, unless it proceed out of his own activity and appropria¬ 
 tion. Contrariwise, the more the body is dependent on the heat of 
 In Luxurious Ease an outside body, the weaker is its vitality. And, the 
 to read ofRomantic more the reader passively luxuriate in the glow the last 
 nove l yields him, the colder is he when at the end of 
 1 ' the third volume the door is clapped in his face. Left 
 
 outside, just at the culmination of events, and when it must be 
 brightest and warmest for the happy couple inside, the ill-treated 
 reader awakens to a suspicion of how he has been hoaxed. His only 
 resource is another novel—sure to end in the same way, i.e. in a way 
 satisfactory to the hero and heroine, but less so to the dropped reader. 
 Carlyle remarks how the reader revels in the fire of energy ablaze 
 in the Waverley Novels—himself ensconced in his easy chair or lying 
 supine on sofa. And the more he give himself up to the pleasure of 
 reading the romantic record, the less (in most cases perhaps) is he 
 disposed to beat the record by his own exertion. 
 
 Income and Expenditure of Heat. —The body spends its energy in 
 the way of labour and of emission of heat. The former mode com- 
 The Two Ways by F r ^ ses muscular work, s/uch as moving the body on 
 which the Body itself, walking, speaking, breathing, action of the heart, 
 spe ft d make? eat bowels, etc., and, no less, mental action, how little 
 soever muscular effort it may involve. The latter 
 mode comprises loss of heat by conduction, radiation, respiration, 
 perspiration, as also the loss of warmth involved in the passage of the 
 evacuations. All energy is motion, and motion is heat, and vice 
 The Ca acit of vers ®- The average daily income of energy of the 
 EnergyinaNor- human body on normal diet is calculated at about 
 mai Diet and how 01ie million kilogrammetres. 1 Of this amount, about 
 i is pen . 15(^000 is expended in a good day’s muscular work ; 2 
 
 1 A kilogrammetre is the amount of energy needed to raise one kilo¬ 
 gramme ( = 2*2046 lbs. Avoir.) one metre high. 
 
 2 The work of a labouring man is reckoned to be about thirty-five foot- 
 tons (one foot-ton=energy needed to raise one ton one foot) per hour, or 
 350 foot-tons per day of ten hours. Pile-drivers have registered each 450 
 foot-tons of work per day. In a boat-race, each man of the crew of an 
 eight-oared boat works about four foot-tons per minute, i.e., nearly seven 
 times the rate of work of the ordinary day-labourer. 
 
NUTRITION 
 
 103 
 
 the remainder, 850,000, leaving the body in the way of heat; 2% per 
 cent., according to Helmholtz, leaving the body with the fluid and 
 solid excreta, 5i per cent, with the expired air, 14f in evaporating 
 the water expired by the lungs, and about 77^ per cent, by the skin 
 in conduction, radiation, and evaporation. 
 
 All work is combustion. As Huxley put it, his delivery of a lec¬ 
 ture was Huxley in Rapid Process of Combustion ; his hearers quietly 
 looked on while he, so much of his tissue, was being 
 How all Work is burnt to ashes. Every good worker knows what it is 
 ° the different^ to get warmed to his work, and how, when he is 
 Qualities of Work thoroughly warmed on his work, all goes “like a house 
 d of Combustfon 68 on b re ”• In the higher kind of work especially, creative 
 or artistic production, the operation of pure reason, 
 how the first and indispensable condition is “to get up steam”! 
 Vi■ h t w b With plenty of steam, the work proceeds of itself, and 
 e lg es orK - t ] ie n i m ble pen pants to keep up with the rush of ideas. 
 But to have to write without steam, and torture every line out of the 
 unwilling head—it were wholesomer far to knap stones 
 Jetting S ups a teim f b y tbe country roadside. The unhappy writer, if write 
 he must, has recourse to green tea, strong coffee, 
 tobacco, wine, brandy, vice—anything to get up steam ! Burns on 
 fire with his Tarn O’Shanter seemed to sober Jean to be more than 
 half “carried”. Carlyle could “never write but in a white heat”. 
 How Anxiety con- ^ a m istake to suppose that hard muscular labour, 
 sumes the Bones all apparent to the eye, is the most consuming. Before 
 a nd the^Hair Foi- be turn into bed, the last post brings a speculative 
 merchant a note intimating the failure of the specu¬ 
 lation on which his all has been risked, so that in a few days he will 
 figure in the world as a “ruined man”. He says nothing, and his 
 wife and family notice nothing amiss. Yet were the treadmill fun 
 in comparison with the waste the man suffers in that one night’s 
 “fry in his own juice”. His glossy black hair is in the morning 
 streaked grey and white—the pigment of its follicle burnt quite out. 
 Poor man! he never had any sense of worth other than money, and, 
 his money gone, all is gone. 
 
 High thinking is high temperature, intense heat-dissipation. 
 
 Think of the swelter (heat-dissipation) of Copernicus 
 Thought f i n hurling the earth out of the centre to 92 million 
 miles off and clapping the sun into the vacated 
 spot! On approaching the conclusion of his calculation of Universal 
 Gravitation , Newton’s whole being shook and trembled 
 Th Fr°nz ina w ^b overpowering emotion. Or is the poet’s trade 
 y ’ nice and cool ? He writes his molten lines in a fine 
 frenzy— i.e., inflammation of the brain ( phrenesis ). 
 
 A man’s vitality is as the volume of heat he generates and dissi- 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 104 
 
 pates, and the rate of generation and dissipation. In general, the 
 higher the quality the less apparent but the more in- 
 T Man^s vitality 8, ^ ense the energy. With prompt decision in his office 
 of a morning, the man of affairs settles a hundred trans- 
 Hard Hand- actions affecting many hands in many lands, and his 
 labour. own economic standing to boot. All his work for the 
 A Morning’s morning is but to say so many final Yes-es or No-s, 
 Despatch of the rest of the day he may go driving or shooting, or 
 Business. spend at home. And yet that morning meant much 
 more work than is performed all day by the busiest hands in plough¬ 
 ing, reaping, driving an engine, labouring hot at a furnace. Much 
 more still, the man of thought in his closet “ doing 
 th^TWDkpf hi« nothing ” may affect the thinking and so the quality 
 Closet. of the practice of all the world into latest time. How 
 much “ practically ” has Newton’s Universal Gravita¬ 
 tion availed the world! Or Watt’s obvious observation on steam P 
 Let one measure, if he can, the “practical effect ” of St. Paul’s new 
 The inspiration of Yiew °1 Christ and liis worth to mankind—the view 
 a Moment and that flashed, electric and blinding, into his inmost 
 Wh fmrdy nay mind, while on his mission to Damascus to quench the 
 new (Satanic) fire the Nazarene had kindled among 
 some obscure Jews! Or how much of the world of to-day derives 
 from a.conviction Mahomet came to in his fortieth year, some twelve 
 centuries ago! 
 
 The Conversion To work up every ounce taken in the way of food 
 of Food into into its maximum of humanest action is the practical 
 umane c ion. j n ^ en ^ on 0 f ever y good man. To eat so much food 
 
 T ° ^?o Little and and y ield 110 re ^ urn the way of humane action is to 
 0 1 e ‘ waste so much capital. To enjoy a maximum of in- 
 Maximum'of in come ( as muc I 1 maybe as a million a year), and, in the 
 com^Sreturn, way of outcome, render a maximum of mischief, is the 
 as Outeome, a maximum of crime. A man in his seventy years is 
 Mischief. 0 reckoned to consume, by the machinery of his own 
 body alone, as much as twenty wagon-loads, or some 
 sixty tons of food, solid and liquid—to what purpose such huge con¬ 
 sumption ? To have wasted so much and only used up the machine 
 Summary of the * s n0 ^ a ver y cre( Ltable report to have to make. Count 
 Labours of Count Zaehdarm’s epitaph, written by Carlyle in good Latin, 
 Zaehdarm’s but no t yet carved out, records the great labours of 
 that high-born nobleman’s life: “ Varii cibi cent um - 
 pondia millies centena millia in stercus convertit”. And the huge 
 blaze which so much stuff and oxidised matter or ashes (stercus). re¬ 
 presents went off—in shooting partridges, “ Quinquies mille perdrices 
 plumbo confecit”. The following balance-sheet of energy in units 
 of heat (a unit or calorie being the amount required to raise one kilo* 
 
NUTRITION 105 
 
 gramme of water 1° C.) is taken from Dr. Hill’s Physiological Note¬ 
 book :— 
 
 Dr. Cr. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Calories. 
 
 Transformed in¬ 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Calories. 
 
 By Ranke’s nor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 mal diet, 1 ap- 
 
 
 
 to external 
 
 
 
 proximately 
 
 
 
 work.... 
 
 
 350,000 
 
 produced as 
 
 
 
 Expense in 
 
 
 
 follows:— 
 
 
 
 keeping the 
 
 
 
 By metabolism, 
 
 
 
 body warm :— 
 
 
 
 in muscles . . 
 
 85 
 
 
 Warming the 
 
 
 
 Glands and 
 
 
 
 food .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 brain .... 
 
 10 
 
 
 Warming and 
 
 
 
 Other tissues . 
 
 5 
 
 
 rendering 
 moist, inspired 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 air .... 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 Providing for 
 
 
 
 
 
 radiation and 
 evapo ration 
 from the skin 
 
 77 
 
 1,960,000 
 
 
 100 
 
 2 310,000 
 
 
 100 
 
 2,310,000 
 
 Sweat-Tubes. —The average length of a sweat-tube is about one- 
 quarter of an inch. On the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot 
 their number has been estimated at 2,736 to the square 
 ifucts^their The total number of sweat-glands on an ordin- 
 
 Number’ Length, ary-sized man has been calculated at 2| millions. The 
 sweat-glands eliminate in small quantities the same kind 
 of waste matter as do the kidneys, a man secreting about 2 lbs. of 
 sweat in 24 hours. The skin also exhales carbonic acid gas. Block 
 hi this piping, and death will speedily ensue. Varnish a 
 Function . 6 rabbit with an impermeable coat, and it very soon dies. 
 
 Stop up the pores in the leaves of a plant, and it too 
 dies. Giving outlet to warm moisture, secreted when the body is at 
 a high temperature, the perspiratory system serves also to maintain 
 the body at an equable degree of heat (about 98° F.). Though, there¬ 
 fore, the absorption and secretion of moisture be a factor in the cause 
 of health, some animals yet contrive to live tolerably well without 
 drinking—even so much as pure water. A parrot spent fifty-two 
 years of his life in the London Zoo, not only a strict teetotaler, but 
 without drinking so much as a drop of water all the time. Serpents, 
 lizards, and certain batrachians get along somehow in dry and parched 
 
 1 Ranke’s normal diet consists of 100 grammes dry proteid, 100 grammes 
 dry fat, 240 dry carbohydrates, 25 salts, and 2,600 water; and could be 
 made up by 17 oz. meat, 4 oz. butter, and 17 oz. bread. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 106 
 
 places where is no water. Sloths, too, are said never to drink. 
 Rochefort cheese is made of the milk of non-drinking cows. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 The nervous system throughout the Vertebrata is composed of a 
 cerebro-spinal and a sympathetic apparatus; the 
 spinal and the f° rm ^r working in connection with the organs of 
 Sympathetic sense and the striated (striped) muscles, the latter 
 S re?ptctive Con^ smo °th, unstriated muscle. Some organs, such 
 
 nections. as the heart and glands, are in communication with 
 both. 
 
 In fishes the brain is relatively small, a wide space between the 
 skull and the cerebrum being filled with gelatinous matter. In Am¬ 
 phibia (such as the frog) the nervous system is consti- 
 Fish, e of a a Frog, a of t u t e( l of a cerebro-spinal axis, whence branch off twenty 
 a Reptile.’ pairs of cranio-spinal nerves, and of a chain of ten 
 ganglia composing the sympathetic cord, which lies 
 beneath the vertebral column. In Reptilia the brain is small relatively 
 to the body, forming but of the weight of the coluber, 22 V 0 of 
 a land-tortoise, of a turtle. 
 
 The distinguishing feature of the Mammalia is the relatively 
 larger size of the cerebral hemispheres. In the lower 
 The Cerebrum of orders (marsupials, rodents) their outer surface is 
 of different Orders smooth ; in the higher order it is characterised by 
 of Mammalia, convolutions separated by grooves (sulci) of varying 
 depth. 
 
 The brain is differentiated into the cerebrum or fore-brain, and the 
 cerebellum or after-brain, lying behind and below the cerebrum ; the 
 former occupying the whole of the cavity of the 
 its differentiated cranium, save the middle and hinder basal portions 
 Structures. containing the pons varolii, the cerebellum, and the 
 medulla oblongata. Fully eight times the weight of 
 the cerebellum, the cerebrum in man forms about 88 per cent, of 
 the whole encephalon. By the longitudinal fissure, the cerebrum is 
 divided into the right and the left hemisphere. The cerebellum, too, 
 is divided into a right and a left hemisphere, connected by the pons 
 varolii, under which is the medulla oblongata, a continuation of the 
 spinal marrow. The brain is invested by three mem- 
 The Membranes branes : the outermost, the dura mater , dense and 
 of the Brain. elastic; next the arachnoid; and the innermost, the 
 jpia mater . Ridged and furrowed, the brain-surface 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 107 
 
 presents a series of convolutions. The brain-substance is grey on the 
 outside and whitish in the interior. 
 
 From the brain and spinal-cord, constituting together the cerebro¬ 
 spinal system, nerves proceed in all directions to all 
 T of Sfe^erebro 118 P ar ^ S °* ^he sur ^ ace °f the body? which is SO close 
 Spinal System* sown with their termini that not a needle-point may 
 touch a spot on the whole area of the skin without 
 pricking the end of a nerve-fibre. 
 
 Nerves are distinguished into :— 
 
 1 . Sensory Nerves, or Nerves of Sensation, called also afferent 
 cr centripetal, conveying impressions (messages) from the circum¬ 
 ference (surface) of the body to the centres in the 
 Se ^soryj[Motor, cerebro-spinal system. 2. Motor Nerves, called also 
 sensoryNerves. efferent or centrifugal, conveying impulses from the 
 centres to muscles. 3. Sensory and Motor Nerves, 
 conductors of both motion and sensation. 
 
 The nerves in man arising from the brain are distributed into 
 twelve pairs, differentiated into special offices. The first are the 
 The Brain Nerves nerves sme ^ ; the second, the nerves of sight; the 
 inMan and how 8 third pair passing to the muscles of the eye, all but two 
 they are which depend for action on the fourth and the sixth 
 specia lse . p a j r . the fifth, running as motor nerve to the muscles 
 of mastication and as sensory nerve to the face, forehead, teeth and 
 tongue ; the seventh pair doing duty as motor nerve to the muscles of 
 expression in the face; the eighth specialised into the nerves of hear¬ 
 ing ; the ninth restricted to nerves of taste ; the tenth, partly motor 
 and partly sensor, ramifying to lungs, heart, stomach, etc.; the 
 eleventh, motor nerves to larynx and muscles in the upper neck ; the 
 twelth and last cerebral pair acting as motor nerves to the tongue. 
 
 The spinal nerves, proceeding from the spinal cord, comprise thirty- 
 one pairs, and are distributed into cervical (or neck nerves), the 
 first eight nerves on each side; dorsal (or back nerves), 
 The and*thSr rVeSnex t twelve; lumbar (or loin), the next five; 
 Distribution, sacral, the following five; and one coccygeal. The 
 first cervical comes out between the skull and the first 
 vertebra; the succeeding nerves pass out, each between two con¬ 
 tiguous vertebrae. 
 
 How perfect is the communication between muscle and nerve may 
 The Ready Com- est i ma ted by the instantaneous spontaneity with 
 munication be- which a person wishing to look looks, or, dazzled with 
 tWee Musde e and excess light* shuts the eyes, or, lifting a too hot 
 
 -p +. ,cinder, drops it. The rate at which an impulse passes 
 
 The Rate of Travel > r t' t? 
 
 up a Sensory and U P a sensory nerve to the centre and, transformed 
 
 d0V Nerv M ° t0r an i m P u ^ se °f movement, thence down a motor 
 
 erve ' nerve to the circumference, has, by exact measurement, 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 108 
 
 been found to be about 33 metres, i.e ., over 100 feet, per second. 
 Of course neither the intensity nor the velocity of sensation is 
 alike in the case of all vertebrata. Some people are slower at 
 feeling than others. The time taken by a nerve-bureau (nerve- 
 centre) in converting a sensory or afferent impression 
 The Expedition of into an efferent or motor impulse, in reading, e.g. } 
 converting^seS “ Danger to the eye”, and then telegraphing to the 
 sation into a eye-muscle “Shut the eye”, has been measured at 
 o or mpu se. <006 o£ a second. That is one nerve-centre is equal 
 to the reading of a thousand messages and the transmission of a 
 thousand replies in six seconds. In man and warm-blooded animals 
 the velocity of transmission in motor nerves is calculated at 35 
 to 40 metres per second; in sensory nerves at from 50 to 100 
 metres per second. In the motor nerves of the frog 
 Kate of Nerve and velocity of transmission is about 26 to 27 metres 
 duction. per second. In any case, the nerve-current travels 
 slowly when compared with the swiftness of electricity 
 
 or light. 
 
 All volition and intelligence is dependent on the preservation of 
 the cerebral hemispheres, on the connection of the cerebral cortex 
 with the rest of the brain. Compress the brain by 
 and Intemgence. some fracture, stay the supply of blood to the brain, 
 
 ’ and consciousness is all gone. It is on the ground of 
 this fact that when in straits a burglar has recourse to stunning a 
 man. Let only the membranes enveloping the brain and spinal 
 Affect the Cere- cor( ^ Liflamed, or Lt a man inhale laughing gas, 
 brum and the’ or pour half a bottle of brandy down his throat, and 
 intelligence is y OU w ill mark a difference in his will and thought com- 
 a so a ecte . mensura t e with the difference in his cerebral hemi¬ 
 spheres. His brain cooled and clouded in the morning, Philip sober 
 has no fellow-feeling with Philip drunk the night 
 Philip sober "before, and repudiates all responsibility for what he 
 repudmfcesPh! ip may ^ave Take the cerebrum (if you are a vivi- 
 
 sectionist) from a frog, and the poor thing can no 
 longer balance itself when the skin is removed from his hind legs. 
 Or, if you have a pet pigeon, deftly remove his cerebrum, and the 
 fellow, or all that is left of him, becomes stupid. 
 How stupid is a pi ace food at the back part of his throat, and he will 
 P hfs e c?rSm ng then swallow it, sure enough, and in this way might 
 be kept alive for months. But set him down in the 
 midst of plenty of the best food, and the stupid thing has not wit 
 enough left in him to feed himself! 
 
 The degree of intelligence in an organism would seem to be in large 
 measure proportionate to the size of the cerebral hemispheres 
 relatively to the mass of the rest of the central nervous system. Of 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 109 
 
 all animals man has, though not absolutely, yet relatively the heaviest 
 Relative size of hrain. Whereas the gorilla’s brain weighs near of 
 Cerebrum, and his entire body - weight, a man’s brain amounts to 
 Measure of in- about yy of his total weight. 
 
 e lgence. According to Quain, the weights of the cerebrum, 
 the cerebellum, and other parts of the brain in man are as follow:— 
 
 Average Weight of— Male. Female. 
 
 Cerebrum ..... 43‘98 oz. 38"75 oz. 
 
 Cerebellum.5‘25 ,, 4*76 „ 
 
 Pons and Medulla . . . 0*98 „ 1*01 „ 
 
 Entire Encephalon . . . 50*21 ,, 44*52 „ 
 
 Ratio of Cerebellum to Cerebrum . 1 : 8f- „ 1 : 8y „ 1 
 
 Ordinary movements, accomplished without consciousness, are 
 under the direction of the basal ganglia, the auto- 
 
 A Gangiia! C matic system of nervous functions distributed between 
 the cranium, chest, and abdomen. 
 
 Without minutely investigating the relations between the cerebral 
 and the instinctive system, it is certain that at least 
 H tion^etweeii" the health of either is dependent on the health of the 
 
 Cerebral and other, and the injury of either is the injury also of the 
 InStl Sgence Intel " other. Intelligence (in its purest sense) is dependent 
 on the immediate action of the brain, and in its most 
 comprehensive sense is centred in the brain. A loss, however, it is 
 ■to the brain itself and to the whole person whereof the brain is 
 highest product and organ, if the intelligence be all confined thereto, 
 i.e., if the brain or conscious thought be cultivated or operate to the 
 prejudice of instinctive (“unthinking”, spontaneous) action. Such 
 a constitution of person answers to a very pronounced central govern¬ 
 ment, ruling despotically, and not in congenial relations with the 
 members governed. 
 
 In compliment to a person of vivacious intelligence—a person equally 
 “present”, equally alive, in every part—one sometimes 
 fnher Sttie^inger hears E said that she (and a person of such instinc- 
 than has the Pro- tive intelligence you will far sooner find in the woman 
 Head° of Learnfnf than in the man) has more wit in her little finger 
 than lies packed away in the warehouse of the learned 
 professor’s head. The saying hits an important truth. To see the 
 danger of too much “ brain-work ”, of thinking and thinking but 
 never acting spontaneously (without thinking), one has but to com- 
 
 1 The brain of Cuvier weighed upwards of 64 oz., of Dr. Abercrombie 
 about 63 oz. The brain in an idiot is remarkably small. The brain- 
 weights of three idiots, 16, 40, and 50 years respectively, were found by 
 Tiedemann to be 19f oz., 25f oz., and 22| oz. respectively. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 IIO 
 
 pare unbookish people that have never known what it is to study 
 To act Instan- an( * “ rac ^ I )rains ’ , > but, in free intercourse with 
 
 taneousiy, and to all manner of men and beasts and birds, live active 
 ° Consfder : Qd * lves * n °P en * those whose lives are all im- 
 
 onsi er. mure d, say in the British Museum, and know no 
 fellowship but with books. The more the cerebral intelligence 
 operate spontaneously, i.e., in integral consensus and co-operation 
 with the “sympathetic system”, the better. How admirable, e.g., 
 is the geographical intuition of the bird of passage 
 Bird is^n Geo * 1 t'kat win S s its wa Y> after six months’ absence, over 
 graphy. ' thousands of miles of sea back to the country, the 
 district, the field, the wood, the house, of its desti¬ 
 nation— without a Baedeker. Nor, how far soever it fly of a 
 morning from its nest, is the bird, when gloaming comes on, at 
 a loss to find its long way back, over ploughed field, over moor, 
 over meadow, over hill, over dale, over farm and cottage, to 
 the particular tree among ten thousand, the particular hedge, 
 bank, tuft of grass, where is its home and mate and young. The 
 bird does not act without cerebral intelligence, but the intelli¬ 
 gence has not yet parted company with involuntary impulse. 1 A 
 woman, too, as such, does not reason, but her instinctive intuition 
 (be she a thoroughly wholesome specimen of womanhood) is surer 
 than professorial man’s laborious ratiocination. It is a loss to a man 
 not to be able to act without willing and thinking. Poor Hamlet, 
 thinking and thinking, never comes to the sticking point; the 
 uncle’s skin is safe and. unbored while the reflective nephew thinks. 
 
 1 Birds, dogs, cats, etc., make use of the cerebral intelligence, apart from 
 mere instinct. Or is it not conscious (cerebral) intelligence in the dog 
 that, seeing a man, recalls by certain signs his identity, and how some 
 months ago he fooled it by offering it meat with mustard disguisedly 
 wrapped up in it, and now, when he again offers it a tempting bait, scruti¬ 
 nises it again and again, suspicious of the man and his gift P A (Christian) 
 dog, too, soon comes to distinguish Sunday, and on that day claps an inhi¬ 
 bition on his instinct to follow his master or mistress to church. No doubt 
 in time the distinctively cerebral intelligence inclines more and more to¬ 
 wards sympathetic or instinctive. How experience in ancestors becomes 
 instinct in descendants is illustrated, e.g., by grazing cattle. They eschew 
 all poisonous or pernicious plants as have been in the range of the stock 
 for generations. But take them to a land where grow poisonous herbs 
 whereof the stock has hitherto had no experience, and they will eat of 
 them and sicken. In the same way the progeny of dogs trained to watch 
 sheep take easily to watching sheep, of'pointers to pointing, of terriers to 
 the pursuit of animals into holes. The young of draught-cattle are with 
 little difficulty brought under the yoke, but the young of unyoked cattle 
 are not easily broken in. It seems to be well authenticated that dogs, 
 cats, horses, and even birds, know what it is to dream , an act of imagi¬ 
 nation or distinctively cerebral intelligence. 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 hi 
 
 One likes a person all impulse, and dislikes a person that considers 
 and considers. What is genius ? Genius is Reason 
 Ge Sng S Spon-° n operating with the spontaneity and infallibility of In- 
 taneousiy, and stinct. All genius is inspiration, indubitable infalli- 
 th fa?libly* n bility. Take no thought beforehand what ye shall speak, 
 neither do ye premeditate; but whatsoever shall be 
 Not of Conscious gi ven you i n that hour, that speak ye : for it is not ye 
 Thought, but” that speak, but the Holy Ghost. That is the only 
 ° f Ghost° ly definition of genius, reason operating unconsciously 
 and therefore infallibly. If ever in his book a writer 
 find any part on which he can look with any measure of satisfaction, 
 it is such passage or passages as most wrote themselves, wherein his 
 will had least or no part, but the pen took the dictation business on 
 itself and cashiered the writer. As in action so also in writing, 
 nothing is so happy as that that drops of itself—born and not made. 
 
 One need not envy the like of Baillie-Grohmann his trade of killing 
 game. And yet match him against your British Museumite, and say 
 „ . . . which is the better man? The British Museumite is 
 
 somerisaMan much above the average ot his fellows it on his own 
 
 u ^Lr in * the ?i? en ground he be not clean outmatched by the Austrian 
 with Nature than ° . tt, , • 1 j j_i , •, 
 
 an exclusive De- sportsman. I or our sportsman wields the surest and 
 votee of the most vivacious of peus; the Alpine air and the scent 
 n is useum. morn | n g an( j f ores t season his style. That he 
 writes without thinking, is the charm of his writing. Without say¬ 
 ing one word in disparagement of books, by far the best of all out¬ 
 ward possessions, one would yet rather have the wit of a man like 
 Baillie-Grohmann than the learning to repeat by heart the titles of 
 all the books in the British Museum. It were happier for the British 
 Museumites themselves and for the country if a goodly proportion of 
 them were driven from its benches to labour in the fields. 
 
 The shape of the head is denoted by the Cephalic and the Gnathic 
 Cephalic index. Index. The Cephalic Index is the breadth of the 
 skull multiplied by 100 and divided by its length. 
 When this is below 75, the skull is said to be dolichocephalic ( i.e . long¬ 
 headed) ; when above 80, brachycephalic (short-headed) ; inter¬ 
 mediate, mesaticephalic. 
 
 The Gnathic Index is the degree in which the jaw projects, or 
 the profile of the face declines from the vertical. When the Gnathic 
 Gnathic index. Index is below 98, skulls are said to be orthognathic; 
 
 above 103, prognathic; between 98 and 103, mesogna- 
 thic. The following is the Gnathic Index of different races:—English, 
 96 ; Chinese, 99; Eskimo, 101 ; Fiji Islanders, 103; aboriginal Austra¬ 
 lians, 104. 
 
 As a rule, men of literature, science, and the professions carry 
 bigger heads than tradespeople. According to Christy, the hat- 
 
U2 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 manufacturer, the hat for an English adult man averages 7, or 22 
 inches, in circumference. Thomas Chalmers took 7f, Joseph Hume 
 8L John Bright 7b Lord Selborne 7f, Lord Beaconsfield 7, the size 
 also of the Prince of Wales. Mr. Gladstone’s size is 7b 
 
 The Eye 
 
 Nearly globular, the eye is yet a little protuberant in the front part 
 occupied by the Cornea, the transparent part of the coat of the eye- 
 ball, covering iris and pupil. Protecting the eye and 
 viromnent^f Eye. surrounding the cavity in which it rests, there are the 
 eye-brows, eye-lids, cilia (or eye-lashes), meibomian 
 glands secreting a greasy humour which serves to keep the surface of 
 the eye and the eye-lid3 moist, etc. The Cornea, in the front part 
 of the eye, is protected by the tunica conjunctiva, lining the inner 
 surface of the eye-lids. The membranes of the eye are: 
 Th of 1 the a Eye neS 0-) the Sclerotic or outer coat, covering about five- 
 sixths of the ball, and continuous with the slightly pro¬ 
 truding cornea; (2) the C ornea, projecting a little beyond the curve 
 of the sclerotic; (3) the Choroid, terminating in front in the ciliary 
 processes; (4) Tunica Jacobi; (5) Retina, the expansion of the 
 optic nerve, the nerve of special sensibility; (6) Iris, the coloured 
 membrane continuous with the choroid, hanging nearly vertically in 
 the aqueous humour in front of the lens, and perforated for the trans¬ 
 mission of light by a circular opening called the pupil; (7) Hyaloid, 
 the exterior covering of the vitreous humour. 
 
 The humours (or fluids) of the eye are (from front backwards) 
 the Aqueous, immediately behind the cornea, and filling the two 
 chambers of the eye from cornea to crystalline; the 
 The t 5Jg£yg rsof Crystalline (between aqueous and vitreous), and 
 Vitreous (within the cup formed by the retina). 
 Oval in shape, and consisting of several small lobules, the Lachrymal 
 Gland is situate above the upper eyelid in a depression of the frontal 
 The Lachr mai ^one. This gland secreting a clear, slightly-alkaline 
 
 GiamfaMthe fluid, discharges it, by seven or eight excretory ducts 
 usual Outlet of its opening behind the upper eyelid, on the bail of the eye. 
 
 Secretion. This secre t e( j q> r i ne i s usually conveyed into the lachry¬ 
 mal canaliculi, thence into the lachrymal sac, and lastly into the 
 cavity of the nose. If, however, too abundant, the secretion overflows 
 on to and down the cheeks. Such copious flow may be motivated by 
 emotion due to personal mental experience. If a copious current be 
 desired, but the feeling of personal injury, at the hands 
 H the Lachrymal 6 sa y an outrageous husband, be yet too weak to call 
 Gland. it forth, there is still a resource. Squirt the juice of a 
 strong onion on the eye, and the lachrymal gland must 
 be obstinate if it refuse to secrete moving tears. A pinch of snuff, 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 113 
 
 applied to the nasal mucous membrane, unless hardened by habit, 
 will act in like manner, but is apt to betray its presence—to both the 
 eye and the ear of the outsider. The latest novel will often procure 
 the reader of refined sensibility the grateful relief of a flow of tears. 
 Some provident people have a supply of the secretion always ready 
 for the occasion. 
 
 Let it be considered how many objects all get their images imprinted 
 on the small retina of the eye of a person looking out, say from a high 
 Faint Marks on t° wer i* 1 the centre of a great city. Lines on lines of 
 the tiny Retina, objects, of myriad diversity of form, size, position, 
 and the^r inter- colour, resistibility, etc., stretch in numberless succes- 
 ^nnumeraSe sion outwards, miles on miles to front, to right, and to 
 diverse objects left. How large is the image of each object, each 
 Outside • house, ’bus, tree, etc., painted on the retina of the eye ? 
 The images lie superposed on each other, pile on pile, and yet without 
 confusion. The image of an object is one thing if a yard distant, 
 another if one hundred, another if two hundred yards, another if 
 twenty miles distant. The image of an object is one thing if a certain 
 shade of blue, another if only the next shade of blue darker or lighter. 
 Physicists tell us how in order to the production of the impression of 
 red, e.< 7 .,the retina need receive no more than 392 billions of impulses 
 per second, but for the impression of violet nothing short of 757 
 billions per second is required. From among the fleecy clouds the 
 swallow, the hawk, the lark takes wide survey of the solid earth 
 birling round far below it—towns, fields, hills, dales, rivers, cattle, 
 men ; how many images, and of what size, are painted on the retina 
 of each P And how when it has received the image is the brain able 
 to interpret it into the due form, size, colour, resistibility, etc., of the 
 object? The object itself (if object in the gross popular objective 
 sense there be) no man ever knows or can know, but all he can ever 
 know is only the impression. How interpret an impression invisibly 
 small and slight into a mountain 6,000 feet high, into a cliff 3,000 feet 
 deep, into an object a yard distant, ten miles distant, fifty miles 
 distant ? Given the tiniest, tiniest image, how interpret it into an 
 object millions of times larger—and “ outside” the seer to the 
 bargain ? Open an old book, and the hardly visible 
 Pin^int^size s P ec k a m °th bickers along the page in hot haste, 
 and Ws Pair of ’ The point of a pin in size, the quaking little chap has 
 sharp Eyes and yet got a pair of sharp eyes in his head, and, still a 
 ^Decision. 6 ° f long way off, detects your hand as a dangerous obstruc¬ 
 tion. Though he do live immured in an old book, his 
 brain is yet, happily, not, like Hamlet’s, sickbed o’er with the pale 
 cast of thought. With prompt decision he beats a retreat, and 
 seeks flight in another direction—if the same bugbear of a hand do 
 not make a flanking movement and again block his path! 
 
 8 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 114 
 
 The translation of some slight marks on the segment of a circle so 
 tiny as is the retina of the eye into myriads of objects myriads of 
 times huger than the marks themselves, and distributed into a wide 
 range of distances, to front, to right, to left, upward, downward: it 
 beats all boasted miracles. Shorthand or the Lord’s Prayer on a 
 threepenny-bit is nothing to it. 
 
 How Sight and Touch Co-operate and Complement each Other.— 
 
 Our conception of things either visible or touchable is the outcome of 
 c- k if th e operation of the two senses combined. A thing 
 lg y 1 se • visible but not touchable, directly or inferentially, is 
 considered “ ghostly ” or unreal. A thing touchable but wholly in¬ 
 visible is considered almost as much unreal. How hard by touch 
 Touch b itself a ^ oue an accurate idea of the shape and size of say 
 
 ouc y 1 se . a mailj a h orse) a tree, a ’bus, a steam engine, let alone 
 a house, a town, a landscape never yet seen ! And what on the other 
 hand were one’s idea of ice, fire, water, thickness, thinness, sharp¬ 
 ness, bluntness, weight, etc., gathered by sight alone without the help 
 of touch ? Persons born with a cataract and so blind from birth, but 
 restored to sight after having come to years of discretion, fail at first 
 to connect their former experiences of touch with the new sensation 
 of sight. A man in that predicament, in sight of a cat, is, as the 
 report runs, under the necessity of carefully feeling the animal all 
 over, in order to identify his store of tactile experience about a cat 
 with the new visual image. Only after going thoroughly through 
 the operation of touching the cat with simultaneously observant eyes, 
 can he equate or identify the tactual and the visual impression, and 
 say at last, “ Now, Puss! I shall know you again! ” 
 
 A man gaining the sense of vision for the first time is not able to 
 locate or distribute the different impressions of sight; he has by 
 sight alone no sense of nearness or remoteness, of 
 H °M-ience U must C * Liickness or thinness, of tallness or shortness, of 
 Cooperate with height or depth, in respect of the visual impressions. 
 Visuaiitv in order The visual impressions are at first picture and nothing 
 °Extension n but picture; the sense of outwardness and substan¬ 
 tiality is of later growth, and arises through the ex¬ 
 perience of touch (or say locomotion). As demonstrated by Berkeley 
 in his Theory_ of Vision, and more fully in his Principles of Human 
 Knowledge , vision alone has no sense of externality or topography. 
 The sensation of table, chair, cat, or other visual image, as an 
 “objective existence”, “outside of the seer”, comes through associa¬ 
 tion of the visual impression with tactual experience. 
 
 How the sensation of touch alone may deceive is 
 ^ness^of Touch* illustrated by the so-called experiment of Aristotle, in 
 alone. which, with the eyes s}iut, the two forefingers crossed 
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM 115 
 
 come in contact with a marble. The impression thereby received 
 is of, not one, but two marbles. 
 
 How, on the other hand, visnal sense alone may deceive is illus¬ 
 trated in many instances. A common example is the impression one 
 receives when looking out from a train on another train 
 The Deceptive- running in the same direction with his own train, but 
 
 neS aione! Sht slower. The impression thus received is that the train 
 he is looking at travels in a direction opposite to that of 
 
 his train. 
 
 Notwithstanding all the progress of geography and the multipli¬ 
 cation of Board Schools, the vast majority of people in Great Britain 
 are geographically not advanced beyond the Homeric 
 How ii ttle avails conception of the earth as a rough plane. Not one in 
 “ Knowledge”, a thousand English people knows realistically how the 
 earth hangs as a globe in the air, and the people on the 
 “underside” walk with their heads “downward” and feet “upward ” ! 
 Not one among 10,000 English people is wholly assured how the earth 
 is birling round itself at the rate of some 1,000 miles an hour, and round 
 the sun at the same time at the rate of some 68,000 miles an hour. 
 The vast majority of people in England are sensible how the earth 
 stands still, and the sun each day makes his round overhead from east 
 to west. Their knowledge of the globularity and movements of the 
 earth is a bit of paper and no more. 
 
 How Well up Nature is in Perspective. —The objects which, with 
 open eye, a man distinguishes, one from another, are all drawn on 
 the one circular surface of the retina. But for the perspective with 
 which the drawing is made, the objects seen by a man would appear 
 all at the same distance. A house, ’bus, chair, horse, the myriad 
 objects seen from top of tower in centre of city, the vista down the 
 longest street, the deepest clearing in forest, would each appear as 
 only surface, without depth or thickness. But so accurate is the 
 perspective of the drawing on the retina, that, normally, . a man 
 standing, say at the side of a street, has no difficulty, such and such 
 shade of drawing given, to determine that it will not be safe for him 
 just then to cross the street; while standing at the side of a railway, 
 such and such impression of steam-engine being outlined on his 
 retina, to determine to wait three minutes before crossing. Some 
 men are even able to translate the infinitely small drawing, on the 
 retina, of a pig, a cow, a sheep, a bull, into its respective gross weight 
 in stones and pounds. Such the fine correlation between eye and law 
 of gravitation! 
 
 Correlation of Ear with other Faculties.— A practical engineer, 
 thoroughly conversant with the multiform apparatus of a massive 
 engine-room, so formidable-looking to the uninitiated, its boilers, 
 
116 ' PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 engines and shafting, its feed-heaters, feed-filters, boiler-circulators, 
 evaporators, and distillers, pumping engines; fan-blowing, electric¬ 
 lighting, and refrigerating machinery—is pretty well able by his ear 
 alone, in organic sympathy with the whole complex mechanism, to 
 estimate the pulse and action of the whole ponderous mass of moving 
 material. Be there, at any point, anything the matter with its 
 health, any abatement in its usual spontaneity of operation, the 
 engineer’s ear alone will not fail to note how there is something 
 amiss, and will not rest till it confide to him the secret of its griev¬ 
 ance. To him is the machine personal and conscious. 
 
 The physician, too, so far as in integral sympathy, intelligent and 
 instinctive, with the complex organisation of the human body, will, 
 by only giving ear to the throbs and pulses of its heart, divine whether 
 all is well with it or not. Just as the medical (or physiological) eye, 
 by the mere observation of the complexion, will very shrewdly divine 
 the general condition of the whole body. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 HAIR AND NAILS 
 
 Hair 
 
 The root of the hair, whose shaft appears above the surface, is 
 embedded in a tubular depression called the hair- 
 "^oo^and Hafr^’ follicle. The inner layer of the follicle, the root- 
 foliicle. sheath, is cellular and epidermic; the outer layer 
 fibrous and continuous with the corium , i.e ., the inner 
 shin. At the end of a fresh hair-root is the hair-bulb. And at the 
 nt bottom of the hair-follicle is the hair-papilla supplied 
 the Hair. with blood-vessels and nerves. The bulk of the hair 
 consists of fibrous material coated on the outside by 
 a thin scaly layer, the hair-cuticle. Its centre is traversed by a 
 narrow cellular thread, the medulla. The hair is furnished with 
 Oil lands ^ wo or more oil-glands secreting a greasy fluid. The 
 -g an s. bairs grow more copiously on some parts of the body 
 than on others. The short hairs spread over the main body are to 
 ar be considered as but the rudiments of a once hairy 
 
 Body-hairs. covering. The Ainos of Japan have still hair grow¬ 
 
 ing copiously all over the body. 
 
 The hair on the female head, in the case of a good crop, will 
 average a length of about 22 in., and in exceptional 
 ofHa e ir. r ° P cases run to the length of yards. In the hair 
 of the International Exhibition, 1862, there was a 
 specimen of jet-black hair 74 in. long. Catlin claims to have 
 
HAIR AND NAILS 117 
 
 measured on the chief of the Crow tribe hair 10 ft. 7 in. long. 
 A M. Louis Coulon, in Titbits of March 30, 1889, claimed a beard 
 7 ft. 6 in. long; and a correspondent in the 20tli April issue of 
 the same paper says he saw at Chicago a German, Adam Krupen, 
 with a beard no less than 12 ft. long. 
 
 The total number of hairs on the head has been calculated at 
 80,000. A German physiologist, taking four heads of 
 Number of the bair, found, after patient examination, the number of 
 ai Head. ne hairs according to colour was: red, 90,000; black, 
 103,000; brown, 109,000; fair, 140,000. As shavers 
 know, the hair grows more rapidly in summer than in winter. The 
 growth of the beard is calculated to average about 
 Growth of Hair. hnes a week, or 6^ in. a year, which will give 
 about 27 ft. of beard growth to a man eighty years of age. Such 
 is the elasticity of hair, tfyat a single one, able to 
 Elasticity of Hair. gU pp 0r t a we ight of 2 oz., may be stretched one-third 
 of its entire length and then spring back to its former length. 
 
 In the greying of hair is registered the loss of power to produce 
 pigment and an increase of air in the shaft. The 
 reymg o air. au b urn h a ir of Marie Antoinette is said to have turned 
 grey in a single night. 
 
 The hair is of endless variety of structure, and men may be 
 - classified into races and varieties according to the 
 Men according textures ot their hair, as according to the shapes or 
 to Variations of their heads, or the peculiarities of any other parts or 
 functions. Dr. Waldeyer’s Atlas presents a wide 
 range of variation in human and animal hair. Though human be 
 distinct from all other hair, yet is the hair of certain anthropoid apes 
 (the chimpanzee and gorilla) so much like human as to be only 
 dubiously or with great difficulty discriminated therefrom. The 
 hair of the American Indians, the Chinese, the Japanese, and the 
 natives of High Asia, is long, straight, and coarse. In negroes the 
 hair-follicle is curved, inducing a spiral twist in the hair. 
 
 Moustache and beard are of service by way of protection to the 
 Service of Mous mou ^ 1 a S a i ns f dust, cold winds, and fogs; in Egypt 
 tache and Beard' aT )d Syria, against the entrance of the hot desert 
 air. 
 
 The amount of colouring matter in the hair is often very con- 
 Hair and its storable. Black hair is said to have often as much 
 Colouring Matter, fed pigment in it as the most fiery-coloured, but in the 
 case of the former the red is overpowered by the 
 addition of black particles. Red hair on analysis is said to yield a 
 large amount of sulphur, while very black hair gets its colour from 
 carbon. In auburn hair there is brown instead of black colouring 
 matter. In the Museum at Oxford there is a lock of hair reputed 
 
118 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 to be from the bead of Cliarles I., still bright auburn. The cover¬ 
 ing of the head is no doubt one of the causes of baldness. Below 
 the hat-rim the hair continues to grow thickly enough, while the 
 head above is bald. Herodotos remarks how the skulls of all the 
 Egyptians he saw on the battle-field near Pelousion were very thick 
 with hair, a circumstance he ascribes to the Egyptian habit of 
 shaving the head from an early age and wearing no head-covering. 
 “ You see fewer people bald in Egypt than in any other country”. 
 (See Hair in Economical, pp. 164-6.) 
 
 Kails.—In the course of a year the fingers produce about 2 
 Growth of Nails f? rammes (30*86 grains Troy) of nail-matter, and more 
 ' in summer than in winter. It requires on an average 
 some 132 days for a renewal of the nails in winter, but only 116 in 
 summer. Nails, claws, hoofs, spines, feathers, and scales are all, of 
 course, homologues of the hair. 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 HOW THE CHARACTER OF EVERY ORGANISATION 
 IS NOT LOCAL, BUT EQUALLY DIFFUSED 
 THROUGHOUT ALL ITS PARTS 
 
 Sex, e.g., is authenticated alike in every part and function of an 
 organism vegetable, animal, human. In the human body it is regis¬ 
 tered alike in build, stature, structure, shape and size 
 S an Parts e of e «ie n head, breast, limb, hand, foot, voice, temperament, 
 Body. carriage, thought, behaviour, accent. “ The female 
 skull is in general smaller, lighter, and smoother than 
 that of the male; the muscular impressions are not so strongly 
 marked, the mastoid processes and the superciliary ridges are less 
 The Feminine P rom i nen fc> and the frontal sinuses less developed, 
 skull in Contra- The cranial capacity is less, on the average, by one- 
 distinetion to the tenth, than that of the male in the same race, and the 
 ;•> frontal and occipital regions are less capacious m pro¬ 
 
 portion to the parietal”. Quain, who quotes this passage from 
 Husclike, also adds how the female skull resembles the young skull 
 more than does that of the adult male. And Dr. Hepburn, in Cham¬ 
 bers’ Encyclopaedia, repeats, in agreement with all other physiological 
 authorities, all these characteristics of the feminine skull in com¬ 
 parison with that of the masculine. And perfectly correspondent 
 characteristics might be enumerated of the feminine hand, the 
 feminine face, the feminine voice, etc., etc. 
 
 Woman is altogether, physically and mentally and in every respect, 
 
WOMAN AND WOMANLINESS 
 
 119 
 
 more delicately built than man, more sensitive to pain, more sensitive 
 to public opinion, more dependent; less active, ag- 
 Womanorgani- oressive, originative;, more passive, conciliatory, con- 
 caiiy distinguished g erva ti ve . Not one woman among ten thousand would, 
 from Man. without a painful effort, brave going to either a 
 
 public assembly or a private party if under any apprehension of 
 thereby gaining distinction for her plainness or shabbiness ot dress— 
 unless, indeed, she had already acquired some notoriety, 
 Woman and Dress. ^er vanity were interested in increasing the ac* 
 quisition. Contrariwise, as Emerson, quoting from a French lady, 
 remarks, the sense of being in all points dressed in perfect taste im¬ 
 parts to a woman a serenity of mind and temper beyond the capacity 
 of religion itself to afford. Few men either, for that matter, are 
 above the consideration of being well-dressed or ill-dressed, lor a 
 positive quality is thinly diffused, like the blue of the air or of the 
 sea. Or it is represented in a pronounced manner in but a tew in¬ 
 dividuals, and the number of men able to carry the adjective manly 
 is always a small minority. Just as among a thousand Englishmen or 
 Frenchmen it would be hard to pick out one typical Englishman or 
 Frenchman. Yet, relatively to woman, it is more the part of a man 
 to go his own way, and never mind what the world may say or not 
 say. Let, on the other hand, a woman once break 
 Woman and a wifch puWic opinion and get over her sense of shame— 
 
 ' and there is no saying to what length she will not go. 
 There is still hope of a man that has fallen a victim, e.g., to drink, 
 but how much hope of one that has once openly played the part of 
 a drunken woman? From Homer’s time, and much earlier, women 
 in society have always constituted themselves a court 
 stated Womanly of censure; and not more is the pleasure a woman 
 Court of Censure feels in passing sentence on her imperfect sisters than 
 and its Authority. ig the paan w ith which she would herself writhe under 
 the sting of an open reproach from the self-constituted court of her 
 sisterhood. Breaking with the established code of morals regulating 
 the relations between man and woman, George Eliot, 
 George Eliot and nevertheless, never got over the pain of the rupture; 
 the Code Of Moral • into ^ er i as t, wr iting you may trace the shrill note of 
 
 womanly self-defence. . _ ,, 
 
 So sensitive is a woman, as to the pain of ill-fame, so, on the other 
 hand, to the pleasure of public approbation, that there is, perhaps, 
 no recorded case of a woman holding a cheque to 
 Admiratfon universal admiration and yet not cashing it. It 
 implied no small measure of manliness m Walter 
 Scott to hear the air ringing with the applause of the Waverley 
 Novels, and yet never once in the exuberance of an unguarded 
 moment let out how the great unknown was ? well, was he. How 
 
120 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 many a woman could keep such a gratifying secret safe in her locked- 
 up breast, and, breathing the incense of her praises rising from all 
 lips, never once betray her gratification, or how there was something 
 she had in hiding ? 
 
 Alike in religion and in politics, woman is a horn Conservative, and, 
 unless some personal or family bias interfere, votes Conservative, 
 Woman a born ex P ress or tacit. 1 By no means mere delusion is the 
 Conservative, Liberal and Radical apprehension at the movement for 
 and a^Restraming the enfranchisement of women. It will be the cue of 
 e e ' the Liberals, you may be sure, to wreck all bills in 
 that direction. Not to conspicuously initiate and take the lead is 
 the constitutional and therefore historical part of woman. Rather 
 is it hers to restrain, to complement, to rule the masculine gender, 
 not by flourishing the upper hand in his face, but by feminine 
 obedience, by influence not demonstrative, by the arts known only to 
 herself, such as the blunter male never once suspects and is helpless 
 to parry. Women very well know, without tabling a formal claim, 
 how to exert their influence, as in social and public life generally, so 
 also in politics. In the last century especially, the 
 T b 6 WomanS d P ar k P^ a y e( ^ by woman in the politics of France was, 
 French°politics, not formal, but all the more influential. Intrinsically, 
 she played the paramount role, and held the trump 
 card. “On ne fait rien en Paris” (i.e., France), says Rousseau, 
 
 “ que par les femmes 
 
 Paul was a manly man if ever there was one, standing in loving 
 and admiring relations to many women. There is a note of magna- 
 1 and the nimity and tenderness in his reference to marriage, as 
 S New Womarr in his reference to the strait-laced use of meats and 
 drinks. And, though it be the fashion nowadays to 
 pooh-pooh or ignore his deliverance about the new woman, there are 
 still some not yet carried away in admiration of the woman that 
 formally and practically snapped her fingers at him, and, really 
 owing her all to St. Paul, yet claimed to know Christianity better 
 than he. The more the matter is probed, the more, probably, will it ■ ' 
 be found that scientifically Paul was in the right in his dictum. 
 
 George Eliot sought by her name to disguise the sex of the author 
 of her novels. The disguise, however, did not blind 
 Voice^stfngSsh- Pickens to the feminine character of her writings. On 
 able across ail reading her first novel, he at once recognised how the 
 Differences of wor k was a woman’s production. Across all differ- 
 of Time. ences ot distance and or time, the feminine voice is 
 unmistakable. When strapping Saul asks the young 
 
 1 Max Muller classifies the Conservative majority affrighted at any un¬ 
 settlement of the traditional creed into the three groups : (1) children ; (2) 
 all women with few exceptions ; (3) most old and infirm people. 
 
WOMAN AND WOMANLINESS 121 
 
 Jewish damsels drawing water whether Samuel were in the city, how 
 perfectly feminine is their long running unpunctuated reply : “ He is 
 behold he is before thee make haste now for he came to-day to the 
 
 city for there is a sacrifice of-” and so on and so on. It is all as 
 
 feminine as is the answer of Juliet’s nurse to a very simple question 
 of Madame CapuleL Or a report by Mrs. Quickly of East Cheap or 
 Mrs. Nicldeby. 
 
 “Women do not make good detectives”, says an experienced 
 ’tec. “ As a rule, woman does not reason. She looks on a thing as 
 she wants it to be or thinks it ought to be, and will 
 ^Detective. 3, n °t be persuaded to follow any other cue. She will 
 not look on a case dispassionately. She enjoys the 
 mysterious, and is often so elated at her position as detective as to be 
 unable to hide the air of investigating a case 
 
 Let boys and girls be all taught to write by one and the same 
 master in one and the same way, and be their handwritings mixed 
 together, it will not be hard to sort out the boy’s 
 ThG Hand inine by itself, and the girl’s hand by itself. Arch¬ 
 
 bishop Whately observes how girls learn more quickly 
 Woman and than boys, but how on the whole a man will go further 
 earn ng. au( j fi ee per in learning than a woman. More ladies 
 than gentlemen learn painting and music, but the tip-top painters 
 and composers are mostly all male. Many more women, again, than 
 men practise cookery, but the chefs-de-cuisine in hotels and big 
 houses are geneially men. 
 
 The Archbishop in search of a feminine invention had to rest con¬ 
 tent with Thwaites’s soda-water, an improvement 
 0 “eutkms. In i n soda-water hit by Miss Thwaites, of Dublin, an 
 amateur chemist. In the way of knitting, the stock¬ 
 ing-frame was the invention of an Oxford scholar; in spinning, the 
 spinning-jenny of a barber ; in weaving, the power-loom of a clergy¬ 
 man. The needle is a peculiarly feminine badge. Yet 
 i^Female^Arts 8 are sewing-machines all masculine inventions. It 
 was Thomas Saint that in 1790 patented a machine for 
 stitching, quilting, and sewing; Barthelemy Thimonier in 1830; 
 Walter Hunt, 1832; Elias Howe, 1846; Allan B. Wilson, 1849; 
 Isaac M, Singer, 1850 ; Messrs. Grover & Baker, 1851; James Gibbs 
 —and so on, all of them male and none female. 
 
 There is in woman a greater tendency to dark eyes than in man. 
 “I have usually found a decidedly larger proportion of dark eyes 
 among the women, but not so often of dark hair”, 
 Wome^that are wr ^ es Hr. Beddoe. The British Association at Bath 
 the Fair Sex. found that while the eyes of medium colour were 
 about equal in the sexes, 44'6 per cent, of the men 
 possessed light eyes against only 34*2 per cent, of the women, where- 
 
122 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 as 20*7 per cent, of the women possessed dark eyes against only 12*3 
 per cent, of the men. The Newcastle meeting found light hair and 
 light eyes in a larger percentage of the men, light eyes and dark hair 
 in a slightly larger percentage of the men, but dark eyes and dark 
 hair in a considerably larger percentage of the women. Alphonse 
 de Candolle states, as a general proposition, that in a given popula¬ 
 tion the women have a larger proportion of brown eyes than the men. 
 At the Anatomical Institute at Strasburg, Pfitzner invariably found 
 fair men in excess of fair women. Professor W. Schmidt found that 
 in Denmark the great majority of men have light eyes and medium 
 hair, while among the women fair, medium, and dark eyes are about 
 equally common, and about half have medium hair, and a third dark 
 hair. 
 
 Speaking generally, the head relatively to the total height is longer 
 in women than in men, the neck shorter, the trunk longer, and the 
 How much an< ^ arms shorter. . The index finger is generally 
 
 Woman’s Build longer in woman than in man, while woman’s thumb 
 di£ Man^s° m * s restively shorter than man’s. In woman the thigh 
 is markedly shorter and thicker, as also more tapering 
 downwards, than in man. As regards the foot, the abbreviated 
 type in which the middle phalanges of the toes are short and coarse 
 is more common in women than in men. As is well known, the 
 thumb and great toe are each only two-jointed, i.e. have only two 
 phalanges. Pfitzner, however, finds a tendency in the little toe also 
 to restrict itself to only two joints, the middle and end phalanges 
 being welded together. This tendency is, it appears, more pro¬ 
 nounced in women than in men. Against 111 feet of men and of 
 women, 41'5 per cent, of the women showed fusion of the joint 
 against only 31 per cent, of the men. 
 
 Altogether, woman has in general smaller features and a rounder 
 face than man ; a formation of the skull in which the overhanging 
 brows characteristic of man are less pronounced, while the muscular 
 prominences of the skull are also less marked, the bones less thick 
 and strong, and the top of the head flatter and shallower; a fuller, 
 longer, and finer growth of hair on the head ; absence of hair on the 
 face; rounder and shorter limbs; a shorter and normally plumper 
 figure ; a voice of higher pitch ; a quicker pulse ; disposition gayer ; 
 temperament more impressionable ; mind quicker and more intuitive. 
 It is as the gentle mistress of home that woman’s genius displays 
 itself most happily. Home is woman’s realm. There 
 Woman’s R^eaim • s ^ e 1° unique and admirable. It is hers to 
 there you find ’ give their inward value to things domestic, to the 
 ^ Admirable nd m erest “ trifles ” of the household—to give to the house 
 its inside. Only through woman does a house be¬ 
 come a home, breathing the airs and fragrances, apart from which 
 
WOMAN AT HOME 
 
 123 
 
 there is no sense of home. A house without a mistress is not yet 
 home. The aroma of domesticity, the cordiality of side-board and 
 sofa and chair, the sentiment of china, the piety of ancient plate and 
 family dresses; it is all hers. What in homely Anglo-Saxon is a 
 lady, i.e., finer and better woman ? She is hlcef-dige, 
 in h which r Goethe loaf-kneader, or say housewife (the German Hausfrau). 
 most delights to the new woman movement this will seem, not a 
 present Woman, fleering or appreciative, but a tame and debasing, defi¬ 
 nition of womanly dignity. And yet perhaps this old-fashioned 
 designation best interprets her genius, and a lady is most of all lady 
 when in the midst of her household. It is the situation in which 
 Goethe most delights to present her. 
 
 It was as head of the household that Goethe’s Lottie charmed the 
 hearts of all her male visitors. To susceptible Jerusalem, it was her 
 h Lottie cut wa ^ cu tting Head and butter and distributing it 
 °£eadina to her sisters that made the male heart love-sick for 
 Way that went ever. The Theresa, again, of Wilhelm Meister is not 
 to the Heart. ^ ^be Waverley or English novel type of heroine. 
 She is not an imposing or romantic person. Of middle stature, with 
 no air whatever of languor or mystery, but with clear blue open eyes, 
 she is first and last a typical Hausfrau. All her genius 
 is in the management of her little property. “ In her 
 management, courtyard you see the firewood accurately sawed, split 
 and piled, as though part of the building and meant to 
 continue constantly there. The tubs and implements stand in their 
 appropriate places, all clean. The house is painted white and red. 
 Whatever can be done by handicraft, not aiming at beautiful propor¬ 
 tions, but labouring for convenience, cheerfulness, and durability, is 
 united in this spot. ‘As a duckling to the water, so from my earliest 
 youth’, says Theresa, ‘did I take to the kitchen, the store-room, the 
 granary, the field. Cleanliness and order in the house was my in¬ 
 stinct’”. And what is the hero Lothario’s idea, too, of woman? 
 “ Woman has been set on the highest station fit for her to occupy. 
 How Man owes w ^ ere there any station higher than the man- 
 
 his independence agement of the house ? It is hers to secure her hus- 
 t0 Woman 6 ° f hand genuine independence, i.e., interior and domestic : 
 
 whatever he possesses, through her he finds secured; 
 whatever he earns, through her well employed; through her is he 
 enabled to devote his strength to noble objects, and, if fortune favour, 
 to act in the State a part similar to that his wife performs so admir¬ 
 ably in his home”. 
 
 “Hermann und The delightful romance, Hermann und Dorothea, is, 
 Dorothea”andits too, in the heart of it the idealisation of domestic 
 ponomy, of housewifely management. 
 
 And in perfect agreement with this ideal of woman 
 
 of Domestic 
 Economy. 
 
124 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 in Goethe, is the ideal of woman in the latest German novelist, Gus¬ 
 tav Freytag. Soil und Haben presents to us Sabine as 
 Freytag’s^Sabine a cordially lovable type of womanhood. And she is 
 storeroom. Hausfrau, wholly Hausfrau, nothing but Hausfrau. 
 
 We see her and admire her occasionally in her store¬ 
 room, where she reigns alone. Here, as in her sanctuary of sanctu¬ 
 aries, are stored all her especial “ preciosities ”. 
 
 “ Against the walls stand immense cupboards of oak and walnut, 
 with beautiful inlaid work, in the middle a large table with carved 
 legs, and round it some ancient arm-chairs. In the open cupboards 
 you see, by the light of a lamp, innumerable damask table-cloths, 
 high tiers of linen and coloured stuffs, crystal goblets, silver cups, 
 china and delf, in the taste of more than three generations back. 
 The air is sweet with the smell of old lavender, eau de cologne, linen 
 fresh from the wash”. Here one day at a late hour the reader sees 
 Sabine counting and sorting table-cloths and napkins, tying up large 
 parcels with pink tape, and attaching to them tickets with numbers. 
 In the midst of this work her face becomes all at once overcast. She 
 notices some fine napkins pierced through with holes, and calls the 
 servant. “It is not to be borne any longer, Franz; in No. 24 also 
 there are two or three napkins pierced by a fork; one of the gentle¬ 
 men makes holes in the table-linen! ” 
 
 No less is Freytag’s Verlorene Handschnft devoted to the presenta- 
 The fair Norse ^ion a f a i r -haired, stout-limbed, blithe, wholesome, 
 Use, the excellent diligent Ilse, type of the hale, honest womanhood of 
 r’atheY’s Farin' North, who knows how to keep house to perfection 
 " and of her m for her widowed father, a right robust German peasant- 
 Professorial Hus- proprietor. The argument of the romance is the 
 and s House, translation 0 f u se from the management of her father’s 
 farmhouse to the management of the house of the professor, the 
 hero of the story, to whom, of course, after the due series of adven¬ 
 tures, she gets married. And the best air and flavour in this excellent 
 fiction is the perfect equality of Use in the house and farmyard of 
 her father and in the house and drawing-room of her professorial 
 husband. She is admirable housewife in the one position as in the 
 other; the aroma, the order, the virtue, the wholesomeness, the 
 domesticity of either. Hardly will any reader of the best English 
 novels pick out a heroine who w r ould have made for the German pro¬ 
 fessor a better wife in any and all respects than was our fair-liaired, 
 comely, housewifely Ilse. 
 
 The Character of a ^ ie c h arac ter of a nation, again, is not restricted 
 Nation is stamped to any one feature, but permeates alike its whole 
 
 i? T s T ?^ ysi<lu f 1 physique, mind, manner, habits, institutions, laws, 
 Mmd. Ways, etc. f an ^ ge ’ litera £ urej business . 
 
 Nor is the idiosyncrasy of a language confined to words, to phrases, 
 
CONGRUITY OF PARTS 
 
 125 
 
 to grammar, to any particular part, but is registered alike iu vocabu¬ 
 lary, in the build of each word, in the meaning of 
 of a La S nguage y each word, in the way in which the words group 
 permeates its themselves together. The organic distinction be- 
 every Part. ^ween the Greeks and the Romans, e.g., is perfectly 
 presented in the distinction between the Greek and the Latin lan¬ 
 guage. Whatever the one says and how it says it 
 the Roman, so m is Greek and only Greek. ^ Whatever the other says 
 does Greek differ an d how it says it is Latin and only Latin. And if 
 from Latin. the Latin borrow of the Greek, the Greek it borrows 
 will not be long in the Latin language without undergoing a certain 
 latinisation in shape and in meaning. The Romans, again, imposed 
 their language on the tongues of most European nations. And so we 
 have at this day the Romance or Romanic languages in 
 guages^and^hSr* Europe—Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portu- 
 integrai Varia- guese, Roumanian, and Romansch. These languages 
 tlons ‘ are all alike professed cultures of Roman. Yet, as is 
 well known, they are not all of the same kind of culture, and the 
 ability to speak one does not necessarily imply the ability to speak 
 all or any of the others. Is, then, the distinction between them 
 partial, confined to vocabulary, phraseology, grammar, syntax P The 
 distinction is integral. Not more do the Italians differ from the 
 French than does Italian from French. The whole genius, tempera¬ 
 ment, way of thinking, way of acting of the Italians, is integrated in 
 Italian, in each Italian word; of the French in French, in each 
 French word. And as the Teutonic stock differs from the Latin, so 
 the Teutonic language from the Latin. 
 
 The character of every man is in his every part and action. In the 
 same individual all the parts are in complete correla- 
 tion, consensus and co-operation with one another, 
 and Functions of and any modification ot any one part necessarily 1 m- 
 oneManarein pfi es commensurate modification of all the others. 
 ° m iation.° rre " Each man is an individual (indivisible whole), and not 
 an aggregate of qualities out of relation to one another, 
 some good, some not so good, and others again bad. How a man is 
 _ __ . . in any one part, function, action, the same is he in all 
 
 hind his Counter, parts, functions, actions. How a man is m his busi- 
 the very same is ness, the same is he iii his personal, domestic, and 
 6 m pew. Ur ° * social life, and vice versa. How a man is behind his 
 counter, the same is he in his Church-pew and in the 
 closet in which he prays, and vice versa. Would a man pray better, 
 let him be and act better. King though he was and 
 of HamieVsUnde P ra Y nevei ‘ so hard, Hamlet’s uncle found that 
 
 would not go up. somehow not one of his prayers would go up, but all 
 stuck at the level of his lips—because clogged with a 
 
126 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 brother’s blood. Would a man truly enjoy the Christian life, let the 
 . next bargain he drives be motivated by the single in- 
 Bargain-driving! tention of serving God and man to the best of his 
 ability. How a man serves the public in his trade 
 is accurate index of the character of his relations to his fellow- 
 men generally, his whole state man-ward and God-ward, his well¬ 
 being or ill-being. Is the professed business of a man to make money, 
 as much money for his own precious self and family as possible, then 
 are his prayers, his piety, his creed, his religion, his 
 ^and Ms Sunday 11 sense of God, all likewise mercenary. Be a manXshop 
 Morning. shoppy, shoppy is the closet also in which he prays. 
 
 Never, on holiest Sunday morning, will it be possible 
 for him not to carry the air (the spirit) of the shop into his church. I 
 On the other hand, does a man ever breathe the spirit 
 T a e ndMake P your r °f the Lord’s Prayer, uniquely impersonal and catho- 
 
 Piie. lie, never afterwards will he consecrate his strength !' 
 to the making of money, but his shop will become a 
 temple. The hypocrisy of England is the feverish intent of the average , 
 Englishman on making his pile and the loud profession of the religion , 1 
 of Him who had nowhere to lay His head. 
 
 As the w 7 hole character of the oak is in its leaf, bud, root, 1 ] 
 trunk, way or manner of being; and the character of the cat in its 
 paw, claw 7 , fell, back, nocturnal instinct, pur, mew, 
 
 The Character ° f e t c> . so an d no l ess is the character of every man in 
 Every Part. his every part and function—in his hand, lingers, 
 nails, etc. Not so much as a hair of his head but is 
 inscribed wfith his character. Not more is there a science of phren¬ 
 ology, than of ophthalmology, rhinology, chiromancy or palmistry, 
 podology, trichology, and so on. In no two persons, e.g., are the 
 curves of the capillary ridges on the skin the same, but always 
 different in one person from what they are in another. Each 
 man is perfectly identifiable all his life long, merely 
 identifiabteb ^y the curves of the skin of his finger-tips. Let an 
 his 6 Finger-tips, impression be taken of the tip of a finger of a person 
 at any time, and another any number of years -after¬ 
 wards, and the ramification of the capillary ridges of the skin across 
 the tip w 7 ill be found to exhibit the same peculiarities in both im¬ 
 pressions, and form an infallible means of identification. Let crimi¬ 
 nals leave only faintest imprints of their finger-tips on wall-papering, 
 
 To Hang a Man banisters, collars, drinking-glasses, photography wall 
 for a Moral bring out details invisible to the naked eye, but where- 
 Save 6 Mnfai^a by the criminals may be infallibly - identified. The 
 Politician of whole character of a man is in his every part and 
 Great Merit, particle. How a man is politically, the same is he 
 morally, aud vice versa. You cannot hang a man for some moral 
 
EACH PERSON A UNITY 
 
 127 
 
 crime, and yet leave the political man safe and sound. As it is mis^ 
 science to praise the oak for some qualities but to condemn it for others, 
 to praise the apple-tree for its blossoms but censure it because its 
 fruit is not so sweet as the pear’s, to blame the mustard 
 M°an?n Pieces for its pungency, the sugar-cane for its lack of tartness, 
 and not as a s0 is it mis-criticism to criticise a man piecemeal. To 
 ast^Critfcisean find, e.g., Goethe noble intellectually, but egoistic 
 Oak in Pieces, morally. Or Carlyle great morally, but very defective 
 a parts Goodl 6 artistically. A man is a unity, and as a man is sp he 
 others not so acts. A good tree cannot bring forth evil fruit, nor a 
 G °°a^n d Bad lerS c o rru Pf tree good fruit. You cannot mend a man in 
 details; in order to be mended in any particular he 
 Goethe is Noble must be born again in toto. As the Scripture says, no 
 —b^moraUy! reformation is of any avail, but only a new creature. 
 
 Let him stop short of being born again, all else is use¬ 
 less. A man’s only fault is that he is he. So long as he continue 
 he, vain is it to look for any improved product of behaviour out of 
 him. 
 
 The quality of a man is in his every act and relation. You may 
 tell the character of a man by the way in which he eats. The whole 
 politeness of a lady is the way in which she addresses her washer¬ 
 woman ; of a man, how he speaks to his groom. 
 
 Remarkable is the persistence, through a long series of generations, 
 of certain characteristics in certain families. It is not merely the 
 prevalence-of, e.g., musical talent in certain families, such as the 
 talent which in uninterrupted sequence asserted itself in the Bachs, 
 from generation unto generation; more particularly from Veit Bach, 
 who died in 1619, until the culmination of the talent in Johann Sebas¬ 
 tian, who died in 1750. Though it culminated, the talent was not 
 exhausted in Johann; not till the second generation after that of its 
 greatest representative did the family talent at last sink into silence. 
 So much was the family identified with music that the town musi¬ 
 cians of Erfurt, where one branch of the clan was for many years 
 settled, bore the name of Bachs, though at the time not including a 
 single member of the family. Similarly was painting the peculiar 
 property of certain families in Italy. As in England the Cecils have 
 been distinguished as politicians from the time of Queen Elizabeth. 
 More curious is it to notice the persistence of odd physical traits 
 in certain families. Walter Scott speaks of a family in which, in each 
 successive generation, a vein in the forehead, on all occasions provo¬ 
 cative of anger, instantly started into prominence, assuming the shape 
 of a horseshoe. The numerous family of a village grocer have, all the 
 members of them, like father and grandfather, the peculiarity of a 
 full growth of beard, but an entire want of whisker. 
 
128 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 How Husband and Wife tend to assimilate to each other, also in 
 Outward Appearance. —A photographic society in Geneva has taken 
 Husband and wifephotographs of seventy-eight married couples, and of 
 Grow more like an equal number of adult brothers aud sisters. On 
 Each other than careful inspection it has been found that the married 
 ro eran is er - C0U pi e S } 10W m0 re likeness, the one member of the 
 couple to the other, than do brother and sister of the same blood to 
 each other. 
 
 The Moral Significance of Parts.— No less than the bumps of the 
 head, the nose also is significant. We all know, most of us perhaps 
 Significance of the direct experience, of the “terrors of the beak”. 
 
 Nose, the Hand, Julius Caesar’s nose was formidable, and an opponent 
 ^tlnf E S ’ ebrows* 1 ' ^ a d nee< ^ a s t°ut heart to confront it. Wellington’s, 
 e ye rows. was 110 t ma d e to yield, but, rigid and aggressive, 
 
 it helped to carry Waterloo. As in his Applied Geography Dr. 
 Keltie remarks, the bridged nose bespeaks a high temper and played 
 its part in the making of Britain. Hawthorne in his notebook 
 observes a high percentage of strong noses in Scotland. And not of 
 will alone, distinguished from intelligence, but also of intelligence in 
 its specific sense, is the nose significant. The intelligence of the nose 
 would seem to take the form more particularly of sagacity. We 
 associate sagacity especially with the dog. The Scotch, whether with 
 special reference to their noses or not, have the credit of a sagacious 
 nation. Walter Scott’s face is eminently sagacious. John Brown, of 
 Rah and His Friends , has a very sagacious look. Doubtless John 
 Brown and Bab were mutually sagacious. Races might , be classified 
 according to noses as well as, if not better than, according to colours. 
 The hand, again, is a trustworthy index of breeding and culture. It 
 is used as a synonym, not only for a workman or artisan, but also for 
 a writer, and the style of his writing. The lips, too, are expressive, 
 and too much lip expressive in a way most men understand. A cut¬ 
 away chin tells one tale; a chin outstanding and resolute, another. 1 
 
 1 Goethe—in Wilhelm Meister ? —observes, though more in the way of 
 empiricism than of science, how bushy eyebrows meeting each other 
 suggest a certain seductiveness, a certain active temptability of blood. 
 There is, perhaps, not much objective justification in the remark. Perhaps 
 the most obviously expressive part of the person, even in its silence, is the 
 mouth. The poutings and twitchings of the mouth, the downfallenness of 
 the corners of the mouth, the curl of the lip, the slight elevation or bending 
 of the upper lip : these speak a language more universally understood and 
 less liable to misinterpretation than (spoken or written) English or French 
 or German. For some of the facial muscles and associated nerves distributed 
 to the mouth are practically out of the control of the will, and accordingly 
 translate the emotions of the person involuntarily and therefore truthfully. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 COMPARATIVE STATURES, ETC 
 
 Statures, etc., of English, Welsh, Scotch and Irish. —The sum¬ 
 mary of the labours of the anthropometric committee of the B.S.A., 
 composed of the most eminent anthropologists, 1880-83, 
 chpSffirXald t ’ w ^° t°°k statistics of the stature, weight, chest-girth, 
 strength of and strength of 8,585 males (from 23 to 50 years of age) 
 English Welsh j n th e United Kingdom, shows that in height the Scotch 
 co c ’ ' stand first with 68*71 inches; the Irish second, 67*90 in.; 
 
 the English third, 67*36 in.; and the Welsh last, 66*66 in.; the average 
 of the whole being 67*66 in. In weight, the Scotch again take the 
 lead, with 165*3 lbs.; the Welsh come second, 158*3 lbs.; the English 
 third, 155 lbs.; and the Irish fourth, 154*1 lbs.; the average weight 
 of the whole being 158*2 lbs. An adult Englishman of typical pro¬ 
 portions has a stature of 5 ft. 72 in.; a chest-girth of 36| in.; a weight 
 of 10 stone 10 lbs.; and is able to draw, as in drawing a bow, a 
 weight of 77i lbs. 
 
 The average stature of females (from 23 to 50 years of age) in 
 England (according to the Anthropometrical Report 
 The stature of already quoted) is 62*25 in., and their average weight 
 E^a e nd. a 122*8 lbs. With respect to conditions of life, the 
 Scotch agricultural population measured an average of 
 5 ft. 10| in- and weighed 173*6 lbs. Against these, take the following 
 measurements in England :— 
 
 The Metropolitan Police 
 Fellows of the Royal 
 
 The Statures and v ®? C i e . ty — \ 
 
 Weights of dif- Y orkshire Fishermen . 
 ferent Classes Athletes (running, jump¬ 
 ing, walking) 
 
 London Fire Brigade . 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow 
 Town population 
 Bristol .... 
 
 of Society. 
 
 Stature. 
 
 5 ft. 10*1 in. 
 
 5 ft. 9*76 in. 
 5 ft. 8*71 in. 
 
 5 ft. 8*34 in. 
 5 ft. 7'40 in. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 185*7 lbs. 
 
 166*8 lbs. 
 
 143 *7 „ 
 160*8 „ 
 
 5 ft. 6*35 in. 137*2 „ 
 
 5 ft. 5'77in. 142*4 „ 
 As regards complexion, in England 39*6 per cent, had light eyes 
 and light hair; 20*4 per cent., light eyes and dark hair ; 4 per cent., 
 light eyes and red hair; 29*9 per cent., dark eyes and 
 T of\he™ngiSh aS ^ ar k bair; 1*7 per cent., dark eyes and fair hair; 0*7 per 
 the Welsh, the cent., dark eyes and red hair; while 3*7 per cent, had 
 Scotch^and the e y es light brown, green, or exceptional, with hair light 
 or dark. In Scotland 46*3 per cent, had light eyes with 
 light hair; 24*5 per cent., light eyes with dark hair; 5*2 per cent., 
 
 129 
 
 9 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 130 
 
 light eyes with red hair; 21'2 per cent., dark eyes with dark hair; 
 
 '9 per cent., dark eyes with fair hair; 1 per cent., dark eyes with red 
 hair; and '9 per cent, exceptional. In Ireland 49*8 per cent, had 
 light eyes with light hair; 18*2 per cent., light eyes with dark hair ; 
 
 3'5 per cent., light eyes with red hair; 23*5 per cent., dark eyes with 
 dark hair; 1*1 per cent., dark eyes with fair hair ; 1*8 per cent., dark 
 eyes with red hair; and 21 per cent, exceptional. In Wales 34*4 per 
 cent, had light eyes with light hair; 19*9 percent,, light eyes with 
 dark hair; 9*8 per cent., light eyes with red hair; 26*4 per cent., 
 dark eyes with dark hair; 4*7 per cent., dark eyes with fair hair; 
 
 1*3 per cent., dark eyes with red hair; 3*5 per cent, exceptional. 
 
 For each inch of stature a Scotchman weighs 2*406 lbs.; a Welsh¬ 
 man, 2*375 lbs.; an Englishman, 2*301 lbs.; an Irishman, 2*270 lbs. 1 
 
 The remains of a Romano-British village at Woodcuts, near Salis¬ 
 bury, dug up in July, 1887, showed the males to average only 5 ft. 
 
 2 in. in height, and the women only 4 ft. 10 in. In 
 Ancient U Britons. a letter to Nature, August 13, 1887, W. F. Stanley 
 reports, as the result of his measurements of a great 
 many Roman coffins, that the Roman could not have greatly exceeded 
 5 ft. 5 in. in stature. The measurements of ancient armour also ; 
 showed how there had been a decided increase in average height in 
 the British aristocracy within the last 500 years. Stanley’s measure- 
 stature of th men ^ s twenty-five mummies in the British Museum 
 Early ^Egyptians. gave the average height of males 61 in., of females 
 55 in. Cleopatra’s mummy measures about 54 in. The 
 most ancient mummy, yet discovered, of an Egyptian king measured 
 52 in. Mr. Stanley was inclined to conclude that the average stature J 
 of the human race increases at the rate of 1*25 in. per 1,000 years. 
 
 It is curious to note the effects on the human physique of climate, i 
 national history, social position. The English physique, 
 Physique. e -9'> 1S integrally distinguishable from the French, 
 from the physique of every nation other than the 
 English. And within the range of English physique the different 
 classes of English society are all distinguishable from one another, as ' 
 in thought, feeling, culture, manners, so likewise and 
 Sodafpositftn. 110 I ess in physique. The hereditary “aristocrat” is I 
 distinguishable by his physique, in England as in every 
 other country, from the professional man, the merchant, the artisan, <1 
 the labourer. Within the compass of the professions, again, how ^ 
 distinguishable is the whole “ manner of man” of the lawyer from 
 that of the physician, the clergyman, the university professor, the 
 
 1 The results of more recent measurements show that the Welsh are 
 about ’8 in. shorter than the English, and as much as 1’5 in. shorter than 
 the Scotch. The English, again, are about *7 in. shorter than the Scotch, 
 weigh about 4 lbs. less, and are less strong. 
 
LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY 
 
 I3i 
 
 schoolmaster. Within the compass of the industries, again, how 
 different from one another, also physically, are the soldier, the 
 sailor, “clothie”, grocer, smith, house-painter, plumber, tailor, 
 cabbie, shoeblack, etc! 
 
 Within the limits of one nation, again, the inhabitants of each 
 district of the country, having more intercourse with each other than 
 with outsiders, become physically distinguishable, also 
 Characteristics ac cent. Notwithstanding the continuous inter-com¬ 
 munication, the English counties are still distinguish¬ 
 able physically and in accent. A West of England (Devonian or 
 Cornish) man is still distinguishable from a Yorkshire man, a man of 
 the Midlands, a man of Kent. In every country there is generally 
 one part recognised as speaking the language the most purely or 
 typically. Just as the Angles imposed their name on all England and 
 on the language. 
 
 The creeds, too, have their respective physiques. Within the Chris¬ 
 tian pale, a Roman Catholic, lay or cleric, is bodily distinguishable 
 from a Protestant. Within the fold of Protestantism, 
 Physiques of the ^ 00 > the Churchman is distinguishable from the Dis- 
 y Creeds. senter; and within Church the high Churchman from 
 the low. Within dissent, the Scotch Presbyterian is 
 distinguishable from the English, Established Kirk from the Free 
 Kirk, and both from the Independents. A man may be spotted 
 out as a Methodist. The Ranters may be known by their voice, the 
 Shakers by their gait. Trinitarians may be known from Unitarians, 
 Quakers from Latter-day Saints ; the New Church from the Apos¬ 
 tolic. Even in Thrums, the Auld Licht was physically distinguishable 
 from the new. The good man differs from the bad in every drop of 
 his blood. We still ask of any religion or faith or creed whether it 
 have pith in it to breed worthy men. 
 
 CHAPTER YII 
 
 LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY 
 
 Longevity 
 
 The longevity of an organism is in some measure correlated with its 
 capacity of development and of adaptation to its outward conditions. 
 Longevity of The law of the question has not yet, however, been 
 Organisms precisely determined. Longevity ranges from a few 
 Ve Animai and Lours in some minute plants and insects to 2,000 years 
 in some yews and baobabs. Pike, carp, and tortoises 
 have been known to live 150 years; the elephant, 200 years; the rhino- 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 ceres, 70; the camel, 60 to 70 ; the horse, 40 ; the lion, 30 ; the deer, 39 ; 
 the dog, 20 ; the cat, 15. The longevity of the whale is computed at 
 400 years. 
 
 Moral Factors of Longevity.— In order to live, there is nothing 
 j like having an object to live for. Holloway’s pill is not in the 
 reckoning with that. “ Almost all the good workmen 
 in Life. C live loug ” (Beranger). Happy the man that has 
 found his mission; he will not think of dying till it 
 be accomplished. The sense in the evening that he has got so 
 much nearer his goal since morning soothes him into sweet slumber ; 
 the sense on wakening in the morning that he has his purpose to 
 pursue sends him with an elastic spring out of bed, and is season¬ 
 ing to his breakfast. A man who has something to gain by his life 
 will not needlessly waste or expose it, nor fail to fight for it and 
 safeguard it. Asthmatic and consumptive, our Dutch William III. 
 was yet never once indisposed on the morning of battle. Duty was 
 How a Man in a I wa y s an illness-proof tonic. In the brunt of an en- 
 the Discharge of gagement, a despatch was brought him. The envoy, 
 Protected 8 a Ler delivering it, lingered by the king’s side. 
 
 “Don’t you see how every moment you stay you’re 
 risking your life?” said the king to him. “ Sire, no more than your 
 Majesty!” “But this is my post”. Whereupon, a ball blew the 
 envoy to pieces, but spared the king, who had a duty-pass to show. 
 Stanley had to Stanley, in darkest Africa, was not free to fall ill; he 
 Finish his Expe- had his expedition to finish. Only after that was 
 d he i got > in >re done might he safely yield himself to a critical con¬ 
 dition and startle the newspapers into preparing his 
 memoir. Prematurely, too, as it turned out. They have paid the 
 full price for his death—but haven’t got it, and may have to wait a 
 while yet on it. The world has not yet got all his work 
 1 to S unbismarck out him. Perhaps the German Emperor underrated 
 Bismarck. the difficulty of cashiering Bismarck. Would mag¬ 
 nanimous Bismarck be so good as to de-politize himself 
 —unbismarck Bismarck P Would Mr. Whale only consent to live 
 out of the water, he would not want for minnows ! 
 
 If (as is beyond an “if”?) the staying power of any business be 
 proportionate to its human value, then is there no 
 Original Thought business in the world comparable with that of “ original 
 ing influence, thinking . An original thought (in a decisive sense) 
 is a new lease of life. The man that has first “ de¬ 
 veloped” into a new and higher thought is first in the fore-van of 
 humanity, and, were people not slaves to custom, would be recognised 
 as the man of highest dignity, superseding the old line of kings and 
 dukes. Such man has more vitality in him (more power in his elbow 
 
LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY 
 
 133 
 
 and other parts as well) than any other man. A new and higher 
 thought is a step further in advance on the unknown, supersession 
 (transcension) of past formulas of being by a more accurate and 
 comprehensive formula. If the value of life he measured by its 
 worth, the wakening of a morning to £20,000 a year is nothing to 
 the apprehension of a new and higher law. 
 
 The highest eras or tide-marks are registered by experiences such 
 The Eras of His- as k a ^> Newton, wlieu he grasped universal 
 
 tory are the " gravitation; Paul, when with blinding brilliance the 
 ^ions^ofGreat" new sense °I Christianity flashed into his mind; 
 Men: Newton, Socrates, when he firmly realised his independence of 
 Paul Socrates, nioney, public opinion and death itself; Kant, when 
 an , arwin. ^ e transcendental solution woke him out of the slumber 
 of the dogmatical philosophy ; Darwin, when he focussed the muta¬ 
 bility of species and formulated universal evolution and development. 
 Such moments are life and the life of life. No man that has once 
 breathed the air of a higher law will again think cheaply of life. 
 Qualitatively he becomes sharer of the life of humanity at large, of 
 which the apprehension of the higher law is an era. The new inter¬ 
 pretation of life is (in matter of fact) health to the navel and 
 marrow to the bones. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom, and 
 the man that getteth understanding. For the merchandise of it is 
 better than the merchandise of silver, and the gain thereof than fine 
 gold. All the things thou canst desire are not worthy to be compared 
 unto her. Length of days is in her right hand. Physically, Kant 
 looked as frail a little body as ever walked, a small “ brown bundle of 
 bones ”, his chest arched, not convexly but concavely, cramping in his 
 pinched lungs. Yet his transcendental solution of life tided him 
 triumphantly over every difficulty; he lived beyond eighty years a 
 brisk life of intense activity, getting up, winter and summer, every 
 morning at five—and in the raw climate of Konigsberg. Physically, 
 Charles Darwin, too, was anything but a robust man, but then he 
 breathed the air of a more comprehensive law, and its ozone main- 
 ' tained him in diligent productivity through threescore 
 
 New Life’ an( ^ ^ en an( ^- ^ iree morei1 Neues Lieben neues Leben, 
 new love new life, applies especially to original thinking. 
 With a new thought a man lives a new quality of life. The serious 
 
 1 A thin-skinned sensitive creature, Rousseau wrote his vehement dia¬ 
 tribe against the theatre, from beginning to end, in an open shed in the 
 depth of winter, exposed to pelting snow and biting blast; his righteous 
 indignation against things theatrical rendered him more than proof against 
 the utmost rage of the elements. Not only did he keep unscathed all the 
 three weeks of wintry exposure ; he was all the time in a glow of vitality, 
 such as your robust rich man by a reaming bowl of punch in his warm 
 drawing-room hardly ever reaches, far less maintains. 
 
134 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 symptom of old age is exhaustion of the capacity of new ideas, incapa- 
 The Symptom of Clt y new productivity. To be in travail with a new 
 old Ageisincapi-idea is to be in a “hopeful state”. The essence of 
 Cit idea? ew youth is love, genial heat of blood, capacity of concep¬ 
 tion. The man not yet blase, cynical, sceptical, but to 
 whose virginal sense the world still blooms fair and lovable, in whom 
 the world still finds a soil responsive in which to sow its latest idea, 
 he is young. To be pitied are the pair whose romance is all ex¬ 
 hausted in the experience of love and marriage, specifically so called. 
 Its gilt faded, the indefinable fascination of life is gone for the disen¬ 
 chanted couple. Intellectual life, on the other hand, 
 Intellectual Life. L continuous betterment. With more than the passion 
 of young blood for its first love, intellectual man 
 follows each successive thought. The new thought always finds its 
 recipient young and responsive to the insemination. What is the 
 relation of initial (personal) love to love intellectual ? The former is 
 basis and material for the latter. 
 
 But only through restraint, modesty, chastity, religious denial, is 
 the former transformable into the latter. Young men busy “ sowing 
 their wild oats” would do well to pause and consider 
 ^lfone^Future 7 h°Y ^hey are actually squandering away their capital, 
 their fire and enthusiasm, their capacity of intellec¬ 
 tuality and future life, and preparing for themselves premature, 
 burnt-out old age, loveless and respectless. Petrifaction of heart 
 is v as Burns says, the crop of such sowing. Happy is incorrupt youth. 
 Happy the nation that safeguards for its citizen his youthfulness of 
 sense into green old age. How full of promise is a 
 man of good standing, well-connected, with a success- 
 Public Life. ful University career behind him, and now with the 
 best auspices just entering on public life, if, full of 
 vitality and strength, he have still an unblemished record and have 
 known how to rule himself. Any one seeing him would not hesitate 
 to lay his money on him. There is hope of a nation so long as it can 
 breed and rear such men. 
 
 Nothing, says M. Jules Simon, helps so much to the conservation 
 of health as intellectual work. And he ooints to the French Institute 
 as a brood of hale and lusty octogenarians. Dryden, 
 How intellectual Petrarch, Linnaeus, Roger Bacon, Locke, Haudel, 
 Man Aiive. a Galileo, Rousseau, lived from 70 to 80. Plato, Buffon, 
 Young, Goethe, Voltaire, W. Herschell, Carlyle, Halley, 
 all lived to beyond 80. W. E. Gladstone in his 88th year knows no 
 abatement from the high level of his exuberant activity. Michelan¬ 
 gelo lived to 89. Friedrich Humboldt died in his 90th year. Titian 
 lived 99 years and at 96 painted a tine picture. 1 
 1 Among ladies Mr3. Somerville was 92 when she died ; Miss Caroline 
 
\ . 
 
 \ —*—<-— -- - - — L - 
 
 LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY 135 
 
 1 
 
 The longevity of a nation, too, is its thought, and the eras of its 
 history the new thoughts it attains. The Arabs lived on for many 
 centuries in Arabia, a people of no importance in the 
 1 A iS?esb 1 'it«°’ wor I ( I* At length, inspired with the new doctrine of 
 thought. 5 Mahomet, they sprang into a nation of heroes and 
 conquerors. On barley and water they conquered Asia, 
 Africa, and South Europe. 
 
 Short of original thought, a great factor of vitality and longevity 
 is happy relationship with one’s fellow-men. To be able at any 
 moment to escape out of oneself into cordial sympathy 
 Happy Relation- anc j conversibleness with others is, next to original 
 Fellow-men 6S thought, a “sovereign specific”. The man of ready 
 conversibleness with his fellow-men, unless stranded 
 on a lonely and incommunicable island, need never sink below a very 
 good level of vitality. A. man has as many lives as he has friends. 
 By imparting them to a friend, one gets rid of all his private griefs; 
 j while, contrariwise, all the happiness of his friend becomes at once his 
 1 also. Strong is the man that has the resource of friends, that is sure 
 of the consensus and co-operation of the best of his contemporaries. 
 In connection with the factor of friendship may be mentioned that of a 
 I sincere intention of public service in the business one pursues. To be 
 carrying on a business that does not merely or mainly 
 T Task P profitabie, e respect the selfish profit of the man engaged in it, but 
 not to oneself ’ honestly intends the public welfare, gives the happiest 
 PubUcafLarge 6 sense of inward unity with one’s fellow-men. It is 
 the human heart by which we live, and the value of a 
 man’s life is the measure and degree in which he heartily consents 
 and co-operates with others towards a common purpose, in which he 
 seeks in his daily business, not merely his own private profit, but the 
 public good. On the other hand, to get your living out of the public, 
 only by robbing them of their senses! 
 
 Similarly may the longevity, also, of a nation, the quantity and 
 quality of life in its capacity, be estimated by the predominance of 
 the patriotic sentiment over the disintegrating force of 
 ^Nation^con 0 ^ selfish interest. Or, in other words, the strength of a 
 ditioned by the State is its civity, the degree in which a citizen con- 
 ^atrfoS^Tie 16 su Fs first and foremost, not his private interest irre¬ 
 spective of or to the prejudice of the public, but the 
 public interest. All health is also moral, squareness of being with 
 the_ laws universal and eternal. All decline in morals, whether in in¬ 
 dividual or nation, involves commensurate decline also in physique. 
 
 Herschell (elected with Mrs. Somerville to be the first women-fellows of 
 the Royal Astronomical Society), 76; Miss Edgeworth, 82; Harriet Mar- 
 tineau, 76; Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, 72; George Sand, 72; Miss 
 Mitford, 70; Madame de Stael, 70. 
 
PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 136 
 
 The physique of a nation is trustworthy index of its morale. 
 
 In Nature, November 4,1886, Joseph Jastrow—who, however, does 
 not get to the bottom of the question, but only touches it empirically 
 —finds that all classes of men of thought live longer than ordinary 
 men, but the moralists live longest. After these come the men of 
 science. Among litterateurs of feeling, the religionists alone, he finds, 
 live the full period of life, while poets’ lives are five years, and musi¬ 
 cians’ lives eight years, too short. Men of action, again, rulers and 
 commanders, fail to complete the full term of life by four years. 
 
 In April, 1893, the Royal Meteorological Society gave Mr. Henry 
 Perigal a complimentary dinner in celebration of his 92nd birthday. 
 
 Mr. Perigal’s father, who was 99i years of age when 
 Perlial^aiSlv died, was one thirteen children, nine of whom 
 attained respectively their 64th, 67th, 77th, 80th, 88th, 
 90th, 94th, 97th, and 100th year—the last five averaging 93 years 
 100 days. Their father and mother died in 1824, the former nearly 
 90, the latter upwards of 80. Mr. Henry Perigal was the eldest of 
 six children, one of whom lived to the age of 85, and the youngest, 
 Mr. Frederick Perigal, in his 82nd year, was present at the dinner. 
 
 A Dean of the Forest.—Many oaks beat the Perigal record by a 
 long interval. At Colthorpe, e.g., near Wetherby, in Yorkshire, still 
 grows an oak, measuring 78 ft. round close to the 
 airorkshireOak f £ r °und, and 48 ft. at the height of a yard. In the 
 days of Queen Bess the tree was already long past its 
 prime, and beginning to decline. Now much in decay, the old veteran 
 has still pith enough left in him to stand for many years. 
 
 Fecundity 
 
 How great is the fecundity of plants may be in part reckoned by 
 the fact that man lives mostly on their seeds or fruits in the case of 
 grains and most other vegetables. A single capsule of 
 the white poppy will contain as many as 8,000 seeds ; 
 of the vanilla, 1,500 ; a single plant of elecampane, 
 3,000 ; a single spike of greater cat’s tail, 10,000; a 
 single plant of tobacco, 360,000 ; a single stalk of spleen wort, at least 
 a million. Give these plants free scope to multiply, through gene¬ 
 ration on generation, and how lolig time would it take them to over¬ 
 run the globe all round ? 1 
 
 In the animal kingdom, a single pair of rats, at their ordinary rate 
 
 1 A walnut tree in the Baivar Valley, near Balaclava, has an annual 
 yield of from 80,000 to 100,000 walnuts. In 1893 a pear tree at Southampton 
 bloomed and fruited four rich crops of the most excellent pears, while the 
 same year an apple-tree at Cambridge, after yielding two different crops, 
 was again in August in blossom for the third time. 
 
 The Fecundity of 
 p °PPy, Vanilla, 
 Tobacco, etc. 
 
 
 }i 
 
 1 
 
LONGEVITY AND FECUNDITY 137 
 
 of increase, would, if left to breed unchecked, produce in about half 
 a century a progeny numerically as great as the whole 
 KabScome to population of England at the present time. A single 
 be too many for pa ir 0 f rabbits was introduced into Australia by a 
 the Powers lian Melbourne squatter, and their posterity has now for 
 some time been successfully defying all the human 
 powers of that continent. In 1887 the Cabinet of Sydney destroyed 
 over 25 millions of them, having in four years spent £700,000 to¬ 
 wards their destruction. The plan of operations devised to their 
 prejudice assumed the proportions of a great military campaign. A 
 fence of 290 miles, at a cost of £24,000, was constructed between 
 Macquarie and Darling Rivers ; another of 346 miles from Murray 
 River northward; another of 260 miles on the southern line of 
 Queensland; another of 340 miles from Albury to the Macquarie. 
 The rabbits, however, soon succeeded in running the blockade of the 
 latter region. The number of rabbit skins exported averages yearly : 
 from New South Wales, 15 millions; from Victoria, 3 millions 
 (Victoria Colony spending £15,000 a year on killing rabbits); South 
 Australia, 1,000 bales of skins ; New Zealand, 6 millions. 
 
 Fishes, however, are still more prolific. If every grain of roe 
 spawned by fishes were fecundated and hatched, the sea would soon 
 be full up. The cod is estimated to yield some 45 
 Fl they Spawn W eggs each season. As many as 9^- million eggs 
 
 have been found in the roe of a single cod. An eel 
 caught in Scotland, 32 in. long and about 2 lbs. weight, showed an 
 ovary nearly 30 in. long when opened out. This was calculated to 
 contain upwards of 10 million eggs. Over 36,000 eggs have been 
 counted in a herring, 38,000 in a smelt, 1 million in a sole, 1,200,000 
 in a roach, 3 millions in a sturgeon, 342,000 in a carp, 383,000 in a 
 tench, 546,000 in a mackerel, 992,000 in a perch, and 1,357,000 in a 
 flounder. A pair of herrings, left to breed undisturbed for a score of 
 years, would, according to Buffon, yield a supply of fish equal in bulk 
 to the globe. 
 
 In the case of land animals, on the other hand, the elephant, camel, 
 and horse seldom produce more than one at a time ; the lion some¬ 
 times only one, oftener two or three, rarely five. The dog, cat, and 
 rabbit will produce from six to ten at a litter, and litter several times 
 a year. In a wild state pigeons breed but twice a year; domesti¬ 
 cated, six or even nine times. The elk and bear produce but one at 
 first, but later on two at a time. The young hamster produces but 
 three to six at a litter ; the more advanced, eight to sixteen. 
 
 In the human species single births are the rule, but 
 Twins^TriSiets. twins occur once in every 700 births; triplets once in 
 every 7,000. 
 
 Gestation is longer in herbivorous than in carnivorous animals of 
 

 138 
 
 PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 
 equal size. In the elephant it lasts from 20 to 21 months ; in the 
 giraffe, 14 months; dromedary, 12 months; buffalo, 
 Herbivorous, ^ ; ass, 12 ; mare, 11 months and a little more; tapir, 
 10 to 11; rhinoceros, 9; cow, 9; large deer, 8 + ; 
 reindeer, 8 ; sheep and goat, 5 ; sow, 4. 
 
 Among rodents the gestation of the beaver is 4 months; dormouse, 
 31 days; rabbit, 30 to 31 days; squirrel and rat, 28 days; guinea- 
 pig, 21. 
 
 Among the carnivora the bear has 6 months’ gesta- 
 nivorous 1 Animals . tion J tbe lion > 108 da Y s 5 the puma, 79 days ; the fox, 
 wolf and dog, 62 to 63 ; cat, 55 to 56. The Greenland 
 whale has 10 months’ gestation, the monkey 7 months. 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PREHISTORIC ECONOMY 
 
 The prehistoric stages in human culture may he labelled in order, as 
 follow :— 
 
 1. Hunting and fishing. In caves of the Quaternary age are found 
 harpoons and fish-hooks, with bones of animals that had been con¬ 
 sumed as food. Besides the spoils of the chase and of 
 
 which Menttved fishing? men this primitive stage lived also on fruits, 
 on the Spoils of leaves, roots, and seeds. At a stage of economy 
 o?Fishin Se and s i m ^ ar t° this, there still exist the Andaman Islanders, 
 on Fruits, Leaves, the Australian blacks, the Melanese Negritos. The 
 Roots, d and aboriginal Australian is furnished with a boomerang 
 
 e ** for hunting, and a pointed stick with which to dig up 
 roots and a larger sort of truffle. 
 
 2. Thence man advanced to a more elaborate hunting life, such as 
 
 is registered by the remains of Quaternary cave 
 ^Hunting^nd^ men, and still represented by the economic gear of the 
 Fishing ; Canoes modern Eskimo; more shapely harpoons for striking 
 a FurUress ed sea ^ or wa l rus > hollowed-out canoes, stitched fur 
 dresses covering the whole person. 
 
 3. The next stage of progress is marked by rudiments of agricul¬ 
 ture. In the lake-dwellings (see below, p. 144) are found cereals, yet 
 
 smaller than those of the present day. A rude agri- 
 Agricuiture 7 cultural stage is indeed in general not posterior in 
 time to the life that is characteristically one of hunt¬ 
 ing and fishing, still less to pastoral life. It would be easier to 
 domesticate wild plants than wild animals. Even the 
 e A f J Domesti primitive Melanesians of to-day cultivate yam and 
 Matron ° Dog, 1 * taro. Characteristically hunters, the American In- 
 Reindeer, Horse, dians yet cultivated maize and cassava in Mexico and 
 CoV Q’oat. eeP ’ potato in Peru, while they had tamed llamas and 
 alpacas as beasts of burden and no less to serve in the 
 way of food. The animal of earliest domestication is believed to be 
 the dog, whose relics are found in the Danish shell-mounds, whom 
 the aboriginal Australians had attached to them as companion. 
 Other animals of early domestication are reindeer, horse, cow, goat, 
 
 139 
 
140 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 sheep, camel, elephant, and (in Egypt) cat. The nomad Mongolian 
 of Central Asia is still nourished mainly on mare’s milk and the pro¬ 
 duce of his flocks and herds. 
 
 The earlier stages of human culture are also commonly graduated 
 according to the respective materials whereof weapons and implements 
 are made. After this plan of classification, Sir J. 
 ^Polished* Lubbock distributes prehistoric humanity into three 
 stone Ages, ages: (1) The Stone Age, subdivided into the Palaeo¬ 
 lithic, i.e. early or rude Stone Age, and the Neolithic, 
 the later or more polished Stone Age. In the Stone Age the weapons 
 and tools were all made of stone. (2) The Bronze Age, during which 
 weapons and tools of all kinds were made of bronze, 
 stone impfe- though doubtless, in the earlier period especially, in- 
 ments also still struments still continued to be made of stone. The 
 C °be 1 made. t0 Egyptians, e.g., continued to make stone arrow-heads, 
 hammers, knives, and scrapers, not only in the time of 
 the Pharaohs, but under the Romans, and during the whole period 
 of the Middle Ages, nor has their manufacture still wholly died out in 
 The iron A e Egypt (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation , pp. 49, 50). 
 e on ge. ^ X] ie i ron Age, when arms and implements came to 
 be fashioned of the firmer metal. 
 
 The progress of human economy might be traced also by improve¬ 
 ment in the character of human habitation—from caves and rock- 
 shelters to wigwams of leaves and branches, and thence to more 
 substantial and elaborate structures. 
 
 Cave Age. — Primitive men in the past have lived and primitive 
 tribes still live in caves. Wide stretches of loamy and fissured land 
 in China still show hollowed-out dwelling-places in 
 Cav fn d Ch e ina ngS P^^y* In the New World, too, the high walls of 
 deep canons in Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, are 
 honey-combed with ancient human habitations. Sometimes, however, 
 Human Nests in- ^ ie Sellings are built, not inside the wall, but on its 
 sid™the Walls or ledges overhung by projecting rock. Some of these 
 1 against the Walls 0 iq human nests are perched seven hundred feet above 
 ° fI Sions° r the bottom. Such dwellings have been fashioned 
 apparently by the same race of people whose stone 
 mins bestrew the valleys, similar in structure to the dwellings still 
 occupied by the Pueblos or Moqui Indians. 
 
 Remains of cave-dwellings in the Mesa Verde Plain 
 ?S ve M wel v nS H in (South-west Colorado) were in 1891 extensively ex- 
 6 Plain. er 6 plored by Gustav Nordenskiold. The tenements were 
 constructed out of natural caves in the sides, or built 
 against the cliffs forming the sides, of the deep gorge of the river Mancos 
 and its numerous side-canons. Tradition of their origin there is none. 
 
PREHISTORIC ECONOMY 
 
 141 
 
 Palace-like buildings, not easily accessible, some of them have risen 
 each three or four storeys high and comprised seventy to eighty 
 rooms. They are furnished with doorways, occasionally also with 
 openings for light, sometimes towers, all of wrought stone, and. 
 have invariably the circular chambers called by the Spaniards estufas, 
 An agricultural people, the cliff-dwellers cultivated maize, beans, 
 cotton, gourds, and fruits, and kept the domestic turkey. Ignorant 
 of the use of metals, they manufactured ornamented 
 Manufactures^of pottery, stone hammers and clubs, knives and arrow- 
 the American heads of quartzite, and other articles of bone, ladles 
 cliff-dwellers. atJ( j S p 00 ns from gourds, cotton-cloth with woven 
 patterns, matting, and p]aited articles. 
 
 Troglodytes (cave-dwellers) are mentioned by Herodotos, Aris¬ 
 totle, Strabo, and Diodorus, scattered as far west as 
 Classic'Times m Mauretania (North-west Africa), on the'shores of the 
 Red Sea, in Southern Egypt, and on the northern side 
 of the Caucasus. At Gojam, in Nubia, Bruce saw a series of caverns 
 tenanted by herdsmen. 
 
 Cave-dwellings have recently been discovered in Southern Belgium, 
 along the Meuse Valley, and in South-western France in the valley 
 of the Vezere, a branch of the Dordogne. In Southern France a cave¬ 
 dwelling was explored near Aurignac in 1860, and, since, cave-dwell¬ 
 ings h^ve been found near Mentone; on Mount 
 dwellings of recent Saleve, near Geneva; in parts of Spain, etc. 
 
 Discovery, de- The cave-dwellings of Europe derive from early 
 Paiaeofithi*? 1 Times. Palaeolithic times. No remains of dogs nor any indi¬ 
 cation of domestic plant or animal have been found 
 among the relics of the cave-dwellers in Southern Europe. They 
 understood the use of fire, but were ignorant of pottery and of the 
 art of polishing stone. Their utensils and weapons were of stone, 
 bone, and horn, to which may be added wood, though of this last 
 material nothing of course remains. Needles and awls found among 
 their litter show how they must have stitched skins together for cloth¬ 
 ing. Figures cut or scratched on bones and horns with remarkable art 
 exhibit the outlines of human beings, horses, deer, fishes, as also of 
 the now extinct hairy mammoth with long mane, curved tusks, and 
 pendant trunk. 
 
 In Britain, too, numerous cave-dwellings have been explored. 
 Kent’s Hole, near Torquay, was found in 1825 to contain fossil bones, 
 and to later researches (1865-80) has yielded flint im- 
 C ave -dweihngs in plements in association with the bones of now extinct 
 animals in undisturbed strata, including the teeth of 
 Kent’s Hole, tbe sabre-toothed feline named by Professor Owen 
 Machairodus latidens, an animal whose remains have 
 been found also in two localities in France. 
 
142 ECONOMICAL 
 
 In Brixham caves, Devonshire, first discovered in 1858 and there¬ 
 fore wholly undisturbed, rude flint implements of indisputably human 
 _ . . _ workmanship were picked up in association with re- 
 
 mams ot mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, lion, bear, ; 
 reindeer; establishing the fact of the contemporaneousness of man 
 Wookey Hole t ^ iese animals. In Wookey Hole, near Wells, 
 
 Somerset, first discovered in 1852 and since thoroughly 
 explored, flint implements were found along with bones and teeth of 
 the wpolly rhinoceros, reindeer, stag, Irish elk, mammoth, hygena, 
 bear, lion, wolf, fox, and horse. In the district of Gower (Glamor- 
 Gower Caves £ an shire) are many ossiferous caverns, and in Long 
 Hole were found flint flakes along with the bones of 
 Cave-dwellings in extinct mammalia. Other cave-dwellings have been 
 c° an . f oall( j on the Clyde, in the valley of the Jed, at Haw- 
 thornden near Edinburgh, etc. 
 
 In Palestine and Syria generally, the limestone formations abound 
 with caverns, many of which have been and still are occasionally 
 used as places of habitation occasional or permanent. 
 
 HiS Palestine 6 S m Lot an( ^ his two daughters dwelt for some time in a 
 cave. The Benjamites, almost exterminated by the 
 other tribes, secured themselves in the rock Bimmon. Samson kept v 
 
 garrison in the rock Etam. The Israelites took shelter from the I 
 
 Midianites in dens and caves of mountains, and occasionally from | 
 the Philistines in caves, in rocks, and in pits. David pursued by Saul 
 hid himself in caves at Maon, at Adullam, at Engedi. When Jezebel 
 persecuted the Jewish prophets, Obadiah hid one hundred of them by 
 fifty ih a cave. Elijah lodged in a cave in Mount Horeb. In present 
 times, the shepherds near Hebron dwell in summer in caves near 
 their flocks. The habitations at Gadara are mostly caves. 
 
 In Britain gipsies and tinkers are still wont to seek the accommo¬ 
 dation of caves. 
 
 Seeing that culture began at different epochs in different parts of 
 our earth, and in some places is yet in its primitive condition, the 
 . different ages above indicated apply to different periods 
 
 phicafGroups" of time in different human areas. The respective 
 of Men stand at durations of these ages vary also with variation of 
 ^^Cuiture 868 locality. So much alike, however, in essence, is j| 
 humanity all the world over, that the succession speci- | 
 fled may be taken to indicate the normal early curriculum of human j 
 culture universally. As, moreover, in the same individual the culture 
 of any one faculty implies culture or correlation in other faculties as 
 well, so in any organisation of men progress economic keeps pace 
 with progress also in other directions. Is not culture {i.e. agri- ■: 
 culture) taken as type of all kinds of humane culture P The sketch of i 
 geographical progress (pp. 70-80), and the history of the early civilisa- 
 
PREHISTORIC ECONOMY 
 
 143 
 
 tions (pp. 4-31), will therefore illustrate progress also in an economic 
 respect. 
 
 According to Worsaae (Prehistory of the North),,the economic 
 progress of Scandinavian humanity may be distributed into the fol¬ 
 lowing approximate periods :— 
 
 1. The Early Stone Age, at least 3000 b.c. This Scandinavian 
 stage was contemporaneous with a later Stone Age in 
 The Earlier and the south and west of Europe, 
 the Later Scan¬ 
 dinavian stone 2 . Later Stone Age, about 2000 to 1000 b.c., con- 
 Age ‘ temporary with a full Bronze Age on the Mediterranean. 
 3. Early Bronze Age, 1000 to 500 b.c., while in the high north, as 
 far south as Dalecarlia (Kopparberg, Sweden), a Stone 
 T LaterBr e onze d Age existed, and in Southern Europe an Iron Age, 
 Age in with general classic culture, was arrived. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 4. Later Bronze Age, reaching to 66 N. in Norway, 
 500 B.c. to birth of Christ. This age in the north coincided in time 
 with the development of a pre-Roman Iron Age in Central and 
 Western Europe. 
 
 5. Early Iron Age in the old Danish lands, from birth of Christ 
 
 to 450 a.d. , at first pre-Roman, but mostly Roman. 
 T Bronze Agein 6 The B ronze Age still lingered farther north, especially 
 Scandinavia, in the higher north of the Scandinavian peninsula, to 
 and their respec- as f ar as “ Arctic ” Stone Limit, beyond which 
 
 ive reas. g£ one Age was still i n f u ll force. 
 
 6. Middle Iron Age, to as far north as 69° N. in Norway, 450 to 
 700 a.d. In this age foreign Romano-Germanic influence prevailed. 
 
 The Later Iron 7- Later Iron Age, 700 to 1000 a.d., the age of the 
 Age in Vikings. At the same time, in the far north of Fin- 
 Scandinavia. ] an( j an( j Lapland, the Stohe Age was not yet com¬ 
 pletely dislodged. 
 
 Prehistoric remains have in recent times been diligently gathered 
 up and stored in Archaeological Institutes now scattered liberally all 
 over Great Britain. 
 
 Lake-Dwellings 
 
 Traversing the whole range of prehistoric culture from Stone into 
 Iron Age, there have been found remains of human habitations 
 resting on platforms above the surface of lakes. Such 
 Lake-dwellings lake-dwellings continued to be erected and inhabited, 
 tion in Time, irom earliest times down into the beginning or doeu- 
 mentary history in Central Europe, and down to much 
 later times-still in Scotland and Ireland. The earlier lake-dwellings 
 of Switzerland are computed to date back to from 1000 to 2000 b.c.— 
 
144 ECONOMICAL 
 
 if not to a much earlier date still. Their substructure is in some cases 
 a mass of stones ; in others a mass of brushwood ; more 
 the iwS?Lake- f commoil ly i* 1 Switzerland piles bedded, at their hacked 
 dwellings. * or fired ends, in the lake-bottom, with their tops le¬ 
 velled for the platform. In general, the piles are simply 
 natural trunks with the bark on, as are also the closely laid, undressed 
 logs of the platforms. Only in exceptional samples have split boards 
 been used as material for the platforms. Many huts, rectangular or, 
 
 \ Lake villa e as * s con j ec tured, sometimes rounded in shape, and 
 “ and its^Aref 6 thatched with straw and reeds, were erected in rows, 
 rarely more than three or four feet apart from one 
 another, on one platform, which might compass an area of 100,000 
 sq. ft., the proportions of a goodly village. The lacustrine habita- 
 Communication ^ on Sutz, in the Lake of Bienne, measured nearly 
 between Lake- 262,000 sq. ft. A narrow gangway generally led from 
 Vi shore and ^ ie platform to the shore. The Sutz village just men¬ 
 tioned was connected with the land by a pile-supported 
 bridge, 300 ft. long and 40 ft. wide. More than 200 such lake- 
 The Number of yiU a ges have been found in Switzerland ; some thirty 
 Lake-dwellings in the Lake of Geneva; over forty in the Lake of 
 Remand Neuchatel. Bemains of the lake-dwellings have been 
 fished up in great profusion out of the calm, protec¬ 
 tive waters, down to the very bread and wearing material of their | 
 occupants. In the Stone Age settlements, the cutting implements 
 include axes, knives, and saws made of stone, though 
 Sfc mentso? e sma U knives, saws, arrow-points, and spear-heads are 
 Lake-dwellings, usually made of chipped flint. The ancient station 
 of Lake Mosseedorf, near Berne, has yielded great 
 store of stone hammers, picks, celts or hatchets and chisels, arrow 
 and spear heads of flint, saws toothed with flakes set in wood with 
 asphalt to hold them tight, knives, horn and bone tools, including 
 stag-horn harpoons, fish-hooks of boars’ tusks. Also remains of 
 . wheat, barley, millet, flax-seed, apples, service-berries, 
 
 Remains™ 1 an d other fruits. Also bones of horse, ox, goat, sheep, 
 swine. The stone axes are mostly mere wedges not 
 perforated for the haft, but held fast in a socket in the end of a short 
 piece of stag’s horn with bitumen. The arrow points of bone are 
 barbed or notched. Coarse pottery of the Stone Age is largely in 
 
 evidence in the lake-dwelling remains. The lake- ; 
 S pottery Se dwellers cultivated on the adjacent mainland wheat, 
 barley, millet, and flax, while they also reared cattle, 
 which were sometimes stalled on the lake-village. Among the bones 
 found underneath the lake-dwellings are those of the bison, urus, 
 ibex, elk, chamois, wild boar, and stag. Of domestic animals, we 
 find remains of dog, horse, swine, goat, sheep. We find, moreover, 
 
PREHISTORIC ECONOMY 145 
 
 stored nuts and halved pippins, charred cakes of bread, pieces of tex¬ 
 tiles of well-spun flaxen threads, fishing nets, mats of 
 Domestic Ani- k as t or Hme-tree fibre, cords of flaxen thread, ropes of 
 Lake-dwellers, plaited twigs. The lake-village site of Robenhausen, 
 about 131,000 sq. ft., showed evidence of long con¬ 
 tinuous tenancy, ranging from the Stone Age up to and into the 
 Bronze Age. In the lowest stratum was found crude pottery; but in 
 the higher strata more ornate bowls, cups, pipkins, pots, urns, vases 
 incised and with low-relief patterns, crucibles of horse- 
 ases ‘ dung and fire-clay. Made in wood were spoons, ladles, 
 Articles of Wood tubs, trenchers, flails, spindles, clubs, hatchet-handles, 
 an o one. ] 0D g y ew t) OWS> Also cloths of bast, flax, and wool. 
 Of bone and horn were bodkins, needles, platting tools, scrapers. 
 Several pounds of cakes and coarse bread were also fished up. In a 
 single cut made for a water-course through the beds of refuse from 
 this village, there were taken more than five tons of 
 F Bon^°and f ail i ma ^ I> ones and fragments of articles. Altogether, 
 Broken S Ware. it would appear as though the lake-dwellers were 
 chargeable with a considerable amount of wastry at 
 their tables and breakage of household articles. 
 
 Pile-dwellings of the Bronze Age stand farther from the shore than 
 those of the Stone Age, and show more domestic, fewer wild, animals for 
 food, as also better-shaped and more ornate pottery, 
 the Bronz?!^ ^t Morges settlement, in the Lake of Geneva, bronze 
 is almost the only material, stone and bone implements 
 being very rare. Other settlements show both stone and bronze tools 
 mingled together. A special feature of the remains is the develop¬ 
 ment of pins or brooches with ornamental heads, of all sizes up to 
 15 in. long. More than 500 bronze articles have been taken from 
 the Morges settlement. These include axes, chisels, 
 f"ronfthe^Mor 1 es £ ou & es ’ saws > sickles, knives, daggers, spear-heads, 
 p5?-settiement S swords (broad-bladed and slightly tapering), hammers, 
 anvils. Moulds of stone for casting the bronze imple¬ 
 ments, weapons, etc., have been found, indicating that the manufac¬ 
 tures were made in the settlements themselves. 
 
 The settlement of Marin (Lake of Neuchatel), 1,200 ft. by 250 ft., 
 shows weapons all of iron : short double-edged 
 from 1 the filar!n sworc ^ s » some with makers’ marks—no less! iron 
 fr s?ttiement. in sheaths, elegant and decorate. At Marin have been 
 found also Romish and Gaulish coins ; the latest, 
 of the Roman Emperor Claudius, 41-54 a.d. 
 
 Lake-dwellings have, further, been discovered on the Italian side 
 of the Alps, in Savoy, in Austria, in Bavaria, in Pomerania. Under 
 the name of Crannogs, they are numerous in Scotland and Ire¬ 
 land ; generally artificial circular islets in lakes, supported, not alone 
 
 10 
 
146 ECONOMICAL 
 
 on piles, but on a solid mass of mud, stones, etc., witb both hori¬ 
 zontal and perpendicular stakes. Either a gangway 
 "in Savoyf Aus? stretched from the islet-tenement to the shore, or com- 
 tria, Bavaria, munication was effected by canoes. The crannogs are 
 P °and a Seiand 0t * £ ener ally much smaller than the Swiss lake-dwellings. 
 
 Crannogs of Ayrshire and Galloway have yielded 
 objects ranging in date from the Roman occupation of Scotland to 
 recent times. The crannogs of Ireland show objects deriving from 
 the period of the Norman incursions—from the 8th to the 10th and 
 11th century. So far, then, the crannogs of both Scotland and Ire¬ 
 land seem to belong exclusively to the age of iron and documentary 
 history. 
 
 The discoverers, in 1499, of the Lake of Maracaybo found an Indian 
 village planted on piles above the water, and therefore 
 of 1 soutfAmerka! ca U e d it Venezuela, or little Venice. Herodotus (5th 
 century b.c.) speaks of villagers on Lake Prasias (near 
 Salonica), commuuicating by a long, narrow bridge with the shore, 
 and able to bid defiance to dread Darius and his army. 
 Villagers on Lake The platforms on which their dwellings rested were 
 Tim!e or Darius, provided with trapdoors, through which, by letting 
 down baskets, the families caught fish. The Papuans 
 along the coasts and river banks of New Guinea still live in bamboo 
 dwellings perched on stakes, and grouped together. 
 Similar lake-dwellings arc still in fashion in New 
 ’ Zealand, in the Caroline Islands, and in Russia. In 
 Central Africa, too, Cameron came across villages of pile-structures 
 on Lake Mohrya. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 
 
 Cultivated Plants and their Origins 
 
 All food and other economic plants come of the cultivation of wild 
 plants, just as cattle and domestic animals of the cultivation of wild 
 animals. Yet, in many cases, both vegetal and 
 D °w?m Plants of animal, the links intermediate between the wild and 
 
 the cultivate stock have disappeared, and it is there- j 
 fore in a number of cases no longer easy, in some cases impossible, 
 Missing Links be. to identify the cultivate plant or animal with the 
 tween the Plant heathen prototype out of which it was evolved. 
 a f ldits There are ‘‘missing links”, not only between erect 
 i io o ype. man an( j kjg Simian ancestry, but also between the 
 plant or beast of cultivation and its savage original. 
 
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 147 
 
 Wheat, the marrow of men (as Homer calls it), is of pre-liictoric 
 culture. Egyptian monuments, older than the Shepherd Kings of the 
 Middle Empire, show wheat already in full cultivation. 
 W e Culture ° f Its immemorial origin the Egyptians and Greeks refer 
 ary u ure. i s i S) Ceres, and other mythological personages. The 
 earliest lake-dwellers of Switzerland (p. 144) of the Stone Age cul¬ 
 tivated as many as five different varieties of wheat. 
 The Chinese were The Chinese, growing wheat 2/00 B.C., also considered 
 Sr °270(fB?c heat wheat a gift direct from heaven. Maspero is disposed 
 to look to the region of the Euphrates for its original 
 habitat, where, with six-rowed barley, it is still found growing wild. 
 Barley is among the earliest of cultivated plants. In the farthest 
 west of the Old World, the Guanchos cultivated barley. 
 The wide Distri- The common two-rowed barley has been found wild 
 u.iono * Western Asia, Arabia Petrea, near Mount Sinai, 
 in the ruins of Persepolis, and other parts of Asia) from Bed Sea to 
 the Caucasus and the Caspian Sea. The six-rowed 
 in^arliestEgyp 6 ?barley I s mentioned in Greek writings, and has been 
 ’ found also in the earliest Egyptian monuments and in 
 | the relics of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland (Stone Age), of Italy, 
 
 ] and of Savoy (Bronze Age). 
 
 Oats was not a cultivation of the early Egyptians or of the 
 Hebrews, though the grain now grows in Egypt. The 
 ° atS Culture laSSiC early Greeks knew it as bromos, the Latins as avena, 
 names commonly applied to uncultivate species mixed, 
 as weeds, with cereals. Oats have been found among 
 dwsUersat^Oats. the remains of the Swiss lake-dwellings of the Bronze 
 Age and near Wittenberg in tombs of the 1st century 
 a.d., but none in the lake-dwellings of North Italy. Pliny speaks of 
 the Germans living on oatmeal. Galen says that oats grew abun¬ 
 dantly in Mysia above Pergamos, and was given to horses, or even 
 used as food by men in times of scarcity. The growth of oats in 
 China is mentioned in an historical work of the period 618-907 a.d. 
 
 Bice seems to have been cultivated, prior to all 
 EarfyCcaSvation. °ther cultures, in Southern Asia from China to Bengal. 
 
 The cultivation of rice in India dates at least from the 
 Aryan invasion. The Greeks first became acquainted with it through 
 Alexander’s expedition. 
 
 . The garden pea has been found, but smaller than 
 
 dweiiersofthe* our modem pea, among the remains of the lake-dwell- 
 Bronze Age cuiti- ings of the Bronze Age in Switzerland and Savoy. It 
 vated the Garden - g n0 f on g er found in a wild state. De Candolle thinks 
 it existed, before its cultivation, in Western Asia from 
 ^cuithfated in a the sou th of the Caucasus to Persia. The garden pea 
 Greece and Italy, was a Greek culture in the time of Theophrastos (died 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 148 
 
 B.c. 287), and was cultivated also by the Latins. The distinguished 
 Roman family “ Pisones ” derived their name from the pea culture. 
 The bean figures in the Iliad as a cultivate plant, and beans were 
 found by Virchow in the excavations at Troy. It 
 soms in^he^Uad, was a culture of Early Egypt, though reckoned un- 
 and was cuiti- clean by the priests. De Candolle refers its wild 
 Vate Egyp*t arly habitat, thousands of years ago, to two centres; one to 
 the south of the Caspian, the other in the north of 
 Africa. The Roman family of the “ Fabii” perhaps took their name 
 from the culture of the bean. 
 
 The lentil is a culture dating from pre-historic time in the East, 
 in the Mediterranean basin, and in Switzerland. The Old Testament 
 mentions it three times. The early Greeks cultivated 
 ^NaUve Habitat S an( l Aristophanes mentions it as an article of food 
 with the poor. De Candolle traces its first culture to 
 Western temperate Asia, Greece, and Italy. 
 
 Chick pea has its wild habitat in the countries to 
 Chick Pea. 6 the south of the Caucasus and to the north of Persia. 
 
 The lupin was cultivated by the ancient Greeks 
 cias-S^Cuiture anc ^ Romans, in part for the sake of the seeds as a 
 good fodder for cattle. 
 
 The almond grows wild in the warm dry regions of the Mediter- 
 The Almond a ranean hasin and of Western temperate Asia. The 
 Native of the name figures in Hebrew and in Persian. De Candolle 
 Med Re e ^.on nean con cludes that the Greeks found it indigenous in their 
 egion. own country or in Asia Minor, and that probably from 
 the Greek isles it found its way into Italy. 
 
 The Sugar-cane The sugar-cane, now cultivated in all warm 
 from south regions of the globe, grew first in Southern Asia, 
 merica. whence it spread into Africa, and later into America. 1 
 The common haricot kidney bean is not of long cultivation in 
 India, the south-west of Asia, and Egypt. De Can- 
 A ori I inan° tS ^olle inclines to look to America as its original 
 American? habitat, seeds belonging apparently to the species 
 having been discovered in Peruvian tombs of un¬ 
 certain date. 
 
 The American aloe derives from the country giving it the adjec¬ 
 tival part of its name, growing, according to Humboldt, 
 The Aioe rican 111 the whole of South America,up as far as 5,000 feet of 
 altitude. It now grows in the countries bordering the 
 Mediterranean, with every appearance of being indigenous. 
 
 The apple grows wild throughout Europe, the south of the 
 
 1 More than 1,000 tons of sugar are daily consumed at the tea-tables of 
 the United Kingdom alone, but 75 per cent, of this amount is made from 
 beetroot. 
 
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 149 
 
 Caucasus, and part of Persia. A small forest of apple trees was 
 seen by tbe botanist Bourgeau near Trebizond. The 
 genous^nEurwe lake-dwellers of Lombardy, Savoy, and Switzerland 
 ’ made dried pippins of the apples, an art apparently 
 still beyond the capacity of the English. All indications are in 
 favour of the conclusion that apples grew in Europe, both wild and 
 cultivate, from pre-historic times. 
 
 The pear grows wild all over temperate Europe and 
 The Pear long Western Asia. It turns up in Homer as ogchne. In 
 Europe. Latin it is pirus. Lears are occasionally round among 
 the remains of the lake-dwellings of Switzerland and 
 Italy, where apples figure in great abundance. 
 
 The peach, persica, malum persicum, the Greeks and Romans 
 The Peach obtained from Persia. De Candolle argues in favour 
 of its origin in China, where it has been cultivated 
 from the remotest antiquity. 
 
 Flax serves two uses : its oily fruit for food, its fibre for tissues. 
 The Greeks early baked linseed, as also poppy and sesam seeds, in 
 honey, to make pastry. During the Peloponnesian 
 andwfdeCuftur? War, the Spartans, blocked up in Sphakteria, got 
 poppy seed in honey and pounded linseed smuggled 
 in to them. For textiles,,flax was cultivated from earliest times in 
 Egypt and Western Asia. Alike in Egyptian, Phoenician, and Jewish 
 records, we meet with linen and linen stuffs, napkins, fillets, tents, 
 nets, sa,ils. In the wall-paintings of Early Egypt we see the whole 
 process of preparing the flax : steeping, beetling, combing, bleaching. 
 It is in linen the mummies are swathed. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in 
 Linen ^ ne ^ nen - Pine embroidered corselets of linen were 
 the gifts of King Amasis to the Lakedaimonians, and 
 to the temple of Athene at Lindos (Rhodes). The Greek chiton 
 (shirt or under-garment) was of linen got from the Phoenicians, who 
 in turn got it from Egypt and from Palestine. Flax was universally 
 spun by Jewish women and made into clothes, girdles, laces, lamp- 
 wicks, etc. Tunics of linen were the dress of the Babylonians, and 
 Strabo praises the Babylonian town Borsippa for its linen. Colchis, 
 at the foot of the Caucasus, grew flax abundantly, and of the best 
 _ . quality. Embroidered and dyed linen was the costume 
 
 Egypt dressed in of the Persian Court. The priests of Egypt and 
 White Linen. Western Asia were dressed in pure white linen; the 
 The White white surplice of to-day is a tradition of the early 
 Surplice. Eastern habit. The othonai, J or fine linen cloths worn 
 Linen in Homer. women in Homer, are of Asiatic production. Helen 
 ' is wrapped in white linen. Achilleus’ slaves made the 
 bed with linen as well as fleeces and woollen stuffs. Odysseus’ 
 couch on the Phaiakian ship was of linen. How far flax was 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 150 
 
 cultivated in Greece is not known. In Hesiod is no mention of 
 flax, and Theophrastos but once names it as requiring a fertile soil. 
 In Italy we bear of old Roman linen books, libri lintei —probably 
 bast. The region of the Tiber is described by Gratius Faliscus as a 
 flax-growing soil. A legion of Samnites was, 293 B.C., 
 from Earnest called the legio linteata. In Italy, from earliest times, 
 Times on the flax was grown all along the Adriatic coast. The 
 Adriatic Coast. Italian flax is mentioned by Pliny as the best in 
 Belgian Flax. Europe after that of Spain. He also describes the 
 Gauls as all wearing linen, so that Belgian flax and 
 Flemish linen date from the 1st century a.d. Thence the industry 
 spread to Germany, and German women, says Pliny, sit in their 
 subterranean chambers, and there spin and weave. 
 
 Tea has been in use in China from a very early date. Bretschneider 
 finds it mentioned as early as 2700 B.c. The plant grows abundantly 
 in a wild state in Mantschuria. Wild specimens have 
 ^hlna a 2700B.c n been gathered also in Upper Assam and in the province 
 of Cachar. The cultivation of tea in British India 
 dates from 1833, and is yielding the best results, qualitatively and 
 quantitatively. In 1838, twelve chests of tea were exported from 
 India, and fetched in England 195. od. per lb. In 1852, 232,000 lbs. 
 
 were produced in British India; in 1870, 3 million 
 BrifX India“nd lbs. ; ™ 1878, 37 millions; in 1886, 76,585,000 lbs. 
 Ceylon takes Tea-drinking in Japan dates from 692 a.d. The pro- 
 P Ch^Tea° f Auction of tea in Japan in 1891 was 59 million lbs., 41 
 millions of which was sent to the United States. After 
 China, Japan, and Assam, tea is most largely grown in Java, Ceylon, 
 and Brazil. In the United Kingdom the consumption of tea in 1800 
 was 20 million lbs.; in 1850, 51 millions; in 1870, 118 millions ; in 
 1894, 214 million. In 1865, China tea formed 97 per cent, of the 
 entire consumption of tea in England; in 1887 the proportion was 
 51 per cent. Indian to 49 per cent. China. In 1892, for every 100 lbs. 
 consumed in England, 84 were of British growth (53 in India and 
 31 in Ceylon), and only 16 lbs. of Chinese produce. 
 Tea peAb 51 ° S ’ l n 1891, a consignment of tea from the Gallebodde 
 Estate, Ceylon, was sold in London at the rate of 87s. 
 p^r lb. on the 13th January, and resold at 110s. per lb. to the United 
 Kingdom Tea Company. Some Ceylon tea sold on the 10th March 
 of the same year at £10 12s. 6d. per lb.; on the 5th May at £17 per 
 lb. ; and on the 7th May at £25 10s. per lb. 
 
 Coffee grows wild in Abyssinia, the Sudan, and on the coasts of 
 Coffee of imme- Guinea and Mozambique. It would seem to have 
 moriai Growth been in use in Abyssinia from time immemorial. A 
 in Abyssinia. Mufti of the 15th century a.d. , having seen coffee drunk 
 in Persia, introduced the practice into Aden, whence it spread 
 
 l_ 
 
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 151 
 
 to Mocha, Egypt, etc. The coffee plant thrives in tropical countries 
 on slopes in poor soils, where other crops fail. Its cultivation has 
 extended through Java, Ceylon, the West Indies, and Brazil. The 
 first coffee-house in England was opened in Oxford, 1650; the first 
 in London in 1652, by an English merchant, with a Greek servant. 
 
 Maize is of American origin, and its introduction to the Old 
 World dates since the discovery of the New. At the time of the dis¬ 
 covery of America, maize was a staple culture from 
 M NewW°orid he Plata to the now United States. The cata¬ 
 
 combs of Peru, the tombs of the Incas, the aboriginal 
 burial-mounds of North America, all contain grains of maize. Darwin 
 found ears of Indian corn buried in the coast-soil of Peru. 
 
 According to Alphonse de Candolle, the following plants of culture 
 are of American origin :— 
 
 1 . Cultivated for the Root 
 
 Arracacha. Jerusalem Artichoke. Potato. Sweet potato. Manioc. 
 
 Arrow-root. Mate, of very ancient cultivation, having 
 P 1 ^anOrigS en " w ^ e area an ^ numerous varieties—from Paraguay and 
 Western Brazil. Coca , 1 also of very ancient cultiva¬ 
 tion—from east of Peru and Bolivia. Quinine—cultivated since the 
 discovery of America—from Bolivia and Southern Peru. Crown bark 
 (Cinchona officinalis)—from Ecuador. Red Cinchona bark (Cinchona 
 succirubra)—from Ecuador. Tobacco, of very ancient 
 How Tobacco has cultivation—Nicotiana Tabacum, from Ecuador and 
 
 ° n World. 6 neighbouring countries; Nicotiana rustica, from 
 Mexico (?), Texas (?), and California (?). 2 American 
 aloe, from Mexico. 
 
 1 Coca was introduced into England shortly after the discovery of 
 Mexico, and its import into the United Kingdom in 1893 amounted to 
 33 million lbs. 
 
 2 In 1841, when the population of the United Kingdom was 26,700,000, 
 the quantity of tobacco cleared through the Custom House for consumption 
 was 23,096,281 lbs., or 13| oz. for each inhabitant. In 1861, with a popu¬ 
 lation of 28,887,000, the quantity imported for home consumption was 
 35,413,846 lbs., or 19| oz. per head. In 1871 the proportion had risen to 
 23 oz. per head. In 1891 the import was 60,927,915 lbs. for a popula¬ 
 tion of 38 millions, or 26 oz. per head. In 1895 the import was 
 65,216,848 lbs. Moreover, in the manufacture of the leaf into the tobacco 
 of commerce, water is added to the extent of 20 per cent, of the whole. 
 Altogether, allowing for the quantity exported, and adding to the un¬ 
 manufactured 20 per cent, of water, we get a total weight for home 
 consumption in 1895 of 78,260,272 lbs., or a trifle under 2 lbs. per head of 
 population. The consumption for the year ending March, 1896, amounts 
 to an expenditure in all of £32,554,108, very little short of the total expen¬ 
 diture on wheat for the same year, viz., 33 millions sterling. 
 

 152 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 2. Cultivated for the Fruit 
 
 Sweet Sop and Sour Sop, from the West Indies. Custard apple, 
 from the West Indies and New Granada. Chirimoya. Mammee apple. 
 Cashew nut, from tropical America. Virginian strawberry, from 
 temperate North America. Chili strawberry. Guava. Pumpkin and 
 squash. Prickly pear. Chocho. Star-apple, from the West Indies 
 and Panama. Caimito. Marmalade plum, from the valley of the 
 Orinoco. Sapodilla. Persimmon, from the Eastern States of America. 
 Annual capsicum. Shrubby capsicum. Tomato, cultivated from 
 very ancient times—from Peru. Avocado pear, also of very early 
 culture—from Mexico. Papaw. Pineapple, having a wide area and 
 numerous varieties, cultivated from very early times—from Mexico, 
 Central America, etc. 
 
 3. Cultivated for the Seed 
 
 Cacao, cultivated from very early times—from Amazon and Orinoco 
 Valley. Sugar Bean, cultivated before the discovery of America— 
 from Brazil. Quinoa. Maize. 
 
 4. Cultivated for Various Uses 
 
 Arnotto. Barbadoes cotton. Earth nuts. Madia—from Chili 
 and California. 
 
 Domestic Animals and their Origin 
 
 The home of the horse is assigned to the wild steppes and pasture 
 lands of Central Asia, where lived the first equestrian races known, 
 The Home of the the Mongols and Turks. Even yet the Mongol lives 
 Horse in the a very cavalierly life. The Mongol boy is nourished 
 Ste tnS S Asia en " on mare ’ s ra ilk. Before he can yet well move about 
 erect, he is lifted on horseback to take his first walk 
 abroad on horse’s shanks, his own legs growing bowed, his upper 
 body inclined forward. On his native seat on horseback, the Turko¬ 
 man will ride sixty-three miles without stopping, 
 and M^Horse 11 Erom Central Asia the horse migrated into the high¬ 
 lands of India on one side and Europe on the other. 
 In Egypt there is no trace of the horse till the 18th Dynasty (about 
 1800 b.c.). Thenceforward it was kept in Egypt exclusively for war, 
 and not for agricultural labour. Media also became a land of horses, 
 which spread thence throughout Asia. In Homeric and later times, 
 Thrace was famous for its horses. 
 
 The patient ass had for its original home probably 
 The Africa° m Africa, where its relations still live. It is not once 
 named in the Odyssey , nor is it found in Hesiod. 
 It is, indeed, mentioned once in the Iliad —but in a manner arguing 
 
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 153 
 
 interpolation. The ass trudged into Greece via Syria and Semitic 
 Asia Minor. Later on, it came to be appreciated in 
 Porter'S - Italy Haly, more especially as a cheap porter of loads in the 
 mountainous parts. Herds of donkeys, Varro tells us, 
 were employed by merchants to carry oil, wine, and corn on their 
 backs from the interior to the sea. As the ure-ox, the bison, and the 
 elk died out of Gaul, the place of general drudge was taken by the 
 long-eared foreigner. Mules, frequently mentioned by 
 Mule M f fnor Asla Homer, derive from Pontic Asia Minor. When the 
 Princess Royal of Phaiakia, Nausicaa, went off for the 
 day with her maids of honour to wash the dirty clothes in the river, 
 their trap was drawn by mules. A fragment of Anacreon names the 
 Mysians as the first mule-breeders. The Israelites were by law for¬ 
 bidden to breed mules, and curiously a similar prohibition was in force 
 among the Eleans of Greece, a prohibition deriving 
 Ti Homer. m from mythic times, when perhaps the only mules in 
 Greece were gotten from the East. From Greece the 
 mule travelled to Italy. In the time of Varro (a contemporary of 
 Cicero), carts were drawn along the highroads by mules. 
 
 The goat was early domesticated in the mountain 
 Th Att°ica S ° f districts of South Europe. Attica, rich in figs and 
 olives, nourished numberless goats on its rocky soil. 
 
 We find bees in plenty but no beehives in Homer. In Hesiod we 
 first meet with working bees distinguished from drones, 
 Wl Hom e er Sm which last are (very ungallantly) compared to women. 
 
 In these olden times the wild honeycombs were 
 plundered, and, were the spoil abundant enough, mead was made of 
 the honey. Next perhaps to wine, mead would seem 
 * ea ' to be one of the earliest of intoxicating beverages in¬ 
 vented by man. 
 
 The Do The * s among the very earliest of domesticated 
 
 e ° s ' animals, and now almost as much a cosmopolitan as 
 
 man himself. 
 
 The cat figures in Egyptian monuments from the 12th Dynasty; 
 
 but, outside of Egypt, is but a modern domestication. 
 Domestlcation^n Hie time of Horace, as his fable of the town and 
 Europe. country mouse shows, there were no cats kept in the 
 houses of the capital. In the excavations of Pompeii 
 are no remains of a cat. Among all the beasts of HEsop’s fables, no 
 cat takes up the parable. In Palladios (368-431 a.d.) appears the cat , 
 which has since spread from Italy through all Europe and Asia. 
 Next in Evagrios Scholastikos (at Epiphania in Syria, wrote till 
 594 a.d.) we read “ailouros commonly called Katta 
 The domestic fowl nowhere figures on Egyptian monuments, 
 though we find on them flocks of tame geese getting driven home 
 
154 ECONOMICAL 
 
 from their pasture. Nor is it anywhere mentioned in the Old Testa- 
 ment. It hails originally from India, and began its 
 Cock and S Hen. western migration with the Indo-Persian invaders. In 
 the religion of Zoroaster, the dog and the cock are 
 sacred animals; the first as guardian of house and flock, the second 
 as herald of dawn. A Persian settling anywhere was as careful about 
 getting a cock as about praying and washing at sunrise. We 
 . search in Homer, in Hesiod, in the fragments of 
 NO in°S)mer VinS elder Greek poets, all in vain for either crow of 
 cock or cackle of hen. The earliest crow of Greek cock 
 is in Theognis (later half of the 6th century b.c.). In Simonides, 
 Aischylos, and Pindar, we find the cock under the name of Alektor. 
 
 To raise the pluck of his army, Themistokles is said to 
 Fi fnGreece CkS Lave called to their mind how, not only for hearth, and 
 household, but for fame alone, two fighting cocks would 
 not hesitate to risk their lives. Later on, public cock-fights are 
 reported on numberless monuments. As a fighting bird, the cock was 
 sacred to Ares and to Pallas Athene. The cock was also sacrificed to 
 Asklepios, the god of healing. From Greece the fowl made his- 
 flight to Sicily and Italy. On the coins of Himera (Sicily) appears on 
 the obverse side the figure of a cock; on the reverse, the figure of a 
 hen. The oldest representations of the cock on coins and vases of 
 Greece, Sicily, and Italy do not, however, reach to beyond the second 
 half of the 6th century b.c. The Romans got their best variety of fowl 
 and fighting cock from Delos, Tanagra (Boiotia), Chalkis, and Rhodes. 
 
 From Rome, the domestic fowl spread into Central and 
 Fowl nitrated Northern Europe. Caesar found fowls among the 
 from Rome into Britons. Its colonisation now reaches to the negroes 
 a Europe ° f * n tL e heart of Africa, who in their expeditions have a 
 cock at the van to herald the day and announce by 
 signs the success or disaster of any movement. From Media, says 
 Thomas Hyde (1760), came the domestic fowl, now spreading all the 
 world over. The Romans introduced cock-fighting into England. 
 In Henry II.’s time it was the sport of schoolboys on Shrove Tues¬ 
 day. It was legally prohibited, successively by Edward III., by 
 Henry VIII., by Cromwell, and again in 1849. The cockpit at 
 Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
 
 Wild pigeons (peleiai, peleiades) frequently flit across Homer’s 
 hexameters. “ Many-doved ” are Boiotian Thisbe and Lakedai- 
 Wiid Pigeons Ionian Messe (now Mezapo). Doves and thrushes in 
 in Homer, Homeric days were caught in snares. First in 
 Tn^ophokies S Sophokles do we find the tame pigeofi (peristeros, peris- 
 tera), with the epithet attached to it of house and 
 hearth —oiketis and ephestios. Towards the end of the 5th century 
 b.c. domestic pigeons were a familiar sight in Athens. The worship of 
 
DOMESTICATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 155 
 
 the dove in connection with the conception of the goddess of nature 
 and of fruitfulness came from the Euphrates to Western Asia. In 
 the temples of the Syrian goddess, Ashtaroth (= Aphrodite, Venus) 
 at Hierapolis (Bambyke) and at Ascalon, great flocks of pigeons 
 fluttered about, and, living sacred lives, had no mis- 
 Pig about fl the er about perching themselves arrogantly and impu- 
 
 Paphian Temple dently on the tables of men at meals. The Paphian 
 onMount E? P x 6 temple of Cyprus was also shadowed by flocks of 
 on oun ryx. pjg eong< There were also, according to Josephus, 
 “ many towers of tame pigeons ” in the later royal palace at Jerusa¬ 
 lem. From Syria the domestic pigeon reached Greece about the 
 beginning of the 5th century B.c. In the temple on Mount Eryx in 
 Sicily, of Phoenician and Carthaginian settlement, there were flocks of 
 white and coloured pigeons. Thence the pigeon became known in 
 „i onsat Italy, whence the domestic pigeon overspread Europe. 
 Moscow, Venice The Celtic and Slavic names are both borrowed from 
 ■r lr the the Latin Columba. At Moscow and other Russian 
 1 is useum. towng ^ fl oc k s G f tame pigeons are kept and fed, and to 
 kill and eat one would be deemed a kind of sacrilege. At Venice 
 swarms of pigeons whiten the cupolas of St. Mark’s and the roof of 
 the Doge’s Palace. The Mahometans also keep pigeons in mosques 
 and sanctuaries at Mecca, etc. Doves are also a graceful and 
 grateful sight about the British Museum. 
 
 The evolution of the carrier-pigeon is lost in remote antiquity. 
 Carrier Pi eons We first find it in the service of the Greeks. Thence 
 re ge ns. ^ p agse d to the Romans, who employed it as a 
 messenger about 120 b.c. On taking a long journey the Greeks 
 and Romans would carry these tame pigeons with them. When 
 wanting to write to a friend, the travelled Greek or Roman had 
 but to let one of the birds loose with the letter fastened to its 
 neck. Taurosthenes, e.g., announced to his father his victory at the 
 Olympic games by sending to him at Aiglna a purple-stained pigeon. 
 The Turks, some 500 years ago, constituted pigeons into a telegraphic 
 system, settingup high to^vers thirty or forty miles apart, provided 
 with pigeons, and sentinels ready to secure the messages brought by 
 the birds. The Germans have a complete military pigeon organi¬ 
 sation. The fortresses at Metz, Cologne, etc., are furnished each 
 with from 400 to 600 flying experts, the pigeon vote in the military 
 budget amounting to some £1,700. 
 
 A more recent domestication is that of butterflies. Two Parisian 
 ladies have, or recently had, each about fifty splendid butterflies 
 under training. On the entrance of their mistress they at once fly to 
 greet her, perching upon her shoulders, head, and finger-tips. Their 
 portraits have been taken on the wing and in groups, and their gor¬ 
 geous hues reproduced in oil. Their images have also been worked in 
 
j 56 ECONOMICAL 
 
 embroidery. They are reported to be very susceptible to the charms 
 or music. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 MANUFACTURES 
 
 EuK,° p E is still divisible into a Mediterranean wine and oil land and 
 a -North Sea and Baltic beer and butter land. The Greeks and 
 Butter. Romans of the best days were ignorant of the use of 
 Hekataios of Miletos (p. 71) reported the 
 the Paiomans (of Thrace) on the Strymon as using salve made of the 
 The Butter- ° U Ana xandrides (4th century B.c.)speaks of 
 
 eating Thrakians. ^ugh-haired, butter-eating men, sitting at the table 
 tt- W1 ^ ot the^ Ihrakian king Kotys. The Scythians, says 
 
 Hippokrates (480-3o/ B.c.), “pour mare’s milk into wooden vessels 
 which they then shake; the parts separate, and the fat, which they call 
 boiityron , swims at the top; the heavier portion sinking to the bottom 
 is dried and thickened as horse-cheese; in the middle is the whey 
 Butter in The Jews , must k ave keen acquaint with butter, one of 
 Palestine. Proverbs (xxx. 33) testifying to butter as the produce 
 
 , , ,, . of the churning of milk, while we have other references 
 
 to butter m Scripture. Strabo speaks of the Ethiopians of the ut¬ 
 most south using butter and fat. Pliny speaks of the barbarians 
 (Germans) delighting m butter, the possession of which distin¬ 
 guishes the rich from the poor”. 
 
 As far as records reach, the Egyptians first brewed beer, the 
 barley bree . The Egyptians used a drink made out of barley, 
 .. says Herodotus. The Egyptians, says Dio (born 
 b?ewed p the ns * 55 A /?*)> ma ^ e a wine from barley. Ii/ Strabo’s time 
 “ Barley Bree ”. the Alexandrians drank the old Egyptian beverage. 
 
 The Ethiopians, he says, lived on millet and barley, 
 and prepared a drink out of these products. “ All the natives of the 
 west of Europe”, says Pliny, “use an intoxicating liquor made of 
 coin and water, and the people of Spain understand how to brew it so 
 as to keep for a long time”. Arclulochos (714-676 B.c.) speaks of 
 the Phr ^ ians an( ^ Thrakians drinking bruton, barley- 
 are B^ ™ ine ’ °* beer ’ aS aS 700 B * C * Hekataios reports 
 
 drinkers. the Paionians drinking bruton made of barley, and 
 tparabia from^ millet, spiced with a root, Iconyze. 
 Xenophon found the Armenians using a similar beverage. Cassius 
 not e onl've°t i b n t 1)10 ( 2ad centur y A - D 0 pictures the Pannomans (between 
 also drink,’the Pan ube and Alps) as a poor people living in a wintry 
 Barley. climate, and not only eating, but also drinking, their 
 millet and barley. Priscus (443 a.d.), with a Greek Embassy, was 
 
MANUFACTURES 157 
 
 supplied in Pannonia with millet for wheat, and mead for wine, while 
 the servants got millet, and a drink made from barley . In Egypt, 
 Spain, Thrace, Illyria, Hungary, Phrygia, Armenia, etc., there¬ 
 fore, beer, now almost unknown as a beverage, was once in general 
 use. 
 
 Strabo, reporting Pytheas, says the Northern nations had “hardly 
 any garden fruits or domestic animals, but fed on 
 B fn^theNorth d m iH e t, berries, and roots, while the cultivators of corn 
 
 n e and honey prepared also drink from these products ” 
 
 (beer and mead). 
 
 In the beginning of the 1st century b.c. beer was the popular 
 beverage of the Celts in Central France , though the upper classes 
 already drank massiliote wine. In Northern France, 
 Bee France trai Belgium, and the British Isles, beer held its ground 
 under the Homan Empire through the Middle Ages, 
 and continues to hold its ground to the present day. Tacitus speaks 
 of beer as a German drink. On the Lower Danube, the Germans 
 found the beverage in fashion among the primitive Thracians and 
 Pannonians. 
 
 At the beginningof European history a Celtic beverage, beer is now 
 a characteristic German drink. 
 
 In the lime-tree forest region of Eastern Europe the nomads about 
 the Volga swilled mead more than beer. 
 
 Before the introduction, about 1524, of hops from the Netherlands, 
 beer in Britain was bittered by camomile, horehound, 
 
 Beer in Britain etc. At first there was a loud outcry against hops. 
 6a Horehoimd. Ale-houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina , King of 
 Wessex. By enactment of Edward I. only freemen 
 were allowed to keep ale-houses in London. 
 
 ‘•'Ale,” says Andrew Boorde in his Dyetary (1542), “is made of 
 malte and water. Ale for an Englysshe man is a naturalle drinke. 
 Ale must have three propertyes : it must be freshe and cleare, it must 
 not be ropy nor smoky, nor it must have no weft nor tayle. Ale shuld 
 not be dronke under v dayes olde. Newe ale is vnholsome for all 
 men. Barly malte maketh better ale than oten malte or any other 
 corne doth ”. 
 
 Traces of the earlier processes of making bread and cooked food we 
 have in Scotch crowdie—coarse-ground oats mixed with cold water; 
 
 in brose—coarse-ground oats and a little salt, stirred in 
 o^cakes Scones k°t wa ^ er » oat-cakes—coarse ground oats, moistened 
 
 and Bannocks, S ’ with water, some salt added, the mixture kneaded and 
 rolled into a cake (thin sheet), then heated before the 
 fire. In much the same way as oatcakes, are made bannocks of 
 barley-meal and pease-meal. Scotch scones are made of flour kneaded 
 with water, and all the better if some butter-milk and baking-soda 
 
IS 8 ECONOMICAL 
 
 be added, then fired. Jewish passover-cakes were a somewhat similar 
 preparation, as is also American corn-bread. 
 
 The addition of leaven dates probably from the early 
 Egyptian 11 P?e- 7 Egyptians 5 among the Jews it was in nse in the time of 
 °paration. Moses. From the Greeks the use of leaven was com¬ 
 municated to Rome, the Roman Empire, and the world. 
 In Greece families continued to grind their corn and bake their 
 bread at home after grinding and baking had become a separate trade. 
 Just as in Scotland, especially in the country, oatcakes, bannocks, 
 and scones are still baked at home. 
 
 Bakers first began to figure in Greece as a distinct trade about 500 
 B.c. ; in Rome not till about 171 B.c. 
 
 About the beginning of the 4th century a.d. there were 254 
 bakeries distributed throughout the fourteen wards of Rome, and 
 side by side with them were a number of private bakeries providing 
 the finer sorts of bread. 
 
 Economic Products of Early Egypt 
 
 In the remains of early Egypt, we can still, in large measure, trace 
 the process of the domestication of many plants and animals. The 
 How the Egypt- Egyptians began on the simple plan of eating all and 
 i at 1 first S to e eat as every sorfc °* ^ ru it the soil produced. Many plants 
 whatever grew (® a y senna for one) came to be dropped as eatables ; 
 and drop what some being reserved as articles of medicine, some re- 
 you i no i e. stricted .to sacrifices and funeral feasts. Several vege¬ 
 tables have been retained in Egypt as food, such as are not very 
 savoury to Western palates—the acid fruits of the nebeca and of the 
 carob-tree, the astringent figs of the sycamore, the insipid pulp of the 
 Bread dipped in ^om-palm. The fellahin of Port Said season their 
 Castor Oil to bread and vegetables with castor-oil, and the Berbers 
 palatable. ™b.their limbs with that fragrant fluid. Dining 
 
 with native agents at Port Said, Maspero (from a feel¬ 
 ing of politeness more than inclination) was fain to flavour also his 
 salads and.sauces with castor-oil. Vetches, lupins, beans, chick-peas, 
 lentils, onions, fenugreek, bamia, meloukhia (chopped up and cooked 
 much the same as endive with us), arum colocasia (the root cooked 
 in water, still eaten at the present day), all grew wild in the fields, 
 and the river itself supplied its quota of nourishing plants. The 
 white and blue lotus of the Nile have seed vessels similar to those 
 Lily Loaves P°PPy* Eily loaves made from the roots and 
 
 seeds of the lotus were the delight of the gourmand, 
 and appear on the tables of the kings of the 19th Dynasty. The seed 
 of the pink lotus, fresh or dried, was also pleasant to eat. The yearly 
 shoots of the papyrus, their points cut off, were eaten as a delicacy 
 and sold in the markets. Wheat and six-rowed barley came, how- 
 
 
 
HANDICRAFTS OF THE BIBLE 159 
 
 ever, it is supposed, from the region of the Euphrates, where they 
 are still found growing wild. (See Maspero’s Dawn of Civilisation , 
 pp. 65-66.) 
 
 Almost all the ordinary economic vegetables cultivated in Egypt 
 at the present day had already been domesticated in the early period 
 of historic Egypt. Among the plants enumerated in 
 The Domestic Wilkinson , which early Egypt had already brought 
 PUntsof E a riy un( j er cultivation, may be here cited wheat, barley, 
 doora, peas, beans, lentils, hommos (lathyrus sativus), 
 gilban (a kind of flat pea), cartbamus, lupins, bamia (hibiscus, escu- 
 lentus), figl (raphanus sativus), indigo (cloths found dyed with it), 
 mustard, succory, flax, cotton, cassia senna, colocynth, cummin 
 (seeds used in bread in Egypt, as at the present day), coriander, 
 cucumber, melon, leek, onion, garlic, lotus, nelumbium (now growing 
 only in India), cyperus esculentus (the seeds found in the tombs), 
 papyrus, Cyprus (its leaves cooked in oil to make the ointment called 
 Cyprus), almond, palm, myxa (wine made from the fruit), ficus 
 segyptia, persica or peach, cuci (like to a palm, the nucleus within 
 eaten when young, exceedingly hard when ripe and made into sail- 
 rings), spina aegyptia (seed pods used for tanning), oak (now unknown 
 in Egypt), olive, pomegranate, tamarisk (very abundant), caper, vine 
 (from time immemorial.the art of making wine was known; the 
 very earliest monuments enumerate half a dozen famous brands), 
 castorberry tree, sesama (cultivated for its oil), myrtle (now grown 
 only in gardens). 
 
 Handicrafts of the Bible 
 
 1 . Spinning, mostly carried on by women, as is still the case 
 among the Bedouins, not only for the wants of the household, but 
 also as a trade. 2. Weaving, from the coarsest stuffs 
 S Loom nS ' fi nes ^ embroideries. The loom, with beam, 
 
 Fulling. pin, and shuttle, were in use as early as David’s time 
 at least, and, as in Egypt, worked by men. In em¬ 
 broideries, gold and silver threads were interwoven with the body 
 of the stuff, sometimes in figure patterns, or with precious stones set 
 in the needlework. 3. Fulling, or cleaning of both fresh textiles 
 and worn clothes, by a lye got from saponaceous plants and a 
 mineral alkali. On account of its offensive smell, fulling was carried 
 on outside the city. There was a fuller’s field to the west of 
 incense Jerusalem, by the upper pool. 4. Salve and incense 
 manufactures were carried on very extensively, per- 
 Baking fumes and salves being an indispensable element in 
 Oriental life. 5. Baking was an important and inde- 
 air ressin »- pendent trade. 6. Hair Cutting and Shaving. 
 The hair of the head in men was allowed to grow long, and only 
 occasionally cut; in Nazarites alone was the hair never shorn. To 
 
i6o 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 Lave the hair completely shorn away or plucked out was a token of 
 , grief or captivity : a bald head was looked upon with 
 Th Bald S Head° f a derision. A full head of hair was an ornament for 
 women. The^ hair was also anointed with sweet¬ 
 smelling oils, and in later history powdered with gold dust. There 
 were barbers by trade (Ezek. v. 1), and in the Talmud a lady barber 
 is mentioned. 7. Gold and Silver Work from 
 Gold Woriv llVer ver y earl y times. Abraham’s servant made Rebecca 
 a present of a golden earring and two bracelets of 
 gold. Among the smith’s implements were the anvil, hammer, 
 tongs, chisel, bellows, crucible, melting furnace, etc. 
 Cruciole, etc.,etc. Smithy Work. Works in iron were made for 
 use in war, in agriculture, and for domestic purposes. Together 
 with iron, there was also working in brass, or, rather, bronze. 
 9. Work in tin. 10. Locksmith’s work. 11. Carpentry, 
 mentioned early and often in Scripture. Noah built the ark of 
 Gopher wood (see Arithmetic, p. 272). The work- 
 Soiomon employ men on David’s Palace and Solomon’s Temple were 
 Phoenician chiefly Phoenicians sent by Hiram (see p. 12). In the 
 Craftsmen. re p a i r i n g 0 f the Temple, however, under Joash King 
 of Judah, there is no reference to foreign workmen. The instruments 
 used in the craft were the rule, measuring-line, com- 
 Measuring-iine, p ass> pl a ne or smoothing-instrument, and axe. 12. 
 etc^etc! Stone-cutting. 13. Masonry and Plasterers’ 
 work. Among the mason’s implements are men¬ 
 tioned the saw, plumb-line, measuring.reed, chisel, and 
 mallet. For ordinary building mortar was used. 
 p “ e ' The lime, clay, and straw, of which the mortar in the 
 East is composed, have to be thoroughly incorporated 
 to resist wet. 14. Pottery, the manufacture of earthenware, 
 bottles, water-cruses, firkins, etc. Before being put 
 on the potter’s wheel, the clay was kneaded soft with 
 the feet. Vessels were formed with the hand, and burnt in the 
 oven. Near by Jerusalem was a potter’s field; just as at Athens, 
 Naukratis, the Greek city generally, there was a 
 Kerameikos, or Potter’s Quarter, outside the walls. 
 15. Brick-making. 16. Tent-making. 17- Dye¬ 
 ing and dressing cloth, tanning and dressing leather. 
 In the Talmud are mentioned also shoemakers, 
 tailors, glaziers, makers of cheese.. 
 
 Most of the trades had each its particular locality, as is still 
 the case in the Eastern city. In Jerusalem there was a Baker 
 Street (not in mere name alone, but also in sense and 
 Baker street. ^ruth), a Potter’s Quarter, a Potter’s Gate, a 
 Carpenter’s Gate. Carpenter’s Gate, a Bleachfield, etc. The in- 
 
 Pottery. 
 
 The Potters’ 
 Quarter, 
 Kerameikos. 
 
 Tent-making. 
 
HOMERIC ECONOMY 161 
 
 dustries were held in honour in Palestine. The most distin¬ 
 guished Jews were taught crafts. “ Who does not teach his son 
 a handicraft is as bad as though he brought him up to steal”. 
 
 Paul was trained to tent-making, and was never re- 
 Paui could work duced to the shift of flaunting showy bazaars to tempt 
 and was 1 never the Mephistophelean “quality”, and inveigle their 
 Reduced to the money out of them—all in the name of the Lord! 
 Ne6 a Bazaar mS Paul was as independent as Burns, and in case of 
 need had his livelihood in his honest hands. The man 
 E Lovehis a Task° that l° ves craft, and plies it, like Adam Bede, 
 ove is as . ^is h ear t an d soul, is a man to stand un¬ 
 
 ashamed before kings (see p. 181). Praiseworthy is the wife, too, 
 who layeth her hand to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. 
 
 Economy of the Homeric Age 
 The kings and chiefs did not deem it derogatory to their dignity 
 to take a hand in the building of their houses and the fashioning of 
 their furniture. With his own hands Odysseus, King 
 ^•a?i?were e skiHut Ithake ( ThiaM ), built for his betrothed Penelopeia 
 Handicraftsmen, a new chamber of stone, and made for it a couch of 
 wood ornamented with gold, silver, and ivory. Even 
 dandy Paris, with the help of skilled workmen, constructed his own 
 palace in Troy himself. In time of need Odysseus was at no loss 
 how to build for himself a raft to weather the roughest seas. And, 
 like Burns, he was a foremost hand in ploughing and mowing. 
 
 The Homeric handicrafts include spinning, weaving, embroidery, 
 masonry, carpentry, pottery, saddlery, working in gold, silver, iron, 
 «• . -r .. lead, tin, and “ kyanos ”, this last now understood to 
 
 ° m crafts an X " t> e dark-blue glass. In Homer you meet with silver 
 vases and work-baskets. The smith plies his bellows, 
 hammer, and tongs, and has a stithy, with a block for the stithy to 
 rest on. The carpenter’s tools include axe, chisel, and drill. Ivory 
 is imported in a manufactured state, but, apparently, Homer knows 
 nothing of the elephant. The palace of the King of Scherie (some* 
 what dubiously identified with Corfu) had its walls 
 King ofscherie 6 plated with copper, its doors of gold, its threshold of 
 silver, gold and silver figures of dogs at the entrance, 
 and gold figures of youths as torch-bearers. Mills are twice men¬ 
 tioned. In the palace of the King of Scherie were fifty handmaidens, 
 some of whom grouud the yellow grain on the millstone. The mills 
 of Odysseus stood in a house hard by the palace, and twelve hand¬ 
 maidens there ground meal of barley and wheat, the marrow of men. 
 We also read of charioteering and races, whips, reins, games at 
 wrestling, putting, archery, spear-throwing. 
 
 In Homer we find no engraved gems nor sculpture in marble. And, 
 
 11 
 
162 ECONOMICAL 
 
 though a vase of exceeding beauty, fashioned in Sidon and brought 
 in Phoenician bottoms, was one of the prizes offered by 
 ^No Engraved Achilleus at the funeral games of Patroklos, we catch 
 MonejMn Homer. trace of painted vases. Nor do we meet with 
 coined money. An article was priced by the number 
 of oxen it would cost —its pecu-ma, or fee (see p. 168 ). Of the same 
 wholesome food partook alike the chiefs and the humblest of the 
 household: beef, mutton, pork, goat’s flesh, bread, cheese, fruits. 
 Cheese was grated with a brazen knife. Before eating there was 
 always washing of hands. For drink they had wine mellowed by 
 age and diluted with water, and always before drinking a part was 
 poured out by way of pious libation to the gods. The enjoyment of 
 The Wives and b an( l ue f was heightened by song and dance. Their 
 Daughters of the clothes were their own handiwork. With their own 
 C !mbro&ere<? d hands tbe Wlves an <l daughters of the chiefs wove, 
 span, and embroidered. A spinster was spinster. Nor 
 did the daughter of the rich Phaiakian king fancy it unbecoming her 
 royal rank to go off in a trap with the servants to the river-side and 
 take a hand with them in the washing of the dirty linen. 1 Tucking 
 up her dress, the princess too tripped into one of the 
 S ciean 1 w?th 1 the 6S troughs hollowed out for washing by the pebbly brink, 
 Bare Feet. and, in fashion still to be witnessed in Scotland, 
 stamped the soiled clothes clean with her glancing 
 feet, plashing about in merry rivalry with her handmaidens. The 
 washing done, they all, the princess and her laughing train, had 
 themselves a gay bath in the river, and then with heartiest relish 
 partook in the clear open of the goodly repast they had brought with 
 them. Lastly, by way of finish to the day’s outing, the royal princess 
 
 1 Mevrouw Kruger, the wife of the President of the Dutch Republic, has 
 the reputation of a very homely lady, doing most of the housework by her 
 own hands, cooking the meals, making beds, and even occasionally taking 
 a hand at the clothes-washing. Nor does this excellent lady deem it be¬ 
 neath her to wait at table on her husband’s guests. Isabel Lady Burton, 
 too, not only trained herself in all the domestic duties of a farmhouse, 
 heavy and light, but tried her hand at outdoor work as well, and learned 
 how to look after the poultry yard and cattle, to groom the horses, and to 
 milk the cows. Other West End ladies, too, of England, delicately brought 
 up, a few or not a few , have of free choice with their husbands left Eng¬ 
 land and pushed their way to the Australian bush or the backwoods of 
 New Zealand or other virgin land. There they have gaily entered on and 
 resolutely abode by the rough pastoral and agricultural life of a primitive 
 land. Instead of the sumptuous mansion, a roughly-built kind of log 
 house; no theatres nor parties nor company. The delicate feminine 
 hands have trained themselves to milk the cows, to groom the horses, to 
 drive the carts to and from the field, to take part alike in the domestic and 
 the outdoor work. The West End lady has succeeded to admiration in 
 adapting herself to the rough simplicity of such primitive economy. 
 
BATHS 163 
 
 and her co-washerwomen regaled their spirits by skipping together on 
 the beach in a game at ball, the princess also singing a solo. 
 
 Baths were in constant use, and the travelled guest, whether 
 stranger or familiar friend, on entering a house, was at 
 “ s ' once shown to the bath, and, after washing, his skin 
 was gratefully refreshed by a touch of luxurious oil. 
 
 Baths 
 
 The ancient Egyptians were required not only to wash their bodies 
 Ablutions frequently on the outside but also on three days in 
 Externafand each month to give them a thorough cleansing on the 
 Internal in Egypt, inside as well by means of a clyster or an emetic. 
 Baths in Syria. the ruins of Baalbek (thirty-five miles N.N.W. 
 
 of Damascus) has been found evidence of the use of 
 hot-air baths by the Phoenicians. In the Athenian and other Greek 
 States there were private baths; public baths for 
 Private and me n, attached to the gymnasia ; and also public baths 
 U Greece. Sm for women. Already in Homer we learn how Andro¬ 
 mache prepared a hot bath for Hector on his return 
 from the field of battle. The royal Nausicaa too, having with the 
 help of her co-washerwomen well washed the clothes, they all 
 had a refreshing plunge together in the river. The private bath 
 in Homeric times was usually given by the handmaiden, daughter, 
 or even the mistress, of the house. A Greek was bound to be 
 bathed at birth, at marriage, and after death. I11 the Spartan State 
 it was customary to have a hot-air bath promoting perspiration 
 A Swimmin - ^°^ owe( i U P by a cold bath. In Athens and Greece 
 bath inAthens, generally the bath and the anointing of the body was 
 a prelude to dinner. In the time of Plato a swimming- 
 bath seems to have been in use in Athens. A Greek who knew not 
 how to read and how to swim was deemed indeed a dunce. A very 
 small (nominal) charge seems to have been made for the use of the 
 public baths. 
 
 In Rome, in its early days, it was usual to wash the arms and 
 legs daily, and bathe the whole body once a week in the lavatrina 
 Ablutions in (wash-house) near the kitchen. After the second 
 Early Rome. Punic War bathing establishments on the Greek 
 Public Baths model came into vogue, and the afternoon between 
 ^^iSecond two and three was given to the bath. Bathing and 
 UmC ar ’ gymnastics came to be a regular and prominent feature 
 of the Roman day. The public baths were under the jurisdiction 
 of the JEdiles. A small fee, payable to the bath-keeper, was charged 
 for their use: a quadrans (half a farthing) for men, a little more 
 for women. Children free. The baths were open from two p.m. 
 till sunset. Outside the city, however, the baths were sometimes 
 
164 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 lighted up after nightfall. In the early times of Rome, it was, ac¬ 
 cording to Valerius Maximus, publicly held to be in- 
 ^ h ath i er not decent for a father to bathe in company with his own 
 B His e o a \raIoT tn son after he had attained to puberty, or a son-in-law 
 with his father-in-law. Under the Empire the bath 
 developed into sumptuous proportions. The private bath grew 
 elaborate. an< l the public baths increased in number. 
 iu>me Sm I n the JEdileship of Agrippa (63-12 B.c.) alone, I/O 
 new baths were opened in Rome. In the time of Con¬ 
 stantine their number in the city of Rome alone was reckoned at 952. 
 
 The use of hot baths, fitted up in the style of those attached 
 to the Greek gymnasia, spread throughout Italy and the provinces. 
 
 Not only was no provincial town without its bath, 
 had a^bUc^Bath ITian y villages also provided themselves with that 
 of its own. luxury. In Bath, e.g., in the far-away province of 
 
 “ Britain ”, baths were set up in the 1st century a.d., 
 among those recently uncovered being an oblong bath 83 feet 
 by 30 feet, and a round bath, 25 feet in diameter. In its 
 later development the Roman bath consisted of at least three 
 chambers, each divided into separate compartments, 
 Caiidarfum r ^and between which was the heating apparatus ; one for 
 Frigidarium. each sex: (1) the Tepidarium, to promote sweating; 
 
 (2) the Calidarium, hot bath in a basin; (3) Frigida¬ 
 rium or cold bath. Either in the Tepidarium or in special apart¬ 
 ments, the skin was next scraped with a strigilis, rubbed down, and 
 anointed with oil. In the large establishments were separate rooms 
 for undressing and dressing. Surrounding the basin was a passage 
 and seats for visitors. The first public hot bath in London is said 
 to have been opened in Bagnio Court, Newgate Street, 1679. Turk¬ 
 ish baths came first into use in London about 1860. 
 
 Hair-Dressing 
 
 The Greeks of the earliest time regarded long hair as an ornament, 
 and cut it only in sign of mourning. Among the Spartans, boys 
 wore their hair short till they came to the age of 
 Th Achafans ired Puberty. Latterly, Athenian boys, on coming to the 
 age of puberty, cut the hair, dedicating it to Apollo, 
 a river-god, or a nymph. A free Athenian citizen did not wear his 
 hair short or he would have been taken for a slave, who was obliged 
 . . to wear his hair short. Not till the time of Alexander 
 
 Fashum irTthewas the custom of smooth shaving introduced, the full 
 time of beard being till then regarded as a distinction of 
 
 exan er. man iy beauty. From that time, however, it was the 
 
 fashion to shave the face quite smooth, only philosophers continuing 
 to wear beards. 
 
 . 
 
HAIR-DRESSING 165 
 
 The early Romans also wore long hair and beards. About 300 B.C., 
 P. Ticinius Menas brought over a tons or (barber) from Sicily to 
 Rome, and after that date the Romans began to cut 
 The hi Rome r ^ er ^ ie k air k°th of tbe head and of the beard. Scipio 
 m ’ Africanus is said to have been the first Roman to shave 
 every day. Later, it became a fashion to make a festival of the 
 day on which the beard was first shaved. Yet a neatly cut beard 
 was not out of fashion either; only after forty was it the general 
 custom to shave. The truth of the matter, perhaps, is that so long 
 as hair flourished sleek and youthful, it was deemed ornamental, 
 Elect but when declining into dryness and greyness it Tvas 
 mentis 1 old Age considered better out of sight. Probably in but a few 
 Beautiful or choice men are grey hairs truly ornamental, serving 
 Magm cen . ag fringe and complement to noble and venerable age. 
 A man will not willingly proclaim how he is indeed old but not 
 venerable. If ripe age is to be more beautiful or magnificent than 
 green youth, man must not recklessly reap his harvest in spring. 
 Barbers came to be more and more in requisition in Rome, and 
 it was part of their business to trim the nails and 
 The Barter’s remove warts, etc. The Roman barber of these bygone 
 of Gossip. 06 times, like the barber nearer home and our own times, 
 was not indisposed, while lathering the face, to hear 
 and retail the news; and the barber’s shop came to be a choice 
 resort for people with a taste for gossip. 
 
 In the Early Empire Roman ladies, says Ovid, had as many ways 
 of dressing their hair as there are bees in Hybla. Their toilet in¬ 
 cluded curling-irons, ointment, and what not. Pliny 
 l SeYDrS^and ^ ow women an< I men both dyed their hair black, 
 Dy^theirHair. but especially auburn; the practice is, however, as old 
 as Cato’s time. False hair also came into vogue with 
 the Empire, and in the case of false hair, too, the favourite perruques 
 were of light colours. 1 Hence there was a regular trade in the hair 
 of German women; chignons were imported especially from Ger¬ 
 many, but also from as far as India. 
 
 1 The classical admiration of fair hair is betokened by the fact that the 
 Homeric Menelaos and Odysseus, Demeter and Agamede are all yellow - 
 haired. Golden-tressed is the Hellenic Aphrodite, as is also the Roman 
 . “ Aurea Venus ”. Virgil’s Carthaginian Dido is yellow-haired. When 
 she immolated herself, Iris cut off one of her yellow locks (illiflavum 
 crinem). Shakspeare, too, pictures how Portia’s sunny locks hang on 
 her temples like a golden fleece. Shakspeare’s Venus and Luciana are 
 each adorned with “ golden hairs ” ; the hair of his Lucrece plays with her 
 breath “like golden threads”. Milton’s Eve, too, as a veil, down to the 
 slender waist her unadorned golden tresses wore dishevelled. Mrs. 
 Astley, actress of last century, had such luxuriant flaxen hair that she 
 could stand upright and it covered her to her feet like a veil. 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 166 
 
 Roman ladies would, by means of a corrosive soap, sometimes seek 
 to dve their hair to a fair or ruddy complexion. To fasten their hair, 
 ladies had ribbons, fillets, richly-ornamented needles 
 andtheir Admira * vor y’ bone, silver, or gold. Nets, sometimes woven 
 tion of Falx Hair* of gold thread, kerchiefs, and caps of various materials 
 protected the hair of Roman ladies. In wealthy 
 houses, specially trained slaves were kept for dressing the hair. 
 
 Human hair has recently been put to new uses. In the course of 
 the last two years some tons have been packed between the plates of 
 a certain part of war vessels. By reason of its great 
 ew ses o air. e ] as ^j c ^y ( see p H7) } hair affords a most effective back¬ 
 ing to metals. It is being used, also, to form a kind of fender, which 
 is thrown over the side of a vessel to prevent her scraping against the 
 dock, thus taking the place of the commonly-used rope coils. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 MONEY 
 
 Barter. —At the primitive stage of human society the interchange 
 of commodities among men was effected directly, i.e., in the way of 
 o+ barter. Suppose, on one hand, a man or men with 
 first Exchanged surplus or game, and desiring iruit; on the other, a 
 ° nly Barter y ° f man or men w *th sur P^ us Luit desiring game : and 
 let these two be known to, and within reach of, each 
 other, they will soon, if they do not fight with one another, contrive 
 to come to mutual dealing and exchange of their respective surpluses 
 to the advantage of both sides. A considerable number of savage 
 tribes in different parts of the earth at the present day 
 Worl/still Ex- have not developed a commercial currency of more 
 changing their convenience than this rude basis of direct barter. Du 
 by^yofBarter! Chaillu’s Obongos in West Africa, Schweinfurth’s 
 Tiki-Tikis and Junker’s Akkas, both in Central 
 Africa ; Ludwig Wolf’s and Wissmann’s Batuas and Watwas in 
 Sonthern Equatorial Africa, Stanley’s Pigmies in Darkest Africa, the 
 Bushmen of South Africa, some negro tribes, the Australian abori¬ 
 gines, etc., all know no method of commerce other than that of direct 
 barter. Even at the present day, money is seldom met with in the 
 mountainous villages of Greece, and the primitive method of trade 
 by barter still holds ground in the more out-of-the-w 7 ay parts of this 
 land of classic civilization. 
 
 Media of Exchange. —An advance on the system of barter is the 
 use of a certain article or certain articles as common media of ex- 
 
MONEY 
 
 167 
 
 change, articles, namely, of general appreciation, such as people gene¬ 
 rally are ready to take, and for which they can readily 
 Early Common obtain commodities of more restricted value. As me- 
 Exchange. dia exchange there have been, and in some quarters 
 still are, more or less used, cattle, skins, shells, 
 pieces of cloth, mats, salt, etc. The properties of monetary 
 
 o4 . _ _„ capacity are universality and permanent equality of 
 
 render Certain value, maximum ot value in minimum ot bulk, dura- 
 Articies Wide and bility, and divisibility. Such properties are most en- 
 ermanen e la. g rosge( j by g 0 l<j an( j s il verj w hich, from a very early time, 
 have been, and still are, in consequence called the precious metals. 1 
 In Saxon times, and long after, the standard measure of value in 
 England was the pound weight of silver ; at present it is gold. 
 
 How with Gold The nse of gold and silver as media of exchange is 
 Abraham bought traceable back to earliest recorded ages. In purchasing 
 the cave of Maehpelah, Abraham weighed out 400 
 pea ' shekels of gold, current with the merchant. Gold 
 aud silver, not being coined or officially stamped with the mark of its 
 value, was weighed in the balance. 
 
 Coinage.—So far as known, the Lydians, says Herodotus, first in¬ 
 troduced gold and silver coin. The invention was not far to seek. 
 
 Treasure came to be deposited for safety in the 
 tobestamped^ temples, where it w T as consecrated to the care of the 
 divinity by being impressed with a badge or symbol. 
 The sacred symbol being accepted as guarantee of value, the pieces 
 of metal so impressed found easy circulation. The earliest Lydian 
 r .. coins extant, deriving, probably, from the reign of 
 Coins S Extant n Gyges (about 700 B.C.), are bean-shaped lumps of 
 native Lydian gold blenched with silver. Each coin, 
 known as Electron (i.e., amber-lihe or pale gold), bears on its ob¬ 
 verse the figure of a lion, and on its reverse the impress of the nail- 
 head serving to keep the metal in place while being struck. From 
 Lydia the one-sided coin spread throughout the coasts and islands of 
 the JEgean, each city issuing coin bearing the symbol of its divinity. 
 
 In Greece, the earliest coins of silver, Aiginetan coins, 
 Ea “ reek with the figure of the tortoise on the obverse, are said 
 to have been struck by Pheidon of Argos. To Solon, 
 about 590 b.c., is ascribed the introduction into Athens of the tetra- 
 
 1 There are seventeen metals more valuable than gold, viz. : Iridium, 
 valued at £60 per pound troy; gallium, £75 ; rhodium, £85; osmium, £120; 
 ruthenium, £200; palladium, about £216; barium, £280; didymium, £500; 
 cerium, £525; yttrium, £630; strontium, £670; calcium, £700; glucinum, 
 £820; lithium, £1,080; zirconium, £1,115; rubidium, £1,400; vanadium, 
 £1,725. The Czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. 
 
i68 ECONOMICAL 
 
 drachm, on its obverse tbe bead of Athene, on the reverse an owl. 
 
 Sparta enjoyed all to itself the luxury of a purely 
 The o I f r spSa iaSe i ron coinage, so that, if in Sparta you had a mind to 
 steal £1, you must needs yoke a horse and cart to 
 carry it away. The Greek coins from 480 to 400 B.c.' mark a great 
 improvement in the way of art; the reverse often registers the name ! 
 of the city or the chief magistrate. Athenian money was the chief j j 
 medium of exchange throughout Greece in this period, but the 
 Corinthian stater circulated widely in the West. The coins from 
 400 to 336 B.c. record the acme of Greek art. Coining 
 Coins of Highest was n0 w in universal practice throughout the Greek 
 ^Finish. 11 world. Every little town struck its own autonomous 
 gold, silver, or bronze currency. The Thracian coins 
 are exceedingly beautiful. The fame, however, of the finest and 
 most beautifully executed coins in the whole history of coinage be¬ 
 longs to Syracuse. Alexander was the first to stamp 
 Cpins stamped his portrait on the face of the coin, and his sovereign 
 W1 image. mgS coinage gradually superseded the autonomous coinage 
 of the smaller Greek states. In Ezra is the ea/rliest 
 mention, in the Bible, of coins. The shekel (the 
 Jerusafem. at Jewish stater) was first struck at Jerusalem by Simon 
 Maccabaeus (143-135 b.c.), to whom Antioch VII. 
 granted permission to coin money with his own stamp. 
 
 In Borne, as elsewhere, cattle (pecu) were the first medium of 
 exchange. 1 ox=10 sheep. About the middle of the 
 a Media° man 4th century B.c. the lb. weight of bronze (about 12 oz. 
 
 avoir.) was cast into round pieces, on the obverse the 
 head of Janus, on the reverse the prow of a galley. The Baman 
 libra (= <f lb.”, i.e. balance, weight) = as=nearly 12 oz. 
 ^Libra 13-11 avoir. =5,050 grains, was divided into the semis ( half 
 or 6 oz.); the triens (| or 4 oz.) ; the quadrans (i, 
 farthing, or 3 oz.); the sextans (J or 2 oz.); and the uncia (y 1 ^ or 
 1 oz.). By about 264 b.c. the as was sunk in weight to about 2 oz., 
 
 The Denarius an J then its weight was legally fixed at 2 oz., and a 
 
 silver coin, the denarius (i.e. 10 asses), issued. The j 
 denarius was divided into the quinarius (i.e. 5 asses), and the 
 sestertius (i.e. semis-tertius=2\ asses). The imperial coinage of 
 „ . Borne dates from 2 b.c., when Augustus arrogated 
 
 C SuperscSptfon nd to himself all rights of gold and silver coining, 
 leaving to the Senate the privilege only of striking 
 bronze. Then and thenceforth all coins bear on the obverse each the 
 portrait of the reigning Emperor. The issue was in gold, the aureus; 
 in silver, the denarius (60 grains=8|ci.) ; in bronze the sestertius 
 (2fci.), dupondius (1 T VL), and as. Constantine reduced the aureus 
 from to T V lb.=solidus (about 60 English grains). This coin was 
 
MONEY 
 
 169 
 
 the bezant or byzant of Western Europe. The Latin or Byzantine 
 coins were in the 11th century ousted by Greek. The 
 The Byzanu. gy Z antine coins were the model of the coinage of West¬ 
 ern Europe down to about 768 A.D., when Charlemagne brought in a 
 new silver coin, the new denier. The Popes issued coinage of their 
 own, a coinage in general distinguished by its beauty. 
 Papafcoina^e Benvenuto Cellini, e.g., designed a coin for the Pope, 
 0 ’ bearing on the obverse the Pope’s own portrait, and on 
 the reverse the figure of Christ on the waters holding out his hands 
 to St. Peter, with the inscription, Quare dubitasti ?, the whole so 
 admirable that the Pope’s secretary exclaimed, “ Your Holiness can 
 boast a currency superior to that of any of the famed ancients 
 
 Down to the time of Offa, king of Mercia (+794), the Anglo- 
 Saxon currency consisted of small silver coins and copper coins. 
 
 Offa was the first to introduce into England the new 
 Th penny! S denier, Englished penny. Henry III. struck the first 
 
 The Groat gold coins. Edward III. brought in the gold noble 
 
 ' ei s (6/8) and the gold florin (6/-). He also struck mul- 
 
 nse s ‘ tiples of the penny, groat (4 d.), and half-groat. I11 
 
 the reign of Edward IV. were coined angels, with the figure of 
 
 Michael and the Dragon. With the accession of the Tudors, the 
 portrait of the reigning Sovereign for the first time 
 The sovereign begins to decorate the coins. To this dynasty we owe 
 0 too the sovereign (ryal) in gold; and the crown, 
 y ' half-crown, shilling, etc., in silver. Also on the 
 
 Soverefgn. 3 Commonwealth coins is engraven Cromwell’s portrait 
 by the famous engraver, Thomas Simon. The guinea 
 (from the coast of Guinea) was first struck in the reign of Charles 
 II., and the copper \d. and \d. minted. 
 
 The advantage of coinage is, of course, the official guarantee of 
 weight and fineness furnished by the stamp. The Coinage Act of 
 1870 declares the precise weight of the sovereign in 
 Weight of the grains (123*274 grs. Troy) and the proportion of alloy 
 of the 6 shmfn? * n standard gold, namely eleven-twelfths of fine metal 
 and one-twelfth of alloy. Twenty lbs. Troy standard 
 gold is coined into 934| sovereigns. Standard silver consists of |£ 
 of fine metal and ^ alloy. 1 lb. Troy of standard silver is coined 
 into 66 shillings or 26| half-crowns. The total amount of gold in 
 circulation is computed at £170,000,000, less than 1,000 tons. 
 
 Getting Change in Spain. —In Spain there is no gold currency, 
 and practically no currency other than paper notes and pesetas, 
 1 peseta—9*6 English pence, or £l sterling=25’225 pesetas. At a 
 railway station the officials will give you change in coin out of a 
 peseta, but not out of a note, so poor is the country in coin. Apply- 
 
170 ECONOMICAL 
 
 ing for a ticket costing 105 pesetas, an English gentleman tendered 
 2 hundred-peseta notes. The booking-clerk refused to give him the 
 change, and the Englishman had no coins to pay with. 
 
 Diffieiilty of But for the good fortune of a French lady coming up 
 ge in^pairf nge au( I offering the change, the Englishman would there- 1 
 fore have had either to forego his journey or lose 95 
 pesetas, nearly £4. 
 
 CHAPTER Y 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 A . Articles of Commerce 
 
 The articles of commerce in the early trade of Egypt, Assyria, and 
 Phoenicia, included gold, silver, precious stones, ebony and fine 
 woods, ivory and inlaid work, incense and perfumes, * 
 Commocfitie^of balsams and gums, apes, peacocks, panther skins, and 
 the Early East, slaves. Indian dyes appear to have reached Egypt in 
 the time of the 18th Dynasty (1700-1475 B.c.). Baltic 
 amber was probably brought to Assyria in the time of Tiglath-Pileser 
 II. (8th century B.c.). . Chinese silks are known to have reached the 
 Indus through Afghanistan in the 4th century B.c. 
 
 In Shakspeare’s time the articles of consumption in England, as 
 
 Articles of by. Shakspeare himself, were sugar, currants, 
 
 Consumption in dates, rice, mace (a spice, the dried aril of the seed 
 Shakspeartf’stime. °. f t} ? e nutm eg), nutmegs and ginger, civet and medi¬ 
 cinal gums.. Also fine linen, Turkey cushions bossed 
 with pearl, valance of Venice gold in needlework. 
 
 B . Buying Power of Money 
 
 The prices of things increasing with their scarcity and diminishing 
 with their abundance, certain articles once very dear are now become 
 very cheap. The opening up of new sources of supply with the pro¬ 
 gress of geographical exploration, economic inventions, or the dis- 1 
 covery of easier and cheaper methods of production, improvements 
 and developments of roads, the opening up of new and shorter routes 
 of communication, locomotive inventions, such as the application, by 
 way of motor power, of the expansive property of water in process of 
 conversion into steam. These and such-like all tend to the increase 
 Ro ai Pur le and an( ^ ccm sequent cheapening of commodities. Purple, 
 East*End Gentry. as a colouring matter, sold in the time of Augustus at 
 £36 per lb. Long the distinction of royalty and the 
 very richest, purple is now become the distinction of the East End 
 gentry on bank holiday. Land carriage in bygone times was very 
 expensive, and in the 1st century B.c. citron wood, Varro tells us, 
 
COMMERCE 
 
 171 
 
 was, with gold, among the costliest luxuries at Rome. About the 
 same time an Alexandrian table of thya-wood with ivory feet sold at 
 1,400,000 sesterces (£10,500). 1 
 
 I11 England in 1589 a quarter of an ounce of tobacco 
 Toba ounce /4 an cos ^ 10^* 5 1 lb* of sugar, 20 d., as much as the price of 
 6 ’ a quarter of mutton. In 1801, the price of wheat in 
 W 6 quarter Per England and Wales was (owing to Napoleonic disturb¬ 
 ance) 119/6 per quarter; in 1805, 89/9; in 1810, 
 106/5; in 1820, 67/10; 1825, 68/6; 1840, 66/4; 1860, 53/3; 1880, 
 44/4; 1894, 22/10. 
 
 On the other hand, as the population on any given area increases, 
 while the area itself does not increase, the demand on the land and 
 therefore also the price of land within that area of 
 Rise of Prices^ necessity rises proportionally. The rents of houses 
 ^Population 6 ° f in a crowded city are so much greater than in the 
 country. If, too, the productions of the land do not 
 increase, or increase in a measure short of the increase in popula¬ 
 tion, the prices of products within the land must rise proportionally. 
 Again, with increase of gold without increase of commodities, or be- 
 How the value of y° n( ^ measure i ncrease °f commodities, the 
 
 Gold lessens with value of gold proportionally lessens. Let the whole 
 its increase of stock of realised commodities at any particular date= 
 utpu ' say 100a in gold. Immediately thereon, let the stock 
 of gold be increased, say by discovery of gold mines, to 200a, while 
 the stock of realised commodities remains the same—restricting “com¬ 
 modities ” to things other than gold. Then the stock of commodities 
 is now=200a. That is, a now buys only the half of the commo¬ 
 
 dities it was able to purchase before the new influx of found gold. 
 The value of gold against commodities is therefore now reduced by 
 one-half. Let a gold prospector pick up say only £1,000,000 gold all 
 . ready to hand. The commodities in the world not being 
 of New GoidTakes increased, but the claim on them being now increased 
 out of others Ser- to the value of one million sterling, the previous owners of 
 V the Vafue°o/the° the w hole stock have now to recognise the right of the 
 found Treasure, new claimant to one million pounds worth, and 
 fore,^others 1 lose to tor ^it among them, in favour of the new claimant, 
 so much to him. all the commodities the newly found million is able to 
 purchase. In other words, their money is now reduced 
 in value to the extent of one million. Suppose before some big gold 
 find, (say Australian gold find) a man hold in the shape of £100 a 
 certificate of so much honest service rendered to humanity, entitling 
 him to an equivalent service in return from humanity. Let him, 
 then, after the big gold find, claim the equivalent whereto his cer- 
 
 1 Up to the time of Augustus 1,000 sestertii = £8 17s. Id.; after that period, 
 £7 16s. 3d. P 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 tificate entitles him, and he must fain resign himself to suffering so ’ 
 much reduction as is represented by the proportionate increase of the j 
 stock of gold consequent on the Australian find. The man has honestly ! 
 served up to the measure represented at the time by £100, and is yet, i 
 when he claims his wages, called upon to part with so much of it to 
 people who have rendered no service either to himself or to mankind 
 at large. 
 
 Further, if the wages in any one trade be raised, the wages in all 
 the other trades are bound to rise commensurately. The prices of 
 the products of all the trades get accordingly raised, 
 in^ScewUh in 6 P r0( ^ uc ^ s themselves are not thereby increased, 
 
 crease of Wages' and the increased wages of the trades hardly procure 
 the tradesmen a higher value of commodities than did 
 the previous lower wages. Yet the rich buying products of labour, 
 such as the tradespeople themselves do not buy, have now to pay so 
 much more for them, and to that extent the trades may profit in an 
 economic sense by the rise of wages ? Moreover, by the rise of wages 
 in the crafts, and consequently of the products of the crafts, the pre¬ 
 vious savings of industrious craftsmen are now lowered to them in 
 value. That is to say, they are to that extent cheated out of their 
 just and formally guaranteed wages. To that extent are they 
 punished for the sin of having been thrifty. 
 
 How seriously the discovery of buried treasure from time to time 
 affects markets, cheapening gold and running up prices, may in part 
 w h, c . . be estimated by a few figures :—Out of-the El Dorado 
 
 a flooded:Europe S of South America alone, the Spaniards between 1492 
 with 6,000 miiuon an( ^ 1731 brought into Europe, according to the best 
 iece3 o lg . ca i cu i a fci 0I1) 6,000 million of pieces of eight, in register 
 gold and silver, exclusive of what were unregistered. The Ural Moun¬ 
 tains also long continued to produce gold in large quanti- 
 ties. In three years the Californian mines, discovered 
 * 1847, were computed to have yielded 35 millions sterling; 
 in three years from their opening, the Australian mines, 60 millions 
 sterling. Between 1851 and 1861, 96 millions sterling 
 Supply of Gold sold was drafted into England out of New South 
 raised from 14 to Wales and Victoria alone. “ The Australian and Cali- 
 42 millions ster - fornian diggings have increased the visible annual , 
 supply of gold and silver about threefold, or from 14 to 
 42 millions sterling ” (Encijclopeediu Britannica , 4, 519). One nugget j 
 alone, the Welcome nugget, was picked up in 1858 
 One £i?500 tOf at Bakery Hill, Ballarat. It weighed 2,217 oz. 16 
 ’ ’ dwt., and sold for £10,500—something worth stooping 
 
 to pick up! Not a few others have each exceeded 1,000 oz. More 
 recently the hoarded chests in South Africa have been burst. In 
 1892 the total production in the Transvaal is reported at 1,325,394 
 
COMMERCE 
 
 173 
 
 oz. 1 In 1874 Japan, again, yielded nearly 3 millions sterling. Alto¬ 
 gether the annual production of gold mines throughout 
 Output of the the world is estimated at 20^ millions sterling. Haydn 
 S °GoidAids an gives the estimated amount of gold in the world: 
 
 value, 1848, 560 millions sterling ; 1875, 1,000 millions 
 
 sterling. 
 
 The price of provisions was fixed by the Common (not yet County) 
 Council of London (29 Edw. I., 1299) as follows :—Two pullets, 1 \d .; 
 a partridge or two woodcocks, Hd.; a fat lamb from Christmas to 
 Shrovetide, 6d., the rest of the year, 4d. Vendibles in Oxford 
 Market in 1315 were fixed at the following prices, ruling also (with 
 a f dOx a few modifications) in other market towns:—A good 
 i4s gl - a a S fatCow, living ox that is stalled or corn-fed, 16s., “and no 
 12 s.; a fat Hog, higher”, if fatted with grass, 14s.; a fat cow, 12s.; a 
 t 3s°4^ ear afat' fat hog of two years old, 3s. 4 d.; a fat “mutton” 
 sheep, with un- (j.e., sheep), corn-fed or whose wool is not grown, 
 shorn wool, is. 8d. ^ . a f a fc sheep, shorn, Is. 2d.; a fat goose, 2d. ; 
 
 a fat capon, 2d. ; a fat hen, Id. ; 2 chickens, Id.; 4 pigeons, Id.; 24 
 eggs, Id. 
 
 In 1330 beer (or ale) sold in England at Id. per three gallons. 
 
 In 1533 beef and pork were settled at |d. the lb., and 
 tareeVafhSs vea -l 4^- The following document is from a “ Book of 
 the Joint Diet, Dinner and Supper, and the charge 
 thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley”, kept by the bailiffs of 
 Oxford:— 
 
 “1st October, 1554. Dinner. 
 
 
 . 9 . d. 
 
 Bread and Ale. 
 
 0 2 
 
 Oysters ...... 
 
 0 1 
 
 Butter. 
 
 0 2 
 
 Eggs.. . 
 
 0 2 
 
 Eyng . 
 
 0 8 
 
 A piece of fresh Salmon 
 
 0 10 
 
 Wine.. . 
 
 0 3 
 
 Cheese and Pears .... 
 
 0 2 
 
 The three Dinners 
 
 2 6’ 
 
 In 1560, milk sold, three pints ale measure for \d. By 1681 pro- 
 visions were risen in price. The following are some of 
 Pints for ^ the items of prices fixed in that year for the town of 
 Oxford, and quoted in The Life of Anthony A. Wood, 
 “which prices all sellers are required not to exceed” :— 
 
 1 In 1895 the South African goldfields yielded £12,000,000. 
 
174 ECONOMICAL 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1 lb. of butter, sweet and new, the best in the 
 
 market.0 6 
 
 1 lb. of the best cheese.0 2 
 
 Eggs, 6 for.0 2 
 
 French Wines 9d. A fat pigg, the best in the market . . .26 
 
 a Quart. a stone of the best beef at the butcher’s, 8 lbs. 
 
 avoyrdupois . . . . . . .20 
 
 Canary wines, Allegant, and Muscadels, the 
 
 quart, no more than.18 
 
 Sack and Mallagoes, the quart . .16 
 
 French wines, the quart.0 9 
 
 Wages.—The following table, compiled by Arthur Young, gives the 
 average daily wages of agricultural labour in England at different 
 
 Period. 
 
 1200-99. 
 
 
 
 
 Wages per Day. 
 
 . 4 d. 
 
 1300-99. 
 
 
 
 
 • . O4 d. 
 
 1400-99. 
 
 
 
 
 . 6i<L 
 
 Daily Wages of Kqnqc) 
 Agricultural jj . 
 
 
 
 
 . 6hd. 
 
 Labourers from 1600-99 . 
 
 
 
 
 . . 10£<L 
 
 1200 to 1810. 1701—66 
 
 
 
 
 . 12cZ. 
 
 1767-89*. 
 
 
 
 
 . . 15 d. 
 
 1790-1803 . 
 
 
 
 
 . 20 d. 
 
 1804-1810 . 
 
 
 
 
 . 24cL 
 
 White’s Memoir gives the following scale of wages in England, 
 France and United States respectively in 1825 (an asterisk, with 
 food ):— 
 
 Wages in 1825 of 
 Carpenters, 
 Masons, Cotton- 
 
 
 England. 
 
 France. 
 
 U. States. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Carpenter, by day .... 
 
 4 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 6 0 
 
 Mason, by day. 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 0 
 
 6 8 
 
 Machinist, by day .... 
 
 4 6 
 
 3 6 
 
 5 6 
 
 Cotton-spinner, by day . . 
 
 4 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 5 0 
 
 Woollen-spinner, by day . . 
 
 3 9 
 
 3 8 
 
 4 6 
 
 Weaver, by day. 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 9 
 
 Farm-labourer*, month . . 
 
 27 0 
 
 20 0 
 
 38 0 
 
 Housemaid*, week.... 
 
 3 0 
 
 — 
 
 0 0 
 
 Dr. Giffen gives the following table of agricultural wages per week 
 in 1835 and 1885 :— 
 

 Surrey . 
 
 COMMERCE 
 
 1835. 
 s. d. 
 
 10 6 
 
 175 
 
 . 1885. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 16 0 
 
 
 Sussex . 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 Essex . 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 Agricultural 
 
 Dorset . 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Wages in 1835 
 and 1885. 
 
 Warwick 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 Cheshire 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 
 York . 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 Wales . 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 Scotland 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 In 1414 the wages of a bailiff of husbandry was by Parliament fixed 
 at 23s. 4d. per annum, and clothing of the price of 5s., with meat 
 and drink; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 20s., cloth- 
 wl~c 3 in? il i » common servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing, 
 
 and 1685. 40d.; woman servant, 10s., clothing, 4s. In 1685, 
 
 according to Macaulay, agricultural labourers received 
 per week: Warwickshire, 3s. 6cL. to 4s.; Devonshire, 5s.; Suffolk, 
 5s. to 6s.; woolweavers, 3s. to 4s. 
 
 James's ; 
 Dear. 
 
 C. Buying Value of Money in the Eighteenth Century 
 
 In a letter to Stella, Swift complains that the two furnished rooms 
 he has taken in St. James’s are to cost him 8s. a week—“ plaguy 
 dear.” In 1742 “ the ordinaries served to young gentle- 
 ^Weeiffor 8 Two* men Edinburgh were at 4 d. a head for a very good 
 
 Rooms in st. dinner of broth and beef and roast and potatoes every 
 _, together with all the small beer that was called for 
 till the cloth was removed ” (Alexander Carlyle : Auto¬ 
 biography). The same year (1742) “Jupiter” (Alexander) Carlyle 
 _ _ paid for four days’ board and lodging, including wine 
 
 andLodgfn? vSth au( ^- everything, at an inn at Shotts, Scotland, in all 
 Wine, etc.,°in an 3s. 6d. — and Jupiter Carlyle was a big braw broad- 
 ^aUfor 0 ^ 1 !? 4: shouldered man of six feet, and not at all accustomed 
 to hermit’s fare. In 1746, when in London, he (Jupiter 
 Carlyle) had “anexcellent dinner at a coffee-house at Church Street, 
 Strand, along with Charles Congleton, Captain Henry 
 A Dinner of Fletcher, Thomson the poet, and Dr. Armstrong, at 
 5es in the°strand 10cJ. a h eaf T” The grandfather of Jupiter Carlyle, 
 at rod. a Head. Alexander Robinson, minister of Tinwald, Dumfries, 
 brought up a large family in abundance and practised 
 a bountiful hospitality, all on £70 a year. 
 
 Madame Warrens maintained her household in 
 me?t e on£80a Savoy, consisting of herself, a valet, a chamber-maid, 
 Year. a cook, two hired porters when Madame paid visits, 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 176 
 
 and exercised an extravagant hospitality to all comers (and they came 
 plentifully every day) and (almost) as long as they liked : all on £80 
 a year. 
 
 The highly fashionable hotel, at the bridge of Lunel, South France, 
 alone in a wide open country, gave, in the last century, dinners, in¬ 
 cluding the best sea and river fish, game, fine wines, 
 The Secretary to and the politest attendance, all for thirty-five sous 
 th paris at £32a in 0 s * 5|ct.) a head. (See Rousseau’s Confessions.) J.- 
 Year. J. Rousseau’s total salary, as secretary to Madame 
 Dupin and M. de Francueil, whose salon was one of 
 the most brilliant in Paris, was for two years at least (1747-9) only 
 800 to 900 francs, £32-36 a year. 
 
 About 1737, when Dr. Johnson was meditating flight to London, 
 an Irish painter, whom he knew in Birmingham, assured him “ that 
 £30 a year was enough to enable a man to live there 
 
 One may Live without being contemptible. He allowed £10 for 
 Londonon £30^ clothes and linen. He said a man might live in a 
 Year. garret at eighteenpence a week; few people would 
 inquire where he lodged, and if they did it was easy to 
 say, ‘ Sir, I am to be found at such a place/. By spending 3$. in a 
 coffee-house he might be for some hours every day in very good com¬ 
 pany ; he might dine for 6d., breakfast on bread and milk for Id., and 
 do without supper. On dean-shirt day he went 
 in what style Dr. abroad and paid visits”. “This man,” said Johnson 
 J a considerable^ gravely, “ was a very sensible man, who perfectly 
 Time in London, understood common affairs, a man of a great deal of 
 knowledge of the world, fresh from life, not strained 
 through books”. Johnson’s first lodgings were at the house of Mr. 
 Norris, a stay-maker in Exeter Street, adjoining Catherine Street, 
 Strand. “ I dined very well (says Johnson) for 8d., with very good 
 company, at the Pine Apple in New Street, just by. Several of them 
 had travelled. They expected to meet every day, but did not know 
 one another’s name. It used to cost the rest Is., for they drank wine ; 
 but I had a cut of meat for 6ct., and bread for Id .; so that I was 
 quite well served, nay, better than the rest, for they gave the waiter 
 nothing ”. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 TRADE GUILDS AND TRADE UNIONS 
 
 The Trade Guilds of the middle ages were each an association of 
 men for mutual protection, help, and furtherance 
 Trade Guilds was m01 ’ a lly and economically, and to watch over and pro- 
 not to raise Wages mote the best interests, not in a pecuniary sense alone, 
 Hnm S if°w!,rk but in a general humane sense, of its special trade. 
 
 Each Guild annually elected its head officer, or aider- 
 man, its wardens (stewards), its dean (or beadle), and its clerk, who 
 were all required to render yearly account of their several trusts. It 
 framed ordinances for religious observances, for mutual 
 T for ( Adm?s C s1on ^ Q help, and for decent burial, and kept a vigilant eye on 
 into a Guild, fraudulent workmanship, the honour of the Guild being 
 bound up with the probity and good quality of work¬ 
 manship performed by its members. In order to admission into a 
 An Adulterer Guild a man had to be of good repute and bearing, 
 or Libertine ex- The member of a Guild known to be an adulterer, or 
 pell Guiid° ma bbertine bachelor, was warned three times, and if, 
 after the third warning, there was still no amend¬ 
 ment, he was called upon to pay his arrears to the wardens and free 
 the Guild from any further connection with him. Any misfortune 
 befalling the health, liberty, or prosperity of a Guild brother was 
 The Spirit of ^he concern of the whole Guild, calling forth their 
 Mutual Loving- sympathy and practical help. If, however, a Guild 
 Helpfulness* brother sank into poverty through his own fault, 
 through idleness, or bad behaviour, he was not to be 
 assisted but expelled from their midst. On entering the Guild the 
 member had to pay a fixed sum, or so much in kind—in St. George’s 
 Guild, Norwich, e.g ., 6s. 8d. in case of a man, 3s. 4c?. in case of a 
 woman; in Stretham Ely, two pounds of wax and one bushel of 
 barley. The members had, furthermore, to pay so much for “ rights 
 of the house ”, and to the officers, to render help when other members 
 needed it, and contribute towards the burial and the feast on the 
 death of a brother or sister. Each Guild had a livery of its own, 
 and the members met once, twice, three times, or four 
 G Schoois l and d Gmes a y ear in livery dress in the Guild house to 
 Churches. worship together, “ to speke tokedere for here common 
 profyte”, give their alms, and feast together for the 
 ‘‘nourishing of brotherly love”. Guilds were distributed all over 
 England, and the Guild qf Corpus Christi, in York, numbered, at one 
 time, 14,850 members. A Guild was, in many cases, identical with, 
 or the main nucleus of, the town corporation, and devoted its funds 
 
 12 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 178 
 
 to public and charitable purposes. Membership of a Guild carried 
 with it the privileges of citizenship. 
 
 The Guilds founded many schools and churches—some colleges at 
 Cambridge, schools at Coventry, Worcester, Sleaford, Ludlow, 
 Bristol, etc. Each Guild looked after the whole 
 Only an Efficient human and, therefore, also economic interest of its 
 ^t^set^p^a ed ° ra ^> anc *- no one that had not complied with its regu- 
 Craft Master. Ap- lations, or had not approved himself to the satisfaction 
 pr man, C and°then y Guild thoroughly instructed and efficient, was 
 
 Master. allowed to practise the craft as a master within the 
 precincts of the Guild. Who would be master in the 
 craft had first to serve, in most cases seven years, as an apprentice; 
 then he was sent two years on his travels to see how the trade was 
 practised in other parts, and so learn all the ins and outs of the 
 mystery and gain the utmost intelligence and efficiency in his calling. 
 After the two years’ journeymanship he was tried by the Guild, and, 
 if found at all points competent, was admitted a master, and was free 
 to set up business on his own account, with the approbation and 
 encouragement of the Guild. 
 
 Under the Guild system the division of trade into capital and 
 labour was unknown, and, still less, the more or less 
 0^ coital an(T ma lio nan t' antagonism now generally prevalent be¬ 
 labour, tween these unhappy parties. The apprentice to 
 a craft lived, throughout the whole of his appren¬ 
 ticeship, as one of the family in the house of liis craftmaster, who 
 instructed him, and was responsible to the Guild for 
 as 0 aMachine rU but h° nes k discharge of his duties as master towards 
 to Work with the his apprentice. Every apprentice, honestly diligent 
 Wll of n a d Man USht an ^ an a b s °lnte dunce, had the assured outlook of 
 mastership and an independent business of his own. 
 Under the Guild system, moreover, no workman was reduced to the 
 level of a mere machine; no tailor or shoemaker was the pettiest 
 fraction of a tailor or a shoemaker. 
 
 It maybe said that in the middle ages, under the Guild system, 
 w _ .. . n . there was no essential distinction between Art and 
 
 tinctionbetween Handicraft. All the work of the middle ages, still 
 Arta 5af? andi " ex t an t? alike in art and in handicrafts, will stand 
 the most searching scrutiny. No jerry-building, no 
 shoddy, no specious and deceitful wares. The workmanship is all 
 of the solidest and best, wrought, not for show at the cheap market, 
 The Artist was *>ut a ^ Gie ^ ear ^ an( ^ intelligence and industry of 
 
 Craftsman and the workman. The inspiration of the artist that eon- 
 the Artist man ce ^ ve ^’ planned, and elaborated the cathedrals and 
 r 1S ' abbeys, still noble and beautiful in their decay, was 
 shared in their several degrees also by the masons, carpenters, 
 
TRADE GUILDS AND TRADE UNIONS 179 
 
 painters, the meanest hands. Art implied all the toil of the crafts¬ 
 man ; the handicraft was inspired by a sincere artistic impulse and 
 aim. It is the property of art to recognise beauty in things necessary 
 and common and, to vulgar sense, vulgar. It is the 
 N o Velvet- property of art to give to commonest things an artistic 
 jac e e ' tendency. Michelangelo, Cellini, and the artists of 
 their time, knew nothing of art in the velvet-jacketed sense that 
 would shrink from the soil of contact with the tradesman’s blouse or 
 apron. No navvy ever worked harder than did they. More recently, 
 too, the doughty Zelter, director of the Berlin Singakademie, was 
 a hale, robust, idiomatic man, full of sap and good 
 “TheHandi- the son of his honest father, who was wont to 
 
 °True Citizen. say, “ Handicraft ranks before everything; the handi¬ 
 craftsman is the true citizen”. Schiller’s Glockenlied , 
 not surpassed by any other poem for its solid, deep, clear, metallic 
 tone, is all cast from beginning to end in the spirit of the middle 
 age Guilds; the making of the bell is in itself a work of art and 
 religion. Properly it is a nation all united, striving all heart and 
 hand in one spirit, that alone has in it the capacity of spontaneous 
 art. 
 
 The Guild system is now almost everywhere completely broken up 
 and dissolved. In its place we have a system of trade, more or less— 
 or more and more—avowedly intent on pile-making. 
 Capital intent on It is split into two (for the most part openly hostile) 
 Work X at U Mini- departments—Capital and Labour. The former pro- 
 mum of Wages. vides plant, shop (though perhaps not workshop, letting 
 out work to be done in squalid rooms at home), etc., 
 employs the latter at contract wages, and sells the produce to the 
 public, quite independently of the workmen. It does none of the 
 work by its own (personal) hands, and in more and more cases is not 
 technically nor practically instructed in the craft or 
 La Maximum of n cra ^s whose products it sells. Capital more and 
 Wages in return more intent on dividends has on its side sought to 
 forMmimumof obtain “ the most favourable terms” against labour 
 which it employs— i.e. maximum of work at minimum 
 of wages. Labour, on the other hand, has also in retaliation sought 
 to obtain on its side “ the most favourable terms ”— i.e. maximum of 
 wages in return for minimum of work. 
 
 The Trade Guild may accordingly be said to have for successor the 
 Trade Union, an association of workmen for mutual protection and 
 assistance in securing the most favourable conditions of labour against 
 capital—the most pay possible for the least work possible. 1 
 
 1 The principle of Trade Unionism is, it is not too much to say, that work 
 rendered by labour is so much contra, wages received so much pro. ; and balance 
 of wages versus work so much profit. If Trades Unions had the chance 
 
j8o ECONOMICAL 
 
 The condemnation of cheap and nasty trade is : (1) Want of public 
 appreciation of, and demand for, solid and manly work ; 
 
 5 h the Chea b and preference of show to substance; (3) want of 
 ° Nasty syrtom. humane sentiment for house, furniture, dishes, clothes, 
 household goods, hallowed by long familiarity and 
 association with the family history; (4) demoralisation of the work¬ 
 men. 
 
 All the domesticity of a house is the strength of the lien between 
 Foase and House- ^ouse and household things on one side, and 
 hold are no the householders on the other. The shortness of the 
 l01 th e e r same and ^ erm between a man on one hand and his clothes on 
 the other is one measure of his inhumanity. 
 
 The Guild Journeyman.— On reaching a town, the Guild journey¬ 
 man went to the inn specially appointed by the Guild of his craft for 
 
 tt „ the reception of their journeymen. The host of such 
 
 How the Journey- • -uv j x j. i • o • , . P 
 
 man fared inn was obliged to take in every one furnishing proof 
 throughout his that he was a journeyman oLthe craft in question. In 
 wo years ravel. j nn was a 0 f a p mas fcers ill the town in want of 
 journeymen. Sometimes a master resident, or a journeyman sojourn¬ 
 ing, in a town, was specially deputed by the Guild to look out work 
 for incoming journeymen. If, however, in any town there were no 
 work left for an incoming journeyman, he received, in the case 
 of several of the crafts, his viaticum, a sum of money to support him 
 on his way to the next town. The journeyman always addressed the 
 host of the inn as “ father ”, the hostess as “ mother ”, the daughters j 
 and maid-servants as “sisters”, the sons and men-servants as 
 “brothers”. 
 
 CHAPTER YII 
 
 ECONOMY IS ECONOMICAL ONLY SO FAR AS 
 SUBSERVIENT TO THE INTERESTS OF 
 HUMANITY PURE AND CATHOLIC 
 
 A . Economic and Idyllic Life 
 
 The healthfulness of husbandry is its “ Georgies ”, the idyllic sense 
 seasoning and preserving it. So is the healthfulness of the pastoral 
 
 (suppose) of securing for humblest labour a minimum standard of a six- \ 
 
 hour and sixty shilling week, they would at once snap at it, and gain the < 
 
 momentary thanks of all the members. Or, if a Trade Union had such a ’; \ 
 magnificent opportunity within its reach, and let it slip by in sheer in- 
 difference, what would the members say to the managers ? The principle 
 of capital, on the other hand, is precisely the other way about. Let who 
 will decide which is the nobler. 
 
ECONOMIC AND IDYLLIC LIFE 181 
 
 life, the general element of pastoral (and pastorals) sweetening it. 
 
 If in simple rural life there had never been any breath 
 ^conomicine^s 6 idyllic, no man would ever have set himself the 
 
 its connection task of feigning it. The poetry of simple rural life 
 with ufe Ideal touches us in Homer, in Theokritos, in Vir¬ 
 
 gil, in lays and songs of the soil, such as every 
 nation in its wholesome prime has more or less produced, is its 
 sincerity. Let an accomplished poet like Pope affect pastorals or 
 georgics, and there is not a reader that is not at once sensible of the 
 poor affectation. If Thomson, if Beattie, if Bamsay, if Burns, if 
 Hogg, still kindle in us longings, it is because their songs of peasant 
 life were the truth of nature. Let farming or pastoral life be plied in 
 the spirit of speculation, and gone is all its healthfulness—also in a 
 physical sense. On the other hand, let any business other than 
 farming or pasture be conducted in a wholesome (i.e. humane) spirit, 
 and it is healthful (idyllic) in every sense. The Lehrjahre, the 
 Wanderjahre, the Meisterjahre of the crafts is altogether as idyllic as 
 any of your pastorals. Adam Bede, the true poetry (or 
 ti^Wand^rjahre, truth) of carpentry, is as sweet as any pastoral of any 
 and the Meister-’ land of any age. The Village Blacksmith, the poetry 
 J idyi e iic r than re anv ^ is qnite as good as the Gentle Shepherd. 
 
 Pasture. Schiller’s Glockenlied, reproducing the bell, is as good 
 as Virgil’s Georgics. In our own day a living poet 
 discovers for us the poetry of “ creeshie” Thrums and the loom, the 
 romance of the hitherto neglected waiter. Soil u. 
 Th Thrums.° f Haben is a serious, though not very successful, endea¬ 
 vour to evolve the poetry of commerce. Fink, the 
 aristocrat, with his undisguised contempt of pettifogging commerce, 
 intended as a foil to set off Wohlfahrt, takes the shine out of the hero 
 of the counting-house. Contrary to the author’s 
 a high idyiii? ex P res s directions, the readers (the ladies especially) 
 Capacity. bestow their admiration (and hearts) on the bold and 
 cavalierly Fink. Walter Scott’s line of romance was 
 hardly commerce, yet Baillie Nicol Jarvie gives a more interesting 
 figure to commerce than Wohlfahrt. When conducted in a humane 
 (idyllic) spirit, commerce, too, will find its poem. Commerce has in it 
 the making of a much better man than either farming or pastoral 
 life. 
 
 The worth (or romance) of life to any man is all bound up with the 
 way in which he earns his living. Is there no sentiment in a man’s 
 business, in the way in which he earns his bread, then 
 of:Lifetoanv 6 Ms whole life innocent of sentiment. The intention 
 
 ^Wa U f S aU in the servin g Grod and man with which the average London 
 SinshiYidviug 6 shopkeeper opens his shop of a morning is sure index 
 of all the humanity and piety of the homo Londonensis. 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 18-2 
 
 Food respects not the body alone but the man’s highest function, 
 and unless earned and appropriated by the whole man (his best soul 
 and mind) will fail to nourish him. According to the 
 receive hfs h Bread P au li n0 formula, a man is to eat and drink only in 
 r every Morning order to serve God and man. According to the Lord’s 
 ^ireetlyou^of Prayer, a man is to receive his bread out of the hands, 
 God Almighty. not of shopmen or middlemen, but directly of God 
 Almighty. As the picturesqueness of scenery is the 
 eye that finds picture everywhere alike, so is all the romance of 
 business the romantic spirit motivating it. If it be sweet and glorious 
 to die for one’s country, it is no less sweet (and perhaps more useful 
 to boot) to live for it. And assuredly no one whose business is all 
 intent on a pile for self and family will ever know aught of the 
 clulce et decorum pro patria mori. Who lives for his country, 
 whose daily business respects his country, he alone will find perfect 
 felicity in dying for it. 
 
 B . Work and Wages 
 
 A Man is to Earn his Bread by his own Exertions.— As there is 
 a necessary relation between the function of an organism and the 
 amount and quality of food it appropriates, so equally 
 The outward i s there a necessary relation between the quality and 
 MS function of a man on one hand and the quality and 
 to a Man is such amount of property—whether in the shape of lands 
 posed^nd Quaii- or houses or moneys or stocks or wages—at his health- 
 fied to Cultivate ful disposal on the other. A State is healthfully 
 the commonweal, organized so far as its respective functions are dis¬ 
 tributed among its citizens in accordance with their 
 respective capacities. Or the wealth of a State is healthfully dis¬ 
 tributed among its citizens so far as each have at his disposal such 
 share as he is best qualified and disposed to cultivate to the common 
 well-being. A State is healthfully organised so far as each unit of 
 the State be, within the State’s capacity, in the best position for 
 rendering and do render the maximum of humane contribution in his 
 capacity to the commonweal. A State is healthfully 
 A wiii a noYevoiv a e te organised so far as it do not evolve units pathological, 
 Pathic units or or, so far as such have been unhappily evolved, the 
 on? influence of the constitutional health avail for their 
 amendment and adjustment into normality; or, m case 
 such units continue beyond the regenerative capacity of the consti¬ 
 tution, if the body-corporate evacuate them out of its system with 
 least stoppage or strain—with most spontaneity and expedition. A 
 State is, contrariwise, imperfectly organised so far as it evolve, 
 retain, or tolerate, in it elements injurious or heterogeneous, or so far 
 
WORK AND WAGES 183 
 
 as it allow any of its citizens to fall short of yielding the maximum of 
 humane benefit in their several capacities. 
 
 Again, as the whole body of an individual suffers so far as there be 
 a repletion or a defect of blood in any one part or 
 ^wfu^otwfsh 1 member, s0 > equal inevitableness, does the whole 
 more Property State (body-corporate) suffer, so far as any of its 
 tha ?^® can citizens have more or less share of the commonwealth 
 roper y anage. ^ an * g their capacity of healthful administration. 
 
 Even on the lowest plane of honesty, a man is required to render 
 at least as much service to others as the sum of services he claims or 
 gets from others in the way of bread, clothes, housing, 
 An Honest Man etc. “ Who does not work (using ‘ work ’ in its proper 
 E^nder^Ueast comprehensive sense) shall not eat” is an elementary 
 as much Service and universal formula. It is not honest to claim the 
 t0 otI Get S s aS he services of baker, butcher, grocer, builder, servant, 
 flunkey, and the thousand agents of civilisation, with¬ 
 out striving to render at least an equal return in the shape of one’s 
 best service. To take everything and give nothing is the depth of 
 “ noble ” baseness. 
 
 Profit and Loss. —As the current will not rise higher than its 
 source, so will not hard cash either be persuaded to 
 Measure ye Mete serve any end higher than that which its derivation, 
 it shall be the way in which it was earned, determines and justi- 
 Mea again t0 y ° U ^ es * -^° speculation the most successful, on the part 
 of individual, limited company, or syndicate, ever in the 
 least overrides the law, with what measure ye mete it shall be measured 
 to you again. Whether on a transaction a man or a 
 aiwaysMeets°with^ rm net a deficit or 1,000 per cent, profit, all the 
 its due Return, personal benefit the man or the firm reaps by it is so 
 never more, never muc h aS) and no m0 re nor less than, is warranted by 
 the humane service the man or the firm intended by it. 
 Be a man’s action motivated by the intention of serving the common 
 weal, he is himself necessarily benefited thereby. Let, on the other 
 hand, a man try to benefit himself to the prejudice or injury of others, 
 he does himself so much injury. A man’s capacity of pleasure is con¬ 
 ditioned by, and proportionate to, the benefit he wills 
 of Sharp e pract£e an( ^ strives to render humanity. Not a cup of cold 
 a Man fails out of water given to a disciple escapes its reward. 
 F S eiiow^men h a?d ever y selfish action, whether in the way of 
 
 loses Delight in “ business ” or in private, a man falls out of the 
 Contempiation of ca paeity of geniality of relation with his fellow-men. 
 a and Sky. ea Only the liberal soul has in it, says the Bible, the 
 capacity of fatness—reserve and store of lusty vitality. 
 As far as a man be wholly intent only on the making of a pile, so far 
 is he estranged from inward sympathy with his fellow-men. As fast, 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 184 
 
 too, as he build up his pile, so fast is he drifting away from the 
 capacity of viewing earth and sea and sky with sense pure of 
 reference to self-interest —such as, according to Kant’s formula, 
 constitutes the necessary condition to perception of beauty. Let a 
 man be absorbed from day to day in business that respects no higher 
 end than his own individual and domestic interest, and the capacity 
 of pure contemplation, i.e. the sense of beauty, necessarily dies in 
 him. Only so far as his working life intend (consciously or un¬ 
 consciously) what is admirable in itself, irrespective of all sense of 
 personal advantage , has a man the sense and enjoyment of the 
 beautiful. 
 
 Property. —The more a man’s property be pure product of his own ; 
 personal and best energy, so much the more is that property his. 
 
 Property is properly the proprietor’s only so far as ; 
 Man ofhis Po^ derived of him, identified with him, inalienable from 
 sessions is not the him. Truly dear to the owner, to his heart and mind, 
 
 ^ of «aS « is his belonging, only so far as he have bought it with 
 
 or legally Tied to honest money, his own best exertions. When house 
 inwardness 1 and 6 an( ^ furniture and clothes and food and drink are 
 indissolubility of authentic tokens of the owner at his best, then are 
 the Lien between they bound to him by bond indissoluble. No man 
 im an em - k 110wg w hat comfort, what inward satisfaction, what 
 sincere and solid felicity, is in the capacity of money, lands, houses, ; 
 plenty of sensible havings, unless he have gotten and appropriated 
 them in the honestest way. A man that carefully consults his own 
 interests will think twice before he take anything in the way of a 
 “ windfall”, or in any way other than that of his own exertions. The 
 heritage even of his father and mother will he not take 
 S 5 eek°to Rende? f° r his own, till he have made sure to his own con- 
 Himseif inwardly science that he does in himself substantiate the virtue 
 Father’s e property. an( ^ diligence by which his parents made it, and how 
 of all men he is therefore the man best qualified to 
 take it over, at the point of culture it has reached, and push its cul¬ 
 ture forward a stage further. But gifts and legacies whereto he 
 feels no inward and personal title, will the prudent man eschew as 
 impedimenta, impertinences only prejudicial to him. Genus et proavos 
 et quae non fecimus ipsi, vix ea nostra voco. An honest man will 
 not deem himself entitled to a patrimony till he have substantiated 
 in his own person the virtue that first earned it. Lord Sundridge 
 and the Earl of Warwick both flourish this motto, and 
 Lordsbi^En^land ^ iem t therefore, may all men behold the imper- 
 
 that Substantiate sonation of virtue not short of the measure and value 
 e te?aUthe G Va5fe C " 0 ^ their respective properties real and personal. There 
 ofhis Estate! 16 is no man but feels contempt for the professedly 
 
EACH MAN TO EARN HIS OWN BREAD 185 
 
 second-hand fellow that founds his right to property real or per¬ 
 sonal (or both) on any foundation other than that of his own im¬ 
 mediate merit. “My right to my property is I—my property 
 is my product, and has my image alone stamped into 
 The True owner is and through it”. For a man to owe his property 
 0wlle Right S ° Wn to somebody other than himself, to somebody long 
 since gone to dust, it is beggarly and trumpery. And 
 conspicuously absurd to the bargain. “ Because, half a millennium 
 “Because 1 have ago and more, M=the value of a certain estate=say 
 Descended 26 De- 1,000, therefore Z , confessedly descended 26 degrees 
 who e w£°wo?thX from the register of M,=the same estate (in geometrical 
 therefore i am ’ area), but now, by universal appraisement, 26 degrees 
 worth 26 a”, ascended in value from the register of A,=say 26,000 ”. 
 Such equation is hardly to the credit of “ noble ” equity. 
 
 Goethe (no “ Bad ”), too, manfully postulates, Nur der verdient 
 sich Freiheit wie das Leben, der taglich sie erobern muss. Bight 
 to freedom and bread has not any man unless he earn 
 Earn^his^read tb em by Hs own action. Bread got for nothing, and 
 and hi^Liiferty freedom got by raising a cheap din (say in Trafalgar 
 day by day by Square), are worth—what they cost. “He is the free- 
 diatrAction." man whom the Truth makes free”, and the only just 
 title to outward freedom is the inward, the true, free¬ 
 dom. The clamour for liberty without is not noble, but rather 
 ignoble, unless earned and justified by commensurate liberty within. 
 
 According to an ancient fable, bread consists of an indefinite series 
 of kernels one within the other, increasing in sweetness and nutri- 
 The Nourishment tiousness with their inwardness. In the process of 
 the Eater will get eating, the bread opens (so runs the fable) only at the 
 isDependSton kernel that answers to the price in humane service 
 the Way in which that has been paid for it. Has the eater given no 
 ^th^Purpo^e he d humane service, the bread yields him only the taste- 
 intends to less and foisonless husk. Has he given of the honest 
 
 Serve by it. toil of his hands, then the bread opens at a kernel 
 
 yielding the eater the material of physical health and strength. To 
 
 1 The law that “true inheritance of property implies in the inheritor posi¬ 
 tive value of manhood equal to the value that first earned the property ” is 
 but a particular application of the law that true maintenance is equal to 
 origination, or (in other words) “ maintenance is continuous creation ”. 
 As soon as the force that maintains grows lees than the force that origin¬ 
 ated, the organisation is itself in decline. A nation, so soon as it declines 
 from the virtue that won it its position, possessions, name, credit, is in 
 sure process of degeneration, and the position, possessions, name, credit, 
 are also bound to detach themselves from its inadequate sustaining 
 energy. And so, too, every “ proprietor ”, whether of lands, houses, stocks, 
 or monehs, is peremptorily called upon to substantiate tye manhood that 
 alone properly earns and adequately cultivates such property—or forfeit 
 the property that is no longer of his propriety. 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 186 
 
 get, however, at the innermost kernel, o£ ineffable sweetness and 
 infinite sustenance, the eater must have given all his strength in the 
 service of the Highest. For whosoever would save his life shall lose 
 it, but whosoever shall lose his life for My sake and the Gospel’s shall 
 save it. 
 
 Rulers’ Salaries.— The Czar’s yearly revenue is £2,200,000, or 
 £5,000 daily; the Sultan’s £1,460,000, or £3,600 daily; the Emperor 
 Salaries of Euro- of Austria’s £912,000, or £2,000 daily; the German 
 pean Sovereigns Kaiser’s £730,000, or £1,600 daily ; the King of Italy’s 
 by Year and by £585,000, or £1,300 daily ; Queen Victoria’s £385.000, 
 or £1,300 daily ; the King: of Belgium’s £385,000, or 
 £1,300 daily; the French President’s £365,000, or £1,000 daily; the 
 United States President’s $50,000, or £27 daily. 
 
 Millionaires.— The estate of the late Jay Gould was 
 Estate at Death, appraised at £16,585,000, the whole of which passed 
 to his daughter, who recently married a French count. 
 The Duke of Westminster makes moan that under the new Death 
 Duties his heir will, on his decease, have to pay to 
 Westminsters Imperial exchequer no less—alas!—than £1,300,000. 
 Heir will have to This means that the Duke’s heir will, poor fellow, 
 P ^mount C in nS have somehow rub along with the miserable pit- 
 Death Duties, tance of 16^ millions sterling, and reduced, too, by the 
 rapacious slice of £1,300,000. Was ever mortal so ill 
 treated before P 
 
 • 
 
 The Vanderbilts.—George Vanderbilt has for years been construct¬ 
 ing, if he have not yet finished, a palace among the mountains near 
 Asheville, North Carolina, a spot among the loveliest, 
 E^rth^eioVs to ^ * s sa ^> world. All around, to the extent 
 
 the Vanderbiits° of 11,000 acres, mountain and forest, he has appro- 
 priated for his own exclusive private property and 
 behoof. W. Vanderbilt inherited 20 millions sterling, invested in 
 railways, yielding a steady 10 per . cent., or a yearly income of 2 
 millions sterling. The property left by W. Vanderbilt, 1885, was 
 estimated at $200,000,000. 
 
 The personalty of Sir David Baxter, ironmaster, Dundee, was, 
 January 11, 1873, sworn at £1,098,000. (The Scotch beating up 
 their last penny on the Darien Scheme, 1698, were 
 The Millionaires able to subscribe only £400,000, of which £220,000 
 ° f Personaity OSe was paid. The whole amount, too, expected to be 
 alone reaches paid into the Imperial exchequer by Scotland at the 
 a beyond! date of the Union, 1707, was hut fiol,000.) Person- 
 
 alty of Baron Wolverton (G. Glyn), Lombard Street- 
 
MILLIONAIRES 
 
 187 
 
 August 23, 187&, was 1 million sterling; of J. Baring, banker, 27 
 December, 1873, li millions sterling. In 1874 the personalty of E. 
 R. Langworthy, Manchester, was £1,200,000; in 1875, of Joseph 
 Love, Durham, 1 million; in 1870, of Jas. Baird, Ayrshire, £1,190,000; 
 of Charles Lambert, London, £900,000; in 1877, of John Pemberton, 
 Liverpool, £1,900,000; (1878) of John Penn, Kent, 1 million ster¬ 
 ling; of Earl of Dysart, £1,700,000; of R. Thornton, 1 million ster¬ 
 ling; (1879) of Crawshay, Glamorgan, £1,200,000; of Baron L. N. 
 de Rothschild, Piccadilly, £2,700,000; of Lionel Lawson, Hanover 
 Square, £900,000; of J. R. Mills, Tunbridge Wells, £1,200,000; 
 (1880) of Duke of Portland, £1,500,000; of J. Williams, Cornwall, 
 £1,600,000; of T. Wigley, Lancashire, £1,300,000; of E. Mackenzie, 
 Bucks, 1 million sterling. 
 
 The above returns are based on the payments made for probate 
 duty on personalty, and do not include lands and houses, which are 
 still a favourite investment in England ; nor do they include the 
 enormous masses of wealth now held abroad, which, though liable to 
 income tax, escape legacy duty altogether. The above list eludes 
 also the immense sources of wealth classed as ‘‘businesses 5 * with 
 their offices outside Great Britain. 
 
 No one in the above list even distantly approaches the wealth 
 of a Vanderbilt, Jay Gould, or Baron Hirsch, nor is any one per- 
 
 Vanderbiit sonalty in the above list comparable with a first-class 
 Jay Gould’ English landed property. The list represents almost 
 H p2thschifds he exclu sively the profits of trade; of bankers, manufac¬ 
 turers, ironmasters, etc., leading usually quiet though 
 sumptuous lives, and spending money on collections and gardens. 
 
 Within the decade ending 1872 there died in Great 
 
 T of Britain 611 B^ain ^ eu persons leaving each more than 1 million 
 1862 - 1872 .’ personalty (exclusive of landed property, houses, etc.), 
 fifty-three leaving each more than ^ a million sterling, 
 and one hundred and sixty-one leaving each more than a \ million 
 sterling. 
 
 The Spectator (October 28, 1882) points out Lord Overstone as, 
 perhaps, of all British subjects, the man disposing of the largest 
 available resources. The lesser millionaires in England, 
 Briton 68 with from only 2 to 5 millions sterling, the Spectator 
 observes, “found families”, and so, sinking money 
 in land, pass their lives in comparative obscurity. 
 
 The tip-top millionaires are, however, as already said, not English. 
 How ui ki j ^ on a sma ^ f armer > Jay Gould, in 1855, when only 
 Gould’s Fortune nineteen, had a balance to his credit at the bank of 
 grew. £1,000. Speculating on railways, he had in 1859 raised 
 his fortune to £20,000, all in cash. In 1883 his fortune 
 was computed at 15 millions sterling, yielding on an average seven per 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 188 
 
 cent., or one million yearly income, after allowing £50,000 a year 
 for competent managing agency— i.e. three times the nominal, prob¬ 
 ably five times the available, fortune of the richest English noble. At 
 __ * his death, December 2, 1892, his estate was appraised 
 
 theAstors . 0 a ^ £16,585,000. Wm. B. Astor, inheriting 20 million 
 dollars, increased that amount to 45. In the hands of 
 his son, John Jacob, the fortune again more than doubled itself—i.e. 
 exceeded £18,000,000. Mackay, the silver king, is said ( Spectator , 
 The Silver King November 4, 1882), on good evidence, to be the richest 
 human being in the world. So enormous was the for¬ 
 tune of Baron Hirscli, that in one year he could spill away as much 
 as three millions sterling in charity without perceptibly reducing his 
 capital and income. 
 
 Liquor Fortunes. —On beer Mr. B,obert Conray raised a personal 
 estate of £861,570 ; Mr. Howard Nalder one of £303,000. Probate 
 duty has lately been paid on three large properties : 
 reward Brewers that Mr. Frederick Tooth, head of an Australian 
 and Distillers, brewing firm, amounting to £339,000; that of Mr. 
 
 William Ingham Whittaker, a member of a famous 
 wine family, exceeding £902,000; and that of Mr. Henry Page, a 
 maltster of Ware, valued at £1,807,000. Thus, in a small part of a 
 year, five liquor fortunes alone showed an aggregate value of 3| 
 millions sterling. 
 
 Quickly Acquired Fortunes. —In recent years a number of persons 
 have left this country, each with a penny in his pocket and a sack in ( 
 
 n d Ad ^is band, and landed, some in South Africa, others in 
 turers e havegone" Australia, others in other parts. Each, however, on 
 to south Africa, landing at once made for a field of gold or of diamonds, 
 ^itVScdd S and S or of gold and diamonds both. At the field he then 
 lived as Lords of s et to and filled his sack with gold or diamonds, j 
 the Earth. or gold and diamonds both, to the brim. His sack filled 
 to the brim, he next made with it for ship, and so home. Now home, he 
 has either built or is building himself a palace. Architects, artists (and 1 
 artistes, too), shipbuilders, masons, carpenters, painters, decorators, 
 horse-dealers, builders of carriages, merchants, grocers of all species, 
 art-gardeners, art-tailors, landlords of hotels, butlers, flunkeys, men- 
 servants, women-servants (all the choicest), all that is most qualified 
 and distinguished, all that is most accomplished and graceful and 
 beautiful; "they are all at his beck and call, and whoso can first guess 
 his wish, and run to gratify it, is happy and enviable. The adoring 
 service of the world, all as a due return to him for filling his sack! 
 
 Billy Deutsch. — About a quarter of a century ago Billy bought for 
 £200 “The Mighty Dollar” play, and in five years made by it over 
 
REWARDS OF SERVICES 189 
 
 £25,000. He then took to gambling, and once played baccarat in 
 Paris for thirty-two days running. So his £25,000 
 How Billy Deutsch moun ted up into a big fortune. Then you might see 
 Whee?of d Fo?tune. this distinguished gentleman making his tour of the 
 Continent in royal fashion, attended by a glittering 
 retinue of friends; admirers (masculine and feminine), servants, horses, 
 carriages, luggage illimitable, scattering his gold magnificently right 
 and left. Large-hearted, open-handed, he once at Vienna, e.g., 
 treated the entire house at a large entertainment to his bountiful 
 hospitality. Fickle Fortune turning adverse, his winnings disappeared 
 all in a year. Putting his last to the touch at a gaming-table, he 
 returned to the United States with a cash capital of £100,000. His 
 constitution, unfortunately, ultimately felt the strain of high living, 
 and with broken health his luck too broke down with him, but not 
 again to recover. A few years ago the charity of his hosts of friends 
 and admirers was solicited to put him into a sanatorium. 
 
 How to Plunge The Jubilee Plunger. — Starting with a quarter of a 
 million sterling to the good, the Jubilee Plunger in two 
 ruptcy. years reached the bankruptcy Court. 
 
 Singers’ Wages.— Madame Patti has received as much as £2,200 
 for a single performance. In fulfilment of an engagement she has 
 FPP?ofMadamp received from Colonel Mapleson £1,000 a night. On 
 Patti, Christine a tour in South America she obtained £70,000 for 
 Niiss ??ti?tes° ther twenty-four performances, receiving, in addition to the 
 guaranteed minimum of £1,000 for each performance, 
 a certain proportion of the profits. In two seasons Christine Nilsson 
 cleared upwards of £27,000. On different occasions she has received 
 as much as £800, £1,000, and £1,200 for a single performance. 
 
 According to a recent (but surely exaggerative ?) estimate Yvette 
 ■ Guilbert draws a weekly income of £800; Loie Fuller, £600; A. 
 Chevalier, £400; Vesta Tiliey, £280; Sandow, £240. 
 
 Authors’ Incomes. —John Milton sold the copyright of Paradise 
 Lost for £5, but Simmons the printer generously allowed the writer 
 in all £15 for his poem. Walter Scott’s Woodstoclc 
 ofAuttS fetched him £8,228; his Life of Bonaparte, £18,000; 
 
 and he is said to have made £110,000 by eleven novels 
 and nine volumes of tales. Altogether his pen long returned him 
 £10,000 to £15,000 a year. Dickens got for his Edwin Drood £7,500, 
 plus a share in after profits. For the right to publish a cheap edition 
 I of his novels for ten years, Routledge handed over to Lytton £20,000. 
 For two volumes of his History , Macaulay got a cheque for £20,000. 
 George Eliot made £5,000 on Felix Holt, £7,000 on Romola, £8,000 
 on Middlemarch. Exclusive of the large fees of his lectures, Nansen 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 Schoolmasters’ 
 
 Salaries. 
 
 190 
 
 is understood to have made at least £20,000 by his last book. C. L. 
 Webster & Co. are said, too, to have paid Mrs. Grant £40,000 as her 
 share of the protits of volume 1 of General Grant’s Life. Tennyson 
 is said to have derived from his writings between £5,000 and £7,000 
 a year; Browning, latterly, £2,000 ; while Buskin is credited with an 
 income of £5,000, and Swinburne of £1,000. 
 
 Some of the schoolmasters of England draw salaries almost equal 
 to those of judges or bishops. The headmaster of Eton gets £4,500 
 a year; of Harrow, £1,500, plus the profits of a board- 
 ing house of sixty-four boys at £90 each; gross, 
 £7,260. The gross income of the headmaster of 
 Charterhouse is reckoned at over £6,000. A house master at Eton 
 has forty boys paying £111 for board and £21 each as pupil. Assis¬ 
 tant masters at Eton get £300 a year each for the first two years ; 
 afterwards the fees bring the amount up to an average of about £800. 
 
 Work and Wages in Germany. —Carlyle admires the smallness of 
 the cost at which, in the time of Friedrich Wilhelm and Friedrich II., 
 Frederick the magnificent buildings were erected in Berlin. He 
 Great’s Officials cannot enough admire how, too, Friedrich II. got out 
 had the smallest G f one ve ry able civil servant, in particular, the most 
 excellent service at pay which m England a general 
 “ slavey ” would spurn. A very great number of the houses in Jena 
 are each inscribed with the name of a by-gone resident belonging to 
 either the Dii Majores or Dii Minores of the Fatherland : Klop- 
 stock, Goethe, Schiller, Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, the Schlegels; 
 Yoss, Fries, Krause, Oken, etc., etc. The Illustrious hallowing the 
 houses of that university town have consecrated Jena 
 Men ^Germany in t° a German Pantheon. Yet let the average English- 
 lived in very man look at the dwellings in which the German 
 i^avery^uiet masters lived lives of highest value to their country 
 Manner. and the world at large, and they will seem to him 
 mean and shabby to a degree. Even Goethe’s house 
 in Weimar is remarkably plain and modest. 1 Mean and shabby to 
 the average English sense would seem, too, the honoraria or salaries 
 There are still these eminent men. Even at the present day there 
 German Scholars, are a large number of Privat-Docents and German 
 n 0 l jfver W small ° n scholars? attached or not attached to universities, who, 
 Saiary^roduce on a “little oatmeal” (tenui avena)—£70 a year or 
 Books of Solid thereabout—cultivate letters and never fail to produce 
 Learning. their regular crops of books of solid learning that has 
 
 1 The illustrious men of Germany of a century ago rejoiced in a Iceta. 
 'pawpertas, a cheerful poverty. Writing to Carlyle about the aims of the 
 litterateurs of that time in Germany, Goethe says, “We knew of no ambi¬ 
 tion but intellectual progress, we never thought of asking after rewards, 
 merit was the one prize on which our hearts were set”. 
 
WAGES OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS 191 
 
 not only spared no labour and pains but apparently revelled in the 
 luxury of taking trouble. To many a German scholar the cultivation 
 of letters is still its own reward; with a garret, a table, a writing 
 desk, a cup of coffee, a sausage, and a glass of beer, he goes the 
 round of his cheerful day. And so he toils on briskly to the end of 
 his busy life, nulla dies sine linea, nullus annus sine libro. 
 
 The dignity of the poet, says Goethe in Wilhelm Meister, is the 
 lowliness of his outward condition. It is not for the poet to encum¬ 
 ber himself in his own person with much moneys 
 thePoeUs the an( ^ sumptuous economics ; it is for the rich and the 
 Lowliness of his great to gratefully recognise how they are properly his 
 Condition stewards, “ Rentmeister ”, and how on any one of 
 them the poet, as his lord paramount, “ Oberster 
 Lehnsherr ”, may bestow himself at any time and for any time lie 
 please, to be entertained at the best, and “to freely draw on him at 
 any time and for any amount In Germany the fees 
 PosSon f in°Ger- of University Professors, Privat-Docents, of physi- 
 many do not cians, barristers, private teachers and authors, are still 
 reC Hon(n-aria Ut distinguished by the name of honoraria, from the 
 salaries or wages drawn by people of a more mercenary 
 grade. The honoraria, even of first-class physicians and medical 
 professors, are still to the English sense “ contemptible”, when com¬ 
 pared with the £10,000 and more a year which a physician in England 
 with a first-class West End practice easily scales. It still is, or was 
 at any rate quite recently, “form” in Germany, in the case of a 
 medical visit, for the physician not to name his fee nor for the visitor 
 An Eminent as ^ phy s i c i aa what is his fee ; but after the con- 
 Physician in Ger- sultation the patient simply puts down what coin 
 f™u n take^nd" seems Hm a P r °pe r acknowledgment. Let the 
 in Acknowiedg- physician be of the greatest eminence and let the 
 ment of Profes- patient put down a thaler (3s.) the physician will 
 siona vice. ver y we p sa ti s Q e d—unless indeed the patient be 
 known to be a rich man. Three shillings in Germany against two or 
 even five guineas in London for the same professional knowledge and 
 skill. A Japanese doctor, too, it is said, never presents a bill to his 
 patient, but accepts whatever sum is offered. Accord- 
 S', a f da v u - P r 0f ing k° a quite recent statement of its provost, there 
 Doctor!* ' S were in Kirkintilloch, fifty years ago, seven doctors, 
 and their usual fee for a professional visit was sixpence 
 and a cup of tea. 
 
 Paul’s Wages.—-Or. To unintermittent zealous services of the highest 
 kind tending to the entire regeneration of his countrymen and the 
 world at large, continued for many years. Dr. Received from the 
 Jews : 5 x 40—1 stripes + 3 rod-beatings +1 stoning + 3 shipwrecks + 
 
192 ECONOMICAL 
 
 1 day and night on the deep + many long journeyings + river-perils + 
 robber perils 4-perils from the Jews + perils from the 
 pLrstages 01 Gentiles + perils in city + perils in wilderness + perils 
 on the sea + perils among false brethren + weariness and 
 painfulness -f frequent watchings + hunger + thirst + frequent fastings 
 + cold and nakedness + the anxiety of all the churches. 
 
 Christ’s Wages.—The wages’ list may close with the quotation 
 The Foxes have of . J esus Christ’s immediate wages, as reported by 1 
 Holes and the Himself. Cr. To the redemption of a sinful world. 
 ifelts, but the A son Dr - Tlie foxes have holes and the birds of the air have 
 of Man has not nests, but the Son of Man hath not where to lay 
 W HisHead ay His head. The last item in the Debtor account was 
 crucifixion. 
 
 Worth and Economy.— If the standard of art be taken to be the 
 accomplishment of a maximum result on a minimum of means, and 
 the standard, accordingly, of the art of humane living 
 prcity^ofSomestic accomplishment of the highest humane life on the 
 Economy. simplest economy, then will, it is to be feared, the 
 millionaires, whether of England or other parts, 
 hardly take a high place relatively to the Spartans, to Socrates, 
 totheDii majores and minores of Jena and Germany, to the like of 
 George Buchanan (“ spare diet, frequent fasts, midnight oil and 
 shabby dress ”), David Hume (to whom £1000 was an ample fortune 
 for life), Clerk Maxwell, Thomas Carlyle, Milton, Newton, Locke, 
 Wordsworth, as also many others of all lands, who rather prided 
 themselves on their simplicity of personal and domestic economy. 
 Men in general cannot but admire the man to whom the lowliness of 
 the economy on which he started his course was yet found sufficient 
 for all humane purposes of life, and who, when later on in his success¬ 
 ful career a more fashionable and sumptuous style of economy is well 
 within his reach, does not forsake, but rather piously cherishes, the 
 simplicity of the paternal house and of his somewhat Spartan upbring¬ 
 ing. The condition of wealth is no longer wholesome and furtliersome, 
 but vulgar and pathological, when men pride themselves on the 
 possession of mere money, and when even boys at school plume them- 
 ! selves over their fellows because their fathers boast bigger banking 
 j accounts. 
 
 ; Britain’s Economic Expansion during Queen Victoria’s Sixty 
 
 | Years’ Reign, —The following table contrasts the economic condition 
 I of the United Kingdom in several particulars in 1837 with its economic 
 condition in these particulars in 1897:— 
 
VICTORIAN PROGRESS 193 
 
 1837. 
 
 Area of Empire, 2,621,700 square miles . 
 
 Population of Empire, 130,000.000 . 
 Population of London, 1,500,000 
 National Debt, £853,000.000 .... 
 
 Total imports into United Kingdom (1860), 
 £210,530,873 
 
 Total exports from United Kingdom (1840), 
 £51,308,740 
 
 Tonnage entered and cleared (1840), 9,439,667 
 Railway open (1843), less than 2,000 miles 
 Railway passengers (1843). 20 millions . 
 Postal matter of United Kingdom (1837), 100 
 million pieces 
 
 Telegraph mileage of United Kingdom, 0 
 
 Telegraphic messages despatched, 0. 
 
 Output of coal, 1. 
 
 Schools (elementary instruction) inspected in 
 Great Britain (1850), 2,163 
 Children present in school (elementary instruc¬ 
 tion) in Great Britain (1850), 214,873 . . 
 
 Schools of primary instruction In Ireland 
 (1865), 6,372 
 
 Average attendance In Ireland (1865), 
 321,209 
 
 1897. 
 
 11,941,205 square 
 miles. 
 
 383,488,469. 
 
 5,000,000. 
 
 £650,000,000. 
 
 £480,604,788. 
 
 £285,094,268. 
 
 80,539,174. 
 
 21,174 miles. 
 
 930 millions. 
 
 3,000 million pieces. 
 
 Over 33,000 miles of 
 line and 193,000 
 miles of wire. 
 
 79 million=2 tele¬ 
 grams per head of 
 population. 
 
 25. 
 
 22,773 (1895). 
 
 (Average school at¬ 
 tendance in Great 
 Britain) 4,900,335 
 (1895). ' 
 
 8,557 (1895). 
 
 519,515 (1895). 
 
 The following are some of the inventions achieved during Queen 
 Victoria’s sixty years’ reign :— 
 
 About 1837. Electric telegraphs first established as commercial 
 speculations : Steinheil’s at Munich ; Morse’s in America ; 
 Wheatstone and Cooke’s in England. Wheatstone and 
 Cooke laid down the first commercial telegraphs on the 
 London and Birmingham and Great Western Railways. 
 
 1838. First transatlantic steamer trip. 
 
 1839. Discovery of ozone. Daguerreotype patented. Penny post¬ 
 
 age. Electric boat sailed on Neva. 
 
 1840. Hydro-electric machine by Armstrong. Wheatstone’s electro¬ 
 
 magnetic chronoscope. 
 
 13 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 194 
 
 1841. Bain’s printing telegraph. Adhesive stamps came into nse. 
 1845. Gun-cotton invented by Prof. Schonbein. Apparatus by 
 Staile for regulating electric light. 
 
 1847. Liebig’s extract of meat. Howe’s sewing machine. Chloro¬ 
 
 form first applied by Dr. Simpson as an anaesthetic. 
 
 1851. First international exhibition. 
 
 1848. Paraffin procured from mineral oil by James Young. 
 
 1855. Book-post established in the United Kingdom. 
 
 1856. Aniline obtained from benzole. W. H. Perkins showed how 
 
 a violet oxidation-product (mauve) was applicable in dyeing. 
 
 1859. Snider’s system of breechloading invented. 
 
 1860. Storm warnings issued in Holland through M. Buys Ballot. 
 
 1861. Post-office Savings Banks established in Great Britain. 
 
 1863. Metropolitan Bailway opened for traffic. 
 
 1865. Beduction in postage from 2d. to Id. for every ounce above 
 
 the first. 
 
 1866. Atlantic telegraph connecting Europe and America com¬ 
 
 pleted, and a message from Queen to the United States 
 President sent, July 28. 
 
 1868. Lord Kelvin’s electric replenisher. 
 
 1869. Apps’s great induction coil. 
 
 1870. Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed. \d. stamped 
 
 cards issued. 
 
 18/2. Duplex telegraphy. Daily weather charts first issued by the 
 Meteorological Office, October 1. 
 
 18/6. Weather charts and storm warnings published by B. H. Scott. 
 18/8. Electric light tried at Westminster Palace; used at Wool¬ 
 wich and throughout the country. 
 
 18/9. A 6-acre field at Sermaize, La Marne, ploughed in 6 hours by 
 means of a wire attached to a 12-horse engine a mile distant. 
 1S80. Electric light on Thames Embankment, in British Museum, 
 etc. 
 
 1881. Electric railway opened at Berlin. The Otto bicycle patented. 
 
 1882. First electric tramway cars run at Leytonstone, Essex. 
 
 1883. Tramcars at Kew, near London, running by electricity at 6 
 
 miles an hour. Electric screw boat on the Thames at 
 Greenwich running 9 miles an hour. 
 
 1889. L. Perkins’ Arktos, improved cold-producing apparatus. 
 
 Booms of varying size can be kept cold in greater or less 
 intensity by its means. 
 
 1890. Elliott’s smoke annihilator. Cecil Carus-Wilson’s luminous 
 
 crayon. 
 
 1891. Edison’s kinetograph taking a series of 46 photographs of 
 
 movements in 1 second. The sehapirograph, a new and 
 original form of copying apparatus. Dr. Tanaka’s enhar- 
 
CALENDAR 195 
 
 monium. Permanent electric lights from Mansion House to 
 Blackfriars. 
 
 1892. G. W. Robertson’s Station Indicator, displaying at the proper 
 
 time on the journey a card or tablet on which is printed 
 the name of the station. An apparatus to prevent the 
 rolling of ships. J. Aitken’s koniscope for testing the 
 amount of dust in the air. Electric advertising. 
 
 1893. McEvoy’s hydrophone. Elisha Gray’s Telautograph. 
 
 1894. Maxim flying machine. Vogel Kurtz’s jphotographie printing 
 
 in the natural colours. 
 
 1895. Octopus anti-incrustator. Automatic fog signal by T. H. 
 
 Berry. Automotor carriages (voitures mobiles). Success¬ 
 ful commercial delivery of electric current from 50,000 
 horse-power generating station at Nicaragua to first con¬ 
 sumers. Works in process of erection at Foyers in Inver¬ 
 ness-shire to get 3,000 horse-power from the largest waterfall 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 1896. Meeting of motor-cars, November 14, at Hotel Metropole, 
 
 whence 13 journeyed to Brighton in 3 hours. Motor-cars to 
 Paris and Marseilles and back at an average speed of 14 to 
 15 miles an hour. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 CALENDAR 
 
 Day.-—-The first, as the most obvious and universal, measure of 
 time is the natural day, the time of one revolution of the earth on its 
 axis. This period is divided into an alternately light and dark phase; 
 
 the light phase being measured from the time when 
 D lSrkneS 1<i an y pl ace on earth first catches till it again loses the 
 light of the sun, the dark phase from the moment the 
 same place loses till it again catches the sun’s light. The sum of 
 these two phases registers one revolution of the earth on itself, a 
 measure practically always of the same length and continuously re¬ 
 curring; so that “day follows night” is a symbol of certainty, and 
 constituted by Hume the typical ground of the general notion of 
 cause and effect. 
 
 What, however, is the starting-point of the (daylight-and-night) 
 day ? Sunrise, when one’s place on the earth again first catches the 
 The Da ’s start sun ^ ra Y s ? Or sun’s height— i.e., noon—when one’s 
 e ing-point. ar place has again swung round to a position immediately 
 under the sun P Or sunset, when one’s place is again 
 just dipping out of view of the sun ? Or midnight ? “ And there was 
 evening and there was morning one day”. Evening and morning 
 
196 ECONOMICAL 
 
 composed to the Jews one whole day. And still in London and 
 other large towns the long-exiled Jews shut shop at 
 Fr0I Sunset 8t t0 the sunset of Friday when their Sabbath begins. The 
 Athenians, the Arabs, the Kelts, the early Romans, 
 the Teutons, all likewise counted their day from sunset to sunset. 
 
 Also in our own language, the night reckoning of time is 
 registered in such expressions as “ fortnight ” (not fort -day) “ seven- 
 m- p rvnnimr ” (or se’nnight), etc. “ Instead of reckoning by 
 oftheEarlyEng^ days”, says Tacitus, “as we do, they (the Germans) 
 lish, New Zea- CO unt by nights ”. And, no less on the opposite side of 
 an ers, a lans the Siamese and New Zealanders measure 
 
 the course of time, not by days, but by nights. “ We go by the 
 moon and the seven stars”, says Falstaff, “and not by Phoebus”. 
 
 The Italians and Bohemians still mark the beginning of the day at 
 sunset. The ancient Chaldseans, on the other hand, 
 Sunrise as the started, and the modern Greeks still start, the day, 
 Beginning ° t e more na turally as one might now deem it, with break 
 of day or sunrise. The ancient Egyptians, contrari¬ 
 wise, from a very early time counted, and European 
 Midnight as Be- nations in general now count, the civil day from mid- 
 S 1 Civn g D°ay he night, reckoning twelve morning hours from midnight 
 to midday, and twelve evening hours from midday to 
 midnight. Astronomers, again, following the lead of 
 Astronomical pt 0 i em y (astronomer of Alexandria, 2nd century a.d.), 
 ay rom oo . mar ^ the p 0 mt 0 f the sun’s height as the outset of 
 the day, and thence reckon all through the twenty-fours till next 
 noon. 
 
 Divisions of the Day. —The Greeks in the Homeric age, and the 
 Romans to as late in their history as the 5th century after the foun¬ 
 dation of the city (i.e., after 753 B.c.) seem to have 
 S and S sunset n ’ distinguished only three stages of the day, sunrise, 
 noon, and sunset; in Latin, Solis ortus, Meridies, 
 
 Solis occasus. Forenoon, tempus antemeridianum , covered the | 
 whole time from sunrise to noon; afternoon, tempus 
 F Afternoon d V omer ^^ anum ^ the time from noon to sunset. The J 
 e ’ turn of the day after noon was, however, further dis- \ 
 tinguished as Meridiei inclinatio. Noon was proclaimed at Rome, !! 
 
 not as with us by bell or gun, but by voice of public \ 
 
 Pr< ofNoon 10n officer, who from the Curia (Senate house) watched 1 
 
 the arrival of the sun between the limit of the Rostra 
 (platform of public orations) and that of the place called Grsecostasis. \ 
 The Jews, also, were content, in the way of rough measurement, to 
 distribute the day into morning, noon, and evening, though latterly 
 a division of the day into four parts seems to have been likewise 
 recognised among them. 
 
CALENDAR 197 
 
 The Romans distributed the time from sunset to sunrise into four 
 watches of three hours each. In every-day life, however, as many 
 as eight divisions of the night were recognised; but 
 
 Watches Of the these we re very indefinite. Before the Captivity, the 
 1S * Jews marked off the night into three watches; the 
 first watch lasting till midnight, the middle watch till cockcrow, and 
 the morning watch till sunrise. In the New Testament we find 
 allusions to four watches, a division dating from the Roman ad¬ 
 ministration: (1) From twilight till 9 o’clock; (2) midnight, from 9 
 till 12; (3) thence till 3 in the morning; (4) till daybreak. The 
 A.-S. Leechdoms, a medical work of the 11th century a.d., marks off 
 the night into seven parts : (1) Twilight; (2) vespers ; 
 
 S oTth?Ni i ffht ns (3) conticinium (time of quiet—early part of the 
 night); (4) midnight; (5) cockcrow; (6) aurora; (7) 
 dawn. Before the introduction of public clocks, the Watch of Lon¬ 
 don, appointed 1253, proclaimed the hours of night with a bell. The 
 old watch of London got—29th September, 1829— 
 of London 1 superseded by the new police on duty day and night. 
 
 To the light sleeper the stentorian watch in the night 
 was not always a grateful visitation. Goethe complains how, in 
 Gottingen, whither, in the July of 1801, he had betaken himself in 
 order, under the healing influences of rest and quietude, to recover 
 from a morbid sensitiveness of nerves, “the monstrous 
 
 Watch and th 6 soim( ^ a Lorn startled me out of deep sleep, as 
 
 Lightsieeper 6 though it were blowing into me between my bed-cur¬ 
 tains. A night watchman performed his functions 
 under my window, and, to my double and treble misery, all his com¬ 
 panions of the watch at all corners of the streets leading to the alley 
 replied to his call, demonstrating in dreadful tones the solicitude 
 with which they watched over our rest Like the night, the Roman 
 day was also parcelled off into four parts of three (natural) hours 
 each. Before the erection of a clepsydra (water clock), 159 B.C., a 
 public officer proclaimed in Rome the third, the sixth, and the ninth 
 hour. 1 
 
 Hours.— The Chaldaeans (or Babylonians) are the first people 
 known to have divided the day into twelve equal parts. The sundial 
 Sundials Berosos (4th century B.C.), consisting of a hollow 
 
 hemisphere, registered in twelve equal parts the pro¬ 
 gress of the sun’s shadow for one day. Four dials of the Berosus 
 structure have in recent times been discovered in Italy, the last in 
 
 1 A curious custom, still extant, is the sounding of the mayor’s horn at 
 Ripon. At first instituted to announce the setting of the watch, it has now 
 lapsed into the formality of three blasts given by the mayor’s horn- 
 blower at 9 o’clock every evening at the mayor’s residence, and three more 
 at the Market Cross. 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 198 
 
 1762 in Pompeii. The Greeks seem to have early adopted the 
 Babylonian division of the natural day. This division was introduced, 
 with the first sundial, into Rome about 290 B.C. A dial from Catana 
 was set up in the Forum, 260 B.C. 
 
 Seeing the natural day (i.e., the time during which a place on the 
 earth’s surface is continuously lighted by the sun) is always varying 
 in length throughout the round of the year on account 
 tmuousiy Varying the continuous change of the relative position of 
 in Length the sun and the part of the earth in question, and the 
 throughout the q a y Home accordingly varied in length from less 
 than nine hours at midwinter to more than fifteen 
 hours at midsummer, the hour, or twelfth part of the daylight day, 
 would correspondingly vary in length. The “hora”at Rome ac¬ 
 cordingly grew from three-quarters of our fixed hour at midwinter 
 to five-quarters at midsummer, whence it declined again to three- 
 quarters. And while the day was continuously on the increase from 
 winter solstice (Bruma) until summer solstice (Solstitium), the night 
 during the same period was, of course, correspondingly on the decline. 
 Such hours were accordingly called temporary hours. 
 
 The horal division, i.e.> division of the natural day into twelve 
 equal parts, did not come into general usage till about the middle 
 of the 2nd century B.C. 
 
 The astronomical (equal the equinoctial) hour of unvarying length, 
 the hour in modern use, was of later adoption among the Romans, 
 and in use restricted to astronomical, legal, and 
 The Hour always technical affairs. The Romans thus came to have two 
 the Varying Hour fimerent sets of hours; one m ordinary usage 
 among them, in common with other nations, for every¬ 
 day affairs, viz., twelve hours of varying length covering the time 
 from sunrise to sunset; the other of restricted usage, viz., twenty- 
 four equal hours from midnight to midnight. Not 
 fixed 1 Hour. a till towards the end of the 4th century of the 
 Christian era did the reckoning by astronomical or 
 fixed hours begin to time the common affairs of life. 
 
 Hour in the sense of a division of the day is said to date in 
 Roman affairs from not earlier than 290 B.C., when 
 Homer’s Hours a sundial was set up in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. 
 are seasonsy ee Homer uses the word hour (hora) in the sense of 
 season, and distinguishes three hours or seasons of 
 the year—Eunomia (Good order), Dike (Justice), and Eirene (Peace). 
 The classic hours decked in flowers danced the round of the year. 
 
 The division of the day into twelve parts is, of course, purely 
 artificial, though perhaps suggested by the division of the year into 
 twelve moons, as the zodiac is also parcelled off into twelve 
 stages. 
 
CALENDAR 
 
 199 
 
 Hora. —The word Hord occurs in the Sanskrit vocabulary, bearing, 
 among other significations, that of the rising of a sign of the Zodiac, 
 or half a sign. This, as Henry T. Colebrooke remarks, is in diurnal 
 motion one hour. 
 
 Month. —After the day, the next larger natural division of time 
 was that presented by a revolution of the moon through its regularly 
 recurrent succession of phases. The interval from new moon to 
 new moon, about 29| days, is a space of time impressing itself on 
 the observation of all men. Accordingly among all nations the 
 lunation or month has been and is recognised as a measure of time. 
 “ Such and such an event happened in the last moon, two, three, 
 or more moons back. Such and such a business will be taken in 
 hand next moon, two, three, or more moons to come”. In all the 
 Aryan (Indo-European) languages, “ moon” or “month” figures as 
 the measurer. The Anglo-Saxon word for the moon 
 The Aryan ismona, and the time of one moon mona-th. The 
 measure n by a the two corresponding words in Gothic are men-a and 
 Moon, and have men-oths ; in old Frisian (the language of the Frisian 
 a for I iiS»on and 6 adventurers of the Anglo-Saxon invasion in the 
 for Month. 5th century), mon-a and mona-th ; Low German, 
 maan and maand ; Old Norse, mdn-i and mdna-tlir ; 
 Swedish, man-e and man-ad; Danish, maan-e and maan-ed; 
 Lithuanian, men-u and menes-is. In Latin we have mensis for 
 month. In Greek, mene is moon and men (masculine form of 
 the same word) month. In Sanskrit, mas is the word for moon 
 and mdsa for month. This mas in Sanskrit brings us to the com¬ 
 mon root word md, to measure. So much has the idea of the 
 moon as a measurer of time printed itself into the minds of 
 all the Aryan peoples alike and into all their languages alike. 
 Nor less on the minds and languages of the Semitic races has 
 the same conjoint idea of moon and month impressed itself. 
 In the early ages of man the moon was his calendar; men every¬ 
 where counted by the moon. The Jewish and the Greek month 
 continued both close conform in length with the period of one 
 lunation or revolution of the moon, 29^ days and a bit more—• 
 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 2'87 seconds. 
 
 The Round of the Seasons. —The successive seasons of the year, 
 i.e., the successive positions of each place on earth relative to the sun, 
 were, equally with the seasons of the moon, a pheno- 
 
 the U seSons. ° f menon of universal observation. The problem of de¬ 
 termining the cycle of the seasons must have been a 
 very early study of men. On the succession of the seasons depended 
 the labours of the husbandman and the adventures of the sailor. 
 
200 
 
 ECONOMICAL 
 
 As early as the time of Hesiod (8th century B.c.) the risings 
 and settings of certain constellations as seen 
 He Ai°maaack lar l rom the standpoint of Greece were associated each 
 with its peculiar season. Hesiod thus drew up a stellar 
 almanack, marking off the year by so many constellations. The 
 Pleiades were the sailing stars (from jplein, to sail, according to Max 
 Miiller), between the time of whose return to view and the time of 
 whose disappearance from view it was safe to sail the Greek waters. 
 The rising of the Pleiades is further marked by Hesiod as the time 
 for harvesting ; that of their setting as the time for ploughing. The 
 rising of Arktouros (Bootes), again, in the morning 
 Stellar^Almanack, twilight heralded the season of vintage. Vergilise, the 
 Latin name of the Pleiades, betokened to Italian hus¬ 
 bandmen the return of summer. The Homan Pluvise (Greek Hyades), 
 rising simultaneously with the sun, gave warning of the rainy sea¬ 
 son ; as their names denote —pluere and hyein both meaning to rain, 
 whence Horace speaks of the “ sad Hyades ” (tristes Hyades). In Vir¬ 
 gil, Columella, and Pliny, the risings and settings of the stars are made 
 to serve in the way of a complete rural almanack for the Romans. 
 
 The Months and the Solar Year. —It would not need any very long 
 series of comparative observations to arrive at the conclusion how the 
 course of twelve moons or lunations (354 days) pretty 
 neariv^z^Soiar we ^ coincided with the round of the solar year, i.e. y 
 nea Year. the interval between two consecutive recurrences of 
 anyone place on earth and the sun to the same relative 
 position. Accordingly Europeau nations, though measuring a twelfth 
 (or approximate twelfth) of the solar year no longer by the interval 
 from new to next new moon, still apply the word month (time of one 
 moon) to the twelfth of the year. Twelve moons, 
 Adjustment of the however, measuring only 354 days, falls short by about 
 T the solar Year t0 lli days of the full round of a solar year. In the 
 course of no very long time it could not fail to be 
 noticed how the same lunar months were always getting farther and 
 farther removed from the same solar seasons (or relative positions of 
 the same place on earth and the sun), how each recurring first moon 
 of the twelve was astart at a different (an earlier) season from that 
 of its predecessor, and how at last in course of time, less than one 
 generation, each moon had made successive round of every season of 
 the revolving year. To adjust the round of the twelve months and 
 the round of the solar year into mutual correspondence, various de- 
 f vices were resorted to. The Egyptians from as early, 
 
 T ^ e Year tian ^ sa ^> as the time the building of the Great 
 Pyramid, with an exclusive regard to the solar seasons, 
 marked off the year into twelve months of thirty days each, whereto 
 
CALENDAR 201 
 
 were added five supplementary days kept as general holidays. This fact 
 alone, necessarily implying long periods of chronometrical tentatives 
 (unless we suppose the Egyptians miraculously received their calendar 
 direct from heaven), argues the immemorial antiquity of Egyptian 
 civilisation. 
 
 The Greeks intercalated an extra month every two years. 
 Instead, too, of making the month uniformly of thirty. days, a 
 reckoning still in use in the time of Hesiod (8th 
 0fttto^taSSi centui y the y> l a ^ er on > constituted the months 
 ° f of e the 6 Jew^ n of alternate thirty and twenty-nine days each, thereby 
 giving an average of 29| days or one lunation to each. 
 By this arrangement one year had 354 days and the other 384 days ; 
 i.e ., the two together overshot two solar years by about 7# days. 
 This excess made up in eight years a month of thirty days. Every 
 eight years, therefore, the Greek reckoning discounted a month of 
 thirty days. Another, and more usual, device was to intercalate 
 three months of thirty days each into a cycle of eight 
 lunar years. The Jews intercalated seven extra months into 
 every nineteen lunar years. The Athenians and the other 
 Iouians began their year with the first new moon after the summer’s, 
 solstice; the Dorians, with the autumnal equinox. 
 
 The Roman year would seem to have consisted at first of but ten 
 months of thirty days each. March, April, May, June, thenQuin- 
 tilis (fifth month) Sextilis (sixth), September (seventh), 
 
 ^Ten^onti^ October (eighth), November (ninth), December (tenth). 
 
 "In the reign of Numa, second king of Rome (7 th 
 century B.C.), the Romans, adding two new months, January at the 
 beginning and February at the end, constituted a lunar year of 355 
 days, into which was intercalated every second year a month of 
 alternately twenty-two and twenty-three days. This arrangement 
 lasted till about 452 B.c., when the order of months 
 
 Th Months relVe was a Lered, and February, immediately following 
 January, closed the year. The Roman year of ten 
 months was, according to Mommsen’s view, applicable only to affairs 
 of strict business in order to avoid the inconvenience of years of 
 varying lengths. The names themselves of the months would seem 
 to indicate a tendency to connect each month with a particular season 
 of the year. April, e.g ., is the opening month (from aperire, to 
 open), May the month of growth (“may” being a word connected 
 with mag-nas and mai- or), June the month of increase; these are 
 names appropriate only to spring and summer seasons. 
 
 The Roman Calendar. —The Romans distinguished in each month 
 three epochs: the Kalends, the Nones, and the Ides. The Kalends 
 were always the first day of the month, and so called because on 
 
202 ECONOMICAL 
 
 that day the Pontiffs were wont to call the people together to 
 announce to them the festival days for the current 
 a a nd ides° neS ' month. The Nones fell, in the months of March, May, 
 July, and October, on the seventh day; in the other 
 months on the fifth. The Ides came always eight days later than the 
 Nones. The “ Nones”, meaning ninth, were so named because they 
 recurred on the ninth day before the Ides, i.e., counting in Roman 
 fashion inclusively. The days intermediate between any two of these 
 epochs were always reckoned backwards from the latter of the two. The 
 days between the Kalends and the Nones, e.g., were days before 
 the Nones, each of these intermediate days being reckoned by the I 
 ordinal denoting the number of days from the Nones backwards to it, 
 inclusively. Those between the Nones and the Ides were similarly 
 days before the Ides. All the days, again, after the Ides to the 
 end of the month were counted by ordinals specifying respectively the 
 number of days still to run up to the Kalends of the next 
 month. The 31st of January, e.g., was Pridie Kalendas Februarias. 
 The Ides were so named because they divided (Etruscan iduere y to 
 divide) the month, falling on the 15th. 
 
 This mode of reckoning the days of the month was peculiar to 
 the Romans; hence to pay on the Greek Calends (ad 
 Greek calends Kalendas Graecas solvere) meant not to pay at all, 
 there being no Calends in the Greek year. On the 
 opposite page is the Roman almanack for the year. 
 
 Early in their history (452 B.c.) the Romans, as already said, con¬ 
 stituted a year of 355 days—355 and not 354, the Romans deeming 
 odd numbers luckier than even. 1 To eke out this defective year into 
 adjustment to the solar, a month of alternately 22 and 
 In Da™s a a^d°its° f ^ days was to be intercalated every second year. The 
 Abuse. distribution of intercalary days was, however, largely 
 left to the discretion of the Roman Pontiff’s. And this 
 prerogative they often abused, lengthening out the year to prolong a 
 favoured magistracy, or shortening it to hasten the elections. As a 
 result the civil year came to be so much out of joint from the 
 astronomical that when Caesar became dictator the “ winter” of the 
 year was yellow with the fruits of autumn and the spring festivals 
 were celebrated in the nominally summer months. In an epistle, 
 dated 16th May (XVII- Kal. Jun.),Cicero says that,at the time of his 
 writing, his journey was delayed by the Equinox. 
 
 To end the confusion Caesar, with the help of the Alexandrian 
 astronomer Sosigenes, fixed the mean length of the year at 365i 
 days. Three consecutive years were to have each 365 days, but 
 
 1 “ Numero Deus impare gaudet”, or, as Shakspeare translates it, 
 
 “ there is divinity in odd numbers ”. 
 
CALENDAR 
 
 203 
 
 
 
 January, August, 
 
 April, June, Sep¬ 
 
 
 February. 
 
 
 Julv. October. 
 
 
 December. 
 
 tember, November. 
 
 28 days, and in Leap 
 
 month. 
 
 
 31 days. 
 
 
 31 days. 
 
 
 30 days. 
 
 
 Year 29. 
 
 1 
 
 Kalendis. 
 
 Kalendis. 
 
 Kalendis. 
 
 Kalendis. 
 
 2 
 
 6"\ 
 
 
 41 
 
 Ante 
 
 40 
 
 Ante 
 
 4 7 Ante 
 
 3 
 
 5 f 
 
 Ante 
 
 3/ 
 
 Nonas. 
 
 3/ 
 
 Nonas. 
 
 3 $ Nonas. 
 
 4 
 
 4 f 
 
 Nonas 
 
 Pridie Nonas. 
 
 Pridie Nonas. 
 
 Pridie Nonas. 
 
 5 
 
 3J 
 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 6 
 
 Pridie Nonas. 
 
 81 
 
 
 
 
 8 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 Nonis. 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 4 
 
 
 6 l 
 
 Ante 
 
 6 i 
 
 Ante 
 
 6 hAnte 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 5 I 
 
 Idus. 
 
 5 I 
 
 Idus. 
 
 5 / Idus. 
 
 10 
 
 6 l 
 
 Ante 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 11 
 
 5 [ 
 
 Idus. 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 3J 
 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 Pridie Idus. 
 
 Pridie Idus. 
 
 ^Pridie Idus. 
 
 13 
 
 3J 
 
 
 Idibus. 
 
 Idibus. 
 
 Idibus* 
 
 14 
 
 Pridie Idus. 
 
 19> 
 
 
 18> 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 15 
 
 Idibus. 
 
 IS 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 16 
 
 17' 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 16 
 
 © 
 
 14 
 
 05 
 
 c3 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 © 
 
 A . 
 
 16 
 
 © 
 
 ,3 . 
 
 15 
 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 cf. be 
 
 0 3 
 
 14 
 
 ^ ho 
 
 12 
 
 Pi a! 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 
 11 
 
 B 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 SB 
 
 13 
 
 Xfl ^ 
 
 12 
 
 cc 
 
 cS 0 
 
 10 
 
 c3*-g 
 
 fM § 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 m "fe 
 
 12 
 
 cS O 
 
 11 
 
 r 3 ,2 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 <3 O 
 l ^ 73 
 f 3 o 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 {*373 
 r 3 0 
 
 O ‘w 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 <4 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 <3 =H 
 
 9 
 
 c3 
 
 M 3 
 
 f i 
 
 8 
 
 W a 
 
 6 
 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 w 3 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 |1 
 
 6 
 
 < 
 
 5 
 
 < 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 Pridie Kalen das 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 Martias. 
 
 30 
 
 3. 
 
 
 3 J 
 
 
 Pridie Kal (of 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Pridie Kal (of 
 
 Pridie Kal (of 
 
 
 following 
 
 
 
 
 
 following 
 
 
 folio wing- 
 
 
 month). 
 
 
 
 
 
 month). 
 
 
 month). 
 
 
 
 
 
 the next (or fourth, “leap year”) 366. The first Julian year began 
 with the first of January, 707 A.u.c. (from the founda- 
 "caiendar! 1 tion the city) , i.e. 45 b.c. The previous year 
 had to be lengthened out into 445 days, and is hence 
 known as the “year of Confusion”—last year of Confusion. In 
 honour of Csesar the name of the month succeeding June was, in the 
 ... v new calendar, changed to July (Julius). Later on, the 
 month following J uly was re-named August, after the 
 Emperor Augustus. The additional day every fourth year was given 
 to February, and inserted between the 24th and 25th. February 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 204 
 
 Laving then twenty-nine days the 25tL was the 6th of the Calends of 
 March—“sexto ante Kalendas”. The inserted day, preceding it, 
 was accordingly called a second 6th, Dies Bis-sextus, and the year 
 itself Annus Bis-sextus, the bis-sextile year of 366 days. The English 
 call it leap year, but the year of 366 days, instead of skipping, holds 
 back a day. In Rome the person born on bis-sextile (or “ leap 
 year’s ”) day had not the misfortune of the English person, born on 
 leap year’s day, of having but one birthday every four years. The 
 Roman person born on bis-sextile day was in ordinary years to con¬ 
 sider the VI. Kal. Mart, as his birthday, while the person born on the 
 VI. Kal. Mart, in an ordinary year was, in the bis-sextile year, to 
 consider the first of the days called VI. Kal. Mart, as his birthday. 
 
 Before Caesar’s time the number of days in the months were : 29, 
 28, 31, 29, 31, 29, 31, 29, 29, 31, 29, 29. These numbers Caesar 
 changed to 31 and 30 alternately, with the exception of 
 N inthe r MonS S February, which was to have 29 in ordinary and 30 in 
 leap-years. In honour of himself he also changed 
 from Quintilis ( i.e ., 5th) to Julius (July) the name of the month 
 following June. In applying the Julian correction the Pontiffs erred, 
 inserting the leap-year once every three, instead of every four, 
 years. This mistake continued for 36 years, till the year now called 
 8 B.C., by which time three leap-years too many had been reckoned 
 —twelve instead of nine days having been intercalated in the 36 
 years. To rectify the mistake the Emperor Augustus ordained that 
 there should be no leap-year for the next twelve years. The next 
 leap-year occurred, therefore, 4 a. d. He also, as already mentioned, 
 gave his own name to the month following July, adding to it one 
 day, which he took away from February. And, to avoid the occur¬ 
 rence of three consecutive months of 31 days each, he made Sep¬ 
 tember, October, November, December, consist respectively of 30, 
 31, 30, 31, instead of 31, 30, 31, 30. 
 
 The Julian Calendar, assigning 365i days to the year, instead of 365 
 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51| seconds, exceeded the just measurement 
 by 11 minutes, 8| seconds. This excess accumulating 
 Calendar! from year to year amounted in 400 years to three days. 
 
 Accordingly, in 1582, Pope Gregory XIII. issued a bull 
 abolishing ten days, and so extinguishing the time from 5th to 14th 
 October, 1582, the two days included. All the world, 
 How the World, the Roman Catholic world, went to its bed as usual on 
 ^v^sefailsiept 6 " night of the 4th October, 1582, but not one indi- 
 one continuous vidual of it wakened up till the morning of the 15th 
 S 1 i5th f October t0 October of the same year. To save the world from 
 falling again into any like hibernation, or loss of ten 
 wakeful days—three days every 400 years—it was ruled that three of 
 the leap-years every 400 years should have their leaping (or rather 
 
CALENDAR 
 
 205 
 
 retarding) order countermanded, and be reduced to the measure of 
 common years. All the years namely closing the centuries ( i.e., 
 ending with 00) and not divisible by 400 were to be served with this 
 rescinding mandate. Thus 1600, being divisible by 400, was allowed 
 the measure of a “ leap-year ”, and flourished a February of 29 days; 
 but 1700 and 1800 were cut down to common years, each having but 
 28 days in its February. This century, too, will close in a common 
 year, and the February of 1900 get no more than 28 days. 
 
 The Gregorian Calendar is itself not perfectly con- 
 Cal^ndar , 0 too) form with the Solar Calendar, but overshoots the mark 
 transgreses a every year by 20 | seconds—an excess of one day in 
 little every Year. 4 5 QQ years. Hence, 6082 a.d. will start nearly a day 
 too soon, and the Scotch will be “first footing” on the morning of 
 a day which properly closes the auld year 6081. But this is anticipat¬ 
 ing time a little. 
 
 Old Style and New. —The New Calendar, i.e., the new Gregorian 
 style, was adopted in Spain, Portugal, France, and part of Italy, the 
 same year, 1582; in Catholic Switzerland, Germany, 
 *o?T752 bStfthe an( l some provinces of the Low Countries, next year, 
 Ten-day sleep of 1583; in Catholic countries generally before the end 
 1582 byoneway* the century; in Scotland, in 1600; in Protestant 
 Germany, Holland, and Denmark, in 1700. In England 
 the new style was first introduced in 1752, when the English going 
 to bed on the 2 nd of September did not get up to breakfast again till 
 the 14th. The Act abolishing the eleven days changed in England 
 also the beginning of the year from 25 th March to 1st January. 
 Russia, Greece, and other smaller Powers belonging to the Greek 
 Church are the only States still retaining the old style, now twelve 
 days later than the new. 
 
 “Auld New Year.”— In some parts of Scotland the “Auld New 
 Year”, i.e., the 12th January, new style, is still celebrated with all 
 the honours of New Year ; in some parts the yearly festival is cele¬ 
 brated on “ Auld Handsel Monday ”, i.e., the Monday after Auld New 
 Year’s Day; in some parts, “New Handsel Monday ”, the Monday 
 after new New Year’s Day. 
 
 Week. —The distribution of time into weeks, i.e., periods of seven 
 days, corresponds precisely to no natural partition either of the 
 lunar or the solar round relatively to the same place 
 Weeka V SemitK: on ear ^ 1. Probably, however, the division was 
 Division of Time, adopted as a rough measure of quarter-moon. Any¬ 
 how, the Hebdomadal measure of time is not confined 
 to the Jews, but is one observed by all the Semitic States as well, 
 and reaches back into the earliest ages of the race. The seven-day 
 
ECONOMICAL 
 
 206 
 
 iveeh was (see Sayce’s Ancient Empires of the East — Babylonia) 
 an Akkadian or Babylonian invention, the seven days of the week 
 being dedicated respectively to the seven planets then known, which 
 in the order of their distances from the earth were : Saturn, Jupiter, 
 Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, the Moon. The 7th, 14th, 21st and 
 28th days of the lunar month were kept in Babylonia and Assyria, 
 like the Jewish Sabbath in Palestine, and named in Assyrian 
 “ Sabattu”, defined as “ completion of week” and “ a day of rest, 
 for the soul ”. W. R. Smith calls attention to the fact that “in the 
 older parts of the Hebrew Scriptures the New Moon 
 andGreeksfob- an( l the Sabbath are almost invariably mentioned 
 served a Ten-Day together ”. The Egyptians divided the months into 
 Division. periods of not seven, but ten, days. The Greeks also 
 grouped the days into decades, each of ten days. Rome, on the other 
 hand, distributed the days into groups, each of eight. 
 
 Days of the Week. —In the Chaldsean astrology, which found wide 
 acceptance in the Roman Empire and figures early in mediaeval 
 science, each hour was consecrate to a particular 
 T We?k are°Ex> e placet and the successive hours to the successive 
 pressiy Consecrate planets in the order above mentioned, each day being 
 the^evenPianets. nam ed after the planet of its first hour. Suppose, 
 e.g., the first hour of the first day (Sunday) to be 
 under the influence of the Sun, the next hour would fall to 
 Venus, and the 8th, 15th, and 22nd again successively to the sun. 
 The 23rd hour would accordingly be Venus’s and the 24th Mer¬ 
 cury’s. The first hour of the 2nd day (Monday) would therefore be 
 due to the Moon (in Latin, Lunce dies, Fr. Lundi ); of the 3rd day to 
 Mars (Lat. Martis dies, Fr . Mardi) - of the ,4th day to Mercury 
 (Lat. Mercurii dies, Fr. Mereredi ); of the 5th day to Jupiter 
 (Lat. Jovis dies, Fr. Jeudi) ; of the 6tli to Venus (Lat. Veneris 
 dies, Fr. Vendredi); of the 7th to Saturn (Lat. Batumi dies, Fr. 
 Samedi). 
 
 The week ended, the first hour of the following week would again 
 be under the influence of the Sun. This reckoning of the days and 
 hours in relation to the seven planets was one of common observance 
 in the Middle Ages, and a knowledge of it is necessary to read the 
 Calendar, e.g., of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. 
 
 The days of the week are thus in European nomenclature expressly 
 dedicate to the seven planets—but the consecration is now mostly 
 nominal merely. 
 
 Extended Use of the Seven-day Week.— From Alexandria the 
 weekly measure of time and the planetary names of the seven days 
 got extended to Greece. Previously, the Greeks had, as already 
 
CALENDAR 
 
 20 7 
 
 stated, distributed their month into decades, periods of ten days each. 
 
 Rome observed an eight-day measure of time. The 
 Week extended 8 th day, counted in Roman arithmetic as the 9th, 
 to the Greek and was called Nundinae and held as market-day and 
 th E e mpi?e an school-holiday, the country folks, elderly people, lads 
 and lasses, flocking on that day to town to buy and sell 
 and hear the news. Nundinos with the Romans thus came to mean 
 also the weekly market, a market-place or market-town. In Scot¬ 
 land, too, before the Reformation, markets and fairs were commonly 
 held on the Sunday, and still in Germany, as in France and the 
 Continental countries generally, the peasantry after doing a bout of 
 work on the Sunday morning betake themselves to the nearest town, 
 where they often do a bit of shopping and go to the theatre in the 
 afternoon. The shorter seven-day cycle gained, however, in favour 
 with the Romans over the larger eight-day one, and so supplanted the 
 original eight-day division. The seven-day week was generally 
 established throughout the Roman Empire when, 321 a.d., it received 
 legal recognition by the Edict of Constantine enjoining the ob¬ 
 servance of the Lord’s day by suspense of labour on that day at 
 Courts of Justice, workshops, and among the inhabitants of towns. 
 
 The Mahometans keep the 7th day, with them Friday, as Sabbath, 
 a day specially devoted to religion.. 
 
 The Jews, as also the early Christians, had no set names for the 
 different days of the week, but counted them in order, beginning 
 with Sunday as the 1st day, Friday being the 6th. The old heathen 
 names introduced by the Romans into Gaul, Germany, etc., were, 
 however, too fast rooted in the habits of the people to yield to the 
 bare ordinal numbers. In England the Anglo-Saxons substituted 
 the names of their Norse gods for the Roman in the daily nomencla¬ 
 ture, and called the 3rd day, Tiwesdaeg ; the 4th day, Wodenes- 
 daeg ; the 5th day, Thunresdaeg ; the 6th day, Frigesdaeg, the day of 
 the goddess Friga, consort of Woden and protectress of matrimony, 
 corresponding to the Roman Venus. In India the Friday is likewise 
 dedicated, not to a god, but to a goddess. 
 
 The Lord’s Day and the Christian Sabbath.— Sunday, dies Solis, 
 was baptised anew in Greek into Kyriake (Hemera), i.e., Lord’s 
 day ; in Latin into Dominica (dies) ; in Italian into Domenica ; in 
 Spanish, Dominigo ; in French, Dimanclie. Only in England, and 
 still more in Scotland, is the Jewish name of Sabbath still applied to 
 Sunday. Pliny’s letters to Trajan speak of the meetings of Chris¬ 
 tians “ on a stated day Justin Martyr (of the 2nd century) first 
 speaks of the gatherings of town and country Christians 
 on Sunday in one place for instruction and prayer and charitable 
 offerings and the distribution of bread and wine, because it is the 
 
208 ECONOMICAL 
 
 first day on which God made the world and because Jesus Christ on 
 the same day rose from the dead”. Constantine’s Edict, first legalis¬ 
 ing Sunday, allows husbandmen to ply tlieir field-labours. Con¬ 
 tinental reformers, like Luther and Zwingli, disclaimed the Mosaic 
 law as reason for Sunday observance, a view shared also by Calvin. 
 Beza forbids a Judaic rest from all kinds of work. The Sabbatic 
 Sunday was a later Puritanic product of Great Britain. Prior to the 
 Reformation, markets and fairs were held in Scotland, archery was 
 practised, and Robin Hood and Little John plays exhibited. Nor is 
 Sabbath recognised in Knox’s Confession. He was himself wont to 
 entertain guests to dinner on that day. Among the first declarations 
 ot“ the Christian Sabbath is Dr. Nicholas Bownde’s Sabbath of 
 the Old and New Testament, 1593. 
 
 French Decades. —The French in their revolutionary zeal trans¬ 
 formed the Calendar generally, and therefore also the week of seven 
 days into a decade of ten, after the manner of the ancient Greek 
 Calendar. The new almanack, which disposed of the future in periods 
 of 4,000 years, had however but a brief reign of twelve years, from 
 1793 to 1805. 
 
LITE RARY 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 WRITING MATERIALS 
 
 Literature, from Latin literatura, corresponds in meaning to A.-S. 
 Literature means wr ^ n 9- Literatura, generalisation of litera, means 
 primarily Smear- body or system of letters. But what is litera, a single 
 ins : an< J Writing, tetter P It means originally smearing —from Vitus 
 era c mg. (pp. 0 f Z inere), smeared. Writing, on the other hand, 
 means properly scratching or scoring —from A.-S. writan, to score, a 
 word analogous to Swedish rita, to draw; Dutch riijten, to split; 
 Old High German rizan, Mod. German reissen , to tear. Booh, 
 Book too is a & a bi, is the A.-S. hoc, a beech-tree, just as the Ger- 
 Eeechand Liber man Buch, a book, is but a reduced form of Buche, 
 and Bark* eaCh beech-tree. The Latin, again, for book is liber, i.e. 
 
 the bark or rind of a tree, and library means properly 
 a body or system of rinds. The Greek, too, for a book is biblos , 
 which properly means the inner bark of the papyrus. “ Bible ” is, 
 therefore, properly bark, and biblio-thehe (the Greek for library) 
 system of barks. 
 
 But what has “literature” to do with smearing, or “writing” 
 with scratching? Or what has “book” to do with beech ? or 
 “liber” with bark? or “'library” with a collection 
 scratching Rgrces °f barks ? Like every other art, literature or writing 
 on stone, or began in a very humble way. To make signs or 
 ^nTeather m characters to represent things they wanted to call to 
 mind, men began by scratching the figures of them on 
 stone or clay, or by scratching or smearing them on leather or other 
 such material. Our word “ book ” derives from a time when runes or 
 written characters were cut into slabs v of beech wood. The Greek 
 
 The Grapheion or 9 ra JP^eion, the Latin stylus (whence our word style), 
 stylus was a both meaning a pen, was a hard instrument of metal 
 pointed metal or or ivory with which characters were scratched into a 
 voiy ns rument. t a bi e t. The tablet of wood was overspread with a 
 thin layer of wax and enclosed in a raised rim. The writing was 
 
 209 
 
 14 
 
210 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 scored into the layer of wax by means of tbe sharp end of the 
 style, and by use of the broad upper end of the style the characters 
 School Tablets. coul( i he again effaced. . Such tablets were used in 
 schools and also for ordinary letters and despatches. 
 Joined together by wires or rings, serving as hinges, two or more 
 Codex. tablets formed a codex —in Greek, poly-ptychon (mani¬ 
 fold) . By means of their clay-tablets, the Babylonians 
 too, at a much earlier date, carried on lively correspondence with all 
 parts of the East. In Egypt there have been found a great number 
 of potsherds or ostraka bearing on them inscriptions 
 ^OstraksL either scratched with a sharp point or written in ink 
 with a reed. Most of these ostraka are receipts for 
 taxes, and were probably carried by donkeys when the collectors went 
 their rounds gathering in the taxes. Wax tablets and leaden plates 
 continued to be written upon, though in limited measure, to as late 
 as the 15th century a.d. ; some examples are extant at Florence. 
 
 Another device was, not to scratch the characters on wood or bark 
 or such-like material, but to smear them on parchment, i.e. the 
 Parchment early dressed skin or leather of calf, sheep, or goat. As 
 and still in use everybody knows, parchment still continues in use for 
 a Materialf legal documents. Our word “ paper ” refers us to the 
 Egyptian papyrus. The early Egyptians cut thin 
 slices of the stem of the papyrus plant vertically, and used them in 
 the way of material on which characters might be drawn. Rolls of 
 charactered (or written) papyrus constituted in early times a book. 
 
 Papyri in ^ an Y such papyri have been found in Egypt, and 
 Egypt and Italy, many, of comparatively modern date, at Herculaneum 
 Volume is Roll. an d at Pompeii. We still make use of the word 
 “volume” (i.e. roll , our word “voluminous” still 
 meaning roll-ful ), though nowadays our “ volumes ” are oblong in 
 Rolls of Court shape and no longer roll but lie flat. The “rolls of 
 Court”, “rolls of Parliament”, are parchments (in 
 rolls) whereon are officially engrossed the acts and proceedings con¬ 
 stituting the records of the body in question. A precinct between 
 the City of London and the City of Westminster, 
 enjoying certain privileges, is still called the “ Liberty 
 of the Rolls”—a name referring to the rolls deposited 
 maS Roiis! ine its chapel. The keeper of the legal documents of 
 the Chancery is still styled “Custos Rotulorum” or 
 1 Master of the Rolls”, 
 
 The earliest inscriptions extant are characters engraved on stone, 
 such as have recently been found in abundance in 
 Egypt. Papyrus was, however, also in use in Egypt 
 as a writing material from a very early date. The 
 Prisse Papyrus, the oldest book extant, now in Paris Museum, dates 
 
 Liberty of the 
 Rolls. 
 
 The Oldest Book 
 in the World. 
 
WRITING MATERIALS 
 
 211 
 
 from the 11th Egyptian Dynasty (see Egypt, p. 6). The next 
 earliest writings in existence are Babylonian, constructed of lines, 
 and therefore distinguished as linear type, sampled 
 mear ype ’ by undated stone inscriptions from Tello, and by the 
 inscription of Sargon of Agade, of Babylonia, about 3800 B.c A 
 more advanced stage of writing in Babylonia is registered in the 
 Cuneiform ( i.e . wedge-shaped) inscriptions. These 
 inscrfptions were scored into tablets of clay while soft, which, 
 after being marked, were sun-dried or kiln-baked. 
 Babylonian correspondence was interchange of such tablets. The 
 oldest Greek records are inscriptions in stone or metal; but Greek 
 papyri dating from the 2nd century B.c. have been unearthed in Egypt. 
 Under the Empire nine different kinds of papyri were prepared 
 and used in Rome. A process of bleaching, invented 
 T Nine°Different d a fter the time of Augustus, turned out a papyrus 
 Kinds of Papyri, superior to the best Egyptian kind. The two best 
 were called the Charta Augusta (used only for letters) 
 and the Charta Livia, each 10| inches broad. A papyrus library of 
 some 2,000 rolls, ranged in presses round the sides of the room, 
 has been uncovered at Herculaneum. Papyrus records survive to 
 our day in the shape also of imperial rescripts of the 
 E <faSng 5th t? ^h cen ^ ur y a.d. ; of Ravenna deeds deriving from 
 lithCentury a.d. the 5th to the 10th century; of Merovingian char¬ 
 ters of the 7th century; of documents of the Papal 
 Chancery reaching down to the middle of the 11th century. Char¬ 
 acters were inscribed on papyrus or parchment by 
 as a Pen* means of a reed ( calamus, fistula, canna) cut to a 
 Ink point and dipped in ink. The ink was made of 
 soot and gum, or of the juice of the cuttlefish; lat¬ 
 terly, however, of iron and gallnut. The latter, not erasable, was 
 the only kind of ink used for parchment. The reed still con- 
 First Use of Quill ^ nues to be used in this way in the East. The quill 
 ’ or pen (from penna, a feather), as an instrument of 
 writing, first appears in history in Isidore of Seville of the 7th cen¬ 
 tury. By the 13th century, the pen (or quill) had in Europe quite 
 superseded the reed. 
 
 The -use of parchment as a writing material derives from the city 
 of Pergamos, in Asia Minor, and is said to date from 
 ar pergamos r ° m a b° u t 190 b.c. In the case of parchment the leather 
 was so prepared that both sides were available for 
 writing. The older form of leather, inscribable on only one side, 
 The Jewish h* use in Jewish synagogues, as the substance 
 
 Parchment on on which are written the sacred copies of the law. 
 W the h Laware 0f E arc hment or vellum {i.e., calf’s skin) continued to 
 written. be the usual material for books from the 4th to the 
 
212 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 16th century. Paper (deriving its name from papyrus), at first made 
 f ve g eta l)le was manufactured at Bagdad by the 
 Vegetable Paper Arabs about 800 A.D., was used in France for deeds in 
 the 13tk century, and was made in England by John 
 Tate in the 15th century. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABET 
 
 But what is the history of the signs or characters themselves, the 
 various systems of which serve each as a common body of symbols to 
 All Words in an P eo P\ e using it? Among all civilised nations in 
 English Books modern times, the symbols of ideas are constituted of 
 S d aUoniyso un ^ s ^ nown as letters of the alphabet. To all 
 many different people able to read and write English, the sign COW, 
 Conjunction^of 6t g tj serves, without long study or reflection, and with- 
 Letters 1 ; how do out dubiety, to convey the idea of a certain animal, 
 we come by But compare, as long and closely as you like, the sign 
 ese e cers. an j ma i signified, and you will hardly discover 
 
 any real resemblance in shape, in colour, in smell, in sound, or in 
 touch, between the two. How, then, to a million different persons in 
 different parts of the earth should the sign “ COW ” at once indubit¬ 
 ably represent one and the same kind of animal P Or what real 
 likeness is there between the sign “house”, “fire”, “bacon”, 
 “burglar”, “cheese”, and the thing each respectively signifies? 
 “ Cow ” is a compound of three signs, and all the ideas and thoughts of 
 all English books, in all libraries throughout the world, are all repre¬ 
 sented by varied conjunctions of no more than twenty-six simple signs, 
 called letters of the alphabet. How do we come by the alphabet ? 
 
 Alphabet 
 
 There are about two hundred alphabets known, some fifty in pre¬ 
 sent use (see Dr. Isaac Taylor), but all of them developed from the 
 Phoenician alphabet, which is itself a manipulation of the Egyptian 
 characters. These last again, were at the beginning purely pictorial, and 
 indeed to the end never wholly forgot their pictorial 
 begarrwiSrWie origin. In all countries alike, writing began with pic- 
 Exhibition of tures or ideograms representing things or ideas. Miss 
 gramstorepre^ Edwards, in her Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers 
 sent the Things (pp. 235, 236), repeats Herodotos’ story, how, when 
 Darius invaded Scythia, he was led on by the retreating 
 foe, at whose heels he might breathlessly scamper, but 
 yet never come to pitched battle with. At last the great king received 
 
 
 ,j] 
 
 '1 
 
 I 
 
 jl 
 
 \ 7 
 j ? 
 
 | 
 
 :j / 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABET 
 
 213 
 
 a herald from the Scythian princes with an official despatch consisting 
 of a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows—eight symbols 
 Despatch ofthe altogether. How they were presented, whether in a bag, 
 Scythians to 0 r strung in a leash like game, or pinned to a board, 
 Darius. * g re p 0 rted. What might be the reading of this 
 despatch from the foreign office of the Scythians ? Darius was for 
 interpreting it in the sense that the bird meant the swift flight of the 
 Scythians ; the mouse, that they yielded up their land; the frog, that 
 they yielded up their water ; and the jive arrows, that they yielded up 
 their arms. An officer, however, of Darius read the message differ¬ 
 ently, and to the following effect:—“ Unless ye Persians turn into 
 birds and fly through the air, or into mice and burrow underground, 
 or into frog's and take refuge in the marshes, ye will not escape our 
 arrows The despatch was therefore no surrender, but a mocking 
 defiance of the Persians. Here, then, is a writing iu- 
 in the Scythian noce nt of literary flourish—eight concrete nouns with- 
 Symbols are out so much as one verb (let alone tenses, moods, 
 actual Concrete persons, etc.), or preposition, or conjunction, or pro- 
 ings ’ noun, or adjective, or article, not to speak of rhetoric 
 and nicely balanced periods. Tacitus’ brevity is nothing to it; only 
 the writing is, it must be admitted, rather enigmatical. The symbols 
 whereof the message is composed are the things themselves, 
 and not pictures. 
 
 In Egypt, the cradle of all the arts, there remains, of course, no 
 trace of this earliest stage of writing, the representation of ideas by 
 actual things. But we have examples in plenty of the 
 Symbol 5 for l the nex ^ s t a » e > the representation of ideas by pictures 
 Sun, the Moon, of things. The sun, e.g., is signified by a centred 
 Sky^etc^ete’ disk ® » the moon by a crescent j) ; a lion, by a lion 
 walking; a man, by a squatting figure; water, by a 
 
 waving line v.—: thirst, by the symbol of water and a calf 
 
 runuing to it; sky, by an arched line; day, by an arch with the sun 
 in it; night, by an arch with a star in it; hunger or eating, by a 
 
 hand conveyed to the mouth ; truth, by an ostrich feather (the 
 
 feathers of this bird are said to remain unchanged) ; 
 H tirns h at first " P ower > Ly a brandished whip or pole-axe; justice, by 
 signified Abstract the cubit or symbol of equal measurement; protec- 
 Power S ’Justice S ^y a soaring vulture, etc. At a somewhat more 
 
 wer etc US lCe ’ advanced stage, the signs were abbreviated, and the 
 pupil ®, e.g., stood for the whole eye, the head of the 
 ox for the whole ox, the sun’s disc ® for the day, a smoking brazier 
 for the fire, etc. 1 
 
 1 Our almanacks still preserve the tradition of picture-writing, using 
 • for new moon; ) for first quarter; O for full moon; <[ for last 
 quarter.; © for sun. At head of January is the figure of Capricorn 
 
214 LITERARY 
 
 Our Alphabet and Traces in its Characters of its Egyptian 
 Origin. —When we write a capital F J, when we draw the top line 
 and the smaller line through the middle of the letter, we really draw 
 the two horns of the horned serpent used by the ancient Egyptians 
 to represent the letter. In the transverse line of the letter H, again, j 
 we recognise the last remnant of the lines or cross-bars represent- \ 
 ing the lattice or sieve that forms the Egyptian original of the 
 letter. The undulating line, moreover, of our capital £ still recalls i 
 the bent back of the crouching lion, which in the later hieroglyphic V 
 inscriptions represents the sound of L. ( See Max Muller’s Chips, I. 
 
 pp. 286-7.) 
 
 Picture Document.— A petition addressed by some Indian chiefs 
 to the President of the United States shows to what shifts people, not j 
 yet advanced beyond picture-writing, have recourse in 
 the Re?Indian order to express their ideas. The chiefs are indicated 
 Chiefs to the by pictures of the crane, marten, sloth bear, etc., their 
 P United n states^ e respective totems, i.e. animals symbolic of the peti- 
 purely Pictorial, tioning clans—as some English families also still call 
 themselves after the lion, the fox, salmon, heron, etc. 
 These animals walk in procession, the crane leading and the catfish 
 bringing up the rear. Beneath their feet is a sheet of water (Lake 
 Superior ?) communicating with the little lakes which it is the prayer 
 of the chiefs to get back. From the eye of the crane 
 Views U shown by one line leads to the desired lake district, and another 
 Concurrence of going off in front is, no doubt, directed to the Presi- 
 Lines. dent. From the eyes respectively of the marten and 
 the other animals are lines leading to the eye of the crane, indicating 
 the concurrence of their views with his. Similarly, lines run from 
 the hearts respectively of all the other animals to the heart of the 
 crane, signifying how in this business their hearts were one. 
 
 Phonographic Writing. —From abridged picture-writing the next 
 step of progress was to a phonographic system, the re- 
 Articuiat^Iounds presentation by visible signs of the different sounds of 
 spoken words. A rebus illustrates a primitive phono¬ 
 graphic sentence. A gallant, mentioned by Camden, expressed his 
 love of Rose Hill by painting in the border of his gown 
 ^oafwen 76 a rose, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well. These five 
 signs, representing not ideas but sounds, read thus: 
 
 “ Rose Hill eye loaf well”. Egyptian phonograms would, of course, 
 Egyptian Phono- represent at first, not a pure unit of sound, such as is 
 grams at first a single letter of the alphabet, but a combination of 
 Syllabic. sounds. In other words Egyptian phonograms were at 
 (December) withdrawn to the left, and to the right enters Aquarius. 
 February is heralded by the entrance to the right of the Pisces (fishes), 
 and the retirement to the left of Aquarius and so on. Does not the 
 Graphic, too, write its weather-forecast pictorially ? 
 
EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABET 215 
 
 first not alphabetic but syllabic. Duncker notes bow in Egypt, after 
 tbe year 1300 B.c., a number of symbols, till then not used phoneti¬ 
 cally, came to be used in the way of phonetic symbols. 
 How Syllabic The oldest inscriptions extant do not, however, consist 
 reduced to Alpha- exclusively of pictorial symbols, but contain symbols 
 betic Characters, also of vowels and consonants. Of 400 phonograms 
 in use in Egypt, about forty-five came to get reduced 
 each to a purely alphabetic character, representing either a vowel 
 or a sound associable with more than one vowel. 
 
 The fuller and older forms of picture-writing are called hiero¬ 
 glyphs or hieroglyphics. These, with the practice of writing on 
 papyrus, got naturally more and more reduced, till at 
 At first Pictures, last they were become mere outlines of the original 
 ?ame gSuaiiy forms. This cursive writing is known as hieratic, a 
 reduced to Hier- form already in use on the Pyramids under the First 
 at this agam’to nd Empire. Lastly, the hieratic writing came to get still 
 Demotic. further abbreviated into the form known as demotic, 
 a form registering a very pronounced tendency to avoid 
 picture-signs and enlarge the range of phonetic symbols. 
 
 By what process did the verbal phonographic or syllabic get reduced 
 to alphabetic writing ? By giving to the phonographic symbol only 
 its initial sound and discarding all the sequent sounds. 
 The Phonographic A reed, such as grows abundantly in the Delta, was 
 oSy°its inSal 8 called aalc. Let its sign represent only the initial sound 
 Sound became a a, and it is now a unit letter, the first letter of the 
 L Aiphabet he alphabet. The Egyptian word, again, for a leg is bu. 
 
 Drop the vowel in bu and the sign stands for b, the 
 second letter of the alphabet, and so on. 
 
 The Egyptian alphabet contains no e, nor g, nor d, nor 2 . It has, 
 Defects of the on the other hand, three forms of t and two forms each 
 Egyptian for i , m, n , ~k, s, and u. Happily, it had but one 5, 
 p a e ‘ one jo, and one/. Hetra, e.g., the Egyptian for horse, 
 wrftten^Alpha- wr itten alphabetically by four signs, there being, as 
 beticaiiy. j,ust said, no e in the Egyptian alphabet: — h, t , r, a . 
 To render the meaning of the word unmistakable, the Egyptian writer 
 How out of the °^ en a PP en( led to the four symbols the figure of a 
 Complexity of horse. 
 
 Egyptian Writing The great literary service rendered by the Phoeni- 
 Phcenicians cians was to strip the latest Egyptian system of writing 
 evolved an Alpha- of all its ideograms, verbal phonograms, and syllabic 
 et of 22 Signs. s jg ns> qfi e f or ^y. five alphabetic symbols of the 
 Egyptians they further reduced to twenty-two signs, answering each 
 to one of the twenty-two consonants of Semitic speech. And it is 
 from these twenty-two letters of the Phoenician alphabet that all 
 alphabets, Semitic and Aryan, have been evolved. 
 
216 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 The Phoenician alphabet having no vowels proper, the Greeks 
 substituted for certain Semitic breaths and semi-consonants the vowels 
 a, e, i. o, and u, and, except in the case of Crete, Melos, 
 How the Greeks and Thera, added the symbols <f> and x. As early as 
 Vowefs^and the 10th century B.c. the Greeks were, according 
 changed the Direc-to Dr. Taylor, already in possession of an alphabetic 
 totoMwftS 8 system of writing. Whereas the Semitic alphabets 
 Left to Right, follow the original direction of writing, namely from 
 right to left, the Greek script, at first running from 
 right to left, and in the 6th century B.c. alternately from left to 
 right and from right to left, finally struck into the one and more 
 convenient direction from left to right. The Semitic nations, 
 Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Turkish, and Afghan, still write from 
 right to left, but the Aryan nations from left to right. “X” was evolv¬ 
 ed out of the Semitic Samekh (S) and annexed to the old Latin alpha¬ 
 bet. Later, the Romans borrowed from the Greek alphabet Y and Z, 
 and appended them in succession to X. While Greek 
 ^Alphabet* 1 dropped three letters out of the Phoenician alphabet 
 and added five of its own, Latin left out only two and 
 added three. The Greek names of the letters are taken direct from 
 the Semitic originals. These latter had meaning, and in some cases 
 still retained in their meaning some recognisable ap- 
 The Greek Names plicability to the forms of the letters. The Hebrew 
 ar^taken^rom Aleph (Greek Alpha), e.g. means ox, the letter ^ still 
 the Semitic, having some resemblance to the head of an ox. Beth 
 (Beta) denotes house (Beth-el=house of God); Gimel 
 (Gamma), a camel; Daleth (Delta), a door; Cheth (Eta), a fence; 
 Teth (Theta), a serpent; Yod (Iota), a hand; Mem (Mu), waters; 
 Nun (Nu), a fish; Tau (Tau), a cross. 
 
 The different characters of writing among different nations and 
 ages have been in large part determined by the nature of the mate¬ 
 rials and implements of writing—whether stone, clay, wax, paper, 
 
 nl'nQpl hrn 5 n vppn pfp 
 
 The “ J”’of our alphabet is a differentiation of “I”; “G” of 
 
 “ C ” ; F, Y, Y, U, and W of Phoenician “ Vau ”. “ V ” and “ U ” 
 
 were at first two forms of the same letter; the former 
 
 Ensifsh’jUDhabet used at the beginning, the latter in the middle of a 
 Engl,sh Alphabet. word _ <( Jhestt = ^2’^ fro the water . aDd loo , 
 
 heuens ben opened” (Wycliffe, Mat. iii.). So also “ 'imto ”, “ eue ry ”, 
 “abo ue ”, “ hawynge 
 

 PRINTING 
 
 Hebrew, Greek, and German Alphabets 
 
 217 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 German. 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 n 
 
 b 
 
 ft 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 b 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 7 
 
 £ 
 
 c 
 
 c, etc. 
 
 n 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 d 
 
 n 
 
 h (he) 
 
 € 
 
 e (short) 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 i 
 
 v, u 
 
 
 z 
 
 f 
 
 f 
 
 ? 
 
 z 
 
 V 
 
 e (long) 
 
 3 
 
 g 
 
 n 
 
 cb (k) 
 
 0 
 
 th 
 
 l) 
 
 li 
 
 D 
 
 t 
 
 L 
 
 i 
 
 x 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 3 (y) 
 
 K 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 i 
 
 3,1 
 
 k 
 
 A 
 
 I 
 
 A 
 
 f 
 
 .1 
 
 k 
 
 b 
 
 1 
 
 [X 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 D. Q 
 
 m 
 
 V 
 
 n 
 
 nt 
 
 m 
 
 
 n 
 
 S 
 
 X 
 
 n 
 
 n 
 
 D 
 
 s 
 
 0 
 
 o (short) 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 ' (ng, but no 
 
 7 T 
 
 P 
 
 X> 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 real equiv. 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 q 
 
 <1 
 
 ( 
 
 . in Eng.) 
 
 £ 7 , $ 
 
 s 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 B'*l 
 
 P 
 
 T 
 
 t 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 tz 
 
 V 
 
 u 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 <P 
 
 ph 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 “1 
 
 r 
 
 X 
 
 ch 
 
 X) 
 
 V 
 
 t? 
 
 s, sh 
 
 * 
 
 ps 
 
 U) 
 
 w 
 
 n 
 
 t, tli 
 
 oj 
 
 o (long) 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 
 
 PRINTING, 
 
 BOOKS, 
 
 PUBLISHERS, AND 
 
 
 
 NEWSPAPERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 Printing 
 
 
 
 From the earliest historic times, sbme method of engraving and 
 
 stamping impressions seems to have been known. The Egyptians 
 
 stamped their building bricks. The Babylonian buildings 
 
 of burnt 
 
218 LITERARY 
 
 brick were each stamped with an inscription and the name of the 
 Engraving and rei S nin .S monarch /, The Greeks early made map- 
 stamping prac- engravings on metal. Ihe itomans marked, their com- 
 4 Eari fr Thn a ^) ery merc ^ a ^ commodities and branded their cattle with 
 Egyptians, metal stamps bearing characters engraved in relief. 
 Babylonians, The British Museum contains some Roman stamps 
 Romans 11 with the letters engraved in relief, apparently to 
 impress the owner’s signature on documents. Block 
 letter-printing was practised in China many centuries before it 
 was known in Europe, and by the 12th or 13th cen- 
 The Chinese were tury A.D., printing from movable type was probably 
 the ArtorBioc 1 ? also in use in China. About the beginning of the 13th 
 Letter Printing, century A.D., wooden blocks coated with ink stamped 
 known in r |urope S ^ es ^ ns . on linen and silken fabrics in Italy, Sicily, 
 and Spain. Thence, for about a century and a half, 
 in the 13th Century the art of engraving on wood was practised in the pro- 
 A Lands d stamped an Auction °* block-books, playing cards, and devotional 
 Fabrics. prints. Among the earliest of the block-books is the 
 Biblia Pauperum (Bibles for the poor), deriving from 
 the early part of the 15th century, a thirty-four to fifty page series 
 of engravings, each 10 in. long by 7 2 in. wide taking up one page (or 
 leaf, an engraving being marked only on one side of the leaf), 
 illustrative of incidents in the Old and the New Testament, and 
 accompanied with texts in Gothic characters ; the two 
 The Biblia illustrative pages facing each other and alternating 
 othefsuc^E^-iy w hh two blank pages. Facsimiles of the Biblia Pau- 
 Biock-books. 7 perum have been published in England 1859, 1877, and 
 1884. Other early block-books of a like kind are 
 Speculum Humance Salvationis (its text in rhyme), Apocalypsis 
 Johannis , Ars Moriendi , Ars Memorandi. Sotheby’s Principia 
 Typographica (1859) contains twenty-one facsimile reproductions of 
 twenty-one distinct block-books. 
 
 The art of printing from movable type was in operation in Europe 
 about the middle of the 15th century, but the precise personal, local, 
 Printing from an( ^ chronological origin of the invention of typography 
 Movable Type is a question that has been in debate for abgut four 
 practised in centuries, and is not yet settled. After dissolution of 
 i5th°Century e his partnership with John Fust in 1455,. Gutenberg 
 set up a printing office of his own in Mainz, whence 
 emanated the undated Latin Bible, called the Mazarin Bible on 
 Gutenberg printed account of the discovery of a copy in Cardinal Maza- 
 the Mazarin Bible rin’s Library. This publication is, by general consensus 
 authorities, assigned to a period between 1450 and 
 A Mazarin Bible 1455. It is printed in large handsome Gothic cha- 
 soid for £3,903. racters and believed to be the first printed Bible. For 
 
PRINTING 
 
 219 
 
 a Mazarin Bible Quaritch in recent times paid £3,900 — while an 
 English Bible of latest type may be had for a 6d. 
 Ty po^rapSca P us ^? Guttenberg, and Schoffer are often linked to- 
 Triumv&ate. getlier as the “ Grand Typographical Triumvirate ” atv 
 Mainz between 1450 and 1466. 
 
 The city of Mainz having been captured by Archbishop Adolphus 
 II. in 1462, many of the printing trade migrated thence and so dif- 
 Eow from Mainz ^ use( ^ a ^ roa( ^ their knowledge of the art. According 
 the New Art nZ to Henry Cotton, printing was in operation in France 
 propagated itself and Switzerland ip 1470; in Holland, 1471; in Sicily 
 a World** 16 and Hungary, 1473 ; in England, 1474; in Spain, 1475 ; 
 
 in Denmark, 1476; in Portugal, 1489. Before the close 
 of the century it had travelled south-east to Constantinople. Scot¬ 
 land had it ill 1507 (when a patent was granted to Walter Chepman 
 and Andrew Myllar in the Southgait—near the Cowgate); Sweden, 
 1510; Macedonia, 1515; snowy Iceland, 1530; Mexico in the New 
 World, 1535; Ireland, 1551; Poland, 1563; Russia, 1564; Sardinia, 
 1576 ; Japan, 1582. It was in the Azores, 1583 ; in India and China, 
 1590; in Peru, 1603; on Mount Libanus, 1610 ; in the Philippine 
 Islands, 1621; in the British settlements of North America, 1639. 
 Of the various editions of books in the 16th century, one-half were 
 Italian (of which one-half were Venetian); and only one-seventeenth 
 English. 
 
 The first printiug types were in Gothic characters, known in this 
 country as $Iark -Cetttr. This picturesque but difficult type was in Italy 
 gradually pruned down to the present Roman type. 
 Roman and 1469 a beautiful edition of Pliny’s Natural History 
 italic Type, was issued in the new characters by John of Spires at 
 Venice. Thence the Roman letters rapidly spread all 
 over Western Europe. The Italic type owes its introduction to Aldus 
 Manutius at Venice about 1500. 
 
 . Caxton set up the first printing press in England within the pre¬ 
 cincts (a little to the west) of Westminster Abbey in 1476. The 
 first English printed book, Willyam Caxton’s Recuyel 
 hi?Printing S press °f ^ ie History es of Troy by Raoul le Feure appeared 
 at Westminster. 1474. The second English printed book, The Game 
 and Playe of the Chesse , was fynysshed by Caxton, 
 1475, at Bruges. The first book printed in England, The Dictes and 
 Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, issued from Cax- 
 printedinEngiish. ton’s press, 1477. Thence till 1491 Caxton printed 
 over seventy volumes, more than twenty of them trans¬ 
 lations by his own hand from French, Dutch, and Latin. In 1478 
 Theodoric Rood began printing at Oxford ; two years later a printing 
 press was at work in St. Albans; in 1521 Cambridge also was prac¬ 
 tising the new art. 
 
LITERARY 
 
 220 
 
 In the early printing days an edition of three hundred copies was 
 a big issue. In 1540 Grafton printed only five hundred copies of his 
 Five Hundred c0m pl e ^ e edition of the Bible. The size of a book was 
 Copies of the then folio or quarto; the pages were never and the leaves 
 B for England Ue rare ^ numbered; the words ran in close sequence; 
 
 or ns the sentences were without marks of punctuation, 
 except only a single or double point, there being for some time no 
 The Difference y i r S u l e I (answering to our comma) to denote a simple 
 between pause; abbreviations were numerous; orthography 
 Elizabethan and arbitrary ; the space for the letter beginning a chapter 
 ic onan rm . wag l e ft blank to be filled in by the illuminator; the 
 printer’s name was omitted or only appended at the end; often no 
 date of the issue of the book appeared. For the first hundred years 
 Only Two Editions a ^ er introduction into Scotland of the new art, 
 
 of shakspeare °only twenty-five different works are known to have 
 b6 and 1664 623 ^ een Panted in that country, while the first century 
 and a half of the Press in that country engaged only 
 about a dozen in all of native master printers. From 1623 till 1664 
 England, too, was satisfied, as Johnson remarks, with but two 
 editions of Shakspeare. 
 
 The first book printed in the New World was La Escala espiritual 
 de San Juan Climaco, a translation from Latin into Castilian by the 
 printer himself, from the press at Mexico, 1536. No 
 Th Bookof the 6d co py °1 the book is known to be extant. The first 
 New World, printing press in North America was set up in the 
 house of the President of Harvard College, 1639, and 
 the first book it delivered was the Freeman's Oath, 1639. Next year 
 was printed the Bay Psalm Book. 
 
 The Prototype l n 1772 Adkin and Walker patented a machine for 
 of the modern stamping and printing on paper, cotton, and other 
 E °tary Better- cloths, the type of a modern rotary letterpress machine, 
 p.es* ac me. j n 1 § 14 ; eighteen hundred copies of the Times were 
 turned out per hour by steam machinery. 1866 dates the con¬ 
 struction of the Walter Press. In 1870 was brought 
 Th press lter ou l Yictory Machine, whereby newspapers were 
 printed, folded, delivered, and counted into quires at 
 Eight Hundred the rate of 200 per minute. The machines of latest 
 Pag Minute ted a improvement, those of Messrs. Hoe & Co., print 
 papers of eight, ten, or twelve pages at the rate of 
 48,000 per hour, or 800 per minute. 
 
 Books 
 
 The papyrus book, alike of the early Egyptians, tama ; of the 
 Greeks, hylindros ; and of the Romans, volumen , consisted of so 
 much papyrus, joined piece to piece, written on one side only, at- 
 
BOOKS 
 
 221 
 
 tached to and wound round a wooden roller, and thus resembling a 
 A Papyrus Book m0( ^ ern mounted map. The pith of the papyrus was cut 
 is one Roil into strips ; these strips were then set alongside of one 
 w ^- one another on a board to which they adhered; thereupon 
 06 y ' was laid transversely a second layer; the two were next 
 pressed into one consistent form and smoothed: the result was a 
 single page (vagina, sells). Thereupon the pages were pasted together 
 to form a long roll. Egyptian rolls of this kind are still extant. The 
 Q p .. . Papyrus Harris in the British Museum is 135 feet long. 
 
 loTy^dsiong 11 A roll of the whole of Homer, 120 yards long, is said 
 to have been in existence at Constantinople, while a 
 roll of Thoukydides is reported to have comprised 578 pages, nearly 
 100 yards. In the case, however, of a lengthy literary production, 
 it was more usual (as more convenient for reading or 
 Productio^wS consu l Nation) to distribute the writing into sections, 
 however, usually each section constituting a distinct roll. The roll 
 distributed into C ame to get adjusted to a certain conventional length. 
 a n Roiis r 01 The Iliad , the Odyssey, the AJneid, the Odes of Horace 
 are thus each distributed into so many “ books ”, i.e. 
 separate rolls. From Elephantine has been obtained a papyrus of 
 the 24th book ( Biblos ) of the Iliad. In Egypt the rolls were kept 
 in earthen jars; in Rome in cylindrical boxes ( scrinia or capsae). 
 Babylonian Books Babylonia and Assyria, books consisted each of so 
 
 are mostly Clay many papyrus leaves on which the characters were 
 Tablets or painted; perhaps occasionally of pieces of parchment; 
 
 y in ers. more usually of clay tablets, or cylinders, whereon 
 
 the cuneiform characters were impressed. 
 
 Libraries of such brick books were collected in temples. And, just 
 as the mediaeval monasteries had schools attached to them, so in 
 in Babylon Babylonia and Assyria were schools an outgrowth 
 Schools were of the Temples. The library of Borsippa (suburb 
 a m nex 1 dt0 of Babylon), e.g., a famous University precinct, was 
 emp es. included within the compass of the Temple of Bel. 
 
 Kirjath-Sepher Libraries of this kind were open to the public, founded 
 is Book-town ; and enlarged “ for the use of readers ” , x 
 W ever come to 7 Kirjath-Sepher, ia the mountains of Judah (Judges 
 Light? i. 12, 13), again, is a place meaning book-town, and 
 
 1 The library completed by Assurbanipal, King of Assyria (669-640 b.c.), 
 consists of many thousand brick tablets, varying in size from six to ten 
 inches square, in many cases much larger, ranged along the walls of the 
 rooms. Most of the tablets are copies from originals in the Temple 
 Libraries of Chaldaea. The educational character of the library is shown 
 by a number of syllabaries, dictionaries, and text-books, recently dis¬ 
 covered, for instruction in the ancient Akkadian and Sumirian languages 
 —classbooks for students at Nineveh. 
 
222 LITERARY 
 
 Professor Sayce is in hopes of finding store of clay records with 
 the discovery of its ruinous site. 
 
 In Greece, from an early date, copies of books were 
 Centur/the multiplied by transcription, either to private order or 
 Athenian Market- for public sale. As early as the 5th century b.c. 
 Boolt Quarter Athens k a( l a quarter in its market place set apart 
 as the book mart. Xenophon (5th century B.c.) men¬ 
 tions the sale of books at Salmydessos (Thrace). By about 300 b.c. 
 there was a book fair held at Athens. 
 
 Peisistratos (560-527 B.c.) has the credit of being the first person 
 in Greece (and Europe) to collect a library and throw 
 *in Early Greece S & °P en to ^. e public. Scholarly Greeks, such as 
 Euripides, Aristotle, and Theophrastos had each a 
 private library. The greatest library in pre-Christian times was 
 The Alexandrian tkat f° un de<l by Ptolemy Philadelphos at Alexandria. 
 Library in the It was stored, the greater part, in the Mouseion 
 Museum and the (museum), th'e remainder in the Serapeion; the two 
 erapeum. co il ec tions comprising between 500 and 600 thousand 
 volumes. This library was continuously growing from accessions of 
 books in foreign languages and their translations. Another famous 
 The great Per- lit> rar y> uext to that of Alexandria, was the library of 
 gamon Library the kings of Pergamon, which is said to have compre- 
 Alex°andria tended 200,000 volumes. In the siege of Alexandria 
 by Caesar a large part of the museum library got 
 burnt, and, to remedy the injury, the better part of the library at 
 Pergamon was transferred thence to the new Egyptian seat of 
 Hellenic learning, and presented by Mark Antony to the gipsy of the 
 Nile that had completely spell-bound him. 
 
 In Rome, by the end of the Republican period, the multiplication 
 of books by copying had assumed large proportions, 
 In of imperial 112 an( l the possession of a library was become a fashion- 
 Rome Books able distinction. In country houses, more particularly, 
 W Request rSe ^ 00 ^ s w ere regarded as a necessary resource for 
 intellectual activity. Cicero’s friend, Atticus, who 
 had among his slaves a number of expert shorthand writers (notarii) 
 Servile Notarii an( t co Pyi s t s > employed them in transcribing a number 
 and Copyists of the orator’s compositions, which Atticus then dis¬ 
 employed in posed of through Italy and Greece ; an example soon 
 ranscnp ion. f 0 p 0we( j other masters of slaves of literary account. 
 Tiro, Cicero’s freedman, invented a system of abbreviations which 
 found wide acceptance. 
 
 Books when finished were exposed for sale in the bibliopoles or 
 Roman Book- book-shops, which, situate in the most public parts of 
 shops the Resort the c ity were the resort of intellectual people, using 
 People. them in the way ot reading-rooms and ror learned 
 
PUBLISHERS 223 
 
 discussion. The librarius (copyist) had to do with the preparation and 
 binding of the rolls as well as the writing. At first the bookseller was 
 also copyist. The title of each work was written in red on a parch¬ 
 ment strip (a sort of ticket) appended to the roll. . Horace has 
 handed down the brothers Sosii as distinguished librarii 
 Distinguished (publishers and booksellers) of the time. Books were 
 Horace’s Time, much in requisition also in the provinces, and a book 
 that would not go off in the capital had still a chance 
 of success in the outlying parts of the Empire. 
 
 The first public library in Rome was established in 
 First the reign of Augustus, 39 B.C., in the Temple of 
 ?U inRome rary Liberty. He himself added two more, the Octavian 
 and the Palatine Library. In the latter end of the 
 Twenty-eight Empire there were as many as twenty-eight public 
 Pub in C Rome. rieS libraries in Rome alone. Among the many private 
 libraries, that of Serenus Sammonicus numbered. 
 62,000 volumes. Among the remains of Herculaneum is a library of 
 1,700 rolls, not counting many others destroyed by the workmen. 
 
 In the Middle Ages, Paris boasted (in 1292) twenty- 
 The Book Trade four copyists, seventeen bookbinders, nineteen makers 
 in Paris In 1292. 0 f parchment, thirteen illuminators, and eight dealers 
 
 in MSS. 
 
 In the early days of printing, editing, correcting the press, and on 
 occasions original production were sometimes all united in one 
 person. The correction of the letter-press was a task for a scholar. 
 
 The booksellers having “stances” or stations at 
 Stationers, ^he g rea t f a | rs became known also as stationers. 
 
 Among the famous publishers of the last two cen- 
 Thomas Guy, turies may be named Thomas Guy (1644-1724), associ- 
 the nsher PUb ’ ated particularly with the Bible trade, founder of 
 Guy’s Hospital; Cripps, who, according to Antony 
 How Cripps got Wood, “ got an estate ” by his seven folio editions of 
 a ^f Burton^ Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy (1621-76); Jacob 
 “Anatomy”. Tonson (1656-1736), Dryden’s publisher; Lintott 
 (1675-1736), whose editions of Pope’s Homer enriched 
 “ Homer” P gave translator and publisher both; Richardson (1689- 
 to Translator and 1761), founder of the romance of common life, who 
 wealth such as as well as printed his novels ; Millar (1707-68), 
 
 Homer himself the Scotch publisher of Thomson, Fielding, Hume, 
 never dreamt of. e t c> ^ “the Maecenas of the age ”, according to J ohnson, 
 Millar the whose liberality to authors was such as to draw from 
 Scotch Publisher, the great lexicographer (whose delays, however, some- 
 praised by times tried Millar’s patience) the encomium, “ I respect 
 0 nson - Millar, sir; he has raised the price of literature”; 
 Strahan, another Scotch publisher in London, George II.’s printer, 
 
224 LITERARY 
 
 one of the publishers in London “ able to keep a coach”, the liberal 
 strahan “ able Polisher °f Blair’s Sermons , etc., etc., to whom in a 
 to keep a Coach.” letter (1784) Dr. Franklin boasts how they (Strahan and 
 Franklin) were the two most successful journeyman- 
 printers within his (Franklin’s) knowledge; Cadell, the publisher of 
 Johnson’s Journey to the Hebrides, etc., mentioned with respect by 
 Johnson, and described by Gibbon as “ that honest and liberal pub¬ 
 lisher”; Dodsley, fouuder of the Annual Register (1758); Allan 
 Ramsay (1686-1758), who wrote, printed, and sold his 
 and n creech ay songs and Gentle Shepherd, and helped to make the 
 air of the capital of the north country on the whole not 
 ungenial; Creech (1745-1815), author, and publisher of the first edition 
 of Burns, and of the works of Blair, Beattie, Dugald Steward, and of 
 Mackenzie’s Mirror and Lounger. 
 
 The “booksellers” (publishers) of his time, testifies 
 /h^Pubnshersof J°hnson, “are generous, liberal-minded men”, and on 
 his Time. all occasions, adds Boswell, Johnson did justice to 
 their character in this respect. 
 
 The diffusion of literature (in the literal sense at 
 R °i 4 t o e oo S B pi 2 nts Last) in the United Kingdom is now grown enormous. 
 a°D^ 0 ! Routledge alone reports in 1885 how he prints 6 million 
 “books ” a year, or 14,000 a day! 
 
 Of modem Public Libraries, be mentioned only the British 
 Museum. The collection of Hans Sloane, with the 
 T Museum Sh Harleian and Cottonian Libraries, the British Museum 
 was opened 1759. The books alone in it, exclusive of 
 continuations, music, and newspapers, exceed If millions, and grow 
 at the rate of about 46,000 yearly. 
 
 Newspapers 
 
 The Acta Diurna , Daily Chronicle, of the Romans was an official 
 paper, comprising a Court Circular, or registry of 
 Chronic?e a ”of even ^ s connected with the Imperial Family, magis- 
 Rome. trates’ edicts, decrees of Senate, accidents, number 
 of births and deaths in the city, etc. The record 
 (not as large as the Times or a twelve-page penny JDailxj of our 
 time) was exhibited in public on a whitened board 
 Roman Scribblers for any one to read and copy. Many scribes made 
 b^Retaiiin^the a business of copying such news and transmitting 
 “ Daily chron- it to the provinces — as many habitues of the 
 Provinces. 6 British Museum at the present day would be glad to 
 cream the London papers for the delectation of the 
 English provinces, if, unfortunately, steam and telegraph did not 
 rather take the business out of their hands. Such Acta were, it 
 appears, first published in the first consulship of Julius Cresar. 
 
NEWSPAPERS 225 
 
 Before this time, however, a chronicle of public events at Rome 
 used to be compiled by scribes (a class which an “ ad- 
 Chronicie^iasted vance( ^ civilisation ” sometimes breeds in excess of 
 till Rome was no their demand), and it was common for Romans at 
 longer the s^eat h ome to forward, along with private letters, a sheet of 
 re ‘ this sort to friends abroad. The Acta Diurna con¬ 
 tinued to be published till at least the transference of the seat of 
 government to Constantinople. 
 
 In the 15th century a.d., news-sheets in the shape of letters were 
 published in various cities in Germany (Augsburg, Ratisbon, Niirn- 
 berg), and also in Vienna. About 1536, a written 
 <7 Gazette”, official news-sheet was exhibited in various public places 
 in Venice, and any one, on payment of a small coin, a 
 gazetta , was allowed to read the budget or gazette of news. The 
 demand for the article grew clamorous, and the new art of printing was 
 called in requisition to satisfy the demand. So innate in the “ human 
 breast” is the taste for news and gossip, a taste apt to grow in pro¬ 
 portion to the supply ! Just fancy a M.P. tabling a bill in our House 
 of Commons for the suppression of newspapers ! Carlyle would have 
 responded to an invitation to enter Parliament, and in private at 
 least he often inveighed against newspapers. Yet with his keen 
 appreciation of what was practicable he would hardly have ventured 
 to lay a sacrilegious hand on the most revered palladium of the 
 British Constitution, the sacred Liberty of the Press. 
 
 The weekly Frankfurter Journal was started in 1615. 1622 dates 
 the appearance of the first English newspaper properly 
 lishN^wspaper. s0 called, the Weekely Newes (a copy of which may be 
 seen in the British Museum), the first number dated 
 May 23, as also of the London Weekly Courant. The times of strife 
 between Charles I. and his Parliament were fruitful of 
 Me SSeofSe he a cro P Mercuries: Mercurius Clericus (1641), Mer- 
 Royaiist and curius Britanicus (1642), Mercurius Politicus, re- 
 P Contr™versy r7 P r i n t e d in Scotland for the entertainment of Cromwell’s 
 Ironsides while in partibus Infidelium. Under Crom¬ 
 well’s Protectorate the Newspaper Press, free from trammels, struck 
 fresh roots in different parts. In 1655 was published the Public Intel¬ 
 ligencer. The Oxford (after the twenty-third number, the London) 
 Gazette came out 1665. A press-censorship, imposed in 
 L10 of d i696 eWS 1662, was removed in 1695. In 1696 Edward Lloyd 
 (founder of world-famous Lloyd’s) started Lloyd’s 
 News, which, itself short-lived, yet gave rise to Lloyd’s List of our 
 times, published at first as a Weekly , 1726. The Edin- 
 Th Gazette rSh burgh Gazette, published twice a week, dates from 1699. 
 
 The first English daily, the Daily Courant, came out in 
 London under Queen Anne, 1703. Its dimensions were, however, 
 
226 LITERARY 
 
 those of a small sheet, and only one side printed. The Index Intel¬ 
 ligencer of 1693 was the first paper to frankly open its columns to 
 paid advertisements, at the rate of “ a shilling for a horse or coach 
 . for notification, and sixpence for renewing ”. Defoe’s 
 e oe s eview. j^ ev ^ ew a pp eare d 1704, at first as a weekly, hut later 
 on was issued twice and ultimately three times a week. 
 
 Before the end of King William’s reign, the Government began to 
 impose duties on newspapers, and in 1712 a tax of %d. per sheet was 
 levied on every newspaper of a sheet and a half. At 
 a Tax on News- the outset of George III.’s reign, each newspaper was 
 P per r co°pjr taxed Id. per copy; in 1776 this tax was raised to 1 \d., 
 in 1789 to 2d., and continued mounting till, in 1815, 
 the tax was 4 d. per copy. Not till 1836 was this heavy impost of 4d. 
 British News re( Iuced to Id. 1855 dates the entire abolition of taxes 
 papers FreecUn on newspapers. A tax had still to be paid in the way 
 1861 from every of paper-duty till 1861, when British journals were set 
 free from that and every kind of Government impost. 
 
 1861 therefore dates the beginning of the age of “ universal en¬ 
 lightenment ”1 
 
 No Government restrictions sufficed to suppress the vitality of 
 periodical publication. In 1745, Fielding published the True Patriot, 
 a weekly in support of the Government; in 1747, the 
 Poiit?cai S News J ac °bite’s Journal; in 1752, the Covent Garden 
 paper Writer. Journal. Had he not a nimble and a dexterous pen, 
 this right gallant but not too well-guided pioneer of 
 the adventurous English novel, more serious at its heart than in its 
 bold face ? 
 
 In 1753 the Idler gave the average annual number of newspapers sold 
 in England at 7,411,759. By 1760 this number had risen to nearly 91- 
 millions ; in 1767 the number exceeded 11 millions; in 1790, 14 mil¬ 
 lions ; in 1800, 16 millions; in 1825, nearly 27 millions; in 1843, ! 
 
 56,433,977. 
 
 Times^the Morn 6 Under the title of the London Daily Universal 
 ing Post, the Register, the Times issued its first number, January 
 Morning Chronicle, 1735 . The Morning Post started 1772; the Morn¬ 
 ing Chronicle, 1781; the Morning Herald, 1781. 
 
 In 1803 the Edinburgh Review sold 2,500 copies. In 1807 the . I 
 
 Times first appointed a foreign editor. On August 14, 1845, was run j 
 
 The Develo ment uews P a P er train. The newspapers published 
 
 of the 6 Newspaper in the United Kingdom when Queen Victoria began 
 Press under her reign numbered barely more than 300; they now 
 Queen ic ona. counfc 2,500, i.e. in the last sixty years newspapers 
 have multiplied more than eight-fold, and, among other distinc¬ 
 tions, the reign of Queen Victoria might be called a reign of cheap 
 literature. 
 
NAMES 
 
 22 7 
 
 Two Arctic newspapers are published each but once a year: the 
 Eskimo Bulletin, published at Prince of Wales’ Cape, 
 Newspapers Behring Straits, when the steamer arrives to fill its 
 ‘ * foreign intelligence columns, and the Atnaglintit, at 
 Goothaab in Greenland. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 NAMES 
 
 I. Names of Places 
 
 The names early given to the features of a landscape (and even, for 
 that matter, bad names too, early applied to persons or peoples) long 
 
 How much the C ^ D » ^o ^ eTn J an( l are not to be easily dislodged. 
 
 Geographical 6 Avon is Celtic for river, and names in England rivers 
 Nomenclature of respectively in Wilts, Gloucester, Devonshire, and 
 Bntam is e ic. Q-i am0 rganshire, as also a tributary of the Severn; in 
 Scotland, rivers respectively in Banff, Lanarkshire, Stirling, Kin¬ 
 cardine, and Ross ; also a lake in Banff and a parish in Wilts. Ash, 
 Axe, Exe, Esk, Usk, and Wye, rivers in Britain, are all variations of 
 the Celtic Wysg, meaning water—a word not wholly unknown in 
 England, too, in its compound, “ whisky ”, i.e. water of life. Celtic 
 are, too, the rivers Severn, Thames, Yare and Yarrow, Mersey, Eden, 
 Dee, Don, Glasdur, Calder, Adder, Cheddar, Derwent, Dart, Darwen, 
 Stour (in Kent, Suffolk, Dorset, Warwick, and Worcester), Edwy, 
 Medway, Allan, Clyde, Cludan. Celtic are, too, mountains and hills 
 of the United Kingdom—Helvellyn and Skiddaw, Chevin (a ridge in 
 Wharfdale), Chevy Chase, Cheviots, Brendon Hill of Exmoor, Birn- 
 wood Forest (Bucks), Pennigant, Pendleton, Penmaenmawr, Pent- 
 land, Penrith; Ben Nevis, Ben Ledi, Ben Macdhui—and so may 
 other Scotch “Bens”. Gaelic, too, is Kenmore (bighead), Cantire, 
 Kinross, Kent. 
 
 The names of the great features of landscape, too, in the New 
 World, the sounding picturesque names, are mostly all of immemorial 
 Indian derivation. Such are the names of the Niagara, the Potomac, 
 the Ottawa, the Mississippi, the Missouri, the Susquehanna, the 
 Rappahannock, Canada, Massachusetts, Monadnoc, Musketaquid, 
 Arkansas, Wisconsin, Alleghany, Mohawk, Huron, Cherokee, Ohio, 
 Illinois, etc. 
 
 It is become an established geographical canon that newly dis¬ 
 covered places retain their respective native names. (See Geographi¬ 
 cal Names and History, pp. 243-247.) 
 
 In respect of the many origins of names, it is curious to remark 
 
228 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 liow many places are called by the name of Newtown (or Newton), 
 the old town having got burnt or otherwise reduced 
 t<wns there areTn to as ^ es 5 an( ^ a new town built up in its place. Ill 
 the World. England alone there are more than 120 towns and 
 villages of this name, but many of them do not look 
 very new, and answer to their names like some other streets in Lon¬ 
 don and large English cities, such as Green Lane, Myrtle Grove, 
 
 Newcastle has forest Hill, Lover’s Lane, Quiet Walk, Summer 
 been calling itself Garden, Park Street, etc. Other places in England, 
 Ne ^™ 0 v the ~ last ^e °EL spinsters still calling themselves new, are 
 ears ' Newark, Newbattle, Newstead, Newbury, 10 New- 
 castles, 12 Newports, 11 Newnhams, 11 Newlands, 17 Newbiggins, 
 11 Newbolds ; also Newby, Newhall, and Newburgh. One must 
 believe that Newcastle on the Tyne is new: it has been continu¬ 
 ously saying so for 800 years. New College in Oxford was founded 
 in 1386. The Continent is not much better in this respect. In 
 . . Italy we have Napoli (Naples, i.e. Neapolis, or 
 
 ea-po New Town), Villanova, and in the Morea, Nauplia; 
 
 near Cannes, Na-poule ; near Carthage, Na-bel ; and Na-bulus, or 
 hJa-blus in Syria, a new town only 1,600 years old. In Germany, 
 too, how many Neu-stadts ; in France, Nevilles; in Switzerland, 
 Neufchatels ? America is Europe new— New England, New York, 
 Neiv London, etc., etc. 
 
 Of towns in England professedly old, there are Alton, Elston, 
 Elton, Eltham, Alcester, Aldbury, Abury, Aldborough, Oldbury, 
 etc., as on the Continent we find Altorf, Torres Vedras, 
 N ’’ S ’Towns Ud W ‘ ^ivita Vecchia , near Rome, and Citta Vecchia in 
 Malta. Of towns denoting cardinal points, there are 
 in England 70 Suttons (South towns), 51 Westons, 57 Nortons, 
 17 Eastons, and 38 Astons (East towns). 
 
 The streets, run up in a night in London and other large English 
 towns, get baptised offhand with any chance names. Between the 
 name and the thing named, there is not only no historic connection, 
 but no connection whatever, in the case of thousands of streets—or 
 « ... . e . .„ at best some mere snobbish connection. Royalty, the 
 aristocracy, or any celebrities or the day are greatly 
 in requisition for the christening of streets and public houses. 1 
 Among the public-house signs of London there, however, also flour¬ 
 ish the following unexceptionable picturesque names, such as mus- 
 
 Piotnresan* Inns g ive an extra smack to the P ofc : “ The Ba g ° f Nails 
 Picturesque inns. „ The Chapel Houge „ ? « King W”, “ The Old Jeru¬ 
 salem Tavern”, “ The Old Pied Bull”, “ The Old Leather Bottle ”, 
 
 1 The stomach of Prof. Blackie used to turn at the fiunkeyism of streets 
 in new Edinburgh defiled by such snobbish names as Buckingham Terrace, 
 Belgrave Crescent, Grosvenor Street. 
 
NAMES 
 
 229 
 
 “The Three Mackerel”, “The World Turned Upside Down” (how 
 true to a toper half seas over !), “ The Ham and Windmill ”, “ The Hat 
 and Tun”, “ The Queen’s Head and Artichoke ”(a nice conjunction !), 
 “ Hole in the Wall,” “ Ship and Shovel,” “ Gentleman and Porter” ; 
 also 2 “ Mothers”, 6 “ Noah’s Arks”, and 4 “ North Poles ”. 1 
 A place has hardly undergone more changes and revolutions in its 
 substantial history than in its name. It might puzzle two or 
 three (or more) London shopkeepers to recognise 
 H London. 611 their own city, big as it is, under the names 
 “AugustaTrinobantum ”, “Augusta Basilea”, “Trino- 
 vant”, “Lundenwic”, “Lundentun”, “Lundenburh”, u Lundene”, 
 “Lundenia”, “Llundain”, “Luntain”, “Londinion”, “Londinium”, 
 “ Lindonion”, “ Londra” (in modern Greek), or possibly even in the 
 French spelling, “ Londres”. 
 
 Oxford was Roman “ Oxonium ”, “Isidis Vadum ” 
 ^Oxford ^ 6 (Ford of Isis). In Anglo-Saxon it was “ Oxnaford”, 
 “Oxanaford”, “Oxoneford”, “Oxneford”. On 
 Alfred coins it writes itself “ Oksnaforda” and “ Orsnaforda”. 
 Cambridge, too, is the last of a series of names running through 
 “ Camboritum ”, “Cami Yadum” (Ford of the Cam), 
 
 How should Cam- “ Cantabriga ”, “ Cantabrigia ”, “ Grantabrycg ” . 
 bridge be written? York time£ , ^ ^ >. 
 
 and “ Colonia Eboracensis”, Ptolemy spells it “Eborakon”. In 
 Saxon times it knew itself as “Eoforwic ”, a name which the Danes 
 turned into “ Jorvik”—whence our “ York ”. 
 
 Yarmouth began its history under the name of ‘‘ Gernemuta ”, at 
 the mouth of the “ Garrienus ” (Ptol.). Later, it figures as “Yar- 
 mutum” and “ Yermutha”. 
 
 Cologne is known at the present day in the town itself as ( \Koln 
 It appears in different books at different times under the respective 
 forms also of “ Keulen”, “ Ceulen”, “ Cueln ”, “ Colonia ”, “ Colo¬ 
 nia Agrippina ”, “ Civitas Coloiesis” ( i.e. “ Coloniensis ”). 
 
 Venice is known as “Venezia” or “Wenez”, 
 H °ven1c? eU “Venetia”, “Venetiae”, “Venedig”, “Enetiai”, 
 “Mleczi”, “Bnezieh ”, “ Mnezik”, “Mljetka”. 
 
 1 A rhyme, quoted by the Rev. C. W. Bardsley, runs 
 
 “I’m amused at the signs, “ The ‘ Leg and Seven Stars % 
 
 As I pass thro’ the town. The * Scissors and Pen 
 
 To see the odd mixture— The ‘ Axe and the Bottle % 
 
 A * Magpie and Crown The ‘ Tun and the Lute 
 
 The * Whale and the Crow % The ‘ Eagle and Child % 
 
 The ‘ Razor and Hen’, The ‘ Shovel and Boot V 
 
 Such incongruity of double signs is explained by the fact that in taking 
 over the goodwill of a well-established shop the new comer added his own 
 badge to that of its late master—by way of double recommendation. 
 
LITERARY 
 
 230 
 
 • “ Baiern”, known in England as Bavaria, figures m books also as 
 “Bajoaria”, “Bojaria”, “Bajwaria”, “la Baviere”. 
 
 “ Regensburg ”, known in England as Ratisbon, appears in bistory 
 
 QT¥ , 0 „. .under tbe forms “Augusta Tiberii”, “Ranasbona”, 
 
 write Ratisbon? “ Reginoburgum ”, “ Hieropolis ”, • “ Imbripolis ”, 
 
 “ Tinurnia ”, “ Regensburgum “ Raganesburg Pala- 
 tium “ Renebourg”. 
 
 Paris disports in bistory under a variation of names ranging 
 through “Parisvs”, “Parivs”, “Parision”, “ Lutetia ” ( Ccesar ), 
 “ Luticia”, “ Loukotokia ” (Strabo), “ Lotitia Parisiorum ”, “ Loti- 
 cia ”, etc. 
 
 Vienna appears as “ Yiennensium ”, “Vien”, “ Ouienne ”, 
 “Ouienna” (Ptolemy). 
 
 Amsterdam is tbe last form of tbe name of a town figuring in 
 history as “ Amstelodamum”, “ Amstelaedamum”, “ Amstelre- 
 damum ”, “ oppidum Amstelredamense”, “Amsteldam”, “ Astel- 
 redam”. 
 
 Boulogne-sur-Mer has run tbe course of “Bononia”, “ Gessoria- 
 cum”, “ Gesoriakon Epineion” (Ptolemy), “ Gessoriacum quod nunc 
 Bononia”, “ Morinorum Portus Britannicus ” (tbe Morini were a 
 nation of Belgica), “ Bolonia ”, 
 
 II. Personal Names 
 
 Tbe Greeks bad no family names. On tbe seventh or tenth day 
 after birth the father gave name to bis child. To tbe eldest son it 
 was usual to attach tbe name of tbe grandfather, 
 no Famny k Names. while, too, a girl was sometimes called after her 
 grandmother. A new name might again be substi¬ 
 tuted for the original one. Plato, e.g., was first called Aristokles; 
 Theophrastos, Tyrtamos. To distinguish so many persons all labelled 
 with the same name, it was not unusual in Greece, as in Rome, 
 and in other countries nearer home, to affix also nicknames. Demos¬ 
 thenes, e.g., was from childhood nicknamed Batalos, stutterer. 
 
 The Roman was named by a praenomen (fore or individual name) 
 given on the ninth day after birth ; a nomen or gentile name, i.e. the 
 name of the tribe to which he belonged; and a cog- 
 T nonfen m Nomen nomen (surname) or family name, the name of the 
 and Cog-nomen! family, in the gens, to which he belonged. It was, 
 however, unusual for a plebeian Roman to don a 
 cognomen. A cognomen was often descriptive, as Pulcher (fair), 
 Calvus (bald). The Roman woman had at first but one name, the 
 feminine form of her father’s gentile name. In later times, it was the 
 mode for her to receive on marriage a praenomen also, the feminine 
 form of her husband’s praenomen—that is, if her husband’s praenomen 
 were Claudius, Junius, or Julius, she was called also Claudia, Junia, 
 
NAMES 
 
 231 
 
 or Julia. A cognomen, like Scipio Africanus, Pompeius Magnus , was 
 often given in the way of an honourable personal distinction. So, 
 too, Cicero’s friend, T. Pomponius, was distinguished 
 Pomponius called as “ Atticus ”, in compliment to his consummate Greek 
 “ Atticus/’and scholarship. Cicero would sometimes, half playfully, 
 hl * Attica ” 6r call his friend’s daughter, too, Pomponia, by the name 
 of “Attica” or “ Atticula”, the little petticoated 
 Greek scholar—but she did not wear petticoats; the truth is, English 
 has no skill to render “ Atticula”. 
 
 Surnames were not in use in Britain till about 1000 a.d. Indeed, in 
 some mining districts of England and Wales, as perhaps in Scotland 
 No Surnames in as well, they have not yet come into fashion, and men 
 Britain till about and women actually contrive to live with only one 
 1000 a.d. name, and do not so much as feel the want of a second. 
 Hereditary surnames first appear in England in the 12th century; 
 in the 14th century half the people of the lower middle class still 
 lived without a hereditary surname. In the 15th century we find 
 the members of a family designated “ John Smyth, son of Thomas 
 Wright, Agnes Smythwfyf, and Alice Smvthdoghter 
 
 English Surnames are derived from— 
 
 1. Offices. —Samples of official names we have in Bright (a name 
 equivalent to the name“ Steward ” or “Despencer”, shortened to 
 “Spencer”; Bryti=dispensator), Fawcett ( = Forseti, 
 Names* 1 derived j uc *ge), Lagman (law-giver), Alderman (literally elder- 
 from Offices, man), Beadle (Bedellus), Chamberlain (Camerarius), 
 Chancellor, Chaplain, Clerk, Deacon (Diaconus), 
 Franklin (freeholder), Latimer (Latinarius, Latin-er, interpreter), 
 Miles (soldier), Marshall (mare or horse groom), Somner or Sumner 
 (in Chaucer, Sompnour—summoner to ecclesiastical courts, apparitor), 
 Parker (park-keeper), Palliser (park-pailings keeper), Peeve (bailiff, 
 German Graf), Sheriff (shire-reeve), Vavasour (advalvasregni, keeper 
 of the valves or gates of the realm), Boteler, now Butler ( i.e . bottle-er), 
 etc. 
 
 2. Personal Qualities. —Among names deriving from personal 
 characteristics are : Armstrong, Black, Blackie, Blake, Blackbeard, 
 Blacklock, Blackhead, Blackman, Blanche, Blunt, 
 fromRerSmal 3 Bonnyman, Broadfoot, Broadbottom, Broadhead, 
 Qualities. Broadribb, Brown, Brune, Brunei, Courtenay (short- 
 nose), Cramp, Crimp, Crump, Crook, Crookshanks, 
 Fair,Fairish, Fairbairn, Fairchild, Fairhead, Fairfax (i.e.fair-haired), 
 Fairhair, Goodbarn (bairn), Goodbody, Goodchild, Goodenough, Good- 
 fellow, Heavyside, Littlejohn, Micklejohn, Prettyjohn, Properjohn, 
 Makepeace, Jeffrey (German Gottfried = God’s Peace), White, 
 Whitefoot, Whitehair, Whitehand, Whitehead, Whitelegg, Whitelock, 
 
LITERARY 
 
 232 
 
 Whiteman or Whitman, Strong, Bold, Faint, Young, Younger, 
 Youngerman, Youngman, Younghusband, etc. 
 
 Several colour names, such as White or Black, may have been 
 derived from colour of dress or armour, as well as of person. 
 
 3. Residence. —From the designation of the localities at which 
 people resided, are derived residential names. In early deeds 
 
 and documents we find entries such as “ John at the 
 Residential Names Wode”,.“ William by the Green”, “Alice in the Lane”, 
 
 eCai Names S ° na “ Thomas at the Welle ”, etc. Dropping their connec¬ 
 tives, these and such-like residential appellatives got 
 soon shortened into John Wood, William Green, Alice Lane, Thomas 
 Wells, and so on. Similarly, “atte Bowre”, “atte Brigg”, “ atte | 
 Hay”, “ William atte Water ”, etc., got reduced to Bowers, Bridge, j 
 Hay, Waters, etc. So, too, John atte Cocke became John Cock or ! 
 Cox; Thomas atte Roebuck, Thomas Roebuck; Robert atte Bell, 
 Robert Bell; William atte Plough, William Plough. 1 
 
 4. Place of Emigration. —John of Doncaster (i.e. migrated from 
 Doncaster—reduced to John Doncaster); William of York—William 
 York, etc. The immigration into England of skilled artisans in the 
 15th century from Flanders, Brabant, and the Low Countries, is 
 registered in names like Fleming, Brabazou, Brabant, etc. In Scot¬ 
 land immigrants from England are betokened by the name of 
 “ Inglis ”. 
 
 5. Trades. —In Domesday Book we find trade-names such as Arcu- 
 arius, Cocus, Carpentaria, Faber (smith), Porcarius (swineherd), 
 
 etc., some of which survive in Archer, Cook, Carpen- 
 
 P derived nom 6S t er > e ^ c * Middle English we have Bagster and 
 Trades. Baxter (baker), Webbe and Webster, Massinger (mes¬ 
 senger), Pottinger (potager or soup-maker, and then 
 apothecary), Ferrier and Farrier (horse-shoer), Furner (=Fournier, 
 baker), Lavender (washerman), Polter (poulterer),Deyer, Aker(acre)- 
 man. The trades furnish a whole directory of names which it were 
 waste of space to quote: Bracegirdle (maker of girdles), Brazier, 
 Brewer, Brewster, Butcher, Cadger, Calver or Calvert (calf-herd), 
 Carrier, Carter, Cartwright, Chandler, Chapman, Chaffer, Cooman or 
 Cowman, Cowan, Cowie,Coward (cow-herd), Cooper, Corder, Cordiner, 
 Coster, Cutler, Cutter, etc., etc., etc. Of all the trades the trade of 
 Smith stands godfather to the greater number of names. In this 
 country alone the “ Smiths ” are counted at between four and five 
 
 1 The topographical convenience of numbered doors is a late invention. 
 The first street in London to have its doors numbered was New Burlington 
 Street.in June, 1764. Manchester followed suit in this novelty in 1772. John 
 Byrom addresses a letter to his wife in 1727 : “Mistress Elizabeth Byrom, 
 near the old church in Manchester.” 
 
NAMES 
 
 233 
 
 hundred thousand, or one in 73 of the entire population. Following 
 very close on the heels of the Smiths are the “ Jones”, with one in 
 every 76 of the population. Next come the “ Williams ”, one in every 
 115 ; the “ Taylors ”, one in every 148 ; the “ Browns ”, one in every 
 174. The “ Smiths ” are a thriving tribe all over the world; in German, 
 “Schmidt ”; 1 in Dutch, “ Smid” ; in Italian, “ Fabris.” English 
 Smiths turn up also in Italy as “Smithi”, inBussiaas “ Smitow T ski ”, 
 in Mexico as “Smitri”. 
 
 6. Places.—No end of surnames derive also from places. The 
 owners of lands sometimes imposed their names on their estates, 
 sometimes took their names from them, and numerous 
 Sur from e piaces Vedare the proprietors who are each (Scottice) “ilk of his 
 ilk”. In many cases it is hard to say which got first 
 to the christening—the land or the landowner, or whether they did 
 not arrive and get their common name simultaneously. Isaac Taylor 
 settles the Frankish Myrgings or Maurings at Merring in Nottingham¬ 
 shire, and at Merrington in Durham and Shropshire j the Harlings, 
 another Frankish clan, at Harling in Norfolk and in Kent, and at 
 Harlington in Bedfordshire and in Middlesex; the Scylfings (a. 
 Swabian race) at Shilvington; the Danish Scyldings at Skeldon in 
 Yorkshire ; the Thurings, a Yisigothic clan, at Thorington in Suffolk 
 and Tborrington in Essex; the Gothic Hastings at Hastings in 
 Suffolk and Hastingleigh in Kent; the Billings, “the royal race of 
 the Varini”, at Billinge, Billingham, Billingley, Billington, Billings- 
 hurst (the Billings, it would seem, did not come over to this island 
 for nothing!). In Isaac Taylor’s Words and Places , pp. 84 et seq., 
 the reader can follow the many more Teutonic clans to their settle¬ 
 ments in England which they have stamped with their names. How 
 they all came by their names in the different lands whence they 
 flocked to this country, we do not here stop to go back and inquire. 
 
 Anyhow, almost all the place-names in Britain serve also in the 
 way of surnames . 2 
 
 1 Of personal names in the Fatherland, Schulze (meaning magistrate ) 
 takes the palm, closely followed, by Meyer ( steward or farmer), while Leh¬ 
 mann and Neumann follow at a respectable distance. To distinguish so 
 many persons of the same name, the Prussian Education Department re¬ 
 sorts to numerals. On its registers is a Schulze LV., a Meyer XLVIII., a 
 Lehmann XX., a Neumann XV. An ingenious person at a theatre once 
 cleared seats for himself and company by shouting, “ There is a fire at 
 Schulze’s house”. The Schulzes escaping through the door left the 
 theatre half empty. 
 
 2 The local character of English surnames is expressed in the rhyme 
 quoted by Camden :— 
 
 “ In ‘ ford in ‘ ham ’, in * ley ’, and ‘ ton * 
 
 The most of English surnames run 
 
 Parish Beadle's Pleasant Christening. —Another source of names may just 
 
LITERARY 
 
 234 
 
 . Spelling of Surnames. —Some surnames in their spelling have run 
 through almost as great a metamorphosis as have some place-names. 
 
 The great name of Shakespeare, e.g., figures in old 
 Shakespeare, documents as- Shakspere, Shaxpere, Shakspire, Shax- 
 spere, Schaksper, Shakespere, Schakespeyr, Shaxe- 
 speare, Shagspere, Shaxpur, Shaxsper, Shaksper, Shackspeare, 
 Saxpere, Shakespire, Shakespeire, Shackespeare, Shaxper, Sliaka- 
 spear, Shaxpeare, Shakspeere, Shaxbure, Shackspeyr, Schakesper, 
 etc., etc. Goodwin, too, has a fair share of variations: Godden, Goddin, 
 Goddinge, Godewyn, Godin, Godwin, Godwyn, Goodden, Goodyng, 
 Gooden, Goodwyne, Goodinge, Good wen—and one or two more. 
 
 Celtic patronymics, as is well known, are Mac (and Mag) in 
 Gaelic; Ap in Welsh; O’ in Ireland. MacJan=Johnson; Price or 
 Brice=Ap Rhys. 
 
 Christian Names. —The early Teutonic name was personally de¬ 
 scriptive, and compounded of a noun and an adjective : Arnold 
 means eagle strength ; Bernard, stern bear; Alfred, noble peace ; 
 Edmund, noble protection; Albert, noble brightness; Robert, 
 glorious brightness, etc. 
 
 The name first given at Antioch appears in German as Christian ; 
 
 French, Chretien; Swedish, Kristian ; in the Nether- 
 How the Name lands, as Kerstan, Karston ; Dutch, Korstiaan; Frisian, 
 An'Soch'has^iif- Tsassen, Tziasso, Sasso, etc. The feminine assumes in 
 fused itself. English the forms Christiana, Christina, and Chrissie; 
 
 in French, Christine; in German, Christiane, Chris¬ 
 tine, Stine, Tine, Kristel. From the name Christian comes also 
 Christophoros; in English, Christopher, Kester, Kitt, Chris; in 
 French, Christoplie; in German, Christoph, Stoffel, Stoppel. 
 
 Richard runs the variations of Dick, Dickason or Dickson, Dickens, 
 Dickenson, Dickes, Dickeson, Dicketts, Dickey, Dickie, 
 ^hangfs^on Dickon, Dicksee, Dixey, Dixon, Dix, Hitch, Hitchcock, 
 Richard. Hitchcox, Hitchens, Hitchin, Hitcliings, Hitchlock, 
 Higgs, Higgin, Higgins; also Rickard, Ricardo, 
 
 be noted, that of the parish beadle. In the registers of St. Mary Wool- 
 noth are these entries:—“ A male child was found in our parish with a 
 penny in his hand, and was named accordingly * Henry Penny’ ”. “A 
 child found in the Alley on the morning of St. John’s Day was named 
 ‘John Before Day”’. So, too, a girl picked up on Monday was plea¬ 
 santly christened “ Anne Monday ”, and a boy laid at Mr. Garrett’s door, 
 ‘‘John Bynight”. Beadle wit sparkles also in such names as “Jack 
 Parish “ Tom Amongus”, “ Napkin Brooker” (the bearer of this face¬ 
 tious Christian name and surname was found by the side of a brwk tied up 
 in a napkin), “ Haycock” (found under a haycock ), “Allbone” (from Hol- 
 bornP). The poetry of Bumble is represented by such names as “Lily- 
 white” and “ Sweetapple 
 
NAMES 235 
 
 Richards, Richley, Richman, Ritchie, Ritson, and has therefore given 
 rise to a numerous brood of family names. 
 
 In Wales and Cornwall the final s of a name serves to denote its 
 patronymic character. 
 
 Succession of Fore-Names in England. —England down to the 
 time of the Conquest knew no Scriptural names for English people, 
 but only names such as have been already quoted : 
 Names in England Alfred, Athelstan, Ethelred, Godric, etc. Any 
 Biblical names in England before the Conquest are 
 exclusively ecclesiastical titles. The introduction of Scriptural names 
 into Normandy dates no earlier than a generation or two before the 
 Conquest. 
 
 In Domesday Book we still find no Philip, no Thomas, only one 
 Nicholas, and very few Johns. By the end of the 14th century, how¬ 
 ever, John, William, Robert, and Thomas name 80 per cent, of the 
 men in the Manors of Durham; John, William, Thomas and Richard 
 more than half the men in the West Riding of Yorkshire. William 
 the Conqueror set the name William in fashion in England ; his son 
 Robert, Robert; Thomas a Becket, Thomas; Richard I., Richard ; 
 Charles I., Charles; the Hanovers, George. After the Conquest, 
 Constance became a favourite feminine appellative. Constance names 
 a daughter of William the Conqueror, a daughter of Stephen, a 
 daughter-in-law of Henry II., the heroine of Chaucer’s Man of Lawes 
 Tale. Juliana also introduced, as Julian, into England with the 
 Normans, suffered successive depreciation to Gilian, 
 ?^«j S 3t nk Gillo r Jill. Curiously, Jack came to get inseparably 
 coupled with Gill. “Each Jack shall have his Gill”. 
 In the Townley Mysteries, when Noah is pressing his laggard wife to 
 enter the ark, she still insists on putting in a little more spinning :— 
 
 “ Sir, for Jak nor for Gille 
 Will I turne my face 
 Till I have on this hille 
 Spun a space upon my rok ** (distaff). 
 
 Into the 18th century “gill” was a common byword for a flirt or 
 wanton girl. The last stage of descent in the history of classical 
 Juliana is registered in our “jilt”. “Juliet” is a diminutive of 
 Julia or Juliana. Juliet, further contracted into Juet, became in the 
 north of England Jowet, whence the surname Jo^vett. 
 Names^/the^th ^ ie 14th and subsequent centuries the ruling 
 
 Century, etc. feminine names in England were Agnes, Alice, Joan, 
 Margaret, Isabella, Cecilia, and Matilda. From the 
 time of Charles I. the feminine names in order of popularity were 
 Ann, Elizabeth, Jane, Margaret, Mary, Alice, Isabel, Dorothy, and 
 Ellen ; Sarah, according to Dr. Taylor, taking the seventeenth place. 
 
LITERARY 
 
 236 
 
 “ Mary” got first elevated into the Royal Court when a daughter of 
 Edward I. was named Marie, a circumstance ascribable to the in¬ 
 fluence of the Crusades. Robin Hood’s mistress was Marion, a 
 diminutive of Mary. Mary oecurs in English records in the diminu¬ 
 tive form also of Mariot (“ Mariot Joscelyn”, c< Mariota Gosebeck ”), 
 whence the surnames “Mariott” and “ Maryatt ”. 
 
 Scripture Names.—Among the earliest Biblical names adopted in 
 England were John and Elizabeth. The Miracle Plays made Adam 
 Variations of an( ^ -^ ve ear ty known and adopted in England. Adam 
 Adam, Eve Isaac, appears in diminutive form as Adekin (“ Adekin le 
 David Jordan, Fuller ”), whence, according to Bardsley, the surnames 
 1J Phliip eter ’ Adkins. Adkinson, Atkinson, Addison, Adamson. 
 
 From Eve we have Eveson, Evett and Evitt. David 
 has given birth to English surnames such as Davies, Davidson, 
 Dawes, Dawson, Dawkes, Dawkins, Dawkinson, Dakins, etc. 
 
 The pilgrims bringing home with them each a bottle of Jordan 
 water from the Holy Land familiarised the name of Jordan, which 
 flourishes in England as Jordan, Jordanson, Jordson. Jurdan, Judd, 
 and Judson. Elijah, again, is the prototype of English Ellis, Elys, 
 Elice, Ellice, Elyas, Eliot or Elliot, Ellice, Ellson, Ellison, Elkin, 
 Elkinson, Elcock, Ellicot, Elliotson, Allison, etc. 
 
 Peter, though Peter’s Pence long made the name odious, is the 
 forerunner of Peters, Parr, Piers, Pierce, Pearse, Parson, Pearson, 
 Pierson, Peterson, Peet, Pitt, Perrin, Perret or Perrett, Parret, 
 Peterkin, Perkins, Parkins, Parkinson, Perks. Simon, too, figures 
 in England as Sim, Simkin, Sims, Simpson, Simmons, Simonds, 
 Symonds. From Philip we derive our Philp, Philps, Phipps, Phipson, 
 Philpotts, Phillots. 1 
 
 Puritan Names.—The following are London Presbyterian entries :— 
 “ 161H, July 28. Baptised Jaell, daughter of Roger 
 Gwe Nimes! tan Mainwaring.” 
 
 “ 1617, January 25. Baptised Ezekyell, sonne of Mr. 
 
 Richard Culverwell”. 
 
 Girl babies of the same period got baptised Priscilla, Dorcas, 
 Tabitha, Martha, Rebecca, Deborah. Within the limits of ten leaves 
 of the West Riding Directory of the early 17th century, Mr. Bardsley 
 found three “Pharaohs.” three “Hephzibahs” (on one single page), 
 “Adah and Zillah Pickle”, milliners. Also “Jehoiada Rhodes”, 
 maker of saws; “ Yashni Wilkinson” (drawing his forename from 
 
 1 From Robert alone Bardsley derives no fewer than forty-six differently 
 spelled surnames. Robin Hood, too, still names hundreds of country inns 
 in the North, and his forename also birds, beasts, and shrubs. Also pet- 
 named “Hob” or “ Dob” , he stands godfather to the ignis fatuus, as 
 “Robin Goodfellow”, “Hob-goblin”, “ Hob-lanthorn”, “Hob-thrush”. 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 237 
 
 somewhere in the Chronicles ), coal merchant; “ Barzillai Williamson ”, 
 butcher; “ Jachin Firth’’ (fetching his Christian name somewhere 
 out of Kings), beer retailer; Shadrach, Meshach, and Ahednego all 
 serve in this directory as “Christian” names. Other entries are such 
 as Azariah Griffiths, Naphtali Matson, Philemon Jakes, Malachi Ford, 
 Shallum Richardson, etc. In the Sussex Archceological Collections 
 is the following entry of baptism :— 
 
 “1630, November 18. Baptised Humiliation, son of Humiliation 
 Hinde ” . This son dying, the father seven years later gets another 
 “ Humiliation ” to fill the vacant place. 
 
 “1637-8, January 21. Baptised Humiliation, son of Humiliation 
 Hinde” . 
 
 Among the numerous family of the patriarchal pilgrim, Roger 
 Clap (who died in Boston, Mass., 1691), there were three sons named 
 Preserved, Hopestill, and Desire, and a daughter, 
 fom^ChUdren. Wait. Dr. Increase Mather was sent from New 
 England to tender to James II. the thanks of the 
 Dissenters for a Toleration Act in 1685. Mr. Lower quotes the 
 following names from the registers of Warbleton: 
 mfo 'aS°” 1617, Bestedfast Elyarde, Goodgift Gynnings; 1622, 
 
 Lament Willard; 1625, Faint-not Dighurst, Fere-not 
 Rhodes; 1677, Replenish French. 
 
 A late survival or restoration of Puritan names is reported in 
 Notes and Queries , September 9, 1865 :— 
 
 “ A man named Sykes, resident in this locality (Thurstonland, 
 West Riding, Yorkshire), had four sons whom he named respectively 
 Love-well, Do-well, Die-well, and, the youngest, 
 Die well Fare-well. Sad to say. Fare-well Sykes met an un- 
 
 Fareweii. timely end by drowning, and was buried this week 
 
 (11th Sunday after Trinity) in Lockwood churchyard. 
 The brothers Live-well, Do-well, and Die-well were the chief 
 mourners on the occasion.” 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 
 
 In language, more perhaps than in any other department of affairs, 
 the successive stages of development, back to beyond historic record, 
 through which the present stage has been reached, remain sensibly 
 apparent. In common life and in every department of science terms 
 now current still indicate wholly exploded notions. 
 
 Astronomy. —The sun no longer rises, nor sets, nor stands still, nor 
 turns. Yet have we still sunrise, sunset (or sundown), solstice 
 
238 
 
 LITERARY 
 
 (sun-standing), tropics (sun-turning—the north and the south limits 
 at which the sun turns). The heavens, opened of a morning to the 
 chariot of the sun by Aurora and closed by Hesperus, glittering of a 
 night with Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Yenus, etc., belted all round by 
 the twelve constellations of the Ram, the Bull, the Twins, the Crab, 
 
 1 etc., are an illuminated record of the earliest human readings of the 
 celestial signs. 1 “ The planets,” i.e. wanderers, no longer wander. The 
 ‘‘fixed stars” are long ago loosed. No longer does Jupiter shed 
 ‘ ‘ jovial ’ 5 , nor Mars “ martial 5 ’, nor Mercury ‘ ‘ mercurial ”, nor Saturn 
 “saturnine” influence. One still “thanks his lucky stars”—but 
 without much thought of the stars. And hardly is the “ influenza” 
 of recent years seriously traced to the influence of the stars. Nor 
 does the latest scientific medicine attribute “lunacy” all to the 
 moon. 
 
 Physiology. —Is the “heart,” “coeur” in French, any longer all 
 that is “hearty,” “courageous ”? Is “bile,” Gr. “ chole,” any 
 longer atra-bi^ous, or choleric, or melan -choly ? Is “spleen” still 
 all in the spleen P Or “ hysterics ” all in the womb ? Or “ phren-sy ” 
 all in the midriff? Or do we now search beneath the cartilages of the 
 false ribs for “ hypo-chondria ” ? Do we note the size and strength of 
 a man’s “ pluck ” to find out whether he is plucky ? Do we grope in 
 a man’s “ bowels ” for bowels of mercy ? Or measure the height of a 
 man’s stomach to estimate how “ high-stomached ” or high-tempered 
 he is ?—though a man is still apt to be more confident after he has well- 
 dined than when fasting. Or is a coward necessarily “white- 
 livered ” ? Or is much blood always “ sanguine ” ? Is the “ gall ” of 
 bitterness and malignity all in the gall-bladder ? Are “ good humour ”, 
 “ill-humour”, “dry humour”, a woman’s “humour”, a writer’s 
 “ humour”, each a particular humour in the body ? 
 
 Offices. —A “Mar-sbal” (i.e. mare-shalk — horse-servant) means 
 properly a groom. Yet would the Marshal of France or the Earl 
 Marshal of England (the Duke of Norfolk) probably resent being 
 called a groom. The Lord High Steivard of England is Sti-warcl , 
 warden of the sty, and as such his proper business is to look after the 
 domestic animals and give them their food. “Chamberlain” is one 
 that has care of the chamber. A “ Marquis ” is keeper of the marches. | 
 “Ambassador” is the French Ambassadeur, the Latin Ambactus, the 
 old High German Ambyht, a servant that runs errands. “ Serjeant,” 
 whether at-arms or at-law, is servant. “Knight”, A.-S- Cniht , Ger. 
 Knecht, is servant. Offices, such as those of “ Grooms of the Privy 
 
 1 The latest generation of mankind still reading the signs stereotyped on 
 the skies by the earliest generation can thus renew the ideas of the heavens 
 formed by primitive men, and so still scan the firmament with eyes wholly 
 naive. 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 
 
 239 
 
 Chamber” and of the “ Great Chamber”, “ Pages of the back¬ 
 stairs ”, etc., carry their meaning in their face. “ Court ” is cattle- 
 yard, and a “ Courtier” an attendant in the cattle-yard. “Courte¬ 
 san” is an attendant at court—and not much to the credit of court 
 morals. “Esquire” is armour-bearer. 
 
 Common Life.—Do we any longer watch the flight of birds or look 
 into their entrails to learn whether [events be “ auspicious”, of good 
 “ augury” or bad, of good “ omen ” or ill ? Is a book any longer a 
 stave (Dan. Stav, Ger. Stab) or tablet of beech? Or a “library” 
 the bark of trees? “Write ” (German ritzen) indicates that the 
 letters were once (in the old Runic times) scratched into the beechen 
 tablet. Does a parliamentary or other “ candidate ” always wear a 
 candid or white gown, as sign of the purity of his motive and pro¬ 
 cedure in seeking the appointment ? 
 
 “ Slaves” are properly Slavonians captured and made bondsmen 
 by the Germans. But all “ Slavonians” are not slaves, and it is not 
 Slavonians alone that are slaves. The “curfew” (couvre-feu) refers 
 to a time in England when every evening, originally at 8 p.m., a bell 
 was rung as signal to the people to put out all their fires and go to 
 bed. We have still in London “Charing Cross”, but where is the 
 Cross of the Chere Heine, Queen Elinor ? Gone, whither are gone 
 alsosomany “GreenLanes” and “ Green Fields” of London. “ Sign¬ 
 ing ” one’s name registers a time when most persons, unable to write, 
 made their mark or sign. “Expend” or “ spend” records how money 
 was at first weighed (from pendere, to weigh). A ship, A.-S. scip, is 
 scooped or hollowed, but no longer always scooped oak. 
 
 What has a “booking-office” to do with books? To secure you 
 beforehand a place in the coach in the old coaching days, the clerk 
 entered in a book your name, the place you had taken, and the date 
 for which it was taken. You were then said to be booked, and the 
 office in which such a transaction was done was a “ booking-office ”. 
 Books and booking in this connection are both gone the way of the 
 coaching days, yet the name survives. What, again, has the “navvy” 
 to do with navigation ? The old canals were lines of inland com¬ 
 munication, and a tavern by the side of a canal was sometimes called 
 a “ Navigation Inn ”. The men, too, employed in the excavation of 
 canals were “navigators” or—to shorten the word—“navvies”. 
 We have still in England and on the Continent “journeymen” as 
 tradesmen, though in England, at any rate, they are no longer dis¬ 
 tinguished from other people by their “journeying “ Canter ” is 
 derived from a “ Canterbury gallop”, the easy pace of pilgrims 
 riding to Canterbury. The road, following for many miles the foot 
 of the North Downs of Kent, is still called the Pilgrims’ Road. 
 “ Damson ”, formerly written “ damascene ”, is a plum from Damas- 
 
LITERARY 
 
 240 
 
 cus. The “ damask rose ” is also from Damascus, introduced into 
 England in the reign of Henry VII. The Mexican province “ Choco ” 
 has given us the names of chocolate and cacao. 
 
 Coins. —Is the “ guinea” still made of gold from the West Coast of 
 Africa? Or does Florence yield all the “florins”? Or are all 
 “dollars” forged in Joachimst/iai (in Bohemia) ? Or is the “mark” 
 marked with the lion of St. Mark ? Where is the cross of a Kreutze r ? 
 The “angel”, struck in England as late as the reign of Charles I., 
 and of the value of ten shillings, was stamped with the figure of the 
 archangel St. Michael. Is “fee” (A.-S. feoh) still cattle? Or a 
 “pecuniary” arrangement (pecu= cattle) an arrangement to pay so 
 many head of cattle ? Or what has our money to do with Juno 
 Moneta, i.e. Juno the (ad)monisher ? Or do we now halve or 
 quarter the penny fora “half-penny” or “ farthing” (i.e. fourthing ) ? 
 “ Estimate ” indicates that the first money known to the Romans was 
 of brass (or bronze), aes. 
 
 Titles of Dignity Titles of Age.— “ Priest ”, “Presbyter” is 
 Elder , man of advanced age; and in the Presbyterian Church the 
 layman associated with the minister in the government of the Kirk is 
 called “Elder”. “Senate” is assembly of elders (senes, old men), 
 corresponding to the Spartan Senate, “Gerousia”, i.e. greymen. 
 The Roman Senators were known also as “Patres” or fathers. 
 “Patricians” are fathers. “Signior”, “Seigneur”, “Senhor”, 
 “ Sire”, “ Sir”, are each senior or elderly man, as are also “ Earl ” 
 and “ Alderman” (Ealdormann). “ Mayor”, French “ Maire ”, is the 
 Latin Major (i.e. Magni-or), greater or elder. The Mayor of the 
 Palace in the Merovingian period was “Major domus regiae”. 
 French “Monsieur” (our “Mister”) is Mon Sieur=Mon seigneur, 
 my senior. Our “Mr.” is Mag-ister, greater (man) or chief. 
 
 Geographical Names Generalised.— The “magnet” or “mag¬ 
 nesian stone ” no longer hails from Magnesia in Lydia. Nor is a 
 “ magnetic girl ” a Magnesian lass. Some people, at least, find girls 
 also outside of Magnesia “magnetic”. “Parchment” carries us 
 back to Pergamos in Asia Minor, where the skins of sheep or goats 
 were dressed into writing material. “Peach” carries us as far as 
 Persia, which was supposed to be the home of the Persicum malum, 
 the Persian apple. Just as the “damson” or “ damascene ”, like 
 “ damask ”, claims Damascus for its native place. The “Gordian 
 knot”, again, refers us to Gordion, early capital, of Phrygia, wherein 
 was preserved the chariot in which Midas, with his parents, had 
 entered the town. Whoso should untie the knot of bark fastening 
 the yoke of the chariot to the pole would be sovereign of Asia. 
 “ Mausoleum ” refers us to Mausolos, King of Karia (b.c. 377-353), 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 
 
 241 
 
 to whose memory after his death his wife raised a very costly monu¬ 
 ment, called after him Mausoleion. “ Bayonets ” are no longer 
 made only at Bayonne. Nor are “ milliners” all from Milan. Nor 
 “frieze” from Friesland. Nor is every“lumber-room” a lombard- 
 room stored with unredeemed pledges of Lombard pawnbrokers. 
 Nor do all “coppers” come from Cyprus. Nor does all “jane” 
 come from Genoa. Nor “gauze” from Gaza. Nor “calico” 
 from Calicut. Nor “muslin” from Mosul (in Kurdistan). Nor 
 “cordwain” from Cordova. Nor “delf” from Delft. Nor “ wor¬ 
 sted” from Worstead (in Norfolk). Nor do we get all our “rhu¬ 
 barb” from a plant by the Rha or Volga. Nor all our “jalap” 
 from Jalapa. Nor all our “ currants ” from Corinth. Nor all our 
 “coffee” from Caffa (south of Abyssinia). Nor all our “indigo” 
 from India. Nor all our “ majolica ” from Majorca. Nor all our 
 “sherry ” from Xeres. Nor all our “malmsey ” from MalvcCsia, on 
 the east coast of the Morea. Nor all our “port” from Oporto. Nor 
 (perhaps) all our “champagne” from Champagne. Nor are all 
 dwellers on a heath “heathens”, any more than in a pagus (i.e. 
 village) “pagans”. Nor are “hoydens” (i.e. heathens or heath- 
 dwellers), once masculine as well as feminine, confined to heaths. 
 “ Palace” transports us to the Palatine hill. The pheasant derives 
 from the river Phasis, in Colchis, and the canary from the island so 
 called. 
 
 Days and Months. —The name of each day of the week still con¬ 
 nects the English of the present day with the heathen life of the 
 Angles and Saxons of thousands of years ago; with the worship of 
 the sun (Anglo-Saxon Sunnandaeg, Early English Sonenday, Sun¬ 
 day), the moon (Tiw), Woden, Thunor, Frige, and Saturn (see 
 Calendar, p. 206). According to the language they speak the English 
 still measure time by moons. The first moon of the year connects 
 them with the Roman god Janus ; the second with Roman expiation ; 
 the third with Mars , etc. 
 
 Measures. —“Acre ” was at first but afield , as is still witnessed by 
 the expression “ God’s Acre” and the German “'Acker ”, as also in 
 Shakspeare’s line,— 
 
 “ Over whose acres walked those blessed feet ”. 
 
 First in the reign of Edward I. was an “acre” restricted by statute 
 to a determinate measure of land. 
 
 “Mile” is the Latin mille passuum, 1,000 paces. 
 
 “ Furlong ” is a furrow-long, the length of a furrow. 
 
 “Pole” is originally but a long stick—as in “carriage pole”, 
 “ flag-pole ”, “ may-pole ”. “ Yard ” is primarily a rod or staff, as in 
 sail -yard, hsl-yard. “Gallon” named at first a pitcher, and in 
 Wycliff’s Bible is still used in that sense—Go ye in to the citee, 
 
 16 
 
LITERARY 
 
 242 
 
 and a man berynge a galoun of water schal meefce yon. “Bushel” 
 is originally a little box, traceable back to the low Latin buxis = Gr. 
 pyxis, a box, and dim. -el. “ Dram” ( = Gr. draclime) denoted in the 
 beginning, according to Greek etymologists, a handful. “Fathom” 
 is the length measured by the extended arms. “ Inch ” is the same 
 word as “ounce”, the Latin uncia , meaning the twelfth part. 
 “ Inch ” is now appropriated to the twelfth part of a foot, as 
 “ounce” to the twelfth part of a pound. Contrary to its original 
 sense, an “ounce” in avoirdupois weight is not the twelfth but the 
 sixteenth of a pound. “Hour” is the Greek Horn, meaning in 
 Homer a season. “ Minutes ” are minute or small parts of an hour, 
 minutes 'primes or first small divisions. The next or second division 
 is the division of a minute—a “ second ” (minutes secundcs). 1 
 
 “ Pound” is simply a weight—pendant (from pendere, to weigh). 
 £ is from the Latin Libra, i.e. weight, a Roman pound of twelve 
 ounces. “D” (as a sign for pence) is from the Latin denarius, a 
 Roman silver coin containing originally ten asses=an Attic drachma. 
 “ Stone” carries its origin in its face, as do also “ grain ”, “ barley¬ 
 corn”, “nail”, “foot”, “span”. “ Scruple” is a little sharp stone, 
 diminutive of scrupus , a sharp stone. “ Pint” was at first paint or 
 mark—marked part of a larger vessel. 
 
 Geography and History of Great Britain.— “ England ” at once 
 connects that soil with Angeln in Schleswig. “Scotland” is 
 identified with the Scots that, in the 4th century, crossed over from 
 Ireland. “ Scotta sum dael gewat of Ibernian on Breten ” (some 
 Scots went from Hibernia to Britain— Saxon Chronicle) . In Bede’s 
 time the people of Ireland were Scots, and Hibernia the island of the 
 Scots : “Hibernia Scotta ealond ”. While the “ Angles ” gave their 
 name to all England, the Saxons are distributed into East Saxons 
 (Essex), South Saxons (Sussex), and Middle Saxons (Middlesex). 
 “Wales”, again, is the land of foreigners—the old Britons dis¬ 
 possessed by the Anglo-Saxons. Just as at a later date the Nor¬ 
 mans, too, were “ foreign men”—tha Welisc men. 
 
 Language and Mistakes. —The “ Jerusalem artichoke ” is not an 
 
 1 A Dutch boatman will, as he creeps along his canal, count the pipes he 
 smokes between one point and another, and so with remarkable accuracy 
 measure the distance he has made. In much the same way the hillmen of 
 Assam measure the ground they run over by counting the quids of tobacco 
 they get through on the way. A Holsteiner, asked how far it is to some 
 place, will answer, “’n Pip Toback” (a pipe of tobacco), i.e. about half 
 an hour. In some parts, a Roman Catholic priest will go through his 
 Miserere very slowly, as a measure of the time his tea should draw ; as 
 in the Rhine provinces, the pious peasant will drop in his egg and leave it 
 the time to boil which he takes in going through the Lord’s Prayer, and 
 so accomplish two feats (a religious and an economic) at the same time. 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 243 
 
 artichoke, nor is it from Jerusalem. Introduced by Italians, it was 
 at first called girasole articiocco. “ Girasole ” got readily corrupted 
 into Jerusalem. Nor are “ French beans” the product of France, 
 but came originally from India. The “ guinea-pig ”, again, is not a 
 pig, but a rodent, and comes, not from Guinea, but from South 
 America. The “Muscovy duck” is properly a music duck, hailing 
 from, not Russia, but America. “America” was the discovery, not 
 of Amerigo Vespucci, but of Columbus. Nor are the Aborigines of 
 America Indians or any way connected with Indians. Nor is the 
 “turkey”, or coq d’lnde, from Turkey or India, but was first in¬ 
 troduced into England from America about 1541. The “ briar pipe ” 
 has nothing to do with the briar, but is made from the bruyere or 
 white Mediterranean heather root. “Meerschaum” pipes are not 
 made of sea-foam (or marine scum) but of a hydrated silicate of 
 magnesium. 
 
 Geographical Names and History 
 
 Geographical Names and the History of the Phoenicians in 
 Europe. —The progress of the Phoenicians in Europe may very well be 
 followed up by means of the Phoenician names they have left behind them 
 on their different lines of march. Places in Crete, e.g., whose names 
 still ring of their Phoenician origin, are the Jardanus (i.e. Jordan), 
 flowing into the sea near the town of Kydonia and the city of Laban a 
 —a town which, to Dunckerat least, suggeststhe Phoenician Libanon. 
 A deme (or ward) in Attica, again, forming part of the city of Athens, 
 was called Melite, which names also the island (Malta) in the Mediter¬ 
 ranean of unquestionably Phoenician settlement. “ Minos ” is one 
 of the Greek personifications of Phoenicia, and the name (i.e. also 
 Phoenician colonisation) is traceable in the town Minoa (or Herakleia) 
 • on the south coast of Sicily, and the island of Minoa off Megara, 
 (about twenty-six miles north-west from Athens). Minoa gives name 
 also to two cities in, and some islands near, Crete; to a city in 
 Amorgos and a city in Siphnos. Furthermore, the direct Phoenician 
 name, Phoinix or Phoinikous, names a harbour on the south coast 
 of Crete ; a harbour of tbe city of Kolone in Messema ; a sea-port of 
 Kythera; a harbour of Ionia (Asia Minor), and many other places 
 where these world-wide traders of the early fore-time settled. 
 
 Roman Colonisation and Dominion in Europe is indestructibly 
 registered to the end of human history in the vesture of nomenclature 
 completely covering the continent all over—in (to take only a few 
 examples) Cologne (Colonia Agrippina), Lincoln (Lindum Colonia), 
 Forli (Forum Livii), Julich (Juliacum), Lillebonne (Julia bona), 
 Badajoz (Pax Augusta), Zaragossa (Caesarea Augusta), Augsburg 
 (Augusta Vindelicorum), Autun (Augustodunum), Klagenfurt 
 
LITERARY 
 
 244 
 
 (Claudii Forum), Orleans (Civitas Aurelianorum), Adrianople, Con¬ 
 stantinople, Constance, etc., etc. 
 
 In England, too—Colchester, Godmanchester, Grantchester, Ches- 
 terford, Irchester, Rochester, Winchester, Ilchester, Chichester, Sil- 
 chester, Porchester, two Dorchesters (besides a county and town in 
 U.S. and Canada) ; Tad caster, Brancaster, Ancaster, Doncaster, 
 Lancaster, Casterton, Alcaster, Castor, Caistors and Caister, 
 Leicester, Bicester, Worcester, Gloucester, Cirencester, Alcester, 
 Manchester, Towcester, Lanchester, Binchester, Chester-le-Street, 
 Ebchester, Ribchester, Rowchester, Fichester, Chesterknows, Ches- 
 terlee, Chesterholm, Wroxeter, Uttoxeter, Exeter, Caerleon (with the 
 Roman Castrum Celticised), Caergwrle, Caerswys, Caerwent, Car¬ 
 marthen, Cardiff, Carnarvon ; in Scotland—Carstairs, Carluke, Car- 
 riden; in Cornwall—Carhayes. Some of the Celtic Caers may, 
 however, not have been of Roman foundation. Then how many 
 castles (Roman Castella) are scattered over England and the Conti¬ 
 nent ! Names of towns beginning with Castle occupy more than four 
 pages of Mr. Chisholm’s ‘‘Gazetteer”. 
 
 Jersey, too, is said to be Ccesarcea —a little transmogrified. 
 
 The Celtic Element in British Geography 
 
 The great permanent natural features of the geography of Britain, 
 including England proper, still know themselves only by the names 
 which the Celts first impressed on them. How much Celtic are the 
 rivers and mountains also of England has been already referred to 
 (p. 227). The fact that the Celtic Britons found a safe refuge in 
 Cornwall as well as in Wales from the Saxon invaders is attested by 
 the dominant Cymric of inhabited and cultivated Cornwall. 
 
 “ By Pol and Tre and Pen 
 You may know the Cornish men ”, 
 
 runs the adage. “Tre” is Cymric for dwelling. The prefix occurs 
 ninety-six times in the village names of Cornwall, or, if hamlets and 
 single homesteads be included, more than a thousand times. “ Tre ” 
 mingles with the names also of more than twenty villages in Wales, 
 and curiously besprinkles the border counties (Tre-fonen, Tre-evan, 
 Tre-tire, Tre-vill, and Tre-wen in Hereford; Tre-broader in Shrop¬ 
 shire; Tre-borough in Somerset, etc.). Pen is a perpetual occurrence 
 in Cornwall as in Wales—Penrhyn, Pendennis, Penkenner, etc. 
 That the conquest of Shropshire and Hereford was not accomplished 
 till after the Saxons had adopted Christianity is attested by the fact 
 that these counties are clean of all nomenclature of Saxon heathenism, 
 such as the worship of Woden registered in Wednesbnvy in Stafford ; 
 Woodnesborough. in Kent, and Wansdike (formerly Wodnesdic), a 
 road 80 miles long running through Wilts; Wanstrow (formerly 
 Wodnestveow) in Somerset, etc. 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 245 
 
 The intrusion of Norsemen also into Cornwall is registered in a 
 deep inlet near Lizard Point, bearing the name of Hel/ord (ford, i.e. 
 Norse “fjord”), and a village at its head called Gweek, i.e. Wick 
 (corresponding to Greek oikos , Latin vicus ; the sea-rovers anchoring 
 in the ivies were called Vikings). Norse irruptions into Devonshire 
 are witnessed by a suffix more nearly approaching the old Norse form 
 byr (abode) than does the “by” of Whit-by, Rug-by, etc., and the 
 hundred “ by’s ” of Lincoln. In Noith ; Devon are Rock beer and Bear, 
 near the fjord of Bideford. On the left bank of the estuary of the 
 Exe are the villages, Ayles bere, Rock here, Lark beer, and Houndtere. 
 
 Picturesque Scotland, again, whither every summer wend the 
 greatest throng of tourists, is almost all of Gaelic christening, and 
 perhaps no part of the earth’s surface has ever been decked in a 
 nomenclature truer to nature or more graphic and sounding. Celtic 
 names in Scotland are to all others as ten to one. Among its de¬ 
 scriptive elements are Ben (answering to Welsh Pen), meaning 
 mountain; Ard, either a bluff fronting the sea or a slight elevation 
 on the shore of a lake, as in Ardlui near the head of Loch Lomond; 
 Inver , syncopated into Aber, bottom or mouth of a stream—Inveresk, 
 Inverness, Aberdeen, Aberdour,; dubh, black, as in Ben Muic Dubh 
 (Mount of the Black Sow) ; dearg , red; Breac, brindled, as in Ben 
 Vrackie ; cluny, green; darach, oak ; fraoch , heather, etc. Full of 
 mountains, Scotland has the following specific designations of 
 heights : drum , a ridge; scour , a scar or jagged ridge; cruach, a 
 conical mountain ; mam , a hill of gentle ascent; maol, a broad and 
 bald mountain ; monagh, an upland moor; Tulloch or Tilly, a knoll; 
 tom or ter, a hillock; bruach , a brae or steep slope; craig, crag; 
 cairn, a heap of stones; laird, a broad, low slope ; glen, all varieties 
 of a narrow Highland valley. 
 
 Universal, then, though be the Gaelic nomenclature of the High¬ 
 lands, and the great natural features of the Lowlands as well, yet go 
 to the two groups of islands to the north of Scotland and you come on 
 an abrupt contrast. In all the sixty-seven islands of the Orkneys are 
 only two Celtic names. Next visit the Shetlands, there is not one 
 local name not Norwegian. 
 
 Norse Settlements 
 
 Norse incursions or settlements are registered in towns stamped 
 with byr or by —Grimsby, Whitby (superseding the former Saxon 
 name Streoneshalch), Derby (superseding the former Saxon name 
 Northweorthig), Kirby, Netherby, etc., etc. In Lincoln alone 100 
 local names end in by. “ Boby ”, too, is not an uncommon personal 
 name in East Anglia. To the north of Watling Street are some 600 
 “by’s”, and hardly one to the south of it (Isaac Taylor). Other 
 Norse registrations are Thorpe (village) in Althorpe, Copmansthorp, 
 
LITERARY 
 
 246 
 
 Wilstrop ; dale in Kendal, Annandale, Lonsdale. Fjords or passages 
 for Norse ships are marked by Dept ford, Oxford, Milford, Haver- 
 ford, Wexford, Strangford. 
 
 The following table, quoted from Taylor’s Words and Places (p. 162), 
 exhibits the comparative strengths of the Celtic, the Saxon, and 
 the Danish element in various portions of the United Kingdom, as 
 registered by the names of villages, hamlets, hills, woods, and valleys, 
 to the exclusion, however, of rivers, in the counties of Suffolk, Surrey, 
 Devon, Cornwall; and Monmouth :— 
 
 Percentage of 
 Names from 
 the 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Devon 
 
 Corn¬ 
 
 wall 
 
 Mon¬ 
 
 mouth 
 
 Isle of 
 Man 
 
 Ire¬ 
 
 land 
 
 Celtic 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 32 
 
 80 
 
 76 
 
 59 
 
 80 
 
 Anglo-Saxon 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 Norse . . 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 Places of Anglo-Saxon Nomenclature 
 
 Local names of Anglo-Saxon derivation end in :— 
 
 -ton, connected with the Anglo-Saxon tynan, to hedge, German 
 zaun, a hedsre, and therefore meaning a hedged or enclosed place, 
 originally a homestead or farm. This is its meaning in the Wycliffe 
 verse (Matt. xxii. 5), “ Thei wenten forth, oon in to his toun, anothir 
 to his marchaundise ”. In Scotland a farmstead still goes by the name 
 of toon. And still in Kent lone farmhouses are known as Shottingfoii, 
 Wingletcm, Appleton. The ton is grown into a city in Acton , Weston , 
 Newton, Tnnbridge, etc., etc. 
 
 -ham= German Heim, also meaning enclosure or private place, as 
 signified by the German Geheim , secret or private. In Middle 
 English “ homely” sometimes means secret. As ‘heims’ are 
 scattered all over Germany, so are “hams” over England : High- 
 ham, Low-ham, East-ham, Cobham. 
 
 -worth , meaning a place warded, from Anglo-Saxon warian , to 
 ward. Such worths or warded places we have in Bosworth, Clos- 
 worth, Kenilworth, Tamworth, Wandsworth. 
 
 Stoke, or stow, a place stockaded or surrounded with stocks—Stoke, 
 Basingstoke, Stoiomarket, Bristot. 
 
 -fold, a place of felled trees, an enclosure of felled trees: Oxfold, 
 Ashfold, Dunsfold. 
 
 -yard= Norse parth, a place guarded or girded round : Fish-guard, 
 Appl e-garth. 
 
 hay or haigh, a place hedged round, an enclosure : Rothwell 
 Haigh, near Leeds; Haye Park at Knaresborough. 
 
LANGUAGE AND HISTORY 
 
 247 
 
 - bury, borough, burgli, brough, and barrow, connected with the 
 Anglo-Saxon beorgan and the German bergen, to shelter. 
 
 Towns of this termination in England, therefore, answer to the 
 many towns in Germany ending in berg or burg Bury, Nether-bury, 
 Broughton, Jedburgh. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon Ac (oak) gives name to towns such as Ac-ton (oak- 
 town), Ack-worth, Auck-land, Oak-leigh. 
 
 Aesc, the ash, names Ash-stead, Ash-don (Ash-hill), Ash-combe 
 (Ash-valley), Ash-borne, As-hurst (Ash-thicket)—nearly 200 places in 
 England. 
 
 The Alder names Alder-bury, Alder-ley, Alders-haugh (Alder-hill), 
 Alden-ham, Alders-hot (Alder-wood), etc. 
 
 The Broom names Brom-ton, Brom-ley, Brom-hurst. 
 
 The Birch is represented in the town of Berkeley, in Gloucester¬ 
 shire, Berkhampstead, Barkby. 
 
 The Maple is grown into a town in Maple-durwell in Hants, Maplc- 
 durham in Oxon, Map-powder in Dorset. 
 
 The Thorn is the original of Thorn-bury, Thorn-ey (Thorn-island), 
 Thorn-ton (in many parts of England and Scotland), Thorn-wood, etc. 
 
 The Willow may be traced in Willough-by, Willougli-ton, etc. 
 
 The Brier has its part in Brier-ley, Brier-ton, Briery Cottages, etc. 
 
 The Fern gives name to Farn-ham, Farn-borough, etc. 
 
 The Furze ( = Scandinavian whin) is the original of Furze-town, 
 Furz-ley, Whinneyleggate. 
 
 Grass is found in Gras-mere, Gras-by (North Lincoln), Gras-holme. 
 
 Moss gives name to Moss-ley, Mossgreen, etc. 
 
 Sedge appears in Sedge-moor, Sedge-ley, etc. 
 
 Rush is an element in Rush-ley, Rush-mere, Rush-worth. 
 
 The Reed gives name to Reed-ham, Reed-ness, Rid-ley. 
 
 The Apple gives name to twenty-seven towns in England : Apple- 
 by, Apple-ton, Apple-garth. 
 
 Wheat appears in Whit-field, Wheat-lea, Whate-ly, and Whit-barrow. 
 
 Saxon towns growing up near the fords of rivers are sampled by 
 Oxford, Bedford, Chelmsford, Guildford, Hereford, Hertford, Stafford, 
 Stratford; towns growing up by river-bridges are Cambridge, Tun¬ 
 bridge, Uxbridge, Weybridge. 
 
 “ The names of places in Britain,” says Emerson, “ are excellent; 
 an atmosphere of legendary melody spreads over the land. Older 
 than all epics and histories, which clothe a nation, this under-shirt sits 
 close to the body. What history, too, and what stores of primitive 
 and savage observation it unfolds !” 
 
 How the Thames H ° W a TI10USand Years A S° the Va -Uey Of the 
 
 valley was a Thames must have looked like a Lagoon dotted with 
 SwampaTh°u- marshy islands, is witnessed by the names of places 
 san ears go. enc ^ n g e0j or e y, Anglo- Saxon for island : Ber- 
 
248 LITERARY 
 
 mondsey, Putney, Battersea, Chertsey, Moulsey, Iffley, Osnea, Whit¬ 
 ney, and Eaton. 
 
 The Common Teutonic Element in England, Germany, and 
 France. —The community between the Anglo-Saxons of England, 
 the Teutons of Deutschland, and the Franks of France is indicated 
 by the names of places common to the three lands. As far back as 
 1605, Yerstegan refers to the community of names in England and 
 Germany. “As the language of the Saxons was altogether different 
 from that of the Britons, so left they very few cities, towns, villages, 
 etc., that they gave not names unto, such as in their own language 
 were intelligible—as the name of Oxford or Oxenford, on the river 
 Thames, after the town of the same name in Germany; our Hereford 
 after Hervordin Westphalia, etc.” Strange to say, in the region of 
 the Neckar most of all, Dr. Taylor has discovered a great nest of 
 local names identical with local names of England, and evidence over¬ 
 whelming that the villages of Wiirtemberg and the villages of England 
 were originally settled by men bearing the same family names. The 
 Aeslingas, e.y., are mentioned in a Kentish charter, we have Aeslinga - 
 forda in the Exon Domesday, and Islington in Norfolk and Middle¬ 
 sex. In Artois we find Islinghem and Eslinghen; in Wiirtemberg, 
 Esslingen, Eislingen, and Aislingen. Again, the Besingas, 
 mentioned in an Anglo-Saxon charter, appear at Bessingham in 
 Norfolk, at Bezingham in Artois, and at Bissingen in Wiirtem- 
 berg. The Birlingas, figuring in a Worcester charter, appear in 
 Birling in Kent, Birlingham in Worcestershire, Barlinghem 
 and Berlinghen in Artois, and Bierlingen in Wiirtemberg. So 
 also we have Booking in Essex, Bouquinghem in Artois, 
 Bochingen in Wiirtemberg.—(Taylor’s Words and Places.) 
 
 How Britain has Inscribed her Name on the World all round, is 
 in good part indicated in the Section GEOGRAPHICAL. In America 
 Virginia refers us to the Virgin Queen of England. Raleigh Island 
 (at entrance of Roanoke Sound), Frobisher’s Strait, Davis Strait, 
 Baffin’s Bay, Hudson’s Bay, Lancaster Channel, Smith Sound, Jones 
 Sound, are all impressed with the names of gallant Englishmen of 
 the brave Elizabethan time. James River, Cape Henry, Cape Charles, 
 Elizabeth County, Smith’s Isles, Smithfield, are records of English 
 colonisations in the reign of James I. Within the continent of 
 Australia, again, quae regio in terris nostri non plena laboris? Sweep 
 all round the coast from Botany Bay to Cape York, then west along 
 the north coast, south along the east coast, and round to Botany Bay 
 again, it all, or nearly all, sounds English and Scotch. Scotch and 
 English are, too, almost all the places scattered broadcast over the 
 interior. Yet in Australia, too, the aboriginal names cling to some 
 rivers and mountains—Warragong, Murrumbidgee, Warrego, etc. 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 SALUTATIONS AND MEALS 
 
 Salutations 
 
 1. Embracing*. —The embrace is a form of salutation hardly need¬ 
 ing to be taught to any nation; the rudest tribes have long ago 
 invented it by themselves. The Australians, the Fuegians, the 
 Andaman Islanders were found practising the art. Vambery found it 
 in full flourish in Central Asia. In Australia, aboriginal brothers and 
 friends on approaching keep their mutual affection in check till, 
 alongside of each other, they throw their arms round each other’s 
 necks and say all sorts of kind things to one another. In the Ballar- 
 dong tribe, friends meeting after absence kiss, shake hands, and 
 sometimes cry over one another. On the Mary River, Queensland, 
 friends after long separation embrace, rub faces, and caress one 
 another. In Early Greece, when Odysseus on his late return home 
 from the Trojan wars makes himself known, Philoitios and Eumaios 
 throw their arms round him and kiss him on head, arms, and shoul¬ 
 ders. In early Jewish history, shaggy Esau meeting his smooth 
 brother after long separation runs to him, embraces him, falls on his 
 neck and kisses him. So, too, the father seeing his prodigal son yet 
 a long way off runs, falls on his neck, and kisses him. 
 
 The embrace is common also in Europe, though somewhat restrained 
 in public. The expression of embracing, ich umarme 
 ICh Dich arme ^ich (I r omid-arm tbee), is the not unusual conclusion 
 of a German letter to an intimate friend. Even a 
 lodger, if a considerable time on friendly terms with the family, will 
 wind up a note to his landlady with an “embrace”, and not even a 
 jealous husband, catching sight in his lodger’s note to his fair wife 
 of the closing embrace, will take it into his head that it means any¬ 
 thing more substantial than an epistolary expression. 1 
 
 Weeping Embraces. —Among the Andaman Islanders, relatives, 
 after a few weeks’ absence, salute one another by sitting down, their 
 
 1 In the time of James I. embracing would seem to have been usual even 
 between men. The Spanish Ambassador being indisposed, James visited 
 him “and gave him a hearty embrace in bed”. 
 
 2-19 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 250 
 
 arms round eacli other’s necks, and indulging plentifully in weeping 
 and loud crying. It is the part of the women to open the weeping 
 chorus, then the men chime in, and so, in groups of three or four, 
 there they sit in fast embrace, taking their fill of weeping and howl¬ 
 ing to show how happy they are. 
 
 2. Kissing. —Half the world needs yet to be taught howto kiss. 
 The Nations still Burmah., in many parts of India, among the Poly- 
 Needing to be nesians, the Tahitians, the Papuans, the Malays, the 
 Taught H°w to Chinese, the Japanese, the Australians, the Eskimo, 
 kissing is still an unknown art. Affectionate, lively, 
 and clever though they be, the Japanese have yet to learn how to 
 kiss. In vain do the lips of Japanese maidens bloom rosy and in¬ 
 viting ; they never win a kiss. Not father or mother kisses their 
 sweet child, nor child his loving father or mother; the Japanese 
 vocabulary has no word for such a performance. The nearest ap¬ 
 proximation to kissing the kissless nations have attained 
 Pe one e Another le11 that °* mu tual smelling and nose-rubbing, or of 
 mutual stroking and patting. Cook’s Voyages describe 
 how the Friendly Islanders, New Zealanders, etc., saluted strangers 
 by joining noses and then taking the hands of the strangers and rub¬ 
 bing them on their noses and mouths. Captain King is even disposed 
 to think that the Sandwich Islanders owe their full nostrils to genera¬ 
 tions of long pressure of the nose-tips. Landing at one of the 
 Navigator Group, Williams saw the .chief take Teava and his wife, 
 Williams’s companions, and rub noses with them long and heartily. 
 Among the Kyoungtha of South-East India, the salutation is, not lip 
 to lip, but mouth and nose to cheek, nor is it a smacking but a strong 
 inhalation which each takes of the other. Instead of kissing they 
 smell one another. On the Gambia, too, the man saluting the woman 
 puts her hand to his nose and smells twice the back of it. The 
 Koiari in New Guinea, on the other hand, salute their friends by 
 chucking them under the chin. Among the Ainos, the men rub 
 their hands together, raise them to the forehead, palms up, and then 
 stroke down their beards, one hand after the other. Even in Lapland 
 Linnaeus saw the people rubbing noses against each other by way of 
 salute. 
 
 The kiss, for all that, enjoys a pretty wide range of popularity. It 
 has been in fashion from earliest recorded time among both the 
 Semitic and Aryan races. Herodotos distinguishes 
 Kisse^in Persia, kisses in Persia into (1) those between equals, lip to 
 ' lip; (2) those from superiors to inferiors given on the 
 cheek. In Africa, on the return of Livingstone to Malakolo, the 
 women rushed forward and kissed the hands and cheeks of their 
 acquaintances among the traveller’s band. The American Indians 
 
SALUTATIONS AND MEALS 
 
 251 
 
 also know how to kiss, though, with their usual repression of emotion, 
 their ordinary kiss is smackless and undemonstrative. In classic 
 Greece it was customary for an inferior to kiss the hand, breast, or 
 knee of a superior. Among the Early Christians the kiss was a sign 
 of fellowship, a custom still retained by Anabaptists. In Ovid, 
 Horace, and the Latin poets generally, are plentiful references to 
 kissing. The kiss of fellowship in the Christian Church got latterly 
 commuted into the kiss of peace at baptism and at the celebration of 
 the Eucharist. This, too, came to be restricted, men to kiss only 
 with men, women with women. Eventually in the West the kiss was 
 safely bestowed on the Osculatorium or tabella pads, a plate with a 
 figure of Christ on the Cross stamped on it, kissed first by priest, and 
 then by clerics and congregation. 
 
 In no land has kissing attained fuller development than in Britain. 
 Pius II. (iEneas Sylvius) in Scotland found the Scotch lasses freer 
 of their lips than Italian ladies of their hands. 
 
 Britain is dis- Erasmus in England could not enough admire the 
 
 K^ssing^and 3, liberality of English ladies in the way of kisses. 
 
 ‘‘There are lasses here”, he writes, “kind, obliging, 
 and far to be preferred to all your Muses. And, what is more, there 
 is a fashion of this land never to be sufficiently extolled. Go to a 
 place, you are received with kisses by all; depart, and 
 How much you are in again for kisses ; return, it is again kisses ; 
 
 EugffsihKise^ they visit you, the first thing is kisses; they leave 
 you, it is kisses again all round. Do you meet them 
 anywhere, it is kisses in abundance. Go where you will, it is nothing 
 but kisses. Ah ! and had you but once tasted them, so soft, so 
 fragrant, your stay here would be, not for ten years only, but for 
 life”. Bulstrode in Sweden, with unsurpassable good will, taught 
 the English salutation with the lips to the fair maids of Queen 
 Christina’s court. 1 
 
 Kissing Day in Berkshire Sleepy Hollow.— The tithing man of 
 Hungerford has on Kissing Day the right to claim a kiss from all the 
 commoners’ wives and their daughters. The annual election this 
 year (1897) took place 27th April, and, while the jury of commoners 
 selected their constable and ale-taster, the tithing men collected the 
 head-pennies and the kisses. Locally, this osculatory revel is known 
 as hock-tide or “ tutty-day ”. The tutty men are en- 
 
 Kissing Day. titled to kiss every woman they meet, and to claim toll 
 from every man. And Knocky is always very particular about this 
 part of his business. “Yes, sir, every woman has to be kissed. It 
 is law. Doesn’t matter where you find her—upstairs, downstairs, in 
 
 1 From letters in Ellis’s collection it appears that in Tudor times the 
 women of England took great offence if not saluted in the form of kissing. 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 252 
 
 the cellar, in the kitchen—all one, they’ve all got to be kissed”. At ) 
 this point of the exposition of Knocky’s duties, the procession reached ji 
 the front of a house in the village-street. Instantly, upstairs ran i 
 (laughing) the daughters of the establishment, to say nothing of f 
 Mary Ann in her cap and apron at a loss for a skulking place. 
 Mamma, who has had tutty-day experiences of her own, smilingly 
 held the door open for the professional osculators. The tutty-men 
 returned smiling triumphantly. They had done their duty. In 
 another house, Grandma protested with a fine show of spirit. She 
 had known tutty-day for seventy-eight years, and was now to know 
 it for the seventy - ninth. The maidens blushed and smiled ; the 
 tutty-men blushed and smiled. 
 
 European sovereigns still kiss one another on the cheek; subjects 
 kiss the hand of their sovereign ; Roman Catholics kiss the Pope’s 
 toe. 
 
 3. Obeisance. — (1) Actual prostration. In Egyptian and Assyrian 
 sculptures, slaves and subjects lie prostrate before kings and chiefs. 
 
 In Dahomey subjects crawl in the dust before the king. Siberian 
 peasants grovel before a noble. (2) Abbreviated prostration. In 
 making obeisance, the Arab touches the ground only with his hand 
 which he then puts to his lips—kissing the ground, not first-hand or 
 literally, but second-hand or figuratively. 
 
 4. Kneeling. —In the Middle Ages it was customary to kneel in 
 homage before the king on one knee. After a play, too, it was the 
 custom of the players to assemble on the stage and kneel in prayer 
 for their patrons. “ Heere the rest of the players come in and kneele 
 downe all togyther ” is a direction given at the end of the Disobedient 
 Child. 
 
 5. Bowing, in token of reverence, was in practice among the early 
 Egyptians. They saluted each other by bowing, lowering the hand 
 to the knee. They also put the hand upon the breast, a custom still 
 in vogue in the East, or bowed down with one or both hands to the 
 level of the knee ; sometimes they placed one hand over the mouth, 
 a custom prevalent also in Persia. Bowing was also a Jewish 
 practice. Jacob bowed himself to the ground seven times before his 
 brother. Among the Jews generally, salutations were freely ex¬ 
 changed between persons of different ranks, and even among 
 strangers at casual meetings. Boaz greeted his reapers; the traveller 
 on the road the worker in the field; the members of a family one 
 another on rising in the morning. A Chinaman’s respect is measur¬ 
 able by the depth of his bow. No people are more polite to one 
 another than are the Japanese. Not even two coolies meet, but they 
 must bow several times to each other, ask after each other’s health, 
 then after that of their families, and so on. Not even little children 
 
SALUTATIONS AND MEALS 
 
 253 
 
 neglect these ceremonies of respect, not a venerable greyhead and a 
 little girl of six meeting each other. In modern England, ordinary 
 bowing in the street is cut down to its most abbreviated form—the 
 curtest nod or toss of the head, with just as much feeling of 
 reverence in the heart of it. 
 
 6 . Uncovering the Head. —Uncovering the head is a wide-spread 
 mode of salutation, originating probably as a sign of disarming or 
 surrender. Jews, Turks, and Siamese uncover, not the head, but the 
 feet. Polynesians and Africans strip to the waist—or farther. In 
 modern England the ordinary uncovering of the head in the street is, 
 if possible, still more reduced than bowing. To touch the hat, as a 
 suggestion of taking it off, is itself ceremonious. More commonly, 
 the hand is lifted towards the hat, a quarter of the way, or less. 
 
 7. Handshaking. —From earliest times handshaking has been 
 regarded as an act symbolic of a compact of peace and friendship. 
 Hindu marriage was ratified by the mutual hand-clasp, as in Rome 
 by the dextrarum junctio. Handshaking was a customary form of 
 salutation in Rome. The Christian Church, too, recognised the 
 right hand of fellowship, so that this form of salutation became co¬ 
 extensive with Christianity. The custom was diffused throughout the 
 Moslem world as well. The Moslems join hands by pressing their 
 thumbs together. Handshaking is practised in Central Asia among 
 the men of Karague, as also among the Masai and other African tribes. 
 In some parts of Africa it is accompanied with the cracking of 
 fingers. The Niam-Niam, says Schweinfurth, extend their right 
 hands on meeting and join them, so that the two middle fingers 
 crack again. The universal form of salutation among the Monbutto 
 is to join right hands, and at the same time crack the joints of the 
 middle fingers. English trade and missions, moreover, have dis¬ 
 seminated the fashion over the obscurer parts of the earth that had 
 not yet invented the custom—among Australians, Fuegians, Eskimo, 
 etc. 
 
 8 . Drinking Healths. —Drinking healths was a custom among the 
 ancient Greeks and Romans. Before gulping down his hemlock 
 Theramenes toasted Kritias—“Here’s to the gentle Kritias ! ”—the 
 head of the thirty tyrants that condemned him to death. Martial, 
 Ovid, Horace are full of allusions to the same custom. The Saxons 
 practised the habit. At the banquet Hengist gave to King Vortigem, 
 Rowena, entering with a cup of wine, said, “Lord King, your 
 health ! ” 
 
 9. Verbal Forms of Respect. —Congo negroes salute their wives 
 with an affectionate okowe, to which they kneelingly reply Ka! ka ! 
 Amongst the Jews the salutation was a greeting of peace, like the 
 
254 
 
 SOCIAL 
 
 Moslem Salam and the Syrian Shelom. The Phoenicians and Baby¬ 
 lonians saluted by wishing life, while Europeans still say Vivat Bex ! 
 Long live the Queen! The Greeks greeted Chaire (be joyful!), the 
 Romans halve or Vale , be well! A salute or salutation means well- 
 wishing The English “ how-do-you-do ” ? (how do—o) corresponds 
 to the Oontmental “comment vous portez-vous ? ”, “ Wie belinden 
 Sm^ich? (Wie geht’sP); “good-bye” to adieu. “Good morn- 
 mg , good-day ”, “ good-night ” is wide as Christendom. 
 
 10 . Other Salutes or Salvoes.— -Discharge of guns, like burying 
 the hatchet; presenting arms (as if by way of surrender) ; lowering 
 sword (and so offering yourself unarmed). In the British Navy two 
 ships of equal rank salute by firing an equal number of guns. A 
 loyal salute in the British Navy is to fire twenty-one great guns, the 
 officers to lower their sword points, and to dip the colours. As mis¬ 
 tress of the sea, England claims the right of being saluted first on all 
 seas. The naval salute to the British Flag dates from Alfred’s reign. 
 I he Dutch agreed in 1673 to strike to the English colours in British 
 seas, and the French in 1704 to tender to England the honour of the 
 flag salute at sea. 
 
 11. Spitting at one Another.— Africa enjoys the distinction of in¬ 
 venting and practising the custom of mutual spitting, by way of 
 salutation, though the custom is now on the decline. Schweinfurth 
 witnessed it only three times, as token of the most affectionate 
 mutual good-will. In Masailand, says Thomson, a damsel would feel 
 shocked if her lover presumed to kiss her, but flattered if he spat in 
 her face. 
 
 Meals 
 
 The classical Greeks had three regular meals a day : (1) breakfast, 
 akratisma (unmixed), of bread dipped into unmixed wine, and 
 taken immediately after getting up; (2) Ariston, luncheon, or 
 mid-day meal, consisting both of warm and of cold dishes; (3) Deip- 
 non, dinner or chief meal, taken before sunset and consisting of barley- 
 bread, vegetables (beans, lentils, onions, etc.) and salad, meat (beef, 
 lamb, goat, pork), variously prepared, and especially sea-fish. No 
 wine was drunk during the meal. The poorer classes, on the other 
 hand, had mostly to content themselves with a paste of barley-meal 
 dried in a dish and moistened before eaten. At table, before the 
 meal, slaves took off the sandals of the guests and washed their feet. 
 Water and towel were then handed them for the washing of hands, 
 a practice repeated after the meal; no knives and forks being yet in 
 use but only metal spoons. Napkins did not come into use till the 
 Roman period. 
 
 In Homeric times men sat at their meals, but later on, as in 
 
SALUTATIONS AND MEALS 255 
 
 Palestine, men got into the habit of roclining at table, two persons 
 together on one conch. In Greece women and children were both 
 excluded from social banquets—a want of gallantry the more dis¬ 
 creditable to the Greeks that the Egyptians before them and the 
 Romans after them both graced their feasts with the presence of their 
 women. After the meal the tables were cleared away, the remnants 
 swept up, the hands washed, and a libation of unmixed wine drunk 
 to the good genius. A psean or hymn of praise was then sung. In 
 Egypt grace was always said before meals. A dessert of fruit (olives, 
 figs, nuts, etc.), sometimes with eggs and cheese, followed the Greek 
 meal. Then began the symposion or drinking-bout of diluted wine, 
 three of water to one of wine. The wine and water were mixed in a 
 krater or large bowl, whence it was poured into the goblets by means 
 of a ladle. The pleasure of the symposion was heightened with talk 
 and riddles, impromptu songs, games, mimetic dances, playing of 
 women on flutes and lyres, etc. 
 
 The Public Messes of Sparta, etc. —By law of Lycurgus, no man 
 or family of Sparta might gormandise at home, but all had to eat in 
 public of the same coarse fare. Not even the kings 
 The Mess rtan were exempt from attendance at the public tables. The 
 6 * chief dish was black broth (melas zomos). Its exact 
 composition we know not. Dionysios the tyrant found it far from 
 savoury. But then, as the cook explained to him, wanting the 
 seasoning of fatigue and hunger the broth was no good. There were 
 fifteen persons to each table, and no member admitted that was not 
 acceptable to the whole company. Each had to bring in so much 
 meal, wine, and cheese, together with a little money for flesh and 
 fish. Children were also brought to the public mess, and, instead of 
 being pampered by indulgent mammas at home, were disciplined in 
 temperance and good breeding. The Syssitia, or public mess, 
 called by the Lakedaimonians Phiditia , was observed likewise in 
 Crete, as also at Megara down to the time of Theognis (544-490 B.c.), 
 and at Corinth in the time of the tyrant Periander (625-585 B.c.). 
 Earlier still the same practice ruled, according to Aristotle, among 
 the Oinotrians in South Italy and at Carthage. 
 
 The Romans had three meals a day ; the jejunium, or jentaculum, 
 about nine ; the coena , in early times the principal meal, at twelve; 
 
 the vesperna in the evening. The early Romans were 
 Roman ea s. ^is^g^gEed by their simplicity, as in other things, 
 so also in their food. Meat was taken by them only exceptionally. 
 Later on, prandium , lunch, was taken at noon, and the coena after 
 bathing, about 3 or 4 p.m. The jejunium consisted of bread, fruit, 
 salt, milk, cheese; the prandium of warm and cold viands with veget¬ 
 ables, meat exceptionally, prolonged dinners only on grand occasions. 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 256 
 
 After the 2nd century b.c., when Rome received the luxuries of all 
 lands, extravagance in eating became a general symptom. Reclining 
 at table, too, was substituted for the earlier habit of sitting. Unlike 
 the Greek ungallantry, women and children shared the Roman meals, 
 even in presence of invited guests. At first masters and servants of 
 the same house had their meals in common in the atrium , or hall. 
 But later on special dining-rooms, triclinia, were built. Before the 
 meal and between courses water was handed round for the washing 
 of hands. In the reign of Augustus napkins came into use at fashion¬ 
 able parties. Yiands were cut up by a special slave, the scissor. The 
 dinner regularly consisted of (1) promulsis or gustatio , boiled eggs, 
 salads, vegetables, crabs, salt fish, with a drink of must and honey; 
 (2) the coena proper, during which diluted wine was drunk, a silent 
 offering being made to the Lares ; (3) dessert of pastry, cakes, fresh 
 and preserved fruits. After the dessert began the comissatio, drink¬ 
 ing proper. 
 
 The ancient Germans lived at first simply on the produce of cattle¬ 
 rearing, hunting and fishing. Their drink was the barley bree or beer. 
 
 German Meals ^ ie P r i nc iP a l m e a l was in the evening, but later on at 
 erman ea . nooru In the Middle Ages there was (1) Morning meal 
 at 4, 5, or latest 6 o’clock—soup, with bread; (2) Midday meal, about 
 11, of meat and vegetables, taken with beer or wine; (3) Evening meal 
 at 6 or 7- In France Louis XIY. regularly dined at 12 noon; in the 
 18th century the dinner-hour was 1. At present in France there is 
 a midday meal, 12 to 1; and dinner, 5 to 7 p.m. In Germany, on 
 getting up, fast is broken with a cup of coffee and a roll; then at 
 9 or 10 is a second breakfast, with bread and butter and a glass of 
 beer; from 12 to 1, dinner; 7 to 8, supper. On the Continent 
 generally business is suspended between 12 and 2. 
 
 At some of Queen Yictoria’s dinner-parties a quaint custom is kept 
 up. As each course is placed on the table, one of the clerks of the 
 kitchen solemnly announces in loud tones the name of 
 the cook who prepared it. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 MARRIAGE, COURTSHIP, WEDDING CERE= 
 MONIES, ETC. 
 
 Marriage : Its Early and General Popularity 
 
 Prescott failed to find one bachelor among the Dacotah Indians. 
 According to Adair, many (American) Indian women looked on virgin¬ 
 ity or widowhood as identical with death. Among the Yahgans only 
 mutes and imbeciles keep single, and almost immediately on the death 
 
MARRIAGE 257 
 
 of one husband a widow finds another. Among the wild nations of 
 South Africa, too, neither men nor women ever pass their lives in 
 celibacy. Very few negroes of the Gold Coast of Africa, says Bos¬ 
 nian, die single — unless quite young. Among the Mandingoes, 
 Caillie met no woman, pretty or plain, without a husband. The only 
 fault the Western Tuaregs found with Barth was his unaccountable 
 celibacy. Among the Singhalese (people of Ceylon) are hardly any 
 old bachelors or old maids. With the exception of a cripple girl and 
 some widows past child-bearing, Marshall met among the Todas 
 (South India) not one adult female unmarried; at the earliest pos¬ 
 sible age lad and lass get tied. The Toungtha never heard of a man 
 or a woman living unmarried after thirty. Among the Cliukmas a 
 bachelor of twenty-five is a rare sight. The Muasis deem it a father’s 
 duty to look out a bridegroom for his daughter so soon as marriage¬ 
 able. The Burmese and the Hill Dyaks of Borneo know, neither of 
 them, of old maids or old bachelors. In Java Crawfurd never saw 
 a woman of twenty-two that was not or had not been married. In 
 Tonga are very few women single for life. Before the breakdown of 
 aboriginal customs, Curr never heard of a woman in Australia over 
 sixteen that had not a husband. Among the Mahometans of the 
 East nothing is rarer than a woman unmarried after a certain time of 
 life. Till recently it was a thing unaccountable to the natives how a 
 traveller staying in Egypt should not get himself a wife. Among 
 Hebrews, as still among the Jews of our day, celibacy was nearly 
 unbeard of. Among the Russian peasantry celibacy is still out of 
 ken. In Japan and China old maids and old bachelors are both un¬ 
 known. 
 
 Marrying Age. —Among the native Californians, Mandans, and 
 most of the north-western tribes of North America, marriage is fre¬ 
 quently celebrated at the age of 12 or 14. It is rare for girls of the 
 wild tribes of Central Mexico to live unmarried after 14 or 15. A 
 bride of the Salamanca Indians is 10 to 14, a bridegroom 14 or more. 
 Among the natives of Brazil a man marries at from 15 to 18; the 
 woman at from 10 to 12. In Tierra del Fuego a girl of 12 or 13 is on 
 the look-out for a husband of from 14 to 16. The Abyssinians, the 
 Djour tribes on the White Nile, the Arabs of Sahara, the Wakamba, 
 etc., all marry very young. When a Singhalese youth is come to the 
 age of 18 or 20, it is the father’s duty to get him a wife. A Kandh 
 boy marries at 10 or 12, his wife usually some four years older. The 
 Khyoungtha, Munda Kols, Red Karens, Siamese, Burmese, Mongols, 
 and other Asiatics, all marry early. Among the Ainos women are 
 marriageable at 16 or 17, men at 19 or 20. Malay boys, according to 
 Bickmore, marry about 16, girls 13 to 14. The Maoris in New 
 Zealand also marry very young. Among the Azteks (Mexico) no 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 258 
 
 man lived single till 22, unless intending to become a priest, and the 
 marrying age for girls was 11 to 18. Among the ancient Peruvians 
 the governor of a district had every year or two years to arrange for 
 the marriage of all young men of 24 or upwards, and of all girls 18 
 to 20. A Chinese youth having attained puberty, whether strong or 
 weak, shapely or misshapen, is called upon by his parents to marry. 
 
 A Russian peasant boy of 18 is told by his parents to marry. 
 
 Statistics show that out of every 1,000 Russian men who get 
 married no fewer than 373 are under the age of 20, while in no other 
 country from which statistics are available is the number of persons 
 marrying under 20 years of age greater than 35 per 1,000, which is 
 the normal figure for England. Scotland comes next with 32. , 
 Sweden stands lowest, only 1 man out of every 1,000 marrying before 
 20. Between 20 and 30 is the most usual age for Englishmen to 
 marry, very nearly three-quarters of all the men marrying being 
 within these limits of age. 
 
 Marriages of men over 50 are most in favour among the Jews, 66 
 out of every 1,000 male Jews who marry having passed their half 
 century. 573 out of every 1,000 women marrying in Russia marry 
 under 20 ; 150 English girls out of every 1,000 who marry are under 
 20; in Sweden only 51 out of every 1,000 are under 20. In England, 
 Scotland, and Prussia 680 out of every 1,000 wives are married at 
 between 20 and 30. Out of 1,000 marriages, in Russia only 6, in 
 Scotland only 9, brides are over 50 years of age. 
 
 When a Man’s Single. —In Sparta a man was bound to marry at 
 30, and criminal proceedings might be instituted against those that 
 refused to marry after that age. 1 In Athens, too, persons not marry¬ 
 ing might be publicly prosecuted. In Rome, according to Cicero’s 
 Be Legibus, the Censors were required to impose a tax on unmarried 
 men. The Lex Julia et Papia Poppcea imposed various penalties on 
 celibates after a certain age, and decreed certain rewards to those 
 who had married and brought up children. In Tlascala (Mexico) 
 a full-grown man unmarried provoked such public indignation that t 
 the people cut off his heir to him. In Corea, according to Rev. J. 
 Ross, the unmarried male does not rauk as a man, but a “ yatow”, j 
 whom, be he 30 or more, any lad of 13 or 14 is free to cudgel, without j 
 the “yatow’s” daring to resent. In Egypt it is disreputable for a ; 
 man of marriageable age not to marry. A Jewish proverb runs, 
 
 “ Who has no wife is no man ”. The Talmud gives to the authorities 
 the right to compel a man to marry, and the man at 20 living single 
 
 1 The Spartans did not admit an old bachelor to the public festivals. j 
 The Ephors made him walk round the market in a single shirt, singing all 
 the while a mocking ditty owning the justice of his punishment for dis- ; 
 obedience of the laws. Nor had he any right to the forms of respect with . 
 which the young greeted the old. 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 259 
 
 is pronounced to be accursed of God, like a murderer. The ancient 
 Aryans looked on celibacy as an impiety and a misfortune. By the 
 Laws of Mauu marriage is a religious duty, incumbent on all. The 
 Brahmadharma teaches how till he find a wife a man is but half of a 
 whole. The Hindus of the present day look on an unmarried man as 
 a useless member of society and beyond the pale of nature. Women 
 are obliged to marry, and those who cannot find a husband fall into 
 concubinage. The ancient Iranians considered it a matter of course 
 for a girl of the age of puberty to get married. The Santals look on 
 a man single after he lias reached a marriageable age as “no man ”. 
 The Kafirs admit no bachelor to a voice in the Kraal. The Tipperahs 
 deem a bachelor a “ person of no importance”. The Tupis (Brazil) 
 will have no bachelor at their drinking feast. The Fijians held that 
 a man dying wifeless was stopped on the road to Paradise and smashed 
 to atoms. 1 
 
 Restraint of Marriage. —The Spartans did not allow a man to 
 marry till the age of 30, and the Greeks generally thought it well of 
 a man to postpone marriage till a ripe age. The Germans, according 
 to Csesar, deemed it scandalous for a man to enter into intimate 
 relations with a woman before 20. Tacitus, too, makes the marrying 
 age of their young men late, nor are their maidens hurried into 
 marriage. Among the Zulus cattleless young men have often to 
 wait many years before getting married. Respectable elderly 
 maidens are to be found among the Munda Kols and Hos (India)— 
 young women selling at a high price. In the New Britain group the 
 purchase sum of a bride is so high that the intended is middle-aged 
 before he can marry. Among a considerable number of tribes in 
 which polygamy prevails the women are bought up by the rich and 
 powerful, and many of the poorer men have to live wifeless. 
 
 The Munda Kols (in Chota Nagpore) look on celibacy as purer than 
 marriage. A Tahitian living celibate for some months before death 
 passed at once, without any purification, into his eternal mansion. 
 The Shawanese (American Indians) render great respect to certain 
 persons observing celibacy. The Aborigines of Brazil, the Papuans 
 of New Guinea, certain tribes in Australia, the Khyoungtha of the 
 ChittagongHills, and the Khevsurs of the Caucasus require continence 
 from newly-married people for some time after marriage. Dr. V. 
 Schroeder believes he can trace a similar custom back to the primitive 
 
 1 In 1695, Eastham, Massachusetts, voted that every unmarried man in 
 the township should kill six blackbirds or three crows yearly so long as 
 single, and in de r ault not to get married till he had made good all arrears. 
 Maryland, in 1766, imposed a tax of 5s. a year on every bachelor over 25 
 possessed of £100, and of £1 a year on all bachelors over 25 possessed of 
 £300. 
 
260 SOCIAL 
 
 times of the Indo-European race. In ancient Mexico the Mazatek 
 bridegroom kept apart from his bride the first fifteen days of wedded 
 life. In Fiji husband and wife usually do not sleep under the same 
 roof ; spending the day with his family, the man absents himself on 
 the approach of night. In the Marquesas, a man to become a priest 
 had to live celibate several years previously. In Patagonia the 
 wizards were not allowed to marry, a prohibition applying also to the 
 priests of the Mosquito Indians and of the ancient Mexicans. In 
 Peru, virgins dedicated to the sun lived secluded>ll their lives; and 
 besides the professed virgins of the monasteries other women of the 
 blood royal lived chaste in their own houses. In Mexico, certain re¬ 
 ligious women were bound to chastity for one year. Like the Homan 
 vestals and certain Greek priestesses (those of the virgin goddesses 
 Athene and Artemis, etc.), Persian sun-priestesses, according to 
 Justinus, lived virgins. Pomponius Mela records that the nine 
 priestesses of a Gallic deity in Sena were consecrated to perpetual 
 virginity. However sensuous the religious rites of the Babylonians, 
 the Canaanites, and the Phoenicians, some priestesses of the Temple 
 .of Istar-Bilit were dedicated to life-long virginity. Buddhist priests 
 are bound to perpetual monkhood, and the Buddhistic “ Dhammika- 
 Sutta” teaches a man to avoid married life as a burning pit of live 
 coals. The conception of Buddha’s mother, according to the legend, 
 was supernatural. In Tibet some sects of Lamas are permitted to 
 marry, but those not marrying are considered more holy. The nuns 
 of every sect take vows of absolute continence. 
 
 Among the Hebrews the Essenes esteemed celibacy a virtue. 
 Christ speaks in commendation of those who made themselves 
 eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven’s sake. The followers of the 
 Lamb on Mount Zion are 144,000 bachelors. St. Paul holds celibacy 
 to be better than marriage, and wishes all men celibates like himself. 
 Origen looked on marriage as impure. Tertullian urges celibacy 
 even if mankind should perish. According to St. Augustine the 
 unmarried children will far outshine their parents. Though marriage 
 fill the earth, it is virginity, says St. Jerome, that replenishes 
 heaven. By end of the 4th century the Christian. Church insisted 
 on the celibacy of the higher grades of ecclesiastics ; in the 11th 
 century Gregory VII. enforced it on all the clergy. 
 
 Courtship 
 
 Among the Moquis in New Mexico, according to Dr. Broeck, it is 
 the fair one that chooses the swain to her fancy, and her father pro¬ 
 poses the match to the lucky youth’s father. Among 
 Breaks the°lce ^ie Gar os (of East Indies) it is the duty of the girl to 
 speak first, any infringement of this rule being severely 
 punished. Among the Ainos, too, according to Batchelor, the pro- 
 
MARRIAGE 261 
 
 posal of marriage comes first from the girl. This womanly preroga¬ 
 tive rules also in Polynesia, among the Kafirs of Ratal, and among 
 certain tribes in Oregon. 
 
 Among many savage tribes, competitors for the same woman fight 
 it out with one another, and the conqueror, wins the prize. It was 
 common among North American Indians to fight, for 
 None but the possession of the women. Among the ancient 
 
 Bri the Fair ™ 6 Hindus, when a princess became marriageable, a tour- 
 nament used to be held, and the princess fell as prize 
 to the victor. According to Pindar, Antaios, king in Kyrene and 
 father of a fair-haired daughter, planted the whole company of suitors 
 at the end of the race-course, and the foremost in the race to touch 
 her garments got her for bride. In the Iliad women are the chief spoils 
 of war, and the argument of the Epic is the strife between Agamemnon 
 and Achilleus for Chryseis. The Odyssey, too, closes with a shooting- 
 match, in which the prize is Penelopeia. Arthur Young tells how in 
 the interior of Ireland in his time when the people of a place agreed 
 that a young woman should get married they appointed a hurling- 
 match on the Sunday following, and the victor in the game got the 
 fair one to wife. In the village of Michaelsburg, in Transylvania, no 
 man wa3 allowed to marry unless he could carry from the bed of the 
 river to the top of a high rock a stone weighing between two and three 
 hundred-weight. By this provision the villagers aimed at preventing 
 weaklings from marrying and reducing the hardihood of the race. 
 
 In all°parts of the world the decoration of the person is strongest 
 in the marrying but unmarried season of life. The Dacotahs of 
 America, the Oraons of India, the Let-htas of Indo- 
 it is in the China, all alike deck themselves in unmarried youth. 
 
 | STadland The young unmarried men of Fiji don their best 
 Lasses put on all plumage. Asked why he wore ornaments, an Aus- 
 their Finery. tra ]i an ° answere( i > “To look well and please the women”. 
 The unmarried youth of a Chittagong Hill tribe stuff a large ball 
 of black cotton into their top-knot of hair to make it look bigger. 
 The marrying is the tattooing age for both boys and girls. In Samoa 
 no young man might think of marriage.till tattooed. To Darwin the 
 tattoo ornamentation gracefully following the curvature of the body 
 had a very pleasing and elegant effect. 
 
 Bride-Capture 
 
 The practice of wife-lifting still prevails in various parts of the 
 world, and prevailed to a far greater extent in past times. The in¬ 
 habitants of one of the Aleutian islands make raids into the others 
 to carry off their women. The Bonaks of California take women in 
 battle from other tribes. The Caribs used to capture women out of 
 other tribes. The capture of women in the Homeric times has ( already 
 
262 SOCIAL 
 
 been alluded to. In the Spartan marriage, the pretence of carrying 
 off the bride by force was kept up in memory of the good old custom. 
 Wife-capture still occurs occasionally in Greece, according to Sakel- 
 larios. The Romans got their first wives by seizing on the Sabine 
 women, and one of the ceremonies kept up in Roman marriage was 
 for the bride on reaching her husband’s house to be lifted over the 
 threshold. Sir J. Lubbock finds a similar custom prevalent among the 
 American Indians, the Chinese, and the Abyssinians. A young Kol 
 (of North-east India) will, with a party of friends, carry off a girl I 
 publicly, struggling and screaming, and no one presumes to interfere. | 
 On the wedding day the Mantras of the Malay Peninsula give the 
 bride a start, and if the bridegroom fail to catch her he forfeits her. 
 
 A Greenlander of last century would pounce on an unprotected female 
 and carry her off, and the form still prevails at a wedding. The 
 carrying off of the bride by pretended violence is an essential of the 
 wedding ceremony among the Araucanians, and it is a point of honour 
 with the bride, however willing, to resist and struggle. In the 
 Bechuana wedding the bridegroom casts an arrow into the hut of the 
 bride. Among the Maoris the general way of getting a wife was for the 
 man to gather together a party of his friends and carry off the woman 
 by force, apparent or real. The Tangutans, Samoyedes, Wotyaks, 
 etc., are still in the habit of stealing wives or eloping with their sweet¬ 
 hearts, when unable to pay the fixed purchase-sum. On the east coast 
 of Greenland the only method of contracting a marriage is, says 
 Nansen, for the man to go to the girl’s tent, catch her by the hair 
 or any other handle, and drag her off to his dwelling.! 
 
 Wife-Purchase 
 
 The Old Testament gives instances of a man earning his wife by 
 services rendered to her father. The custom is still widespread 
 among the uncivilised races of America, Africa, Asia, and the Indian 
 Archipelago. Often, but not always, it is only those too poor to pay 
 the purchase-sum down that have to work tliqir matrimony. In some 
 cases he has to serve beforehand, in others he gets her in advance. 
 More commonly, however, a man pays for a wife in property. In the 
 books of Ruth and Hosea we hear of the man buying his wife. In 
 
 1 Dr. Clarke, in his Travels, says: “The ceremony of marriage among " 
 the Kalmucks is performed on horseback. The girl is first mounted and 
 rides off in full speed. Her lover pursues. If he overtake her, she be- ~ 
 comes his wife, and she returns with him to his tent. If she do not wish 
 to marry her pursuer, she will take care he does not overtake her. We 
 were assured that no instance occurs of a Kalmuck girl being thus caught, f 
 unless she have a partiality to the pursuer. If she dislike him, she rides 
 neck or nought until she have effected her escape or until her pursuer’s , j 
 horse be exhausted.” The hapless lover, having paid the stipulated 
 price before the run, loses both pay and lady-love. 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 263 
 
 the marriage ceremonies of the Jews there is, acccording to Michaelis, 
 still a sham form of purchase. In Mahometan countries, marriage 
 is still, practically, a matter of purchase. This custom prevailed also 
 among the Chaldmans, Babylonians, and Assyrians. In the Homeric 
 age a maid was called alphesiboia (bringing in oxen)— i.e ., yielding 
 her parents oxen as presents from her suitor. Among the ancient 
 Thrakians marriage was by purchase. And in modern times the 
 Indians of Oregon buy their wives for horses, blankets, or buffalo 
 robes. The Navajos of New Mexico think twelve horses should buy 
 the best damsel going. Among the Kafirs three, five, or ten cows 
 was a cheap price, twenty to thirty dear. In Tartary a daughter 
 fetches so many horses, oxen, sheep, or pounds of butter. In the 
 Caroline Islands the man makes to the father of the girl he wants to 
 marry a present of fruits, fish, etc. ximong the Fijians the bride- 
 price is a whale’s tooth or a musket. In Unyoro, according to Emin 
 Pasha, a man unable to pay the due number of cattle pays by instal¬ 
 ments, the children born meantime belonging to the wife’s father, 
 and redeemable each with a cow. In Japan the proposed husband 
 sends his bride certain prescribed presents, and, these accepted, the 
 contract is ratified. In Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan Wilson had 
 many times the chance of getting a wife for a coat or a pair of shoes. 
 In the Mangoni country the price is two buckskins; among the 
 Bondo negroes a goat. In Servia at the beginning of this century 
 the quotations for girls ran so high that Black George had to reduce 
 their price to one ducat. The second Duke of Chandos is said to 
 have bought his second wife in 1741 from her husband, an ostler, in 
 Newbury. 
 
 Wedding Ceremonies, etc 
 
 There was no form of religious contract in the marriage ceremonies 
 of the ancient Hebrews, nor is there in the Scriptures any trace of 
 priestly consecration of marriage. Among the Romans, there were 
 three modes of marriage— Confarreatio, Coemptio, and Usus. In the 
 Confarreatio a cake of spelt (panis farreus) was offered to Jupiter 
 in presence of the pontifex and flamen Dialis with ten witnesses. 
 Confarreatio was performed in the house of the bridegroom, whither 
 the bride had been conveyed in state, and included contract, giving 
 away of the bride, and conduction to her husband’s house. The Co - 
 emptio took the form of sale : the father delivered his daughter, and 
 she declared her consent; the bridegroom giving the bride earnest- 
 money, or a ring in its stead. The Usus corresponded to Handfasting 
 in this country. If the woman lived a year in the man’s house with¬ 
 out absenting herself for three nights consecutively, the marriage was 
 valid. A wedding among the classic Athenians began with certain 
 preliminary rites, proteleia, consisting of prayers and sacrifices, offered 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 264 
 
 particularly to Hera (Juno). The bride was conducted by her parents 
 to the Acropolis into the Temple ot‘ Athene, whose blessing they en¬ 
 treated with sacrifice. On the wedding day the bride and bridegroom 
 bathed in water brought from the spring of Callirhoe; in cities other 
 than Athens from some special river or spring. The bride’s father pro¬ 
 vided the wedding banquet, whereto women, usually excluded from 
 men’s society, were invited. In the evening the bride was conducted 
 to her new home in a carriage drawn by mules or oxen. Following 
 the carriage came friends and relatives singing the bridal hymn to 
 the accompaniment of flutes. Among them the bride’s mother bore 
 the wedding torch kindled at her own hearth. At the door of the 
 bridegroom’s house, adorned with green branches, the bridal pair 
 were received by the bridegroom’s mother with torch in her hand. 
 The pair then entered their new home, amid the cheers of the in¬ 
 mates, while showers of all kinds of fruits and sweatmeats rained on 
 them. The bride ate a quince, symbol of fertility. She was next 
 conducted to the adorned bridal chamber and given to the bride¬ 
 groom. Before the door of the chamber were sung the epithalamia 
 or bridal songs. 
 
 The Throwing of Rice has now in England displaced the earlier 
 custom of strewing herbs, flowers, and rushes on the way to church. 
 
 The Joining: of Hands, or the bridegroom’s taking the bride by the 
 hand, is one of the most important marriage ceremonies among all 
 „ , Indo-European families. The custom prevails also 
 
 ymg e no . amon g Orang-Banuwa of Malacca. Among the 
 Yeddahs of Ceylon the bride ties a thin cord of her own twisting 
 round the bridegroom’s waist, and then do they become husband and 
 wife. The Hindu bridegroom and bride have their hands bound to¬ 
 gether with grass. The bridal ceremonies among the Gonds and 
 Korkus include eating together, tying the garments together, dancing 
 together round a pole, getting half drowned together under a douche 
 of water, and interchange of rings. The wedding ring was in fashion 
 among the ancient Hindus. In Croatia the bridegroom boxes his 
 bride’s ears—as an earnest of what she is to expect. In Russia in 
 olden times the father first whipped his daughter and then handed the 
 whip over to the bridegroom. Among the Romans the wedding feast 
 was held in the bride’s house. The Wedding Cake (mustaceum), 
 made of meal steeped in must and placed on bay leaves, was cut up 
 and given to the guests. 
 
 In Wales, it used to be the habit, previous to the solemnization, 
 for the parents of the couple to gather their friends at 
 monies^ 6 Wales, their separate houses. To the bride’s house came men 
 and women on horseback, bringing cheese, butter, flour, 
 sugar, tea, etc. The women drank tea in an apartment by them- 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 265 
 
 selves. The men drank potations of cwrw, and left such sum as they 
 chose or could afford. At the bridegroom’s, men chiefly assembled, 
 and, after entertainment, they left a pecuniary present and retired. 
 £20, £30, or even £40 was sometimes collected on such an occasion, 
 by way of giving the young couple a start. 
 
 One of the observances at a Servian marriage is to 
 How the Servian make the bride stand on a table with bread, water, 
 ?o n speakiittie C and an( I wine in her hands, as a sign that she is to have 
 that little sweetly, those articles in her care, and to hold a piece of sugar 
 in her mouth in token that she must speak little and 
 that little sweetly. 
 
 Marriage up a Tree. —One of the customs of the Negritos of the 
 Philippine Islands is to celebrate their weddings in trees. In pre¬ 
 sence of the whole tribe the affianced pair climb two trees growing 
 near each other. The elders then bend the branches until the heads 
 of the couple meet. When their heads touch, the ceremony is com¬ 
 pleted, followed up by feasting and dancing. 
 
 Handfasting was a mode of marriage by simple mutual consent. 
 The couple handfasted were bound to each other for a year, after 
 which they were free to either separate or become formally united. 
 In 1794, the minister of Eskdalemuir, Dumfries, mentions an annual 
 fair held time out of mind at the meeting of the Black and White 
 Esks. There the unmarried of both sexes used to choose each a 
 companion to his or her liking with whom to live till the same day 
 next year. If at the end of the year pleased with each other, they 
 continued together for life; if not, they parted and were free to make 
 another choice. Were any child born, it belonged to the disaffected 
 person. In the Isle of Portland, near Weymouth, young women 
 were wont to betroth themselves to lovers of the same place and 
 allow them the privilege of husbands, sure of being made wives if any 
 child were born. The dances of Megara in Greece on Easter Tues¬ 
 day are renowned for wife-choosing; and till lately in Brittany on 
 Michaelmas day girls sat in a row decked in all their finery on the 
 bridge of Penze near Morlaix—and let every gallant young man that 
 would keep his heart whole fly the fatal bridge on that fatal day ! 
 
 Rosemary at Weddings. —It was an old country custom to deck 
 the bridal bed with sprigs of rosemary. In Shakspeare we find 
 allusions to the bridal use of rosemary. Juliet’s nurse asks Romeo, 
 “ Doth not rosemary and Romeo begin both with a letter ? ” And 
 she intimates Juliet’s fondness for him by saying, “ She hath the 
 prettiest sententious of it, of you and rosemary, that it would do you 
 good to hear it”. Rosemary was used also at funerals, as the same 
 play denotes. Friar Laurence and Paris, with musicians, on Juliet’s 
 intended bridal day, entering her chamber and finding her dead on 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 266 
 
 her bed, surrounded with mourners, direct the rosemary prepared for 
 the wedding to be used in the offices of her burial:— 
 
 “ Stick your rosemary 
 On this fair corse ; and, as the custom is, 
 
 In all her best array, bear her to church 
 
 It was usual at weddings to dip the rosemary in scented waters. 
 In Beaumont and Fletcher’s Scornful Lady , it is asked, “ Were the 
 rosemary branches dipped ? ” The twofold use of rosemary is be¬ 
 tokened in the couplet:— 
 
 “ Grow for two ends, it matters not at all, 
 
 Be’t for my bridal or my burial 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies among the Anglo-Saxons.— At the wedding 
 there was a gathering of friends. A great loaf made by the bride 
 was brought forth and distributed among the guests. Barrels of 
 specially brewed beer, the “ bride ale” (whence our word “bridal”), 
 were tapped. The beer was drunk to the health of the bride and the 
 brydguma , i.e. bridesman ( bridegroom , as we now name it). A 
 sum agreed upon beforehand was paid to the bride’s father, the lady 
 then gave her consent and the bridegroom his promise and “ wed 
 The bridegroom was also required to say what he meant to give his 
 bride for choosing to become his wife, and, in the event of her 
 widowhood, what to bequeath her. This was called the morning gift 
 (morgen gifu) given by the husband to his wife the morning after 
 the wedding. 1 The bridegroom’s friends became surety for his good 
 behaviour, the bride’s for hers. 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies in England in the 18th Century. —On the 
 
 marriage of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1736, the princes of the 
 royal family undressed the prince, and the princesses the bride. In 
 bed in a rich undress the bride was visited by her father-in-law 
 and then by the bridegroom in a night gown of silver stuff and a cap 
 of finest lace. The court next paid a visit to bride and bridegroom 
 sitting up in bed attended by all the royal family. After this stage 
 there followed in most households the ceremony of flinging the stock¬ 
 ing, scrambling for garters, and drinking of sack posset. 2 
 
 1 This corresponds to the German Morgengabe, a present in earlier times 
 given. at every marriage, but later on only at the weddings of the nobles. 
 The legal requirement of a Morgengabe was by Edict done away with in 
 Saxony in 1839. 
 
 2 Under date 8th February, 1662, Pepys writes: “ Married they were with 
 ring and all other ceremonies of Church service, and ribbands, and a sack 
 of posset in bed, and flinging the stocking *\ And again under date 
 31st July, 1665, he says: “ I got into the bridegroom’s chamber while he un¬ 
 dressed* himself, and there was very merry till he was called to the bride’s 
 chamber, and into bed they went. I kissed the bride in bed, and saw the 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 267 
 
 Closed Marriage Seasons. —In the Sarum Missal, the following 
 are the prohibited seasons :—From Advent Sunday until the octave 
 of the Epiphany; from Septuagesima Sunday until the octave of 
 Easter; and from Rogation Sunday until six days after Pentecost. 
 In Pond’s Almanack for 1868 is the following : “ Marriage comes in 
 on the 13th of January, and at Septuagesima Sunday it is out again 
 until Low Sunday; then it comes in again and goes not out till 
 Rogation Sunday ; thence it is forbidden until Trinity Sunday, from 
 whence it is unforbidden until Advent Sunday ; but then it goes out 
 and comes not in till the 13th of January”. The following rhyme 
 enumerates the open and closed times :— 
 
 “ When Advent comes do thou refraine. 
 
 Till Hillary set ye free again ; 
 
 Next Septuagesima saith thee nay. 
 
 But when Low Sunday comes thou may; 
 
 Yet at Rogation must thou tarry 
 Till Trinitie shall bid thee marry 
 
 The modem Roman Catholic Church forbids marriage from the 
 first Sunday in Advent till after the 12th day, and from the begin¬ 
 ning of Lent till Low Sunday. Such was the rule also in England 
 before the Reformation. 1 
 
 Marrying Times. —Whitsuntide was formerly a favourite marrying 
 season. Like the Romans, our ancestors tabooed May for marriage 
 celebration. “ The girls are all stark mad that wed in May ” ; “ From 
 marriages in May the bairns all die and decay”; “Who marries 
 between the sickle and the scythe will never thrive”. The most 
 popular marrying months in Europe are November and February. 
 January comes next, then May and October. 
 
 Nothing is more shocking to Maidens and Brides than the idea 
 of Marriage. —According to Crantz’s History of Greenland , your 
 Esquimaux damsel when asked in marriage falls at once into ap¬ 
 parently extreme consternation and flies out of doors tearing her 
 hair; for single women always affect the utmost bashfulness and 
 aversion to any proposal of marriage lest they should lose their 
 reputation for modesty. Burckhardt, too, tells us how among the 
 Sinai Arabs decency obliges a bride during the procession to her 
 husband’s camp, to cry and sob immoderately. Of the Muzos (of 
 
 curtains drawne with the greatest gravity that could be, and so good¬ 
 night”. 
 
 In Scott’s Marmion reference is made to the drawing of the curtains :— 
 
 “ Queen Katharine’s hand the stocking threw. 
 
 And bluff King Hal the curtain drew ”. 
 
 1 By a Canon of 1603 the clergy were prohibited from celebrating mar¬ 
 riage at any time other than between 8 and 12 a.m., but, this has been 
 recently modified by an Act extending the hours. 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 268 
 
 South America) Piedrahita says that after agreement with their 
 parents “ the bridegroom came to see the bride and stayed three days 
 caressing her, to which she responded by pommelling him with her 
 fists and with sticks ”. Among the Mapuches it is a point of honour 
 with the bride, however willing she may be, to resist and struggle 
 against getting married. 
 
 Marriage Ages of some Distinguished Men.— Henry VIII. first 
 married at 19; Shakspeare at 18; Bacon at 45; Edmund Spenser, 42; 
 Chaucer, 26; Addison, 44; Milton, 35; Dryden, 32 ; John Bunyan 
 and Shelley, 19; Southey, 21; Sheridan, 24; Thomas Howat, 25 ; 
 Thackeray, 26; Kingsley, 25; Carlyle, 30; Browning, 33; Dr. 
 Johnson at 26 (to widow Porter, 20 years older); Edmund Burke, 
 27; J. S. Mill, 45; Gladstone, 26 ; Lord Salisbury, 27. 
 
 Some Distinguished Bachelors. —Virgil, Michael Angelo, Blaise 
 Pascal, Swedenborg, Kant, John Locke, Boyle, Cowper, Whittier, 
 Walt Whitman, Macaulay, Pitt, Swift, Goldsmith, Gibbon, Hume, 
 Pope, Thomas Gray, James Thomson. A grand ball was given by 
 eighty-four bachelors at Kensington House. The Bachelors’ Club 
 in London numbered, in 1891, 800 members. 
 
 Distinguished Spinsters— Hannah More, Mary Bussell Mitford, 
 Harriet Martineau, Maria Edgeworth, Jane Austen, Eliza Cook, 
 Adelaide Procter, Joanna Baillie, Emily Bronte. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 DANCING AND HARVEST HOME 
 
 Dancing 
 
 In one form or other dancing is co-extensive with man from earliest 
 recorded times. The early Egyptians, and the early Greeks after 
 them, deemed music and dancing indispensable part of an enter¬ 
 tainment. In ancient religions universally, dancing was one of the 
 chief acts of worship. With song and dance religious processions 
 wended to the Egyptian temples. The Cretan chorus sang to Apollo. 
 Zeus himself danced in the midst of the other deities. Terpsichore, 
 daughter of Zeus, was the Muse that presided over dancing. Apollo 
 is called the orchestes, dancer. Orchestra in the Attic theatre names 
 the large semi-circular space in front of the stage, on which the 
 chorus danced. The Phrygian Corybantes danced to drum and cym¬ 
 bal in honour of Rhea. In the yearly festival of Mars the Salian 
 priests sang and danced. Venus in Virgil’s ZEneid is known by her 
 graceful step. Among the Jews Miriam danced to the song of triumph. 
 David danced in procession before the ark. During Corpus Christi 
 
DANCING 269 
 
 Octave a ballet is every evening danced before the higb altar of 
 Seville Cathedral. 
 
 In Homeric Greece the sons and daughters of princes and nobles 
 joined in the religious and social dance. Dancing in Greece aimed 
 at the representation of sentiment and thought, and exercised the 
 whole body alike, feet, arms, hands. Dancing was imitative acting. 
 Latterly, however, as in Home also, a prejudice arose against social 
 dancing, unless on the part of professionals. Greeks and Romans 
 both eschewed “ promiscuous dancing” as much as did our English 
 and Scotch Puritans. In Egypt, too, it was not customary for the 
 upper classes to indulge in this pastime, either in public or in private. 
 With the Greeks it became usual to have professional musicians and 
 dancers to entertain guests. 
 
 The performances in the worship of Apollo and Dionysos consisted 
 mainly in choral dances; sometimes a solemn march round the Altar, 
 sometimes a livelier measure. The Greek drama was a development 
 of the Dionysiac dancing chorus, and dancing formed part of all Greek 
 dramas. In the Dionysiac dance the most illustrious men of the 
 State displayed their rhythmic paces, representing Titans, Cory- 
 bantes, satyrs, and husbandmen. From the very earliest times the 
 Ionians and surrounding islanders were wont to gather at the little 
 island of Delos, bringing with them their wives and children. There 
 the cities celebrated choral dances. In the hymn to Apollo it is sung 
 how— 
 
 “ At other times, Phoebus, Delos is dearest to thy heart, 
 
 Where are gathered together the Ionians in flowing robes, 
 
 With their wives and children in thy street, 
 
 There do they delight thee with boxing and dancing and song **. 
 
 (Jowett’s Thoukydides.) 
 
 Among other festivals in which dancing was a feature was the 
 Panathenaia, celebrated at Athens every year, and every fourth year 
 the great Panathenaia. At the Hyakinthia, celebrated every year 
 at Amyklai, were choruses of youth and dances. The Gymnopaidia 
 was celebrated every July at Sparta for ten days with dances and 
 songs. The Caryatls, in honour of Artemis of Caryai, was cele¬ 
 brated at that town by dances of the noblest Spartan maidens. 
 
 Morris Dance. —The Morris Dance was wont to accompany May 
 Day games and Whitsun ales, and still lingers in some parts of 
 England. Supposed to derive from the moors, it is a dance, says 
 Blount, wherein were usually five men and a boy dressed in a girl’s 
 habit called Maid Marian. Its introduction into England is assigned 
 to the time of Edward III. when John of Gaunt returned from 
 Spain. The chief performers in the dance were Robin Hood, Maid 
 Marian, the hobby horse or dragon, and the fool. The Morris 
 
SOCIAL 
 
 270 
 
 dancers Lad tLeir garments decked with bells all sounding in tbe 
 lively motions—the fore, second, and treble bell, the tenor or great 
 bell, and double bell. The principal dancer was dressed in a cloak 
 of gold lace and an embroidered jerkin. The hobby horse showed 
 the head and tail of a horse with trappings reaching to the ground 
 to conceal the actor’s feet; he had to imitate the curvetings of a 
 horse, its pranks, ambles, false trots, smooth ambles, and Canterbury 
 paces. 
 
 A tract of 1609 entitled “ Old Meg of Herefordshire” etc., claims 
 Hereford as a place matchless for Morris dancing: “ The courts of 
 kings for stately measures; the city for light heels and nimble 
 footing ; the country for shuffling dances; western men for gambols ; 
 Middlesex men for tricks above ground; Essex men for the hay ; 
 Lancashire for hornpipes; but, for a Morris Dance, Herefordshire 
 puts down not only all Kent but very near (if one had line to measure 
 it) three-quarters of Christendom. Never had Saint Sepulchres a 
 truer ring of bells ; never did any silk weaver keep braver time with 
 the knocke of the bell; never had the dancing horse a better tread of 
 the toe; never could Beverley fair give money to a more sound 
 taborer; nor ever had Bobin Hood a more deft Mayd-Marian 
 
 The Girls’ Tomb Dance. —At St. Ives, Cornwall, once every five 
 years, ten girls, natives of the borough and daughters of seamen, 
 fishermen, or tinners, are chosen, each not more than ten years old. 
 to dance for a quarter of an hour at least between 10 and 12 a.m., 
 on a plot of ground adjoining the mausoleum of John Knill, who died 
 1811. His will directs the girls to be arrayed in white, to wear white 
 rosettes, to have their hair elaborately curled and frizzed for the 
 occasion. It also provides £5 to be divided equally among them. 
 The fiddler who plays gets £1, and two widows of sixty-four or 
 upwards, present to certify that the ceremonies have been duly per¬ 
 formed, get each £1. After the dance the old version of the tenth 
 Psalm is sung. Does the dance of these white young maidens really 
 entertain John Knill in his mausoleum ? Is the door of his mau¬ 
 soleum opened on the occasion for him to feast his eyes on so sweet 
 a sight P Or how after such a sight can John bear to skulk back 
 again into his dark and damp tomb ? Surely the fair budding maidens 
 might let him have a gratuitous dance or two in the course of the 
 long five years’ interval ? 
 
 Harvest Home 
 
 Among the ancient Egyptians the harvest home, at the close of the 
 labours of the year, was celebrated with great rejoicings. They in¬ 
 dulged in feasting; games were celebrated in the principal towns in 
 which the competitors contended for prizes of cattle, skins, etc. The 
 
HARVEST HOME 
 
 271 
 
 Jews, too, celebrated the feast of harvest and the vintage feast with 
 shoutings and singing and the dances of virgins. The ancient 
 Persians had a feast of ingathering lasting six days in September. 
 The Hindus still celebrate their harvest feast in September. Primitise 
 or firstfruits were sent to Apollo’s Temple in Delos by people of 
 every nation, including the Hyperboreans. 
 
 In England the harvest home was variously known in different 
 counties as mel-supper, churn-supper, harvest-supper, etc. The 
 churn-supper was so called because it was customary to produce in 
 a churn a great quantity of cream to be circulated among the feasters. 
 Ale is now, however, more in request. 
 
 In some parts of Suffolk and Essex, after the harvest home feast, 
 there remained the “ Hallooing Largess ”. At the beginning of the 
 reaping a leader was appointed, generally the best of the reapers, and 
 called the lord. At the end of the harvest labours, he and the 
 husbandmen were borne home on the last load of grain. The wives 
 and children and friends followed in procession, displaying the imple¬ 
 ments used during the harvest with green boughs, a sheaf of wheat, 
 and perhaps a flag or two of handkerchiefs. Arrived at the farmer’s 
 house, they were entertained to a harvest home feast, attended 
 generally by the neighbouring farmers. This over, the husbandmen 
 assembled on some height near by and lustily called out, “Holla, 
 holla, holla— Largess ! ” The “Holla” they repeated quick, reserving 
 all their strength for the word “Largess”. “Largess” was repeated 
 so often as largess was received. On a clear, still night the shout of 
 “largess” might be heard to a great distance, and the lengthened 
 sound was very peculiar and pleasing. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 NUMERATION AND NOTATION 
 
 Arithmetic and Civilisation 
 
 Nothing perhaps more graphically brings home a sense of the pro¬ 
 gress of civilisation than the contemplation of the passage from the 
 Arithmetic is a arithmetic the savage, able to count with difficulty 
 graphic Metre of up to 6, to the arithmetic that determines the law of 
 Civifisation 1 universal gravitation and calculates to a nicety the 
 mutual position of any two stars at any particular 
 point of a time ranging into aeons behind and aeons ahead. From 
 the bare notion of two or three to absolute precision 
 higher 1 Arithmetic. calculation alike of magnitudes infinitely large and 
 molecules infinitely small—is a step. Should any one 
 at any time feel disposed to depreciate the value of education, let him 
 only contrast the boy holding with both hands his racked head in the 
 attempt to solve his first sum in addition of 4 figures, 
 T ArShmetfc in and S two deep two hroad, with the same boy at 16 or 17 
 the same Boy after disposing easily of a stiff equation bristling with 
 metfca?Trafnin h P owers > square roots, cube roots, factors within fac- 
 me ica raining. J. Qrg ^ a com pli C ation of numbers, such as to affect with 
 
 permanent giddiness or cramp even the best head, not arithmetically 
 trained, trying to solve it. 
 
 Numeration and Notation 
 
 The Aborigines of the Australian deserts and of the South 
 American forests have, by general consensus of travellers’ reports, 
 no single digit or sign of number higher than 4. The 
 The Pr ^ttf ve JJ-an \ ow tribes of Brazil are said to count commonly by 
 than 2 or 3. their finger-joints, so up to 6 only. Any larger num¬ 
 ber is with them “many”. The Puri vocabulary 
 numbers 1, 2, and “many”. The Tasmanians count “ 1, 2, and 
 plenty ”. The Watchandie scale of notation is 1, 2, many, and very 
 many. Yet, driven to extra arithmetical exertion, 
 traSancounts the Watchandie tribe will express 3 as 2-1, 4 as 2-2. 
 2 and l for 3; Queensland numerals are “ 1, 2, 2-1, 2-2” ; after that 
 2 and 2 for 4. < 4 more than 2-2 ”, i.e. much or many. The Kamilaroi 
 
 numeration is 1, 2, 3, 2-2, 2-3, 3-3. Numbers higher than 6 have not 
 
 272 
 

 ^NUMERATION AND NOTATION 273 
 
 ) yet found, among these Australian and American savages, expression 
 in articulate words, but still sensuously cleave to the natural arith¬ 
 metic of the fingers . 1 
 
 Finger Arithmetic.—The first thing commonly serving as signs of 
 numbers are he fingers (digits), which a man finds ready to hand. 
 
 Greenland arithmetic has the word “ tatdlimat ” (sup- 
 P os ed to have once meant ‘ hand’) for 5; 6 is “ on the 
 Greenland. other hand one ” ; 7 , “on the other hand two”; 13, 
 “on the first foot three”; 19, “on the other foot 
 I four” ; 20 is a “man ended”. Greenland arithmetic, having counted 
 off one man completely, fingers and toes, i.e. up to 20, can ascend to 
 still higher flights of the art by taking up a 2nd, a 3rd, even a 4th 
 . man. 53, for example, they express by “on the tim'd 
 tionmEariy 3, man on the first foot three”. If you confine your 
 Greece, and still basis of numeration to the fingers of one hand, your 
 m Meiane^ia. and arithmetical scale is quinary, ending with five. The 
 Greek pempazein, to count, literally, “to five”, i.e. 
 reckon up in fives, and the Greek pempastes, reckoner, literally 
 “ fiver ”, i.e. reckoner up in fives, shows how at one time the five 
 fingers limited the scale of numeration. A quinary notation is still 
 registered also in the Polynesian arithmetic, which runs 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 5 ; thence the numbers proceed 5-1, 5-2, 5-3, etc. ; likewise in the 
 Melanesian numerals, which run 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; then second 1 (6), 
 second 2 (7), etc. A numeration at once quinary and 
 decimal is showrf in the Fellata series 1 ... 5 ; 
 
 Decimal Notation. 5—1., 5-2 . . . 10 ; then 10-1, 10-2 ... 15 ; 
 
 then 15-1 ... 20, and so on. A deaf-and-dumb boy, Oliver 
 Caswell, “learnt to count as high as 50 on his fingers, but always 
 fived, reckoning, for instance, 18 objects as “both hands, one hand, 
 three fingers”. The Roman notation, too, is both quinary and 
 decimal: I., II. . . . V., YI. . . . X., XI. . . . XV., 
 XVI., etc. (see E. B. Tylor’s Primitive Culture). 
 
 The ten fingers determine the decimal basis of counting, i.e. 
 arranging numbers of things more than ten in groups, each of ten. 
 
 Children at first still count by the fingers, and a boy is 
 The Basis of a considerable way on in ciphering before he finally 
 dotation / 1 dispense with this prototypical scaffold of the decimal 
 scale. Many a one, no ionger boy or girl, will now and 
 again fall back on this natural notation of digits. Tram and ’bus 
 passengers have still recourse to these mute indices, two fingers or 
 three being held up for a twopenny or a threepenny ticket. 
 
 i The dual number in Egyptian, Arabic, Hebrew, Sanscrit, Greek, Gothic 
 and Anglo-Saxon grammar is deemed by Dr. Wilson relic of a primitive 
 arithmetic which counted definitely up to 2 , but slumped all numbers be¬ 
 yond 2 in indefinite plurality. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Scores as 
 Symbols of 
 Number. 
 
 274 
 
 A system of finger-counting in Early Greece, Italy, and tlie East 
 represented units and tens on the left hand ; hundreds and thousands 
 on the right. The thumb and forefinger of the left 
 Operation^may Land denoted tens, those of the right hundreds. The 
 be Performed other fingers of the left hand were units; those of 
 thJ^r^r^aion^ the right, thousands. On the left hand, again, the 
 fourth finger bent denoted 1; the third and fourth 
 bent, 2; the middle, third, and fourth bent, 3 ; the middle and third 
 bent, 4; middle alone bent, 5 ; third alone bent, 6. Then the fourth 
 finger closed was equal to 7 ; and so on. 
 
 Even yet in Eastern Europe finger-counting is in extensive use, and 
 various positions and arrangements of fingers have higher values 
 attached to them, such as allow of reckoning to as high as 10,000. 1 
 
 Score (A.-S. Scor, from Sceran, to cut) points back to a time when 
 count was kept of things by making scores, or lines of incision, a 
 mode not yet quite out of fashion even in this country. 
 Strokes are still used in delivering milk at the door, 
 in landing small packages from ships, in scoring on the 
 door of the ale-house the number of pints drunk. Such 
 The Romans scores or “ tallies ” are mostly grouped in fives. 
 Nailed .the Years Romans kept count of the fleeting years by driving 
 
 in of Minerva^ 6 a nail each year into the Temple of Minerva. Series 
 of strokes up to four or five are to be found in old in¬ 
 scriptions in most lands. For a high number, however, a series of 
 single strokes is cumbrous and confusing. 
 
 The Early Egyptians represented 1 by the sign I ; 2, by 11 ; 3, by 
 
 III : 4, by llll ; 5, by Mill ; 6, by III III ; 7, by Mil III ; 8, by 
 
 Nil INI; 9, by III III III; 10, by fl; 11, by IH; 
 12, by HO; 20, by OO; 21, by IOO; 30, by 
 
 0 00; 100,000, by a frog; 1 million, by the arms 
 
 stretched out in exclamation ; 10 millions, by O. 
 Alphabetic After the invention of alphabetic writing, the 
 Letters as Signs successive letters of the alphabet became available as 
 of Number. s ig lls 0 £ numbers, each succeeding letter representing 
 First Letter of a nrnnber higher by one than the preceding. Better 
 Expressing a still, the initial letter of the word expressing the 
 Number, as sign number became used as sign of the number. The 
 of that Number. Q ree j c iuscriptions, e.g ., used I for 1 ; II for 2 ; 111 for 
 3 ; llll for 4; but, after that, the Capital II (ente) for 5; A(eka) for 
 10 ; H(ekaton) for 100 ; X(ilioi) for 1,000; M(yrioi) for 10,000. Again, 
 
 1 The Watchandie tribe of Australia, who have no definite numeral 
 higher than 2, was once required to state the exact number of natives 
 slain on a certain occasion. After many failures and fresh starts, one of 
 the tribe solved the problem by holding up his hand three times to indi¬ 
 cate 15. 
 
 The Numeral 
 Signs of the 
 Egyptians. 
 
NUMERATION AND NOTATION 275 
 
 to express 50, the Greeks made use of II with a A(eka) in it; to 
 express 500, II with H(ekatou) in it. 
 
 The twenty-four letters of the Ionic Alphabet were also used to 
 express respectively the numbers 1 to 24. The books 
 'homer’Tpoems of Homer’s Poems are each numbered alphabetically. 
 1 are Numbered At the present time one has often recourse to this 
 Alphabetically. m0( j e 0 f numbering. It is usual to number paragraphs 
 by either English or Greek letters, or after the letters of the one 
 alphabet are exhausted to take up the letters of the other alphabet. 
 
 The next step made by the Greeks (as also by the Hebrews) in the 
 art of representing numbers was to distribute their cursive alphabet 
 The Greek Alpha- into three groups of nine letters each ; the first group 
 bet distributed to denote units, the second tens, the third hundreds. 
 Xn of nine Letters S The twenty-seven letters needed for this purpose 
 each; one for were obtained by adding to the Greek alphabet of 
 SrTen^aifd'the twenty-four letters, the Phoenician ? for 6, Koph for 
 third for 90, and Sampi for 900. Units, tens, and hundreds, 
 
 Hundreds. were therefore represented by the Greeks as follows :— 
 
 Units (“PySest-oO 
 
 Umts ^12-3 4 56 789 
 
 lens | 1Q 20 30 4Q 6Q 60 70 80 9Q 
 
 TTnnrtiWU f P <rTV 4 > X'/'^3 
 inmaieas| 100 200 3o:) 400 500 600 7(j0 80() 900 
 
 To express thousands, the device was hit upon of subscribing an 
 
 iota («) beneath the respective units : a , e.g., repre- 
 
 How Higher sented 1,000 ; 0, 2,000. The Greeks also struck out a 
 
 Expressed 616 multiplicatory contrivance, i.e., yM = 3x10,000 = 
 
 30,000. 
 
 The Roman signs of numerals are so familiar as hardly to need 
 specification here. 1 I, V, X, L, C, D or Io, M denote respectively 
 
 1 The following is the Roman notation in full, with all the variations 
 
 occurring in different books 
 
 1 I 
 
 2 II 
 
 3 III 
 
 4 IIII, IV 
 
 5 V 
 
 6 VI 
 
 7 VII 
 
 8 VIII, IIX 
 
 16 XVI 
 
 17 XVII 
 
 18 XVIII, XIIX 
 
 19 XVIIil, XIX 
 
 20 XX 
 30 XXX 
 
 40 XXXX, XL 
 50 L 
 
 430 CCCC 
 500 D, IQ 
 600 DC, IqC 
 700 DCC, loCC 
 800 DCCC, IoCCC 
 900 DCCCC, IoCCCO 
 1,000 CIO, M, oo 
 2,000 ciooio,ncic,mi 
 
 9 Villi, IX 
 
 10 X 
 
 11 XI 
 
 12 XII 
 
 13 XIII, XIIV 
 
 14 XIIII, XIV 
 
 15 XV 
 
 60 LX 
 70 LXX 
 80 LXXX, XXC 
 90 LXXXX, XC 
 110 C 
 200 CC 
 300 CCC 
 
 5,000 Iqq.V 
 
 10 000 CClOO 
 
 50,000 1030 
 
 103,000 ccciooo 
 1,030,000 ccccioooo 
 
276 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 1, 5, 10, 100, 500, 1,000. At an earlier period the Roman sign for j| 
 
 100 was, according to Dr. Taylor, 0, assimilated to C j| 
 
 Numerals! 1 as the initial of Centum. M did not stand for 1,000 
 till after Augustus. 
 
 The scheme of assigning multiple value to the position of a sign is 
 brought into connection with the Greek and Roman 
 and the S Numerai ^^ acus boards, in which a space on the right was 
 utilisation of a appropriated to units, the next space to the left to 
 Position. tens, the next to hundreds, the next to thousands, and 
 so on. 
 
 Our present system of nine single figures to represent severally the 
 nine numbers, 1 to 9, with the addition of Zero, offering the immense 
 advantage of the assignment of value to positions to 
 Notation 1 and 1 its tight or 1° goes by the name of Arabic numeral M 
 introduction into notation, though its Indian origin has been un- 
 EU the e Arabs USh e d u i voca tiy determined. The knowledge of Indian 
 numerals of this description reached Bagdad, it is be¬ 
 lieved, before the end of the 8th century. Published and explained 
 next century by an Arab mathematician, the system became known 
 in Europe in the 12th century, as Algorithm—after the name of 
 the expounder, By the 14th century the numeral figures were 
 The incompar- practically determined in their present shape. Our 
 able Happiness current system of arithmetical notation was not intro- 
 ° f invention an duced into England till the 16th century, and after its 
 introduction long continued to be confined to the 
 universities. In tablets of the 15th century, the number 4 is carved 
 in the stone, not according to the pattern 4, but 8, a sign intended * 
 probably as expression of half 8. 
 
 The excellence of the system is the representation of the nine 1 
 numerals, each by one single sign, and the use of the cipher. The 
 
 figures thus offer all the advantage of an Abacus in re- " 
 indian°No a taWon s pect of the assignment of value to position. By 
 Compared. merely shifting a figure one place to the left, it is * |j 
 raised in value ten times; one place to the right, it is 11 
 lowered in value ten times. Thereby one and one make no longer 
 two, but eleven. Should any one want to realise the superiority of 
 our Indian to the old Roman numerals, let him but try the following 
 sum in simple multiplication, without having recourse to our figures:— 
 
 MDCCCXCYII 
 
 XLIII 
 
 Truth to tell, the Romans themselves put aside their numeral signs < 
 altogether when performing numerical calculation, 
 ^cuiation^. 1 ' such as addition or subtraction. They had recourse 
 to the Abacus, or to a box (loculus) of pebbles (calculi) 
 
NUMERATION AND NOTATION 
 
 2 77 
 
 and a board (tabula) whereon were the pebbles arranged in rows. 
 The term “calculate ” itself indicates how the Romans calculated. 
 
 The Roman notation was in use in Britain from the 
 Negation ^ mQ of the Roman occupation of the island down 
 ruled in Britain, through the rule of both Saxon and Norman. It is in 
 and is h nS; it et Ule R° raan characters that the Domesday Book accounts 
 quite ended. are registered. Even long after the introduction of the 
 Indian notation, the dotations of the Colleges of Oxford 
 and Cambridge and their annual accounts continued to be all recorded 
 in Roman characters. Indeed the Roman characters still continue 
 to keep their ground in Western Europe iu recording dates, indexes, 
 and monumental inscriptions. But for all purposes of calculation the 
 immense superiority of the Indian notation is beyond dispute. “ The 
 idea,” says La Place, “of expressing all numbers by nine figures, 
 having each at once an absolute value and a value of position, seems 
 so simple that its very simplicity hides its admirability. The device 
 is entitled to the rauk of one of the most useful inventions. How 
 much culture the invention cost may be in part inferred from the fact 
 that it did not dawn on the mind of either Archimedes or Apollonios 
 of Perga, two men of the most profound genius of antiquity”. See- 
 ing that for the expression of all numbers above 9 
 Arithmetic is the Indian notation hinges wholly on position and the 
 Ciphering. principle of position on the use of the cipher, Ind : an 
 arithmetic is often called “ ciphering”—a word derived 
 from the Arabic sifr. In his Dreem , Chaucer, who, while in Italy, 
 may have seen the new cipher, refers to the Arabic numerals as the 
 “ figures newe”. 
 
 It is worth noting how whereas the British tril- 
 antfthe Continen- ^ on ^ ldS 19, the Continental has but 13, figures, 
 talTrillion. 5,000,000,000,000 reads, e.g., in English 5 billions , but 
 on the Continent and in America 5 trillions. It is 
 however easier to say either billions or trillions than to definitely 
 appreciate such numbers. A billion seconds , e.g., 
 H Ras&?to i »y S means 31,678 years, 17 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, and 
 than to think. 5 seconds. Or a billion sovereigns laid side by side 
 would compose a chain passing round the globe 736 
 times, or one golden zone 26 feet 6 inches wide—a 
 Sovereigns would s t reet gold hroad enough for ’buses to drive abreast 
 make a street on. Or stretch the chain out in one straight line and 
 °the^world^ & will reach a little over 18,328,455 miles. A decillion 
 is expressed by 1 and 60 ciphers. 
 
 Symbols of Arithmetical Operation. —The period (.) to mark the 
 division between an integral number and decimal fractions following 
 it, owes its first introduction to John Napier, the inventor of loga- 
 
278 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 ritlims. In his Rabdologia, published 1617, he uses (p. 21) “1993, 
 273 to signify 1993 integers and ToThT* or > as Stevmus 
 o?the V Decimai has it, 1993, 2' 7' 3'"’\ Stevin, to whom Napier thus 
 Period. refers, is Simon Stevin, of Bruges, whose tract in 
 Flemish contains the earliest notice of decimal frac¬ 
 tions, which, in his French translation of his tract, he calls “ Nom¬ 
 inees dedisme”. In 1619 Napier, in his Logarithmorum Canonis 
 Constructs, for the first time in history introduced the period (') in a 
 decimal sense : “ So 25'803 is the same as 25 t 8 (£j 3 o. Also 998'0U05021 
 is WgySJHftw, and so 011 
 
 The mark =, for the sign of equality, was first introduced by 
 Robert Recorde, Fellow of All Souls’ College, Oxford, 1531. He was 
 teacher of arithmetic and mathematics at Cambridge, 
 The inventor 154.5, the first to write in English on the higher walks 
 of Equality; of arithmetic, on geometry, on astronomy, and the doc¬ 
 trine of the sphere; the first Englishman, moreover, to 
 adopt the Copernican system, a man whose great services to England 
 were rewarded with confinement to King’s Bench Prison, where he 
 died about 1588. This mark of Recorde’s was taken up by Napier, 
 who defines it in these words : “ Betwixt the parts of an Equation 
 that are equal to each other, a double line is interposed, which is the 
 sign of equation 
 
 The sign y, greater than, and <^, less than, were the 
 other Arith f introduction of Thomas Harriot, in his Artis Analyticce 
 metical Signs. Praxis. The sign +, plus, for addition, was started by 
 Michael Stifel in his Arithmetica Integra, published 
 1544. The sign —, minus, for subtraction, is also traced up to Stifel. 
 
 The sign x , into, for multiplication, was the invention of Oughtred, 
 Etonensis, in his Claris Mathematica, published 1631, the most 
 famous mathematician then in Europe, according, to Lilly the 
 astrologer. The sign -5-, divided by, for division, was introduced by 
 the Arabians. Before them, however, the Hindus had placed the 
 divisor under the dividend, though without the line of separation. 
 
 Classes of Numbers 
 
 1. Natural, Odd, Even. —The series of integral numbers, 0, 1, 2, 3, 
 Numbers- etc., i s ca U ec i the series of natural numbers. It is, 
 
 Natural, Odd, again, divided into the series of even numbers, each 
 ?ube Prime 6 ’ divisible by 2 without remainder, 0, 2, 4, 6, etc.; and 
 ’ ' of odd numbers, none of which is exactly divisible 
 
 by 2—1, 3, 5, 7, etc. 
 
 2. Squares, Cubes, etc., are products of numbers, each multiplied 
 so many times into itself. Thus, 1, 4, 9, 16, etc., are square num- 
 
NUMERATION AND NOTATION 279 
 
 bers; 1, 8, 27, 64, etc., are cube number's; 1,16,81, 256, etc., are 
 fourth powers, and so on. 
 
 3. Prims Numbers. —A prime number is one not exactly divisible 
 by any number except unity and itself, such as 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 
 17, 19, 23, 29, etc. All other numbers are called Composite. Two 
 numbers, not both exactly divisible by one whole number greater 
 thau 1, are said to be prime or incommensurable to each other, such 
 as 6 and 25. No prime number, other than 2, is even, nor can any 
 prime number, other than 5, end with 5. The number of prime 
 numbers up to and including 641, is 115 ; up to 10,000, 1230; between 
 10,000 and 20,000, 1,033; between 20,000 and 30,000, 985. The 
 highest number yet shown to be prime is 2,147,483,647. 
 
 4. A Figurate Number is any one out of any of the following 
 series, with the exception of the first: 
 
 Series 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 etc. 
 
 r. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 21 
 
 etc. 
 
 ii. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 56 
 
 etc. 
 
 in. 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 70 
 
 126 
 
 etc. 
 
 IV. 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 56 
 
 126 
 
 252 
 
 etc. 
 
 Y. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 84 
 
 210 
 
 462 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 Each number in the above table is the sum of the numbers in the 
 preceding row: thus 10 = 1 + 3 + 6; 35 = 1 + 3+6 + 10 + 15; 15 = 1 + 4 
 + 10; and so on. 
 
 xPerfect 5. A Perfect Number is one which is equal to 
 
 Redundant, the sum of its divisors, itself excepted. Thus 6 ( = 1 
 
 Defective, -+ 2 + 3); 28 (=1 + 2 + 4 + 7 +14) are perfect numbers, 
 mica e. a Redundant Number is one the sum of 
 
 whose divisors is greater than itself, e.g., 12, w 7 hich is less than 1 + 2 
 + 3+4 + 6. 
 
 7. A Defective Number is one which is greater than the sum 
 of its divisors, e.g. 10, which is greater than 1 + 2 + 5. 
 
 8. Amicable Numbers are a pair of numbers, either one of 
 which is equal to the sum of all the divisors of the other. Thus 
 220 ( = 1 + 2 + 4 + 71 + 142) and 284 (=1 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 10 + 11 + 20 + 22 
 + 44 + 55 + 110) are amicable numbers, as are also 17,296 and 18,416, 
 9,363,583 and 9,437,056. 
 
 Properties of Numbers 
 
 1. The sum or the difference of any two even numbers, oc of any 
 Relations of Odd, ^ w0 °dd numbers, is an even number. 
 
 Even, and Consel 2. The sum of any number of even numbers, or of 
 cutive Numbers. an even number of odd numbers, is an even number, 
 whereas the sum of an odd number of odd numbers is odd. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 280 
 
 3. The product of any number of even numbers is even; of any 
 number of odd numbers, odd. 
 
 4. The difference between any power of an odd number and the 
 number itself is an even number. 
 
 5. The product of any number of consecutive numbers is even, or 
 divisible by 2 ; of three consecutive numbers is divisible by 6 ; of 4 
 consecutive numbers by 24; of five by 120. 
 
 6. The difference of the squares of any two odd numbers is divi¬ 
 sible by 8. The difference between a number and its cube is divisible 
 
 by 6. 
 
 ^Oubes^etc 618 ' Any prime number that, on being divided by 4, 
 leaves 1 for remainder, is the sum of two square num¬ 
 bers. Thus 41=52 + 42; 137=ll 2 + 4 2 . 
 
 8. The sum of the odd numbers beginning with 1 is a number equal 
 to the square of the number of terms added. Thus l + 3 = (2 2 ) 4; 
 1 +3 + 5 = (3 2 ) 9; l+3 + 5 + 7=(42) 16. 
 
 9. The sum of the cubes of the natural numbers is the square of 
 the sum of the numbers, e.g ., 1 3 + 2 3 =(1+2) 2 ; l 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 =(l+ 2+ 3) 2 ; 
 l 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + 4 3 = (1 + 2 + 3 + 4) 2. 
 
 10. The square of any odd number is odd. 
 
 
 The Babylonian Notation. —The Babylonians had a sexagesimal 
 notation, i.e. a notation counting, not by tens and multiples and sub- 
 The Babylonian multiples of ten, but by sixties, 60 being a number of I 
 Sexagesimal greater divisibility than any other. The sun’s daily 
 iiowEurope a has round, which they measured at 360 degrees, the Baby- 
 Retained it in the lonians divided into 24 parasangs (=720 stadia). Each 
 Division of Time. p arasan g or h our> again, was subdivided into 60 
 minutes. This system, introduced into Greece (and Europe) about 
 150 B.c. by Hipparchos, was further confirmed and diffused by the 
 authority of Ptolemy 150 a.d., and survives to the present. Even 
 The Duodecimal the iconoclastic zeal of the French Revolution, which 
 System in English remodelled weights and measures and reckoning gener- 
 ^^Measm-es 11161 a ^y. a ^er the decimal system, yet spared the sexa¬ 
 gesimal or Babylonian division of the day. A duo¬ 
 decimal system so far prevails also in English coinage, inasmuch as 
 the shilling is divided into, not ten, but. 12 parts. 
 
 Community of the Names of the Numerals in the Aryan 
 Languages. —The languages of the Aryan or Indo-Germanic race 
 The Names of the have all essentially the same names for their numerals. 
 Numerals from 1 This fact, full of interest and significance, proves how 
 tlanj^the^ame^n decimal system must have been elaborated, and the 
 ail the Aryan numbers, from 1 to 100, received their names, before 
 Languages. the di S p ers i 0 n of the Family and their differentiation 
 
_ 
 
 NUMERATION AND NOTATION 281 
 
 into distinct nationalities and tongues. The table on pp. 282-3 illus¬ 
 trates how much the names given to the numerals when our Aryan 
 ancestors still lived together in their primitive home have been re¬ 
 membered and faithfully handed down from generation to generation, 
 notwithstanding all the differentiating influence of wide diversity of 
 habitats, histories, and fortunes. 
 
 In the ordinals also there is a striking resemblance among the Teu¬ 
 tonic languages (see page 284). 
 
 The following is a list of Welsh, Erse, and Gaelic numerals :— 
 
 
 Welsh. 
 
 Erse. 
 
 Gaelic. 
 
 1 
 
 un 
 
 aon 
 
 aon 
 
 2 
 
 dau 
 
 do 
 
 da 
 
 3 
 
 tri 
 
 tri 
 
 i ri 
 
 4 
 
 pedwar 
 
 ceatair 
 
 ceithir 
 
 5 
 
 pump 
 
 cuig 
 
 coig, cuig 
 
 G 
 
 chwech 
 
 se 
 
 se, sea, sia 
 seachd 
 
 7 
 
 saith 
 
 seact 
 
 8 
 
 wyth 
 
 oct 
 
 ochd 
 
 9 
 
 naw 
 
 noi 
 
 naoth 
 
 10 
 
 deg 
 
 deic 
 
 deich 
 
 11 
 
 'un-ar-ddeg 
 
 aon-deag 
 
 aon-deug 
 
 12 
 
 dau-ar-ddeg 
 
 do-deag 
 
 dha-deug 
 
 13 
 
 tri-ar-ddeg 
 
 trideag 
 
 tri-deug 
 
 14 
 
 pedwar-ar-ddeg 
 
 ceatair-deag 
 
 ceithir*deug 
 
 15 
 
 pymtheg 
 
 cuig-deag 
 
 coig-deug 
 
 16 
 
 un-ar-pymtheg 
 
 se-deag 
 
 se-deug 
 
 20 
 
 ugain 
 
 flee 
 
 fichead 
 
 21 
 
 un-ar-ugain 
 
 aon-ar-fiee 
 
 aon-thar-fhichead 
 
 30 
 
 deg-ar-ugain 
 
 triocath 
 
 deich-ar-fhichead 
 
 36 
 
 unarpymtheg- 
 
 ar-ugain 
 
 se-deag-is-fice 
 
 
 100 
 
 cant 
 
 ceath 
 
 ceud 
 
 1000 
 
 mil 
 
 mile 
 
 deich ceud, mile 
 
 The Welsh express 36 by “ unarpymtheg ar ugain,” i.e. one and 
 fifteen over 20 ; the Gaelic for 51 is “aon deug is da fichead,” one ten 
 and two twenties. The Bretons, too, express a number like 71 by 
 “ unnek ha triugont,” eleven and three twenties. So, too, the 
 French still say for 73 “ Soixante-treize ” (60-13), for 93 “ quatre- 
 vingt-treize ” (4-20-13). A certain hospital even goes by the name 
 of “ Les Quinze-Vingts,’ , from its 300 inmates. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 282 
 
 
 Sanskrit. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 Lithuanian. 
 
 O.H. Germ. 
 
 M.H. Ger. 
 
 Gothic. 
 
 Old Nd 
 
 1 
 
 eka-s 
 
 et?, en¬ 
 gine) 
 
 un-us 
 
 wien-as 
 
 ein 
 
 ein 
 
 ain(s) 
 
 ein| 
 
 
 clva-u 
 
 duo 
 
 duo 
 
 du 
 
 zwene 
 
 zwene 
 
 tvai 
 
 tvei 
 
 3 
 
 tray.-as ' 
 
 treis, tri 
 
 tres 
 
 tr.ys 
 
 drl 
 
 dri 
 
 threis 
 
 thrij 
 
 4 
 
 katvar-as 
 
 tettares 
 
 quatuor 
 
 keturi 
 
 vior 
 
 vier 
 
 fidvor 
 
 flow 
 
 5 
 
 pankan 
 
 pente 
 
 qumque 
 
 penki 
 
 fhnf 
 
 vunf 
 
 fimf 
 
 fimni 
 
 G 
 
 shash 
 
 hex 
 
 sex 
 
 szesi 
 
 sells 
 
 sells 
 
 saihs 
 
 sex^ 
 
 7 
 
 saptan 
 
 kept a 
 
 septem 
 
 septyni 
 
 si bun 
 
 siben 
 
 sibun 
 
 siaui 
 
 8 
 
 aslitau 
 
 ok to 
 
 octo 
 
 asztuni 
 
 alito 
 
 aht 
 
 ahtau 
 
 attsfl 
 
 9 
 
 navan 
 
 ennea 
 
 novem 
 
 clewyni 
 
 niun 
 
 niun 
 
 niun 
 
 niu 1 
 
 10 
 
 clasan 
 
 Seka 
 
 decern 
 
 deszimt 
 
 zelian 
 
 zelien 
 
 taihun 
 
 tiu 1 
 
 11 
 
 eka clasan 
 
 en-cleka 
 
 un-clecim 
 
 wieno-lika 
 
 ein-lif 
 
 ein-lif 
 
 ain-lif 
 
 e\-lifi 
 
 12 
 
 dva-dasan 
 
 do-deka 
 
 duo-clecim 
 
 dwy-lika 
 
 zwe-lif 
 
 zwe-lef 
 
 tva-lif 
 
 tolf 
 
 13 
 
 
 treis-kai- 
 
 deka 
 
 eikosi 
 
 tre-decim 
 
 clri-zelian 
 
 dri-zen 
 
 thria-tai- 
 
 thrett| 
 
 20 
 
 vi(n)sati 
 
 viginti 
 
 ,, 
 
 zwein-zug 
 
 zweinzec 
 
 hun 
 
 tvai 
 
 tut-tuj 
 
 30 
 
 .. 
 
 triakonta 
 
 triginta 
 
 .. 
 
 dri -zug 
 
 dri-zec 
 
 tigjus 
 
 threis 
 
 thriat} 
 
 70 
 
 saptati 
 
 hebdome 
 
 septua- 
 
 
 sibunzo 
 
 siben-zec 
 
 tigjus 
 
 sibun-te- 
 
 siotij 
 
 100 
 
 satam 
 
 konta 
 
 ginta 
 
 
 
 zehenzec 
 
 hund 
 
 taihun- 
 
 
 liekaton 
 
 centum 
 
 szimtas 
 
 zehanzo 
 
 liundert 
 
 te-hund 
 
 hundrij 
 
 1000 
 
 dasa-sati 
 
 xhioi 
 
 mille 
 
 tukstantis 
 
 •• 
 
 tusent 
 
 •• 
 
 d 
 
 For the sake of comparison, a list is subjoined of the names of the ij 
 first ten numerals in languages other than Aryan :— 
 
 
 Hebrew. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Syriac. 
 
 Eastern Turkish. 
 
 Mongol. 
 
 1 
 
 echad 
 
 wahad 
 
 chad 
 
 bir 
 
 nige 
 
 2 
 
 shnayim 
 
 ethnan 
 
 treyn 
 
 iki 
 
 gojer 
 
 3 
 
 shlosha 
 
 thalathat 
 
 tlotho 
 
 utsch 
 
 churban 
 
 4 
 
 arbaa 
 
 arbaat 
 
 arbo 
 
 tost 
 
 diirban 
 
 5 
 
 kbamisha 
 
 khamsat 
 
 chamisho 
 
 bisch 
 
 taban 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 shisha 
 
 shiva 
 
 sittat 
 
 sabaat 
 
 shitho 
 
 shavo 
 
 alty 
 
 yidi 
 
 djirohn 
 
 dolobn 
 
 8 
 
 shmona 
 
 thamaniat 
 
 tmonyo 
 
 sekis 
 
 naiman 
 
 9 
 
 tisha 
 
 tessaat 
 
 tesho 
 
 tochus 
 
 jisun 
 
 10 
 
 asara 
 
 aasherat 
 
 eesro 
 
 on 
 
 arbau 
 
 I 
 
NUMERATION AND NOTATION 
 
 283 
 
 mai). 
 
 m 
 
 vei 
 
 rei 
 
 ier 
 
 Uif 
 
 shs 
 
 )ben 
 
 3ht 
 
 eun 
 
 2hn 
 
 ilf 
 
 v r olf 
 
 izehn 
 
 anzig 
 
 jiszig 
 
 lenzig 
 
 ndert 
 
 isend 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 0. Frisian. 1 
 
 Old Saxon. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 A.-Saxon. 
 
 0. English. 
 
 Scotch 
 
 en(ett) 
 
 een(eet) 
 
 en 
 
 en 
 
 een 
 
 an 
 
 an, on 
 
 ane 
 
 tva 
 
 tre 
 
 fyra 
 
 
 twene 
 
 tuena 
 
 twee 
 
 twegen 
 
 tlni 
 
 twey, tuo 
 
 twa 
 
 
 thre 
 
 thria 
 
 drie 
 
 thre 
 
 three 
 
 
 fiwer 
 
 tiwar 
 
 vier 
 
 feower 
 
 four 
 
 fowr 
 
 fern 
 
 fif 
 
 fif 
 
 vijf 
 
 fif 
 
 five 
 
 five 
 
 sex 
 
 sex 
 
 sex 
 
 sehs 
 
 zes 
 
 six 
 
 sixe 
 
 sax 
 
 syv 
 
 aatte 
 
 si sun 
 
 sibun 
 
 zeven 
 
 seofon 
 
 seuen 
 
 saeven 
 
 atta 
 
 achta 
 
 ahto 
 
 acht 
 
 eahta 
 
 eigte, 
 
 aught 
 
 aight 
 
 ni5 
 
 tio 
 
 elfva 
 
 ni 
 
 nigun 
 
 nigun 
 
 negen 
 
 nigon 
 
 nyne, nye 
 
 nine 
 
 ti 
 
 tian 
 
 tehan 
 
 tien 
 
 tin 
 
 ten 
 
 ten 
 
 elleve 
 
 and-lova 
 
 (el-lif) 
 
 elf 
 
 end- 
 1 uf on 
 
 elleuen 
 
 eleven 
 
 tolf 
 
 tretton 
 
 tolv 
 
 twi-lif 
 
 tue-lif 
 
 twaalf 
 
 twelf 
 
 twelue 
 
 twal 
 
 tretten 
 
 thre-tine 
 
 
 der-tien 
 
 threo- 
 
 teon 
 
 throttene 
 
 tlirittene 
 
 thirteen 
 
 tjugu 
 
 tyve 
 
 twin-tich 
 
 tuen-tig 
 
 twin-tig 
 
 tw en-tig 
 
 tuenti 
 
 twenty 
 
 trettio 
 
 tredive 
 
 thri-tich 
 
 thri-tig 
 
 der-tig 
 
 thri-tig 
 
 thritti 
 
 thretty 
 
 sjuttio 
 
 lialvfjers 
 
 siugun- 
 
 ticli 
 
 ant- 
 
 sibunda 
 
 seven-tig 
 
 seof on-tig 
 
 seuenti 
 
 saeventy 
 
 hundrade 
 
 'hundrede 
 
 hundred 
 
 bund 
 
 honderd 
 
 teon-tig, 
 
 hundred 
 
 hundred 
 
 hunner 
 
 tusende 
 
 | tusiiide 
 
 thusend 
 
 thusend 
 
 duizend 
 
 thusend 
 
 thousend 
 
 thoosand 
 
 1 
 
 A peculiarity in Welsh numerals, unparalleled in any other Celtic 
 dialect, consists in making pymtheg (15) a point of departure for a, 
 new numeration. Thus 16 is un cur pymtheg, one over fifteen; 17, 
 dau ar pymtheg, two over fifteen; 38, tri ar pymtheg ar ugain, three 
 over fifteen over twenty; 59, pedwar ar pymtheg ar deugain, four 
 over fifteen over twice twenty. 
 

 
 German. 
 
 erste 
 
 zweite 
 
 ander 
 
 dri-tte 
 
 vier-te 
 
 fiinf-te 
 
 sechs-te 
 
 sieben-te 
 
 ach-te 
 
 neun-te 
 
 zehn-te 
 
 fiinf- 
 
 zehn-te 
 
 80 be -A 
 
 n id'5 a? S o 
 
 N •B A 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 d 
 
 “Ss 
 
 “'S a 
 J 3 cS 
 
 dri-tto 
 
 fior-do 
 
 fimf-to 
 
 sehs-to 
 
 sibun-do 
 
 ahto-do 
 
 niun-to 
 
 zelian-to 
 
 finfto 
 
 zehanto 
 
 zweinzic- 
 
 osto 
 
 drizug- 
 
 osto 
 
 zehnn- 
 
 zug-osto 
 
 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 <v 9 
 o> ^ 
 
 der-de 
 
 vier-de 
 
 vijf-de 
 
 zes-de 
 
 zeven-de 
 
 acht-ste 
 
 negen-de 
 
 tien-de 
 
 vijftien- 
 
 de 
 
 twintig- 
 
 ste 
 
 dertig-ste 
 
 honderd- 
 
 ste 
 
 - 
 
 
 Danish. 
 
 forste 
 
 anden 
 
 tre-die 
 
 ijer-de 
 
 fem-te 
 
 sjet-te 
 
 sy ven-de 
 
 atten-de 
 
 nien-de 
 
 © a 
 
 'O <X> 
 
 ■ o 
 
 gg'O 
 
 tyven-de 
 
 trediv-de 
 
 hund- 
 
 rede 
 
 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 forsta 
 
 andra 
 
 tre-dje 
 
 fjer-de 
 
 fem-te 
 
 sjet-te 
 
 sjun-de 
 
 atton-de 
 
 nion-de 
 
 tion-de 
 
 fem-ton- 
 
 de 
 
 ijugon-de 
 
 trettion- 
 
 de 
 
 hundrade 
 
 
 
 Old Eng. 
 
 formeste 
 
 firste 
 
 other 
 
 thridde 
 
 ferthe 
 
 fif-the 
 six-the 
 sue-the 
 eigtethe 
 nythe 
 
 tethe 
 
 vyftethe 
 
 tuenty- 
 
 the 
 
 thrytti- 
 
 the 
 
 
 
 A.-Saxon. 
 
 fruma, 
 
 forma, 
 
 aeresta 
 
 other 
 
 thri-dda 
 
 feower- 
 
 tha 
 
 | fif-ta 
 
 six-ta 
 
 seofo-tha 
 
 eahto-tha 
 
 nigo-tha 
 
 teo-tha 
 
 fifteo-tha 
 
 twentug- 
 
 o-tha 
 
 thrittigo- 
 
 tha 
 
 hundteon- 
 
 tigo-tha 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 for mo 
 ensto 
 andar, 
 othar 
 thri-ddi 
 fior-tho 
 
 fif-to 
 
 sehs-to 
 
 sibun-do 
 
 ahto-do 
 
 nigun-do 
 
 o 
 
 d : 
 c« - 
 
 rd 
 
 o> 
 
 
 
 
 Old 
 
 Frisian. 
 
 forma 
 erosta 
 other, or 
 
 thri-dda 
 
 fiuwer-da 
 
 fif-ta 
 
 sex-ta 
 
 sigun-da 
 
 achturrda 
 
 niugun- 
 
 rla 
 
 tian-da 
 
 fiftin-da 
 
 bO bD s* 
 
 !5 ee-3 c3 © _ 
 
 S°5°J* 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 fruma 
 
 anthara 
 
 thri-dja 
 
 (fidur- 
 
 tha) 
 
 fimf-ta 
 
 saihs-ta 
 
 sibun-da 
 
 ahtu-da 
 
 niun-da 
 
 taihun-da 
 fimfti- 
 tai-h un- 
 da 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,d,d 
 
 £ A £ 
 
 
 
 
 -H £< 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 ® 00 cs 
 
 O io 
 
 £ O O 
 
 M CO u 
 
 
 284 
 
PROBLEMS 
 
 28 c 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 PROBLEMS 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 1\ How a man travelling Eastwards may see 2 days and 2 niglits 
 more than a man travelling Westwards, both travelling at the same 
 rate and for the same space of time. 
 
 As the Earth whirls round its whole circle of 3G0° in 24 hours, it 
 goes 15° round in one hour, or 1° in 4 minutes. Suppose, then, a 
 man set off at 7 a.m., just as the sun rises above the horizon, and 
 travel Westward in the sun’s ecliptic one degree before it set, he 
 will have light 4 minutes longer than had he remained at the place 
 whence he set out, and his day, instead of being 12 hours long 
 (dividing the 24 hours into a 12-hour day and a 12-hour night) and 
 closing at 7, will he 12 hours and 4 minutes long, and close at 4 
 minutes past 7. Travelling by night at the same rate, his night will 
 be 4 minutes longer than had he remained at the place where the sun 
 set till it again rose, seeing he is travelling after the sun when it goes 
 down and from it as the morning approaches. At the end of the first 
 night the western traveller will be two degrees from the starting 
 place, and the sun will not rise the second morning till 8 minutes past 
 7. Pursuing his travels at the same rate, the traveller again enjoys 
 on the second day 4 minutes longer day, the sun not setting till 12 
 minutes past 7. The third morning the sun does not rise till 16 
 minutes past 7; he has then travelled 4°, and his day and night have 
 been each 4 minutes longer than if he had been stationary. 
 
 Now suppose another man to have started from the same place at 
 the same moment (7 o’clock) in an Easterly direction. The sun 
 will set upon him 4 minutes sooner than had he remained at the 
 place from which he started, and 8 minutes sooner than on the 
 Westward traveller; his first day will close at 56 minutes past 6. 
 Going from the sun as it sinks and towards it as it rises, he will get 
 light 4 minutes earlier than had he stopped when the sun went down 
 till it again rose, 8 minutes sooner than he would have seen it at the 
 starting post, and 16 minutes sooner thau the opposite traveller. 
 As the traveller still pursues his Eastward journey, light again de¬ 
 serts him on the second day 4 minutes earlier, viz., at 48 minutes past 
 6, at the end of 3 degrees, and the third morning the sun will rise at 
 44 minutes past 6, 16 minutes earlier than at the place he started 
 from, and 32 minutes earlier than with the other man with whom on 
 the same morning it does not rise till 16 minutes past 7. While, 
 therefore, the Western traveller has seen only 2 nights and 2 days, 
 the Eastern traveller has enjoyed, in addition, more than half an hour 
 of another day. Let the two travellers continue to travel round the 
 
286 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 globe at the same rate of motion, the Eastern traveller will have more 
 days and nights than the Western, those of the former being pro¬ 
 portionately shorter than those of the latter. The following shows 
 the beginning and length of each successive day to the two travellers 
 respectively:— 
 
 Western Traveller's Eastern Traveller's 
 
 Day 
 
 
 Begins at 
 
 
 
 Day 
 
 Begins at 
 
 
 1st 
 
 
 / o clock morning ... 
 
 
 1st 
 
 ... 7 o’clock morning 
 
 2nd 
 
 
 8 minutes past 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 2nd . 
 
 ... 52 minutes past 
 
 6 
 
 3rd 
 
 
 16 „ 
 
 >> 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 3rd . 
 
 •44 
 
 ' 
 
 6 
 
 4th 
 
 
 24 „ 
 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 4th . 
 
 ... 36 
 
 
 6 
 
 5th 
 
 
 32 
 
 y > 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 5th 
 
 ... 28 
 
 
 6 
 
 6th 
 
 
 40 „ 
 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 6th 
 
 ... 20 
 
 
 6 
 
 7th 
 
 
 48 „ 
 
 yy 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 7th 
 
 ... 12 
 
 
 6 
 
 8th 
 
 
 56 ,, 
 
 y y 
 
 7 ... 
 
 
 8th 
 
 ... 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 9th 
 
 
 4 „ 
 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 9th . 
 
 ... 56 
 
 
 5 
 
 10th 
 
 
 12 „ 
 
 yy 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 lOfch . 
 
 ..48 
 
 
 5 
 
 11th 
 
 
 20 ,, 
 
 y y 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 11th . 
 
 .. 40 
 
 
 5 
 
 12th 
 
 
 28 „ 
 
 yy 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 12th . 
 
 ... 32 
 
 
 5 
 
 13th 
 
 
 36 
 
 y y 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 13th . 
 
 •24 „ 
 
 
 5 
 
 14th 
 
 
 41 
 
 y y 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 14th 
 
 ... 16 
 
 
 5 
 
 15th 
 
 16th 
 
 
 52 „ 
 
 9 oclock 
 
 y y 
 
 8 ... 
 
 
 15th 
 16th . 
 
 ... 8 „ 
 
 ... 5 o’clock 
 
 
 5 
 
 17th 
 
 
 8 minutes 
 
 past 
 
 9 
 
 
 17th . 
 
 .. 52 minutes 
 
 past 
 
 4 
 
 18th 
 
 
 16 „ 
 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 18th 
 
 ... 44 
 
 
 4 
 
 19th 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 19th . 
 
 ..36 
 
 
 4 ■ 
 
 20th 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 20th . 
 
 ... 28 
 
 
 4 
 
 21st 
 
 
 40 „ 
 
 « 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 21st 
 
 ... 20 „ 
 
 
 4 
 
 22nd 
 
 
 48 „ 
 
 j j 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 22nd . 
 
 ... 12 
 
 
 4 
 
 23rd 
 
 
 56 „ 
 
 
 9 ... 
 
 
 23rd . 
 
 .. 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 24th 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 24th 
 
 ... 56 
 
 
 3 
 
 25th 
 
 
 12 „ 
 
 >) 
 
 >» 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 25 th 
 
 ... 48 „ 
 
 
 3 
 
 26th 
 
 
 20 „ 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 26th 
 
 ... 40 
 
 
 3 
 
 27th 
 
 
 28 „ 
 
 )) 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 27th . 
 
 •• 32 „ 
 
 
 3 
 
 28th 
 
 
 36 „ 
 
 )) 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 28th . 
 
 • 24 „ 
 
 
 3 
 
 29th 
 
 
 44 ,, 
 
 )) 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 29th . 
 
 •• 16 
 
 
 3 
 
 30th 
 
 31st 
 
 
 52 
 
 11 o’clock 
 
 )> 
 
 10 ... 
 
 
 30th . 
 31st 
 
 .. 8 „ 
 
 .. 3 o’clock 
 
 » 
 
 3 
 
 The two travellers have now travelled, one 60 degrees to the West, 
 the other 60 degrees to the East. At the end of the 60th degree the 
 sun rises on the Eastern traveller at 3 in the morning, he having had 
 30 days and 30 nights. At the same degree it does not rise upon the 
 Western traveller till 11 in the morning, he having had the same 
 number of days and nights. When, therefore, the morning of his 
 

 PROBLEMS 
 
 PROBLEMS 287 
 
 thirty-first day is just breaking, the Eastern traveller has bad the sun 
 8 hours. They have both then had an equal number of days and 
 nights complete, but the Eastern traveller will have had 8 hours of 
 another day more than the Western. Let us follow them a little 
 further:— 
 
 Western Traveller's 
 
 Day 
 32nd . 
 
 Will break at 
 
 .. 8 mins, past 11 morn. 
 
 Day 
 
 ... 32nd . 
 
 .. 52 
 
 33rd . 
 
 .. 16 
 
 » „ 11 
 
 33rd . 
 
 .. 44 
 
 34th . 
 
 .. 24 
 
 „ „ 11 
 
 ... 34th . 
 
 .. 36 
 
 35th . 
 
 .. 32 
 
 „ „ 11 
 
 ... 35th . 
 
 .. 28 
 
 36th . 
 
 .. 40 
 
 „ „ 11 
 
 ... 36th . 
 
 .. 20 
 
 37th 
 
 .. 48 , 
 
 „ „ 11 
 
 .. 37th . 
 
 .. 12 
 
 38th . 
 
 .. 56 
 
 „ „ 11 
 
 ... 38th . 
 
 .. 4 
 
 39th . 
 
 .. 4 
 
 „ „ 12 
 
 ... 39th . 
 
 .. 56 
 
 - 40th . 
 
 .. 12 
 
 „ „ 12 
 
 .. 40th . 
 
 .. 48 
 
 - 41st . 
 
 .. 20 
 
 „ „ 12 
 
 ... 41st .. 
 
 . 40 
 
 42nd .. 
 
 .. 28 ; 
 
 ,, 12 
 
 .. 42nd . 
 
 .. 32 
 
 43rd . 
 
 .. 36 . 
 
 „ „ 12 
 
 .. 43rd .. 
 
 . 24 
 
 41th .. 
 
 ,. 41 , 
 
 „ 12 
 
 .. 44th .. 
 
 . 16 
 
 45th . 
 
 .. 52 . 
 
 „ 12 
 
 .. 45 th 
 
 .. 8 
 
 46th . 
 
 1 at noon, 90 degrees 
 
 .. 46th . 
 
 1 
 
 Eastern Traveller's 
 Will break at 
 
 It thus appears that every 15 days there is a difference of 4 hours 
 between the travellers. 
 
 Western Traveller's Eastern Traveller's 
 
 Day 
 
 Will break at 
 
 Day 
 
 Will break at 
 
 61st . 
 
 .. 3 p.m. 
 
 . 61st .. 
 
 . 11 at night 
 
 76 th . 
 
 ... 5 p.m. 
 
 . 76th ., 
 
 .. 9 
 
 91st . 
 
 ... 7 p-m. ... . 
 
 . 91st . 
 
 .. 7 
 
 The two travellers will now be together at the other side of the 
 globe, and will see the sun rise at the same moment, but he who has 
 travelled Eastward will have seen one day and one night more than 
 the other. 
 
 Western Traveller's 
 
 Eastern Traveller’s 
 
 Day 
 
 Will break at 
 
 Day 
 
 Will break at 
 
 106 th 
 
 9 at night . 
 
 106th 
 
 5 p.m. 
 
 121 st 
 
 ... 11 . 
 
 121 st 
 
 ... 3 
 
 136th 
 
 1 , morning. 
 
 ... 3 . 
 
 136th 
 
 1 , noon 
 
 151st 
 
 151st 
 
 ... 11 a.m. 
 
 166th 
 
 ... 5 . 
 
 166th 
 
 9 a.m. 
 
 181st 
 
 ... 7 360° . 
 
 181st 
 
 7 a.m. 
 
 The two travellers will now be at the spot from which they started, 
 
288 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 the Western traveller having seen two days and two nights less than 
 the Eastern. 
 
 2. What was the size of the ark mentioned in Scripture ? 
 
 Its length is given as 303 cubits; its breadth 50 cubits ; and its 
 height 30 cubits. 1 cubit=1'8 feet. 
 
 The ark w r as, therefore, in English notation, 540 feet long, 90 feet 
 beam, and 54 feet depth. 
 
 The proportion of beam to length is Jth ; of depth to length, y^th. 
 Assuming the form of the ark to be equal to 70 per cent, of a paral¬ 
 lelogram, its internal tonnage would be 18,370. 15 cubits is stated as 
 the depth to which the hills were covered with water, 15 cubits=27 
 feet. The carrying capacity of the ark, when floating at 27 feet, 
 would be 12,870 tons. 
 
 It is worthy of remark that the stated proportions of the ark are in 
 accordance with the highest naval science of the present day. 
 
 3. Table of Velocities 
 
 (From the Table compiled by the late James Jackson of the 
 Geographical Society of Paris.) 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Growth of the nails.0*000000002 
 
 Recoil of the Falls of Niagara, according to Bogart . 0 000000021 
 Progress of the dunes of Cape Hatteras, according to J. 
 
 R. Spears.0*0000027 
 
 Growth of the scape of the Agaye Americana (American 
 
 aloe), according to A. Richard. 0*0000064 
 
 Growth of the bamboo (Bambusa phyllostachis mitis) . 0*0000072 
 Maximum progress of the glacier, according to Tyndall . 0*0000099 
 Displacement of the Magnetic Pole from 1831 to 1879, 
 
 according to Schwatka . . . . . 0*0000/9 
 
 Maximum progress of the glacier of Jakobshavn (Green¬ 
 land), according to Amund Helland .... 0 00026 
 Flow of blood in the tail of the tadpole .... 0*00050 
 Flow of blood in the capillaries of the human retina . 0 00075 
 Ascensional speed of the tide at St. Malo in a tide of 
 
 13m.33 .. 0*00111 
 
 A snail’s gallop.0*0015 
 
 Fall of the earth to the sun.0*003 
 
 Combustion of gunpowder in free air, according to 
 
 Piobert.0*013 
 
 Ascensional speed of a man climbing a mountain, from 
 
 0 08 to.0*11 
 
 Flow of blood in the crural artery of the dog . . . O'16 
 
 Progress of an eel, according to E. J. Marey . . .0*19 
 
PROBLEMS 289 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Combustion of powder in the bore of a canon of great calibre, 
 
 according to Castan.0*32 
 
 Flow of blood, in the aorta of the dog, according to H. Mangon 0*40 
 Man walking 4 kilometres (about 2£ miles) an hour . . I’ll 
 
 Man swimming (J. B. Johnson, 5th Aug., 1872) 805 metres in 
 
 12 minutes, according to Pettigrew.1’12 
 
 J. Haggerty swimming 91'44 metres (99£ yards) in 65 seconds. 1*40 
 Fall of a body to the surface of the moon after one second of 
 
 fall.. 1*61 
 
 Man walking 6 kilometres (3’728 English miles) an hour . 1’66 
 
 Flight of the male silk-worm (Attacus paphia), according to 
 
 Pettigrew.1*86 
 
 Si Ali Bey’s dromedary in 1864, making 206 kilometres (12S 
 
 miles) in 24 hours, according to Wolff and Blacliere . 2*38 
 
 Skating 227 kilometres (140*367 miles) in 21 hours, 22 minutes, 
 
 according to Nordenskjold *. 2.95 
 
 Halley’s comet in aphelion.. 3*0 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of Mars after 1 second of fall . 3*43 
 
 Tramways ........ from 2 to 3*50 
 
 Skating on snow, according to Otto Lund.3*80 
 
 Rapid river, according to A. Surell ...... 4*0 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of Venus after one second of fall 4*41 
 Sounding in deep sea, according to C. Wyville Thomson . 4*57 
 
 Ship running 9 knots (9 x 1852 metres) an hour . . . 4*63 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of Neptune after 1 second of fall 4*67 
 Paddle pirogue (J. Laing, Lachine, Canada, 19th Aug,, 1882) 4*73 
 
 Maximum speed of the train of the inauguration railway from 
 
 Manchester to Liverpool, 15th Sept., 1830 . . . 5*36 
 
 Draught of fire-places.. from 3 to 5*50 
 
 Rowing at the Oxford and Cambridge race, 1873—6803 metres 
 
 in 19 minutes, 35 seconds . .5*79 
 
 Dromedary race, from Touggourt to Biskra, 26th January, 
 
 1890—196*5 kilometres in 9 hours 12 minutes . . . 5*93 
 
 ‘ Ordinary wind.from 5 to 6 
 
 Porpoise, according to Joule ....... 6 
 
 Ship going 12 knots (12 x 1852 metres) an hour . . . 6*17 
 
 Whale . ..6*69 
 
 Wave, 30 metres in amplitude and 300 metres deep . . 6*82 
 
 Ordinary flight of the fly (Musca domestica), according to 
 
 Pettigrew.7*62 
 
 Wind to drive a wind-mill.7'62 
 
 Reindeer drawing a sledge.8*40 
 
 Ship making 17 knots (17 x 1852 metres) an hour . . . 8*75 
 
 19 
 
290 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Skater on rolling skates (F. Delmont, London, 27th Aug., 1890) 9*45 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of the earth after 1 second of fall 9'81 
 
 Foot race (George Seward), 91*44 metres in 9^ seconds . . 9*89 
 
 Fresh breeze. .10*0 
 
 Rain drops, according to Rozet.11 
 
 Trial of quadricycles on rails at Pantin, 23rd Dec., 1887 . 11'll 
 
 Skater on ice (Tim. Donohue, Newburgh, U.S., 1st Feb., 1887) 12T4 
 Velocipede (Charron), 500 metres in 40 seconds . . . 12.50 
 
 Trials of the Spanish torpedo boat Ariete, 26'25 knots an hour 13*50 
 Horse trotting (Westmont, 1884) 402*33 metres in 29| seconds 13*53 
 Flight of the pelican, of the vulture, according to S. E. Peal 
 
 from 6'70 to 15*65 
 
 Stone thrown with force.16 
 
 Express train, running 60 kilometres (37‘28 miles) an hour . 16*67 
 Flight of the quail, according to A. de Brevans . . . 17'80 
 
 Horse galloping (Jim Diller, Deer Lodge, Montana, 16th 
 
 Aug., 1888) 402*33 metres in 29f seconds .... 18*71 
 Propagation of tide caused by the eruption of Krakatoa, 27 th 
 
 Aug., 1883 ; from Krakatoa to Tandjong Priok . . 19*11 
 
 Run of the lava of Vesuvius in 1805, according to Ch. Velain . 20 
 Torrent of mud issuing from the eruption of Mount Banda'i 
 
 (Japan), 15th July, 1888, according to Sekiya . . . 20*11 
 
 Express train at 75 kilometres (46'6 miles) an hour . . . 20*83 
 
 Speed of the foot of a man running at the rate of 9*89 metres 
 
 per second.23*04 
 
 Speed of the greyhound.25*34 
 
 Express train running 60 English miles an hour . . . 26*82 
 
 Flight of the carrier pigeon, according to A. Gobin . . 27 
 
 Flight of the hawk.28 
 
 Tempest ........ from 25 to 30 
 
 Mean speed of the carriers in the tubes of the pneumatic tele¬ 
 graph at Berlin, according to Armengaud . . . . 30 
 
 Torpedo shot from an Ericsson’s under-water gun . . .30 
 
 Flight of the eagle. . .31 
 
 Sledge-boat on the frozen rivers of North America . . 31*09 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of the earth after a fall of 50 
 
 metres.. 31*33 
 
 A caning (gettingbeaten with a cane), according to G. Demeny 
 
 (*65 metres in 5 ^ sec.).32*50 
 
 Hurricane ........... 40 
 
 Tempest wave in the ocean 1 . . . . . .40 
 
 1 Dr. G. Schott estimates the greatest velocity of sea-waves ever observed 
 by him in a storm at 46? nautical miles an hour=78 - 7 ft. (24 metres) per 
 
PROBLEMS 
 
 291 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Hoof of a horse galloping at the rate of 18*713 metres per sec. 40 10 
 Trial of a railway train from Jersey City to Philadelphia 
 
 (Bound Brook Road).41'91 
 
 Fall of a body to the surface of the earth after a fall of 100 
 
 metres.44*29* 
 
 Hurricane tearing up trees.45 
 
 Great billows of the sea, according to Ross . . . . 45'83 
 
 Four carrier pigeons of Count Karolyi in 1884, from Pesth to 
 
 Paris (1,293 kilometres=803 English miles) in 7 hours . 51'31 
 Fall of a body to the surface of the earth after a fall of 300 
 
 metres.76*7 2 
 
 Flight of the martin, according to Spallanzani . . . 88'90 
 
 Fall of a body to the earth’s surface after 10 seconds of fall . 98 09 
 
 Cyclone of Wallingford (Connecticut), 22nd March, 1892, 
 
 according to Hazen. 115*78 
 
 Transmission of sensations in human nerves, according to 
 
 Bloch.132'0 
 
 Initial speed of an air-gun ball (compression of 100 atmo¬ 
 spheres) . . ... 206 
 
 Propagation of tide caused by the earthquake of Arica (from 
 Arica to Honolulu), 13th August, 1868, according to 
 
 Hochstetter. 227*38 
 
 Speed of a point on the Equator of Mars.244 
 
 Propagation of tidal movement in an ocean of a mean depth 
 
 of 8,000 metres, according to R. D. M. Verbeek . . 280 
 
 Speed of a point in the latitude of Paris (in the earth’s rota¬ 
 tion round its own axis) ....... 305 
 
 Mean speed of the atmospheric wave caused by the explosion 
 of Krakatoa, 27th August, 1883, according to R. D. M. 
 
 Yerbeek.313*54 
 
 Velocity of sound in free dry air (0° C.=32° F.), according to 
 
 Violle 1 .331*10 
 
 second. Their velocity in a strong wind he estimates at 36 to 36*4 ft. per 
 second ; in a moderate breeze 24’6 ft. per second=16'8 miles an hour. The 
 ratio of height to length of wave is 1 to 33 in a moderate wind, 1 to 18 in a 
 strong wind, and 1 to 17 in a storm. A wave-speed of 60 miles an hour has 
 been recorded, also one of 6| miles a minute=90 miles an hour. On Tilla¬ 
 mook Rock, near San Francisco, during a storm of Nov. 7, 1891, waves rose 
 to 157 feet above sea-level. The tidal wave which visited the north-east 
 coast of Japan on June 15, 1896, washed away, in one prefecture alone, 
 5,920 houses and caused the loss of 23,309 lives. (This note is not in James 
 Jackson’s Table.) 
 
 1 The velocity of sound in air increases by *626 metres per second for 
 every Centigrade degree of rise in temperature. 
 
292 
 
 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Jet of steam under pressure of 1^ atmospheres escaping into 
 
 the air.343 
 
 Air under pressure of 1 atmosphere escaping into vacuum . 395 
 Stones shot by Vesuvius, according to Vezian. . ‘ . 406 
 
 Speed of a point on the earth’s equator ..... 463 
 Jet of steam under pressure of 3 atmospheres escaping into 
 
 the air.500 
 
 Jet of steam under pressure of 5 atmospheres escaping into 
 
 the air.562 
 
 Jet of steam under pressure of 1 atmosphere escaping into 
 
 vacuum .......... 582 
 
 Shock of the earthquake of Viege (from Viege to Strassburg), 
 
 according to Otto Volger.872 
 
 The moon’s revolution round the earth (apogee) . . . 9/0 
 
 Stones thrown by the volcano of TenerifFe, according to Vezian 975 
 Initial speed of a cannon ball (canon Canet) .... 1013 
 Velocity of sound in sulphur ether (50° F.) .... 1039 
 
 The moon’s revolution round the earth (perigee) . . . 1080 
 
 Velocity of sound in alcohol (50° F.).1157 
 
 ,, ,, „ chlorohydric acid (50° F.) . . . 1171 
 
 ,, „ ,, essence of terebinth (50° F.) . . . 1276 
 
 ,, ,, „ water (46*58° F.), according to Sturm 
 
 and Colladon.1435 
 
 Velocity of sound in mercury (50° F.).1484 
 
 ,, „ „ azotic acid (50° F.) .... 1535 
 
 ,, ,, ,, water saturated with ammoniac (50° F.) 1842 
 
 ,, ,, ,, whalebone. 2246 
 
 Velocity needed by a body in order to get beyond the moon’s 
 
 attraction, according to La Place * 2396 
 
 Velocity of sound in tin. 2550 
 
 ,, „ ,, silver. 3060 
 
 ,, „ ,, cast iron. 3541 
 
 ,, ,, ,, bronze, or in oak. 3628 
 
 ,, „ „ v red copper. 4080 
 
 ,, ,, ,, beech wood. 4250 
 
 ,, ,, ,, ash or in elm wood. 4896 
 
 ,, „ ,, the wood of the lime tree, . . . 5100 
 
 ,, ,, ,, pine wood. 5440 
 
 ,, ,, ,, iron, steel, or glass. 5668 
 
 Explosion of gun cotton, according to Abel and Nobel, 
 
 from 5180 to 5790 
 
 Explosion of dynamite in cartridges, according to Abel, 
 
 from 5928 to 6566 
 
PROBLEMS 
 
 293 
 
 Metres 
 per Second. 
 
 Theoretical velocity of a body which would arrive at the 
 centre of the earth after a fall of 19 minutes 10 seconds, 
 
 according to C. Flammarion. 9546 
 
 Velocity needed by a body in order to get away out of reach 
 
 of the earth’s attraction, according to C. Flammarion . 11700 
 Speed of a point on the equator of Jupiter .... 12491 
 
 Jupiter’s revolution round the sun. 12924 
 
 Proper telescopic movement of a of the Centaur, 1 according 
 
 to Gill and Elkin.23174 
 
 The earth’s revolution round the sun. 29516 
 
 Venus’s revolution round the sun. 34630 
 
 Mercury’s „ ,, ,,. 47327 
 
 Shooting stars, according to A. Newton and Schiaparelli, 
 
 from 12000 to 71000 
 
 Halley’s comet in perihelion. . . . . . . . 393000 
 
 The great comet of 1882 in perihelion, according to Schia¬ 
 parelli . ... 480000 
 
 The great comet of 1843 in perihelion, according to R. S. 
 
 Ball. 521000 
 
 The speed a body at the surface of the sun would need to 
 have in order to get away from the sun’s attraction, 
 according to Young and Flammarion . . . 608000 
 
 Electricity in a submarine telegraph wire . . . 4000000 
 
 Voltaic current in a telegraph circuit .... 11690000 
 
 Current of induction in a telegraph circuit . . . 18400000 
 
 Electricity in an aerial telegraph wire .... 36000000 
 Speed of the tip of the tail of the great comet of 1843, 
 
 in perihelion. 169000000 
 
 Movement of light in water . . . . . . 225000000 
 
 ,, „ „ air. 300000000 
 
 Electric current, issuing from the discharge of a Leyden 
 
 jar, in a copper wire of '0017 metre diameter . . 463500000 
 
 4. Velocity of Falling Bodies 
 
 In the case of a body falling freely by its own weight, if the time 
 taken in falling from a certain point be portioned off into, say, seconds, 
 then are the different velocities it acquires in falling as are the num¬ 
 ber of seconds that have elapsed since it left that point, and the space 
 through which it has fallen is as the square of the number of seconds 
 during which the body has been falling. 
 
 1 The light from this star, which is nearest to us, takes 4| years in 
 making the passage to our planet. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 294 
 
 If the times occupied by a body in falling be 
 Then will also the velocities respectively be 
 The spaces passed through will be 
 And the space for each successive second will be 
 
 sec. sec. sec. sec. 
 
 1—2-3— 4 etc. 
 1—2—3— 4 etc. 
 1—4—9—16 etc. 
 1—3—5— 7 etc. 
 
 It has been ascertained by experiment that a body falling freely from 
 rest will descend through 16 feet (actually 16T ft.) in the first second 
 of time, and will then have acquired velocity which, if continued 
 uniformly, would carry it through 32 feet in the next second of time. 
 
 sec. sec. sec. sec 
 
 Let, then, the time the body is falling be arranged 
 
 in seconds.1— 2— 3 —4 
 
 Then will the respective velocities expressed in feet 
 
 (fractions omitted) be. 32—64— 96—128 
 
 The respective spaces in feet fallen each successive 
 
 second be. 16—48— 80—112 
 
 And the whole space fallen through, in feet, be . 16—64—144—256 
 
 (1) To find the velocity a falling body will acquire in any given 
 time, multiply the time in seconds by 32. 
 
 Say a stone be dropped down a pit shaft, and it take four seconds 
 to fall, what is its velocity at the moment of impact ? Here 4 (sec.) x 
 32 = 128 ft., the answer required. 
 
 (2) To find the velocity a body will acquire in falling a certain 
 distance, multiply the distance by 64, and the square root of the pro¬ 
 duct will be the velocity acquired in feet per second. 
 
 Say a stone be dropped from a tower 256 feet in height from the 
 ground, what velocity will th e stone have acquired by the time it 
 reaches the ground P Here a/64 x 256= a/16384=128 ft. 
 
 (3) To find the space through which a body will fall in any given 
 time. Multiply the square of the time in seconds by 16. 
 
 Say the height of the tower referred to in the foregoing example 
 were not known, but the time the stone took to reach the ground 
 were found to be four seconds, what, then, would be the height of 
 the tower ? Here 4 2 x 16 = 16 x 16 = 256 ft., answer. 
 
 The velocity acquired by a body falling from rest through a given 
 measure of depth is the same, whether it fall in a direct line or in an 
 inclined plane. This law of gravitation has to be taken account of in 
 shooting, in order to determine the elevation or angle at which the 
 gun must be held. 
 
 5. The Distance One Can See 
 
 The field of vision, even though, as at sea, not obstructed by houses 
 or mountains, is yet limited by the fact of the sphericity of the earth. 
 A bird at the height of a mile above the earth has a range of vision of 
 
PROBLEMS 
 
 295 
 
 only 89 miles in radius. If a man’s eye were 5 feet from the plane of 
 the sea, and the flag on the masthead of a ship were 40 feet high, the 
 man might see the flag on the horizon at a distance of 10'47 miles. The 
 formula for finding the dis tance that can be seen across an unob- 
 structed field of vision is h. in feet=distance in miles, i.e. the 
 square root of If times the height of the eye in feet is equal to the 
 distance visible in miles. If a man’s eye be 5 feet from the ground, 
 what distance can he see, if the view be unobstructed P 
 Here \/o x If=274 miles. 
 
 Or if the height of th e eye be 5, 000 feet, then 
 y/ 5,000 x If=86‘6 miles. 
 
 Demonstration. 
 
 Let this circle represent the world. 
 
 ,, R 11=radii of the world in miles. 
 
 ,, li=the height of the observer’s 
 eye in feet. 
 
 ,, x=the angular distance seen, and 
 ,, y=the base line of the distance 
 seen at right angles to R h. 
 
 Now t R 2 + x 2 =(R + h) 2 . ' 
 
 = R 2 + 2 Rh + h 2 . 
 
 Cancel the R 2 on each side of the equa¬ 
 tion, and we get 
 x 2 =2 Rh + h 2 
 x 2 —h 2 =2 Rh 
 
 But x 2 —h 2 =y 2 
 y 2 =2 Rh. 
 
 But 2 R=diam. of the globe=7,936 miles, and h=height in feet. 
 
 y 2 =7,936 miles x miles 
 
 7 ,936 h 
 5,280 
 
 = lf h 
 
 y=v / Hh. 
 
 If, then, the observer’s eye be 5 feet above sea-level, the distance he 
 will be able to see across the sea will be \/7k miles=2 , 74 miles, i.e., y 
 or the direct line from the observer’s base at sea-level to the tangen¬ 
 tial point of x and circle. The curve or arc of which y is the chord 
 is 2'958. 
 
 The following table show r s the distances visible at sea, according to 
 the elevation of the eye of the observer, the distances being given 
 according to the respective lengths of the curves, and not of the 
 chords :— 
 
296 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Heights 
 
 in 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Distances 
 in Statute 
 or English 
 Miles. 
 
 Heights 
 
 in 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Distances 
 in Statute 
 or English 
 Miles. 
 
 Heights 
 
 in 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Distances 
 in Statute 
 or English 
 Miles. 
 
 5 
 
 2-958 
 
 70 
 
 11-067 
 
 250 
 
 20-916 
 
 10 
 
 4-184 
 
 75 
 
 11-456 
 
 300 
 
 22912 
 
 15 
 
 5T23 
 
 80 
 
 11-832 
 
 350 
 
 24-748 
 
 20 
 
 5916 
 
 85 
 
 12196 
 
 400 
 
 26-457 
 
 25 
 
 6'614 
 
 90 
 
 12 519 
 
 450 
 
 28-062 
 
 30 
 
 7‘245 
 
 95 
 
 12893 
 
 500 
 
 29-580 
 
 35 
 
 7-826 
 
 100 
 
 13-228 
 
 550 
 
 31*024 
 
 40 
 
 8366 
 
 110 
 
 13,874 
 
 600 
 
 32-403 
 
 45 
 
 8-874 
 
 120 
 
 14-490 
 
 650 
 
 33726 
 
 50 
 
 9-354 
 
 130 
 
 15 083 
 
 700 
 
 35-000 
 
 55 
 
 9-811 
 
 140 
 
 15 652 
 
 800 
 
 37-416 
 
 60 
 
 10 246 
 
 150 
 
 16-201 
 
 900 
 
 39-836 
 
 65 
 
 10-665 
 
 200 
 
 18-708 
 
 1,000 
 
 41*833 
 
 If the object viewed be, say, a tower of 250 feet high, and the 
 observer’s eye be elevated 25 feet above the water, then, to calculate 
 the disiance at which the tower will be visible, add the distances 
 assigned to the two heights in table :— 
 
 25 ft. elevation, distance visible= 6‘614 English miles 
 250 ft. „ „ „ =20-916 „ „ 
 
 =27530 
 
 Handy Mensurative Formula 
 
 1. Diameter of a circle x 3'1416 = circumference. 
 
 2. Circumference of a circle-J-3'1416 = diameter. 
 
 3. Dia meter 2 x '7854= area of circle. 
 
 4. \ f aiea °^ circ ^ e =diameter of circle. 
 
 V ‘7854 
 
 5. (Diameter of cylinder) x 3*1416 x length=surface of cylinder. 
 
 6. (Diameter of cylinder) 2 x *7854 x length=volume of cylinder. 
 
 7. (Diameter of sphere) x circumference=surface of sphere. 
 
 8. (Diameter of sphere) 3 x *5236=volume of sphere. 
 
 9. (Diame te^ coneH i ^8_54x_leDgth ;=ToIame of cone . 
 
 3 
 
 10. Greatest diameter x least diameter x *7854=area of ellipse. 
 
 11. faeatestjmme ter +least diameter x 3 . 1416= (practically) eircum- 
 
 2 
 
 ference of ellipse. 
 
297 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM 
 
 12. Area of a triangle=half base x perpendicular. 
 
 13. Sqnarejncb^ =c iroular inches. 
 
 7S54 
 
 14. Circular inches x 7854=square inches. 
 
 15. Volume in cubic feet of any substance x weight of 1 cubic foot 
 
 =weight of substance. 
 
 16. Area of a square=square of one side. 
 
 Side of a square=square root of area. 
 
 17. Area of a parallelogram=length x perpendicular breadth. 
 
 18. Square inches x *007 = square feet. 
 
 19. Cubic inches x *00058=cubic feet. 
 
 20. Cubic inches x ’003617=imperial gallons (nearly). 
 
 21. Cubic feet x 6’252=imperial gallons. 
 
 22. Avoirdupois lbs. x *00893=ewts. 
 
 23. Avoirdupois lbs. x *00045=tons. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM AND TABLES OF 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 The Metric System has, as its name implies, the metre, supposed to 
 be the Tooonooo the quadrant of a terrestrial meridian, for the 
 standard unit of length. The standard metre is taken as the length, 
 at the temperature of 0° C., of the platinum bar at Paris known as 
 the Metre des Archives. The kilogramme, the standard unit of 
 weight, is taken as the weight in vacuo, at 0°C., of the piece of 
 platinum known as the Kilogramme des Archives, deposited at Paris. 
 The litre, the standard unity of capacity, contains one kilogramme 
 weight of distilled water at its maximum density (4°C.), the 
 barometer being at 760 millimetres. The are, the unit of surface, 
 is a square, the side of which is 10 metres long, and which therefore 
 contains 100 square metres. The stere, the unit of solidity, is a 
 cube metre=35*31658 English cubic feet. 
 
 For the multiple denominations of the unit, the Greek words deca, 
 hecto, kilo, and myria are prefixed to signify respectively 10, 100, 
 1,000, and 10,000 times. For the submultiples of the unit, the Latin 
 words deci , centi, milli are prefixed to signify respectively tenths, 
 hundredths, thousandths. 
 
 On August 1, 1793, the Metric System was by law constituted 
 the only legal system of weights and measures for France and the 
 French colonial possessions. Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, 
 Italy, Greece, Switzerland, and, since 1866, Mexico, have since each 
 adopted the French Metric System of money, weights, and measures. 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 298 
 
 Germany, Austria, Russia, and the United States of America, 
 while retaining each its own special unit coin, divide it into 100 
 parts. All the technical industries, moreover, have for many years 
 measured by the Metric System. Altogether, the Metric System of 
 weights and measures rules in full among a population aggregating 
 about 350 millions. 
 
 One disadvantage, however, of the decimal, in comparison with a 
 duodecimal, system, is its intractability (indivisibility) for purposes of 
 retail trade. Suppose a yard of cloth cost T25 francs, the buyer of 
 half a yard must pay 63 centimes. And in the case of articles of 
 smaller but non-divisional value, the loss to the buyer of a fractional 
 part is of course proportionately greater. 
 
 EQUIVALENTS OF METRIC AND IMPERIAL WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES 
 
 Metric to Imperial 
 Linear Measure 
 1 millimetre (mm.) (t^oo m -) 
 
 1 centimetre (yJo m *) 
 
 1 decimetre (y 1 ^ m.) 
 
 1 metre (m.)=39'37079 inches 
 
 1 decametre (10 m.) 
 
 1 hectometre (100 m.) 
 
 1 kilometre (1,000 m.) 
 
 1 myriametre (10,000 m.) 
 
 Square Measure 
 
 1 square centimetre =0*15501 square inch. 
 
 1 square decimetre (100 sq. centim.) =15 50059 square inches. 
 
 X square metre or centiare (100 sq. decim.) = { J^ggofsquarrjard'' 
 Are (100 sq. m.) = 119*60333 square yards, 
 
 hectare (100 ares=10,000 sq. m.) =2 47114 acres. 
 
 Cubic Measure 
 
 1 metres 6 , atimetre ( °'°' ) (1 ’° 0,)Oub - milH ' } =006103 cubic inches. 
 
 1 cubic decimetre (c.d.) (1,000 c.c.) =61*02705 ,, „ 
 
 .... 4 . n non a \ $ 35*31658074 cubic feet. 
 
 1 cubic metre or stere (1,000 c.d.) = [ i.30802151 cubic yard. 
 
 Measure of Capacity 
 
 1 centilitre ( T j^ litre) =0*07043 gill. 
 
 1 decilitre ( T \j litre) =0*17608 pint. 
 
 = 0*03937 inch. 
 =0*39371 ,, 
 
 = 3*93708 inches. 
 
 _ C 3*28088917 feet. 
 ~ 1 1*09363306 yards. 
 =10*93633 yards. 
 
 = 109*36331 „ 
 
 = 0*62138 mile. 
 =6*21382 miles. 
 
THE METRIC SYSTEM 299 
 
 1 litre=1,000 cubic centimetres= 
 decimetre 
 
 1 dekalitre (10 litres) 
 
 1 hectolitre (100 litres) 
 
 1 kilolitre (1,000 litres) 
 
 Weight 
 
 1 milligram (mgr.) 
 
 1 centigram ( T £ D gram) 
 
 1 decigram ( x \j gram) 
 
 1 gram. 
 
 ljdekagram (10 grams) 
 
 1 hectogram (100 grams) 
 
 1 kilogram (1,000 grams) 
 
 1 myriagram (10 kilog.) 
 
 1 quintal (100 kilog.) 
 
 1 millier or tonne (IjOOO kilog.) 
 
 1 gram 
 
 1 gram 
 
 cubic j =1 . 76077 pinto. 
 
 =2'20097 gallons. 
 
 = 2'75121 bushels. 
 =3*43901 quarters. 
 
 Avoirdupois 
 
 =0*01543 grain. 
 
 =0 15432 „ 
 
 = 1'54324 grains. 
 
 = 15'43235 „ 
 
 =5*64383 drams. 
 
 =3 52739 oz. 
 
 _ ( 2*20462125 lbs. or 
 ~ ( 15432*34874 grains. 
 =22*04621 lbs. 
 
 = 1*96841 cwt. 
 
 = 0*98420591 ton. 
 
 Troy 
 
 0 03215073 oz. troy. 
 0*64301 pennyweight. 
 15*43235 grains. 
 
 Apothecaries 
 ( 0*25721 drachm. 
 
 < 0 77162. scruple. 
 
 (15*43235 grains. 
 
 Linear Measure 
 
 - 
 
 Millimetres to 
 Inches 
 
 Metres to 
 Feet 
 
 Metres to 
 Yards 
 
 Kilometres to 
 Miles 
 
 1= 
 
 0*03937079 
 
 3*2S090 
 
 1*09363 
 
 0*62138 
 
 2 = 
 
 0*07874158 
 
 6*56180 
 
 2*18727 
 
 1*24276 
 
 3= 
 
 0*11811237 
 
 9*84270 
 
 3*28090 
 
 1*86415 
 
 4= 
 
 0*15748316 
 
 13*12360 
 
 4*37453 
 
 2*48553 
 
 5 = 
 
 0*19685395 
 
 16*40450 
 
 5*46817 
 
 3*10691 
 
 6= 
 
 0*23622474 
 
 19*68540 
 
 6*56180 
 
 3*72829 
 
 7= 
 
 0*27559553 
 
 22*96629 
 
 7*65543 
 
 4*34968 
 
 8= ‘ 
 
 031496632 
 
 26*24719 
 
 8*74906 
 
 4*97106 
 
 9= 
 
 0*35433711 
 
 29*52809 
 
 9*84270 
 
 5*59244 
 
3oo 
 
 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Square Measure 
 
 - 
 
 Square Centi¬ 
 metres to 
 Square Inches 
 
 Square Metres 
 to 
 
 Square Feet 
 
 Square Metres 
 to 
 
 Square Yards 
 
 Hectares to 
 Acres 
 
 1 = 
 
 0T5501 
 
 10*76430 
 
 1*19603 
 
 2*47114 
 
 2 = 
 
 0*31001 
 
 21*52860 
 
 2*39207 
 
 4*94229 
 
 3 = 
 
 0*46502 
 
 32*29290 
 
 3*58810 
 
 7*41343 
 
 4 = 
 
 0*62002 
 
 43*05720 
 
 4*78413 
 
 9*88457 
 
 5 = 
 
 0*77503 
 
 53*82150 
 
 5*98017 
 
 12*35572 
 
 6 = 
 
 0*93004 
 
 64*58580 
 
 7*17620 
 
 14*82686 
 
 7= 
 
 1*08504 
 
 75*35010 
 
 8*37223 
 
 17*29800 
 
 8 = 
 
 1*24005 
 
 86T1439 
 
 9*56827 
 
 1976914 
 
 9 = 
 
 1*39505 
 
 96*87869 
 
 10*76430 
 
 22*24029 
 
 Cubic Measure Apoth. Measure 
 
 - 
 
 J 
 
 Cubic Decimetres 
 to Cubic Inches 
 
 Cubic Metres 
 to 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Cubic Metres 
 to 
 
 Cubic Yards 
 
 Cubic Centi¬ 
 metres to 
 Fluid Drachms 
 
 1 = 
 
 61*02705 
 
 35*31658 
 
 1*30802 
 
 0*28219 
 
 2 = 
 
 122 05410 
 
 70*63316 
 
 2*61604 
 
 0*56438 
 
 3 = 
 
 183*08115 
 
 105*94974 
 
 3*92406 
 
 0*84657 
 
 4 = 
 
 1 244*10821 
 
 141*26632 
 
 5*23209 
 
 1*12877 
 
 5 = 
 
 305*13526 
 
 176*58290 
 
 6*54011 
 
 1*41096 
 
 6 = 
 
 366*16231 
 
 211*89948 
 
 7*84813 
 
 1*69315 
 
 7 — 
 
 427-18936 
 
 247*21607 
 
 9*15615 
 
 1*97534 
 
 8 = 
 
 1 488*21641 
 
 282*53265 
 
 10*46417 
 
 2*25753 
 
 9 = 
 
 549*24346 
 
 317*84923 
 
 11*77219 
 
 2*53972 
 
THE METRIC SYSTEM 301 
 
 Measure of Capacity 
 
 - 
 
 Litres to 
 Pints 
 
 Dekalitres to 
 Gallons 
 
 Hectolitres to 
 Bushels 
 
 Kilolitres to 
 Quarters 
 
 1 = 
 
 1*76077 
 
 2-20097 
 
 2*75121 
 
 3-43901 
 
 2 = 
 
 352154 
 
 4-40193 
 
 5-50242 
 
 6’87802 
 
 3 = 
 
 5-28231 
 
 6-60290 
 
 8-25362 
 
 1031703 
 
 4 = 
 
 7-04308 
 
 8-80386 
 
 11-00483 
 
 1375604 
 
 5= 
 
 8-80385 
 
 11 00483 
 
 13*75604 
 
 17*19505 
 
 6 = 
 
 10 56462 
 
 13*20580 
 
 1650725 
 
 20*63406 
 
 7— 
 
 12 32539 
 
 15-40676 
 
 19-25846 
 
 24*07307 
 
 - 8= 
 
 14 08616 
 
 17*60773 
 
 22-00966 
 
 27*51208 
 
 9= 
 
 15-84693 
 
 19*80870 
 
 24-76087 
 
 30-95110 
 
 Weight ( Avoirdupois) 
 
 - 
 
 Milligrams | Kilograms 
 to grains 
 
 Kilograms 
 to lbs. 
 
 Quintals 
 to cwts. 
 
 Milliers or 
 Tonnes 
 to tons 
 
 1 = 
 
 001543 
 
 15432-34874 
 
 2-20462 
 
 1-96841 
 
 0-98421 
 
 2 = 
 
 003086 
 
 30864-69748 
 
 4-40924 
 
 3-93682 
 
 1-96841 
 
 3= 
 
 0*04630 
 
 46297-04622 
 
 6-61386 
 
 590523 
 
 2-95262 
 
 4= 
 
 0-06173 
 
 61729-39496 
 
 8-81849 
 
 7*87364 
 
 3 93682 
 
 5= 
 
 0-07716 
 
 7716174370 
 
 11 02311 
 
 9-84206 
 
 4-92103 
 
 6 = 
 
 0-09259 
 
 92594-09244 
 
 13-22773 
 
 11-81047 
 
 5*90524 
 
 7= 
 
 0-10803 
 
 108026*44118 
 
 15 43235 
 
 13-77888 
 
 6*88944 
 
 8 = 
 
 0T2346 
 
 123458*78992 
 
 17*63697 
 
 15-74729 
 
 7*87365 
 
 9= 
 
 0 13889 
 
 138891*13866 
 
 19-84159 
 
 17*71570 
 
 8*85785 
 
302 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Troy Weight Apothecaries 9 Weight 
 
 - 
 
 Grams to oz. 
 Troy 
 
 Grams to Dwts. 
 
 Grams to 
 Scruples 
 
 1 = 
 
 0*03215 
 
 0*64301 
 
 0*77162 
 
 2 = * 
 
 0*06430 
 
 1*28603 
 
 | 1*54323 
 
 3 = 
 
 0*09645 
 
 1*92904 
 
 2*31485 
 
 4= 
 
 0*12860 
 
 2*57206 
 
 3*08647 
 
 5 = 
 
 0*16075 
 
 3*21507 
 
 3*85809 
 
 6 = 
 
 0*19290 
 
 3*85809 
 
 4*62970 
 
 7= 
 
 0*22506 
 
 4*50110 
 
 5*40131 
 
 8 = 
 
 0*25721 
 
 5*14412 
 
 6*17294 
 
 9 = 
 
 0*28936 
 
 5*78713 
 
 6*94455 
 
 Imperial to Metric 
 Linear Measure 
 
 1 inch = 25*39954113 millimetres. 
 
 1 foot (12 in.) = 0*30479449 metre. 
 
 1 yard (3 ft.) = 0*91438348 
 
 1 pole (5i yds.) = 5*02911 metres. 
 
 1 chain (22 yds. =100 links) = 20*11644 ,, 
 
 1 furlong (220 yds.) =201*16437 ,, 
 
 1 mile (1,760 yds.) = 1*60931493 kilometres. 
 
 Square Measure 
 
 1 square inch =. 
 
 1 sq. ft. (144 sq. in.) = 
 1 sq. yd. (9 sq. ft.) = 
 1 perch (30i sq. yds.) = 
 1 rood (40 perches) = 
 1 acre (4,840 sq. yd.) = 
 1 sq. mile (640 acres) —i 
 
 6*45137 sq. centimetres. 
 9*28997 sq. decimetres. 
 0*83609715 sq. metre. 
 25*29194 sq. metres. 
 10*11678 ares. 
 
 0 40467 hectare. 
 158*98945312 hectares. 
 
 Cubic Measure 
 
 1 cubic inch =16*38617589 cub. centimetres. 
 
 1 cub. foot (1,728 cub. in.)= 0*02832 cub. metre=28*31531 cub. decim. 
 1 cub. yard (27 cub. ft.) = 0*76451342 cub. metres. 
 
THE METRIC SYSTEM 
 
 303 
 
 Measure of Capacity 
 
 1 gill=1'41983 decilitres. 
 
 1 pint (4 gills) =0*56793 litre. 
 
 1 quart (2 pints) =1*13586 ,, 
 
 1 gallon (4 qts.) =4'543458litres. 
 1 peck (2 gallons) =9’08692 ,, 
 
 1 bushel (8 galls.) =3*63477 deca¬ 
 litres. 
 
 1 quarter (8 bushels) =2*90781 
 hectolitres. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight 
 
 1 grain=64'79895036 milligrams. 
 1 dram=l*77185 grams. 
 
 1 oz. (16 dr.) =28*34954 grams. 
 
 1 lb. (16 oz. =7,000 gr.) 
 
 =0*45359265 kilogr. 
 
 1 stone (14 lbs)=6*35030 ,, 
 
 1 quarter (28 lbs.) =12*70095 
 kilogr. 
 
 1 ewt. (112 lbs.)=50*80238 kilogr. 
 
 =0 50802 quintal. 
 1 ton (20 cwt.) = 1*01604754 mil- 
 lier or tonne. 
 
 Troy Weight 
 
 1 troy ounce (480 grains avoir.) 
 
 =31* 1035 grams. 
 
 1 pennyweight (24 grains) 
 
 = 1*55517 grams. 
 
 Note. —The troy grain is of 
 the same weight as the avoirdu¬ 
 pois grain. 
 
 Apothecaries Measure 
 
 1 gallon (8 pints or 160 fluid oz.) 
 
 =4*54346 litres. 
 
 1 fluid ounce (8- drachms) 
 
 =28*39661 cub. centimetres. 
 
 1 fluid drachm (60 minims) 
 
 =3*54958 cub. centimetres. 
 
 1 minim (0*91146 grain wt.) 
 
 =0*05916 cub. centimetres. 
 
 Note. —The apothecaries’ gal¬ 
 lon is of the same capacity as the 
 imperial gallon. 
 
 Apothecaries ’ Weight 
 
 1 ounce (8 drachms) =31*10350 grams. 
 
 1 drachm (3 scruples) = 3*88794 „ 
 
 1 scruple (20 grains) = 1*29598 „ 
 
 Note. —The apothecaries’ ounce is of the same weight as the troy 
 ounce. The apothecaries’ grain also is of the same weight as the 
 avoirdupois grain. 
 
 Note. —The yard is the length at 62°Fahr., marked on a bronze bar 
 deposited with the Board of Trade. The pound is the weight of a 
 piece of platinum weighed in vacuo at the temperature of 0° C., and 
 which also is deposited with the Board of Trade. The gallon con¬ 
 tains 10 lbs. weight, and the cubic foot 62*321 lbs. weight of distilled 
 water at the temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 
 inches. As the gallon contains 277 274 cubic inches, the weight of a 
 cubic inch of water is 252*458 grains. 
 
 (Board of Trade Standards Office.) 
 
304 
 
 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Linear Measure 
 
 - 
 
 Inches to 
 Millimetres 
 
 Feet to 
 Metres 
 
 Yards to 
 Metres 
 
 Miles to 
 Kilometres 
 
 1= 
 
 25*39954113 
 
 0.30479 
 
 0*91438 
 
 1*60931 
 
 2 = 
 
 50*79908226 
 
 0*60959 
 
 1*82877 
 
 3.21863 
 
 3= 
 
 76*19862340 
 
 0*91438 
 
 2*74315 
 
 4*82794 
 
 4= 
 
 101*59816453 
 
 1*21918 
 
 3*65753 
 
 6*43726 
 
 5 = 
 
 126*98770566 
 
 1*52397 
 
 4*57192 
 
 8*04657 
 
 6 = 
 
 152*39724679 
 
 1*82876 
 
 5*48630 
 
 9*65589 
 
 7 = 
 
 177*79678792 
 
 2*13356 
 
 6*40068 
 
 11*26520 
 
 8= 
 
 203*19632906 
 
 2*43835 
 
 7*31507 
 
 12*87452 
 
 0 = 
 
 228*59587019 
 
 2*74315 
 
 8*22945 
 
 14*48383 
 
 Square Measure 
 
 - 
 
 Square Inches 
 to Square 
 Centimetres 
 
 Square Feet 
 to Square 
 Decimetres 
 
 Square Yards 
 to Square 
 Metres 
 
 Acres to 
 Hectares 
 
 1 = 
 
 6*45137 
 
 9*28997 
 
 0*83610 
 
 0*40467 
 
 2= 
 
 12*90273 
 
 18*57994 
 
 1*67219 
 
 0*80934 
 
 3 = 
 
 19 35410 
 
 27*86990 
 
 2*50829 
 
 1*21401 
 
 4= . 
 
 25*80547 
 
 37*15987 
 
 3*34439 
 
 1*61868 
 
 5= 
 
 32*25683 
 
 46*44984 
 
 4*18049 
 
 2*02336 
 
 6= 
 
 38*70820 
 
 55*73981 
 
 5*01658 
 
 2*42803 
 
 7 = 
 
 45*15957 
 
 65*02978 
 
 5*85268 
 
 283270 
 
 8 = 
 
 51*61094 
 
 74*31974 
 
 6*68878 
 
 3*23737 
 
 9 = 
 
 58*06230 
 
 83*60971 
 
 7*52487 
 
 3*64204 
 
_ 
 
 THE METRIC SYSTEM 
 
 505 
 
 
 Cubic Measure Apothec. Measure 
 
 - 
 
 Cubic Inches to 
 Cubic 
 
 Centimetres 
 
 Cubic Feet to 
 Cubic Metres 
 
 Cubic Yards 
 to Cubic 
 Metres 
 
 Fluid Drachms 
 to Cubic 
 Centimetres 
 
 1= 
 
 16-38618 
 
 0-02832 
 
 076451 
 
 3-54958 
 
 2 = 
 
 3277235 
 
 005663 
 
 1-52903 
 
 7*09915 
 
 3= 
 
 49-15853 
 
 0*08495 
 
 229354 
 
 1064873 
 
 4= 
 
 65*54470 
 
 011326 
 
 3 05805 
 
 14 19831 
 
 5 = 
 
 81*93088 
 
 0*14158 
 
 3-82257 
 
 1774788 
 
 6 = 
 
 98*31706 
 
 0-16989 
 
 4-58708 • 
 
 21-29746 
 
 7— 
 
 11470323 
 
 0-19821 
 
 5-35159 
 
 24-84704 
 
 8= 
 
 131-08941 
 
 0-22652 
 
 6-11611 
 
 28-39661 
 
 9= 
 
 147*47558 
 
 0*25484 
 
 6-88062 
 
 3194619 
 
 
 Measure of Capacity 
 
 - 
 
 Quarts to 
 Litres 
 
 Gallons to 
 Litres 
 
 Bushels to 
 Dekalitres 
 
 Quarters to 
 Hectolitres 
 
 1 = 
 
 173586 
 
 4-54346 
 
 363477 
 
 2-90781 
 
 2 = 
 
 2-27173 
 
 9-08692 
 
 7 "26953 
 
 5-81563 
 
 3 = 
 
 340759 
 
 13-63037 
 
 1090430 
 
 8*72344 
 
 4 = 
 
 4 54346 
 
 18-17383 
 
 14-53907 
 
 11-63125 
 
 5 = 
 
 567932 
 
 2271729 
 
 18*17383 
 
 14-53907 
 
 6= 
 
 6-81519 
 
 27*26075 
 
 21-80860 
 
 17*44688 
 
 7= 
 
 7*95105 
 
 31-80421 
 
 25-44336 
 
 20 35469 
 
 8 = 
 
 908692 
 
 36-34766 
 
 2907813 
 
 23-26250 
 
 9 = 
 
 10-22278 
 
 40*89112 
 
 3271290 
 
 26-17032 
 
 20 
 
306 ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Weight Avoirdupois 
 
 - 
 
 Grains to 
 Milligrams 
 
 Ounces to 
 Grams 
 
 Lbs. to 
 Kilograms 
 
 Cwts. to 
 Quintals 
 
 Tons to 
 Milliers or 
 Tonnes 
 
 1= 
 
 6479895036 
 
 28-34954 
 
 0-45359 
 
 0-50802 
 
 1-01605 
 
 2 = 
 
 129*59790072 
 
 56-69908 
 
 090719 
 
 1-01605 
 
 203210 
 
 3 = 
 
 194-39685109 
 
 85H)4862 
 
 1-36078 
 
 1-52407 
 
 304814 
 
 4= 
 
 259*19580145 
 
 113-39816 
 
 1-81437 
 
 2 03209 
 
 405419 
 
 5 = 
 
 323-99475181 
 
 141*74770 
 
 2*26796 
 
 2 54012 
 
 5-08024 
 
 6 = 
 
 388*79370218 
 
 17009724 
 
 2-72156 
 
 3-04814 
 
 609629 
 
 7= 
 
 453*59265255 
 
 198*44679 
 
 3-17515 
 
 3-55617 
 
 7*11233 
 
 8= 
 
 518-39160291 
 
 226-79633 
 
 3-62874 
 
 4-06419 
 
 8-12838 
 
 9= 
 
 583-19055327 
 
 255-14587 
 
 4-08233 
 
 457221 
 
 - 9-14443 
 
 Troy Weight Apothecaries ’ Weight 
 
 - 
 
 Ounces to 
 Grams 
 
 Dwts. to 
 Grams 
 
 Scruples to 
 Grams 
 
 1 = 
 
 31*10350 
 
 1-55517 
 
 1-29598 
 
 2 = 
 
 62*20699 
 
 3-11035 
 
 2-59196 
 
 3 = 
 
 93 31049 
 
 4 66552 
 
 3-88794 
 
 4= 
 
 124-41398 
 
 6-22070 
 
 5-18391 
 
 5 = 
 
 155-51748 
 
 7*77587 
 
 G-47989 
 
 6= 
 
 186 62098 
 
 9-33105 
 
 7*77597 
 
 7= 
 
 217*72447 
 
 10*88622 
 
 907185 
 
 8= 
 
 248-82797 
 
 12 44140 
 
 1036783 
 
 9= 
 
 27993147 
 
 13-99657 
 
 11-66881 
 
 Omental and Classical Measures 
 
 The standard -unit of length in the early history of the East was (as 
 it still is in Persia) the cubit (length from elbow to tip of middle 
 finger). Two cubits seem to have been recognised; the common one 
 of 1824 inches=H feet=2 spans=6 palms, used in Egypt, Baby¬ 
 lonia, Phoenicia, and Greece. The other was the royal cubit of about 
 20 65 inches, used also in Babylonia and Chaldsea. The average 
 
ORIENTAL MEASURES 
 
 307 
 
 length of several still extant Egyptian cubit-rods, dating from about 
 1000 B.C., is 20'65 inches. From measurements on Babylonian ruins, 
 Opert found the old Babylonian cubit=20*67 to 20'86 inches. 
 
 1. Egyptian Weights. —The Kat estimated at about ^ ounce avoir¬ 
 dupois ; the outen, = 10 Kat, about 3| ounces. 
 
 2. The Babylonian System was sexagesimal, and in Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica Prof. Petrie gives the following table of Babylonian 
 lineal measures: 1 uban=69 inches; 5 ubans=l qat=3*44 inches; 
 6 qats=l ammat=20’6 inches; 6 animats = 1 qanu = 124 inches; 60 
 qanus=l sos=7,430 inches; 30 sos=l parasang; 2 parasangs=l 
 kaspu. 
 
 The Persians, according to the conclusion of General A. Houtum- 
 Schindler, adopted the old common Babylonian cubit of 472*5 mm. 
 The parasang of 10,800 cubits (=3*523 miles) was the one used by 
 the Persians, the Greeks, and the early Arab geographers, and the 
 stadium of Herodotos, -fa of a parasang, was therefore = 620*09 feet. 
 The cubit now in use in Persia varies between 20*47 and 20*86 inches ; 
 and as 12,000 go to the farsakh, the farsakh or parasang will vary 
 from 3*877 to.3*952 English miles, or an average of 3*915 miles. 
 
 The Heavy Gold of Babylon comprised the shekel=about f ounce 
 avoirdupois; the mina of 50 shekels=1 pound 13f- ounces, and the 
 talent=60 mina=llly pounds. 
 
 The Heavy Silver Standard of Babylon gave to the shekel a 
 weight of about f ounce; to the mina, 2 pounds 7i ounces ; to the 
 talent, 147f pounds. The light gold and the light silver standards 
 were just half the heavy gold and the heavy silver respectively. 
 
 The word mand (a certain weight of gold) is found in the tablets 
 of Tel-el-Amarna (Egypt) ; in Babylonian, in Hebrew, in Arabic, in 
 Greek, and in Latin (mina). 
 
 The British Museum has an ancient weight, a unique object, in 
 the shape of a bit of green diorite, about four inches high, carved in 
 Mesopotamia in the year 605 b.C. It has a long inscription in 
 Assyrian, which sets forth that it was made in the time of Nebu¬ 
 chadnezzar II., and is the exact copy of the legal weight. It is some¬ 
 what conical, with a flat bottom. 
 
 3. Phoenician Silver. —1 shekel=x 6 T ounce; 1 mina=l pound 10J 
 ounces ; 1 talent=98f- pounds. 
 
 4. The unit of Jewish Lineal Measure was the digit=*7938 inch ; 
 4 digits=a palm=3*1752 inches; 3 palms=a span=9*5257 inches ; 2 
 spans=a cubit=19'0515 inches; 6 cubits =a reed=114*309 inches. 
 
 The Jewish Liquid Measures were the homer or cor, calculated 
 (according to Josephus) at 86*696 gallons; the ephah or bath at 8*67 
 gallons; the seahat 2*89 gal.; the hin at 1*44 gal.; the omer at *87 
 gal. ; the cab at *48; the log at *12. 
 
 The unit of Jewish weight was the gerah=12*9 grains ; 20 gerali = 
 
ARITHMETICAL 
 
 308 
 
 
 1 shekel=258 grains; 100 shekels=1 maneh=25800 grains; 30 man eh 
 = 1 talent=774,000 grains. 
 
 5. Greek Measures of Length. —Daktylos (finger) =7*281 inches; 
 pous (foot) = 11*6496 inches; orgyia (fathom)=5 feet 9*89 inches; 
 kalamos (measuring rod) =9 feet 8*496 inches; plethron=97 feet 
 0 96 inches ; stadion 1 = 582 feet 5*76 inches. 
 
 Greek Square Measure.^— Pous tetragonos (square foot) = ‘94245 
 English square foot ; akaina (kalamos 2 )=94*245 square feet; Ple- 
 thron=34 square perches 167*5 square feet. 
 
 Attic Liquid Measures. —Kogche (Lat. concha) = ^ pint ; kya- 
 thos (cup)= pint; oxybaphon=|- pint; tetarton=i pint; 
 
 kotyle=^ pint; xestes (Lat. sextarius) = l pint; chous=6 pints; 
 keramion (Korn, amphora) =6 gallons. 
 
 Attic Dry Measures.— Kyathos=yV pint; choinix=2 pints; hek- 
 teus (Rom. modius) =2 gallons ; medimnos=12 gallons. 
 
 6. Roman Measures of Length.— Digitus=’7281 inches ; palmus= 
 2’9124 inches; pes (foot)=ll’6496 inches; cubitus=l foot 5’474 
 inches; passus=4 feet 10*248 inches ; mille passuum=4854 feet. 
 
 Roman Square Measure. —Pes quadratus (square foot) = 9425 
 Eng. square foot; scrupulum=94*245 square feet; jugerum=2 roods 
 19 perches 189*89 square feet=almost f of an acre; centuria=124 
 acres 2 roods 19 perches 135*258 square feet. 
 
 Roman Liquid Measures. —1 ligula= 4 V pint; cyathus= T V pint; 
 quartarius=| pint; sextarius=l pint; congius=6 pints; urna= 
 3 gallons ; amphora quadrantal= 6 gallons ; culens = 120 gallons. 
 
 
 -I 
 
 . 
 
 Roman Dry Measures. —Semimodius=l gallon; modius=2 gallons. 
 
 Miles of Various Lengths 
 
 The mile, deriving its name from the Roman mille, i.e. mille 
 passuum, or 1,000 paces of 5 Roman feet each, differs widely in 
 length in different countries. The present English statute mile 
 remains still the same mile as defined in Act 35th of Queen Elizabeth, 
 “ 8 furlongs of 40 perches of 16| feet each ”=1,760 yards of 3 feet 
 each. The geographical or nautical mile or knot, one minute of the 
 earth’s equator, or the of an equatorial degree (=1*153 English 
 statute miles), is recognised as a sea-measure by all marine nation¬ 
 alities. In Germany, however, the geographical mile denotes T X 5 of 
 an equatorial degi*ee=4 nautical miles. 
 
 Taking the English statute mile as unity, the following are the 
 respective lengths of the more important miles 
 
 1 According to General A. Houtum-Schindler, the stadium of Herodotos 
 was 620*09 feet and the parasang 3*523 miles. 
 

 FOREIGN 
 
 MONEYS 
 
 309 
 
 Homan mile 
 
 
 = -9193 
 
 Italian mile 
 
 =1-151 
 
 English nautical mile 
 
 = 1.153 
 
 Norwegian mile 
 
 =6922 
 
 German nautical mile 
 
 =4.604 
 
 Russian verst 
 
 = 0 66 
 
 Austrian mile 
 
 =4714 
 
 French kilometre 
 
 = 0621 
 
 Danish 
 
 >> 
 
 =4-681 
 
 Spanish league 
 
 = 4*151 
 
 Swedish 
 
 )) 
 
 =6623 
 
 Swiss ,, 
 
 Turkish berri 
 
 =2-983 
 
 Short German 
 
 i) 
 
 = 3897 
 
 = 104 
 
 Long ,, 
 
 
 =5*753 
 
 Chinese Li about J 
 
 of a geo- 
 
 Ancient Scotch 
 
 }) 
 
 = 1-127 
 
 graphical mile 
 
 „ Irish 
 
 )} 
 
 = 1-273 
 
 Japanese Ri 
 
 =2*25 
 
 Foreign Moneys and British Equivalents 
 
 Country. 
 
 Principal Coins. 
 
 Stg 
 
 s. 
 
 'd. 
 
 Austria . 
 
 100 new kreuzers = l florin 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Belgium 
 
 100 centimes=1 franc 
 
 
 0 
 
 91 
 
 Canada, etc. . 
 
 100 cents=1 dollar .... 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 China . 
 
 1600-1700 copper cash=l Haikwan*tael 
 
 
 4 
 
 10i 
 
 Denmark 
 
 100 ore = l krone .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 France . 
 
 ( 100 centimes = 1 franc . 
 
 
 0 
 
 n 
 
 C Milliard=f. 1000 mills. = £40,000,000 
 /North German or Prussian Thaler 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 ) South German florin or gulden 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 | Imperial Reichsmark=100 Pfennige 
 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 \ Imperial gold piece of 20 marks . 
 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 Greeca . 
 
 100 centimes = 1 franc 
 
 
 0 
 
 9* 
 
 Holland. 
 
 100 cents or 20 stivers=1 florin 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 India 
 
 192 pie=64pice=16annas=l rupee, about 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 (The lac is 100,000 rupees.) 
 
 
 
 
 Italy . 
 
 100 centesimi=l lira 
 
 
 0 
 
 9* 
 
 N orway. 
 
 100 ore = l krone .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 1* 
 
 Portugal 
 
 1000 reis=l milrei . 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Russia . 
 
 100 copecs = l silver rouble 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Spain 
 
 100 centisimos=l peseta=4 reales . 
 
 
 0 
 
 91 
 
 S weden . 
 
 100 ore = 1 krone .... 
 
 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 Switzerland „ 
 
 100 rappen or centimes=1 franc 
 
 
 0 
 
 91 
 
 Turkey . 
 
 100 piastre=l lira, variable 
 
 
 1 \d. to 21 
 
 United States 
 
 f 100 cents=1 dollar ($) in gold 
 (10 dollars=1 eagle 
 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
3io ARITHMETICAL 
 
 Equation of Thermometrical Scales 
 
 Reaumur 0 x f + 32° = Fahrenheit 0 
 
 Centigrade 0 x § + 32° = Fahrenheit 0 
 (Fahrenheit 0 —32°) x Reaumur 0 
 
 (Fahrenheit 0 —32°) x |=Centigrade° 
 
 C entigrad e° x f = Reaumur 0 
 
 Reaumur 0 x f = C entigrade 0 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Reaumur 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Reaumur 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 0 
 
 -14*2 
 
 —17*8 
 
 31 
 
 -04 
 
 -0*6 
 
 1 
 
 13*8 
 
 17-2 
 
 32 
 
 0 0 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 133 
 
 16 7 
 
 33 
 
 + 04 
 
 + 0*6 
 
 3 
 
 12-9 
 
 16 1 
 
 34 
 
 09 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 124 
 
 15*6 
 
 35 
 
 1*3 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 36 
 
 1*8 
 
 2-2 
 
 6 
 
 11-6 
 
 144 
 
 37 
 
 2-2 
 
 2-8 
 
 7 
 
 111 
 
 139 
 
 38 
 
 27 
 
 3*3 
 
 8 
 
 107 
 
 133 
 
 39 - 
 
 37 
 
 3*9 
 
 9 
 
 102 
 
 12*8 
 
 40 
 
 3*6 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 9-8 
 
 12*2 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 5-0 
 
 11 
 
 93 
 
 117 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 5*6 
 
 12 
 
 8-9 
 
 117 
 
 43 
 
 4*9 
 
 6*1 
 
 13 
 
 8-4 
 
 10*6 
 
 44 
 
 5*3 
 
 6*7 
 
 14 
 
 8*0 
 
 io-o 
 
 45 
 
 5'8 
 
 7*2 
 
 15 
 
 7-6 
 
 9*4 
 
 46 
 
 6*2 
 
 7-8 
 
 16 
 
 77 
 
 8 R 
 
 47 
 
 67 
 
 8*3 
 
 17 
 
 67 
 
 8-3 
 
 48 
 
 77 
 
 89 
 
 18 
 
 62 
 
 7*8 
 
 49 
 
 7*6 
 
 97 
 
 19 
 
 5-8 
 
 7-2 
 
 50 
 
 8*0 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 53 
 
 67 
 
 51 
 
 8-4 
 
 10-6 
 
 21 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 52 
 
 8*9 
 
 11*1 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 5*6 
 
 53 
 
 9‘3 
 
 117 
 
 23 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 98 
 
 122 
 
 24 
 
 3-6 
 
 47 
 
 55 
 
 10 2 
 
 728 
 
 25 
 
 3 1 
 
 3 9 
 
 56 
 
 107 
 
 133 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 3'3 
 
 57 
 
 117 
 
 139 
 
 27 
 
 2'2 
 
 2-8 
 
 58 
 
 11*6 
 
 144 
 
 28 
 
 1*8 
 
 2’2 ! 
 
 59 
 
 12 0 
 
 150 
 
 29 
 
 1*3 
 
 17 
 
 60 
 
 12 4 
 
 15'6 
 
 30 
 
 -09 
 
 -17 
 
 61 
 
 + 12*9 
 
 + 167 
 
THERMOMETRICAL SCALES 
 
 3ii 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Reaumur 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Reaumur 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 62 
 
 + 133 
 
 + 16*7 
 
 82 
 
 + 22*2 
 
 + 27*8 
 
 63 
 
 13-8 
 
 17-2 
 
 83 
 
 22 *7 
 
 28*3 
 
 64 
 
 142 
 
 17*8 
 
 84 
 
 23*1 
 
 28*9 
 
 65 
 
 147 
 
 18-3 
 
 85 
 
 23*6 
 
 294 
 
 66 
 
 151 
 
 189 
 
 86 
 
 240 
 
 30*0 
 
 67 
 
 156 
 
 194 
 
 87 
 
 24*4 
 
 30*6 
 
 68 
 
 160 
 
 200 
 
 88 
 
 24*9 
 
 31*1 
 
 69 
 
 16*4 
 
 20*6 
 
 89 
 
 25*3 
 
 31*7 
 
 70 * 
 
 16*9 
 
 21*1 
 
 90 
 
 25*8 
 
 322 
 
 71 
 
 173 
 
 21*7 
 
 91 
 
 26*2 
 
 32*8 
 
 72 
 
 17-8 
 
 22*2 
 
 92 
 
 26*7 
 
 33 3 
 
 73 
 
 18-2 
 
 22*8 
 
 93 
 
 27*1 
 
 33*9 
 
 74 
 
 187 
 
 23 3 
 
 94 
 
 27*6 
 
 34*4 
 
 75 
 
 191 
 
 23*9 
 
 95 
 
 28*0 
 
 35*0 
 
 76 
 
 19*6 
 
 244 
 
 96 
 
 28*4 
 
 356 
 
 77 
 
 200 
 
 25*0 
 
 97 
 
 28*9 
 
 36*1 
 
 78 
 
 204 
 
 25*6 
 
 98 
 
 29*3 
 
 36 7 
 
 79 
 
 209 
 
 26*1 
 
 99 
 
 29*8 
 
 37*2 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 213 
 + 21*8 
 
 26*7 
 + 27*2 
 
 100 
 
 + 30*2 
 
 + 37-8 
 
SPORTS 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 EGYPTIAN AND GREEK SPORTS 
 
 The draught-board of Queen Hatasu, the Egyptian Queen of about 
 1600 B.c., now lies in the British Museum. The game 
 in?gyptfrom y t e hedraughts can traced in Egypt much farther back 
 in ^Dynasty. e still—to as early as the 4th Dynasty, or between 3000 
 and 4000 B.c. Chess not only delighted the Egyptians 
 on earth, but was one of the joys of the Egyptian elysium in a future 
 state. Among the games played in Early Egypt were Tau, or game of 
 robbers, the Indus latrunculorum of the Romans; Senat (modern 
 Seega ) ; Han, or game of the Bowl; Sacred Way 
 Gam|sof Eariy \jn era Q r amme of the Greeks); Atep ( Mora of the 
 Italians). The Egyptian field-sports included hunting, 
 archery, sham fights at sea, wrestling matches. In the Odyssey we 
 find the suitors enlivening their leisure by contests in 
 S of r the HomeSc 3 P^ting, and the Phaiakians delighting in matches 
 Phaiakians. (viii., 100-240) at footrace, wrestling, leaping, putting, 
 boxing, archery, and spear-throwing. They pride 
 themselves on their gymnastic prowess; and when Odysseus shows 
 some backwardness at joining them in their sports Euryalos taunts 
 him as no sportsman, but as some merchant intent on his gains. The 
 Phaiakian princesses and their maids of honour, after the washing of 
 the clothes at the river-side, regale themselves with a game at ball. 
 The Odyssey winds up with a match at archery. 
 
 The later Greeks celebrated four great national games, to which 
 flocked Hellenes out of all Hellas at home and abroad, from 
 farthest east to farthest west. The most renowned 
 Olympic. was the Olympic held every fourth year about the 
 second full moon after the summer solstice at Olympia 
 on the banks of the Alpheios, in the territory of Elis, aud near an 
 ancient temple of the Olympian Zeus (Jupiter). The management 
 of the festival devolved on the Eleans, who appointed from among 
 themselves the Hellanodikai (Hellenic judges) to preside. During 
 the month of its celebration there was sacred truce all throughout 
 Hellas to all internal hostilities ; the Elean territory itself was sacred, 
 not to be entered on without guilt of sacrilege by an armed force. The 
 
 312 
 
EGYPTIAN AND GREEK SPORTS 313 
 
 Pythian Festival was celebrated every third year of the Olym¬ 
 piad on the Krisaian plain (from 586 B.C.), below 
 
 The Pythian, Delphoi. The Nemean Festival was held twice 
 isthmian Games, every four years, one in summer one m winter, in 
 the lonely valley of Nemea belonging to the little 
 Argolic town of Klednai. The Isthmian games, lastly, were 
 celebrated also once every two years at the Isthmus of Corinth. At 
 these festivals, one of which came round every year, Hellenes of all 
 lands competed with one another in running, jumping, quoit, javelin, 
 wrestling, horse-racing, music, poetry, literature. The Greek games 
 wholesomely integrated soul and body. The foot-races included the 
 stadion of 200 yards, the diaulos (double course) of 400, the dolichos 
 (long race), and a race in full panoply. The Olympic and Pythian 
 games lasted till about 394 a.d. 
 
 The Greek gymnasia, providing accommodation also for intellectual 
 entertainment, were places of physical exercise for youth and man¬ 
 hood, and furnished with baths. The name gymnasion 
 Gymnasia* G- e • naked place—from gymnos, naked) is owing to 
 
 the fact that the exercises were performed either in 
 complete nudity, or with the mere covering of the chiton (shirt). 
 
 Hippodrome 
 
 Hippo-dromos= (horse-race) is the name given by the Greeks to 
 their horse and chariot race-course. In the Iliad Homer gives us a 
 very spirited and graphic description of the chariot race. A withered 
 stump of tree (whether the monument of some man dead long before, 
 or serving as a goal to a past generation, Homer cannot take it upon 
 him to say), rendered conspicuous by two white stones laid against it, 
 was chosen for goal. Starting point is at the sea-shore. Chariots have 
 to round the goal, leaving it on the left hand, and returning to 
 the Greek ships on the shore. The ground is a level plain, yet rather 
 rough and unequal, causing light chariots to jolt up from the ground, 
 and broken by the bed of a winter torrent, where a chariot was liable 
 to get overthrown or to collide with the others. The course is long, 
 so that on the return of the chariots many spectators were at a loss to 
 see which was first. Here, then, was a race calling as much for pluck 
 and cunning in the driver as for speed in his horses’ shanks. At 
 starting you have to study how to make as straight as possible for the 
 mark, and at the same time escape collision and leave yourself room to 
 clear the goal. For come against the goal and you get thrown out, 
 and your chariot splintered in pieces. Again, while so many chariots 
 are eager to turn the goal, and some get overthrown, you have need 
 of nerve and calculation to keep your horse well in hand, to avoid 
 collision, to lose neither whip nor reins, and to maintain your 
 balance. In the race each charioteer has four horses. 
 
314 SPORTS 
 
 In the later Olympic races the course was shorter, so as to be all over- 
 looked by a large body of spectators, but the race was made to consist 
 of several double lengths instead of only one. The race-course was 
 about 400 yards long by 125 broad. The spectators sat along the 
 two long sides. The starting-place was at one of the narrow ends ; 
 the opposite end was semi-circular, in the middle of it the goal. 
 The charioteer having raced down one of the sides, rounded the 
 goal, and then skirred along the other smoking side to a second goal 
 near the starting point. This rounded, he sped off again over the 
 same agitated dust as before. Racing chariots with full-grown horses 
 had to make this oblong twelve times; with young horses, eight 
 times. 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 GAMES AND PLAYS 
 
 Roman Games 
 
 In Rome, at the end of the Republic (510-31 B.C.), there were 
 seven sets of games, taking up 65 days. By the middle of the 
 2nd century a.d. the public games took up 135 days, and, by 354 a.d., 
 1/5 days. The games of one day, lasting at first only part of the 
 day, gradually extended over the whole holiday and later on into 
 the illuminated night. 
 
 The various colleges of priests had the oversight of the games in 
 honour of their respective divinities, but the magistrates (at first the 
 Consuls, then the iEdiles) superintended the games appointed by 
 the State. The expenses of the games were paid in part out of the 
 public treasury. In the period before the Punic Wars the public 
 grant for the Lndi Romani , the greatest of the festivals, amounted to 
 about £1,800; after the Punic Wars, £3,000 ; and by 51 a.d., £8,750. 
 The charges of the games continued to increase enormously, and the 
 givers of the games had to disburse, in supplement, three times as 
 much as the public grant. Even after the 4th century, in spite of 
 repeated edicts to check it, the expenditure stood as high as £50,000 
 to £150,000. 
 
 The oldest games were those of the circus—horse and chariot races 
 gymnastics, etc. Dramatic representations, introduced from Etruria, 
 began to be given after 364; in 240 B.c. regular theatrical perfor¬ 
 mances. Gladiatorial contests, also deriving from Etruria, a survival 
 of human sacrifice at funerals, date from the middle of the 3rd 
 century b.c. At first restricted to the occasion of private funerals 
 or games in memory of a private individual, they became a favourite 
 popular entertainment, and iEdiles, on assuming office, were expected 
 to gratify the public with a gladiatorial exhibition. The Ludi 
 
PLAYS 
 
 3i5 
 
 Romani , the oldest of all the games, were celebrated properly by 
 victorious generals at their triumphs in honour of Jupiter. They 
 therefore included a procession from the capitol to the circus. At 
 first lasting but one day, in the time of Cicero they occupied 15 days 
 (4-19 September), and after the death of Caesar one day longer to 
 his memory. The Ludi Plebel, also lasting but one day at the 
 beginning, came to take up 14 days (4-17 November). They early 
 included dramatic entertainments. The Ludi Cereales, originally 
 held April 19, were afterwards celebrated 12-19 April. Ludi Apol- 
 linares, introduced during the second Punic war, and celebrated on 
 July 13, extended afterwards from 6 to 13 July. This festival was 
 given up to the drama; only on the last day was there a circus per¬ 
 formance. Then there were the Ludi Magalenses, introduced 
 204 B.C., and latterly held from 4 to 10 April. The Ludi FI orales 
 were held from 28 April to 3 May. Saturnalia, in honour of Saturn, 
 were celebrated, as a kind of harvest-home, for 7 days (17-23 Decem¬ 
 ber), during which schools and law-courts were closed, all labour 
 suspended, no criminals punished. Every freedom was then given to 
 the slaves. They were first entertained at the banquet in their 
 masters’ clothes, and served by their masters. The Nonce Capro - 
 tines, on the 7 July, was a female servants’ festival. On that day 
 the female slaves of Rome went in procession to a fig-tree, where they 
 revelled in all kinds of sports with the assembled multitude. 
 
 Under the empire the primitive festivals were largely increased. 
 Augustus’ birthday was celebrated with the Ludi Circenses, and in 
 honour of his memory Ludi Augustales were held from 3 to 
 12 October. And so the whole Roman year was well-nigh one merry 
 round of festivities. 
 
 Mysteries and Miracle Plays 
 
 These were performed generally in cathedrals or monasteries. The 
 scenery of such plays was a scaffold of three storeys to represent 
 respectively heaven, earth, and hell. There were, however, from an 
 early date in England also open-air theatres. In Perran Round 
 (Cornwall) are the remains of a large theatre surrounded with seven 
 tiers of seats. In* the period of the Renaissance the first regular 
 theatre was built in the Grand Court of the Vatican at Rome about 
 1580 ; the Teatro Olimpico at Vicenza, 1584, etc. 
 
 Early in the 12th century the play of St. Catherine, written by 
 Geofrey, a Norman, was performed at Dunstable, some ecclesiastical 
 vestments having been borrowed from St. Alban’s to adorn the 
 actors. A miracle play often comprised a sequel of scripture histories 
 requiring several days for their performance. In the reign of 
 Richard II. a play at Skinner’s Well, near Smithfield, London, lasted 
 three days. In the next reign (Henry IV.) a play at the same place 
 
316 SPORTS 
 
 lasted eiglit days. Like a Presbyterian prayer of less than a century 
 ago, the play opened with the Creation of the World and closed with 
 the Last Day. Among the collections of miracle plays extant are : 
 Toivneley plays , acted at the fairs of Woodkirk, near Wakefield, in the 
 14tli century or earlier; Chester plays , 14th or 15th century; 
 Coventry plays, 15th or 16th century, and York plays. The Coventry 
 plays are also each confined within the limit of the Creation of the 
 Universe on one side and that of the Last Day on the other. In the 
 first act the Deity sits on a throne and angels sing the church service. 
 Lucifer puts in his phiz and wauts to know whether the angels’ hymn 
 be in honour of God or of himself. To give a little zest to the 
 solemn performances, Beelzebub, or the Devil, supported by a merry 
 troupe of under-devils, played a noisy comic part. The devil was 
 mostly the favourite and drew the house. The mystery plays were 
 succeeded by the moralities, in which the characters treading the 
 boards were lively chaps, such as “Good Doctrine”, “ Charity”, 
 “ Faith ”, “ Hope ”, “ Discretion ”, “ Death ”, etc. Good old Nick’s 
 part was in the Moralities taken up by “ Iniquity”, enacting pride, 
 lying, lust, etc. When in turn the moralities gave way to our modern 
 fiesh-and-blood dramas, the part of facetious'“Iniquity” fell to clow ns 
 and fools. The fool too, like the Devil and Iniquity, succeeded in 
 drawingthe house. In the Careless Shepherdess one of the speakers, 
 informed that the fool is not to perform that night, says,— 
 
 “Well, since there will be nere a fool i’ th’ play. 
 
 I’ll have my money again 
 
 Besides the Miracles and Mysteries, there were also secular plays 
 and interludes acted by strolling companies of minstrels, jugglers, 
 tumblers, dancers, jesters, etc. Their entertainment consisted in 
 general of comic tales, dialogues, stories spiced with jests (far from 
 squeamish), and intermixed with instrumental music, dancing, 
 tumbling, gesticulation, and mimicry. Sometimes, however, the 
 strolling players would poach on the parson’s preserves, and perform 
 a mystery play. A petition from St. Paul’s School to Richard II. is 
 still extant, complaining that the secular actors were acting plays 
 from scripture history to the great prejudice of the clergy, who had 
 at much expense been preparing performances against the Christmas 
 festival. The strolling players were highly popular, and often ad¬ 
 mitted into the courts of kings and the castles of great earls and barons. 
 
 The mysteries were, as already stated, usually performed in churches 
 or chapels, upon temporary scaffolds erected for the purpose. In the 
 reign of Henry VIII., Bonner, Bishop of London, interdicted the 
 performance of common plays, games, or interludes within churches 
 or chapels. In Cornwall, long after the abolition of miracles and 
 moralities in other parts of the kingdom, plays from scripture were 
 
PLAYS IN ENGLAND 317 
 
 performed in an earthen amphitheatre in some open field, and devils 
 and other lively comicalities, delighting as well the eye as the ear, 
 drew admiring flocks of country people for many miles around. 
 
 The itinerant players continued their exhibitions on temporary 
 scaffolds to as late as the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 Modern Plays in England 
 
 In England the earliest plays were performed in booths, tennis 
 courts, and court yards of ipns. The first permanent playhouse of 
 England was “The Theatre” of Shoreditch, 1576, built after the 
 pattern of an inn yard. Near it was erected the “Curtain”, 1577. 
 Blackfriars (in which Shakspeare had a share) was built in 1596. 
 Other London theatres of Elizabeth’s time were Whitefriars, Rose, 
 Swan, Cockpit, Red Bull, etc. 
 
 The stage was a platform set up against one side of the building. 
 Round this stage was the “yard” (pit) in which sat or stood the 
 spectators. Round the pit rose the “rooms” (boxes or galleries). 
 The door at the back of the stage opening into the dressing rooms, 
 and by which the actors entered the stage, was hung with curtains. 
 “ Traversing” the stage were curtains on rods that might be drawn 
 up or undrawn to show or to hide an inner apartment. The scene of 
 the play was graphically displayed by a ticket bearing the inscription 
 “Venice ”, “ a Garden ”, or whatever else might be the name of the 
 place. Properties included, e.g., a bed brought frankly on the stage, 
 a cage, a rock, or whatever else the play needecLfor its visual realisa¬ 
 tion. The stage might, too, be furnished with traps, while a platform 
 on the stage would show to perfection any elevation comprised in the 
 story of the play—a tower, a balcony, city walls, and such like. In 
 the Elizabethan theatre the stage was strewed with rushes or might 
 even be matted. Stools scattered over the stage gave seating to the 
 gallants of the time, whose figures and gay dresses divided with the 
 dramatis personae the admiration of the pit and gallery. Girls’ parts 
 were played by beardless boys, elderly women’s parts by men. Long 
 used in masques , mobile scenery (dating from early in the 16th cen¬ 
 tury) was yet not turned to account in regular stage-plays till 1661. 
 The orchestra of Shakspeare’s time occupied a gallery above the stage 
 A drawing taken by John de Witt, of the Swan Theatre, of London, 
 in 1596, is still extant. Let one contrast this theatre with our 
 Lyceum or Drury Lane, and think how the former produced original 
 Hamlets, Othellos, and Caesars, but the latter—Lyons’ mails! 
 
 After the Restoration, when Hamlets had all retired from the 
 profane theatre, the scenery gradually grew more elaborate, movable 
 scenery was introduced, and female parts (of feminine delicacy) began 
 to be played by women. 
 
 Mummeries and Pageants, exhibited mostly at courts, presented a 
 
3i8 
 
 SPORTS 
 
 series of spectacular surprises or tableaux vivants. In honour of the 
 marriage of Arthur Prince of Wales with Catherine of Spain (after¬ 
 wards married to Henry VIII., in whose sensitive conscience later on 
 arose misgivings about the lawfulness of such an alliance), three 
 pageants were exhibited in Westminster Hall, the first representing a 
 castle with ladies, the second a ship in full sail that cast anchor near 
 the castle, the third a mountain with several armed knights upon it. 
 These last took it upon them to storm the castle and compelled the 
 ladies to surrender. The show ended in a dance, and the pageantry 
 dissolved, like a dream. 
 
 Puppet Plays 
 
 It is uncertain when puppet plays were first exhibited in England. 
 In England they were originally called motions, and are mentioned 
 in Gammer Gur ton’s Needle (a play of 1551, turning on the loss and 
 recovery of a needle with which Gammer Gurton was mending the 
 breeches of her man Hodge). Puppets were in use in ancient Egypt 
 and in classical Greece and Rome, and are mentioned by Xenophon, 
 Horace, etc. Don Quixote himself was spectator of a puppet show, 
 and his behaviour on the occasion is highly entertaining. Allusions 
 to puppet shows are plentiful in Shakspeare, Ben Jonson, Pepys’s 
 Diary, etc. Bartholomew’s fair long continued famous for its puppet 
 shows. The puppet dramas were taken from well-known and popular 
 stories, and well provided with knights and giants. Brown’s puppets, 
 1830-40, showed the Battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon crossing the Alps, 
 etc. 
 
 The puppet show still continues to be represented by Punch and 
 Judy in our streets. This is to many a one the earliest acquaintance 
 he makes of the theatre, and in most cases yields a theatrical deli¬ 
 rium of delight such as in later life the Lyceum and the best com¬ 
 pany fail to afford. Wilhelm Meister can never forget the sensation 
 of his first experience of the puppet show. 
 
 “We were all seated before the door leading to the other room. 
 The door opened; but not as formerly, to let pass and repass. The 
 entrance was occupied by an unexpected show. Within it rose a 
 porch concealed by a mysterious curtain. At the signal of a whistle, 
 up rose the curtain, and lo! the interior of the temple painted in 
 deep red colours. The high-priest, Samuel, appeared with Jonathan, 
 and their strange alternating voices were to me the most wonderful 
 thing on earth. Soon after entered Saul, overwhelmed with confu¬ 
 sion at the impertinence of that heavy-limbed warrior who had defied 
 him and all his people. But how glad was I when the wee dapper 
 son of Jesse, with his crook aud shepherd’s pouch and sling, came 
 hopping forth and cried, ‘ Dread king and sovereign lord ! let no 
 man’s heart fail him this day because of this; if your Majesty will 
 
THE SPORTS OF MERRIE ENGLAND 319 
 
 grant me leave, I will go out to battle with this blustering giant \ 
 . . . At last the curtain rose again, wee David devoted the flesh 
 
 of the mouster to the fowls of the air aud to the beasts of the field. 
 The Philistine, on the other hand, scorned and bullied the little fellow, 
 and stamped terribly with his feet; but at length fell like a mass of 
 clay. . . . Then cometh the singing of the virgins, the giant’s 
 
 head borne before the tiny victor, and David ’3 marriage with the 
 king’s beautiful daughter ”, 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE SPORTS OF MERRIE ENGLAND AND SPORTS 
 ON THE CONTINENT 
 
 The Sports of Merrie England 
 According to Hall (1499-154/, whose chronicle is one of the prime 
 sources of the material of Shakspeare’s Plays), Henry VIII., even 
 in the Time of a ^ er accession to the throne, daily practised 
 1 Henry vin. archery, casting of the bar, wrestling, dancing, and 
 frequently also* tilting, tourneying, fighting at the 
 barriers with swords and battle-axes, and such like martial recrea¬ 
 tions, in most of which there were few that could excel him. He was 
 also exceedingly fond of hunting, hawking, and other sports of the 
 field. In blufl' Hal’s time hunting, hawking, charging dexterously 
 with lance at tilt, leaping and running, were the necessary accom¬ 
 plishments of a mail of fashion. 
 
 In the time of Queen Elizabeth hunting with hounds and hawking 
 were greatly in fashion among the aristocracy, and, in the way of 
 In the Time of s h°°ti n g> the bow w r as beginning to give way to the 
 
 Queen Bess. gun. The Queen was at the hunt every other day 
 down to as late as 1GOO, when she was sixty-seven, and 
 we are told how in 1591 she shot three or four deer with the cross-bow. 
 
 Great bear-rings were quartered in Southwark, whither thronged 
 all classes to see bulls and bears baited. The principal bear-ring was 
 the “Paris Garden”, whither the Queen went in her 
 ear-rmgs. r0 yal barge in 1599. Ordinarily a place in the bear-riug 
 cost \d. The ring was always thronged, particularly on a Sunday. 
 The bears Harry Hitncks and Saclcerson were long the favourites, 
 and renowned far and wide. 
 
 The Elizabethan country sports were hurling, wrestling, football, 
 and quoits, besides dancing, mumming, and pantomime at the numerous 
 .. y festivals. First came New Year’s Day, and Twelfth 
 was a variegated Day, and (the day after) Rock or Distaff Day, Plough 
 round of Monday, and Candlemas. Then came Shrovetide and 
 oyou? es iv . celebration of Collop Monday and Shrove Tuesday, 
 
320 SPORTS 
 
 with games, plays, cock-fights, and feasts. Easter Sunday was made 
 gay with morris-dancing and ball games ; May Day with the bringing 
 home and setting up of the garlanded Maypole, and the lively dances 
 round it; Whitsuntide with the fantastic merriment of the Lords i 
 of Misrule. Next came round the sheep-shearing feast, or “lamb- 
 ale ” ; harvest homes ; Seed-cake day in October ; Martinmas, when 
 one’s stock of salted meat was laid in against the winter ; lastly, 
 Christmas. Add “ Church-ales ”, wake-day for each village (the vigil 
 of its patron saint), when young and old played the night out in 
 lively pastimes, christenings, weddings, and funerals (which last too 
 behooved to be celebrated with feasting), and say whether under 
 Queen Bess England was not rather merrie ? 
 
 The sports enumerated in James I.’s declaration of 1618, commonly 
 called the “ Book of Sports,” to be practised by his “ good people ” 
 
 T T . , after divine service, are dancing (by either men or 
 
 of Sports. women), archery tor men, leaping, vaulting, or any 
 other such harmless recreations; also May games, 
 Whitsun-ales, and morris-dances, etc., so as the same he had in due and 
 convenient time without impediment or neglect of divine service. In 
 his instructions to his son Henry, Prince of Wales, 
 Becoming James, while highly commending bodily exercises and 
 Gentiemam games, debars rough and violent exercises, such as 
 football and tumbling tricks, but insists on the reason¬ 
 able practice of running, leaping, wrestling, fencing, dancing, and 
 playing at the caitch, or tennise, archerie, palle-malle, and such like 
 other fair and pleasant field games. Also and especially horseman¬ 
 ship and horseback games, like tilt, the ring, and low riding for hand¬ 
 ing of your sword; not to forget hunting with running lioundes, as 
 distinguished from the thievish forme of hunting with guimes and 
 
 bowes. In the “Masque of Blackness”, played on ; 
 A in\vh!c^ti?e Ue twelfth n ight at Whitehall, James I.’s Queen also 
 Queen Acts, acted, appearing withTier court ladies and gentlemen, . j 
 blackened in face and arms as an Ethiopian. 
 
 In the time of the Commonwealth, the sporting gentry did not 
 enjoy so much latitude of diversion. “ Any one found idly standing 
 TheS ortsofthe or wa ^ n S street in sermon time, or playing at 
 
 Commonwealth any games upon the Sabbath or fast day, to be fined 
 2s. 6d., or lie in prison till he pay the same”. An 
 artisan’s wages being only from 8s. to 9s. a week, and the pay of a 
 foot-soldier only 8d. a day, 2s. 6d. to pay for a little bit of sport was 
 to “ pay the piper ” with a vengeance. In 1642 plays and bear-baiting 
 were both suppressed. Cock-matches were also put a stop to. In 
 1644 Maypoles were ordered down, and all games and sports, as also 
 selling of wares on Sundays, forbidden. Still the Commonwealth 
 was indulgent, and even on Sunday allowed people to dress meat in 
 
THE SPORTS OF MERRIE ENGLAND 321 
 
 private families. The same year, Christmas falling on a Wednes¬ 
 day, was consecrated as a strict fast day. When in 1643 the Lord 
 Mayor feasted both Houses of Parliament, the feast was innocent of 
 all drinking of healths, or any profanity of that sort. An ordinance 
 in 1654 abolished all drinking of healths. Horse-races were exter¬ 
 minated. Players were whipped for rogues. In 1657 any person 
 betting at cards, dice, tables, tennis, bowls, shovelboard, or other 
 game, was made to forfeit double his winnings. Everybody was to 
 be good. 
 
 In his Anatomy of Melancholy , Burton gives us a general view of 
 the sports prevalent in the l/th century. “ Cards, dice, hawkes, 
 and hounds,” says he, “are rocks upon which men lose 
 Spor cfentury . 1?th themselves, when they are imprudently handled and 
 beyond their fortunes. Hunting and hawking are 
 honest recreations and fit for some great men, but not for all base 
 persons, from whom, while they maintain their falconer and dogs 
 and hunting nags, their wealth runs away with their hounds, and 
 their fortunes fly away with their hawks. Pinging, bowling, shoot¬ 
 ing, playing with keel pins, tronks, coits, pitching of bars, hurling, 
 wrestling, leaping, running, fencing, mustering, swimming, playing 
 with wasters, foils, footballs, balowns, running at the quintain, and 
 the like, are common recreations of country folks ; riding of great 
 horses, running at rings, tilts and tournaments, horse-races, and wild 
 goose-chases, which are disports of greater men, and good in them¬ 
 selves, though many gentlemen by such means gallop quite out of 
 their fortunes ”. The Londoners, he says, take pleasure to see some 
 pageant or sight go by, as at a coronation, wedding, and such like 
 solemn niceties ; to see an ambassador or prince received and enter¬ 
 tained with masks, shows, and fireworks. The county hath also his 
 recreations in May-games, feasts, fairs, and wakes. 
 
 The following he considers pastimes common both in town and 
 country :—bull-baitings and bear-baitings, in which our countrymen 
 and citizens greatly delight; dances on ropes, juggleries, comedies, 
 tragedies, artillery gardens, and cock-fighting. The ordinary recre¬ 
 ations in winter are cards, tables, dice, shovelboard, chess play, the 
 philosopher’s game, small trunks, shuttlecock, billiards, music, 
 masks, singing, dancing, yule games, frolics, jests, riddles, catches, 
 cross-purposes, questions and commands, merry tales of errant 
 knights, queens, lovers, lords, ladies, giants, dwarfs, thieves, cheaters, 
 witches, fairies, goblins, and friars. To this catalogue he adds 
 “ dancing, singing, .masking, mumming, and stage-plays are reason¬ 
 able recreations if in season, as are May-games, wakes, and whitson- 
 ales, if not at unseasonable hours, are justly permitted ”. Let the 
 common people, he says, “ freely feast, sing, dance, have puppet- 
 plays, hobby-horses, tapers, crowds (violins), and bagpipes ” ; let 
 
 21 
 
SPORTS 
 
 322 
 
 them “play at ball and barley-brakes”. Furthermore, “plays, 
 masks, jesters, gladiators, tumblers, and jugglers are to be winked at, 
 lest the people should do worse than attend them So much lati¬ 
 tude does anatomical Burton allow. 
 
 In his edition of Stow’s Survey , Strype enumerates the following 
 pastimes practised by Londoners and English people generally in the 
 early part of the 18th century:—“Besides drinking, 
 the Sl i8fch Century* cock-fighting, bowling greens, tables (backgammon), 
 cards, dice, billiards, musical entertainments, dancing, 
 masks, balls, stage-plays, clubs in the evening, riding out on horse¬ 
 back, hunting with the lord mayor’s pack of dogs when the common 
 hunt goes out. The commoner sort divert themselves at football, 
 wrestling, cudgels, ninepins, shovelboard, cricket, stowball, ringing of 
 bells, quoits, pitching the bar, bull and bear baiting, throwing at 
 cocks, and lying at ale-houses”. An author of later date adds, 
 “ Sailing, rowing, swimming, and fishing in the river Thames, horse 
 and foot races, leaping, archery, bowling in allies, skittles, tennis, 
 chess, and draughts ; and in the winter skating, sliding, and shooting.” 
 Duck hunting was also a favourite amusement in summer. 
 
 The Cotswold Games, etc. —Famous in the 16th and the 17th 
 century, the Cotswold games were held at Dover’s Hill, near Honey- 
 bourne. Robert Dover, Attorney of Barton Heath, Warwickshire, 
 was for forty years chief director of these pastimes. They consisted 
 of wrestling-, cudgel-playing, leaping, pitching the bar, throwing the 
 sledge, tossing the pike, with other feats of strength and activity; 
 many of the country gentlemen hunted or coursed the hare, and the 
 women danced. A castle of boards was erected on the occasion, 
 from which guns were frequently discharged. 
 
 Probably much the same set of sports were celebrated at the car¬ 
 nival held every year, about the middle of July, at Halgaver Moor, 
 near Bodmin, Cornwall. Heath, in his description of Cornwall 
 (1750), says they were resorted to by thousands of people. Charles II. 
 on his way to Sicily touched this place during its carnival celebra¬ 
 tions, and its sports and pastimes were so much to his liking that lie 
 became a member of the jovial society. 
 
 The Godiva Procession. —The Lady Godiva procession in Coventry 
 was celebrated as recently as 2nd August, 1892. 
 
 Sport on the Continent 
 
 Chamois hunting on the Alps 400 years ago was fine sport, but not 
 for unsteady nerves. The chamois haunts only the higher regions, 
 far above the timber-line, and his hunter needed to be hardy and 
 indefatigable in scaling to get within practicable distance of his 
 game. To attack his prey he had only the javelin, 9 or 10 ten feet 
 long, and not effective at a tenth of the distance our firearms cover. 
 
CYCLING 
 
 323 
 
 To despatch the stricken chamois or the wounded bear in his lair, to 
 receive the charge of the huge boar, to finish off a hart of great head 
 at bay, the hunter had for arms only the short spear or the shorter 
 hanger. Among all the sportsmen of these times, the most famous 
 was the Emperor Maximilian (1459-1519), than whom no Nimrod 
 past or present more takes the fancy. His idea of sport was solitary 
 stalking after big game at formidable altitudes, liable to avalanches, 
 slip of rock, and slip of foot on narrow ledge. And at such eerie 
 points of peril Maximilian would tackle in its lair, with short spear 
 or hanger, a bear of 900 lbs. or a boar of 800 lbs. weight. His hanger, 
 34 inches long by 2 inches wide, is still preserved in Vienna. While 
 civilisation has swept away ibex, bear, and lynx, and has reduced the 
 size of deer that once stocked the forests of the Continent, chamois 
 and the home of the chamois remain to*day pretty much as in the 
 time of Maximilian. Indeed, in several regions chamois are on the 
 increase. Throughout the mountain-chain stretching from Eastern 
 France to Transylvania the annual game shot averages, we are told, 
 11,000 chamois. 
 
 One cannot but admire the part played by the chase in France and 
 Germany. In France down to the Revolution it seems to have been 
 the one engrossing business of monarch and nobles. Whip in hand 
 and all ready for the chase, Louis XIV. would drop hastily into 
 Parliament, and dictate the subsidies the Assembly should vote. 
 Louis XVI.’s diary on the day of the storming of the Bastille has 
 for its only entry, “Killed nothing”; and on the day of the pro¬ 
 cession of women to Versailles the royal entry was, “Killed 81 head ; 
 interrupted by events”. No less in Germany ministers and coun¬ 
 cillors had to wait upon their royal masters in the depths of the 
 forests. And what game those forests yielded ! Electors John 
 George I. and II. managed between them (1611-80), notwithstanding 
 the distractions of the terrible Thirty Years’ War, to bag 110,530 deer, 
 54,200 wild boar, 29,013 hares, 21,755 foxes, besides numerous other 
 game. And what fellows game then were ! A twelve-point stag 
 killed in 1646 weighed 61 stone 11 lbs. avoirdupois, while 52 harts 
 exceeded each 56 stone! 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 CYCLING 
 
 About 1/67 a velocipede was invented by Richard Lovell Edgeworth. 
 In 1779 Blanchard the aeronaut invented another such machine. In 
 1818 Niepce produced still another. The same year the “ Dandy 
 Horse” was patented in Paris and in London. Having a seat resting 
 on two wheels, one behind the other, the dandy horse was propelled 
 
SPORTS 
 
 324 
 
 by its rider striking the ground with right and left foot alternately. 
 About 1836-40 a blacksmith of Dumfriesshire turned out a hobby 
 horse equipped with cranks, levers and. pedals. Soon after Dalzell, a 
 cooper of Leshmabagow, constructed the “ wooden horse”- its 
 saddle low, the “stirrups ” (or pedals) connected by iron rods with 
 the cranked axle of the driving wheel. Mounted on his wooden 
 horse, the inventor would outrun a fast coach on the highway. Four- 
 wheeled velocipedes, constructed by Merryweather, Revis, and 
 Baddeley, rode the grounds of Paxton’s Crystal Palace in Sydenham. 
 In 1865 the “bone-shaker”, worked with cranks upon the front 
 wheel, was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition by Pierre Lallement, 
 and in 1866 patented in the United States. The “ bone-shaker ” was 
 a short-lived sensation at Islington. The boy-Prinee Imperial of 
 France also bestrode the new bicycle. About 1868, E. A. Cooper 
 produced a bicycle with hollow forks and tubular backbone. Cooper’s 
 suggestions were taken up and improved by James Starley, whose 
 “Ariel” won the prize medal at the International Exhibition, in 
 South Kensington, 1873. Mr. Dunlop’s device of the pneumatic 
 tyre clinched the success-of cycling. 
 
 The Coventry tricycle dates from 1876, forerunner of the “ Coven¬ 
 try Rotary”. The invention of the rear-driver is claimed by Mr. 
 
 H. J. Lawson. About 1879 Mr. Singer brought out his “safety”, 
 the “Extraordinary” ; and some dozen years ago Messrs. Starley & 
 Sutton their rear-driving safety, essentially the safety of to-day. 
 
 Cycling feats are the every-day reading of every newspaper. I 11 
 1874 Keith Falconer rode Bournemouth to Hitchin, 113 miles, in 19 
 hours. On the 14th-15th August, 1897, Huret “hiked” 546 miles 
 
 I, 507 yards in 24 hours. The island from Land’s End to John 
 o’Groats—some 900 miles of road—has been overrun in 3 days 4 
 hours 46 minutes. In 1879, at the Agricultural Hall, Mr. George 
 Waller made 1,404 miles in 6 days, lst-6th September. By way of 
 autumn holiday in 1888, the Rev. Hugh Callan, of St. Andrew’s, 
 Glasgow, wheeled the whole way over Europe and Asia Minor to 
 Jerusalem and back. “ Bikes” are now crossing every continent in 
 every direction. In Britain especially, every road is one continuous 
 current of cycles of alternate masculine and feminine, varied by 
 masculine-feminine, mount; and no overrun highway is any longer 
 visible, save only in momentary glimpses. 
 
Africa, 74, 95. 
 
 Aischylos, 32. 
 
 Albani, Madame, 61. 
 
 Albert Nyanza, 77. 
 
 Ale, 157. 
 
 Alexander, 21, 32, 35, 72. 
 Alexandria, 7, 21, 35, 73, 92, 
 
 Alfred, 49. 
 
 Alimentary Canal, 96-7. 
 Alma-Tadema, 61. 
 
 Almond, 148. 
 
 Alphabet, 13, 212-7. 
 
 Amazon, 77, 83. 
 
 America, 74. 
 
 America, North, 75. 
 
 American Aloe, 148. 
 
 American Produce, 94-5. 
 American Vegetables, 151-2. 
 Amsterdam, 230. 
 Anaximander, 71. 
 
 Animal Body, 96. 
 
 Antarctic Explora 4 ion, 80. 
 Antarctic Ocean, 81-2. 
 Antwerp, 94. 
 
 Apple, 148-9. 
 
 Archimedes, 35-6. 
 
 Arctic Exploration, 79. 
 
 Arctic Ocean, 81-2. 
 
 Aristeides, 32-3. 
 
 Aristophanes, 33. 
 
 Aristotle, 34, 73. 
 
 Art and Handicraft, 178-9. 
 Asia, 95. 
 
 Astors^Wealth of, 188. 
 Astronomical Names, 237-8. 
 Athenian Book-Mart, 222. 
 Athens, 2, 21, 22, 34, 35. 
 Athens, Rome, and Jeru¬ 
 salem, 30-1. 
 
 Atlantic Ocean, 81-2. 
 Augustine, 37, 39. 
 
 Augustus, 28-9. 
 
 Auld New Year, 205. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus, 38-9, 93. 
 Australia, 78-9. 
 
 Authors’ Incomes, 189-90. 
 Babylon, 9-11, 17, 307. 
 Bachelors, Distinguished, 
 268. 
 
 Bacon, 53-4, 2G&. 
 
 Bagdad, 93. 
 
 Baker, S., 77. 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bakers, 158,159. 
 
 Baktra, 92. 
 
 Baldness, 118. 
 
 Balfour, A. J., 61-2. 
 
 Baltic, 92. 
 
 Barbers, 160. 
 
 Barley, 147, 157. 
 
 Barley bree, 156. 
 
 Barrett, Wi’son, 62. 
 
 Barrie, J. M., 62. 
 
 Barter, 166. 
 
 Bass, 78. 
 
 Baths, 163-4. 
 
 Baths, Roman, 30. 
 
 Beagle, 78. 
 
 Beans, 148. 
 
 Beer, 156-7. 
 
 Bees, 153. 
 
 Belt of Calms, 88. 
 
 Bernhardt, Sarah, 62. 
 
 Besant, Walter, 62. 
 
 Bible for £3,900, 218-9. 
 
 Bible Handicrafts, 159-61. 
 Billion Sovereigns, 277. 
 
 Billy Deutsch, 188-9. 
 Bismarck, 62-63. 
 
 Black, William, 63. 
 
 Blood, 97-9. 
 
 Blushing, 98. 
 
 Boccaccio, 40. 
 
 Book-moth, 113. 
 
 Books, 220-4. 
 
 Booth, William, 63. 
 
 Boulogne, 230. 
 
 Bowing, 252-3. 
 Brachycephalic, 111. 
 
 Braddon, M. E., 63. 
 
 Brain, 106 et seq. 
 
 Brain Weights, 109. 
 
 Brick Libraries. 221-2. 
 Bride-capture, 261-2. 
 Bride-Purchase, 262-3. 
 Britain, 24, 25. 
 
 Britain, Norse in, 245-6. 
 British and Roman Empire, 
 25-6. 
 
 British Empire in ’37 and ’97, 
 192-3. 
 
 British Museum, 155, 224. 
 British Museumite, 111. 
 Bruce, J., 77. 
 
 Bruce, Rob., 50. 
 
 Buchanan, George, 51. 
 
 Buffon, 45-6. 
 
 Burke, 268. 
 
 Burns, Robert, 57, 161. 
 
 Butter, 156. 
 
 Butterflies, 155-6. 
 
 Coesar, 24, 25, 27-8, 31, 37-8, 73. 
 Calendar. 4, 195-208. 
 
 Calvin, 37, 41-2. 
 
 Cambridge, 229. 
 
 Camoens, 42. 
 
 Canada, 76-7. 
 
 Canton, 93. 
 
 Cape of Good Hope, 74, 75, 92. 
 Cape Route, 93-4. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 58, 268. 
 Carthage, 13,14-5. 
 
 Castor Oil for Salads, 158. 
 
 Cat, 153. 
 
 Cato, 37. 
 
 Cave Age, 110-2. 
 
 Cavendish, S. C., 63. 
 
 Caxton’s Press, 219. 
 
 Cellini, 42. 
 
 Census and Censorship, 24. 
 Cephalic Index, 111. 
 
 Cerebral Int elligence, 109-10. 
 Cervantes, 42. 
 
 Ceylon, 74. 93. 
 
 Chaldsea, 92. 
 
 Chamberlain, Joseph, 63. 
 Charlemagne, 26, 39. 
 
 Chaucer, 40, 50-1, 268. 
 Chersonese, Golden, 74. 
 
 Chili, 77. 
 
 China, 92. 
 
 Chinese, 93. 
 
 Christian, 234. 
 
 Christian Era, 3. 
 
 Christianity and Bargain- 
 driving, 126. 
 
 Cicero, 38. 
 
 Circumnavigation of the 
 Globe, 75. 
 
 Circus Maximus, 30. 
 Civilisations, Earliest, 91-2. 
 Climate, Elements of, 84-5. 
 Climates of London, etc., 87; 
 Cock and Hen, 154. 
 Cock-fighting, 154. 
 
 Coffee, 150-1. 
 
 Coinage, 167-70. 
 
 Coins, 168-9, 240. 
 
 Cologne, 229. 
 
 Colombia, 77. 
 
 Colonisable Lands, 83-91. 
 
 325 
 
INDEX 
 
 326 
 
 Columbus, 40, 77. 
 
 Commerce and Romance, 181. 
 Complexion in United King¬ 
 dom, 129-30. 
 
 Congo, 77-8, 83. 
 Constantinople, 25, 93. 
 
 Cook, Capt., 78. 
 
 Copernican System, 75. 
 Copernicus, 41. 
 
 Corneille, 43. 
 
 County Characteristics, 131. 
 Courtship, 260-1. 
 
 Criticism, 127. 
 
 Crockett, S. R., 63. 
 
 Cromwell, 49, 54. 
 
 Cultivable Land, 90. 
 Cuneiform Writing, 9,12, 211. 
 Cuvier, 48. 
 
 Cycling, 323-4. 
 
 Cyprus, 12-3, 14. 
 
 Czar, Czarevitch, etc., 28. 
 D’Alembert, 45. 
 
 Dance, Girls’ Tomb, 270. 
 Dancing, 268-70. 
 
 Dante, 39. 
 
 Darwin, Charles, 58-9, 78. 
 David of Israel, 36, 3i8-9. 
 Day, Divisions, 195-7. 
 
 Days of the Week, 206. 
 
 Dead Sea, 83. 
 
 Defender of the Faith, 27. 
 Demosthenes, 34-5. 
 
 Descartes, 43. 
 
 Diderot, 45. 
 
 Diplomacy and Duplicity, 31. 
 Distance Visible, 294-5. 
 
 Dog, 153. 
 
 Dolichocephalic, 111. 
 
 Don Quixote, 42. 
 
 Drachma, 11, 242. 
 
 Drinking Healths, 253. 
 Dufferin, 63. 
 
 Dunbar, 50. 
 
 Ear and other Faculties, 
 115-6. 
 
 Earth, Measurements, etc., 
 80-1. 
 
 Edison, T. A., 64. 
 
 Egyptian Cuisiue, 158. 
 Elevation of land above sea- 
 level, 81, 84. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 51-2. 
 Embracing, 24^-50. 
 
 Emin Pasha, 78. 
 
 Emperor, 28-9. 
 
 England, 95, 242. 
 Epameinondas, 33. 
 
 Erasmus, 40, 251. 
 
 Euclid, 35. 
 
 Euphrates, 9, 91. 
 
 Euripides, 32. 
 
 Europe, 95. 
 
 Eye, ] 12 et seq. 
 
 Fair Hair, 165-6. 
 
 Fair Sex, 121-2. 
 
 Fecundity, 136-7. 
 
 Female and Male Skull, 118. 
 Feminine Hand, 121. 
 Feminine Voice, 120-1. 
 
 Finger Arithmetic, 273. 
 Finger-tips, 126. 
 
 Flax, 149-50. 
 
 Foreign Moneys and British 
 Equivalents, 309. 
 
 Fortunes picked up, 188. 
 France, 95. 
 
 France, New, 76. 
 
 Franklin, 55. 
 
 Frederick the Great, 45. 
 Freedom of the Will, 55. 
 French in Canada, 76. 
 Froissart, 40. 
 
 Galileo, 42, 75, 76, 
 
 Gazette, 225. 
 
 Genesis, 36. 
 
 Genoa, 93. 
 
 Geographical Names, 240-1, 
 243-8. 
 
 Geography, 54. 
 
 Germany, 95. 
 
 Gladstone, W. E., 64, 112,268. 
 Gnathic Index, 111. 
 
 Goats, 153. 
 
 Godiva Procession, 322. 
 Goethe, 44, 47-8, 123. 
 
 Gold, 172-3. 
 
 Gold in Australia, 79. 
 Goodwin, 234. 
 
 Goshen, 6, 16. 
 
 Granada (New), 77. 
 
 Greece, 95. 
 
 Greece and its Names, 19. 
 Greece and Palestine, 22-3. 
 Greece and Rome, 21-2. 
 
 Greek Colonies, 19-20. 
 
 Greek Culture, 21-2, 35. 
 
 Greek Emperors, 25. 
 
 Greek Measures, 308. 
 
 Greek Sports, 312-3. 
 
 Greek Trade, 92. 
 
 Greenland, 75. 
 
 Gregorian Calendar, 205. 
 Gregory, 39. 
 
 Grey Hair, 117, 165. 
 
 Guilds, Trade, 177 et seq. 
 
 Hair, 159-60. 
 
 Hair-Dressing, 164-6. 
 
 Hair, Female crop of, 116-7. 
 Hairs Numbered. 117. 
 Hamlet’s Uncle’s Prayers, 
 125-6. 
 
 Handfasting, 265. 
 
 Handicrafts, 178. 
 Handshaking, 253. 
 
 Hannibal, 15, 37. 
 
 Haricot Beans, 148. 
 
 Harvest Home, 270-1. 
 
 Heart, Human, 97. 
 
 Heat, Income and Expendi¬ 
 ture of, in Body, 102-5. 
 
 Hegel, 48. 
 
 Hermann u. Dorothea, 123. 
 Herodotos, 33. 
 
 Hesiod, 32, 71, 153. 
 Hibernation, 100-1. 
 Himalayas, Climates, 85-6. 
 Hippodrome, 313-4. 
 
 Hittites, 10. 
 
 Hoang-Ho, 83, 91. 
 
 Holland, 95. 
 
 Holy Roman Empire, 26, 
 62-3. 
 
 Home-made Bread, 158. 
 Homer, 31-2, 153, 154, 254. 
 Homeric Handicrafts, lol. 
 Homeric Sports, 312. , 
 Horace, 38. 
 
 Horse, 152. 
 
 Hour, 197-9. 
 
 Hudson Bay, 76. 
 
 Hugo Victor, 49. 
 
 Humboldt, 77. 
 
 Hume, 55, 268. 
 
 Husband and Wife one flesh, 
 128. 
 
 Ibsen, 64. 
 
 Iceland, 74. 
 
 Iliad, 31-2, 35, 221. 
 
 Inch of Rain, Value of. 88 
 Indian Chiefs’ Petition, 214. 
 Indian Ocean, 81, 82. 
 
 Inns, 228-9. 
 
 Intellectual Work and Long 
 evity, 134-6. 
 
 Inventions, 1837-97, 193-5. 
 Iron Coinage, 168. 
 
 Irving, H., 64. 
 
 Isaiah, 36. 
 
 Jameson, L. S., 64, 65. 
 Jerusalem, 10, 16, 17, 168. 
 
 Jerusalem, Athens, and Rome 
 30-1. 
 
 Jewish Factor in History, 18. 
 Jewish Measures and Weights 
 307-8. 
 
 Joan of Arc, 40. 
 
 Johnson, Samuel, 56, 176. 
 Joining of Hands, 264. 
 Jonson, Ben, 52-J. 
 
 Joseph’s Canal, 6. 
 Journeyman, Guild, 180. 
 Jubilee Plunger, 189. 
 
 ,T u 1 i ana an d J il t, 235. 
 
 Julian Calendar, 204-5. 
 Juvenal, 38. 
 
 Kaisar-i-Hiud, 28. 
 
 Kaiser, 28. 
 
 Kant, 47, 268. 
 
 Kelvin, 64-5. 
 
 Kepler, 43, 75. 
 
 Kissing, 250-2. 
 
 Kissing Day, 251-2. 
 
 Knox, John, 5L. 
 
 Kruger, S. J. P., 65. 
 
 Labrador, 75. 
 
INDEX 327 
 
 Lake-Dwellings, 143 et seq. 
 Land and Water, 81. 
 Language, Mistakes of, 242-3. 
 Laplace, 46. 
 
 Latin and Languages, 31. 
 Latitude, 84. 
 
 Laurier, W., 65. 
 
 Leaven, 158. 
 
 Lecky, W. E. H„ 65. 
 
 Leibnitz, 44. 
 
 Lentils, 148. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 40. 
 Lessing, 46. 
 
 Libraries, 221 et seq. 
 
 Libraries, Public, 223. 
 
 Libya, 95. 
 
 Linen,149. 
 
 Linnaeus, 46. 
 
 Liquor Fortunes, 188. 
 
 Lisbon, 93-4. 
 
 Livingstone, 77. 
 
 Livy, 38. 
 
 Locke, 55. 
 
 Logarithms, 76. 
 
 London. 30, 229. 
 
 Longevity, 132 et seq. 
 Louisiana, 76. 
 
 Lubbock, J., 65. 
 
 Lucretius, 38. 
 
 Lungs, 98. 
 
 Luther, 41, 37. 
 
 Lyceum, 34. 
 
 Macedonia, 21. 
 
 McKinley, W., 61, 66. 
 Magellan’s Straits, 75, 77. 
 Magnet. 74. 
 
 Mahomet, 39. 
 
 Maidens and Brides will never 
 marry, 267-8. 
 
 Maize, 151. 
 
 Male Inventions in Female 
 Arts, 121. 
 
 Marriage, 1,256-68. 
 
 Marriage Ceremonies in Eng¬ 
 land, 266-7. 
 
 Marriage up a Tree, 265. 
 Marrying Age, 257-8, 268. 
 Marrying Times, 267. 
 Marseilles, 20. 72. 
 
 Mead, 153, 157. 
 
 Meals, 254-6. 
 
 Measures, 241-2. 
 
 Measures, Oriental and Classi¬ 
 cal, 306-8. 
 
 Mediterranean, 82, 83, 92, 94. 
 Melbourne, 78. 
 
 Mensurative Formulae, 296-7. 
 Meredith, G., 66. 
 Mesopotamia, 9, 92. 
 
 Metric Measures, 298-306. 
 Metric System, 297 et seq. 
 Michael Angelo, 41. 
 
 Miles, 308-9. 
 
 Millet, 157. 
 
 Millionaires, 186 et seq. 
 
 Milton, 54, 233. 
 
 Mina, 11, 307. 
 
 Mirabeau, 46, 47. 
 
 Mississippi, 76. 
 
 Moabite Stone, 12. 
 
 Moffat, 77. 
 
 Moli^re, 44. 
 
 Monaco, 20. 
 
 Money, 166-176, 309. 
 Montaigne, 42. 
 
 Montesquieu, 44. 
 
 Month, 199. 
 
 Montreal, 76, 95. 
 
 Moon, Mountains of the, 73. 
 More, Thomas, 51. 
 
 Morley, J., 66. 
 
 Morris Dance, 269-70. 
 
 Moses, 36. 
 
 Mules, 153. 
 
 Muller, F. M., 65-66. 
 Mummeries, 317-8. 
 
 Mysteries and Miracle Plays, 
 315-7. 
 
 Nails, 118. 
 
 Names, Common, 239-40. 
 Names of Dignity, 240. 
 Names, Personal, 230-7. 
 Nansen, F., 66, 80, 262. 
 Napier, John, 76. 
 
 Napoleon, 48. 
 
 Naukratis, 7, 20, 160. 
 
 Nelson, 57. 
 
 Nerve-Movement, 107-8. 
 Newfoundland Fisheries, 76. 
 New Holland, 78. 
 
 Newspapers, 224-7. 
 
 Newton, 75. 
 
 New Towns, 228. 
 
 New Woman and St. Paul, 
 
 120 . 
 
 New World and Old, 94-5. 
 Nice, 20. 
 
 Nicholas II., 67. 
 
 Niebuhr, 48-49. 
 
 Niger, 77. 
 
 Nile, 6, 77, 83. 
 
 Nose, 128. 
 
 Numerals in Many Tongues, 
 281-4. 
 
 Oats, 147. 
 
 Oceans, 81-2. 
 
 Official Names, 238-9. 
 
 Old Style and New, 205. 
 Olympiads, 3. 
 
 Orinocco, 77. 
 
 Oscar II., 67. 
 
 Ouida, 67. 
 
 Oxford, 229. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, 75, 81-2. 
 Palestine and Greece, 22-3. 
 Papyri, 210, 211, 221. 
 Paraguay, 77. 
 
 Parchment, 210, 211-2. 
 
 Paris, 95, 230. 
 
 Park, 77. 
 
 Pascal, 43-41, 263. 
 
 Patricians and Plebeians, 23- 
 24. 
 
 Patti, Madame, 67. 
 
 Paul, 36-7. 
 
 Paul and Burns, 161. 
 
 Peach, 149. 
 
 Pear, 149. 
 
 Peas, 147-8. 
 
 Peloponnesian War, 21. 
 
 Pen, 211. 
 
 Pendulum-Clock, 76. 
 
 | Penny, 169. 
 
 I Perikles, 33. 
 
 | Persia, 95. 
 j Persian Wars, 29-1. 
 
 I Perspective, 115. 
 
 1 Peru, 77. 
 
 | Peter, 236. 
 
 Peter the Great, 44. 
 
 Petrarch, 40. 
 
 Peutinger’s Tablet, 73. 
 Phoenicia, 11-13, 92, 170, 243, 
 307. 
 
 Phoenician Alphabet, 216. 
 Philippines, 75. 
 
 Phokion, 35. 
 
 Physiological Names, 238. 
 Pigeons, 154-5. 
 
 Pindar, 32. 
 
 Pinto, Serpa, 78. 
 
 Pius, Antoninus, 38. 
 
 Plato, 34. 
 
 Plays in England, 317. 
 Plebeians and Patricians, 23- 
 24. 
 
 Pliny, 38, 73. 
 
 Plutarch, 35. 
 
 Population of the Earth 88-9, 
 90-1. 
 
 Polo, Marco, 74. 
 
 Pompey, 37. 
 
 Pope, 26-7. 
 
 Pottery, 160. 
 
 Prehistoric Man, 139 et seq. 
 Prices, 171 et seq. 
 
 Printing, 217-20. 
 
 Prisse Papyrus, 6. 210-1. 
 Profit and Loss, 183-4. 
 Provisions and Prices, 173 et 
 seq. 
 
 Property, 50, 184. 
 
 Prussia, 95. 
 
 Ptolemies, 7. 
 
 Ptolemy, 73. 
 
 Publishers of England and 
 Scotland, 223-4. 
 
 Punic Wars, 15. 
 
 Puppet-Plays, 318-9. 
 
 Puritan Names, 235-7. 
 
 Quebec, 76. 
 
 Queensland, 78. 
 
 Rabelais, 41. 
 
 Rainfalls, 87. 
 
 Rakka, 9J. 
 
328 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Raleigh, 52. 
 
 Raphael, 41. 
 
 Ratisbon, 230. 
 
 Reading, Idle, 102. 
 i Red Sea, 82, 92. 
 
 I Reid, G. H„ 67. 
 
 1 Rhodes, C. P. C., 67. 
 j Rice, 147. 
 i Richard, 234-5. 
 j Ripen Mayor’s Horn, 197. 
 
 Rivers, Longest, 83. 
 
 ' Roberts, F. S., 67. 
 
 Rolls, 210. 
 
 1 Roman and British Empire, 
 j 25-6. 
 
 Roman Calendar. 201-4. 
 
 , Roman Conquest 24. 
 
 j Roman Empire. 25-6, 73. 
 Roman Games, 314-5. 
 
 Roman Meals, 255-6. 
 
 Roman Measuresand Weights, 
 308. 
 
 Roman Officialism, 31. 
 
 Roman Rule, 31. 
 
 Rome, 3, 15,130-1,73,93,243-4. 
 Rome and Greece, 21-2. 
 
 Rome, Impress of, 26 et seq , 
 243-4. 
 
 Rome, Jerusalem, and Athens, 
 30-1. 
 
 Rome, Spiritual, 26. 
 
 Rontgen, W. C., 67. 
 
 Rosebery, A. P., 68. 
 
 Rose Hill Eye Loaf Well, 214. 
 Rosemary at Weddings, 265-6. 
 I Rousseau, J.-J<. 46. 
 
 I Royal Family, 59-61. 
 
 ! Rubens, 43, 94. 
 
 J Rulers’ Salaries, 186. 
 
 I Russell, Lord, 68. 
 j Saboeans, 92 
 
 St. Lawrence, 76, 95. 
 j St. Paul and the New Woman, 
 120 . 
 
 ! Salisbury, Marquis of, 68, 268. 
 Salute, 254. 
 
 Sand, George, 49. 
 
 | Sappho, 32 
 
 ! Scandinavian History, Early 
 143. 
 
 Schiller, 48. 
 
 Scilly Islands, 72. 
 
 Scipio, 37. 
 
 Scotch Delicacies, 157-8. 
 Scotch First Footing, 6082 
 a.d., 205. 
 
 Scotland, 95, 242. 
 
 Scott, Walter, 57-8. 
 
 Scythian Despatch, 212-3. 
 
 Sea and Dry Land, 81. 
 
 Sea, Circulation, 82-3. 
 
 Sea Depths, 81-2. 
 
 Seasons, 199-200. 
 
 Seleucia. 10-1, 21. 
 
 Septuagint Version, 17. 
 
 Shakespeare, 35, 42, 53, 170 
 220, 234, 268. 
 
 Shaving, 164-5. 
 
 Shekel, 11, 168, 307, 308. 
 Ship's Log, 75. 
 
 Sidney, Philip, 52. 
 
 Sight and Touch, 114-5. 
 
 Single Blessedness, 258-9. 
 Snow-line, 85. 
 
 Socrates, 33-4, 35. 
 
 Soil und Haben, 124. 
 Sophokles, 32. 
 
 Sovereign, 168-9. 
 
 Sparta, 19, 21, 168, 255. 
 
 Speke, 77. 
 
 Spencer, H., 68. 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, 52, 263. 
 Spinning, 159. 
 
 Spinoza, 44. 
 
 Spinsters, Distinguished, 268. 
 Spitting in Love, 254. 
 
 Sports, Commonwealth, 320-1. 
 Sports, Continental, 322-3. 
 Sports, Egyptian, 312. 
 
 Sports, English, 319-22. 
 Sports, Gentlemanly, 320. 
 Sports in Homer, 161-3. 
 Sports, Roman, 30, 314-5. 
 Stanley, H. M., 68, 77-8. 
 Stationers, 223. 
 
 Statures, 129-30. 
 
 Strabo, 73, 156. 
 
 Sturt, 78. 
 
 Sudan, Egyptian, 6-7. 
 
 Suez Canal, 94. 
 
 Sugar-cane, 148. 
 
 Surplice, White. 149. 
 Sweat-Tubes, 105. 
 
 Swedenborg, 45. 218. 
 Swimming Baths, 163. 
 Switzerland, 95. 
 
 Sydney, 78 
 Tablets, 209-10, 221. 
 
 Tacitus, 38. 
 
 Talent, 11, 307. 
 
 Tasso, 42. 
 
 Tea, 150. 
 
 Tea, £25 1 05. per lb., 150. 
 Telescope, 76. 
 
 Temperature, Human Body, 
 
 100 . 
 
 Temperature, Land and Sea, 
 82. 
 
 Temperatures, various places, 
 86 - 8 . 
 
 Terry, E.. 68. 
 
 Thames Valley, 247-8. 
 Themistokles, 32, 154. 
 
 Thermometrical Scales, 310-1. 
 Thomas a Kempis, 40. 
 Thomson. Jos., 78. 
 Thoukydides, 33. 
 
 Thule, 72,. 
 
 Tigris, 9, 91. 
 
 Tintoretto, 42. 
 
 Titian, 41. 
 
 Tobacco, 151, 171. 
 
 Tolstoi. Leo, 68. 
 
 Trade Unions, 179-80. 
 
 Trade Winds, 88. 
 
 Turkish Baths, 164. 
 
 Tycho Brahe, 42. 
 
 Tyre, 11,12. 13, 17, 92. 
 
 United states’ Presidents, 61. 
 Vanderbilts, 186, 
 
 Vegetables, of American Orig¬ 
 in, 94, 151-2. 
 
 Vegetables, An cient Egypt, 159. 
 Velocities, Table of, 288-93. 1 
 
 Velocity of Falling Bodies, 
 293-4. 
 
 Venezuela, 77, 146. 
 
 Venice, 93, 225, 223. 
 
 Victoria, 78-9. . ■ 
 
 Victorian Inventions, 193-5. 
 Victoria Nyanza, 77-8. 
 
 Victoria’s Reign, 192-5, 226. 
 Vienna, 230. 
 
 Virgil, 31, 38, 268. 
 
 Virginia, 52. 
 
 Voltaire, 44-5. 
 
 Wages, 174-5. 
 
 Wallace, William, 50, 
 
 Ward, Mrs. H., 69. 
 
 Washington, George, 56. 
 
 Watches of the Night, 197. 
 
 Watt, 56-7. 
 
 Wedding, Anglo-Saxon, 266. 
 Wedding Ceremonies. 263-4. 
 Wedding in Servia, 265. 
 
 Wedding in Wales, 261-5. j 
 
 Week, 205-8. 
 
 Wheat, 147, 171. 
 
 Wilhelm II., 28, 69. 
 
 William of Orange, 43. 
 
 William the Conqueror, 49-50. \ 
 
 Wolseley, G. J., 69. 
 
 Woman a born Conservative, ' 
 
 120 . 
 
 Woman and Admiration, 119- 
 
 20 . 
 
 Womanand aGood Name, 119. 
 Woman and Dress, 119. 
 
 Woman and Censure, 119 
 Woman and Instin. Iutelii- , 
 gence, 109. 
 
 Woman and Inventions, 121. 
 Woman and Learning, 121. 
 Woman and Politics, 12 <>. 
 
 Woman as Detective, 121. 
 
 Woman at Home, 123. 
 
 Woman’s Build, 122. 
 
 Woman’s Realm, 122-3. 
 
 Work and Economy. L l )2. 
 
 Work and Wages, it2 et seq., 
 190-2. 
 
 Wycliffe, 50. 
 
 Yang-tse-Kiang, 83, 91, 93. 
 Yarmouth, 229. 
 
 Year, 200-1. 
 
 Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Froine, and London. 
 

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