INDIANA UNIVERSITY BULLETIN' I History Teaching in the High School A Report on a Questionnaire sent out by the Department of History and the School of Education of Indiana University Entered as second-class matter May 16, 1908, at the postoffice at Bloomington, Indiana, under act of Congress of July 16, 1894 i Contents ft I. Introduction „ 3 Origin and Scope of the Inquiry 3 List of the Questions 4 II. Analysis and Summary of Replies 6 1. Course of Study 6 2. Collateral Reading 8 3. The Note Book 12 4. Written Reports 17 5. Use of Sources 20 6. Correlation with Other Subjects 22 7. Chronological Outlines and Charts 26 8. Preparation of Maps 29 9. Use of Historical Fiction 33 10. Teaching Ethics in History Work 34 11. Special Devices in Civics Teaching 36 12. Helpful Suggestions Added 37 III. Conclusions and Suggestions 40 IV. Appendix — Tabulation of Courses in History and Civics 46 A. Indiana High Schools 46 B. Wisconsin High Schools 49 C. High Schools Outside Indiana and Wisconsin 50 INDIANA UNIVERSITY BULLETIN VOL. VII BLOOMINGTON, lND., SEPTEMBER, 19C9 NO. 8 Entered as second-class matter May 16, 1908, at the postoffice at Bloomington, Indiana, under the Act of July 16, 1894. Published from the University office, Bloomington, Indiana, semi-monthly April, May, and June, and monthly January, February, March, July, September, and November. History Teaching in the High School* I. INTRODUCTION Origin and Scope of the Inquiry. This bulletin is the outgrowth of a questionnaire on the methods of teaching History and Civics in the High Schools, which was sent out by the Department of History, and the School of Edu- cation, of Indiana University, in the Spring of 1909. About 300 copies of the questionnaire were sent out, mainly to teachers in the high schools of the Middle West, though Eastern schools and those of the Far West were not entirely overlooked. The endeavor was to draw upon the practice and experience of teachers in every type of high school, and under all sorts of conditions — in town- ship high schools, in town and city high schools, in cen- tral and suburban high schools of the larger cities, in commercial high schools, in manual training high schools, in classical high schools, and in the separate high schools * Prepared by Oscar H. Williams, Critic Teacher in History in the School of Education, in collaboration with Samuel B. Harding, Pro- fessor of European History, in Indiana University. Either of the au- thors will be very glad to receive additional suggestions, or criticisms, along the lines of the report. [• 2 ] \l v if ^ 4 INDIANA UNIVERSITY for boys and girls. In the main, the inquiries were sent to teachers and schools which were understood to be doing good work in history, though no attempt was made to include in the list all good schools and teachers. The inquiry was conducted on qualitative rather than quanti- tative lines, and no claim for statistical completeness is made for this report. Of the questionnaires sent out, 143 were returned, in most cases filled out with a care and thoroughness which indicated a gratifying interest in the inquiry, and for which the authors of this report wish to express their hearty thanks. Eighty-three replies were received from 77 Indiana high schools, the remaining 60 coming from teachers principally in the states of Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. Two or three replies each were received from large high schools in New England, New York, and Penn- sylvania; and from California and Colorado came one each. In the tabulation of history courses, contained in the appendix to this report, is given a full list of the schools replying to this inquiry. List of the Questions. The endeavor was made to se- cure information as to the best methods in actual use, with statements as to results obtained. The list of ques- tions was as follows : 1. Please state your course of study in History and Civics, specifying required and elective work. If your course is printed, a copy of this will serve. 2. Do you require collateral reading? What amounts? Of what character? By what methods do you test it? 3. Do you require the use of a permanent note-book? What do you require to be entered in it? Please give any suggestions you have found helpful. 4. Do you require written reports? How often, and of what character? HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING O 5. Do you use source material? To what extent, and in what manner? G. Do you attempt to correlate the history teaching with the work in literature and language (classical and modern)? By what methods? 7. What special devices (if any) do you use to aid in locat- ing and correlating events in time? Do you require the prepara- tion of chronological outlines or charts? If so, of what character? 8. How do you manage the preparation of maps? Do you use prepared outlines, or do the pupils draw (or trace) the out- lines? What kind of data is entered (other than that furnished by the printed maps ) ? 9. What use, if any, do you make of historical fiction? 10. Do you make conscious effort to teach ethics in history work ? 11. What special devices do you use to secure concreteness in the teaching of civics? 12. Please append any suggestions you have found helpful. In the analysis and summary of the replies which fol- low, the order of the above list is adhered to. II. ANALYSIS AND SUMMARY OF REPLIES 1. Course of Study. Question: “ Please state your course of study, specifying required and elective work.” A striking uniformity in history courses is observable, the prevailing type being that of the four blocks or periods recommended by the Committee of Seven, # or a three-block (three years’) modification of that course. Of the 137 high schools reporting, 32 offer four years, 15 offer three and a half years, 83 offer three years, 4 offer two and a half years, 1 offers two years, and 2 fail to state their courses. A greater diversity appears in the amount of work re- quired for graduation. Of the 32 schools offering four years’ work, 2 require no history, 9 require one year, 2 one and a half years, 5 two years, 2 two and a half years, 6 three years, and 6 require all four years. Of the 83 schools offering three years, 1 school requires no history, 5 require one year, 18 require two years, 3 require two and a half years, and 56 require all three years. An examination of the content of the courses reveals a corresponding uniformity, the influence of the report of the Committee of Seven again being evident. In nearly all courses reported, the work begins with a year of Ancient history, with or without Oriental connections, fol- lowed by a year of Mediaeval and Modern (sometimes termed Modern) history, a year of English history, and culminating in a year of American history and Civics, if four years are offered. If the course consists of only three years, English history is usually omitted, or taught * ‘The Study of History in Schools. Report to the American His- torical Association by the Committee of Seven.’ New York. The Mac- millan Company, 1899. - 6 - HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 7 in connection with Mediaeval and Modern history. A few schools offering three years prefer to give English history in place of Modern history, in the last half of the second year of the course* ; that is, general European his- tory from the standpoint of the Continent is followed to the beginning of the Sixteenth century, after which Eng- lish history, with Continental history merely incidental, is given. Three high schools offer the one year of gen- eral history so strongly condemned by the Committee of Ten and the Committee of Seven. In two of these, the subject is offered as an elective study in the Sophomore, Junior or Senior year, to accommodate students who have had no history work thus far, thus serving to supplement liberal elective courses in history. In the third school, it is required in the scientific and commercial courses, where no European or Ancient history is offered. A tendency toward extension and enrichment of his- tory courses, by adding other branches of the social sciences, is noted in a few cases. The Joliet (111.) Town- ship High School offers Economics, Industrial History, and Business Law in one or another of its several courses, in addition to its standard history work. Another school in the same State offers Economics and Commercial Geog- raphy, and still another offers a half year of Illinois his- tory. Three of 2’4 Wisconsin high schools among those reporting offer Political Economy, generally as an elective study. Additional subjects are usually given as advanced elective studies in the Senior year. Civics is almost universally offered. Only 15 schools out of the 137 report no Civics in the course. It is usually * See Appendix B, Tabulation of Courses in Wisconsin High Schools. Another combination finds some favor, viz.., to offer a half year elective in English history in addition to the standard course of three years’ required work. 8 INDIANA UNIVERSITY taught in the year’s work which includes American his- tory. The favored plan among the schools reporting is to teach Civics and American history as one course ; but sometimes Civics is given separate treatment in the last half of the Senior year (after American history). The method in common use is to treat the federal government as a part of the history of the national period (e.g. the general plan of the Federal system is studied in connec- tion with the Constitutional Convention, and its evolution followed through later political history), leaving local government and special problems for separate treatment at the end of the course. Owing to the fact that many students leave school be- fore beginning the Senior year, a few schools offer Civics in the Freshman year, with the aim of reaching more stu- dents in this valuable work. 2. Collateral Reading. Question: “Do you require collateral reading? What amounts? Of what charac- ter ? By what methods do you test it ? ’ ’ Upon this and the remaining questions the practice of individual teachers was sought, rather than the custom or policy of schools. In some cases, two or three teachers in the same school were requested to give the results of their experience. In all, as has before been stated, 143 replies were received. Of these, only 3 teachers “do not re- quire” collateral reading in any history work. Practi- cally every teacher reporting, therefore, requires some reading outside the text-book. The requirements differ widely among teachers, both in amount and in character, depending somewhat upon the reading material at hand. The more usual practice is to require of beginning pupils a few pages each day in some simple account, the amount increasing and the quality including more abstract and HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 9 difficult selections with advanced classes. “Five pages a day for the first year, and ten pages for other years ;” “amount varies with maturity of class, — with advanced classes it would perhaps equal 50 per cent, of the amount covered in the text;” “the first year reading is brief, con- crete, and definite in character; this is gradually in- creased in intensity;” “very little is required in Greek history; we aim to have the Roman history students do from 4 to 8 pages a day, depending on the length of as- signment; in modern, the minimum is 10 pages a day.” These are replies showing the manner of varying the re- quirements. The standard of 10 pages a day, or 900 pages a term, reported by the last teacher above, seems rather high for all except perhaps Senior classes. The reading habit is just being formed and, in the words of a teacher, “reading should be intensive rather than extensive.” Many teachers have no set amount of reading, prefer- ring to allow the requirements of the subject and the tastes of individual pupils to determine this, in all cases. One teacher uses the following plan in American history : “Exact references are placed on the blackboard, and a lesson outline by topics is also placed upon the board. No definite requirement is made as to the amount of read- ing to be done by any pupil. He must be fully prepared to recite at any time upon any topic of the lesson. He is required, however, to keep a record, by author and chap- ter (or by pages or topics) ; and this record is filed at the end of each week in a card index. A small amount of credit may or may not be given for an extra amount of re- search.” Some teachers report in favor of having definite and regular hours set apart for reading. One teacher re- quires, in the Ancient and the Mediaeval and Modern 10 INDIANA UNIVERSITY classes, one period of forty minutes each day, and in American history two periods a day, for outside reading. This almost necessarily involves the use of a reading room where all collateral material is gathered, and a definite program for study. Shortridge High School, Indianap- olis, has such a “reference reading room. 7 ’ It is fitted with tables, lockers, and cases for books, devoted exclu- sively to history work; and is in constant charge of an assistant who gives all her time to aiding and directing pupils in their reading. History pupils in all courses are required to spend a definite number of periods a week in this “reference room , 77 looking up assigned topics, con- structing maps, or doing general collateral reading. Teachers appreciate the importance of giving definite reading assignments, especially to beginning classes. “Reading is assigned on one or more special topics, and the assignment is definite as to volume and page . 77 “Im- portant topics in each assignment are made the subjects for collateral reading. The topics, with reference to the same, are assigned by the teacher . 77 One teacher secures good results by giving her pupils a syllabus of the work, based upon collateral references as much as upon the text. Pupils are held responsible for everything in the syllabus in daily recitation. Another teacher has adapted to her classes the New England History Teacher’s Syllabus,* using the topics and references therein for individual guidance in collateral reading. The character of the collateral reading required by teachers was set forth in the replies with some degree of * k A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools By a Special Com- mittee of the New England History Teachers’ Association.’ L). C. Heath & Co., Boston, 1907. This outlines the four years’ course in history according to the blocks or periods recommended by the Committee of Seven, and gives collateral references. HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 11 fulness. Most require, in general, reading of “standard secondary authorities”; and many require, in addition, reading from the sources. Some favor having pupils read in other texts on a par with the pupils’ own; others do not accept such as legitimate reference material. One teacher classifies his collateral materials as follows : “ (a) Texts for comparative statements, (&) more extensive works for broader knowledge, ( c ) occasional source read- ings.” Another reports best results when reading of four kinds was indicated : “ (a) The best account of the topic under consideration to be found in some text besides the one in use ; (&) selected passages from larger histories on special topics assigned by very definite references ; ( c ) selections from the sources ; ( d ) occasional bits of fiction or poetry illustrating our work.” The same teacher recommends 'Ancient Classics for English Read- ers ’ * as convenient source manuals in Greek and Ro- man history. Extended reading of biography is re- quired in Mediaeval and Modern and in American his- tory, and fuller use of source material is reported in these fields than in others. Magazine articles and daily papers are used extensively in Civics classes. Nearly every teacher replying uses some means of testing the reading done by the pupil. Oral and written reports based upon the reading; quizzing or questioning in class ; written tests at unappointed times ; reading- notes and digests ; and formal report by slips, are the methods most favored, in the order named. Where library facilities are limited, it may be suggested, in pass- ing, that the plan of assigning topics to individual pupils for reading and report in class, seems most satisfactory. * Selections from the Iliad, Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, etc., in trans- lation, 28 numbers in the series. Edited by W. Lucas Collins. [3] 12 INDIANA UNIVERSITY Indeed, the oral report is a favored means of elaborating history topics, and has the double advantage of securing both individual effort and class illumination. Material not accessible to the class as a whole may thus be brought in by individual pupils and placed at the command of the class. Care ought to be taken not to place the burden of this work upon the bright or the willing pupil only, or the pupil of ready speech. The slow and the timid pupil, even the pupil who “ doesn’t like history/’ may be won to an appreciation of the value of individual work, and even a taste for history, by having opportunity given him to contribute his share to the results of the class. A most satisfactory method of reporting and testing the collateral reading (though not the one in most com- mon use) was the requiring of careful notes and digests,* — sometimes quoted extracts, again a synopsis, an outline, a paraphrase, a summary of the gist of the selection in a sentence or two. These reading notes were reported as of greatest value when entered in the permanent note- book under the title, author, and page of book, with ap- propriate headings, and carefully edited and indexed for future reference. The plan of reporting by slips is a convenient device for showing at a glance the scope and trend of the pupil’s reading ; but it is thought not so valuable as other means, for it does not test the pupil’s comprehension of what he reads. Some forms of slips, however, seek to avoid this difficulty by requiring an expression from the pupil as to the essence of his reading. 3. The Note-Book. Question: “Do you require the use of a permanent note-book? What do you require to be entered in it? Please give any suggestions you have found helpful.” HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 13 Of the 143 teachers reporting, 118 say they require pupils to keep a permanent note-book in some or all of the history courses ; 15 do not require it, or leave it to the choice of the pupil ; 4 have abandoned its use after hav- ing required it ; 2 make very little if any use of it ; and the remaining 4 fail to reply to this question. Reasons for not requiring the note-book are usually unstated. One teacher suggests that 4 ‘note-books form careless habits in students, unless vigilantly watched by the teacher. ” A Nebraska teacher puts it thus : “We do not require them, simply because the great majority of university graduates with whom I have talked admit that the facts in the note-books are accepted by student and professor as a substitute for a knowledge of history. ” Another teacher finds note-book work is overdone in the high school: “Pupils in the second and third year have all the note-book work they can do. Here, note-books are required in Physics, Botany and Chemistry; and that is burden enough. I don’t see any good in keeping a note- book in History.” Reasons for having abandoned their use after trial are interesting. A high school principal and teacher of history, in South Dakota, writes that re- sults of such work have always proved unsatisfactory. A Chicago teacher of wide experience writes in this connec- tion : “We have done this, but with our limited time and unlimited numbers, we now find it impractical. Pupils hate it, and it becomes a great load both to them and to the teacher. The same result can be obtained by requir- ing from time to time a single sheet of note-book work. The sheets can be put together afterwards. . . . The trouble is, this work requires constant following up. Pu- pils lag because they are overworked, and the result is that the work drops of its own weight. For the ambi- 14 INDIANA UNIVERSITY tious individual pupil who wants to learn history, we would recommend the note-book; but never for the high school teacher who has 200 or 250 pupils in history. It would then be killing work, in any valuable form.” In a word, say the objectors, the results obtained are not com- mensurate with the effort expended. The preponderance of practice, however, is decidedly in favor of some sort of permanent note-keeping in his- tory. Two teachers reporting recommend two separate note-books — the one, a daily class note-book for lesson assignments and points developed in recitation; the other, a permanent exercise book for all written work done outside the recitation. The daily class note-book, at the end of the term, contains a continuous and logical out- line or syllabus of the course. This may be used at any time as a basis for review or subsequent reference. It contains, moreover, the valuable data presented by teacher or pupils, or developed together from day to day. As to exercises entered in permanent notes, teachers report the following: digests or abstracts of reading; outlines of period or topic ; maps and chronological out- lines or charts; notes on other pupils’ reports in class; text analyses; special dictations by teacher; summaries of periods; classified historical data ; pictures and edited clippings ; biographical sketches ; special tabulations ; source extracts ; themes on historic movements or institu- tions ; reference lists; comparative statements; and im- portant deductions. One teacher classifies note-book en- tries as follows: 4 ‘Records of all assigned references; daily record of references read, i.e., author, title, pages, concise statement of subject of pages read; individual re- ports ; special tabulations, outlines, etc., that may be re- quired or suggested ; quotations and synopses of readings HIGH SCHOOL HISTOKY TEACHING 15 that appeal especially to the pupil; maps, illustrations.” A teacher in the Charlestown, Mass., high school, writes : “We follow the text-book work by topical outlines in the note-books, made by the pupils. Occasionally, the teacher gives one of her own, for variety and instruction in mak- ing them. We also make block outlines, graphs, dia- grams, outlines, and maps ; collect clippings, pictures, and diagrams from papers and magazines.” Another, who teaches three classes in history and three in English in a township high school, finds time to “require a note- book of all pupils. In it are placed maps, outlines of movements (e.g. Peloponnesian war, Crusades, Reforma- tion, etc.), tables of important dates, dynastic chronol- ogies, tabulations of data (in Civics), notes on readings (with index), and a list of all reference books accessible.” Of the class in Civics she requires also “a scrap-book of newspaper clippings illustrating clauses of the Constitu- tion, or the working of the various branches of local or national government.” “Outlines” stand second in preference for note-book exercise. These, whether outlines of text-book, of a his- torical period or movement, or of collateral reading, serve a useful purpose both in analysis and synthesis of a sub- ject, or in “clinching” a set of relationships; but it is pointed out that they tend to degenerate into mere for- malism. In the words of one teacher, “Too much me- chanical outlining is bad.” Another says: “We do not tolerate the superficial outlines of the text-book, etc., that pupils make as they read. Such outlines as appear in the permanent note-books are to show results of study” Still another suggests, “Outlines should not be simply topical or skeleton, but should also include definitions, and state- ments of facts, with summaries. ’ ’ Another has the pupils 16 INDIANA UNIVERSITY work out their outlines (using class work and text as a basis) on certain topics, such as, Papacy, Crusades, Feu- dalism. A class period is frequently used for this work, the teacher giving individual supervision and suggestion. “It is of little value,’ ’ says this teacher, “to place before the pupils outlines ready-made, or copied from syllabi.” A valuable note-book exercise, it may be suggested, is the “summary” of a period. This is synthetic in na- ture, and should follow the analytic process of class in- struction. An Eastern teacher requires “summaries of chapters, made sometimes by the teacher, sometimes by the pupil and examined by the teacher. These summaries serve as review topics ; and each term a term-summary is required. Some of these summaries are used as tests of the pupil’s ability to get at the heart of the business, with the book before him.” Still another helpful exercise is the systematic classifi- cation of historical data under appropriate headings, chronologically arranged. Thus, one teacher has pupils “set apart a place in the note-book for the important tariff acts in their chronological order, with the thought that at the close of the year the history of the tariff has been investigated,” to some extent. This plan may be applied to Slavery, States-rights, Territorial Accessions, etc. Copying verbatim source extracts, to confirm or disprove the text, is recommended in two or three replies. Some teachers find that pupils copy notes from other note-books. To prevent this, and to secure promptness in writing all note-book work, one teacher requires all per- manent note-book exercises to be handed in on loose leaves, the next day. These are checked up at a glance, and returned to the pupils for filing in the permanent note-books. HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 17 A number of teachers require systematic arrangement and classification of notes, and the use of accessory helps, such as tables of contents, indexes, marginal topics, etc. For example, one teacher requires “on the left-hand side of the page, a margin of two inches for a topical analysis of notes, done in red ink.” Numerous advantages are gained by the use of these devices. “Having pupils keep a table of contents, enables the teacher to see at a glance the amount of work done,” says one. Says another, It has seemed to me that pupils learn much of sys- tematic arrangement under our direction in this work, and especially of the power of discriminating between the important and the unimportant, between general state- ments and concrete illustrations of those facts, to say nothing of drill in neatness.” The same teacher believes that even more could be gained if time were allowed the teachers for conference with individual pupils on the subject. Many teachers seek originality and spontaneity in note-book work, beyond requiring that the note-book be “a coherent whole” and contain certain things. One teacher has her higher classes “enter reports on outside readings in various forms , i.e v outlines, synopses, notes, criticisms, written topics, notes and references for oral topics, diagrams, etc.” “ We aim, ” she adds, “to give the child opportunity for independent and original work, especially in the last two years.” Another secures indi- viduality of effort by having pupils paste in clippings which are related to any subject discussed in class, with comments of their own accompanying each. 4. Written Reports. Question: “Do you require written reports ? How often and of what character ? ’ ’ Of the 143 teachers reporting, all but 21 state that they 18 INDIANA UNIVERSITY require some kind of written reports. Of the 21 teachers not requiring such work, 11 have not required them in any form, 6 require none beyond note-book exercises, 2 have previously required but have discontinued their use, and 2 fail to state their method. Distinction is not always made in the replies between the written reports and work written up in note-books. The former is the work of an individual, upon a subject suited to his interests and re- lated to the work of the term, and represents the special contribution of that pupil to the work of the class; the latter is a class exercise, upon a common topic, requiring less extended treatment. The special report may, of course, be appended to the permanent note-book. Reasons assigned for not requiring, or for discontinu- ing, written reports include lack of time, necessity for meeting college entrance requirements in other subjects, substitution of written examinations, or use of written class exercises in their place. An experienced teacher in Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, “used to re- quire written reports ; but I have not recently, as I found that good reports were frequently made on subjects the ‘ reporter ’ knew nothing about. He had simply abridged what he had read without making the matter his own.” A Wisconsin teacher meets this difficulty by the following plan: “The pupils select their subject from a list (fur- nished by the teacher), make an outline, and submit it to the teacher after they have done their reading ; when the report is written, it is submitted with the outline for correction. Then, with the outline on the board, the pupil stands before the class, without notes, and talks to the class. A list of authors consulted heads the report in the note-book, and marginal references to authorities are given to aid the teacher in checking up individual work.” HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 19 The common practice among- teachers replying is to re- quire of each pupil at least one extended report a semes- ter, written up from all available authorities, with foot- notes, marginal references, and appended bibliography. The authorities are mainly secondary, though some use is made of sources. Many require of each pupil, in addition, two or three less extended reports during a term. The obvious difficulty consists in properly directing such work. Pupils find it easy to copy whole pages from en- cyclopedia articles and insert them bodily, without even the courtesy of quotation marks. Specific instructions as to gathering data, citing authorities in margin or foot- note, giving exact quotations in certain cases, and the substance in the pupil’s own language in others, go a long way toward a solution of the difficulty. The selection and assignment of a subject suited to the pupil’s ability and interests is a vital problem. Simple concrete subjects (mostly biographical, with emphasis upon the work and character of the man) for beginning pupils; more comprehensive themes (institutions and his- torical movements, with a study of their influence) later. — usually, but not always, allowing pupils choice of a sub- ject from a designated list, — are the plans generally rec- ommended. Sometimes the subject may be accompanied by a question or stated problem, which requires a per- sonal estimate or expression on the part of the pupil. The following are examples submitted by one teacher : “(a) Comparison of the Walker tariff with the present tariff, with data on as many different articles as possible. (&) What was meant by ‘Oregon’ in 1845, 1847, I860? ( c ) If one had been opposed to slavery extension in 1844, how would he have voted?” It is sometimes well to as- sign topics which may be illustrated by models, drawings, [ 4 ] 20 INDIANA UNIVEKSITY diagrams, plans, etc. For example, in the Bloomington (Indiana) high school, a pupil prepared a report on Ro- man siege engines, and brought into class on report day models of the ballista, catapult, battering-ram, and siege- tower used by the Romans. These he operated in the course of his talk, hurling stones and arrows the full length of the school-room, and showing the method of making a breach in a city wall. Most of his data was obtained from Caesar’s ' Gallic War,’ and from draw- ings in Payne-Gallwey ’s 'Projectile-throwing Engines of the Ancients. ’ Just how to make the reports most helpful to the class, receives some attention. Many require pupils to take notes while the report is being given in class, these to be entered in the "special report” section of the permanent note-book. In one instance, some pupil is called upon to give an abstract of the report on the following day. Nearly every teacher replying favors having more fre- quent, but less extended, oral reports, given by individual pupils before the class. Topics closely related to the les- son are assigned the preceding day ; these are worked up from accepted authorities, and given before the class, with or without notes, subject always to questions by teacher and pupils. This is a valuable exercise in oral ex- pression, trains in research and organization of material, and supplements and enriches the daily class work. 5. Use of Sources. Question: "Do you use source material? To what extent, and and in what manner?” Only 13 out of the 143 teachers reporting make any considerable use of the sources; 91 use sources "sparing- ly,” or "to a limited extent,” or "occasionally;” II say they use them as much as time and available material per- mit ; 18 do not use them at all ; and the remainder fail to HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 21 make reply. Extended use is mostly in the field of Amer- ican history. In other fields, use of sources is confined to collateral reference or illustrative work. The replies indicate that many teachers are struggling with the problem in an indefinite sort of way. They have an appreciation of the importance of the sources, but are entirely at sea as to the method of using them to advant- age. Lack of material, immaturity of high school pupils, want of time, are reasons urged for not employing the sources. Intensive study in class (dropping the text for a time), reading sources as basis for written reports, an- alyses of documents in notes, are usual methods in the more serious use of this material. But by far the greater number of teachers attempt nothing more pretentious with the sources than an occasional reference, a brief reading in class by the teacher for illustrative purposes, collateral reading by pupils (with transcripts, or analyses or “ briefs, ’ ’ in the notes), or a concise oral report upon important documents. A systematic and intensive study of sources is rare. A Wisconsin teacher replies : “In the earlier courses, source material is used as any other refer- ence work, but in American history the sources are com- pared and criticised and frequently used for checking up secondary material. ” One teacher says: “I read a se- lection to the class, ask them to take notes, and take part of the next day to re-read the source, and use it as a basis for recitation. I have tried to assign several sources to classes and ask them to compare opinions of different sources, or to 1 write a history’ with the sources as ma- terial.” Another uses them “just enough to have pupils see and know the real thing.” Another says they are “used to get the spirit of the times, and enlarge the vision of the pupil. ” 22 INDIANA UNIVERSITY As to the character of the sources used, reference is most frequently made to the source-books, of the type of Ogg’s, Fling ’s, Robinson ’s, and Munro’s. One teacher who does serious work in this line reports: “In Greek history, we use some source extracts from Herodotus, Thucydides, and Xenophon. Sometimes we read parts of the Greek plays, and extracts from Plato’s account of the trial and death -of Socrates. In English history, we use some of Caesar’s writings, as these students can read Latin. AYe study Magna Charta and the Bill of Rights.” Another writes: “Considerable source material is used in United States history. ‘ American History Leaflets,’ American orations, McDonald’s 4 Select Charters,’ ‘Messages and Papers of the Presidents,’ and others are used continually. This work is assigned for special report and note-book. Students like this sort of work. It results in a better appreciation of the subject.” A fortunate teacher in the Charlestown (Mass.) high school reports that her “Ancient history pupils have a rare opportunity for studying, at the Boston Art Museum, from the original relics from Egypt, Greece, and Italy. The Docent of the Museum has been most successful in interesting them in the mummies, idols, marbles, coins, jewels, etc., of the ancients.” Still another does a great deal with pictures, especially in Greek art and on the Renaissance. 6. Correlation with Other Subjects. Question: “Do you attempt to correlate the history teaching with the work in literature and language (classical and modern) ? By what methods ? ’ ’ Only 19 out of the 143 teachers make systematic at- tempt at correlation, i.e., by definite cooperation with teachers in other departments ; but 89 says they attempt HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 23 it incidentally, by using the material of other subjects, chiefly literature. Of these latter, 2 each are also teachers of Latin and. English respectively, and closely correlate these subjects with the work in history. Twenty-five teachers report no attempt whatever at correlation ; one is just beginning; the remainder fail to reply. Of the systematic and cooperative attempts, the more common are : ( a ) by correlation of courses e.g. English history preceding the history of English literature, Ro- man history preceding or paralleling Caesar’s ‘Gallic War’; (&) historical subjects for English compositions (both teachers marking papers) ; (c) historical fiction read or studied in English classes. Instances are numer- ous: “Study of the ‘Iliad’ follows early Greek his- tory; ‘Julius Caesar’ (Shakespeare) follows Roman his- tory; Chaucer’s ‘Prologue’ follows early English his- tory; and ‘Paradise Lost’ the Civil War. Burke’s ‘Con- ciliation’ follows the study of the American Revolution.” “This year written papers in history are being accepted and marked in the English department. At the end of the year, students writing for the prize in English use as their subjects a historical one.” “We are now working on the problem,” writes a teacher in the Grand Rapids (Mich.) high school. “History and English teachers con- fer in regard to subjects for essays and reports, so that the same papers may be used in the two classes. Also, as regards reading, when historical fiction can be so ar- ranged as to count in both courses, it is done. We find this very helpful in many ways.” An Illinois principal writes: “Yes. In the first place, by means of a curri- culum ; secondly, by having the instructor in history keep in close touch with the work in literature and language in those departments.” The head of the history depart- 24 INDIANA UNIVERSITY ment in the Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, finds difficulty in securing correlation in the Ancient and Mediaeval and Modern history, but says “a good deal of history is acquired in the English work, and literature re- ceives attention in the English history course.” Ameri- can history and literature also admit of coordination, he thinks. A New England teacher reports that in her school, “ pupils who are studying Mediaeval and Modern history have given talks on Venice to the English classes who were studying ‘Merchant of Venice. 7 7 7 Talks from English history will be given soon, she adds. In the Shortridge High School, Indianapolis, there is a notable example of correlating English composition and local history (including that of the State and the North- west Territory), a teacher of English having shown clever work in directing pupils in developing an Indiana pag- eant. Teacher and pupils have worked out and presented in dramatic form three episodes in the early history of Indiana, — the passing of the Ordinance of 1787, the admis- sion of the State to the Union in 1816, and the founding of the Robert Owen settlement at New Harmony. Other episodes are to follow. The majority of teachers who reply to the second query correlate the history with other subjects without conscious cooperation with other departments. In a few cases, mostly in the smaller high schools, teachers of his- tory also teach English or Latin classes. Close correlation of these subjects is feasible in such cases. Thus: “The Roman history teacher also has the Caesar class and she teaches Caesar as history. It gives them a bit of the intensive study so desirable. Such things as these we look for (in Caesar) : Powers of a Roman governor ; policy of Rome toward subject peoples ; question of im- HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 25 perialism.” Another instance: " Teaching both history and English, I can do this (correlation) very well. I have arranged my English literature to correlate with my (English) history. I always try to bring out the histori- cal setting of a literary selection.’ ’ Often teachers at- tempt no more than the reading of great poems, in their historical setting, for illustration and point of view. Thus, possible associations are: Selections like 4 Evange- line’ in studying the French wars in America, Gray’s 'Elegy’ in dealing with the capture of Quebec, Brown- ing’s 'Pheidippides’ in connection with the battle of Mar- athon, Macaulay’s 'Lays of Ancient Rome’ in considering early Roman legends. Again, the teacher may select for reading in class a piece of vivid narrative like the pen- tathlon in 'The Victor of Salamis,’ the tournament scene in 'Ivanhoe,’ or the chapter on the Freeport heresy in Churchill’s 'The Crisis.’ One teacher tries "a little in the way of comparing Shakespeare’s plays with historical accounts” of the rulers and events. Another has her Ro- man history students work up special reports (colonies, etc.) for the express purpose of strengthening their Latin work. Burke’s 'Conciliation,’ Webster’s 'Reply to Hayne, ’ Lincoln’s 'Gettysburg Address,’ the 'Lincoln and Douglas Debates,’ are instances of historical documents of great value for intensive study by English classes, prefer- ably after the historical period has been covered in the history classes. In general, the replies indicate a growing sense of the need of closer and more conscious correlation among these subjects of study. That such coordination of branches would result in a wise economy of time and effort, a greater efficiency of result, and a more highly unified training of youth, is unquestionable. Some, however, 26 INDIANA UNIVERSITY prefer spontaneous correlation, such as arises on occasion, with an instantaneous flash of illumination, without pre- meditation or planning. Thus, one teacher writes: “ Classes in English history that have studied ‘Ivanhoe 7 (in the English classes) find, or remember, illustrations of many topics in the Saxon or Norman periods. 4 The Deserted Village 7 helps explain the rotten boroughs. Squire Cass in ‘Silas Marner 7 shows the attitude of the gentry toward cheap grain. Usually, I prefer to have them recall these as illustrations of the point under dis- cussion without previous notification . 77 7. Chronological Outlines and Charts. Question: “What special devices, if any, do you use to aid in locat- ing and correlating events in time? Do you require the preparation of chronological outlines or charts ? If so, of what character ? 77 A great variety of means of fixing events in their time relations appear in the replies. Chronological outlines, selection of central or “focal 77 dates, synchronistic charts, mastering lines of rulers, mere attention to sequence, use of “time-units , 77 are methods in common use. Most teachers use different devices, or a characteris- tic device, for each field. “I have found that pupils of high school age are at the right stage for the development of the time sense , 77 writes an Eastern teacher. “I do this by periods in Ancient history, by centuries in Mediaeval history, and by epoch-making events in United States his- tory. Then I have little difficulty in getting the few necessary specific dates . 77 Selection and mastery of a few central or “landmark 77 dates in each field, subordinating and coordinating all others to these, is the favored plan in dealing with dates. “In Ancient history we have a few dates that have become impressed upon the pupils 7 minds, HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 27 certain battles, etc., and they count time backward and forward from .these dates. ” Of course, dates which are to be learned should mark a crisis or turning point in a development or movement. One teacher suggests the fol- lowing list for early Roman history: “753, 509, 494, 451, 396, 390, 367. ” Grouping, or “date clusters/ ’ in dealing with a special historical movement, like the struggle for plebeian rights, is recommended as a method for attack- ing minor dates. Noting time intervals, e.g. 1588-1688 ; 1215-1265 (50 years) ; 1265-1295 (30 years) ; (1689-1697) — (1789-1797), is another. Some teachers find it helpful to have pupils learn the order of sovereigns, or of presidential succession, with dates. “In English history/’ writes one, “we do learn the kings and their dates, and tell the student why ; and we do learn the presidents, — the name of the man, and his party, does explain much else, often.” Another device is the correlation of events by associ- ating the new with the already known, e.g. with events in American history, in the study of Modern European or English history, or vice versa. “In Modern European history the class correlates events in time with United States history, in which they are more interested and which they know quite a little about,” writes one. An- other teacher, in assigning a lesson in American history, tells her class: “Tomorrow we will first consider what has taken place in Europe since we began the period we are studying.” Correlation by associating events with their causes and results, with attention to sequence in time, is pre- ferred by some teachers. “We require our pupils to make a general outline of the periods studied, but little atten- tion is paid to mere dates. We try to bring out the rela- 28 INDIANA UNIVERSITY tions of causes of events, rather than mere facts (of dates).” Another emphasizes the causes leading up to the event, making a careful study of the conditions gov- erning such causes, also bringing out how one event leads to another. “We try to link lesson into lesson in a se- quence unbroken from September until June. After studying Greece, we try to keep our Roman history cor- related with the Greek, by frequent references to corre- spondence in time and by tracing similarity of develop- ment in institutions and in reforms. We work with con- trasts also, and in every way try to make one history sup- port the other. We ask for few dates, but for constantly correct sequence in time.” A few teachers prefer to employ merely such associa- tions as arise, sometimes by mere chance. “I use no spe- cial devices to aid the memory in recalling dates,” says one. “Sometimes I can use the principle of association to advantage. For example, in 1676 the followers of Bacon protested against the tyrannical government of Berkeley, and one hundred years later the descendants of these men had part in the Declaration of Independence.” Another notes that the Pacification of Ghent was in 1576, just two centuries before our Declaration of Independ- ence. The making of chronological outlines, following the study of a movement or period, is frequently employed. Sometimes the outline is kept on the blackboard, and de- veloped by the class as the points are reached. A valu- able device in European history is the synchronistic out- line, or “block chart.” Parallel vertical columns are ruled, and each headed with the name of a leading nation. Horizontal lines mark centuries or half-centuries. Events are then entered under the respective countries in the HIGH SCHOOL HISTORY TEACHING 29 proper time block. Thus, one teacher writes: “The pu- pils prepare charts with columns for nations across the page and divisions of time down the page. I use similar charts to show internal and external development of a country, e.g. Rome/’ A teacher formerly of Grand Rapids, Mich., but now superintendent at Boscobel, Wis., contributes the table on the following page, as an example of the use of the parallel column for “correlating American and English history.” Another teacher, from Michigan, suggests a device for combining in the same drawing a chronological chart and a series of “graphs” of institutions. “I have used with some success,” he writes, “a chart showing the relative importance of institutions.” The sketch which he sub- mits shows a horizontal base line, crossed at equal inter- vals by vertical lines. Distances between the vertical lines indicate decades or centuries. In the space below the base line, events with their dates are inserted, in the proper decades or centuries; while above the base line, curves may be plotted to show the growth of certain insti- tutions, as affected by the events recorded below the line. 8. Preparation of Maps. Question: “How do you manage the preparation of maps? Do you use prepared outlines, or do the pupils draw (or trace) the outlines? What kind of data is entered (other than that furnished by the printed maps) ?” Of the 143 teachers reporting, 71 use printed outlines, 29 have pupils make their own outlines, 35 use both kinds, 4 use hektograph or blackboard outlines of their own mak- ing, only 2 use none at all. Maps are used (a) to secure accuracy and definiteness of knowledge, (6) as a basis for review or for the pre- USE OF THE PARALLEL COLUMN American History American colonization by the Eng- lish now possible. Puritans go to Holland. Hampton Court Conference .... Puritans turn to America. Virginia Charter. Popham Colony and Jamestown. 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For circulars or other information concerning any of these, address The Registrar, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana.