PRIMARY 
 
 SYSTEMATIC 
 
 HUMAN 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, 
 
 AND 
 
 hygiene: 
 
 A NEW AND IMPROVED METHOD OF ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION, BOTH 
 SIMPLE AND COMPLETE, PRACTICAL AND INTERESTING, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE USE OF YOUNG SCHOLARS. 
 
 ftotg gtoto attir tablet* lltotratim 
 
 BY 
 
 T. S. LAMBERT, M. D. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 WILLIAM WOOD & CO., m- WALKER STREET. 
 
 186 7 . 
 
For Preface and how to teach the Subject, see last page 
 of book. 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by 
 T. 8. LAMBERT, 
 
 In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 
 
 JOHN F. TROW & CO., 
 
 PRINTERS, STEREOTYPERS, fy ELECTROTYPERS, 
 
511 
 l nsp 
 
 PRIMARY, 
 
 SYSTEMATIC 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY, AND HYGIENE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ~ INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 1. IP A FATHER SHOULD MAKE A BIRTHDAY PRESENT 
 OF A WATCH TO A YOUNG SON OR DAUGHTER, (I hope 
 
 every boy and girl will some day receive this pleasing 
 and useful present,) ought he not at once to teach the 
 child how to wind it, set the hands, &c. ? 
 
 2. If the father should teach the child how to 
 
 TAKE CARE OF AND USE THE WATCH, not to Open it 
 
 oftener than necessary because of dust getting into it, 
 
 Questions. — The dash in the questions signifies that the capitalized words 
 of the corresponding paragraph are to be used in place of the dash. Example : 
 
 1. — what ought he to do ? should be read, Ip a father should mare a birth- 
 day present OP A WATCH TO A YOUNG SON OR DAUGHTER, what OUght he to do ? 
 
 2. What would be the effect — ? should be read, What would be the effect 
 
 IP THE FATHER SHOULD TEACH THE CHILD HOW TO TAKE CARE OP AND USE TflE 
 
 watch? 3. What — ? should be read, What has every child received? 
 The position of the verb in this case is changed a little. Sometimes a word 
 must be thus changed, or one added, or one dropped* The object of the in. 
 vention was to question the paragraphs thoroughly , and yet occupy but little 
 space. The method effects the object admirably. 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 not to breathe into it because the moist breath might 
 rust it, &c., and the child should give heed to what he 
 was told, would not the watch last longer and keep 
 better time ? 
 
 3. Every child has received a birthday present 
 of much more value than a watch ; I mean, his own 
 body. 
 
 4. If a child learns to take care of his body, 
 will it not be likely to last him longer, and serve him 
 better, than if he knows nothing about it ? Of course 
 it will ; and, therefore, every one, even while young, 
 should learn such things as are in this book. 
 
 5. If any child should receive a present of a 
 watch, would it not be very strange if he should hear it 
 tick, and see the hands move over the face, day after 
 day, without wishing to have the watch opened and 
 the causes of the sounds and of the motion explained ? 
 
 6. The body that every child has is much more 
 curiously made than any watch. A child’s hands and 
 arms can not only move round in a circle, but also in 
 many different ways ; indeed, one finger of a child’s 
 hand is more curious than both hands of a watch, with 
 all their moving wheels. 
 
 7 . If the ear is placed over the breast a little 
 to the left of its centre, a very distinct, pleasant sound 
 will be heard, repeated a little oftener than once in a 
 second. 
 
 8. This regular, frequent sound heard in the 
 chest is caused by the heart — a small organ about as 
 large as a man’s fist. It is one of the most useful parts 
 of the body, because it drives the blood through all 
 parts. 
 
 9. Fig. 1 shows a picture of a heart, 5, snugly 
 nestled between the lungs on each side. The breast- 
 
 4. What effect — ? 5. What would be strange — ? 6. What is said of — ? 
 7. What is heard — ? 8. By what is — ? Why is the heart one of the most 
 useful organs ? 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 3 
 
 bone and the front ends of the ribs have been taken 
 away, and the heart is close under them ; that is the 
 reason it can be heard so plainly. 
 
 Fig. 1. ' 
 
 10. Every one who has not before done it, should 
 place his ear over the heart and listen to its sounds. 
 They will cause more pleasure than any child ever en- 
 joyed in hearing a watch tick, especially if it is known 
 how very faithfully the heart will do its duty. 
 
 11. This little active worker will never tire 
 during a long life; night and day, till even more than 
 
 9. What does Fig. 1 show ? Is not 8 also upon the heart ? 10. What should 
 every one do if he has not done it before ? 11. How does — work ? For 
 
 what does it work so constantly ? 
 
4 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 a hundred years pass away, it will work on — and with 
 what surprising regularity ! — to give life and health, and 
 warmth and comfort to all parts of the body, throbbing 
 or beating more than four thousand times per hour 
 during all the hours of the longest life. 
 
 12. But if a child should receive a present of 
 a nice watch, it would wish to learn the names 
 of its chief parts. It would not like to call the “ key 55 
 a winder, nor the “ .crystal ” a window ; for though the 
 words would be understood, they would not sound well, 
 because they are not generally used in that way. 
 
 13. Every one should learn the proper names of 
 those parts of the body that are most important and 
 most frequently spoken of ; for, if a person knows the 
 proper names of objects, he will be prepared to hear or 
 to read about them at any time, and he will appear 
 creditably if he speaks about them. 
 
 14. Every child seeing a watch opened, will 
 wish to know what the parts are for, and will enjoy a 
 pleasure in learning ; because knowledge is so very 
 useful to us, that it has been made very pleasant for him 
 to gain knowledge. 
 
 15. Every child will be still more interested 
 to learn how we breathe, drink, and eat ; what be- 
 comes of the air, water, and food, of which three things 
 every boy or girl in a year uses as much as two horses 
 could draw; also how we walk, run, talk, wink, sneeze, 
 and cough ; how we hear, see, smell, &c. ; how we grow, 
 keep warm, and a hundred such things. 
 
 16. There is another very important reason 
 why every child should study, and in the right manner, 
 the subjects upon which this book treats. 
 
 17. It will be difficult for a young person to 
 fully understand this reason ; but he should try to 
 
 12. What — ? 13. What — ? Why ? 14. What will — ? Why ? 15. What 
 will — ? Why ? 1G. — for what ? 17. Though — what should he try to do ? 
 
 Why try to understand the reason for studying ? 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 5 
 
 do so in part, because it will give him courage to learn 
 everything thoroughly ; therefore, I will try to explain 
 the reason as clearly as possible. 
 
 18. Most things wear out by use; some, like a 
 plow, or axle, are at first improved by use, but soon 
 begin to wear out. 
 
 19. Our minds by proper use are improved to a 
 wonderful degree — indeed, to a degree almost beyond 
 belief. 
 
 20. One of the best improvements that can be 
 produced in the mind, is to have it become unwilling to 
 do anything for which the reason is not plain, and to 
 ask a reason for everything it does. 
 
 21. The study of our bodies in the right man- 
 ner, is the very best of studies, because it shows 
 so clearly that every part of the body was made for a 
 purpose, and that there is a good cause and reason for 
 everything and every action in the body. 
 
 . 22. It is natural to suppose, therefore, that a 
 mind that learns so many whys and wherefores as 
 this study can give, will, from habit, be very apt to 
 seek for a cause and reason for everything else. 
 
 23. As the mind studies the uses of the dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, many of them are found to 
 be alike ; these are put together in a class, or classified. 
 
 24. These classes are found to act upon each 
 other, and thus the classes are classified, in an orderly 
 or systematic manner ; which means, that all the parts 
 act together to gain a desired and intended result — as 
 the wheels of a watch act together systematically to 
 cause the hands to show the time. Now this action of 
 the mind in classifying is one of the most important, 
 as well as one of the most useful, as a habit, that can be 
 practised. But, again, to class things according to their 
 
 18. Effect of use upon — ? 19. Effect of activity upon — ? 20. What is — ? 
 21. Why is — ? 22. What — ? 23. What result — ? 24. How are — ? What 
 does the mind the greatest good ? 
 
PLATE 6 
 
 6 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 7 
 
 ■use or action upon each other, does the mind the 
 greatest good. 
 
 25. The plate-page 6 is introduced to illustrate 
 what is meant by classifying systematically. It is num- 
 bered 6, because it occurs systematically after the 5 
 plate-pages that it represents in a condensed manner. 
 This and other plate-pages, when used, will be numbered 
 according to their natural order. 
 
 26. Fig. 1 (plate-page 6) represents the skeleton 
 or framework of the body, composed of parts similar 
 to each other in most respects, though differing in 
 some. 
 
 27. The skeleton is found from head to foot ; it 
 supports all parts, and protects some ; its parts are 
 united by joints, most of which allow motion of one 
 part upon another. 
 
 28. Fig. 2 (plate-page 6) represents the muscles, 
 clothing the skeleton from head to foot. 
 
 29. The muscles are the lean meat ; their use is to 
 produce motion, chiefly of different parts of the skeleton 
 to which they are attached. (See plate-pages 1 and 2 
 for more distinct views of the skeleton and muscles.) 
 
 30. Fig. 3 represents (see plate-pages 3 and 3*) 
 the nerves extending between the brain and every other 
 part of the body. 
 
 31. The nerves are, singly, so small that they 
 cannot be seen by the naked eye ; of course, the white 
 pulpy cords represented in the picture are bundles of the 
 single nerves, that, millions in number, connect every 
 part of the body with the brain. They are so numerous, 
 that the point of the finest cambric needle cannot prick 
 through the skin without piercing one or more. 
 
 32. When the mind wtsiles to move any part of 
 the body, all that is necessary for it to do is to send 
 
 25. Why introduce — ? 26. What does — ? 27. Where is — ? 28. WTiat 
 
 does — ? 29. What — ? 30. 'Whatdoes— ? 31. What — ? 32. What neces- 
 
 sary — ? 
 
INTKODU CTORY, 
 
 8 
 
 PLATE 1. 
 
INTRODUCTORY, 9 
 
 PLATE 2. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 11 
 
 PLATE 5. 
 
12 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 an influence, as it is called, from the brain through a 
 nerve to the muscles, causing them to contract and 
 relax, and thus move the parts of the skeleton to which 
 they grow. 
 
 Remark. — The words “ contract ” and “ relax ” have 
 a peculiar meaning. When a muscle contracts it be- 
 comes shorter ; and when it relaxes it stops contracting, 
 and can be easily extended, 
 
 33. Illustration. — If the mind wishes to raise the 
 hand, it sends down an influence to a muscle on the 
 front part of the upper arm, which muscle, by shortening, 
 draws up the lower arm. This action of the muscle 
 can be felt by grasping the front part of the upper arm, 
 and then raising the lower arm : try it. 
 
 34. Fig. 4 (plate-page 6) represents the skin — a 
 kind of bag containing the three other parts, protecting 
 them, and forming a beautiful finish or surface upon 
 them. It serves also several other useful purposes. 
 
 35. But the skeleton, muscles, and nerves must 
 grow, be kept warm, and in good repair, for which they 
 need a constant supply of blood. 
 
 36. Fig. 6 (plate-page 6) represents blood-tubes 
 (see plate-pages 5 and 5*) extending between the heart 
 and all parts of the body. 
 
 37. The blood-tubes are tubes of three different 
 kinds — some as large as a man’s thumb, and others so 
 small that they cannot be seen by the naked eye, and 
 so numerous that the smallest needle cannot prick the 
 skin without piercing one or more, and causing a flow 
 of blood. 
 
 38. The eye easily teaches that a very large 
 part of the body and some whole members of it are 
 made of the four kinds of organs just described. 
 
 39. Look at the pictures, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, 
 
 33. How does the mind raise the hand ? 34. What does — ? 35. What 
 
 do — need? 36. What does—? 37. What arc — ? 38. What docs — ? 
 
 39. What learned of the arm by a — ? 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 13 
 
 (plate-page 6,) and see how many different kinds of 
 organs compose an arm. 
 
 40. By running our eyes across those five 
 
 Figures of plate-page 6, or over the plate-pages 1, 2, 3, 
 and 5, we shall see that an arm is composed of (Fig. 1) 
 skeleton, (Fig. 2) muscles, (Fig. 3) nerves, (Fig. 4) skin, 
 (Fig. 5) blood-tubes ; or the 
 
 Arm 
 
 r Skeleton, 
 
 Muscles, 
 
 -< Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 [ Blood-Tubes . 
 
 Addition 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood- Tubes. 
 
 Arm. Leg. 
 
 41. This is speaking of the organs of the arm 
 in the order of their use or action, or systematically or 
 Physiologically* 
 
 42. We might notice these organs according to 
 their positions, or Anatomically — as skeleton, muscles, 
 skin ; or skin, muscles, skeleton ; and then nerves and 
 blood-tubes ; or these might be noticed with each of 
 the kinds of larger organs in which they are found, and 
 of which, in one sense, they form a part. 
 
 43* Why both the nerves and blood-tubes 
 should be extended through the skeleton, muscles, 
 and skin so numerously, will be evident from Figs. 2 
 and 3, as it is there seen that the nerves and blood-tubes 
 connect all parts with two centres in the body. 
 
 44. Fig. 2 represents a few out of millions of 
 nerves extending between the various parts of the body 
 and the brain situated in the head. This is a back view. 
 
 45. Fig. 3 represents one set of blood-tubes called 
 arteries, leading out from the heart — a centre situated 
 in the chest — into all parts of the body ; another set of 
 tubes called veins (see plate-page 5) leads the blood 
 back from all parts to the heart, or centre. 
 
 40. How many and what organs shall we find — ? 41. In what order 
 
 is — ? 42. How — ? 43. Why — ? 44. What does — ? 45. What docs — ? 
 
 What is said of another set of blood-tubes called veins ? 
 
14 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 15 
 
 Fig. 3 illustrates one 
 class of blood tubes, 
 called arteries, com- 
 mencing at H, the 
 heart, and dividing 
 and subdividing, ac- 
 cording to the mem- 
 bers, until all parts ot 
 the body are reached, 
 where they terminate 
 in the next class. The 
 capillaries are a net* 
 work of hair-like tubes, 
 too small to be seen by 
 the naked eye, into 
 which the arteries pour 
 their contents. They 
 are more numerous in 
 the brain than in any 
 other part. From the 
 capillaries the veins 
 commence (see PI. 5), 
 and uniting together, 
 and also receiving the 
 contents of the fourth 
 class of tubes, they at 
 last open into another 
 part of the heart, from 
 whence the arteries 
 lead out. The fourth 
 class of tubes, called 
 lymphatics (see PI. 5*), 
 commences in every 
 part except the brain 
 and nerves , and open 
 into the veins, and 
 thus their contents find 
 their w T ay to the heart. 
 
 46. The two Figs. 2 and 3 show very plainly the 
 important fact that there are two centres in the body, 
 and that there are two different means, (one, tubes or 
 blood-vessels ; the other, cords or nerves,) connecting 
 the centres with all parts of the body. 
 
 46. What do — ? What is the centre in the Head, with which all the 
 nerves connect, called ? What is the centre at II., Fig. 3, from which the great 
 blood-tube starts out, called ? 
 
16 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 17 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 47. The Figs. 1 , 2, and 4 of plate-page 6 show 
 that all the outer parts of the body are composed of 
 skeleton, muscles, and skin, with the connecting nerves 
 and blood-tubes. 
 
 48. We will illustrate this still further by 
 several Figures representing the outer parts — sides or 
 walls of the head. 
 
 47. What does Fig. 1 (plate-page 6) represent ? What does Fig. 2 (plate- 
 page 6) represent ? What does Fig. 4 (plate-page 6) represent ? What do 
 “ outer parts of the body” include ? 48. How shall — ? 
 
18 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 49. Fig. 4 represents a view of the skull — the 
 skeleton of the Head. The upper part of the skull, con- 
 taining the Brain, as in a case or box, is called the Cra- 
 nium ; the lower and front part, forming the sockets 
 of the eyes, the passages of the nostrils, and the cavity 
 of the mouth, is called the Facium. 
 
 50. Fig. 5 represents the muscles of the side of 
 the head and face, some of which can be felt under the 
 skin when they cause the motions for which they are 
 intended. 
 
 51. Fig. 6 represents, in a very beautiful manner, 
 several bundles of nerves leading from the skin and 
 the muscles just below it, inward to the great centre 
 where the mind has its seat. 
 
 52. The skin also is represented in Fig. 6 at 
 the margin of the picture, as if the skin had been cut 
 through on a line with the centre of the nose, and re- 
 moved from the side of the head and face. 
 
 53. Fig. 7 represents the skin as forming the 
 margin of the picture ; 5, 6, and its branches, represent 
 blood-tubes proper ; while the small beaded net-work of 
 tubes, and the small bodies with which they are con- 
 nected in the neck, represent lymphatics, or white 
 blood-tubes, as they are sometimes called. 
 
 54. These large, beautiful pictures of the 
 walls of the head show that, like the arm, the Head- 
 walls are composed of a skeleton, muscles, nerves, skin, 
 and blood-tubes. 
 
 55. The student should now look at the Figures 
 of plate 6, and- state the kinds of organs composing the 
 lower limbs, trunk, walls, and neck, naming each kind 
 distinctly, and writing them out, as in case of the arm. 
 
 56. The student should make a synopsis of the 
 construction of the walls of the head, the neck, the walls 
 
 49. What does — ? 50. What does — ? 51. What does Fig 6 — ? 52. — 
 
 how? 53. What does — ? 54. What do — ? 55. — do what ? 56. Of what — ? 
 What does this synopsis mean ? 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 19 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 7 rep- 
 resents a sec- 
 tion of the 
 skin, the right 
 half remov 
 ed; superficial 
 Blood - tubes 
 of the Right 
 Head ; the 
 darker net- 
 work, veins ; 
 the beaded 
 net-work the 
 lymphatics, 
 connected be- 
 low the ear 
 with small 
 organs, called 
 the lymphat- 
 ic glands. 
 
 of the trunk, the lower limbs, the upper limbs, (and the 
 larynx,) thus : 
 
 HEAD-WALLS, 
 
 Neck, 
 
 Truisk-walls, 
 lower limbs, 
 upper limbs, 
 larynx, 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes . 
 
 Skeleton, 
 
 Muscles, 
 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood- Tithes. 
 
 Addition . . . 
 
 HEAD-WALLS. 
 
 What do you think is the reason for writing part of the words in the table 
 without any capital letters ? What can you construct from Skeleton, Muscles, 
 Nerves , Skin, and Blood-Tubes? 
 
20 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 This means, that the parts named betore the first 
 brace are each composed of all the organs mentioned 
 after the last brace. Let it be noticed, that head- 
 walls and trunk-walls are in different type from the 
 other names, so also are nerves and blood-tubes. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes. 
 
 Neck. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 
 Muscles, 
 
 Nerves, 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 
 Muscles, 
 
 Nerves, 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood-Tubes. 
 
 Skeleton, 
 Muscles, 
 Nerves , 
 
 Skin, 
 
 Blood- Tubes . 
 
 Trunk-walls, lower limbs, upper limbs. larynx. 
 
 57. The student should be questioned, and 
 should write tables upon the compositions of his fingers, 
 thumbs, and other parts, until he becomes perfectly 
 familiar with the five kinds of organs that form such a 
 large part of the body, and where they are to be found. 
 He should commence with the surface of his arm, and 
 name in their order the parts to be found in a line 
 through its centre ; so with other parts of the body. 
 
 58. He should be also questioned in regard to 
 them, so that he will become familiar with their mode 
 and order of action ; that is, he should be asked the use 
 of each kind of organ every time that it is mentioned. 
 
 59. The student should be asked how large a 
 part of the body, in size or weight, these five kinds of 
 organs compose. He can judge by looking over the 
 Figures of plate-page 6. 
 
 60. He will thus perceive that a very large 
 
 PART OF THE BODY WAS INTENDED TO PRODUCE motion 
 
 of one kind or another ; for muscles are intended to 
 produce motion. 
 
 61. All parts of the body have been intended 
 for active use, and made in such a manner that active 
 
 56. — what ? What should be noticed ? Why is it so ? 57. How 
 
 should —? Name the parts of the arm in their order. 58. How should — ? 
 59. What should — ? How can he judge ? 60. — what ? 61. For what — ? 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 21 
 
 use keeps them in the best health, and every way in 
 the best condition for use.* 
 
 62. It is natural therefore to conclude that a 
 great deal of muscular exercise will be necessary to 
 keep in health so large a portion of the body as has 
 been made solely for motion. 
 
 63. If the student has rightly studied this 
 LONG ILLUSTRATION AND ACCOMPANYING PICTURES, he 
 has learned a great deal of Physiology, Anatomy, and 
 Hygiene — much more than he is aware. There is, in 
 fact, a whole volume of Physiology and Anatomy in 
 plate-page 6. It expresses facts of great importance 
 to remember. 
 
 64. The intention was to present by this illus- 
 tration, in an attractive manner, a brief and striking 
 outline-idea of the chief parts of the body, and famil- 
 iarize the student with them in the outset, as well 
 as to show him how well and systematically he can 
 classify them. 
 
 65. It was also thought to be especially im- 
 portant to have him perceive, that each part is made 
 
 * Remake. — There is a great difference between the expressions health 
 and the best condition for use ; if the latter is true of a jjart, the former also 
 must be ; but a part may be in health and not in a condition for its desirable 
 use. Upon this matter a very incorrect idea prevails, since it is usually 
 thought, that if a part is in health, it is in the beet condition for use, and 
 also, that the better the condition for use in which any part is, so much the 
 more healthy it is ; and, therefore, it is thought that bringing a part into this 
 better condition improves health. But the right arm of the blacksmith is no 
 more healthy than his left arm ; both are healthy, but the former in the better 
 condition for strength. Therefore, only a certain degree of activity is neces- 
 sary to health ; and the bounds of health have a great latitude within which 
 parts may be adapted to the various conditions required of them for use. 
 Indeed, sometimes, by bringing part s into a condition that is necessary for use, 
 the health may be injured. For example : a man in making himself very 
 strong, might take so much of his time and of his blood in exercising his 
 muscles, that other parts must suffer. 
 
 62. What about exercise ? 63. What has been learned — ? 64. What was 
 
 it — ? 65. What was — ? Remark.— What is the difference between the ex- 
 pressions health and best condition for use ? 
 
22 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 on account of a use for which it is necessary, and made 
 in a way that will exactly fulfil its use ; since — 
 
 66. If a student is to study most successfully, 
 
 AND WITH GREATEST INTEREST, THE VARIOUS PARTS OF 
 
 the body, he must first seek to know their use, and 
 what it is desirable they should do ; then he can easily 
 learn how they are adapted to do it, and how to keep 
 them in such a condition that they can do it most 
 perfectly. 
 
 67 . This is the true way in which to study the 
 body, giving all the advantage of learning it the most 
 completely, and also the still higher advantage of im- 
 proving the mind to the highest degree. 
 
 Remark. — If a boy should say he was about to 
 make something, and should ask what he should make 
 it of, and how he should make it, the reply would be a 
 question, asking .him what that which he intended to 
 make was to be, or what it was to be for. If he should 
 be asked what it was to be, the object would be to learn 
 what it was for ; for if he should reply that it was to be 
 a bow, every one would know what it was to be for? 
 viz., to shoot with ; to know what it was to be for, 
 would be necessary, in order to answer him correctly. 
 He could then be told what he must get, and how he 
 must shape it ; he would be told that he must get some 
 tough, springy, or elastic wood, like hickory, that could 
 be very much bent without breaking. If the use of 
 anything is not known, what it is must first be studied, 
 in order to learn what it may be for — and, perhaps, ex- 
 periments must be tried ; but if its use is known, we can 
 best learn hoAV it is made, and how it is to be used, if 
 we are first told its use, as we can then experience 
 much pleasure in learning the adaptation of its struc- 
 ture to its use. 
 
 66. — what must he do ? 67. What is — ? Remark. — What is first neces- 
 sary to make anything ? Which do we desire to learn first — the use or the 
 structure of anything ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MAN INTO MIND AND BODY. 
 
 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MAN INTO MIND AND BODY. 
 
 68. The fiest thing to be leaened about the 
 body is, that it is made for the use of the mind, to which 
 it is a servant. 
 
 69. Many seem to think the body is the master and 
 the mind the servant, for they expend all their time and 
 money in adorning the body, and neglect their minds. 
 They seem to think the houses they live in and the 
 clothes they wear are of much greater importance than 
 the thoughts they have or the words they speak. 
 
 70. I hope to show eveey child that the common 
 idea is wrong, by showing him that every part of the 
 body is really made for the purpose of serving the mind. 
 
 71. The mind caees foe the body, in order that it 
 may serve the mind the better ; and the better the body is 
 cared for, the better can the mind use it for any purpose. 
 
 72. It must theeefoee be foolish to spend time 
 and money on the body, and leave the mind in ignorance ; 
 quite as foolish as it would be for a people to well feed, 
 finely clothe, and securely shelter the servant of a king, 
 and leave the king himself in abject poverty ; or to 
 bestow great honor on the soldiers of an army, and 
 leave the general a beggar. 
 
 What is the topic of Chapter II. ? 68. What is — ? 69. What do — ? 
 
 70. What does the author — ? 71. Why should — ? 72. How is it foolish to 
 spend time ? 
 
24 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MAN INTO MIND AND BODY. 
 
 73. Therefore, the first proposition in phy- 
 siology is, that every person has a mind and body ; or, 
 in brief, 
 
 Man = Mind + Body : or Man = j 
 
 74. The last expression might be read : Every 
 man (meaning all mankind, women and children in- 
 cluded) equals a mind and body added ; or man em- 
 braces both mind and body. 
 
 75. An exercise in addition and subtraction 
 may be made by writing one word above the other, as 
 below : 
 
 
 Mind 
 
 
 Man 
 
 Man 
 
 
 Body 
 
 
 Mind 
 
 Body 
 
 Addition . , 
 
 , . . 
 
 Subtraction . 
 
 . . . 
 
 — 
 
 
 Man 
 
 
 Body 
 
 Mind 
 
 76. Thbt 
 
 SECOND 
 
 PROPOSITION 
 
 is, that 
 
 the body 
 
 should be studied on account of the mind, and for the 
 purpose of learning how the body and all its parts can 
 be best made to serve the mind, and make it more useful 
 and happier. 
 
 77. To LEARN HOW TO MAKE THE BODY MOST USEFUL 
 TO THE MIND, WE MUST LEARN, 1st, the USeS of the 
 various parts of the body ; 2d, how they are construct- 
 ed ; 3d, how to keep them in such a condition that they 
 will be best adapted to fulfil their purposes. 
 
 78. Our study has therefore three branches — 
 departments or divisions ; and names have been given 
 to each. 
 
 79. Physiology is the name given to that branch 
 that treats upon the uses of the parts of living 
 things. 
 
 80. Human Physiology treats therefore upon the 
 uses of the different parts of the Human Body. 
 
 81. Anatomy is the name given to that branch that 
 
 73. What — ? 74. How might the table below be read ? 75. How may — ? 
 
 76. What is — ? 77. — what ? 78. — how many branches ? 79. What is — ? 
 80. — treats upon what ? 81. What is — ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MAN INTO MIND AND BODY. 
 
 25 
 
 treats upon the structure, or the composition and con- 
 nections, of the various parts of living things. 
 
 82. Human Anatomy treats therefore upon the 
 structure of different parts of the Human Body. 
 
 83. Hygiene is the name given to that branch that 
 treats upon the manner of keeping the different parts 
 of living things in, not only health, but a condition best 
 adapted to use. 
 
 84. Human Hygiene therefore treats upon the man- 
 ner of keeping the different parts of the Human Body 
 in the best condition for appropriate use — certainly the 
 most important subject that can concern the mind of 
 any person, since each person is himself interested in 
 the matter beyond what he can be in anything else. 
 
 85. Synoptically, or summed up in the table-form, 
 the three divisions of the study of the Human Body are, 
 
 Remark. — As there are two other kinds of living 
 things besides man, viz., animals and vegetables, there 
 are two other kinds of Physiology, Anatomy, and 
 Hygiene, viz. : 
 
 When the different parts of these are compared to- 
 gether, the science is called Comparative Physiology, 
 Anatomy, &c. * 
 
 * I have seen it stated, that Comparative Anatomy is the name of the 
 science that treats upon the structure of animals ; but that is incorrect, as 
 any dictionary will show : not to te^ch what is not known is tolerable, but 
 to teach error when the truth is known is inexcusable ; especially is it so to 
 make such egregious blunders as that mentioned above. 
 
 82. — treats upon what? 83. What is — ? 84. — treats upon what? 
 
 85. Concisely express the three divisions of our study. Remark,— Mention 
 other kinds of Physiology, Anatomy, and Hygiene, 
 
 Human 
 
 Physiology ; what the parts are for. 
 Anatomy ; how made or constructed. 
 Hygiene ; how kept in good condition. 
 
 2 
 
26 
 
 BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 86. If we look at the body as it is standing 
 
 BEFORE US, OUR MINDS NATURALLY, and without effort, 
 divide it into parts called members. 
 
 87. The central member, sometimes wrongly call- 
 ed the body, is the Trunk, on which, not in which, we 
 put our clothes. 
 
 88. The Trunk has limbs growing to it, but not ex- 
 actly as limbs grow out from the trunk of a tree. The 
 four limbs being alike, in some respects, are called by 
 the common name limbs; but as tw r o differ from the 
 other two, they are called upper and lower limbs; and 
 one of each being on each side, it is also called right or 
 left. This is classifying. 
 
 89. There is also to be seen growing upwards 
 from the Trunk a short column called the Neck, on 
 the top of which rests the Head. 
 
 90. The body therefore appears to be con^ 
 structed of four kinds of members — the Trunk, limbs, 
 Neck, and Head. The Neck is sometimes considered 
 as an extension of the Trunk, in which case the mem- 
 bers would be of only three kinds — Trunk, limbs, and 
 Head. 
 
 What is the topic of Chapter III. ? What of previous chapters ? 86. — do 
 what ? 87. What is — ? 88. How many limbs — ? 89. What is there — ? 
 
 90. IIow does — ? If the Neck is part of the Trunk, how many members? 
 
BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 27 
 
 91. Usually, the upper and lower limbs are 
 considered as two kinds of members ; as explained 
 hereafter, it is also desirable to have a part found in 
 the Neck, called the larynx, considered as a distinct 
 member. 
 
 92. The body in this work will therefore be 
 considered as constructed of six members — Trunk, 
 lower limbs, upper limbs, Neck, Head, and larynx. 
 
 93. In what order shall the members be con- 
 sidered ? is now the important question. They should 
 be studied in the order of their use. But how are we 
 to learn the order of their use — which member is master, 
 and which members are servants ? and are these all 
 servants directly to one, or are some servants to others, 
 and some independent? 
 
 94. In one view the Trunk may be considered 
 as the member on account of which all the rest were 
 needed and made : the lower limbs to carry it ; the 
 upper limbs to feed it, and the Head to show where, 
 and to plan how, to obtain food. 
 
 95. Some persons do, so to speak, allow the 
 Trunk to become the master of the other members ; 
 but, like fire, it is a very good servant, but very bad 
 master. 
 
 96. Either the Trunk or the Head must be the 
 master, if there is any, because those are the only mem- 
 bers that are centres, having connection with all other 
 parts. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) 
 
 97. If we try the experiment of cutting the 
 
 LARGE NERVE, FlG. 2, CONNECTING THE BRAIN IN THE 
 Head with the lower limbs, all power to move 
 the limb, and all sensation in it, is lost ; thus, if the 
 foot of the person should be pricked, or a coal of 
 fire dropped on it, he would not feel it, and could 
 
 91. — as what? 92. How will — ? 93. — ? 94. — as what? 95. What 
 
 do — ? 96. Why must — ? 97. What effects will he produced — ? Have you 
 ever seen any person in whom an accident had tested this experiment ? 
 
28 
 
 BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 not move his foot if he should see that it was burning ; 
 but — 
 
 98. If the large Blood-Tubes connecting the 
 
 HEART IN THE TRUNK WITH THE LOWER LIMB should be 
 
 cut, neither loss of power to produce motion nor sensa- 
 tion would be instantly experienced. 
 
 Remark. — T hese experiments can be tried purposely 
 in an animal, or the same facts shown in case of accident 
 to a man. 
 
 99. These simple experiments fully prove two facts : 
 1st, the great fact that the mind has its seat, throne, or 
 home in the Head ; 2d, the lesser fact, that the office of 
 the nerves is to connect parts of the body with the 
 brain, in order that the mind may control and be acted 
 on by them. 
 
 100. This great fact is the most important in the 
 whole study, enabling us to learn all the rest with in- 
 terest and satisfaction, since we have only to ask what 
 the mind requires to do, or to have done, in order to 
 learn why other parts must be added to the Head, and 
 what they must be. 
 
 101. This great fact also makes certain that 
 the Head is the head-member of the body, and to which 
 the Trunk even must take the place of servant. We 
 will now learn in what order the members should be 
 arranged. 
 
 102. One of the first requirements of the mind 
 is knowledge. 
 
 103. For the mind to gain knowledge, the Head 
 must be furnished with instruments for hearing, seeing ? 
 smelling, tasting, and touching objects. 
 
 104. When furnished with ears, eyes, nose, 
 mouth, and skin, the Head must be carried about. 
 
 105. As most of the organs of the Head are very 
 
 98. What effect if we cut the — I 99. What two facts does cutting the 
 nerves and blood-tubes prove ? 100. What said of — ? 101. What does — ? 
 
 102. What is — ? 103. Wbat needed — ? 104. — what to be done ? 
 
BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 29 
 
 must be made for carrying it about 
 of its parts being injured by jars. 
 
 delicate, provision 
 without any danger 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 100. Fig. 8 represents a head on its travels, sup- 
 ported first by a curved column composed of solid 
 pieces with elastic cushions between them, resting upon 
 a broad ring, to each side of which the lower limbs are 
 attached. The bones themselves are also filled with 
 
 106. What does — ? Can you see the thin cushions in Fig. 9? Will a 
 tumbler sound as loudly, if struck when full of water, as it will when empty ? 
 Does the marrow in the hones have the effect of the water in the tumbler? 
 
30 
 
 BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 protective marrow, so that when the foot strikes the 
 ground very little of the jar felt by the foot passes up 
 to the Head, within which there are various means to 
 protect its delicate organs from the jars that do reach it. 
 
 107. To keep this column upright when desirable, 
 and to easily control its motions when it should be 
 curved, long levers, called ribs, have been applied to 
 each side ; these curve round to the front, and are on 
 each side fastened to a bone in the centre called the 
 breast-bone, or Sternum, the whole forming a conical, 
 basket-like frame, or skeleton of the Chest, as the upper 
 part of the Trunk is called. 
 
 108. Fig. 9 represents a side view of the frame, 
 or skeleton of the Trunk, while 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 109. Fig. 10 represents a front view of the skele- 
 ton of the Chest. 
 
 107. What is necessary — ? Where is the breast-bone ? What is the upper 
 part of the Trunk called ? How much does the Chest include ? 109. What 
 
 does — ? 
 
BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 31 
 
 110. Plate-page 2 represents muscles stretching 
 from the limbs below to the broad ring at the bottom 
 of the Trunk, and from the ring up to the ribs ; also 
 between them up to the column above the Trunk, and 
 to the Head, forming so many stays to sustain the 
 column, when necessary, or to curve it into any other 
 position. 
 
 111. Thus the Head has need of and is supplied 
 with a Neck, Trunk, and lower limbs. 
 
 112. But while travelling in search of knowl- 
 edge, the mind will want to examine many things, 
 and, for the purpose of handling them, must be supplied 
 with hands, which, to do much, must be placed at the 
 outer ends of long flexible arms. Hence the upper 
 limbs, for the structure of which see plate-page 6. 
 
 113. One thing more will be needed : the mind 
 requires to ask questions and to answer them, for which 
 purpose it must have the means of talking. 
 
 114. For talking there will be required a bellows 
 to take in and blow out air; this is provided in the 
 Chest; but the air, as it is blown out of the bellows, 
 must be made to produce sounds ; and for this purpose 
 there is a carious instrument, forming a small part of 
 the windpipe. It can be usually seen, but always felt 
 in the upper part of the Neck, as an enlargement of 
 the windpipe ; it is commonly called Adam’s apple ; but 
 its proper name is larynx. 
 
 115. When we simply breathe the air through 
 the larynx, no sound is produced ; but when we blow 
 it through suddenly, and with force, sounds are caused, 
 and, by the assistance of the mouth, speech is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 116. Therefore, to gain knowledge the mind re- 
 quires six members ; and of six the body is composed, 
 
 110 . What does — ? Can you keep upright or bend the spinal column? 
 111 . What has — ? 112 . — what? 113 . What — ? 114 . What needed—? 
 
 Put the finger on the larynx. 115 . What effect — ? 116 . What required — ? 
 
32 
 
 BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 as has been said, and as all can see. The order in which 
 they are to be mentioned is as follows : 
 
 The Body = six Members 
 
 ' HEAD 
 Neck 
 Trunk 
 lower limbs 
 upper limbs 
 larynx 
 
 117. Upon examination of the necessities of the 
 six members, W’e shall find that they must be kept at a 
 proper temperature, for as soon as they are too warm, 
 or too cold, they do not work well ; they must also be 
 kept in repair, &c. ; for all of which an abundance of 
 Blood is necessary, and must be prepared. 
 
 118. Will not another member be required to 
 make Blood ? No ; for what is necessary for making 
 blood, and for forcing it through the Blood-tubes, will 
 exactly fill the otherwise empty Trunk-walls. 
 
 119. Figs. 11 and 12 represent a part of the Con- 
 tents of the Trunk- walls, the front portions of which 
 have been removed to show the Heart, Lungs, Stomach, 
 Liver, and Second Stomach, as they would naturally 
 appear in their places. 
 
 Remark. — One of the most curious things in the 
 body is the exact, proportionate size of the Trunk-walls 
 and their Contents to each other, and to the body to 
 which they belong. 
 
 120. It is not to be denied that, as it is the duty 
 of the Trunk to prepare and circulate an abundance of 
 blood through all the other members, so also is it their 
 duty to supply the Trunk with an abundance of good 
 Air, Water, and Food, from which to prepare good 
 Blood 
 
 121. Indeed, one of the most important uses of 
 knowledge is to know how, in the cheapest manner, 
 
 116. How should the members be mentioned ? 117. — what to be neces- 
 sary ? 118. — ? 119. What does — ? 120. What — of the trunk ? 121. What 
 is — ? 
 
BODY ANALYZED INTO SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 33 
 
 to supply the best qualities of Air, Water, and Food, 
 and to do whatever else is necessary to the production 
 of good Blood. 
 
 Fig. 11. Fig. 12. 
 
 122. The science and art of cooking, and indeed 
 all of housekeeping — such as cleanliness, ventilation, 
 clothing, &c., that pertains to preserving and pro- 
 moting, or restoring health — should be held in the 
 highest honor and esteem, as nothing promotes more 
 the welfare of mankind ; but it should always be kept 
 in view that the reason why the welfare of mankind 
 is thus served, is because good Blood is essential to the 
 proper action of the mind. 
 
 121. Of what is Blood made?. Where is the Heart (II) situated in Fig. 11 ? 
 In which Fig., 11 or 12, is the Heart (H) seen the most fully ? In which Fig. 
 are the ribs cast hack the farthest ? 122. Why should — be held in honor ? 
 
 2 * 
 
34 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS 
 
 CHAPTER IY. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 123. The subjects of this chapter are among 
 the most interesting and important that will be found 
 in this book. It is doubtful if, in the whole range of 
 studies, any ideas can be found more valuable than those 
 suggested here, if taken in all their bearings. 
 
 124. Several facts have been mentioned in 
 previous chapters, and others shown, that will appear 
 very curious when brought out and compared, and will 
 compel our minds to come to some very important 
 conclusions. 
 
 125. First Fact.— It has been shown by Figs. 2 
 and 3, that there are tw~o centres in the body, each con- 
 
 Fig. 13. Fig. 14. 
 
 nected with all parts of it, in which the divisions of the 
 Nerves and Blood-tubes are so similar that the same 
 language may be used for each. (See paragraphs 31 
 and 37.) 
 
 W T hat is the subject of Chapter IV. ? 123. What said of — ? 124. What do 
 
 — show? 125. What — ? What says if 31 — ? Does Fig. 13 illustrate If 31 
 well ? What said in H 37 ? Is if 37 well illustrated by Fig. 14 ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 35 
 
 126. Second Fact. — The scholar has doubtless 
 noticed, that each of the two members — the Head and 
 the Trunk — have walls and contents, viz. : 
 
 tt_ 4 _ _ j Walls Trn-.Tr — (Walls 
 
 Head | Contents of walls 1 ( Contents of walls 
 
 127. Third Fact. — We breathe air, drink water, 
 and eat food, into the Trunk : while we hear, see, 
 smell, and taste, through the Head. This fact leads us 
 to the — 
 
 128. Fourth Fact.— The Trunk receives material 
 things, viz., such as can be handled and weighed, while 
 all the operations in the Head are upon that which 
 is immaterial, viz., cannot be handled nor weighed 
 — thoughts, feelings, sensations, volitions, &c. How 
 very, very, very different the two are ! Stop a moment, 
 and think over the idea. 
 
 129. Fifth Fact. — From the Head an immaterial 
 influence is exerted upon all parts through the nerves , 
 hence called Nervous Influence (yet no man really 
 knows anything of consequence about its character) : 
 while from the Trunk there is poured through the 
 Blood-tubes into all parts a current of vital, material 
 fluid— the Blood — that we know nearly everything 
 about. 
 
 To and from HEAD flows immaterial Nervous 
 Influence . 
 
 To and from Trunk flows material Blood . 
 
 130. Sixth Fact. — It is also evident, first, that 
 every part has a use ; and, second, must be kept in a 
 condition fit for use. 
 
 131. Seventh Fact. — Every part is used, or brought 
 into use or action, by means of Nervous Influence ex- 
 erted through the nerves ; and is kept in a condition fit 
 
 126. What has — ? 127. Into wliat do — ? What do we do through the 
 
 Head ? 128. What does ? What is said of the operations in the Head ? 
 
 129. What goes — ? From the Trunk ? 130. What — ? 13H. How is — ? 
 
36 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS 
 
 for use by means of the Blood poured through the 
 Blood-tubes. For example (plate-page 6) : the arm is 
 constructed of a framework (Fig. 1), and of muscles 
 (Fig. 2), which are brought into action through the 
 nerves (Fig. 3), the whole being covered with skin 
 (Fig. 4), which can also cause sensation through the 
 nerves ; while, in the second place, Blood-tubes (Fig. 6) 
 are interwoven through each organ — skeleton, muscle, 
 and skin — in order that the Blood may keep them in a 
 good condition for use. 
 
 132. Eighth Fact. — A few orderly experiments, 
 or the answers to a few questions, will show that 
 over some parts of the body the mind has perfect con- 
 trol, while over other parts it can exert no direct 
 control ; and the latter will be found to be those parts 
 which are concerned in supplying the organs with 
 Blood. 
 
 133. Can the mind move the Head? Yes. Can it 
 control the action of the Heart ? No. Can it bend the 
 Neck? Yes. Can it stop the breath? No. Can it 
 bend the walls of the Trunk ? Yes. Can it cause the 
 Stomach to act? No. Can it move the lower limbs ? 
 Yes. Can it control the action of the Liver ? No. Can 
 it raise or lower the arms ? Yes. Can it excite the 
 Kidneys to action ? No. Can it exercise the larynx at 
 pleasure ? Yes. Has it direct power over the Second 
 Stomach ? No. 
 
 134. Bring together those parts to which the 
 answer is yes. The mind can control the Head, Neck, 
 walls of the Trunk, lower limbs, upper limbs, and 
 larynx. These, therefore, are called voluntary. 
 
 135. Bring together those parts to which the 
 answer is no. The mind cannot directly control the 
 Heart, Lungs, Stomach, Liver, Kidneys, or, in short, any 
 
 131. How is each pari kept in condition ? Describe the arm as shown in 
 plate-page 6. 132. — what ? 133. Try and see if you can control the parts as 
 stated. 134. What arc those parts — ? 135. What are those parts — ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 37 
 
 of the Contents of the Trunk-walls ; nor can the mind 
 control the Blood-tubes. These, therefore, are called 
 involuntary. 
 
 136. All these facts show very clearly that the 
 body is constructed of two mechanisms — one directly 
 connected with the Brain and Mind, and directly con- 
 trolled by the Mind, while another is added to that, and 
 is not directly under the control of the Mind. 
 
 Remark. — By a mechanism is meant several parts 
 arranged to work together in producing a result. In 
 a clock several parts work together to move the hands. 
 If it strikes, there is another set of parts working to- 
 gether to cause the striking. In a large factory there is 
 a great mechanism, or many small ones, working to- 
 gether to produce the articles made there , and, to keep 
 the different parts of the producing mechanisms in re- 
 pair, a machine-shop or secondary mechanism is added 
 to the factory ; while, to keep it warm or cool, some 
 other mechanism will be necessary, and will be added. 
 Thus, in the body, the Contents of the Trunk-walls are 
 a machine-shop and heating mechanism for repairing 
 and keeping warm or cool the mechanism used by the 
 mind. 
 
 137. The members of the body may therefore 
 be divided, or classed into two mechanisms, as follows : 
 
 Head 
 Neck 
 Trunk 
 lower limbs 
 upper limbs 
 larynx 
 
 Head 
 
 Neck 
 
 Trunk-walls + Contents of Trunk-walls, 
 lower limbs and the Blood-Tubes 
 
 upper limbs 
 w larynx 
 
 138. These mechanisms, or groups of parts, may 
 be called the M, or Mental or Prime : and the B, or 
 Blood-making, or Secondary, as follows : 
 
 136. What do — ? How many mechanisms in a striking clock? What is 
 said of a factory ? 137. How may — ? What does the Trunk = ? 138. What 
 
 may — ? 
 
38 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS 
 
 Head 
 
 Neck 
 
 Trunk-walls 
 lower limbs 
 upper limbs 
 larynx 
 
 Contents of ) 
 Trunk-walls f 
 
 = (M) Mental or Prime Mechanism 
 
 = (B) Blood-making, or Secondary Mechanism 
 
 139. The greater importance of the Mental 
 Mechanism will be clearly felt, by noticing the in- 
 teresting fact that this mechanism is double — right and 
 left throughout. 
 
 140. A look at the Figures of plate-page 6 will 
 show that the Mental Mechanism is double, for the 
 pictures of the skeleton, muscles, and nerves, show the 
 fact clearly. 
 
 141. The skin even, that as an external covering 
 seems to show no signs of being right and left, will, 
 upon being pricked, in case of certain diseases, reveal 
 the fact that it is also right and left ; for on one side 
 of an exact middle line — much more exact than could be 
 drawn with a pencil — the skin being pricked will not 
 cause any pain, while on the other side of the line the 
 prick may be very painful. The reason is, that the nerves 
 of either side never cross the central line in the skin 
 for the smallest distance ; and if those on one side 
 are so diseased that they cannot act, pain will not be 
 caused by pricking the skin of that side, while those 
 of the other side may be perfect, and will cause pain if 
 pricked. 
 
 142. Fig. 15 represents a front view of the muscles 
 of the face after the skin is removed. 
 
 143. Fig. 15. It is easily observable that the 
 muscles of the face are double. 
 
 144. Fig. 16 represents the Neck cut across, in 
 
 138. What members and parts of them constitute the Mental Mechanism ? 
 What is the B. Mechanism? 139. How will — ? 140. — what? 141. Is — 
 
 right and left ? 142. What does — ? 143. What by — ? 144. What does — ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 39 
 
 which it will be observed that most of the parts are 
 double ; those which are not will be explained. 
 
 Fig. 15. Fig. 17. 
 
 How many different muscles can you count in each side of Fig. 15 ? Are 
 the parts on both sides of Fig. 16 numbered? Why not? How many parts in 
 Fig. 16 do not appear to be double ? 
 
40 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS 
 
 145. Fig. 17 represents a front view of the brain, 
 the spinal cord, extending down, and its branching 
 nerves. Is not the whole double ? 
 
 146. Fig. 18 represents (1 and 3) the pipe, tube, 
 or swallow, through which food passes into the Stomach, 
 or food-pouch (8, 9, 10, and 12), situated in its natural 
 position in the Trunk-walls, a part of which is shown. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 147. It is here seen that the Stomach, the tube (3), 
 and the great Blood-tube (2), are single. 
 
 145. What does — ? 146. What does — ? What is the position of the 
 
 Stomach in the Trunk? Does the Stomach extend across from side to side, or 
 from front to hack, of the Trunk ? 147. — that what parts are single ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 41 
 
 148. Though the Lungs, in one view, are called 
 double — so is the heart — and we speak of them as the 
 right and left lung, or heart, yet they are really single, 
 for both lungs, or both parts of the lungs, are necessary 
 for complete breathing, and each heart has an entire 
 and distinct office. 
 
 149. All the Contents of the Trunk- walls, or 
 the Blood-making parts or mechanism, are to be looked 
 upon as single, and, when apparently double, are to be 
 regarded as parts of a single thing ; for if one lung is 
 diseased or injured so that a man cannot breathe with 
 it, he suffers from want of breath ; while, if he loses 
 one eye, he can see as well as ever, in most respects. 
 
 150. But the Mental Mechanism, when in any 
 respect it seems single, is really double. The Head 
 is double ; and though, when divided, we may call its 
 parts the right and left half of the Head, it will be 
 better to call them the right and left Heads, since, 
 though they cannot operate when removed from each 
 other, each does operate by itself when they are to- 
 gether ; and the parts are also completely alike on each 
 side of the line. 
 
 151. There are in the HexVd, not only two ears 
 and two eyes, but two noses — for each nostril is a dis- 
 tinct nose — and two mouths ; for though it is single, so 
 far as it is useable for eating food, drinking water, and 
 breathing, viz., so far as it works for Blood-making, and 
 belongs to the Contents of the Trunk-walls, yet, so far 
 as it regards tasting or touching anything, it is mental, 
 and is double — there being a line above and below, 
 showing the line of union : look and see it. 
 
 152. The Neck is double, as is shown by Fig. 16, 
 in which the single tubes through which the food and 
 air pass, are seen at 12 and 13 ; 28 is a bone, and also 
 
 148. What is really true — ? 149. What said of — ? 150. What said of — ? 
 151. — how many evidently double parts ? Can you see the dividing line in 
 the roof of the mouth, and on the tongue ? 152. Is — ? 
 
42 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS. 
 
 divisible into the right and left, at least, into two equal 
 halves. 
 
 153. The Trunk- walls are double; it is evident 
 the limbs are ; and an examination of the larynx will 
 show that that organ is also double. 
 
 154. It can now be understood that a person may 
 not only be right-handed, but other parts of the body 
 may be stronger upon one side than upon the other. 
 
 155. Indeed it generally happens that if a per- 
 son is right-handed, he will be right-footed, and right- 
 faced as well ; so that, by looking at the face, and 
 observing which side a person uses the most actively, 
 we can usually tell whether he is right or left-handed ; 
 so we can by observing the foot, for a person will 
 usually “ turn out his toes 55 the most on the weakest 
 side. 
 
 156. If A PERSON CAN USE ONE HAND NEARLY AS 
 well as he can the other, he will have a smooth voice, 
 because both sides of the larynx, that chiefly produces 
 the tones of the voice, are as well balanced as the 
 hands. 
 
 157. It appears then that every person has two 
 Heads, right and left ; two Necks, right and left ; two 
 Trunk-walls, right and left ; two lower limbs, right and 
 left ; two upper limbs, right and left ; two larynxes, 
 right and left ; which, together, make up the right and 
 left Mental Mechanisms. 
 
 158. There are therefore three mechanisms in 
 the body — two alike in kind — right and left, Mental, 
 and the Blood-making, in a tabular manner, thus : 
 
 _ j Mind ( Mental j ?'I ht 
 
 | Body — six Members = three Mechanisms -j * 
 
 ( Blood-making 
 
 159. The two Mental Mechanisms are closely 
 
 153. Are — ? What other parts are ? 154. What — ? 156. What — ? 
 
 156. What is usually true — ? 157. — how may they be called? 158. — what 
 are they? 159. How are — ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 43 
 
 united, so as to form a whole, not only by growing 
 together at certain points, but, so to speak, by being 
 geared together by nerves that extend across from one 
 to the other ; so that the mind can use the two as if 
 they were one, by means of influences passing through 
 these cross nerves, called commissures. 
 
 160 . The Blood-making is united to the Mental 
 Mechanisms, not only by growing to them, but by 
 means of important and numerous bundles of nerves 
 that extend between the Mental and Blood-making 
 Mechanisms, through which Nervous Influences act in 
 both directions. 
 
 161 . Fig. 19 , one of the most beautiful cuts 
 ever made, admirably represents a portion of the 
 Head, Neck, and Trunk, exposing the bundles of 
 nerves (c, #, d) extending between the Stomach ( 5 ) ? 
 the Liver (Z), the Lungs (L), and the Head: through 
 these the mind acts, and is acted upon, but not in such 
 a direct manner as in case of the other class of nerves ; 
 if a man’s mind is gloomy, or is perplexed about his 
 business, it will affect his Stomach and prevent its 
 digesting his food well, but he cannot make his Stomach 
 act, or cease acting. 
 
 Illustration 1 . — Dr. Beaumont, who had the oppor- 
 tunity of frequently looking into the injured Stomach 
 of Alexis St. Martin, says, that if he became angry the 
 process of digesting the food in the Stomach would 
 sometimes stop for an hour, and then not go on well. 
 
 Illustration 2. — No person can blush or make his 
 face pale by merely willing to do so ; but if he feels 
 angry, &c., the effect of his feelings, through certain 
 of the nerves upon the Blood-Tubes, will increase or 
 lessen their size, which, by allowing more or less Blood 
 to pour into them, will affect the color of the face. 
 
 What are the cross nerves called? 160. How is — ? 161. What does — ? 
 What is the testimony of Dr. Beaumont ? What will change the color of the 
 face ? 
 
44 
 
 • ANALYSIS OF THE SIX MEMBERS 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Will you compare the nerves of Fig. 19 with those in plate-page 3, and in 
 Fig. 3, and state the difference between them as it respects the parts that 
 they appear to connect, or to which they seem to belong ? 
 
INTO TWO MECHANISMS. 
 
 45 
 
 Remark. — On the other hand, if the Stomach is not 
 well, it will affect the mind badly. A child should not 
 ask a favor of its father just before dinner, but wait till 
 his Stomach is satisfied, and the request will be more 
 likely to be granted. 
 
 162. Some of the most important lessons in Phy- 
 siology, or in any branch of Science, are suggested 
 by the truths exhibited in this chapter. 
 
 163. One of the grandest truths that can be 
 learned is the one shown by the classification of the 
 members into two kinds of Mechanism — Mental and 
 Blood-making ; for it shows that there will be two 
 great classes of very interesting, practical facts : one 
 class includes everything that has anything to do with 
 Blood-making — such as food, drink, air, clothing, shelter, 
 &c., things, like the Blood, of a material nature ; the 
 other class includes everything that improves the Mind 
 — what we hear, see, &c. ; our thoughts, feelings, &c., 
 that, like the Mind, are of an immaterial nature. In 
 short, we must study the Blood, and study the Mind. 
 
 164. The second great truth is very clearly 
 shown, viz., that all parts of the Body exist only be- 
 cause necessary on account of the Mind ; therefore, the 
 study of the Blood-making Mechanism is important only 
 because Blood is necessary to keep in good condition 
 those parts of the Body that the Mind uses. 
 
 165. The third great truth is, that the action of 
 the Mind impresses the Body; that an often repeated 
 impression becomes permanent, since the frequent and 
 stronger use of the right face gives it a stronger ex- 
 pression ; if, therefore, persons wish a pleasant and good 
 expression, they must be pleasant and good in their 
 Minds, by habit ; on the other hand, a deceiving or ill- 
 natured Mind will, by habit, produce a bad face. 
 
 Remark. — What effect if the Stomach is diseased ? When will a request 
 he most readily granted? 162. What is said about — ? 163. What is — ? 
 
 What should we study ? 161. "What is — ? 165. What — ? 
 
46 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 166. If WE REVIEW THE topics of the previous 
 chapters, we shall find that 
 
 M (Mind (Mental j ®ji ht 
 
 ( Body = six Members = three Mechanisms -j * e 
 
 ( Blood-making 
 
 167. We have in this chapter a very interesting 
 study, that of the construction of mechanisms. 
 
 168. Each mechanism has been spoken of as a 
 single thing — and very properly — because that which is 
 accomplished by one is very different from that which 
 is done by the other. 
 
 169. In another sense, each mechanism is not a 
 single thing : because, as has already been seen, it must 
 be made up or constructed of several different sets of 
 parts, each set or class adapted to perform a certain 
 duty; yet the whole is intended to work together, in 
 accomplishing the intended purpose of the mechanism, 
 which purpose cannot be accomplished without the 
 assisting action of each part of the mechanism. 
 
 170. Blood-making requires, for example, that air 
 should be breathed, water drank, food eaten, &c., for 
 each of which corresponding sets or classes of parts 
 must be needed. 
 
 What is the subject of Chapter V. ? 166. What shall we find — ? 
 
 167. What do — ? 168. How has — ? 169. Why is not — ? How is the whole 
 intended to work ? 170. What does — ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 47 
 
 171. Each set or class of parts needed in each 
 mechanism for performing each distinct duty, is called 
 an apparatus, and what is performed is called its 
 function . Of course there must be as many of one as 
 there are of the other. 
 
 172. Example. — Breathing , or respiration , is called 
 a function ; and the set or class of parts concerned in 
 performing it, is called the breathing, or Respiratory 
 Apparatus. 
 
 Remark 1.— Thus each apparatus has its function , 
 and each function its apparatus, the same as a 
 mechanism has a purpose , &c. 
 
 Remark 2. — There is no opportunity of seeing an 
 entire apparatus during life, because some part, or 
 the whole of each, is hidden below the surface. 
 
 Fig. 20 represents a large part of the Digestory 
 Apparatus : the face being turned to one side, in order 
 the better to show how the food passes over the 
 tongue (1), and down through the throat into the 
 tube (6, 7) leading to the Stomach (8, 9, 10, 11). The 
 Stomach is represented as if distended and the front 
 half removed, so that we are supposed to be looking 
 upon its inner back surface. At 6, and for a short dis- 
 tance above, the tube is represented as entire ; the 
 throat is represented as divided on its middle line, the 
 division being carried through the windpipe in front, 
 through the tongue, and up through the head ; every- 
 thing above the mouth and throat being shaded. 
 
 At 14 is the muscle that closes the opening from 
 the Stomach into the long canal (15, 16, 17) called the 
 Second Stomach ; open in a part of its extent above, 
 and below at 27, its connection with a larger canal, 
 the colon open through its whole extent ; 23 is a tube 
 from the pancreas, opening into the upper part of the 
 
 171. What is the name of — ? 172. Give example. Each apparatus has 
 what? Remark 2. —Why is there — ? What does Fig. 20 — ? How is the 
 Stomach represented ? What shown at 6? What shown at 14 ? 
 
48 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Into how many parts is the Digestory or Alimentary Canal divisible ? 
 Mouth, throat, or Pharynx ; meat-pipe, swallow, or (Esophagus ; Stomach* 
 Second Stomach, and colon. What is the use of the arrows ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 49 
 
 Second Stomach ; 21 leads the fluids down from the 
 liver and the gall-bladder. 
 
 To prepare the food to enter and become part of 
 the Blood, all these parts — the Mouth, Stomach, Second 
 Stomach, Colon, and their minor adjuncts — -are neces- 
 sary ; hence, they are all classed together as one — the 
 Digestorv Apparatus, its function of preparing the 
 food being called Digestion. (This word is sometimes 
 limited to mean merely the process that takes place in 
 the Stomach, and the word alimentation used for the 
 whole process of preparing food, in which case the appa- 
 ratus is called the Alimentary Apparatus.) 
 
 173. There are two ways, therefore, in which 
 we may study our subjects : We may seek, first, to 
 learn how many apparatuses there are, and thus learn 
 how many functions there can be ; or we may learn 
 how many functions are needed, and thus perceive what 
 number of apparatuses there must be. The latter is 
 much the most interesting and satisfactory. 
 
 SENSATION— SENSATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 174. First, it is evident that the mind must have 
 good, reliable, and ready means of gaining a knowledge 
 of all objects outside the body ; and also a knowledge 
 of the condition of the various parts of which the body 
 itself is constituted. This is obtained by the function 
 called Sensation, of which there are many varieties : 
 those of hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, touching, 
 and of the muscular sense, being the functions by which 
 we gain a knowledge of what is around us ; while those 
 of hunger, thirst, pain of various kinds, &c., are func- 
 tions by which we learn something in regard to our 
 bodies themselves. 
 
 What does 23 represent ? What is 21 ? What is Digestion ? How some- 
 times used? 173. What are — ? 174. — what? What do we learn by 
 
 Sensation ? 
 
 3 
 
50 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 175. To PRODUCE ALL THESE VARIETIES OF INSTRUC- 
 TIVE sensations, is the function of an equal variety 
 of apparatus, each having its appropriate name ; taken 
 together, they are called the Sensatory or the Sensory 
 Apparatus, thus : 
 
 The Grand Sensatory Apparatus = Apparatus of 
 
 ” Hearing 
 Seeing 
 Smelling 
 Tasting 
 Touching 
 Muscular sense 
 
 _ Internal senses 
 
 MOTION— MOTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 176. It is also evident that the mind requires 
 an apparatus for motion, because some kind of motion 
 must be made at every moment of a person’s life. 
 
 177. Motion begins where sensation terminates, 
 viz., in the Brain, some parts of which, also called Gan- 
 glia, produce an influence that, extending through 
 nerves, terminates in a muscle, and causes it to contract 
 and draw its two ends towards each other, thus moving 
 whatever they are attached to. 
 
 Illustration. — If an influence is extended from 
 
 THE BRAIN THROUGH NERVES TO THE MUSCLE UPON THE 
 
 front part of the upper arm, the muscle will instantly 
 contract, or grow shorter, causing the ends to approach, 
 and moving up the lower arm, to a bone of which the 
 lower end of this muscle grows : try this experiment. 
 
 178. Each muscle with its nerve and Ganglion 
 might be called an Apparatus of Motion ; but, usually, 
 all the muscles with their nerves and Ganglia are called 
 the Apparatus of Motion, or the Motory Apparatus, 
 its function being called motion. 
 
 175. — what ? Name the Sensatory Apparatus. 176. Why is it — ? 
 
 177. Where does — ? Illustration.— What effect — ? 188. What might — ? 
 What js the function of a Motory Apparatus ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 51 
 
 179. The skeleton is evidently necessary to a 
 large part of the Motory Apparatus. It is also ap- 
 parent that more than half of the body is constructed 
 of the Motory Apparatus (plate-page 2). 
 
 180. A COMPARISON OF THE MOTORY AND SeNSA- 
 tory Apparatus will show that there must be two 
 kinds of nerves connecting between the muscles and 
 the brain, or else the same nerve has two uses (which 
 can be proved not to be the case), for there is one nerve 
 to excite the muscle to contract, and another through 
 which a sensation is caused when the muscle does 
 contract. 
 
 INTELLECTION-INTELLECTORY apparatus. 
 
 181. The mind will not be satisfied to merely 
 
 PRODUCE MOTION AND EXPERIENCE SENSATIONS ; it must 
 
 think and have emotions ; indeed, sensation and motion 
 both require and produce thinking and emotion. 
 
 182. Every one is conscious that he must think, 
 and that he does think whenever he has sensations, and 
 in order to produce motion. If a barefooted boy steps 
 on a thorn he has a sensation of pain, thinks of what 
 caused it, and that he will raise his foot and remove 
 the thorn ; the like effects will be produced if a girl 
 pricks her finger. 
 
 EMOTION— EMOTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 183. The emotions of a person are different 
 from his thoughts, though he has thoughts at the same 
 time. The feelings the two produce are different, and 
 so are their effects on the body. Thoughts will not 
 flush the face, but emotions will. This shows that the 
 
 179. To what is — ? 180. What will — ? 181. Why will not — ? 182. Of 
 
 what is — ? 183. In what respect are — ? What difference between the 
 action of the thoughts and emotions, as can be seen in the face ? 
 
52 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 emotions do not take place apart from the body, but in 
 connection with it ; and also shows that thoughts and 
 emotions are not the same. 
 
 184. It is evident, therefore, that the mind 
 needs, in addition to the apparatus for motion and sensa- 
 tion, an apparatus with which to think, and another to 
 assist in producing the emotions. 
 
 Remark. — How many varieties of these there are 
 no one can, as yet, determine. 
 
 185. The apparatus for the function of thought, 
 or intellection, is called the Intel] ectory Apparatus. 
 
 186. The apparatus for the function of emotion 
 is called the Emotory Apparatus. 
 
 187. Both of these kinds of apparatus are con- 
 fined to parts, or Ganglia, of the Brain, and are so 
 hidden from sight, that, as yet, it has been impossible 
 to learn how they work ; therefore, about the working 
 of the most important parts of the body the least is 
 known. A noble field of discovery is here yet open to 
 the enthusiastic and interested student, which, if he 
 will thoroughly explore and unfold, he will more bless 
 mankind, than if he should discover an Eldorado. 
 
 188. The mind, it is seen, requires four kinds 
 of Apparatus — Sensatory, Emotory, Intellectory, and 
 Motory — thus : 
 
 { Sensatory 
 
 Intellectory 
 
 Motory 
 
 189. The four kinds of apparatus have their 
 roots in the Brain : indeed, two kinds — the Intellectory 
 and the Emotory — are wholly constructed from parts of 
 the Brain. How the mind acts upon them, or is acted 
 upon by them, no one knows. 
 
 184. What is it — ? 185. — what ? 186. — what ? 187. To what are — 
 Is the action of the Brain understood ? 188. V T hat does — ? 189. What 
 said of — ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 53 
 
 190. It must be remembered that as these four 
 kinds of apparatus taken together are the Mental 
 Mechanism, and it is double, so they must be as they 
 are — right and left. There are, therefore, two Sensa- 
 tory, two Emotory, two Xntellectory, and two Motory 
 Apparatuses. 
 
 CIRCULATION — CIRCULATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 191. In the next place, it will be evident, in 
 
 REGARD TO ALL THESE FOUR KINDS OF APPARATUS, that 
 
 they must grow : must, while growing, and after they 
 are done growing, be warmed, or cooled, as circum- 
 stances require, and be kept in repair. For this purpose 
 various substances will be required, which must also be 
 carried to the innermost parts of each apparatus. 
 
 192. That the substances required may reach 
 the places requiring them, they must be dissolved in 
 water, thus forming Blood, and poured through a set 
 of tubes in often-returning currents. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 193. Fig. 21 represents a very simple plan for 
 pouring the Blood through any part ; h is a pouch or 
 hollow muscle, which by contracting lessens its own 
 cavity, and drives out its contents through a valve, 
 
 190. What — ? Make a table showing two of each kind of apparatus. 
 
 191. What — ? Will one substance be enough for the wants of the body ? 
 
 192. What will be necessary in order — ? 193. What does — ? 
 
54 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 represented as closed, since the heart ( h ) is represented 
 in the act of distending and filling itself from (^) a 
 vein, or Blood-tube, that receives the blood that comes 
 round through (c) small hair-like tubes called capillary 
 Blood-tubes, or vessels (from capilla — a hair). Thus the 
 Blood is forced out by h into a (the arteries) through 
 c (the capillaries) into v (the veins), by which the Blood 
 is lead into h to be again poured out, and pass-through 
 the same circuit. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 194. Figs. 22, 23, 24, and 25 represent the minute 
 Blood-tubes, or capillaries, of different parts — very much 
 magnified. 
 
 1, 2 (Fig. 22) are arteries leading from the Heart; 
 their branches can be followed to the net-work at the 
 ends of the fingers. Fig. 23 represents a portion of a 
 frog’s foot magnified. Fig. 24 represents a section of 
 the skin much magnified ; 5 leads Blood into 6 — the 
 capillaries. Fig. 25 beautifully represents a minute 
 portion of the Second Stomach very much magnified. 
 
 Which of the arteries in Fig. 22 is the one felt by the Doctor when he feels 
 the pulse ? 194. What do — ? What do 1, 2 (Fig. 22) represent ? What 
 
 Fig. 23? What Fig. 24? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 55 
 
 The Blood enters through 14, and returns through 15, 
 the two being connected through the net-work — the 
 capillaries. 
 
 Fig. 23. Fig. 24. 
 
 What do the arrows in Fig. 23 indicate ? Does 5 in Fig. 24 represent a vein 
 or artery ? By what means are 14 and 15 in Fig. 25 connected ? Must arteries 
 and veins always he connected by capillaries? 
 
56 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 Fig. 26 — plan of compound cir- 
 culation ; 1, 2 — two hearts enclosed 
 in one membrane, so that externally 
 they appear as a unit ; a, arteries, 
 leading out of 1, and branching up- 
 ward and downward, and leading 
 into c , capillaries, through which 
 their contents can pass into v, veins, 
 that open into 2, from which a" lead 
 into c", capillaries, through which 
 their contents can pass into v", 
 opening into 1. Thus a compound 
 circuit is formed, so that when the 
 hearts alternately contract and re- 
 lax, they can pour their contents 
 through the entire course. All the 
 Blood in this case passes through 
 the eliminating respiratory organs, 
 r y also marked lungs. 
 
 A cluster of organs is represent- 
 ed by 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, of which those 
 marked d are digestory ; m (the 
 spleen), modificatory : and e (the 
 kidneys), eliminatory. These re- 
 ceive at each circulation a part of 
 the Blood thrown out by 1 down- 
 ward, and, after an uncertain num- 
 ber of circulations, each of them 
 must have the opportunity of acting 
 upon all the Blood, if it awaits their 
 action. It is also noticeable that 
 the Blood circulating through 4, 5, 
 6, 7, circulates through 8 (the liver) 
 before it passes into the veins. 
 
 1 is called the Left, Back, and 
 Systemic Heart ; its initials — S H ; 
 a c and v are called Systemic Arte- 
 ries, Capillaries, and Veins, and 
 have the respective initials : S A y 
 S C t S V ; 2 is called the Right, 
 Front, Pulmonary, or Respiratory 
 Heart ; a" y c" v " are called the Pul- 
 monary or Respiratory Arteries, 
 Capillaries, and Veins, having the 
 initials P A y P O y P V y or E A y 
 BO y BV. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 What does Fig. 26 represent ? Mention the parts through which the Blood 
 passes in an entire circuit. What do 4-9 represent ? What is 1 called ? What 
 is 2 called ? YVhat is peculiar in the veins of 4, 5, C, 7 ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 57 
 
 195. Fig. 26 represents a plan of the entire Cir- 
 culatory Apparatus, 1 and 2 being two hearts united 
 so as to appear but one on the outside, both being 
 enclosed in a heart-case ; but two are necessary, as will 
 be seen. 
 
 196. a (Fig. 26) represents the large artery, seen 
 better in Fig. 3 : the arrows show that the Blood is 
 flowing out from the heart through a . Branches are 
 represented as leading off into different parts of the 
 body, all of which it is intended to represent ; from 
 which, again, branches lead together, and at last, from 
 above and from below, open by v into the other 
 heart (2). 
 
 197. a " represents another artery, or rather two 
 of them, commencing from the other heart (2), and 
 leading its blood into the lungs, from which it flows 
 through (?;") veins into the heart (1), whence we started 
 to go round the circle, or circuit ; hence the name cir- 
 culation, and Circulatory Apparatus. 
 
 198. Sometimes this Circulatory Apparatus is 
 divided into the lesser and greater, each leading from 
 heart to heart ; but the true circuit, or circulation, can 
 only be accomplished by means of both ; and, if divided, 
 each must be called a part, for neither is a circuit. 
 
 199. But it will often occur that a part will need 
 more Blood than it usually requires, or several parts 
 may need an increase at the same time. 
 
 200. It is evident then that the circulation of 
 the Blood must be regulated in accordance with the 
 needs of the different parts, and made to move faster or 
 slower, as the case requires. 
 
 201. What shall regulate the circulation ? We 
 have found that motion is controlled through nerves ; 
 but the motion of the Blood must take place during the 
 
 195. What does — ? 196. What does a (Fig. 26) represent ? 197. What — ? 
 198. How — ? 199. What requirement for Blood — ? 200. How — ? 
 
 201 . — ? 
 
 Q 5 **' 
 
 l) 
 
58 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 night as well as during the day, when our minds are 
 asleep as well as when they are awake ; besides, the cir- 
 culation must take place so regularly and constantly, 
 that it would never do to trust so important a matter 
 to our forgetful minds. 
 
 202. To REGULATE THE CIRCULATION, WE SHALL NEED 
 a distinct set of Nervous Apparatus, with its own Gan- 
 glia, or Nervous Centres, where influences are produced, 
 and with Nerves through which these influences are 
 exerted. 
 
 203. This Nervous Apparatus that controls the 
 circulation of Blood is called by various names ; we 
 will call it the Nervous Circulatory Apparatus, be- 
 cause its highest use is to control the circulation of 
 Blood. (It is also called Organic Nervous System — 
 the Sympathetic, the Ganglionic, &c.) 
 
 204. Two KINDS OF NERVOUS CENTRES ARE THUS 
 seen to exist in the body : one is voluntary, asso- 
 ciated directly with the mind in the brain ; the other 
 kind is involuntary, viz., not controlled by the mind, 
 and is found below the brain. There are several of the 
 latter, or involuntary nervous centres, some of them 
 being represented by e?, df, d (Fig. 19). 
 
 205. In respect to life, health, vigor, strength, 
 &c., the Involuntary Nervous Apparatus is the most 
 important part of the body. 
 
 206. As this Involuntary Nervous Apparatus 
 controls the circulation, it can be understood why 
 the Doctor feels the pulse ; for it is not to learn merely 
 how the Blood flows, nor how the Heart beats, but to 
 learn the condition of that which causes the beating; 
 and as it also controls or influences other very impor- 
 tant operations, the Doctor learns how they will be 
 affected. 
 
 Why cannot onr minds be trusted to regulate the flow of Blood '( 202. — 
 what ? 203. — what ? 204. What — ? 205. What is most important — ? 
 
 206. what is learned ? What makes the heart beat ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 59 
 
 207 . The Blood Circulatory Apparatus should 
 include the Nervous Apparatus, as some think, since 
 every apparatus requires a nervous part ; but it seems 
 preferable, on some accounts, to make the distinction 
 that we have done. 
 
 208. As the Involuntary Nervous Apparatus 
 
 IS SO IMPORTANT ON ACCOUNT OF CONTROLLING THE CIR- 
 CULATION of Blood, it would appear that whatever 
 can assist in regulating, controlling, or influencing, the 
 flow of Blood, must be also very important. 
 
 209. The Circulatory Apparatus may be ar- 
 ranged IN TABULAR FORM, thus : 
 
 { Nervous = Ganglia Nerves 
 
 Blood = Heart, Artery, Capillary, Vein, Heart, Ar- 
 tery, Capillary, Vein 
 
 210. The Blood Circulatory Apparatus may be 
 arranged in a circuit, as appears below. Go from 
 Heart into Artery, and thus around : 
 
 Capillary 
 
 Artery Vein 
 
 Heart Heart 
 
 Vein Artery 
 
 Capillary 
 
 
 Heart 
 
 
 Artery 
 
 Capillary 
 
 Vein 
 
 
 Heart 
 
 Ganglia 
 
 Nerves 
 
 Artery 
 
 Capillary 
 
 Vein 
 
 N. Cir. App. 
 
 B. Cir. App 
 
 207. Wliat — ? 208. What would appear — ? 209. How may — ? 210. How 
 may — ? Will you repeat the names of the parts through which Blood passes, 
 and in the order in which it moves through them ? 
 
60 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 211. The vital importance of the Blood to every 
 
 PART OF THE BODY, IS ABUNDANTLY SHOWN by the WOI1- 
 
 derful number of circuits through which the Blood is 
 led into every minute portion of the body, and by the 
 admirable provision for having its visits very frequently 
 repeated. 
 
 212. The importance and uses of the Blood, and 
 
 THE NECESSITY FOR IT AND ITS INNUMERABLE CIRCUITS, 
 
 will be understood, by learning what the different 
 parts of the body need, in order to be kept in a perfect 
 condition for use. 
 
 213. First. — For perfect action the different 
 parts of the body must be kept at a proper tempera- 
 ture, neither too warm nor too cool. 
 
 214. Blood is therefore needed to warm the 
 parts if too cool, and to cool them if too warm ; and 
 therefore it seems as if it must partake of two natures. 
 
 215. Blood may easily both cool and warm the 
 body, for it must be largely composed of water ; and 
 this, by oozing on to any surface, and evaporating, will 
 cool it ; hence, we perspire freely when too warm ; and 
 a dog when too warm pants rapidly through his very 
 moist mouth, and cools himself by rapidly evaporating 
 the water from his mouth. 
 
 216. In the water of the Blood, substances 
 may be dissolved that are adapted to produce heat ; 
 thus, by the water of the Blood, and the substances dis- 
 solved in it, the body may be both warmed and cooled. 
 
 217. The processes of warming and cooling are, 
 in fact, taking place all the time, and, according as one 
 or the other takes place more rapidly, the body grows 
 warmer, or cooler. 
 
 218. Second. — The action of any part of the 
 body always renders a portion of the active part useless, 
 
 211. How is — ? 212. How will — ? 218. Fiiisf. —must be kept how? 
 214. Why is the — ? 215. Why may the — ? 216. — for what ? 217. What 
 are — ? Second. — What is the effect of — ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 61 
 
 in such a manner that it must be taken away, and new 
 substance laid down in its place. 
 
 Remark. — Every time we raise a finger, or even do 
 so small a thing as wink ; every time we think, or have 
 a sensation ; every time we breathe ; and at every beat 
 of the heart, a certain amount of substance in the part 
 that acts becomes useless : thus are we constantly wear- 
 ing out, and should soon be gone were it not for re- 
 newing ourselves as rapidly. The boy who recites to-day 
 is not precisely the same boy that he was yesterday. 
 
 219. The Blood is, therefore, necessary, in the 
 second place, for receiving and floating away useless 
 substances, and for bringing new and good substances 
 to be laid down in place of what has been taken away. 
 
 Inference. — The more active any part, the more 
 rapid the circulation of Blood ought to be through it. 
 
 220. If the Blood receives useless substances, 
 called impurities, as it is circulating, they must be re- 
 moved from it, or it will become foul ; or these useless 
 substances - must be worked over, in whole or in part, 
 and again made fit for use in the same places they oc- 
 cupied before, or in some other. 
 
 Illustration. — In any factory, if a machine, or some 
 part of it, becomes useless, the useless or worn part or 
 pieces are not always thrown away : if of iron, it can be 
 cast over again ; if of wood, it can at least be burned. 
 
 221. It is evident, therefore, that the Blood, 
 
 AS WE SHALL FIND IT IN THE BODY, IS COMPOSED of 
 
 several different kinds of substances : 1st, of impurities 
 to be worked over, or worked out ; 2d, of substances 
 adapted to renew every part and portion of the body ; 
 3d, of substances adapted to warm the body; and 4th, 
 of water in large quantity to dissolve the other sub- 
 stances, and to cool the body. 
 
 Remark.— What is the effect of every motion, thought, emotion, or sensa- 
 tion ? 219. Why, in the second place, — ? 220. What should be done—? 
 
 221. — of what ? What takes place in a factory ? 
 
62 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 222. It is necessary then that the Blood should 
 be circulated rapidly through all the different parts 
 of the body, and also be constantly operated upon in 
 several different ways, for the purpose of keeping it in 
 a condition fit for use. 
 
 RESPIRATION— RESPIRATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 223. The Blood is constantly composed of several 
 different kinds of impurities gathered in its course. 
 
 224. One kind of impurity in the Blood can be 
 best removed by the action of pure air ; while removed 
 in this way, it will also assist in producing heat. 
 
 225. In addition to the Circulatory Apparatus 
 by which the Blood can be carried to the air, there will 
 be needed an apparatus for constantly bringing a large 
 supply of air to the Blood. 
 
 226. This refreshing function is called Respira- 
 tion, or breathing ; and the beautiful apparatus by which 
 it is performed, is called the Respiratory or Breathing 
 Apparatus. 
 
 227. Two IMPORTANT EFFECTS ARE PRODUCED AT THE 
 SAME TIME BY THE FUNCTION OF RESPIRATION : the Blood 
 is unloaded of a very bad impurity, and the production 
 of heat is by that very act provided for. 
 
 228. We should not fail to notice this one of 
 many different cases in which more than one good result 
 is produced by a single operation. 
 
 DIGESTION— DIGESTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 229. As substances are constantly being re- 
 moved from the Blood by the air and in other ways, it 
 is necessary that it should be as regularly supplied with 
 renewing material. 
 
 222. How — ? 223. How is — ? 224. What is true of — ? 225. What neces- 
 
 sary — ? 226. What is — ? 227. — what are they ? 228. What — ? 229. What 
 also necessary — ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 63 
 
 230. The function by which new material is 
 supplied to the Blood, is called Digestion ; and the 
 apparatus by which it is performed is called Digestory 
 Apparatus. 
 
 231. The Digestory Apparatus is also the most 
 desirable means for introducing water into the Blood. 
 
 232. It will also be found that some of the pro- 
 cesses BY WHICH FOOD IS PREPARED TO ENTER THE BlOOD, 
 require the use of some of the substances that in the 
 Blood are impurities, which in thus passing out of Blood 
 become useful in introducing new substances into it — a 
 very happy exchange for the Blood. 
 
 ELIMINATION-ELIMINATORY APPARATUS. 
 
 233. If the quantity of water in the Blood is 
 too small, our thirst will induce us to drink more ; but 
 what shall we do if the quantity is too large ? 
 
 234. If the body is overheated, it is also neces- 
 sary that we should have some means of removing the 
 surplus heat. 
 
 235. There will also yet be impurities in the 
 Blood that cannot be removed by the functions of 
 either the Digestory or Respiratory Apparatus. 
 
 236. There must therefore be an apparatus for 
 removing, or eliminating, water, heat, and certain im- 
 purities from the Blood that can be of no use as they are 
 being removed : this Apparatus is called Eliminatory, 
 and its function is called Elimination. 
 
 modification— modificatory apparatus. 
 
 237. The Blood also requires to have some changes 
 produced in itself without anything being taken from 
 
 230. — wliat? 231. — for what? 232. — what? 233. What result — ? 
 234. What necessary—? 235. — how can they he removed? 236. — for 
 what purpose ? 237. What does — ? 
 
64 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 or added to it. This is a very extensive operation, or 
 function, and of very great importance. 
 
 238. If we should prick a finger, squeeze out a 
 
 SINGLE DROP OF BlOOD, AND EXAMINE IT WITH A POWER- 
 FUL microscope, we should see in that single drop nearly 
 three thousand Blood-cells ; and such are floating in 
 every drop of Blood in our bodies. These Blood-cells 
 are minute sacs, shaped something like a piece of money. 
 They are very thin, and filled with a peculiar substance. 
 The cells give color to the Blood. 
 
 239. Every Blood-cell of the millions in our 
 Blood, is constantly at work upon the Blood in which 
 it floats — taking from the Blood, and giving back to it 
 again : other cells, located in parts through which the 
 Blood flows, also change the Blood. 
 
 240. The operation or function of changing or 
 modifying the Blood without taking from or adding to 
 it, is called Modification ; and the parts concerned or 
 performing it, are called the Modificatory Apparatus. 
 
 Remark. — Of course, if anything is taken from the 
 Blood it is modified ; but the word is not used in that 
 sense, but to denote a particular mode by which the 
 Blood is modified, without anything being permanently 
 taken from it. 
 
 241. For perfect Blood there is needed four kinds 
 of apparatus— Respiratory, Digestory, Eliminatory, and 
 Modificatory ; or 
 
 { Respiratory 
 
 Eluninatory 
 
 Modificatory 
 
 242. Each of these kinds of apparatus will re- 
 quire to be connected with the Involuntary Nervous 
 Apparatus, without we consider, as is perhaps most 
 
 238. What should we see — ? What are Blood-cells? 239. — is constantly 
 doing what ? 240. — of Modification is what ? 241. What — ? 242. What 
 
 will — ? How many and what functions can they perform ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS. 
 
 65 
 
 proper, that there is a part of the Involuntary Nervous 
 System included in each of the four Blood-making kinds 
 of apparatus. 
 
 243. The connection of the Blood-making Appa- 
 ratus with the Involuntary Nervous System is 
 necessary, in order to regulate their action in accord- 
 ance with the wants of all parts of the body : for ex- 
 ample, to increase the appetite when exercise is taken ; 
 to cause thirst when the body is too warm, &c. 
 
 REVIEW OF FUNCTIONS AND APPARATUS. 
 
 i 
 
 244. If we reconsider the functions necessary 
 
 TO BE PERFORMED BY THE BODY, WE SHALL FIND that the 
 
 Mind directly requires four ; and that four are required 
 in Blood-making : they also correspond in more respects 
 than merely in similarity of number, as follows : 
 
 { Motory 
 
 Emotory° r ^ 
 
 Sensatory 
 
 { Respiratory 
 
 Eliminatory 
 
 Modificatory 
 
 Remark 1. — These can be easily remembered by 
 putting them, like thimbles, on the fingers ; beginning 
 with Motory on the forefinger of the right and Respira- 
 tory on that of the left hand. 
 
 Remark 2. — It will be remembered that the Men- 
 tory Apparatus is double throughout. 
 
 245. The two kinds of apparatus needed for 
 circulation must not be unmentioned ; making, in all, 
 ten kinds of apparatus needed to perform all the func- 
 tions demanded of the body by the mind. 
 
 343. Why is *— ? 244. — what to he the case ? How can the names of the 
 apparatus he easily remembered? What kinds of apparatus are double? 
 245. How many kinds of apparatus if you include — ? 
 
66 
 
 ANALYSIS OF MECHANISMS INTO APPARATUS* 
 
 Remark. — It appears evident that the body might 
 be divided into its ten apparatuses without, first, classi- 
 fying it as composed of members, &c. ; and for some 
 purposes this would be best. 
 
 246. The student may have observed, that the 
 name of an apparatus is obtained by changing the - ion 
 of the name of a function into - ory ; and that the name 
 of a function can be had by changing -ory into -ion. 
 
 Remark. — The ending -ory means concerned in ; as, 
 Digestory, concerned in Digestion, &c. 
 
 247. The names of all the functions and apparatus 
 may be tabled as follows : 
 
 Functions. 
 
 Apparatuses. 
 
 Mentory 
 
 Mechanism 
 
 Blood- 
 making „ 
 Mechanism 
 
 r > 
 
 Sensation 
 
 Emotion 
 
 Intellection 
 
 Motion 
 
 N. Circulation 
 B. Circulation 
 
 Respiration 
 
 Digestion 
 
 Elimination 
 
 Modification 
 
 Sensatory 
 
 Emotory 
 
 Intellectory 
 
 Motory 
 
 N. Circulatory 
 B. Circulatory 
 
 Respiratory 
 
 Digestory 
 
 Eliminatory 
 
 Modificatory 
 
 Remark. — The two Circulatory Apparatuses may be 
 placed on the thumbs. 
 
 248. The ten functions and apparatuses are ar- 
 rangeable in two groups of six apparatuses each, since 
 the Circulatory may be, in one sense, said to belong to each 
 mechanism, or to entwine both mechanisms together. 
 
 249. Thus w t e again have exhibited the very im- 
 portant fact, that there are two things for us to learn : 
 how to treat the body so as most perfectly to improve 
 the mind, and how to produce the best quality of Blood 
 for the purposes it should fulfil. 
 
 Remark.— How could the "body be divided ? 246. What may — ? What 
 
 does the ending - ory mean ? 248. How are — ? Will you repeat them on the 
 fingers to which they belong ? 249. — what ? 
 
ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 67 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 250. IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS WE HAVE MADE 
 the following analysis : 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Man = 
 
 j Mind 
 ( Body 
 
 = six Members = two Mechanisms = ten Apparatuses 
 
 251. In this chapter we are to study an exceed- 
 ingly interesting and very practical subject ; the uses 
 of the organs leading us directly to notice what must 
 be done to keep them in the best condition for use, and 
 how to use them most advantageously ; which is the 
 most instructive lesson a person can learn. 
 
 252. It was evident in studying the ten appa- 
 ratuses, that, though each was, as a whole, properly 
 spoken of as a single thing, the function of each was 
 performed by the joint or successive action of several 
 different parts. 
 
 253. The parts of an apparatus are called 
 organs ; what they are adapted to do is called their 
 use ; though often the use of an organ is very im- 
 properly spoken of as its function, which word should 
 always be associated with apparatus. 
 
 What is the topic of Chapter VI. ? 250. What — ? 251. What — ? 
 
 252. What was — ? 253. — what? What is the action of an organ called? 
 How improperly called ? 
 
68 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 254. Which apparatus shall we analyze first? 
 That one which, understood, will most aid in enabling 
 us to understand the others. 
 
 255. The skeleton or parts of it are essential to 
 each kind of apparatus, either for protection or support, 
 or for both objects. 
 
 256. Muscular motion is also an important element 
 in the performance of each function. 
 
 MOTORY APPARATUS. 
 
 257. It will be best to begin with the Motory 
 Apparatus, since it includes the chief part of the skele- 
 ton, and a large part of the muscles. 
 
 Remark. — The Motory Apparatus does not include 
 every muscle, but only those adapted to locomotion of 
 the different parts of the skeleton ; other muscles are in- 
 cluded in the apparatus to the functions of which they 
 are necessary. Some muscles belong to the Motory, and 
 also to other apparatus — as the muscles of the Chest- 
 walls, which, being Motory, a person can control to a 
 certain extent ; but, as they are also Respiratory, the 
 Mind cannot control them for any great length of time, 
 as they are still more strongly under the influence of 
 an involuntary centre. Such muscles are called mixed ; 
 while, again, there are some muscles, like the Heart, 
 that the mind cannot control at all. This shows that it 
 is not the muscle, but the nervous centre, or centres, 
 with which it is connected, that determines whether the 
 muscle belongs to the voluntary or the involuntary class. 
 
 Skeleton . 
 
 258. The skeleton is intended and required for 
 protection, support, and to allow many motions ; it 
 
 254. — ? 255. What apparatus needs — ? 256. What said of — ? 257. With 
 what — ? Remark.— What said of the Motory App. ? What muscles belong 
 to Motory and Respiratory App. ? What determines the class of muscles ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 69 
 
 must therefore be strong, stiff, yet elastic, constructed 
 with joints, without being weakened by them, and, 
 withal, must be very light. 
 
 259. 1ST o single substance would combine all that 
 is requisite for constructing a skeleton. 
 
 260. Three different materials are required — 
 Bone, Gristle or Cartilage, and Sinew. From these 
 three there can be constructed a strong, stiff, elastic, 
 light skeleton, with as many joints as necessary for its 
 most perfect use. 
 
 ( Bone 
 
 Skeleton = •< Gristle, or Cartilage 
 ( Sinew — Ligament 
 
 261. If we look at the surface of a bone we 
 shall notice small holes ; these are for Blood-vessels 
 and nerves. 
 
 262. If we crack or saw open a bone, we shall 
 find that near its surface it is quite solid, but within 
 it is very sponge-like, and perhaps with a canal in the 
 centre. 
 
 263. This hollow structure of bone makes it 
 very light, while it is none the less strong. 
 
 Remark. — In most animals the spaces in the bone 
 are filled with marrow, but in flying birds with air. 
 
 264. A very simple and interesting experiment 
 may be tried with two long slender bones : put one in 
 the fire and the other in diluted muriatic acid. Upon 
 removing them, after a time, they will have nearly the 
 same form and size as before ; but the former can be 
 easily crumbled to powder, while the latter can be tied 
 in a knot. (See Fig. 27.) 
 
 265. This experiment proves that bone is com- 
 posed of two substances : the fire burns out the one, 
 
 258. For what is — sufficient ? 260. — for forming skeleton ; what are 
 
 they? 261. What seen — ? 262. What learned — ? 263. What said of — ? 
 
 264. How try — ? 265. What does — ? 
 
70 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 and muriatic acid eats out the other ; the former is 
 called the animal, gristly, or the cartilaginous part, and 
 the latter is called the earthy part. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Remark. — The gristle of the bones is not like the 
 gristle generally. 
 
 266. The proportions of the two substances of 
 which the bones are constructed, differ in differ- 
 ent bones ; and in the same bones, at different periods 
 of life, they differ very much : in early life the animal 
 or flexible part is in greater proportion ; in later life 
 the earthy part predominates. 
 
 267. In early life the bones are easily bent and 
 deformities caused ; in later years they are easily broken 
 and recover slowly, if at all. 
 
 288. In some children the earthy part is deposited 
 much more rapidly than in others ; hence, some are 
 adapted to walk earlier than others. 
 
 269. We can easily make some very important 
 inferences : 1st. Since the bones grow from the Blood 
 which is made from the food, unless the right kind of 
 food is given to a child, its bones cannot grow properly; 
 for as a mason could not build a chimney if we should 
 
 What arc the names of the substances composing bone ? 266. — differ 
 
 how? 267. — are liable to be affected how? 268. What condition exists — ? 
 269. — what, 1st ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 71 
 
 withhold either bricks or mortar, so cannot the bones 
 grow perfectly without we furnish the right material. 
 2d. If a child is set upon its feet before its bones are 
 hard enough, its legs will be apt to bend ; or if a child 
 is carried or laid too frequently in the same position, its 
 bones will be in danger of being curved. 
 
 Remark 1 . — No child can be taught to walk ; every 
 one walks, not by learning, but as an animal does, con- 
 trolled by instinct ; and all efforts to induce a child 
 to walk will only do harm. As soon as it is strong 
 enough, it will get upon its feet without assistance. 
 Very serious deformities are caused from want of a 
 knowledge of this fact. 
 
 Remark 2. — The position of a young child should 
 be frequently changed during its sleep, as it will sleep 
 the sweeter, and the longer, and with less danger of 
 deformity. 
 
 270. We can learn, 3d, that children should not 
 jump from high places, as the weight of the body upon 
 the bones will tend to deform them. 
 
 271. At the surface of the bones, growing to 
 them very strongly, there is a thin skin called perios- 
 teum (about-bone). 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 Fig. 28 represents the 
 periosteum peeled up 
 from a part of the bone 
 upon and to which it 
 grew. 
 
 272. It is beneath this periosteum that the very 
 painful felon is seated ; and the pain is chiefly caused 
 because this strong membrane so tightly confines the 
 vessels and nerves beneath it. One way to treat a felon, 
 
 2d. Effect of placing a child on its feet too early ? Remark 1.— How 
 does a child walk? Remark 2.— What said of position? 270. What can — ? 
 271. What found — ? 272. Seat of felon ? 
 
72 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 and usually the best, is, when it is first recognized, to 
 cut down upon the bone through the periosteum, and 
 thus relieve the parts below it from pressure. 
 
 273. The gristle, or cartilage, also differs in 
 quality in different parts of the body, at the same time 
 and at different a^es. In some parts the gristle changes 
 to bone in advanced life. The gristle at the lower end 
 of the breast-bone changes very early. 
 
 Remark. — It is very easy to ascertain if any fowl is 
 young, by feeling the end of the breast-bone : if it yields 
 to pressure easily, the bird is young ; if it is firm, like 
 bone, the bird is old. 
 
 274. The chief peculiar quality of cartilage is 
 its elasticity, or springiness. Hence, it very properly is 
 found covering the ends of bones where they move 
 against each other. It is especially thick on the ends 
 of the bones in the lower limbs, thus preventing jars, in 
 walking, from being felt by the organs above. 
 
 275. Sinew, or ligament, is the strongest of all 
 known flexible substances. It is therefore admirably 
 adapted to bind together those parts of the skeleton 
 that must move upon each other. The manner in 
 which the ligaments extend across the joints from one 
 portion to another of the skeleton, is very curious and 
 remarkable. 
 
 276. Kinds of joints. Most parts of the skeleton 
 must be fastened together so that they can move upon 
 each other, more or less ; but some parts should be 
 fastened together immovably. There will therefore be 
 movable and immovable joints. 
 
 277. Each kind of joint has several varieties, best 
 described with the parts where they exist. 
 
 278. We will now consider the skeleton in detail— 
 Head first. 
 
 273. What said of — ? How to know if a fowl is young ? 274. What is — ? 
 275. What said of — ? 276. How many — ? 277. What said of — ? 278. How 
 now consider skeleton ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 73 
 
 279. The brain needs to be protected in a small 
 box, or case, which, to be the strongest with the least 
 materia], must be oval, or egg-shaped. 
 
 Fig. 29. Fig. 3Q. 
 
 280. Figs. 29, 30 represent a side and back view 
 of the brain in its case, which is called cranium. 
 
 281, Through the sides of the cranium must be 
 found a sufficient number of holes to allow the Blood- 
 tubes and nerves to extend, that are to connect the brain 
 with all parts of the body. Of course, the larger part of 
 these holes should be in the lower part of the cranium, 
 so that its upper part should present a nearly smooth, 
 ball-shaped surface to the hand, or eye. 
 
 282, To the lower and front part of the cra- 
 nium should be attached several bones that serve as a 
 framework of the ear, eye, nose, and mouth. These 
 together form the faciura, which, with the cranium, 
 constitutes the skull. 
 
 283. Fig. 31 represents the bones of the cranium 
 (1, 2, 3, 4) and those of the facium separated from each 
 other, showing the jagged or notched edges of the 
 skull. 
 
 279. How does — ? 2S0. What does — ? 281. What extend — ? Where 
 
 should the holes he the largest and most numerous ? 282. — what should be 
 attached ? 283. What does — ? 
 
 4 
 
74 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Fig. 3L 
 
 284. In thickness the cranium has three layers 
 called tables. The outer is notched, or serrated, and 
 tough, hence called fibrous. The middle layer is sponge- 
 form, called diploe ; the inner table is more brittle, and 
 called vitreous, or glassy ; its edges coming together 
 evenly, making a harmonious joint. 
 
 285. The bones of the facium are very irregular, 
 and constructed so as to accommodate their organs, as 
 will be best shown when they are described. 
 
 286. The cranium thus encases the brain from all 
 ordinary danger, from blows upon the head, &e. ; but 
 as jars are among the most serious dangers to which 
 the exceedingly delicate brain is exposed, we should 
 take great care to avoid blows upon the head, as it 
 sometimes happens that a small blow will produce a 
 yery serious effect. 
 
 Remark.— I f a blow or other injury has been re- 
 
 Do you observe how the bones of the face are situated below the cranium ? 
 Cover them, and observe the egg-shape of cranium. 2S4. — ; describe them. 
 285. What said of — ? 286. Why avoid blows on the head ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 75 
 
 ceived by the head, and there is an inclination to sleep, 
 let it be gratified — sleep is desirable. 
 
 287. So SENSITIVE IS THE BRAIN TO JARS, that the 
 cranium must be mounted and carried upon the most 
 delicate structure, yet strong, that can be devised; 
 
 288. The back-bone, or spinal column, taken in 
 every aspect, is the most exquisite device that can be 
 found in the wide bounds of creation. It is a strong 
 pillar, and yet exceedingly flexible. A canal extends 
 throughout its whole length, in which is sheathed and 
 protected the great spinal cord, from which, through 
 the sides of the spinal column, extend the spinal nerves, 
 reaching into every part of the body. 
 
 289. The spinal canal is directly beneath the large 
 hole in the base of the cranium, through which the 
 spinal cord connects with the brain. 
 
 290. Figs. 32 and 33 represent the under and upper 
 surfaces of the skull, 19 and 24 being the same hole. 
 
 If the head is injured, should sleep be allowed? 287. — what is necessary? 
 288. What is the structure of — ? 289. — is situated how in regard to the 
 
 head ? 290. What do — ? 
 
How many curves are there in the spinal column, viewed sidewise, between 
 14 and 1 ? How many hones are there between 14 and (including) 1 ? The ear 
 is turned forward to show the muscle (6). 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 77 
 
 291. Fig. 34 represents a head upon its spinal 
 column. 
 
 292. The spinal column is constructed of bones 
 called vertebrae, of thick cartilages called intervertebral 
 substances, and of numerous ligaments. 
 
 C Vertebrae 
 
 Spinal Column = Intervertebral Substances 
 ( Ligaments 
 
 293. The upper two vertebrae are curiously jointed 
 to each other, and to the cranium. 
 
 294. The upper one (Fig. 35) is called the Atlas, 
 because on its two broad shoulders it supports the 
 head, as the ancients fabled that Atlas supported the 
 world. On this bone the head moves as in nodding. 
 Fig. 35 shows both the upper and lower surfaces of 
 the Atlas. 
 
 295. A pivot, or tooth (2, Fig. 36), stands up 
 from the second vertebra, through the atlas, and is 
 fastened by a ligament to the cranium. Round this 
 pivot the atlas turns, and with it the head, of course, 
 as when a person makes the sign for No. This vertebra 
 is called the Dentatus. 
 
 296. The vertebrje below the dentatus have a 
 general resemblance to each other, and are jointed alike 
 throughout. They differ in size and thickness, and 
 somewhat in form ; Figs. 37, 38, and 39, representing 
 three from different regions of the column. 
 
 297. Each vertebra is constructed of a body in 
 front, from which, on each side, wings curve out around, 
 forming a hole and closing behind it ; from the wings 
 there are several projections, called processes, that 
 serve to form joints, or as levers for the attachment of 
 the ribs, the muscles, &c. 
 
 298. Between the bodies of all the vertebrae, 
 
 291. What docs—? 292. How fs — ? 293. What said of — ? 294. What 
 is — ? 295. — ; what is said of it ? 296. What is the character of — ? 
 297. How is — ? 
 
78 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 from the Dentatus down to the sacrum ( 14 , Fig. 34 ), 
 there is inserted an elastic substance, quite firm, yet 
 yielding to sufficient pressure. 
 
 299 . The intervertebral substance serves at 
 once three uses: it supports' the weight of the parts 
 above ; by yielding, prevents their feeling the full 
 effects of jars; and also allows the flexible motions 
 needed in bending the back. 
 
 300. The form of the spinal column is dependent 
 chiefly upon the intervertebral substances. 
 
 301 . The spinal column, viewed sidewise, is not 
 naturally straight in any person, but has a double curva- 
 ture in all. The curvature is much greater in some 
 than in others. From a front or back view, the spinal 
 column appears straight, if it is natural. (See Fig. 43.) 
 
 302 . The intervertebral substance not only nat- 
 urally differs in form and thickness in different persons, 
 but also in quality, being very much firmer and more 
 enduring in some than in others ; so that injurious treat- 
 ment will produce much more effect in some persons 
 than in others. Dark-complexioned persons usually have 
 intervertebral substances firmer than those of light-com- 
 plexioned persons, and have therefore more erect forms. 
 
 Fig. 40. 
 
 298. What exists — ? 299. — ; what are they? 300. Upon what is — ? 
 301. What is the form of — ? 302. Is always the same? In what persons 
 
 the firmest ? 
 
INTO OEGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 79 
 
 303. Fig. 40 represents two vertebras, and 3 the 
 intervertebral substance between them, in its natural 
 condition. Fig. 41 is the same, with 3 compressed, 
 allowing the vertebras to approach, and the back to be 
 bent. On the other hand, when the column is bent 
 backward, the bodies of the vertebras are separated, 
 and 3 is stretched. There is a joint at 4 on which the 
 vertebras turn, or flex. 
 
 304. Whenever the back is curved, the cushions 
 are always either compressed or stretched; and their 
 elasticity is therefore always exerted to restore the 
 column to its natural form— and will do it, unless force 
 is constantly exerted to counteract the tendency of the 
 substances. 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 305. If any part of the intervertebral substance 
 is continuously compressed, it will become permanently 
 thinner : thus deformities are produced. In fact, every 
 person will be found a little shorter at night than in 
 the morning, because the pressure upon the substances 
 during the day has made them thinner. A friend of 
 the author measured himself at eight one morning be- 
 
 303. What does — ? Describe Fig. 41. What would be found at 4 ? 
 
 304. What effect to be noticed — ? What tends to restore the flexed column ? 
 
 305. What effect — ? 
 
80 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 fore going out to hunt, and again when he came home 
 in the evening, when he found he was three fourths of 
 an inch shorter. He did not regain his ordinary height 
 till after two nights. 
 
 306. Clothing, or any occupation, that con- 
 strains the back to one position, tends to cause 
 pressure constantly on the same parts of the interver- 
 tebral substances, and will therefore produce deformity. 
 
 307. Freedom from constraint and frequent 
 change of position, is the only means for promoting a 
 good form of the spinal column. 
 
 Remark. — P eople who do not understand their own 
 structure, nor the effects of tight clothing, will try to pro- 
 duce good forms by using constraints, and endeavoring 
 to constantly preserve the same position. 
 
 308. Children should not be carried, nor lain, nor 
 allowed to sit, in any position for any great length of 
 time together. 
 
 309. Fig. 42 represents the shortening that will 
 be produced by compression of several of the inter- 
 vertebral substances ; the line above showing how high 
 the column would be, if straightened up to its natural 
 position. 
 
 310. Leaning much of the time in any direction, 
 will have the effect to produce a lateral or side curvature 
 of the column. 
 
 311. The lowest intervertebral substance rests 
 upon the sacrum — a wedge-shaped bone, so called, be- 
 cause offered by some of the ancients in sacrifice. 
 
 312. The sacrum terminates in several small bones 
 called the coxcyx. 
 
 313. The spinal canal and the spinal cord ex- 
 tend into the sacrum ; its nerves extending out, through 
 holes, in the front and back parts of the sacrum. 
 
 306. What will be the effect of — ? 305. What the effect of — ? 308. What 
 said of the positions of — ? 309. What does — ? 310. What effect has — ? 
 
 311 . What said of — ? 312. How does — ? 313. How low do wo find — ? 
 
Fig. 42. 
 
 314. The sacrum is wedged in between, and very 
 strongly fastened to the hip-bones : these, very irregular 
 
 What does Fig. 42 represent? Which is the straighter, Fig. 43 or Fig. 34 ? 
 Does it seem as if the column 43 could be made from 34 ? It was. 314. — is 
 situated where ? 
 
 4 * 
 
82 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 in shape, curve around from the sides of the sacrum 
 till they meet in front ; forming a deep, bony ring, 
 larger above and narrower below, quite smooth and 
 even on the inner surface, but having many inequalities 
 on the outer surface. (See Fig. 43.) 
 
 315. The hip-bones, with the sacrum, called the 
 pelvis, form a kind of basin, adapted within to support 
 various organs there located, and on the outside to the 
 attachment of the Motory organs of the lower limbs. 
 
 316. The pelvis may be called the fixed point in 
 the body, as above and below it all parts are movable 
 upon it. Upon it, firmly fastened, stands the elastic 
 spinal column, protecting within its bony canal the im- 
 portant spinal cord. The twenty-two elastic joints and 
 twenty-four vertebrae above the sacrum, permit such a 
 curvature that the back can be formed into almost a 
 circle, yet, with so small a curve, at any one point, as 
 not to injure the cord. 
 
 317. In the outside of the pelvis are hollowed 
 deep cups, or sockets, adapted to receive the round 
 heads of the thigh-bones, as shown by Fig. 44 — a section 
 of the pelvis through the hip-joints. 
 
 315. What are — ? 316. What may — ? How many joints in the spinal 
 column? 317. What found— ? Do you notice tho spongy appearance of the 
 inner^part of bones of the hip and thigh whore they are cut across in Fig. 44 ? 
 
 Fig.. 44. 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 83 
 
 318. From the hip to the knee a single bone, 
 called femur, extends, having a head, neck, and body ; 
 the lower end of which is enlarged for the purpose of 
 forming a strong knee-joint. (See Fig. 45.) 
 
 319. In front of the knee-joint a bone, called the 
 knee-pan, or patella, is found. It does not properly 
 belong to the knee-joint, but is to be counted as an 
 appendage' of the muscles that act most powerfully by 
 its assistance. 
 
 320. Below the knee-joint, at first, there is but 
 one bone — the shin, or tibia ; but soon another bone is 
 found by the side of it, called the fibula — a long, slender, 
 and, on several accounts, very beautiful bone. (See 
 Fig. 46.) 
 
 321. The lower ends of these bones form the 
 inner and outer ankle-joints ; a socket being formed by 
 both leg-bones, in which the ankle-bone of the foot is 
 received, and moves. (See Figs. 46 and 47.) 
 
 318. What extends — ? 319. What found — ? 320. How many hones in 
 the leg — ? What does Fig. 45 represent? What does Fig. 46 represent? 
 321. What said of — ? 
 
84 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Fig. 47. Fig. 48. 
 
 322. The ankle is formed of seven bones, called 
 the tarsus, curiously united, and arched in several direc- 
 tions so as to form a very strong, but elastic instep. 
 
 323. From the tarsus five bones — the metatarsus — 
 extend forward, completing the arches beneath the foot, 
 upon which the body rests in walking. 
 
 324. From the metatarsus the phalanges, or bones 
 of the toes, extend, three in each, except in the large 
 toe — and sometimes in the small toe, only two. 
 
 325. The skeleton of the foot is a truly wonderful 
 piece of mechanism, and worthy of a prolonged study, 
 if space would permit. 
 
 326. To each side of the twelve dorsal ver- 
 tebrae of the spinal column above, the twelve ribs 
 
 What does Fig. 47 represent ? What does Fig. 48 represent? 322. Of what 
 is — 1 323. IIow many bones, and for what purpose, extend — ? 324. What 
 built out — ? 325. What said of— ? 326. What attached — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 85 
 
 are attached ; most of them curving round to become con- 
 nected to the breast-bone by means of strips of cartilage. 
 
 327. Thus is formed the elastic framework of 
 the Chest, — elastic on two accounts i because of the 
 elasticity of the dorsal intervertebral substances, and 
 because of the elastic character of the front ends of the 
 ribs, and of their joints with the vertebrae. 
 
 328. If therefore the ribs are raised, or low- 
 ered, the elastic cartilage tends to restore them to their 
 natural position. The elasticity will assist, therefore, 
 both in inhaling and exhaling air. 
 
 329. If the spinal column is curved, the ribs will 
 move accordingly, and the elastic action of the spinal 
 column may therefore assist in breathing. 
 
 330. The elastic construction of the Chest will 
 also permit flexure of the spinal column ; but as motion 
 backward, to a very great degree, would be injurious to 
 the organs within the Chest-walls, it will be perceived 
 that motion of the Chest in that direction has been pre- 
 vented by having the spinous processes incline down 
 so much that they will restrict backward motion, to a 
 very limited degree. 
 
 331. One, two, or three of the lowest ribs are 
 not connected by cartilage to the Sternum, or breast- 
 bone, and hence are called floating ribs. The cartilages 
 of the next two or three ribs connect with the cartilages 
 of the ribs above. 
 
 332. To THE UPPER EXTREMITY OF THE BREAST-BONE 
 two bones, called the collar-bones, or clavicles, are joint- 
 ed. They extend toward the shoulder, where they are 
 jointed to the shoulder-blade, or scapula. (See Figs. 
 49 and 50 ; see also Fig. 59, where 2 on one side shows 
 the clavicle bound in its place, and 2 on the other 
 shows it is raised to exhibit the open joint.) 
 
 327. — ; why elastic ? 328. What effect — ? What function assisted "by 
 elasticity? 329. What—? 330. What said of — ? 331. What peculiar in re- 
 gard to — ? 332. What attached — ? 
 
86 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Figs. 49, 50. 
 
 s 
 
 333. The use of the collar-bones is to keep the 
 shoulders out from the ribs ; and also to allow the 
 shoulders, through the collar-bones, to turn on the upper 
 end of the breast-bone, as on a pivot. 
 
 334. The blade, or thin expanded part of the 
 scapula, that extends partly across the back, is not the 
 most important part, as is usually thought ; it is merely 
 extended out in this way, to serve for the attachment 
 of muscles that are under, above, and behind it ; and 
 the use of which is to haul backward, downward, 
 and upward the shoulder-joint, which is the most im- 
 
 Can you feel that Figs. 49 and 50 are rightly shaped ? Can you feel 10 of 
 Fig. 50? What is the difference between the shoulder and tho elbow-joints? 
 333. What is-? 334. What said of — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 87 
 
 portant part of the scapula. (See Fig. 51, representing 
 the back or outer surface of the scapula.) 
 
 335. The blades are not jointed to the ribs, but 
 merely lie and move over them ; nor does the position 
 of the blades affect the form or size of the Chest, though 
 the size and form of the Chest affect the position and 
 appearance of the blades. 
 
 Remark. — People make a great mistake in thinking 
 that when the shoulders are drawn back, the Chest is 
 enlarged, because more of it is in front of the shoulders ; 
 and that by drawing and fastening the shoulders back, 
 the Chest is also enlarged, and breathing improved. It 
 is the very reverse : everything that constrains, injures. 
 
 336. A shallow socket is wrought in the shoulder- 
 end of the scapula, to which is fitted the ball of the 
 upper arm-bone — the humerus ; a single bone extending 
 to the elbow, where it is jointed to the ulna, one of the 
 bones of the lower arm. (See Fig. 52, representing the 
 humerus, or upper arm-bone.) 
 
 Fig. 55 — ulna and radius : 4, point of elbow (olecra- 
 non) ; 5, process in front of joint (coronoid) ; 2, cavity 
 fitting around lower end of humerus ; 3, joint of 11 with 
 ulna ; 15, surface E that turns over on to 8 of the TT ; 
 13, attachment of biceps (muscle). 
 
 * Fig. 56 — upper end of ulna : 1, olecranon ; 2, cavity; 
 3, coronoid ; 4, ligament binding radius in 5, the cavity 
 in which 11 of 55 turns. 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 337. Immediately below the elbow, and resting 
 against the humerus, though not jointed to it, is another 
 bone — the radius — that extends, and is jointed to the 
 
 335. To what are — ? Remark. — In what do people often err ? 336. Where 
 
 in the shoulder-blade is — ? What do Figs. 55 and 50 represent ? 337^ What 
 bone is found — ? 
 
88 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 wrist. The hand hangs upon the radius ; the ulna 
 hangs upon the humerus ; the radius and ulna lie side 
 by side, and are jointed to each other in such a manner 
 that the radius, particularly its lower end, can roll over 
 and upon the ulna, turning the hand with it. (See 
 Figs. 55 and 56.) 
 
 338. This joint of the radius and ulna is very 
 simple, yet one of the most curious in the body, and 
 certainly one of the most useful, and most frequently 
 used. 
 
 339. The wrist, or carpus, is constructed of eight 
 small bones, forming a double row : the first row, in a 
 ball-form, is jointed to the radius, and not at ail to the 
 ulna ; so that the wrist hangs wholly on the radius, 
 and the wrist and the hands turn with the radius, which 
 can be rolled over upon the ulna; making the hand 
 prone as quick as thought. (See Fig. 57.) 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 340. From the carpus the metacarpus, of five 
 bones, extends to the fingers, in which are the phalanges, 
 three in each ; and in the thumb, two. 
 
 What bone is attached to the humerus, and to which is the wrist ? 338. What 
 is said of — ? Experiment in turning the hand while feeling the hones in the 
 arm till their motions arc understood. 339. How is — ? 340. What extends — % 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 89 
 
 341. The friction at all the movable joints, 
 especially those where there is much pressure, makes it 
 necessary that they should be oiled, or lubricated with 
 a very glairy fluid. 
 
 342. In any movable joint we may perceive, 
 not only that the parts in contact are finished off very 
 smoothly by means of cartilage, but that they are 
 moistened with a very glairy fluid, like diluted white 
 of egg. While the joint is in health, a very minute 
 quantity of fluid, yet sufficient to moisten the whole 
 joint, is found in it. This fluid is constantly poured 
 into, and as constantly removed from, the joint by 
 a beautiful membrane, or skin, that lines the entire 
 joint. 
 
 343. The fluid of the joint is called synovia, 
 or synovial fluid, and the membrane the synovial 
 membrane. In diseases of the joints this fluid some- 
 times increases or diminishes from the healthy point ; 
 causing a swelling or dryness of the joint, for which 
 rest is the chief remedy. 
 
 344. The bones are bound together at the mov- 
 able joints by sinews, termed ligaments. They some- 
 times extend from bone to bone in the form of straps, 
 called flat ligaments ; sometimes they entirely surround 
 a joint, when they are called capsular ligaments ; or they 
 are in the form of cords, and called round ligaments. 
 In Figs. 58 and 59 an example of the capsular (12, 13, 
 and 5) and round (8) ligament, is seen in the same 
 joint ; the former being around the hip-joint, and the 
 latter within it. 
 
 345. The ligaments are exceedingly numerous, 
 especially in the hand and foot ; extending from one 
 bone to another in a very curious and complexed 
 manner. (See Figs. 58, 59, 60, and 61.) 
 
 341. What necessary to relieve — ? 342. What ? How much fluid in any 
 joint? 343. What is— ? 344. How are — ? How many kinds of ligaments 
 are there ? 345. Where are — ? 
 
90 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 346. Figs. 60, 61 and 62, represent ligaments of 
 the breast-bone, of the ankle, and of the hand. 
 
 347. Three substances — bone, cartilage, and liga- 
 ment — enter into the structure of the skeleton, to which 
 (a fourth) the synovial membrane is added to pre- 
 
 What does Fig. 58 represent? What do the figures on Fig. 58 denote? Do 
 you notice 10, called Poupart’s ligament? Between what does it stretch? 
 What does Fig. 59 represent ? 346. What do — ? 347. What said of — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 91 
 
 serve the joints perfect ; while through many parts of 
 the skeleton (a fifth substance) the nerves are inserted. 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 348. Of what use can nerves be in the bones ? 
 While the bones are sound their nerves are not painful — 
 indeed, they may then be cut across without causing 
 pain ; but if the bones are broken, or in any way injured, 
 requiring the most perfect quiet for their recovery, they 
 become exceedingly painful ; compelling a motionless 
 state of the part that no splints nor external bandages 
 could produce. 
 
 Remark. — Sometimes the bones, when injured, do 
 not become painful, and recovery is retarded, or the 
 parts become displaced and deformed. 
 
 Muscles . 
 
 349. All parts of the skeleton, except the 
 skull, bear evidence, in their numerous joints, that 
 they are intended for motion ; and the most hasty 
 glance will convince any one, that the production of 
 motion was one of the chief purposes for which the 
 body was constructed. 
 
 350. The chief part of the most exquisite ar- 
 
 How many substances in the skeleton ? 348. — ? If a person's arm is 
 
 cut off while in health, would sawing through the bone hurt ? 349. Of what 
 do — ? What is the comparative importance of motion ? 
 
92 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 rangements in the skeleton, has sole reference to 
 motion, which, in various ways, is of the utmost service 
 to us. 
 
 351. To move the various parts of the skeleton, 
 it must be clothed with living flesh, that constitutes 
 the chief parts of the muscles. The study of these is 
 one of the most useful, as well as interesting, divisions 
 of our subject. 
 
 352. A muscle is constructed of lean meat, sheaths, 
 and tendons : the lean meat is the active part, the sheath 
 envelopes it, and the tendons strongly attach it to the 
 parts it acts upon. 
 
 353. The appearance of a muscle is easily ob- 
 served in the well-cooked “drumstick” of any fowl, 
 since it is easily separated into several muscles, having 
 short tendons above and long ones below, reaching to 
 the claws. 
 
 354. Each of these muscles, or any piece of lean 
 meat, when cooked, can be easily separated into delicate 
 strips, or fleshy strings, called fasciculi, that, by the 
 assistance of a microscope, can be subdivided into 
 threads, called fibres and fibrillae, smaller than the 
 finest cobweb, even smaller than can be seen by the 
 naked eye. 
 
 355. A FURTHER EXAMINATION OF THE FIBRE SHOWS 
 that it is composed of a delicate sheath, and a substance 
 contained in it, in the form of cells arranged end to end. 
 
 356. These muscle-cells are the true contractile 
 substance of the muscle : when in an uncontracted state, 
 called relaxed, they are very soft, weak, and easily 
 torn ; but when they contract, they become endowed 
 with a great deal of power, and one of the strongest 
 of substances, producing motions that are almost irre- 
 sistible. 
 
 351. What necessary — ? 352. How is — ? 353. In what is— ? 354. —can 
 be separated into what ? 355. What does — ? 356. What are — ? "What is 
 their character when contracting ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 93 
 
 357. Precisely how this contraction is caused, 
 no one knows ; nor how a substance so weak at one 
 
 -moment becomes so strong in another, is not yet com- 
 prehended. What we know is, that one moment the 
 muscular substance is relaxed, quiet, and easily rent; 
 but if through the nerves an influence (that we call 
 nervous, because we know little about it, except that 
 it is exerted through nerves) is exerted upon the 
 muscle-cells, they instantly begin to contract wdth great 
 power. 
 
 358. All muscles are essentially alike. The four 
 hundred and fifty in the body differ only in size, form, 
 and position, but they act precisely alike. All that any 
 muscle can do is to produce motion, and by the same 
 simple contraction of one or more cells. 
 
 359. The greater the number of cells placed 
 end to end, the longer will be the muscle, and the 
 greater the extent of motion produced. 
 
 360. The greater the number of cells side by 
 side, the larger the muscle and the stronger it will be. 
 
 361. Wiiat is very wonderful and very ad- 
 mirable is, that so many kinds and so many varieties 
 of motion, as we see in the human body, should be pro- 
 duced by combinations of a number of one simple thing : 
 the muscle-cell, having one simple property — contraction. 
 
 362. We will now construct a muscle by arranging 
 muscle-cells end to end, and thus producing fibrillse : 
 a bundle of these we will cover with a sheath project- 
 ing, more or less, beyond the cells, and thus produce a 
 muscular fibre ; of which we will take several, and cover 
 them with a thicker sheath producing a fasciculus, 
 which may be a muscle ; but, usually, several fasciculi, 
 taken together, and covered with a sheath, are neces- 
 sary to form a muscle. 
 
 357. Do -we know — ? What do we know about it ? 358. In what respects 
 do — agree? how differ? 359. What effect of — ? 360. What effect of — ? 
 361. — ? 362. — by doing what ? 
 
94 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 363. The sheaths projecting beyond the cells, 
 more or less, are condensed into pearl-colored sinews, 
 called tendons, having properties precisely like the 
 sinews called ligaments, that tie the bones together ; 
 sinew always being very strong and flexible. 
 
 Fig. 63. Fig. 64. Fig. 65. 
 
 364. The muscles are distinguished from each 
 
 363. What produced by — ? What are the two chief qualities of sinew ? 
 Have you noticed the cords on the back of the hands, or on the top of the 
 feet ? 364. IIow are — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 95 
 
 other by being covered by distinct sheaths, and by 
 having all their sheaths, at one end or the other, con- 
 densed into a single tendon. 
 
 365. The fibres of each fasciculus are always 
 parallel to each other ; but the fasciculi of a muscle are 
 rarely parallel, exhibiting many different and sometimes 
 very curious arrangements (see ^plate-page 2) all, how- 
 ever, for one purpose, viz., to produce motion in the 
 best manner. 
 
 366. Fig. 63 represents the muscles of the front 
 part of the thigh : the stripes are the fasciculi, e. g., in 6 
 nearly parallel. It is the longest muscle in the body, 
 and is called the eartorius, or the tailor’s muscle, be- 
 cause, when it contracts, it draws up the leg as when a 
 tailor sits on his bench. The fasciculi ol the other 
 muscles of the thigh are observed not to be parallel. 
 The arrangement of fasciculi is also seen, in Figs. 64 
 and 65, not to be parallel to the action of the muscle. 
 
 367. The contraction of a fasciculus must take 
 place in the direction of its fibres ; but the contraction 
 of a muscle, as a whole, may not be in the direction of 
 any of its fibres. 
 
 Illustration. — If two strings are tied to the leg of a 
 chair, and two boys in front of it a little distance apart 
 pull upon the strings, the chair will not move directly 
 toward either, but will move in a line toward a point 
 between them ; so by the action of the fasciculi of a 
 muscle, it may be shortened, but not in the precise 
 direction of either of them. 
 
 368. Sometimes, indeed often, upon the same 
 principle, several different muscles must conjoin their 
 action to produce a given motion not in the direction of 
 the action of either muscle. 
 
 369. The beauty, or some convenience of a part, 
 
 365. What is true of — ? 386. What does — ? 367. What said of — ? 
 
 Illustration.— IIow will a chair move if acted on by two forces operating 
 from different directions ? 368. How do muscles act — ? 369. What does — ? 
 
96 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 often requires that a muscle shall he located in such a 
 position that the direction of its contraction is very dif- 
 ferent from that of the required motion, that can he pro- 
 duced only by having the tendons of the muscle pass 
 under some band, or round some bone, as seen in Figs. 64 
 and 65. 
 
 Fig. 66. Fig. 67. 
 
 370. Fig. 66 represents the under surface of the 
 foot dissected ; the tendon (3), branching to the toes, 
 
 How are the tendons in 64 and 65 arranged in regard to the muscles and 
 the motion they produce ? "What does Fig. 66 represent ? "What does Fig. 67 
 represent ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 97 
 
 extends from the muscle above down the side of the 
 ankle at 4, as is also represented in Fig. 64. 
 
 371. At 13 (Fig. 65) is represented a band of 
 sinewy fibres, called a ligament 5 extending from one 
 ankle to the other, and binding down upon the instep 
 the tendons that curve under it to extend to the toes : 
 thus the muscles in the leg act under it upon the toes. 
 
 372. At 16 (Fig. 67) is represented a ligament 
 that, like a bracelet, encircles the wrist just beneath 
 the skin ; binding down the tendons in their place 
 when the hand is turned upon the wrist-joint or the 
 fingers are opened and shut. 
 
 373. The arrangement of the fasciculi of a 
 muscle, is usually such that the muscle acts disadvan- 
 tageous^, and must be composed of more substance 
 than would be necessary, if the fasciculi could be so 
 arranged as to act most directly. 
 
 374. The muscles are also, from necessity, so 
 arranged as a usual thing that they cannot act to the 
 greatest advantage, as it regards power. 
 
 375. The muscles are usually so arranged and 
 attached that a given motion will be produced in the 
 least time , no matter what the increased amount of 
 power required. 
 
 Illustration. — If we apply our hand to a gate near 
 its hinge, we can shut it, if we use the requisite force, 
 quicker than we can if we apply our hand near the 
 latch. 
 
 376. If the muscle on the front part of the arm 
 had been attached near the wrist, less force would 
 have been required to raise the hand, than is now the 
 case, but it could not have been raised so quickly. 
 
 377. From this fact, that power is always sacri- 
 ficed to the saving of time, we can learn the value of 
 
 371. What — ? 372. What — ? 373. What usually is — ? 374. How are — ? 
 375. How are — ? What is the — ? 376. What — ? 377. What can we 
 
 learn ? 
 
 5 
 
98 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 time as it has been valued by the Creator. lie has 
 wisely made us to produce motions quickly, even at a 
 great loss of power sometimes. 
 
 378. There are three or four other forms in 
 which the fasciculi are found: 1st. In the form of 
 rings, as round the mouth and in the eyelids, when by 
 contraction they close the opening around which they 
 are placed. 2d. Rings are placed side by side, or the 
 fasciculi extend around and diagonally, forming a tube. 
 3d. The fasciculi are in layers, or interwoven more in- 
 timately in the form of a pouch, as in the Stomach and 
 Heart. 4th. The fasciculi are in a membranous form, 
 as in the Diaphragm, making, with the direct, five 
 different forms or plans of muscles. 
 
 379. By these five different forms of muscle 
 every perceptible kind of motion can be produced : and 
 all these forms of muscle have been constructed from 
 one kind of element — the simple muscle-cell. 
 
 380. To EXCITE THE MUSCLE-CELLS TO CONTRACT, it 
 has been shown that they must be brought under some 
 influence. It is called nervous, because exerted through 
 nerves ; but the nerves are merely cords through which 
 the influence is exerted. The influence must be pro- 
 duced in a Nervous Centre, or Ganglion, and, from the 
 centre, act through the nerves upon the muscle-cells. 
 
 381. Every muscle must therefore be connected 
 with at least one Nervous Centre by means of a nerve, 
 or nerves : nerves must be interwoven through every 
 muscle to such an extent that the Nervous Influence 
 can be active upon every muscle-cell in the muscle. 
 
 382. Again, whenever a muscle-cell contracts, 
 some part of it becomes useless, and must be removed, 
 and new substance must be laid down in its place, or 
 the muscle will soon be impoverished. 
 
 378. — : what are they ? 379. What effects produced — ? 380. What is 
 
 necessary — ? What is the influence called ? Whero produced ? 381. With 
 what must — ? 382. What effect — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 99 
 
 383. A CONSTANT AND WONDERFUL CHANGE IS THERE- 
 FORE taking place in every active muscle. 
 
 384. To ACCOMPLISH THE LIVING CHANGE IN THE 
 muscle, an exquisitely fine net-work of capillary Blood- 
 tubes must be woven throughout the muscle and around 
 all its fibrils : into these capillaries, the arteries must 
 open on one side ; while, on the other, the capillaries 
 open into veins. 
 
 385. Thus from and by the arteries the blood is 
 poured into the capillaries, through the delicate sides 
 of which, by a wonderful living action not well under- 
 stood, the substance which was muscle enters the capil- 
 lary, and parts of the blood leave the capillary to become 
 living muscle. 
 
 386. The blood, more or less changed, flows on, 
 through the capillaries, into the veins to allow its place 
 to be occupied by a fresh pulse from the artery. 
 
 387. The more active the muscle, the more blood 
 it will need ; and chiefly by its own action, the muscle 
 supplies itself with a greater amount of blood than it 
 needs. 
 
 388. It is very evident that when a muscle con- 
 tracts, it becomes firm, and will press out the blood 
 contained in its blood-vessels — a part backward into the 
 arteries, but the chief part onward into the veins, in the 
 natural course of the blood. 
 
 389. When a muscle relaxes, it is soft and flabby ; 
 and the artery can not only pour back what it received 
 from the muscle contracting, but it can add largely to 
 that : little will return from the veins, as they are 
 plentifully supplied with valves that prevent the blood 
 from flowing back into them. 
 
 390. Thus the alternate contraction and re- 
 laxation of muscles will, as it were, pump the blood 
 
 383. Where does — ? 384. What necessary — ? 385. What effected — ? 
 
 386. What said of — ? 387. What will he necessary — ? 388. What is — ? 
 
 389. What is the effect — ? 390. — will do what ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 ioo 
 
 through them : indeed, each muscle may be called a 
 heart adapted to assist in the circulation of the blood. 
 
 391. Several very important facts can now be 
 understood: 1st. If the muscle is contracted for too 
 long a time, it will suffer harm, because its parts are 
 becoming useless all that time. 
 
 392. 2d. A HORSE WILL BE IN A BETTER CONDITION 
 if he draw a heavy load and travel slowly, than if he 
 draw a light load and travel rapidly ; because, in the 
 latter case, his muscles are not relaxed so much 
 of the time as to permit a thorough repair of them : 
 for the same reason the rapid movements of sewing 
 women are more exhausting than heavier, slower labors 
 would be. 
 
 393. 3d. After a given time, whatever the motion, 
 slow or quick, the muscles will require a period of entire 
 and prolonged repose, or they will become so exhausted 
 that they can never recover — at least not fully. 
 
 Illustration 1 . — A person, when his house was on 
 fire, worked so earnestly and so long that he was at last 
 exhausted, and has not been able for years even to turn 
 himself in bed. 
 
 Illustration 2. — A man wishing to sell a horse, 
 said he had driven him eighty-eight miles between 
 sunrise and sunset. Another replied that he would like 
 to buy a horse that could do that, but not one that had 
 done it. 
 
 Illustration 3. — I have known several cases of 
 young children walking so far as to become exhausted, 
 and never after have the power of using their legs : 
 great care should be taken to relieve children when they 
 complain of being tired, or show signs of fatigue. 
 
 394. 4th. Exercise of the muscles promotes an 
 appetite, because they then use up a large amount of 
 
 What may each muscle be called? 391. What said of — ? 392. When 
 will — ? 393. What necessary for the good of tho muscles — ? Illustra- 
 tion 1st ? 2d ? 3d ? 394. Why does — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 101 
 
 material from the blood that must be replenished from 
 food. 
 
 395. 5th. Exercise of the muscles furnishes to 
 the blood a large amount of substance that must be 
 removed from the blood by the appropriate eliminating 
 organs : one of them is called the intestinal canal, the 
 activity of which is therefore promoted by exercise. 
 
 396. 6th. The contraction of the muscles by 
 propelling the blood through themselves, also impels it 
 through every part of the body. 
 
 Remark. — T hus the muscles, when active, drive a 
 large quantity of blood through the bones, and facilitate 
 their growth, and their increase of strength, precisely 
 correspondent to the increased strength of the muscles. 
 
 397. The change that takes place in the muscles 
 is also attended by the production of heat ; therefore 
 
 398. The contraction of the muscles assists in 
 warming the body in two ways : by the direct produc- 
 tion of heat, and by the more rapid circulation of blood, 
 
 399. If the contraction of the muscles has a 
 
 TENDENCY TO INCREASE THE FLOW OF THE BLOOD, it will 
 
 be necessary to have the hearts also contract more 
 rapidly, as all the blood is measured through the hearts 
 at each circuit. 
 
 400. The hearts are caused to beat more rapidly 
 when the muscles contract, by means of nerves com- 
 mencing in the muscles, and leading to Nervous Centres 
 that act on the heart, and regulate its beats. 
 
 Illustration. — I f a person lies down, the hearts 
 beat slowest, because the fewest muscles are active ; 
 the instant he sits up, the heart’s action is quickened by 
 several beats per minute, because the muscles need more 
 blood ; standing, the pulses are still more frequent, 
 quicker when walking, and yet more numerous when 
 
 395. What does — ? 396. What effect produced by — ? 397. What at- 
 
 tends — ? 398. How is the body warmed by — ? 399. What is necessary — ? 
 400. How are — ? Illustration? 
 
102 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 running : try the experiment, and see how wonderfully 
 the action of the heart is regulated to the demands 
 upon it. 
 
 Remark. — The necessity of the Nervous Circulatory 
 Apparatus, and the readiness with which it acts, is quite 
 apparent. 
 
 401. Thus do we learn some of the most impor- 
 tant lessons : 1st, that we should not long remain in 
 one position ; if we do, certain muscles are constantly 
 contracted, and thus enfeebled. 
 
 402. We learn, 2d, that we should not clothe any 
 part of the body tightly, or in such a manner as to 
 prevent the free contraction and relaxation of the 
 muscles : the tight clothing of the chest, therefore, pre- 
 vents the free action of its muscles, and they grow 
 weak, and the movements cannot then be graceful. 
 
 403. We learn, 3d, that to promote both appetite, 
 and the regular, healthy, eliminating action of the 
 Digestory Canal, we must take an abundance of mus- 
 cular exercise. 
 
 404. We learn, 4th, that one way to promote a 
 free circulation of blood through the brain, and thus 
 clear it of impurities, and give it fresh blood in abun- 
 dance (enabling the student to return to his work) ; or 
 to give warmth, life, and beauty, to the skin, or any 
 other organ, is to exercise the muscles. 
 
 405. There are about 450 involuntary muscles 
 that may be considered as so many voluntary hearts — 
 all at our will to be called into action for the purpose 
 of increasing the circulation of blood. Man is therefore 
 more than half heart — one inside, beating night and 
 day ; the other outside, consisting of the numerous 
 voluntary muscles, as shown by plate-page 2, ready to 
 be called into action whenever necessary. 
 
 401. — what are they, 1st ? 402. What do— ? 403. What do — ? 404. What 
 do — ? 405. — as what ? What proportion of a person’s body may be con- 
 sidered as heart, and of use in assisting to circulate the blood? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 103 
 
 406. The muscles are never selfish when they 
 act to bring blood into themselves : they also distribute 
 it more rapidly to all parts of the body. 
 
 Remark. — The number of the muscles, their posi- 
 tion, the parts to which they are attached, and the 
 effect of their action, can be judged by looking at the 
 various Figures representing them. 
 
 Nerves of the Muscles . 
 
 407. To the eye, a nerve is a very soft or pulpy 
 white cord ; but under the microscope, that which can 
 be seen by the naked eye is shown to be a bundle of 
 delicate threads not as large as a cobweb, composed 
 of a sheath filled with a very delicate substance. 
 
 408. When a nerve is said to branch, what is 
 meant is, that the bundle of the little threads, which 
 are in fact the nerves, is divided into two or more 
 bundles ; the trunk of a nerve being composed of the 
 same number of nerves as are found in its branches: 
 thus all the nerves — that is, the elementary nerves — ex- 
 tend from the centres to the parts thus connected with 
 the centres. Therefore, all parts of the body are repre- 
 sented at the brain, and all parts may be said to be con- 
 structed in the brain, and present there as much as if 
 they really were included in the skull, in the same manner 
 as in the eye we see all the world brought in by light. 
 
 409. Nerves through which the voluntary 
 muscles are acted on, must extend from the head, 
 where the mind has its seat, to the muscles. (See 
 Fig. 2 and plate-page 3.) 
 
 410. But the mind must also know precisely how 
 much the muscles are contracted ; and when any muscle 
 is contracting, a knowledge of its condition must be 
 constantly brought to the mind. 
 
 406. Why are — ? 407. What is a nerve — ? 408. What is the case — ? 
 Are then all parts of the body represented by the ends of the nerves at the 
 centres ? 409. What said of — ? 410. What must — ? 
 
104 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 411 The mind can be informed about the con- 
 traction of a muscle only by having another set of 
 nerves (spoken of before as a second set of nerves) 
 extending from the muscles to the head. 
 
 412. When the nerves are examined quite near 
 to the spinal cord, they are found to be composed of 
 two parts, or roots, as they are called, which are found 
 to have two uses : if the front root is cut, all control 
 over the muscles to which it belongs, is lost ; if the 
 back root is cut, all sensation in the part is lost ; nor 
 can a person know how much any muscle is contracted. 
 
 413. Two kinds of nerves, therefore, connect the 
 muscles with the brain : through one, the influence that 
 causes the contraction of the muscles goes out ; through 
 the other, the influence by which the mind learns the 
 condition of the muscles flows in. 
 
 Fig. 68 represents a section of the 
 spinal cord, with 1, 2, the roots, as 
 they are called, of nerves extending 
 from it on each side : 1 is motory ; 2 is 
 sensatory ; beyond 3 they are enclosed 
 in one sheath, and no longer distin- 
 guishable. All the spinal nerves are 
 similar ; where they arise from the 
 spinal cord, they are seen to be nu- 
 merous : they are equally so in their 
 sheath. 
 
 414. The influences pass out and in, through the 
 two kinds of nerves, with the rapidity of lightning ; so 
 that the mind hardly notices how it does its work. 
 
 415. Again * it is very important to notice, that, 
 through the centripetal or sensatory nerves (viz., those 
 through Avhich the muscles exert an influence on the 
 brain), sensations of pleasure, or of pain, are produced, 
 according to the condition of the muscles. 
 
 411. How can — ? 412. What found — ? What difference in the effects 
 
 when the front or back root is cut ? 413. Describe the — ? What does 
 
 Fig 68. represent ? 414. How do — ? 415 What — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 105 
 
 416. If the muscles are not exercised as much as 
 they should he, very unpleasant sensations are caused ; 
 which is also the case if they are exercised too much ; 
 hut if they are exercised perfectly, they will he the 
 cause of a very high and desirable degree of enjoy- 
 ment : they will still cause another kind of sensation, if 
 diseased or injured. 
 
 417. To exercise properly is, therefore, to enjoy 
 life in a double sense : directly, by the sensations the 
 muscles cause; and, secondarily, by the increased health 
 and comfort, generally, that their exercise produces. 
 
 Motory Ganglia . 
 
 418. It has been seen that the skeleton has the 
 number and kind of joints that will permit every de- 
 sirable motion ; that muscles adapted to produce every 
 motion, clothe the skeleton ; that their substance, when 
 perfect, has at all times the property of contracting, but 
 will not contract till a proper influence excites it, which 
 influence is conducted through nerves, themselves passive. 
 
 419. To LEARN THE SOURCE OF THE INFLUENCE, We 
 must trace the nerves from the muscles to their inner 
 extremities ; some of which we shall find commencing 
 in the spinal cord, and others ex- 
 tending up the cord to the brain. 
 
 420. Nerves always commence 
 in a grayish, very delicate, pulpy 
 substance, formed, in part, of cells 
 which are supposed to be the source 
 of the Nervous Influence : any col- 
 lection of such substance is called a 
 Nervous Centre, of Ganglion. 
 
 421. Fig. 69 represents a mag- 
 nified view of a part of a Nervous Centre, or Ganglion : 
 
 416. What effect — ? What effect if too much ? If perfectly ? If diseased ? 
 417. — is what ? 418. — that what is necessary to produce motion ? 419. How 
 proceed to — ’? 420. How do — ? 421. What does — ?. 
 
 5 * 
 
106 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 1, two filaments of nerves connecting with large cells ; 
 
 2, 4, chain of cells ; 3, undeveloped cells. 
 
 422. The reddish-gray color of the Ganglia is 
 owing to the very great number of minute Blood-tubes 
 which are found there, and which prove that the gray 
 is a very active part ; thus : 
 
 423. Nervous substance is classed as the active 
 or gray part, and the passive conducting or white part ; 
 the latter only is found in the nerves, while in the 
 Ganglion both are found. 
 
 424. In the Nervous Centres, probably in their 
 cells, Nervous Influence is produced, and thence dis- 
 charged through or along the nerves to the muscles, 
 that instantly contract : how produced, conducted, or 
 how it acts, or what is its nature in other respects, is 
 not known. 
 
 Remark. — Sometimes it is compared to electricity, 
 galvanism, and magnetism, but incorrectly. It is one 
 of the most wonderful things in Nature, but, when un- 
 derstood, will doubtless be found the most simple. 
 
 425. How LARGE A NERVOUS CENTRE ANY MUSCLE 
 requires to excite its most powerful contraction, we do 
 not know, as we have no means of measuring the power 
 of a centre : some are very small, and others large. 
 
 426. There appears to be no good reason for 
 supposing that the centre for each muscle is distinct. 
 It seems that they are run together in groups, corre- 
 sponding to the groups of muscles to which they be- 
 long ; and that these groups of centres are also so 
 arranged that, when necessary, they can act together ; 
 thus : 
 
 427. In the entire length of the central parts 
 of the spinal cord (see Fig. 68) the gray substance 
 exists. Therefore, it must be a continuous Nervous 
 
 422. What causes — ? 423. How is — ? 424. What produced — ? 425. Is it 
 known — ? 426. For what does — ? 427. What is found — ? What must the 
 spinal cord be ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 107 
 
 Centre or series of centres, the lower ones of which 
 belong to the muscles of the lower limbs, the middle 
 ones to the Trunk-walls, and the upper ones to the 
 upper limbs and neck ; while at the very upper and 
 back part of the spinal cord, or of its extension into 
 the cranium, there is a very large centre or Ganglion, 
 usually called the small brain, or cerebellum. 
 
 428. The cerebellum extends its influence over 
 all the groups below, or else it acts directly upon all 
 the muscles, since they are all under its influence. 
 
 429. Does the mind exist, or exert a direct in- 
 fluence in the spinal cord, or cerebellum ? Cer- 
 tainly not ; and Ihis thought suggests several very 
 interesting facts. 
 
 430. In some diseases persons will be troubled by 
 a contraction of certain muscles which they cannot 
 control. The reason is, the centres belonging to those 
 muscles in the spinal cord are diseased, and exert an 
 improper and uncalled for influence. When this disease 
 is extensive, it is called St. Vitus’s dance. This involun- 
 tary action of the centres is very easily brought on by 
 imitation of those truly affected ; therefore, children 
 should be careful not to imitate such motions. 
 
 431. A LARGE PART OF THE REGULAR MOTIONS OF 
 the Voluntary Apparatus is not controlled by the 
 mind, but takes place regularly, by means of the in- 
 fluence exerted by the centres in the cord. 
 
 Illustration. — A carpenter walks upon the highest 
 timbers of a frame as he would on the ground, balanced 
 by the action of his cerebellum and spinal cord. His 
 mind could not do it ; if it tries, it will throw him off" : 
 he learned to walk there by simply learning to mind 
 nothing about it, but leave it to the cerebellum. 
 
 432. Precisely how the mind exerts an influence, 
 
 428. To what does — ? 429. — ? 430. Why do the muscles twitch — ? 
 
 431. Does the mind control — ? Illustration.— How can a person walk on a 
 timber ? 432. Do we know — ? 
 
108 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 IN PART, IN PRODUCING ANY DESIRABLE MOTION, and how 
 
 the rest is effected by the Involuntary Centres, we 
 cannot now say ; but we know that the mind is relieved 
 from overseeing the details necessary in producing any 
 motion it directs : details are produced by the associated 
 action of the centres to which the motion belongs. 
 
 433. It is of great consequence that ave know, 
 that the promptness and ease with which the involun- 
 tary actions of the muscles are produced and associated, 
 depends very much upon habit , and that bad habits are 
 as easily acquired as good ones, and each kind is equally 
 easy when acquired. We must, first, learn to rightly 
 do, then quickly do. A child should at first be taught 
 to speak distinctly, sing correctly, write well, walk 
 properly, move gracefully ; all of which will result from 
 practice long enough and carefully enough continued. 
 
 434. Exercise of the muscles requires exercise 
 of the centres that cause their contraction ; therefore, 
 muscular exercise is not only for the purpose of im- 
 proving and strengthening the muscles, but especially 
 for the purpose of exercising the Nervous Centres, and 
 associating their action so as to produce habits of action. 
 
 435. It is also very important to notice in this 
 connection, that the character of the action of the 
 muscles is very much influenced by the state of the 
 mind ; so that the expression of the face, the tones of 
 fhe voice, the gestures of all parts of the body, involun- 
 tarily exhibit the emotions. 
 
 436. It is therefore important, if we would 
 exhibit any emotion, to really have it, as it will be 
 altogether impossible to perfectly imitate what we do 
 not truly feel. 
 
 437. In reviewing the organs of motion, we per- 
 ceive that perfection of motion depends upon the elas- 
 
 How are the details of any motion regulated ? 433. — what ? How should 
 a child he taught any motions ? 434. — of what ? 435. What is — ? 436. What 
 is — ? 437. What noticed — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 109 
 
 ticity of the skeleton and its joints, upon the muscles, 
 and their exercise, upon the properly associated action 
 or habits of the Motory Nervous Centres, upon mental 
 control, and particularly upon the activity and state of 
 the emotions, which leads us to a new section. 
 
 INTELLECTORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 EMOTORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 438. It is desirable to consider these organs 
 under one head, because in describing either we must 
 describe the brain, to which they are confined, and of 
 which they constitute the chief part : indeed, these 
 organs and the cranial parts of the Motory and Sensa- 
 tory Apparatus are so intimately associated that, to be 
 understood, they must all be spoken of together. 
 
 The Bra i n . 
 
 439. If the cranium was transparent, or could 
 be removed without affecting its contents, they would 
 appear to be composed of four parts : below the spinal 
 cord they would be found enlarged, forming a part call- 
 ed the medulla oblongata ; from this, backward, a large 
 Ganglion grows out, called cerebellum ; while above 
 the oblongata seems to spread out into two very Jarge 
 Ganglia, called cerebri, separated by a deep fissure on 
 the middle line, and filling all the upper parts of the 
 cranium. 
 
 440. The cerebri have a very smooth surface, as 
 
 What are the topics of Sec. 2? 438. Why is it — ? What other parts, 
 
 organs, or Ganglia form the "brain ? 439. What would he seen — ? 440. When 
 do the — ? 
 
 Skeleton 
 
 Sec. 2 . 
 
110 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 they are covered by a very delicate skin, called arach- 
 noid, or spider’s web ; but when this is removed, their 
 surface is very uneven, looking like the surface of a 
 peach-stone on a large scale. 
 
 441 . The cerebellum is but slightly uneven ; quite 
 a grove being found at its middle line, indicating that it 
 is to be considered as double ; so is the oblongata. 
 
 442 . The whole brain is therefore divisible into 
 right and left, often called hemispheres ; though the 
 whole is shaped more like an egg than like a sphere. 
 
 Fig. 70. In this view 
 of the brain inverted, 
 the cerebellum (7 ) is 
 seen above the back 
 part (posterior lobe) of 
 the cerebrum and the 
 shelf between them ; 
 the oblongata (30) is in 
 view ; also the pons 
 (16) and the commence- 
 ments of twelve pairs 
 of nerves : 1, 2, is the 
 anterior and posterior 
 part of the deep fis- 
 sure nearly dividing the 
 cerebri ; 3, anterior ; 4, 
 middle lobes ; the con- 
 volutions of the under 
 surface of which are 
 evidently numerous, as 
 they also are above the 
 cerebellum. 
 
 443 . The cerebri are separated from each other, 
 and*from the cerebellum, by partitions in the cranium 
 formed by its lining — a strong skin with a smooth mois- 
 tened inner surface ; it descends from the middle line of 
 the cranium between the cerebri, and extends forward 
 
 When do cerebri have an uneven surface ? 441. What is the surface of — ? 
 442. How is — ? Describe Fig. 70. Is it a view of the under or upper surface 
 of the brain ? 443. How are — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 from the inner back part of the cranium under the back 
 part of the cerebri, supporting them and preventing 
 them from pressing on the cerebelli. By this means 
 the cavity of the cranium is partially divided into three ; 
 the central part being common to all. 
 
 *Fig. 71. 
 
 444. Fig. 71 represents the cranium, face, and 
 neck, divided near the middle line (to the left) to show 
 (36) the falx, and (37) the tentorium ; through the oval 
 opening under the falx, 35 is seen on the inner surface 
 of the right side of the cranium. Many interesting facts 
 are beautifully shown by this cut, to which reference 
 will be often made. 
 
 Into how many cavities is the cranium partially divided? Where are they 
 situated ? 444. What docs — ? What is shown of the connections of the 
 throat— how many, and with what ? 
 
112 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 Fig. 72 represents the 
 cerebri sliced down to the 
 upper surface of (4) the 
 bridge (corpus callosum) of 
 fibres that extends across 
 from one to the other ; 
 
 5, 5, are the deep fissures 
 behind and before, that ex- 
 tend up between the parts 
 removed ; the bottom of 
 the middle part of the fis- 
 sure is represented length- 
 wise the centre of 4 : this 
 fissure is occupied by the 
 falx, the lower edge of 
 the central part of which 
 touches (4) the ends sink- 
 ing down at 5, 5 : 1 is the 
 white tissue, its fibres being 
 interlaced by fine sinewy 
 fibres ; the dots show sec- 
 tions of a few capillaries 
 extending among them ; 2, 
 the gray tissue, the dark 
 line indicating the depth of 
 
 the division between touching portions of the surface of the gray tissue. 
 
 445. Fig. 72 represents the brain sliced down 
 nearly to the bottom of the falx, shown by the line (4) 
 extending over a bridge of fibres that extends across 
 from one cerebrum to the other, connecting the two : 
 1 represents the fibrous parts of the Ganglia, sur- 
 rounded by the gray part ; the dots show the Blood- 
 tubes in the white part, while in the gray part they 
 are innumerable. 
 
 446. The prominences of the gray part are 
 called convolutions ; the indentations are called anfrac- 
 tuosities ; the black lines in their centres show the 
 depth of the indentation. 
 
 447. This arrangement of the gray part is for 
 
 445. What does — ? If the gray part should be spread out, how much 
 more extensive would it appear to be? 446. — what? What are anfrac- 
 tuosities ? 447. What necessity for this peculiar — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 113 
 
 the purpose of allowing a large quantity of it in a small 
 space, to be easily reached by a multitude of Blood- 
 tubes on the one side to bring material, and a large 
 number of nerves on 
 influence produced. 
 
 Fig. 73 represents the 
 brain sliced a little lower 
 than in the preceding figure : 
 
 1, the white tissue ; 2, the 
 gray ; 3, 4, the front and back 
 portions of the bridge, or cor- 
 pus callosum, — the middle 
 portion being removed, and 
 exposing the ventricles, in 
 which, and forming the sides 
 and floor of which, Ganglia 
 are seen. Portions of the 
 brain are cut out to show 
 (7 and 6) extensions of the 
 ventricles ; 8 is one of the 
 largest Ganglia, and, from 
 the white and gray substance 
 being in alternate layers, it 
 appears striped, — hence its 
 name, striated body (corpus 
 striatum) ; 19, portion of tha- 
 lamus ; 14, hippocampus ; 18. 
 a plexus of capillary vessels 
 (the choroid plexus). 
 
 448. Fig. 7 3 represents the cerebri sliced a little 
 lower down, exhibiting a large number of Ganglia in 
 their central part, which can also be brought to view 
 at the summit of the oblongata by raising the sides 
 of the cerebri, which are laid around or spread over the 
 central Ganglia for the purpose of forming an egg-shaped 
 brain that can be covered more protectingly. 
 
 449. In these central Ganglia the same arrange- 
 ment OF GRAY AND WHITE SUBSTANCE, AS IN THE CEREBRI 
 
 From what is nervous influence produced ? In what ? Sent through what ? 
 448. What does — ? How can the central Ganglia be also brought into view ? 
 What shape of cranium is best ? 449. Is there needed — ? 
 
114 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 above, will not be found, nor is it necessary. The 
 arrangement varies in nearly every one. 
 
 450. One of the best ways of becoming familiar 
 
 WITH THE GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE BRAIN, is tO ex- 
 amine and slice up the brains of different animals. 
 
 451. The nervous substance will be noticed to be 
 very different from muscle ; and it would be natural 
 to suppose that food would be required to supply its 
 needs different from that required by muscles : this is 
 the case. 
 
 452. The large quantity of blood constantly 
 flowing through the brain, shows that it is very 
 active, and that it will require much food of the peculiar 
 kind essential to satisfy its necessities. 
 
 453. To perfect the brain, and enable it to ac- 
 complish the most, we must by appropriate use of the 
 brain gradually cause its Blood-vessels to become en- 
 larged, and a large flow of blood to be poured through 
 them. For this purpose the action of the brain must 
 not, while young, be too long or too urgently produced, 
 but it should be exercised regularly and systematically, 
 day by day, during its entire growth. 
 
 454. Do WE KNOW WHAT THE DIFFERENT GANGLIA 
 are for ? Not perfectly well : the use of some, we 
 know; that of some, we conjecture; and of some, say 
 not. We learn the use of some by means of the nerves 
 that terminate or commence in them ; but the nerves 
 are so fine and so delicate that it is very difficult to trace 
 any of them — and in case of most it has not been done ; 
 that of others we learn by experiment and observation. 
 
 455. We observe that various muscles “twitch” 
 when we do not wish that they should ; and, again, we 
 control them perfectly, while often their mode of action 
 will be affected very much by our emotions. 
 
 450. What is — ? 451. Is the muscular like — ? Is it like any other tissue ? 
 452. What is shown by — ? 453. What should be done — ? 455. Wlmt 
 
 easily can — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 115 
 
 456. Certain substances, swallowed or breathed, 
 excite certain emotions : laughing gas has its effect, 
 ether its effect, &c., despite our wish. 
 
 457. Various diseases exhibit peculiar effects, ac- 
 cording to the portion of the brain diseased. 
 
 458. At different periods of life different emo- 
 tions exhibit themselves with greater or less activity. 
 
 459. Many other arguments might be used to 
 show that some of the central Ganglia of the brain are 
 Emotory ; others, Sensatory ; that the cerebri are chiefly 
 Intellectory, and the cerebelli and spinal cord chiefly 
 Motory. We will return to this again. 
 
 Emotor^ 17 \ 0l 'S ans = Gan S lia 
 
 Sec. 3. 
 
 SENSATORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 460. We have already seen the necessity for 
 Sensatory organs, since the mind must be constantly 
 made acquainted with the degree of the contraction of 
 the muscles ; and we have seen that two kinds of nerves 
 have been provided : one for the purpose of exciting 
 contraction in the muscles, and the other for exciting 
 the Nervous Centres. 
 
 461. But the mind requires knowledge of the con- 
 dition not only of the muscles, but of all other parts of 
 the body, the dangers to which they are exposed, &c. ; 
 for which purpose it is necessary to have nerves com- 
 mence in every part, and, directly or indirectly, connect 
 with the brain : thus all parts can, and in some states 
 do, cause sensations. 
 
 456. What said of effect of — ? 457. Whao effect of — ? 458. What 
 
 shown — ? 459. What might he shown ? What are the Intellectory and Emo- 
 tory organs called ? Subject op Sec. 3.— 460. How — ? 461. Of what does — ? 
 
116 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 462. The sensations that different parts of the 
 body will cause when acted upon by the same agents, 
 are very different. 
 
 463. The skin, which is made a watchful outpost 
 to guard the body from every attack, is very painful, 
 however injured ; but if one of the tendons or cords 
 of the hand should be exposed, it might be pricked 
 with a red-hot needle, and a person not feel it, yet if 
 twisted ever so little, it would be painful ; the bone, 
 if sound, may be sawn across without a twinge, while 
 touching a nerve in a tooth produces extreme pain. 
 Dr. Beaumont says, that if he touched the inside of 
 Alexis St. Martin’s stomach, he did not feel or even 
 know it ; and Harvey said he grasped the heart of a 
 living man, so injured as to expose that organ, without 
 his feeling it, while the least particle in the windpipe is 
 very distressing. . I have seen a small portion of ex- 
 posed brain cut off while the man was talking, and he 
 did not know it ; yet the brain can cause extreme pain. 
 
 464. The sensations of hunger that different 
 organs produce when they require food, are very differ- 
 ent : the sensations produced when food is required to 
 warm the body, and to nourish the muscles, are what 
 we most frequently experience, and are chiefly felt in 
 early years, and are those usually called hunger ; but 
 the sensations caused by the brain when it requires 
 food, though very different from the former, should be 
 equally recognized as hunger — and should be so called — 
 and satisfied by eating the proper food, properly pre- 
 pared : this is a very important fact. 
 
 465. But the mind must also know where the 
 part is that is causing the sensation. Now something 
 very curious is to be noticed : though the sensation is 
 caused in the head, through the nerves, it will usually 
 
 462. What said of — ? 463. What said of — ? Of a tendon? Bone? 
 
 A tooth. ? The Stomach ? The heart ? The "brain ? 464. What said of — ? 
 Of Branial hunger ? 465. What must — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 117 
 
 seem to the mind that the sensation is in the part where 
 the nerve commences, through which the sensation has 
 been caused. 
 
 Illustration. — If at the elbow we should prick a 
 nerve that commences in the finger, a sensation of pain 
 would be experienced in the mind, and it would seem 
 to be in the little finger, just as when we strike the 
 elbow (“funny or crazy bone ”) we seem to feel in the 
 finger. Now, if the hand should be cut off anywhere 
 below the elbow, precisely the same effect would be 
 produced, and it would seem to the person that he had 
 a little finger yet. 
 
 466. The illustration proves that sensations are 
 felt and produced in the head wherever they are per- 
 ceived, or seem to be.^ This is very important to ob- 
 serve ; for the Ganglia being diseased, or the nerve also 
 being diseased, sensations are produced that have their 
 origin in them, yet are attributed to the organs in 
 which the nerves commence, because the pain seems to 
 be, or is perceived, in the organs. 
 
 Illustration. — Persons have insisted on having 
 sound teeth drawn, because the Ganglia or nerves, being 
 diseased, have caused severe pain that seemed to be in 
 the teeth. 
 
 467. In some cases, strange to say, and for which we 
 cannot give any reason, sensations are produced, and 
 referred to different organs from those which excited 
 them. 
 
 Illustration. — Disease of the liver sometimes causes 
 sensations that seem to be under the shoulder-blade. 
 A deranged Stomach will cause a headache. Children 
 often rub the nose when the Digestory canal is irri- 
 tated. 
 
 468. Sensations apparently pelt in a part, taken 
 
 Illustration.— If we strike a certain point of the elbow? 466. What 
 does — ? Are sound teeth extracted? 467. Does pain direct attention to the 
 right organs? Illustration. — Mention some eauses. 468. What said of — ? 
 
118 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 by themselves alone, are not always safe indications 
 of the seat of disease. 
 
 469. Those organs in which Sensatory nerves 
 commence are called organs of sense ; which, therefore, 
 include all parts of the body, except the nerves them- 
 selves, and the Ganglia ; and subjective organs of sense, 
 because they inform the mind in regard to the body 
 itself. 
 
 470. But the mind also requires a knowledge 
 of the objects that are around the body, and, for this 
 purpose, must be furnished with objective organs of 
 sense, viz., through which objects can act upon the 
 nerves ; how many ? 
 
 471. By means of the skin already furnished as a 
 part of the body, and as its protection, the mind can 
 learn much : the presence of objects in contact with the 
 body and their temperature, and some ideas of their 
 surfaces and form, can be learned. 
 
 472. The skin is called the organ of the sense of 
 touch, or, when particularly applied, of tact. 
 
 473. By means of the muscles the mind can learn 
 more than by the skin. The muscular sense is one of 
 the earliest in use of all the senses : it enables the mind 
 to judge of the density and firmness of objects, their 
 form and size ; of their distance, weight, force, &c. 
 
 474. The muscles, when applied to learn the 
 nature of objects, are called the organs of the muscular 
 sense. 
 
 Remark. — O rgans of sense and organs of sensa- 
 tions have this distinction : the former are part of the 
 latter ; these also include nerves and Ganglia. 
 
 f Organs of sense 
 Organs of Sensation = •] Nerves 
 ( Ganglia 
 
 469. What arc — ? 470. But of what also does — ? 471. What learned — ? 
 472. What is — ? 473. What learned — ? 474. — to the purposo of gaining 
 knowledge are called what ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 119 
 
 475. It will be particularly desirable for the 
 mind to know the quality of the food we eat, and of 
 the air we breathe. 
 
 Th e Mouth . 
 
 476. To learn the quality of food, a nerve of 
 taste has been added to the nerve of touch in the skin 
 of certain parts of the mouth ; so that, in addition to 
 being an organ for grinding and dissolving the food, it 
 becomes an organ of the sense of taste ; and the neces- 
 sity for eating is thus wisely made an enjoyment. 
 
 The Nose. 
 
 477. Very near to the surface of certain parts 
 
 OF THE DELICATE LINING OF EACH NOSTRIL, a nerve of 
 
 smell commences, and, extending up through the roof 
 of the nose, unites with the Ganglion directly above : in 
 addition to this the nerves of touch are also found there. 
 (See Fig. 74 : 1, Ganglia ; 8, nerves of smell ; 2, 3, nerves 
 of touch.) 
 
 475. Wliat will — ? 476. How are we able — ? Wbat two offices does tlio 
 month fulfil ? 477. What is found — ? Are there nerves of touch in the 
 
 nose ? Describe Fig. 74. 
 
120 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 478. The air loaded with minute odorous par- 
 ticles drawn through the nose, bears the particles 
 against the surface over the nerves, and they are acted 
 upon, and the sensation of smell caused. 
 
 479. The nose, therefore, in addition to being a 
 breathing orifice, is an organ of the sense of smell. 
 
 480. But it is also desirable that the mind 
 should have means of learning something of objects 
 at a distance from the body, for which something must 
 act between the objects and the body. Now — 
 
 481. There are two things around and between us 
 and other objects : the air, that can act between us and 
 near objects ; and light, that can act between the nearest 
 and most distant objects and our bodies ; therefore, 
 
 482. We must be furnished with two kinds of 
 organs of sense : one to be acted upon by light, and the 
 other by air ; and as there are no parts of the body to 
 which nerves of sight and hearing could be added, organs, 
 called special organs of sense, must be constructed. 
 
 The Eye . 
 
 483. Through the eye the mind learns the colors 
 and directions of objects. The use of the eye is depend- 
 ent on the nature of light, which is of several differ- 
 ent varieties, producing different sensations of color. 
 Light always passes in a straight line till obstructed by 
 some object by which it is deadened, through which it 
 passes, and is bent, or by which it is reflected. 
 
 Illustration. — The light that enters the eye from 
 the most distant star, has been years travelling in a 
 straight line, nor changed its direction in the least ; 
 and the star appears to be in the direction from which 
 that light entered the eye, though, perhaps, the star has 
 meantime moved millions of miles away. 
 
 478. What effect is produced by — ? 479. What is — ? 480. What is 
 also — ? 481. — what are they ? Therefore — with what ? 483. — what ? 
 Illustration.— How long and far will light move in a straight line ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 121 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 484. The white of the eye (1, Fig. 76) is a dense 
 sinewy case, called the sclerotic or hard coat, having a 
 window (2), called cornea (horny), inserted in front, and 
 an opening (a) in the back part for the nerve, the sheath 
 (15) of which is continuous with 1, as seen. 
 
 485. The iris or colored part (6), with a circular 
 opening (7), is a very delicate and beautiful muscle, 
 or two muscles — a circular one that by contraction 
 lessens the pupil, and a diverging one that enlarges it. 
 
 486. The space between the cornea and the iris, 
 and behind it, is filled with a w T atery fluid — the aqueous 
 humor. 
 
 487. 11 is the transparent, crystalline lens, about 
 the same density as the cornea. 
 
 488. 13 appears like a jelly, and is called vitreous 
 humor, but is a watery fluid in the cells of a very deli- 
 cate transparent membrane. 
 
 489. 8 is the retina, chiefly constructed of the 
 nerves (16) spread out upon the vitreous humor to 
 receive the action of the light entering the eye. 
 
 490. 3, the choroid coat, is mostly constructed of 
 
 What does Fig. 75 represent ? 484. Describe — . 485. Describe — . 
 
 486. What fills — ? 487. What is 11 \ 488. Deserve how — . 489. — des- 
 
 cribe. 490. Describe — . 
 
 6 
 
122 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Blood-vessels, and is colored a very deep brown, almost 
 black ; its use is to nourish the retina, or nerves, and, 
 as it is thought, destroy the light that has acted on the 
 nerves. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 Fig. 76 represents the action of the eye ( a ) upon light coming from one 
 point only of each of the candles (b, y, r). All the light that can enter 
 the pupil is bent or refracted to the points (r, y> b) on the retina (3), con- 
 nected with the nerve (1). If there had been a thousand more points from 
 which light comes, it would have acted on a thousand more points in 3. 
 
 491. If the eye is perfect, all the light from one 
 point of an object that enters the pupil will be bent or 
 refracted to a point, or focus, on the nerves, as shown 
 in Fig. 76 ; but the light from another point of the ob- 
 ject will not act on the same, but on another, point of 
 the nerves ; and thus the light from all the points of all 
 the objects before the eye, will be refracted to points 
 in the retina perfectly distinct, however near to each 
 other. 
 
 492. When the light acts upon the nerve, two 
 effects are produced through its Ganglia : a sensation 
 of color, according to the kind of light that has acted ; 
 and an idea of the direction from which the light has 
 come, which idea is due to our nature. We have been 
 made so as to believe that when a point of the retina is 
 acted upon, the object producing the effect is in a certain 
 
 Do you observe that by the action of the eye (Fig. 76) the light, from 
 one point of each of three candles, acts upon its own point of the retina ? 
 491. What effect-:? 492. What effect — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 123 
 
 direction ; it seems to be so, and we unhesitatingly be- 
 lieve it ; and if everything is perfect and natural, the ob- 
 ject will be in the line of direction in which we believe 
 it to be. 
 
 Illustration. — If we press on the eye, looking at an 
 object, the direction of the object seems to change, 
 because the light from it is made to act on a new point 
 of the retina, and the object will seem to be in the line 
 of direction that belongs to the new point acted on ; 
 but to the other eye there is no change, and the object 
 seems to be in two directions at once, and therefore 
 seems to be double. 
 
 493. The larger the pupil, the more light ad- 
 mitted, and the more intense the effect ; hence the iris 
 regulates the size of the pupil to the amount of light. 
 
 494. Ip the eye is imperfect, the light may be 
 brought to a focus before it reaches the retina, pro- 
 ducing short sight ; or, in other cases, it may not be 
 brought to a focus when it reaches the retina, thus 
 causing long sight : in either case the sight will be in- 
 distinct, and can be corrected by glasses. Near sight is 
 frequently brought on by reading much with the page 
 near the eye : this should not be allowed in case of those 
 who can see well. Short sight can often be improved 
 by endeavoring to see objects at a distance ; hence, a 
 voyage often improves near-sightedness. 
 
 495. The method of seeing is very simple, and 
 can easily be understood, if a description of it is not 
 confused by drawing attention to images in the eye, 
 and other like incidents of the structure and action of 
 the eye. 
 
 496. A visible point, or the point of an object, 
 that is seen, is the smallest point from which light can 
 act upon a distinct point in the eye. How many of these 
 
 Illustration. — What is the effect of pressure on the eye ? Try the ex- 
 periment. 493. What effect — ? 494. What result — ■ ? 495. What said of — ? 
 498. What is— ? 
 
124 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 are to be considered as belonging together to make up 
 one object, depends upon circumstances — as we call a 
 leaf, a limb, a tree, or a forest, an object : what are seen 
 are the points ; and the grouping, of more or less of 
 them, is done by the mind. 
 
 497. There are but three simple colors — red (3), 
 yellow (5), blue (8), which, acting together, produce 
 white (16) : the two former produce orange (8) ; the 
 two latter, green (13) ; the first and last, purple (11). 
 The number exhibit the natural proportions of each 
 color. All the thousand different sensations of shades 
 of color, and all the pleasure they excite, are dependent 
 upon the proportions in which these three different 
 colors act upon the nerves, the order in which they act, 
 and the rapidity with which they succeed each other in 
 acting. 
 
 498. The eyes are constantly active during the 
 day ; therefore, they should be acted on successively by 
 different kinds of light : looking at one kind soon varies 
 the eye, and the color loses its brightness ; therefore, 
 dress, furniture, &c., should be so colored that the eyes 
 may be acted on by all the colors in due proportion. 
 
 499. To arrange colors in good taste, the eye 
 must be so cultivated that it can direct their arrange- 
 ment in accordance with the constitution of light and 
 of the eye. 
 
 500. As the eye can receive light only from 
 objects nearly in front of it, it is desirable to have 
 the power of turning it in various directions : this will 
 call for muscular action. 
 
 501. The eye rests on a cushion of fat, and is 
 drawn forward, and also turned in certain directions, by 
 two muscles. Its chief motions are produced by four 
 straight muscles — one on each side, one above, and the 
 
 497. — ; what are they? Their proportions in white light? 498. What 
 to be done since — ? 499. What necessary — ? 500. — what is desirable? 
 
 501. — what ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 125 
 
 fourth below— (see Fig. 11 *). The tendon of 5 must be 
 noticed passing round the loop-tendon 6 ; the direction 
 of the action of that muscle is very different from the 
 motion it .causes, for, while the contraction of the 
 muscle draws the tendon back, it draws the eye for- 
 ward ; at 8 the lower muscle — inferior oblique — is at- 
 tached to the side of the socket, so that by contraction 
 it tends to draw the eye forward, and also turns it upon 
 its axis ; 4 is a muscel that extends over the eye into 
 the upper eyelid, and raises it. 
 
 Fig. 77 represents a 
 section of the socket of 
 the eye and that organ 
 with its muscles in situ ; 
 
 4, the muscles that ele- 
 vates the lid, a part of 
 which, with the lashes, 
 has been cut off and left 
 with the muscle; 10, 
 points to the loop of lig- 
 ament round which (11) 
 the tendon of the muscle 
 (9) turns, a bursa being 
 interplaced to prevent 
 friction. A further de- 
 scription of the muscles 
 of the eye will be given 
 when that organ is de- 
 scribed. 
 
 502. To wipe the eyes from time to time, the 
 winking lids are pro- 
 vided with circular 
 muscular fibres (see 
 Fig. 5) to close the 
 eyes. 
 
 503. The tear- 
 fluid, to keep the eye 
 
 FIG. 77. 
 
 Does the superior oblique muscle (9) draw the eye backwards or forwards ? 
 How is the eyelid raised ? Describe Fig. 77. Describe Fig. 77*. 502. — what 
 is used — ? 503. How is the eye supplied with — ? 
 
126 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 moist, is poured down into the eye through minute 
 tubes that open upon the inner surface of the upper 
 eyelid, high up, and emit the fluid from a small organ, 
 called the tear-gland, situated just within the socket 
 of the eye, above the outer part of it. 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 Fig. .78 represents the left eyelids, cut through as far from their open- 
 ing as possible, and the lachrymal gland drawn from its place, with the 
 lids turned toward the nose, to show the inner surface of the lids, in 
 which the meibomian glands (6) are seen, opening at the edges, between 
 which the lashes are seen : 14, numerous openings of the ducts (9, 10) 
 from the gland (7, 8) ; 12, 13 are the minute openings at the inner corner 
 of the lids., through which the tear-fluid passes to the nose. 
 
 504. The fluid is carried from the eye through 
 two channels of very small size, leading from the inner 
 point of each lid to the head of a tube about the size 
 of a crow-quill, the lower end of which is in the nose. 
 
 Illustration. — W hen something irritates the inner 
 surface of the nose, the eye will water ; this fluid will 
 soon disappear, passing down into the nose to wash 
 away the offending substance. 
 
 What does Fig. 78 represent ? Where are the meibomian glands in which 
 the gummy matter of Che eyelids is formed ? 504. How is — ? Why does the 
 eye water ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 127 
 
 Fig. 79 represents the tubes, 
 leading from the eye to the nose ; 
 1 are the openings (12, 13, Fig. 78) 
 into the tubes (2, 3), uniting at 4, and 
 leading the tear-fluid into 5, that 
 terminates at 6 in the cavity of the 
 nose. Hence, by holding the nose, 
 and blowing, the air can sometimes 
 be made to pass up into the eye, or 
 by setting the fluid back cause it to 
 wash from the eye a speck that is 
 injuring it. Above the outer part 
 of the opening for the eye, the tear 
 gland is represented. 
 
 T h e E a r. 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 505. The ear is constructed of three parts — the 
 outer, middle, and inner ear. 
 
 Fig. 80 is a beautiful 
 view of the ear : 1, exter- 
 nal, 2 middle, 3 inner ear; 
 13, a section of the air- 
 tube, which section ex- 
 tends through the front of 
 2, and the middle of 19 — 
 a tube, called Eustachian, 
 leading to back part of 
 nostril. If a person close 
 the nose and mouth, and 
 blow air from the lungs, 
 it will press up that tube 
 into 2, and produce a ring- 
 ing : 14, bottom of tube ; 
 it is a tremulous membrane 
 that, acting on nerves, de- 
 termines force ; 22, semi- 
 circular canals, that deter- 
 mine quality ; 24, cochlea, 
 that determines pitch ; 18, 
 bones of ear. 
 
 Fig. 80 . 
 
 Describe Fig. 79. What is the second special organ of sense ? 505. How 
 is — ? Describe Fig. 80. Try the experiment mentioned— blowing the air 
 up into the middle ear (2). How are foi»ce, quality, and pitch produced.? 
 
128 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 506. The external ear includes also the tube 
 leading inward for half an inch to an inch when it 
 is closed by the skin extending across it. 
 
 507. The middle ear, or drum, is a cavity about 
 the size and form of a kidney-bean, opening below by a 
 long slender tube into the upper and back part of the 
 nose, through which hearing is sometimes effected when 
 a person has a cold, the lining of nose and drum being 
 continuous. 
 
 508. Across the middle ear a chain of small bones 
 extends from the external membrane to the internal 
 membrane that covers an opening into 
 
 509. The internal ear filled with fluid that can 
 act on the nerves that extend from this part to the 
 Ganglia of hearing in the brain. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Description of Fig. 81 : M y External tube ; Z>, Drum ; E y Eustachian tube ; 
 JV } Nerve. 
 
 510. Fig. 81 is a rude plan of the ear to illustrate 
 the mode of hearing. The air pulsates upon the ex- 
 
 506. What does — ? 507. What is — ? 508. What stretches — ? 509. With 
 what is — ? 510. What — ? Into how many parts would you divide the ear 
 according to Fig. 81 ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 129 
 
 ternal membrane, which acts through the chain of bones 
 upon the internal membrane : this acts upon the fluid of 
 the labyrinth, and the nerves of hearing are impressed. 
 There are very delicate muscles to act upon the external 
 membrane and chain of bones, and regulate their tensity. 
 
 511. It is wonderful that so many different sounds 
 can be produced in so simple a manner, nor is the matter 
 fully understood. 
 
 512. Proper exercise and culture will very much 
 improve all the organs of hearing ; though there is a 
 great natural difference between different persons in this 
 respect — more perhaps than in the other organs of sense. 
 
 513. The ears are entirely separate ; and often 
 a person has one ear that is perfect, even a good ear for 
 music, and with which he can hear well, while the other 
 is closed. 
 
 514. Hardness of hearing is often caused by the 
 hardening of ear-wax, which can be softened by oil, 
 and then removed by soap and warm water ; often by 
 disease of the throat in childhood, extending up into 
 the ear, or by colds ; in each of which cases great care 
 should be taken to avoid taking cold. 
 
 515. The use of the ear is to inform us of the 
 presence of objects, to warn us of impending dangers, 
 to call to each other, to enable us to converse together 
 most readily, and to add to the pleasures of life. 
 
 516. Our judgment of the direction of objects 
 from sound, is chiefly the result of experience ; hence, 
 the ear is very easily deceived by jugglers and others, 
 who imitate sounds usually heard at a distance. 
 
 Conclusion . 
 
 517. Through the six organs of sense — two, special 
 (the ear and eye) ; two, additional (the nose and mouth) ; 
 
 511. Why is the production of sounds — ? 512. What will be the effect 
 of—? 513. Are—? 514. How is the — ? 515. What is — ? 510. How do 
 
 we form — ? 517. What is effected — ? 
 
 6 * 
 
130 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 an<J two, common (the skin and muscles) — the mind 
 acquires all its knowledge of the properties of objects ; 
 while, of the condition of the body, it is informed by 
 the action of each organ through the nerves that con- 
 nect between it and the brain. 
 
 518. There are, therefore, two grand divisions 
 of the Sensatory Apparatus— into subjective and ob- 
 jective ; and of the latter, there are six subdivisions, 
 each, and all, constructed of three kinds of organs — 
 organs of sense ; nerves ; Ganglia — one of which, the 
 Ganglia, assists in forming the brain, and is intimately 
 associated with the Emotory, the Intellectory, and the 
 M$otosy Ganglia, so as, at times, to act upon all of them. 
 
 Illustrations. — Anything coming towards the eye 
 will cause winking and the raising of the hand, invol- 
 untarily ; indeed, it will require quite an effort to pre- 
 vent it. The mother soothes the child with her lullaby . 
 even in mature years, nothing quiets irritation so well 
 as a pleasant voice, or the singing of a melody ; indeed, 
 a person’s own disposition is controlled, or excited, by 
 his own voice kept low, or raised to an angry pitch : 
 the voice of Niagara, the deep roll of the ocean, the 
 starry heaven, excite the sublimest emotions ; the gesti- 
 culations of anger will excite anger ; those of politeness 
 will soften the feelings ; indigestion will irritate ; sound 
 health will energise, etc. : a thousand more illustrations 
 might be given to show that, through the Sensatory 
 Apparatus, the most important effects are produced. 
 
 519. The following table will show the relations 
 of all the organs of the four kinds of Mentory Appa- 
 ratus, and that there are two kinds of channels from 
 the brain : one, Motory, outward, by which everything 
 is done by the mind, whether for moving the body, 
 influencing people, or operating upon objects ; and an- 
 
 518. — ; what are they, and with what Ganglia are the Sensory Ganglia 
 associated ? Illustrate how the Sensory affect the Motory ? the Intellectory ? 
 the Emotory? 519. What will — 3 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 131 
 
 other channel made up of six varieties, through which 
 the mind can be acted upon by objects and people ; and 
 another, not here shown, by which its own body acts 
 within itself. 
 
 MOTORY ORGANS. 
 
 
 <3* 
 
 Sen. Ganglia ; Nerves ; Organs of Sense 
 K ** 
 
 Emo. Ganglia 
 
 5 a 
 
 Int. Ganglia 
 u 
 
 Mot. Ganglia ; Nerves 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 r Ear 
 
 . 
 
 Eye 
 
 Nose 
 
 Mouth 
 
 Skin 
 
 L Muscles 
 
 m £ 
 
 g I 
 
 ta t* 
 
 H 
 
 o ^ 
 
 A ^ 
 
 520. It is therefore to be seen that, strictly 
 speaking, the Emotory and Intellectory Ganglia may 
 be called the home of the mind ; while the Motory and 
 Sensatory Ganglia are parts of the means it needs for 
 executing its will, or for acquiring knowledge. 
 
 Sec. 4 . 
 
 CIRCULATORY APPARATUS ; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 521. The Circulatory Apparatus is very simple, 
 being composed of only four kinds of organs — the 
 Hearts, Arteries, Capillaries, and Veins. 
 
 522. The Capillaries are the most important organs, 
 since they exist in animals having no other of the four. 
 
 523. The size of the capillaries is very small: 
 they cannot be seen by the naked eye; their sides 
 are, of course, very thin, but have a very important 
 
 How many kinds of Ganglia form tlie brain ? With which is the mind 
 associated ? 520. What is the evident difference between the Ganglia ? 
 
 521. — is composed of what ? 522. Importance of — ? 623. What is — ? 
 
132 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 property — that of secreting, and hence called Secretory 
 tissue : by virtue of this property, they change a part of 
 the blood and pass it into that which surrounds them, 
 and also take back into themselves substance from that 
 which surrounds them : for this passage there are no 
 openings* but the substances curiously pass through the 
 sides of the capillaries without leaving any trace. 
 
 524. The Secretory action of the capillaries and 
 that which is around them, takes place with considerable 
 force —sufficient, where there is no heart, to keep up the 
 circulation ; and where there is, to do much towards it. 
 
 525. The number of the capillaries is very great 
 in all parts, but much more numerous in some than in 
 others : they are arranged in a net-work, the meshes of 
 which correspond to the structure where they are found. 
 
 Fig. 82 : 1, 
 
 2, lungs, drawn 
 aside from the 
 hearts ; 8, the 
 trachea ; 4, 5, 
 the bronchii ; 
 
 6, ventricle of 
 front, right, pul- 
 monary, or res- 
 piratory heart; 
 
 7, its auricle ; 
 
 8, left, back, or 
 systemic heart; 
 
 9, 10, vena ca- 
 va, opening in*- 
 to 7 ; 11, aorta ; 
 
 1 2 , pulmonary 
 
 or respiratory artery ; 13, 14, its branches ; 15, a cord ; 16, upper edge 
 of 8 ; 17, 18, 19, 20, pulmonary or respiratory veins, opening into 16 or 8. 
 
 526. The veins are of the next importance, exist- 
 ing as strong tubes, through which the power of the 
 
 How do the capillaries act ? 524. What is the force of — ? 525. What said 
 of — ? Describe Fig. 82. How many arteries lead from each heart? How 
 many veins lead into each heart ? 526. What are — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 133 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 Fig. 83 represents the great artery or aorta, commencing at the left 
 heart, and branching into every part of the body, opening into capillaries 
 too small to be represented. Fig. 84 represents the veins still more nu- 
 merous than the arteries, commencing in the capillaries, and terminating 
 in the right heart. From the right heart, arteries lead to the lungs, and 
 from them veins lead to the left heart : these are not represented, but 
 would be necessary to complete the organs of circulation. 
 
 What does Fig. 83 represent ? Where are the capillaries formed What does 
 Fig. 84 represent ? Are capillaries formed in the lung ? Will you name tho 
 parts in their order through which the blood passes in a complete circulation ? 
 
134 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 capillaries pours the blood along from one part to an- 
 other, in cases where only veins and capillaries exist. 
 The veins are usually furnished with valves to prevent 
 the blood from flowing backward. 
 
 527. In the case of the human Stomach, Second 
 Stomach, Pancreas, and Spleen, only capillaries and 
 veins exist to pour the blood from those organs into the 
 capillaries of the liver. (See Fig. — .) 
 
 528. In case of the blood coming through veins 
 from ALL OTHER parts to go through the lungs, the 
 force of the capillaries is not sufficient, and therefore — 
 
 529. A heart is necessary, as a hollow muscle, to 
 add force to the capillary force that is driving the blood 
 towards the lung. This heart must be furnished with 
 two sets of valves — one set at the opening into, and 
 another set at the opening out of, the heart. 
 
 530. An artery is needed where there is a heart, 
 because of its force. The artery may be thought of, as 
 a vein thickened by elastic substance that will yield 
 somewhat to the force of the heart, and then, re-acting 
 on the blood, will drive it along when the heart is 
 expanding. 
 
 531. The artery called the lung, or pulmonary, 
 leads the blood to the beautiful capillaries of the lung 
 and pours it into them ; the blood having been acted 
 upon by the air, and exchanging substance with it, pours 
 along, through the lung, or pulmonary veins, into the 
 left, back, or systemic heart (2, Fig. 82) ; this is another 
 hollow muscle, like the first, but a little stronger, needed 
 to impel the blood through the great systemic artery 
 called the aorta, and its branches, called by various 
 names, into the capillaries of all parts of the body. 
 
 532. The hearts are situated by the side of each 
 other, because the best place for each, and there is thus 
 
 527. What arrangement — ? 528. What is the case — ? 529. Why is — ? 
 
 How many valves has each heart ? 530. Why is there a necessity for — ? 
 531. What is the use of — ? 532. Why are — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 135 
 
 is thus a saving of substance : they are also covered by 
 a common heart-case, called pericardium. 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 Fig. 85 heart, 
 the front view; 
 
 I, right, 2, left, 
 or systemic ven- 
 tricle, with por- 
 tion removed; 3, 
 R. auricle ; 4 L. 
 auricle; 5, artery 
 opening from 2 ; 
 6, 7, 8, tricuspid 
 valves, connect- 
 ed by muscles, 9, 
 to inner surface 
 of heart ; 10, bi- 
 cuspid valves ; 
 
 II, semilunar 
 valves opening 
 into 11, artery, 
 leading to lungs 
 (pulmonary). 
 
 533. Both hearts contract together, throwing out 
 their contents — one, into all parts of the body ; the 
 other, into the lungs alone ; then they relax, and are 
 filled, somewhat enlarged. When they contract, they 
 press the shut valves that open into the heart, and open 
 those that turn from the heart into the arteries ; and 
 when they relax, the blood in the arteries, tending to fall 
 
 Describe Fig. 85. How many hearts are represented ? How many openings 
 in each ? 533. IIow do — ? What effects of the contraction of each heart ? 
 How do they relax, and what is the effect ? 
 
136 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 back, shuts the valves there, while those opening into 
 the heart are opened by blood pressed against them. 
 
 534. Where the veins join each heart, they are 
 somewhat enlarged, and some muscular substance is 
 added, producing a kind of sub-heart that assists in 
 filling the relaxing heart. The sub-heart is frequently 
 counted as part of the heart, being called its auricle, 
 and the other, arterial heart, being called the ventricle. 
 
 535. The hearts contract about seventy times 
 per minute, upon an average ; more frequently when 
 the muscles are active, less frequently when they are 
 quiet ; in some persons, however, as few as forty times ; 
 in others, as many as one hundred in perfect health. 
 
 536. At each beat, pulse, or contraction, the hearts 
 throw out from one to three ounces of blood ; say one, 
 and that there are sixty-four beats per minute : sixty-four 
 ounces, or four pounds per minute, or 240 per hour, will 
 be thrown out, showing that the blood circulates with 
 a rapidity of which we have little conception. Let each 
 one count his pulses, and calculate at one and two 
 ounces how much labor the heart performs in a day by 
 systematic action, and learn to value systematic labor. 
 
 537. As all the blood in the body averages about 
 twenty pounds each person, it will not be difficult to 
 calculate how often the blood passes around its entire 
 circuit in an hour; then we shall be able to judge how 
 very important it is to assist in increasing this frequency 
 by all proper means. 
 
 Nervous Organs of Circulation . 
 
 538. It is very evident, from the manner in 
 which the circulation is affected by disease, by exer- 
 cise, by breathing, by digestion, by the states of the mind, 
 that the hearts and capillaries are under the regulating 
 
 534. What exists — ? 535. How often do — ? 536. How much blood is 
 
 thrown out at — ? each hour ? day ? 537. Average weight of blood in the 
 
 body ? 538. What is — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 137 
 
 influence of Nervous Centres, and indirectly, not di- 
 rectly, influenced by the mind ; but it is not yet certain 
 which of the Nervous Centres nor which nerves super- 
 intend the circulation, but it is supposed that the sym- 
 pathetic nervous system has this especial duty. 
 
 Illustration. — If the mind is excited, the heart 
 beats more quickly ; why ? to supply the brain with 
 more blood. If the emotions are active, does not the 
 skin grow flush, or pale ? Many illustrations might be 
 made to show the effect of Nervous Influence. 
 
 539. The Nervous Centres controlling the circu- 
 lation in the skin, and elsewhere, are liable to become 
 exhausted by their activity ; hence, continued exposure 
 of the skin to the cold will after a time overcome the 
 Nervous Centres, and the circulation will not be sus- 
 tained. If a person is sickly, or exhausted by fatigue, 
 want of food, or any cause, cold will the sooner over- 
 come ; and then the greatest care must be taken against 
 exposure to cold, a draft, &c. Whenever chilliness is 
 felt, a warning is given that should be heeded, and 
 exercise, clothing, or a fire, should be resorted to. 
 
 540. Nothing is more important than to aid in 
 promoting and preserving a proper circulation of blood, 
 especially in the skin. This is to be done by regulating 
 the action of the mind , particularly the emotions ; by ex- 
 ercise of the muscles / by frequently rubbing the skin , by 
 keeping it clean , and by properly clothing it. The three 
 words that particularly indicate what is to be done 
 in reference to circulation, are : Rub— Clean — Clothe. 
 That is to say : if the action of the mind, the muscles, 
 and that of other parts is properly attended to for other 
 purposes, that same action will be favorable to the cir- 
 culation ; but for its especial benefit, we should rub, 
 clean, and clothe the skin properly. 
 
 Illustration.— How can you illustrate mental effects upon the circulation ? 
 539. What is said of — ? When must great care be taken ? 504. How aid 
 circulation ? 
 
138 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Sec. 5 . 
 
 RESPIRATORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 541. The Respiratory Apparatus is needed, as 
 has been seen, to cause the air and blood to act freely 
 upon each other ; for which purpose there must be a 
 receptacle where they can meet, and a means for re- 
 newing them both very frequently. Those for renewing 
 the blood have been shown : thus, 
 
 542. The Respiratory organs are of two classes 
 — the Receptive, or lungs, and the Motory, or chest- 
 walls, diaphragm, abdominal muscles, and larynx. 
 
 Th e Lung s. 
 
 543. The lungs are constructed of air-tubes and 
 their lining, extended to form air-cells, of blood-tubes, 
 nerves, elastic tissue, and a covering. 
 
 544. The frame of the air-tubes is formed of 
 pieces of cartilage equal to four fifths of a ring, attached 
 by sinewy tissue : the branches are much more numerous 
 than represented in Fig. 86. 
 
 545. The lining of the air-tubes is the same deli- 
 cate membrane as that in the nose ; it becomes very 
 thin in the smaller tubes, and, where it forms the air- 
 cells, is not thicker than the sides of a soap-bubble. 
 
 546. Blood-tubes and nerves enter by the side 
 of the air-tubes, branching with them, the veins being 
 two to each branch ; the capillaries Occupy the sides of 
 the air-cells. 
 
 547. The remaining spaces are occupied with 
 sinewy, elastic fibres, that, stretched when the cells are 
 filled, are ready to assist in expelling the air. 
 
 541. W T hy is — ? 542. — what are they? 543. Of what parts are — •? 
 
 544. How is — ? 545. What is — ? 54S. How into the lungs do the — ? 
 
 547. With what are — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 139 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 Fig. 86 represents the windpipe dividing into two branches, each of 
 which subdivides in its cor- 
 
 responding lung, much more 
 minutely than represented, 
 and opens into clusters of 
 cells, like Fig. 87 : 1, 2, 3, a 
 continuous membrane, form- 
 ing surface of lungs. 
 
 Fig. 87^-plan of a very 
 highly magnified cluster of 
 air-cells (<j), into which a 
 allows the air to enter. It 
 is like the entire lung of a 
 frog, toad, or turtle. 
 
 Fig. 88. 
 
 548 . The lung, except at the roots, is covered 
 
 What does Fig. 85 represent ? Where does it commence ? Back of 
 what part of the breast-bone doe? it divide ? What is Fig. 86 ? 548. With 
 what is -— ? 
 
140 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 by a very delicate, smooth, constantly-moistened or 
 serous membrane, called the pleura of the lungs ; 
 hence — 
 
 Fig. 89 
 represents 
 the hearts 
 (3,4) be- 
 tween the 
 lungs, dis- 
 tended as in 
 life with the 
 front parts 
 cut away, to 
 show the di- 
 visions of 
 veins, arte- 
 ries, and (12) 
 the w i n d - 
 pipe ; G, sys- 
 temic arte- 
 ry; 7, sys- 
 temic vein ; 
 1, 2, right 
 and left au- 
 ricles. 
 
 549. The lungs are very simple organs to under- 
 stand, both in structure and in their action : indeed, 
 each cell is a lung, and what is so called, is a collection 
 of thousands of such lungs ; and the smaller they are, 
 and the more of them, the better is a person furnished. 
 
 Motor y Organs of Respiration . 
 
 550. The lungs 'may be filled in two ways : by 
 blowing air into them, as the toad does, or by enclosing 
 
 What is the name of the skin, or membrane, forming the surface of the 
 lung ? Describe Fig. 87. 549. In what respects are — ? 550. — ; what 
 
 are they? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 141 
 
 them in an air-tight box which can be enlarged and 
 diminished : the latter is the case of man. 
 
 551. The chest- walls and the diaphragm form a 
 distensible air-tight box, or case, which is divided into 
 three apartments, by partitions extending from the 
 breast to the back-bone, and attached to the diaphragm. 
 The heart fills the centre one, leaving the right and left 
 
 to be filled by the lungs. 
 
 Fig. J90 represents front walls of 
 chest removed, 2 being upper ribs 
 attached to (1) the upper portion 
 of sternum, of which 7 is the lower 
 portion, to each side of which the 
 gristly ends of the lower ribs are 
 attached ; 3, the spinal column ; 
 4, the centre, and 5, 6, the side 
 arches of the diaphragm. 
 
 The diaphragm is a thin, act- 
 ive partition, chiefly muscular, at- 
 tached by its margin to the lower 
 border of the chest, and arching 
 upward, as seen by the figure of it 
 in Fig. 90. The centre under the 
 heart is tendinous, and of course 
 does not contract, nor tend to en- 
 large the apartment filled by the 
 heart. 
 
 552. The frame of the chest-walls is construct- 
 ed of the spinal column (elastic), of the ribs (part of 
 elastic cartilage), jointed so as to move up and down, 
 and so curving round that when they move up, they 
 move outward, and increase the diameter across the 
 chest, and from the spinal column to the breast-bone. 
 
 553. The muscles of the chest- walls extend be- 
 tween the ribs, and between those and other parts : 
 thus they control the motions of the ribs, while the 
 
 551. What is formed by — ? What does Fig. 90 represent ? 552. Of what 
 is — ? 553. What is the situation of — ? What is the form of the diaphragm ? 
 Can each arch be contracted alone ? Yes. Does the centre contract? 
 
142 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 great diaphragm enlarges the capacity of the chest by 
 the contraction of its arches. To draw down the ribs, 
 muscles, that pass from the ribs to the pelvis (see plate- 
 page 2), are also necessary. 
 
 554. Each apartment of the chest is lined by the 
 same kind of membrane as that covering the lungs, 
 which, in each side, is called the right and left pleura of 
 the ribs and diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 91 : 1, section of a lung ; 2, the root, com- 
 posed of branches and Blood-tubes ; 6, the external 
 covering, or pleura, at the root turning up, extending 
 out, passing down at 5, to turn up over 4 (diaphragm), 
 and again up to 2, where it becomes continuous with 6. 
 
 At 5 it is called pleura costalis, because against the 
 ribs. The two pleurae are shown to be merely one con- 
 tinuous serous membrane. The lung is also shown 
 to be attached only at its root, and elsewhere has a 
 free surface ; not hanging from its root, but, filled by 
 air, is sustained by the action of the external walls of 
 the chest and the internal pressure of the air. 
 
 555. The lungs exactly fill their apartments, 
 attached only at their roots, and by their surfaces, touch 
 the entire surface of their apartments, in the gentlest 
 manner, except when the windpipe is closed, and the 
 chest-walls compress them. The position occupied by 
 the lungs is well illustrated by the following Figs. 92 
 and 93, which show a back and front view of the lungs, 
 as they would appear in the entire chest. In reality, when 
 the chest is opened, the lungs, instead of remaining ex- 
 panded or distended, contract, or, as it is termed, col- 
 lapse, owing to the elastic tissue of which they are in 
 part constructed. It is this elastic tissue that chiefly is 
 the cause of the expulsion of the air when the lungs are 
 in the chest. 
 
 How draw down the ribs ? 551. How is — ? Describe Fig. 91. 555. How 
 do — ? What aspects of the lungs are shown in Figs. 92 and 93 ? What causes 
 the lungs to collapse ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND TIIEIR USES. 
 
 143 
 
 Fig. 92 rep- 
 resents the spinal 
 column, the back 
 parts of the ribs, 
 the oesophagus, 
 and the aorta dis- 
 sected away, ex- 
 posing (1, 2, 8, 9) 
 the lungs, as they 
 would appear in 
 
 formed by 4, 7, 11, 
 14 : 6, 12, the di-. 
 aphragm ; 20, the 
 heart; 19, divi- 
 sion of windpipe ; 
 17, opening into 
 it ; 18, tongue ; 6, 
 13, arches of the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 Fig. 93 rep- 
 resents breast- 
 bone and front 
 parts of ribs 
 dissected away, 
 showing the 
 lungs (1, 2, 3, 
 
 8, 9, 10), filled 
 with air, as in |' 
 life : 15, posi- 
 tion of lowerj 
 point of heart, 
 (7,7), lining of 
 Chest, corres- 
 ponding to 7, 4! 
 7, Fig. 90 ; 1, 
 
 2, 3, the three 
 lobes of one 
 side ; 8, 9, the 
 two lobes of 
 the other. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 What does Fig. 92 represent ? What does Fig. 93 represent ? How near 
 to the neck do the lungs appear to be ? Does the windpipe enter the top or 
 sides of the lungs ? How are the upper parts of the lungs sustained in place ? 
 
144 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 556. The larynx, an enlarged part of the windpipe, 
 composed of several cartilages, with muscles to move 
 them, opens at its upper and back part into the throat, 
 or pharynx ; above its opening a cartilage (see 30, 
 Fig. 94) is attached to the tongue, and against it the 
 larynx is raised when it is desirable to close the air- 
 passages, as when we swallow, sneeze, speak, &c. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 556 . What is said of the construction of openings of — * ? How is the 
 opening into the larynx closed? When the finger is on the larynx, docs it rise 
 if you swallow ? Can you see it rise then ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 145 
 
 0 
 
 557. There is more or less muscular substance 
 in the walls of the air-tubes to assist in breathing. 
 
 Remark.— The elastic tissue of the lungs is of use 
 in expelling the air, and therefore may be counted as 
 Motory. 
 
 % 
 
 Mode of Br eaihing . 
 
 558. The larynx being lowered, the windpipe is 
 thereby opened : then if the chest is enlarged, the air 
 presses into the lung, overcomes its elasticity, distend- 
 ing it as fast as the chest enlarges ; this is inspiration : 
 then the chest is diminished, and the elasticity of the 
 lung throws the air out. 
 
 559. When the air is to be poured out suddenly, 
 the larynx is closed, and the expiratory muscles con- 
 tracted, by which pressure is made upon the air in the 
 lungs : then the larynx is suddenly opened, when the 
 pressure of the expiratory muscles will add to the force 
 of the elastic substance of the lungs, and the air will be 
 expelled with corresponding force. 
 
 560. The chest is enlarged by relaxing the op- 
 posing muscles, raising the ribs, straightening the 
 column, and contracting the diaphragm, by which the 
 cartilages of the ribs and column will be stretched: 
 the organs below the diaphragm will be pressed down, 
 and, in turn, distend the walls of the abdomen. 
 
 561. The chest is diminished by relaxing the in- 
 spiratory muscles when the stretched cartilages act 
 to restore the ribs, the downward motion of which is 
 further assisted by the muscles of expiration, especially 
 those of the walls of the abdomen, which also press 
 its organs inward and upward against the arches of the 
 diaphragm, which, relaxed, are easily moved up. The 
 
 557. Where is—? Use of elastic tissue? 558. — , what can then take 
 place? 559. — , what must be done? 560. How is—? 561. How is -^? 
 What effect on walls of the abdomen ? 
 
 7 
 
146 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 continued action of tlie expiratory muscles draws the 
 ribs and column below their middle point, and bring 
 their cartilages into.a condition to have their elasticity 
 exerted to raise the ribs and draw in the air. Some 
 breathe almost entirely by raising the ribs above their 
 medium point, and restoring them to it ; others, by 
 drawing them below that medium point, and restoring 
 them to it ; while others breathe still better by moving 
 the ribs both above and below the medium point. 
 
 Remark. — It must be very evident that perfect 
 breathing cannot take place if bands, clothing, or any 
 thing confines, constricts, or in any way prevents the 
 full motion of the trunk-walls, both of the chest and 
 abdomen : tight dress is certainly one of the worst of 
 evils. 
 
 Air. 
 
 562. As THE ENTIRE USE OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS 
 is to make use of the air, it becomes of the utmost 
 importance that we observe what will affect its quality 
 and its quantity, since upon both must its efficiency 
 depend. 
 
 563. Air is composed of nearly four fifths nitrogen, 
 one fifth oxygen, a minute quantity of carbonic acid, a 
 large quantity of watery vapor, more or less ozone, &c. 
 
 564. The nitrogen seems of no use except to dilute 
 the other gases ; the oxygen is of vital importance, 
 some of it disappearing at each breath ; the carbonic 
 acid is a decided poison when in considerable quantity ; 
 some of it is expelled from the lungs at each breath ; 
 and, in a short time, such a quantity will be thrown out, 
 that, to breathe the air containing it, is very unhealthy. 
 Only a small increase in the natural proportion of car- 
 
 How do different persons breathe ? Remark.— What is the effect of tight 
 dress on the chest ? on the abdomen ? How through the abdomen will tight 
 dress affect breathing? 562. TVhat important as — ? 5C3. Of what is — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 147 
 
 bonic acid is sufficient to make the air deadly, even if 
 the oxygen is not diminished ; the watery vapor in the 
 air is essential to prevent it from drying the surfaces it 
 acts upon : ozone is but little understood, but is thought 
 to be some form of oxygen ; its presence in proper 
 quantities is essential to health ; an excess or absence of 
 it, especially the latter, causing diseases of the most 
 fatal sort. How to produce it cheaply is a question. 
 
 565. To secure pure air, our apartments must be 
 well ventilated, both night and day, both in hot and 
 cold weather ; also the air all about our buildings, and 
 at a distance, must be kept pure ; when the air is dry, 
 as it is likely to be when warmed, water must be eva- 
 porated into it ; hence to keep a vessel of water on a 
 stove in winter is judicious. 
 
 566. If the pure air is in our rooms, it is still neces- 
 sary to give attention to have that which is in the lungs 
 well ventilated ; active breathing should frequently be 
 resorted to, for the quietness of ordinary breathing will 
 allow the air to remain a long while in some of the cells 
 undisturbed ; hence, singing is an excellent exercise ; so 
 is reading aloud, and other exercises that cause energetic 
 breathing. Just before retiring, and upon rising when 
 the clothing is removed, some exercise that empties and 
 fills the lungs, viz., causes active breathing, is particularly 
 advisable. 
 
 567. To RECEIVE A LARGE QUANTITY OF AIR, it is 
 necessary that the ribs be free to rise, and the walls of 
 the abdomen free to distend : this can never be, if any 
 'part of the Trunk is tightly clothed ; now as 
 
 568. The ready action of the brain, the graceful 
 action of the muscles, the beauty of the skin, the viva- 
 city of the eye, and the health and vigor of all parts, 
 are dependent upon the blood, and its good character 
 
 564. What is the use of nitrogen? of oxygen? of carbonic acid? of watery 
 vapor ) of ozone ? 565. What is necessary — ? 566. What necessary if — ? 
 
 567. What necessary in order — ? 568, — depends on what ? 
 
148 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 upon tlie quality and quantity of air breathed : it must 
 be apparent that tight clothing cannot improve the 
 appearance of a person . 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE ORGANS OF THE RESPIRATORY 
 
 Apparatus will show that they include the Nose, 
 (sometimes the Mouth,) the Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, 
 Lungs, Trunk-walls, and Diaphragm ; while the Hearts 
 are necessary to pour blood into the Lungs and receive 
 it from them ; and the various organs filling the abdo- 
 men are necessary in their places to facilitate breath- 
 ing by their action upon the abdominal walls and the 
 diaphragm. 
 
 Synoptical ly, the 
 
 Respiratory Apparatus 
 
 r Nose 
 Pharynx 
 Larynx 
 \ Trachea 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Trunk-Walls 
 
 Diaphragm 
 
 Sec. 6 . 
 
 DIGESTORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 569. The Digestory Apparatus has two distinct 
 functions — one of passing water into the blood, and the 
 other of preparing food and passing it into the blood. 
 
 570. To pass water into the blood, is a very 
 simple process; indeed, taking it into the mouth would 
 be sufficient, and is found to be so when the throat is too 
 sore to swallow, since it slowly passes through the sides 
 of the blood-tubes in the mouth into the blood ; but this 
 would usually be inconvenient ; hence, it is swallowed 
 into a pouch (the Stomach), through the sides of which 
 it can and does pass into the blood, as it would through 
 the mouth. It will pass through the air-surfaces in the 
 lungs, or even through the external skin. 
 
 568. — will show what ? What is tho use of the Hearts in respiration ? 
 What, in breathing, is the use of the abdominal organs? 569. — ; what are 
 they ? 570. How are we able — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 149 
 
 571. The rapidity with which water, or any sub- 
 stance, will pass into the blood, depends upon how 
 large a proportion of water there is in the blood ; hence, 
 we shall be safer if we drink before going out in the 
 morning in an unhealthy region, or into a sick room, 
 or wherever there is a liability to take into the blood 
 any unhealthy substances. 
 
 572. To PREPARE FOOD FOR PASSING INTO THE 
 stomach, in the first place, it must be ground, and, 
 secondly, at the same time, moistened. 
 
 573. To grind the food, the teeth — twenty in the 
 first set and thirty-two in the second set — are inserted 
 in each jaw ; and, as the grinding is very important to 
 health, the teeth should be preserved by taking the 
 utmost care of them : they should not be used to bite 
 hard substances — to crack nuts, bend pins, cut off 
 thread, &c. ; nor should very hot nor very cold substances 
 be allowed to act on them, since they are composed of 
 a thin layer of very hard enamel at the surface and a 
 more bony material within : heat or cold is apt to crack 
 the former. The teeth should also be often cleansed, 
 not by powders or acids, but by brushing or rubbing : 
 many things sold at the shops corrode the teeth. 
 
 574. Three organs on each side of the mouth 
 are adapted to form a fluid called saliva : the largest of 
 these, at the back of the jaw, called the Parotid gland, 
 has a tube extending under the skin of the face to the 
 middle of the cheek, where it opens, and can be felt at 
 the inner surface ; this tube, called Steno’s duct, can be 
 easily felt ; another of the glands is between the jaw 
 and tongue ; the third is beneath the tongue. 
 
 575. From these glands a large quantity of fluid 
 is constantly poured into the mouth, and very much in- 
 creased when eating. The fact that this increase some- 
 
 571. — depends upon what ? 572. How is it necessary — ? 573. What 
 
 needed — ? How take care of the teeth ? 574. Describe the — . Can you 
 
 feel Steno’s duct ? 575. What comes — ? 
 
150 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 times takes place before food is tasted, and sometimes 
 at the mere thought of delicious food, proves that the 
 mind has an influence upon the circulation of the blood, 
 and upon the secretion of fluids. 
 
 576. Chewing!- the food thoroughly effects two 
 objects : making the food fine, and mixing it thoroughly 
 with saliva. It is too often neglected, and the food 
 eaten with improper haste; losing us the enjoyment of 
 it, and preventing its perfect digestion, and after a time 
 bringing on disease. 
 
 577. When chewed, the food is gathered into a ball 
 and pressed into the throat, being lubricated by the 
 tonsils (23, Fig. 94) on each side of the back part of the 
 tongue ; the veil of the palate (12, Fig. 94) is raised up, 
 closing the back nostrils ; the larynx is raised against 30 
 (Fig. 94), and the food is pressed on down through the 
 oesophagus into the Stomach (see Figs. 18, 84, 85.) 
 
 578. The (esophagus opens into the Stomach a 
 little to the left of the centre of the body, and about 
 one third the distance from the large to the small end 
 of the Stomach (see Fig. 98). 
 
 579. The inner surface of the stomach is very 
 delicate and velvety, and, under the microscope, ex- 
 hibits an immense number of small holes that are the 
 openings of short tubes, in the sides of which at times 
 there is formed a very important fluid, called gastric 
 or stomach juice, because it is found only in the stomach. 
 
 580. The gastric juice appears usually when food 
 reaches the stomach, but not then if the food is not 
 needed, and but for a little while if unwholesome food is 
 taken ; it continues to come into the stomach for five 
 minutes to half an hour, more or less freely, according 
 to the need for food, the quantity eaten, and the state 
 of the mind and health of the body. 
 
 576. What effect produced by — ? 577. What is done with the food — ? 
 
 Describe successively the course of the food through the mouth ? 578. How 
 does — ? 570. Describe — . 580. — when and to what extent ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 151 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 Fig. 95 (a) represents the diagonal, ( b ) the circular, 
 and ( c ) the longitudinal fibres, formed of muscle-cells, 
 in the oesophagus ; that at 1 (Fig. 96) opens into the 
 stomach of which 5 is the outer coat, dissected and turned 
 back from (7, 8, 9) the muscular fibres, extending, as 
 shown by the lines, in different directions. 
 
 Fig. 97 represents (3, 3) 
 the upper inner surface 
 of the distended stomach, 
 a section of it being made 
 through the smaller ex- 
 tremity ; 1, under surface 
 of liver ; 2, gall-bladder ; 
 4, oesophageal orifice ; 5, 
 pyloric orifice ; 6, the thick 
 muscles around 5 ; 7, Sec- 
 cond Stomach. 
 
 581. Mouthful after mouthful the food passes 
 into the stomach, gradually distending it ; the juice 
 begins to flow ; the large extremity of the Stomach con- 
 tracts, slowly pressing the food into, and distending, 
 
 What does Fig. 95 represent ? What does Fig. 96 represent ? What 
 does Fig. 97 represent ? How much of the upper part of the Stomach is 
 represented ? At what portion of the Stomach does the food enter ? 
 
152 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 the small end, which again contracts, and presses the 
 food back : thus it is mixed together and with the juice, 
 by the action of which after a time it begins to be 
 changed into a grayish paste, called chyme. 
 
 582. The length of time required to form chyme 
 is from one to six hours, depending upon the quantity 
 and kind of food, its cooking, mastication, and needed 
 bodily health, and the state of the mind. 
 
 583. Some rinds of food are prepared in the 
 stomach to enter the blood, and do pass into the blood- 
 tubes, in the sides of the stomach. 
 
 584. The balance of the chyme, as rapidly as it 
 is formed, passes little by little into the long, small 
 canal, called the Second Stomach, or small intestinal 
 canal. 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 Fig. 98 : 1, liver, turned up ; 2, its fissure ; 3, gall-bladder ; 4, stomach ; 
 5, oesophagus ; 6, pylorus ; 7, descending 8 transverse duodenum ; 9, pan- 
 creas ; 10, spleen ; 11 to 24, arteries. 
 
 >581. What takes place as — ? 582. — depends upon what? 583. — for 
 what purpose ? 584. What becomes of — ? Describe Fig. 98. In which side 
 is the liver ? In which side is the spleen ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 153 
 
 585. The walls of the Second Stomach, like those 
 of the stomach, are in three coats : the external, serous, 
 that extends back to the spinal column, forms a kind 
 of ribbon, or ruffle, called the mesentery, in which are 
 found the vessels and nerves extending to and from the 
 canal ; the middle or muscular is in the form of rings ; 
 the velvety, mucous, internal coat is arranged in the 
 form of folds to increase its extent of surface. 
 
 586. The Second Stomach varies in length from five to 
 thirty-four feet in different persons, averaging twenty- 
 five feet. It is coiled or curved like the edge of a 
 ribbon, and extends from right to left, and back agaiu 
 to the left, and again back, reaching the right lower 
 portion of the abdomen just within the upper front 
 point of the hip-bone, where it opens into the large 
 intestinal canal, called the colon. 
 
 Fig. 99 : 6, 5, 4, 
 
 Pancreas entire ; 7, 
 distended portion of 
 Second Stomach 
 tied at each end. A 
 tube from the pan- 
 creas opens into 7. 
 
 587. A short distance from the stomach the 
 chyme is mixed with a juice, called pancreatic, because 
 formed in the pancreas — a small organ back of the 
 lower part of the stomach. 
 
 588. Chyme is here also mixed with the bile from 
 the liver, and the gall from the gall-bladder, by which 
 one portion of the chyme becomes fitted to and does 
 enter the blood-vessels of the Second Stomach ; while 
 another portion appears of a whitish or milk color, 
 
 585. What is the structure of — ? What is the mesentery? 586. What 
 the length and position of Second Stomach ? 587. What enters the Second. 
 Stomach — ? 588. — with what is ? 
 
 7 * 
 
154 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 called chyle, and passes out of the Second Stomach into 
 the lacteal vessels that extend from it to the veins in 
 the region of the neck. (See Figs. 100, 103, and 104. * 
 
 Fig. 100 represents 
 a coil (7) of the Sec- 
 ond Stomach turned 
 back, and other parts 
 dissected away, to 
 show the lacteals (6), 
 glands (5), and the 
 main duct (1), which 
 extends up and con- 
 nects with the veins 
 in the neck, as shown 
 in figure 104. Te ob- 
 serve how the lac- 
 teals commence, see 
 17, 16, Fig. 25. 
 
 589. The small portion of chyme not thus 
 changed, passes on into the colon, which also receives 
 whatever is eliminated from the blood by the Second 
 Stomach, which is ordinarily by far the greater part 
 of what passes into the colon, or large intestine — a canal 
 much like the Second Stomach, only larger. 
 
 590. The colon commences just within the upper 
 front point of the hi}>bone ; thence it extends up on 
 the right side underneath the thin edge of the liver, 
 where it turns almost at a right angle, and extends 
 across the abdomen just below, and even across and in 
 front of the lower part of the Stomach ; in the left 
 side of the abdomen and near the spleen, the colon turns 
 again at nearly a right angle, and extends down as 
 low as the hip, the inner surface of which it follows 
 downward and backward, appearing in the form of 
 an S ; below this point it is straight, and hence called 
 
 What is chyle, and where found? Describe Fig. 100. 589. What becomes 
 of — ? Where doe the colon commence, and what is its course ? 590. What 
 is the relation of the colon to the other organs of the abdomen ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 155 
 
 the rectum. Its names in its course are coecum, where 
 it commences ; then, ascending, transverse, and descend- 
 ing colon, the sigmoid flexure, rectum. 
 
 591. It must be evident that any pressure of cloth- 
 ing on the abdomen must prevent free motion of the 
 contents of its canals ; especially will anything girding 
 the upper or middle part of it interfere with the free 
 passage of substances through the colon : many diseases 
 not only, but deaths, are thus caused. 
 
 592. Remark . — It may be thought impossible to know what 
 takes place in the stomach during digestion. In the year 1822, in the 
 State of Michigan, a young man named St. Martin, serving in our army, 
 was injured by the accidental discharge of a gun, the muzzle of which 
 was about a yard from his body. The buckshot tore open his side, lacer- 
 ating his lung and stomach. He fell into the hands of Dr. Beauipont, 
 by whose aid he recovered, leaving, however, an irregular opening into 
 his stomach, about an inch and a half in diameter, that adhered to his 
 side in such a manner that food could be put into or taken out of the 
 Stomach, and the organ examined under various circumstances. He 
 lived with Dr. B. two years, whose account of the case is deeply inter- 
 esting and profitable. St. Martin, however, fearing the experiments 
 would affect his health, plunged into the depths of Canada, and was lost 
 sight of till the railroads brought him to light a few years since, when he 
 was alive and well, and went to Europe to exhibit himself, the aperture 
 never having closed. Dr. Beaumont made only a series of physical ob- 
 servations and experiments, yet he conclusively determined many impor- 
 tant facts : that different substances, and different methods of cooking 
 them, require different times for digestion ; that partially masticated 
 food is tedious in digesting, and often irritates and inflames the stomach ; 
 that, indeed, thorough mastication is one of the most important steps 
 towards health ; that food not needed is not digested, and soon deranges 
 the stomach ; that a hearty, appetite, combined with moderate disten- 
 tion of the stomach, favor digestion ; that moderate exercise facilitates 
 digestion, while active exercise of either muscles or brain as surely re- 
 tards it ; that sleep immediately after eating is not advantageous ; that 
 ill-temper or other ill-dispositions check the entire digestcry action, 
 which, after a time, goes on again, but not perfectly ; that too much 
 
 What are the names of the colon % 591. What from the position of the 
 colon — ? 592. What — ? Describe how St. Martin was injured. What facts 
 did Dr. B. determine ? 
 
156 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 liquid with food retards digestion ; that the frequent use of alcoholics, 
 wine, cider, etc., invariably inflames the stomach ; that the stomach is 
 not sensitive when touched, and may even be so diseased as to bleed 
 without exciting pain ! Other experiments and observations upon man 
 and animals, since those of Dr. B., have also still further and more 
 clearly shown the true nature and use of the first process of digestion. 
 
 593. Food is for different purposes, and hence 
 should he of different kinds : one purpose is producing 
 heat ; another, cooling the body ; one is to nourish or re- 
 new the tissues ; another is to distend the stomach, &c. 
 
 594. Starch, fat, sugar, and gum, are for pro- 
 ducing heat. Acids are for cooling purposes. 
 
 Remark. — Hence, in winter we should eat more 
 of heat-producing food, especially if exposed to the cold, 
 and should have a more healthy appetite for it, which is 
 the case ; while in summer, or at any time when hot, 
 we should prefer lemonade, acid fruits, &c. 
 
 595. To nourish the muscles and brain different 
 varieties of food are required, while peculiar varieties 
 are doubtless required by other parts. Precisely what 
 varieties of food will include all those best adapted to 
 the wants of the brain, cannot be told at present, but 
 sometime will be known. The idea is a very important 
 one , and its practical application should be worked out 
 as soon as possible ; but Eggs, Brains themselves, certain 
 kinds of fish, the brown part of grain-food, oats, and 
 beans and peas, are especially adapted to form brain 
 and nervous tissue. 
 
 596. Waste food includes that portion of any kind 
 which is more than is needed, but it usually means that 
 which cannot bo of use, except to increase the bulk of 
 the food, enabling the organs to act upon it better. 
 Fruits and vegetables, to a reasonable extent, are almost 
 always wholesome and advisable. 
 
 593. — what are they ? 594. — are for what ? What articles of food con- 
 tain them largely? When do we cat griddle-cakes? 595. What required — ? 
 596. What is — ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 157 
 
 597. All kinds of food should be properly cooked ; 
 some need much cooking — as beans ; others but little — 
 as eggs. All kinds of grains that include starch require 
 much cooking, while tender meats require little ; tough 
 meats much ; sugars none, and gums none. A proper 
 blending of articles of food, so that it is savory, is valu- 
 able ; a change of diet tends to furnish the body with 
 the varied nutrition it requires. Some vegetables should 
 be cooked ; others may be eaten raw. 
 
 598. All food should be well masticated ; and 
 Dr. Beaumont testifies that, in the case of St. Martin, 
 amiability advanced digestion, while ill-temper retarded 
 or stopped it; also, if there was an appetite, that the 
 thought of food would cause the gastric juice to start, as 
 showing the mind’s influence : so the mouth waters. 
 
 599. Food should not be eaten when there is no 
 appetite, nor should things be eaten to cause an appetite ; 
 especially should we be thoughtful not to eat more than 
 appetite craves, and, when unwell, be ever abstemious. 
 
 600. To produce a healthy appetite, expose the 
 body to the fresh air, exercise the muscles well, and 
 render the brain active, unless it has been overworked : 
 sometimes persons lose their appetite from over-mus- 
 cular and brainial exercise, there not being strength 
 enough left to digest food ; then rest is the only remedy. 
 
 601. A Review of the organs of the Digestory Appa- 
 ratus will show that they include the Mouth, (Teeth, 
 Salivary glands), Pharynx, (Esophagus, Stomach (Gastric 
 glands), Second Stomach (Brunner’s, Leiberkuhn’s, 
 Peyer’s glands), Liver, Pancreas, Lacteals, Colon, 
 Blood-vessels, Nerves, and Walls of the Abdomen; 
 while the diaphragm and the walls of the chest assist 
 digestion, their action promoting the movements of the 
 organs of digestion. 
 
 597. How cook — ? Should every thing be cooked ? 598. — why ? 
 
 599. — when? 600. What should we do — ? 601. What organs arc digestory ? 
 What effect has the diaphragm ? Singing, &c. ? 
 
158 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 Synoptically, the 
 
 Digestory Apparatus 
 
 r Mouth 
 (Esophagus 
 Pharynx 
 Stomach 
 Second Stomach 
 Liver 
 Pancreas 
 Lacteals 
 Colon 
 
 Blood-tubes 
 
 Nerves 
 
 Walls of the Abdomen 
 
 Sec. 7. 
 
 ELIMINATORY APPARATUS; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 602. The Eliminatory Apparatus is not one 
 simple unit, but is constructed of several apparatuses : 
 the Lungs eliminate from the blood, so does the Liver, so 
 does the Second Stomach, and so largely that they may 
 be counted as parts of this apparatus ; the salivary glands, 
 the tear-glands, the pancreas, &c., also, eliminate from 
 the blood ; but to eliminate is not the only nor the 
 chief duty of those parts. 
 
 603. Two kinds of organs are needed for special 
 elimination: 1st, of water; 2d, of other matters. 
 
 604. Water must be eliminated under two very 
 different circumstances : 1st, that by evaporating it may 
 cool the body, in connection with this elimination, thirst 
 must be excited ; otherwise, the source of the elimina- 
 tion would fail ; and 2d, it must be removed without 
 exciting thirst, and without cooling the body, as the 
 object of removing it in this case is to increase the heat 
 of the body ; so that water is to be eliminated, either 
 when the body is too warm, or too cool, but by two 
 different methods. 
 
 602. — what ? What three kinds of organs eliminate ? 003. What other 
 need for — ? 604. Ilow must — , 1st? How must water he eliminated, 2d i 
 
 For what two different purposes eliminate water? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 159 
 
 Fig. 101 represents a very highly 
 magnified view of a perpendicular sec- 
 tion of a small portion of the skin. 
 
 It is divided into three parts : 1, the 
 external layer or cuticle, composed of 
 cells starting up from the basement 
 membrane below, and gradually be- 
 coming dry and flattened scales as, 
 layer after layer, they approach the 
 surface, from which they are worn, or 
 drop off. Two curved passages — the 
 outlets of the perspiration— are notice- 
 able, communicating below with four 
 tubes in one case, and two in the other, 
 that are coiled at their lower extremities, 
 and form the perspiratory glands (y); 
 
 2 is the papillary portion, in which the 
 nerves of touch commence, surrounded 
 by a network of lymphatics and capil- 
 laries, supplied with blood through (a) 
 an arterial branch , 3 is the true skin, 
 composed of sinewy fibres woven among 
 the tubes, nerves, and perspiratory 
 glands. In the lower part the meshes 
 are larger, and filled sometimes with 
 clusters of fat-cells, as at e . There are 
 about thirty miles of tubing in the skin. 
 
 605. The skin offers an excellent opportunity for 
 removing water to cool the body (see Fig. 101), and an 
 internal organ must be constructed for the other pur- 
 pose. It is found in the kidneys, situated in the loins, 
 upon each side of the spinal column ; they are con- 
 structed of an immense number of tubes, and receive 
 very large branches of arteries, so that they can, when 
 it is necessary, work the water out of the blood with 
 great rapidity, and without loss of heat. 
 
 606. The eliminators of the water might also, 
 if needed, be called on to assist in eliminating other 
 substances from the blood, since the water could dis- 
 solve and wash them out from the tubes. This is the 
 
 What does Fig. 101 represent ? How numerous, according to this repre- 
 sentation, must bo tho perspiratory tubes of the skin ? 605 . What does — ? 
 606. — to do what ? 
 
160 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 case : certain substances thrown into the blood by the 
 brain are removed by the kidneys, while the perspira- 
 tory tubes of the skin are constantly exuding a viscid 
 substance that requires frequent bathing to effectually 
 clear it away from the surface of the skin ; — hence, 
 
 607. It is exceedingly important that we frequently 
 rub the skin to promote an active circulation of blood 
 through it ; that we clothe it properly, as well as bathe 
 it often. The removal of the viscid, very impure 
 substance is facilitated by the use of soap. 
 
 608. The hair is also an elimination fed from the 
 blood ; and to promote the growth of it, the skin should 
 be often rubbed. Glands, or pouches, in the skin, also 
 throw out oil to protect the skin and hair : this will 
 also be found in abundance, if the skin is well rubbed ; 
 by rubbing, the oil in the skin will also be prevented 
 from drying in the pouches, and collecting the dust that 
 produces the appearance of black specks, often dis- 
 figuring the complexion very much. 
 
 609. A REVIEW OF THE ORGANS OF THE ELIMINATORY 
 apparatus shows that they include two classes : 1st, the 
 common, viz., the Lungs, Liver, Second Stomach, &c., 
 that eliminate in common with the performance of other 
 offices ; and 2d, the special, viz., the Perspiratory glands 
 of the Skin and the Kidneys, the office of which is solely 
 to eliminate. 
 
 Synoptieally, the 
 
 Eliminatory Apparatus = 
 
 Common = - 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Liver 
 
 Second Stomach 
 
 Blood-tubes 
 
 Nerves 
 
 _ Special = 
 
 ' Perspiratory glands of the 
 Skin 
 Kidneys 
 Blood-tubes 
 Nerves 
 
 What exudes from the skin ? 607. What in case of the skin is — ? 
 
 608. What is said of — ? 609. What is shown by — ? Make a table of Elimi- 
 
 natory Apparatus ? 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 161 
 
 Sec. 8 . 
 
 MODIFICATORY APPARATUS ; ITS ORGANS. 
 
 610. Though all the organs of the body are 
 constantly modifying the blood, it yet needs a differ- 
 ent or additional kind of modification : for this purpose 
 organs have been provided, having no other office. 
 
 Fig. 102 : 1, 2, 3, a number of Blood- 
 cells, very much magnified. Their shape 
 in various positions is very well shown. 
 
 When out of the blood, they are prone 
 to adhere, as at 3 ; 4, 5, 6, 7 are the same, 
 still more highly magnified to show in sec- 
 tion the convex (5) and the concave (7) 
 surface that the same cell will exhibit at 
 different times. Their semi-transparent 
 character is shown at 6. 
 
 611. 1st. In the blood itself, in part composing 
 it, millions of cells float — nearly 3,000 in a single drop, 
 and about five pounds in the blood : these cells take sub- 
 stance from other parts of the blood, and give it back, 
 changed in a way not understood. It is these cells that 
 give color to the blood ; when they enter the lungs, 
 they are dark-red ; acted on by the air, their form is 
 changed, and they become bright-red ; as they circulate, 
 thus improved, they help give life to all parts, and 
 beauty to the skin : thus pure air will beautify ; and 
 tight clothing , or impure air, will dull the complexion. 
 
 612. 2d. The lymphatics are minute tubes com- 
 mencing in all parts, except the brain and nerves. They 
 gather from the former a watery fluid called lymph; 
 uniting, they form larger, yet small, tubes that open into 
 
 610. — what also needed ? Describe Fig. 102. 611. What exists — ? 
 
 IIow many cells ? Wbat would bo the effect if they should be located in 
 one place ? Where could they be ? 612. What are — ? 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
162 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS 
 
 PLATE V. 
 
 Pig. 103. Fia. 104. 
 
 Fig. 1 03 : Lymphatics of trunk opening into the thoracic duct. Fig. 104 : 
 Right side, superficial ; left side, deep ; lymphatics, connecting with 
 the thoracic duct. 
 
INTO ORGANS AND THEIR USES. 
 
 163 
 
 small bodies, called lymphatic glands, about the size and 
 form of a grain of wheat, of which great numbers exist 
 in some parts : when these swell, they are easily felt as 
 small, firm lumps, called kernels. The use of the lymph, 
 or the mode in which the glands modify it, is not under- 
 stood ; the lymph contains white cells, and it is supposed 
 that these are formed in the glands, and have something 
 to do with forming the red cells in the blood ; the lym- 
 phatics open into the veins, and the lacteals open into 
 the main, lymphatic trunk, called the thoracic duct, that 
 extends up and opens into the vein of the neck, as is 
 shown by Figs. 103 and 104. In the groin and neck 
 are shown a few of many glands. Fig. — represents 
 the lymphatics near the surface, as they commence in 
 the thumb, though not easily seen by the naked eye. 
 
 Fig. 105 represents concave surface of Spleen, with which the stomach 
 is in contact ; 6, branches of arteries ; 7, vein. 
 
 Fig. 106 : 6 represents the thyroid gland, like a saddle across the wind- 
 pipe (7), just below the larynx. It is named from the thyroid cartilage (3). 
 
 Describe Figs. 103 and 104. What are the lymphatic glands ? What is the 
 use to the lymph ? Describe Fig. 105. Describe Fig. 106. Can the thyroid 
 gland be felt ? 
 
164 
 
 ANALYSIS OF APPARATUS. 
 
 613. 3d. The spleen is a spongy-feeling organ, full 
 of cells, apparently like the blood-cells. They are prob- 
 ably enmassed here because the blood cannot properly 
 float them all. It is situated in contact with the left of 
 the stomach. As it has no exit-tube but a vein, it must 
 in some way modify the blood that passes through it, 
 since the blood that leaves through the vein differs from 
 that which enters the spleen through the artery. There- 
 fore, the blood must be changed in the spleen. 
 
 614. 4th. The thyroid gland must have the office of 
 modifying the blood, as it has no outlet but veins ; but 
 what it does, we do not know. It enlarges very much 
 in some cases, producing what is called swelled neck, 
 bronchocele, or goitre : this is often produced or aggra- 
 vated by the use of “ hard water,” especially magnesian 
 water, and can be lessened by the use of soft water. 
 
 615. A review of the organs of the Modificatory 
 Apparatus will show that they include the Blood-cells, 
 Lymphatics, Spleen, Thyroid-gland, and some minor 
 parts. 
 
 Synoptically, the 
 
 Modificatory Apparatus 
 
 r Blood-cells 
 Lymphatics 
 Spleen 
 
 Thyroid-gland, &c. 
 
 Blood-vessels 
 
 Nerves 
 
 616. Thus have we accounted for the existence 
 and the necessity of all the organs of the body. They, 
 each and all, have a use which it is the part of wise 
 men to learn how to promote and facilitate. We have 
 also shown to what Apparatus each organ belongs, 
 what organs work together, and how they work toward 
 gaining the great object for which they were made. 
 (See table of all the organs in the Appendix.) 
 
 C13. Describe — ? 614. What is the office of — ? 615. What does a review 
 of Modifying Apparatus show ? 616. We have — for what ? Will you go back 
 and recount all the organs ? Read the organs mentioned in table. 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 165 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 61^. It has been seen that organs are wrought 
 from several different kinds of substances : these are 
 called tissues 
 
 618. It is also noticeable that but a very few 
 different kinds of tissues will be necessary in the con- 
 struction of all the different kinds of organs, because 
 very nearly the same tissues are needed to construct 
 the different organs. 
 
 619. In fact there will be needed only six kinds 
 of tissues, since of six different kinds ,#11 the organs can 
 be perfectly constructed, for in no organ will there be 
 need for any property not given either by Bony or 
 Cartilaginous or Sinewy, or Muscular or Nervous or 
 Secretory tissue. 
 
 620. Is hardness wanted, as in the skeleton, it is 
 given by Bone ; is firmness and elasticity needed, as in 
 the ear, windpipe, &c., it is conferred by Cartilage ; is 
 strength and flexibility required, as in binding movable 
 parts together, in constructing the skin, &c., they are 
 found in Sinew ; is contraction required, it is bestowed 
 by Muscular tissue ; is any part to be excited to action, 
 sensation caused, or the activity of mind provided for, 
 Nervous tissue will suffice ; is any substance to be se- 
 creted, secretion can only be supplied by Secretory 
 
 What is the topic of Chapter VII. ? 617. What — ? 618. What is — ? 
 
 619. What — ? 620. What tissues confer the needed properties? What is 
 
 their number ? Can you find any others in any piece of meat ? 
 
166 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 tissue. Can any other property be of use in an organ ? 
 No. Then only six tissues are needed. 
 
 621. It is noticeable also that three are passive 
 and three are active, as follows 
 
 622. The tissues are subdivisible into varieties ; 
 even the Bony differs in different parts and at different 
 periods of life, so does the Gristly ; the Sinewy is white 
 inelastic, or yellow elastic ; while it is woven so as to 
 form ligament, tendon, membrane, sheaths, and also 
 in such various ways as to form the framework of all 
 the soft organs. The Nervous tissue is either white or 
 fibrous, or gray cellular ; the Muscular has also two 
 forms ; the Secretory is in the form of a membrane, a 
 tube, or a cell ; in the latter case the form varies very 
 much in different cases, and the substances secreted are 
 as various as the varieties of the tissue. 
 
 623. The secretory is the only tissue that has not 
 been sufficiently described. It can be distinctly seen 
 only through the microscope. It is a peculiar tissue, and 
 has the property of changing the blood, or whatever 
 it operates upon, in such a manner as not merely to 
 separate a substance from it, but often so as to produce 
 a new substance. It is found at all surfaces : it forms 
 the surface of the skin covering the body, the lining 
 of the mouth and digestory canal, the nose and air- 
 passages in the lungs, the surfaces of the brain, blood- 
 tubes, lungs, stomach, joints, &c. ; it is massed in large 
 quantities in the liver, and in smaller quantities in the 
 other glands. Wherever there is any fluid to be formed 
 or separated from the blood, the secretory tissue is to 
 be found, and it also floats in the blood. 
 
 621. What is also — ? Repeat the table of tissues. 622. How are — ? How 
 many varieties are there of each kind of tissue ? 623. What is said of the — ? 
 Where is the secretory tissue found ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 167 
 
 624. That good organs may be wrought, there 
 must be good tissues to construct them from, since the 
 organs can only exhibit the properties of the tissues : 
 what their tissues have, they can have ; what their 
 tissues do not have, they cannot have. 
 
 625. The Stoiuach is strong and flexible because 
 of its Sinewy tissue ; it can contract by virtue of its 
 Muscular tissue, and secretes because constructed in 
 part of Secretory tissue ; it secretes three varieties of 
 secretion, because it has three varieties of Secretory 
 tissue — the serous, the mucous, and the gastric. 
 
 626. The action of tissues will depend upon their 
 quality, quantity, and their proportions ; for though two 
 portions of tissue may be called by the same name, they 
 may differ very much in quality, one being perfect and 
 the other many degrees from it. Again, the quantity 
 of any tissue in any organ may differ, affecting the size of 
 the organ, while the proportions of one tissue to another 
 in the same organ, or in another organ, will affect the 
 character of an organ. For example : there may be 
 more Muscular tissue in one muscle than in another ; 
 and if everything else is similar, the larger muscle will 
 exhibit more strength ; but if there is more Nervous 
 tissue in or connected with one muscle, then the char- 
 acter of that muscle will be very much modified, act- 
 ing quicker or more powerfully, and being sooner 
 exhausted. 
 
 627. The quantity of tissue in an organ will de- 
 pend partly on inheritance, and partly on training — for 
 the size of an organ, viz., the quantity of tissue, and also 
 the proportionate quantity, is partly limited by inherit- 
 ance — but up to that point can be controlled by training. 
 
 628. Since the action of an organ causes, or is de- 
 pendent UPON, A CORRESPONDING CHARACTER IN ITS TISSUE, 
 
 624. What is necessary in order — ? 625. Why is — ? 626. — upon what ? 
 How may organs differ in size ? 627. — upon what ? How may organs he 
 
 enlarged ? 628. What inference follows — ? 
 
168 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 the continued action of an organ must depend upon its 
 tissue being constantly renewed, and this, again, must 
 depend upon a large supply of good blood — for which, 
 again, good material must be supplied to the blood in 
 the air, water, and food — and the active circulation 
 of the blood promoted by proper exercise, rubbing, 
 clothing, &c. 
 
 629. If BY INHERITANCE, THEREFORE, THERE IS AN UN- 
 DESIRABLE proportion in the tissues, as is frequently 
 the case, a proper training can, to a degree, correct the 
 evil. For example : if a child shows an overproportion 
 of the Nervous tissue, the Muscular tissue should be 
 especially exercised ; if there is too large a proportion 
 of Muscular tissue, the child should have its Nervous 
 tissue exercised more. 
 
 630. The quantity and proportions of the tissue 
 are of little consequence without they are of a proper 
 quality ; the most important point of all is to know of 
 what and how they are constituted and perfected, which 
 interesting point we will attend to in the next chapter. 
 
 631. System, used properly, means all the Tissue 
 of either kind named, arranged as it is in the body. 
 
 632. There are therefore six systems : Bony or 
 Osseous, Gristly or Cartilaginous, Sinewy or Fibrous, 
 Secretory, Muscular, Nervous. 
 
 633. Parts having a structure similar to each 
 other, are with some latitude called system, as venous 
 system, arterial system ; but because parts act together 
 is no reason for calling them a system ; there is not a 
 circulatory nor digestory system : apparatus is the word 
 in this case. 
 
 634. The Liquids of the Body are 15 : Blood, 
 Lymph, Flesh-juice ; Serum, Mucus, Oil (called general ; 
 the latter three called also surface-liquids, and are chiefly 
 
 629. What is to be done — ? 630. What said of — ? 631. — what ? 
 632. — what are they ? 633. — are called what ? 634. — are how many ? 
 Name the liquids. 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORGANS INTO TISSUES. 
 
 169 
 
 lubricating) ; Tear-fluid ; Salivas (two), Gastric-juice, 
 Bile, Gall, and Pancreatic, Brunner’s and Leiberkuhn’s 
 juices. The last seven are digestory. 
 
 635. All the LIquids are secreted ; they are com- 
 posed mostly of water, with which a little solid matter, 
 of the kinds peculiar to each secretion, is combined. 
 The tear-fluid is nearly all water, with a little salt to 
 make it more transparent. The liquid of the joints, 
 called synovia or synovial fluid, is mostly water with a 
 little albumen (like white of egg), making a very glairy 
 liquid. Serum is nearly the same with less albumen. 
 
 636. The Gases are Oxygen and Carbonic acid. 
 
 637. The Body may therefore be said to be com- 
 posed of, and analyzable into, Tissues, Liquids and 
 Gases : the three forms of matter — solid, liquid, and 
 gases, and corresponding to air, water, food. 
 
 Remark 1. — Fat is not an organ, nor a part of an organ, but merely 
 a deposit, as usually understood. It is constructed of Sinewy tissue 
 for its framework and of Secretory tissue in the form of minute cells, 
 which secrete themselves full of oil. The oil is a store of fuel to be 
 burned when the occasion requires ; hence, a person should fatten in 
 fall, and lose fat in spring. Fat also preserves heat, or serves as a 
 clothing ; hence, whales have a very thick layer of it under their skins ; 
 so do swine ; hence, a little child should be fat. Persons who are lean 
 and healthy produce much heat, and therefore need not the fat. Fat 
 in the bones, in part, prevents the jars produced in walking from 
 reaching the brain. Animals that are fat are most cheaply kept. 
 
 Remark 2. — The Sinewy tissue binds all the organs together by a 
 kind of network called Areolar tissue, the areolae or spaces of which 
 connect so that fluids can pass from one to another, and the liquid that 
 moistens the areolae sometimes collects in the feet, causing them to 
 swell. Sometimes butchers blow air into the spaces to fill out the 
 meat and make it look fatter. The character of this Areolar tissue may 
 be understood by the fact, that if one end of a tube should be intro- 
 duced under the skin, and air forced through it, the skin of the whole 
 body could be gradually distended. 
 
 635. — are produced in what manner ? 636. What ai e — ? 637. — what ? 
 
 Remark 1.— What is fat? Remark 2. —What is fat for? Where could fat 
 exist ? What is areolar tissue ? 
 
 8 
 
170 
 
 ANALYSIS OF TISSUES, LIQUIDS, 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF TISSUES,, LIQUIDS, AND GASES INTO 
 ELEMENTS. 
 
 (See page 176.) 
 
 638. The Tissues are composed of 13 different sub- 
 stances, called elements because each does not appear to 
 be composed of more than one substance, that also 
 appears to be always the same. 
 
 Oxygen, Nitrogen, Calcium, Potassium, 
 
 Hydrogen, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Sodium, Iron. 
 
 Carbon, Sulphur, Silicon, Chlorine, 
 
 639. These Elements may be united together in 
 such proportions as to form the Tissues, yet not in such 
 proportions as to form them most perfectly, and this 
 may be either because the elements are not so abundant 
 as is required, or because the influences that combine 
 them are not as powerful as is necessary. 
 
 640. Where do these elements come from ? The 
 earth, the water, and the air. 
 
 641. What compounds the elements so that they 
 become Tissues ? The Heat and Light and chemical in- 
 fluence of the Sun, and doubtless the electrical influences 
 of the Earth. Some seasons ripen food much more per- 
 fectly than other seasons, and it is then more healthy. 
 
 642. Is THERE NOTHING ELSE WANTED ? YeS ; first of all, 
 there must be Tissue already formed. The bean plant- 
 
 638. Of what are — ? Name the elements. 069. How may — ? 640. — ? 
 641. — ? 642. — ? What is the peculiar character of tissue by which it differs 
 from everything else ? 
 
AND GASES INTO ELEMENTS. 
 
 171 
 
 ed takes from the earth, water, and air, the elements 
 similar to those of which the bean is made, and, under 
 the sun and earth influences, grows, that is, adds to 
 itself the elements in the form of Tissue ; but without 
 the nucleus of bean-tissue, no such effect takes place. 
 Tissue must always be the nucleus around which Tissue 
 forms ; and as this Tissue is, so to a great degree will 
 be what is formed around the nucleus. This is true in 
 animals as well as in plants. The character of the tissue 
 is, to a great degree, determined by inheritance there- 
 fore ; though it may be improved or depraved by the 
 treatment the plant, animal, or child receives ; yet, in 
 general, the good or inferior qualities of the nucleus 
 tissue will remain through life. 
 
 643. It is therefore of importance that a person 
 should inherit good tissues. It is usually seen that per- 
 sons who have long-lived ancestors are long-lived, while 
 those who have short-lived ancestors partake of their 
 tendencies. 
 
 644. Underground, or part underground rooms, 
 are unhealthy, not only because they shut out the sun, 
 but because the earth’s electrical influences below the sur- 
 face are unhealthy — and it is more healthy to live in an 
 elevated than in a low position on the surface. Persons 
 should not sleep on the first floor. Every room in a 
 house should receive the sunlight ; and when streets are 
 laid out, they should extend from Northeast to South- 
 west, or from Northwest to Southeast, in order to have 
 the sun shine on all sides of a house, or it should be 
 so located as to gain the great advantage of sunlight 
 pouring into every room ; nor should blinds or trees 
 be allowed to keep out the sun for the whole day, 
 but its wholesome influences should be allowed to 
 stream in. 
 
 Is animal tissue necessary for the formation of an animal? Is some of the 
 tissue of each plant and animal necessary to the continued production of the 
 same kind ? 643. What therefore — ? 641. What is said of — ? Of sunlight? 
 
172 
 
 SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 (CONCLUSION.) — SYNTHETIC REVIEW. 
 
 (See page 176.) 
 
 645. To CONSTRUCT THE BODY, WE REQUIRE, first, 13 
 chemical Elements ; second, the influences of the Sun ; 
 third, the influences of the Earth ; and fourth, the nucleus 
 influence of Tissue — both plant and animal. Thus can 
 be produced Food, Drink, and Air: from these, in the 
 fifth place, may be compounded the 6 Tissues and 15 
 Liquids ; sixth, from a supply of Tissues, 39 Organs 
 must be woven ; and seventh, arranged in 10 Apparatus ; 
 eighth, these must be grouped in two mechanisms ; 
 having, ninth, 6 members ; forming, tenth, the Body 
 entire ; to which, eleventh, the Mind is to be added, and 
 the potential Man is complete. 
 
 646. This Mind is endowed with power of develop- 
 ment through the aid afforded by the Body, which is 
 merely an instrument of a double character, or two 
 mechanisms : one adapted to keep itself in good con- 
 dition, promote its growth, &c. ; the other, directly 
 adapted to the improvement of the Mind ; the proper 
 action of the body in either respect is productive of 
 enjoyment. The preservation of the body being the 
 most imperative, its wants are the most urgent and in- 
 tense, and are by most thought the most desirable to 
 satisfy ; but once they are satisfied, the enjoyment de- 
 rived from the improvement of the Mind is of a far higher 
 
 645. What do we require — first ? second? third? fourth? fifth? sixth? 
 seventh ? eighth ? ninth ? tenth ? eleventh ? 646. With what is — ? What 
 is the highest and best enjoyment ? (See page 176.) 
 
SYNTHETIC EEVIEW. 
 
 173 
 
 order. Let every man, therefore, both care for his health 
 and improve his Mind. 
 
 Let him properly 
 
 Educate his Mind, 
 
 Exercise his Body, 
 
 Arrange the External World ; 
 
 Rub r Tbe skin, and thus promote the 
 
 ° ea , n j Circulation; 
 
 Clothe ( ’ 
 
 Eat proper Food temperately, 
 
 Drink good water not to excess, 
 
 Breathe pure air abundantly ; 
 
 Rest appropriately 
 Sleep sufficiently, 
 
 And cultivate good habits ; 
 
 and he will be in harmony with the laws of the universe 
 designed by the Deity to bless all the works of his 
 creation. He will then perceive that by far the larger 
 part of what a man can enjoy, is gratuitously bestowed 
 upon him, to possess which he has only to develop his 
 mind to the proper degree ; that while he must be 
 selfish in obtaining and enjoying for himself alone what- 
 ever is necessary to support his Body, all that pertains 
 to mind may be possessed and enjoyed in common with 
 others. He will then feel the full importance of being 
 educated himself not only, but perceive that his happi- 
 ness will be increased if all others are also educated. He 
 will perceive that the promotion of Bodily health and 
 the cultivation of every Mental virtue, personal, social, 
 and reverential, are the true sources of enjoyment. 
 
 What are golden hint-words ? In how many groups arranged ? How many 
 lines in each group ? If a person observe these, what will be the result ? What 
 is necessary for complete enjoyment ? (See page 176.) 
 
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Body — Six Members — Two Groups or Mechanisms 
 
 Applications. Purposes. 
 
 174 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
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APPENDIX. 
 
 Let this leaf and the one following be cut out and 
 pasted or gummed to each other and to the one pre- 
 ceding this at the places indicated by the stars and 
 daggers ; then will be seen a complete abbreviated 
 Analysis of man, when read from left to right, or a 
 Synthesis, if read from right to left ; or the same can 
 be read in the same manner by turning the pages as 
 they stand. The chart should be read by going through 
 with ea?h of the three divisions along the entire length 
 of the three pages. 
 
 Example : Analysis : Body — 6 divisions ; 2 Mechan- 
 isms = 10 Apparatus = 49 Organs = 6 Tissues + 15 
 Liquids + 2 gases = 13 Elements. Synthesis : from 13 
 Elements can be formed = 2 gases + 15 Liquids + 6 
 Tissues = 49 Organs = 10 Apparatus = 2 Mechanisms 
 = 6 Divisions = Body + Mind = Man. The contents 
 of these pages should be laid off, enlarged, upon a black- 
 board, or on large sheets, like blank newspapers, not 
 only as an excellent exercise for making the construc- 
 tion of the Body familiar, but as a mental calisthenic, 
 classification being one of the best means of improving 
 the mind that can be used 
 
Six kinds of Tissues 4- Fifteen Liquids 4* Cases = Organic and Chemical Elements. 
 
 Properties. Properties. Properties. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
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\ 
 
 PEEF ACE. 
 
 This book is not presented to Teachers and the Public merely for 
 the benefit of the Author and Publishers. It exhibits a new and im- 
 proved method of teaching Physiology, viz., by Analysis ; beginning 
 with what is obvious, it progresses through the subject by the easy 
 steps of a systematic classification, clearly showing the why and where- 
 fore of the construction of the Body. The style and mode of thought 
 gradually matures to the close. The study thus conducted will prove 
 one of the very best calisthenics and gymnastics for the youthful mind, 
 while it will also most deeply interest and correctly instruct the pupil in 
 the subject. 
 
 This book is therefore progressive in two respects : in its method, and 
 in being in advance of the past. In every other branch there has been 
 progress ; why should Physiology be an exception to the spirit of the 
 age ? Why may it not be modernized, may we not say Americanized ? 
 It is now out of the “ rut.” The old or European system was and is 
 good ; the new or American system is better. None should adopt it 
 because it is new, nor distrust it because it is not transatlantic. Every- 
 thing useful was at one time new. 
 
 The method of the questions is also new ; without occupying too 
 much space, it permits such a number that the answers bring out all 
 the ideas in the book ; but — 
 
 To teach this or any subject well, the steps are : secure attention, in- 
 form the mind, and impress the feelings. To do each, use illustrations. 
 The book is too small to allow many to be introduced ; besides, a 
 teacher’s mind cannot he imbued with the necessary enthusiasm, unless 
 he does himself become so far an author as to look up, and think out, 
 illustrations of every point taught. Then will he feel and arouse the 
 fire, the spirit, and the enthusiasm, that always mark a successful 
 teacher and scholar. Cause the pupils also to illustrate when they can, 
 no matter how commonplace. Illustrating is the art of a good teacher 
 of pupils of every age and condition, only let the illustrations be adapt- 
 ed to the subject and to the minds of the pupils. Therefore, illustrate 
 to secure attention ; illustrate to inform the mind ; illustrate to impress 
 the feelings ; in short, illustrate at every step, and success is certain.