L I B R, A R. Y OF THE U N I VER.5 ITY or I LLl N O I 5 A fiequest from Marion D. Pratt 903 H3^U t8(o3 The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its return to the library from which it was withdrawn on or before the Latest Date stamped below. Theft, mutilation, and underlining of books ore reasons for disciplinary action and may result in dismissal from the University. To renew call Telephone Center, 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN Rsturn or renew a!i Ubrary Materials! irv3 Klfilmifs R» for each Lost B?ok is MAY 0 7 19f8 Q 6 h88 .CjCi' 0 I L161— 0-1096 A DICTIONAKY OF DATES KELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS : FOR UNIVERSAL REFERENCE; COMPREHENDINa REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN, THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC INSTITUTIONS, PARTICULARLY OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By JOSEPH HAYDN. ELEVENTH EDITION, REVISED AND GREATLY ENLARGED, By benjamin VINCENT, ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY OP THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OP GREAT BRITAIN. LONDON : EDWARD MOXON AND CO., DOVER STREET. 1863. LONDON : BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. qoT) V133-3K 1'9 6)3 rilEFACE. In 1855, when the printing of the Seventh Edition of this Dic- tionary had commenced, Mr. Haydn became too unwell to continue his useful labours. At the urgent request of the publisher, Mr. Edward ^loxon, I undertook to continue the work and correct the press. I soon perceived the excellence of the compiler’s plan, but also became aware, that in the execution of the work there was need of considerable im- provement ; that numerous additions were required, that much super- fluous matter might be omitted : in fact, that the whole work needed a thorough revision. With the view of rendering the book more worthy of its established reputation, I have devoted much time, thought, and labour, — particularly since 1857. The chronological tables have been revised and continued ; important dates have been compared with recognised authorities ; about a thousand new articles have been in- serted, and a large number of others re-written ; much Biographical, Geographical, Literary, and Scientific information has been supplied, as well as a Table of the Countries of the World, their Population, and Governments (p. viii) ; and the Index has been made more useful by the insertion of Hates relating to eminent persons of past and present time. To afford room for these additions, the size of the page has been enlarged, a great number of articles condensed, and unimportant matters either printed in small type or excluded . In the preparation of this, the Eleventh Edition, the varied labours of revision, continuation, and condensation, have unremittingly pro- ceeded ; very many new articles have been supplied ; and the Index has been still further enlarged. My aim, throughout, has been to make the book, not a mere Dictionary of Dates, but a Dated Ency- clopaedia, — a digested summary of every department of the History of the World, brought down to the very eve of the publication of each edition. The latest Additions and Corrections will be found at the end of the volume. Royal Institution, London, Dec. 1862 . 4 B. VINCENT. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. The design of the Author has been to attempt the comiiression of the greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London merchant. He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from historians of the first rank, and the most authentic annalists ; and the Dictionary op Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turning over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, and features of any particular occurrence. The volume contains upwards of Fifteen Thousand Articles, alphabet- ically arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether connected with the professions or engaged in trade. It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose works the Compiler of this volume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the classics, Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen in general chronology, Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Voltaire, La Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the Nouveau Dictionnaire, and chief authors of their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his authorities are Cave’s Historia Literaria, Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, &c. Besides these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments that have brought facts and dates more prominently forward ; and he is largely indebted to PKEFACK. vii Chambers, Aspin, Boatson, Anderson, Beckmann, the Cyclopcedias, Annual RegiMer, Statutes at Large, and nnmerons other compilations. In almost every instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases, a due acknowledgment. The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance , of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. Blit, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of England, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the institution of honorary orders, and signature of Magna Charta; we find, in those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in our history, set down as they have occurred ; but if more ample information be necessary to the Reader, and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or incident, the particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, the pages of Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all instances where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is memorable or momentous, the chief features of it are stated in another part of the volume. The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary of Dates will be received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the range or design of such publications. ^ Joseph Haydn. London, May , 1841. [Died Jan. 17, 1856 ] COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AND THEIR GOVERNMENTS. {Coinpiled from the Almanacli de Gotha for 1863.) COUNTRIES. POPULA- TION. RULERS. BIRTH. ACCESSION. Anhalt-Bemburg, Pop. in Dec. 1861 Anhalt-Dessau-Coethen . Dec. 1861 Argentine Confederation . . 1859 Austrian Empire . . . Oct. 1857 Baden Dec. 18W Bavaria Dec. 1861 Belgium 1861 Bolivia 1858 Brazil 1856 Bremen (free city) . . . Feb. 1862 Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel. Dec. 1861 Chili 1858 Chinese Empire 1849 Costa Rica 1861 Denmark and colonies (estim.) 1862 Ecuador (estimated) Egypt 1859 France and colonies (estimatd.) 1862 Frankfort (free city) .... 1861 Great Britain & colonies (estm.) 1861 Greece 1861 Guatemala 1858 Hamburg (free city) .... 1860 Hanover Dec. 18W Hayti (St. Domingo) .... 1859 Hesse-Cassel Dec. 1861 Hesse-Darmstadt . . . Dec. 1861 Hesse-Homburg .... Dec. 1861 Holland and colonies .... 1862 Honduras 1858 Italy 1861 Japan (estimated) Liechtenstein 1858 Lippe Dec. 1861 Liibeck (free city) 1857 Mecklenburg-Schwerin . Dec. 1861 Mecklenburg-Strelitz .... 1851 Mexico (estimated) 1858 Monaco 1861 Montenegro (estimated) . . . 1859 Nassau Dec. 1861 New Granada 1856 Nicaragua 1858 Oldenburg Dec. 1861 Panama, 1851 Papal States 1862 Paraguay 1857 Persia 1859 Peru 1859 Portugal and colonies .... 1858 Prussia Dec. 1861 Reuss-Greiz Dec. 1861 Reuss-Schleiz Dec. 1861 Romnania (Dan. Pmcip.)estim. 1862 Russia, Poland, &c 1861 Sandwich Islands 1861 San Marino 1858 San Salvador 1858 Saxony Dec. 1861 Saxe-Altenburg .... Dec. 1861 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha . Dec. 1861 Saxe-Meiningen .... Dec. 1861 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach . Dec. 1861 Schaumburg-Lippe . . Dec. 1861 Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, Dec. 1861 Schwartzburg-Sondershausen ,, 1861 Servia 1854 Spain and colonies 1857 Sweden and Norway (estimtd.) 1860 Switzerland Dec. 1861 Tirrkish Empire (estimated) . 1860 Uruguay I860 Venezuela 1859 Waldeck Dec. 1861 Wiirtemberg Dec. 1861 United States of America . . 1861 Southern Confederate States 1861 57,811 124,013 1.171.800 35,019,058 1,369,291 4.689.837 4,731,957 1,987,352 7.677.800 98,575 282,389 1.559.000 415.000. 000 135.000 2.780.000 1,040,371 5.125.000 43,534,245 83,380 223,820,099 1,096,810 850.000 229,941 1,888,070 560.000 738,454 856,250 26,817 21,740,366 350.000 21 920,269 30 or 40 7,150 108,513 49,482 548,449 99,700 7,859,600 1,200 125.000 456,567 2,363,100 300.000 295,242 2.223.837 690.000 1,337,431 10 . 000 . 000 2.500.000 6,269,824 18,500,446 42,130 83,360 4.003.000 80,628,033 69,800 8,000 600.000 2,225,240 137,162 159,431 172,341 ‘ 273,352 30,774 985,000 20,765,076 5,474,452 2,510,494 36,600,000 240,965 1,565,500 58,604 1,720,708 22,337,583 9,103,014 Alexander, duke Leopold, duke Bartolomeo Mitre, president , Francis- Joseph, emperor . . Frederick, grand-duke . . . Maximilian II., king .... Leopold I., king Jose M. D’Acha, president. . Pedro II., emperor .... A. Duckwitz, burgomaster . . William, duke Jos§ J. Perez, president . . . Ki-tsiang, emperor .... Dr. J. M.Montealegre,presic?mt Frederick 'VII., king .... G. G. Moreno, president . . Said Pacha, viceroy .... Napoleon III., emperor . . . Burgomaster. Victoria, queen March 2, 1805 '. Oct. 1. 1794. . Aug. 18, 1830 . Sept. 9, 1826 . Nov. 28, 1811 . Dec. 16, 1790 . Dec, 2, 1825. . Aprd 25, 18()6 ! April 5, 1855 . Oct. 6, 1808 . . April 20, 1808 . May 24, 1819 . Raphael Carrera, president . Burgomasters. George V., king Fabre Geffrard, president . . Frederic-Wdliam I., elector . Louis III., grand-duke . . . Ferdinand, landgrave . . . WiUiam III., king .... , president Victor-Emmanuel, king . . millions. John, prince Leopold, prince Burgomasters. Frederic Francis, grand-duke . Frederic WOliam, grand-duke Benito Juarez, president . . Charles, prince Nicholas I., prince .... Adolphus, duke T. C. De Mosquera, president . T. Martinez, president . . . Peter, grand-duke S. De la Guardia, governor Pius IX., pope C. A. Lopez Nassir-ed-Deen, shah . , . San Ramon, president . . . Louis I., king William I., king Henry XXII., prince . . . Henry LXVII., prince . . Alex. John I. (Cousa) prince . Alexander II., czar .... Kamehameha IV. .... Capitani reggenti. G. Barrios, president . . . . John, king Ernest, duke Ernest II., duke Bernard, duke Charles- Alexander, grand-duke Adolphus, prince Gunther, prince . ... Gunther, prince Michael MUosch Isabella II., queen Charles XV., king Dr. A. Escher, president . . Abdul-Aziz, sultan .... B. P. Berro, president . . . A. Paez, president George-Victor, prince . . . William I Abraham Lincoln, president . Jefferson Davis, president . . May 27, 1819 . Aug. 20, 1802 . Jime 9, 1806 . April 26, 1783 . Feb. 19, 1817 . March 14, 1820 Oct. 5, 1840 . Sept. 1, 1821 . Feb. 28, 1823 . Oct. 17, 1819 . Dec. 8, 1818 . . July 24, 1817 . July 8, 1827. . May 13, 1792 . 1829. . . . Oct. 21, 1838 . March 22, 1797 March 28, 1846 Oct. 20, 1789 . April 29, '1818 .’ Feb. 9, 1834. . Dec. 12, 1801 . Sept. 16, 1826 . Jmie 21, 1818 . Dec. 17, 1800 . Jime 24, 1818 . Aug. 1, 1817 . Nov. 6, 1793 . Sept. 24, 1801 . Oct. 10, 1830 . May 3, 1826 . . Feb. 9, 1830 . . Re-elected . . Jan. 14, 1831. . Sept. 27, 1781 . 1809. . . . 1808. . . . March 24, 1834. Aug. 9, 1817. Sept. 1861. Dec. 2, 1848. April 24, 1852. March 21, 1848. July 21, 1831. May, 1861. April 7, 1831. May 13, 1857. April 25, 1831. Sept. 7, 1861. Aug. 22, 1861. AprU 7, 1860. Jan. 20, 1848. 1861. July, 1854 Dec. 2, 1852. Jime 20, 1837. Oct. 19, 1832. Nov. 18, 1851. Jan. 23, 1859. Nov. 20, 1847. June 16, 1848. Sept. 8, 1848. March 17, 1849. March 7, 1861. Nov. 12, 1858. Jan. 1, 1851. March 7, 1842. Sept. 6, 1860. Feb. 11, 1858. June 20, 1856. Aug. 14, 1860. Aug. 20. 1839. Sept. 20, 1861. March 1, 1859. Feb. 27, 1853. Sept. 30, 1862. June 16, 1846. March 17, 1857. 1848. May, 1862. Nov. 11, 1861. Jan. 2, 1861. Nov. 8, 1859. June 19, 1854. Jan. 1859. March 2, 1855. Dec. 15, 1854. Feb. 1, 1860. Aug. 9, 1854. Aug. 3, 1853. Jan. 29, 1844. Dec. 24, 1803. July 8, 1853. Nov. 21, 1860. AprU 28, 1807. Aug. 19, 1835. Sept. 26, 1860. Sept. 29, 1833. July 8, 1859. July 7, 1862. June 25. 1861. March 1, I860. Sept. 1861. May 15, 1845. Oct. 30, 1816. March 4. 1861. Feb. 18, 1861. ERRATUM. Page 318, in the last sentence of the article Graphite, omit “the late.” DICTIONARY OF DATES ABA ABB ABACUS, the capital of the Corinthian order in architecture, ascribed to Callimachus, about 540 B. c. * — This name is also given to a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads or counters are strung, frequently used in infants’ schools for instruction in arithmetic. It was also used by the Greeks, Romans, Chinese, &c. AI. Lalanne published an abacus at PiU’is in 1845. — The multixdication table has been called the Pythagorean abacus. ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. Five near Paris were erected by decree of Napoleon I. in 1810 ; the finest near Alontmartre. About 48,000^. were raised from them in 1842. An abattoir was erected at Edinburgh in 1851. Abattoirs form part of the new London Aletropolitan Cattle-market, opened in June 13, 1855. ABBASSIDES, the descendants of Mahomet’s uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdnl-AIotalleb. Thirty-seven caliphs of this race (including Haronn Alraschid, 786 — 809) reigned from 750 to 1258, when their rule was overthrown by the Alongols. See Caliplis. ABB AYE, a military prison near St. Germain des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, Sept. 2 and 3, 1 792. ABBEYS, monasteries for either men or women, governed by an abbot or abbess, were founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Eg)rpt, 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360 ; the first in Ireland in the fifth century : see Cloglur, Elphin, Down ; the first in Scotland in the sixth century : see Isles ; and the first in Britain in 560 ; see Bangor. — The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benedict about 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the chm’ch. — 1 10 monasteries and priories were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. 1414. Salmon. These foundations (containing then about 47,721 persons) were totally supj)ressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry VIII. 1539. Abbeys were sup2)ressed in France in 1790 ; and in the revived kingdom of Italy in 1861. See Convents and Monasteries. T ABBOT (from Ah, father, a title adopted by the Jewish doctors), the heads of monasteries. There were cardinal abbots, bishop abbots, and mitred abbots ; croziered abbots held their dignities from the pope. In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; twenty-seven abbots and two priors were thus distinguished in the 4th Edward III. 1329 ; but the number was reduced to twenty-five in the pailiament 20 Richard II. 1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, and St. John’s, Colchester, were hanged and quartered for denying the king’s supremacy, and not surrendering their abbeys, 1539. See Glastonbury. * Ascribed to the following incident : — On the death of a young maid of Corinth, her lover gathered the ornaments she had most valued when living, and placed them in a wicker basket, covered by a tile, upon her tomb. Close to her grave an acanthus had taken root, and the flowers shooting forth in the spring, its leaves twined around the basket, and convolved beneath the tile in the form of volutes. Calli- machus took from it the model for his capital ; the tUe being the abacus, the foliage of the acanthus the volutes ; the whole forming the capital. Perault. t According to Tanner, they then consisted of 374 larger monasteries (revenue 104,919^. 13s. 3d.), 186 lesser monasteries (revenue 33,479i. 13s. ^%d.) and 48 houses of the knights hospitallers (revenue 2385J. I2S. 8d.); total, houses, 608; revenue, i4o,785i. 6 s. 3d. A HD 2 Ami ABDICATIONS of sovereigns are numerous in ancient history. The most remarkable in modern liistory are the following : — Stephen II., of Hungary, A.D. 1131 Albert, the Bear of Bran- denburg 1142 Lescov V., of Poland . . 1200 Uladislaus III., of Poland . 1206 John Balliol, of Scotland . 1306 Otho (of Bavaria), of Hun- gary 1309 Eric IX., of Denmark, &c. . 1439 Pope Felix V 1449 Charles V., emperor , . 1556 Christina, of Sweden . , 1654 John Casimir, of Poland . 1669 James II., of England . . 1688 Frederick Augustus II., of Poland 1704 Philip V., of Spain (resumed) 1724 Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia 1730 Charles, of Naples . . . 1759 Stanislaus, of Poland . . 1795 Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . June 4, 1802 Francis II., of Germany, who became emperor of Aiistria . . Aug. ii, 1804 Charles IV., of Spain, in favour of his son, March 19; in favour of Bonapaide. See Spain . . May i, 1808 Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (to take the crown of Spain), June I, — Louis, of Holland . July i, 1810 Jerome, of Westphalia, Oct. 20, 1813 Napoleon, of France, April 5, 1814 Victor Emmanuel, of Sar- dinia . . March 13, 1821 Pedro IV., of Portugal, May 2, 1826 Charles X., of France, Aug. 2, 1830 Pedro I., of Brazil, April 7, 1831 Dorn Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) . May 26, 1834 William I. , of Holland, Oct. 8, 1840 Louis-Philippe, of France, Feb. 24, 1848 Louis Charles, of Bavaria, March 21, — ’ Ferdinand of Austria, Dec. 2, — Charles Albert, of Sardinia, March 26, 1849 Leopold II., grand-duke of Tuscany . . . July, 1859 ABELARD and Heloise, celebrated for their passionate love, which commenced at Paris, 1 1 18, when Heloise (a canon’s daughter) was under seventeen years of age. Abelard built the convent of the Paraclete and made her abbess in 1121. Here he taught what was condemned as heresy, 1122 and 1140. After suffering an ignominious injury, he became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died of grief in 1142, at St. Marcel. HMoise begged his body, and buried it in the Paraclete. She died in 1163, and was buried beside Abelard. The ashes of both were carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800 ; and the museum having been subsequently broken up, they were finally removed to the burying- ground of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. Their works and letters were published in one volume in 1616 ; their letters have been frequently paraphrased. Pope’s imitations of the latter are well known. ABENCERAGES, a powerful Moorish tribe of Granada opposed to that of the Zegris. From 1480 to 1492 their quarrels deluged Granada with blood and hastened the fall of the kingdom. They were exterminated by Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who was dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492, when his dominions were annexed to Castile. ABERDEEN, N. Scotland. Gregory the Great conferred peculiar privileges on Aberdeen, in 893. The university was founded by bishop William Elphinstone, who had a bull from the pope Alexander VI. in 1494. King’s college was erected in 1500-6. Marischal college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scotland, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In 1858 the universities and colleges were united by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 83. — King Malcolm III., having gained a great victory over the Danes in the year 1010, resolved to found a new bishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, and pitched upon Mortlach, in Banffshire, where St. Beanus was first bishop, 1015. The see was removed to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, and was discontinued at the revolution, 1689. Now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721. Bishops of Scotland. ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION was formed in consequence of the resignation of the first Derby administration. It was sworn in Dec. 28, 1852, resigned Jan. 30, 1855, and was succeeded by the Palmerston administration, which see. Called the Coalition Ministry (as including Whigs, Radicals, and the followers of sir R. Peel). Earl of Aberdeen,* lord of the treasury. Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. Earl Granville, president of the council. Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. Lord John Russell, t /ore^g'?^, Viscount Palmerston, home, and the Duke of Ne-wcastle,! colonial and war secretaries. WilUam Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. Sir James Graham, lord of the admiralty. Sir Charles Wood, president of the India board. Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade. Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). Viscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon. Edward Strutt, &c. ABHORRERS, a political court-party in England, in the reign of Charles II. the opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), so called from their address to the king. * Born in 1784; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813; became foreign secretary, Jan., 1828; joined the party of sir R. Peel, 1846; died, Dec. 14, i860. t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secretary by the earl of Clarendon, but continued a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards became president of the council, in the room of carl Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster. J On June ii, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke of Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir George Grey was made colonial secretary. AlU 3 ABS The former (afterwards 2 'orics) cxi)ressed tlieir abhorrence of those who endeavoured to encroach on the royal })rerogative, 1680.* llwme. ABINGDON LAW. In the civil war against Charles L, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon, in Berks ; the town was unsuccessfully attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and by ]irince llujiert in 1645 ; on these occasions the defenders put every Irish prisoner to death without trial ; hence the term “Abingdon Law.” ABJURATION. The abjuration of particular doctrines of the church of Rome was enjoined by statute 25 Charles II. 1672. The oath of abjuration of the pope and the pretender, was first administered by statute 13 William III. 1701. By 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48 (1858) an alteration in the oath was authorised for Jews. ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1157, was till 1809 capital of Swedish Finland. It has suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827. It was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to them in 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the fire in 1827. A university was erected by Gustavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640, etseq., and removed to Helsingfors in 1827. The peace of Abo between Russia and Sweden was signed in 1743. ABORIGINES (from ah origine, without origin), a name given to the earliest known inhabitants of Italy (from whom came the Latini), but now applied to the original inhabitants of any country. — The Aborigines Protection Society was established in 1838. Reports on the conditions of the Aborigines in the British colonies were presented to parliament in 1834 and 1837. ABOUKIR, Egypt ; the ancient Canopus : the point of debarkation of the British expedition to Egypt under general sir Ralph Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 8, 1801. See Alexandria. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, August i, 1798. See Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, July 25, 1799. ABRAHAM, Era. of, used by Eusebius ; so called from the patriarch Abraham, anciently Abram, who died b.c. 1821. It began October i, 2016 b.o. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. ABRAHAM, Heights of, near Quebec, Lower Canada. The French were defeated here by general Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory. Sept. 13, 1759. See Quebec. ABRAHAMITES, a sect which adopted the errors of Paulus, and was suppressed by C3n‘iacus, the patriarch of Antioch. In the ninth century there sprang up a community of monks under a like designation : it, too, was suppressed, or rather exterminated, for wor- shipping images. ABSALOM’S REBELLION and death (1024-3 b.c.) are described in 2 Sam. xv. — xix. ABSENTEE TAX (four shillings in the pound) was levied in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions of absentees (persons who derive their income from one country and spend it in Another). This tax ceased in 1753. In 1773, Mr Flood, the great Irish orator, proposed a tax of 2s. in the pound. It was proposed in 1783 by Mr. Molyneux, and again lost. ABSOLUTION, Ecclesiastical. Till the third century, the consent of the congregation was necessary to absolution ; but soon after, the power was reserved to the bishop ; and in the twelfth century, the form “ J absolve thee” had become general. ABSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread and water daily. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115 ; Simeon the Stylite to 112 ; and Kentigern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age. Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. Pliny, Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, was said to have lived twenty months without food ; but her imposture was detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink, Aug. 1840 ; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See Fasts. * The commons expelled several members for being Abborrers, among them sir Francis Witbens (whom they sent to the Tower), and prayed bis majesty to remove others from places of trust. They also resolved, “that it is the undoubted right of the subject to petition for the calling of a parliament, and that to traduce such petitions as tumultuous and seditious, is to contribute to the design of altering the constitution.” Oct. 1680. Salmon. B 2 ABS 4 ACA AlnSTINKNTS, a sect of ascetics tliat wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, a|)peared in hrance and Spain in the third century, and is said to have S2>read elsewhere. ABYSSINIA, a large country in N. E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncertain. The kingdom of Auxumita} (from its chief town Auxume) flourished in the ist and 2nd centuries after Christ. About 960, Judith, a Jewish princess, murdered a great part of the royal family, and reigned forty years. The young king escaped ; and the royal house was restored in 1268 in the j)erson of his descendant Icon Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to he ruled hy Brester John or Prete Janni. The Portuguese missions commenced in the 15th century, hut were expelled about 1632 in consecpience of the tyranny of Mendez and the Jesuits. The encroachments of the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke up the empire into petty governments. The religion of the Abyssinians is a corrupt form of Christianity introduced about 329 by Frumentius. Missions were sent from England in 1829 and 1841. Much information respecting Abyssinia has been given by Bruce (1790), Salt (1805 — 9), EiippeU (1838), and Parkyns (1853). ABYSSINIAN EKA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd year before our era, on the 29th Aug. old style : and their dates consec^uently exceed ours by 5492 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACADEMIES. Academia was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Academus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics, 378 b.c. Stanley . — Kome had no academies. — Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alexandria, about 314 b.c. Abderahman I., caliph of Spain, founded academies about a.d. 773. Theodosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are also named as founders of academies. Italy is celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckius mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. See Societies. The following are among the principal academies : — American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. Ancona, of the Caglinosi, 1642. Basil, 1460. Berlin, Royal, 1700; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 1799 - Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; Sciences and Arts, 1712. Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. Brussels, Belles Lettres, 1773. Caen, Belles Lettres, 1705. Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Royal Irish, Science and Litera- ture, 1782 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. Faenza, the Pkiloponi, 1612. Florence, Belles Lettres, 1272 ; Bella Crusca (now united with the Florentine, and merged under that name), 1582 ; Bel Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de’ Medici) ; Antiquities, 1807. Geneva, Medical, 1715. Genoa, Painting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. Germany, Naturce Curiosi, now Leopoldhie, 1662. Gottingen, 1750. Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Irish Academy, Royal, Dublin, 1782. Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. London. See Societies. Royal Academy of Fine Arts, 1768 ■; of Music, 1734-43 ; and 1822. Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 1758. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; Histoiy, 1730 ; Painting and the Arts, 1753. Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. Naples, Rossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 1695 ; Herculaneum, 1755. New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. Palermo, Medical, 1645. Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and 1672 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Fine Arts, 1648 ; Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663 ; Sciences (by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. Parma, the Innoniinati, 1550. Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. Rome, Umorisli, 1611 ; Fantascici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 ; Painting, 1665 ; Arcadi, 1690 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. St. Petersburg, Sciences, 1725; Mihtary, 1732; the School of Arts, 1764. Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agriculture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. Toulon, Military, 1682. Turin, Sciences, about 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. Turkey, Military School, 1775. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. Vienna, Scidpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1*753. Woolwich, Military, 1741. ACADIA. Nova Scotia. ACANTHUS, Abacus. ACAPULCO, a celebrated prize, a Spanish galleon, from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares, and estimated by some annalists at i,0(X),ooo^. sterling, and upwards; taken by lord Anson, who had previously acquired booty in his memorable voyage amounting to 6oo,oooZ. He arrived at Spithead in the Centurion with his gains, after having circum- navigated the globe, June 15, 1744. 5 AC 1 1 ACC ACCENTS. Tlio most ancient mannscripts arc written without accents, and without any sej>aration of words ; nor was it nntil after tlie ninth century that the copyists began to leave spaces hetween the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes tlie insertion of accents to Knthalins, hisho)) of Sulca, in Egypt, A.i). 458. Accents were lirst used by the Erench in the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). ACCESSION, The. By this term is usually understood the accession of the house of Hanover to the throne of England, in the person of George I., the elector of Hanover, as the Erotestant descendant of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; he being the son of Sophia, the daughter of that ])rincess. Ho succeeded to the crown, Aug. i, 1714, by virtue of the act of settlement ])assed in the reign of William III., June 12, 1701, which limited the succession to his mother in the event of queen Anne dying without issue. ACCESSOIvIES to crimes. The law respecting them was consolidated and amended in 1861, by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 34. ACCIDENTS. See Coal, Fires, Railways ; See. ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This has been prosecuted with great vigour since the establishment of the Zoological Society of London in 1829, and of the Societe d’Acclima- tation in Paris. Numbers of European animals have been naturalised in Australia ; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil (1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in Italy (1859). On Oct. 6, i860, the Bois de Boulogne, near Paris, was opened as a Zoological Garden, containing only acclimatised animals. An English acclimatisation society was founded June 10, i860, by hon. Grantley Berkeley, Mr. J. Crockford, Mr. F. Buckland, Sec. An acclimatising garden was established at Melbourne, Australia, in Feb. 1861. ACCORDION, a small keyed wind-instrument, introduced into England from Germany about 1828. ACCUSERS. By the occult writers, such as Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, whose chief is called Asterotli, or Spy. In the Revelation, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called “ the accuser of the brethren. ” — False accusers were to be hanged, by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stow. ACELDAMA (Chakeldam), the field bought with the thirty pieces of silver given to Judas Iscariot for betraying Christ. It is still shown to travellers, and being small, is covered with an arched roof, and retains the name Aceldama, that is “the field of blood,” to this day. Matthew xxvii. 8 ; Acts i. 19. — This name was given to an estate purchased bj^ Judge Jeffreys after the “bloody assizes ” in 1685. ACHAIA, N. Peloponnesus, Greece ; the capital was settled by Aclneiis, the son of Xuthus, about 1330 b. c. (?) The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the ^Etolians until about 284 b.c. The Achsei, descendants of Achseus, originally inhabited the neigh- bourhood of Argos ; but when the Heraclidse drove them thence, they retired among the lonians, expelled the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. , Pellene, A^gira, Ailgium, Bura, Tritea, Leontium, Rhypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patree, Dyme, and Pharse. — The Swiss Cantons and the United States of America somewhat resemble the Achaean league, which was originally a union of independent republics. Achaia invaded by Epaminon das. . .B.c. 366 The Achaean league revived . . . about 280 Joined by other cities 276 Aratus made praetor 245 The league joined by Corinth, &c. . . 243-239 Supported by Athens and Antigonus Doson . . 229 War with the Spartans 227-224 Defeat of the Achaeans by the Spartans . . . 226 Battle of Sellasia ; Spartans defeated . . . 222 The Social War begun ; battle of Caphyae, in Arcadia ; Aratus defeated 220 The Peloponnesus ravaged by the J3tolians . 219 Aratus poisoned at ^gium 213 Battle of Mantinea ; Philopoemen defeats the Spartan tyrant Machanidas .... 208 Alliance with the Romans . . . b.c. 198 Philopoemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle 194 Sparta joined to the league 191 Philopoemen, a prisoner, killed by the Messenians 183 The Achfcans overrun Messenia with fire and sword 182 The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off num- bers of the people, among whom is the cele- brated Polybius 165 Metellus enters Greece 147 The Achieans defeated by Mummius at Leuco- petra ; leag-ue dissolved by Mummius, then Corinth taken ; Greece subjected to Rome, and named the province of Achaia . . .146 Achaia made a Latin principality . . a.d. 1205 Conquered by the Turks . . . . about 1540 ACHONRY, Sligo, N. Ireland ; a bishopric founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of Achad, usually called Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on his disciple Nathy, in Irish, Dathy, or David, the first bishop. In ancient annals the prelates are mostly called bishops of Luigny, or Liny. The see has been held with Killala since 1612. See Killala. ACIl 6 ACT ACIIKOMATIC TELESCOPES, in wliicli aberrations in colour are remedied, were contrived l)y Jolin Dollond, whose experiments were published in the Phil. Trans., I 753 ‘^* See 2 'elescopes. ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the Latin church, unknown to the Greek Church for 400 years after Christ. ACOUSTICS (from akouo, Greek, I hear). The science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th century. The doctrine of the dilferent sounds of vibrating strings and communica- tion of sounds to the air by the vibrations of the atmosphere, was probably first explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.c. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 b.c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by- Alexander the Great, 335 b.c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about a.d. 1600. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was de- monstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D’Alembert, Euler, Ber- nouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century, Hooke produces sounds by the striking of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. Sauveur determined the number of vibrations be- longing to a given note, about 1700.. Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by Gassendi; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer and others ; 968 by Newton, about 1700. Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) published his important discoveries on the figures produced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, &c., in 1787, and since. Cagniard-Latour invented the sirene {which see), 1819. Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, and others in the present century have greatly in- creased our knowledge of acoustics. ACRE, Tills measure was formerly of uncertain quantity, and differed in various parts of the realm, until made standard by statute 31 Edward I. 1303, and fixed at 40 poles or perches in length, and 4 in breadth — or 160 square poles, containing 4840 square yards, or 43,560 square feet. In certain counties and places the measure is larger. Pardon. ACRE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was taken by the crusaders under Baldwin I. in 1104, and again by Richard I. and other crusaders, July 17, 1191, and after a siege of two years, with a loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was then named St. John d’Acre. Retaken by the Saracens in 1291, when 60,000 Christians perished. This capture was rendered memorable by the murder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the infidels. — Acre was gallantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bonaparte in July, 1798. It was relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable siege by the French, between March 16 and May 20, 1799 ; till, baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on land, Bonaparte retreated. — St, Jean d’Acre, as a pachalic subject to the Porte, was seized July 2, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. On Nov. 3, 1840, it was stormed by the British fleet under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3CXXD prisoners, while the British had but twelve killed and 42 wounded. See Syria and Turkey. ACROPOLIS, the citadel of Athens, was built on a rock, and accessible only on one side ; Minerva had a temple at the bottom. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2000 years, was destroyed in the Venetian siege, a.d. 1687. Aspin. ACTA SANCTORUM (acts of the saints), a work commenced by the Jesuits in the seventeenth century. The first volume appeared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted in 1 734, when the fifty-third volume was published, but was resumed in 1 846, and is still in progress : having advanced in the order of the months as far as October. From one of the first editors, Bolland, the writers have been named Bollandists. ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure the power of the solar rays, invented by sir J. E, Herschel, about 1825. See Sun. ACTIUM (a promontory of Acarnania, W. Greece), near which was fought, on Sept. 2, 31 B. c. , the battle between the fleets of Octavianus Ctesar on the one side, and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, which decided the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to Caesar, This victory made Octavianus master of the world, and the Roman empire is commonly dated from this year. The conqueror built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted the Actian games. Blair. ACTRESSES appear to have been unknowm to the ancients ; men or eunuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public ap2)earance of Avomcn on the stage in England, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a theatre at court. Theat. Biog. Mrs. Coleman was the first actress on the stage ; she per- formed the part of lanthe in Davenant’s “ Siege of Rhodes,” in 1656. Victor. AC'r 7 ADK ACTS OF I’AULIAMENT, Oil STATUTES, most celebratod early statutes : — Statutes of Clarendon, to restrain the power of the elerjry, enacted in lo lion. 11 ., 1164. Provisions .of Merton, 1235-6. Statute of Marlborough, 1267. Of lligamy, 1275-6. Of Oloucester, the earliest sbitutc of which any record exists, 6 Edw. 1., 1278. Of Mortmain, 1279. Qvio Wan-anto, Oct. 1280. Statutes of Wales, 1284. Of Winchester, Oct. 1284. Of Westminster, 1285. Shituto forbidding the lev^ung of hixos without the consent of par- liament, 1297. Magna Charta, 1297. Of Pne- munirc, 1306. Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly re- pealed, and 443 rei)caled in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. (after- wards sir Robert) Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at hu’ge, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many obsolete statutes (enacted be- tween 1285 and 1777) were repealed. By the Statute Law Revision Act, 770 acts were wholly repealed, and a great many partially, 1861. The greatest number of acts passed in any one year since 1800, was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); Sec Parliament. The following are among the 402 were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), of which two were i)rivate. In three instances only, the annual number was under a hundred. The average number of the first ten years of the present century was 132 public acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average number of acts, of public interest, was 112. The number of public general acts passed in 1851 was 106 ; in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, ^37 I 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134; in 1856, 120; in 1857, 86; in 1858, • 109; in 1859, loi ; in i860, 154 ; and in 1861, 134. In 1850, 13 Viet. c. 13, was passed to curtail Repeti- tions in statutes. Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I., printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols. folio, under the direction of com- missioners appointed in 1801, 1811 — 28. The statutes passed during each session are now printed annually in 4to. and 8vo. Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. ACTS, in dramatic poetry, first employed by the Eomans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace (Art of Poetry) as the rule (about b.c. 8). AD AIM AND EVE, Era of, set down by most Christian writers as being 4004 b.c. There have been as many as one hundred and forty opinions on the distance of time between the creation of the world and the birth of the Redeemer : some make it 3616 years, and some as gi-eat as 6484 years. See Creation. ‘ADAMITES, a sect about A.d. 130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned there would have been no marriages. Their chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessary to confess Christ. Eusebius. A somewhat similar sect arose at Antwerp in the twelfth century, under a chief named Tandemus, or Tanchelin, whose followers, 3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes 'under spiritual names. The sect became extinct soon after the death of its chief; but another of the same kind, named Turlnpins, appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. A Fleming, named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence it spread into Pojand and existed some time. ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION, succeeded Mr. Pitt, who, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic emancipation to secure the union with Ireland, and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned. A new ministry was formed March, 1801, and terminated May 1 1, 1804. Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. Duke of Portland, lord president. Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. Lord Pelbam, home secretary. Lord Hawkesbury, foreign secretary. Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. Earl St. Vincent, admiralty. Earl of Cbatham, ordnance. Charles Yorke, secretary-at-war. Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, &c. ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, Surrey, established by the East India Company, in 1809, for the education of candidates for the scientific branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861. ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, was founded in 1836. It contained 14,000 inhabitants in 1850, and 18,259 in 1855. ADELPHI (Greek for brothers), a series of streets on the south side of the Strand, London, erected about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, and William Adam, after whom the streets are named. They form a grand beginning of the architectural embankment of the Thames. See Theatres. ADEN, a free port on the S. W. corner of Arabia, where in 1837 a British ship was wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the English. The sultan’s son refusing to fulfil this agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was despatched to Aden, which captured it, Jan. 19, 1839. It is now a coal depot for Indian steamers, &c. * Bom 1757 ; became viscount Sidmouth in 1805 ; held various oflfices afterwards, and died in 1844. His circular to the lords lieutenants, dated March 27, 1817, directing them to adopt severe measures against the authors of blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly censvued, and not carried into effect. ADM 8 ADM ADMINISTRATIONS of England, and of Great Britain. The following were tlie ])rime ministers, or favourites, or the chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns. For a fuller account of each administration since 1700, see articles headed with the name of the PREMIER throughout the volume. The average duration of a ministry has been set down at four, live, and six years ; but instances have occurred of the duration of a ministry for much longer ]>eriods : sir Rol)ert Walpole, minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years). Mr, Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years), and lord Liveri)ool’s administration, 1812 to 1827, (15 years). Several ministries have not endured beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783, and the “Talents” Ministry in 1806. The “ Short-lived ” Administration lasted Feb. loto 12, 1746. KINO HENRY VIII. Archlnsliop 'W.arhain ; Bishojis Fisher and Fox ; tlie earl of Surrey, &c. . . , . a.d. 1509 Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, fns, and sir Robert Peel roeoives the queen’s eonimands to form a new administration, May 8. This command is withdrawn, and on May lo, lord Melbourne and his friends return to power] . . . 1839 Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington ; lord WharnclilTe ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Buck- ingham ; sir James tlraham ; earl of Aberdeen; lord Stanlej^ ; Mr. Goulburn ; earl of Hadding- ton ; carl of Ripon ; sir George Murray ; sir Henry Ilardinge ; lord Ellenborough, &c. Aug. and Sept. 1841 [Among the many succeeding changes were : lord Fitzgerald ; duke of Buecleuch ; earl of Dalhousie ; Mr. Sidney Herbert ; Mr. W. E. Gladstone, &c.] Lord John Russell ; marquess of Lansdowne, earl of Minto ; lord Cottenham ; sir George Grey ; viscount Palmerston ; earl Grey ; Mr. sir Charles) Wood ; earl of Auckland ; sir John Hobhouse ; earl of Clarendon ; lord Campbell ; viscount Morpeth {afterwards earl of Carhsle); marquess of Clanricarde; Mr. Macaulay ; Mr. Labouchere, &c. . July, 1846 [Among the accessions to office in the Russell ministry were : earl Granville ; sir Francis Baring ; Mr. Fox Maule ; earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wylde, created lord Truro, of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights were slain. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom of France, AGITATOKS, ollicers appointed by tlie English army in 1647, to take care of its interests : each troop or com])any had tAvo. The ])rotector Cromwell was eventually obliged to repress the seditious power of the Agitators. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus restored discipline, llumc. — Daniel O’Connell, called the Agitator of Ireland, was born in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826 ; was elected for Clare, July 5, 1828 ; tlie election being declared void, he was re-elected July 30, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic Emancipation bill, lie agitated in vain for the repeal of the Union, 1834^0 1843. He died l\Iay 15, 1847. — Eichard Cobden and John Bright were the chief anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-5. AGRA was once the most s^Jendid of the Indian cities, and even now exhibits magnifi- cent ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here, the palaces being very numerous ; Agra then contained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, termed the key of Hindostan, surrendered, in the war with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, under general Lake, Oct. 17, 1803, in one day’s siege : 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000^. were captured. — In June 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel Greathed. — Agra till 1861 was the capital of the north-west provinces of India. AGRARIAN' LAW {Agraria lex) decreed an equal division among the Roman people of all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It was first proposed by Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder by the aristocracy in 493. It was enacted by the tribune Licinius Stolo, 376, and by the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 b.c. The laAV at last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius Csesar, 60 b.c. Livy ; Vossius. In modern times the term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Trihun du Peuple, in 1 794. AGRICULTURE. “Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the gi’ound,” Genesis iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim. Cato the Censor (died 149 b c.) and Varro (died 28 B.c.) were eminent Roman writers on agri- culture. It was brought into England by the Romans about a.d. 27. Fitzherbert’s “Book of Husbandry” printed in 1524. Tusser’s “ Five Himdred Points of Husbandry,” 1562. Blythe’s “Improver,” 1649. Harthb’s “ Legacy,” 1650. Jethro Tull’s “Horse-hoeing Husbandry,” 1701. About the end of the i8th century fallowing was gradually superseded by tm-nips and other green crops. Agricultural Societies. — The earliest mentioned in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. The Dubhn Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stiuiulus to' agriculture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, Queen’s County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England Society established, 1777 ; and the Highland Society of Scotland, 1793. London Board of Agriculture established by act of parliament, 1793. Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agri- culture, died, March 2, 1802. Royal Agricultural Society of England (now the most important) estabhshed in 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal charter, 1840. It holds two meetings annually, one in London the other in the country ; the first country meeting at Oxford, in 1839. It awards prizes, and pub- lishes a valuable journal. The London meeting at Battersea in June, 1862, was highly successful. The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester estab- hshed, 1846. Agricultural Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards pubhshed), at the instance of the Board of Agri- culture, in 1S12 ; but it excited httle attention till the pubheation of Liebig’s work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault’s “Economie Rurale,” an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat dis- appointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig’s “ Letters on Agriculture ” appeared in 1859. Agricultural Hall, Islington, N. London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The founda- tion stone was laid by the president, lord Berners, Nov. 5, 1861. A remarkable exhibition of dogs was opened here on June 24, 1862. In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best mode of obtaining accurate agricultural statistics, which has not been acted on. There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labom'ers m Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715. C AGli 18 AIX AGRICULTURE, continued. Tho following Table, drawn np by Mr. William Couling, C.E., in 1827,* is extracted from the Third Report of the Emigration Committee : — Countries. Cultivated. Wastes capable of Improvement. Unprofitable. Total. England . ... Wales .... Scotland . . . . Ireland British Islands . . ACBKS. 25,632,000 3.117.000 5.265.000 12,125,280 383,690 ACHES. 3.454.000 530.000 5.950.000 4.900.000 166.000 ACRES. 3,256,400 1,105,000 8,523,930 2,416,664 569,469 ACRES. 32,342,400 4,752,000 19,738,930 i 9 , 44 G 944 1,119,159 46,522,970 15,000,000 15,871,463 77 , 394,433 AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a celebrated city of Sicily, built about 582 b.c. It was governed by tyrants from 566 to 470; among these were Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcmanes ; Theron who, with his step-father, Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera and Thrasydfiens, his son, expelled in 470 ; when a republic was established, and Agrigentum became opulent and luxurious. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 b.c., and held, except during short intervals, till wrested from them by the Romans in 262 b. c. Erom A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. AID. ^Q^Ayde. AILANTINE. See mic. AIR, OR Atmosphere. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 b.c.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 b.c.) calculated the height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about I5lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Torricelli a.d. 1645, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have followed ; among others the air-gun of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650 ; improved by the illustrious Boyle in 1657 ; and the air-pipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a iirewer of London, about 1756. The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the surface of the earth, long considered as about 45 miles, is now thought by admiral FitzRoy to be only about 9 or 10 miles (1862). — Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a trace of ammonia, &c.), was ascertained by Priestley (1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. Dr. Stenhouse’s AzV-^^fers) in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air. The researches of Dr. Schonbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. See Ozone. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prusssia, Here Charle- magne was born a.d. 742, and died 814 ; having built the minster (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The * At that period it was computed that the soil of the United Kingdom was annually cropped in the following proportions : — ACRES. Wheat 7,000,000 Barley and rye 1,950,000 Potatoes, oats, and beans . . . . 6,500,000 Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . 1,150,000 Clover, rye-grass, &c. .... 1,750,000 Fallow ........ 2,800,000 Hop-grounds 60,000 ACRES. Brought forward , . 21,210,000 Nursery-grounds 20,000 Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other gardens 110,000 Pleasure-grounds 100,000 Land depastured by cattle . . . . 21,000,000 Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . 2,000,000 Ways, water, &c 2,100,000 Forward . . . . 21,210,000 Cultivated land . . 46,540,000 . It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000?. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there wei-e in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual value of 37,412,000?. Since that time much land has been brought into cultivation. See Wheat. AKE 19 ALB imperial insignia were removed to Vienna in 1795. — The first treaty of peace signed liere was hetween France and Spain, when France yielded Franche Comte, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. — The second, or celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, linngary, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia •in 1648, of Nimegnen in 1678 and 1679, of Kyswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and contirmed.) Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sand- wich, and sir Thomas Kobinson, Oct. 7, 1748. — A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Enssia, and Pmssia, assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la- Chapelle, and a convention signed, Oct. 9, 1818. The sum then due from France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 of francs. AKERMAN, in Bessarabia. Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded in 1826, which secured for the former the navigation of the Black sea, &c. ALABAMA, a southern slave state, N. America ; made an independent state in 1819 : commercial metropolis. Mobile. It seceded from the Union, Dec. i860. ALAND ISLES, Gulf of Bothnia, were taken from Sweden by the Russians in 1809. See Bomarsund. ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of .^neas, 1152 B.c. Its history is of doubtful authenticity. Ascanius, son of AJneas, 1152 b.c. ; Sylvius Pos- thumus, 1143; iEneas Sylvius . . b.c. 1114 Feign of Latinus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or Capetus, 1002 ; Capys, 976 ; Capetus . . 916 Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in battle, near the river 4 Idula, he throws him- self into the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is now called the Tiber . . . 895 Agrippa ; Remulus, 864 ; Aventinus, 845 ; Procas B.c. 808 Numitor, 795 ; Amulius * the brother of Numi- tor, seizes the throne, 794; killed by his grandson, Romulus, who restores Numitor . 754 Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, who in- corporates it with his Roman dominions . 665 ALBANIA (part of the ancient Epirus). The Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire ; and about 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), baffled the efforts of Mahomed II. to subdue them, till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they partially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 1812, who defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn j)romise of safety. ALBAN’S, ST. (Hertfordshire), the Roman Verulam, and previously the residence of British princes. At St. Alban’s queen Boadicea made her celebrated assault upon the Romans, and failed, after an immense slaughter, it is said of 70,000 men ; and Cassibelaunus was defeated by Csesar at this place. It takes its present name from St. Alban, said to have been born here, and to have been the first British martyr (decapitated during the persecution raised by Diocletian, June 23, a.d. 286). A stately monastery was erected in the town to his memory by Offa, king of Mercia, about 787. The abbot sat in parliament as premier abbot, til! the dissolution in 1539. St. Alban’s was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552 ; and again by Charles II., but was disfranchised for bribery, June 17, 1852. ALBAN’S, ST., Battles of, between the partisans of the houses of York and Lancaster. In the fii’st. May 23, 1455, Richard, duke of York, obtained an easy victory over Henry VI., of whose army 5000 were slain. The second, fought on Shrove-Tuesday, Feb. 17, 1461, between the earl of Warwick and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen Margaret of Anjou. The Yorkists were defeated, and 2000 of them perished. ALBANY (or Albainn), the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of Robert III. of Scotland, was made duke of Albany in 1398. Frederick, son of George III., was duke of York and Albany. ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died on Dec. 14, 1861, deeply lamented by the whole civilised world. A meeting to organise a method of receiving contributions for a Great National Memorial was held at the Mansion-house, Jan. 14, 1862 ; and a large * Early traditions state, that when Amulius dethroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a hfe of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows and office of a vestal, thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however, frustrated ; violence was offered to Iha, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near mount Aventtne, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king’s chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and caUed them Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed Zupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf . At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 b.c., and the next year founded Rome. Varro. c 2 ALB 20 ALL eum was immediately ol>tained. After much consideration tlie nature of the memorial was referred to the (jiieen herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated Feb, 19, 1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, “ It would be more in ac(X)rdance with her own feelings, and she believes with tliose of the country in general, that the monument should be directly })ersonal to its object. After giving the subject her rnaturest consideration, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that nothing would be more appropriate, provided it is on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected in Hyde Park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. Hor would any proposal that could be made be more gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can never forget that the prince himself had highly approved of the idea of a memorial of this character being raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great Exhibition.” In a second letter the queen expressed her intention of personally contributing towards erecting the memorial that, ‘‘ It might be recorded in future ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful country to the memory of its benefactor.” Shortly after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty’s desire. — Hitherto, a block of ^anite suitable to the pur- pose has not been obtained, and the nature of the memorial is still midecided on. On March i, 36,000?., on June ii, 50,220?. had been received. ALBIGEISTSES, who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of the Church of Eome, had their origin about 4.n. 1160, at Albigeois, in Languedoc, and at Toulouse. They were persecuted as Manichseans, 1163, and a crusade commenced against them in 1208, Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse was given) commanded, and at Bezieres he and the E ’s legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, “ God will find his ovm !” At jrba he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor’s wife, and murdering other women. He next defeated the count of Toulouse, but was himself killed in 1218, The count made peace in 1229, giving up the heretics to the Inquisition, See Waldenses. ALBION (from alhus or al'p, white). The island of Britain is said to have been so called by Julius Caesar and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast. ALBUERA (on Albuhera), in Estremadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo-Sjianish army, under marshal, afterwards lord Beresford, May 16, 1811, The allies obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt of the action fell on the British ; colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had mounted a hill, fell, — out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, not one-third being left standing ; “ 1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal hill.” jSfapier. ALCHEMY, the forerunner of the science of chemistry : its chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher’s stone (which was to effect the transmutation of metals into gold), an alkahest or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to be as old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. The alchemists assert that their founder W’as Hermes Trismegistus (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. — Pliny says, the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off, because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say, the Egyptians knew the secret. Zosimus wrote on the subject about A.D. 410. The Arabians are said to have invented this art, wherein they were vainly followed (in the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, Aquinus, and Raymond Lullius, by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus (died 1541), and others. — In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen, IV. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. Rymer's Feed. . Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of his experiments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that they were made by means of a red and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivocation and delay he took poison and died, August, 1783. ALCOHOL. See Distillation, Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Rum. AL-CORAN. See Koran, Mahometanism, &c, ALDERMAN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of provinces or districts, and AIJ) 21 A r.K are so mcntiom'd U]) to A.i). 882. After the Danes were settled in England, tljc title was changed to that of carl, and the Normans introduced that of count. Henry 111. may he said to have given its basis to tliis city distinction. In modern Hritish policy, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. A])])ointcd in ^ London (where there are twenty-six) in 1242 ; and in Dublin (where there are twenty-four) in 1323. Aldennen chosen for life, instead of annually, 17 Kichard 11., 1394. Present mode of election established II George I. 1725. Aldermen made justices of the peace 15 George II. 1741. ALDERNEY, Rack of (N. E. France). Through this strait the French escaped after their defeat at La Hogue by admiral Rooke, in 1692. — It is celebrated for two fatal occurrences ; William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of the principal families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, Nov. 26, 1120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, was wrecked here, Oct. 5, 1744 ; the admiral, sir John Balchan, and all his crew perished. ALDERSHOT CAMP, near Farnham, about 35 miles from London. In April, 1854, the War Olhce, having obtained a gi-ant of ioo,ooo^., purchased 4000 acres of land, for a permanent camp for 20,000 men. Barracks have been since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, and several batteries of artillery. In 1859, about 15,000 men were stationed here, (Cost, up to Feb. i860, said to be 1,29 1,531 Z.) Great improvements in military cookery have been introduced here under the superintendence of captain John Grant. See Cookery. — On July 7, 1856, the queen reviewed the troops returned from the Crimea ; and again on the 1 6th, in the presence of both houses of parliament. ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutius, at Venice, where were printed many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musseus. ALE, Beer (and Wine) are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, where the soil was considered unable to produce grai:)es. Ale was known as a beverage at least in 404 b.c. Herodotus ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley- wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. — A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 b.c. The Romans and Germans very early learned from the Egyptians the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex (a.d. 688). Booths were set up in England 728, when laws were j)assed for their regulation. Ale-houses were subjected to regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By I James I. c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two quarts of small ale were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, Wine. ALEMANNI, or All Men {i. e. men of all nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, a.d. 214. After several repulses, they invaded the empire under Aurelian, 270, who subdued them in three battles. They were again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were defeated and subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. ALEN^ON (N. France) gave title to a count and duke. 1268. Peter made count by his father king Louis IX. 1293. Chai-les I., of Valois, made count by his bro- ther king Philip the Fair. 1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 1361. Peter, his brother. 1404. John (his son), made duke in 1414, killed at Agincourt, 1415. r4i5. John II. (his son), intrigued against the king. 1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy was absorbed by the crown. ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large town, N. Syria, called by the natives Haleb. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Spia. It was taken by the Turks, A.D. 638; by Saladin, 1193; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It suffered by the plague in 1827, and the cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830 ; and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mahometans attacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt everything in their way ; three churches were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no inter- ference was attempted by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. ALESSANDRIA, a city of Pieejmont, built in 1168 under the name of Csesarea by the Milanese and Cremonese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor. It was named Ales- sandria after pope Alexander III. Near it the Austro-Russian army under Suwarrow defeated the French under Moreau. The French had possessed themselves of Alessandria the year before, but were driven out July 21, 1799. It was again delivered up to them after the ALE 22 ALG battle of Marengo, in 1800. Marengo lies east of the town. Alessandria was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its works were destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a European sub- scription was coininenced in 1856, to restore them. ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 b.c. In the computation of this era, the j>eriod of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year i a.d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year A.i). 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (a.d. 285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, which see. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, was built by Alexander the Great, 332 b.c., who was buried here, 322. It became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies, who made it a magnificent city. The celebrated library was founded by Ptolemy Soter, in 298 b.c. ; it was said to contain 400,000 valuable works in MS., when burnt by a fire which occurred when Julius Caesar took the city, 48 b.c. Another library was destroyed a.d. 390, when paganism was suppressed by the decree of Theodosius. Conquered by the Saracens, 640, when the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph Omar.* Plundered by the crusaders in 1365. Alexandria was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures of the east being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a massacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Again taken by the British under general Fraser, March 20, 1807, but evacuated, Sept. 23, same year. See Syria and Turkey. The railway fo Cairo was formed in 1851. ALEXANDRIA, Battle of, between the French (16,000) under Menou, who made the attack, and the British under sir Ralph Abercromby, amounting to about 12,000 men, which had but recently debarked ; fought March 21, 1801. The British were victorious, but sir Ralph Abercromby was mortally wounded ; after the retreat of Menou, he was carried to the admiral’s ship, and died on the 28th. The French lost about 3000 ; the British 1400. The command devolved on major-general Hutchinson, who baffled all the schemes of Menou, and obliged him to surrender. Sept. 2 following, the victor guaranteeing the conveyance of the French (whose number exceeded 10,000) to a French port in the Mediteranean. ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the whole Bible in Greek ; said to have been written by a lady named Theda, in the sixth century, and to have belonged to the patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 byCyrillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantinople. It was placed in the British Museum in 1753, and was printed in fac-simile, 1786-1821. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Philosophy. The first arose soon after the foundation of Alexandria, 332 b.c. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 b.c. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287—212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about a.d. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), Diophantus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus, the geometer (350). ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope’s Essay on Criticism^ this verse is thus happily exemplified : — “ A needless Alexandrine ends the song, That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.” The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton’s Polyolbion, published in 1612. Chapman’s Homer’s Iliad (1598) is in this measure. AIjFORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Baillie, with a large body of Covenanters was defeated by the marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. There was discovered some years since, in one of the mosses near this place, a man in armour on horseback, supposed to have been drowned in attempting to escape from this battle. ALGEBRA ; Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first %vrote upon it, probably about A.D. 200. It was brought into Spain by the Saracens, about a.d. 900 ; and into Italy by * Doubtful : the celebrated saying of Omar — “ That if the hooks agreed with the hook of God, they were useless ; if they disagreed, they were pernicious ” — is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to Theophilus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to cardinal Ximenes (1500). ALC 23 ALL Loonanlo Bonaccio of IMsa, in 1202, In 1494 lAica Paciolo ymblislicd the first l)ook on algebra in Knrope, Scrrct. The lirst writer who used algebraical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of symbols for quantities was ]jy Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. Moreri. Descartes api)lied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of Iluxions, and the new analysis, i668. Dean Peacock’s “Algebra” is a hrst-class work (i860). ALGERIA. Algiers. ALGESIRAS, or Old Gibr.\ltaii (S. Spain). By this city, the Moors entered Spain in A.u. 710, and held it till 1343. — Two engagements took ])lace here between the English fleet under sir Janies Sauniarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801. In the lirst the enemy was victorious, the English losing the Pompey ; but their honour was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guns, being captured. By an unfortunate error, two Siianish ships fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men on board, 250 were saved by the English. Alison. ALGIERS (N. Africa), the ancient kingdom of Niimidia, was reduced to aEoman province by Julius Ccesar, 44 b.c. The Eomans were exjielled by the Vandals, a.d. 435 ; these by the Greeks under Belisarius, a.d. 533, who gave way to the Saracens about 700. In 1516 the Algerines invited Aruc Barbarossa, the pirate chief, to their defence against the incursions of the Spaniards. He and his successors governed ably but corruptly ; the latter as viceroys of the sultan of Turkey. The emperor Charles V. made an attemjit to crush the Algerines in 1541, but failed. Deys were appointed by the Algerines themselves about 1600; and about 1623 they became independent of the sultan. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was terrified into pacific measures by admiral Blake in 1655, and by Du Quesne in 1683. In consequence of the continued piracy of the Algerines, the city was successfully bombarded by the British fleet, under admiral lord Exmouth, Aug. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament under Bourmont and Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to retain Algiers permanently. May 20, 1834. Shortly after, the celebrated Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preached a holy war, became powerful, and attacked the French, at first suc- cessfuEy. Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two battles, and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836. General Damremont attacked Constantina {which see) Oct. 13, 1837 ; and afterwards various engagements between the French and the natives took place. Abd-el-Kader surren- dered Dec. 22, 1847, and after a contest of seventeen years, his country became a colony of France, as “Algeria.”* An insurrection of the Kabyles in 1851 was subdued by the French, after several sharp engagements. In 1858 the government was entrusted (for a short time) to prince Napoleon. The Arab tribes attacked the French, and were twice defeated, Oct. 31 and Nov. 6, 1859. In Sept, i860, Algiers was visited by the emperor Napoleon III. In Nov. i860, marshal Pelissier, duke of Magenta, was ajipointed governor-general. ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Grenada in Spain, founded by Moham- med I. of Grenada about 1253. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, published 1842-5. There is a fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. The Panopticon {which see) was opened as a cii’cus, &c., under this name, in March 1858. ALI, Sect of, founded by the Mahometan chief Ali (who married Mahomet’s daughter Fatima), about a.d. 632. He became Mahomet’s vizir, 613 ; and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the prophet, “the lion of God, always victorious ; ” and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Mahometans adhere to that of Abiibeker and Omar. Ali was assassinated in 660. t — This sect is also called Fatimites. ■* He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was removed to the castle of Amboise, near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, Oct. 16, 1852, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia Minor ; but in consequence of the earthquake at that place Feb. 28, 1855, he removed to Constantinople. In July, i860, Abd-el-Kader held the citadel of Damascus, and there protected many of the Christians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received honours from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. t The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in estab- lishing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the “ cutting swords of God,” all died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. ALl 24 ALL ALLENS, OH Forfjgnkh.s, were banished in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they were excluded from e7ijoying ecclesiastical benefices. By 2 Itich. II. st. i, 1378, they were much relieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483. The celebrated Alim Bill passed, January, 1793. Act to register aliens, 1795. — The celebrated baron Gerainb, a conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of England, April 6, 1812. — Bill to abolish their naturalisation by the holding of stock in the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. New registration act, 7 Geo. IV. 1826. This last act was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 1836. The rigour of the alien laws was much mitigated by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 66, 1844. — Alien priories were suppressed in England in 1414.* ALIWAL, a village in N.W. India, the site of a battle on Jan. 28, 1846, between the Sikh army under sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British under sir H. Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or diowned in attempting to recross the Sutlej. ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance was first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, were decomposed in 1808 by Humphry Davy at the Eoyal Institution, London. In 1816 Dr. Ure invented an alkalimeter. The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lancashire and Cheshire, are based on the decomposition of common salt (chloride of sodium), by a process invented by a Frenchman named Le Blanc, about 1792. Mr. Losh ob- tained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. Various modifications of these processes are now in use. ALKMAER. See Bergen. ALLAHABAD, the “holy city ” of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges, N. W. Hindostan. By treaty here, Bengal, &c., was ceded to the English in 1765. — During the sepoy mutiny several regiments of the East India Company rose and massacred their officers, June 4, 1857 ; colonel Neil marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In Nov. 1861, lord Canning made this city the capital of the N. W. provinces. ALLEGIANCE. The oath of allegiance, as administered in England for 600 years, contained a promise “ to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him, without defending him therefrom.” The new oath, administered in 1605, was altered by the convention parliament, 1688 ; and again in favour of the Jews in 1858. See Oaths. ALLEGORY is very ancient ; the Bible abounds in it. See Jacob’s blessing upon his sons. Genesis xlix. (b.c. 1689), and Psalm Ixxx. Spenser’s Faerie Queene (1590) and Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) are allegories throughout ; Addison’s writings in the Spectator (1711) abound in allegories. ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and the Gauls defeated the Romans July 16, 390 or 389 b.c. The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky {nefas), and no public business was permitted to be done thereon. ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high European powers. The following are the principal. See Coalitions, Conventions, Tr-eaties, &c. ALLIANCE. Of Leipsic . Of Vienna The Triple . Of Warsaw . The Grand . The Hagne The Quadruple Of Vienna . April 9, 1631 May 27, 1657 Jan. 28, 1668 March 31, 1683 May 12, 1689 Jan. 4, 1717 Aug. 2, 1718 March 16, 1731 ALLIANCE. Of Versailles . . Germanic . Of Paris. . . Of St. Petersburg Austrian Of Sweden . . Of Tiiplitz . Holy Alliance May I, 1756 July 23, 1785 May 16, 1795 April 8, 1805 March 14, 1812 March 24, — Sept. 9, 1813 Sept. 26, 1815 ALLIANCE. Of England, France, & Turkey (at Constantinople) Mar. 12, Of England and France rati- fied . . . April 3, Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) Jan. 26, Of Sweden with the Western Powers . . Dec. 19, 1854 185s ALLOTMENTS. See Land, note. * “Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and harbours.” Smiles, 1861. AM. 25 AI.M ALL SAINTS’ DAY (Nov. i). The Icstival was introduced about a.d. 625, and instituted by j)ope Gregory IV. 835. All Saints’, or All-Hallows in the Protestant ehurcdi, is a day tor the connueinoratiou of all those saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular day is assigned. The church ot Home and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The reformers ot the English church A.i). i 549 l>rovided ottices only for very remarkable commemorations, and struck out ot their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at thciT Htrc were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALL SOULS’ DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Homan Catholic church instituted, it is said, at Cluny in 993. “ ALL THE TALENTS ” ADMINISTRATION. On the death of Mr. Pitt (Jan. 23, 1806), lord Grenville formed a ministry, in union with Mr. Fox and his friends, Feb 5, 1806. The friends of this ministry gave it the appellation of “All the Talents,” which, being echoed in derision by the opposition, it has since retained. The death of Mr. Fox, Sept 13, 1806, led to various changes, and it was dissolved, March 1807. Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquess of Lans- down), chancellor of the exchequer. Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. Viseount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. Charles Janies Fox, foreign secretary. Earl Speneer, home secretary. WiUiam tVindham, colonial secretary. Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl Grey), admiralty. Lord Min to, hoard of control. Lord Auckland, hoard of trade. Lord Moira, master-general of the ordnance. R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. Richard Fitzpatrick, , E, about 1224 b.c. ; and Simonides added Z, V, H, XI, about 489 B.c. Arundelian Marbles. — When the E was introduced is not precisely known. ALP 27 AM A Tlio Greek alphabet consisted of i6 letters till 399 (or 403) n. c. , when the Ionic of 24 characters wins inlrodiiced. The small letters, for the convenience of writing, are of later invention. The alphabets of the dillercnt nations contain the following number of letters English . . . 26 I Ereuch . . . 25 Italian , . .20 Spanish . . . 27 j German . . .26 Slavonic . . . 42 Russian . . .35 Latin . . . . 22 Greek . . .24 Hebrew . . . 22 Arabic . . .28 Persian . . . 32 Turkish . , . 28 Sanscrit . . .44 Chinese radical cha- racters . , .214 ALPllOlSrSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed in 1253 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work ; he himself wrote the preface. ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by Hannibal 218 n.c., by the Romans 154 n.c., and by Napoleon L in a.d. 1800. Roads over IMonnt Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by order of Napoleon between 1801 -6, See Simplon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mount Cenis to connect France and Piedmont has been in progress since 1858. In Jan, 1862 about 2050 yards had been ])iereed. In 1859 the “ Alpine Club,” which consists of British travellers in the Alps, published their first work, “ Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers.” ALSATIA, a cant name given to the precinct of Whitefriars, London, described in Scott’s “Fortunes of Nigel.” Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1696. ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 b.c, {Gen. viii. 20). Altars were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who is said to have instituted marriages, 1556 B.c. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt, Herodotus. The term “altar” was applied to the Lord’s table for the first three centuries after Christ {Heh. xiii. 10). Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I., a.d, 135 ; and were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. Stow. The chiu'ch of England terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 1845 it was decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. ALTER EGO {another or second I), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal power ; used at Naples when the crown prince was ap23ointed vicar-general during an insiuTectioii in July 1820. ALT-RANSTADT, Prussia, where the treaty of peace between Charles XII. of Sweden, and Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed. Sept. 24, 1706. Frederick, deposed in 1704, was afterwards restored. ALUM is said to have been first discovered at Rocha, in Syria, about a.d. 1300 ; it was found in Tuscany about 1470 ; was brought to perfection in England, in 1608 ; was dis- covered in Ireland in 1757 ; and in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is a salt used as a mordant in dyeing ; and also to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in the paper manufacture. It may be made of pure clay exposed to vapours of sulphuric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley ; but is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. Sir T. Challoner established large alum works near Whitby in 1608. ALUMBAGH, a fort near Lucknow, India, heroically defended by the British under sir James Outram during the mutiny in 1857. He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on Jan. 12, 1858, and of 20,000 on Feb. 21. He was relieved by sir Colin Campbell in March, ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina {clay), first obtained by F. Wohler in 1827 ; was for some time merely a scientific curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen and others, more especially by H. Ste. -Claire Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable quantities of this metal. It is very light (sp, g. 2 ’25), malleable, and sonorous ; does not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. These qualities will render it very useful when improved processes render it cheaper. In March 1856, it was 3/. the ounce ; in June 1857, IIS. or 12s,, and is now much cheaper (1862), The eagles of the French colours have been made of it, and many other ornamental and useful articles. Deville’s work, “ De r Aluminium ” was published in 1859. An aluminium manufactory was established at Newcastle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. Their aluminium bronze is much admired. AM ADIS OF Gaul, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by Yasco de Lobeiro. It was translated and enlarged by De Montalvo about 1485. AM A 28 AME AMALEKITES, a trihc of Caiiaanites, who attacked the Israelites 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was (lenounced against them. They were subdued by Saul about 1079 ; by David, 1058 and 1056 ; and by the Simeonites about 715 b.c. AMAZON, West India mail steam-ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, Jan. 2, 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan, 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about no miles W. S. W, of Scilly (supi)osed by the sj)ontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed near tlie engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board (crew and passengers, women and children), 102 persons must have perished by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship ; 25 more were carried into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distinguished writer in general literature, was among those lost. AMAZONIA (S. America) was discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from Peru, he sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing conpanies of women in arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have beep mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b.o. The Amazons were constantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others derive the name from maza, the moon, whom they are supposed to have worshipped. About 330 B.c, their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia ; three hundred females were in her train. Herodotus. AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges ; and in England, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Russian ambassador was imprisoned for debt by a lace-merchant, July 27, 1708 ; but in 1709 the statute of 8 Anne was passed for the protection of ambassadors. — Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambassador ; they were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months, and the other fined. May 12, 1780. Phillips. — England usually has twenty-five ambassadors or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclusive of inferior agents ; the ambassadors and other agents from abroad at the court of London in 1 861 were 49. — Among the more memorable instances of interchange it may be recorded, that the first ambassador from the United States of America to England was John Adams, presented to the king, June 2, 1785 ; and the first from Great Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791, AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral,* principally found in the northern parts of Europe, of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b.c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips. AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca isles, discovered about 15x2 by the Portuguese, but not wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605, Tire English factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, Feb. 17, 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two nations resided and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Amboyna Avas seized by the English, Feb. 16, 179^ but was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was again seized by the British, Feb. 17-19, 1810 ; and again restored at the peace of 1814. AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain. At the end of a prayer, it implies so he it ; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It is used in the Jewish and Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer. See i Cor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59). * Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists, respecting the origin of amber, some referring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal kingdom ; its natural history and chemical analysis affording something in favour of each opinion. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and from its Greek name, electron, the term Electricity is derived. A ME 29 AM E AMI'iNDE lloNOKAHLK, in France, in the ninth century, was an infamous ])unishinent inllieted on traitors and sacrilegious persons ; the odender was delivered into the liands of the hangman : his shirt was striiiped olf, a roj)c ])ut about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; lie was then led into court, and was obliged to beg pardon of God and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By J\Iagna Charta a freeman cannot be amerced for a, small fault, but in proportion to the offence he has committed, 9 Henry 111. 1224. “AMERICA,” an American yacht, schooner-built, 171 tons burthen. On Aug. 22, 1851, at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of Wight for a cup worth loo^., open to all nations, she came in first by 8 miles, owing to her superior construction. AMERICA, Noirni, is said to have been discovered by Icelanders in loor, and also to have been known to the Vikings or Norsemen. It was discovered by Christoforo Colombo, a Genoese, better known as Christopher Columbus, Oct. ii, 1492, when he came in sight of the island of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. The continent of America Avas discovered by Columbus in 1497, and the eastern coasts in 1498, by Admiral Hojeda, from the name of whose pilot, Amerigo Vespucci (Americus Vespucius*), the whole of America is named. See America, South; United States, Canada, Mexico, &c. Spaniards established at Hayti or Hispaniola . 1495 Newfoundland the first British colony in this quarter of the world, discovered by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista . . . 1497 Negroes first imported to Hayti . . . . 1508 Diego Columbus conquers Ciiba . . . .1511 Florida discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1497 ; re-discovered by Ponce de Leon in . . .1512 Cortez conquers Mexico .... 1519-21 Cartier, a Fenchman, discovers the Gulf of St. Lawrence 1534 Cortez discovers California 1537 Louisiana discovered by De Soto . . . . 1541 De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadie, now Nova Scotia 1604 Virginia, the first English settlement on the mainland, founded by lord de la Warr . . 1607 Quebec founded 1608 New England settled by the Plymouth Company 1614 New York settled by the Dutch . . . . — A large body of dissenters, who fled from church tjTanny in England, built New Plymouth . 1620 Nova Scotia settled, under Sir William Alex- ander, by the Scotch 1622 Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . 1627 Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . — Maryland, by lord Baltimore .... 1632 Connecticut granted to lord Say and Broke in 1630 ; but no English settlement was made here till 1635 Bhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his brethren — New Jersey, granted to lord Berkeley . . . 1644 New York settled, first by the Dutch, but the English dispossessed them, and the Swedes . 1664 Carohna settled by the English .... 1669 Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the celebrated Quaker 1682 Louisiana settled by the French . . . — Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . . 1732 Kentucky, by colonel Boon . . . -1754 Canada conquered by the English . . . . 1759 Louisiana eastward of the Mississippi, ceded to England 1763 Florida, which had belonged alternately to Prance and Spain, ceded by the latter to the English — See United States. AMERICA, South. Cabral visited the coast of Brazil in 1500, and discovered the river Amazon ; and Penzon entered the river La Plata in 1 508. When the Spaniards landed in Peru, A.D. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but were soon subdued by their invaders, under the command of Francis Pizarro, by whom enormous cruelties were practised, p In 1535 Mendoza founded Buenos Ap'es, and conquered the neighbouring country. Sjianish America successfully asserted its freedom within the present century ; the provinces declared their independence in 1810, proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July 1814 ; and since have wholly shaken off the yoke of Spain. Their independence was recognised by England, in sending consuls to the several new states. Get. 30, 1823, et seq. ; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Brazil, Buenos Ayres, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &c. AMERICA, Central, including the states of Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, which see, declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and sepai’ated from the Mexican confederation, July 21, 1823. The states made a treaty of union betAveen themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed, aggi'avated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. — ^Population, 1859, about 2,355,000. See Nicaragua, Darien, Panama. * An astronomer of Florence, died 1512 ; Humboldt has vindicated his character from the charge of presumption, and asserts that the new continent received its name from the Germans without the know- ledge or consent of Americus. t Las Casas describes the barbarity of the Spaniards while pursuing their conquests. In Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unresisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honour of the thirteen apostles ! and he has beheld them throw the Indian infants to their dogs for food ! “I have heard them,"’ says Las Casas, “ borrow the hmb of a human being to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day retui'n -4, quarter of another victim to the lender ! ” Depopulation led to the importation of African slaves. AME 30 AMS AMEltlCANISMS ; a uscM dictionary of these expressions was compiled by John R. Bartlett, and lirst published in 1848. AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the l)reastplate of the Jewish high priest ; and on it was engraved the name Issnchar. 1 1 is of a rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot, Hist. Oemmarum. — Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. Burns. AMIENS, an ancient city in Picardy (N. France) : the cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the Spanish and English Sept. 25, 1597. The preliminary articles of the memoral)le ])eace between Great Ib’itain, Holland, France, and Spain, fifteen in number, were signed in London l^y lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. i, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on March 27, 1802, by the marquess of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmeliienninck for Holland. — War was declared again in 1802. AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic sub- stances. Its name is ascribed to its having been procured from heated camel’s dung near the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists the oxide of the hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been fonned. Specimens of each v^ere shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, who has done very much for the chemical history of ammonia. AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 b.c.). They invaded the land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated by Jephthah, 1143 B.c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the right eye of all those they subdued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 b.c. They were after- wards many times vanquished ; and Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 b.c. Jose-plius. AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasy- bulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty friends, 403 b.c. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745. — After his victorious campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, Aug. 17, 1859. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Ther- mopylse by Amphictyon, for the management of all aftairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1113, Clinton'] b.c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. Suidas. Its immediate office was to attend to the temples and oracles of Delphi. It abused its office in causing the Sacred war, 356 — 346 b.c. AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, perished. Sept. 22, 1 796. Butler. AMPHITHEATRES, said to be the invention of Julius Csesar and Curio. In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round or oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhibitions. They were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built between A.D. 75 and 80 ; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. See Coliseum. The amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. AMPHJTRITE, the Ship. See Wrecks, Aug. 30, 1833. AMPUTATION, in surgery, was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French surgeon in 1674 ; and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679. AMSTERDAM, Holland. The castle of Amstelwas commenced in a.d. iioo ; the build- ing of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The exchange was built in I634 ; and the noble stadthouse in 1648 ; the latter cost three millions of gilders, then a large sum. It is built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The Dutch government was restored in December, 1813. The erection of a crystal palace has been proposed. See Holland. A ML! 3 ] ANC AMHU^yrS, oil CiiAiiMs, cin])loy(Hl Ironi the curliost times. Amulets were made of tlie ■wood of the true cross, about a.d. 328. They liave been sanctioned in modern times by medical men — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. AMYTjENE, a colourless, very mobile liipiid, procured by distilling fouscl oil (potato- spirit) with chloride of zinc ; discovered by M. Balard of Paris in 1844. The vapour was employed instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many liospitals here, and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour must be used. It is, hoAvever, thought less dangerous. ANABAPTISTS. The sect arose about a.d. 1525, and was known in England before 1549. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusiasts, about the time of the Heformation, taught that infant baptism was a contrivance of the devil, that there is no original sin, that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absunl. They committed many violences, and in 1534 seized Munster, calling it ]\lount Zion, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Tlieir enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and they at length rose in arms under })retence of gospel liberty. Munster was taken June 24, 1535, and the chiefs of the Anabaptists were put to death. — On Jan. 6, 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine-cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed, Jan. 19 and 21. Annals of England. — For the modern Anabaptists see Baptists. ANACKEONTIC YERSE, commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have been choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 b.c. His odes were trans- lated and published by T. Moore, 1800. ANAESTHETICS. See Chloroform, Ether, Amylene, Kerosolene, Intense cold is also employed in deadening pain. ANAGRAM. A transposition of the letters of a name or sentence : as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made army. On the question put by Pilate to Our Saviour, “ Qgiid est veritasV (what is truth ?) we have the remarkable anagram, ^ ^ Est rir qui adesV' (the man who is lierek Another good one is ^‘Horatio Nelson,” and Honor est a Nilo” (there is Honour from the Nile). — The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, about the year 1560, in the reign of Charles IX. Renault. ANATHEMA, among the Jews, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction, as in the case of Jericho {Joshua vi. 17). The word occurs i Cor. xvi. 22. Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, A.D. 387. See Excommunication. ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The study of the human body was part of the ifiiilosophical investigations of Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle ; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b.c. But Erasistratus and Herophilus may be regarded as the fathers of anatomy ; they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been previously confined to brutes : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 b.c. Galen, who died a.d. 193, was a great anatomist. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from graves ; and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection.’^ Pope Boniface YIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297. The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Yesalius, about A.D. 1 538. The great discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. William and John Hunter were great anatomists ; they died in 1783 and 1793. Quain’s and Wilson’s large anatomical plates were published in 1842. Comparative anatomy has been treated systematically by Cuvier, Owen, Muller, Huxley, and others. The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680. See Botany. ANCHORITES. See Monachism,. ANCHORS are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans. Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian (592 B.C.). Stralo. Anchors were first forged in England A.d. 578. Those of a first-rate ship of war (four) will weigh 99 * By 32 Henry VIII., c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted four bodies of executed malefactors for “ anathomye-C' which privilege was extended in following reigns : but in consequence of the crimes com- mitted by resurrection-men in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even com- mitting murder, see Burking), a new statute was passed in 1832 (2 & 3 William IV.), which abated the ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a licence. ANC 32 ANG cwt. each, costing 450Z. Phillips. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1831 ; by Porter 1846 ; by Costell 1848; by Trotman 1853; and by several other persons. Trotman’s is attached to the Queen’s yacht the Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are of enormous size. ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures, and in the history of Herodotus about 1687 B.c. It is considered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet (a.d. 622), or Charle- magne (768). ANCONA, a port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, a.d. 107. After many changes of rulers Ancona was finally annexed to the Papal States in 1532. In 1798 it was taken by the French; but was retaken by the Austrians in 1799, It was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 1838 ; after an insurrection it was bombarded and captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the Papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, tlie city, and the garrison, on Sept. 29. The king of Sardinia entered soon after. ANDRE’S EXECUTION. Andre (born 1751), was an adjutant-general in the British army, and was taken in disguise on his return from a secret expedition to the traitorous American general Arnold, Sept. 23, 1780. He was sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of general Washington’s officers at Tappan, New York, and suffered death, Oct. 2 following. His remains were removed to England in a sarcophagus, Aug. 10, 1821, and interred in Westminster abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of this punishment. ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred by crucifixion, Nov. 30, a.d. 69, at Patrse, in Achaia. The festival was instituted about 359. Andrew is the titular saint of Scotland, owing to Hungus, the Pictish prince, having dreamed that the saint was to be his friend in a pending battle with the Northumbrians. St. Andrew’s cross ( x ) appeared in the air during the fight, and Hungus conquered. The collar of an order of knighthood, founded on this legend, is formed of thistles (not to be touched), and of rue (an antidote against poison) ; the motto is Nemo me impune laeessit {No one assails me with impunity). The institution of the order is attributed to Achaius in the year 809 ; its revival is due to king James V. in 1540, and to James II. of England in 1687. See Thistle. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 1698 by Peter I. ANDREW’S, St. (E. Scotland). Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309 ; and here Wishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, who himself was murdered here in 1546. The university was founded in 1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The bishopric originated with the establishment of Christianity in Scotland. Sir R. Sibbald’s list of the bishops of St. Andrew’s commences with Killach, a.d. 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, and ceased soon after the Revolution, 1689. St. Andrew’s is now a post-revolution bishopric, re-instituted in 1844. See Bishops. ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (Jan. 20, 1667), between Russia and Poland, by which the latter lost the greater part of her conquests among the Cossacks. ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. Osier’s & Whewell’s anemometers were highly approved of in 1844. ANEROID. See Barometer. ANGEL, an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, was valued at 6 s. 8 d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 105. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The a^igelot, a gold coin, value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, in 1431. Wood. ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. George. This order is said to have been instituted in Greece, a.d. 456. The Angelici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191. The Angelicce, an order of nuns, were founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli a.d. 1534. ANGERSTEIN GALLERY, the foundation of the National Gallery in London, Avas a small collection of about forty pictures, the most exquisite of the art, purchased by the British government for the public service for 60,000?., of the executors of Mr. John Julius Angerstein, who died in 1822. The exhibition of these pictures was opened to the public, in Pall Mall, in May, 1824. See National Gallery. ANGLESEY, or Island of the Angles {ey, in Saxon, signifying island). This cele- brated seat of the Druids was subdued by the Romans under Agricola (who called it Mona) A.D. 78 ; and by the English in 1282. The fortress of Beaumaris was built by Edward I. to AN(J 33 ANJ ovomwo the Welsh, 1295. The si)ot in Anglesey where Suetonius Paulinns and Ids legions butchered the Druids, in A. D. 61, is still shown, at a ferry called Porthamincl, across the Alenai Straits. Phillips. ANGLING. Its origin is uncertain ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Ttomans, and in the Bible ; Amos, iv. 2. (787 n.c.) Oppian wrote his “ Halicutics,” a Greek epic poem 011 Fishes and Fishing, ])robably about A.D. 198. Wynkin de Worde’s Treatyse of Fysshinge, the lirst book printed on angling, appeared in 1496 ; and Izaak Walton’s Complete Angler \n 1653. ANGLO-SAXONS, on Angles, derive their name from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, whoso population (called Angli by Tacitus), joined the lirst Saxon freebooters. Fast Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Ulfa, assumed the title of king, a.d. 571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. Ciedmon paraphrased ]>art of the Bible in Anglo-Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the gospels was made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721 ; of Boethius, Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon laws were printed by the government, in 1840. ANGRIA. This famous pirate’s fort on the coast of Malabar, was invested by admiral Watson, and destroyed Feb. ii, 1756. The pirate, his wife, and family, were made })risonei’s ; and great quantities of stores wliich were found in the fort, and several ships in the harbour, which he had taken from the East India Company, were seized. ANHALT, House of, in Germany, deducea its. origin from Berenthobaldns, who made war upon the Tlmringians in the sixth century. In 1606, the principality was divided among the four sons of Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John George : hence the various branches of this family, of which Anhalt- Dessau and Anhalt- Bernbourg are the principal. Duke of Anhalt-Dessau-Coethen (Subjects 119,515). 1817. Leopold, Aug. g (born Oct. i, 1794), the present duke (1862). Duke of Anhalt-Bernbourg (Subjects 56,000). 1834. Alexander, March 24 (born March 2, 1805), the PRESENT duke (1862). ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken possession of by England in the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force which exceeded 4000 men, but were gallantly repulsed by the British force not amounting to more than 150, March 14, 1811. ANILINE, a basic oily body discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of distillation of indigo. Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it from benzole by the successive treat- ment of this substance with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific relations of Aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, more especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was only in 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product could be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured upon a large scale for the commercial pro- duction of “ Mauve ” and “ Magenta ” (rosaniline), and^several other colouring matters. ANlMALCUL.iE. Leeuwenhoek’s researches in 1677 produced the most astonishing revelations. His Arcana Natures was published at Leyden in 1696. The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin, on the Infusorial Animalculse, &c., were issued {1838-57). Pritchard’s Infusoria, ed. i860, is a valuable summary of our present knowledge of animalculee. ANIMAL MAGNETISM was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774; and had its dupes in France and Fngland in about 1788-89.* See Mesmerism. ANIMALS, Cruelty to. The late Mr. Martin, M. P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress this odious offence ; and a society in London, which was established in 1824, effects much good this way. See Cruelty to Animals Society. Mr. Martin’s act passed 3 Geo. IV. (1822). Similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47 (1839). ANJOU, a province in France, was inherited by Henry II. of England from his father Geoffrey Plantagenet. It was taken from his son John by Philip of France in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III., but relinquished by him in 1360 ; and was given by Charles V. * It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympathetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagination and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distortions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quaiTelled. — Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented “ Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism ; ” but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors. Brande. D ANJ 34 ANN to liis hrothcr Louis witli the title of duke. It afterwards became an appanage of the French crown. The university was formed in 1349. DUKES OF ANJOU. 1360. Louis T. invested by the pope with the dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 : his invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383 ; he dies, 1384. 1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, but is also unsuccessful. Louis III. , adopted by .Joanna as heir ; dies 1434. 1434. liegnier (a prisoner) declared king of Naxjles, 1435 ; his daughter, Margaret, married Henry VI. of England, 1445 ; he was expelled from Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and his estates con- fiscated. ANJOU, OK Beauge, Battle of, between the English and French ; the latter com- manded by the dauphin of France, April 3, 1421. The Engli.sh were defeated ; the duke of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the held ; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken 2U’isoners. Beauge was the hrst battle that turned the tide of success against the English. ANN AM, OR Anam, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese Sea. This country is said to have been conquered by the Chinese 234 B.C., and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his pupil, Gia-long, the son of the nominally reigning monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen esta- blished Gia-long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son became king. In 1859 war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, about April 22, when 500 were killed. In 1862 peace was made ; three provinces were ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. ANNATES. See First Fruits. ANNO DOMINI, a.d. The year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, Circumcision, Annus Trabeationis (of the Crucifixion). The Christian era commenced Jan. i, in the middle of the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Eome, and in 4714 of the Julian period. It is now held that Christ was born four years ]xrevious, as noted in the margin of our Bibles, Luke, ch. ii. — This era was invented by a monk, Dionysius Exiguus, A.D. 532. It was introduced into Italy in the 6th century, but not generally employed for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was the first who added “in the year of our Lord ” to his reign, in 879. ANNOYANCE JURIES, of Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time), was commenced by R. and J. Dodsley. The somewhat similar but more elaborate work, the Annuaire des Deux Mondes, began in Paris in 1850. ANNUALS, the name given to richly bound volumes, published annually, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by eminent authors, and illustrated by engravings. They were imitations of similar books in Germany, and first appeared in London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these publications is here given : Forget-me-not (Ackerman’s) . , . 1823 — 48 Friendship’s Offering 1824 — 44 Literary Souvenir (first as “the Graces”) 1824 — 34 Amulet 1827 — 34 Keepsake 1828 — 56 Hood’s Comic Annual 1830 — 38 ANNUITIES, OR Pensions, were first granted in 1512, when zol. were given to a lady- of the court for services done ; and 61. 13s. 4c?. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 1 3?. 6s. 2 ,d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen per cent., 4 — 6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became general among civilised governments. An annuity of il. zs. iid. per annum, accumulating at 10 per cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to zo,oool. ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in i860, and other provisions made for the purpose. These, however, have proved equally unpalatable. ANNUNCIATION of the Virgin Mary, the 25th of March, also called Lady-day, {which see). This festival commemorates the Virgin’s miraculous conception, according to the tidings brought her by the angel Gabriel {Luke i.) : its origin is referred variously by ecclesiastical writers to the fourth and seventh century. The religious order of the Annun- A NO 35 ANT ciiition was iiistitiitod in 1232, and tlie military order, in Savoy, hy Amadeus, count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Khodes against the Turks, 1355. ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of kings, bishops, and other eminent personages. Aaron, as high priest, was anointed, b.c. 1491 ; and Saul, as king, B.c. 1095. It was first used at coronations in England on Alfred the Great, in A.i). 872 ; and in Scotland, on Edgar, in 1098. — The religious rite is derived from the epistle James , ch. V. 14, about a.d. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic church). ANONYMOUS LETTERS. The sending of letters denouncing persons, or demanding money, or using throats to obtain money, was made felony by the Black Act, 9 Geo. I. (1722) ; by 8 Geo. lY., c. 29 (1827) ; and by i Viet., c. 87 (1838). By 10 & 11 Viet., c. 66 (1847), the punishment is trans2)ortation, imprisonment, or whipping. ANTARCTIC. The south pole {which see) is so called as opposite to the north or arctic pole. ANTEDILUVIANS. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, as it existed previous to the Flood, reached to the enormous amount of 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.* ANTHEMS, OB, Hymns (see Hymns). Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St Ambrose were the first who composed them, about the middle of the fourth century. Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth’s reign, about 1565. ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) have existed in all ages of the world. Homer says that the Cyclops and Lestrygones were such ; and the Essedonian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Diogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa and the South Sea Islands. The annals of Milan assert that a Milanese woman, named Elizabeth, had an invincible inclination to human flesh ; she enticed children to her house, and killed and salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 1519. Cannibals were detected in Perthshire about 1339. ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given by St. John (i Ep. ii. 18) to him whom St. Paul calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess. ii. 3), who, as some assert, at the latter end of the world, is to appear very remarkably in opposition to Christianity. F ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association formed for the purpose of procuring the repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. See Corn-Laws. It sprang from various metropolitan and provincial associations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. C. Villiers, R. Cobden, J. Bright, &c. See Protectionists. Meetings held in various places March & April, 1841 Excited meeting at Manchester . . May 18, — A bazaar held at Manchester, at which the League realised io,oooL . . Feb. 2, 1842 About 600 deputies connected with provincial associations assemble in London, Feb. — Aug. — The League at Manchester proposed to raise SOyOooL, to depute lecturers throughout the country, and to print pamphlets . Oct. 20, — First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843 Series of monthly meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced Sept. 28 ; and great free-trade meetingat Manchester Nov. 14, 1843, & Jan. 22, 1845 Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened . May 5, — Great Manchester meeting, at which the League proposed to raise a quarter of a million sterling . . . Dec. 23, 1845 The Com Importation Bill having passed, the League is formally dissolved ; and Mr. Cobden was rewarded by a national subscription, amounting to nearly 8o,oool. . . July 2, 1846 Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival of the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at a meeting held at Manchester, and a sub- scription for the purpose was opened, which produced within half an hour 27,520?. Mar. 2, 1852 [Subsequently, the reconstruction of the League was deemed to be unnecessary.] * Burnet has supposed that the first human pair might have left, at the end of the first century, ten married couples ; and from these, allowing them to multiply in the same decuple proportion as the first pair did, would rise, in 1500 years, a greater number of persons than the earth was capable of holding. He therefore suggests a quadruple multiplication only ; and then exhibits the following table of increase during the first sixteen centuries that preceded the Flood (at least ten times the present number of mankind) : — I 10 II 40 III 160 IIII 640 V. . . . 2,560 VI. . . . . 10,240 VII. . . . 40,9^ VIII. . . . 163,840 IX. . . . 655,360 X. . . . 2,621,440 XI. . . . 10,485,760 XII. . . . 41,943,040 XIII. . 167,142,160 XIV. . . 671,088,640 XV. . . 2,684,354,460 XVI. . 10,737,418,240 t His reign, it is supposed, will continue three years and a half, during which time there will be a persecution. This is the opinion of the Roman Catholics ; but the Protestants, as they differ from them, so they diifer among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose the time to be past, and the D 2 ANT 80 ANT ANTIGUA, a West India Island, diseovered by Columbus in 1493 ; settled by tho English in 1632. ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, which sec. ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of this mineral were early known, and applied. It was used as paint to blacken both men’s and women’s eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30, and in eastern countries it is used to this day. Wlien mixed with lead it makes types for printing ; and in physic its uses are various. Basil Valentine wrote on Antimony about 1410. Priestley. ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, against, and norms, law), a name given by Luther (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held “that it mattered not how wicked a man was if he had but faith.” (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, and v. i, 2.) He retracted in 1 540. ANTIOCH, S3rria, built by Seleucus after the battle of Ipsus, 301 B.c. In one day, 100,000 of its people were slain by the Jews, 145 b.c. Here the disciples were first called Christians, a.d. 42 {Acts xi. 26). Antioch was taken by the Saracens about 638 ; recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966 ; lost again in 1086 ; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and held by them till 1268, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egypt. It was taken in the Syrian war in 1832 by Ibrahim Pacha. — The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years b. c. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed, about 368 b.c. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand ; near Antipodes Island. Brookes. ANT I -POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian factions at Eome, from 1305 to 1406. The last schism of this kind was terminated by the deposition of the rivals Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII., and the election of Alexander V. in 1409. See under Popes, the Anti-popes, whose names are printed in italics. ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years B.c, ; but this is justly doubted. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. Application was made in 1589 to Elizabeth for a charter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favouring the design. In 1 707 the Society of A ntiquaries was revived ; in 1 75 1 it received its charter of incorpora- tion from George II. ; and in 1777 apartments in Somerset-house were granted to it. Its Memoirs, entiileA Archceologia, were first published in 1770, and are still continued. — The British Archceological Association was founded in Dec. 1843 ; and in 1845 the Archaeological Institute of Great Britain was formed by a seceding part of the association. Journals are published by both societies. — The Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh was founded in 1780. Since 1845 many county archaeological societies have been formed in the United Kingdom. The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 as the Celtic Academy. ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the second century. This doctrine spread widely after the Reformation, when it was adopted by Laelius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. See Arians, Socinians, Unitarians. ANTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in a.d. 517. It was a small republic in the eleventh century. It was the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of the i6th and 17th centuries. Its fine exchange built in , , , . a.d. 1531 Taken after a long siege by the prince of Parma 1585 The trade transferred to Amsterdam . . . 1609 The Barrier treaty was concluded here Nov. 16, 1715 Occupied by the French , . 1792-3, 1794-1814 The seat of the civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange .... 1830-31 The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, eannonaded the town with red- hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief, Oct. 27, 1830 General Chass^ surrendered the citadel to the French, after a destructive bombardment, Dec. 23, 1832. See Belgium. In Aug. 1859 the proposal to strengthen the fortifications was affirmed by the legislative assembly ; much property and valuable archives des- troyed by fire Aug. 2, 1858 A Fine Art f§te held . . . Aug. 17-20, 1861 Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25 hves and about 400,000?. . . Dec. 2, — characters to be furnished in the persons of Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics. Some have believed the pope to be the true Antichrist, as at the council held at Gap, in 1603. Many consider that tho kingdom of Antichrist comprehends all who are opposed to Christ, openly or secretly. Al’A 37 Aro APATITE, minerMl plios])liate of limo. About 1856 it began to l>e largely employed as inamiro. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India island. APOCALYPSE, OR Revelation, written by St. John in the isle of Patinos about a.d. 95. Jrena’us. Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the ])resbyter, of Ephesus. In the lirst centuries many churches disowned it, and in the Iburth century it was excluded IVom the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and conlirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. Although the book lias been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority (piestioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his tirsd Apology for the Christians in a.d. 139), yet its canonical authoi’ity is still almost universally acknowledged. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, “These books are neyther found in the liebrue nor in the Chalde.” Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.c. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of Laodicea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church, at the council of Trent on April 8, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lessons by the Anglican church. 1 Esdras, from about b.c. 623-445 2 Esdras „ . . * * Tobit „ . . 734-678 Judith „ , . 656 Esther „ . . . 510 Wisdom of Solomon . . * * Ecclesiasticus (John) 300 or 180 Banich . . . . * * Song of the Three Children * * History of Susannah - , * * Bel and the Dragon , . * * Prayer of Manasses b. c. 676 1 Maccabees, about . . 323-135 2 Maccabees, from about . i87-i6f There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with the New Testament. APOLLINARIAKS, followers of Apollinarius, bishop of Laodicea, who taught (a.d. 366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and that it was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin, as through a channel ; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. Apollinarius was deposed in A.D. 378. APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, rnedicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples and statues erected to him, particularly in Egypt, Greece, and Italy, His most splendid temple was at Delphi, built 1263 b.c. See Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B. c. , during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt A.D. ;j 62 , and the Christians were accused of the crime. Lenglet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the remains of Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II. , who placed it in the Vatican. APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robson, of St. Martin’s lane, Westminster, and exhibited by them first in 1817. Timbs. APOSTLES (Greek apostolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, A.D. 31 ; viz. Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathaniel (or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphseus), Simon the Canaanite and Jude or Thaddseus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, a.d. 33 {Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas Were appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.D. 45 {Acts xiii. 2), APOSTLES’ CREED, a summaiy of the Christian faith, attributed to the apostles by Rufiinus, A.D. 390, is generally believed to have been gradually composed a great while after their time. Irenseus, bishop of Lyons (a.d. 177), repeats a similar creed. Its repetition in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the nth century, whence it passed to the Church of England, APOSTOLICI. The first sect of Apostolic! arose at the end of the 2nd century ; they renounced marriage, wune, flesh, meats, &c. The second sect was founded by Segarelli about 1261. They wandered about, clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, the mass, purgatory, &c. , and are accused, by their enemies of gross licentiousness. Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma in 1300 during a crusade against his followers, who were' all dispersed in 1307.- APOTHECARY. The first mention of one attending the king’s person in England was on Edward III. (1344) ; who settled three pence per diem for life on CouTsUs de Gangeland, for taking care of him during his illness in Scotland. Rpmer’s Pcedera, Apothecaries were exempted from serving on juries or other civil offices in 1712, The Apothecaries’ Company was incorporated in London, 1617. Their hall was built in 1670; and their practice regulated by 55 Geo, III, c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo, IV, c, 133 (1825). The Botanical Garden APO 38 AQU at Chelsea was left by sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan, 1753 , on con- dition of their introducing every year lifty new jdants, until their number should amount to 2000. The Dublin guild was incorporated, 1745 . Pharmacy. APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised their kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was begun at Home by Augustus, in favour of Julius Csesar, B.c. 13. Tillemont. APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (a.d. 869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in council ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all i)arts of England, he framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. Hume. Ap])cals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced, 19 Stej)hen, 1154, but abolished by act 24 Henry VIII. 1532. Viner's Statutes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the judgments of the King’s Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1831. See Privy Council. APPEAL, OR Assize of Battle. By the old law of England, a man charged with murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the court allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the accused escaped, April 16, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck from off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819). APPIAN WAY, an ancient Homan road, made by Appius Claudius Ceecus while censor, 312 b.c. APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those in general use have been brought at various times from the continent. Eichard Harris, fruiterer to Henry YIIL, is said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and Lord Scudamore, ambas- sador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire. Eay reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). APPRAISEES. The rating and valuation of goods for another was an early business in England : and so early as ii Edward I. 1282, it was a law, that if they valued the goods of parties too high, the appraiser should take them at the price appraised. APPRENTICES. Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I. Stoufs Survey. The apprentice tax enacted, 43 Geo. III. 1802. See Evil Mayday. APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, a term applied to section 36 of stat. 3 & 4 WiU. I Y. c. 37 (passed in 1833), which transferred the revenues of certain Irish bishoprics to the Ecclesias- tical Commissioners. APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the church), began in the time of William I. ; the parochial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and higher clergy Normans. These impoverished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were generally possessed by the conqueror’s friends. Where the churches and tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander lY. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of the church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. Pardon. APRICOT, Prunus armeniaca, first planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of Henry YIIL It originally came from Epirus. APRIL. The fourth month of the year according to the vulgar computation, but the second according to the ancient Romans : Numa Pompilius introduced Januarius and Februarius, 713 b.c. Peacham. APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird (named Dfnornis) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843, and since. APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy, conquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard received the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicholas II. , in 1059. After many changes of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the second century, who forbore the use of wine even in the sacrament, and used nothing but water, during persecution, when ARii AQ,II yi) tlio Cliristiiiiis met secretly and in the night, for fear of discovery. For this they were censured by Cyprian (martyred a.d. 258). AQUARIUM, OR Aquavivarium, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supj)ortiiig each other ; snails being introduced as scavengers. Jn 1849, !Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea-weeds in artificial sea- water ; in 1850, Mr. R. AVarington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and ])lants in jars of water ; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Kegent’s Bark, were set u]> under the skilful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published “The Aipiarium.” Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, of Portland Road, London, by his enterju-ise in collecting specimens, has done much to increase the value and interest of aipiaria. The great aipiarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d’Acclimatation at Pans, was constructed under his direction in i860. AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse, on an inclined plane. No remains of Greek acpieducts exist. Ap})ius Claudius advised and constructed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the Appiamvay, about 312 b.o. Aqueducts of every kind were among the wonders of Rome. Livy. There are now some remarkable aqueducts in Eurojie ; that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aque- duct on the Ellesmere canal, in England is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high ; it was completed by T. Telford, and opened Dec. 26, 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with water was commenced in 1830. AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony 141 B.C., and fortified A. D. 168. Constantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, July 28, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor. Sept. 6, 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mortified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod here in a.d. 381. AQUITAINE, a province in France, S.W. Subdued by the Visigoths, a.d. 418, and taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England inherited it from his mother, 1152. It was erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362 ; but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA. The terms Petrcea (stony), Felix (happy), and Deserta, are said to have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A.D. 140. It was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 b.c. In a.d. 622, the Arabians, under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (a native of Arabia), their general and prophet, commenced their course of conquest. See Mahometanism. The Arabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. To them we owe our ordinary numerals, and arithmetical notation. The Koran was written in Arabic (about A.D. 622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. ARABIAN NIGHTS’ ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, and published in 1 704 ; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the body, and rose again with it, A. d. 207. AR AGON, a kingdom in the north-east of Spain. See Spain. ARAM, the ancient name of Syria, which see. ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, Oct. i, 331 b.c., on a plain in Assyria between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory amounted to thuiy millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. Plutarch. ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made ^equivalent in force to the decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of 40 AliC AH 15 witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833). See Oazd Galley. By an act passed in 1859, railway conij)anies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. ARBU'J’'US. The Arbutus Andrachne^ oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant, about 1724. ARCADES, oil Walks arched over. The principal in London are the Burlington- arcade, opened in March, 1819 ; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened at the period of the Strand improvements. See Strand. Exeter Change, London, was rebuilt and opened in 1845. See Exeter Change. The Royal arcade, Dublin, opened June 1820, was burnt to the ground, April 25, 1837. ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece. The Arcadians regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon. They were more simple in their manners and moderate in their desires than the other Greeks, from whom they were separated by mountains. Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their former food ; for which they honoured him as a god, 1521 B. C. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. Magna Gnecia, in S. Italy, said to have been colonised by Arcadians under CEnotrus, about 1710 B.c. ; and under Evander . . b.c. 1240 Pelasgus begins his reign 1521 Lycaon institutes the Lupercalia, in honour of Jupiter 1514 Areas, from whom the kingdom received its name, taught his subjects agriculture and the art of spinning wool ; his sons reign . . 1335 Lycajan games instituted, in honour of Pan . 1320 Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at the siege of Troy (/fomer) . . . .1194 The Lacedeemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten by the women of the country, in the absence of their husbands (?) . . B.c. 1102 Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) is put to death for offering violence to the priestess of Diana 715 Aristocrates II. stoned to death, and a republic estabhshed 681 The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) is abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epaminondas 371 The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are defeated by Archidamus .... 367 Arcadia, having joined the Achaean league, on its suppression becomes part of the Roman empire ... 146 ARCHANGEL, a city in N. Russia, is thus named from a monastery founded here, and dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here, hy which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. ARCHBISHOP (Greek, archiepiscopos), a title given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople ; who pre- sided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached to those places. The word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died a.d. 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs. * Riddle. ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch-chamberlain of the German empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he bore the sceptre before the emperor. ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed under the two first races of the kings of France (a.d. 418 — 986), and when their territories were divided, the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves became arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and Arles. ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop, without any power ; but since the council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appoint- ment in these countries is referred to a.d. 1075. There are seventy-one archdeacons in * In these realms the dignity is nearly coeval with the establishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees : London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, a.d. 602. See Canterbury. York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity. Caerleon was found, previously, to be too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the time of King Arthur the archbishopric was transferred to St. David’s, of which St. Sampson was the 26th and last Welsh archbishop. See Si. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew’s and Glasgow, in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution, Glasgow 2oadi St. Andrew's. The bishop of Edinburgh is now (1862) styled Primits. The rank of archbishop was of early institution in Ireland. See Ferns. Four archbishoprics were constituted in Ireland, a.d. 1151, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam ; until then the archbishop of Canterbury bad jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to bishoprics, namely, Cashel and Tuam, conformably with the statute 3 & 4 WiU. IV. 1833, by which also the number of sees in Ireland was to be reduced (as the incumbents of ten of them respectively died) from twenty-two to twelve, the present number. See Bishops, Cashel, Tuam ; Pallium, dx. ARC 41 ARC Kn^lanJ (1862), uml tliirty-tlivce in Ireland. The archdeacon’s court is the lowest in eccle- siastical polity : an appeal lies Iroin it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VI II., 1532. ARCHERY. Plato ascribes the invention to A])ollo, by whom it was communicated to the Cretans. Ishmael “ became an archer” {Gen. xxi. 20), 1892 n.c. The Philistine archers overcame Saul (i Sam. xxxi. 3), 1055 k.c. David commanded the use of the bow to be taught (2 Sam. i. 18). Aster of Ani])hipolis, having been slighted by Phili]), king of Macedon, at the siege of IMethone, 353 u.c., shot an arrow, on which was written “Aimed at Philip’s right eye,” which struck it and put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow with these words ; “ If Philip take the town. Aster shall be hanged.” The coii(]ueror kept his word. — Archery was introduced into England previously to a.d. 440. Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings in 1066. Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow in 1199. The victories of Crecy, Poitiers and Agincourt were won chiefly by archers.* Four thousand archers siuTounded the houses of parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Richard II. 1397. Stow. The citizens of London were formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III : and into a corporate body by the style of “The Fraternity of St. George,” 29 Henry YIII. 1538. Roger Ascham’s ToxopMlus, the School of Shooting,'' was published in 1571. See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. ARCHES appear in early Egyptian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings, about 588 b.c. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention, t — The Triumphal arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble Arch which formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine. See Hyde Park. ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, London {de Arcuhus), where it was held ; and whose top is raised on stone pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy council, by statute ii Geo. IV. and i Will. IV. 1830. ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-tekton, chief artificer), ornamental building. The five great orders of architecture are, — the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian {Greek) ; — the Tuscan and Composite {Roman). The Gothic began to prevail in the ninth century. See the Orders respectively and Gothic. The Pyramids of Egypt, begun about . B.c. 1500 Solomon’s Temple, begun 1004 Birs Nimroud, in Assyria . . . about 900 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, fovmded 616 Babylon built 600 Architecture flourishes at Athens . , . 480-320 The Parthenon flnished 438 The Pantheon, &c., built at Rome . a.d. 13 The CoUiseum 70 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, &c. . a.d. 117 Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro .... 284 Basilicas at Rome 330-900 St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . 532 Rock-cut temples in India — Caves of Ellora . 500-800 Canterbury Cathedral, founded .... 602 Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem . . . . 637 York Minster, begun about .... 741 St. Peter’s, Rome 1450-1626 St. Paul’s, London 1675-1710 Born. Died Vitruvius, about . . b.c. 27. A.D. William of Wickham . 1324 — 1405 Michael Angelo Buo- narotti . . . 1474 — 1564 EMINENT ARCHITECTS. Born. Died. A. Palladio . . . 1518 — 1580 Inigo Jones . . . 1572 — 1652 Bernini . . . . 1598 — 1680 Christopher Wren . 1632 — 1723 J. Vanbrugh . . 1670 — 1726 Bom. Died. James Gibbs . . . 1674 — 1754 R. and J. Adams . . 1728 — 1794 A. W. Pugin . . . 1811 — 1852 C. Barry . . . 1795 — 1860 An Architectural Society existed in 1808. The Royal Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834. Earl de Grey was president, 1835-61. The Architectural Society, established in 1834, was united to the Institute in 1842. * The long -how was six feet long, and the arrow three feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. A Persian hero, Arish, is stated to have shot over between 400 and 500 miles, as related by Ferdousi I The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged •with a trigger. t The new bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge is 152 feet; and the three cast-iron arches of Southwark bridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments, are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet : thus the centre arch exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet. See Bridges. AUC 42 MiG ARCHONS. Wlieii royalty was abolished at Athens, the exeeutive government was vested in eh^ctive niiscopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyll is now a post-revolution bishopric. See Bishoprics. ARIAN, OR Aryan Race, a term now frequently applied to the Indo-Germanic or Indo-European family of nations. ARIANS, the folloAvers of Arius, who preached against the divinity of Christ, about a.d. 315, and died in 336. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325; but their doctrine prevailed for a time in the East. It was favoured by Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into Africa under the Vandals in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt 1553. See Athanasian Creed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614. ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY : the most comprehensive system ever devised by man. Aristotle was born at Stag3u-a (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 b.c. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347 ; became preceptor of Alexander son of Philip of Macedon, in 342 ; and died ill 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into Metaphysics and Logic ; Physics, including part of the science of mind ; and Ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the reformation. His works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a vacuum ; an opinion still maintained by some eminent modern philosophers. ARITHMETIC is of uncertain origin. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 B. c. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about B.c. 300 The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A.D. 130 Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thirteen books of arithmetical questions (of which six are now. extant) . . about 156 Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — inti-oduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Europe, about 980 — into France, by Gerbert, 991 — into Spain, 1050 — into England 1253 The date in Caxton’s Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480 Arithmetic of decimals invented . . . 1482 First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte Supputandi) was by TonstaU, bishop of Durham 1522 The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rhabdologia, in . . 1617 Cocker’s Arithmetic appeared in . . . .1677 ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah’s ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 b.c. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves : this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a-half, and not the geometrical one of six. ARKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amount- ing to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June, 9, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. — Native gold was discovered in Arklow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 a.d. the capital of the kingdom of Arles or Lower Burgundy. Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre capable of holding between 20,000 and 30,000 persons. ARMADA, THE Invincible. The famous Sjianish armament, so called, consisted of 130 ships of war, besides transports, &c., 2650 gi'eat guns, 20,000 soldiers, 11,000 sailors, and 2000 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It arrived in the channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies’ fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines ; the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st AUM 44 ARM July to tlie 28tli, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5000 men ; seven- teen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and U2)wards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken j)risoners. The English lost but one ship. About one-third of the armament returned to S])ain. ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, was the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about A. D. 444. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been bishops of tins see. In the king’s books, by an extent taken 15 James I,, it is valued at 400Z. sterling a year ; and until lately, was estimated at 15,000^. j)er annum. The see was re-constituted (see in 1151. Jieatson. Armagh was destroyed by the Danes on Easter-day, 852. Burns. ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, derived their name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris in May, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy. ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England, formed by the empress of Russia in 1780; ended in 1781. The confederacy was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers. Dee. 16, 1^0, The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801, This event and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B. c. Armenia after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.c. ; the Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. The modern Christian kingdom of Armenia arose about 1080 in the rebellion of Philaretus Brachancius against the Greek emperor. It lasted amid many struggles till the 14th century. In all their political troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity. Their church is governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian convent has existed at Venice, where books on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. City of Artaxarta built . . . .B.c. r86 Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia. . . 165 Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . 95-60 Becomes king of Syria, and assumes the title of “ King of Kings ” 83 Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the feet of Pompey 66 His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey against Julius Caesar, 48; and the Parthians against Marc Antony ... 36 Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver chains to Egypt 34 Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians 33 Deposed by the Romans, who enthrones Ti- granes II 20 Armenia subjected to Parthia . . a.d. 15 Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Au- gustus 18 After many changes Tiridates is made king by the Romans 58 The Parthians conquer Armenia, but are ex- pelled by Trajan 125 Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia a.d. 199 Christianity introduced, between . . 100-200 Armenia added to the Persian empire . . . 312 Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 286; is expelled by Narses, 294; restored by Galerius 298 On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; who divide it by treaty . . . 443 Armenia conquered and re-conquered by the Greek and Persian sovereigns , . . 577-687 And by the Greek emperors and the Moham- medans 693-1065 Overrun by the Mongols, 2235 ; by Timom-, 1383; by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians . 1534 Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families into his own states . . . . 1 589 Overrun by the Russians 1828 Surrender of Erzeroum .... July, 1829 (See Syria and Russo- Turkish War.) ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on the 9th of July, a.d. 552 ; the ecclesiastical year on the nth August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years, and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March i to August 10. The Armenians used the old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to give an idea of the motions of the heavenly bodies. It is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and motion ; the whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 B.C. I and was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers. ARMINIANS (or Remonstrants) derive their former name from James Arminius, a Protestant divine, of Leyden, Holland (died, 1609) ; the latter from Arminius and his friends A KM 45 ARM liaving jtrosonti'il a Remonstrance to tlio States- General in 1609. They separated from the Calvinists, considering Calvin’s views of grace and predestination in o])position to free will too severe. A fierce controversy rag('-d from 1609 to 1625, when the Arrninians, who had hcen exiled, returned to their homes. Tlieir doctrines were condemned in 1618, at the synod of Dort {which see). The Calvinists were then sometimes styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminins. James I. and Charles I. favoured the doctrines of the Arminiaiis, which still prevail largely in Holland and elsewhere. , ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth cen- tury. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with diflerent figures, and were employed by the crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, A.i). 1 100. The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639, Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Csesar, 56 b.c. Many Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. ARMOUR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and jiadded hides were first used ; and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The first body armour of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armour, a.d. 449. The Norman armour formed breeches and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the same piece, 1 100. John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had vizors, and skull- caps, same reign. Armour became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced 1407. Black armour, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armoin of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armour than a large gorget, which is com- memorated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. Meyrick. ARAIS. The ‘club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, I)ike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various weapons throughout the volume. ARMS, see Armorial hearings and Heraldry. Those of England varied with the con- quest which she made, and included the insignia of Wales, Ireland, Scotland, France, and Hanover, as these countries successively fell to her sovereignty. The arms of France were claimed and quartered by Edward III., a.d. 1330, but were discontinued on the union with Ireland, and a new imperial standard was hoisted, Jan. i, 1801. The escutcheon of Hanover was discontinued on the separation of the crowns of England and Hanover by the death of William IV. in 1837. ARMS’ BILL, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15, 1831. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered under this act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms’ bill j)assed Aug. 22, 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rigidly enforced. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017 b.c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.c. Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the Great (332 B.c.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. The first standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain, 150,000 men ; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. ARMY, Beitish, maiuly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were intro- duced by Charles I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679; but one was then gradually forming. See Regiments. Grose’s “ History of the British Army” was published in 1801. The effective rank-and-file of the army actually serving in the pay of Great Britain on the 24th Dec. 1800, amounted to 168,082 ; and the estimates. AliM 46 ARM of tlic wliolc army in that year were 17,973,000^. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces were of immense amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. The strength of the volunteer corps was greatest between the years 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish ; and the militia had increased to 130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809. The following are statements of the effective military strength of the United Kingdom .at the periods mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure : 1780, 1800, 1810, 1815, 1820, 1830, 1840, 1850, 1852, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1859, 1860, 1861, Time of war : troops of the lino War War : army including foreign troops Last year of the war . Time of peace ; war incumbrances Peace Peace Peace (except Kaffir war) War with Russia War with Russia . War with Russia (effective men 154,806) (Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men Prospect of European war in April — June ( (in Great Britain) . War with China amount 110,000 men ; sum voted £7,847,000 ditto 168,000 men ditto 17,973,000 ditto 300,000 men ditto 26,748,000 ditto 300,000 men ditto 39,150,000 ditto 88,100 men ditto 18,253,000 ditto 89,300 men ditto 6,991,000 ditto 93,471 men ditto 6,890,267 ditto 99,118 men ditto 6,763,488 ditto 101,937 men ditto 7,018,164 ditto 112,977 men ditto 7,167,486 ditto 178,645 men* ditto 13,721,158 ditto 206,836 men ditto 14,545,059 , exclusive of the Indian army.) amount 109,640 men ; sum voted 13,300,000 (Only those at home. ) ditto 235,852 men ditto 14,842,000 ditto 212,773 men ditto 14,168,621 ARMY, AND NAVY, AND OTHER CHARGES OF THE WAR WITH RUSSIA. Original Estimate 1854-5 Army £6,287,486 Navy 7,487,948 . Ordnance .... 3,845,878 Transports (increase in Navy) . Actual Charge 1854-5 . £7,167,486. . . 10,417,309 . . 5,986,662 . . . 3,582,474 . Total. . .£17,621,312 £27,153,931 Volunteers in Great Britain in 1862, stated to be 167,291. Estimate for 1855-6 . £13,721,158 10,716,338 . 7,808,042 5,181,465 £37,427,003 BRITISH ARMY ; NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES, IN 184O. Enghsh . Scotch . . . Irish Life Guards. Horse Guards. Foot Guards. Cavalry. Infantry. 724 67 19 367 22 10 4.314 472 64 6,174 781 2,569 35.785 12,046 36,531 Total . . . 810 399 4.850 9.524 84,362 The Army Service Acts : 12 & 13 Viet. c. 37 (June 21, 1847), and 18 Viet. c. 4. . Feb. 27. 1855 The Mutiny Act is passed annually ; alterations were made in this Act and in the Articles of War in 1855. See Militia and Volunteers. Officers in the service of the Bast India Com- pany to have the same rank and precedence as those in the regular army . April 25, — The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abolished, and the civil administration of the Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of Lord Panmure, the Minister of War. May 25, — Examination of staff-officers, previous to their appointment ordered . . . April 9, 1857 The army largely recruited in 1857 and 1858, in consequence of the war in India. The East India Company’s army was transferred to the Queen 1859 Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in con- sequence of no bounty being granted ; and threatening s of mutiny appeared, whieh subsided after an arrangement was made granting discharge to those who desired it. See India 1859 Examination of candidates for the Military Academy, previously confined to pupils from Sandhurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the prin- ciple of this measure was affirmed by the House of Commons by vote . April 26, 1858 By 22 & 23 Viet. c. 42, provision made for a re- serve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in her majesty’s service . . . 1859 Flogging virtually abohshed in the army ; First class soldiers to be degraded to second class before being liable to it . . . Nov. 9, — A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sanitary improvements in the army, barraeks, &c., under direction of Hon. Sidney Herbert 1859-60 ARMY OF Occupation. The army distinguished by this name Avas that of the allied powers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, which occupied the northern frontier towns of France by the treaty, signed Kov. 20, 1815, which established the boundaries of France, and stipu- lated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years. * Besides this national army, 14,950 foreign troops were voted for the service of the year 1855-6 ; and the English militia was called out, and increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming a total of 313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay. AKO 47 A irr AHOMATICS. Acron of A^n-igoiitum, is said to have been the first wlio caused great fires to bo made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means lie juit a stop to the ])lague at Athens, 473 n.C. Nom. Diet. A lUJU E B US. See Fire A nns. ABRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, the capital, was taken from the Burmese by gen. IMorrison, April i, 1825. The subjugation of the whole province soon followed. ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and calling upon the ]>risoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who refuseil to ]>lead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. A person standing mute Avas declared convicted by 12 Geo. III. 1771 5 by an act passed in 1827, the court is directed to enter a plea of “not guilty” in such cases. See Mute. ARRAS, N.E. of France, the seat of a bishop since a.d. 390. Here a treaty was con- cluded betAveen the king of France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter abandoned his alliance Avith England, Sept. 22, 1435. Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of Austria Avith Louis XI. of France, Avhereby the counties of Burgundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this latter was entered into in 1482. Velly. Arras Avas held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640. ARREST FOR Debt. The persons of peers, members of parliament, &c., are protected from arrest. See remarkable case of Ferrars' Arrest. Clergymen performing divine service privileged, 50 EdAV. III. 1375. Seamen prmleged from debts under 20I., by act 30 Geo. II. 1756. Barristers are privileged from arrest Avhile going to, attending upon, and returning from court, on the business of their clients. By statute 29 Charles II. no arrest can be made, nor process served, upon a Sunday. This laAv was extended by William III. Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May 1733. Prohibited for less than lol. on process ; 1779 : and for less than 20I., July, 1827. Arrests for less than 20I. were prohibited on mense process in Ireland, in June, 1829. Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mense process, except in cases VAdierein there is ground to shoAV that the defendant designs to leave the country, 2 Viet., Aug. 1838. By 7 & 8 Viet. c. 96 (1844), the power of imprisonment even upon final process, that is judgment debts, is abolished if the sum does not exceed 20I. exclusi\'e of costs : and by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95 (1846), the judge has no power to punish except in case of fraud or contempt of court. See Ambassadors. ARSENAL, a great military or naval repository. The largest in this country is at AVoohvich, whieh see. ARSENIC. A mineral substance, caustic and corrosive to so gi’eat a degree, as to be a deadly poison. It has been knoAvn from the earliest times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chemical nature. There are divers kinds, yelloAV or native, red and crystalline. Native arsenic is of an orange or yellow colour, and is called orpiment ; it is commonly found in copper mines ; and the heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the legislature to enact regulations for its sale, 14 Viet. cap. 13, June 5, 1851. The sale of all colourless preparations of arsenic is regulated by tliis act. In 1858 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper-hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to health ; Avhich appears now to be true, although doubted by some chemists. See Kakodyl. ARSON. This felony has always been deemed capital, and been punished with death, and remained so on a consolidation of the laAvsby statute 7 & S Geo. IV., 1827. If any house be fired, persons being therein, or if any vessel be fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute i Viet., July, 1837. ARSOUF (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin’s army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on Sept. 3 or 7, 1191. Ascalon surrendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, a.d. 1192. ARTEMISIUM, a promontory near which the Greeks defeated the invading Persian fleet, 480 B.c. ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata containing water, Avhich has percolated from a higher level, and which rises through the boring tube to that level. The fountains in Trafalgar square and government offices near have been supplied since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot at an expense of about 12,000?., and the Avell at Passy which is said will supply sufficient water for nearly 500,000 persons was begun in 1855, and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos & Easton completed an artesian well for ART 48 ARU the Horticultural Society’s garden in 1862. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at Kissingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells are now becoming common. ARTICLES OF Religion. Six were published by Henry VIII. 1539, viz. transubstan- tiation, communion in one kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession ; and forty-two were published without the consent of parliament, in 1552. These forty-two were reduced to Thirty-nine in Jan. 1563 ; and they received the royal authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, attempted to be imposed by archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four articles were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 1614, and established in 1634. On the union of the churches, the Irish adopted the English articles. ARTICLES OF War were decreed in the time of Richard I. and John. Those made by Richard II. in 1485 appear in Grose’s “ Military Antiquities.” The Articles of War now in force are based upon an act, passed by William III, in 1689, to regulate the army about to engage in his continental warfare. ARTIFICERS and Manufacturers were prohibited from leaving England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them. A fine of lOoZ,, and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other statutes, which were repealed in 1824, ARTILLERY, a term including properly all missiles : now applies to cannon. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. Voltaire. Said to have been used by the English at Calais in 1383. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Fcedera. Made of brass 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. — See Cannons, Bombs, Cannonades, Mortars, Howitzers, Petards, Rockets, Fire-arms. The Royal Artillery regiment was established in the reign of Anne. ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, Honourable, was instituted in 1585, and re- vived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where the London Archers had met since 1498. (See Archery.) In the civil war, 1641-8, the company took the side of the parliament, and greatly contributed towards its success. The company numbered 1200 in 1803 and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been appointed by the Queen. On the decease of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the Prince Consort became colonel and captain-general, who died on Dec. 14, 1862. His successor is not yet appointed (Aug. 1862). ARTS. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of seven liberal arts— grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. Harris. The Royal Society of England {which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkestone. — Fine Arts. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metro- polis took place in 1760, at the rooms of the Society of Arts, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19, 1824. See British Institution ; National Gallery. ART-UNIONS began in France and Germany early in the present century. The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh ; that in London was founded in 1836. Every subscriber is entitled to prints, and has the chance of drawing prizes. ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast expense. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 b.c. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James L, about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the MW 49 AS I university of Oxford, 1627. The cliaractors of tho inscriptions aro Greek. Tliere are tvv() translations: hy Sclden, 1628: hy Prideaux, 1676, A varioruiu edition of tlie inscriptions, by JMaittaire, appeared in 1732, and a line one by Chandler in 1763- See Kidd's Tracis ; and Porsoiis Treatise, 1789. ARUSPICES : priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observing entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (754 ^iid abolished by Constantino, a.d. 337, at which time they were seventy in number. AS, a Roman weight and ooin : when considered as a weight, it was a pound ; when a coin, it luul ditferont weights, but always the same value. In the reign of Servins, the as weighed a ])onnd of brass ; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 b.c. ; in the second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.c. ; and afterwards half an ounce ; its value was about three fiirthings sterling. ASAPH, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On returning into Scotland about a.d. 560, he left a holy man, St. Asaph, his successor, from whom the prelacy takes its name. It is valued in the king’s books at 187Z. ns. 6 d. By an order in council, 1838, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next vacancy in either ; and the bishopric of Manchester was to have been then created. This order was annulled in 1846, and the two sees still exist. Present income, 4200^. See Manchester. RECENT BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 1802. Samuel Horsley, died Oct. 4, 1806. 1830. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1846. 1806. WiUiam Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 1846. Thomas Vowler Short (present bishop, 1862). 1815. John Luxmoore, died Jan. 21, 1830. ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and which is endued with the property of remaining nnconsumed in fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians {Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, a.d. 74; and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at Venice, abont a.d. 1500. Porta. ASCALON (Syria). The Egyptian army was defeated here by the Crusaders, Aug. 12, 1099. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153 5 and again in 1191. ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic ocean, 800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered by the Portuguese in 1501 ; and taken possession of by the English in 1815. ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the church celebrates the ascension of onr Savour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead. May 14, a.d. 33 ; first commemorated, it is said, A. d. 68. ASH ANT EES, a warlike tribe of Negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of the king, who had been friendly to the English, hostilities began ; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the Ashantees defeated about 1000 British under sir Charles M‘Carthy at Accra, and brought away his skull with others as trophies. They were subdued Aug. 27, 1826, by Col. Purdon. ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Washington, Aug. 9, 1842, by Alexander, lord Ashburton, and John Tyler, president of the United States : it defined the boundaries of Canada and the state of Maine, settled the extradition of criminals, &c. ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY (books, manuscripts, coins, &c.), was presented to the university of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, about 1682. It included the collections of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1692. ASH-WEDNESDAY. The earlier Christians did not commence Lent until the Sunday now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in A.d. 487, first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cinervm, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Reformation this practice was abolished, “as being a mere .shadow, or vain show.” ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greek exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by a number of young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its founders were the after- wards eelebrated Wm. Allen, Wm. Phillips, Alex. Tilloch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys, and others. In 1806 it merged into the Geological Society. ASIA, the largest division of the globe, so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest E ASI 50 ASS monarchies of tlie earth had their rise ; and hence most of the arts and sciences' have been derived. See the various countries, China, India, Persia, 6 ce. ASIA MliSrOR (now Anatolia), comprised the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, &c., with the cities Troy, Ej)hesus, Smyrna {all which see). From the time of the rise of the Assyrian monarchy, about 2000 b.c., to that of the Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle-field of the conquerors of the world. First settlement of the Ionian Greeks, about e. c. 1043 Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . about 71 1 Conquered by Cyrus .... about 546 Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . 332 Contended for by his successors; separate kingdoms established 321-278 Gradually acquired by the Romans b.c. 188 to a.d. 15 Possessed by the Persians 609 Partially recovered by the Emperor Basil . . 874 Invaded by Timour 1402 Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. 1413 ASPERISTE AND Essling, near the Danube and Vienna, where a series of desperate con- flicts took place between the Austrian army under the archduke Charles, and the French under Napoleon, Massena, &c., on May 21-23, 1809, ending in the defeat of Napoleon ; the severest check that he had yet received. The loss of the former exceeded 20,000 men, and of the latter 30,000. The daring marshal Lannes was killed ; the bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and Napoleon’s retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, which in nature probably derived its origin from decayed vegetable matter. The artificial asphalt obtained from gas-works began to be used as pavement about 1840 ; but has not been generally approved of. It is still in use in some provincial towns, and at Paris. ASSAM (N.E. India) came under British dominion in 1825 ; the right to the principality being surrendered by the king of Ava in 1 826. The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant having been recommended by lord William Bentinck. The Assam Tea Company was established in 1839. The tea was much in use in England in 1841. Chinese labour has been introduced. ASSASSINATION PLOT, said to have been formed by the earl of Aylesbury and others to assassinate William III., near Richmond, Surrey, as he came from hunting. Its object would have been attained, Feb. 14, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. ASSASSINS, OR Assassinians, a band of fanatical Mahometans, collected by Hassan- ben-Sabah, and settled in Persia a.d. 1090. In Syria they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Montferrat in 1192; Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief or king of the corps assumed the title of “ Ancient of the Mountain,’’’’ and “ Old Man of the Mountain.’’’’ * They trained up young people to assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted to destruction. Renault. From this fraternity the word assassin has been derived. ASSAY OF Gold and Silver originated with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in the reign of Henry I. Du Cange. But certainly some species of assay was practised as early as the Roman conquest. Assay was established in England 1354 ; regulated 13 Will. III. 1700, and 4 Anne, 1705. Assay masters appointed at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper to 1 1 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver. See Goldsmiths’ Company. ASSAYE, E. Indies, Battle of. The British army, under general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wellington) entered the Mahratta states on the south ; took the fort of Ahmednugger, Aug. 12 ; and defeated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, Sept. 23, 1803. This was Wellington’s first great battle, in which he opposed a force full more than ten times gi'eater than his own (only 4500 men). The enemy retired in great disorder, leaving behind the whole of their artillery, ammunition, and stores. ASSEMBLY of Divines held at Westminster, July i, 1643, convoked by order of parliament, to consider the liturgy, government, and doctrines of the church. Two were * He sent his emissaries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis; but being afterwards affected by the fame of this king’s virtues, and he being at the time in his minority, he gave the prince notice to take care of himself. HinavXt. This statement is doubted. 51 ASS ASS elected for each county. They adopted the Scottish covenant, and drew u]i the directions for ]>ublic worship, a confession, and the catechisms now used by the church of Scotland. The last (1163rd) meeting was on Teb. 22, 1649. See Church of Scotland. ASSENT. See Royal Assent. ASSESSED TAXES. The date of their introduction has been as variously stated as the taxes coming under this head have been defined — all things have been assessed, from lands and houses to dogs and hair-powder. By some the date is referred to the reign of Ethelbert, in 991 ; by others to that of Henry VII 1 . 1522 ; and by more, to the reign of William III. 1689, when a land-tax was imposed. See Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the land-tax, 6,524, 766Z., their highest amount. These imposts have varied in their nature and amount, according to the exigencies of the state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They were considerably advanced in 1797, and 1801, et scq., but considerably reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. The last act for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 16 & 17 Viet, cap, 90, Aug. 20, 1853, which was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Viet. cap. i, Feb, 17, 1854. — 17 & 18 Viet, cap. 85, was passed for the better securing and accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854, See Taxes and Income Tax. ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. Burke. It began with the Flemings, By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the British government engaged to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. The contract was vested in the South Sea Company. This contract was given up to Spain in 1750. See Guinea. ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support public credit during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April 1790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation in France audits dependencies. A lison. Assignats were superseded by mandats in 1 796. ASSIZE OF Battle. See Appeal. ASSIZE OF Bread. The first statute for it was in the third year of John, 1202, when the regulations thereof were ordered to be observed upon pain of the pillory. The chief justiciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the inspection of the assize. Matthew Paris. The assize was further regulated by statute in 51 Henry III. 1266, and 8 Anne, c. 19, 1 709. It was abolished in England, and the sale of bread regulated as at present, in August, 1815. The sale in Ireland was regulated by statute, 2 Will. IV., May, 1832 ; Bread act, 7 Will. IV. 1836. Bread act, Ireland, placing its sale on the same footing as in England, i Viet. 1838. See Bread. ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are of very ancient institution in England, and in old law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other substantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain time and place ; regulated by Magna Charta, a.d. 1215. The present justices of assize and Nisi Prius are derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Coke; Blackstone. “The king doth will that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the coimties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king,” 20 Rich. II. 1396. Statutes, Brough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general when the judges go their circuits, and special when a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or more causes. See Bloody Assize. ASSOCIATIONS. See National Associations. ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, August 15. It is observed by the church of Rome in honour of the Virgin Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by the council of Mentz, A.D. 813. ASSURANCE. See Insurance. * ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the ' earliest recorded monarchy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek 1 historian of doubtful authenticity, Herodotus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of the 1 very interesting Ninevite antiquities, now in the British Museum, by Mr. Layard, and the j deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and h other scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, f Hales, and Clinton, differ much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian history : some ! of these varying dates are inserted : i e 2 UNIVERSITY ILLINOIS LIB 52 AST ASS ASSYltIA, continued. Nimrod or Bolus reigns b.c. [2554 II - 2235 C .'\ 2245 “ Asshur buildod Nineveh ” {Gen. x. ii) about 2218 Ninus, son of Bolus, reigns in Assyria, and names his cai)ital after himself, Nineveh [2182 C . 1 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus, who having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Jlactrians, and all Asia Minor, establishes what is j)roperly the Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of empire. Blair . . [2233 6’.] 2059 Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . 2017 Serniramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon, and makes it the seat of her dominion . [2130 P.] 2007 She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India. Lengtet 1975 She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . 1927 Reign of Aralius ....... 1897 Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . 1446 He makes his daughter Atossa, sumamed Se- miramis II., his associate on the throne . . 1433 Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries Belatores (or Belapares) who reigns 1421 The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and foretells its destruction. Blair . . . 840 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. [Sardanapalus, the king, is mythically said to have enclosed himself, his court, and women, in his palace, and to have perished in the fire kindled by himself.J 820 Phul raised to the throne. Blair. about b.c. 777 lie invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword. Blair ; 2 Kinyx xv. 19, 20 . . . 770 Tiglath-Pilescr invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes great conquests .... 740 Shalmaneser takes Samaria, transports the people, whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. Blair 721 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years. Blair 713 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his general, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusalem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army. Isaiah xxxvii 710 [Commentators suppose that this messenger of death was the fatal blast known in eastern countries by the name of Samiel.] Esar-haddon invades Judea .... 680 Holof ernes is slain by Judith (?) . . . . 677 Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife and children, and bums himself in his palace 621 Nineveh razed to the ground, and Assyria be- comes a Median province 605 Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . 332 It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of Syria, Parthia, and Persia. It was conquered by the Turks . . a.d. 1637 ASTRACAN, S.E. Russia, a province acquired from the Mogul’s empire in 1554; visited and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was trans- mitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France in the time of Catherine de’ Medicis, who was married to Francis I. of France, 1533. Henault. The early history of astrology in England is very little known. It is said that Bede, a.d. 673 — 735, was addicted to it ; and Roger Bacon, 1214 — 1292. Lord Burleigh calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjuror ; but the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology amongst us. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacks are still pub- lished in London (1862). ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon about 2234 B.c. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldsea under Nabonassar ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 b.c. ; some say many centuries before. See Eclipses, Planets, Comets. Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and re- corded by Ptolemy . . . about b.c. 720 Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, died . . 546 Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, died about 470 Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle about . 432 Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . 281 Archimedes observes solstices, &c. . . .212 Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, de- termines mean motion of sun and moon ; dis- covers precession of equinoxes, &c . . 160-125 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets dis- covered by Ptolemy . . . . A.D. 130-150 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs about 760 : brought into Europe about 1200 Alphonsine tables {which see) composed about . 1253 Clocks first used in astronomy . . about 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies revived by Copernicus, author of the almagest, published 1543 Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet adheres to the Ptolemaic system . about 1582 True laws of the planetary motions announced by Kepler a.d. 1609 Galileo discovers Jupiter’s satellites, &c., Jan. 7, 1610 Various forms of telescopes and other instru- ments used in astronomy invented . 1608-40 Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . . 1637 The transit of Venus over the sun’s disc fii'st observed by Horrocks . . . Nov. 24, 1639 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante. See Bologna 1655 The aben-ation of the light of the fixed stars discovered by Horrebow .... 1659 Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn’s ring 1654 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . 1663 Discoveries of Picard 1669 Charts of the Moon constructed by Scheiner, Langrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, and others, about 1670 Discoveries of Romer 1675 Greenwich Observatory founded . . . . — Motion of the sun round its own axis jiroved by Halley 1676 Newton’s Princiria published ; and the system as now taught, demonstrated . . . . 1687 AST A'I’Il r>:} ASTlvONOM Y, continued. Catjiloffue of tho stars made by Flamsteed a.d. 1688 Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . 1692 Satellites of Saturn, &c., discovered by Cassini 1701 Flamsteed’s Ilixtorie C(vlestis ])ublislied . . 1725 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley 1737 Nautical almanack first published . . . 1767 Celestial inecpialities found by La Gi-ange . . 1780 Uranus and satellites discovered by llerschel, March 13. See Georg mm Sidus . . .1781 by La Place, published a.d. 1796 Astronomical Society of London founded . . 1820 Ifeer and Miidler’s map of the moon imblished . 1834 The x>lanet Neptune discovered . . Sept. 23, 1846 Trustees of the late rev. Richard Sheepshanks in-esent io,oooi. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for the imnnotion of the study of astronomy, meteorology, and magnetism Dec. 2, 1858 [For the minor idanets recently discovered, saePLanets. ] ASYLIJ]\IS, OR riiiYiLEGED PLACES, at first were places of refuge for those who hy aceiileut or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded tlie Jews to build certain cities for this jmrpose, 1451 B.C., Numbers xxv. — The ])osterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to j^rotect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Komulus one at Mount Palatine, 751 b.c, Sanctuaries. ATELIERS NATIOhlAUX (National Workshops) were established hy the French provi- sional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, and about 100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labour and pajonent. The hreaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following. ATHANASIAN CREED. The great controversy regarding the divinity of Christ arose about A.D. 316, through the preaching of Arms. His great opponent, Athanasius, was a native of Alexandria, and was elected its bishop, 326. He encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians ; w^as several times exiled ; and died in 373. Tlie creed which goes hy his name is supposed by many authorities to have been written about 340 ; by others to be the compilation of Vigilius Tapsensis, an African bishop in the fifth century. It was first commented on by Venatius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers in 570. Dr. Waterlaiid’s History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. See Arians. ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. i). This doctrine has had its votaries and martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632 — 1677). Lucilio Vanini jDublicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciaries, because they held that there is no other deity tlum conscience. Many eminent men have i:)rofessed atheism. ‘ ‘ Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a dee^) draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God.” Lord Bacon. ATHENtEA were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called Panathenese, the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 b.c. Plutarch. ATHENAEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athentea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, a.d. 125. — The ATHEN.ETJM Cltjb of Londoii was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific and literary attainments, artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by Dr. T. Young, Davy, Scott, Croker, Chantrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and others ; the club- house was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carlton-palace ; it is of Grecian archi- tecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. —The Liverpool Athenaeum was opened Jan. i, 1799. — At Manchester, Rristol, and many other places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. — The Athenaeum, a weekly literary journal, first appeared in 1828. ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the modern kingdom of Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign (about 1764 b.c.) a deluge took place (by some sujxposed to be the universal deluge), that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecroixs and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b.c. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial archons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and perhaps no other city AT 11 54 ATM ill the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of citizens illus- trious for wisdom, genius, and valour. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a more jieculiar manner, called it Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. See Greece. Arrival of Cecrops . b.c. [1558 //. 1433 CT.] The Areopagus established Deuealioii arrives in Attica Reign of Arnphictyon . . . , [1499//.] The Panathenaian Games . . [1481 II.\ Erichthonius reigns ...... Erechtheus teaches husbandry . . . . Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleu- sinians ........ iEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned ; hence the name of the Ailgean Sea. Eusebius Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years He collects his subjects into one city, and names it Athens Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; Demophoon . Court of Ephetes established The Prianepsse instituted Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat, and is chosen king Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : he had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared that the victory should be with the side whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty abolished ; — Athens governed by archons [1070 i/.] ........ Alcm eon, last perpfiwc'^archon, dies . Cherops, first decennial archon . . . . Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty ; among other acts he exposed his own daughter to be devoured by horses, on account of an illicit amour Erixias, seventh and last decennial archon dies Creon first annual archon Draco the twelfth annual archon, publishes his laws Solon supersedes them by his excellent code . Pisistratus, the “tyrant,” seizes the supreme power, 560 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus establishes his government, 537 ; collects a public library, 531 ; dies First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by Thespis Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Ai-istogeiton The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the Pisistratidse banished Lemnos taken by Miltiades .... Persian invasion ; battle of Marathon . . . Death of Miltiades Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . Athens taken by the Persians .... Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . Rebuilt and fortified ; Piraeus built . Themistocles banished Cimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and Cimori adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished through his influence Athens begins to t3Tannise over Greece . Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . The first sacred (or social) war ; which see . Tolmidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, and is defeated and killed near Coronea . The thirty years’ truce between the Athenians and Lacedsemonians Herodotus said to have read his history in the council at Athens Pericles subdues Samos 1556 1507 1502 1497 1495 1487 1383 1356 1347 1283 1235 1234 1182 1179 1178 1128 1092 1044 753 752 713 684 683 621 594 • 527 535 513 510 504 490 489 487 480 479 478 471 469 461 459 448 447 445 Comedies prohibited at Athens . . . b.c. 440 Peloponnesian war begins (lasted 27 years) . . 431 A dreadful ijestilence, which had ravaged Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and continues for five years . . 430 Death of Pericles, who had governed Athens many years 429 Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian fleet dc.stroyed by Gylipims . 41 5-41 3 Government of the four hundred . . . . 41 1 Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; which see 410 Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign power, banished 407 Athenian fleet destroyed at .®gospotamos ; which see ....... . 405 Lysander besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Peloponnesian war terminates . . . 404 Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by Thrasybulus 403 Socrates (aged 70) put to death . . . . 399 The Corinthian war begins .... 395 The Lacedaemonian fleet defeated at Naxus by Chabrias 376 Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians. See Macedon 359 Second .sacred (or social) war . . . 357-355 First Philippic of Demosthenes .... 352 Battle of Chaeronea, which see ; the Athenians and Thebans defeated by Philip . . . . 338 Philip as.sassinated by Pausanias . . . 336 Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 Death of Alexander 323 The Athenians rising against Macedon, defeated at Cranon ; Demosthenes poisons himself . . 322 Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phale- reus, and restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the latter takes the chair of philosophy. 296 A league formed between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt 277 Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon, 268 ; restored by Aratus . . . 256 The Athenians join the Achjean league . , 229 They join the Aitolians against Macedon, and send for assistance to Rome . . . . 215 A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . .211 The Romans proclaim hberty at Athens . . 196 Subjugation of Greece 144 The Athenians implore assistance against the Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose general, Archelaus, makes himself master of Athens 88 Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general, it is reduced to surrender by famine . . 86 Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . 42 The Athenians desert Pompey, to follow the interests of Csesar 47 Athens visited by the Apostle Paul . a. n. 52 Many temples, on this new j)rincii)le on railroads in June, 1840. In Ireland the lirst atmospheric railway was commenced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843 : opened Mai-ch 29, 1844 ; discontinued in 1855. An atmospheric railway was proposed to be used in the streets of London by Mr. T. W. Itammell in 1857. ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances. The somewhat incoherent labours of liis j)redecessors were reduced by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of “Atomic Theory.” His “Chemical Philosophy,” containing the exposition of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. ATTAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns ; two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Will. III. 1694-5. Blaclcstone. The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, July 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of James II. wei“e cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July i, 1819. ATTICA. See Athens. ATTILA, surnamed the Scourge of God,’' and thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450 A.D., when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded the w'estern empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius at Chalons, A. D. 45 1 ; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died thiough the bursting of a bloodvessel on the night of his nuj)tials with a beautiful virgin named Ildico, a.d. 453. ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may bring bills against the king’s attorney. The first attorney -general was William de Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278. Beatson. ATTORNEY-GENEHALS SINCE THE EESTORATION. Sir Jeffery Palmer a.d. 1660 Sir Heneage Fincli, afterwards lord Finch . 1670 Sir Francis North, knt., aftds. lord Guildford . 1673 Sir William Jones 1674 Sir Cresvel Levinz, knt. 1679 Sir Robert Sawyer, knt 1681 Sir Thomas Powis, knt 1687 Henry Pollexfen, esq. 1689 Sir Geoi-ge Treby, knt — Sir John Somers, knt., afterwo.rds lord Somers. 1692 Edward Ward, esq 1693 Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevor 1695 Edward Northey, esq 1701 Sir Simon Harcourt, knt 1707 Sir James Montagu, knt 1708 Sir Simon Harcom-t, again; aft. lord Harcourt . 1710 Sir Edward Northey, knt., again . . . — Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere . 1718 Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond . . 1720 Sir Phihp Yorke, aft. earl of Hardwicke . . 1724 Sir John Willes, knt 1733 Sir Dudley Ryder, knt 1737 Hon. Wilham Murray, oft. earl of Mansfield . 1754 Sir Rob. Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northington 1756 Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden 1757 Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft, lord Grantley . 1763 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterwards lord Morden, and lord chancellor. See Chancellors 1765 William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham . 1766 Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow 1771 Alex. Wedderburne, aft. lord Loughborough . 1778 James Wallace, esq 1780 Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 1782 James Wallace, esq 1783 John Lee, esq. — Lloyd Kenyon, again ; aft. lord Kenyon . a.d. 1783 Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley . .1784 Sir Archibald Macdonald 1788 Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon . . . 1793 Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Redesdale . . 1800 Sir Edward Law, aft. Id. Ellenborough, Feb. 14, 1801 Hon. Spencer Perceval {murdered by Belling- ham, May II, 1812) . . . April 15, 1802 Sir Arthur Pigott . . . . Feb. 12, 1806 Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of the common pleas .... April 7, 1807 Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chan- cellor of England .... June 26, 1812 Sir William Garrow May 4, 1813 Sir Samuel Shepherd .... May 7, 1817 Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Gifford July 24, 1819 Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lyndhurst Jan. 9, 1824 Sir Charles Wetherell .... Sept. 20, 1826 Sir James Scarlett .... April 27, 1827 Sir Charles Wetherell, again . . Feb. 19, 1828 Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. Id. Abinger, June 29, 1829 Sir Thos. Denman, aft. lord Denman Nov. 26, 1830 Sir William Horne .... Nov. 26, 1832 Sir John Campbell .... March i, 1834 Sir Frederick Pollock . . . Dec. 17, — Sir John Campbell, again ; afterwards lord Campbell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), April 30, 1835 Sir Thomas Wilde .... July 3, 1841 Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron Sept. 6, — Sir William W. Follett . . . April 17, 1844 Sir Frederick Thesiger . . . July 4, 1845 Sir Thomas Wilde, again; afterwards lord Truro, and lord chancellor . . . July 6, 1846 Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the common pleas July 13, — ATT 50 AUCI ATT(JRNE Y-G ENEUA E, continued. Sir John lXom.\\\y , afterwards maaterof the rolls, July II, 1850 Sir Alexander James Edmund Cockburn . March 28, 1851 Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord Chelmsford, and lord chancellor . March 2, 1852 Sir Alexander James E. Cockburn, again ; aft. eh. just, of common pleas and queen’s bench, Dec. 28, 1852 Sir Richard Rcthell .... Nov. 15, 1856 Sir Fitzroy Kelly .... Fet). 27, 1858 Sir R. Bethell (now lord WestVjury, and lord chancellor) .... June 18, 1859 Sir Wm. Atherton (the present officer) . July, 1861 ATTORNEYS (wlio act for others at law). The number in Edward III.’s reign was under 400 for tlie whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in England, or registered, or retired, is said to be about 13,000. The number in Ireland is stated at 2000. The laws respecting attorneys and solicitors were amended in 1851 and i860. ATTRACTION is described by Copernicus, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In 1687, sir I. Newton published his “Principia,” con- taining his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity, which see. AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north island), was founded in 1840. The popula- tion of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 Europeans, and 35,000 natives. AUCTION. A kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales’ tax began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Viet, caj). 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge imposed “on the licence to be taken out by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom, of loZ.” In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, producing 43,580?. Certain sales are now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under a distress for rent, and sales imder the jirovisions of the Small Debts’ acts for Scotland and Ireland. AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts were appointed in 1785, Many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted. AUERSTADT. At this place, and at Jena {which see), on Oct, 14, 1806, the French signally defeated the Prussians. AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle was fought between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and the English under general Ginckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men ; the latter lost only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interests of James II. in Ireland. Ginckel was immediately after created earl of Athlone, The ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still suspended in the choir of St Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin. AUGMENTATION or poor Livings’ Office, was established in 1704. 5597 poor clerical livings, not exceeding 50?. per annum, were found by the commissioners under the act of Anne callable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established by parliament, AUGMENTATION COURT, Erected in 1534 by Henry VIII. to increase the royal revenues by adding those of the suppressed monasteries. AUGSBURG, Bavaria, originally a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 b.c, ; became a free city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here many important diets of the empire have been held. In a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of the priest- hood ; and on Sept. 25, 1555, the celebrated treaty of Nassau was signed, by which religious liberty was secured to Germany, A treaty between Holland and other European jiowers, to cause the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be respected, signed 1686, See Munster and Nimeguen. Augsburg was taken by the French, Oct. 10, 1805. AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith, drawn up by Melanchthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. June 25, 1530), was directly opposed to the abuses of the church of Rome. It was signed by the elector of Saxony, and other princes of Germany, and was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augsburg. AU GURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs, instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Numa, 710 b.c. There was a community of them ajipointed to foretell AIK} r>7 A us events by the of birds, and oilier circninstances. — Tlie king Cur, from whom Curia in Asia Minor is named, was the inventor of augury by birds. Voasius. AUGUST, the eightli Roman montli of the year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March), was named in honour of Augustus Ca3sar, in the year 8 J5.c,, because in this month he was born, was created consul or chief magistrate, thrice triurnjdied. in Rome, subdued Kgyjit to the Roman emjiire, and made an end of the civil wars. AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, who died A. D. 430. These monks really first ajipeared in the 12th century, and the order was constituted by rojie Alexander IV., in 1256. The rule requires strict jioverty, humility, and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. All Lie COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., in 1506, being one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber, formerly held at Spires, and afterwards at Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna. These courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were instituted for ajijieals in particular cases from the courts of the Germanic states. AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin auris) of the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden in the fourth century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantinople. It was first enjoined by the council of Lateral!, in 1215. It was one of the six articles of faith, enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival here has been attempted hj the church party called Piiseyites or Tractarians ; but without much success, * Confession was enjoined by the council of Trent in ISS^- AURIFLAMMA, or Oriflamme, the golden national banner so often mentioned in French history, was a costly standard belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb of that saint, a.d. 1140. Louis le Gros was the first king who took this standard from the abbey, to battle, 1124. Henault. At the battle of Agincourt, 1415, it appeared for the last time. Tillet. AUROR A FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1771, to the East Indies, and was never again heard of. AURORAE BOREALES and AUSTRALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March 1716 an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. — The whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. overspread with continuous haze of a dismal red during the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Nov. 1765. — Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 58° S. Its appearance in the southern hemisphere had been previously doubted, t AUSTERLITZ (in Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied Austrian and Russian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors commanded ; Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed Dec. 26, 1805. See Presburg. AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of the world. This name, originally given it by De Brosses, includes New Holland, Van Diemen’s Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern lands is due to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of New Guinea. Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that island and Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued their discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of the Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen’s Land (also called Tasmania). Wm. Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of the W. and N. * The rev. Alfred Poole, one of the curates of St. Barnabas, Knightsbridge, was suspended from his office for practising am-icular confession, in June, 1858, by the bishop of London. On appeal, the suspen- sion was confirmed in January, 1859. Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the rev. Temple West at Boyne Hill, in September, 1858. t The aurora is now attributed by many philosophers to the passage of electric light through the rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and September, 1859, when brilliant aurorae were very frequent, the electric telegraph wires were seriously affected, and communications interrupted. Aurorae were seen at Rome and Basel, and also in Australia. A US 58 A US W. coasts. Uetween 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries ; and in 1770, Cook first made known the East coast of Australia, Furneaux in 1773, Eligh in 1789, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 1 792, Boi'tlock same year, Brampton and Alt in 1 793, and Bass and Flinders explored the coasts and islands in 1798-9, and discovered Bass’s Straits. Grant in 1800, and Flinders again (1801-5), completed the survey. McCulloch. AUSTRALIA, the smallest continent, or largest island, in the world ; about six times smaller than America, and ten times larger than Borneo or Papua ; its area being estimated at about three million sejuare miles. Its colonisation by convicts was first proposed after the separation of the American colonies from this country. It is now divided into four provinces — New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria (or Port Phillip), and Wester 7 i Australia (or Swan River), all situated on the sea coast ; total population in 1859, 979,632. Captain Cook, sir Joseph Banks, &c., land at Botany Bay April 28, 1770 Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney near Port Jackson, with 1030 persons, Jan. 26, 1788 [The seventy-first anniversary of this event was kept with much festivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] Great distress in consequence of the loss of the ship “ Guardian,” captain Riou . . . 1790 First church erected .... AUg. 1793 Government gazette first printed . . . 1795 First brick church built 1802 Flinders surveys the coast of Soixth Australia . — Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . 1804 Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed by an insurrection 1808 Sxiperseded by governor Macquarie . . . 1809 Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Lawson, Bloxland, Oxley, &c. . 1813, 1817, 1823 Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 Legislative council established .... 1829 Sturt’s expedition into South Australia 1828 — 1831 South Austraha erected into a province Aug. 1834 Sir T. Mitchell’s expedition into E. Australia 1831-6 First Rom. Cath. Bishop (Folding) arrives, Sept. 1835 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . Nov. — First Church of England bishop of Austraha (Broughton) arrives . . . June, 1836 Colony of South Australia founded . Dec. — E5T’e’s expedition overland from Adelaide to King George’s Sound .... 1836-7 Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 Suspension of transportation .... 1839 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; estabhsh- ment of “Home for Female Emigrants” . 1841-6 Census — 87,200 males; 43, 700 females . . 1841 Very numerous insolvencies . . . 1841-2 Incorporation of city of Sydney . . , . 1842 Leichhardt’s expedition (never returned) . 1844-5 Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males ; 74,800 females 1846 Great agitation against transportation, which had been revived by earl Grey . ... 1849 Port Phillip erected into a separate province as Victoria 1850 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, &c. * . .1851 Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclu- sive of Victoria, 80,000) 1851 Mints established .... March, 1853 Transportation ceased — Gregory’s explorations of interior . . . . 1856 Death of Archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about fifty years’ residence . . July, 1858 Expedition into the interior under Mr. Lan- dells organised Aug. i860 J. M'DouaU Stuart’s expeditions . . i86o-i Robert O’Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, start from Melbourne . Aug 20, i860 Burke, Wills, and two others cross Austrahan continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish on their return, except John King, who arrives at Melbourne . . Nov. 1861 GOVERNORS. Captain Arthur Phillip 1788 Captain Hunter ....... 1795 Captain Philip G. King 1800 Captain William Bligh 1806 Colonel Lachlan Macquarie (able and successful administration) 1809 General sir Thomas Brisbane . . . .1821 Sir Richard Bourke 1831 Sir George Gipps 1838 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor-general of all the Austrahan colonies, with a certain jurisdic- tion over the lieutenant-governors of Van Diemen’s Land, Victoria, and South and Western Australia 1846 Sir William T. Denison 1854 Sir John Young, governor-general . . . i860 Acts for the government of Austraha, 10 George IV., cap. 22, May 14 (1829), 6 & 7 Wihiam IV., cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria, cap. 59, Aug. 5 (1850). Act for regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austrahan colonies, 5 & 6 Victoria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842). See New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria, and West Australia. * Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with the similarity between the rocks and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the soil, and after one or two months’ digging, found a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, which he readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. The excitement became intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and other places ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Wellington mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 112 lb. of pime gold, valued at 4000?. The “Victoria nugget,” a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo diggings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and Ballaarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; and the gold exported up to the same date represented 8,863,477?. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the “ James Baines ” and “ Lightning ” brought gold from Melbourne valued at 1,200,000/. The “ Welcome nugget” weighed 2019I ounces; value, 8376/. los. lod., found at Baker's Hill, Ballaarat, June ii, 1858. Between May 1851, and May 1861, gold to the value of 96,000,000/. had been brought to England from New South Wales and Victoria. A US A US 5U AUSTlvASIA, (Kstcrreich (E.ustom Kingdom), also called Metz, a Kiench kingdom which lasted I'rom the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division ol' the territories of Clovis hy his sons, a. n. 511, and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus became sole king of France, 747 . AUSTRIA, a iramburg company’s steam-ship, sailed from Southampton for New York, Sept. 4, 1858, with 538 ])ersons on board. In lat. 45° N., long. 41° 30' W., it caught lire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tar to fumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were saved — U])wards of 60 by the Maurice, a French bai (j[ue ; the rest by a Norwegian banpie. A heart-rending account was given in the Times, Oct. ii, 1858, by Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. AUSTRIA, (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia; was annexed to the Roman empire about a.d. 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, Avars, &c., during the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne about 791. He established mai'graves, who became dukes (the first, Henry II. 1142), and archdukes (the first, IMaximilian I., 1493). Austria was long subject to the king of Bohemia, but Ottocar surrendered it to Rudolph, count of Hapsburg, in 1278. The latter became emperor of Germany, which dignity was held by his descendants till Aug. ii, 1804, when Francis II. surrendered it, and took the title of Francis I. emperor of Austria. Population of the empire in Oct. 1857, 35,019,058. Revolt of Switzerland from the house of Aus- tria, in the reign of Albert I. . . a.d. 1307 Albert II., duke of Austria, succeeds to three crowns, — the imperial, and those of Hungary and Bohemia 1438 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximihan with the heiress of that pro- vince 1477 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Aus- tria, with the heiress of Arragon and Castile . 1496 Chai'les V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and their dependencies, abdicates. (See Spain) 1557 Mantua ceded to the emperor . . Jan. 3, 1708 By treaty of Utrecht, he obtains part of the duchy of Milan .... April ii, 1713 By treaty of Rastadt heacquiresthe Netherlands 1714 Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign in the male line of the house of Hapsburg ; his daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary 1740 She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, and Saxony ; but supported by Great Britain 1741 Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . . 1745 By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives up Lombardy {which see) and obtains Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes Francis I. of Austria . . . Aug. ii, 1804 His declaration against France . . Aug, 5, 1805 War : Napoleon successful, entersVienna Nov. 14, — Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, Dec. 2, — By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice, Jan. I, 1806 Vienna evacuated by the French . Jan. 12, — The French again take Vienna . . May, 13, 1809 But restore it at the peace . . Oct. 24, — Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, the daughter of the emperor, April i, 1810 Congress at Vienna .... Oct. 2, 1814 Treaty of Vienna .... Feb. 25, 1815 [Itahan provinces restored with additions — Lombardo- Venetian kmgdom established, April 7.] Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand, March 2, 1835 New treaty of commerce with England, July 3, 1838 Ferdinand I. is crowned at Milan . Sept. 6, — Insurrection at Vienna : flight of Metternich, March 13, 1848 Insurrections in Italy. See Milan, Venice, and Sardinia March 18, — Another insurrection at Vienna : the emperor flies to Inspruck . , . May 15-17, — Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the empire May 29, 1848 A constituent assembly meet at Vienna, July 22, — Insurrection at Vienna : murder of count Latour Oct. 6, — Revolution in Hungary and war. See Hungary. The emperor abdicates in favom- of his nephew, Francis -Joseph Dec. 2, — Convention of Olmiitz . . . Nov. 29, 1850 The emperor revokes the constitution of March 4, 1849 .... Dec. 31, 1851 Trial by jury abolished in the empire Jan. 15, 1852 Death of prince Schwartzenberg, prime minis- ter April 4, — Attempted assassination of the emperor by Libenyi, Feb. 18; who was executed, Feb. 28, 1853 Commercial treaty with Prussia . Feb. 19, — Austrians enter Danubian Principalities Sept. 1854 AUiance with England and France relative to eastern question .... Dec. 2, — Great reduction of the army . . June 24, 1855 Degrading concordat with Rome {which see), Aug. 18, — Amnesty for pohtical offenders of 1848-9, July 12, 1856 Austrians quit the Danubian Principalities, March, 1857 Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free Sardinian press . . . Feb. 10, — Firm reply of count Cavour . . Feb. 20, — Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sar- dinia broken off in consequence, March 23-30, — Emperor and empress visit Hungary . May, — Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) Jan. 5, 1858 Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the Austrian ambassador : — “ I regret that our relations with your government are not as good as formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor that my personal sentiments for him have not changed,” Jan. i. The em- peror of Austria replied in almost the same words on Jan. 4, 1859 Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess Clotilde of Sardinia . . . Jan. 30, — Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the Ticino, the boundary of her Italian pro- vinces and Sardinia . . Feb. & March, — Lord Cowley at Vienna on a “mission of peace,” Feb. 27, — Intervention of Russia— proposal for a congress ; disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia — Sardinia and France prepare for war, March & April, — Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia A US 60 AUT AUSTRIA, continued. and the dismissal of the volunteers from other states within three days . . Ai)ril 23, 1859 Tliis demand rejected . . . April 26, ~~- 'rhe Austrians cross the Ticino . April 26, — The PYencli troops enter Piedmont . Ajjril 27, — The French emperor declares war (to expel the Austrians from Italy) .... May 3, — Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister ; appointment of count Rechberg May 13-18, — The Austrians defeated at Montebello, May 20 ; at Palestro, May 30, 31 ; at Magenta, June 4; at Malegnano (Marignano) . . June 8, — Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been actively engaged in the wars and negotia- — tions of Napoleon I.) . . . June n, — Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio); the emiierors of Austria and France and king of Sardinia present . . June 24, — Armistice agreed upon, July 6; the emperors meet, July 11 ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca ; [Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and an Italian confederation proposed to be formed] . . July 12, — Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, Jiily 12 ; to the people . July 15, Patent issued, granting greatly increased privi- leges to the Protestants, — announced Sept. — Fruitless conference between the envoys of Austria and France at Zurich, Aug. 8 to Sept. — Many national reforms proposed . . Sept. — .Decrees removing Jewish disabiUties, Jan. 6, 10, Feb. i8, i86o Patent issued for the summoning the great imperial council (Reichsrath), composed of representatives elected by the provincial diets March 5, — Discovery of great corruption in the army financial arrangements, a deficiency of about i,7oo,oooL discovered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 persons arrested, March, — Austria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, &c., by the king of Sardinia, April, — Baron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army frauds, dismissed April 20 ; commits suicide April 23, — The Reichsrath assembles. May 31 ; addressed by the emperor .... June i, — Liberty of the press further restrained . July, — Unsettled state of Hungary (w7iic/i see) July — Oct. — Friendly .meeting of the emperor and the regent of Prussia at Toplitz . . . July 26, — Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the concordat, the finances, &c. ; proposals for separate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. & Sept, i860 The Reichsrath adjourned . . Sept. 29, — Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legis- lative powers, the control of the finances, &c. , a manifesto issued to the poimlations of the empire (not well received; . . Oct. 20, — Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no important result , Oct. 20-26, — The government professes non-intervention in Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, Oct. & Nov. — The empress goes to Madeira for health Nov. — Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is re- pudiated in Dec. — Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister — more political conce.ssions, Dec. 13, — The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at Dresden, is given up to Austria, which causes general indignation, about Dec. 20 ; he is released on parole . . . Dec. 31, — Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, &c., published . . . Jan. 7, 1861 Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased disaffection throughout the empire, Jan. & Feb. — Civil and political rights granted to protestants throughout the empire, except in Hungary and Venice April 8, — Ministry of Marine created . . . Jan. 1862 Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress Feb. 4, — Increased taxation proposed. . . March, — At an imperial council, the emperor present, the principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved on " April 26, — Deficiency of 1,400,000!. in financial statement — indignation of the Reichsrath . June, — (iSee Gtrmany, Hungary, Vienna, &c.) Emperors of Austria. 1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), emperor of Austria only, Aug. ii, 1804; died March 2, 1835. 1835. Ferdinand, his son, March 2 ; abdicated in favour of his nephew, 1848. Francis- Joseph,; Dec. 2, 1848 (the present, 1862) emperor of Austria ; [born Aug. 18, 1830 ; married April 24, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria.] \_Heir : their son, the Archduke Rodolph, bom Aug. 21, 1858.] AUTHORS. For the law securing copyright, see Copyright and Literary Property. AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the punishment of a heretic, often by burning alive, coeval with the Inquisition. Since 1203, more than 100,000 victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries. ‘ One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1717. An auto da fe took place at Lisbon, in 1761, when Malagrida, a Jesuit, was strangled and burnt for heresy. AUTOMATON FIGURES (on Androides), made to imitate living actions, are of early invention. Archytas’ flying dove was formed about 400 b.c. Friar Bacon is said to have made a brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by Camus, for Louis XIV. when a child ; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Yaucanson made an artificial duck, which performed every function of a real one, even an imperfect digestion — eating, drinking, and quacking, Vaucanson also made a flute-player, 1738. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, Avas a pentagraph worked by a confederate ont of sight. The automaton chess-player exhibited the same year was also worked by a hidden person, and so was “the invisible girl,” 1800. Maelzel made a trumpeter about 1 809. Early in this century an automaton was exhibited in London which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness. AVA G 1 AVIV AVA in 1819 became the capital of tlie Bunneso empire {which see). AVARS, a barbarian tribe, which ravaged Paunonia and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7th centuries, was snbdued by (Jharlemagne about a.d. 799. “ A r/i’ i\IARIA!'' the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin {Luke\. 26), was mady a forimda of devotion by })0])0 JohiG XXI. about 1326. It is repeated in Roman C’atholic countries daily at the ringing of the matin and the vesper bell. Ashe. It can be traced no higher than the beginning of the lifteeiitli century, when Vicentius Perrerius used it before his discourses. Bingham. AVIGNON, a city S.E. France, ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized and restored several times by the French kings ; the last time restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. It was claimed by the national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, horrible massacres took place here. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, LEVER, and various tools in common use, are said to have been invented by Dicdalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b.c. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian monuments. AYDE, OR Aide, the tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France and England an aide was due for knighting the king’s eldest son. One was demanded by Philip the Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, for the ease of the subject, was not to be levied until he was fifteen years of age. The aide for the marriage of the king’s eldest daughter could not be demanded, in this country, until her seventh year. In feudal tenures, there was an aide for ransoming the chief lord ; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of Germany, an aide was enforced of 20s. upon every knight’s fee, to redeem him. AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by the West Saxons in a.d. 571. St. O’Syth, beheaded by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, a.d. 600. William the Conqueror invested his favourites with some of its lands, under the tenure of providing ‘ ‘ straw for his bed-chambers ; three eels for his use in winter ; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green geese, thrice every year.” Incorporated by charter in 1553. AZOFF, Sea of, the Palus Mseotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of Yenikale (the Bosphorus Cimmerius) with the Black Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian territory ; Taganrog and Kertcli being the principal places. An expedition com- posed of British, French, and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, landed at Kertch, May 24, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikale, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the allied fleet entered the sea of Azoff, , and in a few days completed their occupa- tion of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amonnt of stores were destroyed by the Rnssians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies. AZORES, OR Western Isles (N. Atlantic), the supposed site of the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by a Dutchman who was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary’s in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered. Martin Behem found one of them covered with beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it Flores ; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. They were colonised abont 1450. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George’s destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; and in 1811 a volcano appeared near St. Michael’s, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called Sabrina gi-adually disappeared, Dec. 1812. AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to nitrogen {which see). AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico, at the time of the Spanish conquest (1521). In 1853 some pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They were considered to be mere dwarfs. liAA 62 BAG B. BAALBEC, Heliopolis (both meaning “City of the Sun”), an ancient city of Syria, of which magnificent ruins remain, described by Wood (in 1757), and others. Its origin (referred to Solomon) is lost in antiquity. Here Septimus Severus built a temple to the sun, A. D. 200, The city was sacked by the Moslems, a.d. 748, and by Timour Bey, 1400. BABEL, Tower of, built by Hoah’s posterity, 2247 b.c. {Genesis, ch. xi.) The mag- nificent temjde of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was deified after death. Blair. The Birs Nimroud examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel. BABINGTON’S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Wm. Gifford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babington and other gentlemen were induced to join in the scheme. They were betrayed by Pooley Aspy. Fourteen were executed. Sept. 20, 21, 1586. Babington was deluded by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accejit him as a husband. BABYLON, an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 b.c. Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 b.c. 2233 Cl. The second empire of Babylon com- menced about 725 B.c. Earliest astronomical observations, at Babylon, B.c. 2234 [2230, H. 2233, Cl.'\ Nabonassar governs 747 Nabopolasser, the Assyrian governor, revolts, and makes himself king of Babylon . -725 Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606 ; Judea, 605 ; defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyptian power in Asia . . . . 604 He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jeru- salem. Blair; Lenglet — Daniel interprets the king’s dream of the gol- den-headed image. Daniel ii 602 Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jeru- salem, takes it and destroys the temple. Blair ; Usher 589 to 587 The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego thrown into the furnace for refusing to worship it. Daniel iii. B.c. 570 Daniel interprets the king’s second dream, and Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men. Daniel iv 569 The king recovers his reason and his throne, 562; dies 561 Evil Merodach (Neriglassar), king . . . 559 Labynetus (Nabonadius or Belshazzar), king . 555 Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain . . . 538 Daniel thrown into the lions’ den. Daniel vi. . 537 Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . 518 Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . 323 Seleucus Nicator, who died b.c. 280, transfers the seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is deserted. The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world ; but Pliny says, in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 1811, and sir R. Kerr Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. Layard, sir H. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, principally by col. (now sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he returned once more to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in the British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, May 30, 1851, and June 15, 1855.* BACCHANALIA (games celebrated in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampos, and were there called Dionysia, about 1415 b.c. Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchanalia were suppressed, 186 b.c. The priests of Bacchus were called Bacchanals. BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old * The Hanging Gardens are described as having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as high as the walls of the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were flve of these gardens, each containing about four English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. Strabo ; Diodorus. BAC (5:3 15AI hacliolors, dragged tliem round their altars, and iidlicited on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossiiis. After twenty-iivc years of age, a tax was laid upon bachelors in England, 12/. io.s'. for a dnke, and for a common ])crson, one shilling, 7 Will. 111., 1695. Bachelors were subjeeteil to a double tax on their male and female servants, in 1785- BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly one. of the oldest in our times) about 1224 n.c. It is stated by some to have been invented in Wales in the ])criod preceding the compiest. Henry. BACTlvlANA, a jirovince in Asia, was subjugated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian empire, when comiuered by Alexander, 330 b.c. About 254 B.C., Theodotus, a Greek, threw oil' the yoke of the Seleucidai, and became king. Eucratides reigned prosperously about 1 81 B.C., and JMenander about 126 b.c. The Greek kingdom appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after. BADAJOZ, SiEOE OF. This important barrier fortress in S. W. Spain bad surrendered to the French, under Soult, March ii, 1811, was invested by the British, under lord Wellington, on March 16, 1812, and stormed and taken on Ajiril 6 following. This victory obliged the French to commence a precipitate retreat. BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of Baden descended from Herman, son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen, who died a.d. 1074. From Christopher, who united the branches of Hochberg and Baden, and died in 1527, proceed the branches of Baden-Baden and Baden- Dourlach. By the treaty of Baden, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former. Sept. 7, 1714, Baden, formerly a margraviate, was elected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish confederation, Aug. 13, 1806. Its territorial acquisitions by its alliances with France were guaranteed by the congress at Vienna, in 1815. In May, 1849, the grand-duke Avas expelled by his subjects, but was restored in June. In July, 1857, an amnesty Avas decreed for political offences. A concordat made with the pope, June 28, 1859, liaAung greatly displeased the representative assembly, was set aside by the grand-duke, April 8, i860. On June 16, i860, the emperor of the French met the regent of Prussia, the kings of Hanover, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony, and the German princes at Baden- Baden. The population of Baden, in 1859, Avas 1,336,000. Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great general, born 1665, died 1707. Charles AVilliam, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born 1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son, Charles Frederic, margrave, afterwards grand-duke of Baden-Dourlach, born 1728, who joined to his dominions Baden-Baden in 1771, which were also increased by the favour of Napoleon ; he died in 1811 ; succeeded by his grandson, 1811. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 1818. Louis William, who also died without issue in 1830 ; succeeded by his brother, 1830. Leopold, who died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second son (the first being imbecile), 1852. Frederic (bom September 9, 1826), regent to September 5, 1856, when he was declared grand- duke, and still remains so (1862). [Heir: his son Frederic William, born July 9, 1857.] BAFFIN’S-BAY, N. America, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The extent of this discovery Avas much doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proA^ed that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 1818. See North-West Passage. BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by A1 Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, about a.d. 762. — Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, who have held it since 1638. BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculpture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, A.D. 51. Our highland regiments retain their pipers. BAHAMA ISLES, N. America, were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador Avas seen by him on the night of the nth of October, 1492. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They Avere expelled by the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned 1666 ; again expelled in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, I till murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 3 Edward I. (1274) the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI., 2 Philip and Mary, and in later rei^is. Bail is now accepted in all cases, felony excepted ; and where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted by a judge. BAILIFFS, OR Sheriffs. Said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-reve prior I to the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the name was 04 BAL IBM clianged to slierifF in 1548. There are still some places where the chief magistrate is called hailiif, as the high hailiff of Westminster. Bum-hailiff is a corruption of hound-haililf, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour. Blacksto'iie. BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufacture, was brought into England by some Flemisli or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges gi’anted them by parliament in 1660. The trade is under the control of a corporation called the governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examine the cloth previous to sale. Anderson, BAKERIAISI LECTURES, Royal Society, originated in a bequest of lOoZ. by Henry Baker, F.R. S., the interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other eminent men have given the lecture. BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced upon this place. Sept. 26, 1854. On Oct. 25, following, about 12,000 Russians, commanded by gen. Liprandi, attacked and took some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next assaulted the English, by whom they were compelled to retire, mainly through the charge of the heavy cavalry, led by Brigadier Scarlett, under the orders of lord Imcan. After this, from an unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan’s order, lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan with the light cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had re-formed on its own ground with its artillery in front. This order was most gallantly obeyed. Great havoc was made on the enemy ; but of 607 British horsemen, only 198 returned. The British had altogether 9 officers killed, 21 wounded, and 620 men put hors de combat. The Russians had 550 men killed, and 6 officers (among whom was one general), and 190 men wounded. — A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol on the night of March 22, 1855, led to a desperate engagement here, in which the Russians were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 men killed and wounded, the allies losing about 600. — The electric telegraph between London and Balaklava was completed in April, 1855, and communications were then received by the British government. — A railway between Balaklava and the trenches was completed in June, 1855. See Russo-Turkish War. BALANCE OF Power, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control the ambition of sovereigns ; the principle is said to be a discovery of the Italian politicians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France. Robertson. The principle was first recognised by the treaty of Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. The arrangements for the balance of power in Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the people of the countries concerned, have been greatly set aside since 1830 to the present time. BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging ; they include Majorca and Minorca, with the small isle of Cabrera. These islands were conquered by the Romans, 123 B.o. ; by the Vandals, 426 B.C., and formed part of Charlemagne’s empire in 799. They have belonged to Spain since 1232. See Minorca. BALKAN, the ancient Hfemus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. The passage deemed impracticable, effected by the Russians under Diebitsch, during the Russian and Turkish war, was completed July 26, 1829. An armistice was the conse- quence ; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, Sept. 14 following. BALLADS may be traced in the British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who died a.d. 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into England. “The harp was sent round, and those might sing who could.” Bede. Alfred sung ballads. Mahnesbury. Canute composed one. Turner, Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. Yiner. ‘ ‘ Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws. ” Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dibdin inspired many a brave defender of his country in the French war ; he died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Guicciardini. They became very popular in France, the kings taking part in them ; their zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1575. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by M. Montgollier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d’Arlandes ascended at Paris. MM. Pilatre Desrozier and BAL 65 BAL Koiiiain<|)orisliod in an attc'inptcd voyage from lionlogno to England, the Walloon liavingtakcn lire, .Iiinc 14, 1785. Balloons M'ero useil by the French to reconnoitre the enemy’s army (at the battle of Elenrns), .June 17, 1794, and at the battle of Solferino, June 24, 1859, and l)y the Feileral army at '\Vashington in Jnly, 1861. Carnerin aseended in a balloon to the height of 4000 feet, and descended by a parachute, Se])t. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at I’aris to the height of 23,000 i'eet. Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard aseended from Tivoli at night ; the balloon, being snrronnded by lireworks, took lire, and she was precipitated to the ground ami killed, Jnly 6, 1819. An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, in Denmark, Sc])t. 14, 1851 ; his corpse was subse(piently found on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to })icces. On June 23, 1859, a Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. liOuis in a balloon. After travelling 1150 miles they descended in Jefferson county, New York. They were nearly killed. BALLOONS IN England,* &c. The first attempt to navigate the atmosphere in England in a balloon was by Signor Limardi, who ascended from Moorfields, Sept. 15, 1784. Blanchard and Jetfries passed from Dover to Calais, in 1 785. Mr Arnold went up from St. George’s-fields, and fell into the Thames ; and major Money ascended from Norwich, and fell into the North Sea, but was saved by a revenue cutter. The first ascent from Ireland was from Eanelagh gardens, Dublin, in 1785. Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, butwas.taken up, Oct. 9, 1812. Sadler, jun. was killed, falling from a balloon, in 1825. Mr. Charles Green’s first ascent, July 19, 1821. Lieut. Harris killed de- scending in aballoon. May 25, 1824. Mr. Cocking ascended from Yauxhall in order to try his parachute, in which he had great faith ; in its descent from the balloon it collajised, and he was thrown out and killed, July 24, 1837. Green and others made many ascents near London, in 1852. — The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and after having been eighteen hours in the air descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, i836.f BALLOT (French Ballotte, a little ball). Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks and modern Venetians. — A tract entitled “The Benefit of the Ballot,” said to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was published in the “ State Tracts,” 1693. The ballot- box was used in a political club which met in 1659 at Miles’s coffee-house, Westminster. It was proposed to be used in the election of members of parliament in a pamphlet published in 1705. A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the commons in 1710 ; but was rejected by the lords. The ballot has been an open question in whig governments since 1835. On June 30, 1857, the house of commons rejected the ballot — 257 being against, and 189 for it. For several years past it has been annually proposed and rejected. The Ballot Society is very energetic. The ballot was adopted in Victoria, Australia, in 1856. — Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in France from 1840 to 1845 ; and was employed also after the coup d’etat in Dec. 1851. It is adopted in many of the United States of America. BALLYNAHINCH, Ireland, where a sanguinary engagement took place between a large body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, under gen. Nugent, June 13, 1798. A large part of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suffered very severely. BALMORAL CASTLE, in Aberdeenshire ; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. The estate was purchased for 32,000?. by prince Albert in 1852. In 1853 the new building, in the Scotch baronial style, was commenced, from designs by Mr. W. Smith of Aberdeen. BALTIC EXPEDITIONS against Denmark. In the first expedition under lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Daniali fleet * Equestrian Ascents. Mr. Green affirms that he ascended from London, on a horse attached to a balloon, in May, 1828, though few persons seem to be aware that the experiment was made. He performed a feat of this kind, however, from Vauxhall gardens, in July, 1850 ; his “steed ” being a very diminutive pony. To M. Poitevin, of Paris, appears to belong the “ honour ” of this species of aerostation : he ascended on a horse, in the vicinity of that capital, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending from his balloon in 1858, and died soon after. Lieut. Gale, an I Englishman, made an ascent from the Hippodrome of Vincennes, neai' Bordeaux, Sept. 8, 1850. On descending, and detaching the animal from the balloon, the people who held its ropes, from some miscon- ception, prematurely let them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly borne in the air before he was quite ready to resume his voyage. He was discovered next morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from where the balloon was found. The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremome gardens, near London, as “ Europa on a bull” (a feat she had often performed in France), and several ascents on horses, brought the parties concerned before the police-courts on a charge of cruelty to animals, and put an end to experi- ments that outraged pubhc feeling, Aug. 1852. t Scientific balloon ascents, for meteorological purposes, were made by Mr. Walsh in 1858, and their repetition was recommended to the British Association in i860 and 1861. In 1862 Mr. James Glaisher, in a balloon provided with suitable apparatus, ascended from Wolverhampton on July 17, to the height of . about five miles ; and from the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on July 30, and published interesting observations. ^ (See III Lond. News, Aug. 2, 1862.) BAL 66 BAN wore taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801, See Armed Neutrality. In the second expedition under admiral Gambier, and lord Cathcart, eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty-one brigs and gun-boats surrendered to the British, July 26, 1807. BALTIC EXPPIDITION against Russia. The British fleet sailed from Spithead in presence of the ([ueen, who led it out to sea in her yacht, the Fairy, March ii, 1854. It consisted of a crowd of steam -ships of the line, of which, five were each of 120 guns and ujiwards : the whole under the command of vice-admiral sir Charles Napier, whose flag floated on board the Duke of Wellington, of 13 1 guns. The fleet arrived in Wingo Sound, March 15, and in the Baltic, March 20, following. The gulf of Finland was blockaded, April 12. 10,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the Baltic in English ships of war, in presence of the emperor, July 15. The capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, and surrender of the garrison, took place, Aug. 16. See Bomarsund. The English and French fleets, the latter having joined June 14, commenced their return homeward to winter, Oct. 15, 1854. — The SECOND expedition (of which the advanced or flying squadron sailed March 20) left the Downs, April 4, 1855. In July it consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), commanded by admiral R. S. Dundas and 16 French ships (408 guns), under admiral Fernand. On July 21, three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at Hogland island. The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many infernal machines * were discovered. Sveaborg was attacked Aug. 9. See Sveaborg. Shortly after, the fleet returned to England. BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, United States, founded in 1729. On Sept. 12, 1814, the British army under gen. Ross advanced against this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked and routed the American army, which lost 600 killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The projected attack on the town was however abandoned. A lison. BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), delivered at Oxford annually, began in 1780, with a lecture by James Bandin el, D.D. The lecturer is paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for the purpose by the rev. John Bampton, and the lectures are published. Among the more remarkable were those by White (1784), Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), Hampden (1832), and Mansel (1858). BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS. See Gentlemen-at-Arms. BANGALORE, S. India, was besieged by the British under lord Cornwallis, March 6, and taken by storm, March 21, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, deemed the bulwark of Mysore. BANGOR, in Wales. Here was one of the earliest monastic institutions in Britain, the monks of which were mercilessly murdered by the Danes. Its bishopric is of great antiquity, but its founder is unknown. The church is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral ; but a more cruel ravager than he, the bishop Bulkeley, alienated many of the lands, and even sold the' bells of the church, 1553. The see is valued in the king’s books at 13H. 165. ^d. An order in council directing that the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in either, was issued in 1838 ; but tliis order was rescinded by the 10 & ii Viet. c. 108 (1846). Present income, 4200^. RECENT BISHOPS OF BANGOR. 1800. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph 1806. John Randolph, translated to London 1809. Henry Wilham Majendie, died July g . 1806 . 1809 . 1830 1830. Christopher Bethell, died . April 19, 1859 1859. James Colquhoun Campbell (the present bishop, 1862). BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was occasioned by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, preaching a sermon before George L, March 31, 1717, upon the text, My kingdom is not of this world ” {John xviii. 36), in which he descanted on the spiritual nature of the kingdom of Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indignation of almost all the clergy, who published hundreds of pamphlets. BANK. The name is derived from banco, a bench, erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The first was established in Italy a.d. 808, by the I^ombard Jews, of whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The Mint in the Tower of London w^as anciently the depository for merchants’ cash, until Charles I. laid his hands upon the money and destroyed the credit of the Mint in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded with to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented I to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard- street, wdio were provided with strong chests for j their own valuable wares ; this became the origin of banking in England. : * These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained oor 10 lbs. of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphixric acid. Little damage was done by them. They were said to be the invention of the philosopher Jacobi. RA'N' 67 RAN" BANK, continued. Bank of A.D. Venice formed • 1157 Geneva • • 1345 Barcelona . . 1401 Genoa . . 1407 Amsterdam . . . 1607 Hamburg . . . 1619 Bank of A.D. Rotterdam • 1635 Stockholm. . . 1688 England . . 1694 Scotland . . . 1695 Copenhagen . . 1736 BerUn . . 1765 Bank of A. d. Caisse d’Escompte, Franco . 1776 Ireland 1783 St. Petersburg . . . . 1786 In the East Indies. . . 1787 In N. America . . . . 1791 Branch banks in these realms 1828 BANK OF England* originally projected by a merchant named Wm. Paterson, was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in consideration of 1,200,000^., the then amount of its capital, being lent to government. The interest was originally 8 per cent. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter. + By statute 6 Anne, 1707, no other banking company might consist of more than six persons. When first established, the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount ; and so late as 1745, they were under jjar. Bank bills Avere paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes (for loZ. and 15^.) were issued 1759. Cash payments were discontinued February 26, 1797, and notes of one and two pounds were put into circulation in March. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, with the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., Avere made current. Cash payments Avere resumed partially, September 22, 18*17, restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. — For a number of years the financial measures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reservoir of wealth. The issue of bank notes led to a great increase of forgery. See Forgery. The branch banks of the Bank of England in the chief towns of the kingdom : as Birmingham &c., have all been formed since 1828. — A branch bank Avas opened in Burlington-gardens, near Regent- street, London, Oct. i, 1856. A committee on the Bank Acts was appointed in July, 1857. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in circulation : 1718 . . £1,829,930 1778 . . . . 7,030,680 1790 . 10,217,000 1800 . . . . 15,450,000 1810 • 23,904,000 1815 . £26,803,520 1820 . . . 27,174,000 1830 . . 20,620,000 1835 . . 18,215,220 1840 . 17,231,000 1843 .... £19,262,327 1850 . . . . 19,776,814 185s .... 19,616,627 1857 . . . . 21,036,430 1859 .... 22,705,780 The amount of gold and silver coin and bullion in the bank fluctuates considerably, some- times from tAvelve to seventeen millions. In 1852, consequent on the discoA^ery of the gold fields of Australia, the gold bullion in the bank amounted, on July 10, to 21,845,390^. On Jan. I, 1853, the amount Avas 20,527,662^, The returns of the bank are now made Aveekly, pursuant to 7 & 8 Viet. c. 32, 1844. Dec. 27, 1856. Assets — Securities . £29,484,000') Bullion . . 10,105,000) Liabilities £39,589,000 . 36,329,000 Nov. II, 1857. {Time of Panic.) 650.789 39,286,433 April 27, 1859. 1 ^46,438,96. 43,289,701 Balance £3,260,000 ^373647356 £3,149,260 Sept. 14, 1859. Assets. — Securities, 30,099,179?. Bullion, 17,120,822?. Liabilities, 43,503,214?. Balance, Feb. 14, 1861. ,, „ ■ 29,095,172?. ,, 11,571,332? „ 377167,336?. „ 3,499,168?. Aug. 30, 1862. „ ,, 30,106,295?. „ 17,678,698?. „ 44,453,778?. „ 373317215^- 1 BANK OF Ieeland. Established by act of parliament and opened at St. Mary’s-abbey, Dublin, June 25, 1783.. The business Avas removed to the late houses of parliament, in * The building called the Bank of England, in Threadneedle-street, Avas commenced by G. Sampson, architect, in 1732, and opened in 1734. It has been since greatly enlarged by its successive architects, sir Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. Cockerell. It occupies the site of the church, and almost all the parish, of St. Christopher’s. I t By 3 & 4 Will. IA 7 . (1833), the charter was continued till one year’s notice after Aug. i, 1855 ; but power was reserved to determine the charter in 1844. In that year an act was passed, 7*8 Viet. c. 32, j effecting important changes in the management of the bank. By this act, the issue of notes was limited < to the value of 14,000,000?., which restriction was relaxed on the responsibility of the government during ^ the commercial panic of 1847 (6y lord John RusseU), and that of 1857 (by lord Palmerston, Nov. 12) ; acts of indemnity being passed afterwards. In 1847, the relaxation was not acted on, but in 1857, additional notes were issued to the amount of 2,000,000?. In Nov. 1857, the bank discount was 9 per cent. , in Feb. 1858, it feu to 3 per cent. On Nov. ii, 1857, the amount of specie in the bank was only 7,170,508?. ; on Sept. 15, 1858, it had risen to 18,648,915?. — On Nov. 15, i860, the bank discount rose to 6 per cent, in consequence , of a demand for gold from France ; to 7 per cent, on Jan. 7, 1861 ; and to 8 per cent, on Feb. 14, 1861, f through the demand for money in the United States, India, &c. The discount feU to 2 per cent, on July 24, r 1862. On Aug. 16, 1862, the Bank solicitor announced that a quantity of bank-note paper had been stolen I from the paper-makers, which caused much anxiety, as forged notes on this paper soon appeared. » F 2 BAN 68 BAN Collego-greon, in May, 1808. Branch Banks of this establishment have been formed in most of the jn'ovincial towns in Ireland, all since 1828. BANKS OF Scotland, The old bank of Scotland was set up in 1695, the second institution of the kind in these kingdoms. The Royal Bank was instituted in 1727; the British Linen Company’s bank, 1746; the Commercial bank, 1810; National bank, 1825; Union bank, 1830. The first stone of the present Bank of Scotland was laid June 3, 1801. BANK OF Savings. See Savings' Banks. BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 1826, a number of these banks have been esta- blished. In 1840, the amount of paper currency issued by joint-stock banks amounted to 4, 138,618^. ; the amount in circulation by private banks, same year, was 6,973, 613Z. — total amount exceeding eleven millions.* In Ireland many similar banks have been instituted, the first being the Hibernian bank, established by a special act in 1825. The note-circulation of joint-stock banks, on Oct, i, 1855, was, in England, 3,990,8ooZ, ; in Scotland, 4,280,000^. ; and in Ireland, 6, 785,000^, ; total, with English private banks, about 19,000,000^. : and with the bank of England, above 39,000,000^. There are now 14 joint-stock banks in Scotland. There have been no private banks since 1845. The Western Bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank stopped in Nov. 1857. BANKRUPTS in England. The first law enacted regarding them was 35 Henry YIII. 1543 ; again, 13 Eliz. 1570; i James I. 1602 ; again, 1706; and more recently. It was determined by the King’s Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested, except in going to or coming from any examination before the commissioners, May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788, In 1812 it was enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts in fuR, should vacate their seats. Bankruptcy act, Ireland, consolidating all the statutes relating to bankruptcy, and founding a complete system of administering bankrupts’ estates, 6 Will, IV. cap. 14, passed May 20, 1836. The Present Bankruptcy Court was erected by 2 Will, IV. cap, 56 (1831). The act 12 & 13 Viet. cap. 106 (1849), repealed several previous acts; defined the jurisdiction of the court ; prescribed the duties of the official assignee, accountant, and master ; regulated fees ; and enumerated the traders and others that should be deemed bankrupts and liable to become so. The bankrupt laws were further amended in 1854. Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain brought before parliament in 1859 and i860. At length in 1861 was passed the bill brought in by the lord chancellor (formerly sir R, Bethell), 24 & 25 Viet. c. 134 {1861 ), by which great changes were made. The court for relief of insolvent debtors was abolished, and increased powers given to the commissioners in Bankruptcy, &c. The new orders were issued Oct. 12, 1861. NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 1725 1750 1775 38 1800 . • 1339 1830 . . 1467 416 1810 . 2000 1840 . 1308 432 1820 . • 1358 1845 England . . 1028 520 1825! . . 2683 1850 ditto . . 1298 1857 England . 1858 ditto . 1859 ditto 1860 ditto . In 1857 there were in Scotland, 453 ; Ireland, 73 ; in the United Kingdom, 2014. 1859 „ 444 „ 102 „ 1505, 1860 ,, 445 ,, 113 ,, 1826. . 1488 • 1346 • 959 . 1268 BANNATYNE CLUB, established in 1823, by George Bannatyne, sir Walter Scott, and others, for the publication of early Scottish poetry, of which above 100 volumes have been published (1861). * The Royal British Bank was established in 1849, by Mr. John McGregor, M.P., and others, under sir R. Peel’s joint-stock banking act, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 113 (1844); as an attempt to introduce the Scotch banking system of cash credits into England. On Sept. 3, 1856, it stopped payment, occasioning much distress and ruin to many small tradesmen and others. In consequence of strong evidence of the existence of fraud in the management of the bank, elicited during the examination before the court of bankruptcy, the government instructed the attorney -general to file ex-officio informations against the manager, Mr. H. Innes Cameron, and several of the directors. They were convicted Feb. 27, 1858, after 13 days’ trial, and sentenced to various degrees of imprisonment. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed (May, 1858) ; but all were released except Cameron and Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, i860, dividends had been paid to the amount of 1 5s. in the pound. The attorney-general brought in a bill called the Fraudulent Trustees’ Act, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 54, to prevent the recurrence of such transactions. — On April 19, i860, a deficiency of 262,0001. was discovered in the Union Bank of London. Mr. George Pullinger, a cashier, confessed himself guilty of forgery and fraud, and was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment. — On Feb. 18, 1861, it was dis- covered that John Durden, a clerk of the Commercial Bank of London, had robbed his employers of 67,000!., of which 46,000!. might be recovered. t According to a return to parliament made at the close of February, 1826, there had become bankrupt in the four months preceding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establish- ments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. BAN 09 BAR BANNKRS wore common to all nations. The Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Num. ii. (1491 ■n.c.) 'J'he standard ot Constantine bore the inscription, In hoc signo vinccs — “In this sign then shalt compier,” under the ligiire of the cross. See Cros^. J’he fanions magical banner of the Danes was taken by Alfred A,i), 879, Spelman. St, Martin’s cap, and afterwards the celebrated aiiriflamma, or orillamme, were the standards of France, about 1 100, See Aurijiaimna, Standards^ &c, BANNERET, a dignity between baron and knight, conferred by the king under the royal standard, Bcatson. Created in England, 1360; renewed by Henry VI 1 , 1485, it was disused from the reign of Charles L, but was revived by George III, in the person of sir ■\Villiam Erskine in 1764, BANNOCKBURN, Stirlingshire, the site of the battle between Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II, of England, June 24, 1314, The army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete ; the English king narrowly escaj)ed, and 50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. Near here James III, wa^ defeated in 1488 by his rebellious nobles. A national monument was founded here June 24, 1861. BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn proclamation of any kind ; hence arose the present custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage ; said to have been intro- duced into the Gallican church about a,d, 1210, BANTAM, Java, where a rich British factory was established by captain Lancaster, in 1603, The English and Danes were driven from their factories by the Dutch in 1683, Bantam surrendered to the British in 1811, but was restored to the Dutch at the peace in 1814, It was not worth retaining, the harbour being choked up and inaccessible, BANTRY BAY, S, Ireland, where a French fleet, bringing succour to the adherents of James II, , was attacked by admiral Herbert, May, 1689, A French squadron of seven sail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, and seventeen trans25orts, anchored here for a few days, Dec, 1796, Mutiny of the Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was in Dec. 1801, and Jan, 1802, Twenty-two of the mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The executions took jdace on boarcl the Majestic, Centaur, Formidable, Temeraire, anA B Achille, Jan, 8 to 18, 1802. BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into the Christian church, instituted by Christ, and practised by all sects professing Christianity, except Quakers, St, John the forerunner of Our Saviour is called the Baptist, as being the first that publicly bajjtized with a sj)iritual intention, Christ was baptized by John a, d, 30, (Matt, iii,) Originally the peojile were baptized in rivers ; but in the reign of Constantine, a,d, 319, they built in great cities chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was done by dijij^iiig the person all over. In the western and colder parts, they used siiriiikling ; at first every church had not a baptistry belonging to it ; our fonts answer the same end. Pardon. Much controversy has arisen since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the church of England, respecting the doctrine of bajitismal regeneration. _ BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect distinguished from other Christians by their opinions respecting (i) the proper subjects, and (2) the jiroper mode of baptism : the former, they affirm to be those who are able to make a profession of faith ; the latter, to be total immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists, They have suffered much persecution. The first Baptist church formed in London was in 1608. They published a confession of faith in 1689. In 1851 they had 130 chapels in London and 2789 (with sittings for 752,353 persons) in England and Wales. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Bajitists in 1635. BARBADOES. The first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother planta- tion gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605 ; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to James, earl of Marlborough, 2 Charles L, 1627. Barbadoes has suffered severely from elemental visitations ; in a dreadful hurricane in 1 780, more than 4000 of the inhabitants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every- thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires. May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 1831. Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera here in 1854. On Feb. 14, i860, property to the amount of about 300,000?. was destroyed by a fii;^ at Bridgetown, the capital. BAR 70 BAR BARBARY, iu N. Alrica, comprises Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, &c., which see. Piratical states were founded on the coast by Barbarossa, in 1518, BARBERS existed at Rome in the third century I5,c, • and in England, in early times ; they cxhi])ited a head, ov pole, at their doors ; and the barber’s afterwards used by them was a burles(iue imitation of the former sign. Anciently the business of a surgeon was united to that of barber, and he was denominated a Barber-Surgeon. A company was formed under this name in 1308, and the London company was incorporated i Edw. IV. 1461. This union was partially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. “No person using any shaving or barbery in London shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, except only drawing of teeth.” 32 Henry VIII. 1540. BARCELONA, a maritime city, N. E. Spain, said to have been rebuilt by Hamilcar Barca, father of tlie great Hannibal, about 233 b.c. With jthe surrounding country it was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, and Franks, and, with the province of which it is the capital, it was made an independent county about a.d. 864, and incorporated into Aragon in 1164, the last count becoming king. The city has sutfered much by war. The last siege by the French, in 1694, was relie vafi by the approach of the English fleet, commanded by admiral Russell ; but the city was bombarded by the duke of Berwick and the French in 1714. It was taken by Napoleon in 1808 and retained till 1814. It revolted against the queen in 1842, and was bombarded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. BARCLAY, Captain. His wager, to walk 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours, each mile within each hour, and ujion which hundreds of thousands of pounds depended, was accomplished July 10, 1809. This feat occupied without intermission every hour (less eight) of forty-two days and nights. See Walking. BARDS. Known to the Romans 200 b.c. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, among the Romans before the age of Augustus. The Druids among the English were philosophers and priests, and the bards were their poets. The Welsh bards formed a hereditary order, regulated, it is said, by laws, about A.D. 940 ; and regulated anew in 1078. They lost their privileges at the conquest by Edward 1 . in 1284. The institution was revived by the Tudor sovereigns ; and Eisteddfodds (or meetings) have been and are frequently held ; the last in Aug. 1861. The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards was founded in 1770. Turlogh O’Carolan, the last of the Irish bards, died in 1737. Chambers. BAREBONES’ PARLIAMENT. Cromwell, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 1 22 persons, such as he thought he could manage, who with six from Scotland, and five from Ireland, met, and assumed the name of parliament, July 4, 1653. It obtained its name from one of its members, a leather-seller, named “ Praise-God Barebones,” a great haraiiguer and frequent in prayer. Although violent and absurd propositions were made by some of the members, the majority evinced much sense and spirit. The parliament was suddenly dissolved, Dec. 13, 1653, at the instance of Sydenham, an independent, and Cromwell was invested with the dignity of Lord Protector. BARFLEUR, N. France, where William, duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he conquered England, A.D. 1066. Near it prince William, son of Henry I., in his passage from Normandy, was shipwrecked, 1120.* Barfleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The French navy was destroyed near the cape by admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, in 1692. BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1850-1, and so named by him after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty in 1849. BARIUM, a metal, first obtained from the earth baryta by Humphry Davy in 1808. It is more than twice as heavy as water. BARK. See Jesuits’ Bark. BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al-Raschid, about a.d. 802. His visir Giafar was a Barmecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) feast originated in the story of the Barber’s sixth Brother, in the Arabian Nights’ Entertainments. * In this shipwreck perished his legitimate son, WiUiam, duke of Normandy ; the prince’s newly married bride, Matilda, daughter of Fulke, earl of Anjou ; the king’s natural son, Richard ; his niece, Lucia, the earl of Chester, and the flower of the nobihty, with one hundred and forty officers and soldiers, and fifty sailors, most of the latter being intoxicated, which was the cause of their running upon the rocks near Barflein*. This lamentable catastrophe had such an effect upon Henry that he was afterwards never seen to smile. Hdnault ; Hume. BAR 71 BAR BARNABITES, an order of moidvs, establislied in Milan about 1530. They were much engaged in instructing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and converting heretics. BARNARD’S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., cap. 8), entitled, “an act to prevent the infamous jiractico of stock-jobbing,” was ])assed in 1734, and rejiealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (born 1685, died 1764) was an eminent and patriotic lord mayor of London. BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lancas- trians, on Eastcr-day, A])ril 14, 1471, when the earl of Warwick and his brother the marquis of ^lontacutc, or Montagu, and ten thousand men were slain. A column commemorative of this battle has been erected at the meeting of the St. Alban’s and Hatfield roads. BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, having discovered that no principle of suction existed, and that water did not rise in a pump through nature’s abhorrence of a vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mercury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. rascal’s experiments 1646 enhanced the value of the discovery by ajiplying it to the measure- ment of heights. AVheel barometers were contrived in 1668 ; pendent barometers in 1695 ; marine in 1700, and many improvements have been since made. In the Aneroid barometer (from n, no, and neros, loatery) no liquid is employed*; the atmospheric pressure being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention (attributed to Conte, in 1798, and to Vidi, about 1844) excited much attention in 1848-9, Barometers were placed at N.E. coast stations in i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. BARON. The dignity is extremely ancient ; its original name in England was Yavasour, which, by the Saxons, was changed into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. Many of this rank are named in the history of England, and undoubtedly had assisted in, or had been summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first precept found is of no higher date than tlie 49 Henry III. 1265, The first raised to this dignity by patent was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidderminster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons took arms against king John, and compelled him to sign the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, Jmie, 1215. Charles II. gi’anted a coronet to barons on his restoration. BARONETS, the first in rank among the gentry, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, were instituted by James I. 1611. The rebellion in Ulster seems to have given rise to this order ; it having been required of a baronet, on his creation, to j)ay into the exchequer as much as would maintain ‘ ‘ thirty soldiers three years at eightpence a day, in the province of Ulster in Ireland.” It was further required that a baronet should be a gentleman born, and have a clear estate of 1000^. jjer annum. The first baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (whose successor is therefore styled Primus Baronettorum Anglice), May 22, 16 1 1. The baronets of Ireland were created in 1619 ; the first being sir Francis Blimdell, ■ — Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 1625 ; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet, — All baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 are of the United Kingdom. BARONS’ WAR, arose in consequence of the faithlessness of king Henry III. and the oppression of his favourites. The barons, headed by Simon de Montfbrt, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their disputes were in vain referred to the decision of Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on May 14, 1264, the king’s party were totally defeated at Lewes : and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the kingdom. Through treachery the war was renewed ; and at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265, De Montfbrt was slain, and the barons were defeated. They however did not render their final submission till 1268. A history of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw in 1844. . BARRACKS. This word is not to be found in our early lexicographers ; it comes to us from the French, and in the Diet de V Acad, is thus defined : Baraque — Hutte qui font les soldats en campagne pour se mettre a convert.’’' — Barracks were not numerous in these countries until about 1789, A superintendent-general board was appointed in 1793, since when commodious barracks have been built in the various garrison towns and central points of the empire. — A report, censuring the condition of many barracks, was presented to parliament in 1858 ; and great improvements were effected under the direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert. See Aldershot. BARRICADES, mounds formed of trees and earth, and for military defence. During the wars of the League in France, in 1588, the people made barricades by means of chains, casks, &c,, and compelled the royal troops to retire. Barricades composed of overturned vehicles, &c., were erected in Paris in the insurrection of July 27-30, 1830, and June 23, 1848. BAR 72 BAS BARUl KR TBEATY, l)y which the Low Countries were ceded to the emperor Charles VL, was signed hy the Britisli, Imperial, and Butch ministers, Nov. 5, 1715. I^ARRISTERS are said to have heen first appointed hy Edward L, about 1291, hut there is earlier mention of jirofessional advocates in England. They are of various rank, as King’s or (Queen’s Counsel, Serjeants, &c., which see. Students for the har must keep a certain iiumher of terms at the Inns of Court, previously to being called ; and hy the regulations of 1853 must pass a public examination, Irish students must keep eight tenns in England. BARROSA, OR Barossa, S. Spain, where a battle was fought on March 5, 1811, between the British army, commanded by major-general sir Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, and the French under marshal Victor. After a long conflict, the British achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the Peninsular war. Although they fought at great disadvantage, the British compelled the French to retreat, leaving nearly three thousand dead, six pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the British had taken ; the loss of the British was 1169 men killed and wounded. BARROWS, circular mounds found in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepulchres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several baiTows near Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found a number of curious remains of Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. BARROW’S STRAITS, N. Arctic Sea, discovered by Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville Island, in lat. 74° 26' N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, named after sir John Barrow, was entered on Aug. 2, 1819. The thermometer was 55° below zero of Fahrenheit. BARROW, JOHN, ISLAND, N. Arctic Sea, discovered by captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. BARTHOLOMEW, ST., martyred, a.d. 71. The festival (on August 24) is said to have been instituted in 1130. Monastery of St. Bartholomew (Austin Friars), founded in the reign of Henry 1 . by Rahere, about iioo. On its dissolution the Hospital of this name in London was founded, 1539, and was incorporated in the last year of the reign of Henry VIII. 1546-7. It was rebuilt by subscription in 1729. In 1861 it contained 580 beds, and relieved about 70,000 patients ; it has since been considerably enlarged. The charter of the Fair was granted by Henry IL, and was held on the ground which has been the former scene of tournaments and martyrdoms. The shows at the fair were discontinued in 1850, and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 1855. In 1858 Mr. H. Morley published his “History of Bartholomew Fair,” with many illustrations. See Smithjield. — The Massacre commenced at Paris on the night of the festival of St. Bartholomew, August 24, 1572. According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, including women and children, were murdered throughout the kingdom, by secret orders from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother, the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis.* BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order founded a.d. 1307, at Genoa, where is preserved in the Bartholomite church the image which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus. The order was suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) was constructed by James Brindley, to carry the Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, which was done at a height of 39 feet above the river. It is said to be in as good a state now as it was on the day it was completed, in 1761. BASLE, the richest city in Switzerland. The i8th General Council sat here from 1431 to 1443. Many important reforms in the church were proposed, but not carried into effect : among othei ’3 the union of the Greek and Roman churches. The university was founded in 1460. Treaties between France, Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. BASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Tm'kish troops, partially employed by the British in the Crimean war, 1854-5. BASILIANS, an order of monks, which obtained its name from St. Basil, who died a.d. 380. _ The order was reformed by pope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect founded by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, on the most extravagant notions ; they rejected the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and are said to have had everything, even their wives, in common, 1 1 10. Basil was burnt alive in 1 1 18. * The number of the victims is differently stated hy various authors. La Popelion^re calculates the whole at 20,000 ; Adrian!, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 ; Davila states them at 40,000 ; and P^r^fixe makes the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces. liAS 73 JiAT UASQITK UOADS. Four French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, were attacked hy lords Gamhier and Cochrane (the latter coininandiiig the liresliips), and all, witli a great miinber of merchant and other vessels, were destroyed, xVpril 12, 1809. A serious dilference hetweeu these ollicers led to a court-martial (July 26 — Aug. 4) on charges preferred by lord Cochrane against lord Gamhier, who Avas honourably acciAiitted. BASS’S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, surgeon of the in an open boat from Port Jackson, in 1797 ])enetrated as far as Western Port, and alfirnied that a strait existed betAveen NeAV South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. Lieutenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen’s Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1799. BASSET, OR Bassette, or Pour ct Coiitre, a game at cards, invented by a noble Venetian, for AAduch he Avas banished ; introduced into France, 1674. BASTARD, a child not born in laAvful Avedlock. An attempt was made in England, in 1236, to make bastard children legitimate by the subsequent marriage of the parents, but it tailed, and led to the memorable ansAver to the barons assembled in the parliament of Merton : Nolumus leges Anglioe mutari — “We Avill not have the laws of England changed.” Women concealing their children’s birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I. 1624. Ylner's Statutes. In Scotland bastard children had not the power of disposing of their moveable estates by Avill, until 6 Will. IV. 1836. A neAV act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, was passed 8 Viet. cap. 10, in 1845. — About 1831, the illegitimate births in England Avere about i in 16 ; in Sweden i in4; in Paris, i in 3 ; in Prussia, i in 13 ; in Austria, i in 4 or 5 ; in Lombardy, i in 25. BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris against the English ; completed in 1383. It was afterwards used as a state prison, and became the scene of much suffering. Henry IV. and his veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of Paris, during the Avar that desolated France between 1587 and 1594. On July 14-15, 1789, it was pulled down by the infm’iated populace ; the governor and other officers Avere seized, conducted to the Place de Greve, and had their hands and heads cut off. The heads fixed on spikes were carried in triumph through the streets. — “The man Avith the iron mask,” the most mysterious prisoner ever known, died here, Nov. 19, 1703. See Iron Mask. BATAVIA AND Batavian Republic. See Holland. BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built by that people about 1619. Taken by the English, J anuary, 1782. Again, by the British, under general sir Samuel Auchmuty, to Avhom the garrison surrendered, Aug. 26, 1811. BATH, Somerset. This city was a favourite station of the Romans, and was remarkable even in their time for its springs. Coel, a British king, is said to haA-e given this city a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was croAvmed here, a.d. 973. Bath was plundered and burnt in the reign of William Rufus, and again in 1137. The abbey church was commenced in 1405, and was finished in 1606 ; the Assembly-rooms were built in 1791 ; the Pump-room, in 1797 ; the theatre, Beaufort-square, was opened in 1805. The Bath Philosophical Society was formed in 1817. BATH AND WELLS, Bishopric of. The see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, in 704, Avas erected 909. John de Villula, the sixteenth bishop, having purchased the city of Bath for 500 marks of Henry I., transferred his seat from Wells to Bath in 1088. Disputes arose between the monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the election of a bishop, Avhich were compromised in 1135. Hence- forAvard the bishop Avas to be styled from both places ; the precedency to be given to Bath. The see is valued in the king’s books at 531^. is. 3<^. 'per annum. Present income 5000^. RECENT BISHOPS OF BATH AND AVELLS. 1802. Richard Beadon, died April 21, 1824. 1 1845. Richard Bagot, died May 15, 1854. 1824. George Henry Law, died Sept. 22, 1845. I 1854. Robert John, baron Auckland (present bishop). BATH, Earl of ; his Administration. Mr. Pelham and his friends having tendered their resignation to the king (George II.), Feb. 10, 1746, the formation of a neAV ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, earl of Bath ; but it expired on Feb. 12, Avhile yet incom- plete, and received the name of the “Short-lived” administration. The members of it actually appointed were ; the earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord Carlisle, lord privy seal ; lord Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the secretaries of state, Avith the seals of the other in his pocket, “to be given to whom he might choose.” Mr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. Coxe's Life of Pelham. BAT 74 BAT BATH, Order of the. Instituted in 1399 by Henry IV. on his coronation in the Tower ; lie conlerred the order upon iorty-six esquires, who had watched the night before, and liad bathed. After the coronation of Charles II. the order was neglected until 1725, when it was revived by George L, who fixed the number of knights at 37. In 1815 the ])rince regent enlarged the order, forming classes of knights grand crosses (72), and knights commanders (180), with an unlimited number of companions. By an order published May 25, 1847, existing statutes of this order were annulled ; and by the new statutes, the order, hitherto exclusively military, was opened to civilians. In 1851, Dr. Lyon Playfair, and other promoters of the Great Exhibition of that year, received this honour. Constitution ; — ist Class. Knights grand cross, 50 military, 25 civil. 2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 ,, 50 „ 3rd Class. Companions, 525 „ 200 „ BATHS were long used in Greece, and introduced by Agrippa into Eome. The thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) were sumptuous. The marble group of Laocoon was found in 1 506 in the baths of Titus, erected about a.d. 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of Caracalla, a.d. 21 i. BATHS IN England. The baths of Somersetshire are said to have been in use eight centuries before Christ. In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, was a spring of great antiquity, well known in the time of Henry VIII. St. Chad’s-well, Gray’s-inn-road, derived its name from St. Chad, the fifth bishop of Lichfield, in a.d. 667. Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, was in use in 1697. A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, Newgate-street, London, is said to have been the first bath in England for hot bathing. EstaWished in 1679. Turkish sweating-baths became very popular in i860 j the Oriental Baths in Victoria- street, Westminster, were completed in 1862. BATHS AND Wash-houses, Public. The first was established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbourhood of the London docks in 1844. An act was passed in 1846 to encourage the establishment of public baths and wash-houses, “for the health, comfort, and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns and districts. ” In the same session a similar act was passed for Ireland. Several of these institutions were forthwith ojiened in London, which have been most successful. In the quarter ending Sept. 1854, 537,345 bathers availed themselves of the baths in London, and in this period there were 85,260 washers. Public baths and wash-houses have since been established throughout the empire. BATON", a truncheon borne by generals in the French army, and afterwards by the marshals of other nations. Henry III. of France, before he ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the army of his brother Charles IX., and received the baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. Htnault. BATTEL-ABBEY, Sussex, founded by William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066. It was dedicated to St. Martin, and was given to Benedictine monks, who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The original name of the plain was Hetheland. See Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was taken of William’s chiefs, amoimting to 629, and called the Battel-roll ; and amongst these chiefs the lands and distinctions of the followers of the defeated Harold were distributed. BATTEL, Wager of, a trial by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt or innocence. See Appeal. BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The famous floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, in the memorable siege of that fortress, were the scheme of D’Arcon, a French engineer. There were ten of them, and they resisted the heaviest shells and 32-2iound shot, but ultimately yielded to red-hot shot, Sept. 13, 1782. See Gibraltar. BATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, with other military implements, some of which are still in use, are said to have been invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and employed by Pericles, about 441 b.c. These ponderous engines (from 80 to 120 feet long) by their own weight exceeded the utmost effects of the battering cannon of the early part of the last century. Desaguliers. Sir Christopher Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the old walls of St. Paul’s church, previously to rebuilding the edifice in 1675. BATTERSEA PARK originated in an act of parliament passed in 1 846, which empowered Her Majesty’s commissioners of woods to form a royal park in Battersea-fields. Acts to enlarge the powers of the commissioners were passed in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the new bridge connecting it with Chelsea Avere opened in April, 1858. BAT 75 BAT BATTLB-AXK, a weapon of the Celtaj. The Irish were constantly armed witli an axe. Burns. At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce clove an Knglish champion down to the chine at one blow with a battle-axe, 1314. JIume. The battle-axe guards or beaufetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eatei's, and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first raised by Henry VI 1 . in 1485. They were originally attendants upon the king’s bullet. See Yeoman of the Guard. BATTLEFIELD, Battle of. See Shrewsbury. BATTLES. Palamedes of Argos is said to have been the first who ranged an army in a regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, and excited the soldier’s vigilance by giving him a watchword. Lenglct. {See Naval Battles.) The following are the most memorable battles, arranged in chronological order. The 15 battles termed “decisive” by Professor Creasy are marked by a +. BEFORE CHRIST. Abraham defeats kings of Canaan {Geti. xiv.). 1913 Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan {Josh, x.) 1451 Gideon defeats the Mideonites {Judges vii.) lYojan war commenced Troy taken and destroyed .... Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) , *Horatii vanquish Curiatii .... *Halys {Medes and Lydians, stopped by eclipse) Sept. 28, Aug. 7-9, Oct. 20, Sept. 22, Sept. 22, 1245 1193 1184 941 669 585 490 480 479 466 447 422 413 410 405 401 394 390 381 379 t* Marathon {Greeks defeat Persians) ^Thermopylie {heroism of Leonidas) *Salamis {Greeks defeat Persians) *Mycale {ditto) .... ^Platsea {dilto : Pausanias) *Eurymedon {ditto : Cimon) . *Coronea {Boeotians defeat Athenians) . Torone (Cleon killed: Athenians defeat Spartans) f Athenians defeated before Syracuse . . . *Cyzicus {Alcibiades defeats Spartans) *iEgospotomos {Athenian fleet destroyed) - . *C\xi\a,s.o.{Artaxerxes kills Cyrus) . *Coronea {Agesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) *Allia {Brennas and the Gauls defeat Romans) Volsci defeated by Camillus .... Volsci defeat the Romans Naxus {Chabrias defeats Lacedeemonians) *Leuctra ( Thebans defeat Spartans) . . . Camillus defeats the Gauls .... *Cynocepha.hn {Thebans defeat Thessalians) . . *Mantinea ( Thebans victors ; Epaminondas slain) Timoleon defeats Carthaginians .... *Chaironea {Philip defeats Athenians, &c.) . . Thebes destroyed by Alexander *Granicus {Alexander defeats Darius) May 22, *Issus (ditto) ...... Oct. t ‘Arbela (dirto) Oct. i, *Cranon {Antipater defeats Greeks) . . . . Fabius defeats the Tuscans .... *Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigonus, who is slain) . Asculum (Pyrrhus defeats Homans) . . . Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) *Punic Wars begin Xantippus defeats Regulus .... Asdi'ubal defeated by MeteUus near Panormus Clusium (Gauls defeated) Sellasia (Macedonians defeat Spartans) Caphyai (Achceans defeat jEtolians) Hannibal takes Seguntum (which see) *Punic War (the Second) begins . . . . *Trebia ( Victory of Hannibal) .... ^ Thrasymenus (ditto) Raphia (Antiochus defeated) .... *Cannse ( Victory of Hannibal) . Aug. 2, MarceUus and Ha-nnibal (former killed) . t*Metaurus (Nero defeats Asdrubal) . . . *Zama (Scipio defeats Hannibal) .... Abydos (Siege of) 200 ^Cynoscephalse (Romans defeat Macedonians) . 197 Scipio defeats Antiochus near Mount Sipylus . 190 ■*Pydna (Romans defeat Perseus) .... 168 *Punic War (the Third) 149 *Carthage taken by Publius Scipio . . . 146 Mummius takes Corinth . . . . . — 376 or 377 • • 371 • 367 • • 364 362 339 338 335 334 333 331 322 310 301 279 275 264 255 250 . . 225 . 222 . . 220 . 219 . . 218 216 209 207 202 B.C. MeteUus defeats Jugurtha .... 109 Aquie Sextiai (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) 102 ’•Cimbri and Romans 101 *Chaeronea (Sylla defeats Mithridates’ army) . 86 Marius defeated by Sylla 82 Catiline defeated at Pistoria . . . . 62 Crassus defeated by the Parthians at Carrhse . 53 *Pharsalia Aug. 9, 48 *Zela (Ucesar defeats Pharnaces) 47 Munda, in Spain (Pornpey's sons subdued) . . 45 ^Philippi {Roman Ret>ublic ends) . . . . 42 Agrippa defeats Pompey the Younger . . 36 *Actiixm (Octavius defeats Antony) . Sept. 2, 31 Aug. 24 ANNO fVarus defeated by Herman (or Arminius) *Stu’opshire (Caractacus taken) Romans defeat Boadicea .... * Jerusalem taken Agricola conquers Mona .... Issus (Niger slain) ..... Claudius defeats Goths (300,000 slain) Alectus defeated in Britain . Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross), Oct. "^Adrianople (Constantine defeats Licinius) . *Aquileia (Constantine II. slain) *Argentaria (Gratian defeats Gauls) . *Aquileia (Maximus slain) *Aquileia (Eugenius slain) . Rome taken by Alaric . Ravenna taken by Aspar . *Franks defeated by Aetius . Genseric takes Carthage . •|■*Ch§,lons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated) . Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons) Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) Pevensey Moor ...... *Tolbiach or Zulpich (Clovis defeats Alemanni) Saxons defeat Britons .... Victories of Belisarius .... Narses defeats Totila .... HeracUus defeats the Persians (Chosroes) . First victory of Mahommed . Hatfield (Heathfield : Penda defeats Edwin Saracens subdue Syria .... And take Alexandria .... Oswestry ( Penda def. Osicald of Northumberland) Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, v:ho is slain) . Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain They defeat the Goths at Guadalete t*Tours (Chas. Martel defeats the Alemanni) Victories of Charlemagne .... *Roncesvalle (death of Roland) Albaida (Musa defeated) .... DANISH INVASION, ETC. Hengestdown ( Banes defeated by EgbeH) Charmouth (Ethelwolf defeated by the Danes) Danes defeat King Edmund of East Anglia Assendon (Danes defeated) .... Merton (Danes victorious) . . . . DOMINI. 9 50 61 70 78 194 269 296 312 323 340 378 394 410 425 428 439 451 455 457 485 496 508 533-4 552 622 623 633 636-8 640 641 655 675 711 732 775-800 778 852 835 870 871 [The battles which arc thus marked * are more fully described in their alphabetical order.] BAT 7t> BAT BATTJjES, continued. A.D. 'WiMon {Danes victorious over Alfred) . . 872 I’iiruliam {Danes defeated) 894 liury {Edward defeats Ethelwald and Danes) . 905 ■"Somincas {Spaniards defeat Moors?) . 934 or 938 Basiontello (Oi/to II. def. by Greeks, c&c.) July 13, 982 [The Saxons and Danes fought with different success from 938 to 1016.] Ashdon {Canute defeats Edmund) . , . , 1016 *Clontarf {Danes defeated) ..... 1039 *Dunsinane {Macbeth defeated) . . . . 1056 Stanford Bridge {Harold defeats Tostig) Sept. 25, 1066 \*\.\.nstmgs {William I. defeats Harold) Oct. 14, — *Alnwick {Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) . . 1093 ■^Crusades commence 1096 ■•^Ascalon {Crusaders victorious) . . Aug. 12, 1099 *Thichcbray {Robert 0/ Normandy defeated) . . 1106 Brenneville, Normandy (/fenry /. meforioMs) . 1119 ^Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard, {David I. and Scots defeated) . . Aug. 22, 1138 *Ourique {Alfonso of Portugal defeats Moors), July 25, 1139 * 1 Auco\d. {Stephen d^eated) . . . Feb. 2, 1141 * Alnwick {William the Lion defeated) . July 13, 1174 *Legnano {Italians def. Frd. Barbarussa) May 29, 1176 *Ascalon surrenders (A ic/iard /.) . Sept. 7, 1191 Arcadiopolis {Bulgarians defeat Emp. Isaac) . 1194 *Gisom {Richard I. defeats French) . Oct. 10, 1198 *Arso\i\ {Richard I. defeats Saracens) Sept. 7, 1199 Tolosa {Moors defeated) 1212 *Bouvines {French defeat Germans) . . . 1214 ■^Lincoln {French defeated) . . May 19, 1217 *Mansourah {Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . 1250 *hewes {English barons victorious) . May 14, 1264 *Evesham {Barons defeated) . . . Aug. 4, 1265 *Benevento {Chas. of Anjou def. Manfred) Feb. 26, 1266 *Tagliacozza (C^aWes defeats Conradin), Aug. 23, 126S Llandewyer {Llewellyn of IFales defeated) . . 1282 Dxmhar {King of Scots take 7 i) . . April 27, 1296 Qavah\xsLemiQtla.{Wallace defeats English) . 1297 ♦Falkirk ( Wallace defeated) . . . July 22, 1298 *Co\xrtvo.Y{Fletningsdeft. Count of Artois) 3 wlj ii, 1302 Roslin, Scotland .... Feb. 24, 1303 ♦Bannockburn {Bruce defeats English), Jime 24, 1314 ♦Foughard or Dundalk {Ed. Bruce defd.) Oct. 5, 1318 ♦Boroughbridge {Edward II. defeats Barons) . . 1322 Duplin {Edward Baliol defeats earl of Mar), Aug. II, 1332 ♦Halidon Hill {Edward III. defeats Scots), July 19, 1333 AwheYOchQ {earl of Derby def eat French) . . 1345 ♦Cressy {English defeat French) . Aug. 26, 1346 ♦Durham, Nevil’s Cross {Scots defeated), Oct. 17, — La Roche Darien {Charles of Blois defeated) . 1347 ♦Poitiers {English defeat French) . Sept. 19, 1356 Auray {Du Guesclin defeated) . Sept. 29, 1364 Najara {Black Prince deft. Henry of Trastamare), April 3, 1367 {Peter of Castile defeated) March 14, 1369 ♦Rosbecque {French defeat Flemings) . Nov. 17, 1382 {Swiss defeat Austrians) . . July 9, 1386 ‘*OttQrh\xrn {Chevy Chase ; Scots victors) Aug. 10, 1388 ♦Nicopolis {Turks defeat Christians) Sept. 28, 1396 ♦Homeldon Hill {English defeat Scots), SeiJt. 14, 1402 ♦Shrewsbury {Percies, dec., defeated) July 21, 1403 'MouTL\outh.{Glendower defeated) . May ii, 1405 {Lord of the Isles def ealed) . July 24, 1411 ♦Agincou^ {English defeat French) . Oct. 25, 1415 ♦Anjou, Beaug-/. Archd. Charles) K\xg. 10, * Avcola {Borcaparte victorious) . Nov. 15-17, Rivoli {ditto) Jan. 14, 15, IRISH REBELLION. *Kilcullen {Rebels successful) . . . May 23, 1798 *Naas {Rebels defeated) . . . May 24, — *Tara {ditto) ...... May 26, — *Oulart {Rebels successful) . . . May 27, — *Gorey, *Ross (ditto) .... June 4, — *Ballynahincb {Nugent defeats Rebels) June 13, — ^Vinegar Hill {Lake defeats Rebels) . June 21, — ^Castlebar {French auxiliaries defeated) Aug. 28, — ^Pyramids {Bonaparte defeats Mamelukes) July 21, — Storming of Jaffa {by French) . . March 6, 1799 Stokach {Austrians defeat French) March 27, — Verona {Austrians defeat French) March 28-30, — Magnano {Kray defeats French) . . April 5, — Mount Thabor April 16, — *Cassano {Suwarrow defeats Moreau) April 27, *Seringapatam {Tippoo killed) *Acre {relieved ; Sir Sydney Smith) Adda {Suv:arrow defeats French) . ^Zurich {French defeated) . *Trebia {Suwarrow defeats French) *Alessandria {taken by French) May 4, . May 21, . May 27, June 5, June 18, 19, . July 2, *Aboukir {Turks defeated by Bonaparte) July 25, *Novi {Suwarrow defeats French) . Aug. 15, ^Bergen & Alkmaer {Allies defeated) Sept. 19, ) Oct. 26, j ^Zurich {Massejna defeats Russians) . Sept. 25, Engen {Moreau defeats Austrians) . May 3, Mceskirch {ditto) .... May 5, *Biberach {ditto) May 9, *Montebello {A ustrians defeated) . J une 9, ^Marengo {Bonaparte defeats Austrians) June 14, *Hochstadt {Moreau defeats Austrians) June 19, ^Hohenlinden {ditto) .... Dec. 3, Mincio {French defeat Austrians) . Dec. 26, *Alexandria {Abercrombie's victory) March 21, AMmedn\igg\ir {Wellesley victorious) Aug. 12, *Assaye {ditto) .... Sept. 23, *Argaum {ditto) Nov. 29, Ferruckabad {Lake defeats Holkar) . Nov. 17, *Bhurtpore {taken by Lake) . . April 2, *A\isteY\\t2 (Napoleon defeats Austrians) Dec. 2, *Buenos Ayres {taken by Popham) . June 28, {Stuart defeats French) . . July 4, Prussians) Oct. 14, *Pultusk {French & Allies, indecisive) Dec. 26, Mohrungen {French def. Russ. — ♦Ghiznee (taken by Keane) July 23, 1839 ♦Sidon (taken by Stopford) . . Sept. 26, 1840 ♦Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyptians) . Oct. 10, — Afghan War. See India. ♦Acre (stormed by Allies) . . . Nov. 3, — Kotriah (Scinde : English victors) . . Dec. i, — Chuen-pe (ditto) Jan 7, 1841 Canton (English take Bogvx forts) . Feb. 26, — Amoy (taken) Aug. 27, — Chin-hae (taken) .... Oct. 10, — Candahar (Afghans defeated) , March 10, 1842 Ningpo (Chinese defeated) . . March 10, — ♦Jellalabad (Khyber Pass forced) . April 5, 6, — Chin-keang (taken) .... July 21, — ♦Ghiznee (Afghans defeated) . . Sept. 6, — ♦Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . Feb. 17, 1843 ♦Maharajpoor (Gough defeats Mahrattas) Dec. 29, — ♦Moodkee (Hurdinge defeats Sikhs) . Dec. 18, 1845 ♦Ferozeshah (ditto) . . . Dec. 21, 22, — ♦Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) . . Jan. 28, 1846 ♦Sobraon (Gowjh defeats Sikhs) . . Feb. 10, — Montery (Mexico) .... Sept. 24, — Bueno Vista (Mexico) .... Feb. 22, 1847 St. Ubes (Portugal) .... May 9, — Ozontero (Americans def. Mexicans) Ang. 19, 20, — A.D. Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) Sept. 29, 1848 ♦iMooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . Nov. 7, — ♦Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) Jan. 13, 1849 ♦Goojerat (ditto) .... Feb. 21, — ♦Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) March 23, — Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) June 21, — Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . July 2, — aitzen (taken by Russians) . . July 17, — Schiissberg (Russians defeat Bern) . July 31, — Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) Aug. 9, — Idstcdt (Danes defeat Holsieiners) . July 25, 1850 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. * 0 \len\i 7 ,a (Turks repulse Russians) . Nov. 4, 1853 *Citate (Turks defeat Russians) . . Jan. 6, 1854 ♦Silistria (ditto) .... June 13-15, — Giurgevo (ditto) July 8, — Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . July 30, — *Kuruk-Derek (ditto) .... Aug. 5, — • ♦Alma (Allies defeat Russians) . . Sept. 20, — ♦Balaklava (ditto) .... Oct. 25, — ♦ Inkermann Nov. 5, — FMpatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . Feb. 17, 1855 ♦Malakoff Tower (Allies and Russians) May 22, 23, 24, — Capture of the Mamelon, &c. . . June 7, — Unsuccessful attempt on Malakoff tower, and Bedim (Allies and Russians) . . June 18, — ♦Tchernaya, or Bridge of Traktir (Allies defeat Russians) Aug. 16, — ♦Malakoff taken by the French . Sept. 8, — ♦Ingour (Turks defeat Russians) . , Nov. 6, — Baidar (French defeat Russians) . Dec. 8, — PERSIAN WAR. ♦Bushire (English defeat Persians) . Dec. 10, 1856 Kooshab (oitto) Feb. 8, 1857 Mohammerah (ditto) . . . March 26, — INDIAN MUTINY. (See India.) ♦Conflicts before Delhi, May 30, 31 ; June 8 ; July 4, 9, 18, 23, — Victories of General Havelock, near Futteh- pore, Cawnpore, &c. . July 12, to Aug. 16, — Pandoo Nuddee (i;icenance at the tomb in 1174. The bones of Becket were enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220 ; but were burned in the reign of Henry VIII. I539* Stow. BEDS. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. The Komaiis are said to have first used feathers. Feather-beds were in use in England in the reign of Henry VIII. The bedsteads of the Egyptians and later Greeks, like modern couehes, became common among the Koman upper classes. — A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on Nov. 2, 1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manufacture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by Macintosh in 1823. Dr. Arnott’s hydrostatic bed was invented in 1830. BED OF Justice, a French court presided over by the king, which had the power of enforcing or overruling the ordinances of the parliament. The last was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles in 1787. BEDFORD, a town, N.N.W. London, renowned for its many free educational establish- ments endowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, wrote “The Pilgrim’s Progress,” and died (in 1688). BEDFORD I jEVEL, a portion of the great fen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the early part of the seventeenth century by the earl of Bedford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition from the natives of the district. See Levels. BEDLAM. See Bethlehem. BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a form of Mahomedanism, and are governed by sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ishmael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting him, Gen. xvi. 12, 1911 B.c. They are the scourge of Arabia and Egypt. BEEF-EATERS. See Battle-axe. BEEFSTEAK SOCIETY, the members of which dine together in a room behind the Lyceum theatre, was founded in 1735 by John Rich, patentee of Covent-garden theatre, and George Lambert, the scene-painter, in whose work-room the society originated. Beefsteak Clubs existed in 1709 and 1733. BEER. Ale, Porter, Victuallers. BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odoriferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has been poetically called the “empire of bees.” Hymettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and honey. The economy of bees was admired in the earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a poem on bees, 741 B.C. There are 292 species of the bee or apis genus, and iii in England. Bees were first introduced into Boston, New England, by the English in 1670, and have since spread-over the whole continent. Mandeville’s satirical “Fable of the Bees” appeared in 1723. Huber jiublished his observations on bees in 1796. The Apiarian Society have an establishment at Muswell, near London (1862). BEET-ROOT is of recent cultivation in England. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from ih.Q white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced excellent sugar from it in 1 799 ; and the chemists of France, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely extracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 60,000 tons of sugar, about half the consumption, are now manufactured in France from beet. It is also [ largely manufactured in other countries. A refinery of sugar from beet-root has been erected at the Thames-bank, Chelsea. BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, being often musicians and ballad-singers. In modern times severe laws have been passed against them. In 1572, by 14 Eliz. c. 5, sturdy beggars were ordered to be “grievously whipped and burnt through the right ear.” By the Vagrant Act (1824) 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all public beggars are liable to a month’s imprisonment. See Poor Laws and Mendicity Society. G 2 r>KO 84 ?>EL 15FGUINES a congregation of mins, first cstalilislied at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle ; in 1207, some say 1226. The “Grand fieguinage” of Eruges was the most extensive of modern times.— Some of tliese nuns imagined that they could ni this life aiiive at the highest moral perfection, even to impeccahility. The council of Vienne condemned this error, and aholishcd a hranch of the order in 1311. They still exist m Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to the sick and wounded, &c. BEHEADING the Dccollatio of the Promams, introduced into England from Normandy (as a IcHH ignominious mode of putting high criminals to death) hy William the Comjueror, 1076 wheS Waltheolf, carl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and Northiimherland, was hrst so executed. Since then this mode of execution liecame frecpient, particularly in the reigns ot Henry VI 11. and Mary, when even women of the noblest blood, greatest virtues, and most innocent lives thus suliered death.* BEHISTUN in Persia. At this place is a rock containing important inscriptions in three hingiiages,’ in cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which were deciphered and translated by sir II. Pawlinson in 1844-6 and published in the Journal of ^ the Poyal Asiatic Society. Each paragraidi commences with “ I am Darius the Great King.” BEHRING’S STRAIT, discovered by captain Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of Russia. He thus proved that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distinct from each other about thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring’s island in 1741. The current from the west between the shores is very inconsiderable, the de])th not being more than from twelve to thirty fathoms. In 1788 capt. James Cook accurately surveyed the coast of both continents. BELFAST, capital of Ulster, Ireland. First mentioned about a.d. 1315 ; its castle, supposed to have been built by John de Courcy, was then destroyed by the Scots, under Edward Bruce. Belfast was granted by James 1. to sir Arthur Chichester, then lord deputy, 1612 It was erected into a corporation by James I. 1613. The long bridge, 2000 feet in leimth and of 21 arches, was commenced in 1682. Here was printed the first edition of the Bible published in Ireland, 1704. The castle was burnt, April, i7oK_ The bank built, i7o7- The mechanics’ institute established, 1825. the See _ „ . . - , . Belfast through Mr. Hanna persisting in open-air preaching. t a -p ir i- chambers were burnt down. The loss was estimated at ioo,ooo?. In Sept. 1859 Belfast was the scene of exciting religious revivals. BELGIUM late the southern portion of the kingdom of the Netherlands, and anciently the territory of the Belgge, who were finally conquered by Julius Cffisar, 51 n.c. Its size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. The population, December 31, 1859, was 4,671,187. its government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, founded in 1831. For previous history, see Flanders, Netherlands and Holland. Of three colleges established in Ireland under The revolution commences at Brussels Aug. 25, The Provisional Government declares Belgium independent Oct. 4, Antwerp taken .... Dec. 23, Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied powers Duke de Nemours elected king : hut his father, the French king, refuses his consent Feb. 3, Surlet de Chokier is elected regent _ . Feb. 24, Leopold, prince of Coburg, elected king July 12, enters Bussels July 19, The king of the Netherlands commences war Aug. 3, 1830 1831 [France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and an armistice ensues.] Conference of ministers of the five great powers held in London : acceptance of 24 articles of pacification Nov. 15, 1831 The French army returns to France Dec. 27, 1832 Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) . . April 6, 1834 Treaty] between Holland and Belgium signed in London April 19, 1839 Queen of England visits Belgium . . Aug. 1852 The king and his son visit England . . Oct. — Increase of army to 100,000 men voted May 10, 1853 Opposition to religious charities’ bill f . June, 1857 * Among other instances (besides queens of England) may be mentioned the ® Feb 12 1554; and the venerable countess of Salisbury,— the latter remarkable for her resistance of the executioner^ When he directed her to lay her head on the block, she refused to do it ; telling lum that she knew of no guilt and would not submit to die like a criminal. He pursued her round and round the scaffold aiming at her hoary head, and at length took it off, after mangling the neck and shoulders o illistrious^ctL in a horrifying manner. Shi was daughter of George, duke of Clarence, and last of the royalhiie of Ph^^^^ held in London on the Belgian of which the treatv of Nov. 15, 1831, was maintained, and the pecuniary compensation of sixty millions of francs, offered by Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland, was decLyed inadmissible , . t At the Revolution in 1830 the Roman Catholic clergy lost the adimnistration the public chant , which they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 1857, M. Decker the ^c^d of the y, brought in a biU for this purpose ; the principle of which was carried. This led however, to so muc a"^itation that the ministry were compelled to withdi'aw the bill, and eventuaUy to resign. 8f> HKI I5KI. IIM, conliiiiiaf. A now ininistryundcr M. ('liarlos l?OR-|cr Nov. 9, 1857 Tho ch;unlK.'i-s ; rc-as.sc'nil>U!(ll»oc. 10, — Tlio killer procliiim.s Uflgium noutnil in (ho Italian war M-iy 1859 IVath of M. Potter Inly 22, — The king visits Kngland Inno, i860 ^ agno nnnonrsof annoxation to Franco i>roilnco warm loyal aiUlrcssos to tho king . Juno 13, — Tho Oetrni.q aholishcd Inly 21, i860 SnccoHsl'ul military volunteer movement Aug! Commercial treaty with Franco March i, 1861 Continued illness of tho king ; with occasional amendment .... May, June, 1862 Commercial treaty with Great Rritain adoiited by the chamber .... Aug. 22, Great distress through decay of trade Aug! — KING OF THE BELGIANS. 1831. Leopold,* first king of tho Relgians ; horn l>oc. 16, 1790: inangumted July 21, 1831, at Hrussels ; married Aug. 9, 1832, Loui.se, eldest daughter of Louis Philippe, king of tho French ; she died Oct. ir, 1850. Tho I’KESKNT king, 1862. Heir: his son, Leopold, duke of Brabant; born April 9, 183s ; man-ied iirchduchcss Maria of Austria, Aug. 22, 1853. BELGRADE (in Sorvia, on the right bank of the Danube) ; a battle was fought hero on Seiheinber 10, 1456, bettvecn tho Gernians (under Jolm llnniades) and the Turks (under JMalioniod II.), in which the latter was defeated with tho loss of 40,000 men. Belorade was taken by Solynian, i 522 , and retaken by the Imperialists in 1688, from whom it agaiS reverted to the Dirks in 1690. It Avas besieged in May, 1717, by ])rince Eugene. On Aiig. 5 of that year, the liirkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and a sanguinary battle Avas loiight at PeterAvaradein, on August 22, in Avhich the Turks lost 20,000 men ; after this battle Belgrade surrendered. In 1739 it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the peace of Reichenbach 111 1790. The Servian insurgents had iiossession of it in 1806. In 1815 it Avas idaced under prince lAIilosch, subject to Turkey. The fortifications Avere restored in 1820. On June 19 1S62, the Turkish pacha aatts dismissed for firing on the toAAui during a riot. See Servia. XI Candle : in the Romish ceremony of Excommunication (which see), the bell is rung, the book closed, and candle extinguished ; the effect being to exclude the excommunicated from the society of the faithful, divine service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed to the 8th century. BELL-ROCK LIGHT-HOUSE, esteemed one of the finest structures of the kind in Cxreat Britain. It is nearly in front of the Frith of Tay, and is 115 feet high ; it is built upon a rock that measures 427 feet in length and 200 feet in breadth, and is about 12 feet under water. + The present lighthouse was erected in 1806-10 ; it is provided Avith tAvo beUs lor hazy Aveather. BELLAIR, in Xorth America. The toAvni Avas attacked bv the British forces under sir 1 eter 1 arker, who after an obstinate engagement were repulsed with considerable loss ; their gallant commander Avas killed, Aug. 30, 1814. BELLEISLE an isle on the south coast of Brittany, France, was erected into a duchy in laAmur of marshal Belleisle, in 1 742, in rcAvard of his brilliant military and diplomatic services by Louis A\ . Belleisle Avas taken by the British forces under commodore Keppel ami general Hodgson, after a desperate resistance, June 7, 1761, but aa^s restored to France in 1763. BELLES-LETTRES on Polite Learning. See Academies and Literature. BELLMEX, appointed in London, to proclaim the hour of the night before public clocks becaine general were numerous about a.d. 1556. They Avere to ring a bell at night, ,, of your fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray for the dead ” Loorthoucks History of London. ^ ^ j BELLOAVS. Anacharsis, the Sc5dhian, is said to have been the inventor of them about SbpB.c. ; to him IS also ascribed the iiiA^ention of tinder, the potter’s Avheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bel oaa;s were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The production of the ^ eat leviathan bellows of our foundries (suggested by the diminutive domestic belloAvs) must Have been early, but Ave cannot trace the time. See Blowing-Machines. BELLS were used among the J ews, Greeks, and Romans. The responses of the Dodomean oracle Avere m part conveyed by bells. Straho. The monument of Porsenna was decorated A Leopold married, in 'Slay, 1816, the princess Charlotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent after- wards George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, Nov 6 1817 ^egenr, alter- lo“upou '^5' a Dutchman, who wah BEL 86 BEN by pinnacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, in t'ainpagna, about A.i). 400. First known in France in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing of the bells of St. Stej)hen’s church. The second excerj)tion of our king Egbert commands every priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his church. Bells were used in churches by order of pope John IX., about 900, as a defance by ringing them,, against thunder and lightning. First cast in England by Turketel, chancellor of England, under Edmund I. His successor improved the invention, and caused the first tuneable set to be put up at Croyland abbey, 960. Slow. The celebrated “ Song of the Bell,” by Schiller (died 1805) has been frequently translated. The following list is that given by Mr. E. Beckett Denison in his discourse on bells, at the Iloyal Institution, March 6, 1857. Weiaht— Tons Cwt. Tons Cwt. Tons Cwt. Moscow, 1736 ; * * * § broken. Paris, 1680 . . 12 16 Antwerp • 7 3 1737 • 250 7 Sens • • 13 9 Brussels 7 li Another, 1817 . no ? Montreal, 1847 • . 12 15 Dantzic, 1453 . 6 I Three otters 16 to 31 Cologne, 1448 . . II 3 Lincoln, 1834 • 5 8 Novogorod 31 0 Breslaw, 1507 . . . II 0 St. Paul’s, 1716,1 • 5 4 Olmiitz . 17 18 Gorlitz . . .• 10 17 Ghent .... 4 18 Vienna, 1711 17 14 York, 1845 10 15 Boulogne, new . • 4 18 Westminster, 1856 t ‘ ‘Big Bruges, 1680. . . 10 5 Exeter, 1675 4 10? Ben ” 15 St. Peter’s, Rome . 8 0 Old Lincoln, 1610. 4 8 Westminster, 1858 t “'st Oxford, 1680 . • • 7 12 Fourth quarter-bell. West- Stephen ” 13 io| Lucerne, 1636 . 7 II minster, 1857 • 4 0 Erfurt, 1497 . 13 15 Halberstadt, 1457 • • 7 10 BELLS, Baptism of. They were anointed and baptised in churches it is said from the loth century. Du Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in Essex, were baptised by the names of St. Michael, St. John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, &c., in 1501. Weaver. The great bell of Notre Dame, in Paris, was baptised by the name of Duke of Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, in Eoman Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do shijjs, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. BELLS, Kinging of, in changes of regular peals, is almost peculiar to the English, who boast of having brought the practice to an art. There were formerly societies of ringers in London. Holden. A sixth bell was added to the peal of five, in the church of St. Michael, 1430. Stow. Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St. Martin’s-in-the-fields money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and many others have done the same. BELOOCHISTAN, S. Asia, the ancient Gedrosia. The capital was taken by the British in the Afghan war, in 1839 ; alaandoned in 1840, and again taken and held for a short time in 1841. BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hindoos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the nabob of Oude, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English in 1775. An insurrection took place here, which had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in Hindostan, 1781. The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was deposed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, capt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at Benares, by vizier Aly, Jan. 14, 1799. In June, 1857, col. Neil succeeded in sujipressing attempts to join the Sepoy mutiny. See India. BENCOOLEN, in the island of Sumatra. The English East India Company made a settlement here, which preserved to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had dispossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York Fort was erected by the East India Company, 1690. In 1693, a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned by the town being built on a pestilent morass : among others the governor and council perished. The French, under count * The metal has been valued, at the lowest estimate, at £66,565. Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in as votive offerings. t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of works), cast at Houghton -le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, under the superintendence of Mr. E. Becket Denison and the rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of £3343 14.5. gd. The composition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The diameter was 9 ft. 5J in. ; the height 7 ft. loj in. The clapper weighed 12 cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. t The bell “ Big Ben,” having been found to be cracked on Oct. 24, 1857, it was broken up, and another hell cast with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, Whitechapel. It is rather different in shape to its predecessor, “ Big Ben,” and about 2 tons lighter. Its diameter is 9 ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was struck for the first time, Nov. 18, 1858. The clapper weighs 6 cwt. — half that of the former bell. The note of the bell is E natural ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, F. On Oct. i, 1859, this bell was also found to be cracked. It remains in this state (May, 1862). The scientific men referred to greatly differ in opinion as to the merits of this bell. § The clapper of St. Paul’s bell weighs 180 lbs. ; the diameter of the hell is 10 feet, and its thickness 10 inches. The hour of the day strikes upon this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones beneath. Sec Clock.'i. liKN 87 BKN D’KstiUf^n, destroyed the Kiiglisli settlement, 1760. Bencoolcn was reduced to a residency nnder the government of Ikm^al, in 1801, and was ceded to the Duteli in 1825, in exchange for their possessions in IMalaeca. Sec India. BENDER in Bessarabia, European Russia, is memorable as the asylum of Charles XI I. of Sweden, after his defeat at I’nltowaby the czar Peter the Creat, July 8, 1709. I’he celebrated peace of Bender was concluded in 1711. Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, in Sept. 1770; was again taken by Potemkin in 1789, and again stormed in 1809. It was restored at the peace of Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded by Benedict (a.d, 480 — 543), who intro- duced the monastic life into western Europe, in 529, when he founded the monastery on ^lonte Cassino in Campania, and eleven others afterwards. His Rcgula Monachorum (rule of the monks) soon became the common rule of western monachism. No religious order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. Among its branches the chief were the Cistercians, founded in 1098, and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1116; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux (hence Charter-house) founded by Bruno about 1084. The Benedictine order was introduced into England by Augustin, in 596 ; and William I. built an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of Hastings was fought 1066. See Battel Abbey. William de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built it a convent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. “ At Hammersmith is a nunnery, whose inmates are denominated Benedictine dames.” Leigh. ^Of this order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canonised. Baronins. The Benedictines have taken little ])art in politics, but have produced many valuable works; especially the congregation of St. Maur, who published the celebrated VArt de Verifier les Dates, in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. BENEFICE (literary a good deed or favour), on Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the twelfth century, when the priesthood began to imitate the feudal lay system of holding lands for performing certain duties : till then the priests were supported by alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed benefices in contradistinction to dignities, bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that should become vacant in the space of six months, were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 1534. Notitia Monastica. The number of benefices in England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, and the number of glebe-houses 5527 ; these are exclusive of bishoprics, deaneries, canonries, prebendaries, priest-vicars, lay-vicars, secondaries, and similar church preferments. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number of benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not more than about 900 glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in i860 for the union of contiguous benefices. See Church of England. BENEFIT SOCIETIES. See Friendly Societies. BENEFIT OF Clergy, Privilegium Clericale, arose in the regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and consisted of : ist, an exemption of places consecrated to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the persons of clergymen from criminal process before the secular judge, in particular cases, which Avas the original meaning of the privilegium clericale. In the course of time, however, the benefit of clergy extended to every one who could read, which was thought a great proof of learning ; and it was enacted, that there should be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man who could read were to be condemned to death, the bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as a clerk, and dis^mse of him in some places of the clergy as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the prisoner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if the ordinary said, Legit ut Clericus,'" “He reads like a clerk,” the offender was only burnt in the hand; otherwise he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. 1274. This privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and abolished with respect to murderers and other great criminals, by Henry VIII. 1512. Stow. The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne, c. 6. 1706. Benefit of clergy was wholly repealed by statute 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28. 1827. BENEVENTO, an ancient city in South Italy, said to have been founded by Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Near it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 1 14. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the Lombards, A.d. 571. At a battle fought here, Feb. 26, 1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated and slain by Charles of Anjou, who thus became virtually master of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was nearly BEN 88 BEK destroyed by an eartlujuake, 1688, when tlie archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was dug ont of the rnins alive, and contributed to its subsecpient rebuilding again, 1703. It was seized by the king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de Perigord, Bonaparte’s arch-chancellor, had the title of prince of Benevento conferred upon him. Benevento was restored to the pope in 1814. BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, or Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied by Edward IV. 1473, Richard III. 1485 (although a statute forbidding them was enacted in 1484), by Henry VII. 1492 ; and by James I. in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the princess Elizabeth with the king of Bohemia. In 1615 Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000Z., and chief justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such modes of raising money. Benevolences were declared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. BENGAL, the chief presidency of British India, containing Calcutta, the capital. It was ruled by governors delegated by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 1340, when it became indepen- dent. It was added to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529. See India and Calcutta. The English were first permitted to Jrade to Bengal a.d. 1534 Factories of the French and Danes . . . 1664 Bengal made a distinct agency .... 1680 Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the company, by which the virtual sovereignty of the country *was obtained Aug. 12, 1765 India Bill ; Bengal made the chief presidency June 16, 1773 Supreme court established . . . June 16, — Courts of judicature erected for civil causes Feb. II, 1793 Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . July 21, 1813 Eailway opened Aug. 15, 1854 See India. BENZOLE, a compound of hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in oils (1825), and by C. B. Mansfield in coal tar (1849), the latter of whom unfortunately died in consequence of being severely burnt while experimenting on it (Feb. 25, 1855). Benzole has become useful in the arts. Chemical research has produced from it aniline {which see), the source of the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, &c. BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic poem, describing events which probably occurred in the middle of the 5th century A.D., and supposed to have been written subse- quent to 597. An edition by Kemble was published in 1833. It has been translated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Wackerbath. BERBICE, in British Guiana, surrendered to the British by the Dutch, April 23, 1796, and again Sept. 22, 1803. It was finally ceded to England in 1814 ; since when it has much improved, and has been placed in the same relation to trade as the British West India Islands in 1816. See Colonies. BEKESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the French main army after its defeat by the Russians, Nov. 25-29, 1812. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by great calamity and suffering. BERGEN (in Germany), Battle of, between the French and allies, the latter defeated, April 13, 1759. — (In Holland) The allies under the duke of York were defeated by the French, under gen. Brune, with great loss, Sept. 19, 1799. In another battle, fought Oct. 2, same year, the allies lost 4000 men ; and, on the 6th, they were again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5000 men. On the 20th, the duke of York entered into a convention, by which he exchanged his army for 6000 French and Dutch prisoners in England. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, in Holland. This place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was taken by the French, Sept. 16, 1747, and again in 1794. Am attempt made by the British, under general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated ; after forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to pieces or made prisoners, March 8, 1814. BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was begun by Henry I. in 1108, and finished in the next reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of France) and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, Sept. 21, 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the Elms, near London, Nov. 29, 1330 ; and Edward III. confined his mother in her own house at Castle Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, till her death. BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg), was founded by the mar- grave Albert, surnamed the Bear, about 1163. Its five districts were united under one magistracy, in 1714; and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia. It was taken by an army of Russians, Austrians, and Saxons, in 1 760 ; but they were obliged to retire in a few days. On Oct. 27, 1806, thirteen days after the battle of Jena, the French entered Berlin ; and from its place Napoleon issued the famous Berlin decree or interdict against Sd l’,KT tliP coinniPiTO of Enf^land. It decliircd tlio Britisli islands to l)c in a state of l)loekado, aiid ordered all Englishmen fonnd in e.onntries occni)ied by Krencli troops to he treated as ])risoners of war. On Nov, 5, 1808, Napoleon entered into a convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to Prussia the snmdne on the war-debt, and withdrew many of his troops to reinforce Ids armies in Sj)ain. An insnrrection commenced here in March 1848. Berlin wais declared in a state of siege, Nov. 1848, The continnation of this state of siege was declared to ho illegal without its concurrence by the lower chamber, April 25, 1849. The railway to ]\Iagdeburg was opened. Sept. 10, 1841. The lirst constituent assembly was held here on. June 21, 1842. BElvM^lTDAS, OR Somers’ Tst.es, a gi’oup in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Joao Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522 or 1527, but not inhabited until 1609, when sir George Somers was cast away upon them. They were settled by a statute 9 James I. 1612. Among the exiles from England during the civil war, was Waller, the poet, who wrote, while resi- dent here, a poetical description of the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, Oct. 31, 1780, and another, by which a third of the houses was destroyed, and all the shipping driven ashore, July 20, 1813. BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of taste and virtu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many years chairman of committees of ways and means in the house of commons. He died Aug, 26, 1854. The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days ; and enormous prices were given. The total sum realised was 62,680^, 6s. Sd. BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a monastery founded on it by Bernardine ]\[enthon in 962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet high, covered with perpetual snoAV. Hannibal, it is said, conducted the Carthaginian army by this pass into Italy (218 B.c.) ; and it was by the same route, in May, 1800, that Bonaparte led his troops to the plains of Lombardy, before the battle of Marengo, fought June 14, 1800. On the summit of Great St. Bernard is a large community of monks, who entertain travellers in their convent. BERNARDINES, a strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. Bernard, of ClairA^aux, about 1115. He founded seventy-two monasteries. BERNE, a town in Switzerland, founded in a.d. 1191 ; joined the Swiss League 1353 ; sur- rendered to the French imder general Brune, April 12, 1798. The town has bears for its arms, and some of these animals are still maintained on funds specially provided for the purpose. BERSAGLIERl, the sharp-shooters of the Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town on the north-east extremity of England. It has been the theatre of many bloody contests beUveen the English and Scots : and Avhile England and Scotland remained two kingdoms, was ahvays claimed by the Scots as belonging to them, because it stood on their side of the river. It was taken from the Scots, and annexed to England in 1333 ; and after having been taken and retaken many times, was finally ceded to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made independent of both kingdoms. The town sm'rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and afterwards to general Monk in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 1603), the fortifications, which were formerly very strong, have been much neglected. The corruption of its electors was exposed in i860. BESSARABIA, a frontier province of European Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being possessed by the Goths, Hnns, &c., it was conquered by the Turks in 1484, by whom it was ceded to Russia in 1812. BETHLEHEM, Syria, now contains a large convent, enclosing, as is said, the very birth- place of Christ ; a church, erected by the famous St. Helena, in the form of a cross ; a chapel, called the Chapel of the Nativity, where they pretend to show the manger in which Christ was laid ; another, called the Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Innocents. Beth- lehem is much visited by pilgiims. — The Bethlehemite monks existed in England in 1257. BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from having been originally the hospital of St. !Mary of Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1546. The old Bethlehem Hospital, which was erected in 1675, on the east side of !Moorfields, Avas pnlled down in 1814. It Avas built in imitation of the Tuileries at Paris ; this gave so much offence to Louis XIV., that he ordered a plan of St. James’s palace to be taken for offices of a very inferior nature. The present hospital in St. George’s fields Avas begun April, 1812, and opened in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements Avere completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirk e, costing between nine and ten thousand pounds. BETTING-HOUSES. These establishments affording much temptation to gaming, and consequent dishonesty, in the loAA^er classes, were suppressed by an act passed Aug. 10, 1853 (16 & 17 Viet. c. 1 19), a penalty of 100?. being enforced on the oAvners or occupiers. BEY 90 BIB BEYIIOUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroyed by an eartluiuake, a.d. 566; was re))uilt, and was alternately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; and after a fre(juent change of masters, I'ell into the power of Amurath IV., since when it remained with the Ottoman empire up to the revolt of Ibrahim Paclia, in 1832. The total defeat of the Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took j>lace Oct. 10, 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence of the massacres in Syria in May 1S60. In Nov. i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger of starving. See Syria. BHURTPORE, India, capital of the state of Bhurtpore, was besieged by the British, Jan. 3, 1805, and attacked five times up to March 21, without success. The fortress was taken by general Lake, after a desperate engagement with Holkar, the Mahratta chief, April 2, 1805. The defeat of Holkar led to a treaty, by which the rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by a former treaty, delivering up his son as hostage, April 17, 1805. On the rajah’s death, during a revolt against his son, Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826. See India. BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Florence, in favour of the Ghibelines or imperial party, headed by Vieri de’ Cerchi, opposed to the Neri (or Blacks), headed by Corso de’ Uonati. The latter exj>elled their opponents, among whom was the poet Dante, in 1301. BIARCHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, died, he left two sons, twins, Eury- sthenes and Procles ; and the people not knowing to whom precedence should be given, placed both upon the throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 b.c. The descendants of each reigned alternately for 800 years. Herodotus. BIBERACH, Wurtemberg. Here Moreau twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, Oct. 10, 1796, and under Kray, May 9, 1800. BIBLE (from the Greek hihlos, a book) the name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The Old Testament is said to have been collected and arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.c. The Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by the Roman Catholics, but not by the Jews and Protestants. See Apocrypha. OLD TESTAMENT.* Genesis contains the history of the world from b.c. 4004 — 1635 Exodiis . . . . 1635 — 1490 Leviticus . . . 1490 Numbers . . . . 1490 — 1451 Deuteronomy . . 1451 Job . . . about 1520 Joshua . . from 1451 — 1420 Judges . . . . 1425 — 1120 Ruth .... 1322 — 1312 ist and 2nd Samuel . 1171 — 1017 ist and 2nd Kings . 1015 — 562 ist and 2nd Chronicles 1004 — 536 Book of Psalms (princi- pally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 Proverbs written about 1000 — 700 Song of Solomon about 1014 Ecclesiastes about 977 Jonah . . about 862 Joel . . about 800 Hosea Amos . Isaiah Micab . Nahum Zepbaniab . Jeremiah . Lamentations Habakkuk . Daniel . Ezekiel . Obadiab Ezra . Esther . Haggai Zechariah Nehemiah . Malachi . about about about about about about about about about from about about about about about about about 785— 725 787 760 — 698 750— 710 713 630 629 — 588 588 626 607— 534 595— 574 587 536— 456 521— 495 520 520 518 446— 434 397 NEW TESTAMENT. Gospels by Matthew, Mark, I Luke, and John . b.c. 5 — a.d. 33 I Acts of the Apostles . a.d. 33 — 65 Epistles — ist and 2nd to Thessalonians . . about 54 Galatians . . . . 58 ist Corinthians . . 59 2nd Corinthians . . . 60 Romans .... 60 Of James . . . . 60 ist of Peter . . . . 60 To Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Hebrews, Philemon . . . . 64 Titus and ist to Timothy 65 2nd to Timothy . . 66 2nd of Peter . . . . 66 Of Jude ... .66 ist, 2nd, and 3rd of John after 90 Revelation 96 The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ, some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about 1 100. The oldest copy of the Old and New Testament in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in the 4th or 5th century, and published in 1586. The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to the 5th century) in the British Museum, pre- sented by the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628 and said to have been copied about the same time. It has been printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786—1821. — Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published by Tischen- dorf in 1843. The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soncino in Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's * The division into chapters has been ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth and to archbishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell Horne considers the real author to have been cardinal Hugo de Sancto Caro, aljout the middle of the 13th century. The division into verses was commenced by Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and completed by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. Robert Stephens introduced verses into his Greek Testament published in 1551. BIB 91 BIB BIBLE, conthmed. edition was printed in 1518 ; Stephens’ in 1546 ; | and the (extus receptus (or received text) by the Ebsevirs in 1624. TRANSLATIONS. The oldest translation of the Scriptures (into Greek) is the Alexandrian or Septuagint (ichich see), gene- rally considered to have been made by order of Ftolemy riiiladclphus, king of Egypt, about 286 or 285 B. c. ; but of which many fabulous accounts are given. Origen, after spending twenty-eight years in col- lating MSS., commenced lus polyglot Bible at Ciosarea in a.d. 231 ; it contained the Greek ver- sions of Acpiila, Symmachus, and Thcodotion, all made in or about the second century after Christ. The following are ancient versions : — Syriac, ist or 2nd century ; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd century, revised by Jerome, in 384 ; who, how- ever, completed a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate, which see; the first edition was printed in 1462 ; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd century ; Ethiopic ; Armenian, 4th or 5th century ; Sclavonic, 9th cen- tury ; and the Maiso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, about 370, a manuscript copy of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. The Psalms were trans- lated into Saxon by bishop Aldhelm, about 706 ; and the Gospels by bishop Egbert, about 721 ; the whole Bible by Bede, in the loth century. ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS.* MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, dated by Usher . 1290 Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wicklitte and his followers about ...... 1380 [Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810; the whole by Madden and Eorshall, 1850. J William Tyndale’s version of Matthew and Mark from the Greek, 1524 ; of the whole New Testa- ment 1525 or 1526 Miles Coverdale’s version of the whole Bible . 1535 [Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of every church, “ for every man that would to look and read therein. ”] T. Matthews’ (fictitious name for John Roger’s) version (partly by Tyndale f and Coverdale) . 1537 Cranmer’s Great Bible (Matthews’ revised) . 1539 Geneva version (the first with figured verses) 1540—1557 Archbishop Parker’s, called “ The Bishop’s Bible ” (eight of the fourteen persons em- ployed being bishops) 1568 King James’ Bible, the present authorised ver- sion — Translation began 1604 ; published . 1611 Roman Catholic authorised version : New Tes- tament, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, at Douay 1609-10 Dr. Benjamin Blayney’s revised edition . . 1769 Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 Flemish . N. TEST. BIBLE. A. D. 1477 Spanish (Valencian) 1478 German 1522 1530 English . 1526 1535 French • 1512 1530 Swedish . . 1526 1541 Danish 1524 1550 Dutch 1560 N. TEST. BIBLE. Italian . 1471 Spanish . . . 1543 1569 Russian (parts) 1519 1822 Welsh . 1567 1588 Hungarian . . . 1574 1589 Bohemian 1488 Polish . . . 1551 1561 Vii'ginian Indians . 1661 1663 N. TEST. BIBLE. Irish .... 1602 1686 Georgian . . . 1743 Portuguese . .1712 1748 Manks . . . . 1748 1767 Turkish . . . 1666 1814 Sanscrit . . . 1808 1822 Modern Greek . . 1638 1821 Chinese . . . 1814 1823 The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to make and print translations of the Bible in all the dialects of the world. See Polyglot. BIBLE DICTIONAEIES. The most remarkable are Calmet’s “ Dictionary of the Bible,” 1722-8; Kitto’s “ Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature,” 184^; and Smith’s “Dictionary of the Bible,” i860. BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal and oldest societies which have made the dissemination of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive object are the following : — The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed 1698 ; Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 1701 ; Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1709; Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among the Poor, 1750; Naval and Military Bible Society, 1780; Sunday School Society, 1785 ; French Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 1 ; Hibernian Bible Society, 1806; City of London Auxiliary Bible Society, 1812. A bull from the pope against Bible Societies appeared in 1817. BIBLIA PAUPERUM (the Bible for the Poor, consisting of engravings illustrating scripture history, with texts, carved in wood), a block book printed early in the 15th century, Avas compiled by Bona ventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. A fac-simile was published by J. Russell Smith in 1859. BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. Gesner’s “ Bibliotheca Universale ” appeared in 1545 ; and De Bure’s “ Bibliographie Instructive” in 1763. The following works on this subject are highly esteemed : Peignot, Manuel, 1823 ; Horne, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography, 1814 ; Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Darling, Cyclopaedia Bibliogi-aphica, 1854-8 ; Classical, the works of Fabricius, (Clarke, and Dibdin ; English, Watts’ Bibliotheca Britannica, 1824; Lowndes, Manual, 1834 (new edition by Bohn, 1857-62); French, Querard, 1828 et seq. Brunet’s Manuel du Libraire (first published in 1810), is exceedingly valuable : a new edition (the 5th) is now publishing, 1862. * “ The Bible of every Land," ed. i860, published by Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of infoimation respecting ancient and modem versions of the Bible. + He was strangled at Antwerp m 1536, at the instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last wordswere, “ Lord, open the king of England’s eyes !” 14 editions of his Testament had then been published. t At the end of 1850 this society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the Bible. In 1857 they published a catalogue of their library, which contains a large number of remarkable editions of the Bible. p,Ili 92 VAL 1 j 1 PLIOM ANIA (or book-inadiicss) prevailed in iSii, when L)r. Dibdin’s work with this title was puldished. See Boccaccio. BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wellington, having driven the French from Spain, clfected the passage of this river, Oct. 8, 1813, and entered France, where was fought the crowning battle of the campaign. BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Biddcnden, Kent, on Easter Sundays, the expense being defrayed from the rental of twenty acres of land, the reputed bequest of the Biddenden maids, two sisters named Chalkhurst, who, tradition states, were born joined together by the hips and shoulders, in a.d. iicx) ; and having lived in that state to the age of thirty-four, died within six hours of each other. Cakes bearing a corresponding impression of the figures of two females, are given on Easter-day to all who ask for them. Hasted deems this tale fabulous, and states that the print on the cakes is of modern origin, and that the land was given by two maiden ladies named Preston. See Siamese Twins. BIGAMY. The Eomans branded the guilty party with an infamous mark ; with us, the punishment of this offence, formerly, was death. The first act respecting it was passed 5 Edw. I. 1276. Viner's Statutes. Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, I James I. 1603. Subjected to the same punishments as grand or petit larceny, 35 Geo. 111. 1794. Now punished, according to circumstances, by imprisonment or transportation. BILBOA, N.E. Spain, was taken by the French in 1795. This jdace, which had been invested by the Carlists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was delivered by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by British naval co-operation, Dec. 24, 1836. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph next day. BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of tendering to a judge upon atrial between parties a bill of exceptions to his charge, his definition of the law, or to remedy other errors of the court, was provided by the 2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284. Such bills are tendered to this day. BILL OF PAINS, &c. See Queen Caroline’s Trial. BILL of Eights, &c. See Rights. BILLIAEDS. Invented by the French, by whom, and by the Germans, Dutch, and Italians, they were brought into general vogue throughout Europe. Nouv. Diet. The French ascribe their invention to Henri que Devigne, an artist in the reign of Charles IX., about 1571. Slate billiard tables were introduced in England in 1827. BILLINGSGATE, the celebrated market-place for fish, in London, is said to have derived its name from Belinus Magnus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 b. c. , but Stow thinks from a former owner. Mortimer. It was the old port of London, and the customs were paid here under Ethelred II. 979. Stoxo. Billingsgate was made a perfect free market, 1669. Chamberlain. Fish by Za?trf-carriage, as well as seaborne, now arrives daily here. In 1849, the market was very gi'eatly extended and improved, and is now well cleaned, lighted, and ventilated. BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by the Jews as a means of removing their property from nations where they were persecuted a.d. 1160. Axiderson. Bills were used in England, 1307. The only legal mode of sending money from England, 4 Eichard II. 1381. Eegulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797, again, June, 1801; and since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by bills of exchange and jiromissory notes. The present amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The many statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- solidated by act 9 Geo. IV., 1828. An act regulating bills of exchange passed 3 Viet. July, 1839. Great alterations were made in the law on the subject by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 83 (1834), and 18 & 19 Viet. c. 67 (1855). BILLS OF MOETALITY for London. These bills were first compiled, by order of Cromwell, about a.d. 1538, 30 Hen. VIIL, but in a more formal and recognised manner in 1603, after the gi'eat plague of that year. No complete series of them has been jireserved, They are now superseded by the weekly returns of the registrar-general. The following show the numbers at decennial periods : — 1780 1790 1800 Christenings. Burials. . 16,634 • • 20,507 . . 18,980 . . 18,038 .19,176 . . 23,068 1810 . 1820 1830 . Christenings. Burials. | . . 19,930 . . 19,892 I 1840 . 26,158 . 19.348 I 1850. . . 27,028 . . 23,524 I Christenings. Burials. ■ 30.387 - ■ 26,774 • • 39.973 • • 36,947 IULIjS of MOJITALITY, continued. IN ENOLANn AND WALES. jnrthx . Deaths . Jiilihs . Deaths . 1 Births . Deaths . iS^o . . 502,303 • 356,634 1853 . . 612,391 . . 421,097 • 390,506 1 1859 . 689,881 . 441,249 184s • • 543-521 . . 349,366 1856 . • 657,453 . 1 860 683,440 . . 422,472 1849 • • 578,159 • 440,839 1858 • • 655,481 . . 449,656 1 1861 . 695,562 • 435,337 IN LONDON AND SUBURBS. Dirths . Deaths . Births . Deaths . 1854 . 84,684 • 73,697 1857 . 91,048 . . 60,150 1855 . ■ 84,944 . . 61,506 1858 ( Females , 43,400). 88,620 { Females , 31,319) 63,882 1856 • 86,833 • 57,786 1859 ( „ 45,367)- 92,556 ( 30,166) 61,617 BINARY ARITIIJMETIC, that Avliicli counts by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining tlie ])i‘0])erty of nninbers, and constructing tables, was invented by Baron Leibnitz of Leipsic, the celebrated statesman, pbilosopber, and poet, a.d. 1694. Moreri. BINOiMlAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of only two parts connected with the signs ])lus or minus ; a term brst nsed by Recorda, about a.d. 1550, when be published his Algebra. The celebrated binomial theorem of Newton was first mentioned in 1688. Hutton. BIOGR APHY (from the Greek bios, life, and graphd, I write), defined, as history teaching by example. The book of Genesis contains the biography of the patriarchs ; and the Gospels, that of Christ. Plutarch WTote the Lives of Illustrious Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of ^Military Commanders ; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars (all three in the first century after Clirist) ; Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Philosophers (about a.d. 205). — Boswell’s Life of Johnson (published in 1790) is the most remarkable English biogi’aphy of modern times. BIRCH TREE. The black {Betida nigra), brought from North America, 1736. The birch tree known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kew-gardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from North America, 1762. The tree known as the Birch is now largely cultivated in all the countries of Europe. Hardy's A nnals. BIRDS were divided by Linnaeus into six orders (1735) ; by Blumenbach, into eight (1805) ; and by Cuvier, into six (1817). The most remarkable works on birds are those now imblishing by John Gould, F.R.S. ; they are to consist of about 31 folio volumes of coloured plates, &c. Each set bound will cost about 500Z. “The Ibis,” a journal devoted to ornithology, edited by Mr. Sclater, secretary of the Zoological Society, began in 1859. BIRKENHEAD, Cheshire, a prosperous modern town on the Mersey, immediately opposite to Liverpool. The great dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, constructed by Mr. Eendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 ^7 Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead was made a parliamentary borough, and Mr. Laird was elected first representative. BIRKENHEAD. The troop-ship Birkenhead, iron paddle-wheeled, and of 556 horse- power, sailed from Queenstown, January 7, 1852, for the Cape, having on board detachments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regiments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock off Simon’s bay. South Africa, and of 638 persons, only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew and soldiers perished by drouming ; some of them, perhaps, swallowed by sharks that were seen swimming around ; Feb. 26, following. The rock broke through into the engine-room, and literally rent the ship in two. BIRMAN EMPIRE, on Empiee of Ava. See Burmese Empire and India. BIRMINGHAM, Warwickshire. This town existed in the reign of Alfred, a.d. 872 ; it belonged to the Berniengehanis, at Domesday survey, 1086. There were “many smythes” here in the time of Henry "VIII. {Leland), but its great importance commenced in the reign of William III. It has been styled “ the Toyshop of Eurojie.” Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . ‘ 1643 Button manufactures established . . . 1689 Soho works established by Matthew Boulton about 1764 ; steam engine works about . .1774 Birmingham canal was originated . . . 1768 Memorable riots against some persons com- memorating the French revolution, July 14, 1791 Theatre destroyed by fire . . Aug. 17, 1792 More commotions Nov. 1800 Theatre again burnt, 1817, and . . Jaji. 7, 1820 Political Union, headed by T. Attwood, formed, Feb. 1831 Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act . 1832 Political Union dissolved itself . . May 10, 1834 Town-hall built 1833 Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the Grand junction . . . July 4, 1837 London and Birmingham railway opened its entire length .... Sept. 17, 1838 Great political riot, firing of houses, and other outrages committed by the Chartists, July 15, 1839 BIR 94 BIS B 1 RM I NG IT AM , continued. Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . 1839 Corn Kxchaiige opened . , . Oct. 27, 1847 Queen’s College organised . . . Jan. 1853 I’ublic park opened (ground virtually given by Mr. Addcrlcy) Aug. 3, 1856 New music hall opened . . . SejA. 3, 1856 Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 100,000 persons present (ground given by lord Calthorije) June i, 1857 Death of G. F. Muntz, M.P. , . July 30, 1857 J. ilright elected M.P., Aug. 10, 1857, & April, 1859 The Queen and Prince Consort visit Bii-rning- ham, Warwick, &c., for the first time, and open Aston Park, ijurchased by the corpora- tion and workmen of Birmingham, June 14-16, 1858 The Free Library opened . . . April 4, 1861 Dreadful factory explosion ; 9 killed and many injured June 23, 1862 BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed in England, viz,., birth of a duke 30Z., of a common person 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. The instances of four children at a birth are numerous ; but it is recorded that a woman of Konigsberg had five children at a birth. Sept. 3, 1784, and that the wife of Nelson, a journeyman tailor, of Oxford-Market, London, had also five children at a birth, in October, 1800. See Bills of Mortality and Registers. The Queen presents a small sum of money to a jjoor woman giving birth to three or more children at one time. BISHOPS (Greek episcopoi, overseers). The name was given by the Athenians to those who had the inspection of the city. The Jews and Romans had also like officers. The Bishop now is a person who has the government of church affairs in a certain district, St. Peter, styled the first bishop of Rome, was mart5rred a.d, 65. The episcopate became an object of contention about 144. The title of pope was anciently assumed by all bishops ; and was exclusively claimed by Gregory YII. (1073-85). In England, the dignity is coeval with the introduction of Christianity, BISHOPS OF England, See the Sees severally. The first is said to have been London, founded by Lucius, king of Britain, 179. Bishops were made barons, 1072. The Conge d'EUre of the king to choose a bishop originated in an arrangement of king John. Bishops were elected by the king’s Conge d' Elire, 25 Hen. VIII. 1534.* Seven were deprived for being married, 1554. Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, 1555-6. See Cranmer. Bishops were excluded from voting in the house of peers on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1640. Several were committed for protesting against the legality of all acts of parliament passed while they remained deprived of their votes, Dec. 28, 1641 ; regained their seats, Nov. 1661. Seven were sent to the tower for not reading the king’s declaration for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil power), June 8, 1688, and tried and acquitted June 29-30, following. The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr, San croft) and five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peterborough) were suspended for refusing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689, and deprived 1690. Warner's Eccles. Hist. SEES. FOUNDED A.D. London . . (?) 179 York . . 4th cent. Sodor & Man 4th cent. Llandaff . 5th cent. St. David’s . 5th cent. Bangort . about 516 St. Asaph , about 560 Canterbury . . . 598 London (see above) . 609 Rochester . . 604 East Angha (be- SEES. FOUNDED A.D. came Norwich, 1091) . . . 630 Lindisfarne, or Holy I.sland (became Durham, 995) . 634 West Saxons (be- came Winchester 70s) • • -635 Mercia (became Lichfield, 669) . . 656 Hereford . . , 676 SEES. FOUNDED A.D. Worcester . . 680 Lindisse (became Lincoln, 1067) . . 680 Sherborne (became Salisbury, 1042) . 705 Cornwall, after- wards Devon- shire (became Exeter, 1050) . . 909 W ells , . . . 909 Bath. . . . 1088 SEES. FOUNDED A.D. Ely . . . . 1108 Carlisle . 1132 Peterborough . • 1541 Gloucester % • 1541 Bristol t . • 1542 Chester • 1542 Oxford . T542 Ripon . • 1836 Manchester • 1847 BISHOPS OF Ireland. See the Sees severally. Bishops are said to have been consecrated in this country as early as the second century. The bishopric of Ossory, first planted at Saiger, was founded A.d. 402, thirty years before the arrival of St. Patrick. The bishopric of Trim has been named as the first by some writers, although not erected before the year 432, Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the bishoprics in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, legate from pope Eugene III, 1151. Several prelates were deprived by queen Mary, 1554. One (Atherton) suffered death ignominiously, 1640. Two were deprived for not taking the oaths to William and Mary, 1691. One was deprived (Clogher) in 1822. The Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the number of bishops in Ireland, 3 & * Retirement of Bishops. In 1856 tlie bishops of London and Durham retired on annuities. The new bishops held their sees subject to future provision. In 1857 the bishop of Norwieh also resigned. t An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created thereupon : this order, as regarded the union of the sees, was rescinded 1846. t The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 1836. BIS 95 BIT 4 Will. IV. c. 37, ])a.ssed Au<>;. 14, 1833. By this statute, of tlic fo-ur archbislioju'ics of Armagh, Dublin, Tuam, ami Cashel, the last two were to be abolished on the decease of the then areh{)relates which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that eight of the tlicn eighteen bisho})rics shouhl, as they became void, be henceforth united to otlier sees, which was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish Church establishment at present consists of two archbishops and ten bishops. BISHOPS or Scotland. They were constituted in the fourth century. Tlie see of St. Andrew’s was founded by llergustus, king of the Piets, who, according to a legendary tale of this prelacy, encouraged the mission of Eegulus, a Greek monk of Patra?, about A.D. 370. Thei'e were two archbishops and twelve bishops. Episcopacy was abolished in 1638 ; but restored by Charles II. 1661, which caused an insurrection. The bishops were deprived of their sees, and ej)iscopacy again abolished in Scotland at the period of the revolution, 1689. There are now, however, seven bishops belonging to the Scotch Episcopal Church who are called post- revolution bishops.* POST-REVOLUTION BISHOPRICS OF SCOTLAND. Aberdeen, re-institnted . Argyll and the Isles, ditto . Brechin . . ditto Edinburgh • . ditto . . 1721 • 1847 • 1731 . 1720 Glasgow and Galloway, re-instituted Moray and Ross . . ditto . St. Andrew’s (late Fife) ditto 1731 1727 1733 BISHOPS, Colonial. The first was the right rev, doctor Samuel Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, November 14, 1784. The bishops of New York and Pennsylvania were consecrated in London, by the archbishop of Canterbury, Feb. 4, 1787, and the bishop of Virginia in 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop of the United States was Dr. Carroll of Maryland, in 1789. By 15 & 16 Viet, c, 52, and 16 & 17 Viet. c. 49, the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal functions in the United Kingdom, but have no jurisdiction. The following Protestant colonial bishoprics have since been established. I Nova Scotia . . 1787 Quebec . . . 1793 Calcutta . . ,1814 ; Barbadoes , .1824 I Jamaica . . . 1824 ' Madras , . .1835 Australia, nowSydny. 1836 Montreal . . . 1836 Bombay . . . 1837 Newfoundland . . 1839 Toronto , . . 1839 Gibraltar . . 1841 Newcastle • 1847 New Zealand . 1841 Sydney (formerly Antigua . . 1842 Australia) . 1847 Guiana . 1842 Rupert’s Land . 1849 Huron . 1842 Victoria . 1849 Tasmania . . 1842 Sierra Leone . . 1852 Columbo . . 1845 Graham’s-town . • 1853 Fredericton . 1845 Natal • 1853 Adelaide . • 1847 Mauritius . . 1854 Cape Town • 1847 Labuan . • 1855 Melbourne . . 1847 Christchurch . 1856 Perth . . . 1856 Brisbane . . . 1859 British Columbia . 1859 Goulbum . . 1859 St. Helena . . . 1859 Waiapu . . , 1859 Melanesian Islands . i860 Kingston, Canada . 1861 Ontario, Canada . 1861 Nassau, Bahamas . 1861 BISHOPS, Precedency of, was settled by statute 31 Hen. VII I. to be next to , viscounts, they being barons of the realm, 1 540 ; and they have the title of Lord and Right Rev. Father in God. The archbishops of Canterbury and York, taking place of all dukes, have the title of Grace. The bishops of London, Durham, and Winchester have precedence of all bishops ; the others rank according to seniority of consecration. I BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal by Agricola, in 1529. It is very fusible \ and brittle, and of a yellowish white colour. ! BISSEXTILE. See Calendar and Leap Year. ‘ BITHYNIA, a province in Asia Minor, previously called Behricia, is said to have been ' invaded by the Thracians under Bithynus, son of Jupiter, who gave it the name of Bithynia. : It was subject successively to the Ass3rrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. Most of t the cities were built by Grecian colonists. The first king of whom we have any knowledge is Dydalsus, who, in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, made himself independent. Dydalsu.s reigns about . . . . b.c. 430 — 440 Botyras, bis son, succeeds 378 Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the Greeks 328 Zipcetas, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . B. c. 326 He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, Nicomedes I., succeeds (he invites the Gauls into Asia) 278 * Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal church of Scotland with that form of it which is now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death. Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrew’s, so called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dumblane (re-instituted in 1731). J Ross (of uncertain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never ^ existed independently until 1847, having been conjoined to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously to that year. Galloway has been added to the see of Glasgow. VAT 96 BLA BITJIYNJA, continued. Who i)oisons himself’ to escape betrayal to the Ilornuns 183 Prusias II., succeeds 180 Nicoinedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns 149 Nieomedes III., sumarned Philopator . . . 91 IJeposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . 88 llestorcd by the Romans 84 Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . 74 Pliny the younger, ijro-consul . . . a.d. 103 The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and make it the seat of their emijire till they pos- sess Constantinople) 1327 The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . 1231 BLACK BOOK* {Liber Niger), a book kept in the exchequer, which received the orders of that court. It was published by Hearn in 1728. BLACK BUEN, Lancashire, so called in Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was superseded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, Janies Hargreaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, for which he was eventually expelled from the county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeoyde availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple trade. BLACK DEATH. See Plagues, 1340. BLACK FRIARS. See Dominican. BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The first stone of this bridge was laid Oct. 31, 1760, and it was completed by Mylne, in 1770, though for some time previously made jiassable. It was the first work of the kind executed in England, in which arches, approach- ing to the form of an elliyisis, were substituted for semicircles. It is about a thousand feet in length and forty-five wide. It was partially rey^aired in 1834 ; but the thorough repair of its arches and yuers was commenced in 1837, and completed Oct. i, 1840, when it was re-oy»ened. Since 1850 the bridge has been gradually sinking, and Mr. J. Cubitt’s design for a new bridge 'V'as acceyited by the city authorities in July 1862. BLACKHEATH, near London. Here AVat Tyler and his followers assembled in 1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 Kentish men encamped, 1451. See Tyler and Cade. Battle of Blackheath, in which the Cornish rebels were defeated and Flannoc’s insurrection quelled, June 22, 1497. The cavern, on the ascent to Blackheath, the retreat of Cade, and the haunt of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-discovered in 1 780. BLACK-HOLE, at Calcutta, On June 18, 1756, 146 British gentlemen, merchants, and others, in the service of the East India Comymny, were seized by order of the nabob, Surajah Dowlah, and thrust into a dungeon, called the “ Black-hole,” in the fort by his soldiers. These latter saw that the place was too small for such a number, but were afraid to awaken the sleeyiing nabob for further orders. One hundred and twenty-three of the sufferers died before morning, having been suffocated by the heat and stench of a dungeon only eighteen feet square. Calcutta was retaken next year, and the nabob was deposed and y)ut to death by his successor. Bolwell’s India Tracts. BLACK LEAD, See Gra'phite. BLACK LETTER, or Gothic Letter, employed in the first printed books in the middle of the 15th century. The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were modified into the present Roman type about 1469 ; Pliny’s Natural History being then printed in the new characters. BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory yiayment made in parts of Scotland by the lowlanders to the highlanders, for the protection of their cattle, existed till within a few months of the outbreak of the rebellion in 1745. It rendered agricultural improvement impossible. BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 1351, “when the hailstones are said to have killed both men and horses, in the army of our king Edward III. in France.” Bailey. “This was a memorable Easter Monday, which in the 34th of Edward III, hayipened to be full dark of mist and hail, and so cold that many men died on their horses’ backs with the cold,” 1351. Blow. In Ireland, Black Monday was the day on which a number of the English w'ere slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. * A book was kept in the English monasteries, wherein details of the scandalous enormities practised in religious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, under Henry VIII. 1535, in order to blacken them and hasten their dissolution : hence possibly the phrase, “ I’ll set you down in the black book.” He rebuilds A stacus, and names itNicomedia b.c. 264 Eielas, son of Nieomedes, reigns . . . . 243 Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is himself put to death, and his son Prusias made king, about 228 Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes several of their cities 223 Pru.sias forms an alliance with the king of Ma- cedon, and marries Apamea, the daughter of ITiilip 208 He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive 1 87 n\A 97 15 LK 1 )LA(’K KOI). Tlio iislior boloii^in^j; to the order of the (Jiirter is so culled from tlio hlack' rod lie eurrii's in his hand. Vowel. Itlias a gold lion at the top, and is carrii'd liy the king’s cliict gentlcinan nshcr, instead of the mace, at the least of St. Gcoi’ge at Windsor, instituted a.d. 1349. Ho also kecjis tlie door when a cliaptcr of the order is sitting, and during the sessions of parliament attends the house ol lords. BLACK SEA, tiik Euxine (Pontus Euxinus of the Ancients), a largo internal sea lying hetween the S.W. ]irovinces of Kussia and Asia Minor, connected with the sea ol Azoll hy the straits of A'enikaliS, and with the sea of Marmora hy the channel of Constantinople. This sea was much frequented hy the Greeks and Italians, till it was closed to all nations hy the Turks after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The Russians obtained admission hy the treaty of Kaiuardji, in 1774. In 1779 it was partially opened to British and other traders, since which time the Kussians gradually obtained the preponderance. It was entered hy the British and French llects, Jan. 3, 1854, at the requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope hy the Russians, Nov, 30, 1853. A dreadful storm in this sea raged from Nov. 13 to 16, 1854, and caused great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores for the allied armies. See Russo- Turkish War . — The Black Sea is now open to the commerce of all nations. BLACKWALL, London. The site of the finest commercial docks and warehouses in the world. See Docks. The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, July 4, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Blackwall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch-street. BLACK AVATCH, armed companies of the loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to watch the Highlands from about 1725 to 1739, when they were formed into the celebrated 42nd regiment. Their removal probably facilitated the outbreak in 1745. They wore dark tartans, and hence were called Black Watch. BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, Aug. 14, 1598, when the Irish chief O’Neal defeated the English under sir Edward Bagnal. Pope Clement VIII. sent O’Neal a con- secrated plume, and granted to his followers the same indulgence as to crusaders. BLANKETEERS, the term applied to a number of operatives who on March 30, 1817, met in St. Peter’s field, near Manchester, many of them having blankets, rugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. They proceeded to march towards London, but were dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their object was to commence a general insurrection. The repressive legislation of the time led to the disturbances at Derby and elsewhere. See Derby. Eventually the ring- leaders had an interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better understanding between the working classes and the government ensued. BLANKETS are said to have been first made at Bristol by T. Blanket, about 1705. BLASPHEMY was punished with death by the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv. 1491 b.c.): and by the code of Justinian, a.d. 529. It is condemned both by the civil and canon law of England. In Scotland the blasphemer’s tongue was cut out ; he was punished with fine and imprisonment, by law, 1696-7. Daniel Isaac Eaton was tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, March 6, 1812. A protestant clergyman, named Robert Taylor, was tried in London twice for the same crime, and as often convicted. Taylor was last brought to the bar, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, and largely fined, for (amongst other things) in his discourses reviling the Redeemer, July, 1831. Even as late as Dec. 1840, two prosecutions against publishers of blasphemous writings subjected the offenders to the sentence of the court of Queen’s Bench. BLAZONRY. The bearing coats-of-arms was introduced, and became hereditary in families in France and England, about a.d. 1192, owing to the knights painting their banners with different figures, thereby to distinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. BLEACHING. This art was known early in Egypt, Sjria, and India, and in aneient Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced it into England and Scotland in 1 768. There are now immense bleach-fields in both countries, particularly in Lancashire and in the counties of Fife, Forfar, and Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbarton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching is due to Berthollet about 1785. Its combination with lime (as chloride of lime) was devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure published an elaborate series of experiments on this substance. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works were placed under the regulations of the Factories’ Act. II 98 BLO BLE BLENHEIM, or Bliiidlieim, in Bavaria, the site of a battle fonglit Aug. 2 (new style, 13), 1704, between the Eiiglisli ami confederates, commanded by the duke of Marlborough, and the Frendi and Bavarians, under marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria, whom l\larn)orough signally defeated, with tlie loss of 27,000 in killed, and 13,000 prisoners, Tallard being among the latter ; the electorate of Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The British nation testified its gi’atitude to the duke by the gifts of the honour of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain and house of Blenheim.* BLIND. By the census of 1851, there were in Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons, 11,273 niales ; 10,214 females : about one blind in 975. The first public school for the blind was established by Valentine Haliy, at Paris, in 1784. The first in England was at Liverpool in 1791 ; in Scotland, in Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or embossed characters for the use of the blind was begun at Paris by Plauy in 1786. The whole bible was jn’inted at Glasgow in raised Roman characters about 1848. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, edited by the rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so eminent for his exertions on behalf of these sufferers, was published in 1855-6. There is hardly any de])artment of human knowledge in which blind persons have not obtained distinction. + Laura Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and blind two years after : she was so well taught by Dr. Howe of Boston, U.S., as to become an able instructor of blind and dumb persons. BLINDING, by consuming the eyeballs with lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In the middle ages the penalty was frequently clianged from total blindness to a diminution of sight. Blinding the conquered was a practice in barbarous states ; and a whole army was deprived of their eyes, by Basilius, in the eleventh century. See Bulgarians. Several of the Eastern emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. See article Eastern Empire. BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 b.c.) made, it is said, of cantharides, which see. BLOCK BOOKS. See Printing. BLOCKADE of the Elbe, by Great Britain, 1803 ; of the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 ; of the gulf of Finland, by the Allies, 1854. See Orders in Council, and Berlin. BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were much improved in their construction by Mr. Ta3'lor, in 1781. In 1801 Mark I. Brunei invented a mode of making blocks which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 was said to have saved the country 20,oool. a-year. BLOOD. The circulation of the blood through the lunsrs was first made public by Michael Servetus, a Spanish ]>hysician, in 1553. Csesalpinus published an account of the general circulation, of which he had some confused ideas, improved afterwards by experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, commonly called Father Paolo, whose real name was Peter Sarpi, certainly discovered the valves which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of the positive discovery of the circulation of the blood belongs to our countryman, Harvey, by whom it was fully confirmed, between 1619 and 1628. Freind's Hist, of Physic. Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix., to the Jews, Lev. xvii. , &c., and to the Gentile con- verts by the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, A.D. 52, Act!^ XV. Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour to the system. Louis XI., in his last illness, drank the warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his decayed strength, 1483. Hen av.lt. In the fifteenth century an opinion prevailed that the declining vigour of the aged might be repaired by TRANSFUSING into their veins the blood of young persons. It was countenanced in France by the physicians about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most fatal effects having en- sued, it was suppressed by an edict. It was at- tempted again in France in 1797, and more recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Med. Journ. “ One English physician, named Louver, or Lower, practised in tMs way ; he died in 1691.” Freind. BLOOD’S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a discarded officer of Oliver Cromwell’s bousebold, with his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his coach, and had got him to Tyburn, intending to hang him, when he was rescued by his friends, Dec. 4, 1670. Blood, afterwards, in the disguise of a clergyman, attempted to steal the regal crown from the Jewel-office in the Tower, May 9, 1671 ; yet notwithstanding these and other offences, he was not only * On Feb. 5, 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which destroyed the “Titian Gallery” and the pictures; the latter, a present from Victor Amadeus, king of Sardinia, to John the great duke of Marlborough. t James Holman, the “blind traveller” (born 1786, died 1857), visited almost everyplace of note in the world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 1858, a blind clergyman. Rev. J. Sparrow, was elected chaplain to the Mercers’ Company, London, and read the service, &c., from embossed books. BLO 99 BOA pardoned, Lut had a pension of 500Z. per annum settled on him by Charles II. 1671. lie died in 1680, in prison, for a libel on the dnke of nuckingliam, BI.OODY ASSIZKS. Those held by Jeffreys in the west of England, in Ang. 1685, after the defeat of the dnke of Monmonth in tlic battle of Sedgmore. U])ward of 300 persons were executed after short trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and fined ; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the American ])lantations, BLOOMER COSTUME. See a note to article Dress. BLOOMSBURY GANO, a cant term apjilied to an influential political party in the reign of George 111., in conseipience of the then duke of Bedford, the chief, being the owner of Bloomsbury sipiare, &c. The inaripiess of Stafford, the last survivor, died Oct. 26, 1803. lU.ORElIEATIT (Staffordshire), Battle of, September 23, 1459, in which the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. A cross commemorates this conflict. BLOWING-MACHIN’ES, the large cylinders, used in blowing-machines, were erected by !Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One equal to the supfdy of air for forty forge fires was erected at the king’s dock-yard, Woolwich. The hot-air blast, a most important improvement, was invented by Mr. James Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. BLOW-PIPE. The origin of this indispensable chemical apparatus is unknown. It was employed in mineralogy, by Andrew von Swab, a Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston and others. In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the agency of ISTewinan’s improved blow-pipes, in 1816, Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, &c. The best work on the blow-pipe is by Plattner and Muspratt, 1854. BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotch covenanters in the i6th century. Blue and orange or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolution in 1688 ; and were adopted on the cover of the whig periodical, the “ Edinburgh Review,” fii’st published in 1802. The Prussian Blue dye was discovered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. BLUE-COAT SCHOOLS, so called in reference to the costume of the children. The Blue-coat school in Hewgate-street, London, is regarded as the first charitable foundation uf the kind in the world ; it was instituted by Edward VI. in 1552. See Christ's Hospital. BLUE-STOCKING, a term applied to literary ladies, was originally conferred on a society of literary persons of both sexes. Benjamin Stillingfleet, the distinguished naturalist, a most active member, always wore blue worsted stockings, and hence the name ; the society existed in 1760 etsrq. Anecd. of Bowyer. The beautiful and fascinating Mrs. Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at the conversaziones of lady Montagu. BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, HEALTH, &c. See Admiralty, Health, &c. BOARD OF CONTROL. Mr. Pitt’s celebrated bill, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial concerns of the company, was passed 24 Geo. III. (May 18, 1784.) Act amended and the board remodelled 33 Geo. III. c. 52 (1793). The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This board was’abolished in 1858, when the government of India was transferred from the company to the crown. See India Bills, and India. BOARD OF TRADE and Plantations. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son Richard, with many lords of his council, judges, and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c., to meet and consider by what means the trade and navigation of the republic might be best promoted. Thomas's Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his restoration, estab- lished a council of trade for keeping a control over the whole commerce of the nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of trade and plantations, which was remodelled by William III. This board was abolished in 1782 ; and anew council for the affairs of trade on its present plan was appointed. Sept. 2, 1786. BOATS. Their invention cannot be traced to any age or country. Flat-bottomed boats were made in England in the reign of William I. The flat-bottomed boat was again brought into use by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690. See Life- Boat. A mode of building boats by the help of the steam-engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of New York in i860, and premises were erected for its application at Bow, near London, in 1861. H 2 BOC 100 BOH BOCCACCIO’S DKCAMEUONE, a collection of a hundred stories or novels (many of an iinnioi'al tcuidency, severely satirising the monks and clergy), feigned to have been related in ten days, during the plague of Elorencc in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313 — 75. A copy of the lirst ('(lition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh’s sale, to the duke of Marlborough, for 2260^., June 17, 1812. This identical copy was afterwards sold by public auction, for 875 guineas, June 5, 1819. BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley (died, 1612). It is open to the public, and claims a copy of all works published in this country. For rare works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the Vatican. BfEOTIA, a political division of Greece, north of Attica, Thebes, the capital, was equally celebrated for its antiquity, its grandeur, and the exploits and misfortunes of its kings and heroes. The country was known successively as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, Ogygia, Cadmeis, and Boeotia. From the general character of the inhabitants, the term Boeotian was used by the Athenians as a synonym for dulness ; but unjustly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, Epaminoiidas, and the accomplished and beautiful Corinna, were natives of Bceotia, Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea {Hales, 1494 ; Clinton, 1313) ..... b.c. 1493 Beign of Polydore 1459 Labdachus ascends the throne .... 1430 Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and de- throne Laius 1388 CEdipus, not knowing his father Laius, kills him in an affray, confirming the oracle fore- telling his death by the hands of his son . 1276 CEdipus said to encounter the Sphinx and resolve her enigmas 1266 War of the Seven Captains 1225 Thebes besieged and taken 1213 Thersander reigns 1 198 ; slain . . . , 1 193 The Thebans abolish royalty, and ages of obscurity follow, about 1120 The Thebans fight with the Persians against the Greeks at Platsea 479 Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the Athenians b.c. 447 The Thebans under Bpaminondas and Pelopidas enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against Sparta 377 Bpaminondas defeats the Lacedaemonians at Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence 371 Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynoscephalse . 364 Bpaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is slain ........ 362 Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and Athenians near Chaeronea . . . 338 Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of Pindar 335 Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of Greece ; and was conquered by the Turks under Mahomet II a.d. 1456 See Thebes. BOGS, commonly tlie remains of fallen forests, covered with peat and loose soil. Moving bogs are slips of land carried to lower levels by accumulated water. Of recent acts, one relating to Ireland for their drainage, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that of Scotland at upwards of 2,000,000 ; and that of England at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, Mr. Rees Reece took out a patent for certain valuable products from Irish peat. Candles and various other articles produced from peat have been since sold in London. BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian Forest, — Boiemum. Tacitus. This country derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe. It was originally governed by dukes, till the title of king was obtained from the emperor Henry IV., in 1061, by Wratislaus II. It was not finally retained until 1199 by Ottocar I. The kings at first held their territory from the empire, but they at length threw off the yoke : and the crown was elective till it came to the house of Austria, in which it is now hereditary. This kingdom has suffered much from contending armies and civil wars ; its capital, Prague, is famous in modern history for sieges and battles. Population in 1857, 4,705,525. Prague. Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bo- hemia, on the death of Podiebrad . a.d. 1471 The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of Louis the late king, and obtains the crown 1527 The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the Pro- testants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector- palatine, elected king . . . Sept. 5, 1619 Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flies to Holland Nov. 9, 1620 The crown secured to the Austrian family by the treaty of 1648 Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . . 1742 Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 The Prussians victorious over Prague . May 6, 1757 Revolt of the peasantry 1775 Bdict of Toleration promulgated . . . . 1781 The French occupy Prague . . .1806 See Germany. The Slavonians seize Bohemia about . .a.d. 550 City of Prague founded 795 Introduction of Christianity .... 894 Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III., who spreads devastation through the country 1041 Reign of Ottocar II., who invades Prussia . . 1255 Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph, and deprived of Austria, Styria, and Carniola 1277 King John (6 slain at the battle of Cre Sulphuric acid .212° ,, I Phosphorus . 187° Fahr. . 600° ,, • 554° Oil of turpentine . Sulphur . Mercury . 312° Fahr. . 822° „ . 662° ,, BOILING TO Death, made a capital punishment in England, by statute 22 Henry VIII., 1530. This act was occasioned by seventeen persons having been poisoned by John Roose, the bishop of Rochester’s cook, two of whom died. Poisoning was made treason, and it was enacted to be punished by boiling the criminal to death ! Margaret Davie, a young woman, suffered in the same manner for a similar crime, in 1541. BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a battle between the British and the French republican army, in which the British were defeated, and forced to abandon their position and retreat to Schyndel, Sept. 14, 1794. This place was captured by the French, Oct. 10 following ; it surrendered to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in 1814. BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, formerly part of Peru ; was declared inde- pendent, Aug. 6, and took the name of Bolivia, in honour of General Bolivar, Aug. ii, 1825. Slavery was abolished in 1836. General Sucre governed ably from 1826-8 ; Santa Cruz ruled from 1828 to 1834 ; after which many disorders occurred. In 1853 free trade was proclaimed. General Cordova was president 1855-7, succeeded by the dictator Jos^ Maria Linares, March 31, 1859. In i860, Gen, George Cordova became constitutional president, succeeded by Jos6 M. de Acha, in 1861. Population in 1855, 2,326,126 ; — in 1858, 1,987,352. The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by Tujiac Amaru Andres, took place here in 1780-2. BOLLANDISTS. Acta Sanctorum. BOLOGNA, a city in central Italy, the ancient Bononia, distinguished for its magnificent specimens of architecture. University founded by Theodosius . a.d. 433 Bologna joins the Lombard league . . . 1167 Pope Julius II. takes Bologna; enters in truxmph Nov. ii, 1506 It becomes part of the States of the Church . 1515 In the chxirch of St. Petronius, remarkable for its pavement, Cassini drew his meridian hne(over one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) 1653 Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the pope in . . . . . a.d. 1815 A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 1831 The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Ferretti departs ; the citizens rise and form a provisional government . . June 12, 1859 Which decrees that aU pubhc acts shall be headed “ Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel,” &c Oct. i, i860 He enters Bologna as sovereign . . May 2, — BOMARSUND, a strong fortress on one of the Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided by the French military con- tingent under general Baraguay d’Hilliers, Aug. 16, 1854. The governor Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became prisoners . The fortifications were destroyed. BOM 102 BOO BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of our Indian presidencies, was visited by the rorturrucse in 1509, and acquired by them in about 1530. It was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000^. in money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the infanta, Catherine of Tortugal, 1661. In 1668, it was graTited to the East India Company, who had long desired it, “in free and common socage,” as of the manor of East Gieenwich, at an annual rent of \ol. Confirmed by William 111. 1689. The two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees (descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worshippers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts to Islamism). They are both remarkable for commercial activity. Mr. Gyfford, deputy-governor, 100 soldiens, and other English perish through the elimate, Get. 1675 — Feb. 1676. Cai)tain Keigwin usurps the government 1681-84 Bombay made ehief over the company’s settle- ments 1687 The whole island, except the fort, seized and held for a time by the mogul’s admiral . . 1690 Bombay becomes a distinct jiresidency . . 1708 Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancoot river, 1756 ; island of yalsette . . . . 1775 Population of the presidency, 12,034,483 . . 1858 The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee (who erected several hospitals, dies April 15, 1859 His son, sir Cursetjee, visits England . . . i860 Rioting against the income tax suppressed, Nov. & Dec. — BOMBS (shells of iron filled with gunpowder), said to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495 ; used by the Turks at the siege of Khodes in 1522. They came into general use in 1634, having been previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. Bomb-vessels were invented in France in 1681. Voltaire. The shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode before it reaches the enemy ; a thirteen-inch bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs. BONAPAKTE FAMILY, &c. France, i793» and BONDAGE, or Villanage. See Villanage. BONE-SETTING cannot be said to have been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. BONES. The art of softening bones was discovered about 1688, and they were used in the cutlery manufacture, &c., immediately afterwards. The declared value of the bones of cattle and of other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c., amounts annually to more than 300,000^. (in 1851 about 32,000 tons). Bone-dust has been extensively employed in manure since the publication of Liebig's researches in 1840. BONHOMMES, hermits of simple and gentle lives, appeared in France about 1257 ; in England about 1283. The prior of the order was called le bon homme, by Louis VI., and hence the name. Du Fresnoy. BONN, a town on the Rhine, founded by the Romans, belonged to the elector of Cologne till its capture by the French in 1802. It was assigned to Prussia in 1814. The Prince Consort of England was a student at the university, founded in i8i8. BOOK OF SPORTS. See Sports. BOOKS (Anglo-Saxon, hoc; German, huch). Books were originally made of boards, or the inner bark of trees : afterwards of skins, for which latter, parchment was substituted. Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented by Attains, king of Pergamus, about 198 B.C., at which time books were in volumes or rolls. The MSS. in Herculaneum consist of Papyrus, rolled and charred and matted together by the fire, and are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. The Pentateuch of Moses and the history of Job are the most ancient in the Avorld ; and in profane literature the poems of Homer and Hesiod. The first Printed Books were printed on one side only, the leaves being pasted back to back. The first known printed book was the Boole of Psalms, by Faust and Schoeffer his son-in-law, Aug. 14, 1457. Faust began in 1450 an edition of the Bible, which was finished in 1460. The second printed book was Cicero de Officiis, 1466. Blair. The first book printed in England was The Game and Play of the Chesse, by Caxton, 1474. Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to be destroyed in England as being infected with magic, 6 Edw. VI. 1552. Stow. In 1839, 2032 volumes of new works and 773 of new editions were published in London; and in 1852, 3359 new works and 1159 new editions, exclusive of pamphlets, of which 908 were published in that year. In Paris, 6445 volumes were published in 1842 ; and 7350 in 1851. See Bibliography, and Printing, BOOKS, Prices of. Jerome (who died 420) states that he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for one on cosniogra])hy, about 872. The Roman de la Rose was sold for about 30^. ; and a homily was exchanged for 200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently fetched double or treble their weight BOO 103 BOR ill gold. They sohl at prices varying from lo^ to 40Z. each, in 1400. In our own times, the value ol’ some volumes is very great. A copy ol‘ Maddins Bible, ornamented by Mr. Tomkins, was declared worth 5