THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY G^o.'T YA&Gb ■no. ft o * f Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/wheat1940harp University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 19. MARCH, 1892. DEHORNING EXPERIMENT. CREAM RAISING BY COLD DEEP SETTING. EXPERIMENTS IN CHEESE MAKING — INCORPORATING CREAM INTO CHEESE, ETC. THE BABCOCK TEST AND CHURN. The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK , RAMSEY CO. MINNESOTA . University of Minnesota. BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 . The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, Alexandria, 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Ngrthfield, .... 1896. The HON. 0. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, .... 1&95. The HON. WILLIAM R. MERRIAM, St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIgHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio . The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, .... Ex-Officio . ' ' The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS* OF THE STATION : CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., Director. Agriculturist. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Chemist. T. L. H^BCKER, Dairying. J. A. VYE, .... Secretary. DEHORNING EXPERIMENT. V\ VP V- o CLINTON D. SMITH AND T. L. HACKER, Last summer it was decided by the Regents to place up- on the station farm, a herd of good dairy cows, selected from natives, thorough -breds and their grades. In carrying out this purpose, some twenty-five cows were purchased during the month of October and shipped to the station. When they were let into the yard, it was noticed that the larger cows drove the smaller from feed and water, and often pre- vented their drinking unless protected by the attendant. It was apparent, that unless some means could be devised to prevent this, serious losses would occur, from irregular feed- ing and drinking and by premature births. It was decided that the quickest and most effectual rem- edy was dehorning. This is, by many, considered a ques- tionable practice, because of the pain inflicted during the op- eration. In order that the immediate effects might be studi- ed, a comparison was made of the daily yield of milk and per cent of fat, before and after dehorning. These results were compared with the record of a number of cows, not de- horned but which saw the operation and smelled the blood. The cows, Franc, Roxy, Sully, Gran, Clara and Crossy were over five years old and Patsey, Rossie and Bettie, over four years; these were dehorned on the ninth of November, 1891. They were fastened in a stanchion, the head drawn forward by means of a halter and small tackle blocks, until the neck was extended to its full length, so that the horns were sufficiently far from the stanchion to permit the free use of the narrow bladed butcher’s saw, which we used. The time occupied was about five seconds per horn; as soon as the horns were removed, pieces of cotton cloth smeared with pine tar were placed upon the wounds. Care was taken to saw the horns inside of the outer edge of the skin, removing with the horn a narrow strip of hair. 4 During the operation the cows gave every indication of intense suffering; but, upon being released no sign of pain was visible. The wounds healed rapidly without any other application than the tar. Table I. is taken from the regular herd record, showing the pounds of milk given by each cow for the three milkings before they were dehorned, the per cent fat and total fat. TABLE I. First Milking. 1 Second Milking. Third Milking. Lbs. Per cent Total Lbs. Per cent Total Lbs. 1 Per centl | Total milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. Betty... 11.5 4.3 .494 11. 3.8 .418 11.5 4.1 .471 Clara... 9.5 4.6 .437 9. 3.7 .333 7.1 4. .284 Crossy. 6.5 4.7 .305 6.5 4.9 .318 6.5 4.4 .286 Franc . . 13.5 3.9 .526 13.5 4. .540 15. 3.6 .540 Gran.... 10. 3.8 .380 9.25 3.4 .314 9.5 4.3 .408 Patsey 10.5 3.5 .387 11. 3.6 .396 11.25 4. .450 Rossie.. 10.9 4.2 .457 10. 3.3 .330 10.9 3.7 .403 Roxy... 13.9 4.1 .569 12.75 3.5 .446 13.5 3.9 .526 Sully.... 21. 4.5 .945 20. 4.3 .860 20.75 4. .830 107.3 4.5 103. 3.955 106. 4.298 Total milk yield for three milkings, 316.3. Total pounds of fat for three milkings, 12.753. Table II shows the pounds of milk given by each cow during the three milkings immediately following dehorning, with per cent of fat and total fat. TABLE II. First Milking. Second Milking. Third Milking. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. i milk. ' fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. Betty... 10.6 2.9 .307 11.5 4.3 .495 9.25 4.6 .426 Clara... 12.25 7. .857 9. 5.5 .495 9.25 4.7 .435 Crossy. 5.5 5.5 .302 6. 6.1 .366 6.5 5.9 .383 Franc .. 12.75 3.4 .433 13. 3.9 .507 13.5 4.3 .580 Gran.... 9.5 2.7 .256 7.5 3.8 .285 8.5 4.7 .400 Patsey. 10. 4. .400 10.5 3.1 .325 10.5 3.8 .399 Rossie.. 9. 3.2 .288 9.75 3.8 .370 9.25 3.7 .342 Roxy... 11. 4.6 .506 11. 4.8 .528 11.75 4.3 .505 Sully.... 19. 3.1 .589 19.75 4. .790 20. 3.6 .720 97.6 3.938 98. 4.161 98.5 4.190 Total pounds of milk for the three milkings, 294.1. Total pounds of fat for the three milkings, 12.289. 5 Table III shows the pounds of milk given by the six cows not dehorned, covering the same period as Table I, with per cent fat and total fat. TABLE III. First Milking. Second Milking. Third Milking. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. Gertie.... 7.7 5. | .385 1 | 7.75 4.7 .364 8. 4.8 .384 Houston 15.5 ! 5.1 I | .790 I 12.75 4.8 .612 13.25 4.9 .649 Maria.... 13. | 4.7 1 .611 1 13.5 . 4.7 .634 12.5 4.6 .575 Pottie.... 12.75] 1 5. | | .637 | 12.25 4. .490 12.1 4.5 .545 Pride 6.4 1 6.9 | .441 | 1 5.5 | 5.6 | .308 | | 5.75 | 5 3 .305 Tricksey 13.25 51 ! .676 | | 12.25 | 4.9 | .600 1 | 12.25 5.5 .674 68.6 | 3.540 | | 64. 3.008 63.85 l 3.132 i 1 1 1 Total pounds of milk for the three milkings, 196.45. Total pounds of fat for the three milkings, 9.68. Tabic IV shows the pounds of milk given by the six cows not dehorned, covering the same period as Table II, the per cent fat and total fat. TABLE IV. First Milking. Second Milking. Third Milking. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. Lbs. Per cent Lbs. milk. fat fat. milk. fat. fat. milk. fat. fat. Gertie.... 7. 3.9 .273 8.25 1 6. .495 7.5 4.9 .367 Houston 11.5 3.5 .402 15.5 5.2 .806 13. 5.3 .689 Maria.... 12. 4.3 .516 13.5 4.8 .648 13. 4.6 .598 Pottie.... 11.5 3.8 .437 $12.75 4.3 .548 12.5 4.2 .525 Pride 6. 4.8 .288 5.75 5.4 .301 5.5 5.8 .319 Tricksey 11.5 3.7 .425 12. 4.3 .516 11.5 4.8 .552 59.5 2.341 67.75 3.314 63. 3.050 Total pounds of milk for the three milkings, 190.25. Total pounds of fat for the three milkings, 8.605. 6 In Table V. the first period has reference to the time cov- ered by the three milkings immediately prior to dehorning and the second period, to the three milkings after dehorning. TABLE V. SUMMARY. Nine cows dehorned. Six cows not dehorned. Milk yield first period 316.3 196.45 Milk yield second period 294.1 190.25 Shrinkage of milk during second period 22.2 6.2 Per cent of shrinkage in milk 7. 3. Yield of fat in lbs. first period 12.753 9.68 Yield of fat in lbs. second period 12.289 8.60 Shrinkage in lbs., fat .464 1.08 Per cent of shrinkage in fat 3. 11. By comparing the yield of milk of the cows dehorned with that of the cows not dehorned, it will be observed that the former gave 22.2 lbs less, during the three milkings after being dehorned, the latter losing 6.2 lbs. The dehorned cows shrinking seven per cent, while the others lost three per cent. Comparing the total fat products of these two groups of cows for the same periods, we find a much greater discrep- ancy, the dehorned cows showing a shrinkage of only three per cent, while the six cows not dehorned lost eleven per cent. It would appear from these observations that while the operation of dehorning may cause a slight, temporary variation in the flow of milk and fat content, the normal flow and per cent of fat is quickly recovered, and, that cows only seeing the operation and smelling the blood show a greater shrinkage in fat than do the ones dehorned. A DOUBLE MONSTROSITY OF A CALF TRACEABLE TO INJURY OF ITS MOTHER. PROF. OLAF SCHWARZKOPF. Early in October, 1890, David Porter, in charge of the cat- tle-barn of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, called me to see a Holstein-Friesian cow which was hit by the horns of another cow, a noted fighter, while passing into the stables. I found the cow very nervous and excited ; on the right flank behind the last rib and about one foot below the loins was a small bruise, about as large as a fifty cent piece. As the cow was with calf I auscultated the uterus, but could find nothing abnormal. I instructed the man to keep the cow in a quiet place and to watch her as she might pos- sibly abort, however, she soon seemed all right and nothing further was thought of the case. On January 28, 1891, the cow dropped a calf; as it did not have any passages within two days the cattle-man gave it a dose of castor oil, which had no effect. He then reported it to me and also, stated that the calf seemed to be crippled. In looking at the calf I observed at once that it had a curved spine and further examination revealed that there was no rectal opening. I had the calf sent over to the veterinary hospital and on February 2, 1891, examined it. An incision was made where the natural opening should be, but after perforating the skin, no rectum was found but a direct entrance into the abdomen. The intestines that lodged in the pelvic cavity apparently were the colon or coecum. I tried hard to find the rectum but did not succeed. On February 3, the calf which was greatly emaciated, died. The post mortem examination showed the following : On opening the abdomen an irregular situs of the intes- tines was first to be noticed ; in removing the intestines I found the rectum near the liver, ending in a blind sack, curv- ed and possessing a kind of nodule, resembling somewhat a 8 FIG. I. A, Blind end of rectum ; a, cicatrix; B, C, D, colon; F, ileum ; G, jejunum. cicatrix. After the removal of the intestines the the curve of the spine to the left was very apparent and the left kidney was very small and situated on top of the right kidney. The other organs were normal. The calf, certainly, could not liave lived. The practical conclusion that must be drawn from this case is that the abnormalities which the calf presented, were pro- duced by external injuries. Critics may object and say that 9 10 the skin and the membranes of the nterus are so thick that a cow’s horn cannot touch the foetus. This may be true as a rule, but by anyone that had examined this case, together with its history, no other conclusion could possibly be reached than to ascribe the cause of the abnormalities of the calf to the blow which its mother received four months previous to the birth. I am not at all blindly devoted to dehorning cattle, on the contrary, being a lover of pure types and natural forms, I have always maintained that it is a violence of the laws of ethics and aesthetics to disfigure a beautiful Jersey cow by dehorning. But the principles of ethics are often out of place in the cow stable and barn-vard and I confess that I am now convinced, that it is a righteous and humane act to take horns off— at least of those cows that cannot keep peace with their fellow creatures. CREAM RAISING BY COLD DEEP SETTING. THE RAPIDITY OF THE PROCESS AND ITS RELATION TO THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SURROUNDING WATER. HARRY SNYDER. When milk is creamed by the cold deep setting system with the temperature of the tank water reduced to 39°-44° Ft. the efficiency of the creaming process is well known, but the changes that take place especially during the first part of the creaming process are not so well known. When the milk is set in the tank these questions are naturally suggested : How long before any change takes place ; in which section of the can (top, middle or bottom) does the first change, in either temperature or fat content, occur; throughout the entire process what relationship exists be- tween the rate of creaming of the different sections and the temperatures ; and at the time of skimming how do the dif- ferent sections compare as to the[peicentages of fat remain- ing in them ? In studying these questions the Jfirst difficulty that pre- sents itself is the method of taking the sample from the can while the creaming process is going on without introducing a serious factor of error in disturbing the natural process. Various methods of sampling were studied. Small glass siphons were at first made use of, but this method of samp- ling removed too much milk from 'the can, since a quantity of milk at least equal to the capacity of the siphons must first be removed before taking a sample. The method that gave the best results, and the one used in this experiment, is as follows: Two holes were bored in a block of wood and perforated corks fitted into these holes; through these per- forations of the corks, glass tubes were passed, reaching to 12 the bottom and middle sections of the can. The block of wood rested on the top of the can and at the top end of each glass tube a piece of rubber, three inches in length was at- tached, furnished with a pinch cock which prevented the milk in the tubes from flowing back and causing unnecessary cur- rents; the samples were taken by attaching a large pipette to the rubber at the end of the glass tubes opening the pinch cock and applying suction. A small measured portion equiv- alent to the capacity of the tubes was first removed before sampling. During the first trials another can of the same milk was set under precisely the same conditions and sampled only at the beginning and at the close of the trial periods, the object being to determine the effect of the slight currents caused by taking the samples in the way described. The figures given in the following tables are the averages of duplicate analyses. The temperature of the water in the various trials is somewhat higher than that required for the very best results, but inasmuch as many of the springs of the state which are used for this purpose are about the temperatures indicated , and some much higher, these temper- atures were adopted so as to conform to about the normal conditions of many of the creameries of the state. The sec- tion designated as top was taken three inches from the sur- face, usually just below the cream line, but occasionally not, as the high per centages of fat in the results indicate. In the following tables I, II, III and IV the changes that take place from period to period, under the conditions named may be studied : 13 TABLE I. Milk divided into two equal portions set at 90° in water at 40°; 5% Fat in the original milk. CAN I. CAN II. Section Time Per Temp. Section Time Per Temp. of from cent. of of from cent. of can. setting. fats. sections. can. setting. fats. sections. Top 15 minutes 1 5.00 78 deg. Middle do 5.00 72 “ Bottom do 4.80 57 “v Top 30 minutes 4.60 60 “ Middle do 4.45 57 “ Bottom do 3.40 50 “ Top 1 hour 4.00 54 “ Middle do 3.85 52 “ Bottom do 1.30 46 “ Top 2 hours 3.30 52 “ Middle do 2.10 46 “ Bottom do 0.75 42 “ Top 4 hours 1.45 46 “ Middle do 1.35 45 “ 1 Bottom do 0.75 42 “ ; Top 5Y2 hours 1.40 45 “ ! Middle do 1.00 44 “ j Bottom do 0.35 42 “ Top 36 hours 0.40 44 “ | Middle do 0.30 44 “ Bottom do 0.20 44 “ ! Average of all sections, .30 fat. Fat in the skim milk, .35%. 1 Top 15 minutes 5.00 72 deg. Middle do 5.00 69 “ 1 Bottom... do 4.95 56 “ ! Top 30 minutes 4.95 60 “ Middle do 4.90 57 “ Bottom ... do 3.60 49 “ Top 1 hour 3.40 54 “ Middle do 3.20 52 “ Bottom ... do 1.95 46 “ Top 2 hours 3.60 50 “ Middle..... do 3.00 47 “ Bottom ... do 1.05 42 “ Top 4 hours 1.55 45 “ Middle do 1.35 45 “ Bottom ... do 0.65 41 “ Top 5V 2 hours 1.20 45 “ Middle do 1.10 45 “ Bottom ... do 0.55 43 Top 36 hours 0.50 44 “ Middle do 0.45 44 “ Bottom ... do 0.20 44 “ Average for 36 hours, 38% fat. Fat in skim milk, 35%. In Can B the middle layer was taken 1 y% inches higher than in can A. TABLE II. Can III. Set at 84° in waterat 47°. 4.30 per cent, fat in original set- ting. Temperature at close, 47°. Can IV. Set at 92° in water at 47°. 4.2 per cent, fat in original set- ting. Temperature at close, 46°. section OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. PER CENT. FATS. NOTES. SECTION OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. PER CENT. FATS. NOTES Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom . 1 hour 4.1 “ 4. “ 2.05 2 hours 2.45 “ 1.65 “ .9 3 hours 2.05 “ 1.45 “ .65 4 hours — “ 1.2 ** .60 5 hours 1.45 “ 1.00 “ .3 8 hours — “ .55 “ .35 11 hours .50 “ .30 * i .20 The average of all sections at the 11-hour period was .33% fat. The per cent of fat in the skim milk was .30% at the close ot 24 hours. Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom 20 minutes do 40 minutes do 1 hour do 1 y& hours do 1% hours do 2 hours do 3 y 2 hours do 5 hours do 6 hours do 7 hours do 8 hours do 10 hours do do 4.6 3.7 3.60 1.50 3.40 .70 3.50 .60 2.05 .50 1.00 .50 .90 .30 .5 .3 .45 .3 .40 .25 .40 .18 .40 .30 .15 Average of sections at close, ,28% fat. 14 The points to be noted in these tables are as follows : 1. The first and most marked action affecting the com- position and temperature takes place in the bottom layer, and within fifteen minutes this layer will show a less per cent of fat ; the temperature of the middle section is affected more slowly and suffers a less loss of fat. 2. The top section, when the action is very rapid, may at the first hour period, contain more fat than in the original milk, but as the period increases it, too, grows poorer. 3. In each of the corresponding periods, the top layer is always richer in fat than the middle layer, the middle layer is richer than the bottom, and the bottom layer is al- ways the poorest. During the first five or six hours the same relationship exists as to temperatures. The middle section has an intermediate temperature between the bottom and top sections, which are respectively the lowest and highest. 4. At the time of skimming the same relationship of the different sections as to fat exists. This emphasizes the TABLE III. Can V. Set at 82° in water at 48°. 4.05 per cent, fat in original milk. Can VI. Set at 90° in water at 43°. SECTION. OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. PER CENT. FATS. NOTES. SECTION OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. PER CENT. FATS. TEMP OF SECT’NS IN CAN. Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom 15 minutes do do 45 minutes do do 2 Vi hours do do 41/2 hours do do 6 Vi hours do do 8 Vi hours do d.o 10Vi hours do do 24 hours do do 3.9 3.9 3.65 3.15 3.00 1.20 2.05 1.05 1.00 .65 .55 .50 .65 .45 .40 .50 .40 .20 .40 .30 .20 .40 .30 .15 Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom at starting do do 1 hour do do 2 hours do do 3 hours do do 5 hours do do 7 hours do do 10 hours do do 13 hours do j do 3.70 3.65 3.65 5.40 3.30 1.00 4.00 1.25 .50 1.80 .75 .45 .75 ,45 .30 .45 .45 .30 .45 .40- .25 .45 .40 .25 90 deg. 90 “ 90 “ 58 “ 54 “ 52 “ 55 “ 52 “ 48 “ 52 “ 51 “ 46 “ 47 “ 46 “ 45 “ 46 “ 46 “ 45 “ 44 “ 44 “ 44 “ Average of all sections at the close of 10V4. hour period, .30; 24-hour period, .28. Average of all sections at the end of 10-hour period, .37 fat; at the end of 13-hour period, .37 fat. 15 fact that samples of skim milk for analysis mnst be well mixed in order to obtain a sample that will represent the average composition, and at no time can a portion be with- drawn from any section and the fat in the whole skim milk calculated from the sample so taken. TABLE IV. CANA. Set at 93° in water at 47°. 5.00 per cent fat in original set- ting. Temperature at close, 46°. Can B. Set at 90° in Water at 47°. 4.15 per cent, fat in original set- ting. Temperature at close, 46°^ SECTION OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. PER CENT, i FATS. NOTES Top 20 minutes 5.00 Middle do 5.00 Bottom do 3.60 d Top 40 minutes 2.55 CO Middle do 2.25 ■ Bottom do 1.10 ^ • Top 2 */2 hours 1.90 'C : Ju Middle do 1.60 ad Bottom do 1.10 g 0 Top 314 hours 1.60 cj‘C Middle*. do 1.50 «3 W a Bottom do .70 P u Top 414 hours 1.50 2 S3 Middle do 1.30 •5 Bottom do .60 -Jm Top 6 hours 1.10 Middle do 1.00 C h Bottom do .45 to v Top 714 hours 1.10 -M JC og 13 Middle do .60 u Bottom do .30' Uo Top 9 14 hours .90 3 Average .33. do — bot. .20J SECTION OF CAN. TIME FROM SETTING. Top 15 minutes' Middle do Bottom ... do Top 30 minutes Middle do Bottom ... do Top 45 minutes Middle do Bottom ... do Top 1 hour Middle do Bottom ... do Top 1 V± hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 1% hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 234 hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 2% hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 3% hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 4%. hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 5 % hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 7% hours Middle do Bottom ... do Top 9% hours Middle do Bottom ... do PER CENT. FATS. NOTES 4.15 4.10 3.95 3.75 3.50 3.45 4.20 4.10 2.15 4.3 4.05 1.00 5.5 3.8 .8 6.5 2.65 .45 9.5 1.3 .40 4.55 1.3 .40 .75 .7 .4 .5 .48 .40 .50 .40 .30 (Lost.) .30 .15 .40 .30 .15 v> u « t V. 0 Vi O U X to On P u 'C 3 to° x Average of Sections at Close of 9% hours, .28 per cent. 5. The temperature of the water at the time of setting is of far greater importance than the temperature of the milk. A reduction of 10° in the temperature of the milk does not appreciably affect the result, while a difference of 16 less than half of this amount in the temperature of the tank water seriously effects the creaming. When the temperature of th? tank water is reduced to 40°, about 5 hours time is required for the different sections to attain a constant tem- perature and it is to be observed that during this period the most of the fat is brought to the surface and that during all of this period there is a constant' relation between the fall in temperature and fat, the most rapid change in each sec- tion being observed when the temperature of that section reaches the temperature of the surrounding water. What the cause of this close relationship is, no satisfactory explan- ation has yet been given, simply the fact is known and the dairyman must conform to these temperatures in order to obtain the most beneficial results. Since this is the season of the year when ice can be stored so abundantly and at little expense every dairyman is urg- ed to lay in a supply. A running spring with a tempera- ture not higher than 48° will do effectual work, but with temperature from 50° to 60° the creaming of milk by this process is attended with serious losses of fat in the skim milk. By the use of ice at least eight pounds of butter can be made where less than seven pounds are produced without it. When milk is set at temperatures as indicated in previous tables the usual practice is to skim at the end of eleven hours in order to use the pails and creamer for the next milking; this is a practice entirely safe with this system of creaming, un- der proper conditions. The average length of time required for the practical completion of the creaming of the above samples was only nine and three-quarter hours. A similar study of milks that cream less perfectly and under less favor- able conditions was made in order to obtain data as to the length of time necessary for the completion of the creaming. 17 HOW LONG BEFORE SKIMMING CAN SAFELY BE DONE. In the following table is an example of a can of milk set at 90° in a tank of water at 60°, which is a very unfavor- able condition for creaming, the results show how slow and imperfect the action when compared with a lower and more favorable temperature and also how the rising of the fat practically ceases at about the eleven hour period. TABLE V. CAN 7. Section of Can. Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle . Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Top Middle.. Bottom Time From Setting. Per Ct. 1 Of j Fat. | Section of Can. Time From Setting. Per Ct. of Fat. at setting 1 i Top 614 hours 3.00 do > 4.45 Middle do | 2.70 do j Bottom do 2.25 15 minutes 4.48 Top W 2 hours 2.78 do 4.5 ; Middle do 2.65 do 4.48 Bottom do 2.20 30 minutes 4.5 Top 814 hours ; 2.70 do 4.4 Middle do 2.45 do 4.45 ; Bottom do 1.60 45 minutes lost Top 914 hours 2.70 do j 4.45 ; Middle do | 2.45 do 4.42 Bottom do 1.55 1 hour — Top 1014 hours 2.50 do 4.5 Middle do 2.45 do 3.92 Bottom do 1.40 114 hours — Top 1114 hours 2.60 do 4.25 Middle do 2.40 do 4.05 Bottom do 1.40 1% hours 4.25 Top 1314 hours 2.55 do 3.50 Middle do 2.40 214 hours 5.20 Bottom do 1.40 do 3.90 Top 1514 hours 2.45 do — Middle do 2.30 314 hours 3.75 Bottom do 1.20 do 3.20 do 2.65 With this milk and temperature it 414 hours 3.55 will be noted that there was but lit- do do 3.00 2.30 tle change after the 1014-hour period. 514 hours 3.00 do 2.95 do 2.18 18 In the following tables are examples of milk creamed at higher temperatures ; the results are given simply to show the effect of prolonged setting in such cases. They are not given to show the incompleteness of the creaming by this process, but simply to determine if any benefit can be derived by a prolonged setting when the temperature of the water in the tank is above 49° or 50° at the time of setting. TABLE VI. Can VIII. Milk set at 70° in water at 52°. Can IX. Milk set at 86°. 49°. 3.80% Fat at setting. Water Section Time Per Section Time Per of from Cent. of from Cent. Can. Setting. Fat. Can. Setting Fat. All sections at start 4.30 Top 20 minutes 3.95 Top 1 y 2 hours 4.40 Middle 3.80 Middle 4.20 Bottom... “ 2.10 Bottom < < 2.25 Too 1 hour 3.75 Top 3 y 2 hours 2.40 Middle 3.45 Middle 2.20 Bottom ... “ Bottom .45 Too 2 hours 3.55 Top 7^4 hours 1.80 Middle 2.95 Middle 1.35 Average Bottom ... “ 1.75 Bottom ‘ < .30 1.15 Top 3y 2 hours 2.45 Too 24? hours 1.65 Middle 1.80 Middle 1.35 Bottom ... “ 1.60 Bottom “ .20 Average Top 514 hours 1.80 .85 Middle “ 1.30 Bottom ... “ .85 Top 914 hours 1.25 Average Middle “ 1.00 .85 Bottom ... “ .30 Top 24 hours 1.00 Middle “ .80 Bottom ... “ .20 Average .66 In these tables the same points are to be noted as when the temperature of the water ranged from 40° to 47° F., ex- cept that the action is slower and the creaming far less per- fect. At the end of 8% hours the average per cent of fat in the skim milk, due to the high temperature of creaming was 1.24 per cent., at the end of 25 hours it was 1.05 per cent. The average of the eight trials when set at 47° showed that the creaming was practically completed before the end of the twelve hour period and that the skimming could then safely be done. 19 TABLE VII. Can X. Milk set at 86° in water at 54°. 4.15% fat in original milk. Can XI. Milk set at 84° in water at 54°. 4.25% fat in original milk. Section of can. Time from setting. Per cent. fat. NOTES. Section of can. Time from setting. Per cent fat. Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom Top Middle Bottom y 2 hour do do 1 hour do do 2 hours do do 4 hours do do 6 hours do do 8 hours do do 10 hours do do 27 hours do do 4.35 4.20 3.55 3.50 3.45 3.15 3.50 3.15 1.60 2.45 1.40 2.80 2.20 .60 2.00 1.80 .60 1.80 1 1.60 \ .50 1 1.55 ) 1.45 } .40 J Average 1.30 Average 1.13 Top Middle Bottom ... Top Middle Bottom ... Top Middle Bottom ... Top Middle,.... Bottom ... Top Middle Bottom ... 1 hour do do 3 hours do do 5 hours do do 7 hours do do 27 hours do do 3.60 3.45 3.30 3.50 3.30 2.15 2.90 2.85 1.55 2.35 ) 1.80 S .80 ) 2.20 1 1.50 } .35 ) Average 1.65 Average 1.35 In this setting no 9 or 10 hour period was taken so the results are not strictly comparable as to the closing period. The average of 12 trials when set in water at tempera- tures varying from 50° to 60° F., showed that the creaming was practically completed within the same time. Although a slight gain resulted from a prolonged setting, in no case was this equal to the loss sustained for the want of a lower temperature at the beginning. A prolonged setting cannot make up for a low temperature at the time of setting. EXPERIMENTS IN CHEESE MAKING. HARRY SNYDER. 1. CHEESE MADE FROM NORMAL MILK RICH AND POOR IN FAT. In cheese making, a great diversity of opinion exists as to losses of fat in working with different grades of milk. It has been claimed that when cheese is made from milk rich in fat that a large per cent of the total fat is lost in the whey, and that when the per cent of fat in the milk reaches a cer- TABLE I. TABLE II. Milk with percentages of fat ranging Milk with percentages of fat ranging from 3.5 to 4.0 inclusive. from 4.1 to 4.4 inclusive. DATE. Per cent fat in milk Per cent fat in whey Lbs. of Milk. Lbs. of green cheese. DATE. Per cent fat in milk Per cent fat in whey Lbs. of milk. Lbs. of green cheese. Jan. 20... 3.5 0.4 305 28.0 Jan. 19... 4.1 0.5 305 32.0 26... 3.6 0.3 30. 15... 4.1 0.3 i i 31.0 “ 20... 3.7 0.4 “ 27. Feb. 2... 4.2 0.3 i i 31.0 “ 29... 3.7 0.4 29. Jan. 21... 4.2 0.4 i i 32. “ 30... 3.7 0.3 29. i i 16... 4.2 0.4 i i 31.0 Feb. 3... 3.8 0.4 “ 30.0 i i 14... 4.2 0.4 i i 31. Jan. 12... 3.8 0.4 “ 33.0 18... 4.2 0.45 i i 33.0 28... 3.8 0.5 29.0 i i 11... 4.2 0.4 ii 34.0 “ 23... 3.8 0.4 30. i i 14... 4.2 0.3 i i 32.0 ‘ ‘ 30... 3.8 0.4 “ 34.0 i i 15... 4.2 0.3 32.0 “ 28... 3.9 0.3 30. 9... 4.2 0.3 i i 31.0 29... 3.9 0.3 “ 29.0 8... 4.2 0.4 i i 34.0 “ 27... 3.9 0.4 35.0 i * 15... 4.3 0.3 i i 34.0 9... 3.9 0.4 32.0 ii 14... 4.3 0.3 i i 34.0 Feb. 16... 4.0 0.4 << — i i 14... 4.3 0.3 i i -35 Jan. 12... 4.0 0.4 « < 34.0 ii 15... 4.3 0.3 ii -32.0 22... 4.0 0.3 << — i i 9... 4.3 0.4 33.0 20... 4.0 0.4 300 30.0 i i 19... 4.3 0.4 32.0 22... 4.0 0.4 305 31.0 i i 15... 4.3 0.3 34.0 20... 4.0 0.4 300 30.0 i i 30... 4.3 0.4 -31 12... 4.0 0.4 305 34.0 i i 19... 4.3 0.4 i i 32 12... 4.0 0.4 i i 34.0 Feb. 1 ... 4.4 0.3 i i 35.0 < < 11... 4.0 0.4 i i 34.0 Jan. 27... 4.4 0.4 i i ** 13... 4.0 0.4 ii 34. i i 14... 4.4 0.3 i i 35.0 < < 14... 4.0 0.3 i i 33.0 i i 23... 4.4 0.3 i i 35.0 << 13... 4.0 0.4 ii 34.0 i i 18... 4.4 0.4 ii 34.0 12... 4.0 0.4 i i 32.0 i i 18... 4.4 0.4 i i 34.0 18... 4.0 0.45 33.0 i i 14... 4.4 0.3 i i 35.0 No. Trials i i 16... 4.4 0.4 i i 33.0 28. 3.85 0.38 304.7 31.46 13... 4.4 0.4 i i 33.0 11... 4.4 0.4 ii 35.0 No. Trials 31. 4.29 0.36 305.0 32.8 21 tain point all the fat above that point is lost in the whey, and no more can be retained in the cheese. It is also claimed that only a small and definite per cent of fat can be utilized in cheese making. In order to obtain some knowledge up- on this question, based upon actual experiments, the follow- ing work has been carried out. The cheese was made under the direction of Mr. Phillips, instructor in cheese making in the Dairy School of the University of Minnesota. In the fol- lowing tables will be found grades of milk ranging from 3.5 to 5.4 per cent fat, classified in four groups together with the per cent of fat lost in whey in each case : TABLE III. TABLE IV. Milk with percentages of fat ranging Milk with percentages of fat ranging from 4.5 to 5.0. from 5.0 to 5.5. DATE. Per cent fat in milk Per cent fat in whey Lbs. of milk. Lbs. of green cheese. DATE. I Per cent fat ! in milk Per cent fat in 1 whey Lbs. of ! milk. Lbs. of ! green ! cheese. Jan. 13... 4.5 0.4 305 34.0 Jan. 23... 5.0 0.3 3 05 -36 “ 13... 4.5 0.4 “ 34.0 ! “ 23... 5.0 0.3 “ 36.0 “ 9... 4.6 0.4 “ 33.0 “ 23... 5.0 0.3 “ -34 “ 13... 4.6 0.4 “ 36.0 “ 22... 5.4 0.4 “ -36 “ 11... 4.6 0.4 “ 36.0 No. Trials - “ 21... 4.6 0.4 300 32.0 4. 5.10 0.32 305.0 35.5 “ 21... 4.6 0.4 “ 32.0 “ 13... 4.6 0.4 305 36.0 “ 11... 4.6 0.4 “ 36.0 “ 16... 4.6 0.4 33.0 “ 12... 4.6 0.4 “ 34.0 “ 15... 4.7 0.3 “ 34.0 “ 25... 4.8 0.4 35.0 “ 25... 4.8 0.4 “ No. Trials ’ 14. 4.62 .39 304.3 34.2 GENERAL AVERAGES OF ALL THE GROUPS. No. of Trials. Milk with fat rang- ing from 1 ' Per cent, of fatin milk. 1 Per cent. of fat in whey. I Pounds of milk. 1 Pounds of green cheese". ! Pounds of milk to make lib green cheese. 28 3.50-4.00 3.85 .38 304.7 1 31.46 ' 9.68 31 4.10-4.40 4.29 .36 305. 32.80 9.30 14 4.50-4.90 4.62 .39 304.3 34.2 8.90 4 5.00 5.05 .32 305 35.5 8.56 In these experiments, in which the cheese was made under the same conditions, the losses of fat in the whey are practically the same, whether the original milk was rich or poor in fat ; and normal milks rich in fats were made into cheese without any greater percentage loss of fats in the whey, than poorer milk. It is also noted that where the milk was rich in fat it required a less number of pounds to make a pound of cheese. 22 INCORPORATION OF CREAM INTO CHEESE. Inasmuch as the results of the previous experiment indicate that rich milk can be made into cheese with no greater loss of fat in the whey than poor milk, the question arises, can cream be incorporated into cheese ? This naturally resolves itself into two parts : first, can it be done ; second, will it be a financial success. In this bulle- tin the first question alone will be discussed. In the following tables will be found in a condensed form the result of a num- ber of experiments bearing on this question. The milk was divided into two portions, to one of which cream was added : TABLE I. DATE, January, 18 19 19 1 ! 20 ! 20 i 22 22 1 Milk with 1 cream added. Milk with cream added. Normal Milk. 1 | Milk with cream added. Normal Milk. | Milk with cream added. j Normal Milk. Per cent of fat in milk 6.00 6.00 4.00 6.00! | 4.00 | 5.40 ! 2.80 Pounds of milk in vat 300 300 300 ! | 300 300 1 j 300 300 Rennett test for ripeness 55j 60i 60 60 60 ! 35 40 Temperature set 90 88 88 90 90 j 1 87 87 Amount of rennet used, ozs m\ % 1 ! 1% % 1 i 1. . % Minutes in curdling 12 25 25 1 14 14 | 8 13 Time required in raising to 120°, minutes 30 30 30 ! 35 | 36 ! 20 20 Hot iron test when dipped Vs in. %in. y 8 in. Vain- ! Vsin- jZ&in. Vs in- Per cent fat in whey .40 .40 .40 .40! .40 : .40 .40 Hot iron test when ground y 2 in. 3 /4 in. % in. %in. ! % in. Vz in • Vz in. Weight of green cheese 38i/ 2 39V 2 32 36 j 30 l 36 28 Weight of milk per pound of cheese 7.79 5.79 9.39 8.33! 10.00 i 8.33 10 71 Weight of whey 246 248 ! 257! 250 255 1 i 250 261 TABLE II. 0 05 rh Kind of milk | Pounds of fat in Milk Pounds of fat in Whey Losses at Press. * 0 ct- Total lbs. fat re- covered in cheese No. lbs fat added in cream No. lbs. fatadded to cheese from cream No. lbs. fat lost from cream n In liquids, lbs fat In solids, lbs. fat P & xn P* rt- 0 rt- J art na rv 1 8 creamed 18.00 .984 .072 .640 1.696 16.304 6 19... creamed 18.00 .992 .060 .44 1.492 16.508 6 5.814 .186 < < 19... normal 12.00 1.028 .0779 .20 1.3059 10.694 0 20... creamed 18.00 1.00 .0972 .656 1.753 16 247 6 5.73 .27 20... normal 12.00 1.02 .0675 .40 1.48 10.52 0 22... creamed 16.00 1.00 .0770 .24 1.317 14.883 7.8 7.655 .145 22... normal 8.40 1.044 .0783 .05 1.172 7.228 0 Explanation of Tables. — The column headed “ total pounds of fat lost,” in- cludes the fat lost in the whey and at the press, both in liquids and solids ; the total pounds of fat recovered is found by subtracting the total losses from the total pounds of fat in the milk. The number of pounds of fat added to the cheese from the cream is found by subtracting from the total fats in the creamed milks that of the normal milks of the same day, inasmuch as the milk was divided into two por- tions, to one of which cream was added and to the other it was not. The column headed ” fat lost from cream,” is the difference between the number of pounds of fat added to the milk as cream, and the number of pounds of fat added to the cheese from the cream. 23 From these tables it will be observed that by the addition of cream to milk so that the mixture contained about six per cent, fat no greater loss of fat occurred in the whey ; a great- er loss did result from the pressing* of the creamed milks, this ho wever, amounted to only a small per cent, of the fat added. Whether this loss will be more than balanced by the increase in the price received for this cheese yet remains to be seen. In working with creamed milk the greatest losses are at the press, the solid material which resembles butter in ap- pearance has a varied composition. In the column given as losses at the press, both the solids and the whey were analyzed separately, the solid matter ranges from 60 to 80 per cent. fat. The following is an example of this material, from a creamed milk, obtained at the press : Water 13.53 per cent. Fat 83.16 per cent. Casein 1. percent. Ash and Salt 2.3 per cent. To what extent cream can be incorporated into cheese without increasing the per cent, of loss in the whey depends largely upon the manipulation. The cheese made from creamed milk testing 7.6 per cent, fat, left in the whey .7 per cent, fat, indicating that the point in which cream can be added under the conditions in which these were made, with- out sustaining more than normal losses in the whey, lies somewheres between 6 and 7.6 per cent, of fat for the mix- ture. In each case it will be observed, where cream is added, that the weight of the green cheese obtained always exceeded that made from the same normal milk by more than the weight of the fat added to the cream. In reviewing the tables in both of these articles on ex- periments in cheese making, it must be remembered that the per cent of fat left in the whey is, in a great measure, a test of the capabilities of the cheese maker and his apparatus. Daily work in the cheese factory of the dairy school shows this statement to be true among experienced makers. In work- ing with rich milks every factory man is urged to follow each step of his work with the test, to learn where the losses oc- cur, then study what the causes are rather than attribute 24 any unusual losses to the high per cent of fat in the milk. In these experiments an extended preliminary study was found necessary, to get all of the complicated factors under control, so that the conditions, processes and manipulations would be the same in all the different tests. All other known conditions therefore being the same, the variations in the re- sults must be due to the variations in the per cent of fat in the milk, and the results recorded in the tables are therefore strictly comparable as to the loss of fat in the whey and at the press. This report of the work is a summary of the results only. Complete analyses were made of the milk, whey, drippings and losses at the press both liquid and solid and determi- nations made of the protein compounds, sugar, ash, lactic acid, and fat in each by-product, but as these are necessarily technical in character a discussion of them is not given in this bulletin. The whole question of the loss of fat in cheese making is one that requires careful consideration, for upon its right solution depends to a large extent the success of the factory. If it can not be demonstrated that, with normal milk, rich in fat, intelligent cheese makers can so incorporate the fat in the cheese as to leave as small a per cent of fat in the whey as with poorer milk, many patrons, owning herds of cows giving rich milk must advocate partial skimming at least. These experiments, however, seem to show that with rich milk the loss of fat in the whey is relatively less than where poor milk is used. The per cent of fat in the whey re- mains about constant, a little less than .4 per cent without regard to the quality of the original milk, hence the propor- tional loss in the whey is less with the richer milk both be- cause there is more fat in the original milk and because there is a less proportional amount of whey. For example, in table I of the second article in the case of the 300 pounds of milk testing 2.8 per cent fat there was 261 pounds of whey, in the same weight of milk testing 5.4 per cent fat there was but 250 pounds of whey. The per cent of fat in the whey in each case was .4 per cent. The absolute loss of fat in the whey from the poor milk was 1.044 pounds while with the 25 rich milk it was but one pound. The absolute amount of fat in the poor milk was 8.4 pounds, while in the rich milk it was 16.2 pounds, hence the per cent of loss of the total fat of the whole milk was, in the whey of the poor milk 12.4 per cent, of the rich milk 6.25 per cent. This is one example taken from many. In the prosecution of this experiment ninety cheeses were made and the results in every' case bear out the truth of the statement that the loss of fat in the whey is both relatively and absolutely larger with poor than with rich normal milk. At the press, however, there are greater losses with the richer milk, occuring mainly in the solids of the drippings. The drippings were treated as follows: The total drippings from each cheese was caught in a stone jar and filtered through a weighed filter with slight pressure. The solids adhering to the sides of the jar were washed into the filter with portions of the filtrate. The solids and filtered whey were then weighed and analysed separately and gravimatri- cally. Attempts were made to dissolve this butter-like ma- terial with hot water and with chemicals but without success. In the case of the example last quoted the losses at the press from the cheese made from poor milk were .078 pounds in the liquids and .05 pounds in the solids, while with the 5.4 per cent milk, although the losses in the liquid were practic- ally the same as with the poor milk, the loss in the solids was .24 pounds fat. Taking therefore the total fat lost in whey and drippings and dividing it by the total fat in the original milk we find that the per cent of total loss in the case of the poorer milk was 13 per cent while with the 5.4 per cent milk it was but 8.14 per cent. The history of cheese making shows that the making of skim cheese however profitable temporarily to the individual maker is disastrous to the cheese trade of the state or sec- tion that makes the article. Any advice therefore that looks towards skimming at all should be listened to with caution. The results of these experiments tend strongly to show that, as far as the retention of the fat in the cheese is concerned there seems to be no legitimate excuse for the practice. THE BABCOCK TEST AND CHURN. CLINTON D. SMITH AND T. L. HACKER. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. This experiment was undertaken as a preliminary study of the question, how nearly the butter fat as indicated by the Babcock test in the whole milk of an individual cow can be accounted for in the butter, butter milk and skim milk. In the following table in which the results are tabulated, the first column contains the name of the cows under experi- ment ; the second, the sum of the butter fat given by the cow in seven milkings as determined by the Babcock test ; the third, the amount of butter fat in the butter churned from these seven milkings; the fourth, the amount of butter fat in the skim milk ; fifth, the butter fat in the butter milk ; sixth, the fat in the samples of the whole milk taken for analysis ; seventh, the sum of the butter fat in the butter, skim milk, butter milk and samples ; eighth the discrepancy between the indicated amount of butter fat in the whole milk and the amount accounted for in the products ; it is marked plus when the amount found in the products exceeds the amount indicated in whole milk and minus when the latter is less than the former. SUMMARY. •POUNDS OF BUTTER-FAT IN Whole milk. Butter j Skim | milk. Butter milk. Samples. Totals. Discrep- ancy. Beckley 4.731 4.7000 .0621 .00865 .0567 4.8374 +.0964 Bess 3.1563 2.9729 .0702 .0119 .0343 3.0893 —.0669 Bess 3.1437 3.0518 .0708 .0107 .0264 3.1597 +.0170 Houston.... 5.353 5.2635 .0719 .0064 .0568 5.3986 +.0466 Houston.... 5.0517 4.7812 .0663 .0184 .0524 4.9183 —.1334 Maria 4.6517 4.6518 .0654 .0096 .0527 4.7 795 +.1378 Olive 4.303 4.078 .0844 .0651 .0393 4.3668 —.0353 Olive 4.459 4.2903 .0783 .023 .042 4.4336 —.0354 Sully 5.503 5.218 .0981 .049 .043 5.4081 —.0939 Sw. Briar.. 5.3619 5.337 .0739 .0189 .052 5.4818 + .1199 Sw. Briar.. 5.5001 5.046 .0831 .0123 .0521 5.1935 —.3066 Topsy 3.0654 2.925 .0623 .0168 .0361 3.0403 —.0353 Topsy 3.1867 2.9959 .0662 .046 .0361 3.1483 1 —.0434 27 1. The bottles used in the analysis of the skim milk were graduated to one-tenth of one per cent only, but a variation of that amount in the reading would account for some of the discrepancies recorded above. As the milk was all separated by a hand centrifuge and repeated tests showed that no greater proportion of fat could be found in any of the skim milk, the column headed “butter fat in skimmilk” represents the total weight of skimmilk multiplied by the factor .001. 2. The scales on which the milk and butter were weighed are graduated to a tenth of a pound. Very much closer readings are desirable if not necessary in weighing the butter especially, as a variation of a tenth of a pound in the weight of that product would in many of the cases throw the dis- crepancy to the other side of the line. 3. The difficulty of taking a sample of butter for analy- sis that accurately represents the whole amount may ac- count for still other of the discrepancies. Since the butter must be analyzed in any event whether the test or the churn is taken as the final arbiter in the comparison of different cows or different breeds, this factor is alike the misfortune of both methods. 4. If perceptible mechanical losses had occurred in the progress of these experiments, the sum of the fat found in the butter, skimmilk, buttermilk and samples would in every case have been less than the amount indicated in the whole milk, but the table shows that such is not the case. 5. Since the per cent of fat in the skimmilk remains about constant the total fat lost in the skimmilk is greater in the case of cows giving the larger quantity of milk. It is also relatively largest in the case of cows giving the milk poorest in fats. 6. The more exhaustive chumability of the cream as shown by the per cent of fat in the buttermilk was not in these experiments a characteristic of any one breed of cows ; but here also the cow having a given amount of fat distri- buted through the least amount of milk, had of course the least amount of cream and buttermilk and therefore, the per cent of fat in the buttermilk remaining the same, the least absolute loss of fat therein. 28 7. To prevent waste of fat in the buttermilk, the cream from each cow had to be treated differently, in a manner peculiar to that cow, hence the churn is a test of the skill of the buttermaker as well as of the value of the cow. 8. In the analysis of acid skimmilk and buttermilk un- less due allowance is made for the lactic acid and matters other than fat soluble in ether the usual gravimetric method is no more accurate than the Babcock test. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. The cows selected for these tests were all fresh in milk. Beckley and Maria are grade Jerseys; Houston a cross-bred Guernsey -Jersey; Olive a grade Guernsey; Sweet Briar a registered Guernsey; Rose a grade Shorthorn; Bess a regis- tered Holstein; Topsy a grade Holstein and Sully a native. Each mess as soon as drawn from the cow was weighed and a sample weighing on the average 2 2-7 ounces taken for analysis. Seven of these samplss thus make one pound of milk and as they were thrown away their fat content is added to that of the butter, skimmilk and buttermilk as part of the fat in the whole milk not otherwise accounted for. The milk was run through a hand centrifuge immediate- ly after weighing, care being taken to wash all the cream from the bowl by liberal additions of skimmilk at the com- pletion of the separation of each mess of each cow. The cream was then cooled and kept until seven milkings had ac- cumulated wdien it was ripened and churned. Both the skimmilk and buttermilk were tested with the Babcock test; below is given in tabular form the detailed history of the ex- periment. The first column in the various tables shows the date of the milking, the second the weight of the milk, the third the per cent of fat in the milk as shown by the test, the fourth the product of the weight of milk multiplied by the per cent 'of fat or in other words the total fat in that milking, the fifth gives the weight of the skimmilk. As the experiment was performed in December the number in the first column designates the day of that month when the respective milkings were made. 29 Beckley. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream, 64°; time churn- ing, 15 minutes; temperature when churn- ed, 66°; when washed, 59°; when worked, 59°; buttermilk, 17.3 lbs.; per centfat, .05; worked butter, 5.35 lbs; percent fat, 87.85. Butter fat in whole milk 4.731 “ “ butter 4.7000 “ “ skim milk.. .0621 “ “ buttermilk. .0086 “ “ samples 0567 Discrepancy .0964 26 p.m 27 a.m 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 12.5 13. 11. 11.5 11. 13.5 11. 6. 5.5 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.4 5.6 .75 .715 .616 .6785 .627 .729 .616 9.4 10.8 8.3 8.4 7. 10. 8.2 83.5 4.731 1 62.1 4.8274 4.8274 Bess. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. II Skim j milk, lbs. Temperature of cream when churned, 64°; after churning 65°; when washed, 54°; when worked 56°; buttermilk 23.8 lbs., per centfat .05; worked butter 3.4 lbs., per cent fat 87.44. Butter fat in whole milk 3.1562 “ “ skimmilk... .0702.. “ “ buttermilk .0119.. “ “ samples 0343.. “ “ butter 2.9729.. Discrepancy 0669.. 23 a.m 23 p.m 24 a.m 24 p.m 25 a.m 25 p.m 26 a.m 13 13 13.5 13. 13 12.75 13.75 3.8 3.7 4.1 2. 3.5 3.6 3.3 .494 .481 .5535 .26 .455 .459 .4537 9.4 10.75 ! 10. 10.9 9.6 9.65 9.85 92. 3.1562 70.15 | 3.1562 3.1562 Bess. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim [ milk, lbs. * j Temperature of cream when churned, 62°; after churning 66°; when worked, 59°; time of churning 30 minutes; butter- milk 21.5 lbs.; per cent fat .05; butter 3.45 lbs.; per cent fat 88.46. Butter fat in whole milk 3.1427 “ “ butter 3.0518 “ “ skimmilk... .0708 “ “ buttermilk .0107 “ “ samples 0264 Discrepancy 017 26 p.m 27 a.m 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 13 14.75 15. 15. 12.25 14.75 13.5 3.3 3.1 2.8 1.9 3.2 4.2 4. .429 .4572 .42 .285 .392 .6195 .54 9.7 9.65 11.4 10.6 8.85 10.65 10. 98.25 3.1427 70.85 3.1597 3.1597 Houston Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream when churned 64°; of butter when washed 55°; when work- ed 59°; buttermilk, 21.6 lbs.; per cent fat .03; butter 6.05; per cent fat 87.00. 23 a.m 23 p.m 24 a.m 24 p.m 25 a.m 25 p.m 26 a.m 14 12.5 13.75 13.5 14 13 13.5 5.9 6.4 5.4 5.8 5.8 5.8 4.7 .826 .800 .7425 .783 .812 | .754 .6345 10.6 9.7 9.95 11.1 10.9 9.9 9.8 Butter fat in whole milk 5.352 “ “ butter 5.2635 “ “ skimmilk.. .0719 “ “ buttermilk .0064 “ “ samples 0568 Discrepancy 0466 5.3986 5.3986 94.25 5.352 71.95 30 Houston. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream when churned, 63°; of butter when washed 55°; when worked 59°; time of churning 35 min- utes; buttermilk 18.4 lbs.; per cent fat, .1; butter 5.6 lbs.; per cent fat 85.38. Butter fat in whole milk 5.0517 “ “ butter 4.7812 “ “ skimmilk.. .0663 “ “ buttermilk .0184 “ “ samples 0524 Discrepancy 1334 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 30 a.m 30 p.m 12.5 14.75 12.25 14 12 13.75 12.25 5.5 6. 5.8 •5.3 5.8 4.6 5.7 .6875 .885 .7105 .742 .696 .6325 .6982 9. 10.95 8.15 10.6 8.7 9.75 9.15 91.5 5.0517 66.3 5.0517 5.0517 Maria. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream when churned 64° ; temperature of butter 66° ; when washed 55°; when worked 58°; buttermilk 19.2 lbs.; .05% fat; time of churning 45 minutes ; butter 5.3 lbs.; per cent fat, 87.77. Butter fat in whole milk 4.6517 “ “ butter 4.6518 “ “ skimmilk.. .0654 “ “ buttermilk .0096 “ “ samples 0527 Discrepancy 1278 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 30 a.m 30 p.m 12.5 13.25 12. 13.75 12.5 13.5 12.75 5.3 4.7 5.4 5.4 5.4 4.9 5.8 .6625 .6227 .648 .7425 .675 .5615 .7395 9.1 9.55 8.5 10.15 9.1 10. 9.05 90.25 4.6517 65.45 4.7795 4.7795 Olive. Temperature of cream when churned, 62°; time churning 40 minutes; tempera- ture of butter 64°; when washed 56°; when worked 58°; buttermilk 21.7 lbs.; per cent fat .3; butter 4.65 lbs.; per cent fat 87.70. Butter fat in whole milk 4.302 “ “ butter 4.078 “ “ skimmilk... .0844 “ “ buttermilk. .0651 “ “ samples 0393 Discrepancy 0352 4.302 4.302 Olive. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream 62°; time churn- ing 30 minutes; temperature of butter, 65°; when washed 56°; when worked 60°; weight of worked butter, 4.85; butter- milk 23 lbs.; per cent of fat .1; per cent of fat in butter 88.46. Butter fat in whole milk 4.459 “ “ butter 4.2903 “ “ skimmilk... .0783 “ “ buttermilk .023 “ “ samples 0420 Discrepancy 0254 26 p.m 27 a.m 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 14.75 16. 14.25 15.5 14.5 16. 15. 4.2 3.6 4.4 3.8 4.3 4.4 4.8 .6195 .576 .627 .589 .6235 .704 .720 10.95 12. 9.85 12.2 10.5 11.6 11.2 106. 4.459 78.30 4.459 4.459 Date 23 a.m 23 p.m 24 a.m 24 p.m 25 a.m 25 p.m 26 a.m Whole milk, lbs. 16. 14. 17.1 15.5 16. 15.75 15.5 109.85 Per cent fat 4.2 4.5 3.5 4.1 3.8 4.4 3. Total fat, lbs. .672 .63 .5985 .6355 .608 .693 .465 4.302 Skim milk, lbs. 11.5 10.5 12.8 14.3 11.9 11.75 11.7 84.45 31 Sully. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs, Temperature of cream when churned, 62°; time of churning 45 minutes; temper- ature of butter 64°; when washed, 60°; when worked 62°; buttermilk with water added to secure separation from butter- milk 49 lbs.; per cent of fat in same, .1; worked butter, 5.85 lbs.; per cent fat, 89.20. Butter fat in whole milk 5.502 “ “ butter 5.218 “ “ skimmilk... .0981 “ “ buttermilk .049 “ “ samples 043 Discrepancy 0939 23 a.m 23^p.m 24 a.m 24 p.m 25"a.m 25ip.m 26‘a.m 20.5 18. 20. 17.25 19.5 17.5 19. 4.8 4. 4. 4.6 4.5 4. 3.3 .984 .72 .80 .7935 .8775 .70 .627 15.1 12.6 14.9 13.05 15.5 12.3 14.7 131.75 5.502 98.15 5.502 5.502 Sweet Briar. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. 1 Skim milk. lbs. Temperature of cream 64°; time of churning 33 minutes; temperature of but- ter 65°; when washed 55°; when worked, 58°; buttermilk 24.6 lbs.; per cent fat .05; butter 5.8 lbs.; per cent fat 87. Butter fat in whole milk 5.5001 “ “ butter 5.046 “ “ skimmilk... .0831 “ “ buttermilk .0123 “ “ samples 0521 Discrepancy 3066 23 a.m 23 p.m 24 a.m 24 p.m 25 a.m 25 p.m 26 a.m 16.25 15.5 15.25 16.75 17.25 16.25 15.25 5. 5.5 4.7 5.2 4.6 5.1 4.1 .8125 .8525 .7167 .871 .7935 .8287 .6252 12.85 11.4 11.45 13.15 12.65 10.65 10.95 112.50 5.5001 83.1 5.5001 5.5001 Sweet Briar. Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk. lbs. Temperature of cream, 63°; time churn- ing 16 minutes; butter temperature 65°; when washed 62°; when worked 63°; but- termilk 18.9 lbs.; per cent fat .1; butter 6 26 p.m 27 a.m 27 p.m 28 a.m 28 p.m 29 a.m 29 p.m 15.25 14.75 14.5 15. 14.5 14.5 14.25 5.4 4.9 5. 5.9 5.6 4.6 5.1 .8235 .7227 .725 .885 .812 .667 .7267 11.75 9.75 10.80 10.10 10.50 10.80 10.25 lbs.; per cent fat 88.95. Butter fat in whole milk 5.3619 “ “ butter 5.337 “ “ skimmilk... .0739 “ “ buttermilk .0189 “ “ samples 0520 Discrepancy 1199 102.75 5.3619 73.95 5.4818 5.4818 Topsy. Date Whole milk , lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk, lbs. Temperature of cream, 62°; time churn- ing, 27 minutes; butter 66°, when wash- ed, 59°, when worked, 63°; buttermilk, 23 lbs.; per cent fat, .2; butter, 3.45 lbs; per cent fat, 86.84. Butter fat in whole milk ,3,1867 “ “ butter 2.996 “ skimmilk... .0662 “ buttermilk, .046 “ samples 0361 Discrepancy 0424 # 23 a.m. 23 p.m. 24 a.m. 24 p.m. 25 a.m. 25 p.m. 26 a.m. 13. 11.5 13.5 12.5 13.25 12.1 13.25 3.9 3.9 3.7 4. 4. 3.5 2.1 .507 .4485 .4995 .50 .53 .4235 .2782 9.6 I 8.4 10.1 9.8 9.95 8.9 9.45 89.1 3.1867 66.2 3.1867 3.1867 Topsy Date Whole milk, lbs. Per cent fat Total fat, lbs. Skim milk. lbs. 26 p.m 13.25 3.8 .5035 10.25 27 a.m 12.75 3.7 .4717 9.35 27 p.m 11.5 2.9 3.335 8.2 28 a.m 12.5 3.1 .3875 8.7 28 p.m 12. 4.3 .516 9. 29 a.m 12.25 3.2 .392 8.75 29 p.m 11.25 4.1 .4612 8.05 85.5 3.0654 62.3 Temperature of cream 64°; time churn- ing 30 minutes; butter, temperature 67°; when washed 58°; when worked 62°; but- termilk 16.8 lbs.; per cent fat .1; butter 3.25 lbs.; per cent fat 90. Butter fat in whole milk 3.0654 “ “ butter 2.925 “ “ skimmilk .. .0623 “ “ buttermilk .0168 “ “ samples .... .0361 Discrepancy 0252 3.0654 3.0654 University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 20. ZMZJ5.-5T, 1892. FERTILIZERS. IMPROVEMENT OF TIMOTHY. RAPE IN MINNESOTA. PEAS AND OATS. FIELD PEAS. I®” Tlie Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. Uni vensity of Minnesota BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896. The HON. GREENEEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, Alexandria, 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, .... 1896. The HON. 0. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1 895. The HON. WILLIAM R. MERRIAM, St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - - - - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Chemist. T. L. H HACKER, Dairying. J. A. VYE, - Secretary. OATS SOWN WITH FIELD PEAS. W. M. HAYS. During the past two or three seasons numerous plats of field peas, and oats with peas, have been grown on the Ex- periment Farm to study how best to grow these crops for feed. All the plats were grown on land in good heart. It is a mixture of sand and clay, has good power to hold mois- ture, while a stratum of sand and gravel at a depth of several feet provides perfect underdrainage. In 1890 experiments were made on fall plowed stubble land and in 1891 on fall plowed timothy sod. In 1890 nine one-third acre plots 33 rods long were planted to oats, peas and the two mixed. The facts are tabulated below. The weather was favorable to the stooling of the oats and where even only a half bushel of oats was used with peas the crop was mainly oats. White Canada field peas used alone produced a good crop. Oats alone ^fielded a medium crop of poor quality, weighing only 25 pounds per bushel. Separating the oats and peas in the crop, the yield per acre of each is presented in the table. Estimating peas at 80 cents and oats at 25 cents per bushel, the rela- tive values of the several crops are also shown. The straw ^f peas is worth more than the oat straw but as the values of these rough feeds are but poorly determined no estimate * ; attempted. 36 PEAS AND OATS IN 1890. Plot. Manner of Seeding. Qts. per A. Straw yield, lbs. Yield per Acre. Value per Acre. Peas. Oats. Peas, bu.j Oats, bu. Peas. Oats. Total. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Ay. — Drill 8 in. Drill, 8 in. Plowed under Drill, 8 in. Plowed under Drill, 8 in. “ 8 “ “ 8 “ “ 8 “ Oats alone Peas alone Oats and peas 96 80 96 60 93 54 96 80 32 36 18 16 32 80 80 2688 3215 2236 3240 2619 2420 1749 2364 3495 3500 2500 2500 25* 5 2314 ! 3* 19 2% 1% 2* 8 37 23 17 29% 35 * 35y 2 $20.40 4.00 18.80 2.80 15.20 1.90 1.30 2.00 $2.00 9.20 5.70 4.30 7.30 8.90 $20.40 6.00 18.80 12.00 15.20 7.60 5.60 9.30 8.90 8.90 18.90 8.10 96 23% PEAS AND OATS IN 1891. Plot. Manner of seeding. Qts. per A. Straw yield, lbs. Yield per Acre. Value per Acre. Peas. Oats. Peas, bu. Oats, bu. Peas. Oats. Total. 1 Drilled. 100 3593 55 $13.70 $13.70 2 “ 120 2653 15% $12 53 12.53 3 85 22 3233 2 38 1.60 9.50 11.10 4 105 22 2293 2% 38 1.90 9.50 11.40 5 “ 102 31 2980 4 36 3.20 9.00 12.20 6 “ 120 2800 20 16.00 16.00 7 “ 107 3193 55 13.70 13.70 9 95 12 3328 1 32 .80 8.00 8.80 10 80 40 3587 1 * 25 1.20 6.20 7.40 11 “ 96 24 * 3413 2 30 1.60 7.50 9.10 12 92 28 2966 4 * 27 3.60 6.70 10.30 13 “ 87 3733 54 13.50 13.50 14 107 3547 14 11.20 11.20 Ay. — Oats alone 3 bu. 3500 54% 13.90 “ Peas alone 1 9-10 bu. 3000 16* 13.20 “ Oats and peas l*bu * bu. 3000 10.00 PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS. The results suggest a few practical considerations. (1.) With the conditions suited to the stooling of oats even a small pro- portion of oat seeds will cause the peas to be a light crop when sown by mixing in the seed drill; this occurs on rich moist soils nearly every year, rarely on sandy, drouthy soils. (2.) Peas made the best crop in 1890 when plowed under and sown alone. Farmers on sandy lands claim the best results from plowing the peas under to a depth of 4 or 5 inches and then sowing the oats with seeder or drill. The further trials of pea and oat succotash could include a test of this plan. (3.) Though no figures have been recordEd several comparisons have shown that peas do not do nearly as well on our timothy sods as when following a grain crop. 37 (4.) Oats and peas together or peas alone can be successfully threshed with ordinary threshing machines, and the whole peas can easily be separ- ated from oats and split peas by screening and by allowing the whole peas to roll down an inclined plane. (5.) Oats and peas sown together have not proven as profitable as when grown separately , but where the oats will serve to hold the peas erect good combined crops are produced. Peas alone are such a good crop on soils suited to their growth that our most erect sorts should be selected and im- proved. This done and harvesting machinery perfected and pea crops will be as popular to raise for sale and for feed as are oats. They have an especial value in rotations with our grain crops. (6.) The greatest needs in raising peas are a knowledge of what varieties to sow on each kind of soil, and a harvesting machine that will lay the vines in “rolled up” bunches much as a man does in mowing them wfith a scythe. (7.) Mr. Andrew Boss, foreman, who attended to most of the details of crop trials, tried every way we could invent to harvest peas. The best way tried was to cut with a two horse mowing machine having two men with forks following on stations to roll the swath out of the way of the re- turning team. The mowing can not be successfully done when the vines are wet. (8.) Peas for green feed, for hay, for hay and grain, for grain to sell and for silage, also to get land ready for other crops are bound to be much used, especially on our sandy lands. FIELD PEAS IN MINNESOTA. During the past three years numerous experiments have been in progress to determine the best methods of grow- ing field peas, the best varieties for Minnesota and their general value as a field crop to be grown as a money crop or for feed. Progress along these lines is reported below. BEST VARIETIES OF FIELD PEAS. There are four general classes of varieties of field peas which are well adapted to Minnesota conditions. They are the Canada Blue Field Peas and the Canada White Field Peas, both of which have smooth, hard seeds; and Black E\ r e Marrowfat and White Marrowfat peas, both of which are large, wrinkled and not so hard as the Blue and White Canada field peas. Every seedsman has so called varieties of these classes of peas which he advertises. Doubtless many of them are nearly identical. There seems to be two sub- classes of the White Canada pea, some calling one Prince Albert and the other Common White Canada Field Pea. The Prince Albert class has larger, finer seeds but has yielded no more per acre than the other class with us. Most of the notes of time of ripening, habit of vines, and part of the notes of yield of grain and straw for 1889 and 1890 were destroyed by fire. The table below gives the yields of the va- rieties of the four classes of peas for 1891, and 1890 and a few of 1889. There is no general marked difference in the yields of these four classes of field peas. In 1891 the 24 varieties of seed we had culled out of the greater number sown before yielded an average of 28 bushels per acre on “old land,” that had been cultivated for twenty or more years with, so far as known, no application of manure. In 1890 these same varieties averaged 18 H bushels per acre. The average yields of the four classes for the years 1890 and 1891 are shown below. 39 TABLE NO. 1. VARIETY TEST OF FIELD PEAS. Plot No Varieties Sown May 5th, 1891. Bush, seed sown per acre Bushels grain per acre, 1891 Bushels grain per acre, 1890 Pounds straw per acre, 1891 Bushels grain per acre, 1889 Original Source of Seed. Plants stand erect. 2 Common Blue Field Pea 354 29 3209 28 40 Experiment Farm Fairly 3 Blue Russian Pea 3% 29 4791 51 32 Fxperiment Farm Down 4 Bine Canada. Pea 3 3454 3860 19 P. Henderson Well 5 Blue Canada Pea 3 29 3140 20 Experiment Farm Well 6 Blue Imperial Pea 3 28% 3349 16% B’dgr State s. farm Fairly 7 Choice Blue Pea.. 3 2854 1 3570 18 Ferry Fairly 8 Common White Field Pea... 3 24% 2000 1754 Ferry Fairly 9 White Field Pea . . 3 2454 1 4814 18 Ferr a” Well 10 White Canada Pea Is ! 24 3093 15 Experiment Farm Down. 11 White Prince Albert Pea 3 28 2977 22 , N. B. & Goodwin.. Down 12 No. 1 White Field Pea 3 24 2512 17 Ferry Down 13 Common WLite Pea 3 28%; 3651 2334 ; 40 Gregory Down 14 White Field Pea 3 2 3 ~/3 3116 1754 Ferry Down 15 White Canada Field Pea ! 3 l 25 54 3116 15 Experiment Farm Down 16 White Canada Field Pea 3 26% 2581 Experiment Farm Down 17 White Marrowfat Pea 3 31% 3442 21 N. B. & Goodwin.. Fairly 18 Tall Marrowfat Pea 3 ; 31 3244 ! Experiment Farm Down 19 Black E 3 ^e Marrowfat Pea.. 3 1 3254 i 4326 1754 Experiment Farm Down 20 Black Eye Marrowfat Pea.. 2Hi 33%j 2651 18% B’dgr State s. farm Fairly 21 Black Eye Marrowfat Pea.. 2% 30% 1209 2054 Maule Fairly 22 White Marrowfat Pea 2>4, 34 3768 2254 B’dgr State s. farm Fairly 23 Veitches Perfection Pea 254 2454 2954 -9% Experiment Farm Fairly 24 Scotchman Pea 254 21 2930 16 1 N. B. & Goodwin.. Well | 25 Latest of all Peas 21/2 23% 4186 Sutton & Son, Eng Well “ TABLE NO. 2. AVERAGE YIELDS OF FOUR CLASSES OF PEAS. Varieties. Bus. per Acre, 1890. Bus. per Acre, 1891. Blue Canada Field Peas 18 30 White Canada Field Peas I 8 V 4 26 White Marrowfat 22 .32 Black Eye Marrowfat 19 32 The yields did not vary so widely as was expected. In 1890 the Bine Prussian which has been a heavy yielder of straw went down very badly and did not yield many peas, and we could not save all that were matured as the vines laid so low. I was agreeably surprised to find the Marrow- fat varieties such good yielders of grain. I will not under- take at this time to advise as to varieties. Some help can be obtained from the tables and with catalogues of a few reliable 40 seedsmen the purchaser will stand a good chance of procur- ing a good stock of seed. Many varieties of common garden peas have been tried but all give too small a yield to com- pare favorably with the four classes above named for field purposes. From a study of the individual plants grown alone and in fields I believe that no easier line of improving varieties exists in any class of field crops than in peas. And it would be quite worth the while of Experiment Stations, of seedsmen and of amateurs to try to improve field peas by selecting and by cross fertilizing. The individual plant is easily studied and the flower can be artificially cross fertilized without great trouble. I have found the two great sources of loss in the crop of peas to arise from a lack of ability to stand erect on the part of the stems, thus causing the whole plant to be- come infested with fungus parasites (“moulds”) and the seed to be thus lessened in quantitv. And in the second place the legumes burst so quickly in case of most varieties, when the crop is drying that a very large per centage of the seeds shell out before they can be secured on the wagon. Those who undertake the improvement of these peas should look to getting stockier plants and pods that are tough. Some of the seed now on hand will make excellent foundation stock for careful work in improvement. METHODS OF SEEDING FIELD PEAS. The tabular statement below shows the results of seeding Canada blue field peas in several different ways. Very wet weather, while curing the vines, caused delay and consequent loss of peas as the alternate wetting and drying of the pods caused them to open and the peas to be lost. The largest two yields of grain were produced on plot six, drilled eight inches apart and seeded at the rate of three bushels per acre ; and plot four, drilled twenty -four inches apart and cultivated, one bushel and three quarts per acre. The smallest yields of grain were on plot one, drilled eight inches apart, two and one-half bushels of seed per acre, and plot seven, sowed broadcast at the rate of 3% bushels seed per acre. The largest two yields of straw were on plot three, one bushel seed per acre in drills 16 inches apart, cultivated between the rows, 41 and plot two, 1 Vi bushel seed per acre, drills 16 inches apart and cultivated ; while the smallest yields of straw were on plot four on which one bushel three quarts of seed per acre was sown in drills 24 inches apart and cultivated, and on plot five on which 114 bushels seed per acre was placed in drills 16 inches apart and cultivated. This land was clover and grass sod, spring plowed, and was fairly fertile. This is certainly a good example showing that repeated trials with field plots are necessary to give reliable figures. These plots were 33 rods long and no difference in the land can be observed upon inspection. Plot. Distance Apart of Drills. Amount Seed per Acre. Yield Peas, per Acre. Yield Straw per Acre, lbs. 1 2 8 inches 16 in., cultivated 2V\ bushels 1 bushels 6 bushels... 9.3 ' “ 1945 2 238 3 16 in., cultivated 1 bushel 7.1 “ 2604 4 24 in., cultivated 1 bushel and 3 qrts.. 9.8 “ 1452 5 16 in., cultivated 1 bushel and 8 qrts.. 7.8 “ ... 1542 6 8 inches 3 bushels 10.1 “ 1671 7 *Sowed broadcast 3% bushels j 6.3 “ 2112 8 *Sowed broadcast 2^4 bushels 1 8.2 “ 2097 9 *Sowed broadcast 1 bushel and 3 qrts.. 1 7.2 “ ... 1976 *Covered with Disk Harrow. The yield on this sod land was not more than half as good ' as on land very similar which had borne two crops of com since the clover and timothy sods were turned under. In this case cultivation did not pay, but more experiments are needed in this line also. The above results were obtained with a white variety of peas. Our practice has been to plant with a common shoe drill about three bushels of peas per acre, and letting them be covered 2% to 3 inches deep. They will stand being planted twice as deep but our general practice on many plots and with many varieties has been so uniformly successful that we can commend it. RAPE IN MINNESOTA. Rape ( Brassica napus) is grown in England for fattening sheep and also to some extent in Canada. There it is usually sown in June or July and used for fall pasture for fattening lambs, cleaning the ground of weeds and enriching it with the manure dropped. As some grain is given in ad- dition, the land is considerably enriched. When growing, rape appears much like rutabaga turnips, though it has not a thick root. It grows taller than the turnip forming a stem a foot or more high which bears many succulent leaves. On very clean land it may be sown broad- cast as Dutch turnips, but it will serve a double purpose on weedy land if sown in drills and cultivated a few times, as besides furnishing a crop of feed, the land is cleaned of weeds and nicely prepared for wheat or other grain. In Can- ada the farmers often sow rape after removing a crop of rve or after using it for pasture, or cutting it a little early for hay. The same plan might be followed here where the rape is wanted for very late sheep pasturage. It may also be grown on land not plowed until time to seed the rape, thus taking the place of summer fallow. We grew some rape last season on land on which we had mowed a crop of peas and oats, mixed, for hogs. There seems no reason to doubt that rape will do well on any of our lands suited to corn or potatoes. As it is used elsewhere only for fall feed we have no experience with it or knowledge of it except when sown about the first of July. Some grown on the Experiment farm last season did well and in September Prof. Shaw, of Ontario Agricultural College, said it was a good average crop as compared with rape grown in Ontario. Prof. Shaw has done considerable experimenting with rape and as he knows the practical methods used in its growth in Canada we have followed his advice largely in starting to grow it here. He says it does best to sow it late in June or early in 43 July so that it may develop in the cooler weather in the fall, but not so late that it will be too succulent or watery when 1 wanted to be fed off. The last week in June would seem to be the best time for the vicinity of St. Paul. Following Prof. Shaw’s advice we sowed in drills two feet apart, on land already well cleaned, and cultivated a few times to keep down weeds. One pound per acre of Dwarf Essex Rape seed was used. If sown broad cast three pounds' per acre should be used. We prepared the land nicely but did not ridge up as is the practice in the old country. Ridg- ing up for planting seeds in this country, subject to periods of drouth, is thought to be an injury. Our farmers will look upon cultivating rape as tedious, especially in weedy land where the hand hoe must be used to clean out the rows, but our state is becoming so befouled with weeds that we must learn to fight them, and by more profitable means than the bare summer fallow. When the rape is a foot or more high sheep may be turned into it and allowed to pasture it until very late as it withstands frosts until the freezing is very hard. Animals eating frozen rape are subject to digestive troubles and it must be cautiously done, if done at all. Rape makes good pasturage for cattle and hogs also are said to be fond of it. For dairy cattle it is hardly allowable as it taints the milk. About the only caution needed in turning sheep on rape is that they be well fed on other feeds for a few days or al- lowed only a short time in the rape at once. When turned in hungry they are liable to eat so much that bloating is caused. Ewes which are to be bred are liable to become too fat if pastured on rape for one or two months in the fall. RESULTS OF FEEDING RAPE TO SHEEP. Early in October, after a week’s preliminary feeding, eight sheep were divided into two groups, each containing two aged ewes, one yearling and one lamb, all Shropshires. Group 2 was placed in the rape day times and housed with- out other feed at night. Group 1 was given all the timothy hay, containing a little clover, they would eat, and were al- lowed a small yard to exercise in. Group 2 ate one-fifth acre of rape in thirty -two days. During the same period Group 44 1 ate 387 pounds of hay. Group 2 gained *4 pound each daily and Group 1 gained Vs pound each daily. The follow- ing table shows the results: ■Number Pounds Amount Average Total Average Group. of of hay of rape weight gain in daily gain Sheep. eaten. eaten. of sheep.. 32 days. per head. 1 4 387 113.5 16 Vs 2 4 1-5 acre. 120.2 34 V4 In terms of an acre, one acre of rape was eaten while the sheep fed hay ate nineteen-twentieths of a ton. Counting the increase of live weight at 4 cents per pound (the current value of sheep for feeders) and the hay at six dollars per ton (an average on Minnesota farms) and we have the acre of rape equal to $5.70 worth of hay and $3.20 worth of mut- ton more than was produced by hay on Group 1. We thus have one acre of this rape worth, for very late pasturage for stock, sheep the sum of $8.90. This crop seems very promis- ing as being adapted to add one more small diversity to Minnesota’s Agriculture. With the increase of sheep raising, we have hopes that rape may prove very useful. IMPROVEMENT OF TIMOTHY. WILLET M. HAYS. Efforts to improve our common field crops have not been pushed with as much vigor as the cost such improvements would incur in proportion to the great interests these crops represent would justify. Believing that experiments looking toward the improvement of those pasture and hay plants which are most extensively used would best repay the expen- diture, timothy and red clover were selected and a start was made two years ago. Very little progress has been made in case of clover, but with timothy the foundation seems to have been laid. In 1889 seeds of selected stocks or plants of timothy were gathered, and in 1890 a few hundred of these seeds were planted in good soil. Each seed was given more than one square foot of ground in which the resulting plant could spread. In selecting these seeds the effort was to secure a foundation stock of plants with some distinguishing mark, that any improvements which might be made would be on plants easily recognized as different from ordinary timothy, of which there is only one species or variety in common use in this country. It had been observed that the anthers of timothy at the time it is in the “ blue bloom ” vary in color from light straw color to dark blue. Plants representing the two extremes were marked when in bloom and when ripe the seeds were saved, the intention being to fix the colors as the distinguishing marks of two varieties. The rich soil and ample room caused the plants to make unusually strong growth, and a number of them retained the colors sought to be perpetuated. But this rich feeding forced the plants into a much stronger growth than occurs when crowded together in pasture or meadow. When head- ed out the second year, the plants then being 15 months old, 46 each one had spread by stooling to ten inches or less in di- ameter, some much more than others. Some had longer heads, were taller, had longer radicle leaves and were appar- ently much stronger and more desirable plants than others. Eight of the 324 plants developed some of the spikelets into marked branches, as shown in the photographic plate on the opposite page. As nearly all the spikes, 20 to 50, on each plant showing this variation had the branches, it is safe to assume that this feature can be made a fixed charac- ter by selection in a few to several years. These branches are useful mainly as a mark to go along with other intrinsic qualities, but they have a direct use in making the yield of seed greater. It would seem easy to continue or fix this characteristic by selection, and at the same time select to get plants better adapted to the various purposes for which timothy is grown. I was able from this first generation of plants to choose those having large size, long stem and radicle leaves, great spreading or stooling habit, tall, strong, and as shown by the natural sized photographs, long, heavy bearing “ heads' ’ or spikes. In climates subject to drouth, as is this, all grasses that do not send out root-stocks underground, but spread only by stooling, do not make a continuous sod but grow in bunches. The hay and pasture is less in quantity and coars- er in quality than if the blades and culms grew close and fine. Prof. Waldron, of North Dakota, says he has seen timothy plants which had the bulb so modified that but lit- tle further change would produce underground root-stalks. Such plants would be even better foundation stock to start with than that first used in the work above mentioned. This report of progress is here given to illustrate the pos- sibilities in this line of field crop experiments rather than to report finished results. Heads of barbed timothy are ob- served at very rare intervals in fields. The variation in timothy plants is even more than is observed between the scrubbiest stalk of corn and the stalk which grows tall and produces one or more large ears. The same may be said of other grasses and clovers. FERTILIZERS IN MINNESOTA. W. M. HAYS AND D. N. HARPER. During some recent years wheat did not prove as suc- cessful in many parts of Minnesota as when the land was first occupied. Newly broken land, as well as that which had borne several crops, would not yield as much wheat as was grown by the pioneers. Many theories for this decline were advanced. Many who had formerly lived in New England regarded it as soil exhaustion, and that we are causing ruin by shipping out of the state and removing from our lands the bulk of its fertility. Experiments to study this point were started in 1888 at this station. In that year nitrate of soda, sulphate of potash and superphosphate of lime, alone and in mixtures, also common salt and lime, were applied by Dr. Porter to plots on a centrally located field on the Experiment Farm. Each fertilizer and mix- ture was applied to wheat, oats, barley, flax, potatoes and beets. The soil was of more than average native fertil- ity, but had been cropped, mainly to wheat, for thirty years, and but little manure had ever been applied to it. The soil is a black loam, while the subsoil is made up of cla} r and considerable sand, and at a depth of several feet is underlaid with gravel. The results of this trial were recorded in Sup- plement I to the Fifth Biennial Report of the University of Minnesota, p. 137 to 160, inc. As that report is out of print, the following summary is here quoted, giving some of the results, simply to show the general rich character of this “upland” soil: “Nitrogen, in the form of nitrate of soda, had the effect of increasing the growth of the young plants of wheat, oats and barley so that they were larger and stronger, and better withstood the attacks of chinch bugs, which were very numer- ous. The effect on weight of grain could not be determined, as the chinch bugs prevented their ripening. Nitrate of soda 48 Increased the weight of oat straw over one-half ton per acre, and of grain three bushels per acre. Probably this increase in grain was due to the ranker growth of straw where nitrogen was scattered — being less favorable to the chinch bugs, which slightly injured the entire crop. Three hundred pounds per acre of nitrate of soda more than doubled the weight of flax straw, but did not increase the yield of flax seed per acre. Seven or eight bushels per acre less of pota- toes were grown on the plots treated with 300 pounds nitrate of soda than on unmanured plots. Nitrogen in- creased the yield of mangels two and one-half tons per acre. Clover produced many flowers and seeds (the same year as sown) on plots not fertilized with nitrogen, but on all those upon which nitrate of soda was* placed very few flowers were formed, though the leaves grew nearly or quite as strong. It has long been known that nitrogen increases the growth of straw more than grain. But in this case the clover was apparently kept from producing seeds the first year, on several plots by the application of nitrogen. “ Sulphate of potash and superphosphate of lime, applied together, showed an increase of one-fourth ton per acre of oat straw and flax straw, but no more grain. These two fertilizers caused no increases f potatoes or beets. “ Lime caused no increase of oat or flax straw or of oats, but in this single trial increased the yield of flax seed one bushel per acre. Lime lessened the quantity of potatoes and beets. “ Fifty bushels of salt showed an increase of five bushels per acre of oats, and 200 pounds of oat straw; of flax seed one and one-half bushels, and of flax straw 500 pounds, and of beets one and one-half tons per acre. No increase of pota- toes was shown from the application of salt. “None of these fertilizers caused enough increase to pay their cost.” TRIALS IN OTHER COUNTIES. In 1890, in response to requests from various parts of the state, experiments were begun to study tHe needs of the soil of the entire state and to learn, if possible, whether there is a general lack of one or more of the elements of fer- 51 tility. Along with practical trials of the kinds of fertilizers most often found beneficial in older countries, samples of the soil were taken for chemical analysis. It was not believed that the time had come in Minnesota for the general use of commercial fertilizers, but that the time had come when it was wise to know from actual experiments, regarding our soils. Commercial fertilizers were purchased and experiments were instituted on the so-called “worn wheat lands” in three widely separated parts of the State, viz: at Warren, Marshall County, in the northern part of the Red River Val- ley; at Windom, Cottonwood County, in Southwestern Minnesota, and at Taopi, Mower County, in the southeast- ern part of the State. At Warren, March & Spalding gave land on their large farm, also all needed labor, and in every way possible assisted in the work. To Sen. S. A. March, of Minneapolis, manager, our hearty thanks are due. At Win- dom the plots were on Mr. S. Huntington’s farm. Here also careful assistance was rendered by Mr. S. H. Rydeen, fore- man. At Taopi land was secured on the Chamberlain Farm. Our thanks are due Mr. H. H. Crossett, manager, for his careful assistance. At Warren there were twenty plots of wheat and eigh- teen plots of oats ; at Windom twenty-one plots barley and eighteen plots of flax, and at Taopi twenty plots of barley and twenty of wheat. The plan upon which these experiments were made was as follows: Upon equal sized, contiguous and very long- shaped plots definite quantities of fertilizers were spread. Each fertilizer contained but one fertilizing ingredient, or two or more ingredients by making mixtures in definite pro- portions. To determine the absolute worth of each fertiliz- ing ingredient or mixed fertilizer there was left unfertilized a sufficient number of plots for comparison. The statement of results further on gives the plan in detail as it was carried out at each place. 52 The fertilizers used and their analyses are as follows : Muriate of potash — 82.48 per cent, pure. Equivalent to potash, K 2 0 52.12 Golden Harvest Phosphate — P hosphoric acid, total 14.62 per cent Phosphoric acid, soluble 2.96 “ “ insoluble 3.85 “ “ reverted 7.81 “ Nitrogen 1.74 “ Land Plaster — 91.74 per cent, pure. Lime, Ca 0 33.33 per cent Sulphuric acid, SO 3 39.38 “ South Carolina rock. — Phosphoric acid, total 15.76 per cent “ “ soluble ^.. 8.15 “ “ insoluble 2.10 “ “ reverted 5.51 “ Nitrate of Soda. — 90.17 per cent, pure. Nitric anhydride, N 2 Os 53.22 per cent [Nitrogen] [13.8] The prices per ton charged for the several fertilizers used and where obtained, are shown in the following table : Nitrate of Soda, $48.00 per ton. Bowker Fertilizer Co., Boston, Mass. Muriate of Potash, 40.00 per ton. “ “ Superphosphate,... 20.00 per ton. “ “ “ “ Land Plaster $1 to 2.00 per ton. Land Plaster Co., Ft. Dodge, Iowa. Tankage, $13.00 per ton. St. Paul, Minn. Salt, $5.00 or less per ton. Lime, $3.00 to $10.00 per ton, owing to locality. In the destruction hy fire of our station building October 5, 1890, all records of results at Taopi were lost, while those at Warren and Windom have been only partially obtained from records left with the farm owners ; many notes regard- ing growth, etc., being entirely lost. The accompanying tables, I., II., III., IV., give the amounts of fertilizers used and the results in yields in tabular form. 53 TABLE I. WHEAT AT WARREN. I 1 Pounds WHEAT. Average. No. Kind of Fertilizer. per Acre. Pounds on Plot. j Bush 1 per j Acre. 1 bu Tb Pounds on Plot. Bush. per Acre. 1 1 (Salt 135 189 12-36 }i8iy 4 12- 6 2 Salt 270 | 1731/2 11-34 3 jLime 160 166 11- 4 }i6ey 2 "1 “1 R 4 Lime 80 167 11- 8 1 x — 0 ' 5 [No Fertilizer 171 11-24- 171 11-24 6 Nitrate of Soda 140 147 9-48 j j}l61 10-44 7 Nitrate of Soda 280 1 175 11-40 ! 8 _ „ ( Nitrate f 100 Complete 1 Muriate 296 37 11 180 294 12 No fertilizer 269 269 33% , Nitrate of soda 160 Muriate of potash 160 ] 13 Complete I Superphosphate 320 344 43 \ 324 % 41 14 fertilizer. 1 Nitrate of soda 60 Muriate of potash 60 ^ Superphosphate 120 305 30 J 15 Lime 120 282 351/4 34% 39% 282 }295% 35%. 37 16 Salt 320 276 17 195 315 18 No fertilizer Lost RESULTS AT WARREN. The soil at Warren is one of great native fertility, lays nearly level, and being underlaid with clay subsoil, is wet in years of unusually large rainfall. The bad effects of too much rain are obviated by means of ditches around the quarter sections. Into these ditches dead-furrows, made broad and deep by plowing the land the same way for suc- cessive years, and following the direction of the greatest in- cline, conduct the surface water when heavy rainfall occurs. The season previous having been a dry one, and the rainfall being rather favorable, our crops had fairly good conditions as to moisture. This land had been cropped to wheat for ten years or more, with an occasional summer fallow, and .ronce laid in timothy pasture for two years. It is a typical Red River Valley soil, but has had better management as to allowing and keeping down weeds than most lands in that 55 region which have been for so long a time under the plow. The grain was planted on fall plowing, the land having pro- duced wheat the previous year. The grain was sowed with a press drill, and the land was not even harrowed before or after the sowing. The crust formed on the soil during the winter was thus left intact, except where broken by the press TABLE III. BARLEY AT WINDOM, 1890. Pounds per acre. Barley. Average. Plot No. Kind of Fertilizer. Pounds Bush. per acre. Pounds Bush. per acre. 1 1 Land plaster . 375 Not threshed 2 3 Tankage, St. Paul 120 280 546 ! 40134 341 % 435V> i 519 45 V 2 ; 33V 2 i 28 V 2 ; 3614 ! 4314 381/2 38% | 38V 2 38V 4 51% | 34V 2 3934 29% 284 28V4 • 2734 25i/ 4 28 j>474 38% 4 No fertilizer 341% |477 28V 2 5 6 Salt 40 160 39% 7 8 Lime 160 320 463% 1 425 }444 461 37 9 No fertilizer ! 461 38% 45 10 Plaster or gypsum 40 i 458 [-536 j-445 11 80 614 12 Superphosphate 160 414 37 13 80 476 14 15 No fertilizer 3524 342 3524 29% 28% Muriate of potash 80 16 40 339 [■ 341 17 Nitrate of soda 80 334 264 18 40 30314 337 [ 319 19 No fertilizer 337 28 20 Complete fertilizer 320 58414 544 483 / 4 45 V 4 21 160 564 47 Average of plots with no fertilizer 373 ! | 31 Average of plots fertilized 423 4 i i 1 35% wheels and by the feet of the horses, thus preventing the wind from “blowing” the soil badly. When harrowed, and especially if rolled, in this region, the fine mellow soil is carried off in great quantity b}^ the strong winds in spring, if there is not ample rainfall to keep it moist. The fertilizers in this case were scattered in the drills with the grain by means of a fertilizer attachment on the Havanna Press Drill. This put the fertilizer in very close contact with the seeds, but no injurious results were shown by the appearance of yellow plants or otherwise, even when the fertilizers were put in unevenly in a few places to see if a greater quantity seemed to have injurious effects. The fertilizer attachment 56 used was an entirely new feature on the Havanna Press Drill, and excepting one small defect which is easily remedied t it worked admirably. Our thanks are due to the manufac- turers, Stoddard Mfg. Co., Dayton, 0., for their assistance, and for the use of their machine. Seed wheat and oats grown on March & Spalding’s farm the previous year was used. Like most grain in that locality of the crop of 1889, it was not first class in quality. The plots contained one- TABLE IV. FLAX AT WINDOM, 1890. Pounds FLAX. Average. No. Kind of Fertilizer. per acre. Pounds per acre. I Bush, per 1 acre. 1 bu. lb. Pounds per acre. Bush. per acre. bu. lb. 22 Salt . 160 107 7-36 j j j- 144 10-17 23 Salt 40 isi% 185% 198% 204% 214 13 1 24 Land Plaster 80 13-14 1 j- 192 13-40 25 Land Plaster 40 14-10 26 No Fertilizer 14-32 204 14-32 27 Superphosphate 160 15-16 I 16-37 28 Superphosphate 80 252% 208% 205% 167% 160 18 j- 233 29 Muriate of Potash 80 14-50 14-44 30 Muriate of Potash 40 14-38 r 207 31 No Fertilizer 12 167 12 32 Nitrate of Soda 80 11-24 12-25 33 Nitrate of Soda 40 188*4 180 13-26 r 174 34 Complete Fertilizer 320 12-48 j- 185 13-14 35 Complete Fertilizer 160 191 13-36 36 No Fertilizer 190 13-32 190 13- 32 14- 18 37 Lime 160 193 13-44 38 Lime 320 208 14-_48 j- 200 39 Tankage, St. Paul 130 187 13-20 187 13-20 Average of plots without fertilizer i II 1 I 187 j 13—20 Average of plots fertilized ! 1 1 1 1 191 ' 13-36 fourth of an acre each, and were fifty -four rods long by two seeders, about twelve feet, wide. The ordinary crop of wheat in this region when first settled was twenty-five bushels of No. 1 Hard per acre. The fact that even complete fertilizers produced a gain of not more than two bushels per acre of wheat and five bushels per acre of oats, indicates that the lessened yields of latter years is due mainly to causes other than a lack of fertility. In fact the general results of these experiments seem to strongly indicate that this soil is very rich, and that no general economical effect came from the use of these expensive fertilizers when applied to these small cereals. Thirty bushels per acre in 1892 has further 57 shown the owners that their lands need no fertilizers if climatic conditions are favorable to wheat. RESULTS AT WINDOM. The soil at Windom is a rich, nearly level prairie loam un- derlaid with a pervious clayey subsoil. It had been under cultivation for a dozen years or more, but being at some dis- tance from barns had never received any dressing of barn- yard manure. The barley and flax planted here were drilled in with a Missouri grain drill, and the fertilizers at once drilled into the same plots. Plot I, on which land plaster was sown on the*barley was so badly grown to weeds that it was not harvested. A few rods at the south end of barley plots 13, 14 and 15, also on 20 and 21, had been slightly manured from straw stacks which had been partially burned and partly allowed to rot there a few years before. The bar- ley here was down and badly affected with rust. On the flax plots, Nos. 22, 23, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 and 38, the flax died in very small spots where a former straw stack and two “low placed” caused the soil to be unsuited to the plants. No estimates of the size of these small dead patches have been preserved, so the tabular statement is faulty in that it is not corrected for the slightly lessened area in these plots. On inspecting the tables and the notes underneath, it will be observed that there is no general large increase in yields per acre by the use of commercial fertilizers. Some of the land plaster and complete fertilizer plots of barley seem to have been benefited. The general effects are but slight. RESULTS AT TAOPI. At Taopi the wheat and barley were sown on land that had been cropped mainly to wheat for nearly twenty years. Oats had been grown in alternation with the wheat a few times, and once the land had for a few years grown crops of timothy hay or timothy seed. As before stated records of yields were lost in the fire. This was especially unfortunate as on this older land that had been somewhat worse worn, and was not as rich originally as the vergin soil at Warren or Windom, the fertilizers would have had a little better chance to show profits. A few results which were especially 58 marked can be remembered. Nitrogenous manures made much greater growth of straw, both in case of the barley and the wheat. Tankage from South St. Paul also gave much larger yield of straw, doubtless due in the main to the nitrogen it contained, as no other fertilizer made any marked increase in the size of either wheat or barley plants. There was con- siderable more effect of the fertilizers shown here than at either of the other two places, but memory alone is not sufficient for reliable records. There was an increase in the grain, though not great. This, however, is true, that none of these fertilizers at Taopi caused the old-time yield of wheat, though the season was favorable as to the amount of rainfall. And the conclusion is safe that in Mower County, where the wheat has failed for most years during the past decade that fertilizers alone, with other conditions as they existed, would not bring the success with wheat that was experienced when that county was first settled. Mr. H. H. Crosset of Taopi, made a trial of a so-called “ wheat Phosphate/’ a complete fertilizer, sent him from Ohio by the proprietor of the farm, Mr. Chamberlain, with the following results : 1. Plowed in fall and in spring, 250 lbs. fertilizer per acre, yield 3,875 lbs. grain on whole plot. 2. Plowed in fall and in spring, no fertilizer, yield 2,55ft lbs. grain on whole plot. 3. Plowed in spring and in fall, no fertilizer, yield 2,903 lbs. grain on whole plot. OUR SOILS AND THEIR FERTILITY. When the lands of any state are so reduced infertility that commercial fertilizers are needed, and will repay their ex- pense, the farmers are forced to study the science of manures. If they remain ignorant and use fertilizers, they annually spend great sums of money on expensive fertilizers with de- lusive names, sold them by shrewd dealers, who make large profits. Chemists and botanists have worked out many facts regarding the science of supplying plant food to soils, and with a knowledge of these truths the farmer need not go far astray. Minnesota is not as yet in condition for the general farmer to make any money out of the use of com- mercial fertilizers, though in some cases land plaster might pay on clover, or even other crops, especially on the lighter or sandy soils. This fertilizer is cheap, costing only $3 per ton by the carload at Minneapolis. Tankage from our home stock yards, which is offered at $10 to $15 per ton, can doubtless be used with profit by some of our gardeners who are too far from city sources of barnyard manures, and who have light or rather poor soils. These two fertilizers will doubtless be the first that are used in our state. Wherever a proper system of rotations is observed, the rich lands, like those upon which our experiments have thus far been conducted, will remain so rich for some time, especially if crops are intelligently rotated, that expensive fertilizers will not pay. The larger part of soils now under cultivation in Minnesota are rich, and a great portion of that unculti- vated also has a very large amount of native fertility. There is, however, much land in the state which is too sandy to have stored up a very great amount of plant food. Other lands which lack in native fertility are not in very great quantity; some are too nearly clay; others, in the southeastern and in the northeastern portion, are on orig- inal rock foundation, and in places have not enough fertility to support continuous large crops for many years. Fertil- 60 izers will doubtless come into use on these poorer lands, but except for fruit and garden crops, which cost much in labor per acre and return large income per acre, they will not pay so long as lands not needing expensive fertilizers can be had as cheaply as now, and so long as stable manure is no mote expensive than at present. The amount of lands in this state, dotted with lakes as it is, which are too wet for culti- vation without artificial drainage, is also considerable. These wet lands are in nearly all cases full of fertility, and when drained with surface drains, or far better with tiles, thev are our very richest soils. They will even serve as mines of fertility from which we can grow crops to be made partly into manure for other and poorer parts of our farms. SOME GENERAL FACTS ABOUT FERTILIZERS. While the science of feeding plants is extensive, and the literature relating to it very voluminous, a few of the more general facts and principles will here help to make clear our method of experimenting to solve the numerous questions which come up regarding how to best raise wheat and other crops. As all matter is divided into about seventy -five elements of which all the numerous compounds both inorganic, without life, and organic, built up in living organisms, are made, we naturally seek first those elements which make up the com- position of plants. It is found upon analysis that oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica, sulphur and traces of a few others are the elements of which all plants are composed. Of these the first three, oxygen, hydrogen and carbon, are obtained mainly from the air, directly or indirectly. Water which is com- posed of hydrogen and oxygen is supplied by the atmos- phere to the soil, where the plant roots take it up. The car- bonic acid, which is composed of carbon and oxygen, is thinly mixed throughout the air, and when the plant is growing rapidly this gas diffuses toward the leaves and is there used by the plant cells. Thus where moisure is abund- ant plants can get all they want of oxygen from both these sources and of hydrogen from the water and of carbon from this carbonic gas which is a part of the air, and we need not 61 supply these three elements to the plants in manures even on the poorest soils. Nitrogen is in the air in very great quan- tity, and continually in contact with the plant, yet the plant can make no use of the atmospheric nitrogen. It is in the free state in the air, that is it is not in a compound with other elements, and the plants can not take it pure. There is also some in the air, in the compound called ammonia, but the plant leaves are unable to use this also. The nitrogen must be in some compound like nitrate of soda and be in solution in the soil-water around the roots or the plant cannot use it and there must be considerable of it present for crops to do well. Soils often become deficient in nitrogen, when better crops are raised if some manure containing a soluble nitro- gen compound is applied. This, then, is one element, the need of which we wanted to determine in our wheat lands. To determine if the soils needed nitrogen we applied nitrate of soda alone and also in mixtures with mineral manures. We also applied tankage, which contains a large amount of nitrogen. The four elements above named, viz: oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, are called the volatile plant elements, as they go off in the form of vapor when the plant is burned. The several other elements above named, viz : potash, phosphorous, soda, lime, magnesia and silica, together with traces of iron, chlorine, etc., are called the mineral or ash, as they remain as ashes when the plant is burned. These, like the nitrogen, must all be in the soil in soluble compounds so that they may be taken up by the roots of the plants out of the moist soil. Some of these ashy materials are not necessary in large quantities in the soil. In fact, none but potash and phosphorus are needed in greater quantity than is found in almost all soils. The soils of nearly all of Minnesota are made up of glacial material, which is com- posed of many kinds of stones and clay mixed together, thus supplying all the kinds of mineral food for plants. In some cases, however, where the various parts of this mixed glacial till were assorted out by water, and clay left in one place, sand in another and gravel in another, there may be a lack of one or more of these elements ; but most of the land 62 of the state now being cultivated is made up of that mix- ture of clay, sand, gravel and stones, which, as they decay or decompose into soil, supply all the ash elements plants need. This same glacial mixture, not too dense and impervious as tough clay or loose and leachy, as gravel or sand, is also best to hold the proper amount of moisture in readiness for plants and lets in air to decompose its own particles, and best serves as a storehouse to hold easily soluble nitrogen compounds. It also gives the best conditions for soil microbes. But from the experience of all other investigations we can as- sume that potash and phosphorous are the ashy elements most needed, if any are wanting. Some mere theorists have said that our great crops of wheat have taken so much silica out of our soils that they no longer have enough soluble sili- cates to make stiff, bright straw like that grown when the land was new. But this glacial drift mixture, of which most of our soils are made, certainly contains an over abundance of silica. Besides the dull colored straw is as common on new lands, in older settled neighborhoods, as on fields cropped for one or two decades. Confining our experiments on min- eral manures mainly to potash and phosphorous we applied the former in the form of muriate of potash (K Cl), mined in Germany, the latter in the form of prepared South Carolina phosphaticrock, or superphosphate of lime [CaH 4 (P 0 4) 2] and we found no general large benefit from the application of these substances. Phosphatic manures had a slight gen- eral beneficial effects, but not nearly enough to pay for the cost. These several elements which plants use are often in the soil in insoluble compounds or in a condition in which the plant can not use them. The potash, for example, may be there in abundance as a constituent of stony particles but not enough of it soluble so that the plants can procure all they need. So the nitrogen may be there in the form of un- decayed plants or manure and not be available to the crop. And the fact is, that only a small part of these elements in the soil is at any one time in soluble forms, but the wise provision of nature is for the insoluable part to gradually become soluble thus giving out to growing crops. a con- 63 stant supply. We call the soluble part of the nitrogen, for example, available nitrogen and that which is tightly locked nip in the soil the insoluble or non-available nitrogen. Ordin- arily the atmosphere, the sun, the rain, low organisms and the chemical reactions which go on in the soil, assisted by culti- vation in the presence of the plant roots, are depended upon to dissolve and make ready enough of the insoluable sub- stances to keep the plant constantly supplied. But in some instances it is found that help is needed to keep up a good supply of one or more of these elements. This help is often given by putting on some active substance like lime, land plaster, or salt which are usually not needed as food by the plant, but which act chemically upon the insoluble potash, nitrogen or phosphorous making it soluble and available to the crop. To see if any good could be done by the use of these ‘‘indirect fertilizers” salt, lime and land plaster were all tried at the three places where the experiments were per- formed. The results show that the soils at Warren and Windom are rich in all kinds of fertility. AtTaopi the older, poorer soil used was not very rich in nitrogen and the fact that continued cropping to small grain crops is “wearing it out” is plainly seen. An extended study of the chemical composition of the soils of the wheat fields was begun. But little progress has been made in this line as not only were part of the samples which had been gathered destroyed by fire but the chemical outfit was likewise lost. The newly erected chemical labora- tory furnishes accommodation much more nearly suited to the needs of this work than did the building formerly used. CONCLUSIONS. The one fact most prominently brought out is that our better lands are very rich in all kinds of plant food even after having grown crops of wheat for ten to twenty years. Neither nitrogen, potash, nor phosphoric acid when purchas- ed in commercial fertilizers will pay on grain crops on these rich lands. Not even land plaster, salt or lime will generally return their cost in increased crops while our lands are so rich. In short the time for the general use of commercial fertilizers, purchased in markets where we must compete 64 with gardeners and farmers on the worn out farms of older states and other countries, has not come. Farmers who have thin, much worn land should experi- ment with land plaster and with tankage. The expensive forms of nitrogen, potash and phosphatic fertilizers will not pay as yet in our young state. Much barn-yard manure rich in all these elements of fertility should be made, hus- banded and intelligently applied to those crops which will get from them the greatest benefit. They not only make the soils richer but keep them moister. We have wonderfully rich soils, it is wisdom and should be our pride to keep them rich. The lessened crops of wheat and other cereals comes main- ly from causes other than a lack of plant food in the soil. Rusts, unfavorable climatic conditions as to moisture, hot winds, hot sun, etc.; chinch bugs; land foul with weeds; too loose mechanical condition of the soil, and pool seed are some of the things which have done far more to lessen wheat yields than a lack of fertility. The study of some of these is of far more present importance than soil analysis or fertil- izers trials. University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 21. 3""Q"2>TIE], 1892. I. — SUGAR BEETS. II. — SORGHUM. JSP“ Tlie Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. University of Minnesota BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 . The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, Alexandria, 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, .... 1896. The HON. 0. P. STEARNS, Duluth, ------- 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, - 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1895. The HON. WILLIAM R. MERRIAM, St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - .... Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Chemist. T. L. H^ECKER, Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, - Veterinaran. J. A. VYE, - Secretary. SUGAR BEETS. D. N. HARPER. The production of Beet Sugar has been attempted in this country many times and in various places. Within the past few years it has proven successful in California and is now being carried on also in Utah and Nebraska. Since 1830 it has been a very profitable industry in Germany, Austria and France, and more recently in various other European countries. While the natural conditions in various parts of this country are more favorable to the pro- duction of beets and the manufacture of sugar from the beets than they are in any of the European countries the indus- try cannot yet be said to be fairly established here. During the past four years experiments have been made by the Experiment Station as to the adaptability^ of the .climate and other conditions of Minnesota to the production of good beets. Each year the results have been reasonably satisfactory. The experiments of 1890 were so encouraging and promised so much that it was deemed advisable to make very extensive tests during the following year. Seed was imported in considerable quantity from Germany and distributed, with the kindness of the railroads, free, to about twenty -five hundred farmers in all parts of the state, together with instructions for the planting, cultivation, and harvesting of the beets. The railroad companies very kind- ly permitted free transportation of samples of the crop from all farmers who would send the same in, and the State Agricultural Society provided premiums for the best fifteen samples. Owing to the disturbed conditions of the Experiment Station, the delivery of the seed was very much delayed and a large part of it sent out failed to reach the farmers in time for planting. There were, however, a great many 70 who returned beets for analysis, and a statement of the re- sults is given in the following pages. The work upon the State farm was arranged to show the cost of production, the yield per acre, the quality of the beets as affected by cultivation, and to test the use of various ma- chines in the planting and cultivation of the beets. As it was to be expected, the beets grown upon the farm were much better than those produced anywhere else. In the last sugar beet bulletin published, it was stated that the establishment of the beet sugar industry in this country depends chiefly and primarily upon the farmer. The results of last year gave renewed evidence of this. Upon the State Farm the results as to the quality of the beets were all that could be expected, and show that we possess the conditions necessary for the production of the best beets for the purpose of sugar manufacture. While the results elsewhere in the state vary greatly, this variation is chiefly due to the difference in cultivation given. Many farmers had the mistaken idea that it was necessary to have highly manured lands in order to grow good beets. This, it was pointed out in the last bulletin, is just what we must guard against. The best lands in our state for the raising of beets are those lands which have been cropped for a considerable number of years to grain, and are what may be termed our “worn out” lands. By careful production of beets these can be restored to their native fertility. The detailed results of analyses are as follows: All the analyses of sugar beets recorded in the following tables were made by Mr. John Thompson , assistant in the chemical laboratory at the station. ANOKA COUNTY. 71 A vg. Weight of Beets. Oz. Sugar Per Ton ONO n Ci H COCiCi Purity Per Cent Sugar Per Cent iq co «o 10 4 C Hrlr cr c ^ 7 £ £ £ •Sgi! a 0 O X •H X X ci >< H Z C a Cd K Pd a w PQ £ P O CJ W H Pd W W & PP K>> +» 3 ~ Ui ! o qOOOOOOOOOOOOO i +J T C , O r C , C T o r C r C; r C T C T C’C , C T C CJ c QOOOOOOOOOOOOO C ”C r O ’C 'O T3 'O "O *0 T3 'O *0 'O I BLUE EARTH ( Continued .) 72 Avg. weight of beets. Oz. 01 O X G CO^lflClnOMlCHWXC^^oOXnCOCXCCO CO Tf ri 05 U; CD 01 ^ H 05 rj O H ri CO X i> 01 © © CO ^ LO LO LO CO © ri CO 0) id CD CO CO CO 05 ri oi H 01* CD 05 LO M* H? CD ri LO 4 CD 00 ri LO 05 CD © P 1- b- t- N t- CD © 1> GO t- 1" 1- CD H t- X t- t" b- l'- 00 1> U- N Sugar per cent 10 CD CO rj 05 »0 X CD rH X CD H CD rf LO 10 H 05 01 LO X # © LO H X C 01 X CO © ri © oi ^ ri ri 05 05 6 CO 6 ri 01 oi © 00 © 01* 4 CO* 4 4 4 oi oi CO ri ri ,>00 COOOI O O T£j rjH 05 T— rQ T£J i— r* : rc ’G r* 05 -p £ o O oz ^ r^ r+< ^ t-cooooooooooo rH P Ol03030:0303 , u T O T O , O r O lD p 02 y g y s 000^0c0000000C001>000C000 © OD +-» P T O-P T O T O T O'O , (D 7 O r C T O r 0 r C J' T O r O T C r C OO © y 0- y O oz o y D O o ? 0+ 1 , y O oz T< ^ y o o . ■8 s S bp y ^ o H > d 5 C ^ 5-1 cr 1 . .• -Sag'S S* OOOOO O’O o g T C r 0 r d T 0 ’ 0 T d , < 5 T c 5 3 M feOOOOOOrO w ” 0 'O T 3 T 3 TD T 3 qT 3 £ X ObGOCJ^HXOOCJ I^HIOOICDOHXOCO Cl 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 Tjj Tf 1 > CO CD 010 - CO H 01 • 4 o' O CD N tH 10 CO* CO GO XXbH^XMOXt' 10 CO iqooxco i oi th oi co 6 4 4 h zo s 0 S : c c o 0 > (-» K C-P ® fl® 5 S^O'C : 3 ] 0 0 c 5 O O o : : : ^o-cd : flOO ^^OoooS^ S % pq H P P O a p p u ^ o 01 01 t- co a o i 01 H 01 01 H 01 b* 01 6 6 o’ cd X CD Xt- CD^^cD 01 -l U 01 O O £*0 +J 03 £-m a O a O 20 ’O'O W 4» > > 0 o £ £ £ £ r* &I :*E ass* :d : o £ | S'S'O o o 2 ^OIOtJ CD CD CO rjt 01 01 01 01 H P P o a o 0 n 1 T! 1 n i cj S' S 3 td ,fl cd ? o«2 f : ^ coo 0 ’C T O r ^ I d , rj'O’O’O « CHISAGO COUNTY ( Continued ). 74 Avg. weight of beets. Oz. coooxt- : :© :H 05 : : :CMX© co -, t oi h : : cm :hh : : : h cm Sugar per Ton CO XHOX©rj 5 xCMlOlO^OH>XCOCOCO t^ioxr-^cocoi>T}iT}icoiocoNcox^ CMCMCMCMCMCMOICMCMOICMCMCMCMOIOIOI Purity per cent WXHCOOqHffliqoOUCCUGCHOO| hV ©‘ X N © 10 H H CO* CO H GO 4 CO X H XSSXbXXfcXt'NXXXXXX Sugar per cent 10 X 10 to x © 10 © © © 01 rf< © 01 CM CM CO X © X X X X CM 4 X CM X X X © CM X CM X X X 4 X ^HfcXCM HfcHcjVHH N’O’d S & U * s£ ££ Ooj'oOOO^OJ'oOOOOO u O o .0^ Ou 30 30 U O - S 3 £ 3 _ _I f T ej cs +j o g H ctf O S'Cofi' 5-5 5,2 § S’ 0 g g g-o.s S“-a.S_2^«2 KS 3 x 0 Ph x x x O LO Q O CO tJ< O Ol CM CM CM CM CM M^HOONO GO GO X U- CO X l>Xt-l>l>CO lOOCMXCMCM oi 4 6 h cm 6 l> l> lOrJH H CM CM CM 'CJ’S £’d T 6 •ss^ls oMgfflK § o o’ i^H k O ■243 s •■ -^ r O < 2 p o a o o V a o W a . W flj ,a+S * H £ P O a < O M Q 00 0000*0100 OOriXHHW W N N N O O OJNCiO q © © CO © 00 CO 10 OOUCCUbU ~ 4 ^ cn q q q ^ ^ 6 4 © © h 00,2 . ©^ ^«00 0 * 0 * > OJ OJ aa aft 53 V) *j 3 2 £ § o -' u fl o « o££ 05 Q f / ^ < oh NOOOO b* b* 00 © LO 0* 0* Cl CO CO h t- co co q 05 05 b* CO CO b* © b* 00 00 £ 0 0 O v O’C’C’O 3 o 3 oi v 2 S 5 « y-» M aJ a . o cs.qp rt ^ 2 r !Z 3 .u cut- c £? 5 «r cj & fe ^ c ,r- ^ o ^ : ■< §a 75 • a p w • v- < OOh . PPP 2 ' 1 _s , «j'c s £ Ms j q ■ ^° w «£ * 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ^ 0 0 0 0 * 3 ? 3 T 0 T O r C T 0 , 0 T 0 , 0 T 0 T 0 T 0 £*0 03 03 03 gr -3 J $ ij V 77, ^ o cd a Cl Cl Ob oo oi b*t- s,2 go 0 y 20 P O U P P Z S3 P w 0^ w« H Z P O o z o co M u < & s. as? «a ^ c> S c0 ,o J- 5£ g o "1 -M O y 20 (X H Z P O u a o >< HH Q Z 'O r O-M b ”0 n o ^ o ° 2 Oz y 0 ^ !-< J-, P tew g *C y'O y g.in o w 5 .i < > m — *— 5 0« .*Eb w br fr o . q PQ « |*§ y 0.5 o o 5 H Z P O o p p p < p hH P a u «*} p 0 0 0 ci XO OX Cl Cl o g •+j > y O 02 K« fl,’d ° »5 ^ CD C Cl HHIO COCO Cl X 10 CO io io ci H tH ri tQ S y 0 O > f C r C H Z P O u I p p p p tn P P $ S?i 1l‘fc O jj U y c -M 3 c S® -1 £ w a h5 LE SUEUR COUNTY. ( Continued .) 78 A vg. weighti ofbeets. Oz. Sugar per ion Purity cent.., per Sugar per cent 75 d XX 0 X 0 . Nt-KXh O 0 0 0 P r o r d'a T d 0 z gSflJI Oj • 4 ) M u W W W PcJ 0 a o o o ^ « § X ONNOX ^XCiOX 01 04 01 H io ^ tj< © ^ O u O y 2020 w c, a> r* U O Cl 5-i S 0< 13 a »-i .S hS r. rt +J > Ph EC _* CP PS 'd d H O . „ os cc vh a _ 5jq Ui frt O a U ^iZ b o o a r * ®j T 3 *0 « £? p x^ : :+» d Ht>H H 0 0 0 0 O 01 H3 'C ^ ’TJ T3 U 01 Voodoo 4j *0 ^3 'O ’O X3 ° g-s’? j» l£^|S o .hr -h.' .►T oi d . . h)^POhI 200000 y *o t5 r d *0 ’O +■> ss w H z p o cj p p P p p H p o CJ P P P l001^Tf(X01X01 OMCO^^rj(OlO 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 O 01 01 H CO 00 01 to oi co x co co co io oi q t- oi £ h q q 6 H H 01 01 01 d 01 ^xoooooo ^ } _ ( , 0’0 T 0 T C T 0 r C 01 v-p * 01 g -SoOOOOOO 4J > r 0 *0 *0 "O TO 'C o O OP 43 c O cj S s 1- In i, oi Z-Q »-« 41 S SB iSB d 0 W 01 d# 0> pST3 H.tJ'CT.IS .s P ‘5 g tc v< l-i i® ,fl i-i y SODOO ao^ caap CVC o « p, oi ~ S N>PP> p r . d 0£ 000000 .(/) r C r C T C T u r C T C p Pi >< H S 5 p o CJ H p p p o CJ -£0000000 ^ >), 0 *0 *0 ^ TD r O 'O d CO CON H H H CO XOCO 10 X X H 01 01 01 01 1 q £ oq i^cid t-CDl- 1 id - q £ q co 01 h o H H H H 01 C 01 n G _ ,0 0 £ ° o 4-> ^'O -M 01 O Cl O P O a o« d *c 'O 43 d ^ s J^p 5 NORMAN COUNTY. 80 |. A vg. weight of be ms. Oz. Sugar per Ton CD N X ON CD N N N Purity per cent i H O H N NO Sugar per cent CO H tJJ CO H CO § c o P'OG'd ft biDo bfi ^ WH DUD °Og> : -p 4 -> : dh dh : cj c i cj y Coo Phh 5 ^ N TjjTjJ O GO X o d H o NCOt-HlOCCO CONNNrINN lOXOONrHX j 3 < DOO 1 ! 2 d O 10 X LO N d ^ d l> ^ x J> x c- x x u* o t- t- 1 > N OlO 10 N 101005 01 N X H N U- CO G> H CO X i H 6 H 4 LO N X O N i-i co ! HrlHHrlrl HHH *1 ©TfC 0 XCW 05 U 0 > U *5 5-1 « g w u • .ont.®*® « ssw-v.j’SjH! jjooo ej 03 03 03 S3 .5 S^ooo P^ U 03 03 ft C$ !Tj £ ^ w P*> ft o o o £ o J'G'O’O^'O S 3 .£ w X PIPESTONE COUNTY. 81 H CO 05 O CIMHCI CO H 10 05 Cl l> 05 l> t- t- CO p* 2 p o U M P o P ^ $3 £'C > 0 2 B s> s.§ WQ la o 2 ^QO> d«w«i CD . . t- CO Cl CO H H H S n 03 0 >•"0 P fl £ 0 t£ 0 P P P S^ 3 ci W OCOCI 10 CO Cl C l Cl CO 05 i> CO 05 CO > 03 O 02 Sgs 0» . ^ X w w, •jh 0 oj > H T 1 p o > y 03-H w W o X rfi HO CO X CO ^ CO o’ CO X CO Cl did o > V 0 02 P* H p o a p a HH p p* H p a ao z p > p p *§ a i ooo X^frH Cl Cl Cl °c s o’O 5 > O 5 >< P p p o a Q Q o H 0.0 P 1 03 p: « W o Z . ^ o ll® 03 ww 3 fc £ t£ C o o3 O’O ww WABASHA COUNTY. 82 A vg. weight of beets. Oz, Sugar per Ton Purity per cent Sugar per cent a OOOt CD 00 00 010101 OOrj CO H rlrlH y O O O O cw O o h 4 fro o n’O'O OHO CD X 01 01 HOI O X CD 010101 u y & W. So S-2 0 O.y zo o d oS£-r •c K g Ph^. a d y rp £>> » y y y aaft a 05 o U 7) 6 a *C g Ph P— >0 *0 kH H P O o s O W £ CD 01 H COXOlOOXCOOO^OCDXO CDt-LOH^OlHH'tXUOOlDCD H01010101010101010101H0101 X X H 10 H ID H CO b* X H 6 O* H X 10 CD H 10 H CD* O d X OOXXbbt'XbbXM'M' £ 0 0 O O'US'P'O U’S, ^ y g « £ H *0 OOP Sa- 2 'O'O'O y y w OXO y TJ £ 11 §! y g/G-g Ow £x n « • yp^H-, a^ §. a •*» y °a£ y y P H H r* H H GO CD 00 CO l> 10 H © CO CO 05 CO l> H CO H CO H CO 05 ri CO H 00 05 CO 05 05 o 05 HHHHH rlH H H H H H oid H H rO UlP 5-1 V- O ^ S V cj 1 ) $ IH-p’O'C'O'd O u O y cj O a zozoo zo ^ssii§§Htii £ £« « ££& o 2,2,ov, o^ooooS ^ c'O'O'a^ § 0 0 0 0 0 ■ 2 ’£ r O T O r 0 r O T O u& ZB 0 g -M £ CJ O 0 £ p o u w z HH u HH Q W O hd hd « os; dW oo BEETS ON THE STATION FARM. The analysis of beets raised upon the State farm recorded below were made from samples selected as follows : On Sept. 26th, 28th and Oct. 1st, 5th, 7th, 9th and 13th, a lot of beets of each variety were pulled and mixed indiscrim- inately and averaged, leaving from three to five for analysis. Parts of each of these were rasped, the juice expressed under heavy pressure and analyzed. The last fifteen samples on Oct. 13th and the samples of Dec. 2nd were taken from piles where all the beets had been placed by varieties. The beets showed rapid improvement from the 26th until the 1st of October. On the 4th rain set in lasting several days resulting in a lowering of the percentage of sugar and purity, yet the averages still remained high. The results are as follows : DATE. VARIETY. SUCROSE. PURITY. Sept. 26 16.89 86.6 16.77 88.3 16.04 82.2 16.87 80.3 15.92 77.6 17.11 81.5 17.98 85.6 15.18 77.8 16.32 85.9 15.80 79. Knauer’s Imperial 13.24 66.2 Zuckerreichste Elite 15.37 75.1 Vilmorin White Improved 16.22 85.4 Klein wanzleben 16.94 84.7 Knauer’s Imperial 15.50 77.5 Average 16.14 80.9 85 DATE. VARIETY. SUCROSE. PURIT\ . Sept. 28 13.92 73.3 “ 16.36 81.8 “ 14.08 74.1 “ 17.09 87.7 “ : 14.21 81.1 “ 16.58 80.9 “ 17.61 83.9 “ 17.99 85.7 “ 17.40 82.9 “ 15.92 81.6 Knauer’s Imperial 15.64 78.2 Zuckerreichste 16.58 80.9 Vilmorin White Improved 15.33 80.7 Klein wanzleben 16.33 81.7 Knauer’s Imperial 16.58 82.9 Average 16.11 81.1 Oct. 1. Vilmorin White Improved 16.58 82.9 Kleinwanzleben 18.49 84. “ “ 17.67 84.1 “ ' “ 17.34 82.6 Dippe’s Improved 16.99 85. Vilmorin White Improved 17.36 82.7 Dippe’s Klienwauzleben 16.54 84. Vilmorin W^hite Improved 16.67 83. Kleinwanzleben 17.98 92.2 “ “ 15.67 84.7 Kleinwanzleben Elite 16.42 82.1 Kleinwanzleben 17.83 84.9 “ “ 17.67 86.2 “ “ 17.52 87.6 “ “ 15.12 88.8 Zuckerreichste 16.77 88.3 Dippe’s Kleinwanzleben 16.67 83.4 Kleinwanzleben 18.37 89.6 “ “ 19.15 89. Dippe’s Kleinwanzleben 17.09 85.5 French, Very Rich 16.94 84.7 Average 17.18 85.5 10 86 DATE. VARIETY. SUCROSE. Oct. 7. ...f. 13.51 13.29 14.33 14.39 16.11 15.24 14.23 12.45 “ Kleinwanzleben Elite 13.54 “ Zuckerreichste Elite 14.71 “ Knauer’s Imperial 13.29 “ Kleinwanzleben 13.26 Oct. 9. “ 11.64 “ “ 15.64 “ Zuckerreichste 14.23 Kleinwanzleben 15.58 Vilmorin White Improved 16.90 “ Kleinwanzleben 16.90 “ “ 16.58 “ “ 17.09 “ Dippe’s Kleinwanzleben 15.79 “ Kleinwanzleben 15.96 “ Vilmorin White Improved 16.21 “ “ “ u 16.52 “ Dippe's Kleinwanzleben 13.90 u Kleinwanzleben 16.90 “ French, Very Rich 14.58 “ Kleinwanzleben 14.86 “ Dippe’s Improved 16.11 “ Kleinwanzleben 13.27 “ u 15.08 “ Kleinwanzleben Elite 14.39 “ Knauer’s Imperial 13.60 “ Kleinwanzleben 14.23 Oct. 13. u u 14.82 15.45 15.85 16.6 PURITY. 84.4 83.1 89.6 87.2 94.8 87.1 79.1 75.4 79.6 86.2 83.1 78. 75.1 84.5 81.3 82. ' 84.5 84.5 85.1 89.9 83.1 84. 87.6 91.8 81.8 84.5 83.3 84.9 87.1 78.1 83.8 83.7 82.4 82.2 83.9 83.5 86.6 95.4 Average 87 DATE. VARIETY. SUCROSE. PURITY. Oct. 13 15.85 86.1 “• 15.8 82.7 “ 14.95 85.4 “ 16.6 86. “ 16.0 84.2 “ 15.7 82.2 “ 16.35 86.1 “ 12.25 79.5 “ 12.7 77.4 “ 15.1 84.3 “ 16.4 85.4 “ 14.55 82.2 “ 14.6 84.9 “ 14.75 86.2 “ 14.2 83.5 “ 15.55 96.6 “ 15.1 86.8 “ Knauer’s Imperial, 12.8 79.5 “ 15.3 84.1 “ 15.65 85.9 “ Zuckerreichste, 17.25 82.6 “ 16.75 85.5 Kleinwanzleben Elite, 14.65 81.4 “ Kleinwanzleben, 13.5 77. Vilmorin White Improved, 16.75 82.1 “ 14.6 80.2 “ 15.15 83.7 Average 15.2 84.2 Dec. 2 19.2 83.1 “ 18.9 87.5 “ 18.0 85.7 “ 19.2 86.1 “ 17.5 85.4 “ 18.7 89. “ 16.5 84.6 “ 18.5 84.1 “ 18.0 82.5 “ 15.5 84.7 88 SUCROSE. PURITY. 18.5 84.8 18.1 84.2 20.4 89.0 20.4 88.7 19.3 86.5 16.8 80.8 16.4 82.8 20.0 85.1 Average 17.7 85.3 The above results show that in many parts of the state the production of sugar beets can be made successful in so far as quality is concerned. The seed was distributed in such quantity as would make it possible to get reliable re- sults as to the yield of roots. Few farmers, however, were able to make the experiment complete, owing largely to the exceptional returns of other crops last year. The reports re- turned show the yield of beets to vary from six to forty- eight tons per acre. The most reliable estimates place the average yield about twenty tons per acre where the require- ments of cultivation were observed. While not as full and complete as it was anticipated the results would be, we can nevertheless say unhesitatingly that all agricultural requirements for the production of good beets are successful- ly met in Minnesota. But beyond the necessity of having suitable soil, favorable climatic conditions, unexcelled transportation facilities, we must have what is yet lacking on the part of the farmers, namely : A knowledge of the cultural requirements more generally diffused and a willingness to produce beets. Without a plentiful supply of beets, the best factory, ever so perfect, can only fail. It is generally known that the manufacture of sugar from sugar beets is, under the provisions of the McKinley bill passed by the last Congress, sufficiently remunerative to in- duce capital to erect factories wherever good beets in sufficient quantity will be raised. I am informed the jobbing and confectionery trade of the Twin Cities used last year about 175 tons of sugar per day. DATE. VARIETY. * 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 * 4 4 89 To supply this quantity of sugar would require 25 to 30 factories. As our results have shown we can produce our own sugar. But the returns from beet raising have not proved satisfac- tory in many places where factories are now in existence. Inasmuch as it is likely another season may witness the inauguration of the industry in Minnesota it may be well to point out the interdependence of the farmer and manufac- turer and the causes which have contributed elsewhere to unsatisfied expectations. The interest of the farmer and manufacturer are mutual, probably more dependent the one upon the other than in any other industry. A factory costs complete, exclusive of the site, and including ample running capital, nearly a half a million dollars. Such a factory should have 25,000 to 40,- 000 tons of beets to work into sugar. Inasmuch as the fixed charges including interest, taxes, insurance, etc., must be very large on that amount of investment, and the season for using the beet sugar plant quite short, it is readily seen that inability to secure ample supply of the beets must cause failure. With a bountiful supply of beets any factory could afford to pay higher prices than if the supply were short, so that over-production of beets is not likely to occur. On the manufacturers’ .side the supply of beets as regards quantity and quality is almost the only question to be solved. On the farmers’ side, however, almost everything remains to be demonstrated. After having proved that good beets can be raised he has yet to demonstrate the yield and cost; but fortunately these conditions are largely controlled by the farmer himself. The crop, in order to be profitable to the farmer, must show results as follows : 1st. A beet rich in sugar. 2d. A sufficiently large yield per acre. 3d. A not extravagant cost of production. 4th. A sure market at good price. These requirements can be met by the farmer if he will intel- ligently and faithfully practice the proper methods of cultiva- tion. These are well determined and no other agricultural 90 product has had more careful study bestowed upon it, and none is capable of more scientific production. The four points, enumerated, which it is necessary for the farmer to take into his calculations if he contemplates raising beets, can be settled as follows : To raise rich sugar beets in good quantity, at the minimum expense the farmer must plant and cultivate them as follows and for the reasons assigned : 1. The seed must be planted thickly, our results show 20 pounds per acre to be best for our conditions, in close rows, sa}' 18 inches apart. By planting thickly a multitude of plants grow from which selection can be made of the most thrifty. Within reasonable limits the more seed planted the less damage can result from poor germination. An acre if shaped forty rods long by four rods wide and using 20 pounds of seed in rows 18 inches apart would require de- posited in each row one half pound of seed. That is from three to four times the amount used in seeding for stock beets. 2. The beets must be thinned out early, when they are three to five inches high, and cultivated at that time and frequent^ thereafter. Direct experiments have repeatedly shown that the amount of sugar in the beets, as well as the tonnage yielded is in direct proportion to the amount of cul- tivation given. 3. The selection of land must be made by reason of its be- ing old and clean, well and deeply plowed and free from manures. If weedy land is used more expense is caused by the greater amount of cultivation needed and it will almost invariably happen that the cultivation must be delayed. So that by planting thickly, thinning out early and care- fully giving frequent cultivation, and making proper selec- tion of soil, the cost of production is minimized, the quality is improved and the yield increased. Furthermore, by this means the maturity of the beet is hastened and made uni- form, and the size of single roots decreased and made regu- lar. Stock beets are usually planted in three feet rows and thin in the rows. In our state phenomenal yields of large 91 beets are of usual occurrence. A beet for sugar production must not exceed three pounds and is better to weigh only one. When the requirement is stated that beets must be small, one thinks this must decrease the total yield, while on the contrary it increases it. With an acre field forty rods long by four rods wide, there would be forty -four forty rod rows if the same were 18 inches apart. Our soils are so rich that to secure small beets the plants must stand close in the row. If they are let grow four inches apart there would be on one acre 87,120 roots. If each beet weighed but one pound that would represent over forty-three and a half tons. If six inches apart in the rows there could be 58,080 plants, which yielding one pound each would be over 29 tons. If eight inches apart in the rows there could be 43,560 plants, which weighing one pound each would be over 21.75 tons. But to keep the beets from exceeding one pound in our soil it will be necessary to let a great number grow, say one plant every four to six inches, so that the probable yield is large. As high as forty-eight tons per acre were reported last year. But results worked out on paper always vary from actual experiences and so it has happened with the production of sugar beets. In California the yield has reached as high as sixtv-one tons per acre, while in Nebraska the average du- ring the past two years has been under ten tons per acre and as low as three or four tons. An excessive drought was ex- perienced there in 1890 which cut down the yield materially. Except along the western border of our state such droughts do not occur and cannot affect our results. Furthermore the raising of beets in Nebraska has been done mainly upon a large scale by syndicates of business men, not farmers. As beets require a vast amount of work and at certain times, the chances are largely against success when their production is attempted on a large scale; no farmer should attempt to produce more than ten acres of beets and few should raise more than five. While our results indicate success, farmers should be con- servative in raising beets, as the cost of production is much greater than for other crops, and the requirements more ex- acting. 92 The premiums offered by the State Fair for the best fifteen samples of beets, where the station should analyze the beets, were to be rated as those having the highest ratio, of both the amount of sugar and the purity of the beets. This report was submitted to the secretary of the State Fair and has been published by him. It was required that the beets competing for these prizes should reach the Experiment Station not after Nov. 20th. The best beets reaching the Station by that time are as follows, and the prizes have been awarded to the first fifteen samples named: Sug. Pur. % % Ratio. O. G. Ho eg, St.Johns, Kandrvohi County 16.1 90.9 190.96 *J. F. Porter, Red Wing, Goodhue County 16.7 85.8 188.75 *P. P. Eddy, Willmar, Kandiyohi County 17.7 80.2 188.23 fH. M. Slee, Dennison, Goodhue County 16.2 86.6 186.80 fj. F. Porter, Red Wing, “ “ 16.2 85.9 186.03 H. Metz, Randolph, Dakota County 15.2 88.9 183.68 H. Clarke, St. Paul & Duluth Railroad 16.1 83.9 183.26 J. Cappell, Watkins, Meeker County 15.65 85.3 182.26 *H. M. Purdy, Granite Falls, Yellow Medicine County 15.4 84.6 180.08 *P. Klippbein, New Ulm, Brown County 16.4 79.2 179.69 August Lofgrew, Chisago, Chisago County 14.3 88.9 178.59 fP. C. Anderson, Donnelly, Stevens County 15.3 83.6 178.41 R. A. Johnson, 16.1 78.2 176.99 *A. Burkhard, Hay Creek, Goodhue County 15. 83.3 176.39 G. R. Rovel, Sabin, Clay County 14.9 83.7 176.26 H. L. Peuilly, Mazeppa, Goodhue County 14.1 88.7 176.24 P. S. Hasbird, Madison, Lac qui Parle County 14.9 83.2 175.71 J. Sjohleme, N. Branch, Chisago County 13.9 88.3 175.67 A. Kaufer, Montgomery, Le Sueur County 15.8 78.2 175.30 J. Murphy, Barnum, Carlton County 14.8 83.1 175.21 H. Clarke, Sturgeon Lake, Pine County, 15.25 80.9 175.16 W. A. Patten, Le Sueur, Le Sueur County 14.8 88.2 174.05 © J. F. Porter, Red Wing, Goodhue County 14.5 83.3 173.56 ttP- Dehew, St. Michaels, Wright County 14.75 81.8 173.31 tA. Kop, Eagle Bend, Todd County 14. 85.4 173.05 P. Weiss, Hutchinson, McLeod County 14.7 81.7 172.93 Jesse Moore, Stacy, Chisago County 13.33 88.7 172.89 J. Hanenstein, New Ulm, Brown County 15. 79.8 172.53 R. A. Peterson, Warren, Marshall County 14.1 84.4 172.51 J. M. Schlehr, Frazee City, Becker County 14.4 82.7 172.34 L. C. Moore, 14.8 80.4 172.06 -J. Peterson, Elbow Lake, Grant County 15.1 78.3 171.45 C. Jobs, Carver, Carver County 14.6 80.7 171.25 93 Sug. Pur. % % Ratio. W. Heinecke, Mankato, Blue Earth County 14.5 81. 171.02 J. F. Kahring, Barnum, Carlton County 14. 83.3 170.74 *A. S. Printchers, Ashby, Grant County 14.5 80.6 170.58 C. A. Sargent. Red Wing, Goodhue County 13.6 85. 170.35 Yae Lovack, Kettle River, Pine Count}" 14.1 82.4 170.31 K. B. Norswing, Dennison, Goodhue County 14.5 80.1 170.03 A. Becker, New -Ulm, Brown Count}" 14.3 80.8 169.67 F. Griffith, Cokato, Wright County 14.21 81.1 169.59 J. Atkinson, Montana, Carlton County 13.54 84.4 169.35 C. Andrews, Centre City, Chisago County 13.4 85.1 169 33 O. Peterson, Delano, Wright County 13.6 83.4 168.59 PI. Lent, Stacy, Chisago County 13.9 81.8 H. F. Otling, LeSueur, LeSueur County 13.9 81.8 168.51 C. H. Siljan, Madison, Lac qui Parle County 14. 80.9 168.09 C. H. Goodrich, Mankato, Blue Earth County 13.6 82.9 168.04 J. Berg, Rush City, Chisago County 13.9 81.3 167.96 H. L. Penjilly, Mazeppa, Goodhue County 14. 80.5 167.65 B. F. Meetch, Sherburne, Martin County 13.75 81.7 167.55 fD. G, Henring, St. Michaels, Wright County 13.9 80.8 167.41 H. C. Clarke, St. Paul & Duluth Railway 13.8 81.2 167.29 J. F. Hiebel, Alexandria, Douglas County 14. 80. 167.10 W. Wallmarck, Lindstrom, Chisago County 13.6 81.9 166.93 J. Edstrom, Chisago City, thisago County 13.3 83.1 166.52 W. F. Rigby, Clearwater, Wright County 13.6 81. 165 9 t T. Asmundson, Willmar, Kandiyohi County 12.8 84.8 165.61 W. D. Japs, Carver, Carver County 13.7 80.1 165.51 J. D. Buckingham, Glyndon, Clay County 12 6 85.7 165.47 J. Rice, Kennedy, Kittson County 13.3 82.1 *H. 0. Bergh, Berlev, Norman County 13.3 82.1 165.42 * Vilmorin White Improved variety, f Dippes Imperial variety. ° Kleinwanzleben variety, ft Bulteau Desprez Richest variety. The above table gives the analysis of the best sixty sam- ples received up to the 20th of November. Some beets better than these were received after that time, and as late as the 19th of December, when the last lot was analyzed. Beets re- ceived since that time have not been analyzed. A number of samples that were shipped previous to that time were re_ eeived too late for analysis! COST OF GROWING SUGAR BEETS. W. M. HAYS. To determine the cost per ton of raising sugar beets a quantity of seed of the Knauer’s Improved variety was planted at the rate of 20 pounds per acre on a rather weedy field that had been manured in 1889 and had subsquently borne two crops, one of corn and one of oats. The seed was planted with a newly invented four-row horse beet seed planter kindly sent us for trial by the Moline, Milburn, Stod- dard Co., of Minneapolis. The land after having been plowed eight inches deep was made thoroughly fine by the use of a Tower’s pulverizer. The beet seed planter did ex- cellent work although owing to the unusual softness of the seed bed the beet seeds were carried down too far below the general surface by the press drills. The season immediately after planting was unusually wet, preventing cultivation at the proper time and allowing the weeds to get a good start requiring extra expense in weeding. It is, however, to be expected in growing beets that the weeding and thinning will be pretty expensive especially if the weather is rainy at the critical time before the beets are four or five inches high. The plot containing 1 % acres was planted in rows 36 rods long and 18 inches apart, and yielded 34,785 pounds of beets or 10.4 tons per acre. One and one-lialf hours with man and team were required to plant an acre, 72 hours cultivating and 110 hours in harvesting. Calling man and team three hours planting, we have the total labor 184 hours per acre. On a clean field which had borne three good crops of corn and kept very clean of weeds the same variety of beets was planted; the amount of seed, and the method of planting, cultivating etc., were the same as in the weedy plot. This plot contained 32 rows 14 rods long or -*4 acre, and yielded 7,275 pounds of beets or 14% tons per acre. 95 One and one-half hours work with man and team was re- quired to plant an acre, 52 hours to cultivate and about the same time as in the other field to harvest. Counting the work of the team equal to the work of a man and one horse as half a team we have the total number of hours expended in planting, cultivating and harvesting the beets on this cleaner land, 171 hours per acre. Counting the rent of the land at $3 per acre, plowing deeply and harrow- ing $2, the seed 20 cents per pound and the labor $1.25 per dav of ten hours we have the cost in the case of the weedy land $30.38 per acre. Reduced to cost per ton of beets we have a greater difference in favor of the clean land. The heets on the weedy land cost $3.25 per ton, while on the cleaner land but $2.09. The latter sum represents the cost of a ton of beets in heaps in the field covered with straw and dirt. To get them to the factory the labor of hauling should be added and would depend greatly upon the dis- tance. AMOUNT OF SUGAR BEET SEED PER ACRE. Four plots, each containing eight rows, eighteen inches apart and fourteen rods long, were planted with the Moline, Milburn & Stoddard beet seeder to test different amounts of seed per acre. On planting the first plot on this land, spring plowed eight or nine inches deep, it was found that the press wheels sank down so deep that it was necessary to roll the remainder before planting. The variety used was Klein- wanzleben, planted May 29, 1891. The amount of seed the yield of beets and of sugar, appears as follows : Plot Pounds of seed Pounds of seed Yield of beets Yield per No. per plot. per acre. per plot. acre. Tons. 1 13 oz. 12.75 1.345 10.6 2 11 oz. 10.75 1.575 12.7 3 21 oz. 20.50 1,840 14.8 4 24 oz. 23.50 1,895 14.9 1 The table shows that with this way of planting, twenty pounds are needed, thus confirming the practice of other countries. 96 DEPTH OF PLANTING. Three plots were planted to Kleinwanzleben sugar beets to test the depth to run this machine. Twenty and one-half pounds of seed per acre were planted. As mentioned else- where all were carried down below the surface too far. Depth here means the distance the seed was planted below the bottom of the press wheel track. These results hardly Plot No. 1 2 3 Depth Planted Yieid of Beets. % inch % inch 1 inch 880 9^5 850 T oils Per Acre. 13.1 15.6 13.3 apply to depths for planting with garden drills, in which case there is far less pressure on the wheels. The fact that one inch seemed too deep is, however, significant. The yield in one trial of rows sixteen and eighteen inches apart gave identical results in yields of beets per acre on plots of eight rows each fourteen rods long. VARIETY TESTS OF SUGAR BEETS. The table below shows the yields per acre of beets in tons of several varieties, as grown at the Experiment Station in 1891. Those in field A were planted with a two-horse beet planter and those in field B with a Mathews’ garden drill, using on all plots twenty pounds of seed per acre, and cover- ing one-half to three-fourths inch deep. 1 , ! Source of | Seed. i i Field A TonsBeets per Acre. i i Field B Tons Beets per Acre. Yilmorin White improved France. .. 14.6 Dippe’s Kleinwanzleben ... 16. French, Verv Rich .... 16.9 Dippe’s Kleinwanzleben Germany .. 12.2 Vilmorin’s White Improved 4 - 12.1 • Dippe’s Imperial u 12.2 Kleinwanzleben Elite 13. 11.9 Zuckerreichste Elite 14.3 10.4 Yilmorin ^ White Improved Utah 13.3 8.8 Dippe’s* Kleinwanzleben Utah 15.4 8.5 Knauer’s Imperial Utah 1 1 19.5 1 1 18.? All the varieties tried have the habit of growing entirely under the ground on land deeply plowed. 97 PREPARING SUGAR BEET LAND. To test a few ways of preparing land for sugar beets several plots were plowed and subsoiled to various depths with results as tabulated below : Depth Plowed Inches. Depth Subsoiled 1 Inches i ! Yield Per Acre Plot 1 9 1 17.6 Plot 2 6 11.2 Plot 3 12 i i 14.2 Plot 4 9 1 14 13.9 Plowing rich loamy soils to the depth of 8 to 10 inches seems to be the most economical and effective way of plow- ing land for beets. The investigations in regard to sugar beets, both as to the possibilities of growing roots rich in sugar and also the economic side of the question, will be continued during the present and following years. SORGHUM AND SYRUP. D. N. HARPER. Over a large portion of the state sorghum is grown and made into syrup. This is used almost entirely in the local- ities where it is produced, and but little of it finds its way in- to the general market, so that although the sales are large, the wholesale grocers and the mixing houses in the state are obliged to rely upon other states for a supply of sorghum syrup. One local firm writes that they could sell 1000 bar- rels of good sorghum syrup yearly ifthey could get the goods, but the supply does not equal the demand and the quality is too variable. The wide production of sorghum and the large demand for the syrup, together with the absence of any data upon the quality of the cane, its cost of production etc., led me to make certain investigations during the years 1889 and 1890. By these I hoped to secure reliable informa- tion, (1) as to the methods of cultivation, (2) the yield and cost of production, (3) the quality of the cane, (4) the methods and cost of manufacture and ( 5 ) the quality of the pro- duct. But I have found it possible to get such information only upon the quality of the cane and its products and the methods of manufacture. Cultivation is not specially di- rected to the production of a sugar crop and the methods are in general the same as those for corn. There is no special selection of the plot and no measurement of its size, no re- cord taken of the yield etc. It is therefore impossible to closely estimate the cost of the crop and the profits arising from it. The most reliable estimates show that the syrup costs from 20 to 35 cents per gallon. This has read}" sale at home at from 50 to 60 cents per gallon, or saves an outlay for other syrups costing from 60 to 80 cents. The quality of the syrup is quite variable and depends as well upon the character of the cane and the manner of handling it as upon the methods of manufacture. The charge for manufacture at Cannon Falls and Red Wing is 15 cents per gallon and 99 this yields a reasonable profit; but the actual cost of manufacture varies with the cane. That which has been grown upon suitable land, after the proper manner and harvested and handled carefully yields a good syrup, the largest quantity with the least expense, but some lots of cane at the charge of 15 cents, as stated, are manu- factured at a loss. The quality of the cane is more important to us, and last year this called for our chief attention. For the last sea- son’s work I arranged a temporary laboratory in the fac- tory of Mr. J. F. Porter, at Red Wing, and kept chemical control over the manufacture of the syrup and from time to time made analyses of canes selected from Mr. Porter’s fields. Four different varieties of cane had been grown, namely: Early Orange, Folger’s Early, Early Amber and Kenney’s Early Amber. The seed of the first two varieties was received from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and was the seed-heads of selected canes grown during the previ- ous year, at Sterling, Kansas. The Early Amber seed was native grown and Kenney’s Early Amber seed was obtained from Hon. S. H. Kenney, of Morristown, Minn. It is a variation of Early Amber which originated with him. The Early Orange grew on rather the heaviest land and pro- duced the largest stalks, but was quite green when frost killed it on September 27th. Folger’s Early grew on black sandy loam produced large stalks and was within a week of being ripe when frost occurred. The Early Amber grew upon moderately light sandy loam at an elevation consider- ably above the other plots. The stalks were tall and slender and would have ripened within a few days when frost killed it on the 27th of September. Kenney’s Early was grown upon the lightest soil and produced short, heavy stalks, none exceeding a height of six feet. It ripened about the 23d of September. The canes from the selected Kansas seed produced very few suckers, but those from domestic seed suckered badly. All the seed was planted in rows 3% feet apart and about 12 inches in the rows. Owing to the season the cultivation given was defective. 100 In the following tables I give the results of the analyses of selected canes and for purpose of comparison the results ob- tained at *Sterling and fFort Scott, Kansas, two places considered especially favorable to the production of sorghum. In making comparison it must be borne in mind that the seed which produced the canes analyzed in Kansas had been especially selected according to scientific principles during three years previous, while the Early Amber seed with us had not been previously selected in any way. To show how intelligent selection had affected their crop, I quote the record of results at Sterling, Kansas. The seed for the crop of 1888 was from canes, the seeds for which had not been previously specially selected, but the crops of 1889 and 1890 were from selected seed : *FOLGER’S EARLY. Solids. Sucrose. Glucose. Purity. 1888 15.62 10.66 1.88 68.24 1889 18.39 14.08 2.03 76.56 1890 18.85 14.28 1.39 76.89 EARLY AMBER. Solids. Sucrose. Glucose. Purity. 1888 15.00 9.50 2.35 63.34 1889 15.81 11.69 1.25 73.94 1890* 18.08 12.84 1.50 71.02 *Unselected. These results show the gradual and presistant improve- ment in the cane by the selection of the seed. But the seed for the Early Amber crop of 1890 was not specially select- ed and its improvement did not keep pace with that of Fol- ger’s Early where seed selection had continued. *Dr. Wiley’s Report for 1890. Bulletin. |29, Division of Chemestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 101 EARLY AMBER. Date. Lab’y No. Solids. Sucrose. Reducing Sugars. N-10 Alkali Purity. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. September 15 .. 1204 15.20 9.21 3.14 60.59 A A 16... 1220 14.70 9.20 62.58 ii 17... 1236 18.40 11.81 2.27 .7 64.18 ii 22... 1286 17.65 12.61 2.52 1.2 71.44 i 4 22... 1287 16.96 12.49 2.25 1.4 73.64 4 4 22... 1288 16.88 12.80 2.40 1.8 75.83 22... 1294 18.55 13.93 2.16 75.09 «< 24... 1310 20.70 15.28 2.92 73.81 ii 24... 1311 19.25 14.04 2.44 1.6 72.93 4 i 24... 1312 15.98 10.74 1.81 1.6 67.20 4 i 24... 1313 18.00 13.35 1.88 1.7 74.17 44 24... 1314 16.90 12.31 1.70 1.9 72.84 4 4 24... 1316 15.50 9.51 3.03 .9 61.35 i 4 24... 1317 13.78 7.47 4.12 .7 54.20 i 4 24... 1318 17.33 11.11 2.87 .8 64.10 October 1... 1318V 2 17.14 12.03 4.67 1.7 70.18 4 4 24... 1319 14.98 8.50 3.05 1.0 58.70 4 4 24... 1321 16.42 11.60 2.57 1.1 70.64 ii 26... 1336 18.98 15.11 2.44 1.5 79.08 ii 26... 1337 20.22 14.61 2.75 1.3 72.25 44 26... 1338 15.20 9.36 2.69 1.7 61.57 i 4 26... 1339 19.88 15.06 1.76 2.2 75.75 ii 26... 1340 19.82 14.22 2.49 1.5 71-74 ii 26... 1341 20.32 15.33 1.88 1.8 75.44 ii 27... 1356 16.60 11.29 2 64 1.5 68.01 4 4 27... 1357 17.92 12.14 2.91 1.3 67.80 4 4 27... 1358 17.85 12.27 2*27 2.0 68.74 4 4 27... 1359 16.30 11.00 2.93 1.2 67.24 ii 27... 1361 18.55 11.63 2.95 1.4 62.69 ii 27... 1364 18.40 12.42 2.38 2.6 67.60 ii 29... 1369 15.56 10.42 2.61 - 1.4 66.96 ii 1... 1385 15.62 10.42 2.44 2.0 66.71 ii 1... 1386 13.58 8.34 2.37 1.0 61.41 41 1... 1387 17.38 12.87 1.94 2.5 73.88 4 4 1... 1388 16.45 11.66 2.34 2.2 70.28 i 4 2... 1392 16.32 10.88 2.08 1.6 66.66 ii 2... 1393 15.54 9.99 2.41 1.5 64.29 4 4 2... 1394 15.60 10.42 2.61 1.6 66.79 ii 2... 1396 15.68 11.33 1.91 2.5 72.26 ii 2... 1397 16.78 11.59 2.17 1.6 69.07 AVERAGES. Date. Lab’y No. Solids. Sucrose. w » a N-10 Alkali. Purity. Solids Not Sugar. Sept. 5 to Oct. 2 “ 22 to Sept. 26 Greatest 1 ! 17.01 17.62 20.70 13.58 11.76 11.49 15.33 8.34 2.42 2.60 3.13 1.70 66.99 70.10 79.08 54.20 Least AT STERLING, KANSAS. Average 18.08 12.84 1.50 70.02 1 | 3.74 AT FORT SCOTT, KANSAS. Average 17.3 13.2 76.3 Greatest 18.5 14.1 80.6 Least 16.0 11.7 71.0 102 KENNEY’S EARLY. Date. 1 Lab’y No. Solids. Sucrose. Reducing Purity. Solids not Sugar. Sugar. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. September 22 1290 17 7 13.67 2.05 77.23 1.98 22 1291 18.42 14.09 1.78 76.49 2.55 “ 22 1292 17.63 12.76 1.83 72.38 “ 22 1293 16.55 12.52 1.33 75.74 “ 24 1205 17.75 12.18 1.89 68.62 24 1$06 15.60 9.92 2.47 63.59 24 1307 19.05 13.39 1.33 70.28 24 1308 18.80 13.46 2.29 71.59 24 1309 19.16 14.02 1.71 73.17 26 1346 18.38 12.73 2.73 69.26 Average.... 17.90 12.87 1.94 71.84 Greatest..., 19.16 14.09 2.73 77.23 Least 15.06 9.22 1.33 63.59 folger’s early. September 16 16 “ 27 “ 27 “ 27 “ 26 1222 1223 1351 1352 1353 1354 14.24 17.00 19.38 18.15 18.38 18.58 7.64 13.25 12.68 11.22 11.72 12.84 2.37 2.91 3.10 2.41 53.65 77.94 65.42 61.81 63.76 69.09 Average • 15.95 11.52 2.69 65.28 Greatest 19.38 13.25 3.1 77.94 Least 14.24 7.64 2.37 53.65 AT FORT SCOTT, KANSAS. Average.. Greatest. Least 18.40 19.40 15.80 13.5 15.6 10.7 73.40 80.40 67.70 AT STERLING, KANSAS. Average 18.85 14.1 2 1.76 74.69 2.97 Our analyses show that we produced sorghum the quality of which compares favorably with that produced in the lo- calities considered naturally better adapted to sorghum. From seed which had never been specially selected we pro- duced Early Amber of nearly as high average quality as that produced in Kansas from selected seed and the best of our cane was better than the best of theirs. In Kansas the production of sorghum is for the manufacture of sugar but with us it must be confined to the manufacture of syrup, with the production of sugar incidental. The manufacture of sugar from the sorghum has not yet proved entirely sue- 103 cessful anywhere and it will not be profitable for us to en- deavor to make it prove so here. In addition to the causes which have operated infavorably elsewhere, our short sea,- son for working up the cane has been considered fatal to sugar manufacture here, but our results seem to indicate that this feature may not be a fault. Hard frosts occurred on the 27th, 28th and 29th days of September before any of Mr. Porter’s cane had been cut. On the 29th the Early Amber was stripped and harvested and made into an excellent syrup. To study the effects of frost upon standing cane some rows were not cut down at all and analyses were made of sample canes from day to day. The averages of the daily analyses are arranged in the folio weng tables : EARLY AMBER. BEFORE FROST. Date. Solid. Per cent. Sucrose. Per cent. Glucose. Per cent. Purity. Per cent. N-10 Alkali, c. c. # Solids not Sugar. Per cent. September Ratio... 22 3 7.51 7.5 3 2.98 5.6 2.33 1 . 74.00 1.5 2.20 September Ratio 24 18.17 8.5 13.14 6.1 2.15 1 . 74.19 1.6 2.88 September Ratio 26 18.80 8.5 13.49 6.1 2.23 1 . 71.13 1.9 3.10 AFTER FROST. September 27 17.51 11.70 2.77 64.83 1.5 3.04 Ratio 6.3 4.2 1 . September 29 15.56 10.42 2.61 66.96 1.4 2.53* Ratio 6. 4. 1 October 1 17.42 12.27 2.14 72.08 2.3 3.01 Ratio 8. 5.7 1 . October 2 16.23 11.46 2.04 70.66 2. 2.73 Ratio 8. 5.6 1 . October 4 14.30 1.99 Ratio 7.2 1 . October 10 12.04 2.34 1.2 Ratio 5.1 1 . *One cane. 105 Naturally a general decrease in the density of the juice oc- curred after frost, but that there was so little inversion of the cane sugar seemed quite remarkable. This may be ex- plained from the fact that the temperature did not at any time after frost rise sufficiently high to permit of much fer- mentation. By a comparison of the daily maximum temperatures af- ter frosts for the past few years it is seen that this low tem- perature is not unusual. Through the kindness of Prof. O. Whiteman I have arranged the following table of maximum temperatures observed by him at Red Wing during the past six years : Date. 1885 1 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1885 1 886 1887 1888 1889 1890 September 18 “ 19 “ 20 “ 21 “ 22 ‘‘ 23 “ 24 “ 25 “ 26 “ 27 “ 28 “ 29 “ 30 October 1 “ 2 “ 3 *• 4 “ 5 “ 6 7 “ 8 “ 9 “ 10 11 “ 12 “ 13 35.6 33.2 32.1 4.55 65. 67.2 60. 69.5 48.9 66. 56.9 63: 43.6 41. 48. 59. 50. 61.8 66.2 52. 36. 32.2 49.4 55.2 58. 57.3 58.6 63.5 53.9 51.8 55.6 54.5 59.4 53. 51.5 50.2 62. 28.2 71.3 31.4 32. 63.3 70.9 67.9 71.4 72.2 77.5 l 77. 59U 64. 68.9 72. 53.1 48.4 46. 59. 49.3 26.3 26.6 31.8 34.9 34. 42.8 50.1 52.8 .51 2 31. 68. ! 73. 76. | 75.5 69. i 75.5 58.9 67.7 53.1 76. Frost has not appeared to cause much injury to ripe cane in the vicinity of Red Wing, but no analyses have hitherto been made to show its effects. Many farmers have a prac- tice of cutting their cane before it is ripe to save it from be- ing frosted. In this way cane was cut last year while still quite upripe, as much as two weeks before frost occurred. As the greatest improvement in the quality of the cane oc- curs during the short period of ripening, a great loss is sus- tained by harvesting it while green. 106 Our results would show that the proper practice is to al- low the cane to grow until it matures and not cut it while jet unripe in apprehension of frost. If, however, frost should occur, let it be cut, tied in small bundles, and piled in the shade in such a way that air can have free circulation throughout the piles. It should then be made up into syrup as quickly as possible. That this was the proper practice last year was shown by the results of Mr. Porter's own cane and lots from other parties. The best canes re- ceived last Fall were those which came in last and they made the best syrup, while the canes which were harvested while green made poor syrup and that with great difficulty. STRIPPING CANE. Many farmers have concurred that some improvement oc- curs by allowing cane to stand after being stripped, but such treatment really injures it. Cane should be harvested as soon as it is stripped and made into syrup immediately afterwards. Through a misunderstanding a number of rows of Mr. Porter's Early Amber were stripped on the 24th of September. To learn how this cane would compare with that not stripped, analyses were made of similar canes of both kinds. The average result of daily analyses of stripped cane follow, for comparison with canes not stripped refer to to the table on page 104. 107 STRIPPED CANES. BEFORE FROST. Date* Solids Per cent. Sucrose Per cent. Glucose. Per cent Purity. Per cent. N-10 Alkali c. c. Solids not Sugar. Per cent. September 24 Ratio 15.94 4.3 10.03 3.8 3.67 1 . 62.46 2.24 September 26 Ratio 19.60 7.6 14.86 5.7 2.58 1 . 75.67 1.4 2.16 AFTER FROST. September 27 18.4 12.42 2 38 67.60 2.6 3.60* Ratio 7.8 4.4- 1 . 1 October 1 14.60 9.38 2.40 64.06 1.5 2.82 Ratio 6. 3.9 1 . * October 2 15.82 10.10 2.33 65.91 1.6 3.39 Ratio 6.8 4.3 1 . October 4 13.54 2.88 Ratio 4.7 1 . October 10 13.87 3.23 Ratio 4.3 1 . *One cane. 108 More glucose, less sucrose and lower purity resulted in the stripped canes and frost caused more damage to them than canes in their natural condition. But the effects of stripping cane were quite marked in the working of it in the factory. Cane which had been stripped was much more difficult to work up than the other, and this showed itself particularly in the evaporation of the juice to syrup. So that for all reasons it proved to be a wrong practice to let stripped cane stand. RIPE STALKS AND SUCKERS. Last season was very peculiar and one not favorable to the development of a sugar producing crop. Drought du- ring the early part of the summer prematurely advanced the cane and a subsequent excess of moisture prevented perfect maturity and favored the growth of suckers. The great majority of the Early Amber canes had from one to six suckers, which, owing to the season, ripened but little later than the main stalk. Analyses of individual stalks and suckers growing from these showed there was not so great a difference in them as ordinarily. Analyses were made of other canes having no suckers and the results are compared in the following table: 1 1 | Solids. Per cent. 1 1 Sucrose. Per cent. Glucose. Per cent. Purity. Per cent. Solids not Sugar Per cent. j Main Stalks 14.48 8.50 3.05 58.70 2.93 { Suckers of same 13.78 7.10 3.94 51.52 2.74 j Main stalk 16.42 11.60 2.57 70.64 2.25 | Suckers of the same 18.02 12.62 70.03 j Main stalk 15.60 10.42 2.61 66.79 2.57 1 Stickers of same 14.00 7.71 2.96 55.07 3.33 Stalk. No suckers 20.22 14.61 2.75 72.25 2.86 20.32 15.33 1.88 75.44 3.11 f Few canes grew without suckers but when they did grow so they matured earliest and all analyses showed them to be the best. From conversation with many farmers I learned that the opinion prevails that canes with suckers are as good if not better than those not producing suckers, so that of course but few farmers suckered their cane. All investigations upon this matter hitherto have shown that canes with suckers do not ripen uniformly nor as early as canes without suckers, and the quality of canes with 109 suckers is not as good. Our analyses gave the same results. Therefore instead of encouraging or permitting the growth of suckers they should be prevented. VARIABILITY OF THE CANE. Besides the analyses already recorded others were made of the cane of various farmers. They show the greatest varia- tion in the composition of the juice and are quoted further on. This extreme veriability of sorghum has been noticed everywhere. If it is hoped to make sorghum uniform in its quality and growth, care must be exercised first of all in selection of seed. With us this selection should be made early to secure (1) early ripening cane and (2) cane of high qualitv. All experience shows that Early Amber is best adapted to our conditions and selections should be made from this va- riety. The earliest ripening canes which are of the highest quality can be secured best with the aid of analyses of the canes, but at Attica, Kansas, last year it was observed that certain exterial appearances indicate quite closely the ripeness and quality of individual canes. This is reported as follows : ^“Special attention was given to studying the characteris- tics of the cane, showing that certain physical properties are associated with high percentage of sugar. By studying these properties carefully, it is possible for every farmer to go into his field and be able to determine with certainty whether his cane is ripe or not. The most striking of these proper- ties is found in the last joint of the cane bearing the seed head. By stripping the cane of its covering a yellow colora- tion will be observed extending more or less along the length of the joint as the cane nears maturity. By the ex- tent of this coloration one is able to select the very best or the very poorest canes in the field almost as accurately as though tested by a polariscope. It is found that the cane which has the highest sucrose , lowest glucose , and highest purity has coloration extending one-half the length of the joint. Should it be found to extend the full length it ^Bulletin No. 29 Division of Chemestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1890 page 24. 110 shows the cane has already commenced to deteriorate. On the other hand should no coloration be visible it shows that the cane is not yet matured. These observations have extended over one season of rather remarkable charicteris- tics and hence they may not pro ve equally applicable to a crop grown in a season with the ordinary rainfall.” It has been observed as regards quality and ripeness that as a rule those canes having the smallest seed heads are of the best quality and reach maturity when the seed grains be- come hard and glistening. In the case of Early Amber the seed becomes black. In selecting seed therefore choose canes which are free from suckers, ripen earliest, have the smallest seed heads and show by the coloration of the seed-head joint that they con- tain the most sugar and highest purity. For the successful manufacture of syrup, to which we con- fine ourselves, it is as necessary to have good cane as for the manufacture of sugar. As a commencement in the improvement of the Early Amber cane the seed of those canes which were the best last year have been planted this spring and selections of the canes for seed will be continued. For the improvement of the cane it is necessary that bet- ter methods of cultivation should be obtained ; but very lit- tle has been accomplished in this direction and it will not be necessary to discuss any methods of cultivation at present. THE MANUFACTURE OF SYRUP. During a few days at the end of the season of 1889 at Cannon Falls, I kept chemical control of the operations in the manufacture of syrup. Analyses were made (1) of the juice as it came from the mill, (2) after defecation, and as it enters the evaporator, (3) of the juice after it had passed one- fourth, one-half and three-fourths of the evaporator and (4) of the finished syrups. The analyses showed great differences in the quality of the cane and of the syrup. Special attention was paid to the defecation of the juice and the working of the evaporator. Ill Defecation was not properly conducted but this was promptly corrected. Many analyses showed that no inversion of the sugar oc- cured during the process of evaporation to syrup ; the evap- erator works well and with great rapidity. The records of three analyses were consumed with the Experiment Sta- tion building so that only a general statement of the results can be given. In 1890 the investigation was continued in the factory of J. F. Porter, at Red Wing, but special attention was given to the cane itself. The results of the seasons work show that the chief cause for the variability of sorghum syrup is in the variable character of the cane. While not perfect, the mechanical features in the production of sorghum syrup, are far in advance of the agricultural ones. Improvement needs to be made in the nectary of the cane to secure a greater yield of the juice, in the defecation and filtering of the juice to make the quality of the syrup more uniform. But uniform- ity of the syrup now depends chiefly upon the character of the cane, its cultivation and subsequent treatment before arriving at the factory. To show the variable character of the cane I quote the average results of the analyses of forty -four lots of cane raised by as many different farmers and the analyses of the best and poorest lots. This wide difference in the cane must be corrected before unifority of syrup can be obtained. Some of the means to secure uniformly good cane have been suggested. MILL JUICES. Solids. Per cent. Sucrose. | Per cent. Glucose. Per cent. Purity. Per cent. Solids not Sugar. Per cent. Lab’y No. Average 15.10 8.52 8.74 56.54 2.84 Best canes 15.86 10.87 2.38 68.53 2.61 12301 16.00 10.62 2.72 66.37 2.66 1269 15.68 10.53 2.46 67.15 2.69 1390 15.42 10.51 2.73 68.15 2.18 1378 17.15 11.93 68.48 1208 14.70 10.77 73.26 1207 Poorest canes 16.22 4.05 6.95 24.97 5.22 1323 15.40 6.19 5.25 40.19 3.96 1325 16.48 7.17 3.90 43.50 5.41 1266 9.25 4.84 4.10 52.32 .31 1398 112 The large amount of glucose in these canes is due partly to the unripe condition of the cane and partly to the cane hav- ng for some time stood in piles in such a way that fermenta- tion and inversion occurred. When cane stands after being cut the piles should be made so that the air can have access and thus keep the temperature low. If the cane is kept at a temperature below 68° Fahrenheit so fermentation will take place. But for all reasons cane should stand as short a time as possible after being cut. It was found necessary several times to leave the juice stand over night before being defecated. To learn what effect this might have upon the sugar some analyses were made the results of which follow : I Sucrose. Per cent. Glucose. Per cent. Increase of ! Glucose. No. 1288 12.80 2.40 After standing exposed 36 hours 12.19 2.59 .19 No. 1290 13.67 2.05 After 36 hours 2.09 .04 No. 1292 12.76 1.83 After 36 hours 1.92 .09 No. 1294 13.93 2.16 After 36 hours 2.22 .06 No. 1309 13.02 1.71 After 48 hours 13.80 2.64 .93 No. 1311 14.04 2.44 After 48 hours 13.99 2.44 No. 1313 13.35 1.88 After 48 hours 3.58 1.70 Average increase of glucose after 36 hours .095 After 48 hours .88 These results showed that the juice suffered no injury by standing over night. It was therefore subsequently the practice to have the tanks full of juice in the morning. This saved a great deal of time in the morning following. But frequently it was necessary to run both day and night. The fact that no appreciable inversion took place on allow- ing juice to stand exposed for 36 hours is of special import- ance to us should sugar production be undertaken. A large part of the loss in sugar making in more southern states re- sults from the inversion of the cane sugar after the juice has been secured and during the process of manufacture. No such loss occurs with us. But for syrup production it is not especially important since the crystalization of sugar is not desired. University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 22. iHJQUST, 1892. Q) (1 • o I. — COMPARISON OF CORN; BARLEY; CORN AND SHORTS ; BAR- LEY AND SHORTS ; CORN, SHpRTS AND OATMEAL ; AND BARLEY, SHORTS AND OIL MEAL IN THE RATION OF GROWING PIGS. II. — CORN YS. BARLEY FOR FATTENING HOGS. III. — CORN MEAL, BARLEY MEAL AND A MIXTURE OF BARLEY MEAL AND OIL MEAL COMPARED. IV.—' WET YS. DRY FEED. I ® 13 The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK , RAMSEY CO MINNESOTA. University of Minnesota. % BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896. The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, Alexandria, 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, .... 1896. The HON. 0. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, ----- 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1895. The HON. WILLIAM R. MERRIAM, St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The PION. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., - - ----- Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - - - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., - Chemist. T. L. H^ECKER, - * Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, - Veterinarian. J. A. VYE, - Secretary. CORN YS. BARLEY. CLINTON D. SMITH. While the popular taste demanded a heavy and excessively fat hog to bring the highest price in the general market, profitable pork production on a large scale was confined to those states in which was found the peculiar combination of soil and climate best adapted to corn growing. Corn stands easily at the head of onr American cereals for fattening swine, but it has not yet been shown that its superiority ex- tends to the feeding of young or growing pigs. In England and on the continent of Europe barley occupies a relation to swine production similar in some respects to the place occu- pied by corn in America, and Sir John B. Lawes has gone so far as to say that barley is the natural food of the civilized Pig- The late frosts of spring and the early ones of autumn make corn an exceedingly precarious crop in all the northern parts of this state while barley is at its best in those lati- tudes. To study the question, therefore, whether barley could be substituted for corn in the ration of pigs, experi- ments were undertaken during the summer of 1891. Thirty -four pigs as nearly alike as possible were selected from the farm herd on the 21st of July and divided into six groups, two of five pigs each, called pens 9 and 10, and four of six pigs each , called pens 11, 12, 13 and 14. Due care was taken to have the pigs in each pen mated in all respects with the pigs in every other pen so that the results of the feeding test with all the pens are comparable. The average weight of the pigs was then 42 pounds. After a preliminary feeding period of one week, during which each pen received the food which was to constitute its ration during the entire experi- ment, each pig was again 'weighed on two successive days and the average of these two weights was taken as the original 118 weight in the computation of results. Each pig was weigh- ed weekly at the same hour of the day during the progress of the experiment. The amount of food consumed by each pen each week of the experiment was also carefully weighed. During the entire trial the groups of pigs were confined to small pens with exercise yards adjacent, were supplied with an abundance of fresh water and were allowed all the char- coah ashes and salt they would eat. The feed was mixed with sufficient water to make a thick slop and the clean drinking water was given them in a separate trough . During the preliminary feeding and for one week afterwards each pen was allowed one pound per pig per day of green pea forage. The ration of pen 9 with this exception consisted of corn meal alone; that of pen 10, of barley meal. Pen 11 had corn meal and shorts mixed in equal proportions by weight. Pen 12 had barley meal and shorts mixed in equal propor- tions. Pen 13 had corn, shorts and oil meal mixed in the proportion of two parts corn meal, two parts shorts and one part oil meal. Pen 14 received a ration consisting of two parts barley meal, two parts shorts and one part oil meal. A summary of the results of the first feeding period of five weeks is given in the following table : TABLE I. PERIOD I. — FIVE WEEKS. Pens — 9 10 11 12 13 14 x jr* Corn JT* Bariev O « 5 0 ?3 *? 3 : & : 3 • a o 2-5 corn, 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal 2-5 bar., 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal Average weight July 28 52.6 51.4 51. 48.7 54.5 47.3 “ “ Sep. 2 71. 75,2 23.8 84.7 82. 89.3 81.3 Average gain, five weeks 18.4 33.7 33.3 34. S 34. Total weight July 28 263. 257. 306. 292. 327. 284. “ “ Sep. 2 355. 376. 508. 492. 536. 488. Total gain 92. 119. 202. 200. 209. 204. Food consumed 513.5 554. 811.5 762. 771. 728. Lbs. gain for each 100 of feed 17.9 21.4 24.9 26.2 27.1 28. At the close of the first period there was a very noticeable difference in the appearance of the pigs of the various pens. 119 Those in pen 9, fed exclusively on corn meal, had developed a strong tendency to lay on fat rather than make a normal growth of bone and muscle. The pigs were short, inclined to be pot-bellied, were all of them overly fat, deficient in vitality and in every way gave evidence of the lack of bone and muscle producing materials in their diet. The experi- ence of practical feeders and a multitude of trials at experi- ment stations have demonstrated that com meal alone does not contain all the elements necessary to make a healthy growth in the young of our domestic animals. If^theJ’at- tempt is made to feed young pigs just weaned, on corn meal either alone or as the chief article q { diet the bowels will be found either constipated or too loose, the appetite will be irregular and the growth unsatisfactory, there being too great a tendency to become fat and too small a development of the bones and muscular system. The results of this ex- periment point to the same conclusion. The pigs fed on barley alone did not show this unfortunate tendency to so great an extent. They were more active, more muscular, longer bodied and had not the potty appear- ance of the pigs in pen 9. The other four pens, although showing to some extent the deleterious effects of too close confinement at that hot season of the year, had none of this tendency to the laying on of too much fat but throughout the experiment were lively, vigorous and thrifty. The average gain per pig in the lot fed barley alone, pen 10, was 23.8 lbs. for the five weeks, while in the case of the corn fed lot it was but 18.4 lbs., a difference of 5.4 lbs. of gain per pig in favor of the barley. The addition of shorts to both corn and barley had the effect of increasing the gain very noticeably. The average gain per pig in each of the lots fed a mixed diet was almost identical, namely 33.7 lbs. and 33.3 lbs. where shorts alone was added, and 34.8 lbs. and 34 lbs. where oil meal formed a fifth part of the ration. One hundred pounds of corn meal fed to the small pigs in pen 9 produced but 17.9 lbs. of gain but where, as with pen 11, one half of the corn meal is replaced by shorts one hun- dred pounds of this mixture produced 24.9 lbs. of gain, a dif- ference of 7 lbs. in favor of the mixed diet. Where one-fifth 120 of the ration otherwise composed of equal parts of corn and shorts consists of oil meal the gain per hundred pounds of the mixture consumed was 27.1 lbs. or 2.2 lbs. of gain in excess of that of corn and shorts and 9.2 lbs. more gain for each hundred pounds of the mixture than was produced from a hundred pounds, of corn meal alone. Where barley formed the basis of the ration the advan- tages of adding shorts or shorts and oil meal to the single grain feed are not so apparent. One hundred pounds of bar- ley meal gave in pen 10 a gain of 21.4 lbs., one hundred pounds of barley andshorts in pen 12 a gain of 26.2 lbs. and barley and shorts with a fifth part of oil meal gave in pen 14 a gain of 28 lbs. per hundred pounds of feed consumed. Comparing now barley either alone or mixed with other feeds with corn in the same situation it is to be noted that while the gain in pen 10 fed exclusively on barley was in the proportion of 21.4 lbs, for each hundred pounds of barley consumed, that of pen 9 fed on corn meal was 17.9 lbs. of gain for each hundred pounds of food consumed, a difference of 3.5 lbs. of gain per hundred of feed in favor of barley. Where shorts was fed with the barley and corn there is a difference of but 1.3 lbs. of gain per hundred weight of feed consumed in favor of barley and where oil meal was added in the proportions indicated this difference is reduced to .9 of a pound. Two points are thus clearly indicated by the results of this period of the experiment. To make rapid growth with young pigs a mixed diet is essential. This mixture or variety of foods may be obtained either by turning the young pigs out to pasture or if confinement is necessary by feeding more than one kind of grain. The addition of oil meal seemed to slight- ly increase the total gain during this early period of their growth and gave the pigs a glossiness of coat and general air of thriftiness not possessed by the other pens. These in- creased gains made by the pigs having a mixed diet were put on with a noticeably less proportion of food consumption. This was undoubtedly due largely to the fact that these pigs had a better appetite and consumed a greater amount of food than the pigs having the corn or barley alone. For, 121 since a certain amount of food must be consumed in main- taining the life of the animal, supporting the vital functions and replacing the tissues necessarily worn out, the more an animal can be induced to eat and digest the greater will be the surplus available for building up new tissues or layingon fat. In this experiment barley seems to have been more valuable pound for pound than corn in growing these young pigs. Fed alone one hundred pounds of barley produced 3.5 lbs. more of gain than one hundred pounds of corn, and even when mixed with either shorts alone or shorts and oil meal a slight advantage seems to lie on the side of barley. PERIOD II. In the following table is given for the second period of five weeks statistics similar to those recorded in table one for the first period. TABLE II. PERIOD II. — FIVE WEEKS. Pens — 9 10 11 12 13 14 Corn Barley Com and shorts Barley and shorts 2-5 corn, 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal .... 2-5 barley, 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal Average weight September 2 71. 75.2 84.7 82. 89.3 81.3 “ “ October 7 85.4 112.4 125.8 122.5 129.3 119.3 Average gain 14.4 37.2 41.1 40.5 40. 38. Total weight September 2 355. 376. 508. 492. 536. 488. “ “ October 7 437. 562. 755. 735. 776. 716. Total gain 82. 186. 247. 243. 240. 228. Food consumed 538. 872. 1131. 1062. 1158. 1080. Lbs. gain for each 100 lbs. of feed 15.2 21.3 21.8 22.8 20.7 22. A comparison of the two tables shows that with the single exception of pen 9 each pen shows a greater average gain per pig and a greater aggregate gain in the second period than in the first. In the case of pen 9 the appetite of the pigs owing to the confinement of the diet to the single very im- perfect food, Indian corn, was very irregular and the gain was unsatisfactory. With barley on the other hand the appetite was noticeably better and the average gain nearly as great as in the pens which received a mixed diet. The 122 superiority of barley over corn as a food for young pigs is evidenced by the behavior of these two pens, 9 and 10, in both feeding periods. As in the former period, when mixed with shorts, barley seems to be more effective with these pigs than corn in a similar mixture. As was to be expected, since older animals are never able to show as great gain in proportion to food consumed as younger ones, the gain for each hundred pounds of feed is less with each pen in this period than in the former one, but here also the advantage lies with the barley. Pen 10 showed in the second period a gain of 21.3 lbs. for each hundred pounds of food consumed, in period one a gain of 21.4 lbs. for each hundred pounds of barley, the decrease for this pen being less than for any other. When fed as the exclusive feed, one hundred pounds of barley produced 6.1 lbs. more gain than one hundred pounds of corn; when mixed with shorts one hundred pounds of the mixture gave a gain greater by one pound than corn and shorts and when oil meal was added to each mixture the dif- ference in gain in favor of barley was 1.3 lbs. The pens 11 and 13, however; in both periods made a slightly larger gain than did pens 12 and 14 but consumed also more feed. The addition of oil meal to the ration, seemed in this period to lessen rather than increase its effectiveness. The total gains were slightly less with the pigs to which the oil meal was given and the amount consumed was slightly greater. As the average weight of the pigs was at this time not far from 100 pounds the indications of this one experiment are that 011 meal is more valuable with pigs under this weight than with larger ones. Oil meal is a food for which pigs have not the craving which is essential to make its use in fattening swine profitable. The appetite of the pigs in pen 9 was very irregular and they could be induced to eat but little more than enough to sustain life, notwithstanding the fact that they had condi- mental food, ashes, charcoal and salt, in abundance. Where however, the corn is mixed with shorts or with shorts and oil meal the pigs ate considerably more of it than they did of similar mixtures of barley. They made correspondingly 123 larger gains and at no greater proportional expense of food consumption. PERIOD III. At the close of the second period the pigs had attained an average weight of 120 pounds and the fattening period proper began. One pig was taken from each pen and the same system of feeding was carried on with the remaining ones during a period of four weeks ending November 4th. The results for this period are given in table hi. TABLE III. PERIOD III.— FOUR WEEKS. Pens — 9 10 11 12 13 14 Corn 1 : Barley Corn and shorts Barley and shorts 2-5 com, 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal 2-5 barley, 2-5 shorts, 1-5 oil meal Average weight October 7 88.5 117.5 129. 125. 139.2 123.8 “ “ November 4 98.7 138. 160. 149. 169. 158. Average gain 4 weeks 10.2 20.5 31. 24. 29.8 20.2 Total weight October 7 354. 470. 645. 625. 696. 639. “ “ November 4 395. 552. 800. 745. 845. 740. Total gain 41. 82. 155. 120. 149. 101. Feed consumed 328.5 525.5 893. 821.5 924.5 853. Lbs. gain for each 100 lbs. of feed 12.4 15.6 17.4 14.6 16.1 11.9 It is to be noted in the first place that the pens to which oil meal was fed gave a less return for each hundred pounds of feed consumed than did the corresponding pens fed corn and shorts or barley and shorts. That is : pen 13 returned but 16.1 pounds of gain for each 100 pounds of feed con- sumed, while pen 11 produced 17.4, showing a positive dis- advantage in this case in the use of oil meal. A comparison of pen 14 with pen 12 leads more emphatically to the same conclusion. Pen 13, however, consumed 31.5 pounds more feed than pen 11 and pen 14 consumed 31.5 pounds more feed than pen 12, yet the total gain is six pounds less in pen 13 than pen 11 and 19 pounds less in pen 14 than in pen 12. The behavior of the pigs in this period goes to confirm the results of the previous period and clearly indicates that for this lot of swine oil meal, however valuable for young and 124 growing pigs, is not adapted to fattening swine. Comparing now the results obtained by feeding corn with those where barley was used we find that with the exception of pens 9 and 10 the gain is greater with the pens fed on corn than with the pens fed on barley. The total gain of the five pigs in pen 11 was 155; in pen 12, 120. In the lots fed with oil meal the corn fed pigs gained 149 while those con- suming barley gained but 101. Moreover, this gain was accomplished with a much less proportional food consump- tion on the part of corn than of the barley. One hun- dred pounds of corn and shorts made with pen 11, 16.4 lbs. of gain, while the pigs in pen 12 gained but 14.6 pounds for each one hundred pounds of barley and shorts consumed. A similar difference of 4.2 lbs. of gain per hundred weight of feed consumed in favor of corn is noticed when pens 13 and 14 are compared. These results are diametrically opposed to those obtained in the first two feeding periods, where the advantage in every case lay on the side of the barley. This leads us to the conclusion that barley is inferior to corn for fattening swine while it will compare favorably with corn in the ration of young pigs. *In an experiment conducted by Prof. W. A. Henry, at the Wisconsin station, for the purpose of determining the value of barley in comparison with corn ' for fattening hogs, ten hogs, fourteen months old and weighing on the average 208 pounds each, were used. They were divided into two even lots of five hogs each to one of which barley meal was fed and to the other corn meal. He found after continuing the experiment eight weeks that it required 8 per cent more bar- ley meal than corn meal to produce 100 pounds of gain. These results are substantially in accord with those obtain- ed in the third period of this experiment. In both cases the hogs were being fed for fattening and not for growth, and for this purpose there is no question but that corn is bet- ter. In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. 14, O. S., page 459, is recorded an experiment performed by Sir J. B. Lawes at Rothamstead in February, 1850. He fed a *Seventh Annual Report Wisconsin Station, pa^e 64. 125 pen of three pigs on com meal alone for eight weeks. The pigs consumed 1086 pounds of corn meal and made a gain of 221 lbs., or a return of 20.3 lbs. of gain for each hundred pounds of meal consumed. The average weight of these pigs at the beginning of the experiment was 143 lbs. In May of the same year he fed a pen of three pigs averag- ing 147 lbs. in weight on barley meal. The conditions of this feeding period were the same as those of the corn fed lot in the February previous, except that the weather was ex- ceedingly hot for several days during its progress. These pigs made a total gain of 291 lbs. consuming 1644 lbs. of barley, a gain of 17.7 lbs. per hundred lbs. of barley. These pigs were also nearly as mature as the pigs in our experi- ment at the beginning of the third period, hence our results are not contradictory. CONCLUSIONS. In order to exclude the uncertain factor, the amount of pasture which pigs would consume, it was impossible in this experiment to allow the pigs to run either to clover, peas or even good blue grass pasture. The gains made by the pigs even in the pens which showed the best results are therefore small. To make pig growing profitable the brood sows and the young pigs, all their lives up to the time when they are shut up for fattening, should have the run of a good pasture, preferably clover or peas ; but to reach conclusions anything like definite in this experiment we were obliged to keep the pigs closely confined. (1) When fed as the entire ration of pigs weighing on the average 52 lbs. at the beginning of the test, one hundred pounds of barley meal was found to produce as great a gain as 119.5 lbs. of corn meal. (2) When mixed with shorts in equal parts and fed to v pigs of the average weight of 50 lbs., one hundred pounds of barley meal and shorts produced as great a gain as 105.2 lbs. of corn meal and shorts. (3) When to the mixtures with shorts one-fifth part of oil meal is added then one hundred pounds of barley meal, shorts and oil meal produced as great a gain as 103.3 lbs. of corn meal, shorts and oil meal. 126 (4) The older the pig grows the more food it takes to pro- duce a pound of gain. (5) In this experiment the addition of oil meal to the <1^ ration of either barley meal and shorts, or corn meal and shorts after the pig had attained an average weight of slight- ly over a hundred pounds, was deleterious. (6) The continued use of corn meal as the sole food of growing pigs was found to be productive of too great a tendency to become excessively fat without a normal growth of bone and muscle and to produce unhealthy pigs, while the use of barley alone was not attended with this result. (7) The pigs throughout the experiment consumed more corn meal and shorts than barley meal and shorts, produced a greater gain with the former than the latter but, except in the third period, at a greater expense of food consumption. (8) * The same relation holds good where oil meal forms a fifth part of the ration. (9) When fed to pigs weighing 125 pounds or more one hundred pounds of corn meal and shorts produced as great a gain as 119.1 of barley meal and shorts. (10) When fed to pigs weighing 125 pounds or more one hundred pounds of corn meal, shorts and oil meal, mixed as indicated, produced as great a gain as 135.2 pounds of bar- ley meal, shorts and oil meal. CORN VS. BARLEY FOR FATTENING HOGS. W. M. HAYS. On the 6th of October, 1891, two groups of hogs, taken from a woods pasture where they had been kept in fair grow- ing condition by some grain food, were placed in pens with ample yard room for exercise, and were fed, one corn meal and the other barley meal, to compare these grains for fattening hogs. In each group was a young Essex sow weighing at the beginning about 160 pounds, one Berkshire sow, one Berkshire barrow, and two cross bred Jersey Red Poland China sows, all four of which weighed in the neighborhood of three hundred pounds each. The two groups were well matched as to breeding, appearance, size, etc. They were all in good condition to make rapid gains and the individuals in each pen on the same ration made comparativel} 7 uniform gains. Pen A was fed corn meal of good quality and made on an average for the entire period of 51 days one pound of pork for each five pounds of grain eaten or 11.2 pounds of pork for each bushel of corn. Barley meal was fed to pen B, the meal simply being moistened as with the corn. The bar- ley used was from four small lots purchased for feeding our general stock of hogs. As the hogs in pen B showed a de- cided dislike for one or two lots of this barley the notes were so kept that the results of feeding each lot or quality of bar- ley could be shown in comparison. The barley fed pen B during several days of preliminary feeding and during the first period of sixteen days, October 6th to 21st inclusive, was not relished by the hogs. It was “off color” and had a slightly musty odor. Duringthe second period of seven days, Oct. 22nd to 28th inclusive, good barley was given and was eaten with greater relish by the hogs. During the third period of fourteen days, Oct. 29th to Nov. 11th inclusive, another lot of barley almost as poor as that fed during the 128 first period was given and with a similar lack of relish shown by the hogs. During the fourth period of fifteen days, Nov. 12th to 26th inclusive, barley of good quality was fed again. The accompanying tabular statements gives the summarized results. Not forgetting the comparison of corn with good barley special attention is directed to the lesser amount of barley eaten per hundred weight of hog when barley lacking flavor was fed as compared with bright barley of good flavor; also to gains resulting. CORN, GOOD BARLEY AND POOR BARLEY COMPARED. 2 W O H > > 0 cr gL& a 3 0 rt- P verage per day head, lb <+o 0 ~p rt- O ^ 0 Crq CO ? g SB W a P era • 05 OKI h-i ►-» ft n crP ^ o 5’ : n> : El : £1 B’ 05 (7Q : P : n S’ P S S** 0 & c+ CO • ft i-t 1st period Cornys. Pen A. 5 033. 207. 2 3-5 4.5 4. 16 poor days. barley. Pen B. 5 628.5 77. 1 8.2 2.8 2d period Corn vs. Pen A. 5 451.5 116. / nearly \ \ 3y a / 3.9 4. 7 good days. barley. Pen B. 5 374. 94. 2 4-5 4. 3.6 3d period Corn vs. Pen A. 5 829.5 170. 2 3-7 4.9 3.2 14 poor days. barley. Pen B. 5 507.5 33. y 2 15.4 2.3 4th period Corn vs. Pen A. 5 935. 135 1 4-5 6.9 3.4 14 days. good barley. Pen B. 5 784. 101 / nearly \ l 12-5/ 7.8 3.4 SUMMARIZED AVERAGE RESULTS. Wt. at begin- ning of 1st period j Wt. at end of j 4th period.. 4 Corn to 1 lb. gain for the whole time. Barley to lib. gain for the whole time. Good barley to lib. gain Poor barley to 11b. gain Pen A 1362 1364 1990 1669 5. 7.5 5.9 10.3 Pen B The comparison of corn and good barley was hardly fair at any time. The fact that good bright malting barley is of more feeding value than that considerably “off” color and flavor is certainly here illustrated. CORN MEAL, BARLEY MEAL AND A MIXTURE OF 9-10 BARLEY MEAL AND 1-10 OIL MEAL COMPARED. W. M. HAYS. June 22nd to July 21st inclusive, 1891, five groups of hogs were fed to compare corn, barley and a ration of 9-10 barley and 1-10 old process linseed oil meal. Groups A and B were made up of a lot of shoats of mixed breeding farrowed the fall previous. Each of these two groups contained two sows and one barrow % Jersey Red and 14 Poland China; one sow and one barrow % Berkshire, 14 Jersey Red and 14 Poland China; and three 14 Jersey Red and 14 Essex, in all eight, and so divided that each pen was of the same weight and other- wise well mated. Groups C, D and E each had one yearling full blood Berkshire sow of the family known on the station farm as Bell, one of the Nora family and one of the Hipple- waith family, making three hogs in each pen, the groups being well proportioned. To pen C corn was given thesame as to pen A; pen D was fed barley the same as B and pen E was fed a ration of 9-10 barley and 1-10 oil meal. The meal for all groups was mixed with only enough water to moisten it without making the mixture sloppy! The feed for morn- ing was mixed in the evening and noon and evening feeds were mixed in the morning, thus always insuring that the meal was not sour. The hogs were all given access to salt, sulphur and charcoal mixed together in boxes. They were all similarly situated as to shade, small yard to exercise in, water adlibitum, etc. The desire for green feed at this time of year so strongly manifested itself that, on July 2nd the feeding of mixed oats and peas, nearing the flowering stage was begun and continued to the end. For six days pens A and B were given eight pounds daily of this green stuff and pens C, D and E were given five pounds each. On July 7th 130 the allowance of green peas and oats to pens A and B was increased to 13 pounds daily and without farther change the feeding was thus continued to the end. Each group was fed all the meal it was found safe to give and avoid overfeeding. The following tabular statement shows the general result: CORN MEAL, BARLEY MEAL AND 9-10 BARLEY 1-10 OIL MEAL COMPARED. Pen. Pounds grain fed Pounds green peas & oats fed Average gain per day and head Pounds grain to 1 lb. gain .. Total gain Pounds grain eaten per day per 100 lbs. live weight... A Corn meal 1277.5 259 1.14 4.7 273.3 4 B Barley meal.. 1274. 159 1.04 5.08 250.8 4. C Corn meal 675. 100 1.15 6.3 106.6 3.4 D Barley meal.. 868. 100 1.06 5.8 149.2 4. /9-10 barley. 811.8 100 1.07 5.6 106. 4.2 E \1-10 oil meal 90.2 With pens A and B considerable less corn than barley was consumed to make a pound of pork while in pens C and Dthe result is reversed. The addition of 1-10 of oil meal to the barley given in pen E made only a slight decrease in the pounds of grain needed to make a pound of gain. WET VS. DRY FEED. CLINTON D. SMITH. The object of this experiment was to aid in determining whether a ration composed of two parts corn meal, two parts shorts and one part old process oil meal would pro- duce when fed dry, greater or less gain than when mixed with sufficient water to form a thick slop. Incidentally a study was made of the value of charcoal. Twelve pigs were selected for this experiment, six from a litter whose dam was a half Duroc and half Yorkshire sow, the sire an Essex boar. These pigs were either black- or white and were farrowed June 11, 1891. The litter from which the other six pigs were selected was farrowed June 7th by a Duroc Jersey sow, the sire being a recorded Berk- shire. These pigs were all red. On the first day of August these twelve pigs were divided into four groups of three each and a preliminary feeding period of one week began. The average weight of the pigs at that time was 28 V 2 pounds. At the close of the week, August 8, it was found that the gains of the pigs had not been uniform but it was decided to carry forward the experi- ment with the pigs arranged as they were, due care having been taken at the outset to have the pens as evenly matched as to thriftiness, weight and breeding as possible. The pigs were accordingly re- weighed August 8th and the experiment proper began. Pens I and IV received their feed mixed into a thick slop with cold water, pens II and III were fed the same kind of food but dry. The feed for all pens was a mixture by weight of two parts corn meal, two parts shorts and one part old process oil meal. Each lot was fed in a small pen with a large yard adjacent giving the pigs the necessary ex- ercise. Pens I and II were fed all the charcoal they would eat while pens III and IV had none. The results of the trial which extended over a period of sixteen weeks ending Novem- ber 28th are recorded in the following table : Feed Wet. I Feed Dry 132 Black Sow to to # tq ^ 00 00* 05 6 0) CO u h ttC*O<0C0 OM fl rH Bl’k Barrow.. 26 95 69 none Red Sow 36.5 136. 99.5 none Bl’k Barrow.. 24.5 91. 66.5 249. 1140.5 none 21.8 Red Barrow.. 32.5 124. 91.5 none Red Sow 41.5 132.5 91. none Red Sow to .tq to . .CO d h* to to o d CO 05 00 00 01 H (NO H • Bl’k Barrow.. 20.5 86. 65.5 Black Sow 30.5 119. 88.5 Red Barrow.. to to to CONOCO N ri H CO 10 H Red Sow 36. 147. 111. Black Bar- row 21.5 118.5 97. §9 3 c +>+> ftr d s,o (U 05 05 id vo coco* coco id id NN H 05* XX 0 H 72 T‘ 05 CO 05 WX Ol- CON X 05 H oo < u 00 GO CO w wo io ^ XX CO X GO 10 oo Pi 0 H H W* W ! w w 05*05 6 o’ ^’id ci ci 05 x ft 72 H H H H o COOl O 05 1 10 H H tJ< H Cl ION 05 W 10 CO s 10 CO W X 05 X H o LO LO N 10 NX xo 2 COLO NCO X N 10 LO CO N X CO NN PQ ■H H H H H H H H H H H H ri H H H N ^ VO N X o o LO X H H CO LO | WX WH 1 COO CO LO CO 05 | qo coco 01 H 10 H I0rf< d N N 44 id 4 H H ci ci 4 4 0*05 w’w ,° H 1 Pi # +> 05 O O 05 X 10 ^ X W 05 W T* H CO W H 4 # oe W CO w ci O co H 05 CO CO H 05 | NX W W | 0 ’5 j ■H O X 1- X o X Cl r}< NQO did lO X ►4 ft H 72 ^ t}i 1 H r T < ^ ~r ^ 4 CO X H X ! 4-> th 00 j WX; COlO 1 4 ci io co ^ Cl ; 05 H N H | fl | n w ; X 01 HO Ni- OO oo x ; CON ■+J vd id CO w cd ci w ro' H O H id x’ ! h o aj w w w w w w w w W 01 W C) ri T— Cl w Oh ^ 1 HWX'^IOWNX 144 Tljese results when expressed in percentages, taking as a basis the result of the largest amount of flour received in each case as 100, will stand in the following relation to each other for the flours : Pure Scotch Fife Pure Blue Stem Pure Ladoga Scotch Fife Scotch Fife bleached Scotch Fife badly bleached Scotch Fife badly frosted.... Scotch Fife slightly frosted Patent. 100 . 91.09 96.58 85.99 84.59 84.29 61.80 77.94 Straight. 85.66 100 . 89.38 89.50 92.57 93.82 84.56 77.24 Four X 69.77 44.39 50.38 9.98 25.76 23.95 100 . 40.49 Total. 97.44 100.00 95.96 86.91 90.42 90.98 87.98 80.51 The amounts of wheat taken for the tests were nearly the same in all cases, and the lengths of time required for milling as given in the table are comparable. As to the character of the flour the pure Scotch Fife had the best feel and appearance ; the Ladoga the worst, and the others range, after the Scotch Fife, in this order: Blue Stem, No. 4, badly bleached, slightly bleached and frost- ed. These last have a weak, sticky feel and a greyish caste. The bleached flours are weak and very white. The Ladoga has a very peculiar saffron color, quite different from any- thing else. BAKING TESTS. Bread was baked from each lot of flour, and of the patent and straight flours a great many loaves of each were baked at dif- ferent times to secure reliable results on the following points : (l)the amount of flour necessary to make the best bread with a definite quantity of yeast liquid, (2) the “ strength ” of the flour as determined by the dimensions of the loaf made from a definite quantity of flour and yeast mixture, (3) the ab- sorptive and retentive capacity of the flour as determined by the weight of the bread made with a definite quantity of yeast mixture and flour, (4) the quality of the bread as de- termined by its color and texture. The results are as follows: I. Amount of flour needed to definite quantity of yeast mixture. The ratios of the weight of flour taken are as fol- lows : Badly bleached 95.52 Bleached : 97.18 Slightly frosted 92.84 Badly frosted 94.74 145 No. 4 93.68 Pure Blue Stem 94.61 Pure Scotch Fife 93.46 Ladoga 98.62 The above figures are the averages of the ratios obtained in separate tests. II. The ratios of strength as obtained by the measurement of the dimensions of the loaves are as follows : Badly bleached 95.89 Slightly bleached 90.45 Slightly frosted 96.77 Badly frosted 95.85 No. 4 93.71 Pure Blue Stem 98.73 Pure Scotch Fife 92.74 Ladoga 88.16 III. The absorptive and retentive capacity of the flours are in the following ratios : Badly bleached wheat 92.31 Slightly bleached 94.05 Slightly frosted 92.09 Badly frosted ;. 92.21 No. 4 [Scotch Fife] 92.72 Pure Blue Stem 92.55 Pure Scotch Fife f 99.27 Ladoga 93.82 IV. Color and texture in following ratios : Badly bleached , _ 99. Slightly bleached 95. Slightly frosted 93. Badly frosted 91 . No. 4 (Scotch Fife) 98. Pure Blue Stem 97. Pure Scotch Fife 100. Ladoga 50. The color and texture are matters of individual judgment. To eliminate or reduce this as much as possible I had my as- sistant weigh out the flours and number them indiscrimin- ately, keeping the names and numbers secret from me. In 146 every case my judgment arranged the loaves in the order stated while the percentages varied slightly. The pure Scotch Fife bread was clearly the best in every case as to color, texture, and odor. It was a bright, rich, creamy white. The badly bleached Fife came next but was deficient in the richness of appearance. The Fife (No. 4) was richer looking than the bleached but a little dingy in color. Blue Stem was as rich looking as any and of good texture and had a very slight bluish or greenish tinge. The slightly bleached wheat looked weak and rather dingy. The slightly frosted was greyish and the worse frosted noticeably more so. The Ladoga retained its saffron color but intensified and was of quite a disagreeable appearance. All these remarks and ratios are drawn directly from the results with patent flours but are equally applicable to re- sults from the straight and red dogs. In the straight flours the characteristic colors of the Lado- ga and Blue Stem were more noticeable than in the patent. CONCLUSIONS. The pure Scotch Fife wheat proves to be the best wheat, the Blue Stem wheat next and the Ladoga very poor. Any injury done to wheat by reason of its being threshed while wet, bleached or frosted, injures it for milling and for making good bread, the extent of injury varying. The Ladoga has been shown to be a failure as to yield, both as to quantity and quality, and the milling and baking tests show it to be equally worthless. SEED WHEAT. CO-OPERATIVE TESTS WITH SELECTED SEED. In bulletin No. 15 of this Station issued in February, 1891, notice was given that the Hon. Chas. A. Pillsbury had kind- ly placed at the disposal of the Station, for free distribution, some pure scotch fife wheat. The object of this generous gift was to demonstrate the benificial results arising from the careful selection of seed. The wheat was distributed under the following conditions : “ 1. It shall be planted on new ground, that which has not grown a crop, or on summer fallowed land, or on land which has just raised a crop of potatos, corn or millet. 2. A record shall be kept of the date when planted, size of plot, time when ripe, and dates when harvested and threshed. 3. A small sample of the crop together with a cop}" of the record shall be sent to the Station. 4. It shall be seeded at the rate of at least one bushel per acre. The wheat will be distributed in packages not to ex- ceed five bushels, and it is suggested that one bushel be the rate at which it is seeded when a press drill is used, and a bushel and a peck when seeded broadcast. 5. A bushel from the crop shall be sent b} T each farmer to the State Fair of 1891. Mr. Pillsbury will give a premium of $100, divided in three different prizes, for the best samples submitted there. The expense of transportation to the State Fair will be borne by the Experiment Station and the wheat will then be the property of the Experiment Station. This wheat will be distributed next year. Those desiring this seed will need to make early applica- tion, stating the amount of land under cultivation, whether light or heavy prairie land or timber, and that they will ob- serve the requirements. ” Over seven hundred applications were received for seed and 148 the supply was soon exhausted. All of the railroads in the state generously aided in carrying out this experiment by distributing free of charge the wheat along their lines. The seed selected for this experiment was pure scotch fife wheat. Owing to unavoidable delay in procuring this wheat it was impossible to clean it by suction blast as was intended. It was, however, well cleaned through a Champion cleaning mill and cockle machine, and was in good condition for seed- ing. Its germinating power had been tested and found to be high. This wheat was perfect^ pure scotch fife, having been care- fully selected for a number of years. The history of the wheat during this time may be interesting and should prove profitable now. It should suggest to each farmer receiving this seed means to keep it pure and improve it. In 1881 a Red River Valley farmer found a clump of 22 stalks of wheat growing from a single grain, and which matured much earlier than the remaining stalks of wheat in that field. These stalks were pulled when ripe, carefully pre- served and threshed by hand. There were obtained 860 grains of wheat, 760 of which were selected for seed and planted in 1882 six inches apart each way on a clean piece of land. These grains yielded 12 pounds of wheat, or at a rate of 40 bushels per acre. In 1883 the seed of 1882 was sown on another piece of clean land in rows 12 inches apart and thick in the rows. The wheat was given thorough cul- tivation and yielded 17 bushels, or at a rate of 72 bushels per acre. The crop was harvested by itself and garnered in a spare room in the farm house. It was threshed out by hand. In 1884, after cleaning, the wheat was sowed on land which had for the preceding five years been in pasture. This land had been turned down and seeded to timothy be- cause of a rank growth of wild buckwheat. In 1884 the buckwheat appeared again and overran the crop, cutting the yield down to 15 bushels per acre, but the quality was good. The crop was carefully harvested and threshed, keep- ing the wheat separate from all other lots. Before threshing a half day was spent by two men in cleaning out of the 149 threshing machine all grains of wheat and weed seeds. The same care has been observed to keep the wheat pure since that time. It has been grown on new or summer-fal- lowed land and harvested and threshed separately as long as two kinds of wheat were raised on the same farm. In 1886 it averaged 44 bushels per acre; in 1887 the quality was fine but the winds decreased the yield ; in 1888 it escaped the rust and frosts then prevalent; in 1889 and 1890 the quality and yield has been good, the latter averag- ing in 1890 27^2 bushels per acre. Every two years this seed has been exchanged between two farms 30 miles apart. Although both are prairie farms the beneficial results have been noticeable. To continue the purity of this wheat and to improve its quality should be the aim of every farmer. This can be done by observing the conditions of the distribution; by seeding on clean ground, harvesting and threshing separately from all other varieties of wheat. Seed was sent into every count\ r of the state, and owing to the lateness of the following season at which many farmers were compelled to do their threshing on account of the large yield of all grain crops for that year, full reports were not received from many until early in the present year. A few reported loss by a heavy hail storm, while others, especially from the extreme northern portion of the state reported that the wheat crop in general was late on account of heavy spring rains; others reported damage from chinch bugs and late sowing. A large quantity of seed was sent into ever\- wheat growing section of the state, and the season was very favorable for this crop; hence the results are strictly com- parable as to yield and weight per bushel and time of matur- ing, except for the samples damaged by hail, late sowing or chinch bugs as noted. The difference in yield per acre, weight per bushel and time of maturing, color and plump- ness are due to the different climatic and soil conditions. The report of the samples entered for the premium given by Mr. Pillsbury is given first; and then the report on all other samples received up to January 15th, 1892, are tabu- lated in subsequent pages: 150 W. F. Cross, Secretary State Fair, Hamline, Minn.: Dear Sir: The samples of wheat entered for the prizes of the Hon. Charles A. Pillsbury have been adjudged according to the basis of award published in the premium list, and which we quote: BAvSlS OF AWARD. Points. Weight per bushel on a scale of. 100 Color of grain 100 Plumpness 100 Percentage of glutin 100 Quality of glutin 100 The prizes will be awarded to the five best samples in the order in which they approach the 500 points mark. Of all the samples entered thirteen are much the best and are of nearly equal value, and the result of judging these is given in detail. First — A. N. Johnson, Hoffman, Grant county. Points. Weight per bushel — 62 pounds 100.0 Color.. 96.5 Plumpness 98.0 Amount of glutin 100.0 Quality 97.5 Total, 492.0 Second — Fred Musner, Millerville, Douglas county. Weight — 62 pounds 100.0 Color 98.0 Plumpness 98.0 Glutin ................. 91.8 Glutin, quality 96.5 Total, 484.3 Third — 0. E. Samuelson, Vasa, Goodhue county. Weight — 61 pounds 98.4 Color 100.0 Plumpness 100.0 Glutin % 92.0 Glutin, quality 90.0 Total, 480.4 151 Fourth — Peter Thompson, Cottage Grove, Washington county. Weight, 61.5 pounds 99.2 Color 96.5 Plumpness 96.5 Glutin ..# 88.7 Glutin, quality ; 96.5 Total, 477.4 Fifth — E. S. Olsen, Milan, Chippewa county. Weight, 61 pounds 98.4 Color, 96.5 Plumpness, 97.0 Glutin 91.33 Glutin, quality 92.5 Total, 475.73 Sixth — A. J. Hurley, Lanesboro, Fillmore county. Weight, 62 pounds 100. Color 98. Plumpness 98. Glutin 83.33 Glutin, qualit}" 95.5 Total 474.83 Seventh — M. H. Smith. Weight, 61 pounds 98.4 Color 97. Plumpness 99. Glutin 77.33 Glutin, quality 99. Total, 470.73 Eighth — D. L. Wellman, Frazee City, Becker count}". Weight, 61 pounds 98.4 Color 96.5 Plumpness 98. Glutin 79.3 Glutin, quality 97.5 Total, 469.7 152 Ninth— L. Kiel. Weight, 61 pounds 98.4 Color 96.5 Plumpness 98.6 Glutin 81.3 Glutin, quality 91.5 Total, 466.3 Tenth — Theodore Lukens, Lukens, Wadena county. Weight, 61.5 pounds 99.2 Color 97.0 Plumpness 98.0 Glutin 75.8 Glutin, quality 95.5 Total, 465.5 Eleventh — R. E. Patterson, Pelican Rapids, Otter Tail Co. Weight, 61.5 pounds 99.2 Color . 96.5 Plumpness 98.0 Glutin 73.8 Glutin, quality 98.0 Total, 465.5 Twelfth— J. G. Nelson, Parker’s Prairie, Otter Tail county. Weight, 61 pounds 98.4 Color 96.0 Plumpness 97.5 Glutin 70.2 Glutin, quality 95.5 Total, 457.6 Thirteenth — D. W. Swingh, Appleton, Swift county. Weight, 62 pounds 100.0 Color 96.5 Plumpness 97.5 Glutin 70.0 Glutin , qu ality 92.0 Total, 456.0 153 The prizes are therefore awarded, in the order named, to A. N. Johnson, Fred Meisner, 0. E. Samuelson, Peter Thomp- son and E. S. Olsen. One requirement in sending samples was that all grain submitted should be taken from the ma- chine, and not specially cleaned. As a result all the samples have some weed seeds which, by cleaning, would be removed and the weight per bushel would be thus increased. But eighty -nine entries were received in time for the fair, and it is quite probable that better samples could have been sent were it not that the fair came too early for the late crop of the year. The major part of the seed was sent into the more northern portions of the state, and at the time the fair was held only a few farmers there had been able to thresh the grain. D. N. Harper, A. C. Clausen, Thomas C. Hodson. Abreviations used in the following tables: pot. — potatoes the previous crop. B’t — bright, b.c. — broat cast seeder, subs. — subsoil. B. S. — Blue Stem. Blk. — black. BLUE EARTH COUNTY. 154 Grade . Yield per acre Weight per bushel Days matur- ing Ripe . Seeded.. A ^ M2 ~ Q .S 3 • $ tj fj 05 .2 PM 3 +j rt > ^ W to O-S 05 6 o . 5 ? • 6 05 o m o r 05 x -mx S3'^ 05 £ •« +j rt” -1 to 0 n m fi (« OflHOnO 4 -> ^ +J g 4 -> jr* ^ ej ■+■» S3 O cj -2 o Ph p cm Cm « W 10 Cl O H tH H _xx_ xi> Cl Cl 44 X X 103 : £ : 2 : m 3 05 O >0 P 42 P S3 +J u ctf o * uo riS CM CM OH 10 10 XX ffi « P fc ci CM 0 _ a LQ 10 X X T* £h 5 $ o CJ o pq bo o$ S c$ . Q ^ .P ■0* O co ■ 5 S M oj s* H 2 P O o « w M u w m c fl £ rr! #TH rrt 43 S 3 o rj as •3 P C * X ** 33 P+J 2 P'S a . *2 c u go S "a ^ n S w ^ S3 V a -2 P cS j, 05 u 2 h O H 02 O ^ !t3 H P O Cm w * s o o o xxx 10 ^ c 5 o a a Cm Cm Pm O a o w pq o S P^ oi +j •+J ~ «P CO CO _■ 05.33 — o U to £* O o So 53 O » ’C S3 eg P aj O ZO H O H H H H U 01 £0 CMP 05 g aj 05 3* oo ww ' H io 10 »o XX CHIPPEWA COUNTY. 155 O c £ S » c * ■gs-g ^ p c w-g d C0 + J OTJ w ;?§£ at 5 0!o ® )* - >> 2^ p p tC W W tf-G ?> 2 a£ Wo sss Ee- ° C3 be -a fe l»H O C3 C * ^-2 fl |§5j J .2g'3 , 2 . . + 1 b^-oSajP^^a* j* W 5 s w y w y a 'OQ g a*g ^.QO-a o 0 d-g-gogg^-g WT3 * « & 3 w o’C wCCj-’^.d o w WWW WW w H H H H H H H CM CO^ C CM CO CM CM H CM CM 05 H CM C OOIO OC 05 l^t-O OCO CM O 0 oc XOO CM H H H H 05 H H H rH CM CM H NC5H CM X H C 00 00 00 00 00X00 00 Tjl 01 ^00 C tJI 01 CM CM CM CM CM ri C 4 444 4 4 10 : 2 0 o r ®+5 >•>+> -p t>^ 0 d bee Jys+» ^ >-a g S3 3 «ZW d a a be ad a a£ d d 2 £ 0 o SS« -p do d^ u <3 ® d « kWO W c w > O a O co P 5o« W'Mfl i-^3£ GO CO ^ CM 0101 CO CO CO IOC Cl CM CO CO d p a a be « » ^ d S d £ d W a 0 •°w gsa zWm w W££ 2^3 3 H 2 p O O kH P U m a a 3 > 60 O g S* fcj, +»rC 1) « p a w 3d .tJ+j bO O *Q ^ §3 hf ~ O P .2 a-s tit; a o-S o 25 £ W rj a a a a 5 0 6 £ Q W kH H P O a Q O O £ z o H o a '0 W o > t_, d ^-a .’O ^ a -a o rt * 4j .X 2^3 -a 2 c *8gg8og •°^lll§ •p to d y +J « _c r?‘o c p d be hr± a a -P -P •£ .Sf'P u d x o a >4 QWCXi t- 05 cco 05 H H OUOI^ H H H 00 00 00 222 d d d 000 +)-p+i aca3a3 be be be 333 325 ■goo 300 0.5.2 ob d a fc' a t sjgj 3 ^*2 Wq-p ^3 . . coou 000 CO CO to IS 1 d y hd ^ld O y 05 be, - P | ■gb O y. CX> H a p - o o o o m hH K o p 2 ’§£ T5 U 2^ ^3 beg ,t c d 4 1/2 p <-, d o be a a a o o p p PQPQ i t>05 tH H COCO, DOUGLASS COUNTY. 156 b 4 .5 ^ 0 %£, P £03 ^-P £ d bo 43.0 ^ to .'5.W>g o 4 »-g5sa ® -s * * ' S >*> ^+J • - & .2 0 fS -° m "’2 g|-o"“^si JfcSfS-o.g fcp 15 P ctf -+J P _ * fcoSSkSdag^ P .4 P h/i' t " > ^ ® it c$ -p cjrS.PJw o ,4 Q p) O -1 £ S3 $ «J as ri GUO OX Grade 1 N 1 H 1 H 1 N 1H 1 H Yield per acre. O tH 10 o XOI ^ CO 00 Tjt r-t Weight per bushel 63.2 62.2 61 62 63 Days Matur- ing 1 114 ! 113 I 113 104 119 108 115 05 •P d Q Ripe 8-15 8-15 8-22 8-13 8-18 8-10 8-11 Seeded 4-23 4- 24 5- 1 5-1 4-21 4-24 4-18 > 3 d w ^ 43 5 1 — .£? P ! K H W dS ^ g p ’“' % !>> ’? T d S C •p d £-* P P O a < H O W < Q « 0.3 •5 ^+* t, ’b+i - i3 15 U 03 n 15.0 150 ; M-Od 5 d|^d ~ c .$? d 3 • P £i §5 £ WOO ^ p p H .&? o • p4U~ m p d to .43 » 5 O w < +j P . P% c3 co d S^oS- x ^-P P.^0 Ij_- 83^ P +» S'O u Vr .5 5f^d - 5 s|E;a.SS p d « P cj 43 UQ o Z 0* 10 l> CD 10 H H rH CD 10 CD OO H O o H H H 10 Tf 01 H U- 00 X 00 10 CD OI to id 4 d ,2 <5 kS ^ cj P3p3 w'd d £ «J . 4J+J P d ise* *lg £43 & Uj p S3 ^ ^ Q^ : : *43 • • • {J S3 ': o : 33 £ ; .3 § t§ 'd W gj : u g d ri w ? £ ^ >-> .- o w ^ x a 05 05 oi i Ot CJ 01 ^ I P3 .2 * S £ U S3 8 ° ^ P 1 } 10 CD t- XX X FILLMORE COUNTY 157 0 c ' r e O o3 «5 u bo - jh p p ^ ■°^ Q . •§ bC5 ■S-5 2 • ^ 9 2 W P3 %TS tn P P u O P P ,P +-> L >i c3 +J co fc" S+ 1 f>w a j§ 13 w • S 3 t? bfiO eg « tt? g H - 2 o oS-9 o & Q O Z Z £ H H £ 0 O o qq 0 W Q O o O ,Q «3 9g g| *•2 ,c 9 in ^ P a 5 : P p o O to .p <§§ p . OO tH oi CC CO 0101 >< H z 0 O u fH c 4 -> 4 J 5 o ~ 9 O g O £ § . O O Oi d £ » 0 ?>> oi-poo PQ in to u u ;* • H ^.SEg'o JSj s i’O.gS : p ~ , o’ q,t " « t* 5*2 ® « o oo2 — tS’gg^St; ^mB 3 '3 g -9 2’ P £ ’P rrj «J £ 5p^°° 10 U«>£ _ V. ■ Ph ^5 rrs 01 Olrt 1 ^ L ^ • C «3^ tP tZJ P ’O C^ fl t cj ’f 3 . ^3 •assess-? .gloi 29 QJ H .Jl 7 J_J w (U n-j ^ .gloi ^V^S'Sg-pgo; Jo^OSWxfl ^ S Z ^ O % H « a U & U X •‘ W '« a ^ a a 00 00 00 00 T 3 “ £ *0 r! 01 P 'T* OV rH CD rjl 01 OIOINOIOIOI lO - ^ ^ Th 10 Kind of Soil. Black loam, clay subsoil... Seven Year old prairie Light prairie Heavy prairie Light prairie Light sandy, brush cleared Sandv loam Town. Stephen Stephen Stephen Stephen Holt Fohldahl Fohldahl Argyle Name of Person. John Whalen J. L. Robertson... R. A Whitney Henry Hoper N. J. Engelbratson M. A. Beekstrom.. Otto Haug Chas. Tohmer No. 05 X O 10 O ^ 10 >0 CD l> U* X CD CD H rl rlHCOrirl 6 x H S * O N a u u O h4 o H MORRISON COUNTY. kH z & o o P* Pi £> be v k> -M r! k> I <> . ®3 Si Si ^ %-. a 0 + J to -P . r fl +j c P C j c o X CO X XX X a co : .5? 5 X Wh o ^ C3 V- ,_} ^ O «B d d w > ■g X Kx fc 005 10 X ri X 161 Cj ■+-» £.tj be~ 0 rZ z* S -H c CO O ^ o 4> k> §s u.3> ^ ’oq O k< CO C5 •fc kP DX 4> C = j, ,-. bfi-~ C-J o^ gSge -3 i»|oSS Qk;xZ£ p £05 ..> x co k.T-i 2 B + J ’d"" rt 45 CO 2 bO'O ° -M -P rj B (B H+J pciO &G4 k be C ^ ^ p 43 s k>*S w -m pS, QOCK .P"5 2 «\SI££ •2 gU & 5 - a a HHH as z a- a rH r 1 r-* H 43 af a C | B’C | *P P *0* •r T. -r - O C3 £ £ .a 'c ^ ^ oj V! V, P P k p p p-2 ♦H *H » C OJ 2 j*S!b‘!J=.S .§ .§ S O ki be aj rr^ -T ^ *2 _:sl C rt ccj ■SSsE'fS 2 ' g S.S>8 u.Sf2 WQCCZCO gOj P aj C k^Cj k»C O^P c oj — • P fvg « » pf C P k cj k» k> k. P u u Ch‘ o n o '-' Jo _ : k> k< C : ij cp rf o a Pa Pffim^ 0 0" a aj Oj +» +» a a ~ 4 c« w D h p aao co CO ^ u % % o o o a ^ p p UkJkJU CO CO CO 03 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 p p p p uoou rj ji h w H a” sa*£’ § k> ..• .a3 ‘ 4 U_ rr< rr\ ** 4 >^{k 0, U_ X 05 H N X X 4 O O H X X 05 05 H H H X S 2 B ' 4 ? o s £ CG PP U<-> « * .-S 05X .P O g X' °§ h or g£ a • g u pP P O oxa W o* 01 PN© 01 Of CO T}i P r O T O r O 0 0 0 0 0 0 £ ££ 'O ’O l> P 10 00 00 00 00 00 h . g >•> ’y r* • • ^ g'O'O’g g g g cj !j « £*6 u u u ^ S-S'g-S a x< .§ Jd 4J 05 P P P ■Ss £ £ £ .£.5 o o o t» 5 p > ^ g g gj; 15 X3 rO ^2 ^ ■g g *C*C g S g g g £ ►4 Q fg fg g u o 15 g c 15 p2 ~ g cr; < . ’ r— vg fc O «qU ^Usa OJPQ §» UOZQh 050 P COO 10 CO CO CO ^ §.ts . fcCjH ^ Cr H 15 fe £ *•,1.2 ►> s« ” •§ •sgSaS SagS" gS - <0* Sf sss Pot o * 06 *" g h 05 « « o^ga P .►Q g g O oSpp 7C 15 05 r! P XOWPQ w w w P H H H H O 10 10 H 01 H e* h CO CO COCO O CO t> J>X COCO H CO O oo 01 o H p rH p H P H p H CO l> H CO lO 00 H OJ 05 00 00 00 obad 00 00 CO O O C0l> CO 10 c ? c ^ c ? N N Tf< Tf< gh ^ 44 :a o g :s- g P 03 p-g £ w — 60’S f?gl 15 aj - H ^ 7 i i_T ^ -QOh^^ ^ 73 ^ > w y p £ * u ^•S-S.S'S ^ PS’S s 65 [jC j.® 'C 5 jcJ 00 ^ 0 a!rf QtfjQOkpH QP 4 WWW HrlH 00 X 00 X 00 00 CO H N X h Tf Tf( rft ^ t* rfUO rf< 5h !> _ P,J}- w Cj Cj ^ i’g\ ■p J-< : o p, : w -p •g £ o 3 y ® &a” y C 3 *>» .Ocj g" §£p o,Q p *K5 Tl ^ . h 1 > y «BZ fJ fl S 53 3 ^ OOOOO^ cc co co co co c*. 53 CSflC^ qj c y "5 W«< •C gl T P W P o o w p p p H m WABASHA COUNTY. 164 Yield per acre. Weight per bushel Days Matur- ing Grade . Ripe . Seeded. C a o u M ^ G CO 5 3: c« O K. u +J > A ~ mr 1 " n ^ 3 c -p cjj u 5 g g O CO Oirt £>, CO -d 1/ CO « cj rC ^ CJ qj . o g TO .■§«£** ^ _• 4> 0 +* W O 5 ^ ^S^DoShOjQO^ H £ O rtg ^^.S+r rg k Q<*\ &-S d » C* 3 < u .^ l0 P'0W m Q n U__ W W * » 01 10 00 ^ 10 Tfl Tj( d be o W o p, ft H ® QJ £> ^ ft] N rC ,0 .d d 03 d be a a £ s S S & § § w 5 5 « « O « 8 « W d O *"-> •“> W H £ P O O 2 o 0 K hH w in < +^« §§ Sfc d ^ W >h frl » P O o H 01 CO OM CO CO CO O O O r-i r-f rH 01 GO GO I> d Cl rH 4 10 > h4£ g+j o d £ d H Ufin tJ< © ri Cl H rH «rj< f* S3 & O U h4 d 0 2 8 § % bfl d .3 zz Oh (/} K* O 05 "S If 00 drr-j S bfi°+3- 05^ ■slsjis^ga ssljst?fi&e VhwS^^So^O PQ < U>(Ji>(J 8 W ZZZR H H H «0 00 00 H CO rH H H X COCO^H CO lO CO CO CO CO 00 CO rH N X 05 O o yH H o o H ■H H H H H 10 CO op 1 > 7 7 tP 05 00 oo 00 00 00 00 Ol Tfl CO 05 10 01 Ol 01 : o : : : ^2 ^ : ; T3 fl £ p S : : « d : : > p d cc •p /i 'p ©< 05 05 ► {>, bo be ,d b« . d d d d 05 05 p p £ £ 05 05 £ £ u o 05 05 MX ■ d d 44 to to p u d d £ £ o o d . o Td d 7 © £ S 05 .0 4-> 4-> 03 W S : S d 05 .S •S’ggSS wSSgg d k 4 ^ Q 2h g

SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Number. Per cent. Total reports tabulated 169 Total number reporting rust 14 Total number injured by frost 4 Total number with reports on weight per bushel 119 Total numbei weighing 64 pounds or over per bushel 16 15 Total number weighing 63 pounds per bushel 26 24 Total number weighing 62 pounds per bushel 24 22 Total number weighing 61 pounds per bushel 23 21 Total number weighing 60 pounds per bushel 9 8.2 Total number weighing 59 pounds or less per bushel 11 11 Total number yielding 40 bushels per acre and over 6 5 Total number yielding from 35 to 40 bushels per acre 10 12 Total number yielding from 30 to 35 bushels per acre 19 16 Total number yielding from 25 to 30 bushels per acre 17 lO Total number yielding from 20 to 25 bushels per acre. 27 Total number yielding from 17 to 20 bushels per acre 13 Total number yielding under 17 bushels per acre 26 Shortest time for maturing, 90 days ; longest, 118 days. Average yield per acre, 34.1 buslieis. Average weight per husliel, 62 pounds. Average of days maturing, 106. In conclusion little remains to be said that is not already recorded in the tables or summary. The use of good seed wheat, of uniform sized grains, free from foreign matters or other varieties of wheat, when not hampered by rust, dry weather, frost, or insects, results in uniformity in the time of maturing of the crop, a large aver- age yield per acre, and a high average weight per bushel. PRELIMINARY REPORT UPON AN INSECT INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. OTTO LUGGER. This report, though very incomplete in all details, is made at this time to warn farmers against an insect not observed before in Minnesota, and to enable them to prevent more serious losses in 1893. As soon as the life-histoi^ of this in- sect has been studied more thoroughly it will be given in a future bulletin. During the early part of September a number of letters were received from different parts of the Red River Valley, both from the Minnesota and North Dakota side, in which the writers complained about an insect of some kind that had reduced the wheat crop very materially by partial- ly cutting off the culm (stem) just above a joint from three to four inches above the ground. This took place at a time when the head was filling. The culm above the injured joint wilted, gradually turned yellow, and soon after broke down entirely by bending over at the infested spot. Some of the writers discovered that the injury was caused by an insect of some kind, while many others, less observant, claimed that the injury was due to hail, to a blistering hot sun, or to some other cause. Two gentlemen specially interested in this insect, and fearing greater trouble for next year, invited the entomologist of this station to make an investigation and to suggest remedies. The farm of Mr. Chas. T. Ohmer, of Argyle, Marshall county, was visited first. In one of his fields, from which the crop had been harvested and removed, very many heads of wheat were found upon the ground. The supporting culms had been broken down before harvest, and were consequently not cut by the reaper. These heads were all partly filled with berries more or less badly shrunken, and the culms were still adhering to the roots. The break- 168 age of the calms had taken place most frequently above a node or joint about three inches from the ground. Just below this breakage, and immediately above the joint, the culprits were found. In most cases but one puparium, but in a few cases two, three, and even more puparia could be found. A puparium is the hardened skin of the larva or worm, made strong by a deposit of horny material. These puparia are glossy chestnut-brown, shading to a yellowish-brown to- wards the smaller end; faint indication of sutures or seg- ments are visible. All these seed-like objects contained at that time the larvae or worms which are of a white color. No pupae could be detected during the investigation, nor can they be found at this date (Sept. 28). Larvae could not, as a matter of course, exist in such dry culms. These puparia are very similar to those of the Hessian fly, or to the “flax seed stage” of that insect, and this resemblance had given color to the belief of some that this injurious insect had found a home in the valley. It seems, therefore, most likely that the insect investigated hibernates in this stage, and that the puparia are really well protected in this condition, and in the position assumed inside the culm. They are inserted in the material of the upper part of the node, inaccessible by any moisture from the outside, as the culm above does not break off entirely but simply bends in a more or less acute angle a short distance over the puparia, and thus prevents the entrance of moisture. Yet the culm is sufficiently frac- tured to permit a free exit of the future fly in spring. A number of other places were visited in the adjoining counties of Polk and Kittson, and it was found that similar conditions prevailed in many fields. In fact the numerous inquiries among farmers plainly indicated that this insect has caused more or less damage over a large area, and that remedies should be applied wherever necessary. It is not always easy or even possible to explain why any one insect should suddenly appear in such numbers over a large area. It is only by a very careful and long continued in- vestigation that we may sometimes arrive at a true ex- planation. Here it is readily found in the fact that owing to the wet autumn of 1891, and the equals wet spring of 1892, not 169 - much more than one half of the usual acreage of wheat was plowed, and in many places the shocks of grain had to be left upon the fields. Many inquiries also plainly indicated that small patches of wheat had been noticed in 1891 which showed bleached heads long before harvest, and no doubt these white culms harbored the insect unknown to anyone. Since the culms infested with these puparia were left upon the fields the resulting winged insects were not destroyed, but they issued during the spring of 1892 and greatly ex- tended their domain. The very causes that killed oft the armies of young migratory locusts, i. e. excessive moisture, protected this new pest. From all appearances this insect is one of the Frit flies, but which one, remains to be seen by breeding it to maturity. The name Frit ffy was given this insect from the fact that Swedish farmers call the worthless grain resulting from in- juries caused by such flies “frits.” From the rather few facts we at present possess in regard to this insect in Minnesota one very important conclusion may be reached. As the insects hibernate in the culms of wheat in stubble fields, and very likely remain in that con- dition until spring, simple remedies are evident and can readify be applied. All that is necessary to kill the great majority of these insects is to destroy the stubble at this time of the year, or as soon as possible. Two methods are feasible: burning the stubble, or plowing it under. Burning can be practiced in some few cases but in many fields there is not sufficient material to do it thoroughly. Plowing there- fore, is our best remedy, and no field should be left unplowed that contains such insects, or is suspected of containing them. A very superficial inspection of the fields will show the whereabouts of these insects, ifthe owner has not already detected the broken culms or heads. By splitting with a knife thejoint just below the broken culm the darkpuparium will be readily seen. If not the discolored interior of the culm above will indicate its presence, and closer inspection will reveal the culprit. All such fields that contain infested straw should be plowed, and this as soon as possible to make sure; the rest of the fields can be plowed later. In doing 170 this now we will be sure of one thing: the insects although well protected against moisture will come in lasting contact with the moist soil, the broken tube above will be filled with earth, and the fly can not escape next spring to carry destruc- tion near and far. The damage caused by this insect in 1892 is by no means a small one. In many places fully one fourth of the entire crop of wheat has been destroyed, and in a great many more the losses amount to at least one tenth. As many places are badly infested the total amount is quite large, and if no steps are taken to prevent it, a repetition may become ruinously large in 1893. University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 24. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. OCTOBER, 1892. ORNAMENTAL AND TIMBER TREES, SHRUBS AND HERBACEOUS PLANTS IN MINNESOTA. NOTES ON THEIR HARDINESS AND DESIRABILITY. The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. University of Minnesota. BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 . The HON. GREEN-LEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894 . The HON. KNUTE NELSON, Alexandria, ----- 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEAFWOLE, Northfield, - 1896. The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, ------- 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, ----- 1896 . The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, - 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1895 . The HON. WILLIAM R. MERRIAM, St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio . The Governor of the State. * The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio . The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - - - - Ex-Officio . The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., - - ----- Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., - Chemist. T. L. H DECKER, - Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, - Veterinarian. J. A. VYE, ---. Secretary. \ INTRODUCTION. The object of this bulletin is to furnish reliable informa- tion to the planters of ornamental and timber trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, etc., in Minnesota; to encourage the growing by nurserymen of a number of desirable plants adap- ted to our conditions that are not generally known, and as an answer to the many requests received for information in regard to the proper plants to use for park, street and lawn planting in this state. The work is of a practical nature and is in- tended chiefly as a criticism of those trees and plants met with in the catalogue^ of our most progressive nurserymen. Nearly one hundred species and varieties now growing on the experiment station grounds are not mentioned as they either have not been grown here long enough to warrant us in drawing conclusions as to their value or are chiefly of interest to botanists. In connection with the notes on hardiness, it should be borne in mind that there is a great variation in the types of different plants, and that the hardiest form is always referred to, where two types are known. For instance, the northern or native red cedar is perfectly hardy any where in this state, while the form grown in the southern, central and eastern states is not near- ly so hardy and is not a safe tree to plant. Nearly the same may be said of black walnut, butternut, sugar maple, box elder and to a great degree of many other plants. It is well, then, for planters to select, as far aspracticable,plants grown in this state or those grown in northern nurseries from north- ern stock. In the table on hardiness the native plants are starred and they will generally be found most satisfactory. Where the Rocky Mountain conifers are referred to, the form meant is that from seed grown on the eastern slopes and foot hills of the Rocky Mountains. Plants from the western slopes and ranges have been conclusively shown to be more *A table of contents and an index will be found at the end of this bulletin. 174 easily injured by dry winds and cold weather than those of the same species from the eastern slopes, and they are not, therefore so well fitted to this state. In the preparation of this bulletin, I have had the kind assistance and advice of many planters and nurserymen in various parts of the state and their services are hereby gratefully acknowledged. I am under especial obligations to Hon. Wyman Elliott and R. J. Mendenhall of Minneapolis, Hon. S. M. Emery and J. M. Underwood of Lake City, Hon. L. R. Moyer of Monte- video, Prof. C. B. Waldron of Fargo, N. D., G. W. Fuller of Litchfield, J. S. Harris of La Crescent and E. H. S. Dartt of Owatonna for much assistance in preparing the table of har- • diness, and by their suggestions and help in many ways. In making up the table of hardiness I have endeavored to take notes from as many characteristic and widely separ- ated parts of the state as practicable, and from well known, representative men. The notes by Hon. Wyman Elliott are selected because he is widely and favorably known among horticulturists as one who has had much experience in plant- ing trees himself and in observing the plantings made by oth- ers in Hennepin and Ramsey counties and vicinity. Hon. L. R. Mo 3 ^er’s notes are made from his experience at Montevideo, Chippewa county, which is thoroughly re- presentative of the severe conditions of our western prairies of the central portion of the state. The notes by J. S. Harris are given with reference to the hardiness of plants in south eastern Minnesota, where he has made his home for many years and where he has earnestly watched and worked for the development of horticulture in all its branches. Prof. C. B. Waldron is professor of arboriculture in the North Dakota Agricultural College, and his notes are given from the standpoint of his experience at Fargo and at Du- luth. / E. H. S. Dartt is superintendent of the state tree station at Owatonna. His notes are given with reference to his ex- perience in that section. SAMUEL B. GREEN, Professor of Horticulture, Oct. 3d, 1892. University of Minnesota. Deciduous Trees, ACER. Maple. *White, Silver Leafed or Soft Maple. ( A . dasycar- pum .) — Very hardy, easily transplanted and of rapid growth, butsuffers much from a deficiency ofmoisturein thesoil. Itis especially desirable for somewhat protected locations. If ex- posed to severe winds the limbs are often broken in the crotch- es, but this difficulty may be largely overcome by occasion- ally shortening in the branches and retaining as much as possible a central leading shoot. In many parts of the state it is a good street tree, and valued for wind breaks on account of its quick, upright growth . Easily grown from its seed which ripens in June. Cut Leafed or Wier’s Cut Leafed Maple. (A da- sycarpum , var. Wierii .) — This is a sport from the white maple and is propagated by budding or grafting on the same. I think it generally not nearly as hardy as the white ma- ple. A pretty, small, lawn or park tree of irregular pendulous habit and finely.cut foliage. Desirable for sheltered locations. *Sugar, Hard or Rock Maple. * ( A.saccharinum . ) — Very hardy over most of the state, in heavy, rich lands, when grown in forests, and forming one of our most valuable timber and fuel woods. It does well in the southern and south-eastern parts of the state when grown as a street or lawn tree if the trunk is shaded with straw or other material. When not thus protected the trunk is liable to sun scald. In the north- ern and western half of the state it winter kills badly in ex- posed locations, especially when young and before becoming well established. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. 176 Norway Maple. ( A . platanoides.) — A large tree from Europe, with large, dark green leaves, which are smooth and green on both sides. In milder sections this is a desirable street tree, rivaling the hard maple in value, but we have found it too uncertain here to be recommended for general planting, though it has stood fairly well for seven years at the experiment station. Schwedler Maple. (A, platanoides, var. Schwedlerii.) — A variety of the Norway maple, with a most beautiful crimson color to its young growth, which changes to a rich trown when mature. Very handsome and showy in the spring, and worth growing in a small way. Propagated by budding or grafting on the Norway maple, or by layering. Rxttenbach Maple. {A. platanoides, var . Rittenhachii.) — A variety with bronze purple color to the foliage in the lat- ter part of the season. A beautiful variety, worth growing in a small way. Propagated by the same means as th e Schwedler maple. *Red, Swamp or Soft Maple. (A. rubrum.)— A native tree of medium size and rather slow growth, with deep red blossoms early in the spring, and brilliant scarlet foliage early in autumn. Grown from seed which ripens in June. It is not often successfully cultivated here as a street or or- namental tree. Tartarian Maple. (A. Tartaricum.) — A small, pretty tree of very promising hardiness, not long tried here. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. AESCULUS. Horse Chestnut. Horse Chestnut. (AS. Hippocastanum.) — This is un- reliable, but in sheltered locations on heavy soil will often last several years. Not hardy at the experiment station. ALNUS. Alder. European Alder. ( Alnus incana.) — A small, pretty tree that can often be used to advantage in ornamental planting. Grown from seed which ripens in early autumn. BETULA. Birch. *Canoe, Silver or White Birch. (B.papyracea.)- This makes a beautiful lawn and park tree and is not nearly as 177 much planted as it should be. It is conspicuous and pretty in both summer and winter, affording a very pleasing con- trast with thedark foliage of other trees, and especially so when contrasted with evergreens in winter. Best adapted to moist soil, but will hold on well even in dry situ- ations. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. White or Poplar Leafed Birch. ( B . alba , var. popu - lifolia.) — Indigenous to the eastern states and generally found on poor soil. It differs from the above in having many black twigs, pendulous shiny leaves, and in not attaining to large size. Not nearly as desirable as the next, which it some- what resembles. Propagated by seed which ripens in au- tumn. European White Birch. (B. alba.) — A pretty, sym- metrical tree of medium size, with white bark and of rapid growth while young. Very desirable for ornamental pur- poses. Easily propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. The variations are grown by budding, grafting, and inarch- ing on the species. - Cut Leafed Weeping Birch. (B. alba , var. laciniata pendula.) — A variety of European, white birch. Probably the most popular lawn and park tree. Hardy in good soil anywhere. In very dry situations short lived. Very desir- able wherever it can be grown. Purple Leafed Birch. ( B . alba , var. purpurea .) — A variety of the European white birch with foliage and young bark purplish in color and in pleasant contrast with the white bark of the older growth; conspicuous and pretty. *Yellow or Gray Birch. ( B.lutea .) A pretty, desirable native tree of rather slow growth. Propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. CARY A. Hickory. * Bitternut Hickory. (C. amara.)— Valuable for hoop- poles and it can often be profitably planted on rich land. It grows very fast until it commences to fruit, and makes a pretty lawn or park tree. Readily distinguished by its or- ange yellow winter buds and very bitter nut. This species is indigeneous to the central and southern 178 portions of the state. Probably the hardiest and best form of hickory for general planting here. It does not make as large a tree as the pig nut or the shell bark hickory, but grows faster when young. Easily grown from seed which ripens in autumn. CELTIS. Hackberry. *Hackberry. (C. occidentalis.) One of the most beau- tiful street or lawn trees that we have. Found frequently in the forests in the south half of the state and occasionally else- where. In dry situations it is not so hardy as the white elm which it rivals for ornamental planting. Very desirable. Propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. CATAEPA. Hardy Cataepa. ( C.speciosa .) Very unreliable at the ex- periment station, and I think not valuable for timber in any part of the state. In some sheltered locations the trees may last a few years and produce their beautiful flowers, but are often killed back and sprout from the root. A few are worth try- ing in such places for ornamental purposes. Flowers in large panicles in July. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn Plants from northern grown seeds are hardiest. CRATAEGUS. Thorn. * White Thorn. (C. coccinea.) A pretty and desirable small native tree or shrub with an abundance of white flow- ers in spring, followed by bright red fruit. Especially desir- able for moist, rich soil. Grown from seed which ripens in au- tumn. *Cock-Spur Thorn or Thorn Apple. (C. Crus-galli.)— A native species with very long thorns and straggling habit. White flowers in spring, followed by dull red fruit. A hand- some, desirable tree. ELiEAGNUS. Oil Berry. (E. augustifolia .) A very pretty round topped tree of me- dium size^ light green, downy foliage and dark colored bark. Introduced into this state by the Mennonites and by them esteemed. very valuable for screens, etc. It is hardy in the 179 southern half of this state and generally desirable, though further north it occasionally slightly winterkills when young and in exposed situations. Pretty and desirable. Easily grown from seed. GLEDXTSCHIA. Honey or Three-Thorned Locust. ( G . tricanthos.) — Not hardy at the experiment station. FRAXlNUS. Ash. *White Ash. (F. Americana.) A well known native timber tree of much value, attaining a large size. It makes a good street tree in some locations, but is rather stiff in out* line. Valuable for forest planting, except on our western prairies, where it is not very hardy. A much more rapid grower than the next. Propagated by seed, which ripens in autumn. *Green Ash . ( F. viridis . ) — Somewhat resembling the above but smaller, and far less valuable for timber, though much more hardy. It grows very fast when young, and before it pro- duces seed, after which its growth is rather slow, and it never attains a large size. The seed of this species being readily obtained, it is frequently substituted for that of the white ash which is not so abundant, and is quite different in form. Pro- pagated by seeds which ripen in autumn. Probably all the ash in the western part of the state is of this kind. *Black or Swamp Ash. (F. sambucifolia .) — Found in wet places. A small tree used for coarse baskets, hoop poles* etc. The bruised foliage exhales the odor of elder. Not val- uable for tree planting. GYMNOCLADUS. *Kentuky Coffee Tree. (G. Canadensis.)— A pretty and conspicuous tree with very large, compound leaves. (They are often 2 feet long.) Found sparingly in the southern part of this state. It can be occasionally planted in sheltered loca- tions to advantage. Grown from seed which ripens in early autumn. JUGEANS. Walnut. *Black Walnut. (J. nigra .) — Unreliable except in south- 180 ern Minnesota, where in places large trees were abundant when the country was first settled. It can now be planted to advantage for timber in sheltered locations, especially upon rich heavy soil in southern Minnesota. Not reliable as an ornamental tree. It succeeds best when grown from seed raised in this state or northern Iowa. Seed ripens in autumn. ^Butternut. (J. cinerea .) — A pretty, large native tree . that resembles the black walnut in foliage and habit but is much hardier, and the nut is more valuable for eating. It succeeds best in rich, heavy soils. In some parts of the state a satisfactory ornamental tree. Propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. LARIX. Tamarack. * American Larch or Tamarack. ( L . Americana .) — A pretty , native tree, found throughout the eastern and northern parts of the state in swamps. Not as desirable as the next. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. European Larch. ( L . Europea .) — This tree has rather disappointed tlie expectations of tree planters in not being as long lived or as desirable for timber as was expected. It is, however, of a ignore regular and close habit than our native species, and is far more desirable for ornamental purposes. It is a rapid grower when young and is very valuable for occasional use in ornamental planting to give variety to the landscape. Propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. MORUS. Mulberry. Russian Mueberry. (M. Tartarica .)— The most con- tradictory evidence is plentiful regarding this tree, and too much has often been claimed for it, but the following is what I have gathered from rrtany observations: In the southwest- ern part of the state it is regarded with high favor as a low wind-break. The trees are hardy and form a close growth; they fruit abundantly but the berries are insipid though of- ten of good size. At the experiment station the new wood has frequently been entirely winter killed, but it quickly out- grows any damages of this sort and makes a vigorous, pret- ty wind-break. For a low wind-break to protect small fruit, 18 or trees on tree claims it is very valuable in the southern one-third of the state. As a timber tree I think it almost worthless. For fruit it should be grown from cuttings of the the best plants . It should be borne in mind that the plants gen- erally sold are from feeed and that scarcely two seedling plants will bear fruit exactly alike and they vary very much in both foliage and fruit. It is bi-sexual and consequently it is neces- sary to have both kinds of plants, in order to obtain fruit. Of very rapid growth. Grown from seed, cuttings or layers. NEGUNDO, Box Elder. *Box Elder or Ash Leafed Maple. (N. aceroid- es.) — Too well known to need much notice here. In good soil in protected locations in the southern half of the state it makes a good sized tree, but at the extreme north and in very exposed or barren situations any where, it becomes much dwarfed. At Fargo, N. D., it is popular as a street tree. A fairly good street tree in favorable locations, but rather small for best results. Of clean habit, long lived and of won- derful hardiness where the soil is not very dry. A valuable pioneer tree. Of very rapid growth when young. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. OSTKYA. *Ironwood, Hop-Hornbeam, American Hop-Horn- beam orLever-Wood. (0. V irginica .) — A pretty, native tree of' medium size that does well under cultivation. Generally hardy but it prefers some protection and does best in moist, rick land. Grown froirqseed which ripens in autumn. POPULUS. Poplar. Silver, White or Abele Poplar or Abel-Tree. (P. alba.) — Of rapid growth and rather irregular habit, perfectly hardy a^^where. The downy whiteness of the under side of the leaves and the white bark make it a tree that can often be used to enliven groups of trees of more somber aspect. The wood is fine grained and valuable for fine finishing work. The great objection to it as a street or lawn tree is thkt it sprouts a good deal from the roots, especially if they are broken. This is, however, no objection to it as a forest tree; 182 for which it is very desirable, as it makes valuable timber. Propagated by sprouts and cuttings. Desirable. There are several varieties of this, and among the best are the follow- ing: Boeeeana Poplar. (P. alba, var. Bolleana .)— The foli- age of this variety is much prettier than that of its pa- rent. In habit it is upright and close like the Lombardy poplar, though unlike this latter tree it promises to be long lived and very useful and beautiful for or- namental planting. It is not so easily propagated as the Abele,as it does not sprout or root easily from spring made cuttings. However, cuttings of it made in the autumn and well calloused before planting out, I think as sure as Con- cord grapes so treated. Hardy. (P. alba, var. nivea argentea .) — A form of the Abele with a much more silvery aspect on account of the greater amount of down on the leaves and young growth. Very pretty for contrasting with other trees. Propagated by cutting and sprouts. Lombardy Poplar. (P. fastigiata .) — Conspicuous for its erect, close, columnar form. It can often be used in a small way to advantage in ornamental planting, to secure va- riety. A verv rapid grower. Hardy when young. In shel- tered positions it stands fairly well but generally as soon as it gets to be of much size, it begins to die in the top and be- comes unsightly. Not desirable for extensive planting. We have a form of this, from Russia, which Prof. Budd reports as far more desirable, but as we have had it only eight years and dur- ing that time neither it nor the common form have been in- jured, we are not warranted in drawing conclusions. Ea- sily grown from cuttings. Cottonwood. (P. monilifera.) This is well known and very popular as a rapid growing, pioneer tree. It succeeds admirably on the prairies of western Minnesota, but is of little value except as a wind-break, being quite worthless as lumber and for farm purposes. With it should be planted some more durable and better kind to take its place, as it generally reaches maturity in about twenty years or less 183 and then commences to fail rapidly. A not clearly defined form of this with yellow heart wood and perhaps larger leaved, called yellow cottonwood, found in the Missouri valley, is far better for general planting, since it affords timber that for many purposes will compare favorably with white pine. This form should supercede the common or native cottonwood for general planting. Grown from cuttings or from seed which ripens in early autumn. Many complain of the cottonwood being a nuisance on account of the cottony float which it sheds with its seed. This tree is dioecious, that is, there are male and female trees of it. If only male trees were set, or cuttings of male trees — those with reddish tassles — no cotton would be produced. Van Gert’s Golden Poplar. (P. monilifera , var. Van Gertii.) A form of the cottonwood that has conspicuous golden green leaves all summer. Desirable for occasional use in ornamental planting to secure pleasing contrasts. Very useful for parks. Of much the same habit as the cottonwood; healthy and a strong grower. Easily increased by cuttings. Russian or Asiatic Poplars. — We have in our collection at the experiment station, ten kinds of these poplars which we have grown seven years. (For a detailed report on them see Bulletin No. 9.) Several of them give promise of being desirable trees for general use, while others have their foliage too much injured by fungi, are too susceptible to the attacks of the poplar borer, ( Saperba concola) or are of too slow growth to ever become valuable. Those most desirable are the following: Populus certinensis. A fast growing poplar with oval- pointed leaves. It makes a large tree. Of rather closer and better habit than the cottonwood. I think far more desir- able than the common cottonwood for ornamental and tim- ber planting, but it has not been tried sufficiently in Minne- sota to warrant very pronounced opinions regarding it. Easily grown from cuttings. Populus Petrouski. As we have it, apparently inden- tical with the certinensis. 184 Laurel Leaved Poplar. ( Populus balsamifera , var . lauri folia.) This is a little slower grower than the P. certi- nensis. The foliage is very thick and healthy and white on the under side. Distinct and desirable and well worthy of trial. Of rapid growth. Itroots easily from cuttings. Populus balsamifera , var. Siberica pyramidalis. — A pretty, ornamental and timber poplar with stiff, leathery foliage somewhat resembling that of the laurifolia. Hardy and de- sirable. Grown from cuttings. Populus Wobskv. A poplar of peculiar aspect and re- sembling a cherry tree in foliage. At the experiment station rather more liable to attacks of the poplar bo- rer and to leaf fungi than most of the other kinds, but re- ports from Chippewa county show that it is doing well there. A rapid grower. It roots easily from cuttings. Birch Leaved Poplar. ( Populus betulifolia.) — Not es r pecially valuable, but a fast growing poplar, with leaves shaped much like those of the cottonwood but broader. It might be used to give variety to timber borders. Easily grown from cuttings. PRUNES. Cherry. * Wild Black Cherry. (P. serotina.) — A native tree T very pretty at all times and especially so when in blossom or when loaded with ripe fruit. Very hardy when grouped, among other trees, but it occasionally sun scalds when stand- ing alone. Valuable as an ornamental tree and for timber planting. It yields, next to black walnut, the most valuable wood grown in' this state. Flowers in June. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. *Wild Red Cherry. (P. Pennsylvania.) — A small na- tive tree of good form and habit, that does well under culti- vation. White flowers in May. Grown from sprouts and root cuttings or from seed which ripens in autumn. *Choke Cherry. (P. Virginica.) — A small native tree that does well under cultivation. White flowers in May. Grown from sprouts or from seed which ripens in autumn. 185 PYRUS. *Wild Crab. (P. coronaria .) — This may sometime be used to advantage as a lawn tree, but it is generally unsatis- factory, and is very liable to blight. Flowers in May. In- creased by root grafting. ^American Mountain Ash. (P. Americana.) This is a pretty, hardy native tree of coarse growth and larger, lighter colored berries than the European species. I think it somewhat hardier. Propagated by seed which ripens in autumn. European Mountain Ash. (P. aucuparia .) — A valuable and popular tree; very ornamental in flower and fruit. Propagated by seed. Rather hardier than the Duchess apple. It is holding on exceedingly well in the vici- nity of St. Paul and at Fargo, N. D., but is somewhat liable to sun scald and blights occasionally. Very hardy when es- tablished. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. Weeping Mountain Ash. (P. aucuparia , var .) — This is a very hardy pendulous form of the European mountain ash, and makes a conspicuous tree on the lawn. It generally requires some pruning when young to make it fall evenly around its stem. Propagated by budding and grafting on the species. QUERCUS. Oak. The oaks are slow growers, but long lived. Our best growing species is the burr oak, and more of them should be planted The impression prevails that oak can- not be transplanted, but nursery grown trees properly hand- led can be moved without serious loss, and in rich soil their growth is quite rapid. *Burr, Mossy Cup or Over-Cup Oak. ( Q . macrocarpa.) —Our finest ornamental oak and a magnificent tree even in the most severe locations. In habit of growth, size, form of acorns and cupules it is very variable. This tree and the white oak class, to which it belongs, have very long tap roots. On this account they withstand the treading of cat- tle or the working of the soil around them far better than the red oak class, which have mostly surface roots, when they grow in forests, but if the red oaks are planted in the 186 open ground they develop tap roots and stand well. Easily grown from its acorns. * White Oak. ( Q . alba.) — A valuable timber tree of slow growth; not particularly useful for ornamental purposes, but its persistent leaves give variety to winter scenery. Grown from its acorns, which should be sown as soon as possible after they fall from the tree. *Red Oak. ( Q . rubra.) — A good ornamental anditimber tree, with foliage of a deep red color in autumn. Grown from its acorns. ^Scarlet Oak. ( Q . coccinea.) Has brilliant scarlet fo- liage after the first frosts of autumn. A beautiful ornamen- tal tree. In growing this care should be taken to select acorns from the trees having the best foliage and habit. ROBINIA. Locust Tree. Yellow or Black Locust. ( R . pseud-acacia.)— Too tender and uncertain over most of this state, and too liable to attacks of borers to warrant its general planting any- where. But in sheltered positions in the southern part of the state and north to Minneapolis there are occasional groups of trees of good size. It is admired for its racemes of pretty white flowers and graceful foliage. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn, and from sprouts. Flowers in June. SALISBURIA. Maiden-Hair Tree or Gingko. (S. adianti folia.) — A very pretty slow growing tree with peculiar fan shaped foli- age. A few specimens have grown well near Minneapolis for six years without protection. I have found the young seed- lings quite tender. Grown from seed. SALIX. Willow. White, Gray or Huntington Willow. ( S.alba .) — This most valuable willow is too well known as a very desirable tree for shelter belts, or as a street tree, to need much space here, but its great value forbids passing it by without some notice. It is the best pioneer tree for exposed places, and succeeds well everywhere if it has a fair chance. In some 18 7 places, notably in Cottonwood county, the larva of the saw- flies severely injures it, and it has seldom been planted there of late years. By a little attention at the proper time these insects may easily be destroyed. It can often be used to ad- vantage in ornamental planting, for street trees, along water courses and for a quick growing screen to protect more ten- der trees. Grown from cuttings. Wisconsin Weeping Willow. (S. var .) — A fine, quick growing, large tree with pendulous branches . I think it valu- able over most of the state. The small twigs are sometimes injured at the experiment station, but it quickly outgrows any winter injury it may receive. One of the most desirable weeping trees. Easily grown from cuttings. Kilmarnock Willow (S. caprea , var. pendula.) Too tender for this state, but often sold here by un- scrupulous or ignorant agents. It seldom survives one win- ter. RUSSIAN WILLOWS — Frequent inquiries are made for the “Russian Willow, ” with the impression evidently that there is but one tree under this name, when the fact is that at the experiment station we have seven kinds received from Russia, and one is as justly entitled to the term “Russian ” as the other. These kinds differ widely in value. The most valuable are the following: Laurel Leaved Willow. (S. laurifolia .) — One of the finest and most satisfactory medium sized trees we have, with large dark green leaves that shine as if varnished. Of close, pretty habit it scarce resembles any of the common willows in appearance. A rapid grower. Very desirable for screens and for street and park planting. Easily grown from cut- tings. Russian Golden Willow. (S. vitellina, var. aurea .) — Perfectly hardy and a very rapid grower, making a large tree. At all times a good tree, but especially handsome and con- spicuous in the latter part of winter and towards spring, when the bark turns a light golden yellow, A far better and prettier tree than the common golden willow; very desirable 188 for screens and wind-brakes. Easily grown from cuttings. S. acutifolia . — One of the best of the Russian willows. Quite distinct in foliage and habit from other willows; very pretty and graceful. Its leaves are glossy, branches slender and covered with a blue bloom when more than one year old. Not so rapid a grower as the white or golden willow, but it makes a good sized open tree. The foliage resists the work of the saw-fly larva better than that of any willow I know. Per- fectly hardy. Easily grown from cuttings. Napoleon's Willow. (S. Napoleonis .) — This is a pretty little spreading dwarf willow from Russia, with fine twigs and narrow bluish leaves. It is desirable for covering un- sightly banks and for edging water courses. We have graft- ed this on to the S. acutifolio, and in this form it makes a pretty weeping tree. Very hardy, but the young growth is sometimes a little injured in severe winters at the experiment station. Grown from cuttings. Royal Willow. (S. regalis .) — A quick growing tree of medium size; close, pretty habit and light, downy, gray col- ored foliage; very valuable for enlivening plantings and se- curing contrasts. Much used in fine park planting. We have grown it at the experiment station three years and it seems perfectly hardy. Easily grown from cuttings. TIBIA. Basswood. x B asswood or American Linden. (T. Americana .) — A native tree well known as one of the most beautiful native and large ornamental trees we have. It thrives best in the moist, rich land of river bottoms, but does well in any good soil. It is a good street tree in suitable locations, and is not used nearly as much for this purpose as it should be. Ifyoung trees are taken from the woods and at once planted out so that the trunk is exposed they are very liable to sun scald. On this account trees planted alone should have their trunks protected with straw or other material until the trees are large enough to shade themselves . Grown from seed which ripens in autumn and from cuttings. European Linden. (T. Europea.)— We have tried several of the varieties of this species and found them all too tender to be valuable here. ULMUS. Elm. *American or White Elm. ( U . Americana.)— This is by far the finest tree we have for street planting. While it is found at its best in river bottoms or other moist locations, it also endures remarkably well the intense heat and cold of the prairies of Minnesota and the Dakotas, and should more often be used in timber plantings. Clean in habit, a rapid grower, long lived and beautiful in every way. It varies much in habit. Grown from seed which ripens in June. English Elm. ( U . campestris.) — This grand tree has been grown to only a limited extent in this state, but at the central and the Owatonna experiment stations and in Lake- wood cemetery, Minneapolis, it is very promising. In habit it differs much from our American elms, the limbs projecting from the trunk at nearly right angles. Grown from layers or suckers. *Red, Slippery or Moose Elm. (U. fulva.) — This is a good small or medium sized tree; desirable for forest plant- ing. The redwood is straight grained and a valuable tim- ber for many purposes. Not so desirable for street planting as the white elm. Grown from seed which ripens in June. Weeping Slippery Elm. ( XJ . fulva var.)— This is of very strong growth, and pendulous habit. When growing rapidly, some branches are apt to run up too erect for symmetrv; these will assume their proper positions if some small weight is tied to their ends. A useful variety for occasional use in ornamental planting. Grown by graft- ing it on white or slippery elm. *Cork or Rock Elm. ( U . racemosa.) — A valuable na- tive tree of large size that varies very much. One form of this has leaves that remain on it all winter. This has much harder and stronger wood than the red elm. A valuable tree for ornamental or timber planting. Grown from seed which ripens in early autumn. Camperdown Weeping Elm. ( U . var. montana, Cam - perdown.) — A very beautiful weeping tree, not generally re- garded as hardy here, but, at the experiment station, it has come through the past three winters in vigorous condition. In Lakewood cemetery, Minneapolis, it is holding on well. Evergreen Trees ,* ABIES. Balsam. *Balsam Fir, Balsam Spruce or Balm-of-Gilead Fir. (A. balsamea .) — This well known evergreen is very abun- dant in eastern Minnesota. It makes a slender tree of much beauty in moist locations and rich soil, but it is not nearly so valuable for screens or ornamental planting gener- ally as the white or Norway spruce, and should be used very sparingly in dry locations. It often loses much of its beauty when old, especially if at all affected by lack of water in the soil. Grown from seed. A. concolor . — This is a Rocky Mountain fir with long, light colored, beautiful foliage. It varies much in color, some specimens being a soft light pea-green color. Well grown specimens are very beautiful. When young it rather inclines to spread out and to be sprawling in habit, but in a few years it takes a start upwards and makes a good tree. We have grown it at the experiment station seven years and it has shown itself to be very hardy, but its slow growth will pre- vent its becoming very popular. Grown from seed. Nordmann’s Silver Fir. (A. Nordmanniam .) — Not sa- tisfactory at the experiment station as the foliage sun burns badly. PINUS. Pines. *White or Weymouth Pine. (P. strobus .) — One ofthe most valuable and beautiful native evergreen trees we have. Long lived, hardy and of rapid growth in almost any soil or situation when once established, in eastern, north-eastern and *A11 the evergreen trees referred to in this bulletin are generally grown from seed sown early in the spring. Occasionally, to perpetuate some peculiarity, some vari- eties are grown from cuttings by grafting, but those so propagated are not as long lived or hardy as plants from seed. 191 southern Minnesota^ but reports from extreme western Min- esota would indicate that it is somewhat unreliable there, and that the Scotch pine is a better tree to plant there. Grown from seed that ripens in autumn. *Red or Norway Pine. (P. resinosa .) — For ornamen- talplanting this native tree rivals the white pine. It is of goodform, rapid growth, long lived and perfectly hardy when once established. Young trees of this pine have for several years been difficult to obtain, and but few nurserymen offer them, and when they do it is at about twice the price of white pine. The seed, too, we have found almost impossible to obtain for the last two years. Grown from seed. Scotch Pine. (P. sylvestris .) — Introduced from Eu- rope; a quick growing tree and a favorite with the planters; very hardy and easily grown, but in this climate it seems to mature in about twenty years and then begins to look scrawny and bare; a valuable tree to plant as a pioneer evergreen. A form of this, called Riga pine has been introduced into this country from Russia and is represented as a much larger tree and much longer lived than the ordinary Scotch pine in this climate. We have several specimens no w ten years old on the grounds of the experiment station; they grow well and may be somewhat closer in habit than the Scotch pine; they are holding their own, but we think not more so than the common Scotch pine, though we have not had them long enough to draw definite conclusions as to their value. Grown from seed. Austrian or European Pine. (P. Austriaca.)— Intro- duced from Europe; somewhat resembling the Scotch pine, but with longer needles and a more symmetrical, candelabra like habit ; it is open to the same objection as the Scotch pine and is not nearly so hardy or as rapid a grower; very hand- some and useful forgiving variety to plantings. Grown from seed. Heavy Wooded or Bull Pine. (P.ponderosa .)— This is a Rocky Mountain species that seems to promise much use- fulness in this state; it is the only pine found growing in the extremely dry climate of northwestern Nebraska and among 192 the foot hills, where it is often found growing alone in ex- posed places It does not thrive in the humid air of the east- ern states. From what we know of this tree it would seem to be well adapted to the western prairies of this state; well worth trying and one of the easiest to grow from seeds. Dwarf Mugho Pine. (P. Mughus .) — Introduced from Europe. A very hardy and long lived dwarf pine, seldom growing over six feet high; shrub like in habit; very thick and bushy. It is very desirable for ornamental planting and single specimens are often very handsome; it also makes a good wind break; of rather slow growth; the plants vary much in aspect but all have the same dwarf habit. Hon. L R. Moyer, of Montevideo, Chippewa County, Minn., thinks this the hardiest and longest lived of cultivated pines. Grown from seed. PICEA. Spruce. *White or Blue Spruce. (P. alba .) — This is perhaps the most valuable spruce we have. When once established it is very hardy and beautiful; much hardier than the Norway spruce, but in habit not so graceful and more resembling the balsam fir. The seed of this tree is difficult to obtain, and the young trees generally cost considerably more than the Norway spruce. The black spruce is frequently substituted for the white spruce, which it somewhat resembles, when young. A native timber tree with cones about two inches long that fall off when ripe. Grown from* seed. Norway Spruce. (P. excelsa . — ) A fine tree that is gen- erally doing well in the state. A strong, very fine grower, and it assumes a beautiful pyramidal form, and drooping habit when fifteen to twenty feet high. Its foliage is occa- sionally browned a little but it holds on well. Very desir- able for wind breaks. On account ofthe scarcity of the white spruce this tree has been and is destined to be largely plant- ed. Its cones generally form near the tops of large trees and are often eight, and seldom less than six inches long. Easi- ly grown from seed. Black or Double Spruce (P. nigra .) is far more abundant in our native woods than the white spruce, which 193 is quite rare. It is comparatively worthless for planting in this state, seldom giving satisfaction. A slow grower, with a decidedly dirty aspect when it commences to bear seed, as the cones do not drop oft, like those of the Norway and white spruces, but remain on the trees decaying for years; this, with its enfeebled growth ‘which shows when the trees first bear seed, make it quite unsightly. The planting of this spruce has led to much disappointment. Unscrupulous persons often sell this for the white spruce, which it some- what resembles when young. Cones small, one to one-and- a-half inches long. Trees often bear cones when not over five feet high, but I have never seen the white spruce have cones until much larger and older. v. 1 \ Colorado Blue Spruce. (P. pungens .)— This is a tree of exceeding great beauty from the Rocky mountains, where it is found growing in very severe exposures. It seems to be of wide adaptablilitv, succeeding equally well in North Carolina and in Nebraska. Its chief beauty lies in the beautiful light blue color of some specimens. In growing it from seed, it is found that only about one-third of the seed- lings have the desired blue color, while the remaining two- thirds are of a rich green color. As yet there are no large specimens in this state. It has been grown for seven years in the nursery at the experiment station and it appears as har- dy as the white spruce, while it is of a far prettier habit. Judg- ing of it from observations made here and in eastern states, where there are quite large trees, I am led to believe that it will become very popular and prove a decided acquisition to our list of ornamental evergreen trees. Not so rapid a grower as the white spruce. Grown from seed, Engleman's Spruce. (P. Englemanii .) — Introduced from the Rocky mountains. This somewhat resembles the Colorado blue spruce, but with blunt pointed needles. Very pretty and desirable. Not thoroughly tested. Grown from seed. PSEUDOTSUGA. Douglas Spruce. (P. taxi folia .) — Another Rocky moun- tain conifer which is quite unique in its botanical relation to 194 other conifers. In foliage it somewhat resembles the hem- lock, as its name implies. Good authority reports this tree as tender here when raised from seed grown on the west- ern slopes of the Rockies, while seed from the eastern slopes produces plants that are very hardy, but not so hardy as the white spruce. In its native habitat it produces a great amount of large timber resembling and valued for the same purposes as hemlock. We have grown it seven years at the experiment station and find it of rapid growth, and somewhat irregular but erect habit. Easily transplanted and very hardy. It varies much in color, some specimens rivaling the Colorado blue spruce in color and beauty of foliage. Grown from seed. The young seedlings* however, are extremely tender and liable to sun scald and to “damp off.” RETINISPORA. Japan Cedar. Japan Cedar. ( R . plumosa .) — This beautiful ever- green is too tender to be grown successfully in Minne- sota. The rest of the species and varieties are probably as tender and not even of promising hardiness. As specimen plants to be grown in tubs and wintered in the cellar they are very desirable. Grown from cuttings or layers. TSUGA CANADENSIS. Hemlock. ^Hemlock or Hemlock Spruce. (T. Canadensis .) — This native tree is found abundantly in parts of Wisconsin, but only sparingly in Minnesota. It is a valuable timber tree of magnificent habit and proportions. There is a very general feeling among the planters that it is not hardy here, but at the experiment station we find that when planted among other trees it is very hardy, only occasionally having its foli- age browned. Well worthy of more ex tended use in somewhat sheltered locations. Grown from seed. JUNIPERTJS. Juniper. Red Cedar or Juniper. (/. Virginiana .) — Well known* and found growing in many parts of Minnesota. It does well in the driest and most exposed, as well as in the most sheltered locations, and forms an admirable wind break. When grown in alternate rows with white or Scotch pine a 195 ft screen is formed as impenetrable as a stone wall. Grown from seed that should have the outer coat taken off with pot- ash lye, and which often then will remain dormant for a year in the soil before growing. The native form of this is much hardier than that found further south. Trailing or Savin Juniper. (/. Sabina var. tamarisifo - lia.) — A pretty, dwarf, trailing native juniper which is readily pruned to a variety of forms. It makes a fine plant and is very desirable for occasional use. Grown from cuttings and layers. THUJA. Arbor Vitae. *Arbor Vlle or White Cedar. (T. Occident alis.) — Very common in swamps in eastern Minnesota and Wisconsin. Valuable for screens and hedges. It will not stand well in very dry locations, but makes a good growth in any reten- tive soil when once established. Grown from seed. It varies much under cultivation and most of its varieties are desirable. Among the best of these are the following: Siberian Arbor Vit^e. ( T. occidentalism var. Siberica .) — One of the best varieties for favorable locations, but is not as hardy as the following species or the next. Of a dark rich green color and compact habit. Grown from cuttings or layers. Pyramidal Arbor Vlle. ( T. occidentalism var. pyramid - alis) . Of upright pyramidal form, and very distinct, fine, hand- some foliage. It gives variety when planted among other evergreens. Grown from cuttings or layers. Hardy. Golden Arbor Vlle. (T. occidentalism var. Douglasii.) — A strong growing kind. In habit like the common arbor vitas but with bright golden color; conspicuous and pretty, but occasionally it severely sun scalds. Grown from cut_ tings and layers. Shrubs. ARALIA. Aralia or Angelica Tree. (A. Maadshurica.)— A very odd looking bush with large compound leaves that give it a semi-tropical aspect. With ns it kills to the ground each season, but starts quickly from the roots in the spring, and makes a growth of from three to five feet. It prefers a moist situation. BERBERIS. Barberry. Common Barberry. ( B . vulgaris .) — A strong growing shrub with handsome foliage, many sharp prickles, yellow flowers in June, and red fruit. Found occasionally sponta- neous in this state. It makes a small loose hedge and is de- sirable for grouping. Very hardy here, but it fruits only sparingly. Its foliage is often disfigured by the cluster cup fungus. Grown from seed that ripens in autumn. Purple Leaved Barberry. ( B . vulgaris, var. purpu- rea .) — A fine ornamental shrub with purple foliage and small yellow flowers in May. Valuable for contrasting with plants of lighter foliage. When grown from seed a large proportion of the plants will often be green in color, but most of them will be purple. It may also be grown from cuttings of the half ripened wood. Thunberg’s Barberry. ( B . Thunbergii .) — A very pretty spreading bush of small size. The foliage is small and bright green in summer, changing to a bright red in autumn. It is not much effected by the cluster cup fungus. Desirable, GrownYrom cuttings of the green wood, or from seed which ripens in autumn. 197 CARAUANA. Pea Tree. Caragana or Siberian Pea Tree. (C. arborescens .) — A Siberian shrub of close, neat habit, locust like leaves and leaf- lets and bright yellow, pea-shaped flowers early in spring, followed by long, slender pods. Very pretty for a division line between city lots and for grouping. It bears pruning well and is probably one of the hardiest of cultivated plants. Grown from seed that ripens in autumn. C. frutecsens . — A smaller Siberian shrub than the above, with yellow flowers. Valuable. COKNUS. Dogwood. Red Osier Dogwood or Red Twigged Dogwood. (C. stolonifera .) — A native shrub from three to six feet high, with bright red bark in winter, and small white flowers in June. It sends up many sprouts from the roots. Very pretty either singly or grouped with other shrubs. Propagated by cuttings, layers and suckers. C. sanguinea . — A European species, similar to the above in foliage and flowers, but the bark is of a dark red color, and it does not sprout from the roots. Valuable for orna- mental planting. Propagated by cuttings and layers. DIEKVILLA Weigela. D. rosea . — There are many species and varieties of weige- la that are very beautiful, but most of them are quite tender in this state, unless heavily protected in winter. This spe- cies, however, is quite satisfactory here, and is well worth growing by those having a somewhat protected location. It produces large rose colored, trumpet shaped flowers in June. Pretty and desirable. Very hardy, but is occasionally in- jured by severe winters and is improved by slight protection . Grown from green wood huttings and from layers. EUONYMUS. Burning 1 Bush. Euonymus, Burning Bush or Spindee Tree. (E. atro- purpureus .) — This is our native species. It forms a shrub or small tree six to fourteen feet high. Cultivated for its pretty and striking appearance in autumn when covered with 198 its abundant crimson fruit. Hardy. Propagated by seed that ripens in autumn. FORSYTHIA. Golden Bell. F. Fortuneii. — This shrub generally comes through our winters without much injury, but, while it grows rapidly it seldom, if ever, flowers at the experiment station. Grown from green wood cuttings and from layers. F. viridissima . — This behaves much like the above. HYDRANGEA. Hardy Hydrangea. H. paniculata. — This is the original type of the popular large flowering hydrangea. It has an open panicle and only a few flowers sterile. A very pretty shrub, but not gener- ally so much admired as the next and not much grown. Large Flowered Hydrangea. (H .Panic ulat a ,var. t gran- diflora.) — This is probably the most popular hardy shrub in cultivation. It is admired for its handsome large clusters of white flowers in August, when but few shrubs are in blossom, and none so conspicuous. It is easily grown, and is general- ly hardy without protection. Of clean, robust habit, it should be in every collection. Easily propagated from hard or soft wood cuttings and from layers. Very hardy at the experi- ment station, but it winter kills completely in very trying situations on the prairies, unless heavily protected. HYPERICUM. St. John’s Wort. H. aureum. — We have had this shrub two winters in a somewhat protected place, and it has proven very hardy and satisfactory so far. It has large, bright yellow flowers in August and September. Propagated by green wood cut- tings and seeds. H. kalmianum. — With smaller flowers than the above and of a more spreading habit. Flowers in August. Very hardy. Propagated by seed. H. saliciiolia. — This we received from Prof. Budd, but have never been able to winter it. Too tender. LIGUSTRUM. Privet. P. vulgaris. — As ordinarily grown this is very tender, 199 but we have a form from Poland that has stood the last three winters without serious injury. Increased from cut- tings. California Privet. (L. ovalifolium.) — Not hardy. LONICEEA. Bush Honeysuckle. L. Tartarica. — There are several varieties of this and all are hardy, desirable, and as satisfactory as any ornamental plant grown. They make large bushes and are never injured by severe weather. The flowers are pink and white. We al- so have a variety with larger pink flowers than the species called the grandidora that is very desirable. Flowers in June, followed by yellow or red berries. Grown from soft wood cuttings, layers and seed. PHILADELPHTJS. Syringa, or Mock Orange. Garland Syringa. (P. coronarius.) — A well known and popular favorite, much prized for its high^ scented white flowers, which are produced in June and in great abundance. It is only occasionally injured in our severe winters and it quickly outgrows any set back it may receive. P. Columbianium. — A late flowering species with large white flowers that we received from Arnold Arboretum. Very beautiful and of promising hardiness. P. grandidorus. — Has slightly fragrant flowers that are very large and showy. Valuable. Philadelplms , var. 144. — We received this from Russsia through Prof. Budd. It has very large white, slightly fra- grant, handsome, flowers, and is of straggling habit. Probably form of P. grandidorus. Hardy and valuable. Grown by cuttings. Gordon’s Syringa. (P. Gordonianuw.) — A fine late flow- ering variety with large flowers. Very hardy. PHYSOCAEPUS. Spiraea. *Spir.e or Nine-Bark. (P.opulifolius.)— A strong- growing shrub from six to ten feet high, with clusters of white flowers late in June. Desirable for screens and groups. Grown from seed or cuttings. Golden Spiraea or Nine-Bark. (P. opulifolius , var. 200 aurea .) — A most graceful shrub that pleases everyone by the contrast of its graceful form and golden green leaves with the foliage of other plants. It is especially desirable as a single specimen for the lawn where something nice is wanted. White flowers in clusters in June. Very satisfactory. Grown from cuttings and layers. POTENTILLA. Cinquefoil. *Potentilla or Shrubby Cinquefoil. (P. fruticosa .) — A hardy uative shrub about three feet high, with pret- ty golden yellow flowers all summer. Very desirable and sat- isfactory even in the most exposed, or in very dry situations. Grown from seed and layers. RHAMNUS. Buckthorn. English Buckthorn. ( R.catharticus .) — Thewellknown and popular hedge plant of the eastern states and Europe. Of robust growth and pretty habit, with white flowers in June, followed by black berries. It bears close pruning with- out injury. It may be grown as a small tree or shrub. Perfectly hardy in this state even in very severe locations. “ Exceedingly desirable. Plant without fear.” Propagated by seed that ripens in autumn. RHUS. Sumach. Smoke Bush or Purple Fringe. (P. cotinus.) — Ad- mired for its airy clusters of curious, fringe-like flowers that to the popular mind resemble brown smoke. It can only be grown successfully in this state in favorable locations, and is liable to serious winter injury elsewhere. Grown by seed and layers. ^Smooth Leaved Sumach. ( R . glabra .) — A native kind that may often be used to advantage for groups in orna- mental planting. Attractive in summer with its long, graceful compound leaves and clusters of dark colored fruit, but in autumn the plant is gorgeous in its crimson coloring. Propagated by seed and root cuttings. Cut Leaved Sumach. ( R . glabra , var. laciniata .) — This is a form of the last, but with finely divided foliage that gives it something of the aspect of a large fern. Very pretty. Hardy when well established. Propagated by root cuttings. 201 RIBES. Flowering Currant. R. alpinum . — A dwarf kind with spreading habit and small, yellow flowers. Yellow Flowering or Missouri Currant. (2?. aure- um .) — A well known, popular shrub having a great profusion of long yellow flowers early in the spring, followed by a few purple, black shining berries. Of the easiest culture, hardy and desirable. Propagated by cuttings, divisions and layers. Gordon’s Currant. ( R. Gordonianum .) — Has not win- tered well at the experiment station, and we think it too ten- der without protection. ROSA RUGOSA. Japanese Rose. We reserve a report on hardy and desirable roses for a subsequent bulletin, but at this time think it best to call at- tention to this very desirable species, which has seemingly been overlooked by planters. It has been said that we have never received a native plant from Japan that was hardy in this state, and at first thought this plant might seem an ex- ception to the rule, yet the truth probably is that it is a native of Siberia, from whence it was introduced into Japan. R. rugosa . — We have this in two colors, pink and clear, pure white. The plants grow about three feet high and are exceedingly vigorous and thrifty. The bark is covered with slender prickles. The leaves are large, thick and of a dark, glossy green color, which they maintain early and late, in dry or in wet weather. When other roses have lost their fo- liage or look brown from the attacks of the rose slug or thrip, the leaves of the rugosa are as bright as ever. I have seldom seen a leaf of it injured by insect or fungi. The flowers are single, of good form and from three to four inches across; buds long, pointed and very beautiful. They flower all sum- mer and often into September, and have very large, bright colored fruit. We have grown it unprotected in a very ex- posed place for three years, yet it has never been injured. I think it hardy in any good soil, if slightly protected, and perhaps without any protection. Grown from cuttings 202 of the underground stems, by budding and from layers. Plants grow readily from seed and seedlings, and are of various shades of red and white. Semi-Double Rosa Rugosa. ( rosa rugosa , var. flora plena.) — A semi-double form of the above is offered by nur- serymen which is quite pretty, but it lacks the character and elegance of the species. SAMBUCUS. Elder. ^Common Elder. (S. Canadensis.) — A native shrub of robust habit with white flowers in large flat clusters in July, followed by black berries that are often used for a medicinal wine. Hardy and desirable; grown by divisions, seed and cuttings. *Red Berried Elder. (S. racemosa.)—A native shrub of robust habit with white flowers in pointed clusters in May, followed by bright red berries. Very pretty and conspicuous in both flower and fruit; propagated by cuttings, divisions and seed. Cut Leafed Elder. (S. racemosavar. laciniata.)-A strong growing variety from Europe with dark green, deeply cut foliage ; a good ornamental shrub ; propagated by cuttings and divisions. Golden Elder. (S. nigra , var. aurea.) — An elegant form of the European elder with bright, golden-yellow foli- age and white flowers in flat clusters. It is very valuable for enlivening shrubberies and forms a most beautiful contrast with plants of more somber hue. It is sometimes killed back a little but has never been seriously injured. To get the best effect from it the young shoots should be occasionally pinched back in early summer. Very hardy and desirable. Easily grown from cuttings. SPIRE A. Meadow-Sweet. S. Van Houttii. — A strong-growing, hardy shrub of handsome habit that is covered in June with masses of large white flower clusters. This is by far the best of the species for this state. Hardy ; propagated by cuttings and di_ visions. 203 S.obovata . — A strong growing, perfectly hardy shrub, cov- ered with clusters of white flowers in May. Grown from cuttings and divisions. Pretty and desirable. Douglas' Spirea. (S. Douglasi .) — A low shrub of which there are several varieties with pink or white flowers in July and August. Very hardy. Propagated by divisions and cut- tings. S. lanceolata or S. Reevesii . — A handsome shrubby spirea with showy white flowers in May. Of good habit and de- sirable. Propagated by divisions and cuttings. Hypericum Leafed. (S. hypericifolia ) — A dwarf species with white flowers early in the season. Fortune's Spirea. (S. Fortuneii .) — A low growing spi- rea of which there are varieties with red and white flowers. Very pretty and useful. Bridal Wreath or Plum-leafed Spirea. (S.pruni folia, var. flore pleno .) — A very beautiful shrub with closely set double white flowers. It is sometimes injured in win- ter in very severe locations. Desirable. Thunberg's Spirea. (S. Thunbergii .) — This is a pretty, graceful spirea with narrow, pointed leaves and white flow- ers, which are produced early in the spring, before the leaves. . At the experiment station we have found it too tender to be desirable unless covered in winter. *Nine bark Spirea. (S. opulifolia .) — For this see Physo- carpus. Golden Spirea. (S. opulifolia , var. aurea.)— For this see Physocarpus. Ash Leafed Spirea. (S. sorbifolia .) — A vigorous species with compound leaves resembling those of the mountain ash, and long, elegant panicles of white flowers in July. It suckers some from the root and is easily increased from root cuttings. SHEPHERDIA. Buffalo Berry. *Buffalo Berry. (S. argentea .) — A very excellent shrub or small tree (4-10 feet high) found abundantly along water courses in the Dakotas and Montana. Its imperfect flowers are produced early in the spring, before the leaves, and are 20i inconspicuous. Its leaves and new growth are silvery white and give the plant a very conspicuous, soft-silvery aspect. In growing it from suckers pulled from wild plants, I have found it difficult to secure pistillate plants, and consequently the fruit. The fruit is red, with one quite large seed, and is very pretty. It is quite acid and makes a good jelly or sauce, but I doubt much if it ever becomes popular for its fruit where currants can be easily grown, on account of its large seeds. The foliage of the plants vary in color. The prettiest we have came from Wyoming. Perfectly hardy, and a most de- sirable ornamental shrub. SYMPHORXCARPUS. Snow or Wolf Berry. Snowberry. (S. racemosus .) — A hardy native shrub that has inconspicuous flowers, followed by white berries that remain on the' branches the greater part of the winter. It has long been cultivated; grows about four feet high, and is very desirable for ornamental planting. SYRINGA. Lilac. Common Lilac. (S. vulgaris .) — Few shrubs are so well known and popular as this. It is perfectly hardy, grows freely, and flowers abundantly in any soil or situation, but it will repay any extra care taken in manuring it and keeping the suckers pulled off. There are a great many very beautiful varieties which have red, blue or white flowers in May or June. Leaves heart shaped. The species and some of its va- rieties are grown from seed, cuttings or suckers, while other varieties are only grown by grafting. Persian Lilac. (S. Persica .) — Not so strong a grower as the common lilac, but hardy and desirable. Flowers re- sembling those of the common lilac, but in more open clus- ters and bluish purple or white in color. Leaves narrower than in the common lilac and more pointed. Hardy. Grown from cuttings. Josika’s or Chionanthus-Leaved Lilac. ( S.Josikeea .) — We have grown this species at the experiment station four years, and it appears as hardy as the common lilac. Its foliage is very large and of a dark, glossy green color. Its flowers are produced just after the common lilac& are 205 done flowering. A robust grower. Grown from cuttings and layers. Very desirable. TAMARIX. Tamarisk. T. amurensis . — A pretty, graceful shrub with fine, light, cedar-like foliage. We have grown it for six years in our nursery. It kills nearly to the ground each winter, but is well worth growing in a small way. VIBURNUM. Arrow Root. *High Bush Cranberry. ( V. opulus .) — A well known na- tive shrub, found in moist land. From four to to ten feet high. Flowers in white flat clusters in June, fol- lowed by clusters of red or yellow fruit, which hang on into the winter. Hardy, vigorous and desirable. The red, acid fruit is valued as a substitute for cranberries, and can often be profitably cultivated. Increased by seed, layers or cut- tings. Snow Ball or Guelder Rose. ( V. opulus , var. sterilis .) — A well known form of the high bush cranberry with sterile white flowers in rounded clusters in June. A very popular shrub. Grown from layers and cuttings. *Arrow Wood.(F. dentatum .) — A large native shrub of clean habit, with white flowers in June. Desirable for large groups. *Sheep Berry. ( V. lentago . ) — A native shrub of robust, pretty habit and handsome flowers in the spring. Perfectly hardy and very desirable. ZANTHOXYLUM. Toothache Tree or Prickly Ash. *Z. Americana . — A native shrub or small tree. Perfectly hardy. Valuable for variety in lawn planting. It also makes a very excellent, impenetrable hedge. Grown from seed which ripens in autumn. VIJXIES AjMD ©LIMBING SHRUBS, ACTINIDIA. A. argnta , wrongly called A. polygama . — A rampant growing ornamental vine from Japan. This has been grown in a small way by R. J. Mendenhall, of Minneapolis, and has been found to be unreliable. At the experiment station we lost ours the first winter it was planted . AKEBIA. A. quinata . — A Japanese vine of pretty habit, but too tender at the experiment station. AMPEEOPSIS. ^Virginia Creeper or American Iyy. (A. quinque folia.) — Our best climber and a native of our woods; of strong growth, with beautiful, bright crimson colored foliage in au- tumn. Unsurpassed for covering porches and unsightly fences, etc. One of the most beautiful division lines between property that I have ever seen was a fence covered with this climber. It needs liberal manuring to enable it to do its best. A variety of the above, known as Englemann’s, has shorter joints and clings rather better to walls. Perfectly hardy and well known. Grown from layers, cuttings and seeds. Japan or BostonTvy. ( A . Veitchii .) — Where hardy this is the best of creepers for stone walls, and is the vine used so much on public buildings, etc., in the^J eastern and central states. Unfortunately we have found it to be too tender for use in Minnesota. In very favorable locations it can be grownjf well protected in winter. It is very much more tender the first two years after setting out than it is after having become well established. Grown from layers, cut- tings and seeds. 207 ARISTOLOCHIA. Dutchman’s Pipe or Birthwort. *A. Sipho. — A native vine with large leaves and curious flowers. It can be grown in protected locations, but is not generally desirable. Grown from seed. CELASTRUS. *Bitter-Sweet or Climbing Celastrus. (C. scandens.)— A strong growing, native twining vine of clean habit. It is very conspicuous and pretty when covered with its orange colored seed pods. Hardy. Very desirable. Grown from seed and layers. CLEMATIS. European Sweet Clematis. (C. flammula.) — With small, fragrant white flowers. Not hardy at the experiment station. C. Jackmanni. — A most beautiful clematis, with large, purple flowers. Desirable in very favorable locations, but not generally satisfactory here unless carefully protec- ted. Grown from cuttings, layers or by root grafting. C.coccinea. — A slender growing vine with red flowers, A native ofTexas. Quite hardy, but not generally satisfac- tory. Should be protected in winter. Grown from seed or layers. ^Virgin’s Bower. (C. Virginiana.) — This is our beauti- ful native clematis. It is covered with a profusion of small, white, fragrant flowers in August. A strong, healthy grow- er and a most desirable vine for covering porches, etc. Very nice for contrasting with the Virginia Creeper. Grown from seed or layers. C. Viticella. — A very pretty climber with large blue or purple flowers, which are produced all summer. A very sat- isfactory vine. Grown from seed, layers or cuttings. LONICERA. Honeysuckle. *L. Sullivantii. — A native honeysuckle which does well under cultivation. Hardy. L. Sempervirens. — Hardy if protected. Japan Golden-Leafed Honeysuckle. (L. brachypoda.) — Too tender. 208 Hall’s Japan Honeysuckle. (L. Halleana .) — A beauti- ful vine, producing an abundance of flowers all summer. The flowers are at first white and then change to yellow. Hardy only when carefully protected in winter. Grown from layers and cuttings. MENISPERMUM. Moonseed. M. Canadense . — A pretty, slender native vine that can sometimse be used for variety. It succeeds well in partial shade. Grown from seed. WISTARIA. This may be grown in sheltered locations if protected, but is not generally satisfactory here, as it kills nearly to the ground every winter. VITIS. Wild Grape. (V. riparia .) — The unfruitful or staminate form of this is a very desirable vine for exposed places. It is somewhat coarse in habit, but for coarse work is just the thing and is very beautiful when covering a dead tree or any unsightly object. The fruitful form is of slow growth, but this kind make a very robust vine and is very fragrant when inflower. Hardy anywhere. Grown from cuttings or layers. HE^B/\6E0US PL/\j\jTS, ACHILLEA. Yarrow or Milfoil. Rose Flowered Yarrow. (A. millefolium , var. rosea,.) Like the common white yarrow in form of growth and flow- er cluster, but different in the color of its flowers. Desirable. Double-Flowering Yarrow. (A. Ptarmica, var. Bore plena.) — This has pretty, white flowers that are much longer than those of the common yarrow. Very desirable. AQUILEGTA. Columbine. A. vulgaris. — A well known pretty plant with flowers of many colors, varying from white to dark blue. Desirable. ALTHEA. Hollyhocks. A. rosea, var. — Well known and valuable. They should be protected by a heavy mulching each winter. ARUNDO. The Reed. A. Donax. — A handsome reed growing from 8 to 10 feet high. It requires very heavy protection to carry it through the winter here, and we have found it safest to winter the roots in a cold cellar. Desirable. A . Donax , versicolor. — This is a beautiful form of the above with yellow leaves striped with green. Very desirable. More tender than the above, and should be wintered in a cold cellar. ASCLEPIAS. Milkweed. *A. incarnata. — A native milkweed with fine, flesh colored flowers. Well worthy of cultivation. *A. tuberosa. — A beautiful native milkweed with gorge- ous, bright orange flowers. Very desirable. ASTER. There are several species of our native aster that are 210 very showy, pretty and useful for ornamental planting, and as they are all hardy and do not need special care, they should be more generally cultivated. BOCCONIA. B. cordata. — A strong growing plant of striking and very beautiful habit. For best results it should be protected in winter . Desirable . CONY ALLARIA Lily of the Valley. C. majalis. — The well known little favorite. Flowers in early spring. Increased by divisions. COREOPSIS. Tickseed. *C. lanceolata. — A beautiful and satisfactory perennial with showy, golden yellow flowers. Flowers nearly all sum- mer. Desirable. Grown from seed . DELPHINIUM. Larkspur. The perennial larkspurs are very hardy and few plants produce as beautiful and striking an appearance when in blossom. Very desirable. In flower nearly all summer. Grown from seed or cuttings or divisions. DICENTRA or DIELYTRA. Bleeding Heart. D. spectabilis. — A handsome and valuable herbaceous plant. Very common in gardens. Flowers in May. In- creased by division of the root. DICTAMNUS. Gas Plant. D. Fraxinella. — Not hardy at the experiment station un- less heavily protected. Very pretty and desirable. White or pink flowers in June. ERIANTHUS. Pampas Grass. E. Ravennse — Not hardy at the experiment station unless heavily protected. EULALIA. Pampas Grass. E. Japonica, var. zebrina; E. Japonica, var. variegata , and E. Japonica, var . gracilima. — These are very beautiful when well grown, but at the experiment station we have lost them when not heavily protected in winter. 211 F UN KI A. Plaint ain Lily. F. caerulea. — Hardy when protected. GYPSOPHILA. Chalk Plant. Baby’s Breath. G. paniculata. — An herbaceous plant with beautiful, fine, small white flowers in large loose pani- cles. Valuable for bouquets. Increased easily from seed or by divisions. Flowers in July and August. HELIANTHUS. Sunflower. Double Perennial Sunflower. (77. multiflorus , fl. pL) — A very beautiful plant when well grown. It requires much protection and I think it best to bring the roots into the cel- lar in autumn. Flowers about the size of a large dahlia,, which they resemble. Grown from divisions. Our native species of Helianthus are very excellent and satisfactory in every wav as border plants and are not as- much appreciated as they should be. 77 Maxmillianus. — Is perhaps the finest native species we have. *77. tuberosa. — A good native species. IRIS. Fleur de Lis. German or Common Iris. (7. Germanica.)— A very beau- tiful perennial with peculiar, large bright colored flowers in May. There are several varieties. 7. Kaempferi . — We have not yet grown this Japanese spe- cies at the experiment station but judging from the behavior of a few specimens elsewhere I think it at least of very prom- ising hardiness in moist land. KNIPHOFIA. Tritoma or Red Hot Poker Plant. Torch Lily or Flame Plant. — Not hardy at the expe- riment station, but a very satisfactory plant if the roots are wintered in a cold cellar. Flowers in latter part of summer or in autumn. Grown from divisions. P7EONIA. Pseoiiy. Tree P^eony. (P. Moutan.) — These are rather tender but may be successfully grown in favorable locations if pro- tected b}^ a heavy mulch in winter. 212 Herbaceous Peonies. — These very valuable plants are much neglected and yet they are among our best hardy plants. Once planted they need no further care, and each succeeding year only adds to their beauty. The varieties commonly known are desirable, but the newer varieties produce very large, handsome, regularly formed blooms, resembling large roses. For several years these blooms have been much sought after for elegant fashionable boquets. There are many varieties distinguished by the form, size and color of their flowers, and the time of flowering. Flowers in June and PHLOX. P. decussata , var. — A most valuable class of herbaceous plants. Those who know only the old kinds will be surpris ed at the beauty of many of the newly introduced varieties. For the best results these should be protected in winter and transplanted every two years. Flowers in August. POLYGONUM. Mountain Fleece. (P. cuspidatum.) — A strong grow- ing, erect plant of pretty habit, producing a profusion of small white flowers the last of August. Perfectly hardy. In- creased by cuttings and divisions. PYKETHKUM. P. roseum. — A hardy perennial of easy culture, producing a great abundance of large, daisy like flowers in many colors in June. The flowers of this and one or two other species are grown to make the famous insect powder. Very desirable. SPIKE A. Meadow Sweet. S. Japonica, ( Astilbe Japonica.) — A very beautiful herbaceous species with delicate white flowers in June. Very hardy and desirable. Does well in partial shade, and when somewhat protected in winter. S. Ulmaria. — Very beautiful when well grown, but the foliage burns badly in the full sunshine, and it should only be planted in partial shade. TANACETUM. Common Tansy. T. balsamita. — A well known, strong growing perennial 213 with small yellow flowers, and pleasantly scented foliage. Of reputed medicinal value. TRADESCANTIA. Spider-wort. T. Virginica . — A pretty, showy native plant about eighteen inches high, with blue or white flowers. Desirable. VIOLA. Pansy or Heart’s-Ease. V. tricolor . — These should be grown from seed each year. For early spring flowering the seed should be sown in early August, and the plants will winter in good condition if slightly protected. For summer flowers sow the seed early in spring. YUCCA Adam’s Needle. F. Alamentosa . — An herbaceous plant with green, thread like, pointed leaves having a very tough fibre. Its beautylies in its conspicuous, creamy- white flower cluster, which is about four feet from the ground. It requires winter protec- tion and even then is not satisfactory in flowering. 214 CO CO Ll) 2C Q < HI O LlI I CO < I — 177|*BittermitHicko: 215 xx p u d d da da -4-> 4-> O O d 0 be *C d . * k2 +jX p 5-i d X d c d as o og g-p o T 5 ^ kk» xx p p d d dSda _b da xx p p d d dSdS d > p O C dda da r to M : p p : > h u u d qj qj da t> p> xx p p >*»-; ? o -.2 ^ >> d odd L, y L, !_, p p X! X a d w !» w s d 0 d d co iJi»a CD co a i&l&S ft >>>> ’ XX p p d d dJrd : d 3 p p ■ +j '> 3 ®3 d w . d W vg ,2 x) w aSd° SS|£ *jf ^ d 75 ’Hi s Si (U q^ o a da a da da : fa b<< q> £ d S?w *Kentu Tree. d a co . w d : p ls3 §|S sF o XX p p d d _dada_ : d O qj «< qj >*i XX d £ o d +*si k >■> p p > : d be d Hi X : C d d qj p p x£ d •Saw 3 : o : p co •' 2 d * 3 ;oj . 2~® d ? r « P O bC qj p ' dx o hW 3 ^ ^ da a d ^ n. p d ? It . a qj H H be d p « idO ^ » 75.. OiCi H H &g .b 2 9.2*5 W« H OO : XX : h h ; O 3 d o s & c •- be be « d $ « CO u-J d O § « DECIDUOUS TREES— Continued. 216 a . 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Q v. « S3 § !5 t* -.h on a •3 0 ^P-l<«OiCL, P flqp'd , «+»^ tSjp 3$R^hjR3X0 4J, £ § 3.8 o £ 0 £ £ r,r/i C 050 rH H Value for Market (scale 0-10).. • :C5 05 C5 : : : CO COXbOOO ‘ rH b- :^0 ■ rH Firmness (scale 0-10) C- X 05 O 05 : h : X X OiXOOOCMb I-OOC5C : XX rH Quality (scale 0-10) T- 05 10 00 00 a5C>t^t>aoo : H L0 N XO : XX H 5 Date of Last Picking co ^ : t> co co rln : H ri rH t>N 7-20 7-16 7-17 7-16 7-13 co : co co : : : n : i> r- i : i Diameter first Picking ^ 3* : rH H rl rl I Hrirl HHHH ’ Hrirl Date of first Picking ►— 5 co io O co io : : ci CD 05 CO b* b- l> H CO SH-NNbbN C ~ COCO O rH rH tH rH IO Date of Blooming rH rH 0-4* Clt> O Cl d H CD HH05 05r-(r-i05'HTHrHHHr-l-H05 CDCDCDCDCDCOCOCDCOCDCOCOCOCOCD • O 01 CO tJmMCO ri rH 05 ri rH rH CD CD CD CD CD CD CD Origin Ont. Mass. Ills. Ills, N. Y. Conn. Ohio La. Wis. Ohio Ohio Ohio Ohio Ills. Wis. N. J. wis. Ills. Wis. Ken. Ark. Minn. Ky. STRAWBERRIES. 2 c. ■ l ? 0 + <1 11 j j dP Beder Wood (b)** Bubach (b) Boynton (p) Crescent (p)** Crawford (b) Cloud (p) J Daisy (p) Eureka (p) Enhance (b) Farnsworth (b) Great Pacific (p) Gov. Hoard (b) Gandy Haverland (p) *** C * V 5 ? -ft > $ 3 V I- V l' Louden’sl5 (b) Lovett’s Early (b> Middlefield V) Z 0 d 2 k/ 3 'o's • ■Sgais Is | S 3 c ■+* g * * ^ • 2 *P r'O p > „_. 1 « a S ••" ^ S3 1 3 %<&&*> OK P po Rust (scale 0^10) HOI^C jri ONOrl t D}0}0 H H O General Appearance (scale 0-10) OOCO)XO* H H H 10 0)0} CD 00 CO XO)OCO) ri H 0) H 0) : Productiveness (scale 0-10) TfCONODb XH CD O tH Vigor (scale 0-10) oo : O 0) O O » : H H H :OONN : h h 0)0) CD O H - Value for Market (scale 0-10) .. cd oo o :io :o)oooo :oocoor-o : : : H XO H Firmness (scale 0-10) 00 1>00 0c XO) ®^®®b :cdoo o®~ rl Quality (scale 0-10) x : x c- no 0 ) O 0 ) 0 ) O : 0 ) o« H ) “xl^ _ Date of Last Picking 1 1 1 \lt-l 7-16 7-15 7-25 7-20 7-16 7-17 7-19 7-16 Diameter, First Picking HHHr'n :hhh '. h H rH Date of First Picking CO X t> 0) H b-l-ISb-NN H 10 1> H Tf( CD CD CD b* CDb-Cjl Date of Blooming.. Origin CO COO* T-. C* H H H H H CD CD CD CD CD 0}^ H rH CDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCDCD -P -P -p P ,A M .2 ±! ^ * tj ^ w S yzzczE?ci CJ^ ai H Si 5 ag- 33 S 5 tVarieties especially desirable are marked by *, ** or ***, according to their value for general planting. NOTES ON VARIETIES. Especially desirable kinds are starred Beder Wood, (b)** A very promising new berry that; has done remarkably well with us this season. It is bi-sexu- al, has lots of pollen and I think it Well worth trying as a pollenizer and for market. Its foliage is only slightly affected with rust. Bubacli. (p) Gave us a few magnificent berries but not enough to make a profitable crop. Boynton, (p) Is a red berry of about the size and with much the appearance of the Crescent, but apparently no bet- ter. Crescent.(p)** This old standard variety has done very well this season. In our old bed it produced a far larger crop than in the new bed, but it did not do nearly as well as the Warfield, which I think is generally superseding it. Captain Jack, (b)* Was nearly ruined by rust. (treat Pacific, (b) I am somewhat disappointed in this variety. Some of the fruit is large, but much of it is small and irregular in shape and rather inclined to rust. Haverland.(p)*** Has done much better than last year,, and was in many ways our best berry. The foliage is healthy and the berries are elegant. It produced rather more fruit this year than the Warfield. Jessie, (b) Was nearly a failure with us this year, as well as at some of our trial stations. I regard it as a very uncertain kind and think there is a weakness in the blossoms that makes it peculiarly susceptible to injury from winds, frosts and heavy rains. Michel’s Early, (b)* I think well of this variety as a pollen producer, but it does not produce much fruit and has- not been as productive this year as last. Yet the fruit this* 244 year was rather larger and better in quality than last. I mean to continue using it as a pollen producer. It is a vi- gorous grower and free from rust. Little’s No. 7. (b) From John Little, Granton, Ont. Is one of the most striking in foliage and fruit of any that has come to my notice for several years. The foliage is tall, dark green and very healthy. The fruit is long, large and firm, on long peduncles. Very productive and a promising late fruit- Little’s No, 9. (p) Also from John Little. Is a very productive and promising variety of large size. Little’s Seedling* No. 37. (p) Resembles the Warfield very much but it is not quite as early and is somewhat sweeter. Very productive and promising. Lovett’s Early, (b) Isa berry of good color, form and substance, but not sufficiently productive to be profitable. Enhance, (b) Has produced some very good fruit on August set plants but needs another season’s trial to thor- oughly test it. Promising. Oregon Everbearing*. Whatever everbearing quali- ties it may once nave had it does not show them here and I rather doubt that it ever bore over any number of consecu- tive seasons more than one crop a }^ear. Not desirable. Parker Earle, (b) Is about ten days behind the War- field. It has a great lot of green fruit but during the hot weather much ofit fails to ripen satisfactorily. This year a part of the space devoted to it was shaded, with the result that the portion so treated produced a fine crop of fruit, while the rest gave a Yery light crop after the first picking. Plant very healthy and vigorous, but it does not make many run- ners. Princess, (p) Seems to be doing better in the hands of its originators and elsewhere than with us. I regard it as generally a profitable berry for the near market. It is of large size and fine color, but rather soft. The Pearl, (b) A beautiful bright red berrj r that did poorly with us last year but this year is very productive. 245 Schuster’s Gem. (p) Did remarkably well with us last year but not so well this. It is of good size and worthy of further trial. Saunders, (b) Did very well with us last year but this season seems much inclined to rust. Warfield, (p)*** Is the most popular berry grown and is fast supplanting the Crescent in this state. It is a better shipping and selling berry than the Haverland. Our cus- tomers especially like it for canning purposes. List of new varieties planted the spring of 1892: Accomack Beverly Swindle Edgar Queen Waldron Southard Standard Putnam Stevens Gillespie Westlawn Williams. Muskingum Auburn Dayton Noble E. P. Roe Mark Leader Gem Waupom Ona Oscar Sandova RASPBERRIES. The raspberry crop has been a very profitable one this eas- son. Almost every variety has given good returns. Many plantations of red raspberries are affected with the disease commonly called ‘‘leaf curl,” and it is becoming a very seri- ous matter in many places where it is spreading slowly buL surely. No remedy is known for the disease, but the best treatment for it seems to be the digging out and burning of all affected plants. In starting a new bed it should be only on new land and great care should be taken to use only healthy plants. SEEDLING RASPBERRIES. About five hundred seedlings of Schaffer’s Collossal fruit- ed this year for the first time. The fruit resembles very close- ly that of the parent plant, and a number of seedlings ap- 246 peared folly as valuable as that of the Schaffer. Fifty of these were selected as being worthy of further trial It is a point of special interest that the seedlings of this variety, which is generally termed a hybrid should be so uni- form and show so much of a fixed type. NOTES ON SOME OF THE NEW RASPBERRIES. Native Red Raspberries. — ( Rubus Strig'osus.) Especially desirable kinds are starred. Brandywine.** Is very popular in very many trying lo- cations. A valuable shipping sort. Cutlibert.*** The most popular of the red raspberries. Large, firm, productive and very hardy. Gladstone. Grows vigorously and produces a little fruit until frost, but what little fruit it does produce is so small and soft as to make it almost worthless either for home use or for rnrrket. Golden Queen.** Continues to be the favorite yellow kind. Its iruit is large and firm. With the exception of col- or, practicaliy identical with Cuthbert. Hansell.* A very early kind that is becoming quite a favorite. It is a rather weak grower, except on rich soils, and until well established it needs high cultivation. Marlboro.** Where this variety gets high cultivation on clay soils it is generally successful . Its large fruit is handsome and though of rather poor quality, brings the highest price in the market. Turner.* A well known, very popular old variety. Early but very soft; generally prolific and hardy. Not much plan Led for several years. RUBUS NEGLECT US Caroline. Quite soft but very prolific and very hardy. It succeeds well when most kinds fail. Yellow. Schaffer.** Where its color is not objectionable it is a very profitable kind to grow for the near market. Purple in color. 247 European Red Raspberries. — ( Rubus Ideas . ) Superlative. A new variety sent out by Ellwanger & Barry of Rochester, New York, at six dollars ($6) per dozen in 1892. Fruit on spring set plants very large but crumbly and of poor quality. Foliage and cane of the Antwerp type. Champlain. Similar to the above in foliage and cane, but has not fruited here. Black Cap Raspberries.— (Rubus Occidentalis.) Kansas. A very vigorous and productive variety from Kansas. Fruit large, of fine appearance and very promising. Lovett, or ($1000). Will probably prove to be a de- sirable addition to our list of second early kinds. The fruit is as large as the Gregg and it is several da vs earlier Foli- age and cane quite distinct Mystery. Sent out from Kentucky as an everbearing kind. It bears but one crop here. Nemaha.*** Is without doubt somewhat hardier than the Gregg and so much alike it in fruit as to be practically the same thing for marketing purposes. Older. We have not fruited this variety, but reports on its behavior elsewhere convince me that it is well worthy of trial by berry growers. Season about with the Ohio. Japan Raspberries. — (Rubus Japonica.) Japan Wineberry. This berry has been greatly mis- represented and is giving very general disappointment where tried. It is interesting to botanists and may be useful in hybridization, but for fruit production it Is practically worthless. The berry is small, of poor color and enclosed in a husk like a ground tomato. Varieties of raspberries planted at experiment station in 1892: Thompson’s Early Prolific Superlative Brackett’s Seedling. 101 Champlain Older Ada NATIVE AMERICAN VARIETIES. (Rubus Strigosus.) 248 REMARKS. ! Is doing finely in many places. The most popular of the reds. The best yellow berry. Almost worthless. A fine bright red early kind. In favorable locations very profitable. A robust early kind. £ TJ £ Xi *0 T3 T3 5- 1 U U U U U General Appearance OCOOlOOOOO H H H H Productiveness (scale 0-10) 02 O O 10 02 O O H H rl H Vigor (seale 0-10) OOOOXNO H H -H H H Value for niaket (scale 0-10 0200^02000 H H H Firmness (scale 0-10) 002 02 10 0000 H H Quality (scale 0-10).. 0 0 0 01-00 H H H Size (scale 0-10) OOOWOOt' H H -H Date of first Pick- ing COOHfl^OO hncicihhh t- 1- 1> t- 1> t- 1> Origin : >' P.2 Pp* • i . .3 . .3 :33 RASPBERRIES. Brandywine** Cuthbert *** Golden Queen** Gladstone Hansell* Marlboro** Turner* a a * >* P P pq Ph m < £ < P P O P P P 5 'll 4-> ,Q £o yellow red purple o 02 0 H 02 020 H GO mS 00 oo •H 10 02 1- oc t- 02 t- 00 02 02 CO 02 H H t- Pr* 3 33 x©aoo>o>co©caoo>o>© : : H H H • Vigor (scale 0-10) fl)NOoo©oaooff aoo ; H tH h H Value for Market scale 0-10 1 05 00 O Ci 05 05 00 O GO 00 GO O 05 : H H H i ■ ■ . ' ■ ' r ; Birmness (scale 0-10) (>0500500000 05 00050 05 • H tH H H rH Quality (scale 0-10) .. j 05XCNXXXCXt-t-X05 ! Size (scale 0-10) X00(>05 05l>00 :l^a5CC ; 1-1 H Date of First Pick- ing CDCDOO>05bWHXCOlO^T? : Origin itUi y* u RASPBERRIES. Cromwell Conrath’s Early Gregg*** Hopkins Kansas Lovett’s Mystery Nemaha *** Ohio*** Progress Palmer Souhegan ** Tyler Older JAPAN RASPBERRY. (Japonica Rubus.) BLACKBERRIES AND DEWBERRIES. The Ancient Briton blackberry has done the best of any tried at the Experiment Station, and is generally more satisfactory in this state than any other variety, but some growers are more successful with the Snyder which ripens earlier but is rather more difficult to protect on account of its stiff canes The Stones hardy is not generally as prolific or as desir- able as either of the above. The Agawam has been very productive at the Experi- ment Station and we regard it as a good berry. Early Harvest has proven a total failure at the Exper- ment Station, as we have never been able to winter the canes even when laid down and covered with soil. Jewett is a new blackberry received from the J. C. Lov- ett & Co., Little Silver,. N. J., in 1890. It killed with us the first year although well protected with soil. El Dorado is a new blackberry that we received from Greenville, Ohio, in 1891. It was quite prolific this season^ of good, large fruit. A promising kind. DEWBERRIES. We have grown the Lucretia and the Windom dewberries several years and are certain we have them true to name, but they have proven nearly a total failure. They bloom profusely, have sometimes given us a few good berries, but the fruit almost without exception is imperfect. There may be isolated locations where they can be grown to advan- tage. They generally do best on sandy soil. REPORT ON GRAPES. We have two vineyards at the Experiment Station — one with an easterly and the other with a southerly aspect. The fruit on the south slope is generally ripe about six days earl- iyr than that on the eastern slope. In the table herewith the periods of ripening given are from observations made in the vineyard on the south slope. The ten (10) varieties that have given us the most grapes of good table quality in the past five years, arranged nearly in the order of their value, are: Concord, Worden, Aminia, Hartford, Brighton, Herbert Barry, Bindley, Moor’s Earty, and Lady. For severe loca- tions the Janesville is very satisfactory on account of its hardiness and reliability, but its quality is very poor. MULCHING GRAPE VINES. When 1 took charge of the horticultural work at the Ex- periment Station in 1888, I found there a young vineyard of about four hundred (400) vines growing thriftlv on the south side of a rather gravelly knoll. The very drv spring of 1889 vseriously crippled it and occasionally heavy rains washed it badly. To overcome this difficulty I mulched it the following winter with bedding litter to the depth of about four inches, covering all the land. The result of this was very marked the following year when the vines ripened up their fruit in excellent condition and also made a fine well ripened growth of wood. Last spring the land was well cultivated and again mulched with equally good results which appear at this writing. On the whole I am much pleased with the out- come of this simple experiment. But it should be born in mind that in this trial the soil was light, loose and warm and probably equally good results would not be obtained on cold soils. One effect of the mulch on the soil was to change it in one season from a mineral soil that would easily wash away in heavy rains, to one resembling new timber land. 252 SPRAYING OF GRAPE VINES. This season mildew of grapes ( Poronospora viticola)has been very abundant so that Delaware and other varieties with weak foliage have in many cases been severely injured and the crops a total loss. When vines drop their vines pre- maturely not only is the crop of fruit for that season ruined but the wood often does not ripen and in consequence the crop of the following year may be a poor one. But this di- sease may be surely prevented by the use of proper fungi- cides. However it will not do to wait until the disease shows itself for then it is too late for any application to do much good. The following letter from a graduate of the Farm School of the University of Minnesota, giving his experience this year in spraying the vineyard of Mrs. Erwin of Excelsior, will probably be read with much interest by grape growers. It should be said in explanation that his neighbors who did not spray their Delaware vines either lost their entire crop of fruit or had it seriously injured by the mildew, while the sprayed vineyard matured a very heavy crop of Delawares, Concords and other kinds. Excelsior, Minn., October 21st, 1892. Prof. Samuel B. Green, St. Anthony Park, Minn. Dear Sir : — At your request I give the following account of my exper- ience in spraying grape vines for mildew the past season. A close observer by the aid of a microscope might easily have seen mil- dew on the leaves of the Delawares when they were not larger than a silver dollar. When the leaves were of this size I commenced spraying them and continued doing so at intervals of twelve or fifteen days until the latter part 1 of July — spraying five times in all. The Concords were sprayed but twice. I used the Bordeaux mixture the first three times on the Delawares and the first time on the Concords. For -■ the other sprayings I used the ammoniacal solution of carbonate ofcopper. Several other varieties were treated the same as the Concords, but it is my j # opinion that most of them would have been freer from the brown rot if they had been sprayed oftener. x To prepare the Bordeaux mixture I dissolved six pounds of sulphate of copper in five gallons of water and slacked four or five pounds of lime in enough water to make a thick whitewash. In order to allow the copper t sulphate to dissolve and the lime to slack, I did this a few hours before mix- ing the two. I put the copper solution in a fifty gallon kerosene barrel and 253 strained the whitewash into it, through a course sack and added enough water to fill the barrel. I made the ammoniacal solution by dissolving five ounces of carbonate of copper in three pints of ammonia and stirring it into fifty gallons of water. The Concords and Delawares each took fifty gallons the first time and one hundred gallons each time thereafter. I used an Excelsior knapsack sprayer which worked very well. It cost $12.50. The cost of spraying nine hundred Delaware vines five times and twelve hundred Concords twice, is shown below : On the Delawares I used — 1st time, 6 lbs. copper sulphate @ 7c $ .42 2nd and 3rd times, 24 lbs. copper sulphate @ 7c 1.68 4th and 5th times! 20 oz ‘ carbonate of co PP er @ 4c 80 J 12 pts. ammonia @ 25c 3.00 Total cost of material for Delawares $5.90 These vines yielded 6,800 pounds of grapes or on average of 7 5-9 pounds per vine. With the Concords the account stood as follows : 1st time, 6 lbs. sulphate of copper @ 7c $ .42 ^ .. . 1 10 oz. carbonate of copper @ 4c . .40 2nd time, > „ J ^ ) 6 pts. ammonia % 25c 1.50 Total cOvSt of material for Concords $2.32 Total cost of material for Delawares and Concords $8.22 Total cost of labor 4}/2 days @ $1 4.50 Total cost oflabor and material for spraying $12.72 * Yours truly, F. F. PRATT. In addition to the above it should be said that this has beenanunusallv bad season for mildew but had we had very bright, dry weather after the first spraying with Bordeaux mixture the second spraying with it might have been dis- pensed with without loss, however, it will always be found safer to spray once too often than to lack one spraying of destroying the mildew. ANALYSES OF GRAPES. Professor H. Snyder has made the following analyses of grapes grown at the Experiment Station which will be of in- terest to many. The total sugar includes both grape and fruit sugar as determined by Felbing’s volumetric method. The results of sugar are calculated in terms of the whole grape and not the 254 juice. The per cent of acid is calculated in terms of the juice as tartaric acid. Number. Name of Variety. Total Sugar as Grape Sugar Acid. * 450 Hartford 1.20 per cent. 451 i Ives Seedling 12.5 “ 1.24 442 1 Lad v 9.4 1.22 453 Herbert 11.5 Lost. 454 Moor’s Earlv 12.6 1.00 455 | Aminia 9.7 1.80 456 Delaware 15. 1.20 457 *Catawba 1 8.8 2.00 458 Concord 14.4 1.82 459 Niagara j 10.2 1.16 460 Ladv Washington | 14. 1.74 461 i Martha 14.2 1.52 462 Eumelan 13.8 1.57 463 Centennial 16. 1.42 464 Brighton 16.6 Lost. 465 Northern Muscadine.... 11.4 1.25 466 Israeli a : 15.4 1.60 467 i Challenge ; 15.4 1.60 * Analyzed October 17, but not fully ripe. NOTES ON VARIETIES OF GRAPES. Especially desirable kinds are starred. Agawam. Of strong growth, very hardy and moder- ately productive.. Rather too late to warrant its planting for market: Aminia,.** An early, vigorous, productive black grape of excellent quality and fine appearance. In the experiment station vineyard it is very satisfactory. Barry.* This variety has been very satisfactory with us Vine vigorous, hardy and productive; bunch large; berries very large and of good quality; skin thick; flesh sweet but somewhat pulpy. Brighton. Vigorous, hardy, healthy andproductive. Bunch very large; well shouldered; berry red; medium size; flesh very sweet; sprightly melting, superb; generally satis- factory. Not reliable enough for general marketing, but should be in every home garden. Its quality is rather im- proved, it ripens more evenly and keeps much longer if bagged; 255 when over ripe it loses much of its fine, sprightly quality. I know of no grape so much improved by bagging. Its blos- soms are somewhat deficent in pollen and it should be plant- ed near some kinds that have an abundance. Catawba. Hardy and healthy enough and it sets a heavy crop of fruit, but seldom ripens. This season it was not fully ripe Oct. 17, although it was well colored at that date. Centennial. A very productive white variety of mod- erate or poor growth. Bunches are of fair size and very compact. The berry is white, small and with very large seeds, of good quality. There are several more satisfactory white varieties. Ripens with concord. ***Concord. A little too late for general planting but in good vineyard locations in the south half of the state it is the most productive kind grown. Highly esteemed for gen- eral planting. Cottage. A vigorous, healthy, productive black grape. Bunch large, shouldered; berry large, sweet and good; liable to drop from the stem. **Delaware. Geneallv the most profitable grape to raise for market in this state, but it requires the best of care and the foliage should be sprayed with some fungicide to protect it from the downy mildew. Unless this is done it is extreme ly unreliable in wet seasons. Duchess. A white grape of the best quality. Vine rather tender. Bunch, large, compact and shouldered; berry medium. Season later than Concord. Valuable in extra good locations. Early Victor. One of the earliest kinds and of good quality. Bunches rather small; berry medium in size. Not sufficiently productive to make it profitable. El Dorado. Of fine quality, but not sufficiently hardy nor productive enough to recommend it to any but amateur planters. Elvira. A very vigorous and very productive white 256 grape of poor-quality. It sometimes ripens here but is gen- erally too late. Eumelan. A good variety that, where healthy, is pro- ductive and desirable but its foliage is occasionally severely injured by mildew. Green Mountain. A new grape that we fruited this year for the first time. The vine is vigorous, healthy, appa- rently hardy enough for our conditions, and I think very prolific. The bunches are of good size; the berry is pale green, medium in size, very sweet and melting, with thin skin. It ripens earlier than any variety of as good quality that we have. It drops from the bunch as soon as well ripened, which, with its green color, will prevent its being largely planted as a market variety. I think highly of it for the home garden in this state and recommend it for trial. **Hartford. Drops badly from bunch when over ripe. It It has been long and favonably known as a very vigorous, very hardy, very productive, early variety. Bunch large; berries black, large, sweet but pulpy and rather foxy. One of our best early purple kinds. It gives quite general satis- faction as an early grape for the home garden. Herbert. Very vigorous, hardy, healthy, and pro- ductive. Bunch large; berry black, very large; skin thick; quality good. It would seem as if this variety shonld be more generally planted for market puposes. Ives. Vigorous, healthy, hardy and productive. Bunch large; berries black and of medium size. This variety colors up very early, but like the Janesville it is not ripe until at least two weeks later. It is very firm and stands shipping well. As an early grape it is of such poor quality that it spoils the market for the better kinds, although it is often very profit- able. When ripe there are many better varieties ripe. Ex- cept as a wine grape I consider it of little value. *Janesville. Very vigorous, healthy, hardy and pro- ductive. Bunch of medium size, very compact; berry of me- dium size, black, pulpy, acid. It colors up very early but 257 like the Ives it is not ripe until several weeks later. Pre-emi- nently the grape for severe locations and recommended for general planting in Minnesota. *Lady. An early, greenish- white grape. Bunch medium compact; berry large and of excellent quality, but it some- times cracks badly. Vine healthy and hardy but not a vi- gorous grower and only moderately productive. A valuable grape for amateurs. Lady Washington. Vine healthy, hardy and vigor- ous. Bunch very large and rather loose: berry large, white and of fine quality. We ripened this variety in 189 1 and 1892, but these were two exceptional years, Too late in ripening except in best locations. **Lindley. Vine healthy, hardy vigorous and productive. Bunches medium in size and loose. Berries very large, red and of extra quality. This is an extra good keeping variety and holds its flavor well. It has frequently been exhibited in good condition at the winter meetings of the State Horticul- tural Society in January. Valuable for home use but must have pollen from other kinds to get good bunches. Martha. Vine healthy, hardy and productive. Bunches of medium size; berries of medium size, greenish- white and of a very good qualify. I think, however, that the Moor’s Diamond or Pocklington are far better for home use or market . Merrimac . Has done fairly well with us . The bunches are of good size; berries large and of extra quality. A good long keeping variety. Moor’s Diamond. A very distinct new white grape that is very promising. The vine is vigorous, healthy and pro- ductive. Bunches compact, shouldered, large; berries large: skin thick; flesh tender, juicy and melting. We have fruited it two years and consider it especially desirable for a stand- ard white grape; Its season is from four to eight days ear- lier than the Concord. *Moor’s Early. One of the most popular early grapes. 258 Not generally a heavy cropper and some seasons the berries drop badly from the bnnch as soon as ripe. Generally profit- able on account of its being the first grape of good quality to come into the market. It requires rich soil and high cul- tivation for best results. Moyer. Vine resembles the Delaware in foliage, growth and hardiness, but its bunch and berry are much smaller; berry sweet and melting. We fruited it this season for the first time. It ripens about a week before the Delaware and this quality will make it desirable if it proves to be sufficient- ly vigorous and productive. Pocklington.** A most magnificent fruit. Vine healthy r hardy, vigorous and productive; berry white, very large and covered with beautiful bloom; quality sweet, juicy and extra good, though somewhat foxy. It ripens a little later than the Concord and is a worthy companion to that variety. Desirable only for good locations. Salem. Quite satisfactory at the experiment station. Vines moderately productive, vigorous and hardy; bunches- and berries large; skin thick and firm; flesh tender, juicy and sweet. A good shipping variety and a good keeper. Wilder. This variety is too uncertain here and it is ve- ry liable to lose its leaves before the fruit is matured; with us much Worse in this respect than the Delaware, which has never been seriously injured by mildew in the Station vine- yard. This year it did not mature its fruit. . W orden.*** It is difficult to say too much in favor of this fine grape. The vine is vigorous healthy and productive; bunch large, compact, often shouldered; berries very large, black, with a heavy bloom; flesh sweet, melting and excel- lent. I think it is destined to replace the Concord for gener- al planting in Minnesota on account of its being about ten days earlier, much superior to it in quality and nearly if not quite as prolific. Wherever known it commands a higher price than the Concord. Some seasons it seems more inclined to drop its berries than the Concord. Woodruff Bed. A new red grape. Vine vigorous, healthy and hardy; bunches small; berries large, bright red, with a beautiful bloom; flesh foxy, pulpy and sweet. We have fruited it but one season. I think it of too poor quality to pay for planting. Wyoming Red. Vine vigorous, hardy and healthy but only moderately productive with us; bunches small to medium in size, compact; berries medium size, bright red; flesh sweet, pulpy, quite foxy, but it is very good for such an early variety. It is said to be growing in favor in the east as a very early red grape and is well worthy of trial by vine- yardists here. Varieties planted at the experiment station that have not yet fruited: Eaton Herman Jaeger G. W. Campbell Atavite Solin Crup Illinois City Emma Rockford Colerain Dracut Amber Rommel Brilliant Red Bird Theophile Bertha Witt Mills Early Ohio Poughkeepsie Red Peter Wylie Ebony Monitor Marie Louise Dr. Warder Nectar Triumph Geneva 260 x W PS § PS When Ripe in 1892... General Appearance [scale 0-10] Keeping Quality [scale 0-10] Color of Berry.. Size of Berry (scale 0 - 10 ) Productiveness (scale 0 - 10 ) .*-g V.-S d d 0 be .S £3 5i * •S ft.P ±J g'c o 0*0 * ” - a w §1 ^ T- M/ 0 . 0' to -P P ^ C gjg a o^ £ sS c .ti d .2 ? ^ . J3 P 1 Uh& IS v f, £' a 42 ?S w d 2 - oa^ cr ± o £>>P ^ P^O- hr . P TJ .22 0 a o.s a | .S- 0 p.^'s C U !D ^ O q,t : .0 S -u oj o ri p . w bfi £ 2 2c _ . be a §j g-S-s g’§-g5^|.s &5C^fld£P r gdddP .. 7* Ats .. 0 .. c d’p, P — ,. u '43 o pp<: o w o " 'SV. oS^K^^o^oso^o^oo^oiSScio °v> *+> a o«+» ^-p o £ C-je o o V.OpOtMO^OO^uO^wcudO .+>+>4J+i+J • . -P4->-P .-+->+> . -P ’ . -P . -P -P ’-P-P-P-P : +'ftftp ) +»aa+'ft ; +■> cvp p, a : aaaa O xxxxx :OxxxOxxOx :OxOxx .xxxxO pXCOX^l>OI>XXI>lO 0 ©Cil>l>l>CH>X»>© ON^GOCOQOO^lCXJ>^^OOOD^^OOl.'-UOOC 44444444 ^44 44 44 44 44 £ 4444 $£^ 44 £ ,# 44.£44 44 44 $£ o iocoi^i>ooi>cQcoiO'tf»>i>u3i>^CbcDJ>i> C^XXCOCPJ>GH'-0^l>Tf<^lOTf^i>oioi>i>- L Obcot-xco-> > :>>5 X **§ *'£ M X£ 43 43 gja g 43* JD +j d Cj cj .S' cS cj ” be'- o be « o :::::::::: a :: d ::: 2 : P. ! i j ! : ; i i ; IS j !> i j :i> :S : j-g M M « : i M K « : pi >< : : i « i « & & CL^ rO & p rP rd 43 ^ o-P 42 43 43 43 43 43 jC cjcS.p^cjcjcsScjdcsS.p'c^cS^cjcjcioic: i4PP^i-4^i4P^i4i-4i4 < ^Wh4H4iPi-4idi-4i-)i2 i a g-5 b*. : ; mjj : .2 Jf i’oco 2 i | § a| beg-2 g a : g ; a.y § 2-S5 p S * ^ «] t>>^ rt r a r a § d d 261 m pi bo 95 .-OP! Ss** , fc « : ;>• -M Vh s** « bd /« 9 s Cj ^ _n +> t« *£ P< cj O > a y ^ . X! £*> ^•i-* u u*£ i05 05l>XC5 i^lOOOO^OOGOOOCt-^-t^l- rH 1 Color of Berry $ ££ xx x •t o o.h o .O PC it- o cj o r o r dPi d dpi d pi tj P3 pj *0 d d r C r O d ee^55^gg»tiy^5gci{g . Size of Berry (scale 0-10' t~oonooacoootcon~oo& 0 )oct~a> Productiveness (scale 0-10) O50O.. CCD O5OOONJ>K'3l>t-TfX o -l>OO Vigor of Growth (scale 0-10) OONOOGOCMj)QOlOi>OCiOOOOJ>Xl>XOO H Health of Foliage (scale 0-10) 05 X 05 05XXX© 05XX05 05XC5X ■H Quality for table use (scale 0-10) C>aOlOC>COC>0>C>aOCOC>C>OCOO<0 H H Parentage dti id ft :::::: id* i i i i q *p> j> :p>*p4 : : : •' j : | j> .’ j j : j> M H i K K i j « j : i i H i i i i d -P rQ pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pi pj o’ pi pj dddddddddddddddddd 05 bf) . o UP4 o - P$£ oQW ►,» d S«d 5? cj P3 .5 « w * d* 5 a fibp. "O'O ^ ^ p udrd'-'+j d ,u-£^ n 8 .til dcj^Soooocs^^d! t SMALL-FRUIT NOTES FROM OUR TRIAL STATIONS FOR 1892. These stations were selected by the executive committee of the state Horticultural Society as proper places for testing new varieties that the Horticultural Division of the experi- ment station might desire to have widely tried. FROM WINDOM, COTTONWOOD COUNTY. DEWAIN COOK, SUPT. Strawberries. A little over one-half a crop, but the Warfield was an exception. They gave a full crop of fine fruit. 'JThe Enhance is especially promising. The Sandoval I consider worthless on account of its liability to leaf fungus. The finest variety in this section was the Cumberland, grown on poor sandy soil. Raspberries. Most varieties of the suckering kinds were much troubled with some disease. The cap varieties were quite healthy. The Cuthbert did the poorest and Bran- dywine the best of all the reds, and all things considered I re- gard the last as the most reliable variety I grow. The black- caps Gregg and Souliegan are the best of their class. Blackberries and Dewberries. Have done extra well and are in fine condition for a good crop next year. They stood the cold of last winter without protection. I am very much pleased with Ancient Briton, but do not consider it as hardy as Snyder, Agawam, Stone’s Hardy or Wachusett. Drapes. Have done finely in about every respect Moor’s Early, Delaware and Janesville have been the most satisfactory. 263 FROM LA CRESENT, HOUSTON COUNTY. T. S. HARRIS, SUPT. • Strawberries were half to two-thirds a full crop. War- field No. 2 when fertilized with Michel’s Early did best of all Kramer’s Princess came next to Warfield and Crescent came m for third place. Parker Earle promised the best of all but for some reason all but the first picking was small and poor. Michel’s Early did not prove satisfactory as a fruiter. Captain Jack did not bring half a crop. Jessie was nearly a total failure. The varieties in our new experiment plantation were set late m 1891 and did not make a very satisfactory growth. Of the new varieties the most promising among them were the Haverland, Schuster’s Gem, Eureka, Pearl, Bubach and Crawford. The Warfield and Crescent hold the lead for com mercial purposes, but a better pollenizer than we now have is needed for them. Raspberries were about half a crop. The Ohio black cap is the best of the cap varieties, and the Cuthbert and Marlboro the best of the red. Turner continued longest in bearing but the yield was light. None of the reds were en tirely exempt from “curl leaf.” Blackberries have done the best of all the small fruits 1 he crop was immense and the quality good. The Ancient -Briton is taking the lead as a market fruit. Griapes weie considerable below an average crop. Mil- dew was very abundant and destructive. 0 ftheR!;:: VfU T’ ^ ia§r f ra ’ L,adv ’ Poc klingtoii and some the Roger s hybrids lost much of their foliage from mildew • and consequently failed to ripen. Moor’s Early set but little fruit. Concord, Worden and Brighton are doing the best with me. FROM FERGUS FALLS, OTTER TAIL COUNTY. F. H. FIELDER, SUPT. STRAWBERRIES. Bubach. (p) The largest berry I grow; very vigorous and one of the best for this section. Cloud, (p) Did not fruit much. Daisy, (p) Not as good as Crescent, nor so large. Jessie, (b) A fine berry, and did the best of all this sea- son. Oliver, (b) Did not produce fruit. Warfield, (p) More productive than Crescent; makes the largest amount of runners I ever saw. Wilson, (b) Too .small. Crescent, (p) As good as many varieties, but I think the Bubach and Warfield are better. RASPBERRIES. Turner. Too small this season. Caroline. Berries soft and of poor quality, but very productive. Cuthbert. Best of the Raspberries. Gladstone. Of no value. Berries small, dull red. Gregg. The best blackcap I grow. Dewberry. Quite productive, but berries are small, imperfect and of poor quality, 265 FROM ALBERT LEA. CLARENCE WEDGE, SUPT. STRAWBERRIES. Michel’s Early ripened a few berries the first of any variety, but was a light crop and is worthless except as a pollenizer. Crescent produced at least three times as many berries per row as any other variety grown, and throughout the wet hot weather remained in choice condition for home mar- ket. Wilson came next to Crescent in yield of fruit, but its color and the dead condition of the Calyx gave them a poor appearance. Jessie and Bubacli were the special delight of a big flock of birds, which prevented my getting any perfect fruit from them. Neither of these varie ties would have given a profitable crop, however, even if the birds had let them alone. The Bubach rotted before it was ripe enough to pick. A few plants of Haverland fruited and gave promise of some- thing fancy for the home market and I shall plant them largely next year. RASPERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES. The Cuthbert raspberry is the most satisfactory variety I have. I grow Ancient Briton, Snyder, and Wilcox black- berries and the Ancient Briton is the best of all. FROM MINNSOTA CITY. O. M. LORD, SUPT. Strawberries. A fair crop. Warfield No. 2 exceeded all others in yield. Crescent came next; then Bubach, Jessie, Princess and Downer’s Prolific in the order named. The last rusted so much as to materially reduce the yield. Raspberries. The Gregg did very well and the Schaf- fer was abundant. Blackberries. Ancient Briton, Snyder and Stone’s Hardy all did well. University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 26. CHEMICAL DIVISION. T-s-itT-cr-s-iR'sr, 1393. DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS. MILCH COWS. I. PEA ENSILAGE AND WHEAT BRAN. PIGS. II. BARLEY AND SHORTS. III. BARLEY. IV. CORN AND SHORTS. V. CORN. YI. SHORTS. VII. CORN AND BRAN. VIII. PEAS AND BRAN. IX. PEAS. X. BRAN. iSF 1 The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. University of Minnesota BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, - - - - - 1896, The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894 . The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894 . The HON. JOHN LIND, New Ulm, - 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, - 1896. The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, ------- 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1895. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, ----- Ex-Offio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - - - - Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., - - - Chemist. T. L. H^ECKER, Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, B.S.,V.M.D., - - - -Veterinarian. J. A. VYE, Secretary. Digestion Experiments. BY HARRY SNYDER. OBJECT OF THE BULLETIN AND EXPLANATION OF TERMS. This bulletin contains the results of experiments upon the digestibility and manurial value of pea ensilage and wheat bran when fed to milch cows. The results show what becomes of each ingredient of the food, the amounts of each recovered in the milk, returned in the dung and urine and the amount required as fuel to carry on the vital functions. These experiments are given in detail so as to serve as an outline for the remainnig experiments upon the composition and digestibility of barley and shorts, barley, corn and shorts and corn, fed to grown pigs; and corn and bran, peas and bran and peas, when fed to growing pigs. The determination of the digestibility of a fodder is simply finding the amount of it that can be utilized by the animal. A fodder, as clover, is said to be sixty per cent di- gestible; this means that out of every hundred pounds of the dry clover hay, sixty pounds are broken down in the digest- ive tract, and forty pounds are not acted upon, but leave the body undigested in the dung. Each constituent of every fod- der has its own digestibility. A digestion experiment is carried on in the following way: An animal, as a cow, sheep or pig is fed for some time upon the particular food in question, the food being carefully weighed and analyzed. This is carried on at first simply for a preliminary feeding period, the object of which is to get the animal in the same condition as it will be later on when the experiment is in progress. After this preliminary feeding all 4 of the dung is collected as evacuated, weighed and analyzed. This is done for a number of days. The dung and urine made for any number of days are the products of the food for an equal period. In the dung a certain portion of each of the components of the food is returned undigested; this is determined, and this amount not digested, when taken from the amount of that ingredient in the original food gives the amount digested. The results are usually expressed in per- centages, and the per cent digested is called the digestion co- efficient. The names of the different fodder constituents, and the terms used in this bulletin may not be familiar to some read- ers, and are here briefly explained. All food stuffs are composed of water and dry matter;the water is sensibly present in the juices, and even in field cured hay or fodder corn there is always more or less water. The larger part of the dry matter when burned is converted into smoke, while a small portion remains as ashes. The part that is burned is called the organic part. The first general division of the constituents of fodders and food stuffs, then, is into water and dry matter; and the second, the dry matter into ash and organic matter- A far- ther division of the organic part is made into those com- pounds that contain an element or building unit known as nitrogen, and those that do not contain this element. The compounds that contain nitrogen are called nitrogenous compounds, while those that contain no nitrogen are called non-nitrogenous. All fodders contain from four to ten times more of the non-nitrogenous compounds than of the nitro- genous ones. The most important among the nitrogenous compounds is crude protein, which includes a large class that have cer- tain characteristics in common, one of them being that they all contain about the same per cent — 16 % — of the element nitrogen. The white of an egg is a typical example; lean meat is composed largely of these kinds of substances. The protein compounds of food stuffs are extremely valuable as animal food inasmuch as they contain the building ma- terials that compose the muscles. Crude protein is usually spoken of as muscle or flesh forming material. The protein compounds are more familiarly known as the crude albumi- noids; in this work, however, both terms are used, each one having a separate meaning. Some authorities* restrict the term albuminoids to such bodies as gelatine, while others use proteids and albuminoids as synonymous terms. All al- buminoids are proteids, while not all of the so called pro- teids, as usually determined, are albuminoids. In the anal- ysis of plants and food stuffs the total nitrogen that is found is taken as the basis for determining the crude protein. All of the nitrogen thus determined is not in the form of albumi- noids, and can not be taken as a basis for determining the albuminoids. These are determined from the albuminoid ni- trogen alone. Hence the distinction is made between the to- tal nitrogen and the nitrogen that belongs only to the albu- minoids. In the columns headed '‘Crude Protein’ ’ the total nitrogen is taken as the basis for its determination, while in the column headed “Albuminoids” the albuminoid nitrogen is taken as the basis. Ether Extract is the material which is extracted from fodders by ether, and is composed largely of fat, with vari- able quantities of foreign substances such as wax and color- ing matter. In fodder analyses this is sometimes called fat or oil, but it is not pure fat. Crude Eiher is the woody part of plants; it belongs to the same group of chemical substances as starch and sugar. In young and tender plants the fiber is more digestible than when the plant becomes tough and woody. Nitrogen Free Extract is the name given to the remain- ing compounds that contain no nitrogen — free from nitro- gen — and are soluble in weak acid and alkaline solutions. Such are the jellies, sugars and starches. The ether extract, the crude fiber, and the nitrogen free extract, when digested supply the body with heat and pro- duce fat, while the main functions of the protein compounds is to supply the materials for the muscles and waste matter. Hence the two general classes of compounds in food are the *Johnson. 6 nitrogenous or flesh forming, and the non-nitrogenous or heat and fat producing bodies. These different classes ofcompounds, found in food stuffs, are not equally digestible, the fibrous or woody part usually being less digestible than the starches or sugars. Each sepa- rate compound of a fodder has its own digestibility or diges- tion coefficient, which it is the object of a digestion experi- ment to determine. Many digestion experiments have been made with nearly ;all the different animal foods, and the results obtained have been of material value. The importance of this work was clearly foreseen by the framers of the Hatch bill, establishing experimental stations, who in particular mentioned digest- ion experiments as one of the important lines of work to be conducted by them. I. PEA ENSILAGE. Digestibility and Value as a Cattle Food. The few digestion experiments that have heretofore been made with peas and pea meal, show that pea meal is one of the most digestible and valuable of animal foods; but little, however, seems to have been done in the way of determining the digestibility and value of the whole plant either field cured, or ensilaged, as cattle food. The following experiment was carried out in order to obtain some data in regard to this question, particularly when the ensilage is fed to milch cows.* The peas were cut while green and put into a separate compartment of an experimental silo, which was opened early in March, 1892. When opened, theensilage was sweet and in good condition, and an analysis of it showed that it had the following composition: 1 Composition in Pounds Per Hundred of Dry Matter. Water. Dry Matter Ash. Ether Ex- tract. 1 Crude Pro- tein . 1 Crude Fi- | bre. | | Nitro. Free | Extract. 50.08 49.92 6.95 3.13 11.90 | 26.00 | 52.02 1 The points to be observed from this analysis are: That the material contains a comparatively large percentage of nitrogenous compounds, more ash and less water than ordi- nary ensilaged cattle foods; these are points that are all in its favor. At the time this silo was opened the cows were receiving acorn ensilage and mixed grain ration; and some of the cows when gradually changed to pea ensilage and less grain did not seem to relish it as well as the usual corn ensilage, *For the manner of growingpeas, and their yield, the reader is referred to Bul- letin No. 20, of this Station. 8 while others ate it equally as well. With different cows there was a difference as to the apparent palatability of the pea ensilage. Many cows that refused to eat the pure ensilage alone were induced to eat liberal quantities of it by mixing bran, timothy, or corn with it. The feeding was not carried on with a sufficient number of milch cows or for a period of sufficient length to warrant any definite conclusions as to the effects upon the yield or composition of the milk; how- ever, the daily dairy record of the herd shows no appreciable variations either in the total yield of milk or fat while the pea ensilage was being fed . This ration of pea ensilage and bran, however, took the place of one of corn ensilage, hay, and a mixed grain ration consisting of 5 lbs. barley, 3 lbs. bran and 1 lb. oil meal per dav ? with a saving of the more expensive barley meal and oil meal. The two cows selected for this experiment were Sully and Bess. Both cows were of about the same age, and had been in milk for about five months. The daily ration consisted of a mixture of thirty -four pounds of pea ensilage and twelve pounds of wheat bran. The food was restricted to these two articles so as not to introduce other factors in the experi- ment. The preliminary feeding lasted fourteen days. Dur- ing this time the cows were gradually accustomed to the confinement and the constant presence of an attendant. Beginning at noon on March 25th and ending at noon on March 30, the solid and liquid excrements were caught as evacuated, by an attendant constantly in charge both day and night. This constant attendance prevented losses and removed many of the sources of error, such as the mixing of the dung and urine and the use of absorbents for collecting them. All of the food fed to each cow was eaten, leaving no factor for food rejected, or leavings. A daily record was kept of the weight of each cow and also the water consumed. The manure of each cow was mixed and sampled in dupli- cate at three different times during the experiment. The ^analyses of the food consumed, the manure at the different •times of sampling, the milk yielded, and the urine voided, are given in tabular form on the following pages. A sample of the pea ensilage was taken at every removal 9 of the ensilage from the silo, and the average of the results show the composition of the pea ensilage fed: (Pounds per hundred of the dry matter.) True Al- Water. Dry M at- Crude Ash. Ether Ex- Fiber. Nito. Free bumin- ter. Protein. tract. Extract. oids. 52.88 47.12 11.90 6.50 3.00 25.00 53.60 10.50' Comparing the results of the analysis when the silo was opened, with the average results of the ensilage fed, it will be observed that the ensilage was quite uniform in composition* the water being the most variable constituent. The wheat bran fed with the pea ensilage had the follow- ing composition, the results being expressed in pounds per hundred of the dry matter: Dry Mat- Ash. Crude Ether Ex- Crude NitroFree True Al- bumin- ter. Protein. tract. Fiber. Extract. oids. 90.00 4.20 13.20 3.1 6.00 73.50 12.00 During the five days that the dung and urine were collect- ed, 170 pounds of ensilage and 60 pounds of wheat bran were fed to each cow; and the number of pounds of each nu- trient fed in both the pea ensilage and wheat bran, and the totals, are given in the following table: POUNDS OF FOOD COMPOUNDS CONSUMED. Kind of Food. Water Pounds Dry M atter Pounds Ash Pounds Crude Protein Pounds Ether Ex- tract Pounds Crude Fiber Pounds Nitrogen FreeExtract Pounds True Albu- minoids Pounds In 170 lbs. Pea Ensilage In 60 lbs. Wheat Bran... 89.9 6.0 80.1 54.0 5.206 2.27 9.53 7.18 2.40 1.67 20.04 3.22 42.94 39.69 8.41 6.48 In 230 lbs. Totals 95.9 134.1 7.47 16.71 4.07 23.26 82.63 14.89 The total nitrogen present in the dung is but partly in the form of undigested protein compounds; the bile contains compounds, such as glvcocholic acid, which contains nitrogen and are digested products. In the crude protein column a correction is made for these small amounts of digested nitro- genous compounds. In the tables, the samples A and B are duplicate samples of the manure for the same period, and the results that are given for each sample are the aver- ages of duplicate analyses, making in all a total of twelve analyses of the manure of each cow. BESS.— SOLID EXCREMENTS. 10 Totals 100 o o H 100 8.50 9.12 14.16 31.78 ri CO CO True ^ bu- minoic 8.56 9.00 OX to h 00 00 8.10 8.12 .753 .762 1.15 2.666 0 b 8 Albumi- noid Ni- trogen 1.37 1.34 1.36 1.31 1.31 1.30 .116 .121 .184 .422 a a W Ui a H p HH j-i Q Vh 0 a Nitroge Free Extrac 46.10 46.01 47.00 47.17 46.64 46.74 3.951 4.307 6.61 14.87 0 +j '55 0 a a q 1 Ether Ex- tract 2.06 2.04 2.54 2.70 2.85 3.00 Z w p .175 .239 .413 .829 o Crude Pro- tein 11.40 11.52 10.44 10.37 10.06 9.62 H h- 1 H tn .893 .952 i 05 co 05 CO H 1 W * l ^—4 < 9.03 9.21 8.90 9.00 8.90 9.08 O o W o w pH .785 .818 0 01 l> N X u aj 15.50 15.70 15.12 14.59 X 05 1 o 4 H H H oi Drv M att< per Cent 8.50 9.15 L4.16 31.81 u 84.50 84.30 84.85 85.41 84.23 85.03 o w Q so in Wate per Cent i o 10 CD >2.35 X o 10 co 05 CO t- u a a X <» b; 05 10 oi ; 'O . P S-. & 5 P 0 Wt' 05 X COO 10 O X 1 10 p p Ip H 01 nO IOt* 00 10 rH iq P s do XX rf C0 w ffi oi « 4-> J-l troge Free ttrac rH CD CO rH rH ?H , 4J xco OlO T* N H X o 10 0 ft s 5«2 « ** tJ< CO n’ n 05 rH (NX ^ rH N (N j w ; X rH U £ t-I H H rH ! H H X r-i X O 10 i 1 (N 05 o u 1 x \ — lO 01 10 X I 1 CO i o 05 <5 05 05 1 00 X 1 X X W 1 N 1 rH 1 60 1 L | i " o u . 15 -p k+J 5-i Ih+JJJH O X 0510 10 rH I (N | O | 05 ox r*l> T* H w » H * O-Ptf cdid o to I idd : 05 05 1 w | o S u rH H rH rH H H pH H ! X V- 1 15 . -P O 1 Q Time in Hours 36 36 48 1 co X 1 CO i 00 1 1 1 3 ! * 1 w P ! ^ to "C 1 : ’D 1 ! w 0 -t-> P 1 r d +5 p d V 15 60 . U 0 o u s Vi u ° CJ in 2 H-» 1 0 Pu s m ! h s 1 tn F H 12 Prom these tables it will be observed that the manure 'From each cow was quite constant in composition and quan- tity, the water again being the most variable constituent. The average number of pounds of manure made by Sully per day being 40.5, by Bess 41.2. Taking the yield and the composition of the manure as an index to the condition of the digestive tract, it appears that all of the functions were carried on with uniformity, since both the yield and the com- position of the manure were constant. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Kind of Sample Dry Matter Ash Organic Matter Crude Protein Ether Extract Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract | BESS. Total pounds in food 134.1 7.47 126.6 16.71 4.07 23.26 82.63 Total pounds in manure 31.81 2.88 28.93 3.24 .83 9.95 14.87 Pounds digested 1 02.29 4.59 97.66 13.47 3.24 13.31 67.76 Co-efficient of digestibility... 75.5 61.4 77. 80.6 79.6 56.9 82 . SULLY. Total pounds in food 134.1 7.47 126.6 16.71 4.07 23.26 82.63 Total pounds in manure 30.79 2.69 28.1 3.17 .80 9.54 14.59 Pounds digested 103.31 4.78 98.5 13.54 3.27 13.72 68.04 Co-efficient of digestibility.. 76.9 63.9 77.8 81.3 80.3 58.9 82.3 Two determinations of the digestibility of wheat b* an will be found in another article in this bulletin; in one case wheat bran is found to be more digestible and in another less digestible than the mixed pea ensilage and bran. From these facts it appears that the pea ensilage alone must be at least as digestible as the bran. The effect of one food upon the digestibility of another is not well known; shorts and bran are both more digestible in one grain ration than in another. The bran fed in these experiments contained less fiber and ash than ordinary bran, and in this respect resem- bled more the composition of shorts. This would tend to increase the digestibility of the bran. The digestibility of the bran can not be assumed, and the pea ensilage digestibi- lity determined by difference, inasmuch as there are two un- 13 known factors that tend to increase the digestibility of the pea ensilage, viz: A different composition from ordinary bran, and combination with a more digestible food. Whatever these unknown factors may be the results show that the pea ensilage alone can not be less digestible than the results given for the peas and bran, and making due al- lowance for these two factors, the digestibility of the pea ensilage is, no doubt, not far from the figures assigned to the mixture. The results farther show that when pea ensilage is intro- duced into the feed of milch cows, it forms the basis of a very digestible ration. Comparing the digestion work of these two cows, it will be observed that there is a marked uniformity. About one per cent more of the total organic matter was digested by Sully than by Bess. With Sully there was a slightly greater tendency toward the more complete digestion of the nitro- genous compounds. Milk Yield. — Complete analyses were made of the milk from each milking. In the five days Sully gave 98.5 pounds of milk, and Bess gave 108.7. The total number of pounds of fat, ash, sugar, casein, and solids, in the milk of each cow for the five days were: Total pounds of milk | Watei Solids Ash Fat Casein Sugar Sully.. 98.5 85.3 13.2 7.51 4.557 3.83 4.06 Bess... 108.7 97.2 11.5 .62 3.667 3.30 3.91 From the same number of pounds of food Bess gave ten pounds more milk than Sully; but the 108 pounds of milk from Bess contained less fat and solids than the 98.5 pounds given by Sully. Sully’s milk, although ten pounds less, pro- duced .89 pounds more of fat, which if made into butter ^vouid make a difference of over one pound in five days. Each cow consumed 134.1 pounds of dry matter in the food to produce 13.2 and 11.5 pounds respectively of solid matter in the milk. In the case of Bess 8.58 per cent of the solid matter of the 14 food was returned in the solid matter of the milk, while with Sully 9.85 per cent was returned. The difference in the weight of the solid matters digested by the two cows, 1.02 pounds, does not entirely account for the difference in the solid matter of the milk produced, 1.7 pounds. This ques- tion will be farther discussed after considering the amount of the nitrogen of the food retained in the body ofeachcow,and the gain and loss in live weight. The composition and quantity of the urine is another im- portant factor in determining the completeness of the digest- ive process, inasmuch as over half of the nitrogen of the food, in these experiments, was returned in the urine. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A HUNDRED POUNDS OF URINE. 1 1 Total Lbs. 1 Water. Solids. | Ash. TotalNitro. Bess 115 | 91.76 | 8.24 | 3.00 1.21 Stilly : 110.5 | 91.3 | 1 1 8.70 J 3.15 1.24 TOTAL POUNDS IN THE URINE OF EACH COW. Bess 115 105.55 ■ 9.54 | 1 3.45 1.39 Stilly 110.5 100.82 | | 9.63 | 1 3.45 1 1.35 All of the data concerning the total dry matter, ash and total nitrogen of the food, and the amount of each recovered in the dung, urine and milk will be found tabulated below: BESS. Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen. Pounds Per Cent Pounds Per Cent Pounds Per Cent Tn fond 134.1 1 7.47 2.66 In dung 318.1 23.7 2.88 38.5 .53 20. In milk 115. 1 8.50 .62 8.00 .51 19.1 In urine 94.5 7.04 75.56 47. 1.39 52.25 Totals Returned.. .. 52.76 39.4 6.95 93. 2.43 91.3 SULLY. Dry Matter. Ash. Nitrogen. Pounds Per Cent Pounds Per Cent Pounds Per Cent Tn food 134.1 7.47 2.66 In dung 30.79 23 2.69 36. .52 19.5 In milk 13.2 9.85 .77 1 . .65 24.4 Tn urine 9.63 7.18 3.45 46. 1.35 50.7 Totals Returned.... 53.62 40. 6.90 92.3 2.52 94.7 15 Bess returned 39.4 per cent of the total dry matter of the food; Sully returned 40 per cent in the dung the milk and the urine. The question naturally arises, What becomes of the remaining 60 per cent of the total dry matter of the food, since it is not returned in the dung, urine or milk? It must be remembered that there is another means of escape of the food that has not as yet been considered, namely: the losses by respiration and through the pores of the skin. The food during digestion undergoes a series of chemical changes, the body is supplied with heat, and this heat is the result of the burning of some of the food. WTien food is burned either within the body or outside it is reduced to gaseous products and is no longer solid matter. The percent of nitrogen returned by each cow was some- what less than the amount in the food. Sully returned nearly 95 per cent, while Bess returned a little over 91 per cent, indicating that none of the vital functions had been carried on at the expense of the muscles of the body without due compensation from the protein of the food. Nearly the same per cent of ash was returned by each cow. Had the pea ensilage been less digestible, a larger daily quantity of food would have been required to furnish these amounts of digestible compounds, and more undigestible ni- trogen would have been returned in the dung. In this case the percentage of nitrogen returned in the dung would have been correspondingly greater. Hence the per cent of the nitrogen of the food, returned in the dung, urine and milk for one food does not, and cannot be applied to another food, since the foods may have both a different chemical composition and different co-efficients of digestibility. The gain and loss in weight of the cows was within nar- row limits, and was materially influenced by the amount of water consumed; the variati ons in live weights cannot be taken alone as actual indications of gain or loss in flesh, due to the pea ensilage and wheat oran, because the variations in live weight are small compared with the daily amounts of water consumed, which in turn are unequal for the two cows. The amount of water given off by the lungs and also 16 the amount formed by the combustion of the food are un- known factors, and no accurate estimates of these amounts canbelormed. About eighty-two pounds of dry matter were burned up in the body of each cow, equivalent to a little over sixteen pounds per day. The total weight of the two cows at the close of the ex- periment was seventeen pounds less than at the beginning. Bess gained ten pounds and Sully lost twenty-seven. Bess consumed twenty-eight pounds more water than Sully, and also returned sixteen pounds more in the dung, urine and milk, as the following table will show: WATER CONSUMED. BESS. Pounds. SULLY. Pounds. Tm Hrink . 308 280 In food t 96 96 Total 404 376 WATER RETURNED. BESS. Pounds. SULLY. Pounds. In urine 105.5 92.7 174. 100.8 84.3 171. In miilc In dung Total 372. 356. Not returned 32. 20. The amount of water in the dung, urine and milk of Bess amounted to 372 pounds, thirty-two pounds less than the amount that she consumed, equivalent to six pounds per day in addition to that formed by the combustion of the food to be disposed of by the lungs and pores of the skin. With Sully twenty pounds more of water was consumed than returned. Bess returned sixteen pounds more water than Sully, or a difference of twelve pounds more than the difference between the amounts consumed and returned by Sully. Hence the loss of weight of Sully is not a loss in flesh. This is shown more conclusively in the nitrogen return of the food already referred to. From the same number of pounds of food, Bess gained ten 17 pounds on live weight and retained nearly three per cent, more nitrogen in her body than Sully. Sully made no gain in live weight, digested one per cent more of solid matter of the food and returned over one per cent more solid matter in the milk, which made a return of over one pound of butter in five days. Taking these facts into consideration it is plain to be seen why Sully made a better milk rerurn than Bess when each consumed the same number of pounds of food. The more complete digestive work of Sully; with no ten- dency to gain in flesh or retain the nitrogen of the food, gave better milk returns than the less complete digestive work of Bess with a tendency to gain ill weight and to retain more of the nitrogen of the food. In feeding, any one of these factors taken alone would usually be considered too sm? 11 to be of any account, and within the limits of error; but these are the factors when working together that go far towards making dairying succes- ful or unsuccessful, since they are the results of the mechani- cal workings of a good dairy cow compared with a poorer one that consumed the same quantity of food, but produced one-fifth of a pound less of butter per day. THE MANURIAL VALUE OF PEA ENSILAGE. Another important factor in considering the value of any cattle food is the composition and value of the manure re- turned. The elements, the compounds of which give a man- ure its commercial value are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, since these are usually the important materials that are found in the least abundance in the soil. In commercial fertilizers, nitrogen in its most available forms is valued at 17 cents per pound, phosphoric acid at about seven cents and potash at about four cents. Faim manures contain these same elements in forms equally as valuable, and an analysis of the dung and urine of any animal, fed on any 18 food, shows the number of pounds of these compounds con- tained in a hundred pounds of the manure. Multiplying the pounds per hundred of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash by twenty will give the number of pounds of each per ton. The price of each element per pound being known the value per ton can then easily be determined. An analysis of the dung and urine of each cow showed the average percentages, or pounds per hundred, of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and po- tash to be: Nitrogen. l Phosphoric Acid. Potash. Dung .26 .44 .32 Urine '. 1.21 .06 1.09 DUNG. URINE. Lbs. per Ton. Value. Lbs. per Ton. Value. Nitrogen 5.2 $ .884 Nitrogen .. 24.1 $3,497 Phos. Acid 8.8 .616 Phos. Acid .12 .084 Potash 6.4 .254 Potash 21.8 .872 Value per ton. $1,754 Val.per t’n $4,453 Value per day of dung, $036 Value per day of urine,... $ .049 Value per day of mixed dung and urine, $.085 “ “ ton “ “ “ “ 2.70 This is much higher than manure is usually rated by far- mers of the state, and in many cases is more than it would be worth to them; however, it represents what these same ele- ments would cost if purchased in the form of commercial fer- tilizers. From these figures it will be seen that the nitrogen is by far the most expensive element in the manure. Of the total nitrogen in the food, about twenty per cent was re- turned in the dung, from twenty to twenty -five per cent in the milk, and over fifty per cent in the urine. Nearly all of the phosphoric acid was returned in the dung. The results show that the urine is of greater commercial value than the dung, since half of the nitrogen of the food was returned in the urine, and only a fifth in the dung. The nitrogen in the urine is soluble and more available as plant food, while the nitrogen in the dung is largely insoluble, as the determinations of albuminoid nitrogen show. The value of the manure depends mainly upon the nitrogen, and this is contained largely in the urine. 19 Care should be taken to lose as little of the urine as pos- sible. This can be done by closing up the leaks in the stable floor, maintaining well constructed gutters, and the liberal use of straw and other absorbents. In conclusion, the important points briefly stated in re- gard to ensilaged peas and wheat bran as a cattle food, are; g 1. Peas furnish a food rich in nitrogenous compounds, of which the dry matter contains about twelve per cent, which is about twice the amount in ordinary ensilaged crops. 2. In every hundred pounds of the dry matter, seventy- six pounds were digested, and all of the constituents, except the ash and fiber, were nearly equally and evenly digestible. 3. The pea ensilage and bran alone took the place of corn ensilage, hay and a mixed grain ration, saving the more ex- pensive barley and oil meal, and giving the same milk and butter yield. 4. The cow that gave the better returns in milk and but- ter from the same weight of food digested one per cent more of solid matter and retained three per cent less nitrogen than the one that gave a fifth of a pound less butter per day. 5. Nearly ninety-five per cent of the nitrogen of the food was returned in some form; about one-half was returned in the urine, one-fifth in the dung, and from one-fifth to one- fourth in the milk. 6. About eighty- two per cent of the original fertilizer materials in the food was returned in the dung and urine. 7. Finally, pea ensilage is a valuable cattle food, rich in nitrogen, largely digestible, and returns a valuable manure to the soil. The storing of peas in the silo as described in this article may be unfamiliar to many and appear to be out of the reach of the ordinary farmer, but this is not so. A silo like the one in which these peas were stored can be made by any farmer at no great expense, and anyone who is desirous of securing one more valuable cattle food, should give peas, either field cured or ensilaged, a trial. II. BARLEY AND SHORTS t Digestibility and Manunal Value. For this experiment a Poland-China-Duroc-Jersey bar- row weighing about 250 pounds was used. The experiment was carried on in May at medium temperature. The pig was of a quiet disposition, and did not seem to be disturbed by the close confinement. The daily ration fed consisted of 9 5-7 pounds of a mixture of one-half barley and one-half shorts by weight. The percentage composition of each was. | Water 1 1 Dry | | Matter | Ash | Ether | | Extract | Crude | Protein | Crude | Fiber | Nitro gen j Free Ex. Barley ...| 11.78 | 88.22 | 2.32 | 2.70 | 11.57 | 6.00 | | 65.63 Shorts ...| 10.12 | 89.88 | 2.79 | 4.90 | 13.75 | 8.35 | l 60.09 After the preliminary feeding the dung and urine were collected; the pounds of ash, fiber and protein, in the thirty- four pounds of each of the feeds consumed, and the totals, are given in the following table. j Water j Dry Matter Ash Ether Extract Crude | Protein j Crude Fiber | Nitrogen | Free Ex. Barley ....| 4.005 | 30.00 .789 .918 | 3.935 | 2.04 | 22.24 Shorts ....j 3.443 | 30.55 .949 1.666 | 4.675 | 2.84 | 20.43 Total. .. ....1 7.448 1 60.55 1.738 2.584 1 8.610 1 4.88 l _ 42.67 The experiment was divided into two periods of three and four days each. During the first period nearly 25 pounds of manure was made, or an average of eight pounds per day, which contained 1.91 pounds of dry matter; during the second period 31 pounds were made or an average of about eight pounds per day, which contained about two pounds of dry matter. 21 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF DRY MANURE IN POUNDS PER 100. Period..) W ater 1 Dry | j Matter | Ash 1 Ether | j Extract | Crude Protein | Nitrogen | |Free Ex.| Crude Fiber |True Ai- | bum’ids First.... | 77.36 | 22.64 1 14.54 1 3.80 | 16.22 | 42.72 22.62 | 12.50 Second. | 74.50 | 25.50 j 10.22 | 4.82 | 14.72 | 45.62 24.52 | 11.S8 The variations in the composition of the manure for the two periods are greater than in the experiment with pea en- silage and wheat bran . The differences in composition of the manure for the two periods when calculated to the num- ber of pounds of fiber, protein, etc., made per day, are partly balanced by differences in dry matter, and the total weight •of the manure for each period. All of the important data of this experiment will be found in the following table: SUMMARY OF DIGESTION RESULTS. Dry Matter Ash Organic M atter Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract True Al- buminoids Total pounds in food 60.55 1.738 58.812 2.584 8.61 4.88 1 42.67 7.65 Total pounds in manure 13.56 ^ 1.632 11.822 j .596 1.92 ! 3.22 6.01 17.45 Total pounds digested... Co-efficient of digestibili- 46.99 .106 46.984 .199 6 69 1.66 36.66 5.90 ty of shorts and barley 1 77.61 ! ! .600 1 7.970 7.895 7.77 1 34 01 1 85.92 1 77.12 1 The co-efficient of digestibility for the crude protein, if not corrected for the biliary nitrogen would be 75.8, showing that the biliary matters, as ordinarily determined, affected the results to the extent of about two per cent. Twenty-eight pounds of urine was made during the seven days. The average composition showed that the urine con- tained 5.60 per cent solids, .38 per cent ash and 2.05 per cent nitrogen. In the 28 pounds of the urine there were about 26.2 pounds of water, .11 pounds of ash, and .57 pounds of nitrogen. The pounds of nitrogen and ash in the food and the pounds recovered in the dung and urine were: 22 ASH. NITROGEN, In food 1.739 1.37 In the dnng 1.63 .32 In the urine 11 .57 The sum of the ash and nitrogen in the dung and urine, when taken from the number of pounds in the food leaves the amount retained in the body which is .48 of a pound for the nitrogen, and no appreciable amount for the ash. During the same period the pig consumed 111 pounds of water, of which 69 pounds passed in the dung andmdne and 42 pounds were either in part retained in the body or given oft through the pores of the skin and by respiration. At the beginning of the experiment the pig weighed 254 pounds, and at the close 273 pouuds, the daily weighings showing an average gain of over 2 pounds. A large proportion of this gain was a gain in flesh, since over 65 per cent of the nitrogen of the food was retained in the body. An average of eight pounds of manure and four pounds of urine were made per day; a fertilizer analysis of the fresh mannre and the urine showed the following percentage com- position: MANURE. URINE Nitrogen 57% 2.05% Phosphoric Acid 72“ .06“ Potash 32“ .04“ If these constituents of the dung and urine were purchased in eastern markets in the form of commercial fertilizers, based upon analysis, the dung would be valued at $3.30 per ton and the urine $7.31 per ton. The value of the dung made in one day would be worth $.012 and of the urine $.016. The mixed urine and dung together would be worth nearly three cents per day. The analysis shows that the urine is of greater money value than the dung, since over 40 per cent of the nitrogen of the food was returned in the urine, while about 25 per cent was returned in the dung. III. BARLEY. Digestibility and Manurial Value. After determining the digestibility of barley and shorts, this same pig was gradually changed from barley and shorts to a ration of pure barley, and the digestibility of the barley separately determined. In this experiment the dung and urine were collected for six days; during this time, as well as during the preliminary feeding period, 6 pounds of barley was fed per day. The barley was taken from the same lot as that used in the barley and shorts mixture, but was not fed in such liberal quantities. The variations in the compo- sition of the manure from each period were slight. A little over 24 pounds of manure was made, or an average of four pounds per day. All of the important data [in connection with this experiment will be found reported in the followfng table: SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Kind of Sample Pounds of Dry Matter Pounds of Ash Pounds of Or- ganic Mat’r Pounds ' of Ether Extract Pounds of Crude Protein Pounds of Fiber Pounds of Nitrogen Free Extrat Pounds of Al- buminoids In 36 pounds barley 1 31.36 I ! .834 1 , 30.42 1 1 .972 1 4.1 65 1 1 3.006[ 24.82 1 4.05 In manure 6.80 j .79 6.01 | .318 .779 1.531 1 3.38 .765 Amount digested 24.56 .045 , 24.4 > 1 .554 3.386 ! 1.475 21.44 3.285 Digestion Co-efficient 80.15 5.39 i 80.25 .654 81.42 48.741 86.56 81. At the beginning of the experiment the pig weighed 271 pounds and at the close 274, the six pounds of barley per day being just about sufficient to maintain the live weight. The pig consumed 52 pounds of water, and voided 36 pounds in the dung and urine. The food contained 0.666 pounds of nitrogen; .123 pounds were retained in the dung, and 51 pounds in the urine, making a total recovery of 94.2 percent of the nitrogen of the food. The average fertilizer analysis of the dung and urine showed the following percentage compositions. DUNG. Nitrogen 43 Phosphoric acid 70 Potash 62 Value per ton $ 3.07 Value per day 006 URINE. Nitrogen 2.05 Phosphoric acid .16 Potash .10 Value per ton $ 7.30 Value per day 0108 Total Value per day, $ .017 IV. CORN AND SHORTS. Digestibility and Manurial Value. The barrow selected for this experiment, a Yorkshire- Berkshire-Duroc Jersey, was of a more contrary disposition than the one used in the experiment with barley, and barley and shorts. The preliminary feeding showed that about half the food offered was refused. This necessitated the feed- ing of an amount of food equivalent to about half that consumed in the barley and shorts experiment. The daily ration of a little over five pounds was just sufficient to even- ly maintain the weight of the animal. The food consisted of a mixture of equal parts of corn and shorts, having the fol- lowing percentage composition: 1 Water Ash Ether Extract J 1 Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extr’t Corn 11.73 1.46 3.88 i 11.25 2.28 69.40 Shorts 10.12 2.78 4.90 13.75 8.35 60.09 The experiment was carried on for seven days and during that time eighteen pounds of each were fed. POUNDS OF EACH CONSTITUENT CONSUMED. Water Ash Ether 1 Extract Crude Protein Crude Nitrogen Fiber Free Ex. True Al- buminoid Corn 2.106 1.821 262 .501 .6984 .872 1 2.0304 2.475 I | 12.49 | .4106 10.516 | 1.506 Shorts Total 3.927 .775 1.57 4.505 1 1 23.306 1 1.916 1 1 4.194 The experiment was divided into two periods, but the dung from each period was uniform in composition, and the average of all the analyses showed the composition to be: 26 Water Ash Ether Crude Nitrogen Free Crude Extract Protein Extract Fiber 70.92 14.79 4.00 1 15.62 45.59 1 i 20.00 During the experiment seventeen pounds of dung was evacuated and the seventeen pounds were composed of the following number of pounds of each constituent: Water Dry Matter Ash 1 Ether Extract Crude Protein Nitrogen Free Ex. Crude Fiber 1 True Al- bumin’ds 12.05 ! 4.95 | 73.28 .198 .795 1 | 2.25 1 .99 .683 And when these undigested portions are taken from the amounts in the food, the amounts digested are obtained, from which the digestion co-efficients of the corn and shorts are found to be: Dry Matter Ash Organic Matter Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Ex. True Al- bpmin’ds 84.2 4.15 86.5 I 87.3 1 | 82.35 48.3 90.3 1 83.31 The barrow drank 51 pounds of water, and gave off in the dung and urine 30 pounds, leaving 21 pounds to be dis- posed of through the lungs, pores of the skin, or retained in the body. At the beginning pig weighed 236 pounds and at the close 235 pounds, daily weighing fluctuating about 2 pounds. The nitrogen in the urine amounted to .528 pounds, in the dung .135 pounds, making a total of .663 pounds, while the amount in the food was .658 pounds. The total recovery of the nitrogen was therefore a little over 100 per cent. All of the daily food consumed, 5 1 /? pounds, was used up in supporting the machinery of the ani- mal, leaving none of the food to allow for any material gain in flesh. A fertilizer analysis of the fresh dung and urine showed them to have the following percentage composition: DUNG. URINE. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid.... Potash Value per ton. Value per day. 80 1.20 $ 5.16 006 Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Value per ton Value per day 2.65 20 15 $ 9.45 0120 Total value per day,.... $.018 V. CORN Digestibility and Manurial Value. A few weeks later the barrow that had been used in the corn and shorts experiments was changed to a ration of corn. By this time the animal had recovered from his previous contrary indisposition to digestion experiments, and was willing to eat a comparatively larger amount of corn than of corn and shorts. Some of the same corn was used as in the previous experiment. Forty-five pounds of feed were consumed and 12 V 2 pounds of dungreturned in one week. As usual the experiment was divided into two peri- ods, the composition of the manure from each period was quite uniform, and so only the average results are recorded. COMPOSITION OF DRY MANURE. Water I Dry Ash 1 | Ether 1 I 1 Crude Crude 1 | Nitrogen 1 Matter 1 | Extract 1 Protein | Fiber j Free Ex. 1 67.88 1 I 1 32.12 I 1 16.36 1 j 10.05 1 1 1 12.81 | 1 12.83 1 47.95 1 The number of pounds of each of these compounds in the food and in the manure are given in the following table, to- gether with the percentage of each digested: SUMMARY OF RESULTS — CORN DIGESTIBILITY. Kind of Samples 1 Pounds of Dry Matter Pounds of Or- ganic Mat’r Pounds of Ash Pounds of Ether Extract Pounds of Crude Protein Pounds of Crude Fiber Pounds of Nitrogen Free Ex’act True Al- buminoids In forty-five pounds of Corn 39.72 39.07 .657 1.746 5.062 1.027 31.23 4.635 In 1214 pounds manure. 4.02 3.37 .657 .40 .51 | .52 1.927 .465 Pounds digested 35.07 35.70 1.35 4.55 .507 29.303 4.17 Co-efficient of digestibi- lity 89.7 91.3 77.6 89.9 1 1 48.7 93.91 89. 28 The most important point of these retults is that none of the ash of the corn was digested, and the amount lost in the urine was entirely at the expense of that already stored in the body. The urine contained 2.05 per cent nitrogen and had a specific gravity of 1.0305, about the same as that of milk. The urine for the seven days contained .520 pounds of nitro- gen while the dung contained .10 pound; the nitrogen in the food, .8 pound, exceeded that in the dung and urine by .18 pounds, showing that 22 per cent of the nitrogen of the food was retained in the body. At the beginning of the experi- ment the pig weighed 247 pounds; and at the close 255. The pig consumed in all 48 pounds of water, and voided in the dung and urine about 28 pounds. The fertilizer analysis of the dung and urine showed the following composition: DUNG. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid... Potash Value per ton Value per day. URINE. .82 .89 .70 $ 3.76 .0033 Nitrogen 2.05 Phosphoric acid 29 Potash ; 21 Value per ton $ 7.59 Value per day 0095 Total value per day, $.0128 VI. DIGESTIBILITY OF SHORTS. In the experiments reported in this bulletin, the digesti- bilities of barley and shorts and of barley, were separately determined upon the same animal. From the data furnished by these two experiments, the digestibility of the shorts may be obtained by the usual method of difference. The digesti- bilities of corn and shorts, and of corn were also separately determined upon another animal, thus furnishing entirely different data for another determinrtion of the digestibility of shorts in the same way. Before considering these results it is necessary to review briefly the conditions: In the experiments with barley and shorts, the pig was fed a very liberal ration of nearly ten pounds per day, and made rapid gains in weight; when barley alone was fed the ration was cut down to six pounds per day, and the pig made no ap- preciable gain. In the experiments with corn and shorts, a ration of 5 Vz pounds per day made no gain, while with six pounds of corn per day a noticeable gain re- sulted. With each set of experiments it will be observed that the conditions were intentionally varied; furthermore the pigs used for these experiments were of different breeds, of different dispositions, and of slightly different weights. Breed, live weight, individual characteristics, combinations of the shorts with other grains, and the quantity of the food fed are all factors so entirely different throughout, that the results obtained, for the digestibility of shorts, when com- pared, are under the most severe tests to which they could be subjected. The results are as follows: 30 SHORTS — DIGESTIBILITY BY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN. Dry Matter Ash Crude Protein Crude Fiber ! _ I Nitrogen FreeExtract Barley and Shorts and Barley Corn and Shorts and Corn 74 79 6.6 | 4.1 1 1 71 i 76 1 25 48 1 1 85.5 | 88. 1 Except the fiber, the most extreme difference is five per cent for the dry matter and the protein, showing that the di gestibilitj of the shorts was increased, when fed in combina- tion with a more digestible grain, and under more favorable conditions. Outline . — In the previous experiments with pigs the ani- mals weighed on the average about 250 pounds. In the fol- lowing experiments, growing pigs of about 150 pounds were used. The digestion work as here reported can tt be divided at this point. The object of this division will appear when the disposition of the food is discussed. In the following work the digestibilities of corn and bran, peas and bran, and peas, are given; this furnishes data for two determinations of bran. All of the experiments were divided into two and three periods each, and the results given are the averages of all of the analyses made, which in no case was less than six. VII. CORN AND BRAN —Digestibility. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Dry Matter Ash Organie Matter Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract True Al- buminoids Total pounds in 29 pounds food 25.59 1.15 | 24.44 1.34 3.84 1.97 17.29 3.53 Total pounds in dung. .. 7.28 .864 1 6.36| .40 .83 1.36 3.76 .77 Total pounds digested... 18.36 .28 | 18.08 | .95 3.00 .60 | 13.52 2.76 Digestion Co-efficients... 71.7 24 6 1 1 | 73.9 1 1 | 70.1 1 ' 78.3 30.6 | 78.2 78.1 The food consumed consisted of a mixture of one half corn (ground) and one half bran; 29 pounds of this mixture was fed for one week, and 24 pounds of dung was returned in the same time. The pig consumed 56 pounds of water and voided 29 pounds in the dung and urine. The total nitrogen in the urine amounted to .22 pounds, in the dnng .14 pounds. There was .61 pounds of total nitrogen in the food. The pig weighed 141 pounds at the beginning of the experiment, and 150 at the close. The mixed bran and corn and the manure returned had the following compositions; the results for the manure are calculated to dry substance; the results on the bran and corn are for the mixture as fed: | Water 1 Ash. 1 1 | 1 Ether Ext. 1 1 | Protein | Fiber N. Free Ex. Bran and Corn Manure 11.76 69.87 3.97 1 12.00 1 4.60 | 5.40 1 13.25 11.56 6.80 18.9 59.62 j 52.14 The average fertilizer analysis for the dung and urine gave the following results in percentages: COMPOSITION AS VOIDED. DUNG. URINE. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid... Potash Value per day. Value per ton. 57 1.70 $ .008 4.06 . Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash Value per day Value per ton 1 1.57 52 20 $ .006 6.22 Value, Mixed, $5.10 VIII. PEAS AND BRAN.— Digestibility. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Dry Matter Ash Organic Matter Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract True Al- buminoids Total pounds in 31 lbs. of bran and peas... 37.70 1.38 1 | 26.22 .913 5.71 2.65 16.92 5.49 Pounds in manure 5.80 .92 i 4.87 .232 .98 1.12 2.53 .77 Pounds digested 21.90 .46 1 21.33 .681 4.73 1.53 14.39 4.72 Digestion Co-efficients... 79. 1 33.5 | 81.3 74.5 82.7 57.6 | 85. 1 85. The food consumed consisted of a mixture of ground peas and bran, half and half by weight; 31 pounds of this mixture was consumed in seven days; 26 pounds of urine and 37.45 pounds of dung were returned in the same time; 69 pounds of water was consumed and 55 pounds voided in the dung and urine. The food contained .91 pounds of nitrogen, the dung .15 pounds, urine .40 pounds. The pig weighed 135 pounds at the beginning and 138 at the close. The composition of the peas and bran as fed, and of the dry dung are as follows: 1 | Water 1 Ash 1 Ether Ex.| | Fiber | 1 Protein 1 N. Free Album'ds Peas Bran Dung | 11.90 | 9.40 .....| 84.50 1 3.06 5.95 15.90 .85 | 5.05 1 4.00 | 1 7.46 10.25 19.40 1 21.69 15.18 17,00 55.04 54.17 43.7 20.62 14.81 14.07 The fertilizer compounds were present in the fresh dung and urine in the following percentages: DUNG. I 1 URINE. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid 44 94 1 i Nitrogen Phosphoric acid 1.54 35 Potash Value per day Value per ton 50 $.0075 3.20 1 ! Potash Value per day Value per ton 10 $ .01 5.80 IX. PEAS.— Digestibility. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Dry Matter Ash Organic Matter Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract True Al- buminoids In 24 pounds of peas 21.15 .734 20.42 .204 5.20 1.79 13.209 4.95 In dung, pounds 2.16 .438 1.72 .104 .59 3.96 .628: .48 Digestible, pounds 18. b9 .296 18.69 .100 4.61 1.39 12.56 4.46 Digestion Co-efficients... 89.8 40.3 91.5 (50) 88.6 77.9 95.08 90. In this experiment the dung and urine were collected for only four and a half days. At the beginning of the experi- ment the pig weighed 152 pounds and at the close 151%. The confinement to a pea diet finally resulted in producing a diarrhoea. At this point the experiment was stopped. X. BRAN.— Digestibility. From the experiments on the digestibility of corn and bran, peas and bran, and peas, all of the data that are neces- sary are given for two determinations of the bran, one in combination with corn and the other with peas. When fed with corn the dry matter of the bran was only 53 per cent digestible, with peas 77 per cent. This difference is too great to be overlooked, and would indicate, as in the case with shorts, that the per cent digest- ed is materially influenced by two factors, viz: Combination in which it is fed, and peculiarities of the animal to which it is fed. In reviewing the factors given by different investigators on the digestibility of bran, results will be found that vary as much as the ones here given. One factor that always tends to make a disagreement for bran co-efficients, is the variations in the composition of the samples of bran, due to the differences in the completeness of the milling process, and the character of the wheat. The digestion results that are obtained from a bran from which everything is removed that possibly can be, are not applicable to a bran in which variable quantities of the in- - terior of the grain are left. A chemical analysis of these two kinds of bran, alone, cannot be taken as a safe guide in de- termining this point, and to apply digestion co-efficients to such brans would be even more impossible. In the following table are given the results of analyses of samples of bran and shorts, from different grades of wheat in which the mil- ling process was not as complete as for the bran and shorts used in these experiments. The low per cent of the protein ill some of these samples is due entirely to the incomplete re- moval of the starch in the flour. These samples are usually considered of more value as feed, on account of the flour that 35 has not been removed, and if digestion co-efficients were ap- plied to such samples the results would be far from the true value. WHEAT BRAN — COMPOSITION OF ONE HUNDRED POUNDS. Kind of Sample. Water Ash Ether Extract Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract Al- buminoids Weight Grain per Bushel Scotch Fite 10.59 6.37 4.30 13.43 11 .20 54.11 13.12 63% Bine Stem 10.82 6.01 4.60 15.00 12.60 50.97 14.37 59 Ladoga 10.97 6.78 4.40 12.81 12.61 50.53 12.50 57 Scotch Fife 10.32 6.13 5.02 14.43 10.57 53.53 14.06 61% Scotch Fife bleached 10.65 6.53 5.31 13.75 11.00 52.76 13.43 60 Scotch Fife badly bleae’d 10.24 6.12 5.60 16.12 10.32 51.60 15.56 '57% Scotch Fife frosted 10.40 5.48 4.12 13.89 10.50 55.61 13.50 58i/ 2 Scotch Fife badly frosted 10.33 5.82 4.03 15.62 15.00 55.12 15.00 58 SHORTS — COMPOSITION OF ONE HUNDRED POUNDS. Scotch Fife 10.12 4.30 : Blue Stem 10.40 3.80 Ladoga 9.21 4.40 Scotch Fife 10.24 2.25 Scotch Fife bleached 10.42 2.40 Sc’ch Fife badly bleached 10.89 2.18 Scotch Fife trosted 10.62 2.40 Scotch Fife badly frosted 10.34 3.25 4.00 11.62 11.43 63% 3.75 14.25 13.75 59 ! 3.30 11.25 10.60 57 2.75 12.12 11.37 61% 2.92 10.87 n 10.31 60 2.65 11.62 11.25 67% 2.50 10.06 9.62 ! 58% 2.95 l 2.08 11.87 58 SUMMARY OF DIGESTION CO-EFFICIENTS. Kind of Gram. Dry Matter Ash Corn... Shorts. Barley andShorts Barley Shorts Com and Bran ... Bran Peas and Bran.... Peas Bran 89.7 79 4.15 77.6 6.09 80.1 5.39 74 6.63 71.7 24.6 53.7 79 33.5 89.8 40 Ether Extract 87.3 77.6 78.9 67.3 70.1 65.4 74.5 78.1 Crude Protein Crude Fiber Nitrogen Free Extract Albumi- noids 82.4 48.3 | 1 1 | 90.3 1 1 | 81.3 89.9 48.7 93.9 1 89 76 48 , t 88 77.7 34 85.9 77.1 81.4 48.7 86.6 81 71 25 1 85.5 78.3 30.6 78.2 78.1 75.8 26.9 56 82.7 57.6 85 85 88,6 77.9 95 90 74.4 39.1 75 75.8 36 In order to form some idea of the comparative value of these grains it is necessary to take into consideration the chemical composition as well as the digestibility. The chemical analyses show how many pounds of ash, fiber and protein there are in a hundred pounds of the grain or fodder. The digestibility is simply the amount that is digestible. The corn, for example, was found to be composed of 11.25 per cent of protein or 11.25 pounds of protein in every hun- dred pounds of the corn. This protein was found to be 89.9 per cent digestible, and in 11.25 pounds of protein there are 11.25 times .899 or 10.11 pounds of digestible protein in ev- ery hundred pounds of the corn. In like manner the pounds of digestible organic matter, fiber and other compounds are calculated. In the following table the percentage composition of each grain is given, and then the number of pounds of digest- ible organic matter, fiber and protein in every hundred pounds of the grain as fed: 37 Nutritive OI X q Tp X X X q Ratio b^ CD CD X X ' X* X* X o Pounds CD H 01 01 01 X X TP c q ' 0* 1 X 01 X X b- p -p X Digestible 10 CD X 10 d X tP X oi X i X ! * X X X Tp X > X Tp X X X ' Vi Pounds H H CD i0 01 05 Tp Tp 05 X q q X X o X X ) X X b^ £ Pounds H rH c 01 01 *p c o T~ T" 1 b- 1 X X X 01 01 a> Digestible 6 d d d ■ > d x' d o rH < H £ y *0 Pounds per 10 01 o © X X X X X b- q Tp X 05 X Vi Hundred oi oi X X* X tH a H H H i rr 01 +j y Pounds H O X X X X X q 01 q 01 01 Tp ctf P X « Digestible CO cd H X X* oi Vi y ,5 Pounds per X X 05 X b* o X C q i x X q 85 -P Hundred CO Tp oi X* Tp 1 Tp oi w p y -p Pounds CD 01 Tp rH rH o o q b- „ b- q X X p cJ : a Digestible d id d X X X oi X X X X b* y I fl oj Pounds per M X 05 00 o q X tP X q b- 01 Tp X c h 5 b£ - p ° ! Hundred CD X d X X X X X bi X Tp X Tp X Tp X Pounds X o H X X b* X i i* o b* q q q X d id o d X X d 05 -P -P i 03 ' § Digestible t- t- X X X b b> p Pounds per X X OI o X Tp ' X C ) 01 q q o X q X Q X d X d d X d X Hundred X X X X X X X X «5 •P 03 -P P y c 9 S £ aj 0 0 X P PQ ffl *0 d .SV3 X X eg > q TD c ’O a « o e $ g y y tn +> P a a tn V cc 0, 0 0 c3 <3 0 ,3 0 y ! ► 1 1 i U a ffl w X a Oh Pk COMPARISON OF THE MANURIAL VALUES. In the following table the fertilizer value of the food con- sumed by each animal per day, and the corresponding values of the dung and urine are given, together with other impor- tant data, for a comparison of the manurial values: Kind of Food Pounds of food per day Per cent of nitro- gen retained in body Fertilizer Valtie of the food consumed | Value of the urine per day (Cents) Value of the dung per day Total Value per day Initial weight of pigs Bariev and Shorts 9 5-7 I 35 .043 .016 1 .012 .028 254 Barley 6 6 .02 .010 .006 .016 275 Corn and shorts 5 1-7 0 .021 .012 .006 .018 235 Corn 6 l 4 22 .016 .010 .003 .013 258 Peas and Bran 4 3-7 , 28 .01 .007 .017 135 Corn and Bran 4 1-7 25 1 .008 .006 .014 141 The value of the manure returned in one day, it will be seen, depends upon the quantity and kind of food and the per cent of nitrogen retained in the body. The dung re- turned from a hundred pounds of the barley is more valuable than that returntd from a hundred pounds of the corn. The addition of shorts to either barley or corn very noticeably increased the value of the dung. The money values assigned to the mixed dung and urine are much greater than the actual returns would be to the far- mer; and the results in order to conform to his conditions should be divided at least by three and possibly four, since ordinarily all the urine is lost, which in these experiments amounts to over half the value of the dung. A farther and additional loss occurs from drainage before the dung is spread in the fields. THE NITROGEN IN THE FOOD SUPPLY. COMPARISON OF RESULTS. In the following table the important data in connection with the nitrogen of the food supply, and the amounts re- turned in the dung and urine, will be found, together with the amounts retained in the body. Kind of Food. Pounds of food per day Initial weight of pigs Total lbs of nitrogen per week in Pounds per day of di- gestible pro- tein in food Pounds of gain per week Food 1 I Dung 1 1 Urine | Retai’d 1 in 1 body Barley and Shorts 9 5-7 254 1.37 .32 .57 .48 .95 19 Barley 6 271 .76 .14 .58 .04 .56 3 Com and Shorts.. 5 1-7 236 .66 .14 .53 .00 .52 loss 1 Y 2 Com ey 2 247 .80 .10 .52 .18 1 - 75 8 It will be seen that when no nitrogen was retained in the body there was a slight loss of weight, and when only a small quantity of nitrogen was retained a slight gain resul- ted. An increase in weight will be found to be accompanied by an increase of the nitrogen stored up in the body. With about half a pound of digestible protein per day in the food, the pigs fed on barley, and corn and shorts made no appreci- able gains, but when the digestible protein was increased to three quarters of a pound per day, and the other compounds increased in the same ratio, the pig made a fair gain, and when the amount was still farther increased to nearly a pound per day the pig gained nineteen pounds in a week. From the table it will be seen that a little over half a pound of nitrogen per week was passed in the urine of each animal, and this occurred whether the animal was gaining or losing in weight. The amount of nitrogen carried off in the dung varied according to the amount of undigestible nitrogen to be disposed of in the food. The nitrogen in the urine repre- 40 sents nearly all of the digestible nitrogen of the food that was used in the body for mechanical purposes, while the ni- trogen in the dung represents mainly the indigestible nitro- gen of the food. When the digestible nitrogen in the food was increased above the amount required to maintain the animal, nearly all of this increase was stored up in the body. To the farmer these results mean that for every six and one-half pounds of barley or corn fed to a pig weighing 250 pounds, about six pounds are used up mechanically, in the body, and only about half a pound goes to make flesh. The chief benefits that are derived from the food, comes from the small amount that is in excess of that required for mainten- ance. These figures show how unprofitable it is to deal out small or unbalanced rations for fattening mature animals since a certain amount must go for supplying fuel and doing work, and nearly all above this amount is made into flesh. It is economical to feed a liberal ration. University of Minnesota. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 27. CHEMICAL DIVISION. PEBBTJiLET, 1893. I. THE COMPOSITION OF FODDERS, WHEAT AND MILLED PRODUCTS. II. THE COMPOSITION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. III. SUGAR BEETS. tfey* The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. University of Minnesota BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, - - - - - 1896. The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894. The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - - 1894. The HON. JOHN LIND, New Ulm, 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, - 1896. The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, - - - - 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - - 1895. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, ----- Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio . The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - Ex-Officio . The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., - - ----- Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Chemist. T. L. If DECKER, - Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, B.S.,V.M.D., - - - -Veterinarian. J. A. VYE, Secretary. I. THE COMPOSITION OF FODDERS AND GRAINS. BY HARRY SNYDER. A. WHEAT AND MILLED PRODUCTS. During the year 1892 a number of analyses have been made of different grades of wheat, together with the flour and products obtained from them. These samples represent a number of different grades of wheat from the crop of 1891. No attempt is made to distinguish between the different com- mercial grades of wheat as to chemical composition, since this would require a larger number of analyses than have yet been made. The results are given, as they show fairly well the average composition of wheat as grown in Minne- sota. These analyses show that these samples are much richer in gluten and other valuable food compounds than the average as generally given for American wheat. The results are expressed in percentages, or parts per hundred. In the table the averages are first given, then the extremes or highest and lowest percentages. The starch and dextrin (soluble starch) were separately determined in each sample. In the flour, sixteen samples are reported. The flour was made from eight of the eighteen samples of wheat whose analyses are reported, and contains more starch and less gluten and nitrogenous matters than the original wheat. The small amount of ethersoluble matter (mainly fat) is no- ticeable. In the wheat, it will be seen that the ratio of the gluten to the starch is about 1 to 4; in the flour 1 to 6.5. The composition of the wheat germ is extremely interest- ing, inasmuch as there is more nitrogenous matter in this product than in the original wheat or any of the other 44 products. This is quite suggestive. The germ is too valuable a food product to be incorporated into the by-products. The shorts and bran reported are not from the same milling as the wheat, flour and germ. They represent, however, the average composition of bran from exhaustive milling. The shorts contain less nitrogen, ash and fiber than the bran; these same compounds in the shorts are, as a rule, more di- gestible than those of the bran. The reader is referred to bulletin 26 page 29 for a more complete discussion of the di- gestibility of bran and shorts. It will be seen on examining the table, that on the aver- age there is more water in the flour and each one of the products, than was present in the original wheat. Whether this is true in general yet remains to be seen. Wheat starch is quite hydroscopic, and without doubt many of the discrep- ancies in the weighings of large quantities of wheat are due to the differences in the amounts of hydroscopic moisture present. A difference of one-half of one per cent of water would make a difference of a half a pound on a hundred pounds of wheat. A difference of half of a pei cent of water in the same sample of wheat at different times is not an un- common occurrence. In the wheat 97 per cent of the nitro- gen is in the form of gluten and other albuminoids; in the flour 98. Practically all of the nitrogen is in the form of gluten and albuminoids. This is not in accord with statements found in many chemical journals and books, but it must be remembered that the chemical methods for the determination of nitrogen have been materially improved within comparatively recent years. The per cent of starch and dextrin in the wheat ranged from 62.4 to nearly 68, with an average of about 65. The starch and gluten make up about 90 per cent of the total composition of the dry organic matter of the wheat. The extremes reached in the composition of these wheats were marked by the Ladoga wheat. It contained the most miner- al matter, fiber (woody material) and the least gluten of any of the wheats examined; and the same was true of the La- doga flour. 45 WHEAT AND ITS MILLED PRODUCT. Kind of Sample. Number of Samples Water Ash Ether Extract Protein. . , Starch and • Dextrin Undetermined Fiber Total Gluten Wheat ,1891)— Average ... 18 10.16 1.84 2.01 13-75 13.50 64.90 4.14 3.20 Highest ... 12.10 2.10 2.26 14.12 14.01 67.86 5.64 4.32 Lowest 9.61 1.61 1.71 10.10 9.37 62.40 1.71 2.90 Flour — u Average ... 16 10.63 .45 .55 11.25 1 1.00 70.39 Highest.... 13.98 .76 .71 13-35 13.05 74.00 Lowest 9.53 .35 .34 6.88 6.81 68.80 Wheat Germ — Average.... 8 10.41 2.74 3.50 15.74 15,31 Highest.... 10.98 3.33 5.00 18.75 18.42 Lowest 10.32 2.51 3.01 13.75 13.13 Nitrogen free extract. Wheat Shorts — Average.... 6 10.12 3.12 2.90 13.11 12.87 65.33 5.42 Highest.... 14.12 4.40 4.00 14.16 13.70 68.80 6.98 Lowest 9.04 2.18 2.41 10.06 9.68 61.60 4.12 Bran — Average.... 5 10.40 5.95 5.05 15.38 14.81 52.87 10.25 Highest .... 13.12 6.25 5.62 18.12 17.64 59.80 14.8 Lowest 9.40 4.87 4.37 12.16 11.81 50.04 7.12 B. FODDER PRODUCTS OF CORN. The composition of corn ensilage, corn, corn and cob meal and the tops and butts of corn stalks are given in tabular form. In the case of ensilage the results are the averages of dupli- cate analyses of eight samples. For the sake of a uniform basis for comparison, the composition of corn stalks, with and without the grain, and of ensilage, is given in terms ofthe dry matter (water free basis.) Comparing the com- position of corn and of corn and cob meal, it will be seen that there is more fiber (woody material,) more ash, less protein and ether extract in the corn and cob meal than in the corn meal. Comparing the composition of the tops and butts of corn stalks, it will also be seen that there is about the same difference, namely: more fiber and ash in the butts than in the tops. The tops are richer in the more valuable food ma- terials than the butts. 46 The composition of the dry matter of ensilage is practi- cally the same as the composition of the stalks with the grain, when cured as dry corn fodder. In the corn ensilage 88 per cent of the total nitrogen is in the form of albuminoids; in the corn and stalks about 90 per cent. The corn and corn and cob meal are not strictly comparable as to this point, since they are not from the same corn. As a rule, the more nitrogen there is present in the form of albuminoids the more valuable the fodder. FODDER PRODUCTS OF CORN. COMPOSITION EXPRESSED IN POUNDS PER HUNDRED. Kind of Sample. Number of Samples. Water > Vi cr Ether Extract Protein. Nitrogen Free Extract Crude Fiber... Nitrogen in form of Al- buminoids .. Total 1 Albs Corn Ensilage — Average .... 8 73.85 1.41 .89 1.96 1.73 13.88 6.28 88% Highest 77.21 1.47 .95 2.22 1.79 16.00 6.51 Lowest 71.00 1.20 .84 1.89 1.65 12.00 6.17 Corn (whole ker- nel) — Average 5 10.73 1.46 3.88 10.25 9.60 70.4 2.25 93% Highest 11.75 1.49 4,16 11.25 10.20 72.01 2.30 Lowest 10.60 1.42 2.88 9.92 9.01 68.80 2.10 Corn and cob meal Average .... 4 6.48 1.65 3.65 7.56 7.22 70.55 10.11 95% Highest 10.16 1.69 3.79 7.84 7.71 74.80 11.63 Lowest 5.12 1.61 3.41 7.41 7.05 68.24 9.83 IN THE FOLLOWING SAMPLES THE RESULTS ARE GIVEN ON DRY MATTER. Com Stalks, (no grain) 2 6.25 1.90 4.30 3.88 54.17 29.20 90% Corn Tops 1 5.80 2.01 5.01 4.82 59.24 25.12 96% Corn Butts 1 7.06 1.46 4.03 3.60 51.44 32.41 89% Stalks with Corn.. Corn Ensiiage 5.00 5 04 3.45 3.43 7.61 7.52 6.84 6.12 52.09 53.39 25.00 24.00 90% 88% C. MISCELLANEOUS GRAINS AND FODDERS. Comparing the average composition of barley with that of oats, it will be seen that oats contain more fiber, ash and ether extract, the average amount of protein in each being about the same. The peas are characteristically rich in ni- trogenous compounds; gluten meal is even more so; while 47 germ meal is richer than ordinary grain. The flax seed is rich in both the fat and the albuminoid compounds. The average per cent of the total nitrogen in the form of albu- minoids is the same for both the oats and the barley, viz: 94. It would appear that there is but little amide nitrogen in the grains. This is of great importance since the amide com- pounds are considered to have a lower food value than the albuminoid compounds. In calculating crudeprotein no dis- tinction is made between amide and albuminoid nitrogen. With ordinary grains this does not seriously affect the re- sults. Hence but little or no correction is necessary for non- albuminoid nitrogen in wheat, flour, oats, barley, corn, glu- ten meal and flax seed; with the hay and straw this does not hold true, as a reference to the table will show. The per cent of ash in the wheat straw, oat straw, timo- thy and millet appears incredibly large when compared with older analyses. In the older analyses, the insoluble silica and carbon dioxide were deducted from the ash. In the case of all of the above samples this seriousiy affects the per cent of ash, since in the case of wheat straw nearly half the ash is insolubie silica (sand); and if this insoluble silica was deduc- ted from the ash, the wheat straw would contain about 4.50 per cent ash, instead of 9. The total, soluble and insoluble silica were determined in each sample, and since they com- pose such a large per cent of the mineral matters of the straw, they are interesting to observe: Wheat Straw. Oat Straw. Timothy. Total Silica 57.95 45.25 46.65 Insoluble Siiica 48.7 41.76 44.62 Soluble Silica 9. *-’5 3.49 2.03 This also affects the per cent of nitrogen free extracts in these samples from 3 to 4 per cent, making the samples so much less valuable. Nitrogen free extract is a very broad term, and at one time it included a little sand. Among the miscellaneous fodder articles timothy, millet and ths straws will be found to be poor in protein compared with clover, pea hay and lucem. The plants that are rich in 48 nitrogenous compounds are frequently called the nitrogen- ous plants; clover, lucern and pea hay are good examples of such fodders. Pea hay compares closely and favorably with clover hay; pea hay is extremely rich in mineral matter. Wolff, in his “Aschen Analysen,” gives average results of an- alyses with even higher percentages of ash. Pea hay ash is rich in lime, phosphoric acid and potash, all essential mate- rials for bone growth in young and growing animals. In bulletin No: 26, page 12, it will be found that the ash is quite completely digested by milch cows. Millet and timothy hay are quite similar in composition, with the advantage as far as protein is concerned, in favor of millet. The dry matter of the rape, particularly of the leaves, is rich in nitrogenous compounds. Attention should : >e given to the raising of fodders that contain more of the albuminoid compounds. With the exception of the wheat the grain and fod- der crops reported were grown upon the experiment station tarm during the seasons of 1891 and 1892. A number of these fodder articles can be added, to advantage to many farmers’ crops. GRAINS AND SEEDS. Kind of Sample. 3 P Parley — Average .... Highest Lowest .... 4 11.78 13.60 9.80 > K Protein. > 2. 5 1 w 3 3.32 2.64 2.12 2.70 2.41 11.57 13.60 10.12 10.92 13.16 9.58 67.63 3.00 68.80 1 5.12 62.12 4.48 Oats — Average.... 5 Highest..... Lowest 8.60 9.43 8.09 3.62 3.38 2.85 4.88 5.32 4.12 11.70 11.84 10.14 11.01 11.71 9.84 60.94 62.99 61.34 6.64 11.70 94 5.64 Cl ax Seed < lertn Meal... Oluten Meal. 1 5.10 1 6.52 1 9.02 3.54 1.25 .87 38.60 6.47 7.62 27.50 14.00 27.46 26.12 13.01 25.40 19.24 63.71 55.64 7.40 8.25 1.39 95 93 93 Ocas — Average .... Highest Lowest ..... 4 9.84 11.90 9.72 3.40 3.62 3.06 1.03 1.16 .85 22.00 23.04 21.69 21.05 22.12 21.02 58.00 59.60 55.04 5.73 96 7.46 5.64 1 11.92 2.65 3.25 10.60 8.42 60.81 10.77 buckwheat (wild) 49 HAY, STRAW AND MISCELLANEOUS. Number of Samples Water > U) m rt- Protein. Nitrogen Free Extract O >-t m. n> Kind of Sample. 3* C5* rt> i-t 71 X ►t P o Total > 2.5 1 $® 3 : f ss a n 5 o'* o n r cent oi to- ;al Nitrogen' n form of Ubumin’ds. Wheat Straw 1 1 7.41 9.22 .97 3.25 2.50 38.27 40.88 71.4 Oat Straw 1 8.36 9.00 1.40 4.06 2.90 41.11 38.07 70. Clover Hay 1 10.25 ! 6.45 2.59 13.43 12.00 42.64 24.67 89. Timothy Hay 1 10.17 | 5.64 1.60 5.62 4.80 44.56 32.41 85. Millet Hay 1 7.65 j 9.33 1.55 6.68 5.98 43.79 31.00 88. Lucern Hay 1 10.12 6.91 2.10 13.54 12.02 39.13 28.20 89. Rape, dry (whole plant) 1 1 84.51 7.60 1.80 11.75 7.18 63.56 15.29 61. Rape, dry leaves... 1 88.16 - 7.50 | 3.20 17.04 13.09 60.03 11.06 75. Pea Hay 1 9.75 12.72 2.63 14.58 12.25 32.86 27.46 84. II. THE COMPOSITION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. A. MILK. General Composition . — Milk is composed of water and solid matter. The milk solids obtained by evaporating milk to dryness at the temperature of boiling water form a light brown, shiny, brittle mass, made up of four classes of com- pounds, viz: Fats, sugar, nitrogenous matters such as ca- sein, albumen and ash. The fats, nitrogenous matters and ash are each in their turn made up of a number of com- pounds; the ash, for example, is partially composed of common salt, lime and potash. A complete analysis of milk usually means nothing farther than a determination of the percentage amounts of each class of compounds such as the fats, ash, and milk sugar, that are present, and not a separ- ation of these groups into simpler compounds. Milk is ex- tremely complex in its composition and to separate a sample into the twenty-four or more compounds of which it is com- posed is the labor of a number of days. Milk fats are familiar to every one as the product recov- ered in the butter. A pound of butter contains only about .85 of a pound of pure milk fats, the remaining .15 being made up of water, casein, salt and other matters. Pure milk sugar in appearance resembles ordinary con- fectionery sugar; the milk sugar of commerce usually has a yellowish hue due to impurities. Since it is not sweet to the taste it is quite unlike cane sugar. The nitrogenous matters in milk are extremely complex and 51 comprise the casein and albumen groups. The casein is com- monly known as the curd. The albumen in milk is not re- covered in either butter making or ordinary cheese making. During the past year approximate analyses have been made of the milk from the individual cows. Some of the re- sults are given in the following tables, and show the daily composition of the milk of different cows for periods of 1 week. At the time these samples were taken the cows were all in about the same condition, their food was practically uniform, and hence the differences in composition and yield are due mainly to breed and individuality. The quantity of milk yielded is equally as important in determining the value of a cow as the percentage composi- tion or quality. Either factor taken alone possesses but lit- tle value, but when taken together they determine the total yield of fats or solids for that particular period. In the ta- bles will be found both the daily percentage composition of the milk, and under the headings “yield per day” the total number of pounds of solids, ash, casein, sugar, and fat in the two milkings for that particular day. The figures in heavy type at the end of each separate table are the averages for that particular cow. BECKLEY. Per Centage Composition. Yield Per Day in Pounds. Solids Fat Ash Casein Sugar Solids Fat Ash Casein Sugar Milk 14.80 1 6.00 i 1 ! .69 3.56 4.46 2.83 1.14 .13 .68 .85 19.1 14.09 5.45 1 .67 3.47 4.50 . 2.77 1.07 .13 .68 .89 19.7 14.79 5.20 .68 4.01 4.90 2.99 1.05 .14 ' .88 .99 20.2 14.89 5.90 .67 3.62 4.65 2.92 1.06 .12 .71 1.02 19.7 14.61 5.40 .70 4.01 4.50 2.88 1.06 .14 .79 .88 19.7 14.64 5.30 .76 3.78 4.80 3.06 1.10 .16 .79 .99 20.9 14.98 5.75 .77 ’-..56 4.99 2.93 1.13 .15 .70 .96 19.6 14.70 5.57 1 .71 3.71 4.67 2.91 1.09 .14 .75 .94 i 20. GERTIE. 15.24 6.50 .72 3.17 4.85 2.96 1.26 .14 .61 .94 19.4 14.89 5.80 .69 3.45 4.90 3.25 1.26 .15 .75 1.07 21.8 15.13 5.40 .78 3.90 5.05 3.37 1.20 .17 .87 1.15 22.3 14.88 5.25 .78 3.85 5.00 3.18 1.12 .17 .82 1.07 21.4 14.87 5.30 .74 3.98 4.85 3.19 1.14 .16 .85 1.04 21.5 15.13 5.10 .78 4.20 5.05 3.36 1.13 .17 .93 1.13 22.2 14.68 5.50 .76 3.35 5.1 3.19 1.19 .16 .72 1.10 21.7 14.97 5.55 .75 3.70 4.97 | 3.21 1.19 .16 .79 1.07 21.4 52 OLIVE. Per Centage Composition. Yield Per Day in Pounds. Solids Fats > c » P* I Casein Sugar Solid Fat Ash Casein Sugar Milk 12.71 4.7 .64 3.07 4.30 4.32 1.6 .22 1.04 1.46 34. 12.18 3.9 .69 3.09 4.50 4.35 1.37 .25 1.10 1.60 35.7 12.52 3.8 .62 3.10 5.05 4.42 1.35 .22 1.10 1.78 35.4 12.40 3.8 .60 3.00 5.00 4.34 1.33 .21 1.05 1.75 35. 12.36 4.0 .64 3.02 4.70 4.36 1.41 .23 1.06 1.65 35.3 12.76 4.0 .66 3.00 5.10 4.53 1.42 .24 1.06 1.81 35.5 712.89 4.4 .64 3.00 4.85 4.63 1.58 .23 1.07 1.74 35.9 12.56 4 09 .64 3.04 4.78 4.42 1.44 .23 1.07 1.68 35.2 REDDY. 13.97 5.45 .66 3.36 4.50 3.19 1.25 .15 .77 1.03 22.9 13.80 5.10 763 3.22 4.85 3.87 1.43 .18 .90 1.36 21.8 13.34 5.00 ; .6i 3.03 4.70 3.25 1.22 .15 .74 1.15 24.4 14.01 4.95 .65 3.46 4.95 3.24 1.14 .15 .80 1.14 23.1 14.24 5.30 .65 3.54 4.75 3.37 1.22 .15 .82 1.10 23.1 14.34 5.00 ; ,7,0 ■ 3.59 5.05 3.20 1.11 .15 .80 1.13 22.3 13.63 4.40 .65 3.68 4.90 3.23 1.04 .15 .87 1.16 23.7 13.91 5.03 .65 3.41 4.81 3.34 1.20 .15 .81 1.15 23. ROSSIE. 12.69 1 4.20 .64 3.25 4.60 2.73 .90 .14 .69 .99 21.5 12.73 | 3.7 .60 3.32 4.90 3.09 .89 .14 .79 1.26 24. 13.01 ; 3.8 .59 3.62 5.00 2.92 .85 .14 .81 1.12 22.5 12.64 ! 3.45 .62 3.62 4.95 2.84 ■ .77 .14 .81 1.11 22.5 12.80 3.7 .67 3.63 4.80 3.20 : .92 .16 .91 1.20 25.3 12.86 3.9 ••.63 3.28 5.05 3.11 .95 .15 .80 1.23 24.3 12.90 | 4.00 • .62 3.48 4.80 3.47 1.07 .16 .92 1.28 26;9 12.80 I 3.82 >t 5 .62f • 3.46 4.87 3.05 | .91 .15 .82 1.03 23.8 ROXY. 13.59 5.05 ..67 . 3.17 4.50 4.41 1.64 .22 1.03 1.49 32.5 13.32 4,55 : v .;63 3.09 5.05 4.88 1.67 .23 1.13 1.85 36.7 13.25 4.10 : , , .,65 3.35 5^15 4.38 1.36 .21 1.10 1.70 33.1 13.33 4.35 ; 7 ..66 . 3.2^ 5.10 4.61 1.50 .23 1.09 1.76 34.6 13.21 4.05 . ' .67 3:39 4.95 4.52 1 .38 .23 1.17 1.69 34.2 13.20 4.20 , \ '70 3.20 5.10 4.75 1.51 .25 1.15 1.87 36.0 12.83 4.^0 • -67 3,06 4.90 4.70 1.43 .24 1.12 1.80 36.7 13.25 4.331 ’ ° .’67: 3i2i 4.97 4 61 1.50 .23 1.11 1.74 347 53 SWEET BRIAR. Per Centage Composition. Yield Per Day in Pounds. Solids Fat Ash 14.55 5.00 .67 13.75 4.80 .62 13.76 4.60 .65 13.47 4.40 .68 13.81 5.00 .72 13.58 4.50 .72 14.00 5.00 .70 13.85 4.76 .68 O P 09 3 ’ 3.88 3.52 3.38 3.29 3.39 3.11 3.31 3.41 5.00 4.80 4.95 5.10 4.70 5.25 5.00 4.97 t/i o E 09 4.23 4.37 4.57 3.91 4.46 4.28 4.48 4.33 Fat Ash O P 0) n> S* Sugar 1.45 .20 1 13 1.45 1.52 .20 1.12 1.52 1.52 .21 1.23 1.64 1.27 .20 .95 1.47 1.61 .23 1.06 1.52 1.42 .22 .98 1.62 1.60 .22 1.05 1.60 1.49 .22 1 07’ 1.54 29.1 31.8 33.2 28.9 32.3 31.5 32.0 31.2 TRIXY. 13.07 4.6 .68 3.19 4.60 4.18 1.47 .22 1.02 1.47 32. 13.21 4.95 .60 3.00 4.65 4.49 1.68 .20 1.02 1.58 34. 13.24 4.80 .70 3.09 4.65 4.63 1.68 .24 1.08 1.53 35. 13.84 5.00 .72 3.15 4.95 4.39 1.58 .23 1.00 1.58 31.7 14.61 4.80 .71 3.90 5.20 4.89 1.60 .24 1.30 1.74 33.5 18.09 4.25 .68 3.66 4.50 4.24 1 37 .22 1.18 1.45 32.4 13.00 4.25 .68 3.37 4.70 4.25 1.47 .22 1.09 1.53 32.7 13.44 4.66 .68 3.34 4.75 4.44 1.55 .22 1.10 1.55 33. Milk, THE AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF THE MILK FROM EACH COW FOR FOURTEEN MILKINGS. 54 Yield Per Day in Pounds. Milk 20.0 21.4 35.2 23.0 23.8 34.7 31.2 33.0 27.8 Sugar .94 1.07 1.68 1.15 1.03 1.74 1.54 1.55 1.35 Casein l>NOOqoOHOHC5 H H H H Ash .14 .16 .23 .15 .15 .23 22 .22 .19 Fat 1.09 1.19 1.44 1.20 .91 1.50 1.49 1.55 1.30 Solids 2.91 3.21 4.42 3.34 3.05 4.61 4.33 4.44 3.79 Per Centage Composition. Sugar 4.67 4.95 4.78 4.81 4.87 4.97 4.97 ; 4.75 4.85 | 1 Casein 3.71 3.70 3.04 3.41 3.46 3.21 3.41 3.34 3.42 Ash .71 .75 .64 .65 .62 .67 .68 .68 .67 Fats 5.57 5.55 4.09 5.03 3.82 4.33 4.76 4.66 4.74 Solids 14.70 14.97 12.56 13.91 12.80 13.25 13.85 13.44 13.68 Name of Cow. Beckley Gertie Olive Reddy Rossie Roxy Sweet Briar Trixy General Average 55 On examining the table it will be seen that when an or- dinary cow produces a pound of butter fat, she produces at the same time a little more than a pound of milk sugar, about .8 of a pound of casein and albumen, and nearly .15 of pound of minerals. These analyses represent the daily composition of the milk from eight cows for a period of one week or the analy- ses of 112 samples of milk. Average Composition. Highest. Lowest. Water 86.32 84.76 87.82 Dry Matter 13.68 15.24 12.18 Fats 4.74 6.50 3.45 Casein, etc 3.42 4.20 3.00 Milk Sugar 4.85 5.25 4.30 Ash .67 .78 .59 The average composition of forty-three samples of milk purchased for the purpose of making cheese during the win- ter of 1892, shows a somewhat lower percentage composi- tion, and probably represents more nearly the average throughout the state: Water Dry Matter. Fats .12.80 .87.20 . 3.65 Casein, etc.. Milk Sugar. Ash 3.57 4.85 .71 The use of the lactometer and milk test in determining the character of milk . — The specific gravity of normal milk ranges from 1.029 to 1.035. The ash, casein and milk sugar are the compounds that increase the specific gravity while the fat tends to decrease it. In normal milk there is a point where these two opposite forces neutralize each other; hence any serious change in the composition of milk immediately affects its gravity. The addition of water lowers the gravity while the removal of the fat raises it. The specific gravity is usually taken with the lactometer, which should always be provided with a thermometer in the bulb, and whenever a reading is taken the temperature should be noted. Correc- tions are made for a high or low temperature by the table that usually accompanies the instrument. In using the lac- tometer and test jointly, the following general rules can be applied in cases of suspected adulteration: 56 1. A high specific gravity and a low fat indicates fat removed. 2. A low specific gravity and a low fat indicates water- ing. 3. An average specific gravity and a low fat indicates fats removed and watered. These rules are not infallible but they will aid in detect- ing any of the ordinary forms of sophistication. Another important use that can be made of the lacto- meter and test is in gaining an idea of the total solid matter in milk, and to meet this want a number of formulae have been proposed. The most recent and trustworthy ones are those given by Fleischman, and Hehner and Richmonds. Fleischman’s formula is: x — 1 . 2 F + 2.665 — — in which X = the total solids, F the per cent of fat and S the specific gravity. As a rule this rule gives results nearer those found by analyses than Hehner and Richmond’s. The solids found by calculation, using either formula, in the most extreme cases amounts to about .2 of a per cent, the average being about .1 of a per cent. Hehner and Richmond’s formula is: f= ( t — from which the value of T is obtained; t — iy 5 f + ^ ; in which T = the total solids, F the per cent of fat, and G the number indicated on the specific gravity spindle. If the percent of fat is found to be 4.1 and the specific gravity 1.033 at 60°, ap- plying the formula 4.1 X 1.2 — 4.92 and 33^-4 = 8.25. The sum of 4.92 and 8.25 is 13.12, the per cent of total sol- ids in the milk. This formula is simpler to apply and as a rule gives fairly approximate results. B. BUTTER. Twenty-seven samples of butter have been analyzed, in connection with various experiments during the year. The samples of butter represent the products from individual 57 cows, and also that from the whole herd. The percentage composition was found to be: Average. Highest. Lowest. Water 12.22 16.20 8.21 Fat 85.00 90.20 79.42 Ash and Salt 2.10 1 3.03 .74 Casein, etc .68 2.09 .21 Comparing these results with older analyses it will be seen that with improved butter making there is a tendency to incorporate less casein, water and other foreign matters with the butter. The tendency is thus to improve the keeping qualities of the product. The butter made from cream separated by the DeLaval Danish Weston, and other centrifugals, is about the same in composition as butter made from the cold deep setting process. The average of duplicate churnings gave for the composition of the butter product from these various machines: i Water 10.42 1 Casein, etc 1.03 Fat 81.98 Ash and Salt 1,57 The examination of the product from the outter extrac- tor showed the average composition of different churnings: Water. Fat. Casein. j Salt and Ash. December 10 j 11.29 83.37 2.74 2.50 '• 11 13.40 81.20 | 2.74 2.66 “ 22 16.19 79.85 2.46 1.50 Jannarj' 6 | 16.08 79.56 1 2.81 1.55 C. LOSSES OF MILK SOLIDS IN CHEESE MAKING. A clearer understanding of this question can be gained by first following, in a general way, the solid matters in the milk through the process of cheese making. A hundred pounds of milk ordinarily contains from 12.50 to 13 pounds of dry solid matter. This solid matter is com- posed of 3.5 to 4 pounds of milk fats, 314 to 3% pounds of casein and albumen, about 4.80 pounds of milk sugar, % of a pound of ash, and at the time the rennet is added there is 58 about .15 of a pound of lactic acid. When the whey is drawn off and weighed there is from 85 to 88 pounds of whey for every hundred pounds of milk. While the milk is in the vat, about two pounds of water are lost by evaporation, for every hundred pounds of milk, the amount lost depending upon the temper- ature and condition of the atmosphere of the cheese room. Of the 12.5 to 18 pounds of solids in the milk from 6 to 6.3 pounds are lost in the whey, so that but little more than half of the solids in the milk are recovered in the green cheese. From .28 to .34 of a pound of fat is lost out of the 3.50 to 4 pounds in the milk. The nitro- genous matters (casein and albumen) are not so economical- ly recovered as the milk fats; of the 3 % to 3% pounds of casein and albumen in the milk, about .8 of a pound is lost in the whey, mainly albumen which is not coagulated by the rennet, and is a very valuable food product. But little of the milk sugar is retained in the cheese, and out of the 4.8 pounds originally present in the 100 pounds of milk, from 4.30 to 4.60 are lost in the whey. Hence the solid matter recovered in the cheese is composed mainly of fats and ca- sein. When the milk solids are increased, the amount recov- ered in the green cheese is increased, while the amount of so- lid matter lost in the whey remains about the same. Any increase in the solids of milk is due to an increase in fat or casein, since the variations in the per cents of ash and milk sugar are limited. All of these points are illustrated in the following sam- ples of milk as given in the table. All of the results are ex- pressed in pounds per hundred of the milk used. The figures in the first column indicate the number of pounds of each compound in the milk. Under the whey column is the pounds of each lost in the whey, and in the green cheese column are the pounds recovered in the green cheese. In the cheese 90 and 120 days old are given the amounts as found by an- alysis at those dates. The salt used and the cheese bandage is deducted from the weight of the solid matter of the cheese. 59 In the column headed loss in curing is given the number of pounds of each compound lost in the 120 days of curing. Finally, the percentage composition of the cheese is given. A more extended series of tables could be given, but a few typical examples are selected. The first is that of average milk, requiring about ten pounds of milk to make one pound of cheese; the second, one of richer milk; the third one testing the same in fats as the second but making a less number of pounds of marketable cheese, and the fourth example one of milk made rich by the addition of cream, while the last one is a good example of skim milk cheese. 60 Example No. 1. Milk and Products in Pounds per 100 of Milk Used. Milk Whey and Press Green Cheese Cheese 90 Days Cheese 120 Days Loss in Curing Compositi’n of Cheese Percent- ages Water 87.52 80.97 3.65 3.41 3.20 .45 34.29 Solid Matter 12.48 6.23 6.25 6.12 6.05 .20 65.71 Ash .80 .52 .28 Fat 3.50 .30 3.20 3.17 3.15 .05 33.76 24.47 Casein and Albumen 3.22 .84 2.38 2.30 2.32 .06 Milk Sugar 4.80 4.35 Lactic Acid .15 .22 Example No. 2. Water 86.79 80.89 Solid Matter 13.21 6.11 Ash .64 .40 Fat 4.00 .34 Casein and Albumen 3.71 .81 Milk Sugar 4.50 4.30 Lactic Acid .15 .26 3.59 7.11 .24 3.66 2.90 3.30 6.94 3.17 6.86 .42 .25 31.3 68.7 3.60 2.84 3.58 2.81 .08 .09 35.3 27.7 Example No. 3. Water Solid Matter Ash 1 87.14 12.86 .64 4.00 3.52 4.60 1 81.00 6.25 .53 .31 .SO 4.35 .24 3.85 6.61 .11 3.69 2.72 3.52 6.38 .12 3.68 2.68 3.45 6.29 .10 3.62 2.64 .40 .22 34.84 65.16 Fat Casein and Albumen Milk Sugar .07 .08 36.56 25.86 Lactic Acid | .10 Example No. 4.— Creamed Milk. Water 1 85.87 1 76.01 1 4.56 4.22 4.02 .52 32.42 Solid Matter 14.13 5.69 8.44 8.25 8.19 .25 67.58 Ash .77 .42 .35 .36 .32 Fat 6.00 .49 f .51 5.49 5.40 .11 43.55 Casein and Albumen 3.12 .52 2.60 2.50 2.48 .12 20.00 Milk Sugar 4.12 4.00 Lactic Acid .12 .26 Example No. 5. — Skimmed Milk. 1 Water Solid Matter Fat Ash ... 1 1 87.8 12 20 2.75 .80 3.95 4.55 .15 1 1 80.8 6.19 .34 .31 .82 4.45 .27 1 3.00 6.01 2.41 .49 3.13 1 Cured Cheese. 2.67 5.81 2.36 .49 3.86 1 .33 .20 .05 30.68 69.32 27.09 Casein and Albumen Milk Sugar .07 36.00 Lactic Acid Losses of Pats in Cheese Making, summary of results. No. of Trials. Fat in Milk. Average Fat. Pounds Fat lost Per 100 Pounds Milk. Per Cent Fat Recovered it Cheese. 28 3.5—4 3.85 .32 91.69 31 4.1— 4.4 4.29 .31 92.77 14 4.4— 4.9 4.62 .33 92.86 4 5.00 5.05 .28 94.45 61 The per cent of water and dry matter in the cheese does not depend upon the richness of the milk in fat, for there is a greater difference in the per cent of water in the two cheeses made from 4 per cent milk than between the ones made from milk testing 2.75 and 6 per cent fat. The per cent of water in the cheese depends upon the thoroughness of pressing. Tire per cent of fat in the skim milk cheese was 27, and the creamed milk cheese 43.5. The cheese made from the 3.5 per cent milk contained 33.76 per cent fat. Comparing the sec- ond and the third examples it will be seen that the per cent of fat in the milk was 4 in each case. In example No. 2, 7.11 pounds of solid matter was recovered in the green cheese, while in No. 3 there was 6.61 pounds. This difference was due to the fact that in No. 2 there was^a pound more casein in tne milk than in No. 3. This is partly balanced by the fast that No. 3 contained more water than No. 2. Hence two samples of milk testing the same in fats may not make the same amounts of marketable cheese. • The legal standard for cheese in this state is that 40 per cent of the total solid matter of the cheese shall be butter- fat. In the case of milk skimmed from 3.50 to 2.75, a re- moval of over 20 per cent of the fat, over 40 per cent of the total solid matter of the cheese was butter-fat. In another case in which the milk was skimmed to 2.80 per cent fat, over 40 per cent of total solid matter in the cheese was butter-fat. In the case of normal milk testing 3:50 per cent fat over 50 per cent of the total solid matter was fat. The fats in full milk cheese should always exceed the casein, since there is always more fat in the milk than casein and albumen, and a larger per cent of the fat recovered in the cheese than of the casein and -albumen. The loss of weight in the curing of cheese is largely a loss of water. The loss of solid matter in curing is about a quar- ter of a pound for every hundred pounds of milk, whether rich or poor. This includes all mechanical losses. The re- sults indicate that there is a slight loss of casein and fat, in curing, in addition to mechanical losses. 62 , Artificial digestion experiments were made of the nitro- genons compounds. The results are not reported since it was found that the per cent of salt in the cheeses com- pared was not the same, and the salt that was present in variable quantities re-acted with the acid in the digestive mixture, and introduced an unknown factor. In general it can be said that the casein in well cured cheese from normal milk is nearly all digestible. In the table headed “Losses of Fats in Cheese Making’ y it will be seen that the amount of fat lost in every hundred pounds of milk is about .3 of a pound, and is practically the same for both rich and poor milk. The per cent of the total milk fats retained in the cheese made from rich milk is great- er than that made from poor milk. All of the additional far that is in a rich milk goes into the cheese, and whether it pays, financially, to make the extra fat into cheese, depends upon the price that the cheese commands. It must be re- membered, however, that a good article cannot be made from poor material. III.— SUGAR BEETS. The relation of the Experiment Station to the growing of sugar beets and the introduction of the mannfacture of sugar therefrom is limited to sending out beet seed of known origin ^ach season to intelligent farmers in different sections of the state, there to be grown under known conditions of climate, soil and cultivation, and determining in the beets grown the richness and purity of the juice. The chemical investigations are thus directed towards discovering the adapta- bility of soil and climate of the different sections of the state to the growth of sugar beets sufficiently rich in sugar to warrant their cultivation for the manufacture of that article. The experiments are repeated in order to determine the influ- ence of variations of seasons on the quantity and quality of the beets. Chemical analysis can do more than give this .aid towards answering the question whether beet sugar fac- tories would or would not be successful ventures ; the purely financial aspect of the question must be left to other hands. In addition to the analyses of beets grown from seed sent out by this station, there is reported in this bulletin analyses of beets grown from seed distributed in the counties along the line of the St. Paul & Duluth railroad under the direction of Mr. Hopewell Clarke, the land commissioner of the road. Counties from which such beets were received are Washing- ton, Chisago, Pine and Carlton. Many of the beets from Anoka county were grown under the supervision of Mr. Max Wittges, an expert from the Oxnard beet sugar fac- tories of Grand Island, Neb. The purity of the juice and high per cent of sugar of the beets grown on the sandy loams of this county under wise direction is significant as is the small size of the beets sent for analysis. In the following tables are given first, the results of the analyses of the beets grown during the season upon the sta- tion farm, and afterwards the analyses of the beets grown in the different counties of the state. SUGAR BEETS RAISED AT THE STATION Plot. NAME OF VARIETY. i Date. Average Weiight in Ounces of Beets. Per Cent of Sugar in Juice. Purity of Juice. 1 French, Verv Rich Sept. 26 8 1 2.2- 80.3 2 Vilmorin Improved “ “ 10 13.7 83. 3 Zuckerreichste Elite << «< 11 14.2 84.5 4 Kleiner Elite “ 24 12 14.05 82.3 5 Dippe’s Klein Wanzlebener “ “ 14 14.6 83.9 6 12 14.3 84.6 7 Vilmorin White Improved 12 14.6 85.4 8 Dippe’s Improved 12 15.5 87.9 9 Knauer’s Imperial “ lt 12 13.9 82.2 10 Klein Wanzlebener it a 12 14.4 84.7 • 11 “ “ “ 26 9 13.4 82.2 A “ “ 12 12.5 80.7 A “ “ 12 14.1 84.4 A “ “ 18 12.6 80.8 A “ “ tt tt 12 13.8 83.6- A “ “ 11 13.6 85.1 A “ 15 13.4 88.2' B Vilmorin Improved “ 28 12 14.4 90.1 B 15 15.3 90. B “ “ it tt 13 15.5 86.5 B “ “ tt tt 15 14.7 88. B “ *• < . tt 20 14.3 87.2 Average 14.4 84.3 1 French, Very Rich Oct. 5 14 13.5 83 3 2 Vilmorin Improved a a 12 14.7 88.4 3 Zuckerreichste Elite a i i 15 14.6 86.4 4 Kleiner Elite.. 12 13.6 83 4 5 Dippe’s Klein Wanzlebener t i a 11 14.7 87.5 6 Vilmorin White Imroved a i i 11 15.6 91.8 7 Dippe’s Klein Wanzlebener a a 10 14.7 87.5 8 Improved 12 15.3 86. 9 Knauer’s Imperial “ 6 10 15.1 86.3 10 Klein Wanzlebener 10 14.4 83.2 11 Vilmorin a a 14 13.7 84. A “ a a 11 14.9 84.2 A “ a a 13 14.4 85.9 A “ “ 7 13 14.1 84.9 A “ 16 15. 89.6 A “ 14 14.1 90.3 B Klein Wanzlebener “ 8 16 14.1 82.4 B “ “ a a 12 15.7 86-3 B .< <« a a 22 16.1 87.1 B 11 “ a a 16 15.9 84.6 B “ “ a a 16 15.7 86.8 Average, 1 4.6 86. 1 French, Verv Rich Oct. 25 13 15.75 86.7 1 8 16.8 88.9 2 Vilmorin Improved i i H 16 15.8 85.4 2 n n 6 16.9 86.6 3 Zuckerreichste Elite a 4 i 20 15.5 86.5 3 “ u u 9 17.1 91. 4 Kleiner Elite 4 i ii 14 17. 93.9 4 “ a n 8 17. 95. 5 Dippe’s Klein Wanzlebener a i i 16 15.5 91.3 5 “ <4 H 7 15.9 91.9 o “ ii ii 15 16. 95. 6 “ a a 8 16.5 95. 7 Vilmorin White Improved a a 13 16.2 88.9 7 *• a a 6 16.6 90. 8 Dippe’s Improved “ 26 19 16.7 83.8 8 ii ii 8 17. 93.4 9 Knauer’s Imperial a a 18 16.6 86.6 9 a a 10 16.8 89.2 SUGAR BEETS RAISED AT THE STATION. (continued.) Plot. NAME OF VARIETY. Date. Average Weight in Ounces of Beets. Per Cent of 1 Sugar in Juice. i Purity of Juice. 10 Klein Wanzlebener Oct. 26 12 16. 85.2 10 “ “ “ 8 15. 86.9 11 Vilmorin “ 11 14. 84.8 11 “ “ “ 7 15. 85.7 A Klein Wanzlebener 8 14.7 85.9 A “ 14 14.9 85.1 A “ 7 14.6 88. B Vilmorin Improved 27 16 15. 83.9 B “ “ 10 15.7 86.3 B “ “ “ 21 15.4 87. B “ “ “ 16 15.3 86.5 B li “ “ 12 15.7 86.7 Average, 15.8 88.1 Date of analy- sis Description of Sample. Total weight in ounces .... Sugar in juice H3 2. rt- O ' S' o n> No. of plot.... inches in length 24 14.5 86.3 C/3 rt • “ 8 1 Beet grown half above ground.... 30 12.6 76.2 4».S : ** “ 1 Beet 2 ft. long, 4 in. aboveground 32 12.0 75.9 &i , o : c oj ; 5 small b., forked roots, below “ 22 13.5 82.3 fla : 5 “ good form, “ “ 12 14.2 82.1 1 good form beet, medium size 10 18.5 92 3 “ 3 1 coarse largeb., part aboveground 35 9.1 74.6 m.S cS S u “ 29 1 “ “ y 3 80 9.1 70.0 o > 1 1 Cd Average ef 73 Samples raised at I the Station 1 14.9 1 86.3 1 I 66 & O o < M o » T!-~ < p 0 i & »- ^HXIO COCOXCO .5 •§ k S P £ 0 ™ ^ H tf< H Gi CO 10 _ X X X Tf« CO CO H N rf< M 10 10 10 CO TjJ rji’ CO 10* CO CoV 00 nV X* 10 bi^ ® s S-Sfo«eg s. aj w 'Ll •’i h ^ QQ P < > w o Sampl- ed .... 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OOOOZZZZI RENVILLE COUNTY. 71 H p O U K* « m § 00 CD CD cooV 001^00 H to H 10 GO rlrIH C^l> +j . 0 <+j V £ JZ 20 I s - H w H tn y* 53 P o o Q Q O H 2 P O U z c H o z p <1 72 U 0 -~ S 3 PH *-> ^ S P Sampl- | ed.... Plant- ed .... H Z P o u H a o I— I a n ° w 05 P>% 4 -> 4 -> O 05 oo uw u u 05 05 +> -M ctf sJ j £ * V- P 03 Oj 03 !o> °z CO H N N X X XH id co H-» -P O O _oo > O O £2 University of Minnesota. VN ' T ’ 0 . v. Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 28 . ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. 1893 . The Classification of Insects and Their Relation to Agriculture. The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. EAGLE JOB PRINT, DELANO, MINN. University of Minnesota BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 . The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, - - - 1894 . The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, - 1894 . The HON. JOHN LIND, New Ulm, ------- 1896. The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, - 1896. The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, - - 1 896. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, ----- 1896. The HON. S. M. EMERY, Lake City, ------ 1895. The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, Minneapolis, - 1895. The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. DAVID L. KIEHLE, M. A.. St. Paul, - - - Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. KNUTE NELSON. The HON. S. M. EMERY. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: CLINTON D. SMITH, M. S., - Director. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - - - - - Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., -------- Chemist. T. L. HACKER, _ _ - Dairying. CHRISTOPHER GRAHAM, B.S.,V.M.D., - - - -Veterinarian. J. A. VYE, Secretary. Entomology, There is a constant and rapidly increasing demand from farmers, horticulturists and others more or less directly in- terested in insects, or more frequently in the ravages and losses caused by them, for a bulletin giving in a condensed form such information as is required to fight our tiny foes in an intelligent manner. Information of this kind in a printed form is of more utility than any number of letters that might be written, since the illustrations necessary to describe clearly any insect can not well be given in a letter. When we consider the immense numbers of insects that exist in all parts of the habitable globe the task, to give in a few printed pages even an outline of their classification, seems to be a more than futile effort. Moreover, any classi- fication of this multitude of forms (one million species of ex- isting insects is not an exaggerated estimate)mustbe a more or less artificial one, and it is therefore best to only attempt one of such insects as are known to occur in our own state. Geologists speak of the age of shells, of fishes, of rep- tiles, periods all passed long ago, and they might well call the present geological age the age ofinsects, because these animals outnumber all others combined . In fact insects are found in ev- ery part of the globe that man has ever been able to reach, with the exception of the oceans, where they are replaced by closely allied animals, the crustaceans. And yet, notwith- standing the abundance of insects and their almost omni- presence, how few persons are really able to give a definition of an insect? The term insect is derived from two latin words in and seco — cut into , because the body is insected or divided into rings. At one time this term was applied to the entire group of articulates or jointed animals, and con- sequently early writersspoke of “six-legged,” “eight- legged,” 76 “many -legged” insects. Articulates or jointed animals, which by persons not familiar with zoology are frequently called insects are: Wood-lice or Tow-bugs, Mites and Ticks, Spi- ders, Harvest-men, Book-scorpions, True-scorpions, Centi- pedes, Thousand-legs and others not found in Minnesota. A glance at the illustrations (Fig, 1 to 6) will show that none of these animals possess the essential characters of true insects as defined below. Fig. 3. Book-scorpion, greatly en- larged. 77 At the present time we use the term insect only for those articu- lates that possess six legs, and that have their external skeleton appa- rently composed of thirteen joints or rings, which are grouped into three regions, viz: the head , thorax and abdomen. (See Fig. 7.) The true insects, or hexapoda , (six-feet) undergo a more or less complete metamorphosis, possess in the adult stage wings, and breathe through a peculiar respiratory system with ex- ternal openings termed spiracles. All insects are developed from eggs, with a few apparent exceptions; plant lice, for instance, reproduce both by eggs and by budding. The body of an adult insect is divided into three-regions, each with pecu- liar functions. The head contains the organs of vision (com- pound eyes and simple eyes), the jointed antennae or feelers, which are the principal organs of touch, smell and hearing, and the mouth-parts, organs of taste and feeding. The tho- rax contains the organs of locomotion — the three pairs of Fig. 5. Centipede. One-half size. legs and two pairs of wings: The abdomen contains the or- gans of digestion, reproduction and often of defense. All insects pass through a number of transformations or metamorpho- Fig. 4. Scorpion. Nat size. 78 Fig. 6. Thousand-leg. Enlarged. ses before reaching the adult or winged and sexual stage. The first of the four principal stages is the egg. In most cases this is deposited by the female upon the proper food, Antenns? Eyes ~ Head and is there left to hatch without any further maternal care. In social insects, such as bees, ants, etc., the eggs are taken care of by various methods. In exceptional cases the egg is 79 retained in the oviduct until ready to hatch, or even until it has hatched. The larva (caterpillar, worm, maggot, slug, grub, etc.,) hatches from the egg, and it is in this stage of the life of an insect that most growth is made. But as the ex- ternal skeleton of an insect does not grow the space within soon becomes too small, and the larva has to throw off this old shell and replace it by a new and more commodious one. This action of throwing off the old shell is called moulting , and the process has to be repeated a number of times before the larva reaches its full size. During the larval existence of an insect there is stored up all the material required to pro- duce wings and organs of reproduction, as well as to trans- form the other organs, as eyes, legs, etc., into their final shape. When fully grown, the larva is transformed into the third stage, or pupa (chrysalis, nymph). In this stage the insect is usually quiescent, at least apparently so, though in reality it is a very active stage, as the most wonderful changes have to take place inside the stiff and rigid pupal shell, and freqently within a very short period. After a cer- tain time the skin of the pupa breaks open, and the fourth and final stage or imago appears, ready to perform all the functions of a winged, sexual insect. Although these trans- formations seem to be very sudden, they are really nothing but continuous growth, arrested at intervals by the inflexi- bility of the outer skeleton. The metamorphoses of insects vary very much, and serve as the basis for separating all in- sects into two groups, those with a complete metamorpho- sis, as described above, and those with an incomplete one. A complete metamorphosis is one of the most wonderful transformations known to natural history. From an egg hatches a worm-like creature, always hungry, growing ra- pidly until its full size is attained, when it suddenly stops feeding, and changing to an apparently lifeless object, be- comes a pupa. Remaining almost motionless in this condi- tion it breaks open and gives forth a much larger being, pos- sessing many organs not found before in the earlier stages, and able to fly about to mate and deposit again eggs. In a com- plete metamorphosis the different stages such as egg, larva, pupa and imago do not resemble each other at all. In an 80 incomplete metamorphosis we have no such notable changes of form. The egg hatches into a being that looks very much like the parent, being of course quite small, and lacking all traces of wings or sexual organs. This larva feeds just as ravenously, and has in consequence of its rapid growth also, to moult a number of times, and during these slight changes in size it acquires gradually rudimentary wings, which in- crease in size until the adult stage has been reached. But during this whole period of growth no quiescent state like that of a true pupa appears, and the young insect resembles its parent throughout the period of growth. Butterflies are a good illustration of a complete metamorphosis, and locusts of an incomplete. Illustrations of a complete metamorphosis are given in Fig. 8, 10, 19, 26, 33, 34, 46, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 58, 76, 78, and of an incomplete one in Fig. 61, 66, 67, 80. The mouth-parts of insects give us also an excellent means for classifying them into three groups. One group possesses a biting and sucking mouth; the second one con- tains insects which chew their food by means of a pair of horny jaws acting in a horizontal direction; the third group possesses apparently no jaws, and the species belonging here are sucking insects. They obtain their food by piercing and sucking by means of four bristles enclosed in a jointed beak, or fluid food by means of a long and flexible tongue. But why is it at all necessary to classify insects for any practical purpose? In reply it must be stated that we can not fight against injurious insects with any hope of success if we do not know their structure. For instance, an insect that has no mouth to bite or chew can not be poisoned, and idle application of any arsenical insecticides would in most cases be perfectly useless. Nor is it enough to know the structure of the insects; we must also know their habits and transformations, because this knowledge alone will enable us to apply the remedies at the proper time. In fact, not- withstanding the great progress made in economic entomol- ogy during the last ten years, we are only able to combat successfully a limited number of injurious insects by means of insecticides. A large number of others, and the most injuri- 81 ous ones at that, can not be reached in that manner. Time, labor and material to do so successfully would cost much more than the whole crop would be worth. The chinch-bug, locusts, cut-worms and others, if very abundant, can not be fought successfully by means of insecticides. Yet this is no reason why we should not be able to reduce their ravages to a minimum. But without being perfectly familiar with the habits of these insects, with their life-history in all and every detail, including their insect and plant foes, we can not hope to succeed. But by knowing all this we may be able to dis- cover a weak spot into which a wedge can be driven to break up their ranks. Only by attacking the weak spot of a well fortified castle is victory possible. When we consider the immense numbers of insects, and the fact that they devour every and all kinds of organized matter, it seems almost vain even to try to fight against them. All insects are not, however, enemies to man ; on the contrary, the great majority are either indifferent to him, or are either directly or indirectly beneficial. The indifferent ones eat substances we can not or do not use ; the beneficial ones eat noxious plants, or decaying substances, thus puri- fying the air and making space for other living organisms. Without them the soil would be covered with dead vegetable matter, the now existing plants, i.e., those that are fertilized by the wind, would become smaller and smaller, because their seeds, not eaten by insects, would all have an opportu- nity to grow, thus crowding, dwarfing and killing each oth- er. Without insects the great majority of our brightly col- ored flowers would not produce seeds, as most of them are dependent upon the work of these animals to cause cross-fer- tilization. The question is frequently asked: “ Why is it that farm- ers, horticulturists, gardeners, etc., are more troubled in the United States with noxious insects than they are else where?’ ’ or “Why is it that more injurious insects and of different kinds are found now than formerly?” The reasons for this increase of insects, both in numbers and kinds, are not so very difficult to give. In Minnesota, when settlements were few and widely scattered, the whole country was covered with 82 its virginal vegetation. Plants and animals were adapted to each other, and as soon as one of them became for any reasons exceedingly numerous, natural checks in the form of enemies to such plants or animals soon reduced them to their normal numbers. In a state of nature plants distri- bute themselves in such a manner that one kind never occu- pies the ground exclusively. Our native forests are not com- posed of one species of trees, but of very many kinds, in constantly varying proportions which depend upon the character of the soil and the needs of the different kinds of trees. The same is true of the plants that clothe our beauti- ful prairies. Notwithstanding the uniformity of the soil the prairies are covered here and there with different plants. Animals, and chiefly insects, depending directly or indirectly upon plants, naturally follow their distribution. When the sod of our prairies was broken to receive the seeds of plants not grown there before, the soil responded freely to the new demands and yielded phenomenal crops. This prospective reward for agricultural toil soon attracted more and more farmers until the prairies were teeming with human beings, eager to mine the golden grains — the only form of mining that will make a people really happy and prosperous. But in cultivating more and more soil, man destroyed the finely balanced relation between the animal and vegetable king- doms by adding a disturbing factor. At first but few de- structive insects to the new crops were found , because they had to be introduced from elsewhere; but as soon as they found this Eldorado — an immense area covered with the best kind of food for them — they were not slow to appropriate to themselves what was not planted for them. Insects of all kinds, but at first' mainly injurious ones, will invariably take possession of fields where plants of one kind are grown upon a large scale. Insect foes of such plants will soon find their way to such fields and fix there a new home. In course of time, however, things will change for the better, simply be- cause the foes of such newly introduced species will also make their appearance and wage war upon their old enemies. This is one reason why in the older settled parts of the globe insect outbreaks are less frequent, though they 83 are by no means unknown. The disturbed relationship be- tween plants and animals has there become re-established. Moreover a more diversified farming is the rule in older countries, and insects there do not find such an abundance of food as in regions where their favorite food is grown upon a very large scale. To enable the reader to recognize his friends and foes amongst insects the following two artificial classifications are given. Both are very simple, and the study of insects, in most cases, requires no magnifying glasses. It is best to compare with both classifications any insect to be located^ that no errors be made. Both classifications apply only to the adult or winged insects. I. Insects with both a biting and sucking mouth: Wings with few veins: Insects with a biting mouth: Upper wings horny: Upper wings like pergament: Upper wings with many veins: Insects with a sucking mouth: All wings scaly: Only two wings: Upper wings half leathery and half membran- Hymenoptera _ ous: II. Coleoptera .. Orthoptera Neuroptera. Lepidoptcra ... Dip ter a* Hemiptera Diptera .. 1. With two wings: 2. With four wings: A. Upper and lower similar: a. All wings scaly: Lepidoptera . b. All wings naked or a little hairy: 1. Wings with numerous veins: Neuroptera . 2. Wings with few veins: Hymenoptera . B. Upper and lower wings dissimilar: a. Mouth-parts forming a sucking tube: Hemiptera . b. Mouth-parts not forming a sucking tube: 1. Upper wings horny: Coleoptera .. 2. Upper wings like pergament: Orthoptera ^ INSECTS WITH COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. HYMENO PTERA (membrane- wings.) This order of insects seems to include the most numerous and perfect forms ofinsects, such as Bees, Wasps, Ants, Ichneumon- flies, Gall-flies, Saw-flies and Horntails. The order is distin- guished by the possession of both a biting and sucking mouth and by having four similar wings with few veins . Most of the insects belonging to it undergo the most complete metamor- phosis. Their larvae are usually unable to search for food and have to be fed by the adults unless it is stored up for them in such a manner that they are surrounded by it. The saw-flies form an exception, however, and they live like the caterpil- lars of butterflies, in fact frequently resemble them so much as to be called “False caterpillars.” Among the members of this order we have many that act very beneficially by fer- tilizing most of our flowers, by producing honey and wax, and by destroying injurious insects. Others are very destructive and hence are great enemies to farming. Hymenoptera may be divided into two sections : 1. Stinging species, such as Bees, Wasps, Digger-wasps, Ants, etc. 2. 1 Piercing species , such as Ichneumon-flies, Gall flies, Saw-flies, Horn-tails. 1. The stinging hymenoptera are divided into four tribes : Bees, True wasps, Wood-wasps, Sand and Digger- wasps. Bees are classed as social, solitary and parasitic. To the first belong the well-known Honey-bee and Bumble-bee; 85 Fig. 8. A. 1, Queen bee: 2, Worker bee. 3, male; heads of same to the right. B. hind leg of worker, showing brush (a) and basket (b). C, egg enlarged. D, larva and pupa. 2 Fig. 9. 1, Honey comb with two queen-cells and German bee; 2, Italian; 3, Egyptian bee. (Figs. 8 and 9); to the second the Carpenter, the Mason and the Leaf- cutting bees. The True wasps and Digger-wasps have also social and solitary species. To the former belong the Paper-wasps, Hornets (Fig. 10, page 86), Yellow Jackets, and other well- known species. The Wood-wasps bore into wood, where they form their cells, and usually fill them with large num- bers of plant-lice and other small insects. The Digger-wasps are our largest and brightest colored insects ; the Mud- daubers (Fig. 11), Tarantula-killers and others belong here. The Ants (Fig. 12), of which we have a large number of cies, close the section of stinging hymenoptera. 86 Fig. 11. Mud-dauber, and Pompilus with larva fastened to spicier. 87 Fig. 12. Ant-hill. B, 1, male; 2, female; 3, worker, natural size. Eig. 13. Parasite (O phion) inserting egg in caterpillar. 88 2. The piercing species includes two very important groups of insects, the very useful Insect-eaters , and the des- tructive Plant-eaters. Insect-eaters (Figs. 13, 14, 15 and 16) contain several families, best known by the name of Ichneumon-flies and Chalcid-flies. To this series we must add the Gall-flies (Fig. 17 and 18), well known by the peculiar swellings or galls they cause to form upon various plants. Fig. 14. Parasites. Ichneumon above pupa destroyed by it. Bphialtes in the act of laying eggs upon wood-boring larva. Plant-eaters contain such insects as Horn-tails (Fig. 19), and Saw-flies (Figs. 20 and 21). The latter are the par- ents of the so-called “ False Caterpillars ” or slugs, so des- tructive to many species of wild and cultivated plants. The Horn-tails contain but few species, the larvae of which in- habit the solid wood of trees. Fig. 15. Parasites. Pfmp/a female laying egg.in caterpillar ; another issu- ing from pupa of moth ; below it a male, natural size. Fig. 16. Parasite ( Microgaster ); its larva issuing from caterpillar. Fig. IS. Rose-gall and Gall-fly. - 1 - 90 Fig. 17. Oak-galls and Gall-flies (1, 2 and 3). Fig. 19. Horn-tail, larva, pupa and adult. 91 Fig. 20. Large Saw-fly, larvae, cocoon (d) and adult insect, natural size. C0LE0PTERA (sheath- wings.) This order is usually considered the largest one, as more than one hundred thousand described beetles are already in our collections. Yet, with the exception t of af very few extreme forms, all the species can be readily 'recog- nized by their sheath-like upper wings, which meet in ~a 92 straight line down the back and cover not alone the abdo- men but also the two lower joints of the thorax. These upper wings are not used for flight, but to protect the softer parts below. Only the lower and soft wings, possessing but few veins, and which are usually during rest folded beneath the upper ones, are used for flight. Beetles have a biting mouth and pass through a complete metamorphosis. Many beetles are very injurious, others are indifferent to farming, and still others are decidedly beneficial. Beetles are divided into two divisions : 1. True beetles , with all mouth-parts present. 2. Snout-beetles , in which the front part of the head is prolonged into a beak or snout. 1 . True beetles are usually divided according to the struc- ture of their feet and their feelers. Carnivorous beetles, with thread-like antennae. Here belong Tiger-beetles (Fig. 22), Ground-beetles (Fig. 23), Carnivorous Water-beetles (Fig. 24), Whirligigs or Apple-smellers. Almost all are beneficial. Fig. 22. Tiger-beetles, with larva and pupa. Slightly enlarged. 93 Fig. 24. Carnivorous Water-beetles. Club-horns , with club-shaped antennae. Here belong Burying-beetles, Rove-beetles, Lady-bugs (Fig. 25), Larder-beetle (Fig. 26), Carpet-beetles and others of various habits. Mostly beneficial, with exception of Lar- der-beetles and Carpet-beetles. 94 Fig. 26 . Larder-beetle, with larva and pupa. 95 Fig. 27. Snapping-beetle or Wire- worm, with larva?. Fig. 29. Fire-flies and their larvje. 96 Saw-horns , with toothed or serrated antennae. Wire-worms or Snapping-beetles (Fig. 27), Flat-headed bor- ers (Fig. 28), Fire-flies (Fig. 29), Soldier-beetles (Fig. 30), etc., belong here. The first two are mostly injurious ; the last two are beneficial. Fig. 30. Soldier beetles. Leaf-horns , with knobbed antennae composed of many leaf-like parts. Stag-beetes, Tumble-bugs (Fig. 31), Rose-beetles, May- beetles (Fig. 32), June-bugs, Rhinoceros-beetles, etc. All more or less injurious. Plant-eaters with bead-like antennae (True Leaf-beetles) or with very long horns (Round-headed Borers). Among the former we have the smaller forms, as the Po- tato-beetle (Fig. 33), Poplar Leaf-beetle (Fig. 34), Cucumber beetle, Striped Squash-beetle, Flea-beetles (Fig. 35), and others like the Pea and Bean-weevils. Among the latter we have some very large insects. All beetles belonging here have very long and prominent horns, so that this series of plant-eaters is frequently called Longicorns (Fig. 36). The 97 Fig. 33. Potato-beetle in all stages. 98 common Twig-girdler or Round-headed Apple-tree Borer represent their usual forms. All injurious. Fig. 34. Poplar Leaf-beetle in all stages. Fig. 35. Different species of Flea-beetles and their larvae. 99 Fig. 32. May-beeFes at night. 100 To the true beetles belong also the Blister-beetles (Fig'. 37), Oil-beetles, Meal-beetles (Fig. 38), and someothers, dis- tinguished from the species mentioned before by having an unequal number of joints in their feet. Injurious and bene- ficial forms. Fig. 37. Blister-beetles. With first larva. 2. Among the Snout-beetles we have insects like the Plum and Apple-curculios, Nut-weevils (Fig. 39), Rice and Corn- weevils, Bill-bugs, Plum-gouger and Bark-beetles (Fig. 40). All are injurious if infesting cultivated or useful plants. Fig. 38. Meal-beetle. Fig. 40. Work of Bark-beetles. LEPIDOPTERA (scale-wings). Fig. 41. Currant-butterfly. Natural size. Butterflies and moths are best known to the casual observer, the former being frequently'so brightly colored as to be called “winged flowers.” This order of insects is distinguished by having both sides of their wings covered with many- colored scales, arranged in definite patterns, like shingles upon a roof. Insects belonging here have in their perfect or winged stage the mouth- parts united in a long tongue coiled up like a watch spring. They under- 102 go a perfect metamorphosis, and in their larval stage they are well known as caterpillars. In this stage they belong most decidedly to the biting insects, as it is in this stage that a large number of them become very destructive. With very few exceptions caterpillars feed upon leaves, fruit and wood, while many of the moths themselves eat nothing, or honey and other fluids. Lepidoptera are usually divided into two divisions: 1. Butterflies, with club-horns. 2. Moths , with variable horns. 1. The butterflies are day flyers, and have stiff anten- nae ending in a knob or club. Examples are the Parsley Swallow-tail, the White Cabbage-butterfly and Currant- butterfly (Fig. 41.) 2. The moths are divided into many families, such as Sphinx-moths, Clear- winged moths, Spinners, Owlet or Cut- worm moths, Span-worms or Measuring- worms, Snout- moths, Leaf-rollers, Tineids and Plume-moths. Fig. 42. Pine-sphinx. With eggs, voting and old caterpillars. 103 V Sphinx-moths are large and bulky insects which fly at dusk, and produce, large caterpillars possessing usually a pointed horn on tail. The Ash-tree-sphinx and Pine-sphinx (Fig. 42), are examples of this family. Clear- winged moths are small and resemble more or less closely some wasp or fly. Fig. 43. Glassy-winged Oak-borer and empty pupal skin. Fig. 44. Large Bear, with larva. Natural size. Their larvae are all very injurious borers, as for instance the Oak-borer (Fig. 43), and the Currant-borer. Spinners are bright-colored, medium-sized moths (Fig. 44), though some of our largest insects belong to this family, for instance our common native Silk-moths. Most of their caterpillars spin 104 105 silken cocoons, inside of which they transform to pupae, as is the case with our destructive Tent-caterpillars. Owlet- moths or Cut-worm moths are night-flying, medium-sized insects, usually of very plain colors, though remarkable ex- ceptions occur. Their caterpillars are more or less injurious, depending upon the value of the food they consume. The Army-worm ( Fig. 45 and 45 V 2 ) , Lesser Army-worm , Onion Cut- worm, Corn-worm are familiar examples. Span-worm moths are slender insects, with large and weak soft-colored wings. Fig. 48. Grain-moth. of wheat, and pupa. 106 They produce the peculiar “measuring worms” “or loopers”

XCDOCl>Nl>l>lOCDCDHCDlOb- HHOOOOOOOOHriOOOOOOOrtOOO .078 June. COCDNCDCDXOXNOM^COOOHOOOOOH O^CDXXt-CDCD05CDOOXCDCDXTfU>l>Hl>l01> HOOOOOOOOOHHOOOOOOOHOOO .076 May. l005005CDCDOl>^X ^ ^t>l001Nl0t^l001CDH05(M 1 WrlrlrlHHOOrlrirlHHiHOrlOHrlrlHCH .132 April. l0C0l005r}^0rf(0^ HHHHdrHHXHHOlDlHri IrlOHrlClrlrlH .162 March. HCOCOCOOlCl^bbOlbCOOlOH^ Xt^O"t0105t-OCDI>005tJI05050CO 00J>Ot^©O5O5l>lOCO'£>C0XriCO(O HOOi35!OiiNTj(C^M^ffia5HOOX®NCOHON . 00 CO CO X X 0* H H CO X CO M t* CO CD OOOtD^^XO^ 2 d d co d x r-J x d © d t> co d d co d rji d d d d h Dry Matter for 1 lb. Butter Fat ^HlOHiiHMXMHOXClCCCJriTfHlOHXWOO Butter Fat per Day Ci^OCD^OiX^iOCOt-OXCD^Ci^Xt-M^xO •«T}UOlOril>U:Xril>Tf(C^Tf(T#OlC CD 10 © O 05 N N CO X X 05 X 05 N r* X © H H H HH ri H H ri Total Butter.... Fat Dry Matter per 1000 lbs. live Weight ^lOlOaWTH^OllOMXC'lWCON^HNOnOilOOO Dry Matter per Day ,O©C0^X05XC5XC510'H05OX05H05I>C0©XOXt'CO^T)(hXlOX^COtDi(OOXWHO^^OfO '"COMCOCOCOCONWCOfOCOCOCOCONCOMCOii^TfTfCO Days on Trial... OJ H if* H H ^ OJ H'HHririHHriClC^rHrH'H'H'^X Ifl^lOXXXtWXlOlOXXXlOXHXXXXt-M HrlHHHrlrlrlri TiTirtHririHTHHrliHHH Avge. Weight .. NH'^J>OU>Tj<(M©H(Ol0^05ri^©'^OI>©X'^ •X^COXObbm^HOnlO^bOOlOlOCOOOW £l>05ri^05C^X0*X0505XXXi>OriOC5CJ05H05 05 rH . ‘5 ^ w 5 05 t» W 4-> u 6 «3 W 4J 5? *S d « ® ^ 1) 15 15«.h OcjdlOCoaoiCuOOOd^OVi 56 pounds of butter fat produced daily per thousand pounds of live weight. Every cow in the herd was in the trial, and by referring to Table VIII. the breeding of each cow may be seen. In noticing the average weight of the cows it should be borne in mind that the weight of a cow does not convey a correct idea of her size. Neither Dido nor Fancy are as large as their weight would indicate. The same is true of Beckley , Clara and Rossie, while Topsy, Jenny. Bess and Bettie are larger than one would suppose, judging from their weight. The variation in amount of dry matter consumed per day by dif- ferent cows is much larger than is generally supposed. In order to make comparison, the feed consumed is figured on a basis of one thousand pounds live weight. Houston consum- ed an average of 28. 24 pounds per day, Dido took only 14.61 pounds per day, Fancy following next with 15.41 pounds. Not only are these two cows light feeders, but it also appears from the foregoing table, that they gave a small return for the feed consumed. Fancy gave only one pound of butter fat for every 32.47 pounds of dry matter eaten, Dido required 32.36 pounds for each pound of butter fat, while the smaller cows, Houston and Dora, required only 20.18 and 18.44 pounds respectively, and the large framed cow, Topsey, re- quired only 20 04 of dry matter for a pound of gutter fat. From this, it seems the line cannot be drawn between good and poor cows on their size, neither can it be drawn on breeds; for example, take the two shorthorns, Dido and Rose, the former requiring 32.36 pounds of dry matter for a pound of butter fat, to 21.37 pounds for Rose. The grade Holstein, Jennie, takes 28.58, while the grade Holstein, Topsy, is charged only 20.04. The Jersey, Beckley, takes 25.08 and the Jersey, Dora, takes only 18.44. It is evident then that some cows produce butter fat much cheaper than others, the variation being so great that under certain conditions one class will produce it at a profit and another at a loss. If the cows are divided into four groups based on conformation, assigning the beefy cows to the first those with less tendency toplumpness to the second, the spare, cows lacking depth to the third and the spare cows with deep bodies to the fourth, results follow which seem to be of vital importance to every dairyman. 57 DIDO. table XVII. GROUP I, — Beaf Type, ocky and Plump. Cow. Weight. Breed. Lbs. Dry Mat- ter per day per 1000 lbs. live weight ^ Cl *1 -t v 7 cr n a f P‘3 ; o& i Lbs. butter fat itromlOOlbs. of drv matter 1 Cost of lib of butter fat Fancy 1256 Polled Angus Shorthorn 15.41 32.47 3 08 cents. 18.1 Dido 1245 14.61 32.36 3.09 18.2 Sully... 1219 Shorthorn 19.96 28.94 3.45 16.4 1 Average | 1240 1 1 | 16.66 1 i 31.25 | 1 1 1 3.20 1 | 17.5 1 To illustrate the general conformation of the cows in this group a picture of the Shorthorn cow Dido is given. The engraving was made from a photograph taken before the experiment began, and is an excellent likeness of Die cow. She is large and blockv in outline, being level from base of horns to setting on of tail, deep well rounded thigh coming well down to hock, brisket low and running well forward, neck short and heavy at the shoulders, broad across the shoulders, full crops, ribs well sprung and body deep in the middle. She is in every way a very fine animal. She ate 18.76 pounds of dry matter per day, required 58 32.36 pounds of dry matter for each pound of butter fat, making the cost of butter fat 18.2 cents. Fancy is smaller in frame but carries more flesh. She is level on upper and lower lines, making her deeper in the flank and chest than Dido. She is closely ribbed, ribs well sprung making her level across the back, crops full, very heavy shouldered, broad across the withers and remarkably broad between the elbows indicating enormous lung capacity. She required 32.47 pounds dry matter for a pound of butter fat, making the butter fat cost 18.1 cents per pound. Sully is less in- clined to lay on flesh than either of the others. She has less breadth of withers, crops quite low, deep and low in the mid- dle and heavy thigh. She required 28.94 pounds dry matter for a pound of butter fat, making it cost 16.4 cents per pound. The cost of butter fat from group I. was 17.5 cents per pound. 59 BECKLEY. TABLE XVIII. Group II.— Cows Having Less Tendency to Lay on FlesE. Cow. Weight. Breed. Lbs. Dry Mat- ter per day per 1000 lbs. live weight Lbs. Dry Mat- ter for lib. of butter fat i Lbs. butter Fat from 100 lbs of Dry Matter. Cost of lib. of butter fat Beckley 942 Gr. Jersey 25.15 25.08 3.98 cents 14.3 Clara 909 21.16 31.05 3.22 17.8 Reddie 1027 | “ Guernsey 21.02 24.44 4.09 13.8 Rossie 903 | “ Jersey 16.75 25.12 3.98 14.6 Average ' 1 945 ! 1 , 1 | 21.02 I 1 1 1 26.42 | 3.82 1 15.1 This group would ordinarily be classed as fair dairy cows, but upon close inspection they show a well defined tendancy to growing flesh. Their hips (hooks), chines and withers are not as sharp as is the case with those in the two groups following. Their necks are rather short and a trifle * heavy, thighs and crops too full. Rossie, a first-cross Jersey, carries the most flesh. Beckley, a high grade Jersey, follows next, both are more than ordinarily deep in body; Reddy and Clara are not as deep, and show less tendency to lay on flesh. The cows in Group II. consumed on an aver- age 20.37 pounds dry matter per day, and required 26.42 pounds of dry matter for a pound of butter fat, costing 15.1 cents per pound. 60 BETTIE. TABLE XIX. Group III.— Cows Spare and Angular in Form, but Lacking Depth. Cow Weight Breed Lbs. dry matter per day per 1000 lbs. live weight i Lbs. of dry matter for 1 lb of butter fat Lbs. of butter fat from 100 lbs. of dry matter Cost of 1 lb. of butter fat... Jennie 1 1020 Gr. Holstein 1 22.09 1 28.58 1 3.49 16.6 Bettie 802 Guernsey 23.33 24.30 4.12 13.8 Olive 805 Gr. Guernsey 23 59 23.75 4.21 13.4 Average i 875 23.00 25.54 3.94 14.6 The cows in this group are spare and angular, but lack in depth through the flank and middle. This is especially # the case with Jennie, that has a restless, roving disposition always seeming to look for something better, while Olive and Bettie are more contented. Bettie is a fair representa- tive of the cows in Group III.; they are not inferior dairy cows, their record for the year 1893 was 944 pounds of butter. They are the lightest feeders in the herd and require 25.54 pounds dry matter for a pound of fat, the butter fat costing 14.6 cents. 61 HOUSTON. TABLE XX. Group IV.— Cows Spare and Angular with Deep Bodies. Name of cows Breed Lbs. dry mat- ter per day per 1000 lbs. live weights Lbs. dry mat- ter per 1 lb but- ter fat. Lbs. of butter fat from 100 lbs. of dry matter Cost of 1 lb. of butter fat Annie Jersey 25.80 21.68 4.61 cents 12.8 Bess Holstein 22.04 21.29 4.69 12.3 Dora Jersey Gr.- “ 22.33 1 8.44 5.42 11.1 Gertie 23.20 21.53 4.64 12.3 Houston JerseyGuernsey 28.24 20.16 4.96 10.8 Patsy Gr. -Jersey 22.20 22.27 4.49 12.6 Pride Jersey 24.82 21.18 4.72 12.6 Rose Shorthorn 17.87 21.37 4.67 12.9 Roxy Gr. -Jersey 23.52 21.91 4.56 12.4 Sweet Briar Guernsey 25.65 23.06 4.33 12.8 Topsy Holstein 20.91 20.04 4.99 12.0 Tricksey Guernsey 26.46 20.88 4.78 11.4 Average 23.58 21.15 4.73 12.1 The cows in group IV. embrace all in the herd not in the pre- ceding groups except the heifer Nora, that is not classified for the reason that she made some growth during the year. It requires feed to make growth, consequently she is an ex- ception to the conditions common to the other members of the herd. To give a better idea of the conformation of the cows in these groups, than can be done by words alone, the illustrations are given. Houston, a cross-bred Jersey- Guernsey consumed more feed per day and produced butter fat at less cost than any other cow in this trial. It is there- 62 fore proper that she should be selected as one of the repre- sentatives of the type of cow that gives best return for food consumed. The illustration is from a photograph taken after the close of the experiment. She is, andhasbeen, ingood health all the time she has been in the herd. Her appetite is clearly shown by the fact that she ate 28.24 pounds of dry matter daily during the test; the standard being 24 pounds. That she made good use of it — possibly the best that could be— is evident from the cost of butter fat, 10.8 cents per DORA. pound. Dora follows next in productive capacity, making a pound of butter fat for 11.1 cents, and returning a pound of fat for every 18.44pounds of dry matter consumed. The average number of pounds of dry matter eaten per day by the group is 23.58; average pounds of dry matter for a pound of fat 21.15; cost of a pound of fat 12 1 cents. The cows in group IV deviating the most from the type as rep- resented by Houston and Dora, are Rose, Annie and Sweet Brier, deviation being in the order named. In examining the cost of butter fat in this group it will be seen that Rose produces it for 12.9 cents and Annie and Sweet Brier each for 12.8 cents per pound. 63 TABLE XXI.— Averages of the Four Groups. Group Dry matter eaten per day... Dry matter per 1000. lbs. of live weight Dry matter per lb. of butter fat Butter fat for 100 lbs. of dry matter Cost of a lb. of butter fat I 20.81 16.66 31.25 3.20 17.5 II 20.37 21.02 26.42 3.78 15.1 III 19,95 23.00 25.54 3.91 14.6 IV 21.86 23.58 21.15 4.72 12.1 It appears from the foregoing table that group I.. the heavy beefy cows, consumed 20.81 pounds of dry matter per day and required 31.25 pounds dry matter for a pound of butter fat; that group II., the cows having an angular form, but a tendency to lay on flesh, consumed 20.37 pounds dry matter per day and required less to make a pound of butter fat than the first group; while group III., the spare cows lacking somewhat in depth of body, con- sumed 19.95 lbs. food daily, and required less dry matter for apound of fat than groups I. and II., and that group IV., the spare, deep bodied cows, consumed the most feed per day and made the best use of it. The cost of butter fat as indicated in the last column, seems to depend more upon the type of cow than the breed, there being less variation in cost of production between cows of a certain type than between cows of the same breed. The cost of one hun- dred pounds of dry matter was 57 cents; estimating the price of a pound of butter fat at 25 cents the cows in group I. re- turned a net profit of 23 cents for each hundred pounds of dry matter consumed; group II., 37 cents;group III., 41 cents and group IV., 61 cents. Referring to table XXI., it will be seen that the first group consumed, on an average, 20.81 pounds dry matter per day, returning 4.7 cents*profit; the cows in group II, ate 20.37 pounds dry matter and gave 7.5 cents profit; group III. ate 19.95 pounds each and re- turned 8.1 cents, while group IV. ate 21.86 pounds each per day at a profit of 13.3 cents, or nearly three times as great a net profit as the blockv cows in group I. SUMMARY. The record of the dairy herd for the year 1893 seems to warrant the following conclusions: First. The average annual cost of keeping a dairy cow is thirty-eight dollars. Second. A herd of cows bred on dairy lines, well fed and carefully handled, will produce on an average six thousand four hundred pounds of milk per year at a cost of sixty-two cents per hundred pounds and twelve and a half cents a pound for butter fat. Third. A herd of good dairy cows well fed and carefully handled will produce on an average three hundred pounds of butter fat each per year, which is equivalent to three hundred and sixty-five pounds of butter per cow. Fourth. The average cost of a pound of butter will be ten and a half cents. Fifth. Taking the entire herd the average cost of a pound of butter fat during the winter months is thirteen and nine-tenths cents. Sixth. The productive capacity of a cow depends more upon type and conformation than upon size or breed. Those of the beef type produced butter fat at a cost of seventeen and a half cents per pound ; those carrying a medium amount of flesh produced butter fat at a cost of fifteen and one- tenth cents per pound; the spare cows lacking in depth of body produced butter fat at a cost of fourteen and six tenths cents per pound and the spare cows having deep bodies pro- duced butter fat at a cost of twelve and one tenth cents per pound. COMPARING PRAIRIE HAY WITH TIMOTHY HAY. T. L. HACKER. In a state like Minnesota where so large aportion is com- posed of open prairie still covered with the virgin grasses, the question of their food value is one of no little moment, espec- ially in all that section north and west of the Twin Cities. For that section the, almost, universal roughage-feed for horses, cattle and sheep is the upland prairie hay. The term employed to designate this hay is rather am- biguous ; prairie hay consists of many varieties of grasses, de- pending, to a certain extent, upon composition of soil and degree of moisture. But if practical investigation into the value of the native grasses, for the production of milk and growing of young stock, be deferred until these grasses are all divided and classified and the relative proportion of each contained in a given quantity of hay, is computed, there will be little use for the facts after they are obtained. For feeding purposes, prairie grasses can be divided into three classes, the upland, the dry bottom land and the swale or marsh grasses. Of these the upland prairie is the most common and for this reason it was selected for an experiment in milk production in comparison with timothy hay. Character of Hay Fed . — The prairie hay secured was fine in blade, of good quality, apparently early cut and not ex- posed to rain before stacking. It was almost free from swale grass and tall blue joint. The timothy hay was medium fine, rather short, cut early and properly cured, had a fine flavor, good color and was first grade in every respect. The intention was to carry this experiment from the first of February to the first of May, covering the period, March and April, when it is most difficult to get satisfactory results in a feeding experiment with dairy cows. But it was not un- til about the middle of February that the cows adjusted them- 66 selves to the rations selected. There was no difficulty expe- rienced in feeding prairie hay but it required careful training to induce all of them to eat the timothy clean. The mixed grain ration consisted of 98 pounds bran, 44 pounds ground barley, 44 pounds ground corn and 26 pounds linseed meal. Sixteen cows were selected for the experiment and were divided into four groups, and the time into four periods. The daily feeding program was as follows: Lot 1 — Periods I and III, Grain 14 lbs., Prairie hay 14 lbs. . Lot 1— Periods II and IV, Grain 14 lbs., Timothy hay 14 lbs. Lot 2 — Periods I and III, Grain 14 lbs., Timothy hay 14 lbs. Lot 2 — Periods II and IV, Grain 14 lbs, Prairie hay 14 lbs. Lot 3 — Periods I and III, Grain 12 lbs., Ensilage 10 lbs., Prairie hay 11 lbs. Lot. 3 — Periods II and IV, Grain 1 2 lbs., Ensilage 10 lbs., Timothy hay 11 lbs. Lot 4 — Periods I and III, Grain 12 lbs., Ensilage 10 lbs., Timothy hay 11 lbs. Lot 4 — Periods II and IV, Grain 12 lbs., Ensilage 10 lbs., Prairie hay 11 lbs. CONDUCT OF THE EXPERIMENT. The feeding preliminary to the experiment, began the 22nd day of January, continuing to the 12th of February, when the experiment proper commenced and it was closed the evening of the 29th of April. It was divided into four periods of fourteen days each with seven days intervening between periods for preliminary feeding. During the first and third periods the cows in Lot 1 were fed on grain and prairie hay; Lot 2, on grain and timothy hay; Lot 3, grain, ensilage and prairie hay and Lot 4, grain, ensilage and timothy hay. During the second and fourth periods, the cows in Lot 1, were fed grain and timothy hay; Lot 2, grain and prairie hay; Lot 3, grain, ensilage and timothy hay and Lot 4, grain, ensilage and prairie hay. The cows were fed twice and watered once a day, and weighed every Mon- day morning after feeding and before watering. The feed was weighed each day and in a few instances when feed was left it was weighed back, giving due credit to the cow leav- ing it. In the preliminary feeding between the first and second periods, Daisy, in Lot 1 went off her feed and did not recover in time to enter the trial in the second period. She was therefore dropped from the experiment. Betty also at one 67 time refused to eat the full amount of timothy hay, but it was so near the close of the second period that no perceptible change took place in her yield of milk and butter fat. During the third and fourth periods she was in excellent condition and gained, both in milk and in butter fat, though during the last week ot the experiment she refused to eat all the timothy. Fancy was offered the hay left by Bettie but she refused to take it. In the third period, when changing from prairie to timothy, Clara in Lot 2, failed to eat the required amount of timothy and, showing abnormal loss in both milk and fat, was taken out of the experiment. Beckley, in Lot 3, ate all the feed given but showed by her appearance and performance that she was not in normal condition, which subsequent developements confirmed. During the first period, Jenny in Lot 4, refused to eat a full ration of timothy, and throughout the experiment, showed that the ration was a trifle too large when on timothy hay. She seemed to like the wild hay much better, increasing both in yield of milk and fat when on prairie hay. Because of the break in the first period and other peculiarities noted, she was taken out of the trial, which left three cows in each lot. All of them were fed to their full capacity for so long a period except Sweet Brier and possibly, Topsy; the former would have taken a few pounds more and the latter might have taken half as much. Every milking of each cow was weighed and tested for per cent fat, as has been our invariable practice since the establishment of the dairy herd in the autumn of 1891. The daily grain ration was as follows: Lots 1 and 2 Bran 6.17 lbs. Barley 3.08 lbs. Corn 3.08 lbs. Linseed Meal 1.65 lbs. Lots 3 and 4 Bran 5.29 lbs. Barley 2.64 lbs. Corn 2.64 lbs. Linseed Meal 1.41 lbs. Samples of Grain , Hay and Ensilage . — Samples of the grain were taken in Mason pint jars and sealed. The samples of ensilage were taken by the chemist, and both prairie and 68 timothy hay were sampled every day and a composite sample of each was analyzed. All the work in connection with the experiment was done by students attending the School of Agriculture. Messrs. Walter Field and A. J. Glover had charge of the feeding; W. C. Currie, R. W. Clark and James McGrath did the milking; Archie L. Haecker tested the milk with the Babcock test and Ernest W. Major kept the record and computed the yield of milk and fat. The milk was weighed and sampled by the milkers. All the work was done with that zeal and earnest fidelity which can only be secured through those who take a deep interest in obtaining accurate results in an experiment of this kind. Since the ration fed to Lot 1 and Lot 2 differed from that fed to Lot 3 and Lot 4, the results obtained from the first two groups will be considered separate from that of the last two. TABLE XXII.— Cows, Weights, Date of Calving and Date of Service. Name Bettie Daisy Gertie Fancy Houston Roxy Clara Sully Beckley Mollie Pride Nora Jenny Sweet Brier. Rossie Topsy Age Breed Wt. Date of calving 9 Guernsey 846 Aug., 1893 2y 2 5 Grade Guernsey Grade Jersey 874 Sept. 26, 1893 8 Polled Angus 1246 Mar., 1893 10 Jersey-Guernsey 867 Nov. 5, 1893 9 Gr. Jersey 936 Aug. 10, 1893 8 May 27, 1893 10 “ Shorthorn 1173 Jul v 5, 1893 9 “ Jersey July 10, 1893 “ Shorthorn 950 11 Jersey “ -Guernsey 748 May 2, 1893 4 827 Aug. 15, 1893 6 Gr. Holstien Nov. 27, 1893 10 Guernsey 1025 Oct. 28, 1893 6 Gr. Jersey 916 May 15, 1893 8 “ Holstien 1030 Nov. 9, 1893 Jany. 9, 1894 Nov. 10, 1893 Served Dec. 30, 1893 April 10, 1894 Nov. 15, 1894 Nov. Nov. Dec. Nov. Nov. Jan. Jan. Dec. Dec. 19, 1893 13, 1893 27, 1893 30, 1893 26, 1893 17, 1894 30, 1894 15. 1893 28. 1893 The weight of the cows is the average of the weight of each on the 5th and 12th of February at the beginning of the experiment. The composition of the bran, barley, corn, ensilage, timo- thy and prairie hay and percentage digestible of bran, bar- ley and corn was obtained by analyses and experiments made by Prof. Harry Snyder. The co-efficients employed in calculating the amount digestible in timothy and prairie hay were taken from the Massachusetts State Experiment 69 TABLE XXIII.— Composition of Feed Stuffs Used. Percentage composition. j Lbs. digestible. Bran. Barley •Corn Linseed meal... Timothy hay.. Prairie hay Ensilage B* 5.95 15.38 11.57 - 11.25 5.70 32.90 4.58 6.53 6.28 5.91 1.41 2.42 10.25 5.05 6.00 2.70 2.28 3.88 8.90 7.90 28.83 3.17 26.32 2.83 6.00 1,06 n c r P O 52.87' 65.63 69.40 35.40 44.57 47.81 17.19 3 P 10.40 11.78 11.72 9.20 12.32 10.85 72.00 ►i o n> 3 ^ p >1 O 1 Po 2 o 1 n 11.55 9.42 10.11 27.00 3.17 2.36 1.10 34.89 56.82 65.16 32.00 28.97 27.73 13.00 3.3S 2.92 1.11 2.00 16.14 13.16 2.00 3.63 1.89 3.01 7.10 1.81 1.42 .70 Station Annual Report for 1893; using the eo-efficient from “hay of mixed grasses low in nitrogen,” for the prairie hay For ensilage and linseed meal those used in the Annual Re- port of the Wisconsin Experiment Station for 1892 were em- ployed. FEED CONSUMED AND MILK AND BUTTER FAT PRODUCED BY LOTS 1 and 2. The following tables give the amount of grain and hay eaten and pounds of milk and butter fat produced by each cow in Lots 1 and 2 during the four periods- ' TABLE XXIV. Lot 1. Period I. Feb. 12—25. Period II. Mch. 5—18. Grain Prairie hay Milk Fat Grain Timo- thy Milk Fat Bettie Fancy Gertie lbs. 196 196 196 — lbs. 194 196 195 lbs. 117.8 129.4 223.6 lbs. 7.52 6.50 11.67 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 140 196 196 lbs. 124.0 138.2 213.8 lbs. 7.72 5.89 10.33 Total j 588 585 470.8 25.69 588 532 476.0 23.94 Period III. Mch. 26— April 8. Period IV. April 16 —29. Grain Prairie hay Milk P'at | Grain | Timo- thy Milk Fat Bettie Fancy Gertie lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 129.9 137.1 214.1 lbs. 1 8.61 | 6.02 1 10.70 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 181.5 196 182.5 lbs. 133.5 120.9 207.8 lbs. 9.11 5.53 10.64 T o tell 588 588 481.1 25.33 ! II 588 560 462.2 25.28 70 It will be observed that Bettie gained in Period II. 6.2 pounds of milk and .2 of a pound fat over that given by her during Period I. During Period III. she gained 5.9 pounds of milk and .89 of a pound of fat over Period II, and during Period IV. 3.6 pounds of milk and .5 of a pound of fat over Period III. In Period II. Fancy gained, while on timothy, 8.8 pounds of milk and lost .61 of a pound of fat as com- pared with Period I., while in Period III. on prairie hay she lost 1.1 pounds of milk and gained .13 of a pound of fat, and in Period IV, on timothy she lost 16.2 pounds of milk and .49 of a pound of fat. Gertie lost in yield of fat during both periods when fed on timothy, and regained a trifle when on praire hay in Period III. TABLE XXV. Lot 2. Period I. Feb. 12 — 25. Period II. Mch. 15 — 18. Grain Timo- thy _ lbs' 193 196 196 Milk lbs. 281.0 213.9 238.2 Fat Grain Prairie hay Milk Fat Houston Roxy Sully lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 15.15 10.38 11.25 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 196 196 996 lbs. 312.6 221.4 257.8 lbs. 14.66 11.04 11.06 588 585 [ 733.1 36.78 588 588 791.8 36.76 Period III. Mch. 26 — Apr. 8. 1 1 1 1 | Period. IV. Apr. 16—29. Grain Timo- thy Milk Fat lbs. 14.83 10.86 11.16 | Grain | Prairie 1 hay Milk Fat Houston Roxy Sullv Total lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 299.3 209.9 242.3 1 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 196 196 196 lbs. 295 4 209.3 259.7 lbs. 15.02 11.51 12.05 588 588 764.4 36.85 538 588 1 764.4 38.58 In the above table is given the amount of grain and hay eaten and milk and fat produced by each cow during the four periods, and also the totalpounds of feed eaten and milk and butter fat produced by Lot 2 during the four periods. During the first three periods there was scarcely any variation in the total amount of butter fat produced by the three cows. Dur- ing the fourth period while the cows received prairie hay they gained 1.76 pounds fat. 71 With one exception Lot 2 ate all the feed given during the four periods, Houston on a single occasion refused to eat all the hay. The hay left was weighed and deducted, making the amount of hay consumed 193 pounds, being 3 pounds less than that eaten by the other cows in the group. Comparing the yields of milk and butter fat during the first period with that of the fourth it will be seen that the cows gained both in yield of milk and of fat during the trial, showing that the cows were in excellent working condition and responded well to the care bestowed in feeding and milk- ing. SUMMARY OF RESULTS WITH LOTS 1 AND 2. By adding the total amount of milk yielded by Lot 1 during Periods I. and III. and Lot 2 during Periods II. and IV. we find the number of pounds of milk and butter fat yielded when feeding prairie hay. The total amount of milk and butter fat produced by Lot 1. during Periods II. and IV., and by Lot 2 during Periods I. and III. gives the number of pounds of milk and fat yielded when feeding on timothy hay. The following table gives the total quantity of grain, timothy hay and prairie hay eaten and milk and butter fat produced by Lots 1 and 2 during each of the four periods: TABLE XXVI. Comparing Prairie Hay With Timothy for Milk and Butter Fat. Timothy Hay. Prairie Hay. 1 Grain Tim- othy hay Milk Fat 1 Grain Prai- rie hay Milk Fat Lot 1 Period I [ 588 532 476.0 23.94 Lot i 1 Period I 588 585 470.8 25.69 1 IV 588 560 462.2 25.28 ! i III 588 | , 588 481.1 25.33 2 I 588 585 733.1 36.78 2 II 588 588 791.8 36.76 2 III 588 588 751.5 36.85 2 IV 588 i 588 764.4 38.58 2352 2265 2422.8 122.85 2352 2349 2508.1 126.36 During the four periods the cows when fed on prairie hay consumed as much grain as they did when fed on timothy. Eiiminatingthis commonfactor we have the following result: 2,265 pounds of timothy hay with grain produced 2,422.8 pounds of milk containing 122.85 pounds of fat. 72 2,349 pounds of prairie hay with a similar amount of grain produced 2,508.1 pounds of milk containing 126.36 pounds of fat. During the periods when prairie hay was fed, the cows in Lots 1 and 2 produced 85.3 pounds more milk and 3.51 pounds more butter fat than they did during the periods when timothy hay was fed. Applying the standard of values for the two kinds of hay adopted on page 39 of this report, being $5.60 per ton for timothy and $3.20 for prairie hay, it is found that the cost of the daily ration fed to Lot 1, during Periods I and III and to Lot 2, during Periods II and IV, when fed on grain and prairie hay, was 12.1 cents, and the cost of the daily ration fed to Lot 1 during Periods II and IV and to Lot 2 during Periods I and III, when fed on timothy hay, was 13.8 cents. During the 28 days when the cows were fed on grain and tim- othy hay they consumed $23.18 worth of feed and produced 2.422.8 pounds of milk and 122.85 pounds of butter fat; the milk costing 95 cents per hundred pounds and the butter fat 18.8 cents per pound. During the 28 days when fed on grain and prairie hay, they consumed $20.33 worth of feed and produced 2,508.1 pounds of milk and 126.36 pounds of butter fat; the milk costing 81 cents per hundred pounds and the butter fat 16 cents per pound, being a difference of 14 cents per hundred pounds of milk and 2.8 cents per pound of butter fat, in favor of prairie hay. FEED CONSUMED AND MILK AND BUTTER FAT PRODUCED BY LOTS 3 AND 4. Twelve cows were in the experiment proper. Six, as we have seen, were fed a fundamental grain ration of 14 pounds each daily with 14 pounds of timothy or prairie hay, three receiving prairie hay and three timothy in alternation during the four periods. The other six were divided into two groups designated as Lot 3 and Lot 4, and received a fundamental ration of 12 lbs. of grain and ten pounds of ensilage with 73 11 lbs. of timothy or prairie hay, the hay being fed in al ternation during the four periods the same as with Lots 1 and 2, mentioned above. While there is a slight variation m the amount of milk and fat produced by each cow during the four periods the amount produced by each 'group show! lemarkable uniformity and persistency in vield. Pride dur- “ 7 ebrUary gaVe 21 g P? % P rt- 9 3 S’ Grp m n p; 3 S 3 ^ c g P Mollie .. Nora Pride Total lbs. 168 168 168 lbs. 140 140 140 lbs. 154 154 154 152.7 169.9 240.9 7.23 9.22 12.41 lbs. 168 168 168 lbs. 140 140 140 lbs. 154 154 154 148.2 166 5 215.1 8.08 9.60 11.80 504 420 462 563.5 28.86 504 420 462 j 1 i 529.8 1 29.48 TABLE XXVIII. LOT 4. Period I. Feb. 12— -25. Period II. Mch. 5- -18. Grain Ensil- age Timo- thy Milk Fat Grain Ensil- age Prairie hay Milk Fat lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbr. lbs. lbs. lbs. Rossie 168 140 149 213.9 9.20 168 140 154 226.1 9.10 Sweet Briar 168 140 154 194.6 10.76 168 140 154 197.6 10.00 Topsv 168 140 151 306.5 12.82 168 140 1 54 325.9 13.02 Total 504 420 454 715.0 j 32.78 | 504 420 462 749.6 32.12 Period III. Mch. 26 — Apr. 8. Period. TV. Apr. 16 — 29. Rossie Sweet Briar. Topsy Grain ts ca 3 Grp 2. rt — Timo- thy Milk Fat 1 1 Grain gS 1 fD wu. Prairie hay 1 Milk 1 j Fat lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. 168 140 154 232-5 9.61 168 140 154 245.8 10.14 168 140 154 197.0 10.06 I 68 140 154 218.8 11.06 168 140 | 154 279.7 11.32 168 140 154 290.2 11.89 504 420 262 709.2 1 1 30.99 1 504 420 462 i 1 754.8 I 33.09 Total 75 During period I Rossie in Lot 4 refused 5 lbs. of timothy, and Topsy refused 3 lbs of timothy which were weighed back. During the other periods all the grain, ensilage and hay offered was eaten. In yield of milk Rossie gained gradu- ally during the experiment giving 213.9 lbs. in the first period and 245.8 in the fourth. In fat she lost .1 lb. in the second, gained .51 of a pound in the third and .53 of a pound in the fourth. Sweet Brier gave almost exactly the same amount of milk during the first three periods and in the fourth, on prairie hay, gained 21.8 lbs. Her variation in yield of butter fat was slight; losing .76 of a pound in the second period and gaining 1 lb. in the fourth, both on prairie hay. Topsy gained in milk and fat in the second while on prairie hay, lost in milk and fat, while in the third on timo- thy and gained in both milk and fat during the fourth on prairie hay. Comparing the yield of milk and fat during the first period with that of the fourth it will be seen that the lot gained both in milk and fat during the experiment giving 39.8 lbs. more milk and .31 of a pound more fat the last period than the first. SUMMARY OF RESULTS WITH LOTS 3 AND 4. Adding the yield of milk and butter fat of Lot 3 during Periods I and III with that of Lot 4 during Periods II and IV we find the number of pounds of milk and butter fat pro- duced while fed on prairie hay. And adding the total amount of milk and fat produced by Lot 3 during Periods II. and IV., and by Lot 4 during Periods I. and III. gives the amount of milk and butter fat yielded by the cows when fed on timothy hay. The following table gives the amount of grain, ensilage, timothy and prairie hay eaten and milk and butter fat pro- duced by Lots 3 and 4, during each of the four periods: 76 TABLE xxix— Comparing Prairie Hay with Timothy for Milk and Butter Fat. Prairie Hay. Grain Ensilage Hay Milk Fat Lot 3 Period I 501 420 454 518.4 26.67 “ 3 “ III 504 420 462 563.5 28.86 “ 4 “ II 504 420 462 749.6 32.12 “ 4 “ IV 504 420 462 754.8 33.09 j 2013 | 1680 1840 2586.3 120.74 Timothy Hay. 1 Grain Ensilage Hay Milk Fat Lot 3 Period II 504 420 462 593.3 1 28.06 “ 3 “ IV 504 420 462 529.8 29.48 “ 4 “ I 504 420 454 715.0 32,78 “ 4 “ III 504 420 462 709.2 1 30.99 2016 ! 1680 1 1840 2547.3 121.31 The amount of grain, ensilage and hay eaten by the cows in Lots 3 and 4 was practically the same We have therefore the following result: The cows fed on prairie hay , grain and ensilage produced during the experiment 2,586.3 lbs. of milk containing 120.74 lbs. of butter fat. The cows fed on timothy hay } grain and ensilage pro- duced 2,547.3 lbs. of milk containing 121.31 lbs. of butter fat. The difference being 39 lbs. of milk in favor of prairie hay and 5.7 of a pound of butter fat in favor of timothy. During the periods when prairie hay was fed the cows in Lots 3 and 4 produced 39 lbs. more milk and .57 of a pound less butter fat than they did during the periods when timo- thy hay was fed. Applying the standard of values for the two kinds of hay used in the first part of this report, being $5.60 per ton for timothy and $3.20 for prairie hay, the cost of the daily ration fed to Lot 3 during Periods I. and III. and to Lot 4 during Periods II. and IV. when fed on grain, ensilage and prairie hay was 11.1 cents. And the cost of the daily ration fed to Lot 3 during Periods II. and IV. and to Lot 4 during Periods I. and III. when fed on timothy hay was 12.4 cents. During the 28 days when the cows were fed on grain, ensil- age and prairie hay they consumed $18.64 worth of feed and produced 2,586.3 lbs. of milk and 120.74 lbs. of butter fat; the milk costing 72 cents per hundrek pounds and the butter fat 15.4 cent per pound. During the periods when they were fed on grain, ensilage and timothy hay they consumed $20.83 worth of feed and produced 2,547.3 lbs. of milk and 121.31 lbs. of butter fat; the milk costing 81.7 cents per hundred lbs. and the butter fat 17.1 cents per pound, being a difference of 9.7 cents per hundred pounds of milk and 1.7 cents per pound of butter fat in favor of the ration when prairie hay was fed. Taking the results of the four lots of cows we find that when timothy was fed the average cost of a hundred pounds of milk was 88.3 cents and the average cost of a pound of butter fat was 17.9 cents, and during the periods when prairie hay was fed the average cost of a hundred pounds of milk was 76.5 cents, and the cost of pound of butter fat was 15.7 cents, being 11.8 cents less per hundred pounds of milk and 2.2 cents less per pound of butter fat when prairie hay was fed. GENERAL SUMMARY. As the results of two experiments conducted with twelve cows comparing the nutritive value of timothy and prairie hay for milk and butter fat production we have the follow- ing testimony: First: As between early cut and well cured timothy hay and fine well cured upland prairie hay, cows prefered the prairie hay. Second: Prairie hay was at least equal to timothy for the production of milk and butter fat. Third: At the present price of the two kinds of hay, milk was produced at thirteen per cent, less cost, and butter fat at twelve per cent, less cost when prairie hay was fed. Fourth: With dairy cows fresh in milk in the fall or early winter, comfortably housed, well and regularly fed and milked, there will belittle if any shrinkage in the flow of milk and yield of butter fat during the winter months. 78 DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN THE RATIONS. In planning this experiment no note was taken as to the amount of the different nutrients contained in the rations selected. The kind and quantity of feed stuff was made up from a dairyman's standpoint and the amount of protein and carbohydrates and the nutritive ratio of the four rations used was not calculated until several months after the ex- periments closed. The remarkable results obtained in this experiment in regard to the uniform and persistent flow of milk and yield of butter fat during so long a trial, makes the nutritive ratio of the rations and the amount of protein, carbohydrates and fat they contained a matter of consider- able interest. The experiment commenced on the 12th of Februan^ and closed with the 29th day of April, being a period of 77 days. During the first period of the experiment commencing the 12th and closing the 25th of February the twelve cows gave 2,8628.2 lbs. of milk and 139.74 lbs. butter fat and during the last period commencing the 16th of April and ending with the 29th of April they gave 2,922.6 lbs. of milk and 142.371bs. of butter fat being 60.4 lbs. more of milk and 2.63 lbs. more butter fat than they gave the first period. In the following table is given the the dry organic matter and the digestable nutrients in the rations fed to lots 1 and 2; to lot 1 during periods I. and III. and to lot 2 during periods II. and IV. TABLE XXX.— Digestible Nutrients in Ration when Grain and Prairie Hay were Fed. Kind of Feed Lbs of Feed Dry Organ-i ic Matter DfGESTIBLE Digestible Nutrients Lbs Nutri- tive ratio Protein Carbohy- drates Fat Bran 6.17 5.53 .71 2.36 .22 3.29 Barley i 3.08 2.72 .29 1 84 .06 2.19 Corn I 3 08 2.72 .31 2.04 .09 2.44 Linseed Meal... 1.65 1.50 .45 .52 .12 1.09 Prairie Hay 14.00 1 2.48 .33 5.72 .20 6.25 Total 27.98 24.95 2.09 12.48 .69 15.26 1:6.7 The six cows in lots 1 and 2, during the periods when prairie hay was fed took 24.95 lbs. of dry matter containing 79 2.09 lbs. protein, 12.48 lbs. carbohydrates and .69 lbs. of fat making 15.26 lbs. digestible nutrients daily; during which periods they ate 2,563.68 lbs. of digestible dry matter. By referring to table XXVI. it will be seen that the cows in lot 1, periods I. and III. and lot 2, periods II. and IV. gave 2,508.1 lbs. of milk containing 126.36 lbs. of butter fat, which is equivalent to 97.83 lbs. of milk contain- ing 4.92 lbs. of butter fat for every 100 lbs. of digestible nutrients. In the following table is given the dry organic matter and the digestible nutrients in the rations fed to lots 1 and 2; to lot 1 during periods II. and IV. and to lot 2 duiing periods I. and III. TABLE XXXI— Digestible Nutrients in Ration when Grain and Timothy Hay were Fed. Kind of Feed Lbs of Feed Dry Organ- ! ic Matter DIGESTIBLE Digestible Nutri- Nutrients tive ratio Protein Carbohy- drates Fat Bran 6.17 5.53 .71 2.36 .22 3.29 Barley 3.08 2,72 .29 1.84 .06 2.19 Corn 3.08 2 72 .31 2.04 .09 2.44 Linseed Meal... 1.65 1.50 .45 .52 .12 1.09 Timothy Hav.. 14.00 12.28 .44 6.32 .25 7.01 24.75 2.20 13 08 .74 16.02 1:6.7 The six cows in lots 1 and 2 while on timothy hay ate 24.75 lbs. dry matter per day during the four periods con- taining 2.2 lb. protein, 13.08 lbs. carbohydrates, .74 of pound of fat. The total digestible nutrients taken by each cow per day was 16.02 lbs. Deducting the amount refused makes a total for the six cows during the two periods of 2,649.36 lbs. By referring to table XXVI. it will be seen that the cows in lots 1 and 2 while on timothy hay yielded 2,422.8 lbs. of milk and 122.85 lbs. of butter fat, which is equivalent to 91.50 lbs. of milk containing 4.63 lbs. of butter fat for every 100 lbs. digestible nutrients. Summing the results of the two lots during the four periods we have the following: 80 Milk produced per 100 lbs. of digestible matter Fat produced per 100- lbs. of digestible matter Lbs. Lbs. With Grain and Prairie Hay 97.83 4.92 With Grain and Timothy Hay 91.50 4.63 In favor of Prairie Hay '....| 6.33 | .29 Per cent | 6.9 | 6.2 Lots 3 and 4 were fed ensilage in addition to hay and grain. The results obtained by the cows in these lots are therefor considered seperately. The rations fed to lot 3 during periods I. and III. and to lot 4 during periods II. and IV. is given in the following table: TABLE XXXII— Digestible Nutrients in Ration when Grain Ensilage and Prairie Hay were Fed. Feed Lbs Feed Lbs Dry Matter DIGESTIBLE Total Di- gestible dry matter Nutri- tive ratio Protein Carbohy- drates Fat Bran 5.29 4.74 .61 2.02 .19 2.82 Barley 2.64 2.33 .25 1.58 .05 1.88 Corn 2.64 2.33 .27 1.75 .08 2.10 Linseed Meal... 1.41 1.28 .38 .45 .10 .93 Prairie H ay. .... 11.00 9.81 .26 4.50 .14 4.90 Ensilage 10.00 2.80 .11 1.32 .07 1.50 32.98 23.29 1.88 11.62 .63 14.13 1:6.8 The six cows in lots 3 and 4 during the periods when prairie hay was fed received 23.29 lbs. of dry matter daily containing 1.88 lbs. protein, 11.62 lbs. carbohydrates and .63 of a pound of fat, making 14.13 lbs. digestible nutrients. During thefour periods when on prairie hay they ate 2,373.- 84 lbs. digestible dry matter, and produced 2,586.3 lbs. of milk containing 120.74 lbs. of butter fat which is equivalent to 108.95 lbs. of milk and 5.08 lbs. butter fat for every 100 lbs. digestible dry matter taken. The ration fed to lots 3 and 4 during periods when timothy was fed, is given in the following table: TABLE XXXIII.— Digestible Nutrients in Ration when Grain, Ensilage and Timothy Hay were Fed. | Lbs Feed Lbs Dry Matter DIGESTIBLE Total Di- gestible dry matter Nutri- tive ratio Protein Carbohy- I diates Fat Bran 5.29 4.74 .61 2.02 .19 2.82 Barley 2.64 2.33 .25 1.58 .05 1.88 Corn.. 2.64 2.33 .27 1.75 .08 2.10 Linseed Meal... 1.41 1.28 .38 .45 .10 .93 Ti m o thy H ay. . 11.00 9.64 .35 4.96 .20 5.51 Ensilage 10.00 2.80 .11 1.32 .07 1.50 32.98 23.12 1.97 12.08 .69 14.14 1:6.9 81 The six cows in lots 3 and 4 during the periods when timothy hay was fed received 23.12 lbs. of dry matter daily containing 1.97 lbs, protein, 12.08 lbs. of carbohydrates and .69 of a pound of fat making 14.74 pounds of digestible nutrients. During the periods when fed on timothy hay they ate 2,476.32 lbs. digestible nutrients and produced 2,547.3 lbs. of milk containing 121.31 lbs. of butter fat which is equivalent to 102.86 lbs. of milk containing 4.89 lbs. of butter fat for every 100 lbs. of digestible dry matter eaten. Comparing the results obtained when the two groups were fed on prairie hay with that when fed on timothy hay we have the following: Milk produced per 100 Butter fat produced lbs. digestible dry per 100 lbs. digestible matter dry matter Lbs Lbs With grain, ensilage and prairie hay With grain, ensilage and timothy hay 108.95 5,08 102.86 4.89 In favor of Prairie Hay 6.09 .19 Per cent 1 5.9 3.9 While the results obtained with the two different groups of cows are not comparable for the reason that the last two groups received ensilage in addition to grain and hay, yet it is interesting to note that the cows receiving ensilage pro- duced 11.24 pounds more milk and .21 of a pound more fat from 100 pounds digestible dry matter than was given by the cows in lots one and two, fed on grain and hay; also that the cows receiving ensilage had a ration having a nutrition ratio of 1 : 6.9, while groups one and two were fed on a ration having a nutrition ratio of 1 : 67. The fact that the cows in this trial maintained a uniform flow of milk and slightly increased the yield of fat during the progress of the experiment suggests that a ration of 1:69 gives satisfactory results. RAISING DAIRY BRED CALVES. T. L. HJECKER. Minnesota is destined to become one of the greatest dairy states in the Union, and since the dairy industry can be developed only in proportion to the increase of the num- ber of cows, the rearing of calves for the dairy is a matter of vital importance. In all that vast territory north and west of the twin cities, there are but few localities within a radius of four miles where there are enough cows to warrant the organization of a co-operative creamery or cheese factory association. In such an extent of country where there is a demand for cows in nearly every neighborhood, the attempt to supply this demand by purchase is out of the question and our only remedy is to breed and rear the calves and in this way the demand for dairy stock can be gradually supplied. It is therefore to the interest of farmers of Minnesota to breed their cows to dairy sires and rear the heifer calves. The importance of having stock intended for the dairy pro- duced by dairy sires is forcibly illustrated in another part of this bulletin, where it is shown by actual experiment wiih twenty-three cows, on a years* trial, that the dairy bred cows produced on an average 337 pounds of butter iat at a cost of 11.6 cents per pound, while the cows having a ten- dency to convert feed into beef on practically the same ration gave, on an average, only 267 pounds of butter fat, costing 13.8 cents per pound. There are now and then good dairy animals produced by sires belonging to beef or general-pur- pose breeds, but they are exceptional cases. The great ma- jority of the offspring will be a failure in the dairy. The calves reared in this trial were all of the dairy type and with three exceptions converted all of their feed into growth. The object of the experiment was to compare No. 6. YOUNG HOUSTON. the cost of raising calves on whole milk and on skim milk supplemented with a feed of flax seed meal — ground flax, and to note the thriftiness of the calves raised on the two kinds of feed. This experiment was undertaken after fifteen years’ experience in raising dairy calves as a business and therefore not without certain settled convictions as to the best methods of procedure. The calf was allowed to suckle the dam once and in some instances twice. It was then taken from the dam and one feeding period allowed to pass without offering the Ccdf any milk. The object in doing this was to get the calf to drink readily without the finger. During the first week the calf was fed twice a day as much of the dam’s milk as was considered sufficient to keep it in a thrifty condition. To insure uniform feeding the milk was weighed as soon as drawn from the cow and given to the calf at once. During the second week the feed was half whole milk from the dam and half fresh separator skim milk. The third week, if in a thrifty condition, it received separator skim milk with a table-spoonful of ground flax. If a little delicate it received one-third whole and two-thirds skim milk. The ration of skim milk and ground flax seed was gradually increased ac- cording to the growth of the calf. 84 Nine calves were in the trial, one was fed on whole milk during a period of 61 days while eight were changed to skim milk as indicated above. TABLE XXX VI.— Record of Calf No. 1. Period of Four Weeks. FEED. Cost for per- iod Weight Gain in weight Average dai- ly gain Cost of 1 lb. gain Milk First Lbs. 364 504 520 $ 3.64 5.04 5.20 Lbs. 115 190 245 Lbs. 30 75 55 Lbs. 1.07 2.68 1.96 Cts. 12.15 6.71 10 20 Second * Third Total 1388 13.88 245 160 Average 1.96 9.69 *Last period only three weeks and five days. The time is divided into periods of four weeks each. Dur- ing the first, second and third week of the first period the calf received 12 pounds of milk daily and during the fourth week it received 16 pounds of milk each day. During four weeks it took 364 pounds of whole milk and gained thirty pounds in growth, being an average daily gain in weight of 1.07 pounds; each pound of gain costing 12.15 cents, estimating milk at $1 per 100 pounds. During the first week of the second period it received sixteen pounds of milk daily, during the second and third week eighteen pounds, and during the fourth week twenty pounds. During the four weeks it received 504 pounds of milk and gained 75 pounds, being an average daily gain of 2.68 pounds, at a cost of 6.71 cents per pound. During the third period which covered only twenty-six days, it received twenty pounds of milk daily, gained 55 pounds at a cost of 10.2 cents per pound ; the average daily gain being 1.96 pounds. The total amount of whole milk taken was 1,388 pounds, total gain 160 pounds and the average cost per .pound gain was 9.69 cents. The calf consumed $13.88 worth of milk and was then sold for veal bringing $7.20, being a loss of $ 6 . 68 . 85 During a year’s trial, in which every cow in the station herd was included, it was found that the average cost for producing a hundred pounds of milk was 61 cents. Apply- ing this cost to the amount of milk taken by the calf instead of the value of a hundred pounds of milk, we find that the calf took $9.79 worth of milk leaving a net loss of $2.40. TABLE XXXVII. Record of Calf No. 2. Period of four weeks Feed Cost for period | Weight Gain in weight Average daily gain Cost of 1 lb. gain Milk... Skim milk.... Flax meal ... Oats ... w p First lbs. 88 lbs. 310 462 504 lbs. 1.96 1 J lbs. lbs. $ 1.40 .81 1.27 lbs. 1(»3 127 160 lbs. 43 24 33 lbs. 1.53 .86 1.18 cents 3.27 3.36 3.84 Second 4.41 8.26 1 1 Third 21 42 Total 88 1276 14.63 21 42 3.48 160 100 Averaga 1.19 3.49 1 i 1 Calf No. 2 was a full blood Jersey. During the first two days it received 10 pounds whole milk daily. During the other five days it received 8 pounds whole milk and 4 pounds skim milk. During the first two days of the second week it re- ceived 4 pounds of whole milk and 8 pounds of skim milk daily and during the balance of the week it received 4 pounds whole milk and 10 pounds skim milk. During the second and third weeks it received 16 pounds of skim milk per day and 1 pound of flax seed meal per week. It gained 43 pounds in weight during the period, being an average daily gain of 1.53 pounds at a cost of 3.27 cents per pound of gain. During the second period it received 462 pounds of skim milk, 4.41 pounds of flax seed meal, gained 24 pounds in weight being an average daily gain of .86 of a pound at a cost of 3.36 cents per pound of gain. During the third period it received 504 pounds of skim milk, 8.26 pounds of flax seed meal, gaining 1.18 pounds per day at a cost 3.84 cents per pound. The total gain during the three periods was 100 pounds, being an average daily gain of 1.19 pounds. The total cost for feed during the 84 days was $3.49. 86 TABLE XXXVIII. -Record of Calf No. 3. Period of four weeks. Feed. Cost for ' period 1 Weight Gain in weight Average daily gain Cost of 1 lb, gain Milk.. Skim milk.... Flax 1 seed ....1 Oats.. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs lbs. cents First 126 182 .98 1.49 .95 40 1.43 3.72 Second 462 5.53 1.40 .85 127 32 1.14 2.66 Third 462 6.72 4.62 .90 163 36 1.18 2.51 Fourth ... ... .. 448 7.70 7.28 .90 207 44 1.57 2.04 Fifth 448 5.88 11.90 .93 234 27 .96 3.46 Total : ten 200? 26.81 25.20 5.07 234 179 Average 1.28 2.88 1 1 Calf No. 3 was a cross bred Jersey-shorthorn. It was changed gradually from whole milk to skim milk. Duringthe first week it received eight pounds whole milk per day, dur- ing the second six pounds whole milk and six pounds skim milk, during the third week four pounds whole milk and eight pounds skim milk, and during the fourth week it re- ceived twelve pounds skim milk per day. The gain in weight during the first period of four weeks was 48 pounds, being an average gain of 1.43 pounds per day at a cost of 3.72 cents per pound. During the first two weeks of the second period it received sixteen pounds of skim milk daily and from .17 to .20 of a pound of flax seed and during the third week it received daily sixteen pounds skim milk and .20 of a pound of flax seed meal, and during the fourth week eighteen pounds skim milk and .2 pounds flax seed meal. During the second period it received 462 pounds skim milk, 5.53 pounds flax seed and 1.4 pounds of whole oats, gaining during the four weeks 32 pounds, at a cost of 2.04 cents per pound. During the third period the milk was gradually increased to 18 pounds and the flax meal to .25 of a pound, aggregating during the period 462 pounds skim milk, 6.72 pounds ground flax and 4.62 pounds oats, the calf averaging a daily gain of 1.28 pounds at a cost of 2.51 cents per pound. During the fourth period it received 448 pounds of milk, 7.70 pounds flax meal and 7.28 pounds oats, making a gain of 44 pounds 87 at a cost of 2.04 cents per pound. During the fifth period the ground flax was decreased to 5.88 pounds and the oats increased to 11.9 pounds and it gained only 27 pounds at a cost of 3.46 cents per pound. During this period it had an attack of scours brought about possibly by feeding too much flax meal. This calf made good growth and laied on some flesh. With a single exception it made a greater aver- age gain than the other calves fed on skim milk, and the cost of growth was only 2.88 cents per pound. TABLE XXXIX— Record of Calf No, 4. FEED. Cost for Per- iod Weight Gain in Weight Average dai- ly gain Cost of 1 lb. gain Period of Four Weeks. Milk Skim milk Flax Seed meal Oats Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. $ Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cts. First 84 252 2.17 1.20 105 33 1.18 3.63 Second 4G2 5.88 2.45 .87 127 22 .78 3.98 Third 462 7.00 5.11 .91 157 30 1.07 3.04 Fourth 448 7.98 8.54 .95 189 32 1.14 2.97 Fifth j 448 4.20 12.25 .89 205 16 .57 5.58 Total ! 84 2072 27.23 28.35 4.82 1 [ 205 133 Average .95i 3.84 Calf No. 4 was a grade Guernsey. During the first week it received 8 pounds of whole milk daily, during the second week 4 pounds of whole milk and 8 pounds of skim milk, during the third week 12 pounds skim milk and during the fourth week 16 pounds, aggregating during the first period 84 pounds whole and 252 pounds skim milk, and 2.17 pounds ground flax, and it gained 33 pounds in weight at a cost of 3.68 cents per pound. During the second period it received 462 pounds of skim milk, 5.88 pounds ground flax and gained 22 pounds, costing 3.98 cents per pound of gain. During the third period with the same amount of skim milk and a slight increase in the meal it gained 30 pounds at a cost of 3 cents per pound while during the fourth period it gained only 16 pounds at a cost of a trifle over 5.5 cents per pound of gain. The calf during the second and fifth periods 88 had an attack of scours which accounts for the small gain made. The cost of growth during the twenty weeks was 25 cents less than calf No. 3. but the cost per pound of growth was about one cent more. TABLE XL. Record of Calf No. 5. Period of Four Weeks. P'eed. Cost for period Weight Gain in weight Average daily gain Cost of 1 lb. gain Milk.. Skim milk.... Flax seed .... Oats.. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. First 112 252 2.17 1.48 115 30 1.07 4.94 Second 462 5.88 2.45 .87 144 29 1.03 3.02 Third 462 7.00 5.11 .90 165 21 .75 4.33 Fourth 448 7.98 8.54 .95 203 38 1.36 2.49 Fifth 448 4.20 12.25 .89 235 32 1.14 2.79 Total 112 2072 27.23 28.35 5.10 235 150 A c rp 1.07 3-51 •1 Calf No. 5 was a grade Holstein and was fed the same as No. 3 with the exception that it received 12 pounds of whole milk the first week. It made moderate growth during the twenty weeks of the trial except a few days during the third period when digestion was impaired by feeding the milk at too low a temperature. The calf was fat when it was dropped and continued to lay on flesh during the experiment. It was heavy in shoulders and full in thighs. TABLE XLI— Record of Calf No. 6. Period of Four Weeks. FEED. Cost for per- iod 1 Weight Gain in Weight Average dai- ly gain Cost of 1 lb. gain g s* Skim milk Flax Seed meal Oats Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. $ Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Cts. First 182 168 .98 2.10 110 45 1.60 4.79 Second 448 5.53 .81 145 35 1.25 2.31 Third 476 6.72 4.62 .92 160 15 .54 6.08 Fourth 462 7.70 6.30 .94 196 36 1.29 2.61 Fifth 448 7.84 11.20 .96 231 35 1.25 2.74 Sixth 448 1.96 14.70 .85 257 26 .93 3.26 Total 182 2450 30.73 36.82 6.58 257 192 Average 1.14 ! 3.47 89 Calf No. 6 was a cross-bred Jersey-Guernsey. It was a model in form from a dairy standpoint, being spare; deep through the middle and flank, light in the fore quarters and unusually large in hind quarters. To show the condition of the calf at the close of the experiment and its conforma- tion, an illustration is given at the head of this article Its dam is Houston, see page 61 of this bulletin. The calf made rapid growth during the experiment except in the third period when its was checked by taking too much skim milk during the second week. During the first, it received 10 pounds whole milk, during the second week 12 pounds and during the third 4 pounds whole milk and 8 pounds skim milk. During the remainder of the trial it re- ceived 16 pounds skim milk daily except in the first and sec- ond week of the third period when it received 18 pounds daily which proved a little too much. It received ground flax and oats the same as did the othej calves in the trial. Dur- ing the six periods the feed cost on an average $1.10 for a period being a trifle over 25 cents per week. It gained on an average 1.14 pounds per day at a cost of 3.47 cents per pound of growth. TABLE XLII.— Record of Calf No 7. Period of Four Weeks Milk... Skim milk.... % Flax « seed.... pH Bran... Oats ... Cost of period Weight Grain in weight Average daily gain.... j Cost of 1 lb. gain lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. $ lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. First 154 196 1.68 1.87 131 49 1.75 3.82 Second 112 280 1.54 197 66 2.34 2.35 Third 490 .78 250 53 1.89 1.48 Fourth 546 10.5 .96 330 80 2.86 1.20 Fifth 560 14 1.01 390 60 2.14 1.68 Sixth 560 14 1.16 420 30 1.07 3.87 Total 266 2632 1.68 24.5 14 $7.32 420 338 Average 2.01 2.40 | 1 Calf No. 7 was a full blood Holestein-Friesian, it was large and in good condition when it was dropped, was a 90 hearty feeder and showed strong digestive powers. During the first week it received 12 pounds of milk daily, during the second 10 pounds of whole milk and 4 pounds of skim milk, and during the third and fourth 12 pounds of skim milk and some flax meal. During the period of four weeks it gained 49 pounds, being an average daily gain of 1 % pounds at a cost of 3.82 cents per pound. During the second period it received 4 pounds whole milk and 10 pounds skim milk daily and gained 66 pounds, being an average daily gain of 2.34 pounds at a cost of 2.35 per pound. During this period it gained in flesh and to prevent this in the third period no whole milk was given. It made an average gain of 1.89 pounds per day at an average cost of a trifle less than 1.5 cents per day. The fourth period it received 546 pounds of skim milk and 10.5 pounds of bran and an equal amount of corn meal gaining 80 pounds at a cost of 1.2 cents per pound. The average gain during the six periods was a trifle over 2 pounds per day at an average cost of 2.4 cent per pound. TABLE XLIII. -Record of Calf No. 8. Period of Four Weeks Feed Cost for period Weight Gain in weight I Average daily gain.... Cost of 1 lb. gain Milk... Skim milk... Flax meal.. Bran.. Corn meal.. It'S. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. $ lbs lbs. lbs. cents First 98 238 .84 1 .36 100 40 1.41 3.44 Second 350 4.13 .64 127 27 .96 2.37 Third 350 .53 154 27 .96 1.96 Fourth 504 .81 195 41 1.46 1.98 Fifth 560 14 14 1.02 240 45 1.61 2.26 Sixth 560 10.5 10.5 .97 270 30 1.07 3.23 Total 98 2562 1 4.97 24.5 24.5 5.33 270 210 Averaere | 1.25 2.54 1 1 Calf No. 8 was a full blood Jersey. During the first week it received 10 pounds of whole milk daily, but not be- ing weighed this week is not included in the above record. During the second week, which is the first week it was in 91 the experiment, it received 8 pounds of whole milk and 4 pounds of skim milk with the usual amount of flax seed meal. It made rapid growth and laid on some flesh. Dur- ing the second period it received 350 pounds of skim milk and 4.13 pounds of ground flax. It still continued to lay on flesh so the ground flax was discontinued in the third and fourth periods. It made excellent growth during the eighth week gaining 68 pounds at an average cost of 1.97 cents per pound. The average daily gain during the trial was 114 pounds per day at a trifle over 2.5 cents per pound. TABLE XLIV.— Record of Calf No. 9. Calf No. 9 was out of grade shorthorn cow by a Jersey sire. In conformation it resembled the sire, and showed little, if any, tendency to lay on flesh. During the first period it received 98 pounds of whole milk, 182 pounds of skim milk and 1.68 pounds of ground flax and gained 1.71 pounds per day at a cost of 2.71 per pound. During the fifth and sixth periods it received in addition to the feed stuffs recorded in the table, 50 pounds of corn meal and 44 pounds of linseed meal which is included in the cost for feed. The calf made satisfactory growth except in the last two periods, when the skim milk was gradually withdrawn. During the time when no skim milk was fed the average cost of a pound of gain was 5.5 cents. The 92 cost of a pound of growth when whole milk was fed was 9.69 cents, while the average cost of a pound of growth of the calves fed on skim milk and ground flax was 3.23 cents. The following table gives a general summary of results: TABLE XLV— Summary. Days in trial Cost Weight 2 O 0Q*g £2 : 5 Average daily gain... Cost of 1 lb. gain $ lbs. lbs. lbs. cents Calf No. l 61 13.88 245 160 1.90 9.69 “ “ 2 84 3.48 160 100 1.19 3.49 “ “ 3 140 ' 5.07 234 179 1.28 2.88 “ “ 4 140 4.82 205 133 .95 3.84 “ “ 5 140 5.10 235 150 1.07 3.51 “ “ 6 168 6.58 257 192 1.14 3.47 “ “ 7 168 7.32 420 338 2.01 2.40 “ “ 8 168 5.33 270 210 1.25 2.54 “ “ 9 168 6.55 265 193 1.14 3.71 Average for calves fed on skim milk 1.25 3.23 The flax seed meal was analyzed with following results: Water 6.11 per cent; dry matter 93.89 per cent. Composition of dry matter: Ash 4.03 Ether extract 40.56 Crude Proetin.. ..23.12 Crude Fiber 8.02 Nitrogen free ex 24.27 While the experiment was fairly satisfactory as to the general growth of t i> t> i> d d d d d oc 05 oo x d i> i> x 6 x x d d H ri Weight of green cheese comi> oioiin o* mxx x q x h h q q in in q in q q q q x x q q q ri h o* d oo i> t> o oo o o d CO CO CO H 01 CO H H ■Hr-i'HHH Time from adding rennet to putting to press SoiocooiNoow^HWioHOcowoTjioiot-i-t-t-o .DHHXOHot-oxoi>NxiocDi>coioi>d 1>V- ixt^dd Time required to cook the curd SHONo^m^xcoxHXOoiHioio^co^ ixooo •S^OlHiJiOCOCOCO^-JiCOCOCOOlOlCOClOlCOCl ! CO 01 ^ rf< S : Temp, to which curd was heated.. ooooooooooooooooooooooooo TjaOOOfflOOrlOOOOtO^OOOMOtD^^lDXX 0505005050500000000000000)0X050505 rH HHrlHHH HHrlrlrl Time required un- til ready for knife. W CD .2 o o x o» co co in ndi> 2 rH Amount of extract used per 1000 pounds of milk o .CDOCDOHOOOOOIOHCOCDHr-IHH^t-HHXXX NdXHHHH O5X05XXl>ddl>l>l>t^Xl'-0it-XXX CHHHHH H rH Temp, of milk when test was taken.... • oooocoooooooooooooooooooo XXXt^XO^XXXOOCD^OOOOOOCCDCOXX XXX XX XOXXXOOXXOOOOOOXXXXX Rennet test for ripeness 95 o o o o m o ominin in o o o o o o o o m o o o o in ^TfXt-Ot-t-Xt-CDOOCDOCDOt-CDC^CDl>^t^ tn H ri H Amount of alkali necessary to neutralize acidity of milk q q iq : q ^j^q^ q cm q q :co : : oi co co h co d oi co* oi oroi o Tf< oi oi oi yHHHHH C r*t , C IririrlrirlrlriTHrlrliHOlrlrtWH Per cent fat in milk in : o x o q q x q h ri q q q q q q q q q : conqo t}I tj! d in rji in d ^ -* in ^ co ^ co •<$ t* rfl co : co co d d Lbs. of milk in vat moo m q q q q q inxdrHCDx'inood^oooooooooooooin XMXOnnOlHininXCDCDCDin«DCDCDCDCDOOOO^CD 01 01 01 H H 01 H HH Date. 1894 NXOO^mOOOXMinONXOOHNHMin^XO ri r 1 H ri N N N H 0* 01 CO •S: : : - - ? ; : : «: :::::: : - fc : *: Pp A < A 114 TABLE XLVII. -Analysis of Milk, Whey and Edam Cheese. Percentage composition From 100 lbs. milk. Date Solids Fat Lbs. Solids ! Fat { Milk 13.65 1 4.9 100.00 1 13.65 4.90 Feb. 7 < Whey 6.75 .41 86.82 5.86 36 \ Gr. cheese 59.10 34.48 13.18 7.79 4.54 \ Milk 13.82 4.8 100 00 13.82 4.80 Feb. 8 S Whey 7.11 .57 86.88 6.18 .50 I Gr. cheese 58.24 32.81 13.12 7.64 4.30 l Milk 13.69 5.0 100.00 13.69 5.00 Feb. 9 < Whey 6.93 .5 86.84 5.92 .43 ( Gr. cheese 58.31 34.70 13.16 7.77 4.57 l Milk 14 J 7 5.2 100.00 14.17 5.20 Feb. 10 ■< Whey 7.30 .79 86.06 6.28 .68 ( Gr. cheese 56.61 32.42 13.94 7.89 4.52 Milk 12 2 Whey Gr. cheese l Milk 13.65 4.7 100.00 13.65 4.70 Feb. 14 2 Whey 7.20 .58 85.90 6.18 .50 ( Gr. cheese 52.91 •29.77 14.10 7.47 4.20 [ Milk 14.02 4.8 100.00 14.02 4.80 Feb. 15 2 Whey 7 28 .54 86.09 6.27 .46 \ Gr. cheese 55.75 31.17 13.91 7.75 4.34 1 Milk 14.00 4.9 100.00 14.00 4.90 Feb. 19 .2 Whey 7.00 .59 85.98 6.02 .51 j Gr. cheese 56.94 31.39 14.02 7.98 4.39 Milk 14.10 5.1 100.00 14.10 5.10 Feb. 20 2 Whey 7.15 .72 86.00 6.15 .62 l Gr. cheese 56.86 32.00 14.00 7.95 4.48 l Milk 14.10 5.1 100.00 14.10 5.10 Feb. 20 2 Whey 7.35 .82 85.50 6.28 .70 j Gr. cheese 53.93 30.34 14.50 7.82 4.40 i Milk 13.24 4.7 100.00 13.24 4.70 Feb. 28 2 Whey 6.95 .50 86.83 6.02 .43 Gr. cheese 54.73 32.36 13.17 7.22 4.27 i Milk 13.93 4.4 100.00 13.93 4.40 March 3 2 Whey 7.24 .45 86.53 6.26 .39 ) Gr. cheese 56.96 29.81 13.47 7.67 4.01 i Milk 13,99 5. 100.00 13.99 5.00 March 5 J Whey 7.48 .58 85.83 6.42 .50 \ Gr. cheese 53,41 31.76 14.17 7.57 4.50 l Milk 12.78 4. 100.00 12.78 4.00 March 6 2 Whey 7.31 .51 87.50 6.40 .45 } Gr. cheese 51.07 28 40 12.50 6.38 3.55 l Milk 10.84 3. 100.00 10.84 3.00 March 7 ■< Whey 6.36 .34 89.00 5.66 .30 } Gr. cheese 47.09 24.55 11.00 5.18 2.70 ( Milk 13.13 4.5 100.00 13.13 4.50 March 8 2 Whey 6.98 .52 87.50 6.11 .46 \ Gr. cheese 56.27 32.40 12.50 7.02 4.04 i Milk 12.28 3.5 100.00 12.28 3.50 March 9 2 Whey 7.30 .70 88.33 6.45 .62 ( Gr. cheese 50.00 24.71 11.67 5.83 2.88 Milk 12.30 4.5 100.00 12.30 4.50 March 10 ■< Whey 7.20 .73 86.25 6.21 .63 ( Gr. cheese 44.24 28.12 13.75 6.09 3.87 Milk 13.59 4.7 100.00 13.59 4.70 March 21 2 Whey 7.53 1.0 87.03 6.55 .87 ) Gr. cheese 54.24 29.56 12.97 7.04 3.83 Milk 13.24 4.7 100.00 13.24 4.70 March 22 2 Whey 7.44 .88 87.03 6.48 .77 i ; Gr. cheese 54.76 29.82 12.97 6.76 3.93 115 TABLE XLVIII.— Analysis of Milk, Whey and Edam Cheese. Percentage Composition. Date Solids .... Water.... Fat Solids not fat.. Ash .. Protein.. Lactose . Milk 1 12.30 87.70 3.35 8.95 .73 3.30 4.90 March 31 -J Whey 7.04 92.96 .67 6.37 .42 .84 5.05 1 Gr Cheese 51.31 48.69 23.21 28.10 3.02 21.49 3.83 ( Milk 12.68 87.32 3.43 9.25 .70 3.57 4.91 Apr. 5 Whey 6.83 93.17 .41 6.39 .44 .96 5.05 I Gr Cheese 55.56 44.44 25.37 30.19 2.59 22.69 3.79 Milk 12.32 87.68 3.15 9.17 .76 3.68 4.80 l Whey 6.87 93.13 .46 6.41 .36 .93 5.05 Apr. 7 -j Gr Cheese 53.20 46 80 23.30 29.90 3.68 24.24 2.92 From 100 lbs. of Milk. Date Pounds.. jsolids .... I Water.... P «■+■ Solids not fat... Ash Protein.. Lactose. ( Milk 100.00 12.30 87.70 3.35 8.95 .73 3.30 4.90 March 31 < Whey 88.11 6.10 81.91 .59 5.61 .37 1 .74 4.45 ( Gr Cheese 11.89 6.20 5.79 2.76 3.34 .36 2.56 .45 \ Milk 100.00 12.68 87.32 3.43 9.25 .70 3.57 4.91 April 5 < Whey 88.00 6.01 81.99 .39 5.63 .39 .85 4.45 \ Gr Cheese 12.00 6.67 5.33 3.04 3.62 .31 2.72 .46 ( Milk 100.00 12.32 87.68 3.15 9.17 .76 3.68 4.80 April 7 s Whey 88.22 6.06 82.16 .41 5.65 .32 .82 4.46 \ Gr Cheese 11.78 6.26 5,52 2.74 3.52 .44 2.86 .34 116 METHOD OF MANUFACTURING GOUDA CHEESE. For a number of years there have been numerous inquir- ies as to the best method of manufacturing cheese in the home dairy. The answers to these inquiries have uniformly been a lengthy description of the cheddar process, which is noUat all adapted to home work. By this process a whole day is required, even when a single cheese is made. What the isolated farmer needs is a short process which requires afstnall outlay only, for apparatus. After a careful study of the methods employed in the manufacture of the numerous foreign brands, the Gouda has been selected as the one best adapted for the home dairy. First, the milk is worked warm, fresh from the cow; second, it requires less than two hours to do the work; third, the cheese can be cured in a cellar or in any damp, cool place; fourth, it is a good keeper; fifth, it is nutritious and palatable. Fig. 6. Self Heating Cheese Vat. Gouda cheese is largely manufactured in Southern Hol- land where climatic conditions are very different from those which exist in the northwest. We are subject to greater and more sudden changes in temperature and a drier atmos- phere. It is therefore evident that the control of tempera- ture and moisture must be provided for. In Holland the cheese is similar in form to the American cheddar, except that the upper and lower edges are rounded. They ordina- rily weigh from eight to sixteen pounds. The cheese made in 117 the Minnesota Dairy School nmd in these experiments weigh- ed from seven to eight pounds and are better adapted for family use. Gouda is a sweet curd cheese made from whole milk fresh from the cow, preferably before it cools below 88 degrees. To prevent cooling it is better to strain at once into a wooden vat lined with tin or copper which prevents rapid cooling; or into a small self heating vat. If color is used one dram to 150 pounds of milk will give about the proper shade. The temperature of the milk, when the rennet is added, should be from 88 to 90 degrees. Enough rennet should be used to make the curd ready for the knife in fifteen to twenty minutes. This will require from seven to twelve ounces of rennet to 1000 pounds of milk, according to the strength of the rennet. To ascertain when it is ready to cut insert the finger in the milk at an angle of 45 degrees until the thumb touches the milk, gently raise the finger and if the curd breaks clean across it leaving but few or no flakes, it is ready. A little practice will soon teach one when the curd cuts to best advantage. It should not become so firm that it will cut hard by gathering in front of the knife or swaying off to one side, as this causes uneven cutting. Neither should it be cut when it is too soft, as this occasions great loss of curd in the whey; yet the general tendency of the curd should be toward softness. To insure even cooking, cut fine — about the size of peas. Stir gently for about five minutes, then apply more heat until the curd reaches 102 to 104 de- grees F.; this should require from 20 to 30 minutes. The curd should be stirred during the whole process, and when ready for the mold it should be quite firm and make a squeaky noise when chewed. FILLING THE GOUDA MOLDS. Now let the whey run off or dip it out, then fill the mold at once by taking a double handful of curd and pressing it gently but firmly into the mold. Care should be taken not to allow the curd to drain too much before it is put into the mold, as it will then be too dry to pack readily. When the mold is full take the cheese out, turn it and replace it in the 118 mold, put on cover and put it under press for an hour. The pressure should be light at first. Fig. 7 Gouia Molds. The press may be an oak stick four inches square, six- teen feet long, one end to rest under a slat nailed against the wall ; place the cheese mold under the stick about three feet from the wall. On the other end suspend a pail or box containing cobble stones; during the first hour the pail should hang some two feet from the outer end of the stick. The cheese should then be taken out for dressing, which is done by taking a piece of cloth about six inches wide and long enough to go around the cheese. Dip cheese and cloth into whey or water at about 120 degrees Fahrenheit, wrap the cloth smoothly around the cheese, folding the edges care- fully over the sides, put a linen cap on each side, replace in mold and again put it under the press; now move the vessel containing the stones or other weights toward the end of the stick, to increase the pressure. Leave it in press from eighteen to twenty-four hours at which time it will be ready for salting. SALTING AND CURING GOUDA CHEESE. This is done by rubbing the cheese all over with salt, once a day for six to ten days, according to temperature, moisture and desired keeping qualities. The cheese should be turned every day. Sometimes brine salting will bring better results. Make a brine as strong as possible, let the cheese float in it from five to eight days turning every day and sprinkling a little salt on top. When salted they should 119 be washed in warm water, wiped dry and placed on the shelf for curing. Be sure to rub and turn them at least once a day the first month, twice a week the second month, and once a week the third month. The curing room should be cool and rather damp. The temperature should not vary more than from 55 to 65 degrees. If one has no vat for the milk, weigh it and put it fresh into a boiler or tub. When the milk is at the proper tem- perature add the rennet at the rate of three small tablets to 100 pounds of milk. Dissolve the tablets in a teacup of warm water (not hot), mix thoroughly in the milk by stir- ring carefully with an inverted dipper. Cut the curd very carefully with a wire broiler or toaster, such as is used in the kitchen. The wires should not be more than 14 to % of an inch apart; pass the broiler through the curd slowly when it is quite soft. To cook the curd drawoff about half the whey and warm to 100 degrees and pour into the vat, gently stir for ten or twelve minutes, then pour off the whey through a sieve or cloth strainer; quickly pour into the curd enough water, heated to 104 degrees, to cover it, stir gently until sufficiently cooked, which should take from fifteen to twenty minutes. If the curd seems to firm up too slowly, raise it to 105 or 106 degrees by adding more warm water. If you have no mold the cheese can be pressed in a sieve, steamer or four-quart measure. If you have no coarse linen use cotton cheese cloth or similar fabric. Scald the whey, and after cooling skim off the fat, which can be used for culinary pur- poses. Only absolutely pure milk can be used in sweet curd work. If any cow is out of health, off her feed, feverish or excited, better throw her milk away or use it for making butter. If there is danger of the curd being tainted or gassy the whey should be let off at once and the curd cooked in water. When it has developed firmness the water should be drawn off and the curd thoroughly worked before putting into the mold. TABLE No. XLIX.— Tabulated Statement of Process and Principal Conditions in the Manufacture of Gouda. 120 Lbs. of milk to 1 lb. cheese 8.1 8.33 7.14 7.14 7.14 7.14 7.09 7.33 7.09 Weight of green cheese 8.5 12 14 14 14 14 14.1 13.5 14.1 Time from adding rennet to putting to press mins. 128 76 77 80 85 51 87 99 93 Amount of alkali necessary to neutralize acidity of whey c.c 10 7.4 7.4 7.2 7 7.6 7 | 7 7.4 Time required to cook the curd mins. 77 45 44 39 39 18 107 60 60 Temp, to which curd was heated... ooooooooo ^C^OOOOJXXX OOOOOOOOO H -H H H H -H Time required until ready for knife mins. 24 18 18 21 24 18 18 1 9 18 Time required imtil coagulation begins mins. 9.38 6 6 7 8 6 6 6 6 Amt. extract used per 1000 lbs. milk. 8.2 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 7.7 8.5 Temp, of milk when test was taken... ooooooooo ooooooooo 0000000X0 Rennet test for ripeness secs. 53 70 60 60 60 60 60 65 70 Amount of alkali necessary to neutralize acidity of Milk Per cent fat in milk c.c. 14.3 12.4 12.6 13 13 13 13 12.4 12.4 5.00 4.50 4.20 4.90 5.00 4.86 4.22 4.50 Lbs. of milk in vat OOOOOOOOO ooooooooo ■HHr-IHHrHHH Date. 1894 Feb. 28 March 12 “ 13 “ 14 “ 15 • “ 16 April 9 “ 11 “ 12 3 21 TABLE L.— Analyses of Milk, Whey and Gouda Cheese. Composition From 100 lbs. of milk Date Solid Fat Lbs. Solids Fat ( Milk 13.98 5.00 100.00 13.98 5.00 Feb. 28 < Whey 7.16 .50 87.68 6.27 .44 \ Green cheese 62.59 36.71 12.32 7.71 4.56 \ Milk 13.15 4.50 100 13.15 4.50 March 12 < Whey 7.03 .46 88 6.19 .40 I Green cheese 58.00 34.17 12 6.96 4.10 \ Milk 13.60 4.20 100 13.60 4.20 March 13 < W'hey 7.23 .60 86 6.22 .52 I Green cheese 52.71 -U2f>.21 14 7.38 3.68 ( Milk • 14.44 4.90 100 14.44 4.90 March 14 { Whey 7.20 .65 86 6.19 .56 l Green cheese 58.93 31*. 00 14 8.25 4.34 \ Milk 13.73 5.00 100 13.73 5.00 March 15 ■< Whey 7.27 .67 86 6.25 .58 l Green cheese 53.43 31.57 14 7.48 4.42 TABLE LI.— Amount of Solids Lost and Recovered in Making Gouda Cheese. Date. Per cent. solids in milk. Pounds of green cheese from 1<»0 lbs. milk. Pounds of solids lost in whey from 100 lbs. milk. Pounds of solids re- covered in cheese from 100 lb. milk Per cent, of solids in milk lost in whey. Per cent, of solids in milk re- covered in cheese. March 13.. 13.60 14.00 6.22 7.38 45.74 54.26 April 11 13.21 13.50 5.99 7.22 45.34 54.66 March 12.. 13.15 12.00 6.19 6.96 47.07 52.93 April 12 13.69 14.10 6.16 7.53 45.00 55.00 April 9 13 80 14.10 6.19 7.61 44.86 55.14 March 14.. 14.44 14,00 6.19 8.25 42.87 57.13 March 15.. 13.73 14.00 6.25 7.48 45.52 54.48 Feb. 28 13.98 12.32 6.27 7.71 44.85 55.15 122 TABLE LII.— Amount of Fat Lost and Recovered in Making Gouda Cheese. Date Per cent fat in milk Lbs. of gr. cheese from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of fat lost in whey from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of fat recovered in cheese from 100 lbs of milk Per cent of fat inmiik lost in whey ! Per cent of fat in milk recovered in green cheese March 13.. 4.20 14.00 .52 3.68 12.38 87.62 April 11 4.22 13.50 .30 3.92 7.10 92.90 March 12.. 4.50 12.00 .40 4.10 8.89 91.11 April 12 4.50 14.10 .51 3.99 11.33 88.67 April 9 4.86 14.10 .47 4.39 9.67 90.33 March 14.. 4.90 14.00 .56 4.34 11.43 88.57 March 15.. 5.00 14.00 .55 4.42 11.60 88.40 Feb. 28 5.00 12.32 .44 4.56 8.80 91.20 TABLE LIII.— Analyses of Milk, Whey and Gouda Cheese. Percentage Compositian. Date ' Solids.... Water ... jFat Solids not fat.. Ash Protein . Lactose. Milk 13.80 86.20 4.86 8.94 .71 3.35 4.85 April 9 1 Whey 7.21 92.79 .55 6.66 .41 .94 5.15 1 Gr Cheese 53.97 46.03 31.13 22.84 2.55 18.01 3.04 ( Milk 13.21 86.79 4.22 8.99 .75 3.40 4.88 April 11 •< Whey 6.93 93.07 .35 6.58 .42 .92 5.15 \ Gr Cheese 53.48 46.52 29.04 24.44 2.88 19.25 3.18 ( Milk 13.69 86.31 4.50 9.19 .78 3.54 4.90 April 12 < Whey 7.17 92.83 .59 6.58 .40 ! .90 5.15 ( Gr Cheese 53.41 46.59 28.29 25.16 3.12 |19.64 i 3.40 From 100 lbs. of Milk. Date J i Pounds . Solids.... W ater . . jFat Solids not fat.. Ash Protein . Lactose. ( 1 Milk 100.00 13.80 86.20 4.86 8.94 71 3.35 4.85 April 9 ■{ Whey 85.90 6.19 79.71 .47 5.72 .35 .81 4.42 1 Gr Cheese 14.10 7.61 6.49 4.39 3.22 .36 2.54 .43 { Milk 100.00 13.21 86.79 4.22 8.99 .75 3.40 4.88 April 11 1 Whey 86.50 5.99 80.51 .30 5.69 .36 .80 4.45 } Gr Cheese 13.50 7.22 6.28 3.92 3.30 .39 2.60 .43 Milk 100.00 13.69 86.31 4.50 9.19 .78 3.54 4.90 April 12 ■< Whey 85.90 6.16 79 74 .51 5.65 .34 .77 4.42 ( Gr Cheese 14.10 7.53 6.57 3.99 3.54 .44 2.77 .48 TABLE LIV. — Tabulated Statement of Process and Principal Conditions in the Manufacture of Emmenthaler (Swiss Cheese.) 123 Lbs. of cured cheese I 31.6 30.9 28.7 27.3 20. 34.3 Lbs. of milk to 1 lb. of cheese 1 9.41 8.93 10.14 9.71 9.32 7.55 9.01 8.27 ! 8.82 9. 1 Weight of green cheese 39.3 37. 32.3 38.5 38.1 24. G 41. 30. 34. 25. 1 Time from adding rennet to putting to press mins. 106 118 122 150 138 248 264 133 127 109 Per cent fat in whey 1 ■ 1.1 .7 .5 .8 .9 .3 .5 .8 .9 1.3 1 Time required to cook the curd mins. | 55 45 75 70 42 57 56 66 58 59 Temp, to which curd was heated .. oooooooooo OOC^tCiCOiflOCC NHi-'tht-'i-iiHNWOI T-'THHHri'HHTHT-iH Time required until ready for breaking...'. mins. | 31 29 22 32 35 30 24 30 36 33 Time required until coagulation begins mins. 11 9 9 13 15 11 10 10 12 11 1 Amount of extract used per 10(h) pounds of milk ozs. 5.30 6.50 2.10 5.98 5.50 8.54 7.09 4.03 3.85 3.50 1 Temp, of milk when test was taken .... O O O O O O 0 o o o oxxcooc^occ OXXOOCiOGiO'O Rennet test for ripeness secs. 70 75 40 99 105 120 90 60 70 60 Amount of alkali necessary to neutralize acidity of milk | cc. 15.3 14.5 14. 12.8 12.4 12.2 Per cent of fat in milk 1 4.1 4.2 3.5 4.0 4.2 4.6 4.9 4.5 4.5 4.4 L_ Lbs. of milk in vat (>• C O cc 1C c o’ w ci x o -+ t»coN-Niaxc^ON COCOCOCOWrHCONWCI Date. 1894 Jan. 16 “ 17 “ 20 “ 22 “ 23 *Feb. 2 “ 6 Mch. 24 “ 27 “ 29 *Curd cut with American knife. 124 The foregoing table includes the cheese made under the direction of Hon. John Luchsinger during the session of the Dairy School in January, those made by J. H. Hecker in February and W. P. Simpson in March. All the cheese were made of whole milk, except the one made the 20th of Janu- ary which consisted of two-thirds whole milk and one-third skim. The milk used during January and February was pur- chased from a creamery in the southern portion of the state and from dealers in the city, being mixed evening’s and morning’s milk which had been subjected to low tempera- ture in shipping; while that worked in March was morn- ing’s milk. The mixed milks required 14cc to 15.3cc to neutralize the acid, while the fresh morning’s milk required 12.2 to 12.8. In comparing the alkali test with the rennet test it will be observed that on the days when the milk re- quired from 14 to 15.3cc alkali to neutralize the acid, the rennet test required from 90 to 105 seconds before coagula- tion commenced, and in March when the milk required from 12.2 to 12.8cc alkali, coagulation commenced in from 60 to 70 seconds. The milk worked on the 20th of January com- menced to coagulate in nine minutes with only two ounces of rennet to 1000 pounds of milk and was ready for break- ing in twenty-two minutes. That used on the 23rd of Janu- ary took 15 minutes before commencing to coagulate and it was not ready for breaking until after the expiration of 35 minutes. With ordinarily sweet milk the time from adding the rennet until the curd is ready to break is 31 minutes* The temperature to which the curd was raised ranged from 110 to 120 degrees. The curd of January 17th was cooked at 110 degrees, and although kept under exactly the same conditions as the other cheese made the same month, it was ready for the market early in May. It was sold to a grocer and retailed readily at 18 cents ; as soon as it was sold he called at the Station and offered 15 cents for all on hand. The cheese made on the 23rd of January was ripe in six months, while none of the others appear to be ripe at the close of the seventh month. The cheese made from whole milk and the curd reduced 125 by a curd breaker shrunk in the process of curing on an aver- age, 24.6 percent; while that cut with an American curd knife shrunk 18.7 percent. When the curd breaker was used to reduce the curd, it required, on an average 10.3 pounds of milk for one pound of cured cheese and when a knife was used a pound of cured cheese was made from 9.3 pounds of milk. The average loss of fat in the whey was .83 of one per cent, when the breaker was used and .30 with the curd knife. With whole milk and using the breaker, the cheese shrunk in curing 26.1 per cent ; using the knife the shrinkage was 9.3 per cent. The whey from the Swiss cheese made on the 16th of January was raised to 150 degrees F., the butter fat skim- med and two pounds of butter were made of inferior quality. On the 17th of January the whey was run through a No. 3 Alpha Separator, a good sour milk starter was added and the cream churned the day following, giving a yield of 2.1 pounds of fair butter, the flavor being much better than that made the day previous. On the 22nd there was drawn from the Swiss curd 322 pounds of whey to which was added 6.7 pounds butter milk and 7.6 pounds of cream testing 25 per cent. fat. It was then condensed and made 33 pounds Primost of the finest quality, which sold for 12% and 15 cents per pound. The milk from which the cheese was made on the 23rd was frozen but otherwise was in good condi- tion. It required 14.5cc alkali to neutralize the acid but the rennet test showed 105 seconds when coagulation commen- ced. After seven months this was the best cheese in the lot but hardly ready for consumption. On the 2nd of February the American curd knife was used to note the effect, if any, upon the curd, loss of fat, flavor and texture; fat in whey .3 of one per cent. After seven months the chee c ^ was tried and found dry and almost closed, the Swiss holes were few, small and lacked that lively glossy appearance characteristic of good Emmenthaler; it also lacked the proper flavor. From the cheese made on the 6th of February, 300 pounds of whey were taken and run through a hand separa- tor obtaining 9.3 pounds of cream which was churned, yield- 126 in g 3 pounds of unsalted butter. When six months old the cheese was in fine condition but was far from being ripe. Those made the 24th, 27th and 29th are to all appearance in fine condition and promise good results though not mature at this writing. The whey of the 24th was separated, giving 9 pounds of cream, which was cooled to 45 degrees F., and after two hours raised to 65 degrees F., and three pounds of fresh but- termilk added. The following day it was churned at 62 de- grees F., washed and worked at 56 degrees, and 1.9 pounds of butter obtained, which scored : flavor 40, grain 30, color 14, salt 8 ; total 92. It was cut five points on flavor, June standard, flavor good but not quick; one on color, being a point too high and two points short on salt. On the 29th of March 192 pounds of whey were drawn, testing 1.1 per cent. fat. It was run through a hand separ- ator, cooled to 50 degrees, in a couple of hours was raised to 65 degrees, twenty per cent, starter was added and set in a B 03 M vat. The following day it was churned at 62 degrees F., washed and worked. Weight of butter 2.3 pounds. Flavor 38, grain 28, color 15, salt 10; total 91. Whey butter as usually made is a very low grade of goods, selling about on a par with the grade generally termed “packing stock, poor,” which sells for 10 cents when extra dairy butter sells at 20 cents. By running the whey through a separator and ripening the cream with good lac- tic ferment, the quality of the butter can be improved 25 to 50 per cent. 127 TABLE LV.— Analyses of Milk, Whey and Swiss Cheese. Percentage Composition. Date. Solids. Water. Fat. Solids J not fat. t Ash. Protein Lac- tose. j Milk 13.35 86.65 4.51 8.84 .64 3.48 4.72 March 24... V Whey 7.13 92.87 1.01 6.12 .27 .90 4.97 \ Gr. Cheese 58,57 41.43 29.93 28.60 3.34 22 13 2.90 ) Milk 13.68 86.32 4.50 j 9.18 .63 3.63 4.90 March 27... > Whey 7.24 ! 92.76 .83 6 41 .32 .92 5.10 f Gr. Cheese 64.09 35.91 33.21 | 30.85 3.06 24.82 1 3.32 ) Milk 13.34 86.66 4 Ao 8.94 .80 3.32 4.87 March 29... )- Whey 7.27 92.73 .88 I 6.39 .46 .86 5.07 f Gr. Cheese 61.64 38.40 1 32.40 29.44 3.48 22.88 3.24 From 100 lbs. of Milk. Date. Lbs. Solids W ater Fat Solids not fat Ash Protein Lac- tose ( Milk 100.00 13.35 86.65 4.51 8.84 .64 3.48 4.72 March 24 a Whey 87.90 6.27 81.64! .89 5.38 .24 .79 4.37 ( Gr. Cheese 12.10 7.08 5.01: 3.62 3.46 .40 2.68 .35 ( Milk 100.00 13.68 86.32! 4.50 9.18 .63 3.63 4.90 March 27 s Whey 88.67 | 6.42 1 82.26 .74 5.68 .28 .82 4.52 1 Gr. Cheese 11.33 7.26 4.06 1 3.76 3.50 .35 2.81 .38 ( Milk 100.00 i 13.34 86.66 4.40 8.94 .80 3.32 4.87 March 29-^ Whey 88.84 | 6.46 i 82.38! .78 5.67 .41 .77 4.51 f Gr. Cheese 11.16 6.88 | 4-28| 3.62 3.27 .39 2.55 .36 128 TABLE LVI.— Analyses of Milk, Whey and Emmenthaler Cheese. % Composition From 100 lbs. of milk Date Solids Fat Lbs. Solids Fat ( Milk 12.23 4. 100. 12.23 4,00 Jan. 22 -j Whey 7.07 .93 89.71 6.34 .82 i Gr. cheese 57.22 30.78 10.29 5.89 3.18 ( Milk 10.98 4.2 100. 10 98 4.20 Jan. 23 < Whey 7.37 .80 89.28 6.58 .72 \ Gr. cheese 41.02 32.49 10.72 4.40 3.48 TABLE LVII.— Amount of Fat Lost and Recovered in Making Emmenthaler Cheese. Date. Per cent fat in milk I Lbs. of greencheese from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of fat lost in whey from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of fat recovered in cheese from 100 lbs. of milk Per cent of fat in milk lost in whey Per cent of fat in milk recovered in cheese Jan. 22 4.00 10.29 .82 3.18 20.50 79.50 Jan. 23 4.20 10.72 .72 3.48 17.14 82.86 Mch. 29 4.40 11.16 .78 3.62 17.73 82.27 Mch. 27 4.50 11.33 .74 3.76 16.44 83.56 Mch. 24 4.51 12.10 .89 3.62 19.73 80.27 jj TABLE LVIII.— Amount of Solids Lost and Recovered in Making Emmenthaler Cheese. Date Per cent solids in milk Lbs. of green cheese from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of solids lost in whey from 100 lbs. of milk Lbs. of solids re- covered in cheese from 100 lbs. of milk Per cent of solids in milk lost in whey Per cent of solids in milk re- covered in cheese Jan. 22 12.23 10.29 6.34 5.89 51.84 48.16 Jan. 23 10.98 10.72 6.58 4.40 59.93 '40.07 Mch. 29 13.34 11.16 6.46 6.88 48.43 51.57 Mch. 27 13.68 11.33 6.42 7.26 46.93 53.07 Mch. 24 13.35 12.10 6.27 7.08 46.97 53.63 University of Minnesota. f Agricultural Experiment Station. BULLETIN No. 36 . CHEMICAL DIVISION. HSTOTZ-IEIMIEEIR, 1894. MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF WHEAT. ST. ANTHONY PARK , RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. EAGLE JOB PRINT, DELANO, MINN. University of Minnesota. BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, - The HON. GREENEEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, The HON. WM. H. YALE, Winona, The HON. IOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, - The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, The Governor of the State. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST, M. A., Hutchinson, The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, - The President of the University. - 1896 1894 1894 1896 - 1896 1896 - 1896 1895 1895 Ex-Officio. Ex-Officio . Ex-Officio. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLI M M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: WM. M. LIGGETT, ---------- Chairman. WILLET M. HAYS, B. S. A., - - Vice Chairman and Agriculturist. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., - - Horticulturist. OT TO LUGGER, Ph. D., - - - - Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., - Chemist. T. L. HH5CKER, Dairy Husbandry. M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., ----- Veterinarian. THOS. SHAW, - -- -- -- -- Animal Husbandry. J. A. VYE, Secretary. ANDREW BOSS, - -- -- -- -- Farm Foreman. The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the State who make application for them. ERRATA. Page 134 — Read : Blue joint hay, digestible protein 3.7 in place of 4.7. Page 135 — Read : Barley, digestible nitrogen free extract 56.6, in place of 5.66. Page 138 — Read: Nutrative ratio 6.4 in place of 6.5 in second para- graph 6th line. Page 138— Read : (2.08 + 3.31 + 8.10) X I860 = 25096 .76 X 4225 = 3211 Total Calories, 28307 (Minn. Bulletin No. 36, Nov. 1894). MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. HARRY SNYDER. On account of the prolonged drouth of the past summer, the question of fodder, in some sections of the state, will re- quire careful consideration. Many inquiries have been re- ceived from farmers regarding the comparative cost and composition of various foods. In many cases, samples of fodders and grains have been sent to the laboratory for chemical analyses. These analyses are published at this date, so that all who have occasion to either purchase or sell fodder during the coming winter may profit by the re- sults. The chemical analysis of a fodder, as ordinarily made, does not give all the information that a farmer desires, but for general comparative purposes the analysis gives much valuable information. The purchaser can judge for himself, as to the quality of the fodder or grain, whether it is musty or otherwise inferior. The analysis tells, practically, what the food contains, and by means of simple calculations, as will be explained later, the comparative amounts of muscle forming, and heat producing bodies which a given sum of money will purchase, can easily and readily be determined. Hence the analysis may serve as a guide to show which food will be the most economical to purchase or sell. The important compounds present in fodders and food stuffs have been discussed in previous bulletins of this station. A few additional facts, however, about the com- parative food values of the various compounds are given so as to aid in using the figures. The analyses recorded in this bulletin are from samples of fodders grown under the conditions of climate and soil of this state ; hence the results are better adopted to our con- 130 ditions, than average anatyses of materials grown else- where. EXPLANATION OF TERMS USED. Water . — In all food stuffs, even those which have been thoroughly sun and air dried, there is an appreciable amount of water present. Substances like meal and flour which ap- pear perfectly dry to the “feel” are not free from water. In the tables of analyses, the figures for water represent the amount which is present in every hundred pounds of the material. The last traces of water are removed by drying the substance in an oven at a temperature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, when all of the water in the material is con- verted into steam and escapes. The dry substance is what is left after all of the water has been removed from any material. Frequently the re- sults of the analyses are expressed on the dry substance or water free material, as it is called. In this bulletin all of the results are given as they are present in the original material, or as ordinarily used, unless otherwise stated. The Ash is what is left after the dry substance is burned. It is sometimes called the mineral or inorganic part. The ash is important inasmuch as it furnishes the main portion of the necessary materials for bone growth. Too much ash especially when it is rich in silica (sand), or of strong alka- lies, as in the Russian thistle, is objectionable. The ashes from all grains are usualty the richest in phosphates, and hence the most valuable for bone growth. In nearly all mature agricultural products there is less than ten per cent, ash. There is generally a sufficient amount of ash in all food products for bone growth. The organic matter is that portion which is converted in- to smoke and volatile products when the dry matter is burned ; hence the organic matter is readily found by sub- tracting the ash from the dry matter. From the feeder’s point of view the organic matter is divided into two large classes of compounds: (1) The non- nitrogenous compounds, and (2) the nitrogenous compounds. This division is made according to the presence or absence of the element nitrogen. Starch and sugar contain no nitrogen, hence they are noii-nitrogenous compounds, while albumen, the white of the egg, contains nitrogen, and hence is a nitrogenous compound. The non-nitrogenous compounds include cellulose (main- ly woody material), starch, sugar, fats, and the jellies which are known as pectose substances. In some fodders, in addition to these, there is a small amount of non-nitrogenous ma- terials, like lignin, and the pentoses, which possess no food value. The non-nitrogenous compounds make up by far the larger portion of the dry matter of a fodder. There is from four to ten times more of the non-nitrogenous compounds in any ordinary food, than introgenous compounds. There is usually a sufficient amount of non-nitrogenous material in all foods, but the nitrogenous compounds are liable to be too deficient. The fats and other bodies soluble in ether, known as the ether extract , are very concentrated forms of non-nitro- genous compounds. In the grains and milled products, the ether extract is nearly pure fat while in the grasses and hays it is from 50 to 65 per cent. pure. All fats contain about one half more carbon, the charcoal element, than is found in starch or sugar. Hence when fats are digested and undergo oxidation, and combustion within the body, they produce over twice as much heat as starch or sugar. The fat in the food has more to do with producing heat in the body, and but little to do, directly, with furnishing fat for the produc- tion of milk. In fact any good cow will give much more fat in her milk for a given period than there is fat in her food. A certain amount of fat in a food is essential, too large a a quantity when not associated with a sufficient amount of protein is objectionable. The fiber constitutes the frame work of the plant, and is composed mainly of cellulose (woody material). The fiber is not entirely indigestible; in many foods it is about half digestible. Ordinary amounts of fiber, when associated with a sufficient amount of digestible materials is unobjectionable. The fiber and ash, in the foods as ordinarily used, ought not to exceed forty-five per cent, of the total nutrients because they represent too much inert material in a fodder. 132 Nitrogen free extract. In the analysis, the starch, sugar and jelly (pectose) substances are all classed together under the head of nitrogen free extract. The compound word nitrogen-free, means free from nitrogen. The bodies are all easily soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions. The term nitrogen-free extract, when applied to the fodder is a very indefinite one, but when only the digestible and valu- able part of the nitrogen-free extract is considered, and not the inidgestible part, which possesses no value, the term be- comes much more definite. The Nitrogenous Compounds. The characteristic build- ing material of these compounds is the element nitrogen. The nitrogenous compounds are, by far, the most expensive and the most important materials found in food stuffs. Un- fortunately the terms employed to designate these bodies are somewhat confused. By many, the terms nitrogenous compounds, proteids and albuminoids are used synony- mously. To the chemist these terms all have different mean- ings. Crude protein or total nitrogenous compounds is the term which includes and designates all of the nitrogenous bodies. The term protein represents only a single class of the total nitrogenous compounds. The crude protein or total nitrogenous compounds, includes, besides protein, amides, and alkaloids, bodies which possess little or no food value. Protein is the largest and most important class of the nitrogenous compounds. The proteids are the materials out of which the muscles are formed, they enter into the com- positon of the tissue of the nervous system, the ligaments, bones, hoofs, hair, and all of the vital fluids. The protein compounds supply the waste materials, and keep the com- plicated machinery of the body in repair. A certain amount of protein in the food is absolute^ necessary to repair the waste of the body, and this necessary protein must be sup- plied before growth or the production of meat or milk can take place. When an animal is supplied with all the digestible pro- tein necessary to maintain the body, the excess is either stored up in the body, or used for producing fat in the milk. 133 Hence the necessity for keeping up a good supply of protein in the food. In fact, the chief benefit which is derived from the food consumed comes from the small amount which is in excess of that required for maintenance In the tables, the nitrogenous material in the form of true protein is indicated in the column headed : “ Per cent, of total nitrogen in the form of true protein/’ The indigestible part of fodders. In all fodders and grains there is a certain amount of each of the food nutrients which is indigestible and can not be counted upon for food purposes. The amounts of the various indigestible nutrients in fodders have been determined by a number of American Experiment Stations. In the tables the composition of every hundred pounds of fodder as ordinarily used, is given. On the same line under the head of parts digestible, is given the pounds of each digestible nutrient in the hundred pounds of fodder. Under the head of composition is given what is in the fodder, and under parts digestible, is given the amount which can be counted upon for actual food purposes. The results under parts digestible are calculated from the average results of American Digestion Co-efficients, and from the composition of the materials as here reported. The digestible nutrients of the grains and milled products are calculated mainly from our own results, published in Bulletin No. 26, and from ex- periments conducted for this purpose. In some cases where the digestibility of the food had not been determined, the digestion coefficients of other foods of the same class, and having about the same composition, were used. In the table of analyses, the composition of all of the field cured crops show a less amount of hydroscopic moist- ure than is usually given for these crops or is present in crops grown in a climate where the atmosphere is more moist. This difference is easily accounted for by the fact that the atmosphere of this state is usually very dry, hence when the crops are air dried, they contain a correspondingly less amount of moisture. MINNESOTA ANALYSES. 134 * O tfi w o < « w ◄ 3 o w M .J5 T3 X L O O * Li 4-> °s a-» +j ■ ^ pq x (H W . § w O^c, 2 W o ^ oo w ^ ci m’ » (D to d d d q q q cn t> cd d d ci q q t* q h t- d CD CO 1> 01 M 0) W CO ^ co CO CO l- ^ b; q ° T*<” CO 10 CO H 10 ^ CO CO q io q x o d *> ci ci h o’ 6 io gc 10 10 »0 10 10 »0 rf q x X co x q o h t> oi id t* 10 10 10 Tf Tf Tf 10 CO Cl Cl Cl Cl 10 codcoddcocoddco^ ot-ocicoxdH dxioiooiod^ dddCOXCOCOlO»>lOXCOCO d x th o o d co q io ^ d ci co h d x ^ d d 10 co X CO d io d io o io io H w -p r 0 a S 8 - .5 be p< P cs o P W x O U CO ^ x 6 ^T^HdOCOXMd j* ^ ctf Green Crops and Ensilage. 135 Composition of 100 lbs. of Material. Parts Digestible. 136 W > ◄ ^ u u © bo a. g ~ 5 0 Z (v o h vr ^0 v- £ Oft W x Q e$ £ • ^ „• 2 c £ ft U l. £ X3 4> P+? 5- O us. 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CD © © o CO X O o 10 UO © © © © o T* CO 01 © o q q q q 01 b- X © 6 rH 4 X r-i id »d cd © r- I © cd © rH 01 rH X rH rH rH rH r- 1 rH H rH o r- o 10 H © © © © X q CD « q 01 © © © © i> 1- © CO H N CD X CD cd cd 01 oi oi •H o o 10 10 10 o rH © © © > © © 10 OJ 05 b; 01 to q © q b- © 01 q oo th rH b^ rH id Xji CD cd oi 01 oi cd o 10 Tfl o O o o © 0 © © > © © © 1> rH o O o o 10 id © © © © © oi o' X d t> © o © © © c > © © r-< rH rH r-i rH rH rH rH TH T- i rH rH rH CD CO CO CO 01 01 01 © X © X CO 137 The term nutritive ratio is frequently made use of in connection with feeding stuffs. The nutritive ratio is the ratio which exists between the digestible protein and the digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. A nutritive ratio of 1 to 6.7 means that for every one pound of digestible crude protein there are 6.7 parts of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. A wide ration means a larger amount of non- nitrogenous compounds, a narrow ration a eomparativeh r less amount. To calculate the nutritive ratio first determine the pounds of digestible protein in the food used. Then cal- culate the pounds of digestible fiber and nitrogen-free extract. Multiply the pounds of digestible fat by 2.5, because the fat produces so much more heat and is considered 2.5 times more concentrated than the nitrogen-free extract compounds. Add the digestible fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and corrected fat together, and divide the sum by the digestible protein, the result is the nutritive ratio. In case a cow consumes 18 pounds of blue grass hay and ten pounds of bran per day the digestible nutrients and nu- tritive ratio are found as follows : From the table take the number of pounds of each digestible nutrient in a hundred pounds of the feed used Put the decimal point two places to the left so as to represent the amounts in one pound. Mul- tiply the pounds of fodder used, by the amount of each sep- arate digestible nutrient in one pound of that fodder. The digestible nutrients in every hundred pounds of the blue grass hay and wheat bran used are : Ether Protein. Extract. Blue grass hay 4.6 2.2 Wheat bran 12.5 3.6 Nitrogen-free Fiber. Extract. 16.4 23.6 3.6 38.5 The digestible nutrients in one pound would be a hun- dredth part of each amount above. In eighteen pounds of blue grass hay, there are the following amounts of each di- gestible nutrient : Crude protein 18 x .046= .83 lbs.; fiber .164 x 18 = 2.95 lbs.; nitrogen-free extract 18 x 236 = 4.25 lbs., ether extract 18 x .022 = .4 lbs. In ten pounds of bran the digestible nutrients are : Protein 10 x .125 = 1.25 138 lbs., fiber 10 x .036= .36 lbs., nitrogen-free extract 10 x .385 = 3.85 lbs., ether extract 10 x .036 = .36 lbs. Tabulating the total pounds of each nutrient in both hay and bran we have : Nitrogen-free Ether Corrected 18 lbs. hay 10 lbs. bran Protein .83 1.25 Fiber 2.95 .36 Extract 4.25 3.85 Extract .40 .36 Ether Extract. .76 x 2V 2 = 1.90 Total nutrients 2.08 3.31 8.10 .76 1.90 Adding the digestible fiber, nitrogen-free extract and cor- rect fat togetner, it gives 13.31 pounds of digestible non- nitrogenous compounds. 3.31 + 8.10 + 1.90 == 13.31. Di- viding this number, which is the total digestible non-nitro- genous compounds, by the digestible protein, it gives 6.4. 13.31 -A- 2.08 — 6.4. The nutritive ratio is 1 to 6.5. There is one part of the digestible protein to 6.4 parts of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. Heat produced by foods. When the food is digested it produces a definite amount of heat and muscular energy, which can be measured by the work that it is capable of doing. The heat produced is measured in calories. A calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water from 0 to 1 degree Centigrade, or 2.2 lbs. of water 1.8 degrees Fahrenheit. One pound of digestible protein yields 1860 calories, a pound of digestible fiber or nitrogen-free extract compounds yields the same amount. One pound of digestible fat yields 4225 calories. The heat units, measured in calories, produced by the previous ration are found by adding the digestible protein, fiber, and nitro- gen-free extract and multiplying the sum by the factor 1860. Then multiply the digestible fat by the factor; 4525, and add the two results. (2.08 x 3.31 x 8.10) x 1860 = 25096 1.90x4225 = 8027 Total calories 33123 The amount of heat produced by various foods is an im portant factor, especially when the climate is very severe ; 139 then a larger amount of heat will be required by the body. This heat must be supplied by the food. NUTRIENTS AND HEAT UNITS BOUGHT FOR A DOLLAR The amount of digestible nutrients and heat units which can be purchased for a given sum of money, is the most im- portant point to take into consideration in economic feeding. The prices of grain and milled products are not always in proportion to their actual values. A dollar expended in one food will frequently buy more digestible nutrients and heat units than when expended in other foods. In the table LX. are given the pounds of digestible nu- trients and of heat units which can be purchased for one dol- lar, when the prices are as stated. In the table it will be seen that when corn is fifty cents per bushel or corn meal is eighteen dollars per ton, one dollar will buy more digestible protein and other nutrients in the form of bran or shorts at fifteen and sixteen dollars per ton. When the corn meal is the same price per ton, twelve dollars, the dollar would be as wisely expended in corn meal as in shorts. When barley is selling at forty-eight cents per bushel, it will pay well to sell some of the barley, and even buy wheat at fifty cents per bushel, or corn meal at eighteen dollars per ton. Again, when oats are selling at twenty-eight or thirty cents per bushel, it will pay to sell part of the oats and buy some cheaper grain or mixture. When timothy hay is selling for eight dollars per ton, and clover hay at ten dollars per ton it will be cheaper to to sell the timothy and keep the clover or buy the clover in preference to the timothy. When the differences are small between two foods, as to the amounts of digestible nutrients which can be purchased for one dollar, the farmer can use his own judgment, and purchase or sell as best suits his purpose. The table is to be used more as a guide. When the differences are large, and much in favor of one food at a certain price, it will be econo 140 my to purchase the food which will give the larger amount of digestible protein and other nutrients for a given sum of money. TABLE LX.— Digestible Nutrients and Heat Units Bought for One Dollar. Kind of fodder or grain. Price per ton Pounds Digestible. Heat units Dry matter Protein Ether ex- tract mainly fat Nitrogen Iree ex- 1 tract and fiber Bran $12.00 100 20 6 1 71 1 194.610 Bran 15.00 80 16 5 56 155.045 Corn meal 18.00 87 10 3 74 168.915 Corn meal 12.00 132 15 5 112 257.345 Corn and cob meal... 15.00 100 10 3 | 86 191.235 Corn shelled, 50c bu 87 9 3 75 168.915 Wheat shorts 12.00 111 17 4 i 90 216.029 Wheat shorts 16.00 85 12 3 70 165.195 Oats 30c per bn 72 10 4 56 139.760 Linseed meal 28.00 51 19 5 i 24 91.105 Linseed meal 24.00 59 23 6 | 28 120.210 Barley, 48c per bu .. 71 9 2 59 134.930 Peas, $1 per bu 48 12 3 36 101.955 Ppfis 70 c per bu. .. 6S 16 4 49 137.900 Gluten meal 22.00 71 22 6 43 146.250 Cotton sead meal 28.00 47 23 7 14 97.395 Wheat, 50c per bu 87 14 2 70 155.987 Timothy hay 8.00 127 9 3 1 108 230.295 Prairie hay 6.00 163 11 4 138 294.040 Clover hay 10.00 105 15 3 82 193.095 Millet hay 8.00 138 10 3 121 256.236 R v e, 45c per bet 88 13 2 72 166.550 In case the grains or fodders are at different prices from those stated in the table, either add or subtract the pro- portional amount of each nutrient, or calculate from the tables the amounts purchasable for one dollar. In order to do this, first find how many pounds of fodder or grain can be purchased for the dollar, multiply this amount by the per cent, of digestible nutrients contained in the fodder, which 141 will give the pounds oi digestible nutrients that can be pur- chased for one dollar. In case wheat bran is eighteen dollars per ton, the dollar will purchase 111 pounds of bran, each pound of bran con- tains 1.25 pounds .digestible protein, hence 111 pounds bran contain about 14 lbs. of digestible protein. In like manner the other digestible nutrients are determined. In the table LX. the value of the manure is not taken into consideration. Inasmuch as all grains are sold by weight instead of the measured bushel, the legal weight per bushel, of the various grains, as approved by the Minnesota Legislature, April 17, 1893, are given. Bariev Pounds per bushel, 48. Millet Seed Pounds per bushel 48. Buckwheat 50. Oats 32. Corn, shelled... 56. Peas 60. Corn on cob.... 70. Potatoes 60. Clover seed 60. Rve 56. Wheat 60. In the purchasing of foods the preference should be given to those foods which contain the largest amount of digest- ible protein, because the protein is, by far the most expensive and important nutrient in foods. In case the difference in di- gestible protein is small, the one having the largest amount of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds should be purchased. When oats are thirty cents, and corn is fifty cents per bushel, a dollar will purchase nine pounds digestible protein in the form of corn, and ten pounds in the form of oats, but in the corn there is nearly twenty pounds more of starch, etc., than in the oats, which more than makes up for the pound less protein in the corn. When linseed meal is twenty-eight dollars per ton, and and corn fifty cents per bushel, a dollar will buy ninteen pounds of digestible protein, and twenty-four pounds of digestible carbohydrates as linseed meal, and nine ponnds of protein and seventy-five pounds of carbohydrates, as corn. Ten pounds of protein are in favor of the linseed meal, while fifty-one pounds of carbohydrates are in favor of the corn. The additional fat in linseed meal, will bring the fifty- 142 one pounds of carbohydrates in the corn down to forty-six. The question is : which is worth more, nine pounds of pro- tein, or forty-five pounds of car bohydrates? This depends upon what the corn or linseed meal is to be mixed with or fed to. When the linseed meal is selling at the lower figure, twenty-four dollars per ton, the nutrients are in favor of the linseed meal. When corn meal is selling at eighteen dollars per ton, and corn and cob meal at fifteen dollars per ton, the corn and cob meal will be as cheap as the corn meal, provided that only those cobs are present which actually belong to the corn. The same amount of digestible protein will be pur- chased in each case, ten pounds, but in the corn and cob meal there are thirteen pounds more of the digestible car- bohydrates. In purchasing corn and cob meal there is some risk of getting more cobs than belong in the meal, which greatly reduces the value. When there is only two dollars per ton difference in the selling price of the two, it will be cheaper to purchase the corn meal, because the manure will be worth more, and the cost of hauling will be less on the more concentrated food. When you are doing your own grinding it will be cheaper to feed the corn, as corn and cob meal, when the corn is sell- ing at fifty cents per bushel, than to sell the corn and buy corn meal at eighteen dollars per ton. Ten bushels of shelled corn corn will weigh 560 pounds, and with the cobs it will weight 700 pounds. The 560 pounds of corn, and the 140 pounds of cobs will contain the following amounts of digestible nutrients : Dry Nitrogen Matter. Protein. Fat. Fiber. free extract. Corn 448 51 17 6.1 375 Cobs 75 .3 .3 28.0 45 The corn cobs have added seventy-five pounds of digest- ible dry matter composed almost entirely of fiber, and nitro- gen-free extract compounds. When co tten seed meal and linseed meal are selling at the same price, there is but little difference between the feeding value of the two. Gluten meal at twenty-two dollars per ton compares very favorably with linseed meal at twenty- 143 four dollars per ton. There is a pound more digestible pro- tein in the linseed meal, but in the gluten meal there are fif- teen pounds more of digestible carbohydrates, which more than make up for the pound less of protein. Gluten meal is not as constant in its composition as it should be; quite frequently it is mixed with the germ meal, which is a valuable food, but not so valuable as the gluten meal. Hence in purchasing gluten meal, as well as some of the other mill products, it would be wise to send a sample to the Experiment Station to see if it is all right. FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE COMPOSITION OF CROPS. The factors which influence the composition and value of fodders are: (1) Stage of growth at which a fodder is har- vested. (2) Effects of climate and season. (3) The time re- quired for maturing the crop. (4) The protection which the crop is given after harvesting. (5) Quality of the seeds sown. (6) Quality and condition of soil. The stage of growth at which a fodder is cut, has much to do with its composition. In the case of timothy, cut at different stages of growth, there is a marked difference in composition. In the year 1891 samples of timothy were cut at three different stages of growth and analyzed. The com- position of the timothy for each period on a uniform basis of ten per cent, water, was : Before Bloom. In Early Bloom. Ripe. Ash 7.09 per ct. 6.32 per ct 5.45 per ct. Ether Extract 2.87 “ 2.51 “ 2.22 “ Crude Protein 9.84 “ 7.62 “ 6.42 “ Crude Fiber 28.17 “ 31.12 “ 32.52 “ Nitrogen Free Extract, 42.02 “ 42.43 “ 43.39 “ The largest amount of dry matter is obtained when the timothy is ripe, while the largest amount of protein is ob- tained from early to late bloom. The same is” true with clover and nearly all agricultural crops. The first stages of growth are devoted mainly to the formation of nitrogenous compounds, while the materials which are added to the crop in the last stages of growth are mainly non-nitrogenous compounds. Early cutting gives a smaller amount of a more concentrated fodder. While late cutting gives a larger quantity, and a less concentrated fodder. Effects of Seasons. When the growing season is favor- ably prolonged, larger amounts of starch and other non- nitrogenous compounds are stored up in the plant because the conditions are more favorable for this kind of growth. It seems that plants devote their energy, at first, more to the formation of the nitrogenous compounds, than to the development of the non-nitrogenous compounds. In early and late varieties of any kind of food products, the early maturing varieties will invariably show the larger proportion of protein, while the late varieties will show the larger amount of starch and other carbohydrates. Hence in aiming to secure as early ripening crops as possible by means of selection of seeds and otherwise forcing tbe growth, there is no loss of food value with the early matur- ing crops, but if anything, there is a gain by having a larger proportion of nitrogenous compounds on account ot the plant being forced in that direction. Even the potato, which is strictly a starchy food, is in- fluenced by this condition. Early varieeies of potatoes con- tain more protein than later varieties on account of more starch being formed in the later varieties during their pro- longed growth. In early and late maturing crops of the same variety, the difference in composition falls on the protein, which is in favor of the early maturing varieties, and on the starch, which is in favor of the late maturing varieties. The early maturing varieties are placed at a little disadvantage on account of a shorter growing period and a shorter time to procure their mineral food from the soil. All early maturing crops should be favored with thorough cultivation and man- uring in order to make up for this shorter period of growth. Early maturing varieties require that the soil should be in its best condition. The effect of heavy showers and prolonged rains on hay after it is cut, and when it is in stacks which are uncovered 145 and unprotected, is quite noticeable. In the season of 1891, which was a very rainy one, a sample of timothy weighing twenty-five pounds, was exposed to one heavy shower and three heavy dew falls. The sample was exposed in all five days and at the close weighed 21.5 pounds. The timothy was spread on a canvas cloth over a wire screen and cov- ered with a wire screen, so as to prevent any of the hay from blowing away. The rain removed twelve per cent, of the best part of the dry matter of the hay. The sample was in early bloom when cut. The per cent, loss of each nutrient was as follows : Ash 17.26 Ether Extract 7.47 Crude Protein 7.69 Fiber 20 Nitrogen-free extract 25.78 In actual hay making the losses would have been even larger, because some of the hay would have been lostmechan- ically. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF WHEAT. HARRY SNYDER. The frequent low price of wheat and the high price of corn has created much interest in regard to the use of wheat as an animal food. The usual high price of wheat has pre- vented its extensive use as an animal food, and hence its digestibility has never been determined. The digestibility of the wheat was determined mainly to observe the difference in digestibility between the whole grain and the cracked grain, and also to learn how the digestibility of wheat compares with that of other grains. The wheat was fed to young pigs in two ways. In one case, whole wheat and coarsely ground (cracked) corn was fed, half and half by weight ; in the other case, cracked wheat and corn was fed. The ration was the same in each case, except as to the difference in the way in which the wheat was fed. The results were duplicated, and those for the whole wheat were duplicated on different animals. TABLE LXI.— Digestibility of Wheat, Whole and Cracked. Per cent. Digestible. 1 Whole Cracked Wheat. Wheat. Dry matter 72. 82. 44. 50. Ether extract (fat) 60. 70. Protein (gluten) 70. 80. Fiber 30. 60. Nitrogen-free extract 74. 83. The results show a diffence of ten per cent, digestibility in favor of the cracked wheat. Had the wheat formed more 147 than half of the ration, the difference in digestibility would have undoubtedly been even greater. When the wheat was fed whole, the loss consisted main- ly of undigested kernels. These grains, when recovered from the dry manure, showed but little of the effects of the digestive organs. They were coated with a covering of mucus material, and when this coat was removed by washing with distilled water, the recovered wheat grain had practic- ally the same composition as when fed. TABLE LXII.— Composition of Whole Wheat as Fed and the Whole Wheat in the Manure. Whole Wheat as fed. The whole wheat in manure. Water 1 0.95 per cent 2.20 2.17 14.18 2.83 67.67 “ 12.42 per cent 2.14 2.10 “ 13.75 2.70 66.89 Ash Ether extract (fat) Protein (gluten) Fiber Nitrogen-free extract Total 100. 100 The only noticeable difference is about two and one-half percent, more water in the wheat recovered from the manure. When the results are compared on the basis of the dry matter, the difference in composition between the two samples is very slight. The digestibility of cracked wheat compares very favor- ably with other grains. It does not appear to be quite as digestible as corn, but the dry matter is more digestible than that of barley, shorts or bran. For comparison the digesti- bility of a few other grains and products, as determined at this station, is given. TABLE XLIII.— Digestion Co-Efficients of Wheat and other Grains. 1 Cracked | wheat. Cracked | barley. Wheat shorts. Wheat bran. Cracked corn. Dry matter. 82. 80. 76. 69. 90. Ash 50. 6. 5. 6. 1 . Ether extract 70. 79. 70. 75. 78. Protein 80. 81. 75. 75. 90. Fiber 60. 48. 33. 30. 48. Nitrogen-free extract.... 83. 86. 86. 70. 94. 148 When corn and wheat are both selling at fifty cents per bushel, the fifty cents will purchase the same amount of digestible dry matter of either wheat or corn, but the digest- ible dry matter in the bushel of wheat contains two and one half pounds more of digestible protein, while the bushel of corn contains two and one half pounds more of digestible carbohydrates. The amount of heat units produced by each grain is about the same. TABLE LXIV.— Digestible Nutrients in a Bushel of Wheat and Corn. 1 Dry Fat. 1 | Protein. Carbo- Heat Units. | Matter. 1 hydrates. Wheat 43.5 1 . ! 7. 35. 82.345 Corn...... 43.5 1.5 4.5 37.5 84.407 Inasmuch as the bushel of wheat contains more digestible protein, this food is better suited to produce pork with more lean meat, than is corn. Furthermore the manure from the wheat is worth about twenty-five per cent, more than the manure from the corn. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN NO. 37. ENTOMOLOGICAL DIVISION. DECEMBER, 1894. THE CHINCH BCQ. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. ST. PAUL: Thb Pionef.r Press Co., 1895. UNIVERSITY OR MINNESOTA BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, 1894 The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, 1894 The HON. WM. H. YALE, Winona 1896 The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, 1896 The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896 The HON. WM. M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1896 The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, . . ... . . . 1895 The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, .... 1895 The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, Ex-Officio . The Governor of the State. The HON. W. W. PEN DERG AST, M. A., Hutchinson, . . . Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL.D., Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. The President of the University. the agricultural committee. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: WM. M. LIGGETT, Chairman. WILLET M. HAYS, B. S. A., . . . Vice Chairman and Agriculturist. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S , Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., . . . . . Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S., Chemist. T. L. HiECKER, ........ Dairy Husbandry. M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., Veterinarian. THOS. SHAW, Animal Husbandry. J. A. VYE, ........... Secretary. ANDREW BOSS, Farm Foreman. The Bulletins of this StaUon are mailed free to all residents of the state who make application for them. THE CHINCH-BUG. OTTO LUGGER. There can be no reasonable doubt that this pest will greatly injure our crops of cereals in 1895. During the last year these in- sects have become very numerous and have migrated to many parts of the state where formerly they could not be found. As these in- sects use their wings much more freely when leaving their hiber- nating quarters in the spring, the probability exists that a still greater part of the state will be invaded. At present they are found in nearly all the more wooded districts of the southern and central parts of Minnesota, and only the open prairies have escaped. In the northern part of the state they have invaded many portions of Otter Tail, Wadena, Crow Wing and Pine counties, and are found, perhaps only in exceptional cases, even in the pine regions still farther north. In fact, they were found upon several small farms near the shore of Vermilion Lake, where the only agricultural products were potatoes and a little timothy. In one case a patch of timothy surrounded by evergreen trees was utterly ruined by them, and close questioning brought out the fact that chinch-bugs had been causing similar dam- age to the same patch for at least three seasons, thus plainly proving that this insect can survive even exceedingly cold winters without being much injured. As far as our prairies are concerned, those ad- joining the wooded banks of rivers and lakes are more or less in- fested with this pest; and as the windbreaks offer excellent shelter for it during the winter, there is danger that the chinch-bugs will invade a steadily enlarged territory. The past history of the chinch-bug teaches us that its increase and decrease may be compared with ocean weaves striking a shore: at first a gentle swell, then a small wave, followed by a tremendous breaker. In other words, it takes a number of years before the in sects become numerous enough to cause immense losses. Like the sudden collapse of the breaker, chinch-bugs, having reached the period of greatest destructiveness, also become suddenly reduced in 154 numbers and are past doing barm for a number of years. This fore- cast would be a very pleasant one if the bugs in Minnesota had al- ready reached this culmination point of their increase, which un- happily is not the case, and we may reasonably expect increasing trouble for at least two years. Past experience has shown that we may expect at most two chinch-bug years in every seven years, with the strong probability that there will not be two in succession ; it is only a pity that this rule should never have exceptions, which, how- ever, it has. At all events, such experience ought to warn us to be always prepared for the enemy and to apply remedies in time and not wait until too late. The cause for this rapid increase in their numbers was evidently the exceedingly dry and warm season of 1894. Even the oldest in habitant of the state does not recollect a season like the past one, which is a singular fact considering how apt some wiseacres are to recollect things — in imagination. In many portions of the state rain fell only at very rare intervals and dew was almost unknown. If it had not been for the frost in May, following very warm and moist weather, which forced the roots of cereals to penetrate deep in a soil warmer than the air, damages by the drouth would have been still greater. It was really surprising that plants could grow at all during such a season. The dry and warm conditions of soil and air are just the conditions chinch-bugs require to thrive and to mul- tiply, and from the few bugs found here and there in isolated locali- ties sprung the great and almost connected armies of chinch-bugs found late in 1894. Yet notwithstanding these favorable conditions for the existence of these bugs, farmers lost, comparatively speaking, but little on their account, simply because the earlier cereals, such as barley, wheat, rye, and even oats, matured much sooner than usual, and thus became unfit for their food. After injuring to some extent the corn, or causing in some cases a total loss of that important crop, and after destroying such grasses as the different kinds of pigeon grasses, to the latter of which they were decidedly welcome, the chinch-bugs moved about in search for suitable shelters under which to pass the winter. A large number of such shelters have been investigated in various parts of the infested regions, and almost invariably with the same results: immense numbers of chinch-bugs were found snugly hidden, ready to com- mence their destructive operations early next spring. In most cases 155 the great majority of these dormant bugs were found to be decidedly healthy, and only in some localities a disease is silently at work re- ducing their numbers. Diseased bugs were found in their winter quarters only in regions where a disease had been spread artificially in 1894; not a single diseased bug has been found elsewhere. Life History of the Chinch- Bug . — It seems to be unnecessary to give the life history of such a well known insect, which has repeat- edly caused such vast losses to part of our state, but a large number of our farmers have had thus far no opportunity to become familiar with their enemy. This is chiefly true of regions not yet or only quite recently infested, and where this tiny insect has not been dis- covered to be such a formidable foe. That many farmers, even liv- ing in regions where chinch-bugs have caused considerable damage, do not yet know this pest is plainly proven by the fact that all sorts of insects are sent to this Station with the question : Is this a chinch- bug? Among such specimens received are insects which do not re- semble chinch-bugs in size, shape, color or general appearance, but all are fairly large, showing that small insects are considered too insignificant to annoy the “crown of creation/’ Yet it is among the smaller insects that our greatest enemies are found. A large num- ber of small insects, but mainly bugs, are frequently mistaken for the genuine chinch-bug, simpy because they smell bad. Chinch-bugs have, indeed, a bad odor; but other bugs produce the same or a worse by being squeezed. In illustration Fig. 1 are given all the different stages of this insect, and by comparing a doubtful specimen carefully with these figures farmers not yet familiar with the chinch- bug will have no trouble in ascertaining their true character. FIG. 1 . Different stages of the Chinch-Bug, showing Egg, Larva, Puna and Adult. After Riley. 156 The adult and winged chinch-bug (Blissus leucopterns , Say.) is three- twentieths of an inch long, and has a black body covered with a very fine grayish down, too fine to be plainly visible to the naked eye. The four-jointed feelers possess a honey-yellow basal joint; the second joint is tipped with black; the third and fourth are black. The beak, when not in use, lies hidden between the legs, and is brown. The wings and wing-covers are white; the latter have near the middle two short, irregular black lines and a very conspicuous black spot near the margin. The white wing-covers, with the con- trasting black spot, distinguish the chinch-bug from all other bugs found in Minnesota. Of course, whenever an insect becomes so very numerous as the chinch-bug, many forms can be found which vary somewhat from the description given. Even forms may be found which possess only rudimentary wings , and this is most frequently the case in the first generation, when these insects do not readily use their wings. The black spot upon a white ground is, however, always plainly visibe. All chinch-bugs pass the winter in the adult, winged or perfect state, never as eggs, larvae or pupae. Towards autumn, when their food supply, such as corn and wild grass, becomes too dry to furnish sap, the bugs are forced to search for some convenient and suitable shelter in which to pass the winter. But in doing so they seem to know exactly what is a suitable shelter and what is not. The aim of all seems to be to find a dry situation ; one that is either some- what elevated to afford good drainage, or one composed of such soil as sand, that will permit moisture to disappear quickly. In such situations the bugs hide under dead leaves, bunches of tall grass, under all sorts of rubbish, under logs, stone® and clods of earth; they also find shelter under haystacks, straw stacks, corn shucks — even under loose bark of trees and in outhouses. Most chinch-bugs hide near the edge of woods growing upon an elevation, under rubbish upon sandy soil, or under the mulching in windbreaks. Here they remain torpid during the cold weather, but during a continuous warm spell in winter they are apt to move about a little, perhaps to find still warmer quarters. Extreme cold weather has no terrors to chinch-bugs; in fact, the colder the winter the safer they pass it, providing, however, that no repeated thawings and freezings take place, which will injure their vitality. A bug that can safely winter upon the shores of Vermilion Lake cannot be frozen to death by any weather that may occur elsewhere in Minnesota. Last winter a 157 number of chinch-bugs were found hidden in a short bunch of grass in a lawn, and by sprinkling water upon bugs and bunch the ice formed at once, keeping the bugs hermetically sealed for several months. Upon thawing this ice the bugs acknowledged their obli- gations by destroying some tender and choice grass plants. The general opinion that a severe cold winter will decimate our insect enemies is based upon no facts; on the contrary, an open winter, with repeated thawing and freezing, is more apt to assist us against this enemy, but to what extent it is impossible to state. As soon as the soil becomes warmer towards spring the bugs show greater activity during the warmer portions of the day, and are very apt to crowd together in spots particularly warm. At this time they do not yet require food. But as the nights become also warmer they commence to show their appetite by tapping the ten- der grasses now appearing. Towards the end of May, though some- times much earlier or later, according to the climatic conditions of the season, the bugs become decidedly active. In exceptionally early and warm springs, mating takes place in many cases before leaving their hibernating quarters, though as a general rule it does not oc- cur until breeding places have been selected. During a long-contin- ued warm and dry autumn, mating chinch-bugs are not so very un- common, yet such cases are an exception, not a rule. When the proper time arrives, all the bugs take to their wings and fly about in search of food for themselves and for their prospective offsprings. Not infrequently the air is filled with their winged bodies, and this is sometimes the only time that they attract general attention, as they frequently entirely cover horses, wagons and persons. This is a critical period for fields that have so far escaped their ravages. As the weight of such bugs is but slight, they can be carried away by the winds to very distant localities. In fact, the stronger the wind at this time the farther the trouble may spread. This no doubt accounts for the presence of the chinch-bug in regions but poorly adapted to their requirements; for instance, in isolated meadows surrounded by dense pine forests. This is also the time when the otherwise safe western prairies of our state may be invaded for the season, and if sufficient shelters can be found in windbreaks the pest may be established in this newly conquered region for several years. Such flights only take place when the air is dry, and only during the heated portion of the day. The reason for such flights is self-evident ; they are made to find feeding places for themselves and for their 158 offsprings. But not every field with, inviting young plants of barley and wheat has attraction for such insects; the fields must be of a certain kind. Fields with a sandy soil, well drained by being situ- ated on a knoll, and which warm up readily, are preferred; or fields that either from being poorly cultivated or from being more or less exhausted of vegetable food, have a poor stand of plants. Such fields are almost invariably selected simply because the soil is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, and because chinch-bugs dearly love warmth and dryness. When settled in their new home the bugs make up for the long fast enforced upon them by the winter, but soon afterwards the sexes commence to mate. Those that had already mated soon commence to deposit eggs, and thus the egg-lay- ing season lasts four weeks or more. A field may contain untold numbers of bugs and yet have but very few visible, and those nearly all in the act of mating, which usually takes place upon the ground. By shaking the plants — or, better by pulling them up with their roots — the true state of affairs will become painfully visible. The great majority of the bugs enter the ground for protection, and obtain their food by tapping the lower parts of the stalks of grasses and cereals. Though not equipped with legs fit for digging, they find an entrance near the plant, made for them by the swaying of the stems in the wind. Here they enter and make their homes, sur- rounded by plenty of food — the sap of nearly all species of the grass family. The egg is rather large for such an insect, measuring about 0.03 inch; it is elongate oval, with the diameter about one-fifth the length. By observing such an egg with a powerful lens, it will be found quite a pretty affair. It has a squarely docked top, sur- mounted with four rounded tubercles near the center. As long as quite fresh, it is pale, whitish and translucent; as it grows older it becomes amber colored, and towards the period of hatching the red parts of the future insect, but especially the eyes, are very plainly visible towards the top. These eggs are almost invariably deposited upon the roots of the plants selected, and only exceptionally can they be found upon the withered sheaths near the base of the stalk. As the eggs are usually deposited in small clusters, they are readily detected with the naked eye. By pulling up such plants and inspect- ing carefully the roots and base of stalk, the eggs appear as glisten- ing objects of amber or red color, quite distinct from similarly colored grains of sand. Of course a large number of the eggs become de- 159 tached and remain in the soil when pulling the plant, so that those counted give by no means a true estimate of the numbers really present. It is claimed that each female can deposit as many as 500 eggs. When we consider that the egg-laying period of a female bug extends from ten days to four or five weeks — in some cases over even a longer period — and that eggs may constantly mature in the ovaries, this large number is very likely to be only too correct. There is con- siderable difference in the length of time required to hatch egg,s. Last year eggs deposited quite early in June remained almost three weeks in the ground before hatching; later the hatching time was considerably shortened by more favorable weather, and the eggs hatched on an average in two weeks. Eggs of the second laying hatched, in some cases, inside of ten days, everything being in favor of a rapid development of the embryos. Ln,rval Stages . — As soon as the young larvae hatch they lose no time in inserting their beaks to obtain the liquid nourishmnet of the plant. This action frequently takes place before the young bug has seen the light of day. Of course a great deal depends upon the weather existing at the time. If warm and dry, the young bugs work their way towards the surface and usually insert their beaks in the stalk just above the surface. The character of the soil has also considerable influence in this respect. The newly hatched larva is pale yellow, ornamented with an orange stain upon the middle of the three larger abdominal joints. A glance at Fig. 1 will show this, as well as the other differences pointed out later. In shape this young bug resembles the adult insect, being but slightly longer in proportion. Yet it differs in one point essentially from the adult by having but a two-jointed foot. Of course this otherwise curious difference will not greatly interest the farmer. As the infantile bug grows older the red color soon pervades the whole body, except the first two abdominal joints, which remain yellowish. As the larva enlarges it soon outgrows the outer skin, which can not expand, and the insect is forced to throw off the old coat and wear a new one of a bright vermilion color, in strong contrast with the pale band across the middle of the body. Growing rapidly, the larva has again to undergo a second molt, after which the new coat shows a dusky head and thorax. At this time the future wings become indicated by small, dusky wing pads. Molting a third time, the pupal stage has been reached. The pupa has a brownish-black head and thorax, larger wing-pads of a similar color, a dingy gray abdomen, and a 160 dark horny spot at tip of abdomen. The entire body is also slightly pubescent. The pupa, as well as the larva and adult, takes food by inserting its beak in the food plant. The adult bug has already been described. It is distinguished not only by having a different color, but by being larger, winged, sexually mature, and by having one toe more in each foot. As al- ready mentioned, a great number of somewhat differently colored and shorter winged forms have been described, but none are of a pleasing aspect to the farmer. The time required to transform a freshly deposited egg into an adult bug varies greatly in different seasons, as might be expected in case of an insect so fond of warmth and dryness. In wet or cold seasons it takes much longer, but if conditions are favorable these changes may be passed through in fifty-six to sixty-two days. Sometimes, long before the last produced larvae have reached the adult or even the pupal stage, such food as rye, barley and wheat becomes too ripe to furnish the needed sap, and the bugs are forced to travel in search of plants more suitable for their food. Migration . — The above accounts for the peculiar fact that the migrating armies of chinch-bugs, when leaving the fields of small grains for those of green corn, are composed of all ages, forms and sizes. In some cases nearly full-grown larvae compose the majority of the army; again, small and large larvae and pupae form the bulk, but most usually a large number of adults are among the migrating insects. Climatic conditions and the resulting fitness or unfitness of the food-plants are the main cause of this peculiar state of affairs. As a very general rule, such armies do not and can not travel very fast nor far, and seldom a distance of over one hundred rods is passed over. Of course, hunger is a very severe prompter, and almost all bugs leave a field no longer furnishing food at nearly the same time, and all — prompted by the same sense or instinct— move in the same direction, and almost invariably to the next field of corn. What this sense may be is difficult to state; perhaps an acute sense of smell, perhaps some sense we do not know anything about, not pos- sessing it ourselves. Notwithstanding the fact that the adults found in such an army possess wings, they use them but very seldom, and only when the air is very warm and dry. Such winged insects may fly to the next source of food, or may be blown by the winds arising during their flight to far-away regions, to form the starting point of a new colony or a new army. All attempts to force such winged 161 insects to fly are of no avail; they evidently trust more to their legs than to their wings. An army of migrating chinch-bugs would be a sad sight if they were friends and not enemies. They appear foot- sore and dusty, and surely are hungry and thirsty. The individuals move rather quickly, and readily overcome common obstacles that may impede their march. But if they encounter dusty paths and roads, or newly plowed, dusty fields, they have a desperate task before them. In such dusty places, heated by the direct rays of the sun, and not compressed by rain or dew, their progress is nec- essarily but slow. As they move their front feet forward, grasping a particle of dust, this latter gives away and is pulled towards the insects whenever they attempt to press forward. Thus a dusty road becomes an obstacle almost impossible to cross. Yet the hunger and thirst permits no cessation of work, and many insects will at last succeed in overcoming all obstacles. A heavy dew, or a slight rain, is of course of great assistance to the moving army, and a dusty road no longer is impassable. The sun, which chinch-bugs enjoy so much at other times, becomes at this period a source of great danger, and many of the younger and less efficiently protected bugs die in con- sequence. All these facts ought to point out to the farmer many a method by means of which he can conquer his enemies. In the end, all obstacles are surmounted by those bugs that did not perish from hunger or heat, and the surviving members succeed in reaching the land of plenty — a waving field of corn, with vivid green and succulent food. Nor are the bugs slow in utilizing these new stores, and they are so hungry that they settle upon the first plant they reach. Soon the famished army covers the outer rows of plants of a cornfield, and we can now for the first time realize how numerous they were in the fields abandoned by them, since the scattered insects are now con centrated upon a few and large plants. These plants of corn soon turn black by the very presence of the insects. At first only the base of the stalk is thus crowded, as the tired bugs attacked that part of the plant reached first; but soon afterwards the whole plant, to the very extemities of the leaves, is covered with them. Their united action forces all the sap of the plant to the outside, and as there is at first usually more sap than the bugs can well imbibe, the spaces between the sheaths of the leaves become filled with fluid, which in a very short time ferments and sours. If the bugs would simply be satisfied with imbibing sap, they would greatly injure the plant; but they cause still greater damage by injecting some 162 poison which browns or blackens the leaf surrounding the part in- jured by the beak. Thus even comparatively few insects, not numer- ous enough to kill a plant, will cause it to wilt or die by the action of this poison. A similar action can be observed in a domesti- cated species of bugs not seldom found in beds. These insects, in- stead of thriving upon vegetable sap, prefer that of animals, and to fill their hungry stomachs as quickly as possible they insert their beaks into the human skin, inject an irritating poison to cause a local inflammation, and thus force a rapid flow of blood to the injured part. Perhaps for a similar reason is poison injected into plants by chinch-bugs attacking the same. Gradually the chinch-bugs of this first generation mature, and, after mating, deposit eggs for a second and last brood. These eggs are usually deposited behind the old and withered sheaths of the lower leaves, where they may be found quite readily, and in large numbers, not being so much hidden by particles of soil as those laid earlier in spring. Under such sheaths the young bugs hatch and feed, sometimes even undergoing all their metamorphoses to the adult stage. Most larvae, however, leave these shelters, because they are too crowded, and search for more suitable places upon other plants. In this manner soon most of the plants in a field are crowded, and suffer in consequence. The outer rows of corn, so thrifty looking at first, soon cease to furnish food, and after the insects have left appear white and bleached. In very severe cases, a cornfield badly infested can be distinguished from all others by this bleached appearance; and, as this usually happens during our hottest and dryest season, even repeated showers of rain are unable to strengthen and revive such plants. Whoever wishes to study the power of insects to destroy and to increase needs only to pull down a leaf of a corn plant infested with chinch-bugs. He will find, snugly hidden beneath the sheath, immense numbers of these insects, together with the discarded coats of the earlier stages of this bug. In course of time all these insects mature, and as their supply of food commences to flow more sparingly, or ceases altogether, it is time for them to search for shelters under which to pass the winter. Many of the insects remain for this purpose under the very sheaths that offered them shelter and food thus far, but the great majority now make good use of their wings and scatter far and near. As their usual winter quarters have already been described, it is not necessary to repeat. 163 This is, in a general way, the life history of the chinch-bug. It varies somewhat in details in the different regions or in different seasons, but as far as Minnesota alone is concerned, no essential facts have been omitted. It might be added, that during their migrations to the cornfields, these injurious insects become useful by destroying all the pigeon grass growing in the abandoned fields and upon the route over which they pass. Vulnerable Points in '1 heir Habits. — When we consider the life history sketched above, we find that a practical person will be very apt to discover some habits that could be utilized to kill large num- bers of this pest. Considering the fact that these bugs find shelter under all sorts of rubbish, leaves, etc., it appears assuredly feasible to attack them there with good results. Clean farming, then, is not only goodly, but an excellent remedy against this insect, and against many others. Let every farmer do his share of the work by not per- mitting any rubbish to accumulate upon his farm. In our usually dry autumns all rubbish will burn well. Such material should be raked together in rows; this should be done before the bugs search for shelters, and as they surely will find such rows, they will not be slow to appropriate them for winter quarters. Later, rubbish and bugs can be disposed of by fire. This work should include the clear ing and cleaning of the edges of the woods, of fences and fence corners, of haystacks and straw-stacks, of windbreaks; in fact, no rubbish should be permitted to remain upon the farm; and no rub- bish means no shelters for the bugs. Besides this all the taller grass should be burned over; in fact, let the fire be anywhere and every- where excepting where it might be dangerous. This burning of dead foliage upon fields, meadows and prairies in former times accounted, to a great extent, for the absence of many injurious insects at pres- ent only too common. We know that chinch-bugs prefer certain plants and dislike others; they prefer millets, for instance, and almost invariably at- tack this plant when found in the infested region, while flax repels them. It seems that barley is their second choice, then wheat, and later in the season corn. Winter rye frequently escapes harm, as it usually ripens too early, though a great deal depends upon the sea- son, and rye may be destroyed by preference. Chinch-bugs do not like oats. This does not mean, however, that oats will invariably escape their ravages. On the contrary, if more suitable food should be scarce, chinch-bugs consider oats good enough for them, and act I(j4 accordingly. By sowing millets very early, and having it above ground before the bugs leave their winter shelters, they will assur- edly find and appreciate it, and will settle there in very large num- bers. Of course, the owner of such millet cannot expect to grow both a crop of millet and of bugs, but will be forced to sacrifice the former to kill the latter. Just before the millet becomes too hard for the insect, it should be cut and left upon the soil. The bugs re- main upon it for some time before realizing the necessity of migrat- ing, and this delay should be utilized to burn millet and bugs. Another point in the life history of these bugs is their love for warmth and dryness, and consequently their selection of fields offer- ing both. Chinch-bugs prefer sandy soil or poorly cultivated soil simply because in such fields the plants are small and of irregular growth, thus permitting the sun to strike the soil directly, it not being shaded by foliage. Fields well covered with plants, and conse- quently soils well shaded, are not attractive to these insects. A good farmer will not utilize soils of the above characters, but will enrich the sandy soil to such an extent as to produce a strong and uniform stand of plants; nor will he cultivate poorly a good soil; neither will he be a robber of the soil by continuing to remove crops year after year without returning something to the soil in form of manure to keep up its fertility. A good farmer will escape many losses by insects and other pests where a poor farmer would suffer. Good farming, and clean farming, should be the motto over every farmer’s door. Poor farming means also a rank growth of weeds, and mainly of the different species of pigeon grasses, which in themselves are a great attraction for chinch-bugs. Another point in favor of the good farmer, or of one who feeds the soil generously, is a return of the thankful soil in form of strong and vigorous plants; plants which can withstand the attacks of injurious insects much better than the w T eak plants growing upon a starved soil. As long as it is the aim of the farmer to grow upon the biggest scale possible only one kind of crop, just that long noxious insects will be numerous, or even increase still more in numbers. The rea- son for this is so self-evident that it is not even necessary to explain. If more diversified farming was the rule and not the exception, as it is at present, fields containing the same kinds of plants would be more or less widely separated by fields containing other kinds of plants, and insects would not find it so convenient to multiply with- 165 out let or hindrance. Such fields of cereals, separted by other fields containing other crops, would soon reduce the numbers of many in- sects, and among them those of the chinch-bugs. Of course, this would mean, perhaps, more work, but it would also mean less trouble and better returns for the labor expended. When we consider the method in which the bugs of the first brood migrate from the dry plants first infested to the future green food in cornfields, we are struck with the fact that nearly all bugs, whether large or small, migrate on foot, and that even the great ma- jority of the winged ones do not form an exception by using their wings. Of course, under certain conditions a small percentage take to their wings; but this is the exception and not the rule. Armies of insects migrating on foot, and moving slowly and in the same direction, should offer us manv opportunities to oppose or to shop them entirely. This very fact of migrating on foot is the weak point in the life history of the chinch-bug, where we can, with a little foresight, overcome them. Many different methods may be adapted, depending mainly upon the character of the ground over which the insects have to pass. In our own state the agricultural soils are usually quite free of rocks and stones, excepting certain localities where they abound, but where, in consequence, but little grain is grown. By making between grain and cornfied a ditch several feet in depth, immense numbers of bugs can be captured and killed; in fact, nearly all that travel on foot. But in dry summers such ditches will have sides composed of baked and hard soil, and would offer but a slight hindrance to the moving army beyond extending their trip over a little greater distance. It is therefore necessary that the sides of such a ditch should be smooth and that its bottom should be very dusty. This latter is easily managed by tying together a bundle of twigs, with the leaves still adhering, and by dragging this bundle repeatedly through the ditch until the desired conditions have been made. The spade should be used to rectify any defects in the smooth sides. If such a ditch cannot be made, one or more very deep furroAvs should be plowed, and by using bundles of twigs their bottoms should be made very dusty. Very fine dust will perform the work most thoroughly. As already mentioned, it is almost im possible for a bug to cross such a dusty strip. Many modifications of this method are possible and will suggest themselves to the think- ing farmer. Even a strip of plowed land, made perfectly level with a disk-harrow and thoroughly rolled by a heavy roller and made 166 dusty, will do wonders. All these methods have two ends in view : to stop the progress of the bugs and to collect them in large num- bers in a limited space, so that they may be killed. This latter can be done in various ways. If ditches are used, a little straw scat- tered in the bottom will soon be crowded with bugs; in fact, piles of straw seem to confuse the traveling bugs and retard and retain them for some time. The straw can be burned by adding a little kerosene oil. Or, by means of a post-hole augur, holes can be made every ten or fifteen feet, into which the bugs will collect or into which they may be swept. By closing such holes when filled with bugs and making other holes, or by killing the bugs in the holes by kerosene oil and cleaning them afterwards with the augur, the bulk of the army can be captured and disposed of. As the bugs will not cross coal tar, the edges of furrows or ditches towards the fields to be protected should be covered with this material, and none of the insects could leave the trap. This coal tar can also be used even without a ditch or furrow^ but will not be so effective; yet in certain and extreme cases it may be the only method that can be used in time. By pour- ing a broad line of this material upon the neutral zone between the fields, and by keeping its surface fresh, the bugs will gather in front and can be trapped in holes made for this purpose. If all such meas- ures have been neglected, or if the bugs have already reached the outer few rows of the corn, the plants in them should be cut down in such a way that they form more or less continuous piles upon the ground. The bugs, being starving, will not leave these stalks for some time, but will continue to find their sustenance upon them. This, for quite a while, prevents their moving to the next row^s of corn. The bugs can be killed in very large numbers by burning dry straw between the piles of corn cut down. A little kerosene oil, or any other substance that burns well and makes a dense smoke, w r ill make a very pleasing addition to the entertainment. Knowing the principle to be applied, every thinking farmer ought to know kow r to apply it to the best advantage upon his own fields. The very fact that the bugs are retarded for a long time upon the heated sur- face of the ground is sufficient to kill a large number. The same principle explained above, but in another form, was applied by the writer six years ago upon the fields of the Experiment Station, and with such marked success that the corn to be protected did not suffer in the least from the chinch-bugs, though they almost surrounded the cornfields in immense numbers. The description of this particu- lar case will be quoted later. 167 It seems strange that sensible farmers, who have been told again and again, should fail to make use of such a very simple and cheap remedy, simply because it requires some extra work. And yet this work is required to be done at a time when other farm work is not so very pressing. If these methods were only generally and conscien- tiously followed, there would be no need to apply other remedies; and not alone would the corn be saved, but in saving it the second brood of chinch-bugs would be very materially reduced in numbers, and in a short time the chinch-bug would cease to be the destructive insect it now is. As this method is such a good one, it bears repeti- tion: all that is required is a thoroughly dusty surface, best in a de- pression especially made for that purpose, and that this dusty surface should be attended to diligently, so that repairs can be made when- ever necessary. A ditch or furrow left unattended will be made in vain. ' Although most of the direct remedies — the insecticides now in general use — will prove of but little value, we should except the kerosene oil emulsion, which can be used very successfully in certain cases. If the migrating bugs have reached the outer rows of corn, and almost hide these plants by their presence, this material will prove very effective; and as it will cost less than 75 cents per acre, it should be used much more generally. The emulsion should be well made, and it will be found best to use the one made after the Hub- bard formula, which is here repeated: Kerosene, 2 gallons 67 per cent. Common soap or whale oil soap, one-halt* pound) Water, 1 gallon ) 33 per cent. “Heat the solution of soap and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens on cooling, and should adhere without oiliness to the sur- face of glass. Dilute before using one part of the emulsion with nine parts of water. The above formula gives three gallons of emul- sion, and makes, when diluted, thirty gallons of wash. v To do the work thoroughly, farmers should use this wash at the rate of about sixty gallons to the acre. Relation of the weather to Chinch Bugs — Most persons have the impression that a very severe and cold winter would prove fatal to chinch-bugs. This impression or belief is not borne out by facts, which prove that the opposite is nearer the truth. An uniformly 168 cold winter, and a more or less deep covering of snow, are the very conditions that chinch-bugs require to pass the winter in good health. As soon as the cold weather begins, they become torpid, and remain so until spring. If, however, we have an open winter, with little snow, or long mild spells warm enough to wake up the torpid bugs, followed by very cold periods, or if we have frequent freezing and thawing, then the bugs suffer more or less severely, and their vitality becomes impaired and weak, and they are ready to succumb to any disease that may attack them . This is especially true if large numbers of bugs crowd together in the same hibernating quarters. It seems as if a deep covering of snow was essential to their health. Yet immense numbers of bugs remain frequently unimpaired and healthy without such a cover, and wake up quite active in spring, not showing the least ill effect of such a long exposure to cold. If we investigate such hibernating places we soon discover that they are dry, or that they are well drained. It seems, then, that it is moisture more than cold that chinch-bugs try to escape. They are not easily killed w'hen in a state of torpidity, and we can have no assurance that they may be killed by the inclemency of our winters. Their love for dry shelter accounts for the fact that a long continu ous wet spring is fatal to their health. They cannot escape this moisture, and large numbers of bugs can be found dead after such a rainy spring. This accounts, also, for the fact that a rainy season usually causes the end of a chinch-bug invasion. The insect becomes weak and the prey of various diseases which seem to be always ready to attack bugs with an impaired vitality, and during such seasons the great majority of bugs are killed. An uniformly cold winter, with much snow, an early spring not too wet, followed by a warm and dry late spring and a still warmer and dry summer, are the essential climatic conditions favorable to a rapid increase of chinch-bugs. Knowing that immense numbers of chinch-bugs are now sheltered in their winter quarters, and that at the present time (Dec. 10, 1894) they are still in a most healthy condition, it is to be feared that a considerable part of next year’s crops will be sub- jected to their ravages. As we cannot tell beforehand what kind of weather will prevail in spring and early summer, and as rain makers have apparently lost a control they never possessed, it well be- hooves us to make all the preparations necessary to fight the enemy. Every farmer ought to be willing to do his share of the work, and by carrying out conscientiously the different methods given above — all 169 based upon the habits of that enemy — very much may and should be done. Yet the millennium has as yet not been reached, when every farmer will be educated and willing to undertake such work, and we must therefore depend upon other remedies, which should be applied largely by the state for the benefit of the entire community, as large crops are the mainspring to the activity of every other business be- sides that of farming. It is well known that the area of wheat and of other plants be- longing to the family of grasses stands in the same relation to losses caused by chinch-bugs as cause to effect. Districts in which most wheat is raised feel the damage first and most severely; those in which wheat and oats are the principal crops next receive the brunt of the insect attack; and the last to be seriously affected are those in which corn and grass are the leading products (Forbes). In a region in which stock-raising and dairying are the leading agricul- tural pursuits the bugs are less liable to cause damage than in a region in which small grains are the staple crops. Prof. Forbes has also demonstrated that large areas of oats could be successfully grown, but in corn-growing regions most small grains should be left alone, and, above all, winter wheat and barley. Diseases of the Chinch- Bugs . — Considerable attention has been paid during the last ten years to a number of diseases that are known to be fatal to such bugs, and considerable progress has been made in their application. Such diseases have been studied, and methods have been invented in which they can be increased and spread among their victims. Still, a large amount of work and innumerable ex- periments have to be made in this direction, and it is still an open question whether we shall ever so fully succeed as we wish to. None of these diseases can be called as yet a true remedy, as we can do but one part of the work, while climatic conditions must do the other. It is easy enough to produce any amount of fungi causing such diseases, but we cannot produce the necessary weather to make it effective. All such diseases seem to require two distinct condi- tions: a fair amount of moisture to make such plants as fungi thrive well, and a somewhat lowered vitality of the bug to be attacked by the disease. Under artificial conditions we have control over both, and can consequently produce from a few fungi a very large number of diseased and fungus-covered dead bugs. But when we introduce this material among the healthy bugs found in our fields we lose control of the necessary conditions and have to depend upon the weather that may be prevailing at the time. If this is in favor of 170 FIG. 2. Disease Killing the Common House-Fly. the death-dealing fungi, the introduction of a disease will be a suc- cess; if not, it will do but little good. In other words, if the disease is introduced when the weather is favorable, good results will follow; if dry, none may be expected. As the diseases are chiefly active during the warmer portions of the season, they make but slow progress during the time that the bugs hibernate; yet late summer and autumn rains have a tendency to promote the development of a very virulent disease of the bugs, the White Muscardmc. Persons who are in the habit of watching such things have no doubt ob- served how rapidly our common house-flies are killed by a disease prevailing in September. Not infrequently we may at this time ob- serve a fly fastened by its tongue to a pane of glass in a window, surrounded by a white, flour-like dust. If the fly is removed, its body will be found hollow. This white dust is in reality composed of spores of a fungus which grew inside the fly, and after killing its host, forced its way to the surface of the same and scattered these spores, again fatal to other flies that may come in contact with them. The disappearance of the multitude of flies early in September is not owing directly so much to the colder nights that prevail at that time as to the disease and death-producing fungus. We do not ob- serve this disease during the warmer portion of the year, simply be- cause the vitality of the flies will permit them to escape this con- tagious disease. But as cool nights become the rule and not the exception the vitality of the fly is lowered; flies crowd together in large numbers ,are more or less sluggish in all their actions, and con- sequently the disease requiring such conditions can attack and kill them. The same holds good with all diseases of this nature that attack chinch-bugs; perhaps it is the general rule with all diseases caused by such small parasitic organisms. FIG. 3. Chinch-Bug Killed by Entomopthora. FIG. 4. Bug Covered by Mycelium of Sporotrichum. In Fig. 3 is shown a chinch-bug, greatly enlarged, that was killed by a species of fungus (Entomophtkora), and which was the cause of the sudden disappearance of chinch-bugs from the state in 1888. As the case was a very interesting one, showing at the same time another method to prevent bugs migrating from the neighboring cornfields, the statement made at the same time is here repeated: “Oats, rye, wheat and some grass was utterly destroyed by them, and the young and promising corn formed now a standing invitation 172 to the hungry hordes. To prevent their inroads, all the infested fields and experimental plats were surrounded by a low board fence, six inches high, and snugly fitting to the ground, so as to prevent the insects from crossing under this fence. The upper edge of the boards were painted from time to time with tar, which prevented the bugs from crossing. The ‘insects were at this time of all sizes and ages; adults of the first brood, young hatched bugs and pupae were all mixed together, and all were decidedly hungry, as their in- tense activity and the swarming armies of famishing bugs plainly indicated. To gather in this crop of bugs, round holes, about six inches in diameter, were drilled in the ground close to the fence, and as one hole became filled with insects it was closed and another one was opened close by for the reception of more victims. So mat- ters worked to our satisfaction, when an unexpected assistant came to help us, making the construction of more fences unnecessary. The above-mentioned holes were quite deep, and consequently were all wet, a condition of things not at all suitable to starving chinch- bugs, and they soon became unhealthy and weak, thus presenting the best conditions for any disease to claim them as its victims. And such a disease, produced by a fungus, was not slow in making its appearance, as could be seen by the numerous dead bugs. The mar- gins of the holes, but chiefly those most densely crowded with cap- tives, became whitened with dead bugs, enshrouded in white mycelial threads and dust-like spores ; in fact, in a few days the upper rims of these holes looked as if recently whitewashed. Nor did the dis- ease stop there! On the contrary, it spread very rapidly to ad- joining fields of timothy, Hungarian grass, millet, etc. Even the course followed by it from the holes could be readily recognized for some time by the more or less numerous white spots left in its wake. The fields invaded by the disease afforded, upon closer ex- amination, a truly edifying spectacle to those not interested in the welfare of the chinch-bugs. They looked quite panic-stricken, and moved about in a slow and dazed way, figuratively speaking, as if badly scared. And well they might be! The victims of the disease could be seen everywhere by the thousands; they had been slaught- ered in all kinds of positions, but they were usually fastened to the blades and stems of the grass, or to the leaves of the young clover. All showed plainly that their last and strong determination in life had been to hold on as long as possible; their legs were firmly planted upon the substance where the bugs happened to be; others had only their beaks inserted and were dangling by it free in the air. But all showed the characteristic white mycelium threads and spores of the disease. The illustration in Fig. 3 shows an enlarged chinch- bug, with white threads issuing from its body, and numerous other specimens in natural size killed by the fungus. Although almost exclusively attacking chinch-bugs, the disease was not slow in slaughtering such small flies as found the society of such mal- odorous companions to their taste. A story with a moral.” “Most, if not all, the chinch-bugs would have been killed at the Experiment Station, if the suitable conditions for the disease had lasted a few days longer. But the wet spell which prevailed part of the time the disease was playing such havoc amongst the bugs soon passed and was followed by warm and very dry days, which soon stopped any further spread of the disease. But by artificially producing such conditions, the disease was kept at work for some time, but only on a very limited scale. Nor could it be spread, because in nature such artificial conditions could neither be produced nor maintained on any extensive scale. As many parts of the southern portion of this state were overrun with chinch-bugs, I thought that a good opportu- nity and an inviting field was presented to purposely spread a dis- ease — an act not usually considered a very kind one to engage in, and one not to be recommended to physicians. This was exceedingly simple, as all that was necessary was to gather a number of the diseased bugs, put them in tight-fitting tin boxes and mail them to regions infested with chinch-bugs. Arrived at their destination, the contents of the boxes could be simply thrown in any field known to be infested with such bugs. This was done with specimens of the diseased bugs collected at the Experiment Station, and eighteen different places in Southern Minnesota were thus made centers of distribution for this disease. And, as it seems, with remarkably good results, as the disease has killed off the bugs to such an extent that careful search in a majority of places failed to produce a single liv- ing specimen, whilst the traces of the disease was found everywhere. The disease spread so rapidly that even corn growing near wheat- fields crowded with chinch-bugs was entirely protected, and no bugs had entered them in all the places visited by myself. But I am by no means satisfied that the disease was really introduced in this manner. Is it not possible that the disease was there already, un- known to anyone, and that I simply re-introduced its germs? The reason for this belief is based upon the fact that too large an area 174 was infested by the disease; too large to be readily accounted for by the short time in which the atmospheric conditions were — ap parently — in its favor. But be this as it may; one thing is certain, viz.: The disease has been there, and consequently the spores of the fungus producing it are there also, and remain there, to act when ever the conditions are favorable; and I firmly believe that our farm ers need not entertain any fears of chinch-bugs for the near future.” The above statement was written late in the autumn of 1888, and subsequent events have shown that the belief then expressed be- came a fact. It might be added, that in the same autumn many thousands of circulars were mailed to farmers living in the region infested in that year with chinch-bugs. Several thousand replies were received, and by entering them upon a map of the state they clearly showed that for some reason or other the disease did execu- tion only where introduced, and not in other places. Besides the disease just mentioned, several others are found that are fatal to the chinch-bugs. One is a bacterial disease, thriv- ing in the abdominal region of the bug. This disease seems to be less contagious than others, at least has as yet not given much promise that it might be utilized to destroy the insects upon a large scale. Bugs affected by it have usually a swollen abdomen, are weak and clumsy, so much so that if laid upon their back they are unable to reassume their proper position. After death the insects are not covered with a white dust composed of threads and spores, as is the case with other diseases caused by fungi. The third fungus which causes the death of chinch-bugs is the White Fuagas ( Sporotrickum, globuliferum). This fungus, though not strictly belonging to those that can only exist upon living insects, has been found to be the only one that can be manipulated with ease and success, as demonstrated again and again by the valuable and careful experiments made by Professors Snow, Forbes and oth- ers. Attacking by preference old and spent bugs, it will also attack healthy ones, in all stages of their growth, not even excepting the eggs. When conditions are favorable — i. e., when the bugs are weakened by wet weather — the increase of this fungus is exceed- ingly rapid and the disease caused by it sweeps over a large terri- tory in a short time, killing the majority of the infesting army. The dried fungus can also be kept in tin boxes over winter, and is always ready to respond to our demands. As it matures its spores in a comparatively short time and in immense numbers, an artificial 175 increase may be very rapid. The disease caused by it would be a perfect remedy if all the conditions necessary to its spread in the infested fields could be controlled, which, however, is not possible. A bug infected by it shows symptoms similar to those attacked by the Entomoplithora or Empusa already described. It becomes slug- gish, does not like to move, changes somewhat in color, appears inflated, and is soon afterwards covered with an external white coat of fungus growth. This coat is so very dense that it hides more or less completely the dead host, thus differing greatly from the Ento- mophthora, where but comparatively few white threads are visible. Fig. 4 gives* an idea of the appearance of this fungus enclosing a dead bug, while Fig. 3 shows that of the Entomophthora. This short description of the three diseases now known to be fatal to chinch-bugs may suffice for the present time. Other diseases are also known, but they still require study and experiments to solve their history and habits. With these diseases we ought to be able to cope with the pest of our grain-fields, but at present we do not al- ways succeed ; nor can we expect to, simply because we cannot con- trol the various necessary adjuncts to success, and consequently not too much confidence should be put upon any one of them. Future studies, experiments and experience may solve or lessen greatly the difficulties still in our path. Neither should we neglect to be always prepared ; we should constantly be ready to utilize favorable climatic conditions and introduce such diseases, and should not wait for them to assist us, which they may or may not do. And as the spores of Sporotrichum can be kept for a long time without dying, can be increased both upon artificial cultures and upon the insects them- selves, we should be failing in our duty to ourselves, to the commu- nity and to the whole state if we were not always ready to fight the enemy; in fact, an armed armistice should be the position held by us. Method s of increasing the number of diseased bugs —Knowing the conditions under which fungi causing death to bugs thrive best, it is not very difficult to produce them artificially. We know that moisture and impaired health of the bugs are necessary. To produce the latter all that is necessary is to confine the more or less healthy bugs found in our fields to boxes made of wood — the infection boxes. Shutting off all the light, and forcing the bugs to exist in an atmos- phere saturated with moisture, will give all the necessary conditions required by the fungus. If we take a shallow wooden box, six inches in depth, and not too large — say from three to four feet long and two feet wide — and cover the bottom with tightly pressed moist — not 176 wet — soil, we possess just what is needed. The bugs should, of course, be fed, and the sides of the box should be moistened from time to time, if it should become necessary. Chinch-bugs, loving the light, warmth and dryness, are not slow to be influenced by such unsuitable conditions as are prevailing in their prison, and soon become weaker in their vitality. If we now introduce^ a few dis- eased bugs, covered with the spores of the disease, the fungus caus- ing it is surrounded by the necessary moisture and by bugs -more or less weakened. The weaker ones, coming in contact with such spores during their anxious efforts to escape, will soon contract the disease, and after death become covered with a new crop of spores ready to further spread the disease. Many healthy bugs thus intro- ducd into the infection box fail for a long time to contract the dis- ease; in fact, we have sometimes raised a large number of young bugs to their pupal and even to their adult stage without having been able to make them diseased. But such cases are the exception and not the rule, as most of the bugs will before long show the effects of the infection, providing we have been careful to give the proper attention to the box. It is of course not necessary to intro- duce diseased bugs, as many persons seemed to think, as dead bugs are equally good, and better, being already covered with spores. Such an infection box will produce immense numbers of spores of the disease-giving fungi. The box should not be opened very often, since by doing so much of the moisture contained in the enclosed air will escape. A small sliding door in the top will facilitate the introduction of more prisoners. As soon as many bugs can be found that are covered with the fungus, they may be removed and other infection boxes can be started with them. When these boxes are working in a satisfactory way, most of the imprisoned bugs can be removed after two days and scattered in the fields infested with chinch-bugs. Those removed should be replaced with other bugs gathered in the field. In this manner everybody intending to util- ize such diseases to fight the common enemy should be provided with an infection box in which he can produce all the spores he may require. It should be borne in mind, however, that cleanliness is here, as well as elsewhere, of great importance. The food provided for the still living bugs in the box, being surrounded by a moist at- mosphere, so suitable for all kinds of molds, will soon decay, and therefore is apt to become moldy. This being the case, the food should be removed as soon as it is seen to commence to decay, as 177 decaying and rotting vegetable matter is sure to produce gases by no means of advantage to the fungi we are trying to produce. It is best to clean the boxes from time to time, because other enemies to our work will surely appear and give trouble. We should also not introduce too many bugs at the same time — not more than will fairly cover the surface of the soil. The infection boxes should be kept in the shade; if exposed to the hot rays of the sun we are apt to steam the prisoners, which, of course, will kill them, but not in the manner we wish to see them die. Nor should the boxes be kept in a cold cellar, as fungi of the kind desired require, besides moisture and weak bugs, sufficient warmth to develop rapidly. Perhaps it would be best to sink the whole box in a soil that is always well shaded. Of course many other methods will suggest themselves to the farmer, but he will do wisely to follow the directions here given, and not try to improve them, or even attempt to breed the disease in bottles, very wet inside, without containing food, tightly corked and exposed to the sun, as was done several times by some very smart persons who w r ere furnished with diseased material. It is not simply dead bugs w r e wish to produce in the infection boxes, but diseased ones. Nor was it wdse, in another case, to put the material received wdth the proper directions how r to use it in a bottle that had contained castor-oil, or some other oil intended for a very differ- ent purpose. Many cases discovered last year showed that another “Comedy of Errors” might be w^ritten, based upon the manipulations of the chinch-bug diseases. Other Enemies Besides Diseases . — It is strange how soon people, even after having lost their entire crops of cereals in former years by chinch-bugs, forget the appearance of that insect. Not infrequently we have been told by farmers that knew all about this pest that the bugs measured over half an inch in length or had from ten to fifty legs. This forgetfulness is also clearly showm by the large number of speci- mens of all kinds of insects received at the Experiment Station with the query: “Are these chinch-bugs?” Some of these speci- mens have not the least resemblance to them, but are as widely dif- ferent from the genuine article as a horse is from a hen. The illus- trations given in Figs. 5 to 8 show insects that are frequently mis- taken for chinch-bugs. Figs. 9 to 12 show useful insects, or such as make it part of their business to assist us against the enemy by devouring the same. Illustrations, Figs. 5 to 8, show T insects that are frequently mistaken for the true chinch-bugs, and which, in 178 FIG. 6. Negro -Bug. After Riley. FIG. 8. Insidious Flower-Bug. After Riley. consequence, have been frequently called “bogus chinch-bugs. v These latter are by no means beneficial insects, yet they need not cause unnecessary alarm. The common names of all these insects are given below the illustrations. It seems that the chinch- bug occupies a position among insects shared by but few others — i. e., there is not a true parasitic insect that seems to enjoy the highly flavored bug. When mentioning our friends among insects and other animals, we should not omit to state that many birds, reptiles, frogs and toads assist us materially against the enemy, and that we should protect our friends. It is a great shame that domineering man is so selfish! Birds like the Bob White and prairie chickens are killed on a large scale, simply because they are good to eat. But in pam- pering to our stomachs we forget that both birds, pressed by hunger during autumn, winter and early spring, make war upon the insects they may find hibernating. In fact, insects form the staple food for these birds, and consequently large numbers of chinch-bugs are 179 Fig. 12 Lady Bugs. From Div. of Entomology. consumed. The red-winged blackbird, the cat bird, the brown thrush, the meadow lark, and several species of wrens, have been repeatedly observed to eat chinch-bugs, and even those of the above list that may appropriate some seeds and fruits not planted for them should be protected. Our domesticated fowls also eat chinch- bugs, but not all kinds and breeds act alike in this matter. Some chickens eat them greedily; others will not be tempted by them. The Guinea fowl and turkeys devour large numbers. Frogs and toads are also useful in chinch-bug years, and especially so the latter, which should always be protected. 180 What was done in 189 4 . — The climatic conditions which pre- vailed in 1894, and which were so highly favorable to chinch-bug increase, have already been mentioned. To illustrate them in a specific case, yet one not very different from the average condition that prevailed almost everywhere in Minnesota, the amount of rain and the temperature prevailing at Rochester is given in the follow- ing table, kindly prepared by Messrs. C. N. Ainslie and H. C. Butler, the former an ardent student of natural history and natural sciences: 1894. l 1 Wind. Rainfall. Temp. Junk. Wind. Rainfall. PH a a> H 1 * P P >-5 Wind. Rainfall. Temp. | August. | ! Wind. p (A Temp. 06 X M H a. m Wind. Rainfall. Temp. 1 N.W. 0.12 52 70 1 1 N. 0 42 73 1 N W. 0 68-82 1 N.W 0 66-82 1 ft. W* 0 47 81 2 S. E. 0 36-61 2 ' N. 0 46 80 2 N.W. 0 50 82 2 i N.W. 0 53 84 2 ft. W 0 64-92 3 8 , 0 43 53 3 N.W. 0 52-73 3 N.W. 0 52-80 3 N.W. 0 40-66 3 ft. W 0.01 69-89 4 S. 0 36-63 4 N.W. 0 44-72 4 N.W 0 52 74 4 S. 0 44-73 4 N. E 0 57 81 5 s. 2.04 43 63 5 N. 0 33 53 5 N.W 0 46 80 5 s. 0 50-78 5 S. t rac 56 80 6 w 0 43-53 6 N.W. 0 32 70 6 N. 0 56 72 6 ! s. 0 55-85 e ft. 0 61 85 7 N.W 0 40-62 7, N.W 0.07 40 82 7 N.W. i 0 42 78 7 ft. w. trace 59 87 ? S.E. 0 67 75 8 N.W. 0 38 72 8 S. 0 48 83 8 W. 0 48 86 8 w. 0 64-90 8 ft. W. 0 56 81 9 n! w. 0 48 80 1 9 s. 0 53 84 9 3. W. 0 50-90 9 N. 0 60 97 c w. 0 48-78 10 n!w. 0 48-56 TO s. 0 53 84 10 ft. W. 0 58 90 10 S. 040 67-83 1( N.W. 0 44-80 11 s. 0 32 70 11 s. 0 60-90 11 ft. w. 0 66 92 11 s. 0 64 85 11 S.W. 0 33-63 12 S. E 0 48-80 12 3. W. 0 64 94 12 ft. W. 0 70 92 12 3. W. 0 58-84 12 : ft. 0 37-68 13 S. E. 0 50 84 13 3. W. 0 64 95 13 ft. W. 0 56-74 13 3. W. 0.15 58-83 It ft. E. 0 46 70 14 s. w 0 64-84 14 3. W. 0 64 94 14 w. 0 50 80 14 ft. 0 61 81 U ft. E. 0.25 52-71 1 1* 1 ft. 0.08 63-92 15 S. W. trace 64 92 15 N.W 0 54-92 15 ft. w. 0 53-82 15 ft. W. 0 45 83 1«l ft R 0 62 82 16 ft. w. 0 64 92 16 W. 0 60 94 16 S. E. 0 53-75 16 w. 0 49-71 17l ft R 0 82 52 80 17 N. E. 0 72 63 17 ft. W. 0 53-98 17 ft. 0 57 83 17 W. 0 42-74 18 N.W. 0 36 50 18 E. 0 59 76 18 3. 0 64 98 18 w. 0 56-*9 18 W. 0 28-64 19 N.W. 0 30-55 1 !) S. E. 0 52-78 19 ft. W 0 68 94 19 w. 0 52-82 19 ft. E. 0 48-72 9fi' NT R 0 32 64 20 3. E 0 66 90 20 N.W. 0 62 84 20 S.E. 0 59-85 20 W. 0 53-81 91 1 R 0 40 53 21 w. 1.45 60-84 21 W. 0 46 86 21 s 0 57-85 21 N. E. 0.66 47-66 22 N. E. trace 46-58 22 S. 0 64 84 1 22 ft. W. 0 54 92 22 s. w. 0 60-82 |22 S.E. 0 47-75 23 N. E 0 43 64 20 3. E. 0.78 64 73 23 3. 0 66 96 23 w. 0 65-88 23 N W. 0 44-69 21 ! N. E. 0 50 70 21 W. 1.03 64 80 ]24 N. 0 66 88 24 N. 0 61-91 I 24 W. 0 35-55 OK M W 0 42-76 25 ft. E 0 53 80 25 3. 0 52 92 25 N. E. 0 57 87 25 3.E. 0 35-54 26 s. 0 48-84 28 S. E. 0 55-88 28 S. 0 72 102 26 N. E. 0 50-81} |26 ft. E. 0 52-62 2n\ N. W. 0 42 56 27 ft. E. 0 58 84 27 N.W. 0 77 102 27 N.W. 0 58 83 ;27 3. E. 0 50 76 28' N. 0 32-64 28 W. trace 62-84 23 N.W. 0 71 96 23 S. W. 0 58-88 28 3. W. 0.26 59-83 29 ' N W. 0 46-70 29 S. 0 55 89 29 w. 0 51 84 29 N.W. 0 60 90; 129 ft. W. 0 62 84 30 1 N 0 40 60 30 3. E. 0 66 92 30 W. 0 59-89 30 w. 0 47-77 30 N.W. 0 40-79 8 l| N. 0 36-63 31 S. 0.03 69-89 31 w. 0 46-76 Temperature figures furnished by Judge H. C. Butler, the others by Ohas. N. Ainslie, both of Rochester, Minn. Notwithstanding this almost unparalleled drouth, the crops of small grains were but little damaged, either by lack of moisture or by chinch-bugs; the ripening period of the plants was simply greatly shortened. Only in a few exceptional cases did crops suffer from both. Yet such favorable conditions must necessarily have vastly increased the number of chinch-bugs during that season, and the outlook for 1895 becomes gloomy indeed, if our fears should be real i 7 .ed. His Excellency, Governor Nelson, always willing to assist the 181 agricultural class of our citizens in suck emergencies, and realizing fully the danger threatened by chinch-bugs, did all he possibly could by furnishing some means to start infection boxes. As there was no appropriation made for this important work, but a small sum of money could be expended, and not early enough in the sea- son to fully test the value of the diseases discussed above. The County Commissioners of Olmsted, Blue Earth and Nicollet coun- ties also assisted by appropriating some funds, and some of the owners of commercial mills helped all they could by furnishing help. Mr. Cole of Rochester and Mr. Hubbard of Mankato deserve the thanks of all farmers in their neighborhood for the interest taken in this work. A large amount of work was accomplished, and thou- sands of small tin boxes filled with diseased bugs were distributed to all farmers desiring them. A large number of reports showed that in many cases the disease worked well, even killing all the bugs infesting some fields. In many other cases the success was less ap- parent, and in still others none could be observed. Considering the phenomenally dry season, more could not be expected, and that in many fields the disease should have spread at all speaks well in favor of the white fungus disease, which w T as mainly employed. Considerable harm has been caused by highly sensational arti- cles in newspapers published during the last six or seven years, in regard to this method of killing chinch-bugs, which read as if the bugs could be killed by such diseases as if by magic, and this in a few days, or even hours. Nearly every farmer had read such arti- cles, and many of the more uneducated ones based all expectations from the remedies applied by them upon such a disease instead of upon those dependent upon the habits of the insects — the only true remedies we possess at present. Many farmers actually expected that by throwing a pinch of the-diseased bugs in a large field infested with bugs, these w^ould — presto! — be found dead the next day. They did not realize that the introduction of a disease requires very careful w r ork, and work that not every farmer can perform. To dispel any such illusions this bulletin has been prepared, and also to show how farmers must act to overcome the enemy. The results obtained by the experiments of last year are encouraging, yet no one should base all his hopes upon the introduction of such diseases alone, but should mainly depend upon the other remedies given, which are sufficient, if honestly and thoroughly applied. These lat- ter can aways be depended upon, while the former may or may not 182 work, depending so much, as they do, upon conditions that cannot be controlled. Yet this does not mean that such experiments should be abandoned; on the contrary, they offer the only other hopes we possess of gaining the mastery over an insect like the chinch-bug. A private man cannot enter into these experiments, which are both expensive and tedious; but an agricultural state like Minnesota should always have the means ready to assist farmers if the oppor- tunity offers. For this reason it is hoped that the legislature will see fit to appropriate a sufficient amount of money for investiga- tions and experiments of this and similar character. •‘Forewarned is forearmed” is a proverb that should teach us a very valuable les- son. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, BULLETIN NO. 38. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. DECEMBER, 1894. GARDEN TILLAGE AND IMPLEMENTS. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA ST. PAUL: Tin; Pioneer Press Cq m 1895. UNIVERSITY OR MINNESOTA BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, 1900 The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, 1900 The HON. WM. H. YALE, Winona, . 1896 The HOY JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, 1897 . The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896 The HON. WM. M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1897 The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, 1895 The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, .... 1895 The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, Ex-Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST, M. A., Hutchinson, . . . Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL.D., Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: WM. M. LIGGETT, . WILLET M. HAYS, B. S. A., . SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S , OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., . HARRY SNYDER, B. S., . T. L. HiECKER, M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., THOS. SHAW, .... J. A. VYE, .... ANDREW BOSS, Chairman. Vice Chairman and Agriculturist. Horticulturist. . Entomologist and Botanist. Chemist. Dairy Husbandry. Veterinarian. Animal Husbandry. Secretary. Farm Foreman. The Bulletins of this Station who make application for them. are mailed free to all residents of the state GARDEN TILLAGE. SAMUEL B. GREEN. By the proper cultivation of the garden we accomplish three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which we desire to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into the best condition to resist drouth ; that is, into the best condition for avail- ing itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The stores of insoluble plant food are made soluble by the chemical action and fermentation, which are increased by loosening the soil, thereby letting in the air. Keeping Out the Weeds — The methods best adapted for keeping the weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow ; upon the kind of crop and upon the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the harrowing or other thorough cutivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly, the weeds do not have a better chance than the crop. If this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started even ever so little when the crop is planted, the result generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. This is a common mis- take, and is, perhaps, responsible for more failures in the garden than any other factor which enters into the consideration of this subject; and it is a very simple matter to prevent any trouble from this source if a little foresight is exercised. Early Cultivation to Kill Weeds — The next most important factor in the prevention of weeds in the garden is early cultivation. In the case of seeds that require a long time to germinate, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine- toothed rake, even before the crop appears above the ground, pro- viding the work is so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. 184 When the seed is sown with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cultivating it in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as carrots, onions, parsnips and beets, which are quite deli- cate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden cultivator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate with a horse, and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. With proper tools, the work may be done nearly as quickly by hand as by horse power, and far more perfectly when the plants are small. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since, if the weeds are removed when they are young, the work of weeding is very small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious mat- ter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds be- come so firmly established as to make it a question whether to re- move them or plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of great value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants, and which seriously inter feres with their growth. It is also, like all surface cultivation, of aid in the conservation of moist- ure in the soil. The effects of cultivation from this standpoint will be found referred to on page 186. Imnortanee of Not Allowing Weeds to Go to Seed. — A common source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gathered. To some farm- ers it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the only rule in this par- ticular, and it is by far the most economical in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are going to seed. If the preventives for weeds here suggested are closely followed, hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be unnecessary with any crop. Weed, Seeds in. Manure for the Garden. — While the discussion of the subject of manures for the garden is not the special object of this bulletin, yet some reference to the subject is quite necessary in con- sidering the subject of weed eradication. The people of this state have not yet learned the great value of barnyard manure and 185 its proper preparation for best results in the soil. This is a subject of vast importance, and one that in the future will receive far more thought than at present. The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds, and is a fruitful source of weed infection. The manure intended for the garden that contains the seeds of weeds should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted. By this means the seeds in it will be killed. But in order to rot manure to best advantage, it should be forked over occasionally when well warmed up by fer- mentation, and the whole turned over, with the outside of the pile thrown into the center. If dry, it should be watered enough to en- able fermentation to continue, and to prevent “fire-fanging.” It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and manure should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds, and then only for some late-maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. All early crops need well rotted manure, and require it in much larger quantities than do the late-maturing crops. Plowing— In Minnesota, where the summers are generally dry, the garden should always be plowed in the fall. It is seldom advis- able to leave the plowing until spring in this climate, and if ever plowing is done in the spring, the plow should be run shallow. Deep spring plowing leaves too much of the upper soil loose and not suf- ficiently compact to enable the subsoil water to reach the surface roots. Ridging the Land,—\i the land is likely to be too wet in early spring for planting, sometimes it is good practice to turn several furrows back to back, and thus leave the land in ridges over winter. FIG. 1. Section showing ridged land in the winter. If these ridges or “lands” are made fifteen to twenty feet wide, they may be dragged and planted in the spring without further plowing. For some crops it is often best to back-furrow out again in the spring, and thus leave the land level. This method of treatment 186 permits of working the land much earlier in the spring than it other- wise could be worked, if plowed flat. It leaves the soil in very good shape for the action of the frost on its particles during winter. For early crops on flat or heavy soils, it is a most desirable treatment. The objection to it is that if not turned back in the spring the dead furrows interfere with cultivation. If the land is plowed in the spring, it may be left too loose; but admitting these objections, even then there are often cases where this treatment would be very desir- able. The soil for the garden should be worked to the depth of at least eight inches in order to be in the best condition for crops. On soils which have subsoil too compact, the subsoil plow may be used to advantage. It should be borne in mind in cultivating the garden that while the soil in it may be too loose, it cannot be too rich or too deep, nor can the subsoil, if not of too impervious a nature, be too compact. General Cultivation of Garden Crops. — The methods to be pur- sued in the general cultivation of garden crops will vary somewhat, according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very impor- tant to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important part is to so fit the soil that it may best withstand drouth. This is accomplished by frequent shallow cultivation during the period of growth. The first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drouth re- sults in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil, in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water 187 is prevented from evaporating by a blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop; loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop, the surface of the ground should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or after artificially watering. Cultivation to Develop Plant Food ,. — Nearly all laud in the state contains immense quantities of plant food. Professor Snyder has shown that our average wheat-producing soils contain enough nitro- gen to raise one hundred and twenty-five successive crops of wheat. But only a very little of this material is ever at one time in a condi- tion in which the plant can take it up. Nearly all of it is insoluble. By chemical action and fermentation in the soil plant food is set free. This is increased and made more complete by admitting air into the soil; hence the reason for deep plowing in the fall, which allows the air and water to enter and thus develop the plant food. This, also, is an important fact to be kept in mind in cultivating land. Where the soil can be kept moist through the summer, deep spring plowing is an advantage, as it opens the soil to the air; but on account of the liability to drouth, the practice is a poor one for this state. Garden Implements and Their Use # — It is very evident that mixed husbandry is to replace exclusive grain farming and cattle raising in Minnesota in the near future. With this change will come greater attention to the amenities of life. There will then be more demand for a variety of food, and consequently for the prod- ucts of the garden. The importance of doing garden work by horse- power is so evident that it goes without saying. On every garden large enough to admit of it, horse labor should be used in preference to hand labor. As a rule, our farm gardens are too small to permit of this. One of the greatest hindrances to the successful cultivation of the garden is the common practice of so laying it out that a large amount of hand labor is necessarily involved in cultivating it. The farmers of Minnesota are justly proud of their achievement of almost entirely doing away with hand labor in the field, but in garden methods they still have very much to learn in this particular. The garden is a part of the farm that is often very unpopular, and I believe it is so largely from the fact that comparatively little effort is made to adapt modern methods to its management. Many of our vegetable crops can be growrn without any hand labor whatever, 188 providing the soil is in good order to begin with, and free from weeds. The most important tool for the average horticulturist or gardener is a first-class horse cultivator. No pains should be spared to have the best implements, and then the most intelligent man in such matters on the place should run it. Too often the running of the cultivator is given to some young hand who has much more muscle than judgment, and his work is judged by the number of rows he goes over rather than by the care and completeness with which the work is done. It is best to go slow with the horse culti- vator, for this means the saving of much hand labor. The best culti- vators in use to-day are adjustable to various kinds of work, each of which they are capable of doing in an admirable manner. But, to get the best results from their use, they must be carefully studied and their attachments adapted to each special use. I want espe cially to insist that in order to get good work done by modern garden tools, they and the directions sent with them must be carefully studied. But even when horse labor is used as much as possible, there will always be a necessity for some hand work in such garden crops as onions, table beets and table carrots. These can probably be grown most cheaply in rows about fourteen inches apart, where the cultivation must be done largely by hand implements. These implements have reached a rare degree of perfection, and are wonder- fully adapted for their purposes. The use of some of them has be- come a necessity in every well regulated garden. It is safe to say, that no one who cultivates a garden can afford to be without good hand and horse cultivators, with the modern attachments, and their more general use would make the farm garden more common and relieve it from being looked upon, as it often is, as being the most troublesome part of the farm. Hand seed sowers have also become necessary in gardens, and are so well made that they will sow almost any kind of garden seeds quickly and accurately as to quantity and depth of planting. In order to use these hand and horse garden tools to the best advantage, the rows should be straight and long and the land culti- vated flat. The rows to be cultivated by hand implements should be by themselves. It is important, also, to use short whiffletrees. The whiffletrees generally used for farm purposes are much too long for the best work, and their use prevents the proper use of modern culti- vators. For ordinary garden purposes, these should not be over fourteen inches long, and when working in very narrow rows, one 189 may be used not over twelve inches long, providing the traces are protected from wearing the hair off the horse. GARDEN IMPLEMENTS. So many garden implements have been introduced within a few years that the Horticultural Division of the Experiment Station has made quite a collection, in order to study them. On the follow- ing pages will be found notes on such implements tried at the sta- tion as seemed to be particularly desirable. The “ Combination Drill and Cultivator,” manufactured by Ames Plow Co., Boston, Mass., is arranged to use either one or two wheels, as may be preferred. (See Fig. 2.) The indicator is very simple in construction and is easily handled. The agitator is sure to keep the seed moving through constantly, unless clogged with some foreign material. The depth of sowing can be easily regulated. The wheel and coverer are simple and do the work required, viz : cover seeds and firm the soil over them. The marker is well adapted for giving a clean track for successive rows, and is easily changed to different widths. A convenient cut-off is provided to use when turning at the ends of the rows to prevent loss of seed. The change from the drill to cultivator, or vice versa, can be made very quickly. For working the soil it has hoes, plows, rakes and cultivator teeth of good shape and size. Being arranged to use either one or two wheels, the efficiency of the work that it can do is greatly increased. It can be 190 used successfully to open and close furrows. This feature is useful in planting seeds or plants two or four inches below T the surface. The whole machine is put together in a workmanlike manner, and is made of good material. It is a very desirable implement for those who have a vegetable garden to cultivate. The machine is adapted to working on both sides of a single row with two wheels, or be- tween the rows. This is also a convenient arrangement when sow- ing seed. The introducers, however, recommend for market garden- ers, instead of this combined implement, separate implements, to FIG: 3. New Universal Double- Wheel Hoe, Cultivator and Plow. save the time of changes. They make the separate drill and sepa- rate cultivator, embodying the above features and others that cannot be included in a combination implement. This machine is shown closing furrows at (b) in the cover illustration. For further notice see page 23. List price, $13.50. The '‘New Universal Hand Doable- Wheel Hoe, Cultivator and Plow,” shown in Fig. 3, is also made by the Ames Plow Co., Boston. This implement is of recent introduction and has all the latest im- provements in this line. It is furnished with the usual tools, such as scuffle-hoes, cultivator plates, plows and leaf guards. A feature that 191 is very handy is the adjustable arch, by which the depth or angle of the cultivator teeth may be regulated. It can be used to work be- tween rows or to straddle one row. The construction is excellent. A one-wheel cultivator closely resembling this, and which is very light and useful for cultivating between rows, is made by this same company. List price of double-wheel machine is $7.50, and single- wheel $6. The A. H. Matthews Seed Brill has been used for many years at the University Farm and by many market gardeners. It has given good satisfaction as a safe and reliable seed sower. It is shown at No. 1 in Fig. 4. New Model Seed Brill , made by the Bateman Manufacturing Co., Grenlock, N. J., is a very compact, light and strong machine. The forward wheel is of extra width, thus making it very easy to push through light soil. The agitator is an excellent arrangement and FIG. 4. 1 — A. H. Matthews’ Drill. 2 — .Planet Jr. Combined Drill. 3 — Matthews’ Com- bined Drill. 4— New Model Drill. 5— Planet Jr. Hill Dropping Garden Drill. sure to keep the seed moving through the feed-hole in a regular stream. There is one feed-hole, the size of which is quickly changed by a simple and convenient device that permits of its being increased or diminished in size at pleasure. The coverer and the press-wheel are well adapted for covering seeds evenly and pressing the surface soil over them. The marker attachment for tracing lines for suc- ceeding rows is well made and easily handled. This is an excellent garden drill, in every respect; list price, $9. This drill is shown at No. 4 in Fig. 4. The Iron Age Horse Hoe (see Fig. 5), made by the Bateman Man- ufacturing Co., wherever tried has given good satisfaction. It is simple in construction and strong, and in every way a good imple- 192 ment for general work. The frame is of steel, and the standards and plates well suited for their purposes. The regular form has only five plates or shovels of medium width. A set of sweeps is provided for hilling. Two extra standards are provided, which may be used with narrow plates, forming a fine seven-tooth cultivator. FIG. 5. Iron Age Horse Hoe. It also has attachments for opening and closing furrows and all the requisites of a first-class horse hoe and cultivator. A lever controls the change of width, thus making it easy to work with it close up to the rows, even if they are not always parallel. List price, $9.50. The Iron Age Combined Cultivator and Harrow, made by the Bateman Manufacturing Co., is a horse implement that is very effi- cient in forming a dust blanket in the garden during the dry sum- mer months. It will also do admirable work when plants are small. It can be used very close to plants and to destroy any small weeds FIG. 6. Iron Age Combined Harrow and Cntivator. that are near them. It has a lever expanding arrangement that works easily and quickly. The teeth are easily reversed, making either a straight or slanting tooth implement. The material and 193 construction is of the best. This is a favorite implement with many market gardeners. List price, $8.75. Fig. 6. Gem of the Garden Hand Cultivator . — The Gem of the Garden Hand Cultivator is a very light but strong cultivator, made by the Bateman Manufacturing Co. It is furnished with cultivator teeth, scuffle-hoes and plows. Two wheels are provided, allowing it to be FIG. 7. Gem of the Garden Hand Cultivator. used either as a straddle cultivator or simply as a one-wheel culti- vator. The material and construction are of the best. All parts are made of steel. The extra parts furnished consist of a small landside plow and an onion harvester. List price, $6.50. Fig. 7. The Jewel Double- Wheel Hoe is a very desirable hand implement for close cultivation of garden crops. It is made to be used as a straddle hoe or between the rows only. It is well adapted for the light, close cultivation that is necessary when plants are young and just starting into growth, or for the deeper and more thorough culti- vation during the summer months. It is of light construction, but strong and well made and compares favorably with the implements of other makers designed for the same purpose. List price, $6. Made by Bateman Manufacturing Co. Fig. 8. The Cover Illustration is reproduced from a photograph of work done in opening and closing furrows by the Planet Jr. and Mat- thews’ combined garden cultivators. At (a) is shown the Planet NOTE. The Bateman Manufacturing Co. refers correspondents to their Northwest- ern agents, Lindsay Bros., Minneapolis, Minn. 194 FIG. 9. Buckley Cultivator. in holes arranged around the frame, almost under the axle of the wheel. The material used in its construction is good. It is espe- cially useful in heavy land for loosening the soil when it bakes hard in summer. It is the most powerful hand garden implement known. Market gardeners will find it very desirable. List price, $8. Fig. 9. Jr. implement, which has a one-moldboard plow at work opening furrows. At (b) is shown the Matthews combined garden culti- vator at work closing furrows, for which purpose it has two one- moldboard plows, which may be reversed when used for opening fur- rows. FIG. 8. Jewel Double Wheel Hoe. The Buckley Cultivator manufactured by E. C. Buckley, Peoria, 111., is designed to give extra leverage by having the wheel thirty inches in diameter. This also gives a steadiness not possible in a machine with smaller wheels. The various attachments are placed 195 The Universal No. 3 Straddle Hoe is a very light and simple hoe, capable of doing good work when weeds are small and land moderately fine. The blades are nicely adapted for cutting weeds under the surface of the land and to scour well. The manufacturers recommend this implement for use when onions are small and after- wards the use of the Sherwood No. 3 Union Hoe. List price $5. It is shown at No. 3 in Fig. 10, and is manufactured by C. O. Jelliff & Co., Southport, Conn. The Sherwood No. 3 Union Hoe is designed to be used as a general hand cultivator for garden crops. It is light and strong, and the ma- 12 3 4 FIG 10. Hand Garden Implements* Manufactured by C. O. Jelliff & Co. 1— Universal Onion Drill. 2— Universal One Blade Hoe. 3 — Universal No. 3. Straddle Hoe. 4 — Sherwood No. 3 Union Hoe terial is of the best. Hoes of good shape, designed to cut under the surface of the soil. A novel feature is the addition of two small disks which can be set at any angle so as to loosen the soil in the rows, like the disks of a disk-harrow. An onion puller attachment is manufactured for this implement. It has a curved hoe running under the onions and a mold-board behind, which rolls the onions to one side and thus turns two rows together. It does its work very well. List price, $7. Shown at No. 4, Fig. 10. Manufactured by C. O. Jelliff & Co. Universal One-Blade Hoe is a very useful and efficient one-blade hoe for close work in the garden. The blades may be of any length. Its special use is to keep the surface of the land free from weeds. It does not work the soil except on the surface. List price $2.75. Shown at No. 2 in Fig. 10. Manufactured by C. O. Jelliff & Co. The Universal Onion Drill is very simple in construction, of ex- cellent workmanship and light in weight but strong enough for general work. It is designed to sow two rows at a time. Two styles of this machine are manufactured, one sowing twelve inches apart and the other fourteen inches. Two seed hoppers are on the axle, and the seed is forced out by small wheels which turn on the 196 axles, thus making it sure to drop the seeds very accurately and evenly. The track of the outer wheel is the mark for the inside wheel to follow in returning. With land in reasonably good condi- tion, this machine will do rapid and excellent work. Large onion growers will find this seeder a very desirable implement. It is de- signed especially to sow onion seed, and is not intended for general purposes. List price for the twelve-inch machine is $8; fourteen- inch, $10. This drill is shown at No. 1 in Fig. 10, and is manufac- tured by C. O. JellifE & Co. The McGee Cultivator is a light, strong and efficient hand culti- vator. The handles are held apart with a spring, which makes it very convenient to go close to plants, or to keep away from the row, as may be desired, without any change of bolt or other appliance. The arch is very high, so as to allow it to pass over tall plants with- out breaking the tops. The tools accompanying the machine are well adapted to cut out small weeds, to keep soil well stirred, etc. It is also provided with an onion puller, which passes under the row, lifting the onions and dropping them again in the rear. The mate- rials used in its construction are very good. It is manufactured by Deere & Mausur Co., Moline, 111. List price, $5. The Planet Jr. Hill- Dropping Garden Drill differs from any other drill on the market in its arrangement for sowing the seed in hills, It is of excellent workmanship, and will do everything that the manufacturers claim for it. We quote from their catalogue as fol- lows: “Until recently there was no such thing as a hill-dropping seeder, most modern drills sowing seed only in a continuous row. The demand for a machine that could be adjusted to plant in hills has been urgent. If seed is drilled and the plants thinned out, it is often hard to find a strong plant at the right point, even with thick sowing; but with hill-planted seed you are almost sure to find two or three good plants at the exact spot where one is wanted. This is accomplished, too, with far less seed. Thus, with great saving of labor, time and seed, a far more regular crop is produced. This is often of great importance, as in sugar beet culture. This drill will sow in a continuous row, in the ordinary way, with the greatest reg- ularity; but its distinctive feature is that it will also drop neatly in hills, either four, six, eight, twelve or twenty-four inches apart. It opens the furrow, plants, covers, rolls down and makes a mark for NOTE. Northrup, Braslan & Goodwin Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota, are Northwestern agents for O. O. Jelliff & Co.’s implements. 197 the next row, all at one operation. The hopper holds two quarts. The wheels are fifteen inches high. It is changed in a moment from hill-dropping to drill work by simply hooking up the ‘cut-off,’ and is changed back again instantly by releasing the cut-off. The flow of seed is stopped or started instantly by a single movement of the fore- finger, without stopping or taking the hand from the handle. This is so easily done that not one hill need be missed in starting or stop- ping. The drill has a force feed ; a peculiarly formed rubber double screw works over a diamond-shaped opening in the bottom of the hopper. While it sows with perfect regularity, the rubber feed wheel, revolving within a brass cylindrical shield, cannot injure deli- cate seeds, such as radish, cabbage, etc. It sows equally well, whether the hopper is full or contains only a paper of seed. The setting is quickly and accurately done for the different seeds by a simple thumb screw. An index plate, with the names of the princi- pal seeds, is placed at the top of the right handle, and the screw is turned until the indicator stands opposite the name of the one to be sown.” List price, $12. FIG. 11. Plants Growing as Sown by the Planet Jr., Hill Dropping Garden Drill. The Planet Jr., Combined Brill and Cultivator has for many years been very popular and is certainly an excellent combination for the home garden and for small vegetable gardens generally. The 198 manufactures do not offer it as the most desirable implement for market gardeners, but recommend to those cultivating any consider- able amount of land the use of separate drills and cultivators. It is well made, low in price, and does excellent work. This implement has all the attachments for the most successful cultivation of gar- den plants that are commonly grown in narrow rows. It may be FIG. 12. Planet Jr. Combined Drill and Cultivator. used when the plants are under six inches high to work the soil on both sides of the row at one operation. It also does the best of work when used between the rows. It will sow any of our common garden seeds evenly and well, covering at an even depth, and will cultivate the plants as perfectly as any garden cultivator. It may also be used to open or cover furrows. The changes from drill to cultivator, or vice versa, are quickly and easily made. List price $12. This machine is shown at (a) in cover illustration, and in Fig. 12. The Planet Jr. Double Wheel Cultivator is made for the culti- vation of the soil between two rows, or on both sides of a single row at one operation. The attachments are very complete and include a set of curved-point hoes, rakes for leveling land, plows, wide and narrow cultivator teeth and leaf guards. The attachments are made to fit in long slots behind the wheels, thus making it easy to change width between them. The changes in attachments are 199 easily and quickly made. It can be used as a cultivator on both sides of the row until plants are about eighteen inches high. This is the style of tool most desirable for general use by market garden- ers. The materials and construction are of the very best. These machines are also furnished with an onion-puller attachment. List price, $8. Fig. 13. The Planet Jr. Single Wheel Hoe, Cultivator, Rake and Plow combined is designed to work between the rows, and will do admir- able work. It has the same attachments as the Double- Wheel Culti- FIG-. 13. Planet Jr. Double-Wheel Cultivator. vator. It can be used on both sides of the row, but is not as desir- able for such a purpose. It is strong in construction and a very desirable implement. List price, $5. The Planet Jr. Horse Hoe has made a very favorable record wherever it has been tried. The construction is so complete that it can be used for almost all kinds of horse work in the garden. It will open and close furrows for potatoes, will do good work as a cultiva- tor, and will draw the soil from or throw it toward plants. The at- tachments comprise sets of narrow cultivator teeth, wings for push- ing the soil to one side or to carry it to the center between the rows, and sweeps for shallow cultivation. A useful attachment is a pul- verizer or rake to level the surface in the rear. Two extra side-bars are provided, which allow the use of nine narrow plates instead of five. Two levers are attached, one of which regulates the depth and the other the width. The list price is $12. Fig. 14. The Planet Jr. Twelve- Tooth Cultivator and Pulverizer is in- tended for fine horse cultivation, either deep or shallow, and for working among small plants. In the hands of a careful man, this cultivator will work the soil in a field of small cabbages or other FIG. 14. Planet Jr., Horse Hoe. small plants so that no land will be seen that has not been stirred, and yet the plants will not be injured. The teeth plates are about one inch in width, and are set so as not to clog easily. The depth and the width of cultivation are easily and quickly controlled by FIG. 15. Planet Jr. Twelve- Tooth Cultivator and Pulverizer. levers. The pulverizer attachment is readily put on, and leaves the surface of the soil fine and smooth. The teeth can be changed so as to work as a slant-tooth cultivator. I consider this an especially valuable tool for keeping a dust blanket on the surface of the land during the dry weather of summer. List price, $12.50. Fig. 15. The Planet Jr. Implements are manufactured by S. L. Allen & Co.. Philadelphia, Pa., who refer correspondents to their agents, Bindsay Bros., Minneapolis, Minn. 201 Scuffle Attachments for Hand Garden Cultivators— Fig. 16 shows two sets of implements designed to be attached to the ordinary wheel cultivators, which will work close up to young plants so as to cut off the weeds just under the surface of the soil. They were de- signed by Mr. William Mackintosh, a market gardener of Langdon, Minn., and will be found very useful in many places. They can be made out of tool steel by any good blacksmith. The length of blades may be made to suit work. The Scuffle Hoe , shown in Fig. 17, is an excellent old-fashioned implement for shallow cultivation, such as is needed in spring in the garden. Besides, it is so very cheap and simple that it can be made by any handy blacksmith. It cannot be recommended to take the place of the improved wheel hoes for large gardens, but in a small garden it may be used for the work of shallow cultivation to good advantage. It does not work the soil deep enough for the best summer cultivation. FIG. 16. Home-Made Attachments for Garden Cultivator. FIG. 17. Scuffle Hoe. / UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. BULLETIN NO. 39. HORTICULTURAL DIVISION. DECEMBEE, 1S94, Potatoes, -Variety Tests, Potato Scab, Blight and Internal rown Rot; Tomatoes,— Variety Tests, Training: Straw- berries, -Variety Tests ; Apple-Tree Sun-Scald; Rasp- berries,— Variety Tests, Cane Rust. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA. ST. PAUL: The Pioneer Press Co.. 189s. UNIVERSITY OK MINNESOTA BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, 1896 The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, 1900 The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, . . . . . 1900 The HON. WM. H. YALE, Winona, 1896 The HON. JOEL P. HEATWOLE, Northfield, 1897 The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896 The HON. WM. M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1897 The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, 1895 The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, .... 1895 The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, Ex-Officio . The Governor of the State. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST, M. A., Hutchinson, . . . Ex-Officio. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL.D., Minneapolis, Ex-Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON. S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. OFFICERS OF THE STATION: WM. M. LIGGETT, . WILLET M. HAYS, B. S. A., . SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D. } . HARRY SNYDER, B. S., . T. L. HACKER, M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., THOS. SHAW, .... J. A. VYE, .... ANDREW BOSS, . Chairman. . Vice Chairman and Agriculturist. Horticulturist. . Entomologist and Botanist. Chemist. Dairy Husbandry. Veterinarian. Animal Husbandry. Secretary. Farm Foreman. The Bulletins of this Station are mailed free to all residents of the state who make application for them. EXPERIMENTS WITH POTATOES. SAMUEL B. GREEN. Experiments with, potatoes in 1894 consisted largely in the trials of forty varieties at the Experiment Station and a duplication of the same varieties at Bethel, Anoka county. Trials have also been made to determine the value of various fungicides as preventives of scab and rust of potatoes. On account of the very dry season, the yield of potatoes was very light at the University Farm and at Bethel, yet the results are not without interest to the potato growers of the state. The soil in which the potatoes were grown at the Uni- versity Farm is a light, somewhat sandy, loam, in a very good state of cultivation. So far as known, however, it had never grown potatoes before. The land used for the experiment at Bethel had produced two crops of potatoes. It is sandy loam, and is representa- tive of much of the best potato land of that section, and was selected on that account. The seed in each experiment was cut to two good eyes, to a rather large piece of potato, and was planted about the 25th of May, in rows three feet apart, with sixteen inches between the pieces of seed in the row, and was covered four inches deep. The rows were 150 feet long, and, with few exceptions, each variety occupied one row. As soon as the potato tops commenced to show, the land was dragged with a slanting-tooth harrow, to loosen the soil around the plants and to kill the weeds which had started. They were dragged also a little later and again when the tops were about four inches high. Further cultivation consisted of loosening the soil between the rows with a one-horse cultivator. This same tool was also used to throw a little earth toward the hills, but the crop was not hilled much. The land was kept nearly flat. This method of cultivation is perhaps as good as any for the general cul- tivation of potatoes in this state. 204 When the early varieties were beginning to mature they were examined every few days to note when they were of marketable size. After this time most of the other varieties were examined at frequent intervals, with the same purpose in view. The notes relat- ing to this matter will be found in the seventh column of Table LXY. TABLE LXV.— Potatoes,— Variety Tests. University Farm, 18 94. Yield in Pounds of 150 Feet of Row. Yield in Bushels per Acre. Date wheii ready for market. Market- able. Un- market- able. Total. Market- able. Un- market- able. Total. Acme Seedling 36 1 7 1 43 58 11 69 1 July 25 . American Wonder 23 16 I 39 37 26 63 Late. Arizona * 25 16 | 1 41 40 25% 23% 60% Medium. Beauty of Hebron 3iy 2 14% 1 46 51 <4% Aug. 5. Burbanks 27% 127 - 40 40 24 64 Late. Delaware 17-1/2 121/2I I 30 29 20 49 Aug. 22. Early Ohio 45 11%| 56% 73 19 92 July 25. Early Oxford 25 14 | 39 40 22 i 62 Aug. 5. Early Rose 34 19 ] | 53 44 30% 74% Aug. 5. Freeman (from J. C. Vaughan) 13% 25%! ! 39 22 41% 63% Early. Freeman (from Mr. Freeman) 9y 2 19%] I 29 15 30 45 Early. Freeman (from De Cou & Co.) ioy 2 20 30% 17 32 49 Early. Ideal 25 6% 31% 44 14 58 Aug. 8. I. X. L 31Vo 10 1 ! 41% 51 16 67 Aug. 1. Lee’s Favorite 35% | 21%| 57 49 33 | | 82 Late. Maggie Murphy 48 6%l 54% 77% 10% | 88 Late. No. 5 42 7 1 49 67 11 1 1 78% Late. Ohio Jr 42 7 1 49 67% 11 1 1 78% Aug. 1. Polaris (?) • 28% 29 | 57% 46 34 1 80 Aug. 10. Racquet Seedling . • 1 46 33 79 Early. Reed’s Eighty-six 28% 25 21 1 49% Aug. 1. Red Ohio 15 | 40 40 24 1 64 July 25. Rural New Yorker, No. 2 26 9 | 35 42 14% 50% Late. Snowflake 44% 7% 52 72 12 84 Late. Summit 7% 27 34% 12 44 56 Medium. Thorburn 19 8% 27% 31 14 45 Aug. 8. Vaughan 40 17 ' 57 65 11 v~ 76% July 25. Vick’s Champion 33 10%| 43% 53 17 '(0 Aug. 22. Western Red 33 5%| 38% 53 9 62 Late. White Prolific 25 18%] 43% 40 29 69 Late. World’s Fair 8 8%| 16%! 13 14 27 Late. 205 TABLE LXVI.— Potatoes,— Variety Tests. Bethel, Minn, 1894. Yield in Pounds of 150 Feet of R ow. YYeld in Bushels per Acre. j Marketable. Un- Market- able. Total. Marketable. I Un- market- j able. Total. Acme Seedling 50% |~24% 75 81%| 39% 121 American Wonder 40 14 54 64% 1 22% 87 Arizona 47 24 71 76 1 39 115 Beauty of Hebron 50 19 69 80% | 30% 1 111 Burbanks 54 17 51 55 27 ! I 82 Delaware 43 16 59 68% 26 1 94% Early Ohio 52 17 69 84 27 1 ! 111 Early Oxford 61 19 80 98 30% 1 118%* Early Rose (true) 40 29 69 64% 46%l 111 Freeman (from J. C. Vaughan) 22 22 .. 1 l 36% 35% Great Northern 44 22 66 70 1 35% | 105% Ideal 5oy 2 14% 65 81% j 23%! 105 Late Rose (?).... 60 20 80 97 32 1 129 Lee’s Favorite 40 21 61 64%, | 34 | 98% Maggie Murphy 12 11 23 19 | 1 17%! 36% Ohio Jr 5oy 2 13% 64 81 | 1 22 1 1 103 Polaris (?) 63 I 28 91 101% 1 1 45 | 146% Reed’s Eighty-six 49 12 | 61 79 | 1 19 | 98 Red Ohio ! 20 | 20 . . i 1 32 I 32 Rural New Yorker, No. 2 ii 10 i 24 22% | 16 | 38% Snowflake 48 28 | <6 77%, | 1 45 I 122% Summit 48% 16 I 64% 78 1 1 96 j 304 Vaughan 59% 2 iy 2 | 81 96 1 34%|130% Vick’s Champion 48 13 61 77% 21 98% Victor White 61 14 | 75 98 22% 120% Western Red IS io ! 28 29 16 45 White Prolific 48 22 I 70 77% 85% 113 World’s Fair 22% | 22% .. "1 36 36 It will be noticed by any one who carefully examines the fore- going tables that the early varieties produced far more marketable potatoes than the late or medium kinds. This was undoubtedly due to the fact that the more productive kinds made their growth during the early part of the season, when the conditions were most favorable, while the late varieties suffered more severely from the excessively dry, hot weather which prevailed during the time when they should have been in their most active period of growth. Most of the later kinds seemed to have been very sensitive to any condi- tion affecting their growth. Many of the tubers from these kinds were on this account so rough and ill-shaped as to be unmarketable. Some single specimens showed at least three distinct periods of growth. The late kinds set a larger number of potatoes than the early varieties, but these could not mature on account of the ex- cessively dry weather. 206 FIG. 1. Typical Tubers of Varieties Numbered Below, as Grown in 1894. 1 . Acme Seedling. 21. 2. American Wonder. 22. 3. Arizona. 23. 4. Beauty of Hebron. 24. 5. Carman No. 1. 25. 6. Colossal. 26. 7. Crown Jewel. 27. 8. Delaware. 28. 9. Early Everett. , 29. 10. Early Ohio. 30. 11. Early Oxford. 31. 12. Early Rose. 32. 13. Empire State. 33. 14. Freeman. 34. 15. Great Northern. 35. 16. Green Mountain. 36. 17. Heavy Weight. 37. 18. Ideal. 38. 19. Late Rose (?). 39. 20. Lee’s Favorite. 40. Maggie Murphy. No. 5. Ohio Junior. Polaris. (?) Racqueit Seedling. Reed’s Eighty-Six. Red Ohio. Rural New Yorker, No. 2. Six Weeks’ Market. Snowflake. Summit. Th orb urn. Vaughan. Vick's Champion. Victor White. Western Red. White Proliflc. World’s Fair. Burbanks. I. X. L. NOTES ON VARIETIES OF POTATOES. Acme Seedling. — Form, oblong, short, thick; eyes, medium to large; color, pink; skin, a little rough. Very early; ready for market July 25. American Wonder. — Form, flat oblong; eyes, many, prominent near stem end and hollow near seed end ; skin, smooth, white. Arizona. — Form, oblong, somewhat pointed; eyes, shallow; skin smooth and white. Carman No. 1 . — Form, bread oval, flattened; eyes, few, medium in size; skin, nearly white. Delaware. — Form, short oval; eyes, few and of medium depth skin, wfiiite, very finely netted. 207 Early Oxford. — Form, round oval; eyes, large and shallow; skin, smooth and nearly white. Freeman. — Form, round oval; eyes, few and very shallow; color creamy white ; skin, finely netted. Great Northern. — Form, round; eyes, small and shallow; color nearly white; skin, netted. Gueen Mountain. — Form, rather long; eyes few and shallow color, nearly white; skin, netted. Ideal. — Form, long, slightly irregular; color, light red; eyes, few, small and of medium depth. Late Rose (?). — Form, round oval; eyes, few and shallow; skin heavily netted. (Probably some mistake in the name.) Lee’s Favorite. — Form, irregulular oblong; color, white; eyes, large some of them deep, mostly shallow ; skin, somewhat netted. Maggie Murphy. — Form, broadly oval; light pink in color; skin, netted; eyes, few, some of them very shallow, others large and rather deep. Ohio Jr . — Form oblong, somewhat pointed; eyes, many and rather prominent; skin, a little rough; color, pink. Racquet Seedling. — Form, long cylindrical; color, snowy white, eyes, many and of medium depth ; skin, slightly rough. Reed’s Eighty-Six. — Form, oblong to round; color, light rose; eyes, medium in number and depth; skin, netted. Red Ohio. — Small to medium in size; red in color; form, usually round; eyes, large and medium in depth. Rural New Yorker, No. 2. — Form, oblong, usually pointed; eyes; shallow and few; skin, smooth or slightly netted and white. Snowflake. — Form, oblong; eyes, few and shallow; skin, netted, white. Tliorburn. — Form, oblong, somewhat resembles Beauty of Heb- ron, from wdiich it is a seedling; eyes, medium in number and rather shallow- skin, nearly white; flesh, snowy white. Yaughan. — Form, oblong, has atendency to become pointed on seed, end this’ year; eyes, rather large but shallow; skin, nearly white and heavily netted. Yick’s Champion. — Form, rather long, slightly cubical; eyes, large and shallow; skin, white and nearly smooth. Victor White. — Form, compact, oval ends flattened; eyes, few and shallow; skin, nearly white and a trifle netted. White Prolific . — Form, rather long and cylindrical; skin, smooth, and white; eyes, many but small and shallow. •208 World’s Fair. — Form, oval; eyes, shallow; skin, very finely net- ted, yellowish white; flesh, white. Western Red. — Very large and irregular in form, usually oblong; skin, light red. I. X. L. —Form, oblong, cylindrical, has a tendency to be pointed; eyes, large and prominent; skin, light red, somewhat resembling the Early Ohio. POTATO SCAB. The seed tubers of nearly all the varieties of potatoes planted at the University Farm in 1894 were to some extent marked with the fungus disease commonly known as potato scab. All kinds were treated with corrosive sublimate, as recommended in Bulletin No. 32, with the result that the crop was almost entirely free from any appearance of scab, while a few that were not treated were quite rough from the work of the scab fungus. This treatment seems to have been so thoroughly tried that it is no longer a doubtful matter, but it is a step in the cultivation of the potato that growers cannot afford to overlook. The method of treatment adopted this year was as follows: Two ounces of powdered corrosive sublimate was dis- solved in a wooden bucket, and when all had dissolved the liquid was poured into fourteen gallons of water contained in a barrel and thoroughly stirred. The potatoes were put in sacks and were thus soaked in the corrosive sublimate solution for one and one-half hours. They were then taken out, dried and cut into pieces for planting. It was found that soaking them for two hours did not injure the growth in any way, but that one and one-half hours was sufficient time to kill the scab fungus where the tubers were only slightly affected. In one case where the tubers were excessively covered with the scabs, so that even the eyes could not be made out, soaking for one and one-half hours was not long enough to kill the scab fungus. I would recommend that, where the potatoes are excessively rough, they be soaked in the corrosive sublimate solution for at least two hours. But potatoes that are excessively scabby should, if possible, be avoided for planting purposes. The expense of the treatment above referred to for the prevention of scab should never exceed $1 per acre, including the cost of the mate- rials and the labor of treatment. 209 As the peculiarities of this disease, which we commonly call “scab,” are not as well known as they should be, I give below a short abstract from Bulletin No. 32 of this station, in which its peculiari- ties and characteristics are treated at considerable length : “(1) Scab of potatoes is caused by a fungus plant working in the surface of the potato. The germs of it are very abundant and live for many years in the soil and also over winter on the potatoes. If these germs are fed to stock, they undoubtedly grow in the manure, and the use of such manure may often be a cause of infection. Also, they may be spread in the soil by the natural drainage and land re- ceiving the drainage from infected fields may become infected even without ever having potatoes on them. “(2) Scabby seed, when planted on new or old potato land, will generally produce a scabby crop, but the amount of the disease will generally be much more on the old than on the new land. “(3) Perfectly clean seed planted on land winch is free from scab fungus will always and in any season produce a crop of smooth, clean potatoes, no matter what the character of the land. But seed potatoes apparently clean may have the germs of the scab fungus on their surface. This is often the case wiiere they have been sorted out from a lot that is somewhat infected with the scab. In this lat- ter case, the tubers should, at least, be thoroughly washed in run- ning water, to remove any germs that may be present, or, what is better yet, be treated with corrosive sublimate (mercuric bichloride), as recommended. “(4) Land infected by the germs of this disease will produce a more or less scabby crop, no matter how T clean and smooth the seed used. “(5) Scabby potatoes should be dug as soon as mature, since the scab fungus continues to grow on the potatoes as long as they are in the ground. “(6) Scabby potatoes may be safely used for seed, provided they are first treated with corrosive sublimate, as recommended. The cost of this treatment is a mere trifle, not exceeding one cent a gal- lon for the solution used.” BLIGHT OF POTATOES. In a previous bulletin the results of the treatment of blight of potatoes by Bordeaux mixture were given at considerable length. This season the treatment gave but very slight returns, and although 210 it increased the yield, it was such a small increase that it did not pay for the labor involved in the application of the poisoned solu- tion. The most probable reason for the slight returns from the treatment given this year is, I think, to be found in the fact that the potato seed was treated with corrosive sublimate before planting and was planted on new land, not near where potatoes had been grown for many years, consequently the disease was not present to a serious extent. The excessively dry season was also unfavorable to the growth of diseases. However, our experience for several pre- vious years, and the experience of many others elsewhere, make it certain that in seasons favorable to the growth of blight, it will pay well to apply Bordeaux mixture to the potato tops in those lo- cations where this disease is commonly destructive. Bordeaux mix- ture is made as follows: — 5 lbs. blue vitriol (sulphate of copper). 5 lbs. quicklime. 50 gallons water. Perhaps the simplest method of making it is as follows : Slack five pounds of the best quicklime in three gallons of water. Dis- solve five pounds of blue vitriol, by frequently stirring, in three gal- lons of hot water in a wooden vessel. When both are cool, pour the slacked lime through a gunny sack strainer into two barrels contain- ing twenty-two gallons of water each, and then pour in the blue vitriol solution. The result should be a sky-blue colored mixture that will settle to the bottom in a few hours. In use, it must be kept well stirred. If cold water is used, it will be found that the blue vitriol will dissolve most quickly if it is kept suspended at the surface of the water, as solutions of it are heavier than water. Of course, if it is stirred all the time, nothing would be gained by this treatment. When a large amount of Bordeaux mixture is to be used at the University Farm, w r e dissolve about twenty pounds of blue vitriol in twenty gallons of water, and in making the mixture, instead of weighing out the blue vitriol, we measure out one gallon of the solution. The lime is used for the purpose of preventing any injurious action from the presence of soluble copper compounds. If the pro- portion used is five pounds of blue vitriol, five pounds quicklime and fifty gallons of water, as recommended above, there is no danger 211 from the presence of soluble copper compounds; but in practice we find it more convenient to slack a large amount of lime and then add it to the blue vitriol solution until the following simple test gives the proper reactions : Get from the druggist or chemist a few cents’ worth of red litmus paper and cut it into strips about one-half inch wide. So long as there is free acid present, the paper will re- main red or become a brighter shade of red, when wet with the mixture. When sufficient lime has been added, the litmus paper will turn deep blue if put into the Bordeaux mixture. If this simple test is used, there will be no injurious results from the Bordeaux mixture. Bordeaux mixture should not stand more than a day or two be- fore being used. It should be strained through gunny sacking, so as to remove all lumps that might clog the nozzle. It is best applied by means of a force pump having an especially prepared nozzle that will deliver it as a fine spray on the foliage. In a small way, for experi- mental purposes, it may be applied with a brush-broom. The nozzle which has given us the best success for this purpose is the “Bordeaux Nozzle,” manufactured by the Deming Co., of Salem, Ohio. INSECTICIDES FOB THE POTATO BEETLE. The high price of Paris green as a poison for the potato beetle has stimulated inquiries for substitutes for it at a lower price. London purple is much cheaper than Paris green, but it has been found in practice that the results were not so uniformly successful with it as with Paris green, on account of the greater danger of burning the foliage. In our practice, for some time past, we have found that by using as much quicklime as London purple, in the water in which the poison was applied, that it was a safe and satis- factory poison to use. The past season it gave excellent results, but in order to have it work satisfactorily, we had to use it at the rate of one pound of London purple to about seventy-five gallons of water. ARSENATE OF LEAD AS AN INSECTICIDE. Arsenate of lead for use on potato vines to kill the beetles may be prepared as follows: Put eleven ounces of acetate of lead and four ounces of arsenate of soda into a hogshead containing 150 gal Ions of water. These substances dissolve quickly and form arsenate 212 of lead, which, is a fine white precipitate that does not settle, but remains in suspension for a long time. If two quarts of molasses or glucose are added it aids in making the poison stick to the leaves. It adheres very tenaciously to the foliage, and the "gypsy-moth commis- sion” of Massachusetts reports it as a most satisfactory insecticide. Boston parties offer the acetate of lead at 14 cents per pound and arsenic of soda at 8 cents per pound in twenty-five pound packages. This poison has given us good results the past season and is well worthy of trial. INTERNAL BROWN ROT OF POTATOES. During the past season the potato crop in a large part of Min- nesota was affected with a new potato disease. In Ramsey and Hennepin counties probably one-half of the potatoes brought into market were affected with what has come to be known as rot, or brown rot. This disease affects the inside of the potato, while the outside appears perfectly healthy and normal. When the potato i» cut open, the diseased condition shows very plainly as an aggrega- tion of brown spots. These may accumulate directly through the FIG. 2. Potato Infected with Internal Brown Rot. center or near the outside, or, as in most cases, be distributed throughout the potato. It does not appear to decrease the amount of starch. But little seems to be known about this disease. It seems to affect most varieties of potatoes, as shown in the following table, which gives the condition as regards this rot of thirty-one varieties which were grown at the University Farm in 1894: 213 TABLE LXVIL— Per Cent of Diseased Tubers Among* Different Varieties of Potatoes. NAME. Per Cent of Disease. 1 i Per Cent of j Disease. 70 Badly discolored. Ohio Jr 50 Very bad. American Wonder. . . 10 Racquet Seedling 5 Arizona 0 Reed’s Eighty-six 5 Beauty of Hebron.. 20 Badly discolored. Red Ohio 0 Crown Jewel 30 Slightly discol- Rural N. Yorker, No. ± 8 | ored. Snowflake 30 Very slight. Delawa T ’ fk 0 Summit 8 Early fAhio - - ■* 80 Quite badly dis- Thorburn 20 colored. | Vaughan 40 Early Oxford 10 Vick’s Champion 40 Early Rose 80 Victor White 20 Freeman 70 Very much dis- Western Red (Own)... 10 Very litttle. colored. Western Red (Bethel). ! 100 Very much dis- Great Northern 10 colored. Ideal 50 White Prolific 5 I X L 60 Very bad. World’s Fair 20 Some very bad. Late Rose (?) 55 Lee’s Favorite 70 Maggie Murphy 60 EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATOES. SAMUEL B. GREEN. Six plants each, of eighteen different varieties of tomatoes were set out May 29, 1894, in a plot of rich open clay land, sloping slightly to the south. The plants were rather tall ; therefore, when planting, the lower part of the stems were bent over and covered. The rows were laid out six feet apart, and the plants were set as follows: Three plants of each variety were set five feet apart, then three more of the same variety, with three-foot intervals between the plants. The object of this was to allow room for the plants set five feet apart to spread on the ground in the usual form, while the plants set near together were to be trained on single stakes and pruned to a single stem. Those on stakes were closely watched, and the sideshoots were removed as fast as they appeared. This is the plan recommended very generally for the production of the earliest fruit. The results were as follows: Three varieties that were staked ripened before those plants of the same variety that were on the ground. Four varieties that were allowed to run naturally on the ground ripened before plants of the same kind that were staked and pruned. The results this season seem to indicate 214 that there is no profit in the practice of staking and trimming toma- toes in this section and under conditions similar to those that ac- companied this experiment. The following table gives the date of the first ripe fruit of all varieties. The third column gives the results of the total yield of the different varieties, but not the comparative yield, as it is well known that pruned plants produce less than those not trained; but the advantage claimed for the method is that more plants can be planted on the same amount of land, and that the increased earli- ness will much more than compensate for the lessened quantity : TABLE LXVIII.— Tomatoes, Varieties and Date of Ripening* of Staked and Not Staked Plants. Atlantic Prize Buckeye state (Vaugliaa) Cliemin Market Earliest of All (Vaughan) ... Early Acme Dwarf Champion ( Vaughan ) Dwarf Champion (Own j Ignotum Long Keeper Meteor Matchless Northern Light New Stone Picture Rock Royal Red Terra Cotta Trucker’s Favorite 1 Date of First Ripe Fruit. Average Yield. Staked. On Ground. July 25. July 25. Aug. 25. Aug. 11. 4 July 24. July 30. 3 July 20. Aug. 11. 6 July 30. July 19. 10 Aug. 3. Aug. 3. 10 Aug. 3. Aug. 3. 10 July 30. July 30. 7 July 30. July 30. 8 Aug. 3. July 30. 6 Aug. 6. July 30. 9 Aug. 3. Aug. 11. 5 Aug. 11. Aug. 11. 5 July 30. July 30. 7 July 30. July 30. 3-|. Aug. 3. Aug. 30. 6-1- Aug. 3. Aug. 3. 7-|- It will be seen from the above table that the results as to earli- ness are very much in favor of the plants that were not staked but which were allowed to lie on the ground in the ordinary way. It will be noticed, also, that the varieties known as the Dwarf Champion and Early Acme produced the most fruit. These are excellent varieties in every way. EXPERIMENT IN REGARD TO AMOUNT OF ROT FROM TOMATO VINES STAKED AND TOMATO VINES LEFT ON GROUNDS IN USUAL WAY. The past season was a very favorable one for the tomato rot, and it was very abundant. There is, however, a great difference in the liability to rot of the various kinds of tomatoes, as will be seen from reading the notes on varieties. To determine the comparative 215 susceptibility to rot, of the fruit from trained and untrained vines, the fruit from each set of plants was carefully counted and a record kept of the diseased and sound fruit. The results will be found in Table LXIX. which follows: TABLE LXIX.— Tomatoes,— Fruit Rotten and Sound, on Staked Vines and on Those Not Staked. DATE OF PICKING. Vines Trained to Stakes and Pruned. Not Trained. Rotten. Sound. Rotten. Sound. Aug. 27 40 36 20 25 21 25 40 30 60 50 90 125 70 | 25 40 27 25 55 100 187 225 240 225 225 Aug. 31 Sept. 3 ! Sept. 6 i Sept. 11 Sept. 18 Total from Aug. 27 to Sept. 18 167 395 242 1,292 From the above table it will be seen that forty-three (43%) per cent of the tomatoes that grew on the staked plants rotted, while only nineteen (19%) per cent of the tomatoes rotted grown on the vines which were not trained but were allowed to spread out on the ground in the ordinary way. DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES OF TOMATOES. Atlantic Prize. — Vines, medium in size; staked vines grew about five feet high. The fruit small; skin, red; flesh, pulpy and pink; form, rather flat, with some specimens very irregular. Buckeye State. — Vines, very vigorous; staked vines grew seven feet high. Fruit, globular, large and smooth. The skin is of an even, pink color, except near the stem, which is a yellowish green. Flavor, very good. The plants grow too large for this climate, and unless trimmed back severely, very little fruit will ripen. Hotted some. Chemin Market.— Vines, quite vigorous; fruit, apple shaped; color, red. Very little fruit ripened without rotting. Dwarf Champion. — Vines, vigorous for a dwarf variety; leaves broad and heavy; fruit, globe shape; color, a good pink; medium in size; quality extra good; very few rotted. Earliest of All . — Vines not very large; fruit, red, very irregular, very difficult to detach from the stem, ripens very early; not a good variety for market gardeners, but very desirable for gardens in 216 severe locations on account of its early ripening. J About 20 per cent rotten. Early Acme. — Vines, medium; fruit, medium in size and of a good pink color, globe-shaped. This variety rotted somewhat, but not over four per cent. A standard variety for marketing. Ignotum. — Vines, medium in size; flesh, pink in color, with the skin red; shape round, somewhat flattened, often irregular. The season of fruiting is comparatively short; flavor rather poor; a few r rotted. Long Keeper. — Vines, very thrifty, but not quite as vigorous as Buckeye State; fruit, pink, medium in size, a little soft when ripe, and rotted badly. Meteor. — Vines, of medium size; fruit, small to medium and quite seedy ; flavor, fairly good ; rotted quite badly. Matchless. — Vines, quite large; fruit, red; skin thick; flat- shaped, with hollow at stem ; rotted badly. Northern Light. — Dwarf; fruit, small, pale red in color; skin, thin; flavor, poor; some rotted. New Stone. — Vines, vigorous; fruit, large and quite smooth; color, a bright scarlet; does not ripen well near stem. This variety rotted more than any other, and it was very hard at any time during the season to get a healthy specimen. Picture Rock. — Vines, medium to large; fruit large, somewhat flattened, rotted quite badly. Royal Red. — Vines vigorous, skin of fruit red and flesh pink; quite seedy and soft; form, globular, slightly flattened; rotted badly. Terra Cotta. — Vines, thrifty; fruit globe-shaped and pale red in color, soft and hollow ; rotted quite badly. Trucker’s Favorite. — Vines, medium in size; fruit, pale red, re- sembling the Acme; rather pulpy, globe-shaped; ripens well to stem; many rotted. SUMMARY. (1) The results of this season seem to show that there is but little difference between the period of ripening of tomato plants that are pruned and trained to stakes and of those that are allowed to grow on the ground in a natural way, and consequently no profit from the operation of pruning. But these results are contrary to the experi- ence of some of the most practical men, and should not be thought conclusive. 217 (2) The earliest variety was “Earliest of All,” the seed of which was received from J. C. Vaughan, of Chicago. This variety is of special value for very short seasons. The Early Acme and Dwarf Champion, while about ten days later in ripening, yield much more and better fruit than the Earliest of All. (3) Forty-three per cent of the fruit rotted that was produced by vines trained to stakes, while only nineteen per cent of the fruit rotted from vines allowed to grow naturally on the ground. This also is contrary to the usual experience of tomato growers, and should not be thought conclusive. FIG. 3. Trunk of Apple Tree Showing Effect of Sun-Scald on Trunk. APPLE-TREE SUN-SCALD. SAMUEL B. GREEN. It is probable that more apple trees that are well located and selected die from sun-scald in this state than from any other cause, and this loss is entirely preventable. By the term sun-scald 218 is meant the trouble that shows itself by the trees becoming rotten in the trunk on the south side, which finally so weakens it that it cannot support its top, and consequently breaks dowrn, very likely when loaded wdth fruit. It is probable that this trouble is gener- ally caused by a part of the bark on the south — or, more commonly, the south west — side of the tree starting into growth before the rest of the tree, during some warm period in the latter part of wdnter or early in the spring. Such warm periods are generally followed by a severe freeze, in which case the newly-formed immature cells are ruptured, or the cell contents injured, which results in the bark on the affected side dying and falling off. Fig. 3 represents a Duchess of Oldenburgh apple-tree, which has been severely injured by sun- scald. One of the three parts of the trunk has so far rotted that FIG. 4. Protecting Trunks of Trees from Sun-scald by Wrapping Them in Autumn with Cornstalks. it lias broken down to the ground, another part still stands, but is badly rotted on the southwest side for a distance of three feet and will probably break down in a short time ; the other part of the trunk is still quite sound. PREVENTION OF SUN- SCALD. (I) Sun-scald may be prevented by anything that will shade the trunk and limbs; even a few branches furnish sufficient shade. If the top of the tree is kept inclined ti the southw est until it is firmly established, it will shade the trunk sufficiently to prevent sun-scald. 219 There is a tendency in this section for all trees to incline to the northeast, due, largely, to the fact that the prevailing winds are from the southwest during the growing season and while the ground is soft. Trees that incline to the northeast receive the rays of the sun directly upon the trunk, and are most liable to sun-scald. In order to keep the tops of trees inclined to the southwest, they must be planted with a decided slant in that direction, though not so much so as to disfigure the trees. Even when this is done the trees will need annual attention to keep them in that position. One large and FIG. 5. Protecting Trunk of Tree from Sun-scald by Shading with Board. successful apple-grower in this state goes so far as to tie each tree to a small stake to hold it in position. If the trees are planted in Quincunx fashion, so that the rows run southwest and northeast, as well as north and south, they will largely shade one another when of bearing size. (2) Protection by means of a screen of laths and wire woven together and wrapped around the trees is advocated, and has been extensively and successfully used. It is cheaply made and easily ap- plied, but it does not fit the trunk well if the trees are crooked, and it should be supplemented by some material for shading the crotches, which are the weak spots of many kinds of apple trees. On straight trees it affords excellent protection to the trunks, and it is easily supplemented each autumn by stuffing the crotch with hay. 220 (3) Thin veneers of wood are manufactured which, when soaked with water, may be easily wrapped around the trunks and held in place by two wires. These have recently come into use, and are received with considerable favor by apple-growers. They are open to the same objection as the lath screen, but are easily supplemented in the same way, and are very desirable. (4) Wire screen, such as is used for mosquito netting, has its ad- vocates as protection against sun-scald. It has the merit of being more flexible than those mentioned before, and it easily conforms to the shape of the trunk. It is, however, necessary to supplement it with some material for protecting the crotches. PIG. 6 Protecting Trunk of Tree from Sun-scald with a Wooden Box and the Crotches with Hay. To the Right, Trunk of Small Tree Protected by Wood Veneer. (5) Flexible materials, such as burlap and building paper, is excel- lent for this purpose. They should, however, be taken off in sum- mer and the burlap, when thus cared for, may be used for several years. (6) An excellent method of protection is that given by wrapping the trunk of the tree with a hay rope or by tying cornstalks (Fig. 4) on the south half of the tree on the approach of winter. These 221 should extend up far enough to protect the crotches and lower branches as well as the trunk. (7) The planting of a shrub, such as a barberry bush, an Artemesia dbrotans , or similar hardy plant, on the south side of apple trees, has been recommended and to some extent practiced for the prevention of sun-scald. (8) Protection by boards has been followed to a considerable ex- tent. This is effected by standing up a six-inch board on the south side of the tree (Fig. 5) so as to keep the sun’s rays off from the trunk. Sometimes two boards a re nailed together, so as to partly inclose the trunk. This is an excellent method of protection. An objection to it is that unless the boards are very carefully placed the bark on the branches may be injured by them. (9) Protection by boxing the trunks of the trees and filling the boxes with soil (Fig. 6) has come into use within a few years. This is probably the safest and most complete method known. It pro- tects the trunk against sudden changes in temperature, as well as against sun-scald, and the adoption of this method of protection will undoubtedly make it practicable to grow the hardiest apple trees much farther north than it has been heretofore believed possible. This practice is especially adapted to the purposes of protection of the few trees so desirable in the farmer’s garden and is worthy of very general use under such conditions. The expense for material is very little, and generally the necessary material for use in a small way can be had without any appreciable cost whatever. The ques- tion of removing the earth from the boxes in summer has been con- siderably discussed. At the University Farm the boxes filled with earth have been allowed to remain around a large number of the trees for three years, and no harm has resulted from the practice. Judging from this experience, I am of the opinion that no harm can result from the practice of allowing the boxes to remain on all the year round. However, if at any time the boxes were to be dis- pensed with, I should be very much afraid of removing them on the approach of winter, but if removed in the spring I do not think that their having been used would increase the susceptibility of the trees to injury from sun-scald. This method of protection, however, does not cover the crotches of the trees, and these should be protected as previously recommended. The methods of protection suggested here as being such as should be left on all the year round, referred to in paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5 and 222 9, protect from all injury from mice, and, to a large extent, fom all injury from rabbits, and on this account alone, in many sections, will be worth all they cost. While all varieties of apples are liable to sun-scald, some are much more subject to this injury than others. The varieties recommended by this Experiment Station and by the State Horticultural Society are most desirable for planting in this state. And the selection of other kinds, especially those that are generally grown in more favored locations, leads to disappointment and loss. The extent of sun-scald is much greater in this section than is commonly thought. Besides the apple, the plum and cherry are oc- casionally thus injured, while sun injuries are very common on black walnut and basswood, and occasionally almost any of our deciduous trees are so affected. Newly transplanted basswoods are frequently injured by sun-scald when unprotected, and when used for street trees should always be shielded from the sun’s rays, at least until well established and growing freely, after which such injuries are less frequent. SUMMARY. (1) Sun-scald is a frequent cause of loss of apple trees in the Northwest, and is entirely preventible at slight expense. (2) Anything that will shade the trunks of the trees will protect them from sun-scald. (3) Many methods that are admirably adapted to protect from sun injuries, also protect against injury from rabbits, mice and borers. (4) It is recommended that planters of apple trees, on a small scale, at least, protect the trunks of their trees by boxing them up. (5) All fruit trees should be inclined to the southwest when planted. (6) Sun-scald affects most^of our deciduous trees to some extent, and a few of them, under certain conditions, quite disastrously. 223 STRAWBERRIES. SAMUEL B. GREEN. The strawberry crop in 1894 has been generally a poor one on account of the late spring frosts when the plants were in blossom and the severe drouth which commenced to be injurious when the crop was about one-third grown. At the University Farm the crop was fairly good. I attribute our success to the fact that the beds are on a retentive soil well cultivated, and, also, to the fact that the mulch was kept over the plants until as late as practicable. Our beds were not in flower until after the damaging late frosts, and the space between the rows and around the plants being heavily mulched were protected from the sun and the rapid evaporation. Our beds which produced their second and third crop w ere much more pro- ductive than the new r beds. I account for this from the fact that last season being very dry, the newly set plants did not perfect their fruit buds so w^ell as the older and more vigorous plants of the old beds. But I w-ould not w r ish to be understood as advocating the re- tention of old beds except wdiere they are mow ed over and renewed by plowing and manuring, according to the w T ell known practice of this Station. By following the practice outlined above, we have not failed to secure at least a fair crop any year for four years at this Station. Of new r varieties there is little to report, none of them hav- ing done better than the best of the older varieties. The most prom- ising kinds for general planting are Warfield, Haverland and Crescent of the pistillate, and Beder Wood, Parker Earle and Enhance of the bi sexual class. The best early berry here is the Warfield, the best late one the Parker Earle. The new kinds w orthy of special mention are Swindle, Edgar Queen and Leader. These fruited in beds bear- ing their second crop. Other new r kinds in the new T bed did not have as good a chance as those in the old bed and should not be condemned on this account. The strawberry beds at the University Farm w ere sprayed wdth Bordeaux mixture in the spring, but they w ere very healthy, and no particular benefit seemed to follow r this application. However, it is my opinion that it will, as a rule, pay w r ell to spray at least once with this material in the spring, though there may be oc- casional years when there is no apparent benefit. 224 DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES. A tabular statement of the growth, period of ripening and pro- ductiveness of the following and other varieties was published in the “Minnesota Horticulturist” for August, 1894, and is consequently omitted here. Atlantic (Bi sexual) — Fruited in beds two and three years old. Quite productive ; medium early; foliage and growth good. Beder Wood (Bi sexual). — Fruited in beds two, three and four years old, and very productive in each; blooms early and is full of pollen; fruit medium in size; season medium, holds on well; growth and foli- age very good. Boynton (Pistillate). — Early and holds on quite well; moderately productive. Nearly the same as Crescent. Crescent (Pistillate). — As compared with the Warfield, which is taken as the standard, it ranked about third. Fruit ^not as large as Warfield, but it holds out better at latter end of season. This old variety is still one of the most reliable. Edgar Queen (Pistillate). — Very vigorous both in foliage and growth and very productive; fruit large; a good variety and well worthy of trial by commercial growers. Eureka (Pistillate). — Fruited in beds two and three years old. A very strong grower, foliage good; fruit of good size and color and firm; quite productive; season very long; worthy of trial. Esther (Bi sexual). — Medium size, conical, red ; quite productive. Gillespie (Bi sexual). — Foliage and growth poor, with little fruit. Gov. Hoard (Bi sexual). — Foliage and growth good; not very pro- ductive. Great American (Pistillate). — Sets large quantities of fruit, but only a small part ripens ; fruited in all beds and the results the same in each. Greenville (Pistillate). — Foliage and growth vigorous; productive; season very long; fruit of good size. Haverland (Pistillate). — An excellent variety. Season very long; yielded well in all beds; a close second to Warfield; fruit large. Leader (Bi sexual) — Very vigorous both in growth and foliage; very productive. Lovett’s Early (Bi sexual). — A very handsome berry of good size; fairly productive. Michel’s Early (Bi sexual). — An early flowering kind with an abundance of pollen; produces very little fruit. As a pollenizer it is very good, but otherwise almost useless. 225 Middlefield (Pistillate). — A fairly good grower; not very pro- ductive. Ona (Pistillate). — Not very productive; fruit red, conical. Parker Earle (Bi sexual). — A large vigorous and thrifty grower; foliage good; season very late; fruit large; very productive. One of the best of the bi sexual kinds. Putnam (Pistillate). — Moderately productive; foliage and growth very good. Saunders (Bi-sexual). — Fruit medium to large, compact; not very productive ; foliage not very good. Southard (Bi-sexual). — Medium in size, red, usually broad coni- cal; fairly productive; foliage and growth good. Standard (Bi sexual). — Of but little value here. Stevens (Bi-sexual). — Season early, ripens well together, quite productive; foliage and growth good. Swindle (Pistillate). — Fruit large, usually quite irregular, very firm; in large clusters; foliage and, growth very good; very pro- ductive. A very promising variety. Timbrel] (Pistillate). — Plants large and vigorous, somewhat re- sembling the Bubach. I am disappointed in the amount of fruit it produced this year, which was very little, but as it fruited in the new bed and had been seriously dug into for plants I feel that it has hardly had a fair chance. Tippecanoe (Bi-sexual). — A fairly good berry. Warfield (Pistillate). — As in several previous years this variety stands at the head of the pistillate varieties. Yielded the most fruit of all the varieties; fruit medium in size, quite dark, very regular; fruited well in all beds. West Lawn (Pistillate). — Of little value here. Waupon (Bi-sexual). — Fairly productive. Williams (Bi-sexual). — Fruit medium in size, broadly conical; clusters very large; somewhat seedy; moderately vigorous; does not ripen on end very well ; fruited only in new bed. 226 RASPBERRIES. SAMUEL B. GREEN. The raspberry crop at the University Farm in 1894 was consider- ably shortened by the severe drouth, and yet the returns from the productive kinds compare favorably with the returns of other years. The raspberries here are grown in rows seven feet apart and are mulched for two feet on each side of the row. The three-foot space between the rows not mulched is kept loose by frequent stirring with a one-horse cultivator. On approach of cold weather the canes are bent to the ground and enough soil put on to hold them down, and FIG. 7. Raspberries Laid Down for Winter. then the whole row is covered with the mulch from between the rows. (Fig. 7.) The land on which they are grown is a loose clayey loam. In very severe locations, especially where the land is dry in autumn, this protection is not enough, but the canes should be cov- ered their whole length with earth by plowing against them from both sides and then covering with mulch. 227 VARIETY TESTS OF RASPBERRIES. TABLE LXX- Variety Test.— “Tip-Rooting-” Raspberries at University Farm in 1894. VARIETIES. Date of Blooming. Date of Firsi Picking. Date of Last Picking. Quality (scale 0 to 10). Firmness (scale 0 to 10). Vigor (scale 0 to 10). Productiveness (scale 0 to 10). June. July. July. Ada 10 IS 1 21 8 8 9 7 Brackett 8 10 | 22 7 9 7 8 Conrath’s Early 6 1 1 20 8 9 9 9 Cromwell 6 4 ! 16 8 8 9 9 Cook’s Seedling 4 r t 16 6 7 10 5 Gregg 10 9 1 20 8 10 10 8 Hopkins 4 7 1 8 9 8 8 Kansas 6 2 ! * 18 8 9 9 9 Lovett 8 6 I 20 7 9 8 4 Mystery 6 3 ! 20 7 9 9 8 Nemeha 8 9 25 8 10 10 9 Ohio 6 6 25 9 10 9 I 8 Older 6 9 26 10 9 10 Palmer 7 4 18 7 8 8 6 Progress 8 1 6 26 8 8 8 8 ♦Smith’s Giant 10 10 20 8 8 6 Smith’s Prolific 6 2 23 8 ’8 1 8 7 Shaffer 12 9 1 24 8 9 10 10 Tyler 15 14 | 18 8 8 7 ‘7 Wade 10 10 I 22 ! 4 Wonder 10 11 1 22 ! 1 3 ♦Suffered from drouth. NOTES ON TIP-ROOTING RASPBERRIES. Ada. — Bushes, medium in size and vigorous; spines, few as com- pared with others; flavor, a little tart. Brackett’s Seedling, No. 101. — Plants, thrifty; fruit, rather seedy. Cook’s Seedling. — Vines, very tall and thrifty; fruit, dark red, quite juicy, small, of inferior quality. This variety is reported by Mr. Dewrnin Cook, of Windom, Minn., as being exceedingly bardv and more productive than any of the other varieties he has grown. Conrath’s Early. — Vines, very thrifty and large; spines, strong; flavor, fair. Cromwell. — A strong growing, productive variety. Gregg. — Well and favorably known as one of the best late black - caps. f ■ ! ! M [ _ j } Hansell. — A bright red, early berry; valued chiefly for its earli- ness. i { j j | [!| • ! Hopkins. — Vines of medium growth; fruit of fair size and good quality; quite productive. Kansas. — Vines, very large, with many spines; very early and generally productive ; fruit somewhat seedy. 228 Mystery, — Bushes, medium to large; fruit of fair size; not of good quality. Nemeha. — A very reliable variety, closely resembling the Gregg, but think it rather more desirable and destined to supplant that kind. Ohio. — One of the most productive of the early kinds. Of ex- cellent quality and fine appearance. Older. — Vines very vigorous and very productive; fruit of large size and good quality, and the fruiting season is a very long one. Rather too soft for shipment, but excellent for the near market and for home use. The most productive of the black-caps grown at the station the past season. Palmer. — Very vigorous, very early and generally productive. One of our trial stations reports it as being the most productive of a number of popular kinds tried the past year. Progress. — Very similar to Palmer in appearance, but a little later in ripening. Shaffer. — An old, reliable and productive berry that is very desir- able for canning. Its dull color makes it a poor berry to sell. Smith’s Giant. — Very late in season, and consequently suffered badly from the drouth. Plants made a good growth and set consid- erable fruit which failed to mature. Smith’s Prolific. — Vines, good size; fruit, medium too late in sea- son, a little seedy and dry. Wade. — Of fair quality, but not very productive. Wonder. — Fruit, very poor; vines, not vigorous. TABLE LXXI.— Raspberries.— Variety Tests of those which increase by sucKering'. VARIETIES. Date of Blooming. i i Date of First Picking. Date of Last Picking. Quality (scale 0 to 10). | Firmness (scale Oto 10). Vigor (scale 0 to 10). Productiveness | (scaletO to 10). June. July. July. Caroline 1 I 6 7 1 28 7 4 ! 6 5 Champlain 12 9 24 9 8 7 Clark 10 7 28 9 *8 9 8 Outhbert 10 9 27 9 9 9 8 Gladstone 12 7 25 4 4 10 3 Golden Queen 10 9 26 9 9 9 8 Hansell 10 9 1 28 9 9 7 9 Kenyon’s Seedling 2 12 24 7 9 9 9 Marlboro 8 6 28 6 10 7 9 •Reliance 10 10 5 9 5 Royal Church 5 15 1 | 24 7 6 10 . • •Superlative 10 9 | 20 5 Thompson’s Early 10 1 9 | 24 *9 8 9 *8 •Very badly affected with “Leaf Curl ” 229 NOTES ON THE VARIETIES OF RASPBERRIES WHICH ARE PROPAGATED BY SUCKERS. Caroline. — Golden yellow color. Vines, low and bushy. It sets large quantities of fruit, which is rather acid. Champlain. — Nearly white in color and rather sweet; foliage, very heavy and dark. Vines very bushy and heavy. Not sufficiently pro- ductive here to be of any value. Clark. — Bushes, medium size; flavor of fruit very good. A very good variety for general planting. Cutlibert. — An old, popular variety that does well where it is healthy. In some sections it is badly diseased. Golden Queen. — Bushes, medium in size, productive; fruit large ? golden yellow in color and of good quality. Kenyon’s Seedling. — Bushes, medium in size, quite vigorous; fruit, quite large and firm, but crumbles a little; color, deep dark red; quite productive on bushes that were large enough to bear well. Berries cling to the stems very closely and must be well ripened be- fore they will separate; flavor, fair. Logan. — Received from California in spring of 1894. Growth, very vigorous. In appearance it closely resembles the dewberry, and is propagated the same way. The foliage is of a dark purplish color and very healthy. Have not fruited it. Marlboro. — Perhaps the most valuable of all red raspberries for market, although of inferior quality. Careful attention, however, should be given to having all the sets of the plant very healthy, as it is quite liable to the disease known as leaf curl. Reliance. — Our plants of this kind have become badly diseased with the leaf curl. Royal Church. — Vines recently planted are very vigorous and healthy. But very little fruit produced, and that seemed to have a tendency to crumble. Superlative. — Judging from its appearance heie, I think it one of the most worthless varieties ever sent out. Thompson’s Early. — Vines, healthy and vigorous; fruit, of good size and color and very sweet; quite productive. It seems to be a promising early variety. Turner. — A reliable, well known variety, especially desirable for home use, and recommended as best for severe locations. 230 CANE EXIST OF RASPBERRIES (ANTHRACNOSE). On account of the adverse season of 1894, the cane rust (anthrac- nose) and the disease commonly known as “leaf curl” were unusu- ally destructive, and in some sections of the state seriously lessened or destroyed the crop. Some varieties are much more subject to these diseases than others, and few, if any, kinds are entirely exempt, from them. Cane rust is probably always present in a small way in raspberry plantations (see Fig. 8), but in average seasons vigorous FIG. 8. Raspberry Cane Affected with Cane Rust. plants are able to resist the disease and mature a crop of fruit, while in very dry seasons the plants cannot perfect the fruit, the wood for the next year and the disease, and as a consequence the fruit is the part that is especially liable to suffer. A peculiar trait of this dis- ease is that it does not seem to affect the vigor of growth of the young canes, but injures the crop just when it is ripening. Experi- ments are in progress at the station in combating these diseases, and we seem to have been quite successful in preventing the cane rust (anthracnose). 231 Treatment for Cane Rust of Raspberries . — Judging from the re- sult of experiments in the prevention of cane rust at the University Farm and elsewhere, it would seem that the most rational treatment for it is as follows : In the spring, before the canes start, spray them with a solution of sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) made by dissolving one pound of it in fifteen gallons of water. Later, spray the new canes with Bordeaux mixture, probably about three times, at intervals of about two weeks, commencing as soon as the new canes are one foot high. Care should be taken not to get the Bordeaux mixture on the leaves of the fruit- bearing canes, as they are quite liable to be burned by it. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. Bulletin No. 40. AGRICULTURAL DIVISION. DECEMBER, 1894. GRAIN AND FORAGE CROPS. Corn, variety tests, Silage of Flint, Sweet, Southern Ensilage and Dent, compar- ed as food for dairy cows, improved varieties, corn cultivation and cultivator trials, listing, hilling, pruning the roots of corn; Wheat, variety tests, varie- ties chosen for propagation, varieties originated by selection, crossing and selecting; Barley, variety tests; Flax, variety tests; Field Peas, variety tests; Millet, variety tests; Succotash of oats and wheat grown together; Oats, methods of seeding, rolling to prevent lodging; Hay, production by seeding annual fodder crops; Seeding Implement Tests; Wheat, Oats, Barley and Flax, time and depth of seeding; Field Management and Rotation of Crops, Smut in Wheat, blue stone sprinkling and dipping methods and hot water treatment. ST. ANTHONY PARK, RAMSEY CO., MINNESOTA . ST. PAUL: The Pioneer Press Co., 189*;. UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BOARD OF REGENTS. The HON. JOHN S. PILLSBURY, Minneapolis, ..... 1896 The HON. GREENLEAF CLARK, M. A., St. Paul, 1900 The HON. CUSHMAN K. DAVIS, M. A., St. Paul, .... 1900 The HON. WM. H. YALE, Winona, 1896 The HON. JOEL P. HEATHWOLE, Northfield, 1897 The HON. O. P. STEARNS, Duluth, 1896 The HON. WILLIAM M. LIGGETT, Benson, 1897 The HON. S. M. OWEN, Minneapolis, 1895 The HON. STEPHEN MAHONEY, B. A., Minneapolis, . . . 1895 The HON. KNUTE NELSON, St. Paul, Ex Officio. The Governor of the State. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST, M. A., Hutchinson, . . .Ex Officio The State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CYRUS NORTHROP, LL. D., Minneapolis, Ex Officio. The President of the University. THE AGRICULTURAL COMMITTEE. The HON. WM. M. LIGGETT, Chairman. The HON. J. S. PILLSBURY. The HON S. M. OWEN. The HON. W. W. PENDERGAST. OFFICERS OF THE STATION. WM. M. LIGGETT, .......... Chairman. WILLET M. HAYS, B. S. A., . . . Vice Chairman and Agriculturist. SAMUEL B. GREEN, B. S., Horticulturist. OTTO LUGGER, Ph. D., Entomologist and Botanist. HARRY SNYDER, B. S Chemist. T. L. HAECKER, Dairy Husbandary . M. H. REYNOLDS, M. D., V. M., Veterinarian. THOS. SHAW, ......... Animal Husbandry . J. A. VYE, Secretary. ANDREW BOSS, ........ Farm Foreman. The bulletins of this station are mailed free to all residents of the state who make application for them. FORAGE AND GRAIN CROPS. WII/LET M. HAYS. Experience with field crops and the management of lands in 1894 has illustrated the need of repeating experiments several times in order to obtain results of much value. The excessively dry sum- mer season maue valueless at least fifty per cent of the trials begun and lessened the value of most of the others at the University Farm. Nearly every crop grown on the 200 acres of tillable land on the University Farm was in some way experimented with, while on over one-third of the cultivated area the land was divided into plots. The labor of attending to these several hundred plots was nearly all done by young men who attended the School and College of Agriculture during winter and were employed at farm wages dur- ing summer. Never before had I observed such a faithful, trust- worthy and efficient lot of farm hands at work together. The School of Agriculture dignifies labor, and these young men were examples daily of the fact that our school is giving to the state a class of trained enthusiasts in farming. Mr. Warren W. Pender- gast and Mr. Wm. G. Smith, two graduates of the School of Agri- culture and now juniors in the college course in agriculture, did especially efficient and intelligent service in the management of experiments and in the careful work of breeding farm crops. Each was given a month’s experience as foreman of the farm, and each proved able to handle men and care for business. Mr. Andrew Boss, the farm foreman, had immediate charge of most of the de- tails of the experiments of the division, and greatly assisted in planning and in compiling and arranging the tabular matter of the following reports. His accuracy and efficiency are worthy of most hearty commendation. In the study of rotation of crops, Prof. Harry Snyder has joined me, and the experiments somewhat as outlined in the last part of this report will be carried out by the 234 divisions of agriculture and chemistry. In the spring of 1894 the board of managers of the State Farmers’ Institutes rented of Supt. O. C. Gregg his 360 acre farm in Lyon county and turned it over free to the experiment station. Under the terms of the lease Super- intendent Gregg furnished teams, machinery and all other equip- ments needed. Mr. T. A. Hoverstad, a graduate of the school and of the college courses, was placed in charge of the experiments, and Mr. Gregg also was able to spend a large part of the summer at the farm. Here a few hundred plots were devoted to experiments, and in spite of late seeding, caused partly by the strike on the Great Northern Railway, a fairly large per cent of the experiments were successful. The arrangements for renting the farm were not per- fected until rather late in the season. Many of the experiments were duplicates of those under way at the University Farm. The results have been incorporated in the following report with those of the trials at St. Anthony Park, and are designated as from “Coteau Farm,” the name by which Mr. Gregg’s homestead is known. While the farm was in good condition, the first year’s work on it was, as a matter of necessity, in part, spent in planning and ar- ranging for the future. The land is fertile and proved quite uni- form and well adapted to plot work. Here we hope to make promi- nent the experiments in conserving moisture in our soil in drought, the production of grasses and annual forage crops, and to demon- strate practical and new facts regarding field and farm management. Mr. Hoverstad has shown his fitness lor managing experiment work, and our thanks are due Superintendent Gregg for his enthu- siastic aid and valuable co-operation. This work was so managed that a net cost to the station of less than $500 was incurred during the first year. Good progress has been made in the testing of varieties of wheats, corn, oats, and other staple crops, and now that we have a number of tests of each variety and have determined what are best,, the proper thing seems to be to propagate these in quantities to distribute to the farmers. Choice seed of a few kinds of dent corn is already on hand, and in a very few years we can have fairly largp quantities of the best spring wheats which we have been able to- find in the world. In like manner, choice varieties of other crops can soon be produced in quantities large enough to distribute to many farmers. Not content with the best kinds of corn, wdieat, oats, barley, field peas, timothy, etc., which the world affords, we have 235 well under way numerous new varieties produced by selection and by a combination of crossing and selection. The best of these newly originated sorts will be tried in comparison with kinds collected from every available source which have proved best, and if found superior the new kinds will be grown in quantity for distribution to farmers of the state. The secretary of agriculture has recom- mended to congress in his last annual report that the government fur- nish each state with its proportion of the money now expended for seeds and allow the experiment stations the franking privilege, that they might thus be able to send out improved seeds grown especially for the conditions prevailing in each state. AYith the start we already have at obtaining and breeding superior varieties we could at once make excellent use of the share of the money that would come to this state. The distribution of seeds on the plan here outlined has done much in Canadian provinces and territories to increase the average yield of crops for the entire Dominion. VARIETIES OF CORX FOR MIXXESOTA. A study of the varieties of corn adapted to the wants and con- ditions of Minnesota farmers, begun in 1888, was seriously inter- fered with in the fall of 1890 by the destruction by fire of many of the notes and a stock of carefully selected seed of varieties gathered in previous years. A partial collection of seed was again made in 1891, when about twenty-five varieties were tried. The best of these were used and more good varieties have since been collected. Table LXXII. shows the yield of those found best through a series of years and others more recently procured to test with them. The farmers of the southern one-third of the state want for field culture, for grain and fodder, medium sized dent varieties of corn, which will ripen by the 15th to 20th of September and will yield a large amount of grain. The stover can be produced so cheaply with the grain that especial attention to the yield of stover in these varieties hardly needs consideration. The larger flint varieties and the few large sweet varieties are useful in special cases in the southern one-third of the state, as on wet, cold soils, and in situations not so well suited to the growth of corn as are most parts of that section. The large sweet varieties seem especially well suited to grow for silage and for fodder where a large yield only of coarse forage is desired. Where corn is grown for ears, however, the dent varieties are the 236 best we have found. A crop of dent corn is generally made up of nearly one-half ears, while a crop of the much branching sweet or flint corn is only about one-third ears and two-thirds fodder. Dent varieties are much easier husked than flint corn, though much de- pends upon the variety in each class. For the central third of the state some of the very earliest dent varieties of corn are suitable for grow- ing on good arable lands in rotation with small cereals. But the larger and medium-sized flint varieties will, as a rule, be quite as profitable in this section. They ripen earlier and make a large amount of fodder per acre. Medium-sized sweet varieties, which ripen fairly early, can also be developed into most useful fodder crops for the center of the state. For the northern third of Minnesota small, early maturing flint and sweet varieties of corn give the best results for fodder, and even for grain. For growing thickly for fodder, varieties much larger than those grown for grain and fodder combined can be used. Small, early varieties of dent corn may be found which are good yielders of grain and of fodder. All our farmers should pay more attention to corn, and learn how it will make cheap fodder and grain, even in the most north- ern sections of the state; and, what is nearly as important, that it leaves the land in better condition for wheat and other small grains than does even the summer fallow. Seed of varieties best suited to northern sections for fodder can best be grown in central or south- ern Minnesota. Some arrangement should be perfected by w T hich reliable seedsmen, or other reliable parties, will know what kind of seed is wanted in each section of the state, so that farmers in each section will be sure of getting the seed corn best adapted to their needs. In the northern sections they can raise their own seed of the small, early varieties during years when early frosts do not occur. It has been our general experience that flint and sweet varieties produce more fodder than dent varieties, though they generally yield less grain. Last year the yields were much lessened by the drought. Some years since experiments were conducted with dent, sweet, flint and southern corn for silage, but the report has awaited further experiments on varieties before publication and is given below. In Table LXXII. are shown the yields of varieties of corn we now have on hand. Nos. 5, 6, 7 and 13 are proving superior varieties, having yielded well through a series of years. Of some of these we are growing large quantities of seed, and hope to be able to sell or to distribute free in the near future. TABLE LXXII.— Corn, Variety Tests. 237 '3681 Pl a IA i \ ! Iss^i 1 i i j !*; i 1 j j : i 1 i 1 i 1 5 '8681 PPII iico© : t#i oo i© t- : ^cocO'rt'»© ©» id ©1 ©liiMwOOCO©©^^ ©j c© ©i cc © ©it'- oo co e© c©e©^e©e©Tf^jrrHTt©4C©r-li-'C©t©COC© tjT e©" id* o' cd id" id - e©~ to* ■d' ed •aroo panoqs Xrp *nq i o; uroo paxap p{ag -sq^; t'ieco©c©©c©c©ooc©©©©i©l©©e?c©coo©o ©©©©owow©i»©)'^^©ic©'- C5 ©1 l>- 9 ’08 ©Ot't't't'HTfM-O 1 ©csccc©tot©e©*-ic©t'»c; 0Ot^t>©©"t»CO0O©©CO •3 tiling ca s£«a ioc©io«c©ict^or^t^ :©©©i^ioMoiftio>t»Me© oooooooooo : o o o o o o — o o — — o o 103 c©e©ec©j©c©c©c©©i©ic© ©©O^H©©©©©!©!© 'SJB3 0^qB ^aeo j0j •JB0 JO qjSa©^ o ^ i-l«D05«C>©100 00 00C©00^t>00t>^00 00©JC©OOOt^00 KOH^NNot'N • • •panojS mojj iBg O^^’tOD^OOOOKMOO^MrfOffl^^MOO© C©NW©»©]©)C©©lC©a^MC©©l.*0©)©tC©OM^©©l©l Tf ©i ■^<©'^0O’+‘CO^CO©©0O ©l ©I ©l ©J ©l ©1 ©4 r-H ©4 ©l 1-H •sopB[q jo noijjodorj OMMN^itCONOOfl'flCTtUOffiOWOinCWO OOC^COQOCOOOOOCOOOOOCOOOCOt^OOt^t^OCC^COr^l>t^C© ©* 00 ■«$H©~I©>©©©1©©»01© oocooooocoooocr-Gcoo©- •ooaBjsia; •eioojs’jnoo ©0©NNONOicoif:ooioicicici©noio©e©©io o ©1 0O©l©i©lOl©©»C©©iC ©J©I©I©It-i^h©J©1©1©«©4 •2l[i8jsjojqSf0H * :*ss * >t ^ ^ h\ ©iCtOWiOO©©©©*©©©©©^^©©^©©© l© i©io©©io©i©Tf©©ec •S3B10 h os © ^ 1 kC I -Si 1 : o o •’O © r- ' E • a o £ ; in >_i s-i cT^oo^-g^o^o :o^cq o-sodoi -d'S t 3s6 6 «.2 ; .2 « © .2 bcxi ^3 ^ t>»^aQ tT«°^ 5^ «2 w«. : •— i .' , - 1 ^ o a; a o «, © gdrapQ ^ 5^.2 5 I* £ w Q> to *2 o C3 .ph co - « ro do® O^cq O "fcfc fee bio bca g | . 2 . 2 . 2 f 2 ^g , c S 9 • > ~ © ° I 2 33 I 2 S d*|| ® ® J 8 «eil >3 fill®® g gggS^g^ HHHQ^bco e>?t « l§ II C$ gs © K . . w . K 2 © © J d iOOWrfO •■s JS 6 d o 6 . s Sl^ CO >H « aJSwpqgtt Q £ a ®_ * © a Q>h - - . fl a p q r'Q ©3 bjooQ £ - ) ^“ i( -^, 2.2 ^ 2^ ^ © Q j i £ • P oo §*? rt'o'J Salja ©Q Q * • >h.2 S - a pc s’2'©'©'©'©^^^ »2 1 1 § a.©§ gTSS-S^SsS P .52 £ S? - „ 0 oo§^W^-3 | « * ©^^c 1 ^ 0 ©^ 20 k _, . . © F . . ^ “ rvi _ §-£S»o 5 o S £| S’* Z^J- P.? 2 ; 2 ^g , “^s -= , |5 j 2 ® O £ « S o Long Sweet. 238 SILAGE OF FLINT, SWEET, SOUTHERN AND DENT CORN COMPARED. In 1888 this station began experiments to compare the various classes and varieties of corn for silage adapted to Minnesota. In a report of the work for that year the belief was expressed that “it is best to grow for silage in each latitude those kinds of dent corn which are slightly too large to ripen but will become mature enough for silage, or will reach the glazing stage.” Far northward the hint varieties which will reach this stage may be used for silage, thus pushing the corn belt far beyond its present line. Further experi- ments made during subsequent years go to substantiate this state- ment. Some of the large sweet varieties would also seem worthy of use for silage in the southern half of the state, and some small earlier ripening sweet sorts would doubtless serve this purpose to the northward. Bather larger, later maturing varieties of dent corn than any mentioned in Table LXXII. may be used for silage, though several varieties of dent and hint com there described yield well for silage. In 1889 dent and hint corn were grown in check-row hills in the ordinary held way, while southern ensilage corn was grown in drills forty inches apart and stalks averaging eight inches apart in the rows. The varieties of dent and hint corn used were those known to ripen in this neighborhood a little before frosts. The dent and hint each yielded nine and three-fourths tons of well eared silage per acre, while the southern ensilage corn yielded twenty-one and a half tons of green fodder per acre. The southern ensilage corn con- tained 18.57 per cent of water-free substance, while the fresh dent silage contained 23.17 per cent of water-free substance. The an- alysis of the hint silage, together with material for other analyses, and other notes, were destroyed by the burning of the station office. As the hint silage had within a fraction of one per cent of the same dry matter as the dent silage the same figure is used. Notes of variety tests for yield per acre in 1889 and 1890, including more than forty varieties, were also burned. The three kinds of silage were fed to cows to determine their relative value in the production of butter and milk. To Group I., composed of six Holstein-Friesian cows, the southern ensilage corn of 1889 was fed in 1890 in com- parison with silage of dent corn. To Group II., composed of one Shorthorn, one Jersey and one grade Guernsey cow, silage of hint corn was fed to compare with silage of dent corn. These Holstein- Friesian cows, in Group T., were kindlv loaned the station by S. Les- lie, Waseca, Minn., who loaned Chuckle No. 4: T). E. Branham, Litch- 239 field, who loaned Speerstra and Sig Hedrikje 2d, Nos. 1 and 2; I. C. Wade, Jamestown, N. D., who loaned Vinnie 3d and Nadine Abbe* kirk, Nos. 3 and 5, and N. J. Leavitt, Waseca, Minn., who loaned Graceful, marked “ G ” in Table A; H. F. Brown, Minneapolis, Minn., furnished the Shorthorn cow, Bell Brown No. 7, in Group II. ; W. D. Kichardson, Garden City, Minn., loaned a grade Guernsey No. 14, and D. W. Casseday of Hutchinson loaned Hazel, a Jersey grade No. 15. The thanks of the station are due all these men. The silage was fed with a given proportion of grain and other fodder. The silage of dent corn was used as a basis with which to compare both of the other kinds of corn. Each of the two groups of cows was fed during three periods of twenty-one days, with pre- liminary periods of seven or more days. The dent corn was fed during the first and third periods to each group. During the second period Group I. had southern ensilage corn silage and Group H. had flint corn silage. By this method the average results of the first and third periods were compared with the results of the second period. Since the cows were gradually falling off in milk and butter yield, as they got farther along in the period of lactation, this plan gave a fair comparison of the two kinds of silage fed to either group of cows. A year later silage of dent, sweet and southern ensilage corn were compared in the same way as is reported herewith. SOUTHERN ENSILAGE VS. DENT CORN FOR SILAGE. Group I. was given, during the first and third periods, all the cows would eat in three feeds per day of a ration made up as follows : Silage of dent corn 40 pounds Bran 8 pounds Oil cake 2 pounds Timothy hay 3 pounds Previous experience and reason taught that more of the southern corn silage should be given during the second period than was put in the ration above of the dent corn, which contained considerable grain. As the percentages of dry matter, 23.17 and 18.57, were prac- tically as five is to four, fifty pounds of the silage of southern corn were put with the eight pounds bran, two pounds oil cake and three pounds timothy in the second period in place of the forty pounds of dent silage fed in the first and third periods. The feeding was very carefully done by Charles Iverr, herdsman, and very little irreg- ularity occurred. At the end of the first periods and during the pre- 240 TABLE LXXIIL— Group I.— Six Holstein-Friesian Cows. Fed First and Third Periods a Ration of Forty Pounds Dent Corn Silage , Eight Pounds Bran y Three Pounds Timothy Hay ( Chaffed) and Two Pounds Oil Meal. Fed During the Second Period Fifty Pounds Silage of Southern Ensilage Corn in Place of Forty Pounds Dent Corn Silage Fed in Periods 1 and 3. FIRST PERIOD.— *J ANUARY 13TH TO FEBRUARY 2D. Number. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total Butter Fats. No. 1 1,498 708.25 29.18 No. 2 1,330 824.25 28.93 No. 3 1,392 624.75 24.30 No. 4 1,329 652.00 26.08 No. 5 1,384 527.00 21.61 No. G 1,684 946.00 33.01 Totals 8,617 4, 282.25 163.11 SECOND PERIOD.— FEBRUARY 18TH TO MARCH 10TH. No. 1 1,928 653.00 25.47 No. 2 1,746 1,811 772.25 26.87 No. 3 555.00 21.64 No. 4 1,687 505.5 18.70 No. 5 1,251 418.25 16.94 No. G 1,987 749.5 27.73 Totals 10,410 1 3, 653.5 1 137.35 THIRD PERIOD.— MARCH 18TH TO APRIL 7TH. No. 1 1,554 610.75 26.27 No. 2 1,091 648.75 23.48 No. 3 1,491 587.5 23.03 No. 4 1,364 489.00 19.90 No. 5 1,312 461.25 18.37 No. G 1,607 724.75 27.83 Totals 8, 419 3, 555.00 138.88 Summary. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total But- ter Fats. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Milk. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Butter. Lbs. Milk to 1 Lb. Butter. Periods 1 and 3 (dent corn) Period 2 (southern ensilage corn) 17, 036 10,410 7,837.25 3, 653.5 302.0 137.4 2.17 56.4 25.95 Summary. Silage in Period 2 reduced to same dryness as in Periods 1 and 3. Periods 1 and 3 (dent corn) 17, 036 *8, 758 7,837.25 302.0 2.17 56.4 25.95 Period 2 (southern ensilage corn) 3, 653.5 137.4 2.4 63.7 26.6 ♦The water in the daily ration in Period 2, when southern corn silage was used, was more than when dent corn silage was fed in the first and third periods, and is here simply eliminated to get a com- parison of dry matter of silage, the grains and hay, making up the rest of the ration, remaining the same in either case. 241 TABLE LXXIV.— Group Ill.-Six Native Cows. Fed First and Third Periods Dent Corn and Second Period Southern Corn Silage with Grain and Hay same as Group I. FIRST PERIOD.— DECEMBER 27TH TO JANUARY 7TH, INCLUSIVE. Number. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total Butter Fats. No. 4 780 239.25 9.69 No. 5 612 214.25 9.86 No 6 720 202.00 7.53 No. 7 792 256.00 11.26 No. 8 792 221.75 9.98 No. 9 693 205.25 9.95 Totals 4,339 1,338.5 58.27 SECOND PERIOD.— JANUARY 14TH TO 25TH, INCLUSIVE. No. 4 834 239.00 8.60 No. 5 713 214.75 8.22 No. 6 692 161.25 6.84 No. 7 900 233.00 9.44 No. 8 900 197.5 7.80 No. 9 784 195.5 8.60 Totals 4,823 1,241 49.5 THIRD PERIOD.— JANUARY 30TH TO FEBRUARY 10TH, INCLUSIVE. No. 4 766 230.00 8.74 No. 5 612 205.00 8.28 No. 6 640 179.00 7.52 No. 7 827 233.25 9.45 No. 8 827 196.00 8.23 No. 9 720 189.5 7.71 Totals 4, 392 1,232.75 49.93 Summary, Feed Given. Milk Given. Total But ter Fats. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Milk. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Butter. Lbs. Milk to 1 Lb. Butter. Dent corn silage (Periods 1 and 3) 8,781 *4, 057 2, 571 1,241 108.2 3.4 81.1 23.8 Southern ensilage corn silage (Period 2).. 49.5 3.3 82.0 25.1 *Silage in Period 2 reduced to same dryness as in Period 1. liminary feeding for the second period one or two cows were quite seriously “off their feed,” and in one or two cases during the course of the second period there was slight indisposition, but on the whole these Holstein-Friesian cows sustained the hardy good feeding .repu- tation for which the breed is noted. The comparison of dent versus southern corn silage was again made with corn grown in 1890. Six “native” cows, picked up in 242 Swift county by Col. W. M. Liggett to supply milk for the school, were fed during three periods of twelve days each, and in a manner similar to the feeding of the six Holsteins during the previous win- ter. The cows stood this ration well, and gave a fair test of the two feeds as summarized below. Here again, as the relation of the dry matter in the two was about as five is to four, fifty pounds of southern corn silage in the second period replaced forty pounds of dent silage in periods one and three. Above is a summarized statement of food eaten, milk given and butter yield as calculated from chemical analysis of the milk, and also other summaries of the results. FLINT VS. DENT COHN SILAGE. To compare silage of dent and flint corn, Group n., composed of three cows, was given, during the first and third periods of twenty- one days each, forty pounds dent silage grown in 1889, eight pounds bran, two pounds oil cake and three pounds timothy hay. As the flint corn silage had practically the same percentage of dry matter as the silage of dent corn forty pounds of flint corn silage were given in the second period in place of the forty pounds of dent corn silage. The dry matter in both kinds of silage was practically twenty per cent. The following tabular statement shows the re- sults. When tried in various ways the cattle showed a greater liking for the other kinds of silage than for silage of flint com, though this com was cut when no riper than the dent corn. SWE)ET VS. DENT CORN SILAGE. During the early part of 1891 two cows were fed silage of sweet corn in comparison with silage of dent corn grown in 1890. The dent corn was similar to that used in the comparison with southern ensilage com in two trials here reported and the one trial of dent versus flint corn also reported here. As there was little difference (less than one per cent) in the percentage of moisture in these two kinds of silage, forty pounds of sweet corn in the second period took the place of the forty pounds of dent corn silage fed in the first and last periods, and eight pounds bran, three pounds timothy and two pounds ground oil cake was the grain ration mixed with the silage in this, as in the other cases above mentioned. These were native cows, also purchased in Swdft county. 243 TABLE LXXV.— Group II.— Flint vs. Dent Corn Silage. FIRST PERIOD.— JANUARY 17TH TO FEBRUARY 6TH, INCLUSIVE. Number. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total Butter Fats. No. 7 1,218 913 582.75 24.48 No. 14 469.25 23.79 No. 15 787 303.23 17.61 Totals 2,918 1,355.25 65.88 SECOND PERIOD.— FEBRUARY 18TH TO MARCH 10TH, INCLUSIVE. No. 7 1,448 526.00 22.88 No. 14 945 391.75 19.59 No. 15 943 292.00 17.08 Totals 3,336 1,209.75 59.55 THIRD PERIOD.— MARCH 18TH TO APRIL 7TH, INCLUSIVE. No. 7 1,335 513.00 21.34 No. 14 882 340.25 19.12 No. 15 825 261.75 15.36 Totals 3, 042 1,115.00 55.82 Summary. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total But- ter Fats. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Milk. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Butter. Lbs. Milk to 1 Lb. Butter. Dent corn silage (Periods 1 and 3) 5, 960 3, 336 2, 470.25 121 .7 2.41 ,, 49.00 20.3 Flint corn silage (Period 2) 1,209.75 59.55 2.75 * ** 56.00 20.3 SUMMARY. 1. A hundred pounds of dry matter in either dent, sweet or southern ensilage corn silage proved nearly of equal value for pro- ducing milk ana butter in tnese trials, though the advantage in all cases was slightly in favor of the silage of dent corn. This corn bore a fair crop of ears. 2. Flint corn silage did not prove as good in this one trial for producing milk and butter as dent corn silage. 3. Cattle did not seem to relish silage of flint corn as well as silage of the other three classes of corn. 4. Where a large amount of silage is wanted from a small area of land to feed with cheap mill feeds, these results would indicate that the most feed can be procured by using, in any given locality, corn so large that it will barely pass the roasting ear stage, before frosts. Here large field corn from the latitude of Missouri would probably make the most feed per acre. 244 TABLE LXXVI.— Group IV.— Sweet vs. Dent Corn Silage. FIRST PERIOD.— JANUARY 7TH TO 18TH, INCLUSIVE. Number. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total Butter Fats. No. 1 701 180.75 7.23 No. 2 732 337.5 15.18 Totals 1,433 518.25 22.41 SECOND PERIOD.— JANUARY 31ST TO FEBRUARY 11TH. No. 1 716 190.25 8.31 No. 2 827 ‘ 321.25 12.11 Totals 1,543 511.5 20.42 THIRD PERIOD.— FEBRUARY 15TH TO 26TH, INCLUSIVE. No. 1 699 176.25 7.70 No. 2 874 307.75 12.61 Totals 1,564 484.00 20.31 Summary. Feed Given. Milk Given. Total But- ter Fats. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Milk. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Butter. Lbs. Milk to 1 Lb. Butter. Dent corn silage (Periods 1 and 3) 2, 997 1,543 1, 002.25 42.71 2.99 70.2 23.5 Sweet corn silage (Period 2). 511.5 20.42 3.02 < 75.56 25.5 TABLE LXXVII.— Grand Summary.— Several Kinds of Silage Compared. Kind of Silage. Feed Eaten. Milk Given. Butter Fat Yielded. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Milk. Lbs. Feed to 1 Lb. Butter. Lbs. Milk to 1 Lb. ButterFat Group 1 — Dent corn ensilage 17,036 8, 758 8,781 4,057 5, 960 3,336 2, 997 1,543 7,837.25 302.00 2.17 56.4 25.95 Southern ensilage 3, 653.5 2. 571.00 1.241.00 2, 470.25 1,209.75 137.4 2.4 63.7 26.6 Group 3— Dent corn ensilage 108.2 3.4 81.1 23.8 Southern ensilage 49.5 3.3 82.00 25.1 Group 2— Dent corn ensilage 121.7 2.41 49.00 20.3 Flint corn ensilage 59.55 2.75 56.00 20.3 Group 4— Dent corn ensilage 1,002.25 42.71 2.99 70.2 23.5 Sweet corn ensilage 511.5 20.42 3.02 75.56 25.5 245 5. This large corn will yield much feed if planted in drills thirty- six to forty inches apart, the stalks averaging six to eight inches apart in the row. It can be planted by means of the ordinary grain drill, using only two or three of the hoes or shoes. The surface of the ground should be well pulverized before planting and the grain put in from two to four inches deep, approaching four inches deep for late planting or on droughty land, and two inches deep for plant- ing early, or on wet, cold land. The corn should be dragged every few days with a slanting tooth or a Scotch harrow until four or six inches high. To allow for the harrow taking out a few plants, in going over four or five times, plant something like one-tenth more seed than sufficient to make the plants as thick as desired. When the harrow must be laid aside cultivate medium shallow with two horse cultivator, say two inches deep next to the row and three inches deep in the middles between the rows, working a little dirt toward the drills each time. Three or at most five times over with the cultivator is all the cultivation needed after thorough harrow work. 6. Where, as on most of our Minnesota farms, it is desired to clean more land of its weeds with a clean corn crop, and where so much mill feed cannot well be fed with the silage (or corn stover), it pays to grow in hills for silage or for stover and grain, varieties of corn that will nearly or quite mature so as to get more grain . 7. To raise this corn for grain and stover or silage and to keep weeds from growing, plant on land well pulverized in spring to a depth of three or four inches — preferably fall plow r ed six or seven inches deep. Plant with two-horse check row planter or by means of a check-off marker. Hand planting or hoe planting, if intelligently done (getting seed below the drag teeth) is nearly as good. Plant three to five grains in hills forty-two to forty-five inches apart each w r ay. Harrow every three to five days until four to six inches high, as this is a cheap way to keep hills free of weeds. Cultivate two to four inches deep three or four times with level or ordinary culti- vator of some kind. Use care to not seriously prune the roots. At each cultivation work a little soil around the hills to kill weeds just starting there. 8. Use the corn in the rotation to prepare the land for wheat or other crop of small gi;ain. Corn gets great good and no harm from fresh manure plowed under, thus enabling the farmer to rot his manure in the soil where it is all saved. Manure should be scattered thinly, so it will go over more land, do more good and no injury to following crops of wheat or oats. 246 IMPROVED VARIETIES OF CORN. Three varieties of dent corn have been grown for a few years with a view of distributing them for seed. Each year these varieties are being carefully improved by selection. A limited amount of this seed is now on hand, and will be distributed or used as seed for pro- ducing larger quantities for seed another year. In Bulletin No. 11 was given a plan for improving dent and flint varieties for ears and stover combined. While it is of importance that the experimen t station find, improve and furnish or sell seeds to farmers, it is of far greater importance to show farmers of each section how to find profit in improving corn and selling seed of improved kinds. The essential facts in selecting corn may be stated as follows : Procure from the experiment station or elsewhere, possibly from your own farm or from a neighbor farmer, a kind that yields well. It may pay to try several promising kinds and select only the best. To do this get a peck or more of seed of each kind and the first year plant only a few rows of each, saving most of the original seed pure with which to start the second year. The varieties growing together in trial plots become badly mixed by the pollen blowing from the tassels of one variety to the silks of another. The grain is the valu- able product in most parts of the state. The ear, like the cow's udder, is the organ that must be intensified, and we can change this more rapidly than we can the cow’s udder, since we have every year a new generation from which to make selections. Out of the chosen variety select the best ears for seed. Plant in rich fields thirty or more rods from other corn. Manure the land well, fall plow thoroughly, prepare the seed bed in fine condition, plant early, rather thinly and cultivate well, but not too deeply. When the tassels begin to form destroy all of them on weak plants or those promising only small ears, by pulling the tassels out before they have scattered pollen. This insures that pollen only from good stalks furnishes the pollen for all ears. When nearly ripe go through with basket and husk off all the best ears, saving out the choicest ears from the choicest stalks. Thus select the ears in two classes, that for general planting, and the choicest for the next year’s seed corn patch to be again selected in the same manner. Pick seed from standing corn, paying attention to larger size or especial earliness as seems wisest, as the earliest plants are not always the best yielding plants. Select especially for large yielding 247 plants and choose those as nearly true to one type as may be, though do not put type above yield of grain, as this is the quality of greatest value. In a few years the ears and stalks can be re- duced to great uniformity. Select large, well formed, solid ears with deep grains, and, if a dent variety, with cob large enough to carry a good number of rows. Fire dry the seed and place where it will keep perfectly dry till planting time. The seed corn patch should be one or several acres and should be located thirty or more rods from other fields of corn. CORN CULTIVATION. During several years past experiments on the cultivation of corn have been under way. A part of this work has been reported upon in bulletins Nos. 5 and 11. Plot tests with implements have been made. The effect of pruning the roots with a narrow, strong knife has been investigated, and studies of the root system have been made. Listing has been tried. The varieties best adapted to each purpose have been studied and methods of the improvement of some of the best kinds have been well begun. PRUNING THE ROOTS OF CORN. In 1889 a number of plots of corn were rather severely root pruned, and as compared with the alternate rows not pruned, twelve and one-half bushels per acre less of corn was produced. The same experiment was tried again in 1890, and also in 1891. The pruning was done by running a strong butcher knife blade, set in a runner so that it would penetrate the ground four to six inches and be drawn through the soil a few to several inches, either side of the hill without much disturbance of the soil. The following tabular statements show the results for several years. All the corn was cultivated shallow with Tower’s cultivator, and as alternate single rows or alternate two rows make up the plots comparing pruned and unpruned, the plots are assumed to be alike in all respects ex- cept as affected by the pruning. 248 TABLE LXXVIII.— Root Pruning* Corn in 1889. Plot. Grains. Fodder. Pounds. Bushels per Acre. Pounds. Tons per Acre. 1 Pruned four times 284 34 255 1 1-6 2 Not root pruned 401 48 375 1 4-6 3 Pruned three times 253 3034 300 1 2-6 4 Not root pruned 417 50 305 1 2-6 5 Pruned two times 326 39 300 1 2-6 6 Not root pruned 402 4834 400 1 5-6 7 Pruned once 308 37 340 1 3 6 8 Not root pruned 399 48 350 1 3-6 Average root pruned plots 293 35 299 1 1-3 Average of plots not root pruned 405 4834 357 1 3-5 Note,— Once pruning means that at the time of plowing the knife passed on either side of the pruned rows, going five inches deep six inches away from the hill. Twice pruning mfeans that tho pruning was done the sesond time when the corn was cross plowed and three or four means that the pruning was done at the third and fourth times over with the cultivator. TABLE LXXIX.— Root Pruning Corn in 1890. Grain on Plots, Lbs. Decrease Lbs. per Plot by Pruning. Decrease of Grain per Acre Bus. Fodder o n Flot * Bundles. Decrease by Pruning, Lbs. Decrease of Fod- der per Acre. | 1 Pruned four times four inches deep and five inches away from hill 660 750 898 930 855 870 765 840 830 885 90 4 1,660 1,720 1,880 2, 050 1,860 1,910 1,610 1,925 1,770 1,935 60 180 2 Not root pruned 3 Pruned four times four inches deep and three inches away from hill 32 170 510 4 Not root pruned 5 Pruned at second and third plowing six inches away and six inches deep 15 34 50 150 6 Not root pruned 7 Pruned both ways at third plowing five inches away and five inches deep 75 55 334 *34 315 945 8 Not root pruned 9 Pruned one way at fourth plowing six inches away and six inches deep 155 465 10 Not root pruned Average loss from root pruning 234 34 ton TABLE LXXX.— Root Pruning Corn in 1891. 249 The following tabular statement shows results obtained for the three successive years in pruning corn with a shallow-going imple- ment and kept free of weeds : TABLE LXXXI.— Summary Root Pruning* Corn. - 1889. 1890. 1891. Yield. Loss. Yield. Loss. Yield. Loss. Grain, bushels per acre { Not r £ ot pruned Stover T„ per acre { Not r £ )t pruned 48 13-5 13 4-15 34% 26% *Ve 2% % 41% 43% 1 1 1% In another trial in 1889, four bushels less per acre were grown on plots pruned as compared with those not pruned. The most striking injury to the crop is observed for the first of the three years. During 1890 and 1891, however, only a few bushels less of corn and about the same relative amount of stover were grown on the plots where root pruning was done than on those not pruned. The pruning was not quite as severe in 1890 and 1891 as the first season. The only other differing conditions observed were that the soil was compara- tively dry when the pruning was done in 1889, and there was a fair or abundant amount of moisture during the other two years at the time of cultivating. Corn certainly has a wonderful power to send out new roots to replace those cut off. As the pruning did no good in any year and did very great injury on many of the plots, the evidence on the whole is in favor of not cultivating the corn deeply close to the plants. On the other hand, very shallow culti- vation is not advisable, as a small per cent of the roots can be broken without as serious results to the crop as allowing weeds to grow and leaving too thin a blanket of loose earth that will not last and serve all season as a dirt mulch. The better way is to cultivate two or three inches, or rarely, w here many weeds are to be covered, let the cultivator go four inches deep in the middles between the rows. By following the above rule as to depth and by hilling up the corn half an inch or an inch at each plowing the shovels next to the row may be slightly raised each succeeding time of cultivating the corn. This will avoid going deep near the hill. 250 HILLING CORN. In 1889 two plots of corn, which had been kept level the fore part of the season with Tower’s cultivator, were hilled up by means of a hoe’ at the last cultivation. Their average yield "was just the same as plots made up of the alternating rows which were not hilled. In 1890 a trial gave an average difference of less than one bushel per acre in favor of the hilled corn and 250 pounds more of fodder per acre on the plots not hilled. In 1891 the amount of fodder was the same on hilled plots and on plots not hilled, while the plots not hilled had two and one-half bushels per acre more of grain. In so far as the effect on the yield is concerned hilling of itself seems to have little or no influence where the weeds are kept down on all plots. As a means, however, of destroying newly started weeds, moderate hilling is an aid. At each cultivation half an inch or an inch of loose dirt worked in around the plants does much to smother the Pigeon Grass and other newly started weeds which come up in and near the hill. By regarding hilling as simply a means of killing weeds, the plowman will better handle his cultivator or hoe than if he thinks it for some other purpose. Hilling to more than three or four inches above the general level is often unwise, as the land is thus left very rough for seeding to a succeeding crop. CORN CULTIVATOR TRIALS. The subjoined tablar statement gives the figures developed during a trial of corn cultivators. In 1888 a piece of land was divided in twenty-four one tenth acre plots, and each of the cultivators named in the table was used in cultivating two or more of them. Alleyways between each plot allowed of turning without treading down the corn in the plots proper. In 1889 the entire field was cul- tivated uniformly with one implement, Tower’s surface cultivator, and the yield of corn and fodder for each plot was determined. In 1890 the various implements were again used on the same plots as in 1888. And the table, besides giving the relative yields of each plot, gives also a comparison of the yields when cultivated with the several implements as compared with their yield during the in- termediate year when all were planted and cultivated alike. Even a plot test made in this way is not always satisfactory to one who constantly observes the growth of the crops. In many cases there *251 was far more apparent difference in the corn on different parts of the same plot than on the different plots. The table shows especial- ly well for Tower’s surface cultivator, Robert’s blades and Weir’s tongueless cultivator. TABLE LXXXII.— Comparison of Corn Cultivators. 1888. 1890. Average for First and Third Years When Differently Cultivated. Yield 1889 When All Were Cultivated Alike With Tow- er’s Cultivator. Gain or Loss Com- pared with Inter- mediate Year, Bushels per Acre. Bushels grain per acre — Robert’s Blades 51 52% 53 51% 50 43% 44% 8 Whir’s Tongneless 47 5% 10 Rotary Disk 42 46% 61 44% 55 45% Tower’s Surface 49 45 Bash Surface 45 51 48 51 2 % —3 Tons fodder per acre — Robert’s Blades .. 3 % 3 3% 3% 3% 2 % 1 % Weir’s Tongueless 3% 2 % 1% Rotary Disk 3 3% 2% 1% % 1% Tower’s Surface 3 2% 3 A 2 /8 Bash Surface 3% 3 1 2% Til 5 Tower 7 s surface cultivator and Roberts blades cultivated the land medium shallow, but well. Weir’s tongueless cultivator has the ordinary two shovels on a side, like the old-fashioned double shovel cultivator, and with it the soil was cultivated in grooves four to five inches deep, as is the custom with most farmers. In 1891 Mr. Andrew Boss, foreman, cultivated every tw r o alter- nate rows with Weir’s tongueless and Tower’s surface cultivator, with the following results: TABLE LXXXIII.— Weir’s Tongueless vs. Tower’s Surface Cultivator. a o a Gain by Deep Cultivation. a o CD 'd 3 . j§5 Loss by Deep Cultivation. 1. Weir’s cultivator, deep shovels, five inches deep and two and one-half inches away each side 2. Tower’s cultivator, shallow 560 495 495 495 65 385 425 380 380 40 3. Weir’s, three inches deep and four inches away either side 4. Tower’s cultivator, shallow 252 In 1891, in a field of corn, the alternating pairs of rows were treated as shown in Table LXXXIY. This shows slightly better yields of grain for Weir’s than Tower’s cultivator in one of the two com- parisons, and just the opposite is true of the yields of stover for deep than for the shallow cultivating, while the yield of stover was about the same. Pruning, however, in both trials resulted in lessen- ing the yield of grain, and averaging the two trials the yield of stover was about the same. A slightly lessened yield of grain re- sulted where the corn was hilled high around the stalks as com- pared with plots where the soil was cultivated level, but the yield of stover was about the same. The plot on which the “aerial,” or brace roots, were cut yielded considerable more of grain and slightly more of stover than the compared plot not so pruned. TABLE LXXXIV.— Cultivation, Depth, Pruning* Roots, Hilling, Implements. 1891 Plot. Pruned. Hilled. f a. Weir’s deep shovel, five inches deep and two and one-half inches away each side 1 { b. Tower’s } a. Weir’s deep shovels, three inches deep and four inches away on either side b. Tower’s a. Pruned five inches deep and six inches away either side with knife b. Not pruned J a. Hilled six inches high around stalk 4 1 b. Not hilled f a. Pruned once five inches deep and four inches away either side with knife 5 j b. Not pruned j a. Brace roots cut 6 ( b. Brace roots not cut Weight of Corn. Weight of Stover. 560 385 495 425 495 380 495 380 475 335 490 275 530 340 560 345 500 325 520 410 640 430 545 420 The table below shows the relative adaptability of the different cultivators to keep corn planted in various ways free of weeds as re- ported in Bulletin No. 5. The land was rather foul with weeds, none of which were removed except as each cultivator succeeded in destroy- ing them, and notes were taken after the second, third, and fourth times the plots were gone over with the cultivator. By using a “v” or trough-shaped fender made of a six inch and a seven-inch board, each four feet long, and dragged upside down by a string over the row of young corn the first and second times, Tow- er’s cultivator, the spring tooth cultivators and the Bash surface cultivator did especially fine work in listed corn. Listed corn, how- ever, can be successfully cultivated with any of the implements above mentioned. 253 TABLE LXXXV.- Effectiveness of Each Cultivation in Keeping the Plots Clean of Weeds Expressed in Per Cent. Hills Cultiva- ted, Deep. 1 Hills Cultiva- ted, Shallow. Drilled. Listed. First and second cultivation— Weir’s Tongueless 98 88 90 80 Rotary Disk 90 85 80 Tower Bros 95 95 75 Bash Surface 80 75 95 *Bash Surface 90 90 80 Third cultivation— Weir’s Tongueless 98 90 90 85 Rotary Disk 95 95 80 Tower Bros 95 95 80 Bash Surface 78 75 80 Robert’s Blades 98 90 90 Fourth cultivation — f Weir’s Tongueless 98 90 88 90 Rotary Disk 98 88 88 Tower Bros 98 88 88 Bash Surface 80 75 75 Robert’s Blades 98 92 90 The several cultivators were used in the fields on the station farm and were tried in soddy land, in com stalk land, as well as in stubble land and some were used in cultivating potatoes and other crops, thus giving them a general comparison. Lehr’s spring tooth cultivator was secured too late to enter all the competitive trials above mentioned. Tt has five spring tooth shovels on either side, the spring teeth or shovels being patterned after those on the common spring tooth harrow. The Albion eagle claw, having four spring beams on either side, with two-inch wide shovels instead of the spring forming part of the shovel, was also procured. Owing to a loss of some parts and a delay in transit, this excellent implement was not carefully tested. The Conkling automatic cultivator, with three shovels on a side, proved to be an improvement over the implements with two shovels on a side. As compared with the ordinary corn cultivator, having two shov- els on a side, I feel justified in saying that we have cultivators which do not so seriously prune the roots, but do cultivate the corn quite as well. Those on the spring tooth plan and the Tower’s surface cultivator will as effectually clean out the weeds, if the land has been properly prepared before planting, as will those of the double shovel pattern. These cultivators are not quite as useful as the double shovel pattern for other uses on the farm, but where the farmer 254 has a good pulverizer, like a Disk harrow, he rarely needs his two- horse corn cultivator except for summer tillage. The cultivators, with four or five small shovels on a side, gave best all around satis- faction. LISTING CORN. Listing corn as compared with planting on level ground has been tried two years. A number of plots each year were cultivated with the different cultivators here for trial in comparison with plots planted on level ground. In no case did a single plot of the listed corn yield as much as the plots drilled or hilled beside it. On the average the crops were about ten per cent less than the crops on land not listed. We simply repeat our statement made after experi- menting with listing corn here in 1888 that, “This method is adapted to dry, warm countries, as Kansas, where much of the corn is planted with the lister, but here at the north we want the seed and roots near the top of the ground. Some dry seasons in the southwestern part of the state this method might prove best, and further trials will be given.” WHEATS— VARIETY TESTS AND IMPROVEMENT OF VARIETIES. In 1889 the Minnesota Experiment Station began the collection and testing of varieties of spring wheats from all localities wiiere we- might expect to find kinds suited to our climate and soils. Prof. D. N. Harper and the writer collected about 150 samples, most of them being small mail samples. Through the assistance of the American consuls in Russia and Hungary, many samples of wheats were secured from those countries. Prof. Wm. Saunders, Ottawa, Canada, director of the Dominion experiment farms of Canada, and Mr. S. A. Bedford, superintendent of the Manitoba experiment farm, Brandon, made material additions to the list. Mr. C. A. Zavitz, of the Ontario agricultural college, Guelph, and Prof. Luther Foster, then at South Dakota agricultural college, also Prof. James Wilson, of Iowa agricultural college, Ames, gave us a number of wheats for trial. The 150 samples first collected were planted in 1890 at War- 255 ren, Marshall county, on lands belonging to Messrs. March and Spald- ing. This land is typical Eed River Valley soil. The rainfall was sufficient for only a moderate crop in the neighborhood. The varie- ties were grown in such small plots that no yields were recorded. Some kinds proved to be winter wheats, and others were of such inferior quality that they were at once discarded. Samples of all the better kinds were harvested by hand, and these, with others collected later, were sown in 1891 at Glyndon, Clay county, ten miles east of Moorhead and Fargo, on the farm of Mr. J. Buckham. A fire, which burned the station laboratory during the fall of 1890, has destroyed letters and other records giving the names of the various kinds of wheat received from Russia and other foreign countries. Consequently, in 1891, the records of each kind were made by using the name of the town where they were planted and our original laboratory entry number, thus: Glyndon 676, or abbre- viated to “G. 67 6.” The land chosen at Glyndon was a sandy loam. It had grown a dozen or less crops of wheat, and the year before was manured and bore a crop of potatoes. The seed whs sown in narrow long plots with a Superior shoe press drill on the well prepared soil and as the land had few weeds, all varieties were given an equal chance. The harvesting was carefully performed by means of hand sickles, and threshing was done with flails. In 1892 and 1893 all the best wheats grown at Glyndon in 1891 were grown by the writer, at the North Dakota experiment station at Fargo, together with other varieties of spring wheat collected from various sources. Prof. J. H. Shepperd, of that institution, again grew the most promising varieties in 1894. The soil at Fargo is typical of the Red River val- ley, and all three years the fields of wheat in the vicinity were below the average for the past decade. In 1894 Mr. T. A. Hoverstad grew all the best of these varieties on good land at our Coteau sub- experiment farm in Lyon county, and thirty-three of them were grown by the writer on Rev. S. Currie’s farm at Euclid, Polk county, Minn., fifteen miles north of Crookston, on good Red River valley land. In Table LXXXVI. are collected part of the facts relative to the yields of the most promising of the more than 200 kinds of wheats we used in these several tests. Some of these have now been in six or seven variety tests, at Warren, in 1890; Glyndon, 1891; Fargo, 1892, 1893 and 1894; and at Euclid and at Coteau Experiment Farm in 1894. 256 'f>68l‘m?a}oo 3* laqsng J0d 'jqSiaAV CO^^O(Ot^NV QO tD tO 1C : to ic CO :t"^Orf©- cion 0>CO a> h »H bo bO « cS as aflDPflqgq??aSa? : : : : : fl P a q fl a q p q q o w p .5 .2 .S .S .2 .S .2 .S .S .2 .2 & & a js ja ° ® © © o o o o o o w w o Wrt J ooooooooooo-<^'3'-Vi« a Pflflaopaflfl-^ra l i!i;ooooooooooo®2Ji®S B5ll!cjrtcicJslcllrtci AS a ^^^pqpqp;mpqpqpqcqpqpqmOOOOOMMmmW«MW«W^an £ © £3 'd . 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Glyndon, 711 Glyndon, 750 Glvndon. 638 Glyndon, 815 Glyndon, 675(28 atG., 1891)... Power’s Fife Glyndon, 758 White Fife Glyndon, 675 Glyndon, 629 Glyndon, 691 Glyndon, 697 Glyndon, 754 Glyndon, 687 ] -joqran]sr | i;isj0Aiaft lO CM CD O 1 t>- IO © © . — < CM 05 © . t> io ^ © ^ eo © © © © —i © ©cm-ho>co©co- * 2 rt ~ N ^ r ja aaa IOOtJ OOOOC^ff) « CC o' M CO* f»(N(NMM(N(NN aa ia aaa i> cm co oo CO C-’ CM* Cl 05 © 1 H — " cm” CM CM aaaaa CO — CM CM CM eo © co CM u T 3 o © o © ao a . . . a : j sis! . O O O rQ : CO CO aDQQODMpq eoict^ow eo’ co co co cm CM © CM — © CO CO CO CO CO as a .5 ® p Srn : a> si © 2 05 ^ • © 3 ►» 3 ”® r 3 0 ) j-gsawS^S *5 « ® « •gogflgS'K on « pq pq a £ 0 . <5 ©CM©co*-i©ior— 261 continue to welcome new, promising foreign spring wheats for trial, we shall henceforth direct our energies more to the improvement of those we already have and which have proved best adapted to our conditions. We have been a little disappointed that one or more of the 200 varieties and over which we have sown did not show much larger average yields. Even if we could find a soft wheat which would yield five bushels more per acre than the kinds we now grow we should find profits in raising it, as the income of money per acre would be more than we now get for our famous, but rather low yielding, hard wheats. We would heartily welcome a large yield- ing soft spring wheat for consumption and to sell for feed. Some of these new varieties have averaged one to three bushels per acre more than fife or blue stem, but their milling qualities are yet to be tested. Our farmers certainly do not wish to give up the idea that present yields of wheat in Minnesota are all that an intelli- gent people should hope for from our rich soils, while Eastern farmers are securing fifty to one hundred per cent better yields on their worn lands to which commercial fertilizers must be sup- plied. Wise systems of rotations, so managed that wheat will be grown only on lands especially prepared for it, either by cultivation or kind of crop raised, as grass, etc., do much to bring up averages and give us more clear profits. As noted elsewhere in this report we are starting extensive experiments to find out and illustrate the best ways of managing fields to make clear profits at farming. But besides good methods of raising wheat we want the best varie- ties. If a variety can be found, o. if one can be originated, which will increase the average yields only a peck per acre a great object will be accomplished. But an increase of several bushels per acre would mean millions of dollars to our farmers, and this seems within the range of possibilities. For the present, south of the Northern Pacific Railway and in sections north of that line where early frosts do not usually kill late wheat, or on light quick lands, our farmers should use mainly blue stem for seed. Fuither north it is better to sow fife wholly or partly as it matures early. Where blue stem will ripen it will yield more wheat on the average, and, though it sells for a slightly lower price than fife, it yields more money per acre. Owing to the looseness of its chaff, blue stem is not so well adapted to stand long after it is ripe as is fife, and on the large farms this is sometimes a disadvantage, as the crop cannot always be cut just when ripe. Care in shocking and stacking is also more important with blue stem, as the loose chaff causes it to shell very 262 readily. Ordinarily the period of ripening is almost as extended as the period of seeding, thus allowing the reaping to be done as fast as the grain ripens. It is more important to cap shocks of blue stem wheat than of fife, because in open shocks the grain, not having close chaff, is bleached by dews and rains. The chaff of fife remains close to the berry, while many of the blue stem grains are more than half exposed to the air by the chaff spreading away. Most of the best wheats in Table B have chaff which holds as well or better than the chaff of fife, as shown by the notes. In Table LXXXVII. the 22 varieties which yield best are so arranged that they may be compared. Each one of these six tests, except the one in 1891 at Glyndon, has been under conditions where yields have not been large in the neighborhood, and the average of all the yields appears small. Each year some good fife and blue stem wheat, which are well known to all our farmers, have been grown on adjacent plots under like condition to serve as a basis for comparison. VARIETIES ORIGINATED BY SELECTION. In 1892 I chose from the varieties of wheat five kinds which had yielded best at Glyndon in 1891, and also the best samples of fife and blue stem obtainable. Four hundred kernels of each kind were selected and each kernel was planted by itself twelve inches apart each way. Thus each plant had ample room, and the same as every other plant. Part of this selected wheat was grown at Fargo, and part at Power, N. D. When in blossom all the plants were in- spected and some of the best were chosen to be crossed by hand pollenization. When ripe the plants were again inspected, the number of heads counted, the height of plants and length of heads were recorded, and other features noted. Ten out of each 400 were chosen as the most promising yielders of good wheat. These were harvested and the grain was shelled out of each plant and weighed. It was observed that the variation of the 400 plants was very great. Greater surprise came, however, when the weights of the grain from the ten selected plants were compared. In Power’s Fife, for example, the crops of the ten carefully chosen plants ranged from three and one-half to thirteen and one-half grams of wheat per plant, and in other varieties the variation was nearly as great. This selection was begun on the theory that the plants which yield the most wheat are the best from v hich to originate large yielding varieties. The best yielders [of these plants were chosen, and in 1893 one or more hundred kernels from each were planted, a foot 263 apart each, at Fargo. These plants did not have a uniform chance owing to an unfortunate rain, so that the yields of the rows were not comparable. Some of the best plants were again chosen to carry on further the selection of individual plants, but the most of the wheat from each of the best rows was harvested in bulk. The wheat from thirty-six of these rows was planted with a Dowagiac drill at the university experiment farm in 1894 and was harvested and threshed. The season was so Tery dry that the quality of all wheat on the university farm was poor. The yields were not large, but none were worse in either respect than wheat grown from the best fife and blue stem under like conditions. TABLE LXXXV ill.— W neat, Selected Varieties. University Number. Original Stock. No. of Individ- ual Plant in 1892. Length of j Head. Height. •** 05 CO oT x) sS O Yield in Grains from 1 Ker- nel, 1892. Yield in 1894. 147 Power’s Fife 108 3 30 2 N. 9. 10.9 148 Pviwer’s Fife 108 2/4 30 2 N. 9. 11.3 1 4'J Power’s Fife 108 3 31 2 N. 9. 11.4 150 Power’s Fife 103 3 32 2 N. 13.8 12.8 151 Power’s Fife 76 3 32 2 N. 11.8 13.2 152 Power’s Fife 76 3^ 33 2 N. 11.8 11.5 153 Glyndon, 818 2476 3 31 2 N. 9. 14.4 154 Glyndon, 818 2540 2 % 33 2 N. 15.5 8.2 155 Glyndon, 818 2510 3 30 2 N. 15.5 14.4 156 Glyndon, 818 2592 334 31 2 N. 11.3 17.9 157 Glyndon, 7^3 1277 3 32 2 N. 11. 18.3 158 Glyndon, 753 1277 3 31 2 N. 11. 16.6 159 Haynes’ Blue Stem 501 3/4 36 Rej. 18.1 15. 160 Ha wan 5014 3 31 2 N. 15.6 161 Haynes’ B ne Stem 551 3>4 36 Rej. 19.3 15! 162 Glyndon, 75 < 1326 3 32 2 N. 13.8 16.6 163 Glyndon 811 2001 3 29 2 N. 15.4 33. 164 Wellman’s Fife (clos* 5 groove) 334 28 3 N. 15. 165 Wellman’s Fife (Bradley’s close groove) 334 30 2 N. 12^8 166 Power’s Fife... 234 27 2 N. 11.1 167 G vndon, 761 1701 2% 27 2 N. 16, 11*7 168 Glyndon, 81 1 3 28 3 N 15.3 169 Haynes’ BHieStem.. 476 334 39 3 N. 19.1 15.4 170 Haynes’ Blue Stem 476 3 30 3 N. 19.1 12. 171 Ha wan 4914 234 25 3 N. 26.2 172 Wellman’s Fife (Bradley’s open groove) 334 31 3 N. 11.3 173 Haynes’ Blue Stem 551 3 32 3 N. 19.3 13.3 174 H’yndon, 811 2022 3 H 33 3 N. 6. 12.5 175 Havnes’ Blue Stem 476 3 y A 33 3 N. 19.1 12.5 176 Glyndon, 761 1695 2 % 30 2 N. 14.7 14.2 177 Havnes’ Blue stem (deep crease) 410 2/4 30 2 N. 15.4 16.1 178 Glvndon, 761 1695 3 31 3 N. 10.9 13.6 179 Havnes’ BIup S*em 464 3 30 3 N. 16.6 11.4 180 H ivnes’ Bine ^tem 551 3 31 3 N. 19.3 15.8 181 McKendrie’s Fife 802 3 29 2 N. 13. 14.2 182 Glyndon, 753 1326 2 % 28 3 N. 13.8 10.7 In Table LXXXVIII. are given the yields and quality of all these wheats. There is no reasonable doubt but that the quality of all will be good if grown under favorable conditions. Column 2 in Table LXXXVIII. gives the name of the variety from which the seed of each 264 selected variety was cnosen, and the number under which it may be found in Table LXXXYI. is given. In column 3 is given the nursery book number of the original individual plant in 1892 at Power, X. D., from which the selected variety sprang. Again, in 1893, at Fargo the best plants, of many thousand grown a foot apart each way, w T ere chosen from the several hundred of each selected stock found best the year before. Part of these were planted at Fargo by Professor Shepperd in 1894, and he kindly al- lowed me to bring part to Minnesota that we might co-operate and divide any good varieties thus originated. Numerous new varieties based on a single large yielding plant, separately grown in 1893, are now on hand in quantities large enough to be tested in the field. While most of the varieties secured from various parts of the world are discarded as not so desirable as fife and blue stem, we have originated, by the plan above mentioned, many new varieties. These new varieties are simply selected stocks from our better kinds of wheat. We have still other numerous new varieties which are selected from the results by cross pollenization of different kinds of wheat. But these are not yet produced in quantities sufficient for us to place them in field tests. With a good arrangement of thresh- ing machinery the annual cost of testing each variety is indeed very slight. The plans for improving varieties of wheat and other small grains, which this station is now carrying out, are far more com- plete and comprehensive than any heretofore recorded in this coun- try, so far as we know. By work no more thorough nor more careful European experimentors and seed growers have so developed sugar beets that, instead of a juice with six per cent of sugar at the be- ginning, they now have varieties which average twelve to fifteen. WHEATS— CROSSING AND SELECTING. Besides originating varieties by selecting, many crosses of wheat have been made. The following general plan has been followed in making most of our crosses: The best plants, growing a foot apart each way to allow all equal development, are chosen from the best stocks, or selected kinds of wheats, using only those which are at the right stage of development to be pollenized. In cross-polleniz- ing one or more spikes or “heads” are chosen from each of the two kinds to be crossed. All the upper part of the spike is cut away; also a few of the spikelets at the base of the spike. The middle smaller flower of each spikelet is pulled out, thus leaving the strongest pair of flowers on each of six or more spikelets, or in all twelve to twenty 265 *^68i | :°. ‘oSjt?j ‘PI8TA l :S (O a cc to (N-OOO ‘apvjg 1 H. 1 N 1H. •t 681 ‘OB0JOO ‘PI0TX 20.0 21.0 COCOOOPItC 05* 05* t-’ CO CO •0pUJ0 jfc Jzjfc jfc •aptuO 'f68l ‘piiona * Plot A •apejo ‘8681 ‘PPIA •ap^JO *2681 ‘PPHA •apBJO *1681 ‘PPIA • 10 q«ng jad iqSiaAV * 8 PI°H jj«qo « ‘Sax -JinBX\[ SABQ •qioorag jo P 9 J 9 AJ 0 A p«qr> •jg^qo jo joioa •qjoorag jo popjBag 'P^H jo q]gQ 07 •jq§t 0 H £$z;z£!z;& o o co co ®OOC(N( t" ie -r — * t- co Tl — ^ ® ®ccrr, 2 lO CO ^ -Jp — ^ 3 f~ IT- 00 y-1 .3 CO mo acn.'oaS- ooo®p 'O'd'^s-.o'CSa a a n ®|^ c~ E E*j * t * 5 g O j^> 6 flowers on each spike or head. The anthers are then removed from these flowers and transferred inside the glumes of the other plant from which the stamens have been removed. All flowers which are so ripe that the anthers have opened are discarded and removed. The spike or head of wheat which has been treated or “handled” is then wrapped with a piece of paper to size of ordinary toilet paper which is tied with a string above and below the head. As a rule, only six to ten per cent of the flowers thus pollenized produce kernels. And we are not certain that each grain produced is in all cases a cross. Self-fertilization may, in rare cases, occur before the anthers are removed from the flower. But by this method many kernels can be produced with a small amount of labor, and upon trial the next year only the promising plants, or those showing the cross are re- tained. Table LXXXIX. gives yields and other facts relative to the sev- eral varieties used as original stocks in originating new varities of wheat by crossing; also, by selecting. Others of our best varieties, having now been several times tested as to yield and quality, will serve as a basis from which to again start at selecting and crossing to make other improved kinds of wheat. This line of experiment- ing is not without its disappointments and difficulties, the time re- quired to obtain results being long, but it promises very valuable re- sults. Breeding wheat is most interesting work, and a few general facts are here worthy of statement. The wheat flower is perfect, in that it has both male and female organs. These lie together in the nearly developed flower between the flowering glume and the palea. When the flower has nearly reached the stage when fertilization takes place the anthers, or male organs, which are small sacks filled with pollen grains, break open and the gran- ular, globular pollen grains fall upon the feather-like female or- gan. These pollen grains germinate on the moist surface of the stigma, or female organ. The tube-like growth from the pollen grain penetrates the stigma and extending downward grows into the sack-like ovary in which the kernel of wheat is to be formed. Here the contents of the pollen tube unite w r ith the female germ or ovule in the ovary, and by this union of the two sexual ele- ments the new kernel is started int o being. In reality a new wheat plant is generated by the union of these two elements. In nature the flower of wheat fertilizes itself. Henry de Yilmorin, the great French seedsman of Paris, says: “Not once in ten thousand cases does the grain of wheat result from the pollen being supplied by another flower from the same or another* plant.” 267 In originating a new kind of wheat by first finding a good va- riety, planting many selected kernels each a foot or so apart and then selecting from these plants the one that yields best, we make the one plant the single parent of an entire kind of wheat. This plant bears several hundred seeds, each of which has both as its male and as its female parent the same plant. When these seeds are planted each of these in turn has a common male and female parent, which in turn has as its male and female parent the original plant selected as the basis of the variety. In the third generation, likewise, each plant traces back to the original plant which was its only “great grandfather” and “great grand- mother” combined in the one plant. The variety originated in this way is, in the stockbreeder’s parlance, all of one “blood” with no “outcrosses,” and “inbreeding” of the most “incestuous” kind here takes place. Objection has been raised to this way of originating wheat. The objectors assume that such pure inbreeding would result in weakness and that the wheat w T ould soon “run out.” But it must be remembered that in any variety of wheat this same in- breeding by self-fertilization is the constant method of generation. The only difference is, that, in the ordinary variety, there may be a large number of original plants from which all the grains have originating by self-fertilization. And should the wheat from some of these original “stocks” be larger or heavier in berry than from others, the careful use of the “screen” and “blast” in the fanning mill, or other seed wheat cleaning machine, would discard the poor and retain the good. This selection of seed in bulk might, and prob- ably does, gradually make the variety better in size or weight of berry, and through these qualities might increase the yield of the variety. But the more rational way to select good original stock, it would seem, is to grow separately many individual plants, and choose those which have the greatest vigor and yield the most grain. The product of one grain can be increased to many bushels in a few years. The possibilities of improving the variety by the selection of seed wheat, oats, barley and rye, by means of the ordinary seed cleaning machine are overestimated by some. There are far greater possibilities in the selection of seed corn where nearly every stalk is the product of cross fertilization, and each grain on the stalk in turn is the product of the plant bearing the ear and serving as the female parent, and of some neighboring plant from which the male germ was carried by the air. Here each plant for many gen- erations back has usually been the product of two not closely related 268 plants. Corn instead of having been closely inbred or self-fertilized is the product of cross-fertilization, and each grain on the stock is an example of what the stockbreeder would call “scrub breeding,” little or no natural selection taking place. While corn plants usu- ally lack in uniformity, the plants of a variety of wheat are gen- erally very much alike in all botanical characters, varying however, in yield, as mentioned above. Very often a sample or field of wheat is composed of more than one variety, each with its distinct botani- cal characters. In this case there are no plants found with charac- ters intermediate between the two kinds of wheat, thus showing that no crossing occurs. A small amount of blue stem wheat hav- ing been mixed with fife often results in a few years of careful se- lection over screens in the smaller fife seeds being screened out and the variety changed more and more to blue stem. This might occur in case of two varieties where the wheat having the larger kernels was really the smaller yielder and in other ways the least desirable of the two kinds. Likewise the larger or heavier kernels of wheat might be thus selected in annually cleaning the wheat and the yield of wheat not increased. If the large grains were selected by using the screen rather than the heavy ones by using the blast, the quality might even be made poorer. Yield per acre is a far more important consideration than either size of berry or hardness. A New Seed Gleaning Machine was made out of an old implement. Separating the heaviest seeds of wheat ‘or other seed grain is not always well accomplished by the fanning mill or by Beeman’s Wheat Grader, or other machines which assort the grain mainly on the basis of the size of the kernels. In using the fanning mill considerable “wind” should be used that the blast may carry away all really light grains. Von Berg, a Russian, showed at the World’s Fair a centri- fugal machine for grading wheat. We imitated it almost exactly by using the Strowbridge Broadcast or “Shot-gun” Seeder. Instead of attaching it to the hind end gate of a lumber wagon box, it was set up in one corner of a large room in the barn. The belt running it from a sprocket wheel on the wagon wheel was left off and in- stead a hand crank was placed on the shaft. The crank was turned and the grain was allowed to run rapidly through the adjustable opening at the bottom of the grain hopper. This w r heat, dropping on the rapidly revolving fans, was thrown across the room. That going farthest was found to be not only a few pounds heavier per bushel than that falling nearer the machine, but was practically clean of all trash and weed seeds. This machine as well as being 269 a better seed grader than a fanning mill was also a much more rapid means of cleaning and grading the seed grain. This machine is usually inferior to drills for seeding, but for preparing seed we know T of nothing equal to it. In Selecting Individual Plants to originate new varities of wheat it is to be proved whether the largest yielding plants will produce varieties which will be relatively large yielders, but by first test- ing each kind several times in variety field tests we need not dis- tribute them until we are certain of their abilities to yield large crops. The selection of plants to make new varieties did not stop with the first generation, but the plants grown from seeds of the best plants chosen the first year have been saved the second year, and the third season their crop was grown in quantities large enough to be placed in the variety field tests Likewise the ten best plants grown in the third year have been selected, the crop weighed and the best of these will be grown in quantity to put in the field test the fourth year. Along with this continuous selection to secure new varieties we are conducting experiments to aid in the study of laws relating to heredity in grains and to learn the best means to use in improv- ing cereals. We hope for rather more from a given amount of labor expended in the selection than in the crossing of varieties of grains, though the possibilities would seem rather greater from stocks 77 first broken up in their blood lines by cross breeding. Grosses of various kinds of these wheats have been made, though the number which appear to be genuine crosses is not large. These crosses are being propagated and the best resulting plants selected from which to start varieties to be tested in field trials in the same manner as those above mentioned where crosses were not thus pro- duced. These crossed wheats wall differ from the others in an es- sential particular. In those simply selected because of large yields the plants are hermaphroditically inbred for many generations, pos- sibly for many decades. In these the refreshing vigor supposed to rise from more or less “radical crossing 77 will be taken advantage of, if it is an advantage. In these crosses it is supposed that the inheritance of different blood lines wall result, as we find is the case in animal crosses, in unusual variation. It will be the province of the experiments to determine which are the valuable variations or sports, and to perpetuate them. Finding some valuable sports should not be as difficult a task as we find it to be in breeding ani- 270 mals, because here we are able to deal at little expense with many individuals. Having found a plant, or generations arising from a plant, which had as its valuable variation the quality of producing under field conditions large crops, it would seem easy to perpetu- ate the variety and its good yielding habit. There is prevalent among farmers a belief that varieties or samples of cereal grains long grown under unfavorable conditions will run out, become of poor quality and unable to yield large crops. This is a subject worthy of extended experiment. Modern theories of heredity would cause one to presume that the inherited qualities of the self -ferti- lized plants would change only mdeed very slowly. It would seem that a variety arising from a single plant and each plant propagat- ing itself by self-fertilization, would be almost as changeless as the successive trees grafted from an original apple seedling, in which case division of the original plant and not sexual generation is the mode of propagation. So far as sexual generation is concerned, the original seedling apple tree, potato vine or geranium is the only individual, and the other trees, vines or shrubs are only its branches which have taken root and produced stems. The degeneration of varieties of potatoes twenty to forty years after their introduction as seedlings suggests that the life of the potato vine, propagated annually by means of its tubers (really branches), may, in that num- ber of years, reach the period w r e call old age. It is thought by some that something may be accomplished by selection even in cut- tings, as of the apple. The possibilities of taking advantage of variations in plants originating from self -fertilized fiowers are cer- tainly greater than is the case with cuttings. And in crosses between varieties like those we have made between fife and blue stem, so different that one has a smooth chaff while the other has chaff vel- vety with hairs, we expect marked variations. The testimony of other experiments is that a few generations of crossed wheats are required before the selection will result in uniform characteristics. By dealing with the individual plants w r e can discover in a very few years those which are the larger yiolders and which “breed true to a type.” So far our cross-bred wheats have accidentally been subjected to conditions giving the plants an unequal chance, and therefore only this general discussion is here attempted. The writer is especially anxious to enter into communication with all who have had experience in methods of crossing and the careful selec- tion of cereal grains, clovers and grasses. 271 BARLEY— VARIETY TESTS. With, our lessened profits in wheat and special grain farming, more interest is centering in crops to be used as food for live stock. Barley which is not colored or slightly off odor or flavor from be- coming wet from the time it ripens till it is marketed brings a very good price per acre in the markets for malting purposes. Experiments show that a ton of barley is nearly as valuable to feed most animals as a ton of corn. Owing to its liability to fer- TABLE XC- Barley, Variety Tests, 1894. Variety. Source. Height. Botanical Notes. | Days Maturing. Yield per Acre. Grade. 1 Yield at Far- go, 1893. o CCS p-2* 03 y - Cm O ^ • £ i a © 5a o o> W" 3(2 M £ U w .2 • *3 o £ cS w a M o Manshury Fargo 24 3.0 2 85 78 1 , 060 9.2 3 Manshury Fargo 21 2.5 6 85 71 1,060 13.3 4 Salzer’s 8 argo 20 3 K 2 85 78 620 12.1 3 New Zealand Fargo 21 2 85 83 790 8.5 4 Manshnry Fargo 24 2 34 6 85 71 9 1 0 14.3 4 Champion of Veimont. Fargo 24 3.0 2 95 71 880 10.8 4 Carter’s Fargo 20 2 85 78 910 8.2 4 Imperial Fargo 27 3.0 6 85 71 970 11.0 4 Chevalier Fargo 21 3.0 2 85 78 1,200 10 4 4 Improved Black Fargo VI 2.0 6 65 71 1,400 18.7 2 Black Hulless Fargo 24 ]% 6 65 71 970 19.3 1 Excelsior South Dakota 24 2>| 6 80 71 970 15.2 3 Chevalier Brandon 21 3.0 2 85 78 1, 190 12.7 4 French Chevalier Brandon 21 3 34 2 85 78 1,260 15.4 4 Danish Brandon 21 3.0 2 85 78 1, 100 10.4 4 Petschara Brandon 27 2% 6 85 70 1,040 13.7 4 Thanet Brar don 21 3.0 2 85 78 1, . 30 11.8 4 Oderbruck Brandon 21 1% 6 85 71 850 17.7 4 Gold Thorpe Brandon 21 3.0 2 85 84 860 5 0 4 1 Odessa.' Brandon 27 6 85 71 1, 170 23.5 3 Sharp’s Improved Brandon 24 3 y 2 2 85 78 1,760 16.0 4 Golden Grains Brandon 21 3.0 2 85 78 j 1,600 14.5 4 Manshury Brandon 28 2^ 3 y o 6 8"> 71 1,560 21 .6 4 Canadian Thorpe Brandon 21 2 85 77 1 , 320 14.1 4 Manshury Brandon 28 2 <1 6 85 71 1, 700 22.9 4 Success or Beardless. .. South Dakota 21 m 6 85 71 780 19.1 3 1,016 24.58 Bernard’s Pipestone, Minn.. 24 2 34 6 85 71 1,600 20.8 4 1,242 ‘,0.73 Highland Chief. Station 21 6 65 77 1,200 12.5 4 1,305 17.77 Black Station 21 6 65 71 1, 380 21.2 2 1,507 24.16 Oderbruck Guelph .. 20 67 17.3 Mandscheuse Guelph 20 70 11.3 French Chevalier Guelph .. 20 j 78 1.8 Imp. Chyne 21 I 78 4.1 Thanet 21 i 78 6.9 Scotch Improved, Guelph 21 j 66. 17.7 Empress Guelph 22 i 78 1.8 German Golden Guelph 22 ! 80 3.0 Common Six Rowed... 19 1 67 9.2 1 ment the odor and flavor of the barley are often impaired and ani- mals do not relish such injured barley as a large part of the food ration. All things considered, barley is one of the most important 272 crops we have, feixty-nine samples, representing all the promising classes of barley, were secured from the North and South Dakota Experiment Stations, from the Dominion Experiment Farm at Brandon, Man., and from the Ontario Agricultural College, at Guelph, as shown in Table XC. We hope to find some of these kinds of barley which will be especially promising for propagating to distribute to farmers. We have placed the better kinds in our grain nursery to make improved kinds by selecting and crossing. In 1894 thirty-nine varieties of barley were sown on the Uni- versity Farm. At the University Farm the excessively wet spring made all our planting late, and the summer being very dry the crop was cut very short. Four varieties yielded over twenty bush- els per acre, viz.: Odessa, 28.5 bushels; Manshury, av. 22.2 bushels: Black, 21.2 bushels; and Bernards, 20.8 bushels. Three yielded between eighteen and twenty bushels per acre, namely : Black Hul- less, 19.3; Success, 19.1; and Improved Black, 18.7. FLAX— VARIETY TESTS. Tests of varieties of flax were commenced at the university farm and Coteau farm in 1894 with a view to discovering the best kinds to grow for seed, for seed and fibre combined, and for fibre alone. The droughty season made the trials somewhat unsatisfactory, espe- cially the test of fibre production. Foreign seed obtained originally from the United States Department of Agriculture was tried, some from various seedsmen, and some selected from good crops grown by farmers. A few of these varieties were grown in 1893 at Fargo, N. D. In Table XCI. are arranged the facts so far as we have tested the yields, the days required to mature, etc. Number 6 in Table XCI. certainly seems of enough promise as an especially good yielder of seed, and also of fibre, to justify us in propagating it and in using it for a basis in trying to make new varieties by selection and possi- bly by crossing. White blossomed Dutch flax is apparently not well adapted to use in our rather dry climate. Some years since much advice was given that we use flaxseed imported from Russia from which to grow fibres, or that which had been grown only one or two years in Western Europe, where it is the custom to get annually part of the seed from Riga and other parts of Russia. It seems quite wrong for us to depend on such a remote source for our flaxseed to grow fibre, even if Russia has a superior climate in which to produce flax seed. The figures in the accompanying ta- 273 ble indicate that the Northwest is quite as good a source of flax- seed for this country and possibly for the growers of iiax fibre in Western Europe as is Russia. W r e find no records of efforts to improve flax by crossing plants, nor even by the selection of indi- vidual plants, and we shall endeavor to not only propagate the best seed we can find but also inaugurate experiments to improve flax by careful breeding. TABLE XCI.— Flax, Variety Tests. o "o P 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Variety . Source. 1 to Days Maturing at University Farm Yield . 1 Average of Two 1 Yields. o ft tn oS 'C 05 % 00 1 Average of Three j | Yields. Grain — Coteau. Uni. Farm. 1 Height. Days Matt Coteau. Straw. Grain. Imported Belgian U. S. Dept, of Agric’l’r. 21 70 64 3.9 1. 182 6.7 5.3 Imp. White Blossom Dutch U. S . Dept, of AgricTr 19 70 64 2.6 1,324 10.2 6.4 Salzer’s Dakota Grown Fargo 19 70 64 4.4 1 , 485 6.9 5.7 14.4 8.6 Imported Riga Fargo 21 70 64 2.5 1,709 8.3 5.4 10.0 6.9 American Flax Badger State Seed Farm 21 64 1,831 10.9 Fargo Flax Fargo 18 70 64 4.8 1,812 9.1 7.0 16*1 10.6 Russian Flax 18 64 1,606 8.5 Imported Pure Riga Fargo 20 70 i 64 2.8 1,855 9.1 6.0 White Blossom Dutch Fargo 17 70 64 2.1 1,045 11.5 6.8 12.4 8.7 ♦Belgian Riga 19 64 2.6 1,555 8.5 5.6 No. 1 University Farm 17 64 1, 945 8.8 No. 2 University Farm 22 64 1,724 9.0 No. 3 Univei sir.y Farm 22 64 1,888 8.5 Belgian Flax N. B. & G. Co 18 70 I 2.4 Belgian Flax N. B. & G. Co 18 TO 2.6 ♦Grown in Flanders, 1891. PEAS, FIELD— VARIETY TESTS. During several years past we have been testing varieties of field peas and studying the best ways of planting them and have devise d a better means of harvesting the ripe peas. Table XCII. gives the yields of the varieties planted at the uni- versity farm. Owing to drought, making the crop light, and to a high wind which blew the harvested peas about, thus mixing those on adjacent plots, records of yields at the Coteau farm were not made. The small white field peas, the somewhat larger white field peas, as Prince of Wales, Blue and Green field peas, and both white and black eyed marrowfats, as offered by our seedsmen, are nearly always fair yielders. In this table are a number of the best varie- ties we used in variety tests during the past years. They are marked as coming from the university farm and Fargo, and with them are a number of varieties found best after several years’ trial at the Canadian Experiment Farm at Brandon, Man. These were kindly furnished us by Supt. S. A. Bedford. The yields in 1894 have been very low for all kinds, and are reported here to show which kinds yield best under very droughty conditions. The yields of the varieties grown by me in 1892 and 1893 are given, showing how these varieties yielded on a heavy soil in the wet season of 1893 at Fargo, N. D., and their average yields in 1892 at Power, Richland county, on sandy soil, with a fairly good supply of rain and on good soil with a fair supply of rain at Michigan City, Nelson county, N. D. While peas yield poorly at times, our experi- ments with them indicate as good average yields per acre on our wheat soils as we obtain of wheat. TABLE XCII.— Peas, Variety Tests. | University No. Variety. Source. Size of Peas. J Form of Ripe Peas. Color of Ripe Peas. | 1 >ays Maturing. | | Length of Vine. Evenness of j Ripening. Yield at Univer- sity Farm. Yield, 1893, at Fargo. Yield, 1892, Dak. 1 Av.of two Local.! 1 Mummy Brandon 70 18 90 2.7 2 Multiplier Brandon 71 20 85 3.3 3 Crown Brandon 67 20 90 4 Prussian Blue Brandon 71 19 90 4.5 5 Centennial Brandon 70 19 85 4.2 6 Pride Brandon 65 15 90 4.3 7 White Canada Field Brandon 65 25 85 2.7 8 White Eyed Marrowfat University Farm... Medium Smooth. Wh ite. 73 26 90 3.2 9 White Canada Field University Farm... Medium Smo' th. White. 68 16 90 6.5 10 Black Eyed Marrowfat University Farm... Small. Smooth. White. 7 20 85 1 9.8 11 Prince of Wales University Farm... Large. WriDk. White. 70 15 90 4.3 12 Blue Imperial University Farm... Large. Smooth. Blue. 69 20 90 6.2 13 Golden Vine Fargo. Medium Smooth. White. 71 24 75 4.2 20.9 41.2 14 Black-Eyed Marrowfat Fargo Large. Smooth. White. 70 25 75 5.2 17.3 33.6 15 Alpha Fargo Medium Smooth. Blue. 70 13 90 8.6 16 Bliss’ Evergreen Fargo Large. Wrink. Blue. 70 14 85 8.2 16.1 20.2 17 Horsford’s Market Garden. Fargo Medium Wiink. Blue. 66 13 85 5.7 12.9 30.0 18 Yorkshire Hero Fargo Large. Wrink. Whre. 71 20 85 5.3 14.3 27.7 19 Blue Prussian Fargo Medium Smooth. Blue. 73 20 85 4.3 10.9 40.1 20 Egypt an Mummy Fargo Medi* m Smooth. White. 71 20 90 7.7 11.9 34.6 21 Cr<*wn Fargo Small. Smooth. Blue 68 15 75 7.*> 13.7 41 .0 22 Golden Vine Fargo ..... Small. Smooth. V\ hite. 71 23 75 5.7 13.7 33.0 23 White Canada Field Fargo Small. Smooth. White. 67 19 90 9.2 24 Prince of Wales Fargo Large. Wrink. White. 65 18 90 9.2 16. 61 45.8 25 Pride of the Market Fargo Large. Wrink. Blue. 66 19 85 8.2 15.9 25.2 26 Green Canada Field Fargo Medium Smooth. Blue. 70 25 90 7.8 10.0 27 Blue Field Fargo Medium Smooth. Blue. 78 25 90 8 3 21.1 28 Audubon Audubon Medium Smooth. Blue. 78 24 90 7.0 29 Potter Brandon 78 23 90 6.7 30 Canadian Beauty Brandon Large. Smooth. White. 78 29 90 9.7 31 Prince Albert Brandon Medium Smooth. 1 White. 78 24 85 6 6 MILLET— VARIETY TESTS. A collection of varieties of millets was made in the spring of 1894, and plots of each were planted at the university farm and at the Coteau farm. At the university farm the drought prevented ua getting any results, the seed not even germinating. Table XCIII. shows the yields of several varieties at the Coteau farm. Under the rather droughty conditions prevailing there the past s a: on it will 275 be observed that one of the smaller varieties of millet yielded the most hay. By an unintentional planting of Dhoura with the mil- lets we were fortunate enough to give this non saccharine sorghum a trial with millets as a hay producer. It may even prove useful as an annual pasture crop, something often needed in cases where a crop of grass for pasture has failed to make a stand. California or broom corn millet yielded only about as much as the average millets. This so-called millet, however, is of great interest. It is not a true millet, but belongs to the genus panicum (Panicum milea- cerum) rather than to Setaria. The argument strongly presented against millet as a food for horses, on account of its active effect on the kidneys, will doubtless not be held against this panicum milleaceum. It bears heavily of seed, and under some conditions may prove profitable as a grain crop to raise for seed. More favora- ble seasons wall tell us more definitely of the value of these two promising new annual fodder plants. TABLE XCIII.-Millet, Variety Tests, 1894. Variety. -d U, - — D o .2 cLo 1 Hungarian Grass 2 German Millet 3 California Millet 4 German Millet 5 White French 6 Dhoura, or Large African 7 Salzer’s Dakota Grown.... 4, 820 2, 190 3,360 3, 031 3, 000 2, 580 3,490 WHEAT AND OATS MIXED, SUCCOTASH. In 1891 a study was begun of the economy of sowing wheat and oats together. Nine plots forty-five rods by less than two rods were sown to wheat, to oats, and to wheat and oats mixed iu several propor- tions on corn stubble. The grain was all cultivated in with a corn cultivator and the land made smooth by using the Scotch harrow. The conditions were good for a large crop. The land is naturally well underdrained, and having been in clover prior to raising a crop of corn, it was in good heart. In places the land was so rich that the oats lodged quite badly. The amount of lodging on each plot, as also the yield of each kind of grain and of the straw is shown below. By accident the proportions of wheat and oats in the succotash crop were not preserved. 276 TABLE XCIV— Succotash of Wheat and Cats Mixed. Plot. Amount Seed Sown. PerCent Straw Lodged. Pounds Grain per Acre. Bushels Wheat per Acre. Bushels Oats per Acre, 1 Oats, 3% bushels per acre 5 3, 109 97 2 Oats, 234 bushels, and wheat, 34 bushel per acre 3 3’ 196 3 Wheat, 134 bushels per acre None. 2,463 41.0 4 Oats, 234 bushels; wheat, % bushel per acre 15 3, 060 5 Oats, 3 bushels per acre 33 3, 001 94 6 Oats, 15 9 bushels; wheat, 7 9 bushel per acre 33 2,697 7 Wheat, 34 bushel per acre 3 2, 199 36.6 8 Oats, % bushel; wheat, % bushel per acre 2 2, 654 9 Oats, 3 bushels per acre 25 2,632 82%. Average of wheat alone 2, 331 38.8 Average of oats alone 2, 914 91 Average of succotash 2,902 As the wheat is but little more valuable for feed than oats the advantage of the mixed crop over oats in this single case is very small. Not much would be gained in this case by separating them by means of an “angle mill,” made to separate oats from wheat. METHODS OF SEEDING OATS. In 1891 ten plots, each forty-five rods long and containing nearly one-half acre were sown to oats, of the Welcome class, to test three methods of seeding. The land had been in corn the year previous, was naturally well underdrained and was in good heart. The corn stalks had all been removed, and the seed was sown with TABLE XCV.— Manner of Covering- Oats Sowed Broadcast. Plot. Manner of Seeding on Corn Stubble. Oats, per Acre, Bushels. Straw, perAcre, Pounds. 1 2 3 4 Cultivated in with norn cultivator 82 3,107 3, 490 3, 510 3,360 3, 895 3,781 3, 727 2, 936 3,575 3, 152 Harrowed in on spring plowed land 85 Plowed under four inches deep with cross plow... 82 Same as No. 1 82 5 Same as No. 2 81 6 7 Same as No. 3 • 89 Same as No. 1 92 72 8 9 Same as No. 2 Same as No. 3 ..... ... 83 10 gjjjg gg No. 1 74 Average of plots ^cultl^at^d in” 8234 79i< 3,330 3, 443 3,622 Average of plots sowed on top of spring plowing Average of plots plowed under, * 84% 277 a broadcast seeder, each plot having four seeder widths. Nos. 1^ 4, 7 and 10 were sown in the unprepared corn stubble land and were “cultivated in” with an ordinary two-horse corn cultivator, followed by the Scotch harrow. Nos. 2, 5 and 8 were first plowed and the oats sowed on the spring plowing, and “harrowed in.” On Nos. 3, 6 and 9 the oats were sown on the corn stubble and plowed under three or four inches deep with a stirring plow, the land being smoothed over with the harrow. The table gives the manner of seeding and the yield of straw and grain. The results are surprisingly uniform. The conditions were good for a large crop of oats. Doubtless had the season been unfavorable one or two of the methods would have been found best. ROLLING OATS TO PREVENT LODGING. In 1891 a field of oats, which had been seeded in a uniform manner, by sowing the seeds on corn stubble and cultivating it under with a corn cultivator and then smoothing with the drag, was TABLE XCVI.— Rolling- Oats to Prevent Lodging-. | Plot. Bushels Oats per Acre. Pounds Straw per Acre. 1 2 Rolled twelve inches high 84 2, 573 3,013 2, 706 3,147 2, 280 Not rolled 85 3 Rolled when eight inches high 76 4 Not rolled 5 Rolled when twelve inches high 6 7 Not rolled } 3* 2 , 880 Rolled when eight inches high 2,440 Average of plots not rolled 80 3, 013 2, 573 Average of plots rolled when eight inches high 69 Average of plots rolled when twelve inches high 7% 2,427 divided into seven plots each two by thirty rods. On plots 1 and 5 the oats were rolled down with a two-horse roller of medium weight when the plants stood twelve inches high. On plots 3 and 7 the oats were rolled dow T n when eight inches high. And plots 2, 4 and 6 were not rolled, but served as check or control plots to compare with those on which the roller was used, to test whether rolling would prevent lodging and cause a better yield of oats. The oats which were subjected to pressure by the roller did not ripen as soon within about two days as those undisturbed. The land was quite rich and the oats on all the plots went down in spots. 278 The oats rolled when eight inches high stood up somewhat better than those not rolled or those rolled when 12 inches high. The oats on all rolled plots were not so tall by a few inches as those not rolled and the yield of straw as well as of grain was lessened by rolling. TABLE XCVII.— Hay of Mixed Annual Crops. Oats and Peas Mixed for Hay. | No. of Plot. Grain. Purpose. Days Maturing for Hay. Weight of Hay Per Acre. 1 Oats, 80 pounds J lay 69 69 2,130 2,270 1,890 1,960 1,470 1,480 2 Oats, 64 pounds Hay 3 Oats, 56 pounds; peas, 30 pounds 69 4 Oats, 50 pounds; peas, 30 pounds 69 5 Peas, 180 pounds 69 6 Peas, 120 pounds 69 Flax and Millet Mixed for Hay. | No. of Plot. Grains Sown. Days Maturing ! for Hay. Yield Hay per Acre. 1 Flax, 25 pounds; millet, 25 pounds 42 440 2 Flax, 18 pounds; millet, 25 pounds 42 370 3 Flax, 25 pounds; millet, 15 pounds 42 430 Peas and Flax for Hay. No. of Plot. Grain per Acre. Days Maturing for Hay. Yield of Hay 1 per Acre. 1 Peas, U bushels; flax, 1 peck 57 760 2 Peas, 2 bushels; flix, 1 peck 57 820 3 Peas, 1J bushels; flax, 1 peck 52 790 4 Peas, 2 bushels; flax, 1 peck 52 600 5 Peas, H bushels; flax, 1 peck 48 340 6 Peas, 2 bushels; flax, 1 peck 48 740 279 HAY PRODUCTION BY SEEDING ANNUAL CROPS. In 1894 millet, oats, peas and flax were each sown alone, and they were also mixed in various combinations and in different pro- portions to find how best to make crops of hay by the use of an- nual forage crops. The land chosen at the university farm is grav- elly and with the severe drought no crop resulted. At the Coteau farm, however, some of the plots did fairly well, though drought there also did considerable injury. The oats, and the oats and peas in combination, produced most, while the other crops pro- duced very poorly. Certainly for very droughty conditions none of these crops promise large yields of hay. We have started experi- ments also in the growing of pasturage, as well as soilage crops for midsummer feeding by the use of annual forage crops. GRAIN SEEDING IMPLEMENT TESTS-TIME OF PLANTING. WHEAT. In the spring of 1894 on the university farm seven plots were sown to wheat and a like number to oats, two with shoe drill, two with chain drill, two with hoe drill, two with broadcast seeder and one with press drill. One of each of the pairs was sown medium early, on April 23d, and one on May 4th, rather late in the season. Early seeding of still other plots with each machine was prevented by constant light showers which kept the land muddy. The soil was a rich clay loam, fall plowed and in good condition. In the early seeding of wheat there was little difference, the several ma- chines ranking in the following order: hoe drill, press drill, Dow- agiac shoe chain drill and broadcast seeder. The extremely dry season caused a very short yield of grain. In the later planting the press drill, unfortunately, was not used. The chain drill plot yielded 8.1 bushels, the hoe drill plot yielded 7.2 bushels, and the broadcast seeder plot gave a yield of only 5.5 bushels per acre. In straw, the yields in the early planted plots were equally large where the press and hoe drills were used, and six per cent less where the wheat was seeded with the chain shoe drill and the broadcast machine. In the later planting, the hoe drill gave the largest yield of straw and the broadcast seeding the smallest amount of straw per acre. OATS. In the earlier seeding to oats there was the largest yield on the plots sown with the hoe drill, the shoe chain drill stood next, the broadcast seeder next and the press drill last. In the later 280 seeding the hoe drill is again decidedly in the lead, the shoe drill next and the broadcast decidedly the lowest in yield. In the yields of straw the implements rank, for the earlier planting, as follows: hoe drill, press drill, shoe chain drill and broadcast seeder; and for the late planting thus: hoe drill, shoe chain drill, and broadcast seeder. In Table XCYIII. are collected the results of an experiment in 1893 and a similar trial in 1894. TABLE XCVIII.— Wheat Implements for Sowing-, Time of Sowing-. No. of Plot. 1 1 Implement. Date Sown. Amount seed per Acre. Days Maturing. Per cent Stand. Yield per Acre. j Average of Each Machine for Both Dates. Yield, 1893. Average for two years. Pounds Straw. Bushels Grain. Pounds Straw. Bushels Grain. Pounds Straw. Bushels Grain. Pounds Straw. Bushels Grain. 1 Havana drill Apr. 23... 1.5 85 85 1,780 10.3 1,780 10.3 3 Dowagiac shoe-chain drill.. Apr. 23... 1.1 86 75 1,692 10.21 9.1 4 Dowagiac shoe-chain drill.. May 4.... 1.5 81 82 1,262 8.1/ 1, 477 5 Hoe drill Apr. 23... 1.4 86 80 1,781 10.7) 6 Hoe drill May 4.... 1.3 81 82 1,364 7.2/ 1, 572 8.9 1,362 13.35 1,467 11.12 7 Broadcast seeder Apr. 23... 1.7 86 78 1,700 10.0 ( 8 Broadcast seeder May 4.... 1.3 81 75 932 5.5 \ 1, 316 7.7 1, 575 15.56 1, 445 11.63 Average of all machines ) Apr. 23... 86 1,738 10.3 for each date ) May 4.... 82 1,090 6.2 Oats.— Implements for Sowing— Time of Sowing. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Havana drill Apr.23... 2.2 86 90 1,634 North Star seeder.. May 4.... 1.6 82 82 1,103 Dowagiac shoe-chain drill.. Apr.23... 2.5 86 88 1,631 Dowagiac shoe-chain drill.. May 4.... 2.3 82 80 1,277 Hoe drill Apr.23... 2.0 86 85 1,795 Hoe drill May 4.... 1.6 81 82 1,330 Broadcast seeder Apr.23... 2.4 86 82 1,361 Broadcast seeder May 4.... 1.4 82 78 1,090 Average of all machines ) Apr.23... 86 1,605 for each date j May 4.... 81 1,200 29.1 1, b34 29.1 26.7 32.8) 29.8/ 1,103 1,454 26.7 31.3 3, 278 61.03 2,190 43.86 34.5 1 39.7 f 1,562 37.1 3,085 57.46 2,323 47.28 32.2) 23.7/ 32.1 1,225 27.9 3, 221 61.25 2, 223 44.57 30.0 During the past several years a number of experiments have been conducted in Minnesota and by other experiment stations in the Northwest, under conditions more or less droughty, to test the different ways and machines for sowing spring grains. An im- mense amount of experimenting, some of it very costly, has also been done by the farmers and by manufacturers of wheat seeding machinery. The broadcast seeder was largely supplanted a decade or more ago by the hoe drill, and now shoe drills have nearly sup- planted the hoe drills in the Northwest. Broadcast seeders of several patterns are still in use by some and on heavy moist soils, and especially for very early sown they are very useful. The labor of seeding is least when the broadcast machine is used. On soils like much of that in the Bed River Val- ley no harm seems to come from “mudding” in the grain, as there 281 the puddled soil when dry “slacks” into dust as would chunks of quick lime. By using the broadcast machine earlier than it is pos- sible to use the drill because of rains and muddy soils early in spring, Red River Valley farmers sometimes get their crops planted early and have a better crop than if they wait until the soil is dry enough to use the drill. Where the soil has not that peculiar prop- erty of again breaking up into fine particles when dried after pud- dling, this use of the broadcast seeder followed by the drag is not advisable. Broadcasting seems to be as good a plan of seeding as any when there is an abundance of moisture in the surface of the soil. When the soil is rather dry the drill is better than the broad- cast seeder. The class of drills known as hoe drills, which have shovels attached to the bottom of a tube through which the seeds fall into the furrow just behind the point of the small shovel are excellent for some conditions. In seeding among corn stalks they work better than “shoe” drills, as the shoes or runners cannot cut through the tough stalks. Where th€ stubble land is fall plowed, so that the stubble of corn or small grain is turned under, the shoe drill is preferable. These drills are provided with shoes or runners fashioned like those used on two-horse corn planters and are of various sizes. The four-horse machine has sixteen and twenty-two shoes six to nine inches apart. There are two general classes of shoe drills, those with a press wheel following each shoe and those without. A chain is hung so as to drag after the shoe on some of the best drills which have no press wheel. Several kinds of these press shoe and chain drills are proving very useful. The form of shoe found best is what is known as the V shaped shoe. The shoes which have a broad base and opening dropping the seeds in the bottom of the furrow nearly an inch wide are found to work badly in muddy soil. By so shaping the heel of the shoe that the bottom of the furrow is V shaped the shoe does not clog up with soft mud. In heavy lands the farmers will find the chain shoe drill most satisfactory, while on droughty lands, espe- cially in the southwestern part of the state, where the rainfall is least, the press shoe drill is best. Grass seeding attachments can be procured with nearly or quite all grain drills. OATS— THICKNESS OF SEEDING— TIME OF SOWING. In 1894 twelve plots of oats were sowed to determine the amount of seed that should be used per acrv? and the best time of seeding, with a view to getting results through a number of years on these 282 two practical questions. Table XCIX. shows that two and one- fourth bushels of seed per acre resulted in the largest yield of grain and two and three-fourths bushels of seed gave the largest yield of straw. The average yield of the six plots sowed April 25th was a bushel more per acre than on the six plots sowed twelve days later. The yield of straw was also larger with the earlier seeding. The oats sowed April 25th ripened five or six days earlier than those which had been sowed twelve days later. TABLE XCIX.— Oats, Amount Seed per Acre and Time of Sowing*. , No. of Plot. Date Sown. Amount Seed per Acre. Days Matur- ing. Yield per Acre. Average. Straw. Grain. Straw. Grain. 1 April 25 bushels.. 89 1,320 32.21 31.7 2 May 7 1 1Z bushels... 80 1,2 C 0 31.2 1 1,260 3 April 25 I 3 /? bushels . _ 86 1, 180 33.4 [ 35.4 4 May 7 l 3 /j bushels 80 1,350 37.5 ) 1, 265 5 April 25 2 bushels 86 1,605 46.81 1,452 39.8 6 May 7 2 bushels 80 1,300 32.8 } 7 April 25 ,. 2% bushels 86 1,600 43.4 1 1,427 44.2 8 May 7 2% bushels 80 1,255 45.1 } 9 April 25 2^ bushels 86 1,555 40.51 1,519 41.1 10 May 7 2-% bushels 80 1,480 41.8 J 11 April 25 2% bushels 86 1,720 40.01 1,545 40.7 12 May 7 2% bushels 80 1,370 41.5/ a . ,, f April 25...**^^. 86% 1,496 39.4 Average yield j ? 80 1,326 38.3 WHEAT, OATS, BARLEY AND FLAX— TIME AND DEPTH OF PLANTING. An experiment was started in 1894 to determine the depth at which wheat, oats, barley and flax should be planted and the time at which the planting should be done. One plot was sown early and another later at each of the following named depths: Three- fourths, one and one-half, two and one-half and three and one-half inches. In Table C. are collected the facts as to depth and time of seed- ing and the yields. All were on rich open clay soil, fall plowed and fairly compact, but in fine tilth. To get at general laws for our state, and for its different soils and climatic conditions, these trials need repeating at other times here and at other places. Many light rains in early spring caused all our planting to be rather late. The drought made all yields very small. The wheat planted three and one-half inches deep yielded best in grain, while that planted three-fourths inch deep yielded much the larger amount of straw. 2«3 The yield of wheat was larger with the greater depths, while in case of the straw directly the opposite is true. The four plots of wheat sown April 27th yielded four and one-half bushels more grain and 650 pounds, or one-half more, straw per acre than did the four plots sown ten days later. "Wheat planted May 7th ripened two days later than that which had been planted ten days earlier. The oats planted one and one-half to two and one-half inches deep yielded the best in grain. Those planted one and one-half inches deep yielded the most straw and those planted only three- fourths inch deep gave the next best yield, while that planted TABLE C.— Grains, Time of Planting 1 , Depth of Planting. | No. of Plot. 1 1 Kinds of Grain. Date Sown. Depth Sow’n. ! C 1 £ a s SQ >» ce | Per Cent. Stand 1 1 Yield per acre. Av. Yield per Acre. Straw. j Grain. Straw. Grain. 1 April 27 inch 88 80 ! 3, 155 20.8 ) 9 May 7 ^4 inch 81 80 ! ), 260 20.0 / 2, 207 20.4 3 April 27 134 inches 88 82 : 1,700 21.9 ) 4 Wheat May 7 134 inches . 81 82 ; 1,180 19.4 \ 1,440 20.6 5 Wheat. ... April 27 234 inches .! 89 80 1,460 23.1 1 6 Whp.at May 7 234 inches 1 81 80 1,070 19.7 \ 1,265 21.4 7 Wheat April 27.. 3% inches , 93 78 i 1,130 30.3 > 8 Wheat May 7 3% inches 81 80 1,270 19.7 1,200 25.0 April 27 89 1 841 24.1 Average yield < May 7 j 81 l) 187 19 !7 9 (. Oats April 27 54 inch ' 87 80 2,010 43.4 ) 10 Oats May 7 % inch ' 81 80 1, 510 32.8 1,775 38.1 11 Oats April 27 inches 87 ' 82 2,790 44.1 J 12 Oats May 7.. 134 inches 81 1 82 i j 1,640 36.2 f 2, 215 40.1 13 Oats April 27 23| inches 87 ! 82 | 1,700 46.8 / 14 Oats May 7 234 inches 81 I I 82 1,640 33.1 \ 1, 670 39.9 15 Oats April 27 334 inches.. ' 87 82 1 1,640 42.5' ) 16 Oats May 7 334 inches 81 80 1,540 33.1 \ 1,590 37.8 Average yield { April 27 87 2, 045 44.2 May 7 ! 81 l) 590 33.8 17 \ Barley April 27 54 inch - 80 85 2, 120 24.5' ) 18 Barley May 7 54 inch 82 1, 340 22.1 \ 1,730 23.3 19 Barley April 27 134 inches 1 80 88 1,080 23.3 s 20 Bariev May 7 inches 7 1 80 1, 740 26.3 j \ 1,410 24.8 21 Barley April 27 2t£ inches 80 85 1,500 22.9 l 1 22 Barley May 7 234 inches.. 1 71 75 1, 400 27.1 } 1, 450 25.0 23 Barley. April 27 334 inches 80 85 1,770 31.9 I 24 Bariev May 7 '334 inches 71 75 1,340 26.3 r 1, 555 29.1 Average yield j April 27 1 80 1,670 25.7 May 7 71 1, 455 25.4 25 Flax April 27 3 A inch 88 85 1,600 10.7 1 1 26 Flax May 7 54 inch 78 80 970 7.6 1 f 1,285 9.1 27 Flax April 27 1 inches.. . ' 88 85 1,380 11.1 1 28 Flax May 7 l 1 /^ inches 78 80 870 7.6 J r 1, 125 9.3 29 Flax April 27 inchps.. . . 88 85 ’ 1,250 9.8] 30 Flax May 7 2t£ inchps 78 75 j 960 7.8 J r 1, 115 8.8 31 Flax April 27 3/4 inches 88 80 1,270 9.61 1,185 32 FJax May 7 3V*. inches 78 75 1 1,100 7.1 J r 8.3 Average yield j April 27 88 1,375 10.3 May 7... 78 975 7.5 284 three and one-half inches deep yielded least of both grain and straw. The average of the four plots planted April 27th is 44.2 bushels per acre, while the average of the corresponding four plots planted ten days later is 10.4 bushels less. The straw on the earlier planted plots is nearly one-third more per acre than on the plots planted later. Oats planted May 7th ripened four days later than that which had been planted ten days earlier. The barley planted three and one-half inches deep gave decidedly the best yield of grain, while that planted shallower gave the larg- est crop of straw. The yield of grain was practically the same on the plots planted May 7th as on those planted ten days earlier, but the early planted plots yielded the most straw. Barley planted May 7th ripened only one day earlier than that which had been planted ten days earlier. The flax yielded best in grain and straw where planted shallow. The flax planted April 27th yielded decidedly better both in grain and in straw than that planted ten days later. Flax planted May 7th ripened on the same day as that which had been planted ten days earlier. Earlier planting produced better yields than later in fourteen out of sixteen pairs of plots compared, the two exceptions being two of the four pairs of barley plots. FIELD MANAGEMENT AND ROTATION OF CROPS. In our older counties the pioneer lack of system in field manage- ment has been replaced. Instead of the constant cropping to wheat, found to no longer pay, farmers now grow a variety of crops. But there is a great lack of definite knowledge of the relative net profits from each crop, counting labor and land at cost. We know little of the relative net profits from any rotation of crops. We have no definite knowledge of the condition in which one crop leaves the land for each other crop. And other questions of vital importance in getting profits out of our fields have not as yet been worked out by careful experiments. A study of field management, to have much value, must be done in a comprehensive manner. The various staple crops must be grown in numerous combinations. A few years will not suffice, but each cycle of all rotations used in the experiment should be repeated a few times. Since the state is composed of sections widely differing as to soil and climate, the management of fields must differ in the several parts. Some of the simpler standard rotations should be tried in the several sec- tions of the state, and others adapted to the peculiar conditions of 285 the respective localities should also be carried out in comparison. This way of studying the questions of how to manage fields is be- ing recognized in other states. We are not necessarily interested in how much a field will produce of any crop, but how much of net profit there is for the owner. The same is true of a rotation run- ning through a series of years. We want that combination of crops in the rotation with which the farmer can make the most money and leave his land in good condition. There are many other prob- lems in field management aside fr< m the question of what crops shall enter the rotation. We want to know how deep to plow in the fall and in spring on each kind of soil for each crop. And we want spring and fall plowing compared. How to treat the furrow slice that it will reconnect its capillary forces with the subsoil is of importance. And how to manage the upper few inches of the furrow slice that it will act as a mulch to conserve the moisture in the soil is a problem of much int< rest. The relative merits of the different ways of seeding grains need to be tested. The best time for seeding each kind of grain and the depth at which the seed should be placed are not clearly known for each condition of soil and climate. The economy or loss in burning stubble of small grains has not been made clear by scientific demonstration. We are comparatively ignorant as to when and how to use the harrow on newly planted small grains. And the experiments along the line of intercultural, or summer tillage have by no means exhausted that subject. New ways of using old crops and the introduction of new crops, as yet but little tried, offer a large field for study and practical trial. Methods of harvesting and curing crops and their preservation forms a most important part in careful field management. The policy of turning the larger part of field crops into live stock products and returning the carefully husbanded manure to the soil which bore the crop has a vital relation to mak- ing the field management continuously successful. The crops to which it is best to apply manure, the manner of preparing and ap- plying it and the amount per acre to use are more questions re- garding which our farmers are not fully informed. Ere many years land plaster will have been found useful on some of our soils for certain crops, and we will see the w isdom of purchasing the slaugh- ter house fertilizers, now shipped out of our state to enrich other commonwealths. Experiments on the value of manure and how to make profits by using it will cjuse our farmers and gardeners to place a higher value on the great amounts of fertility now being 286 wasted in our barnyard manure heaps and in heaps of manure thrown out of our cities and towns. Only by careful experiments can we learn which crops are best to grow for green manure, and we require actual figures to emphasize the value of these crops. The management of fields, so as to destroy and keep in subjection weeds, is a phase of the problem worthy of much study. How to make the field conditions unsuited to injurious insects, and even to lessen the injury from plant diseases, bring® up questions of vital importance. Only a part that we should know regarding grasses and clovers for pastures and meadows and annual plants for forage crops has been learned from the practical experience of farmers or by experimenters. Practical experience regarding these crops is dearly bought, and the experimenter finds that gathering practical facts goes slow and at the expense of a large amount of experimenting. Some of these questions require -only a few experiments running through a few years. Others require not only many trials but that the experiments shall be carried on for a long time and under varied conditions. To settle most of the que stions mentioned above would give us data with which to begin the creation of farm book-keep- ing, or a system of accounts adapted to our keeping track of farm business. Cpmparatively few of these questions can be taken up in the near future, as a few things well done have far more value than many things only poorly started. ROTATION OF CROPS. The divisions of Agriculture and Agricultural Chemistry have undertaken the joint study of rotations of crops. In the spring of 1894 forty-four plots each two by eight rods, one-tenth acre, were laid off on fairly uniform land on the northeast corner of the university farm. The land is a medium heavy clay loam or slightly modified till soil of good fertility, naturally well underdrained and able to retain a large amount of capillary mois- ture through periods of severe drought. The plots are in four se- ries running east and west and containing eleven plots each, these running north and south. Between each series the ends of the plots are separated by alleys a rod wide, and between each pair of plots are alleys twelve feet wide, an alley two feet wide separat- ing the two plots of the pair. This separates the plots and enables the teamster to reach all plots in using any machine without un- necessary tramping. The land on which these plots were laid out had grown barley in 1893, oats in 1892 and had been in clover and timothy meadow Series. II 1894 Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Corn Barley Barley Millet Wheat Corn Potatoes Mangles Peas « Wheat 1895. Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Rotation foe Each P lot . Wheat Peas b Oats Oats Barley Wheat Corn Potatoes Mangles Peas Wheat ♦Tim. a ~ — Bro 21 1 7r - mead ™ 2. oats 1 , (ma^T^ rbeatl.bromusl or more, oats,, corn ^ P#r acre > 1« C^heatl, timothy 2 , oats 1, co ra Io . *Clo./ heat3 ' C,OTerlor 2.oats 1>C or nl(I . *Clo.af * i ‘ 6atl ’ meadoff2 > millet, a . *Clo. aT tr01 Pl0t ’ 8ame as N ». I. Series I. *Clo. £ *' me adow 2, oats 1, mangles I a. *Clo.f eatl ’ meado,r2 - oats 1, rape I a. *do. r atl ' mead0 ^ 2, oats l, potatoes, e *Clo. f 63 ' *’ “ ead0w 2 - oats l, sunflower 1 „ — Dtr01 P ' 0t> Same 38 No. 1 , Series I. *Clo. B Ti Til ♦Clo * Timothy 8 lbs., red clover 6 lbs. a peas thickly in drills 30 inches apart. t n * r °l Plot, same as No. J, Series X. r “ ! > P* a8 l. barley l, clover ,. le y °ats 1, timothy 2. l e y 1, oats 1 , timothy 2 y. let 1, barley,, corn l, oa ts j. trol plot, same as No. 1, Series I. , ( ain hills continuously. [ lt °es continuously. * Ies continuously. .field, in drills, continuously. r ol Plot, same as No. ,, series I. •TABLE Cl.— Statement Showing Experiments in Rotation of Crops. a GO Plot. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. Rotation fob Each Plot. I 1 Wheat Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1 yr., meadow 2, oats 1, (manure 8 tons per acre) corn la. 2 Wheat Wheat Bromus Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, bromus 1 or more, oats 1, corn 1 a. 3 Wheat Wheat Timothy Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, timothy 2, oats 1, corn 1 a. 4 Wheat Wheat Clover. Oats Corn a Wheat Clover Oats Corn a Wheat 1, clover 1 or 2, oats 1, corn 1 a. 5 Wheat Wheat *Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Millet a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, meadow 2, oats 1, millet 1 a. 6 Wheat Wheat *Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, Series I. 7 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Mangles Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, meadow 2, oats 1, mangles 1 a. 8 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Rape a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, meadow 2, oats 1, rape 1 a. 9 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Potatoes a Wheat Moadow Meadow Wheat 1, meadow 2, oats 1, potatoes 1 a. 10 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Sunflower a Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, meadow 2, oats 1, sunflower 1 a 11 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, Series I. ii ' 1 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, Series I. 2 Corn Peas b Barley Clover Corn Peas 6 Barley Clover Corn. Corn 1, peas 1, barley 1, clover 1. 3 Barley Oats Timothy Meadow Barley Oats Timothy Timothy Barley Barley 1, oats 1, timothy 2. 4 Barley Oats Timothy y Timothy Barley Oats Timothy'y Timothy Barley Barley 1, oats 1, timothy 2 y. 5 Millet Barley Corn Oats Millet Barley Corn Oats Millet Millet 1, barley 1, corn 1, oats 1. 6 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Clo. and Tim. Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, Series I. 7 Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn Corn in hills continuously. 8 Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes Potatoes continuously. 9 Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles Mangles continuously. 10 Pease Peas Peas Peas Peas Peas Peas Peas Peas Peas, field, in drills, continuously. 11 Wheat Wheat ♦Clo. and Tim. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, Series I. * Timothy 8 lbs., red clover 6 lbs. a Eight tons stable manure per acre, b Sow broadcast, c Top dress with eight loads stable manure after cutting first crop of bay. d Dent corn, hills in ordinary way. e Plant field peas thickly in drills 30 inches apart, y Top dress timothy after mowing first hay crop. TABLE Cl. Continued. OS H QQ Plot. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 1901. 1902. Rotation for Each Plot. in 1 Wheat Wheat *Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. 2 Wheat / Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat continuously, fall; plow early. 3 Wheat g Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat Wheat continuously; sow 6 lbs. red clover with wheat. 4 Wheat Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat 1, clover 1; plow under second crop. 5 Wheat Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat Clover Wheat 1, clover 1; save second crop clover for seed or hay. 6 Wheat Wheat *Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. 7 Wheat Wheat Pasture/ Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture Wheat 1, permanent pasture/. 8 Wheat Wheat Meadow x Meadow Meadow Meadow Meadow Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, permanent meadow, x 9 Millet | Millet Clover k Millet Clover Millet Clover Millet Clover Millet hay 1, clover 1, plow under second crop. 10 Rape Rape l Rape Rape Rape Rape Rape Rape Rape Rape continuously, drill, pasture off. 11 Wheat Wheat *Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. IV 1 Wheat Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. 2 Wheat Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Green Manure Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, green manure 1 m. 3 Flax Flax ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Flax Meadow Meadow Flax 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, corn 1 a. 4 Barley Barley Meadow n Pasture Pasture Corn a Pea Hay Barley Meadow Barley 1, meadow 1 n, pasture 2, corn 1, field pea hay 1. 5 Corn Soilage 1 Rye and Rape Barley Pasture n Pasture Pasture Corn Soilage Rye and Rape Barley Corn 1 o, rye and rape 1, barley 1; pasture 1 n. 6 Wheat Wheat *Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. 7 Corn Soilage Rye Pasture n Pasture Pasture Barley Peas Corn Soilage. Rye Corn 1 a, rye 1, pasture 3 n, barley 1, peas 1. 8 Barley Barley Pasture n Pasture Pasture Corn a Barley Pasture Pasture Barley 1, pasture 3 n, corn 1 a. 9 Wheat Wheat *Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn o Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, (tankage) corn. 10 Wheat Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Wheat Meadow Meadow Wheat Meadow Wheat 1, *meadow 2. 11 Wheat Wheat ♦Tim. and Clo. Meadow Oats Corn a Wheat Meadow Meadow Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. /Fall plow early, g Fall plow early and seed in spring with the wheat 6 lbs. red clover per acre, h Plow under second crop, letting it seed first, if possible, i Save second crop for seed or hay. / Red clover, 3 lbs.; timothy 4 lbs.; red top, 1 lb.; Kentucky blue grass, 7 lbs.; orchard grass, 3 lbs.; brome grass, 2 lbs.; alsike clover, ] lb.; white clover, 1 lb. k Plow under second crop late iu fall. I Plant in drills and weigh green crop; get at value by pasturing off like areas, m Plow under crop of mixed oats and millet early in summer, and late in fall a crop of rape, n Seed to timothy, 8 lbs.; red clover, 4 lbs.; alsike clover, 1 lb. o Tankage to equal the commercial fertilizer” valuation of stubble manure used on check plots, x Red clover, 4 lbs.; alsike clover, 1 lb.; timothy, 4 lbs.; orchard grass, 7 lbs.; brome grass, 3 lbs. Series. atinued. Rotation for Each Plot. Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. Wheat continuously, fall; plow early. Wheat continuously; sow 6 lbs. red clover with wheat. Wheat 1, clover l;plow under second crop. Wheat 1, clover 1; save second crop clover for seed or hay. Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. Wheat 1, permanent pasture^'. Wheat 1, permanent meadow, x Millet hay 1, clover 1, plow under second crop. Rape continuously, drill, pasture off. Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. Control plot, same as No. 1. series I. Wheat 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, green manure 1 to. Flax 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, corn 1 a. Barley 1, meadow 1 n, pasture 2, corn 1, field pea hay 1. Corn 1 a, rye and rape 1 , barley 1 , pasture 1 n. Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. Corn 1 a, rye 1, pasture 3 n t barley 1, peas 1. Barley 1, pasture 3 n t corn 1 a. Wheat 1, *meadow 2, oats 1, (tankage) corn. Wheat 1, *meadow 2. Control plot, same as No. 1, series I. nfill 1 Vptow undeVseoomUroVlate Tftmt“ e d°'n h * 7, J Eed c,0Ter . 3 lbs.; 287 during a number of years. The land is not thought to be as uni- form in quality as is desirable. Plots 1, 2, 3 and 4, series 2, and plot 4, series 3, are in a slight depression which we suppose gives them the advantage of more moisture in dry seasons and somewhat richer soil. Below is given a general statement of the plan of work. Plots 1, 6 and 11 of each series are designated as control or check plots, thus giving twelve plots all seeded to the same practical rotation. These are in three rows one extending along the east and one along the west of all the series and one through the middles, all running north and south. This plan distributs the control plots in such manner that the yields or profits on any plot can be com- pared with the average from all twelve control plots or with the averages from the several control plots immediately surrounding it On the twelve control plots the following plan of rotation has been instituted: Wheat is sown the first year, and with this crop the land is seeded down by sowing with the spring wheat six pounds red clover and eight pounds timothy seed. The second and third years meadow is grown and the fourth year oats. The fifth and last year of the rotation corn is planted, and the land previous to fall plowing the oats stubble under for the corn is given eight tons of barnyard manure per acre. Follow ing the corn the wheat again begins the rotation of these same crops. These twelve control plots all being each year seeded to the same crop will give not only the average figures with which to compare the results of the dif- ferent rotations, but will give also the range of variations due to the location of the plots in the field. These variations may prove very useful when summarizing the results of the experiments, and may show how great yields and profits must differ to show a decided superiority of one crop of one rotation over another. Table 01. gives, in tabular form, the proposed rotation on each of the forty-four plots. The notes below the table give facts re- garding grass mixtures, manuring and other special features of treatment. These rotations cannot be adhered to perfectly in this climate because of the occasional periods of drought which destroys the young plants of grass and occasionally of annual crops. The rotations are, as a rule, on a somewhat shorter plan than is gen- erally practiced, possibly shorter than is wise. Just as in practical farming, however, they will be lengthened by the rather frequent failures to get catches of grasses and clovers, necessitating reseed- ing. Last year the very severe drought necessitates our again seeding many plots to annual crops w 7 ith which to again seed down 288 to grasses and clovers. The effort has been made to try rotations suited to many specific purposes. And each rotation represents only one or a very few questions. It is found best to try only one experiment at a time and we have tried to avoid making the rota- tions so that each would endeavor to tell many things poorly, but one or a very few things well. These plans of rotations will doubt- less be found very crude later on. Each series is so situated in the field that if desired other plots with more rotations may be added, and suggestions as to specific rotations for special purposes will be most thankfully received. In another field seventy-two plots of three-twentieths acre each were planted to the following six crops, corn, wheat, flax, potatoes, mangels and field peas, twelve plots in duplicate of each. These crops extended in long belts across the field. Next year these same crops will be planted in long belts across the field at right angles to the direction of the belts last year. The yield was determined on each plot last year, and the yields will again be determined on each next year. This provides that each kind of crop will follow its own kind and each of the five other kinds of crops. Having the yields of each plot each year wiil give us facts as to the relative preparing effects each crop has for each other crop. In other words, it will show how each crop does when following each other crop. The rotations outlined in Table Cl each represent some particular feature or features in rotation of crops. Number 1, series I and other control plots are planted to a very practical rotation. Farmers will find numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 in series I adapted to their varied uses, as also 2, 3, 4 and 5, series II, as also 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10, series IY. Some other of the rotations will suit certain peculiar con- ditions, but most of them are here being tried to show what are not good systems of rotation. To further get data for use in determining the relative profits from different crops and different rotations, the experiment station has started the collection of statistics as to prices of all feed stuffs and of meats and other finished products as sold off the farm and of the prices of farm labor. The State Bureau of Labor and Statis- tics is gathering many facts most useful in this connection. While results along the lines of experiments in field management will come slow, they should be of great value when finished. Clear knowledge on the part of our farmers during the early history of our state will result in a richer soil for coming generations to inherit. 289 SMUT IN WHEAT. Wheat “bunt” or “stinking smut in wheat” has done great dam- age to the yields and quality of the wheat crop in the Northwest dur- ing the past year. Hon. A. C. Clausen, chief grain inspector of Min- nesota, estimates that one-fourth of the wheat crop of 1894 sent to the general markets from the three states tributary to Minnesota’s termi- nal markets was more or less affected by stinking smut. The trouble appeared mainly in the northern parts of these states. A year ago this station published a bulletin calling attention to smut in wheat, and prescribed a remedy. Farmers had not awak- ened to the importance of remedial measures, but the indications now are that all are anxious to know the best means by which they can avoid loss from smutted grain. Millers and grain dealers are thoroughly aroused to the importance of preventing smut from injur- ing the yields, and especially the quality of our wheat and flour and the reputation of these commodities in domestic and foreign markets. Treating wheat with blue stone or with hot water costs only a small proportion of the value lost in growing smutty crops, and these remedies are very effective. All seed wheat can be treated at a cost of one to three cents per acre. Blue stone of good quality may be purchased by grocers or druggists so that they can retail it to farmers at about ten to fifteen cents per pound. In Manitoba stinking smut was very prevalent a few years since; now very little of it can be found, as the farmers use large quantities of blue stone. At Brandon, Manitoba, alone, a town of a few thousand inhabitants, two or three carloads have been purchased for the year’s demand. Bunt or stinking smut of wheat is a disease caused by small spores. These are very small, seed-like, spherical bodies which are produced in the diseased kernels of wheat. These kernels are broken in threshing and handling the grain and the minute spores scattered about cling to the grains of wheat. When the seeds are planted the spores germinate much like small seeds, and some of them lying on 290 the kernel against the sprouting plantlet send their thread-like stems into the wheat plant. Here the disease thrives, branches, grows up- ward as the wheat grows, and when the wheat forms its seed some of the branches of the smut will have found their way into the kernels of wheat. Here it develops its seed like spores, and when the grain is ripe the diseased kernel of wheat is a mass of smut spores inclosed in the slightly enlarged wheat bran. These spores or germs live until the next year. If chance favors them they germinate on another young and tender wheat plant. These smut spores are very small and we cannot dislodge all of them from the seed grains by thoroughly cleaning the wheat. Some method of destroying them by heat or by the use of fungicides is necessary. During the past year we made experiments in the laboratory and in the field with fungicides and with heating the kernels both in hot water and in hot air. A thor- ough review has been made of the reports of experiments conducted at experiment stations in this country and in Canada and a number of reports have been received from farmers who have tried the remedy we advised a year ago and also other remedies. The blue stoning remedies and the hot- water treatment contain the essential principles used by all those who have successfully treated wheat for smut. So as we have learned, no one questions the effectiveness of the reme- dies or the profit of treating seed wheat. The blue stone sprink- ling method is the handiest and cheapest of all and is nearly as good as any. The blue stone dipping method is an old and tried remedy, kills the smut and is only slightly more expensive than the sprinkling method. Blue stone has a slightly injurious effect in retarding the germination of the grain, and the dipping method, as ordinarily carried out by farmers, has a worse effect than the sprinkling method. The hot water treatment is the best in effect on the quality of the seeds and crop, and it destroys the smut, but under ordinary farm condi- tions it is somewhat difficult to carry out, as the wheat must be care- fully dried, a rather difficult task in our cold spring weather. Statements of all three methods are given below and farmers are urged to use that one which seems to them best suited to their condi- tions. It will pay every farmer to treat his wheat if there is any smut in the neighborhood. If everyone would treat his wheat, smut would probably disappear. But as long as there is any in the neighborhood the threshing machine will carry enough to each farmer to make treating the seed an annual necessity. THE BLUE STONE SPRINKLING METHOD. The blue-stone sprinkling method is the simplest and cheapest remedy we have tried. It is very effective and only slightly harmful to the seeds of wheat. Our own experience the past season, the ex- 291 perience of numerous farmers who have reported successful trials of this plan, and especially the strong words of commendation from Messrs. McKay and Bedford, superintendents of the Manitoba and Assinaboia Experiment farms, and from the farmers of those prov- inces where this plan has been generally adopted, all give us faith to recommend this method. Remedy . — Dissolve one pound of blue stone (copper sulphate) in three gallons of water. Spread out ten bushels of wheat on a tight floor in barn or house or in a tight wagon-box and sprinkle on the solution. With scoop shovel turn the grain several times during the sprinkling till every kernel is thoroughly wetted. The solution needs to penetrate even the hairs of the blossom end of each kernel and to penetrate the crease in the grain. In case of badly infested seed wheat it should be first thoroughly cleaned, using a strong blast to remove all grains of bunt and the three gallons of the solution should be applied to only seven bushels of wheat instead of ten. In three hours the wheat will be ready for the seeder and as the blue stone somewhat injures the seed it should not be prepared long before it is sown. A good plan is to prepare in the evening the seed to be used the next day. As the seed is somewhat swollen a few quarts more per acre should be sown than of dry wheat. The blue stone solution can be made by the barrel, using care to get the right proportions of blue stone and water, and then it can be measured out one ten quart pailful to seven or eight bushels of wheat. The wheat should be turned four or five times within an hour after sprinkling. If a water-tight floor is not available the solution should be sprinkled on so slowly that none runs through. THE BLUE STONE DIPPING METHOD. We have many reports from parties who have successfully treated smutty wheat by immersing it in solutions of blue stone. The effect is practically the same as with the sprinkling method. However, the grain is wetter and must be dried with care before it can be put in the seeder. This can be done by spreading thinly on the barn floor and shoveling over a few or several times daily until dry, or it can be ac- complished by sprinkling land plaster or lime over the wet grain. Some have thought that the land plaster or lime has a beneficial effect, but experiments by other experiment stations fail to show that these substances have much value other than to dry the grain. By earlier absorbing the solution they may slightly lessen the evil effects the blue stone has on the germinating qualities of the grain. The following statement of this remedy contains the essential directions: Remedy . — Fill a barrel two-thirds full of a solution of one-half pound of blue stone (sulphate of copper) to one gallon of water. 292 Partially fill gunny sacks with wheat and immerse in the solution for five or ten minutes, moving the sack up and down and shaking or kneading it so that every kernel is thoroughly wetted. Arrange a drip shelf on which to set the sacks of wet wheat that the solution drain- ing out may run back into the barrel or hang them on hooks and catch the drip in pails. When the water ceases dripping out of the bags pour the wheat on the barn floor and shovel a few times daily till dry enough to sow, or if to be kept some days, dry thoroughly enough to store without danger of heating. The drying may be facili- tated by mixing plaster or slacked lime with the wet wheat. It is necessary to renew the quantity of the solution, and for this purpose the prepared solution may be kept ready in other barrels. THE HOT- WATER METHOD. Professor Jensen of Denmark discovered that smutty wheat im- mersed in water heated to 130 to 135 degrees F. is not injured for seed, but that this temperature kills the germs of stinking smut. A higher temperature harms the wheat and a lower temperature will not kill all the smut spores. This treatment causes the wheat to germinate sooner than wheat not so treated, while the blue-stone methods, espe- cially the dipping method, retard germination. In fact the hot- water treatment seems to have a decided, though small, advantage in increas- ing the yield of the crop. This is doubtless the best of the three methods where the farmer has facilities for perfectly carrying it out. But on most Northwestern farms it is very difficult to dry the treated wheat, and few have thermometers which are accurate enough to be relied upon at the temperatures named. By this method, if the drying is rapidly and thoroughly done, the seed may be prepared some days or weeks before the time of sowing. Remedy . — Fill two barrels or washtubs two-thirds full of water. Keep the water in No. 1 at 120 to 130 degrees and No. 2 at 130 to 135 degrees. Fill gunny sacks, or bags of other open-meshed material, partly full of wheat; immerse in No. 1 till the wheat is warmed up so as to not cool the water in No 2; drain the bag a few seconds and then immerse in No. 2 for five minutes, raising and lowering the bag or kneading the wheat, so that the water thoroughly penetrates to and heats every kernel. Spread out at once and shovel over until dry. It is a good plan to dip the bag of wheat in cool water, so as at once to cool the wheat. Care must be taken to add hot water so as to keep the water in No. 2 at 130 to 135 degrees; 133 degrees F. is the tem- perature preferred. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 630.7M66B C001 BULLETIN ST. PAUL 19-40 1892-1894 2 01964507