CENTRAL CIRCULATION BOOKSTACKS The person charging this material is re- sponsible for its renewal or its return to the library from which it was borrowed on or before the Latest Date stamped below. You may be charged a minimum fee of $75.00 for each lost book. Theft/ mutiiotieii/ and underlining of books are reasons for disciplinary action and may result In cAsmlssal from the University. TO RENEW CALL TELEPHONE CENTER/ 333-8400 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA-CHAALPAIGN MAY 2'? 1997 When renewing by phone, write new due date below previous due date. L162 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/reportofinvestig1111that STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON o DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY o A REPORT OP THE INVESTIGATIONS CONCERNING The Chemical Composition of Wheat 1906 TO 1912 INCLUSIVE By R. W. THATCHER o BULLETIN No. Ill September, 1913 0 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director BOARD OF CONTROL D. S. TROY, President Chimacum JAS. C. CUNNINGHAM, Vice-President.. Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman Pres dent of the College R. C. McCROSKEY Garfield PETER McGREGOR Spokane LEE A. JOHNSON Sunnyside STATION STAFF *R. W. THATCHER, M. A Director IRA D. CARDIFF, Ph. D D rector ELTON FULMER, M. A State Chemist S. B. NELSON, D. V. M Veterinarian O. L. WALLER, Ph. M Irrigation Engineer A. L. MELANDER, M. S Entomologist O. M. MORRIS, B. S Horticulturist GEO. W. SEVERANCE, B. S Agriculturist C. C. THOM, M. S Soil Physicist A. B. NYSTROM, M. S Dairy Husbandman GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S Chemist PAUL J. WHITE, M. S. A., Ph. D Agronomist W. T. SHAW. B. Agr., M. S Zoologist R. C. ASHBY, B. S J. G. HALL, M. A J. W. KALKUS, D. V. M ALEX CARLYLE. C. A. MAGOON, M. A M. A. YOTHERS, B. S W. L. HADLOCK, B. A HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S E. F. GAINES, B. S C. F. MONROE, B. S. A W. J. YOUNG, B. S C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S D. C. GEORGE, B. S R. E. HUNDERTMARK, B. S, ELLA W. BROCK . .Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Assistant Veterinarian Cerealist Assistant Bacteriologist Assistant Entomologist Assistant Chemist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Cerealist . . . .Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Dairy Husbandman Executive Clerk ♦Resigned April 1, 1913. zi h ino.ii 1 - 13 ^ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction 4 Part I. — A Study of Environmental Influences Upon the Chemical Composition of Wheat Review of Investigations Concerning the Composition of Wheat 7 Relation of Climate to Composition of Wheat 13 Influence of Soil Composition 17 Influence of Total Annual Rainfall 24 Influence of Sunlight 29 Influence of Length of Growing Season 33 Influence of Length of Period of Kernel-Formation 39 Influence of Transfer of Seed 47 Part II. — Line-Selection Breeding for Variation of Nitrogen Content of Wheat Breeding Wheat for Improvement in Composition 52 Variability in Nitrogen Content of Wheat 58 Experiments in Line-Selection Breeding for Change of Nitrogen Content of Wheat 64 & 4 - 9 > 02 ~ 9 & INTRODUCTION The writer’s interest in the problems involved in the chem- ical composition of wheat, as discussed in detail in the follow- ing pages, was first aroused by his participation in the investi- gations in progress at the Nebraska Experiment Station during his connection with that Station as Assistant Chemist from September, 1899, to June, 1901. Following his removal, in July of 1901, to the Experiment Station of Washington, his duties as Assistant Chemist of the latter Station reciuired the devotion of his entire attention to other lines of investigation for two or three years. Soon after he was made Chemist of the Station, in 1903, however he secured the approval of a project of investigation of the wheats of Washington with special reference to their value for bread-making purposes and the possibilities of improvement in composition of the “soft wheats” of the Pacific Northwest. These investigations naturally soon came to be concerned largely with the funda- mental principles governing the chemical composition of the ^.vheat kernel. A study of the factors which influence chem- ical composition of plants in general, and the wheat berry in particular, was inaugurated early in 1905. This was followed by a thorough study of the varia- tions between different varieties of wheat grown under identical and under variable environmental conditions, of the differences in composition of the grain from different plants and different parts of the same plant when grown under identical conditions; of the influence of the different environ- mental factors upon the composition of wheat; and finally of the possibility of change in composition of wheat by line selec- tion of individual plants and parts of plants showing a superior composition, or quality, over others grown under identical environmental conditions. The investigations naturally divided into three general groups, namely: those having for their purpose a knowledge of the composition of the wheats of the State as they are now being grown ; second, those which were concerned with the The Chemical Composition of Wheat 5 factors influencing the composition of wheat; and finally, the question of the possibility of improvement in composition by line-selection of improved seed. Reports of progress have been presented from time to time, in various forms. The five years’ study of the composition of Washington wheats was completed with the analyses of samples of the crop of 1910, and the re- sults of the work reported in Bulletins Nos. 84, 91, and 100, of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, the last mentioned bulletin containing a summary of the five years’ v/ork and the conclusions to be drawn from it. Mention was made in these bulletins of some phases of the investigations of the factors influencing the composition of wheat and other partial reports of progress of this work and certain conclu- sions to be drawn therefrom have been presented from time to time in public addresses, and printed in published proceed- ings of meetings at which these addresses were delivered, to which reference will be made in the proper places in subse- quent pages of this report. The preliminary studies of varia- tion in composition of different parts of an individual wheat plant and of individual plants in the same row and field, and of a basis of selection of a desirable unit for line-breeding for change in composition, have been published as Bulletin No. 102 of the Station and in articles in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. The results of the line-breeding experi- ments, involving five years of line-selection of high and low nitrogen parents, and two three-year line-selections of the same portions of individual spikes, have never been publicly re- ported, although a preliminary report of the first two years’ results was presented as a paper before the American Society of Agronomy at its meeting in Washington, D. C., in 1910. The completed results, with the conclusions to be drawn therefrom, are here presented for the first time. During the progress of these studies, other investigators have been at work on some of the phases of the general problem and have published results leading to the same general conclusions as will be shown herein. The preliminary publication of some of the writer’s deductions has been followed by confirmatory evidence from others and sometimes preceded by publication of 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station similar results obtained by investigators elsewhere. Recogni- tion of this work will be found in various parts of this report. It is deemed wisest, however, to present in full in this report the various phases of the problem which have been studied and the results accomplished in connection with them, even though some of the conclusions which are to be drawn from this work have been reached independently by other workers in this general field and given prior publication. The purpose of the preparation of this report is that it may serve as a general review of all the writer’s investigations in the two phases of the problem which are of general public interest, namely: the influences of environmental factors upon the composition of wheat, and line-selection breeding for variation in the nitrogen content of wheat. The writer desires to express here his indebtedness to Messrs. H. R. Watkins, Arthur Glover, Geo. A. Olson, C. N. Ageton, and W. L. Hadlock, who,, as chemists or assistant chem- ists in the Experiment Station laboratory, have assisted him in the accumulation of the analytical data here presented; and to Messrs. C. W. Lawrence and Alex Carlyle, cerealists of the Station, for assistance in the cultivation and harvesting of the -crops grown from the selected seed under investigation. PART I. A STUDY OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES UPON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT Review of Investigations Concerning the Composition of Wheat The chemical composition of wheat has been a matter of general public interest and of scientific study for nearly a century. The earlier investigations were chiefly concerned with th(3 composition of the crop as an indication of its require- ment of plant food, this latter being considered the basis for skillful fertilizing of the soil in order to secure the greatest possible yield of the crop. These studies took the form, chiefly, of elaborate analyses of wheat, sometimes of the various parts of the whole plant separately or collectively, and sometimes of the grain alone, at various stages of its growth. Later investigators made elaborate studies of the wheat kernel, from the standpoint of its food value. The more recent in- vestigations have dealt chiefly with the composition of the grain as affecting milling value and the baking qualities of the flour made from it, summarized in the somewhat elastic term, the ‘‘strength” of flour. As early as 1869, Isidore Pierre published in France his classic article on “Experimental Studies of the Development of Wheat” (Recherches experiment ale sur le developpement du ble),^ in which he stated his conclusions to be that the life of the wheat plant (and all similar herbaceous plants) may be sharply divided into two parts, in the first of which it elabor- ates the constituents which, during the second stage, it trans- ports to the kernel. Deherain and BreaT, however, reached the conclusion that herbaceous plants do not all act alike in this regard, and divided such plants into several groups ; one ^Mem. Soc. Linneenne de Normandie, XV., (1869) 1, 220. Ann. Agronomique. 7, (1881) 160. 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station of which '‘includes those plants which ripen their seeds while still increasing their weight of dry matter; as a consequence of the results obtained in 1881, wheat should be classed among these/’ This difference of opinion led Deherain and Meyer to make, in 1881, a very careful study of the composition of wheat taken at successive stages of growth, making analyses for moisture, ash, phosphoric acid, protein, ether extract, non- reducing sugars, reducing sugars, starch, .and cellulose, upon both the above-ground portion and the roots of the plant. Their results were reported in a very comprehensive article entitled “Investigations Concerning the Development of Wheat” (Recherches sur le developpement du ble)" which presented their conclusions that “In 1881, at Grignon, wheat increased its weight of dry matter up to the time of harvest”; that this increase is “in the starch and cellulose, the nitro- genous matter and mineral matter remained stationary during the last two months of growth”; and that “the cessation of assimilation of nitrogenous and mineral matter appears to be caused exclusively by the peculiar conditions of the season.” Investigations concerning the nature of this climatic influence were continued by Deherain and his assistants and will be referred to in the appropriate portion of this report. Similar studies were made in Germany by ReiseC, Stock- hardC, Luc anus®, SiegirC, Heinrich®, Nowacki®, and Handtke“. As reviewed by Kornicke and Werner in their “Handbuch des Getreidebanes"^ ” and by Kornicke in his “Die Arten und Varietaten des Getriede^,” these early German studies led to the general conclusion that the percentage of nitrogenous and mineral matter in the wheat kernel diminishes as the plant matures, while the percentage of carbohydrates increases, but nbid, 8. (1882) 23-43. ^Dingler’s Polyt. Jour. 129, 298. •'’Zeits. f. D. Landw. (1851). ®Landw. Vers. Stat 4 (1862). ’Ibid, 5 ( 1864) 135. *'Ann. d. Landw. in Preussen 50, (1867) 314, und 57, (1871 ) 31. ’"Chem. Ackersm. 16 (1870) 163. “Berlin, 1 884. ’-Berlin, 1 885. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 9 that the absolute amount of all these constituents increases up to the time of maturity, the percentage decrease in nitrogen and ash being due to a proportionately more rapid develop- ment of carbohydrates during later stages of growth. Later analyses by Nedokutschajw'", with improved analytical methods, showed an almost uniform decrease in percentage of nitrogenous matter as the wheat approaches maturity. He dis- tinguished between the proteid and amid nitrogen and con- cluded that the protein substances in the seed are produced by the translocation to the kernel of amids formed in the leaves. In Austria-Hungary, Liebscher” made a study of the plant food elements taken from the soil by wheat, at various stages of its growth, as a basis for fertilization, as a result of which he came to the conclusion that absorption of plant food, par- ticularly nitrogen, proceeds much more rapidly in proportion to the formation of dry matter during the earlier stages of plant growth than when it approaches maturity. He divided the life of the plant into four periods, designated respectively as the ‘‘stooling,” “shooting,” “spike-forming” and “ripening” stages and showed that the proportion of nitrogen absorbed to dry matter formed decreases rapidly through the first three stages, while practically no absorption of plant food occurs during the last stage. Adorjan^® repeated Liebscher^s work with similar results, except that he noted a very strong phosphorus-absorption during the second, or “shooting” period. In the first, or “stooling” period he found that nitro- gen was taken from the soil about three times as fast as is required for the formation of dry matter. He states that no phosphorus is taken up after blooming, and that nitrogen assimilation reaches its maximum at blooming-time, after which its absorption proceeds only in proportion to the grain formation, but in much smaller proportions than in the earlier stages. Analyses of wheat grown on the Rothamsted Station in ^^Landw. Vers. Stat. 56 (1902) 303-310. “Jour, fur Landw. 35 (1887). ^qbid, 50 (1902) 193-223. 10 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station England, in the years 1845 to 1854 inclusive, led Lawes and Gilbert^® to conclude “heavy weight of grain per bushel is, other things being equal, generally associated with a high per- centage of dry substance and a low percentage of both mineral and nitrogenous constituents.” Later studies of the composi- tion of wheat at different stages of development led the same authors^’ to conclude that “while during little more than five weeks from June 21 there was comparatively little increase in the amount of nitrogen accumulated over a given area, more than half the total carbon of the crop was accumulated during that period.” In the United States, Kedzie made extended analyses of the wheat kernel at different stages of its development in 1879"®, and repeated the work even more carefully in 1892"®, His results show a fairly regular decrease in the percentage of total, albuminoid, and non-albuminoid nitrogen and of ash from the first formation of the kernel until it ripens. The decrease in nitrogen percentage was much more rapid at first than dur- ing later stages of kernel formation. Teller®® repeated this work, at the Arkansas Station, with similar results so far as it concerned all the periods of development except the last ten days. His results for this last period indicated an increase in the percentages of nitrogen and ash, but were inconclusive even to the author himself. Snyder®" reports that eighty-six per cent of the total amount of nitrogen in the matured crop is taken from the soil within fifty days after the plants appear above ground, eighty-nine per cent by the time the heads are formed, and ninety-five per cent when the kernels are “in the milk.” Lyon concluded, as a result of his review of the literature on the composition of wheat as affected by the time ^®The Composition of Wheat Grain, London, 1857. ^'On the Composition of the Ash of Wheat Grain and Wheat Straw, London, 1884. '"Kept. Mich. Bd. Agr., 1881-2, 233-239. '‘\AIich. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 101. =^«Ark. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 53. =^^Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 29. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 11 of cutting'''*, that “immaturity, althougli resulting in a higher percentage of nitrogen in the wheat kernel, would curtail the production of nitrogen in the crop, and, furthermore, that the production of proteids would be still further lessened by reason of the greater proportion of amid substances present in the grain at that time.” The investigations thus briefly reviewed led to the gen- eral conclusion that during the latter part of the life of the wheat plant the manufacture of fresh material nearly ceases and that the chief process going on at this time is the migra- tion of accumulated material from the stems and leaves to the grain. In 1905, however, the Home Grown Wheat Com- mittee of the National Association of British and Irish Millers, presented a long report, which was later summarized in an article by Humphries and Biffen"®, in which it was claimed that wheat cut early gave no stronger flour than that from fully matured grain and that early or late seeding of the crop made no difference in the strength of the resulting flour. The authors admit that “strength” is a somewhat indefinite char- acter, but throughout the article appear to use it as definitely correlated with chemical composition. The fact that the results of the investigations of this com- mittee were so at variance with previous conceptions led Miss Brenchly and Director Hall at the Rothamsted Station"* to undertake a critical review of the entire question of the pro- gressive development of wheat. They first secured samples by successive cuttings of equal areas of grain in a uniform field; next, they tried using the grain from adjacent rows for successive cuttings; and again they selected an equal number (100) of apparently uniform heads on each successive date. All these methods of sampling gave irregular results. Finally, they adopted the following method of sampling: 3000 heads, all showing two projecting anthers, were tagged on the same day, and cuttings from these were made at three-day intervals. Only the central stalks of each plant were used for the tag- ""U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Ind., Bull. No. 78, 17-20. "^Jour. Agr. Sci. II. (1907) 1, 1-17. "Tbid, III. (1909) 2, 195-217. 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station ging of the heads, so that their results admittedly do not show the progressive development of the average crop. But regular progressive development of the selected heads was insured and regular curves of analytical results obtained. Their investiga- tions were continued through the two seasons of 1907 and 1908, and their results summarized as follows; (1) The whole plant, and with it the nitrogen, ash, and phos- phoric acid it contains, increases in weight until about a week before it would be regarded as ready to cut. Some decrease of dry weight takes place during the last week. (2) In the formation of the grain three stages may be dis- tinguished: (a) A period during which the pericarp is the most promi- nent feature, (b) The main period during which the endosperm Is filled,. (c) The ripening period characterized by the desiccation of the grain. (3) For the filling of the endosperm each plant possesses, as it were, a special mould, and continually moves into the grain uniform material cast in that mould, possessing always the same ratio of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous materials and ash. The character of the mould possessed by each plant is determined by variety, soil, season, etc. (4) The main feature of the ripening process is desiccation rather than the setting in of such chemical changes as the conver- sion of sugars into starch, non-protein into protein, though the latter change also takes place. (5) The maximum dry weight of grain is attained a day or two before the grain would be regarded as ripe by the farmer. Allowing for the fact that the tillered shoots are a little behind the central shoots, no loss of weight in the crop will be incurred by cutting before the corn appears quite ripe, while a number of accidental mechanical losses due to birds, shedding, weatjier, may thus be avoided. Other experiments have shown that, though there may be no gain, there will be no loss in the quality of the wheat due to such early cutting. RELATION OF CLIMATE TO COMPOSITION OF WHEAT The publication of the results of analytical studies, as reviewed in the preceding pages, together with the observed fact that climatic influences would tend to relatively lengthen or shorten the later period of development of the crop, as com- pared with the earlier stages in which the processes of growth were different, led to a very general acceptance, during the last decade of the twentieth century, of the opinion that cli- mate exerts a very important influence upon the composition of the wheat crop. During the last five or six years, since our own investigations have been in progress, there have appeared reports of a number of carefully planned experiments to determine the actual effect of various climatic factors upon the composition of wheat. These will be referred to in the proper sections of this report. Prior to about 1905, however, most of such conceptions were based upon general observa- tions and the conclusions therefrom stated in rather general terms. Some of the more important of the statements of these conceptions may be briefly reviewed, as follows: In 1882, Deherain and Meyer"^ attributed the inferiority in yield, and superiority in nitrogen content of the crop of 1881 at Grignon, as compared with that of 1880, to the very unfav- orable summer weather in 1881. Komicke and Werner ^s “Handbuch des Getreidebaues^'V^ published in 1884, cites experiments to show the effect of the moist insular climate of Great Britain, as contrasted with the drier continental climate of Germany and Russia, upon the morphological characters of the wheat plant, and quotes a statement from Haberlandt that a continental climate produces a small, hard wheat kernel, rich in gluten and of especially heavy weight. Erikssoii"' expressed the opinion in 1890, that in Sweden the “consistency’’ of wheat is not a variety character, but “Ann. Agronomique 8, (1882) 23-43. “Loc. cit. p. 69, 70. "'Landw. Vers. Stat. 45, (1890) pts. 1 and 2. 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station depends more upon the season than upon the kind of wheat, Schindler"® in his book on '‘Wheat in its Relation to Climate and the Law of Correlation,” published in 1898, says: With the length of the growing period, especially with the length of the Interval between bloom and ripeness, varies not only the size of the kernel, but also the relative amount of carbohydrates and protein it contains. All this shows that the protein constituent of the kernel de- pends in the first place upon the length of the growing period and next upon the richness of the soil. Melikov"®, working with Russian wheats, reached the con- clusion that the nitrogen content is lowest in seasons of heavi- est rainfall, and higher in drier years. Von Feilitzer®" concluded from his experiments in Germany that it is chiefly the weather which influences the "mealiness” or "glassiness” of the wheat kernel. Deherain and Dupont®^ discussed again the observations of the influence of climate during different seasons upon the com- position of the wheat crop at Grignon, in France, and reported results of their studies to determine the reason for the observed changes, which will be discussed in detail in a later part of this report. Lyon®", in his bulletin on "Improving the Quality of Wheat,” published in 1905, after reviewing the opinions of Lawes and Gilbert, Kornicke and Werner, Deherain and Du- pont, Wiley, Schindler, Melikov, and others, states: The conclusion to be inevitably derived from these observations is that cli.mate is a potent factor in determining the yield and com- position of the wheat crop, and, further, that its effect is produced by lengthening or shortening the growing season, particularly that portion of it during which the kernel is developing. A moderately cool season, wi.th a liberal supply of moisture, has the effect of prolonging the period during which the kernel is developing, ihus ^*Der Weizen in seinem Bezi.ehungen zum Klima und das Gosetz der Korrelation, Berlin, 1893. ^«Abs. in Exp. Sta. Rec. 13 (1901) 451. ^«Jour. f. Landw. 52 (1902) 401-412. ®^Ann. Agronomique 28 (1902) 522. S. Dept. Agric., Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. No. 78. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 15 favoring its filling out with starch, the deposition of which is much greater at that time than is that of nitrogenous material. With this goes an increase in volume weight and an increased yield of grain per acre. On the other hand, a hot, dry season shortens the period of kernel development, curtails the deposition of starch, leaving the percentage of nitrogen relatively higher, and gives a grain of lighter weight per bushel and smaller yield per acre. Dondlinger in his '‘Book of Wheat"'’’ summarizes the gen- eral opinions on this matter in the following words : Certain climates produce certain corresponding characteristics in wheat, regardless of what the soil conditions are. The protein content of wheat, and correspondingly its moist and dry gluten, is extremely sensitive to environment of a meteorological nature. The starch content is also sensitive, but in an inverse ratio. Climate varies from year to year in any locality, ane. it is well known that this causes corresponding variations in wheat, even under similar soil conditions. In the gluten content is seen the first reflection of a change in environment. The claim has even been made that a number of varieties of wheat under uniform soil and meteoro- logical conditions would yield relatively the same percentages of gluten, however much these might vary from the normal. Howard and Howard"", after expressing their opinion that "The most important conditions influencing the growth of wheat in India are: (1) the maximum duration of the growth period in each tract, and (2) the available soil moisture during that period” allude to the conclusions of Ericksson and Kor- nicke, and quote from Fruwirth, as follows : Dryness and poverty of soil clearly increase the gluten content. Besides this it must be remembered that according to Wollny high summer temperature and low rainfall in Hungary, Roumania, and Southern Russia favor high nitrogen content and flintiness; cooler, damper climates on the other hand favor starch production and flouriness. In agreement with this, the nitrogen content of wheat in Europe in general diminishes from south to north and from east to west. Thus the gluten content In Southern Russia, Rou- mania and Turkey is 20 per cent or over, in Germany and Prance 10 to 15 per cent, and in England seldom more than 10 per cent. 3'New York, 1908. ®^Mem. Dept. Agr. of India Bot. Series Vol. II. (1909) No. 7. 16 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Our own studies of the chemical composition of Washing- ton wheats^ soon led us to the conclusion that the climate, as the determining influence upon the length of the development period of the wheat kernel, was the chief factor in fixing the composition of the crop of any given season or locality. We were, therefore, led to undertake the series of investigations of the effect of different factors of climatic and soil environ- ment, acting singly or in combination, upon the composition of wheat, the results of which are reported in detail in the follow- ing pages. ^^Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. Nos. 84, 91, and 100. INFLUENCE OF SOIL COMPOSITION At the time of the inauguration of these investigations, there appeared to be a great diversity of opinion among agri- cultural writers concerning the relationship which might exist between the chemical composition of the soil and that of the wheat which grew upon it. Von Feilitzen'® had stated that the percentage of nitrogen was generally higher in wheat grown on muck soils, but that no definite relationship could be found. Carleton®', as a result of his studies of the types of wheat grown in the different parts of the United States, reached the conclusion that, in general, high-nitrogen, or hard, wheats grow on black prairie soils, rich in nitrogen, in regions charac- terized by violent climatic changes; but did not attempt to decide whether" the soil, or the climatic conditions, was the factor of largest influence. Experiments by Bolley in North Dakota®® had shown that when wheats grown on farms in different parts of the state, having varied types of soil, were sown side by side on the same soil they gave practically uniform results in yield and compo- sition of straw and grain. Also, that when hand-picked uni- form seed, raised on a uniform soil, was distributed to different localities and grown on varying types of soil, the resulting crops showed great variation in yield and composition. Similar results were obtained from like experiments in Indiana®® and Maryland^®. It seemed to the writer that all experiments thus reported were inconclusive in that in every case the different soil types were used for experimentation under the different climatic conditions of the different localities in which they were found. It appeared that conclusive evidence could be obtained only ^®Jour. f. Landw. 52, (1902) 401-412. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Veg. Phys. and Path. Bull. No. 24 (1900). ^^No. Dak. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 17. ®®Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 41. ^®Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 14. 18 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station by actually transferring soil of the different types to the same locality and then growing wheat upon them under uniform conditions of moisture supply, length of growing season, tem- perature and other climatic factors, etc. The results of our first year’s study of A¥ashington wheats showed that there was a wide variation in composition of wheat grown in the same year, from the same seed, upon our experimental grounds at Pullman and our experimental tract at Ritzville. The soil survey, which we had previously made, indicated that the soils at Ritzville and at Pullman, while of the same general geological origin, and, therefore, having quite similar mineral plant flood percentages, varied considerably in their content of organic matter and nitrogen; the College farm soil at Pullman showing 0.204 per cent of total nitrogen and that from Ritzville, 0.090 per cent. As shown in the following table, the wheat of higher protein content was found in the district having the soil of lower nitrogen content. This ap- peared to be a quite general relationship, so far as could be discovered from the analyses of the crop of 1907. It was determined to transfer a considerable quantity of soil from Pullman to Ritzville, and vice versa, and grow the same wheat upon the two soils in the two localities for a period of years. A small area of land was accordingly staked off on each experimental tract, the soil removed from this area, taking care to sack up each six-inch layer separately; the re- moved soil was then shipped to the other locality in each case, and filled into the corresponding excavation, taking care to replace each six-inch layer in its same relative position and to tamp it down to as nearly its original state of compaction as possible. At each place an equal adjoining area of undis- turbed soil was staked off and prepared for seeding. The two areas were then divided crosswise, and two samples of wheat of the same variety, bluestem, which had been grown the pre- ceding year, one at Pullman and the other at Ritzville, were sown on these two sub-divisions of each tract. During the first season, a part of the grain growing on the soils thus pre- pared was destroyed by neighbors’ fowls, but enoagh was saved for analysis. The second year the tracts Avere seeded The Chemical Composition of Wheat 19 in precisely the same way. Table 1 shows the nitrogen con- tent of the original seed and of the crop grown from it on the different soils in each of the two years. Xable 1 — Showing Effect of Soil from Different Sources on Protein Content of Wheat Crop of Crop of Crop of 1905 1906 1907 Nature of Crop Protein % Protein % Protein Original seed grown at Pullman.... 9.58 Original seed grown at Ritzville. . . . 12.57 Pullman seed grown on Pullman soil at Pullman 15.64 13.47 Pullman seed grown on Ritzville soil at Pullman 15.90 13.50 Ritzvi.lle seed grown on Pullman soil at Pullman 15.67 13.26 Ritzville seed grown on Ritzville soil at Pullman 16.10 13.34 Pullman seed grown on Pullman soil at Ritzville 17.01 12.64 Pullman seed grown on Ritzville soil at Ritzvi.lle 17.31 12.76 Ritzville seed grown on Pullmmn soil at Ritzville lost 12.55 Ritzville seed grown on Ritzville soil at Ritzville 16.63 12.60 These analyses clearly show that the differences in com- position of the original seed could not have been due to dif- ferences in the soil composition, nor was there any relation- ship between the protein content of the resultant (U’ops nnd the composition of the soil upon which they grew. Some slight variations in composition of the wheat for the first year were found, but these were easily attributed to variations in the moisture content of the soil, due to the impossibility of perfectly restoring the natural condition of compactness of the transferred soil. In the second year, when natural condi- tions were practically restored, the resultant crops became as uniform in composition as could be found on any equal areas of uniform midisturbed soil. We, therefore, reached the conclusion that the nitrogen content of the soil has very little if anything to do with the nitrogen content of the grain growing upon it in any given season. In the meantime, Le Clerc, as a result of his ''Tri-Local Experiments on the Influence of Environment on the Compo- sition of Wheat""” had reached precisely the same conclusion, since in his summary he says : ^‘U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bull. No. 12 8. 20 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Wheat of the same variety obtained from different sources and possessing widely different chemical and physical characteristics., when grown side by side in one locality, yields , crops which are almost the same in appearance and in composition. Wheat of any one variety, from any one source, and absolutely alike in chemical and physical characteristics, when grown in different localities, possessing different climatic conditions, yields crops of very widely different appearance and very different in chemical composition. These differences are due for the most part to climatic conditions prevailing at the time of growth. The results so far obtained would seem to indicate that the soil and seed play a relatively small part in influencing the composition of crops. The practice of trying to improve crops in one locality, which crops are to be grown in another locality of widely different climatic conditions, should be discouraged. Crops should be improved in the locality in which they are intended to be grown, or the seed should be selected from a region which has similar climatic conditions. Shutt, also, had been independently studying this same problem with Canadian wheats. His results, which were re- ported from time to time in the various Annual Reports of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, led him to say, in an address before the Canadian section of the Society of Chemical Industry'*': “Richness of the soil in nitrogen has but little effect on the percentage of nitrogen in the grain; many sandy loams of moderate nitrogen content produce wheat of equal gluten-content with that from heavy loams rich in nitrogen.’^ This same problem of the relationship of composition of grain to that of the soil upon which it grows has been attacked by another method, namely: that of addition of nitrogen to the soil in the form of fertilizers and analysis of the resulting fertilized and unfertilized crops, with varying results. Von Feilitzen'*^ found that the addition of nitrate of soda to the soil gave no effect upon the protein content of the grain, that from the soil receiving the fertilizer being sometimes higher and sometimes lower in protein than that from the same soil without the addition of the nitrate. The addition of the nitrogen fertilizer increased the percentage of “glassy” ker- ^-Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind. 28, (1909) No. 7, Reprint page 4. ^■’Loc. cit. page 409. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 21 nels (as separated under a diaphanoscope) in both wheat and barley in 1902, but decreased it in wheat in 1903. Humphrey and Biffen'' state that wheat from unfertilized plots at Rothamsted was ''stronger” than that from manured plots in both 1903 and 1904, but that the percentage of nitro- gen was higher in plots fertilized with commercial nitrogen. At Woburn the "strength” of the wheat was unaffected by manure. ShutB" states that "The fertilizer plots of the Cenlral Ex- perimental Farm, Ottawa, have received now for twenty years all sorts of fertilizers, and, so far, these have not materially affected the composition of the grain.” On the other hand, Ames'® made a careful study of the chemical composition of the wheat grown on the various com- parative fertilizer plots of the Ohio Station in the seasons of 1907, 1908, and 1909, and arrived at the following conclusion: The composition of the wheat crop grown on the unfertilized plots of two soils, containing different amounts of phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen, is in accordance with the composition of these soils. The proportion of phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen in the wheat plant is increased by the addition of these elements to the soil. Although the extent of variation due to seasonal conditions is greater than that produced by changes in the composition of the soil, the variations due to soil treatment are relatively the same for the different seasons. The percentage of nitrogen in the wheat plant varies with the supply at its disposal, and is also influenced to a considerable extent by the supply of phosphorus. A comparison of the composition of the wheat plant grown •on the same soil, under different conditions of fertilization, gives a better indication of the available supply of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in the soil than can be obtained from the analysis of the soil itself. It should be noted, however, that the analytical data pre- sented in the bulletin show that, in many cases, the grain grown on plots receiving nitrogen fertilizers carried no more, "‘‘Loc. cit, pages 5 and 6. ^"Loc. cit. page 4. ^®Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 221. 22 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station or even less, nitrogen than that from adjoining unfertilized plots. The preponderance of evidence seems, therefore, to support the conclusions that we derived from our soil experiment, namely, that the composition of the soil has very little influ- ence upon the composition of the crop grown upon it. There is ample evidence, however, that the moisture content of the soil has a very marked effect upon the rate of development, and consequently upon the resulting composition of the grain, as will be pointed out in a later part of this report. Note : — After the above report was completed the writer received a copy of Bulletin No. 216 of the California Station, by G. W. Shaw and E. H. AValters, entitled “A Progress Re- port upon Soil and Climatic Factors Influencing the Compo- sition of Wheat.” This bulletin reports an extension of the co-operative work with Dr. Le Clerc, of the Bureau of Chem- istry, United States Department of Agriculture, which has been reviewed al)ove, to include a study of the effect of the soil itself, in almost precisely the same manner as our expri- nients were conducted. Soil from Hays, Kansas, was shipped to Davis, California, and placed in position in precisely the same way as in our experiments, except that the transferred soil was isolated from the adjoining local soil by a cement wall one and one-half inches thick, to prevent the roots of the wheat plants from growing laterally into the other soil. A year later, soil was also secured from the Arlington Farm of the United States Department of Agriculture, in Maryland, and similarly installed at Davis, California. At the same time, California soil was sent to Kansas and IMaryland, Maryland soil to Kansas, and Kansas soil to Maryland. The bulletin reports the results of the analyses of the wheats grown upon the three soils, in California, in the seasons of 1909, 1910, and, in an addenda, those grown in 1911. The conclusions from the first two seasons’ work are as follows: It must be said that the results so far obtained do not shed as much light upon the primary question as to the influence of the soil nitrogen upon the nitrogen content of the wheat as could be de- The Chemical Composition of Wheat 23 sired, possibly on account of the short duration of the experiment. It is evident, however, that In neither of the series of trials has the grain carrying the larger nitrogen content been obtained from the soil plat having the heaviest total nitrogen content. In the light of the present data it seems quite certain that the soil nitrogen con- tent has very little, if any, direct influence upon the nitrogen con- tent of grain grown upon such soil, and that some climatic factor is sufficient to entirely overshadow the soil factor. This Is entirely in harmony with the work of Dr. LeClerc previously reviewed, and also with the well known wide fluctuation of the nitrogen content of wheat from season to season, although the grain be grown upon the same soli. It may be that certain physical factors, enabling the soil to hold moisture better at certain periods of the plant’s growth are responsible for the difference, but of this we have no data so far as these plats are concerned. The results also show that a chemical analysis of a soil by the ten-hour hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.115) digestion method reveals no definite relation between the chemical composition of the soil and the crop. To this may be added the following observations from the results obtained in 1911 : The most striking point brought out by these last figures is the difference in composition and appearance of the grain produced on the same soil, viz.: the check plat and the other California soli plat. There is a greater difference between these two products than exists between the others or between these and the others. This differ- ence, particularly with respect to the nitrogen, is not nearly so great, however, as that brought out by LeClerc (loc. cit.) from his experiments in which both soil and climate were variable factors. It does, however, indicate that some other factors pertinent to the physical or biological conditions of the soil play an important role since we have, in our own experiment, only one variable factor, viz.: the soil. Moreover, the slight variations occurring in the chemical characteristics in these experiments, being considerably less than those observed by LeClerc, adds strongly to the belief that the climatic factor is the chief one in producing changes in the chemical composition of wheat. The results obtained by the co-operating Bureau at Kansas and at Maryland, have not yet been published, so far as the writer can ascertain. INFLUENCE OF TOTAL ANNUAL RAINFALL The wheat belt of Eastern Washington is particularly well adapted to serve for a study of relation of total annual rain- fall to crop growth. The soil over the entire belt is of uniform origin, the famous basaltic loam of the Palouse Country. This soil is remarkably uniform in its mineral composition. It varies somewhat in its percentage of humus, with the varia- tions in annual rainfall, but these differences are not very marked, and the soil is unusually uniform in type for so large an area. The length of the growing season is practically the same over the entire area. The distribution of the rainfall throughout the year is practically identical everywhere in the wheat belt, there being the characteristic ‘‘rainy season” in the winter, and the “dry season” in the summer. The wheat crop very generally secures its moisture from the supply stored up in the soil from the winter season. Even the elevation above sea level is practically uniform, the wheat being gener- ally grown on the upland plateau formed by the great basaltic overflow which is of the same general elevation. In short, the total rainfall for the year is practically the only variable among the factors which influence plant growth and com- position. The region, therefore, serves admirably for the pur- poses of study of the relation of protein content of wheat to rainfall supply. The analyses made during our five years’ study of the chemical composition of Washington wheats included a total of 456 samples. These samples came from all the different wheat growing sections of the State and were so selected as to secure a fairly uniform distribution over the entire wheat belt of the State. This wheat belt is naturally divided by cer- tain valleys and other topographic features into certain fairly well defined districts. The average composition of all the samples coming from each of these districts being a matter of large local interest, the results of all our analyses were grouped and tabulated according to the districts from which the samples came. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 25 Immediately upon the completion of this tabulation, it ap- peared possible that the observed differences in protein con- tent might be correlated with the rainfall in the various dis- tricts. The records of the Weather Bureau were consulted, and the total rainfall at a central point in each district, for the five years period during which the crops under investigation were grown, was ascertained. The resulting correlation is shown in Table 2. Table 2 — Relation of Protein to Rainfall Percent Weather Rainfall, 1905-9 District Protein Station in inches Adams and Franklin Cos 12.82 Hatton 45 S. W. Whitman Co. . 12.53 Okanogan Co 12.37 Omak 50 Douglas Co 12.25 Waterville 58 N. W. Whitman Co. . 11.65 Walla Walla Co 11.56 Eureka 69 Lincoln Co 11.16 Wilbur 73 Garfield and Asotin Cos. 10.96 Pomeroy 82 N. E. Whitman Co. . 10.75 Rosalia 97 S. E. Whitman Co... 10.63 Pullman 103 Klickitat Co. ...... 9.03 Goldendale 116 From these figures it is apparent that under conditions of uniform soil, growing season, distribution of annual rainfall, elevation, etc., with the total annual rainfall the only variable, the average protein content of wheat varies inversely with the total rainfall received. Whether this relationship is of wider application can not yet be definitely settled. Professor E. G. Montgomery, in an unpublished paper read before an agricultural society meeting in Nebraska, divided the wheat growing districts of the United States into certain groups depending upon the degree of ^‘softness'’ or ^'hardness” of wheat grown in them. The rain- fall record for some central point within each of these par- ticular districts was secured, and tabulated in Table 3, in which the districts are arranged in the order suggested by Montgomery, the ‘‘soft’’ wheat sections at the top of the column with the degree of “hardness” increasing as we read downward. The Utah section should probably be omitted from the table as much of the wheat in Utah is grown with irriga- tion, and the annual rainfall, therefore, represents only a por- tion of the moisture available to the crop. 26 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station The rainfall at the particular point selected may not accurately represent that of the entire district, but is fairly safe to draw the following conclusions, namely, that if the wheats of the Pacific Coast States are taken into consideration in the comparison, there is no regular relation between the type of wheat and the total annual rainfall, or that received during the growing season ; but that if we eliminate the Pacific Coast wheats from the comparison the order of rank of the wheats in the other several districts with respect to “hard- ness” is the same as the order of rainfall supply. Table 3 — Rainfall in the Principal Wheat Districts of the United States cs P p s* ® EL District Weather Station Hia p CO p - P p p ^ o p* (D CD March to inc., inches. California . Sacramento, Cal. . . . . .40 19.7 5.5 Wash. — Ida. — Ore .Walla Walla, Wash.. . .45 18.6 5.8 Utah (irrigated) .Logan, Utah . .13 13.4 6.4 Southern coast . Baltimore, Md . .30 45.0 15.8 Central Miss, valley . Dubuque, la . .40 36.0 12.8 Nebr. spring wheat .Hastings, Nebr . .40 25.3 11.8 Hard winter wheat . Dodge City, Kans. . . . .30 20.3 9.4 Durum (macaroni.) wheat. . Pierre, So. Dak. . . . . .35 16.8 8.7 Hard spring wheat .Bismarck, N. Dak. . . .29 17.7 9.0 In other sections of the United States and in other wheat- growing countries, where the annual precipitation does not come during the “rainy season,” but irregularly during the growing season, the amount of moisture available for the crop and its influence upon the composition of the wheat is better measured by percentages of soil moisture than by total annual rainfall. Upon this basis, other investigators have arrived at conclusions similar to those here presented. Prianishinkov*^ made analyses of wheat raised with dif- "Abs. in Exp. Sta. Rec. 13, 631, from Zhur, Opuitn, Agron. 1, (1900) 3-20. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 27 ferent degrees of moisture in the same soil, under identical conditions of light and temperature. He found that with higher percentages of moisture there was a lowering of the nitrogen content of the grain. He found also that the total period of growth was somewhat shorter when the moisture supply was greater. Similar results are reported by Von Seelhorst and Krzy- mowskf*, who found that the ripening of wheat is made sig- nificantly later by increases in soil moisture up to 70 per cent of its capillary capacity, this being especially true when the percentage runs between 55 and 70 per cent. At 85 per cent the ripening was earlier than at 70 per cent, doubtless because the higher water content shortened the nitrogen supply, because of the more rapid early consumption of nitro- gen by the greater growth in early stages. It was found that greater differences in ripening date were caused by varia- tions in soil moisture than by varietal differences, since with plenty of moisture in the soil an early variety ripened later than a late variety growing on drier soil. Shutt, in the address already referred to, decsribes studies of wheats grown on soils of various moisture content, with the following conclusions : ‘ ‘ The soil producing the softer wheat was throughout the growing season more moist; its percentages of water ranging from 9 to 14 per cent higher than those of the soil giving the harder grain” (page 5). Again, ‘'Early ripening of the wheat, such as is brought about by the gradual lessening of the supply of the soil moisture, tends, we are of the opinion, to the production of a hard, glutinous wheat” (page 7). Widstoe and Stewart** found that the effect of variation of the amount of irrigation water from five up to fifty acre inches per acre decreased the protein content of the wheat from 18.05 to 15.98 per cent. Later investigations showed that variation in the amount of water applied gave this result when the applications were made after the middle of July, but that "Jour. f. Landw. 57 (1910) 113-114. "Utah Exp. Sta. Bull. Nos. 119 and 120. 28 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station the variations were in the opposite direction when the water was applied on July 1st. They state that “As maturity was approached, the per cent of protein was markedly larger whenever little water had been used.” The obvious conclusion from these investigations is that the moisture supply is a very potent factor in determining the composition of the wheat grown in any given locality or season. INFLUENCE OF SUNLIGHT Agricultural literature seems to be almost completely de- void of any accounts of experimental work to directly determine the effect of sunlight upon the composition of farm crops, aside from the writer’s own work. Murinoff”, at the University of Halle, conducted a single experiment with wheat, in which ‘'etiolated” plants, i. e. those which had been deprived of their chlorophyll by shading against sunlight for sixteen days, were compared with normal green plants. He found that the percentage of ash, and of total and albuminoid nitrogen was slightly higher in the nor- mal green plants. BertheloU reports analyses showing the effect of the shade of an elm tree upon the chemical composition of the grass growing under it, and Strakosch"" studied the effect of very diffused light upon the elaboration of carbohydrates in sugar beet leaves. Aside from these specific investigations, the literature of this subject seems to be confined to such general statements as those of Wohltmann^^, that rainy, cloudy summers decrease the percentage of nitrogen in wheat, while dry, sunny and warm summers increase the protein content ; and of Humphrey and Biffen®^, that the cloudy season of 1903 gave slightly great- er “strength” to English wheat than did the sunny summer of 1904. Our ovm investigations, which have been described briefly in articles in the Journals of the American Chemical Society'", had for their general plan a study of the effect upon the grain of shading the plants from direct sunlight during the later period of their growing season. ^'Ber. d. Dent. Bot. Besell. 25, (1907) 507-509. ''■’^Compt. Rend. 12 8, (1899) 139-140. ^-Sep. from Oest. Ungar. Zeit, Zuckerind iind Landw. (1 906) No. 1. ■■’Tentrbl. Agr. Chem. 35,(1906)41. i '■“Loc. cit. page 2. ■’■‘.Tour. Am. Chem. Soc. 29, (1 907) 764-767; and .Joiir. Ind. and Eng. Chem. 1, (1909) 801-802. 30 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station The experiments were begun in 1906. Six rows of bluestem wheat, grown from seed coming from as many different wheat producing sections of the State, were used. Just at the time when the plants began to blossom, on July 12th, part of the plants of each row were shaded by stretching over one end of the plot a cover made of heavy, 16-ounce duck canvas, placing it just above the heads of the grain, so as to com- pletely cut off all the direct rays of the sun, but to give free access to air and diffused light. Immediately following the placing of this canvas in position, there was a period of six days of cloudy weather, during which the shade would, of course, have no effect. After this there was a period of hot, cloudless weather, during which the grain ripened up very rapidly, so that the actual shading effect extended over a period of not more than two weeks. After the grain was fully ripe, several plants from the shaded portion of each row were pulled, taking care to get those which had been well under the cover, so that the full length of the stems had been shaded. At the same time a similar number of plants from the unshaded portion of the same rows were pulled. All these samples of grain were threshed out by hand, and analyzed according to the official methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. The results of these analyses, calculated to the moisture-free basis, are included in Table 4. The abnormally short ripening period of the first season of this experiment resulted in light weight kernels, consider- ably shrunken, and, therefore, much richer in protein and poorer in starch than is normal for this locality. The effect of the shading also extended over a much shorter period than would normally occur. For this reason the experiments were repeated in the summer of 1908, and extended to other crops than wheat, using also different densities of shading. The results for this season, in so far as the shaded and unshaded wheat are concerned, are included in Table 4. ■ (For the results of this season’s work on other crops than wheat, the second article referred to above, or the station laboratory records may be consulted.) The Chemical Composition of Wheat 31 Table 4 — Analyses of Shaded vs. Unshaded Wheats Variety Crop of Kind of Shade . . . o Crude Protein, percent oa BAsIi, § per cent 4-1 Ether Extract, ® per cent ^ Fibre, etc.,* per cent 'd ^Starch, ^ per cent Bluestem No. 1 1906 none 3.05 22.28 1.83 67.53 5.30 Bluestem No. 1 1906 16-oz. duck 2.93 22.41 1.82 62.49 9.83 Bluestem No. 2 1906 ’ none 2.97 21.06 Bluestem No. 2 1906 16-oz duck 2.65 24'w02 Bluestem No. 3 1906 none 2.35 22.28 i.69 65.56 ' 8*.i2 Bluestem No. 3 1906 16-oz duck 2.93 24.01 2.12 58.39 12.54 Bluestem No. 4 1906 none 2.64 21.69 Bluestem No. 4 1906 16-oz duck 2.89 23.57 Bluestem No. 5 1906 none 2.82 21.16 1.50 67.07 7.45 Bluestem No. 5 1906 16-oz. duck 3.00 24.40 1.74 62.38 9.48 Bluestem No. 6 1906 none 1.75 21.87 1.56 66.70 7.12 Bluestem No. 6 1906 16-oz. duck 2.37 20.98 1.55 62.28 12.82 Jones Fife 1908 none 1.94 18.94 2.79 66.92 9.41 Jones Fife 1908 9-oz. duck 2.40 20.13 2.68 66.46 6.33 Bluestem No. 803 1908 none 2.05 18.17 1.74 66.78 10.26 Bluestem No. 803 1908 burlap 3.22 27.08 2.04 59.24 7.70 Sonora 1908 none 1.83 18.73 2.21 68.84 8.39 Sonora 1908 burlap 2.09 19.92 2.06 66.85 9.28 ♦Calculated by difference. The following brief summary indicates the general effect of the shading the crop from direct sunlight during the period when it is developing its grain, as shown by the figures in the table. The percentage of crude protein is higher in the shaded sample, in every case, with one exception. The average in- crease is about ten per cent of the total found in the unshaded sample, but the fluctuations in this increase are considerable. The percentage of starch, as determned by acid-hydrolysis, is invariably lower in the shaded samples. But the effect upon the starch is less marked than that upon the mineral and nitrogenous matter. The last column represents the difference between the four proximate constituents as determined by the official methods and 100 per cent. This doubtless includes, in addition to the crude fibre, certain difficultly-hydrolyzable carbohydrates. But 32 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station if the figures of the last two columns are added and consid- ered as total carbohydrate material, the effect of the shading upon this constituent group is identical with that shown by the starch determinations in every case. In brief, then, it may be said that shading, whatever the texture used or the length of the shading period, caused an increase in the percentage of mineral and nitrogenous matter and decreased percentage of carbohydrates. The increase in other constituents is not directly proportional to the decrease in starch. Hence, we conclude that the changes produced by the exclusion of direct sunlight are not simply a deterence of the elaboration of starch or carbohydrates, but that other physiological changes are induced by the shading, which are not yet understood. INFLUENCE OF LENGTH OF GROWING SEASON The literature of this subject contains frequent statements of opinion, many of which have already been referred to in this report, concerning the relation of the length of the grow- ing season to the composition of wheat. Most of such state- ments are, however, based upon general observations rather than the results of carefully conducted experiments. Plant physiologists have attempted to show that the com- pletion of each definite stage of development of the crop is determined by the total amount of effective temperature, or the combination of temperature and effective sunlight, as measured in actinometrie degrees, which the crop receives. The most careful work along this line was reported by Marie- Davy in the annual reports of the meteorological observatory at Montsouri (Paris). As reviewed by Abbe, in his ‘^First Report on the Relations Between Climates and Crops^®” these studies, so far as they apply to wheat, sought to correlate each development period, namely, ^^(1) sowing and germination, (2) heading out, (3) flowering, and (4) ripening” with a cer- tain definite amount of radiation. The data recorded show a fairly satisfactory agreement, in different years, of the actinometrie degrees during the same period of growth of the wheat crop, when the latter was planted at approximately the same date ; but wheat planted at later dates invariably re- ceived larger total radiation before it reached the heading stage than did earlier plantings. The amounts of radiation received during the flowering and the ripening periods, res- pectively, were fairly uniform for different years and for dif- ferent successive dates of planting. These observations might indicate that the latter stages of development of the crop are determined by climatic conditions, and lengthened or short- ened thereby in any particular season. However, Abbe later quotes (pages 316-317) from Professor Brower’s report on Cereals, in the Tenth Census, the statement that ''The chem- ical composition depends more upon the variety cultivated ®®U. S. Dept. Agric. Weather Bureau Bull. No. 36. 34 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station than upon either soil or climate.” These statements are men- tioned here to show how conflicting the conclusions which are drawn from general observations may be. Lyon®^ found that those wheat plants which, when sown on the same date in the same row, ripened later (i. e. had a longer growing season) gave a less yield of grain and a less total yield of proteid nitrogen, but a greater percentage of nitrogen in the grain, than those which ripened earlier. During the course of our investigations opportunity was afforded to gather considerable data bearing upon this feature of the general problem, a summary of which is here presented. Effect of Fall vs. Spring Seeding. It is a fact which has been very generally recognized that those varieties of wheat which are seeded in the fall, and hence have a longer growing season, nearly always yield heavier, plumper grain, carrying a lower percentage of protein and generally producing flour that is not so “strong,” as that from spring-sown varieties grown in the same locality. There has, however, been a very extended controversy as to whether these differences were true “varietal” characters, or simply due to the different environmental conditions during the growth of the fall-sown and spring-sown grain. Prior to our work, it seemed impossible to get definite ex- perimental evidence on this matter; since, in most wheat- growing districts, spring varieties of wheats will not live through the winter if seeded in the fall, and fall varieties which are hardy enough to live through the winter will not head out and produce seed if sown in the spring. In many of the wheat- growing sections of this State, however, it is quite a common practice, because of the mildness of the winter weather, to seed the same variety of wheat both in the fall ard in the spring. In the course of our investigations, we secured a con- siderable number of samples of such grain. In several cases, where the general field had been seeded in the fall, certain small areas which showed a very thin stand in the spring had "Loc. cit. pages 105-111. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 35 been plowed up and reseeded v.dth tiie same seed, in the early spring; at harvest time, these fields are allowd to stand until the spring-grown grain matures, before cutting, so that the samples which came in were of plump, mature grain in each case. In a number of other instances, samples were secured from the experimental plots of this Station, where the same seed had been sown in both fall and spring in adjacent plots, in order to insure a quantity of some particular strain of some variety for some special purpose. In all such cases, the same seed was used, planted on uniform soil and harvested when mature. The only variable would be, therefore, the length of the growing season, as influenced by the factors which deter- mine at what stage in the life-history of the wheat it shall mature and ripen its seeds, whatever those factors may be. Table 5 — Effect of Fall vs. Spring Seeding of the Same Variety of Wheat Crop Grown Percentage of Protein Variety of at Fall Seeding Spring Seeding Little Club 1905 Dayton 9.38 10.63 Durum 1905 Quincy 14.44 17.86 Argentine 1905 Quincy 14.94 18.10 Gharnovka 1905 Quincy 13.29 15.39 Red Fife 1906 Quincy 13.23 15.00 Bluestem 1907 Ritzville 12.85 14.62 Bluestem 1908 Pullman 14.04 15.13 Bluestem 1908 Pullman 13.71 15.81 Bluestem 1908 Pullman 14.04 16.80 Bluestem 1908 Ritzville 15.83 17.52 Bluestem 1908 Ritzville 15.98 16.43 Argentine 1908 Ritzville 18.84 20.21 Average 14.29 16.12 The results of the analyses of several such pairs of sam- ples are shown in Table 5. These results indicate that the varia- tions in composition of same variety when given a longer or shorter growing season are likely to be fully as great, or even greater than the differences in composition of fall or spring sown grain of different varieties grown in the same locality. This fact may perhaps be made more easily apparent by ref- erence to the table (Table 6) showing the average protein content of the spring and fall sown varieties of this State for 36 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station the five-year period of our investigations, as copied from our Bulletin No. 100. It will bet noted that the spring-sown varieties are invariably lower in average protein content. Lit- tle Club, a spring wheat, is an apparent exception, but this is a very hardy variety, and is commonly seeded in the fall in this State, and more than half the samples which were ana- lyzed came from fall-sown wheat. Table 6 — Average Composition of Leading Varieties of Wheats Average Average No. of Moisture Protein Variety Samples per cent per cent Macaroni 13 9.58 12.86 Bluestem 126 9.97 12.44 Red Allen 17 11.05 12.04 .Tones’ Winter Fife 43 9.70 11.61 Turkey Red 55 9.43 11.27 Little Club 65 1 0.08 10.75 Fortyfold 27 10.04 10.74 Red Russian 16 9.85 9.76 It appears, from these results, that the differences in com- position between fall-sown and spring-sown wheats are not due to actual differences in the habit of growth and develop- ment of the different varieties, so-called ^‘varietal characters,” l)ut to the elongation or shortening of the growth period by the planting at different seasons of the year. Effect of Early vs. Late Spring Seeding. It was the writer’s intention to continue the above study, .by making a comparison of the effect upon the length of the growing season and the composition of the wheat of early vs. late spring seeding, but a change in the staff of workers of the Division of Crop Production of the Station caused the matter to be overlooked at the time and it has never been undertaken since. Effect of Early vs. Late Harvesting of the Crop. The (piestion of the effect upon the composition of the grain of varying the date and consequent stage of maturity at which the crop is harvested has received considerable attention from investigators, manufacturers of harvesting machinery, and millers. The opinions and conclusions of most of the The Chemical Composition of Wheat 37 scientific investigators who have studied this problem are briefly reviewed on pages 6 to 12 inclusive of this report. The importance of this matter to manufacturers of different types of harvesting machinery for use in the Pacific Coast regions, where summer weather conditions are such as to per- mit the wheat grower to choose for himself the method and manner of harvesting the crop, led to a demand for information as to the effect upon the milling and flour-making ciuality of allowing the wheat to come to full maturity before harvesting with the various methods of threshing the grain at the same operation by which it is cut, as contrasted with cutting the grain a little before it is ripe, with a binder, and permitting it to '‘cure” in the shock or stack or both. A study of this matter, both from the standpoint of cost of harvesting and of effect upon the milling quality of the wheat, was, therefore, assigned to Joseph W. Brislawn, a senior in the College, of the class of 1907, as a thesis subject. The results of his investiga- tions, in the form of a thesis’^ are on file in the College library. That part of his work which dealt with the effect of the dif- ferent methods of harvesting consisted in the collection of a considerable number of samples of wheat, of the crop of 1906, which had been harvested in the same locality by each of the three following methods of harvesting: (1) cut with a binder and threshed from the stack or shock, (2) cut with a combined harvester and thresher, and (3) cut with a header and hauled directly to the thresher. These samples were analyzed, milled and their milling products tested in the Station laboratories, with the results shown in Table 7. The results show a considerable difference in composition, resulting from the different methods of harvesting, Mr. Bris- lawn, in commenting upon these results, says “The differences doubtless would have been greater but for the fact that such large acreages were harvested in each field that it was im- possible to get all the grain cut just at the desired stage of “A Comparison of Harvesting Methods and Their Effect on the Milling Qualities of Wheat,” a thesis presented to the Faculty of the State College of Washington by a candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. .'38 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station growth in each case, the tendency being for all the grain to become riper than was planned before it could be harvested.’’ Table 7. — Effect of Different Methods of Harvesting Wheat Upon the Milling Qualities of the Grain Pro- Pro- Gluten Test te n tein of Flour Locality Variety Method of Harvesting Flour Almira Bluestem Binder al3.70bl2.ll 34.00 11.59 Almira Bluestem Combined Harvester 13.18 11.30 32.00 11.55 Almira Bluestem Header and Thresher 11.86 10.57 27.10 9.85 Sprague Bluestem Combined Harvester 14.10 12.40 33.29 11.87 .Sprague Bluestem Header and Thresher 13.34 10.06 28.00 9.99 Almota Red Rus. Binder 12.01 11.27 32.00 10.01 ,Almota Red. Rus. Combined Harvester 10.37 9.29 22.65 8.65 _Pullman Lit. Club Binder 11.23 26.51 10.85 Pullman Lit. Club Header and Thresher 10.16 8.90 22.39 7.95 ..a Average of three or four samples analyzed separately in each case, b Same samples made into composites for milling tests. It is apparent, therefore, that shortening the development period of grain, by harvesting it before it is quite ripe, increases the proportion of protein in the wheat and of gluten in the flour. Lyon^®, having shown that the quality of the gluten is not materially affected by this shortening of the maturation period, it is the obvious conclusion that binder-cut grain is of somewhat higher milling quality, than is the same grain if allowed to mature in the field before cutting. It has been supposed by most writers on this subject that wheat when cut with a binder before it is quite ripe, will con- tinue to translocate the food material contained in its stems and leaves to the kernels while “curing” in the shock. The results here reported fail to confirm this view. Investigations have been undertaken by Geo. A. Olson, the present chemist of this Station, to ascertain under what conditions such trans- location would take place, and whether all such translocation .actually ceases when the grain is cut and shocked under ordi- nary field conditions. ®®Loc. cit., page 119. INFLUENCE OF LENGTH OF PERIOD OF KERNEL- FORMATION Frequent references have already been made in this report to the general opinion that the length of the growing season has a very important effect upon the composition of the result- ant grain. The preceding section has been devoted to our pre- liminary experimental studies of this effect. Early in the progress of these investigations the writer became convinced that it was not the length of the total growing period, but only that portion of it during which the kernels are formed, which influences the final composition of the grain. Two different considerations led to the same conclusion. There was, first, the understanding among most plant physiologists that pro- tein formation is most active during the earlier periods of plant growth, and that during seed-formation the process is chiefly that of translocation of the nitrogenous matter already formed into the kernel; while carbohydrate production would bo likely to continue in active progress so long as any part of the plant remains green, i. e., contains active chlorophyll. The work of Deherain and Dupont®" showed that the upper part of the stems of wheat are active in carbohydrate-formation while the kernels are being filled. Cobb”, as a result of his “biological analysis’’ of wheat, has shown that the “flour cells” of the endosperm which are probably the last to be filled in with starch are relatively richest in carbohydrates and lowest in protein content. Even Brenchley and Hall’s con- ception that each plant “continually moves into the grain uniform material * * * ^ possessing always that same ratio of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous materials” (see page 12) would lead to the same general conclusion, since their own analytical data indicate that the material moved into the kernel is relatively much higher in carbohydrates than the original “mould” of the endosperm. All of these opinions lead to the same general conclusion that if the period of ®'’Ann. Agronomique, 28, (1902) 522. ®^Agr. Gaz. New So. Wales, 13, (1902) 74-90. 40 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station kernel-formation should l)e prolonged by any change of con- ditions, this would permit a greater filling in of materials richer in carbohydrates than that first built into the structure of the kernel, and, therefore, reduce the proportion of nitro- genous material and produce a softer” grain. Again, there was the observed fact that in some seasons the difference l)etween the composition of fall-sown grain, with its long growing period, and spring-sown grain, with much shorter total growing time, was much less than in other seasons, indicating to the writer that it was the final rapidity of formation and ripening of the kernel which made the char- acteristic difference in composition, rather than the total time of development from germination to matured seed. Two methods of study of this problem suggested them- selves: first, a comparison of the composition of grain maturing at different seasons of the summer with the climatic condi- tions at those times, over a period of years having different harvest weather conditions ; and, second, an actual comparison of the number of elapsed days during the period of kernel- formation with the resulting composition of the grain. The report of our investigations by both of these methods follows. Effect of Reversal of Climatic Conditions During Harvest Upon Relative Composition of Fall-Sown and Spring-Sown Grain In Part II. of this report, there will be found a discussion of our four years’ line-selection work with four varieties of wheat, two of them (Jones’ Fife and Red Russian) being true fall wheats, and the other two (Bluestem and Little Club) spring varieties, sowed, therefore, at those seasons of each year. Xormally, the spring varieties, when analyzed for the selec- tions for high and low nitrogen, showed considerably higher figures for percentages of nitrogen than the fall varieties. But Ihe harvest weather of ]0d9 was very unusual, there being a short period of hot, dry weather in the latter part of June, during which the winter wheats ripened up rapidly, followed by a period of unusually cool, damp weather, which resulted in a very slow ripening of the spring-sown Avheats. Our The Chemical Composition of Wheat 41 analyses for this year showed the fall-sown wheats to be con- siderably richer in protein, or higher in percentage of nitrogen, than the spring-sown varieties. The following year, with nor- mal summer weather, the relative composition of fall- and spring-sown varieties became normal once more. The actual effect of this change in weather conditions upon the per- centage of nitrogen in the grain is shown in Table 8. Table 8. — Effect of Summer Weather Conditions Upon Com- position of Wheat Deviations from Xormal — June — Mean temperature Total rainfall July — IMean temperature Total rainfall 1908 — 1.8 deg. — 1.22 in. -4-3.1 deg. -4-0.16 in. 1909 — 1.0 deg. — 0.58 in. — 2.9 deg. -j-1.70 in. 1910 — 2.0 deg. — 1.40 in. -1-2.8 deg. — 0.02 in. Average Nitivigen Content — 3 O PD . H.. 03 B o ^ ■ CD B O pD . 2 ^ O) '< o W l-h ro 73 o o crq o J-< o o ti Ritzville CO • CO 00 cq UO • 05 iO iH lO CO CO 05 CO OO "CO 00 t- 1-1 CD CO OO • iH Quincy .coioiococococo -co C0iHC0U000O5' 00 t- CO CD LO *10 • t> tH CD o LO cq o *00 Quincy ^s'^oocoioitico *10 10 Tt< LO LO LO LO • TjH TficocDoOi-iosLOt-cqo Pullman ^ ^ CDCD00'!fCD00CDO5LO'^ d fl •pH rt) sS) 2 ^ p^pk d O ci o s OOCAiMt^COiOCOTi-COO oocqcDLOojoocqcD-'fLO CO CO cq cq t-H iH r-j O O O'. • o •id d ►"< ■ 2 ^ S S OJO'-'^ndg.^rt ww0Qo*^;3;^njO'C5 03 g ^ TO C3 I ; w d o XJ O •^OOr-f’^Ct^OOOOOOt-l> 1017 Goldendale The Chemical Composition of Wheat 51 order to shorten the table, does not detract from its value.. The season of 1906 was a very dry one, that of 1907 was about normal, while 1908 was slightly drier than the average. With this variety of conditions, it would seem that if the dif- ferent samples of original seed were in any way particularly adapted to various conditions of moisture supply, it would have been easily apparent in the composition of the samples which were analyzed. A most careful study of the figures, however, has failed to give to the writer any evidence what- ever of any such adaptation. It was thought that if the samples were given a relative rank, according to their pro- tein content, at each locality in each year, some relationship might appear. This was done and the result is shown in Table 10. Table 10. — Relative Rank in Different Years of Grain Grown From Same Seed, in Different Localities Crop of 1906 Crop of 1907 Crop of 1908 (Dry Year) (Normal Year) (Nearly Normal Year) o O 2 jO 2 p p p. p;* p p <-► w p* B p' o N B p a N B p* o 1 p p '< p '< p '< p o p o p • O r, . . , 4 6 3 1 7 8 3 2 2 6 2 1 5 2 7 8 7 3.... 3 7 2 4 8 2 9 8 3 4 9 4 8 8 4 3 5 5 5 7 1 7 3 4 4 3 4 6 2 3 4 5 5 1 4 1 7 5 5 5 6 1 6 10 1 2 8 1 7 7 9 8 8 6 3 6 1 2 6 10 . . .10 2 6 So far as the writer can discover, there is not the slightest evidence of any relation between the composition of the re- sultant grain and that of the original seed, either in the direc- tion of an hereditary tendency to high- or low-protein con- tent, or of a consistent effect of climatic conditions to which the seed grain may have been supposed to have become adapted in each case. It would appear, therefore, that the composition of the seed grain has no effect whatever upon the composition of the resultant crop; and, further, that transfer of seed has no effect, at least so far as composition of the grain is concerned. PART II. . . .i i 1 LINE SELECTION BREEDING FOR VARIATION OF NITROGEN CONTENT OF WHEAT Breeding Wheat for Improvement in Composition Plant breeding is, at present, one of the very important branches of agricultural science. As applied to cereals, par- ticularly to wheat, most of this work has been concerned with ' improvement in yielding capacity, however, and but very few attempts have been made to change, by breeding, the quality or composition of the grain itself. This is undoubtedly because of the fact that there was no known method of testing the composition of the seed grain, except by analysis, which would of course destroy the grain itself, leaving no tested seed avail- able for propagation purposes. Recently, however, this matter has received considerable study, the results of which may be • briefly reviewed, as follows: There are two general methods of breeding which are open to use by any investigator who is seeking to evolve new strains , of plants. There are, respectively, the selection (or line-selec- tion) method, and hybridization. In the ‘first, the procedure consists in choosing some indi- vidual plant which possesses the characteristic which it is desired to develop in the new strain in a larger degree than 1 its felloW' 'plants, grown under the same conditions, as a parent seed ! stock. In simple selection, this first choosing of ‘'improved” seed constitutes the only attempt at fixing the desired* characteristics. In line-selection, however, tlie progeny j from the . first selection is carefully studied and those indi- viduals whicli show a tendency to develop in the desired direc- tion ahe selected out for use as seed for the next generation. This process ican be repeated indefinitely^ so long as improve- 'i ment I ds! obtained or until the desired character becomes •j‘.‘fiiedh’)iby:ftbe. process and the new strain or variety is reaVly for general use. i The Chemical Composition of Wheat 53 In hybridization, two varieties, each possessing some desir- able characteristics which it is desired to combine in the new variety, are artificially cross-pollenated, and from the resulting progeny, those types which nearest approach to the ideal which the breeder is seeking to attain are selected, as foundation stock for the new variety, and all other types rejected. A complete discussion of the principles underlying such hybridi- zation work, and of the probabilities of securing and “fixing” any desired tyi)e would be out of place in this report. They have, however, been very fully discussed in Bulletin No. 89 of this Experiment Station, which was prepared, at the writer’s request, by Professor W. J. Spillman. Hybridization has been very successfully employed by a large number of breeders to improve the yielding capacity of wheat. Practically the only reference in agricultural litera- ture to the possibility of using this process for improvement in the quality of the grain, however, is the controversy concern- ing the possibility of such a result from hybridization between Biffen, Professor of Agricultural Botany, University of Cam- bridge, and Saunders, Cerealist of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada. Biffen'’^, as a result of his study of the Fi, F 2 , and F^ generations of a single cross of wheat, had reached the conclusion that, although the difference between “strong” and “weak” grains is a very “subtle” one and diffi- cult to measure accurately, yet it constitutes a Mendelian pair of characters, and is, hence, capable of being transferred, to the progeny of a hybridized grain. Based upon these conclu- sions. Humphrey, and BiffeiT'*, in their report to the Home- GroAvn Wheat Committee, cited “strength” as a Mendelian character which might be fixed in new strains, or varieties, by careful breeding. In the meantime, Saunders'^'’ had been making extended studies of the milling qualities of Canadian • wheats, including both standard and hybrid varieties, and had come to the conclusion that “AYhile it is no doubt possil)le that in some cases a cross-bred wheat may po.ssess bakirtg qualities Mour. Ag. ScL 1, (1 905) 36-39. ‘’■Jour. Ag. Sci. 2, (1 907) 1-1 7. •’‘’Central Exj). Farm Bull. Xo. 57, (1 907) page 35. 64 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station the same as one of the parents, the results given here seem to show conclusively that baking strength is not a Mendelian character, that is to say, is not always inherited from one or the other parent in pure condition.” Biffen”, however, criti- cizes Saunders’ conclusions on the grounds that the hybrid varieties which he was considering were themselves heterozy- gotes and hence likely to result in uncertain characters; and cited other hybrid varieties, resulting from crossing of fixed types, to prove his contentions. He also reported extension of his own studies to further hybrids, in which he measured “strength” and “weakness” by three different physical tests, namely, chewing, crushing, and comparison of translucency ; from which he concluded that “There can be little doubt that high-yielding capacity and strength can be obtained in combi- nation in the same variety, though whether high- and low- yield capacity segregate at the F2 stage * * * remains to be determined.” Saunders®* replied to the criticisms of Biffen by reviewing in detail the care which had been used at the Central Experimental Farms to secure pure, fixed strains for hybridization work and presented his own opinion that “at present it appears that absence of strength is due to various causes which may perhaps be roughly grouped under two heads, namely, small quantity and poor quality of gluten. Strength is indeed well described as an ‘elusive feature.’ Were it a Mendelian unit character it would be quite otherwise.” To this Biffen®® replied briefly, with the general conclusion that definitions of “strength” and “weakness” as a variety char- acter are too elastic terms to permit scientific conclusions on the points in controversy. It might be added that, throughout their articles, Biffen appears to use these terms as indicating high- or low-nitrogen content, while Saunders considers a wheat as “strong” if the flour from it makes a large, well- piled loaf of bread. It appears from this discussion that the question as to whether hybridization can be successfully used to improve the quality of wheat is still unsettled. "Jour. Ag. Sci. 3, (1908) 86-101. “Jour. Ag. Sci. 3, (1908) 218-222. “Ibid, 3, (1908) 223-224. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 55 Nor is there much evidence in the literature of 'wheat breed- ing to show whether line-selection can be successfully used for this purpose. Von Feilitzen"”, as a result of a two years’ study came to the conclusion that the division of the seed grain into “starchy” and “glassy” portions, using the diaphanoscope for the separation, “exerts no significant influence on the quantity of yield or size of grains, and only very slight influ- ence upon the starchiness of the resultant grain.” Humphrey and Biffen” in the report previously referred to, state that “ ^ =55: after four seasons (of line-selection) no manifest improvement has resulted. The attempt to select a strong wheat from such a high-yielding variety as Rivet hardly appears to be worth making for its endosperm characters are singularly constant.” Ladd and Sheppard^^ started originally with a large number of samples of wheat selected for their high-nitrogen content, but finally reduced these to eight, as the “tested samples did not continue to propagate uniformly high protein content.” A four-years’ test of these eight showed that they did not continue to increase in their protein content, seasonal influences of the different years causing ununiform fluctuations. Unfortunately, their work was not checked against non-selected seed, nor against low-protein selections, hence no positive conclusions could be drawn. Lyon” conducted two different sets of selections for the pur- pose of changing the protein content of wheat. In the first, the kernels of lighter specific gravity (which had been found by an extended series of analyses to be somewhat richer in per- centage of nitrogen than the heavier kernels from the same sample of grain) were planted separately from the heavier grain from the same lot of seed, and in each successive genera- tion, for four years, the light kernels separated from the grain grown from the light seed and the heavy kernels from that gro-wn from the heavy seed. The following are his conclusions from this work : "Jour. f. Landw. 52, (1902) 401-412. "Loc. cit., page 7. ’*No. Dak. Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1903, 36-37. "*U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. No. 78, 72-100. 56 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station “Taking, together, the results of 1902, which show a decrease in the weight of the kernels on a single head as the content of proteid nitrogen increases, the results of 1903, which show a slight decrease in the weight of the kernels from the plant, accompanying an in- crease in the percentage of proteid n'trogen, and the yields of the light and heavy seed for the four years beginning with 1900, there would appear to be a slight decrease in yield of grain, accompanying an increase in the percentage of proteid nitrogen. Th’s loss in yield is not sufficient to counteract the increase in nitrogen, and the result is to increase the production of proteids per acre. “V ewed in the light of these various experiments, the selection of large, heavy wheat kernels for seed does not appear to be alto- gether unobjectionable, as in this case it resulted n a decreased production of proteids per acre, without a compensating increase in the yield of grain, when cont nued for a number of years. On the other hand, the selection of the small, light seed is hardly to be recommended. In fact, selection based upon kernel size or weight is not a satisfactory method for permanently improving wheat.” In the second series of experiments in breeding to increase the proteid nitrogen in wheat, he sowed separately the seed from different individual plants grown from the same original plant. The nitrogen content of the planted seed was deter- mined by, analyzing the grain from half of all the heads of the plant, this having been previously found to be a sufficiently accurate method of sampling. In the second year, the progeny was again planned separately. His conclusions from these two seasons’ work, during Avhich a fewer number of plants were used th.an he himself felt was desirable, for fnial conclusions, led him to express the following opinions: “There is a tendency for each class of plants to reproduce In the same relation to the other classes, but there is less dif- ference between the extreme classes in the offspring than in the parent plants. In other words, while all plants tend to repro- duce their own qualities, those plants varying widely from the average produce, :'n general, offspring varying from the average less widely than did the parents. Although this is a rule, its appli- cation to the individual is not universal. Certain plants may be found whose tendency to variation extends through both genera- tions. There is also wide variation between certain plants of the same parent. For instance, the plants numbered from 21,205 to 21,212, all of which come from the same parent, vary from 2.16 to 5.23 per cent in proteid nitrogen content, while plants 69,805 and 69,806 vary from 5.82 to 1.66 per cent in this constituent. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 57 “It would seem, therefore, entirely reasonable to believe that a very considerable increase in the proteid nitrogen content of wheat may be effected by careful and continuous reproduction from plants of high proteid nitrogen content.” Lyon’s work at the Nebraska Experiment Station was con- tinued in subsequent years by Montgomery, whose results have not yet been published. The writer has been informally advised, however, that Montgomery’s results completely dis- prove the conclusion of Lyon in the last paragraph of the above quotation. No other account of investigations of this kind have appeared in the literature of wheat-breeding which is available to the writer. Harper and PeteE^, of the Kentucky Experiment Station, as a result of their investigations of the quality of the grain from different parts of a wheat plant, suggest the use of flinty kernels, from the middle of the head, and selected from early maturing varieties, as the best seed to use in breeding for im- provment in composition. Their recommendation is based upon the use of a machine for testing the ‘"hardness” of the kernels. It is not, however, supported by any experimental evidence that the characteristics thus found in the seed grain will be conferred upon the progeny therefrom. '^Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 113. VARIABILITY IN NITROGEN CONTENT OF WHEAT The first essential in any attempt to change the composition of the grain is, of course, a knowledge of the limits of varia- tion in the grain from which the selections are to be made. The second essential is a knowledge of what constitutes the proper unit of selection, this being dependent upon the varia- bility in composition and upon the hereditary tendencies of the different kernels or other parts of the plants. In the case of wheat, the question to be determined is whether the single kernel, the single spike or head, or the whole plant, is the proper unit of selection. Or, in other words, shall the separa- tion be of high-nitrogen kernels from any lot of seed grain, or of heads having a high percentage of nitrogen in their entire number of kernels, or of individual plants the entire amount of grain of which carries a higher average percentage of nitro- gen than that of other plants grown under the same conditions. A final essential is a proper method of sampling for analyses, so that a portion of the grain which shall correctly represent the entire lot can be analyzed and the remainder saved for planting, in the case of those lots which are finally selected to serve as parent stocks. Some evidence on all three of these points was secured be- fore our own attempts to increase the nitrogen content of wheat by line-selection were inaugurated, and has been pub- lished as Bulletin No. 102 of this Station. Since the prepara- tion of that bulletin, however, a much larger quantity of data concerning the variability of the nitrogen content of wheat has been collected, which should be presented in this report. Some of this material was collected in connection with our studies of the composition of different varieties of Washington wheats; other parts of it as a result of analyses of wheats under trial in the experimental tracts of the cereal investigations of the Station ; others as a comparison of different plants grown in the same row; and the remainder as a result of our studies of the composition of the grain from different parts of the same plant, wliich were summarized in Bulletin No. 102. but the data from vdii-'h are here presented in full for the first time. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 59 The data naturally fall into the following groups: varia- tion in composition of different strains of the same variety grown in different parts of the State ; of different strains of the same variety grown in the same field; of different plants grown in the same row; of different spikes of the same plant ; and of kernels from dif- ferent parts of the same spike, and are presented in Tables 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 respectively. These data are all pre- sented in terms of protein content, rather than percentage of nitrogen, as the purpose for which they were primarily col- lected required their computation on this basis, in many cases, and it seemed to be more convenient to bring them all to this basis rather than to recalculate a large proportion of them into nitrogen percentages. Table 11. — Variation in Composition of Different Samples of the Same Variety of Wheat Grown in the Same State Crop No. of Percentage of Protein (N X 6.25) Variety of Samples Maximum Minimum Average Bluestem 1905 22 14.20 9.50 11.79 1906 24 18.43 10.31 13.75 1907 30 14.43 8.87 11.56 1908 22 17.42 10.13 13.25 1909 28 15.81 9.88 12.15 126 18.43 8.87 12.44 Little Club 1905 18 15.21 7.89 10.73 1906 11 13.88 • 8.37 10.94 1907 14 13.52 8.26 10.43 1908 14 13.94 8.05 11.80 1909 13 12.31 7.50 9.83 70 15.21 7.50 10.75 Turkey Red 1905 7 14.17 8.42 11.14 1906 11 15.33 10.70 12.64 1907 10 12.43 8.40 10.38 1908 12 14.06 10.00 11.61 1909 16 14.44 8.69 10.69 5 6 15.33 8.40 11.27 Jones’ Fife 1905 8 12.45 9.21 10.37 1906 15 15.06 9.60 12.34 1907 7 12.60 9.22 11.69 1908 10 12.44 10.38 11.26 1909 3 15.38 8.69 12.25 43 15.06 8.69 11.61 60 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Table 12. — Variation in Composition of Different Strains of a Single Variety of Wheat, Grown in the Same Field No. of Percentage of Protein (N x 6.25) Grown at Crop of Samples Maximum Minimum Average Pullman 1906 11 19.27 14.80 16.70 1907 10 15.64 9.97 13.34 1908 10 18.19 15.13 17.20 Ritzville 1906 10 18.03 13.59 16.48 1907 10 14.62 12.55 12.98 1908 7 17.98 15.83 16.63 Quincy 1906 10 18.16 14.58 15.46 1907 10 15.94 14.43 14.85 1908 9 17.63 15.63 16.56 Table 13.- -Variation in Composition of Different Plants in the Same Row No. of Percentage of Protein (N x 6.25) Variety Crop of Samples Maximum Minimum . Average Bluestem 1907 40 12.31 8.59 10.13 1908 160 24.44 9.19 18.51 1909 160 18.31 8.44 11.32 1910 100 20.12 13.69 16.80 1911 50 24.50 8.03 18.40 Little Club » 1907 40 13.32 7.84 9.77 1908 160 21.62 14.31 17.71 1909 160 13.75 7.62 10.39 1910 200 34.31 8.88 17.34 1911 50 26.92 14.50 19.49 Jones’ Fife 1907 40 15.04 8.23 10.94 1908 160 19.42 7.31 12.42 1909 160 14.00 7.87 10.66 1910 200 18.56 11.81 15.02 1911 50 16.75 11.50 12.92 Red Russian 1907 40 17.81 10.34 13.23 1908 160 21.06 9.19 15.30 1909 200 15.62 9.31 12.29 1910 160 24.19 14.75 16.27 1911 50 20.00 14.50 16.40 The Chemical Composition of Wheat 61 Table 14. — Variation in Composition of Different Spikes of the Same Plant Crop Plant Nn. nf Precentage of Protein (N x 6.25] Variety of No. Spikes Maximum Minimum Average Bluestem — 1906 3A 7 14.97 13.15 14.08 3B 5 16.75 14.65 15.60 3C 5 16.46 14.34 15.46 5B 6 18.11 15.47 16.47 5C 6 18.34 16.62 17.39 5D 7 20.84 16.29 18.81 Little Club — 1906 2A 8 23.80 16.11 18.18 2B 9 19.81 16.46 18.20 2C 5 20.91 15.01 17.57 4A 7 19.20 18.20 18.64 4B 6 19.62 17.51 18.82 4C 6 18.78 17.77 18.63 4D 6 19.36 17.24 18.11 Jones’ Fife — - 1906 lA 9 19.40 14.89 17.84 6A 5 16.50 13.95 15.11 6B 5 15.40 13.22 14.45 6C 5 16.16 13.35 14.53 6D 5 15.08 13.34 14.08 IOC 6 15.37 12.38 13.02 7E 9 21.84 14.89 18.46 Turkey Red — 1906 7A 5 16.63 15.03 15.73 7B 5 16.09 14.78 15.69 IIB 6 14.07 10.06 12.79 . lie 5 13.75 12.43 13.06 IID 5 15.62 14.60 15.11 14A 7 20.96 15.51 17.69 14B 20 23.39 15.62 18.51 Hybrid No. 143- 14G 19 24.61 15.42 18.29 1911 A 27 18.25 12.62 15.95 B 13 14.75 11.13 13.18 C 18 14.00 11.19 13.24 D 17 19.12 13.00 14.35 P 24 19.00 8.06 15.06 V 17 17.19 12.81 15.16 w 17 21.56 11.81 15.28 X 19 18.75 14.12 16.02 Y 20 20.75 13.62 15.78 Z 16 36.81 14.31 18.82 Table 15. — Variation in Composition of Kernels From Different Parts of the Same Spike Per Cent Protein”SoSSS (Nx6.25) ir-LccDiouico Location of Kernels Spike No. Plant No. Si Jh P l»Ot-OTt-t-?DC£)t'-t:^00'X'lOt^-t-t-CC>00 00 00 00t>-«O a ^ '^(MfMOOrtcOOO^C^ MooOt-i-IC£)I>-CDt- Per Cent Protein LOcocDiot-^t^t-icpio (N X 6.25) Location of Kernels ®^^®^^®S® o a-- o o a m 6 >> ® +-> -i-> Q) m f-c .2 > w <^^CO(MCOt>-rHOiC 00 t^ 00 00 l 0 t>t^ uS ^ ^ ®'T3^®'05®'02^®^2^ a^d ^ a-d ^ a>d ^ a-d ^ a-^ o a;d o a-^ o a-^ o The Chemical Composition of Wheat 63 These tables are practically self-explanatory; but the fol- lowing brief comments may serve to make them a little clearer. Table 11 is a summary of the data concerning all the sam- ples of the four leading varieties which were collected dur- ing the five years’ study of the composition of Washington wheats. Table 12 shows the variability in the several samples of Bluestem wheat grown during the investigations concerning the effect of transferring seed grain, which have already been discussed in Part I. of this report. Table 13 is a summary of the results of the analyses for selection purposes of a large number of individual plants, the plants of the same variety being grown in the same or adjoin- ing rows each year, and all given as uniform conditions ol growth as was possible. While these plants were grown in a line-selection experiment, the results showed that the selec- tion had no influence upon the composition of the resultant grain, and the limits of variability here shown may be regard- ed as typical of that between plants in the same field under ordinary growing conditions. Table 14 is the result of an elaborate study of the relation of the composition of the heads of an individual plant to the length of straw upon which they grew, and their relative posi- tion in the stool,” or plant. These data were published, in part, in Bulletin No. 102, but are here presented in summar- ized form, in order to show the limits of variability of the different heads of the same plant. In general, it will be seen that the variation is greatest, as might be expected, in the plants having the greatest number of individual spikes. Table 15 shows the variability in composition of the kernels from different spikelets, or rows of kernels within the spikelets, of the same plant. The averages from these data were re- ported in Bulletin No. 102, but results of the individual an- alyses are here presented for the first, time. EXPERIMENTS IN LINE-SELECTION BREEDING FOR CHANGE OF NITROGEN-CONTENT OF WHEAT 'The writer’s participation in the earlier part of the work of Lyon at the Nebraska Experiment Station, which has been repeatedly referred to in this report, led him to believe that line-selection breeding of wheat for improvement of its chem- ical composition offered a very promising field of research. The fact that several of the highest-yielding varieties of the State were found to be very low in their average protein con- tent, made it seem especially desirable that such work should be undertaken in the State of Washington. The work was begun in 1907. Two general lines of selec- tion were used. The first was based upon the knowledge which had been obtained that the kernels from certain parts of the wheat plant were richer in percentage of nitrogen than those from other parts of the plant, and consisted, therefore, in a line-selection of the grain from these different parts of the plants, in order to ascertain whether this tendency to variation in composition could be fixed upon the progeny of the seed, by such selection breeding. This was recognized at the outset as being an improbable outcome, yet it is the actual basis for any type of breeding by selection which depends upon differences in composition of kernels in a mixed lot of seed, and is the suggestion made by Harper and Peter, in the bulletin already referred to^®. The second line of selection which was used was one based upon the selection of individual plants. This seemed to the writer to be a much more promis- ing method, since it would appear that a wheat plant which, when growing side by side with other plants in the same row or field, developed grain richer in nitrogen than that of its neighboring plants, ought to be the best unit for selection breeding. Lyon’s conclusions, quoted above, were in this same general direction. The results of these several line-selection breeding experi- ments are shown below. '=Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 113. The Chemical Composition of Wheat 65 Selection of Kernels From Inner and Outer Rows of the Same Spike Five plants each of three fall varieties of wheat, namely, Red Russian, Jones’ Fife, and Turkey Red, were chosen, and in each case, all the grain from the outer rows of kernels in all the spikelets was separated from that growing in the inner meshes of the spikelets, small samples drawn out from each lot for analysis, and the remainder planted in adjacent rows in the cereal nursery. The composition of the selected seed and of the resultant grain, in each case, is shown in Table 16. Table 16. — Influence of Seed From Inner and Outer Rows of a Spike Upon Composition of Resultant Grain Composition of Grain Planted Harvested Variety- o ux 2.' Selection o ^ Cf P Red Russian . . . . . .2100 5 Inner Outer .0438 .0486 2.328 2.407 .0306 .0310 2.558 2.571 Jone’s Fife . . . . . . .2102 5 Inner Outer .0436 .0492 2.301 2.240 .0342 .0350 2.041 2.000 Turkey Red . . . . . .2106 5 Inner Outer .0428 .0550 2.327 2.541 .0329 .0313 2.592 2.585 It will be observed that the resultant grain was perfectly uniform in composition, for each variety, and the experiment was, therefore, immediately abandoned. Selection of Seed From Different Spikelets of the Same Spikes In the spring of 1906, all the heads of each of six different plants of both Bluestem and Little Club wheat were carefully separated into their successive spikelets, and all the kernels from the lowest pair of spikelets of each spike of the plant thrown together, those from the second pair of spikelets in a second lot, etc., etc. The grain from these separate lots was then planted in adjacent rows, and the resulting grain har- vested at the proper time. Owing to the enormous number of 66 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station individual samples which would have been involved if, in the second generation, all spikelets had been again planted sep- arately, it was deemed best to make the separations in this generation only in three divisions, known respectively as the butt, middle, and tip sections of each spike. These separations were made, a sample of each group then taken out to be plant- ed, and the balance properly composited for analysis to show the composition of the grain grown from the previous spring’s selections. The grain resulting from the second selections, made as just described, this being the crop of 1907, was har- vested, threshed, and analyzed. No selections were made this third season, as the results of the analyses of the grain grown m 1906, from the selections of successive spikelets, had led the writer to believe that the second season’s crop would be uni- form in composition. The results of the analyses of the sam- ples from these two successive generations of line selections of spikelets from different parts of the spike, are shown in Tabl 17. The figures apparently show a slight effect of the selection process upon’ the composition of the resultant grain, since both the average weight of kernels (the data for which are omitted from the table in order to economize space) and the percentage of nitrogen in the kernels, show slight varia- tions in the same general directions as were found to exist in the grain from the different parts of the spike. Before this apparent effect was discovered, however, the entire yield of grain of each of the selections had been threshed out in order to secure samples for analysis, so that it was impossible to continue this line-selection, and a new series was later started, the results from which appear in later pages of this report. !-< h-i f-j X X X X o o O o 05 <35 > 2 - = E ® 2 1 : - Qg - : : W w <-t- 9 ; o : • B : 3 O' • o' • CD CD (iO O 'X' 05 <55 05 os 05 Oi -q 05 (OT CO to tiS ^5 to to to M to 00 cn CD oo ^ tJ10«DcDhf>.CDM- <1 00 to CD O to CO CD CD ^ 'X' CD CD 05 05 <55 05 05 <35 --q 05 cn 4 i- CO to CD CD CD CD CD Xi 05 05 tn CJ1 4^^ X O l-< to <31 to CO rfi- to CO CO O X I— < CD C71 to Q(D oo 00 ^ CO ^ CO to CO CO -q Hk CD to iX O <35 o Oi OT M <31 oo cn 2 6 w 2 <15 B H CL ® 4ib to <31 t4i>- CO <31 CO 00 O )-* <35 CO W to X 00 00 o to to to ^ • 1— < 1— < 1-1 h-i to to to to to to M !-< h-i 4-1 QO Ifik ■ W 31 4. 4^ 31 bi -q 31 <35 <35 -q 55 4^ 4. to 00 to l-< 4- • CO CO l-< O CO O l-< o O to o 00 1-1 05 4^ o o o W • CO o h-k 4>. o 15 O O 00 OO X o © h-i M CO -d W <31 to CO CO <31 ;0 o !-< to O !-< OO K X >-< CO <31 to <35 K 1-1 h-i h-i H-i (-1 H-i 4.1 h-i 1-1 1— 1 4-1 h - 1 h - 1 3 4 ik 4 :- 4>-<35 4 ^ 4 - 4 - WCOC 0 4 -C 0 C 0 4 - X <55 1—1 CO 00 <35 H-i X OO 4-1 4-1 -d 00 4 ^ H* O OO <31 00 -d 00 H X to 00 <31 to <35 pr rfi. 4:^ CO (35 CO ^ CO ^ X O 4^ -q to 4:^ W <31 <31 to <31 ~q Iwtotototototo ISto^to^toto •^1<35<35- 5 (_ib 5 |_itOMtCMtN 5 -Jcnto-jCn_qcocntocoO •ON 00 ^ 0*^000000 tOtOtCf— itOt^CAJtOi^tOCO C 0 O^C 0 >^^h|i.CnOMOI-i ;qSi0M -AY w (D •-< p 2- in I— • o COt.OtOtN 5 cotOcctOtOK)CObO too-4^ tN5 >4^ f-iC 0 o 4 ^O 4 ^t 0 0 '^-J'-‘cr.'t+‘^i— ‘Cn>fa.cocji 05 -C|t04irfi.O(OtotN5(— ‘COOOO 'ON l-‘tOI-‘tOI-‘l-‘l-‘(-‘l-‘l-‘t-‘h-‘ COMMOMOOO-JtOOOO pi: 4 ^Ot-‘tN 5 > 4 ii. COtOOlO-JOhf^OOCOOOO sraf) 'AY ^Fi•COCO^^i^^f^ 05 ^ 4 i>-^fi-OOCOCO^^ b 3 C 0 t 0 tN 305 Ot 0 b 0 OC 005 O CX)COObOOl-iOOO-J05rf^tO • noSoJiTN in0O .10OOHp^OWCOCn • • -smo uos -oa:^iN ■-^H^IOAV p *-i p p w ffi p p Pi 1 i CC CO bO CO M to I— ‘ O 05 CO CO CO CD O Cl -J CO ►Pk CO CO CO Cl to CO cn O CO O CD -4 — •o Cj 05 O iH O lO eg (M (M ^-Av. weight kernels co eo o o o o T— ( 7— I 1— I 1— I O T— I eg eg eg eg eg eg o th eg eo t- th CO o o tH -rfi eo CO CO o o o o o o eg a» th Per cent nitrogen Av. weight of kernels eg eg CO LO l>- lO O 05 eg CO CO CO CO CO CO tH CO 05 00 eg CO T— I tH t— I o o o o 00 05 tH O CO UO 00 tH CO 05 Oi o eg* CO CO eg eg’ CO C0 0 05l0c0t- ■Tf CO CO tH 00 eg eg eg 7-1 eg iH O O O o O o -M ’-I m th Per cent o eg t- co nitrogen ® eg CO CO CO Av. weight kernels co co eg eg o o o o LOOOLOlOiOt- TH00O5rHOiC- co eg eg’ CO eg eg lO CO tH 05 CO O to CO CO LO lO lO CO CO CO eg eg eg o o o o o o Per cent rH nitrogen . 1— I ^05 t- LO eg 7 -h O 05 tr- 05 eg 7— I 7— I 7— I Av. weight of t>- 'O eg 1 7 CO O CO o kernels co co eg eg o o o o t- LO lO C5 CO LO C- C- <55 05 7-1 7— I 7— I 7— ( 1—1 7— I eg 00 05 CO 'ch' 00 LO LO CO CO LO lo CO CO CO eg eg eg o o o o o o Per cent 00 t- CO nitrogen. . . 05 C- LO CO tH tH a ^ Av. weight of O O W kernels. . . . 1— 1 eg o o o a t- CO t- eg 00 lo LO ''f Tf t- 00 o iH 7— ( 7— I 1 — 1 7— I eg LO CO tH 05 CO o lO CO CO LO LO LO CO CO CO eg eg eg o o o o o o Per cent ^ 2 nitrogen “ ^ ,2 O tH ^ ^ Av. weight of lo kernels ^ tH 05 ot^co CNi 00 ^ eg o 00 eo CO CO eo o o tH ■Tf tH t- t- 00 eg CO CO c- CO eg o LO eg th CO eg 7-H tH Ttn O 05 LO LO LO CO If CO o o o o o o — H d) o ^ (». to O “J •<) to ►?>> 1 -^ cn CD 00 «£) -a -<1 00 cn rfi. CO 05 to to to M S f ^ s <-»• ►> (P z; p. •ON • • • naSoj:nN :^U 80 jej Oi N% g 06 I JO dojo •ON naSoj:^iN :^n 0 o J 9 £ ^ N% 6061 JO doJO 4^ 4>. tii. p. p, p, 4^. 4k 4^ 4>- 4^ CO CO CO CO '-S >-« •-* to to to to to CD 00 C50 (55 O O O 00 4^ CO to l-A CO CO cn*^ « « « « to(cO CD cn cn CD CD CD P, p, p, M M h-^ to to to to to cn cn hx CO cn (55 *05 4^* CO CO 00 to 00 (55 (-1 CO to to to to to CO CO to to CD *05 oo bo O O b? b? to (cn cn to o cn H-i & (in cn Di cn cn cn cn Qj cn cn cn '-s to to I-S to to H-A '-s h-i M . O -~3 (55 o CO CO 00 <55 O CO to o l_i CO'O (55 CO CO CO o to X3 CD CD CD & Cl. to DO to to CO CO CO CO CO 4^ *4- 4^ 4»- to bo CO 05 C5 4>. 00 CD CO CO -a (-» CO CO tso to to to to to to to to cn cn cn 05 cn cn cn cn CO 4^ CD cn to h-i CD cn •ON neSoj^iN ;n 0 O JOd N% 0 T 6 I JO dojQ •ON • u 0 Soj;tn :^n 0 O aej •N% Table 20. — Four Years’ Line Selection for High and Low Nitrogen — Red Russian Wheat 1907 Selection 1908 Selection 1909 Selection 1910 Selection Table 21 . — Four Years’ Line Selection for High and Low Nitrogen — Jones’ Fife Wheat 1907 Selection 1908 Selection 1909 Selection 1910 Selection Crop of 1911 ^ %N Per cent Nitrogen . No. CO CO OO 00 iM* M CD (M CD JO t- (M (CQ 'Z) (V -a5CD0Ot^- T-l O r-i o O oi cd oq (M* 00 O UO CD (cq CO 1-H (cq 0) G Cl. CO oq eg 00 p Q eg CO LO CD CD Q • ' I 'C lO lO ID UO UO 'O Crop of 1910 %N. LD Per cent Nitrogen . No. No. No. tH OO rH ■H Tf CO iH O tH tH eg oq oq eg eg eg' eg 05 O ID tH eg eg ■H -H ttf Tf Crop of 1909 %N Per cent eg Nitrogen . . Crop of 1908 ^ %N rH eg Per cent th Nitrogen . . . '^ eg CO eg eg eg eg eg eg eg CD t- eg Tf CD (D G G CD G G^ O O LD ID tH 05 tH 00 eg OO tH CX> tH 00 tH eg tH 05 eg CO eg ID ID O 00 ID 00 O tH O O tH tH CO CO CO CO ■H tH CO Tf eg ID ID LD tH 'H tH 00 c- tH CD »D CD to to to to 1__L |_t 1 — 1 h-^ . ~q 00 cn -q oo cn to -q M t-A 1— 1 h-A CO o CD CD -q cn 05 to CO to to zo h-i CD zo 05 O OO 05 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO h|5>. hP^ CO CO CO -a 05 CO to o CD 05 cn to to CD CD CD tNS to to to CO CO CO CO 05 •►P>. hfi- 05 in 05 cn to >4^ CO CD cn OO to 05 M l-i M M M M l-A 00 OO oo •oo 00 OO ZO ZO CO -q CD oo O )-*• to 4^ Di a. ou 4^ 4:.. oo oo 00 *-< '-S '-4 -q ~q . -a -q <^2 ® S 05 cn to 05 cn O O 05 « « (D a o to 05 CO -q CO oS CD o p •ON ueSoa:HN jaj N% 8061 JO doao •ON • • • u^S 0 J:^IM :^U 0 O J 0 (i * • •N% •ON • • u0Soa:^tN :^U 0 D aaj N% 0 X 6 X JO dojo bO 00 CO Oi cn on oo os CO CO oo CO oo O O o M to -<1 O M 05 to •ON uaSo-ixiN Xnao J 0 J CO oo CO oo oo O 1-1 00 on 05 o to zo on w to to CO to h-i ^ 05 o CD N% C5 XX 6 T JO dojo Table 22. — Four Years’ Line Selection for High and Low Nitrogen — Bluestem Wheat 1907 Selection 1908 Selection 1909 Selection 1910 Selection Table 23. — Four Years’ Line Selection for High and Low Nitrogen — Little Club Wheat Crop of 1911 %N g Per cent Nitrogen o 0 0) m SNo 01 Crop of 1910 %N g Per cent Nitrogen No. %N. g Per cent 'a Nitrogen . . o m SNo. Crop of 1908 %N g Per cent •43 Nitrogen . iH 05 <35 pji — 1 ''f 0 0 CO 0 0 rH CD Executive Clerk Q^O.l Xr _ \\2.- ^0 V Cw y I A Preliminary Report on the Investigations of Bovine Red Water (Cystic Hematuria) in Washington INTRODUCTION Owing to the fact that the disease here under consideration is not a widespread one, few veterinarians outside of the dis- tricts where it occurs have had acquaintance with it. It is a disease peculiar to certain localities and in this State is quite prevalent in the coastal region. Many cases are to be found on the numerous islands in Puget Sound and the infected area extends inland some sixty miles. Accurate data as to the percentage of cattle affected are difficult to obtain, but from statistics gathered by the author it is estimated that about thirteen per cent of the cattle in red water districts have the disease. Inquiry discloses the fact that this disease has been known here for some twenty-five or thirty years, and at times has been so prevalent as to cause numerous dairymen to go out of business. The study of red water was fist taken up at this Station in 1908 by Dr. W. E. Ralston, who was at that time a member of the Experiment Station Staff. Dr. Ralston’s investigations were carried on with four red water cows, which Avere shipped to the Station, and consisted of daily observations, the making of blood and urine examinations and thorough autopsies on three of the cases Avith a vieAv to determining the cause of the disease. These studies disclosed nothing definite as to the etiology of the disease. Owing to the fact that Dr. Ralston’s time Avas to be chiefly devoted to other lines of Avork, the in- vestigation of red water was assigned in February, 1910, to the author. It is the purpose of this bulletin to describe the character- istics, symptoms, course and termination of this disease as it occurs in Washington, together with a report upon the various experiments thus far carried out. Red AA^ater, more properly “cystic hematuria,” and vari- 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station ously known as bloody urine, red urine, smoky urine, hema- turia, enzootic hematuria, cystic hemangiomatosis and 'moor ill, is a specific disease of cattle. It is characterized clinically by the constant or periodic discharge of bloody urine and by its chronic course; and pathologically by the characteristic vas- cular lesions which occur on the bladder mucosa. The disease has been seen in cows ranging in age from twenty-eight months to fifteen years; but the majority of cases occur in cows ranging in age from five to eight years. ^Accord- ing to reports from various stockmen in red water districts bulls and steers are sometimes affected, but the writer has never had a case come under his observation. Likewise, the disease has not been seen in heifers before calving. Breed seems to have no influence upon the disease, as it has been seen in all of the standard dairy breeds and grade cattle. It is seldom seen in beef cattle because in districts where red water occurs dairying is the chief industry and beef cattle are not very numerous. As to the geographical distribution of red water some very peculiar and inexplicable facts are encountered. As previously stated, the disease is prevalent in this State, west of the Cas- cade Mountains. Here the country is rough and hilly and the soil varies in different localities ; we may find a yellow or red clay, shot clay, sandy black soil or a pure black soil. For the most part the country is new and a large part of the land is not under cultivation and abounds in ferns, slal, moss and a great variety of evergreens; here cattle are allowed to run daily and the eating of fern has been considered by stockmen to be a factor in the cause of red water. It is the general con- census of opinion that the disease occurs only in cattle that are kept on what is called upland or highland, the elevation of which varies from 100 to 1000 feet, and this fact has been verified by the writer’s observation. So Avell is this known that prospective buyers are warned against purchasing upland cattle for fear that they might have red water. *Since this bulletin has been written the author has encountered in his investigations two cases of red water in bulls. Investigations of Bovine Red Water 5 tThe valleys or bottom lands are notoriously free from the disease, as are also peat and salt marshes. The writer has en- countered many cases on upland, a few on farms which are composed of both upland and valley, and one case that was kept on exclusively bottom land. This latter case developed in a cow a1n:>ut fifteen years of age — one of a herd of forty-five head. Tl.e owner slaved that he had lived on the place about five years, had always kept from forty to fifty head of cattle, but had never before had a case of red water, in fact, red water was not common in that particular locality. At the time this animal was examined she was passing bloody urine, but as she was in good physical condition the owner would not consent to have her killed and autopsied. The cow soon died, but un- fortunately no autopsy was performed and it is possible that the hematuria manifested was due to some other condition involving the urinary tract than the one here under con- sideration. Probably the most striking peculiarity of the disease is the fact that only certain animals in a herd seem to be predisposed to the affection, while the majority are apparently immune. It is essentially a sporadic disease and it is impossible to say which cow in a herd is liable to become affected. At times a number of cows in a herd may become affected during the period of a few months or a year and following this there may be no new cases develop for years. Again some cows may be brought to a red water district, contract the disease soon after arrival and die as a result ; other animals, although kept under identical environments, in constant association with the former and receiving the same care and feed, may live for fRecent investigations by the author have revealed the fact that in some localities red water occurs on bottom lands which have been thoroughly cultivated and seeded to tame grasses. This is particularly true in the vicinity of Monroe and Sultan. On one farm belonging to Mr. L near Monroe seven in a herd of 18 cows were found affectd. These animals are kept on a river bottom pasture of about twenty acres on which there is a good stand of timothy and clover. The land is all cleared and the only wild plants that could be found were a few ferns. The owner stated that he had lived on the place seventeen years and that cultivation of the land did not seem to decrease the number of red water cases occurring yearly on the farm. 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station years and never contract the disease. On some farms red water is at times so prevalent as to affect fifty per cent or more of the cattle. The writer has in mind one small farm on which four out of eight cows contracted the disease within a period of six months. Other farms, at times adjoining, are entirely free from the disease, or there may be cases develop- ing at intervals of a year or mroe. A few cases of red water have also been reported in Eastern Washington and two of these came under the writer’s observation. The first was on a farm near Rockford, situated at an elevation of about 3200 feet and in the heart of a pine woods. Pine and fir trees, moss and fern were in abundance and thus the vegetation wnis much like that found in red water districts in the costal region. The other case w^as near Dayton, under very similar conditions. Etiology The exact cause of red water has not as yet been deter- mined. Many theories have been advanced, none of which have been verified satisfactorily by observation or experi- mentation. Probably the first that can be considered is for- age as an etiological factor. Many stockmen are of the opinion that the disease is caused by the eating of ferns, especially when these plants are producing spores. Others attribute it to the eating of pine or fir shoots, moss and various other plants which abound in these districts. That foodstuffs may be a factor in the cause of the disease is evidenced by the fact that wherever red water has been observed the vegetation was always similar if not identical. On the other hand, there is much evidence to disprove this theory, although experiments in feeding various plants have not been carried out at this station. (1) In diseases of the blad- der, when due to some irritating substance obtained by inges- tion, we always expect to find: (a) some derangement of the intestinal canal, and (b) pathological changes in the liver or kidneys or both. Derangements of the intestinal canal would of course be encountered during the onset of the disease and unfortunately the twelve cases autopsied have all been of Investigations of Bovine Red Water 7 over a year’s standing. However, symptoms of intestinal dis- turbance have not been seen in the onset of the disease. On the other hand, we would expect pathological changes, if there were such in the liver and kidneys to persist; knowing as we do that the regenerating power of the epithelium of these organs is practically nil. Of course it is possible that irritat- ing substances could be of such low grade as to produce only a congestion; but in this case if the condition was long con- tinued, as it no doubt would be, we would at least expect to find fibrosis of the kidneys. In nine out of twelve autopsy cases the writer found the kidneys and liver free from pri- mary lesions. Tn two cases the liver showed a chronic inter- stitial inflammation as the result of fluke infestation and in the third, one kidney contained an anaemic infarct of unknown origin. (2) When animals contract local lesions from the in- gestion of foodstuffs, the removal of such noxious material and a change of feed usually brings about a prompt recovery. Many stockmen contend that a change of feed will some- times render immediate relief. Some even declare that if a cow affected with red water is removed from high to low land and given a complete change of feed, she will very often recover completely. That such a change will bring relief and temporary subsidence of the symptoms can not be denied; but the writer has never seen a permanent recovery in an animal affected with the disease. Again, there is much evidence to show that change of feed and environmient does not cause any appreciable change in symptoms, e. g., the reader’s attention is called to the following: During the summer of 1908 four red water cows were brought to this Station for experimental study. Three of these animals died of the disease in less than a year’s time after their arrival. The fourth cow (Fig. II.) has now been at the Station four years and has not made a recovery. This animal, since being brought to the Station has always been kept in a small enclosure and has been well fed and watered; no special care has been given her nor has she received any treatment. She has been observed almost daily and always seems in fairly good condition; at times the urine is very red in color and may contain clots, but at other B Washington Agricultural Experiment Station times it may be found perfectly clear. After studying this case carefully it would seem that neither feed nor environment could be considered as an etiological factor in red water. This animal was removed from a red water district, shipped some four hundred miles across the State to a location where the climate and vegetation is vastly different and where red water IS unknown. She was kept in close quarters and fed only well-cured tame hay, but not withstanding this change she has continued to pass bloody urine for four years. The possibility of piroplasma infection being the cause of red water has been given serious consideration during the in- vestigation and blood smears have been obtained from affected animals in every stage of the disease. These smears were stained wdth Giemsa’s, Jenner’s and Wright’s stains and care- iully examined with high power microscopic objectiveSj but so far as the presence of prtozoa was concerned the findings were negative. Furthermore, an attempt was made to trans- mit the disease by blood inoculation from a sick to a healthy cow, the results of which are here recorded: Red Water Inoculation Experiment No. 1 Subject — A grade Shorthorn cow, three years old. Source of blood used and method of inoculation: On June 10, 1911, five cubic centimeters of blood were ob- tained from the jugular vein of red water case No. 6 under strictly aseptic conditions. An area over the jugular vein was shaved and cleansed with eighty per cent alcohol. A sterile hypodermic needle was introduced into the distended vein and a five cc. sterile syringe filled with the blood. This blood was then injected, before coagulation, into the subcutaneous tissue of experimental cow No. 1, the point of injection having previously been shaved and cleansed with eighty per cent alcohol. Red water case No. 6 was a cow that had been affected with ^hematuria since April, 1910. At the time her blood was ♦Hematuria as here used and as used throughout this bulletin refers only to the cystic hermaturia as defined in the fore part of this article. Investigations of Bovine Red Water 9 vised in this experiment she was much emaciated, passing large quantities of blood, sometimes clotted, from the blad- der and very anemic; blood examination showed the hemo- globin (Tallquist scale) to be seventy five per cent; red blood corpuscles 3,480,000, and white blood corpuscles 4000 per cubic millimeter. The blood at the point of injection in experimental cow No. 1 was rapidly absorbed and no swelling developed. A daily temperature record was kept of this animal, blood counts were made at irregular intervals and a diligent search made for appearance of protozoa in blood smears for a period of six weeks. At no time did the temperature rise above 102.4 degrees Fahrenheit. Anemia never developed, protozoa could at no time be demonstrated nor was there any evidence of blood in the urine. The cow was kept under close observa- tion until October 13, 1911, but as no symptoms of hematuria developed the experiment was considered negative and dis- continued. Besides the foregoing inoculation experiment, a large num- ber of guinea pigs and rabbits were inoculated, both sub- cutaneously and intraperitoneally with blood of red water cows. These inoculations, however, never seemed to cause a particle of inconvenience to the experimental animals nor could pathological lesions be demonstrated. It is a well known fact that the seat of piroplasma infec- tion is in the blood. The piroplasmata inhabit the red blood cells, causing their destruction and thus liberating the hemo- globin which is partly excreted by the kidneys, causing a red discoloration of the urine. This condition is then termed hemoglobinuria and the urine in this case does not contain red blood cells. On the other hand, hematuria is a condition in which there is always an admixture of the cellular elements of the blood in the urine, due to a hemorrhage from the bladder wall. Buch lesions as are seen in hematuria are not found in true piroplasmosis and it is hardly possible that the same kind of organism could cause both conditions. 10 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station The theory of flukes as a causative agent of hematuria was advanced by Galtier in 1892. According to his theory the liver, being affected by the growth of liver flukes, no longer performs its proper work of destroying toxins and if under these conditions the animals eat improper food containing ranunculaceae, sedges, rushes, etc., the toxic principles of these plants are absorbed. These principles, he adds, being no longer destroyed!, are eliminated by the kidneys, their stay in the bladder causes irritation, and hemorrhagic cystitis is set up, this being afterwards maintained by microbic agents in the bladder. Not only is this theory an unlikely one. but according to the writer’s investigation it can be readily refuted. Of the twelve red water cows autopsied at this Station only two w^ere infested with liver flukes. This is no doubt sufficient evidence to dispense with the liver fluke theory. J. Burton Cleland of Sydney, N. S. W., in an article en- titled “Endemic Haematuria” in Cattle, and published in Vol. VI. No. 2 of “The Journal of Tropical Vet. Sci.,” suggests the possibility of this disease being caused by pentastomes. This investigator points out that “In four cows suffering from advanced red water, living larval pentastomes were^ easily found in the mesenteric lymph glands ; and, in addition, there were, in some cases, very numerous, calcified remains of dead ones.” This observer goes on to state, however, that he has foun^ pentastomes in cattle from districts unaffected with hema- turia, but he thinks that the parasites are more numerous in red water cases. As to the theory of production of red water the article goes on to say, “The suggestion of their causal relationship rests on the possibility that in the migrations of the larval pentastomes, either originally when making their way from the intestines or after their encystment in the mesenteric glands, they reach the bladder and eventually pierce its wall, remaining, however, sufficiently long in the submucous spaces to produce meehanicall}^ or by a toxic element changes in the vascular spaces leading to the development of small angio- Investigations of Bovine Red Water 11 mata, whose walls rupturing towards the bladder possibly per- mit of the escape of the larvae in the urine.” The author further states, however, that ‘‘The larval pentastomes have not so far been detected in the bladder.” In this State pentastomiasis is rarely if ever seen and the writer has never noted the presence of pentastomes in red water cattle w^hich he has autopsied. The possibility of Bilharzia being a causative factor in cys- tic hematuria, as well as other forms of blood parasites, has also been given serious attention. Thorough search of the urine and blood of affected animals, both during life and on autops}", has failed to reveal the pres- ence of adult parasites or their ova. Unfortunately, as before stated, most of the autopsies performed have been on animals in advanced stages of the disease. It is hoped that in the future a number of autopsies may be performed on recently affected cows. In such cases, no doubt the chances of finding blood parasites, if they be present, would be much better than in the later stages when they may largely disappear from the blood stream. Coccidiosis has been considered as a possible cause of hematuria and the writer was rather agreeably surprised one day while making a microscopic examination of a red water bladder *lesion (Figs VIII. and IX.) to find large cells that resembled coccidia. A very careful study was made of these cells and it was later decided that they were probably of epithelial origin. Similar cells have not been found in other cases and hence I can not say at this time what their signifi- cance in red water lesions may be. As the lesions of hematuria occur primarily in the bladder, it would seem that the causative agent could be discovered at some time during the course of the disease at this point. Assuming this to be the case, a great deal of attention has been directed to the study of the urine and bladder lesions. Bacterial cultures have been made on all the standard media from urine of cows in various stages of the disease. In the ♦These lesions will be dealt with in detail under morbid anatomy. 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station onset of the disease these cultures sometimes remained sterile, at other times thej^ contained a variety of organisms. In advanced stages of the disease the growtlis were always plenti- ful. In all cases these organisms proved to be some of the common saprophytes and ])y()genic eocci and were non-patho genic to guinea pigs and rabbits. Whenever possil)le cultures were also made from the blad- der lesions; these usually remained sterile, especially when the lesions were purely vascular. In a few cases growths occurred, but always from lesions which were apparently secondarily infected. The organisms obtained proved to be pyogeiiic micrococci of very low viruleney and were not pathogenic to small laboratory animals. As no uniform results could be obtained by the ordinary cultural methods from the urine or bladder lesions it was decided to try direct inoculation of a healthy cow with the bladder lesions of a sick one, and following is a record of this experiment. Red Water Inoculation Experiment No. II. Source of material used : October 13, 1911, a cow affected with red water (Case No, 3), a case of about fifteen months standing and in the last stages of the disease, was killed and immediately autopsied. The bladder was carefully removed, emptied of its bloody con- tents, inverted and placed in a jar of normal sterile salt solu- tion. (This bladder (Fig. IV.) was well studded with lesions, most of which were small ; the picture was taken after the two largest lesions were removed.) Two typical lesions about half an inch in diameter were removed from the mucous membrane, placed in a sterile mortar and triturated in five cc. of sterile normal salt solution. The material was then filtered through sterile gauze in order to remove the larger shreds of tissue and the fluid thus obtained used for the inoculation. During the preparation of this material the work was done under as nearly aseptic conditions as possible and kept at body temperature. Investigations of Bovine Red Water 13 It was used for inoculation in less than one hour’s time of the death of the cow from which it was obtained. Method of inoculation: Experimental cow No. 2 was cast in a dorsal position with legs extended and securely tied. The hair on the posterior part of fhe udder and over the pubic region was shaved off and the parts thoroughly cleansed with bichlbride solution and painted with tincture of iodine. An incision about six inches in length was made through the skin in the median line just anterior to the pubis, thus separating the two posterior quarters of the udder. After separating and tearing down the fascia the incision was carried through the linea alba and peritoneum and made sufficiently large to admit the hand. The hand was then introduced into the abdominal cavity and the bladder drawn up through the opening and held, while an assistant injected into the submucosa at several dif- ferent points with a hypodermic syringe, the material pre- viously prepared and described above. The bladder was then carefully replaced and the incision in the peritoneum and linea alba well sutured with heavy catgut ; the skin wound was left open. When the cow was allowed to rise she immediately attempted to urinate, and there was marked straining, due to the irritation of the bladder. This straining continued for three days after the operation, but subsided on the fourth. On October 19, six days after the operation, a quantity of urine was caught during the act of micturition. This urine had a distinct red color and when sedimented showed a precipitate of blood. Miscroscopic examination showed large numbers of red blood cells, some leucocytes, bladder epithelium and mucus. October 20 the urine was secured with a soft rubber catheter. The process of catheterization caused an undue amount of straining and the urine contained a large amount of blood, indicating that there was still some inflammatory dis- turbance as a result of the initial operation. Following this, in order to prevent further irritation to the bladder, the use of the catheter was abandoned for a period of six weeks. During this time the character of the urine, noted almost daily. 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station always contained blood, but never in sufficient quantities to cause clotting. Following the operation of this cow a daily record was kept of her temperature for a period of five weeks ; the highest tem- perature recorded during this time was 102.4 degrees. She was observed almost daily until her death, seven months after inoculation. The urine was always found to contain blood, the amount varying at different times, and anemia became quite marked about two months before death. The abdominal oper- ative wound showed no evidence of infection at any time and healed rapidly by primary union. This cow was killed May 9, 1912; she was much emaciated, down and unable to rise. Post mortem findings : The carcass was much emaciated and anemic. Blood coagulated slowly. The cells of the liver and kidneys showed a granular degeneration. All other organs except the bladder were normal. The bladder (Pig. VI.) con- tained several ounces of bloody urine that showed five per cent solids when centrifuged. The greater portion of the mucosa showed a marked injection of the blood vessels; there were several somewhat diffuse hemorrhagic submucous areas, which resembled miscroscopically (Fig. XIV.) those found in natural eases of red water, but there were no pedunculated lesions. From the foregoing result it would seem that it is possible to produce red water by inoculation of a healthy cow with the bladder lesions of a sick one ; but the question immediately arises, is this artificially produced hematuria due to the mechanical irritation caused by Ihe operation or is it the result of some living organism, which is yet to be isolated? In order to decide this point a control experiment was car- ried out in which a healthy cow was operated upon in exactly the same way as experimental cow No. 2. However, instead of using the lesions from the bladder of a red water cow for inoculation, ten cc. of normal salt solution was used. This animal also showed the post operative bloody urine which first appeared five days after the operation, but cleared up entirely by the tenth day and remained clear. The abdominal operative wound healed without suppuration and by primary union ; the Investigations of Bovine Red Water 15 temperature never rose above normal. Eight months after the operation this cow was killed and her bladder was found to be absolutely normal. The fact that the discharge of bloody urine ceased so soon after operation in this case and that the animal made a complete recovery, would seem to indicate that it requires something more than mere mechanical irritation to produce such lesions and the continual hemorrhages that are seen in hematuria. Two other cows, experimental subjects Nos. IV. and V., were inoculated with the bladder lesions and urine respectively of red water experimental cow No. II. The modus operand! in these cases was the same as that of experimental case No. 2. Unfortunately cow No. IV. died of peritonitis three days after inoculation as a result of the operation. The other cow (sub- ject No. V.) was inoculated with urine May 9, 1912. At this writing, ten months after inoculation, she is apparently normal. Her urine showed an admixture of blood for ten days follow- ing the operation, then cleared up and has remained normal. No other species of animals have been used in experiments such as those just described. Many rabbits and guinea pigs have, however, been inoculated, both subcutaneously and intra- peritoneally, with bladder lesions and urine from red water cows, but no pathological changes have resulted from these inoculations. From the experiments thus far carried on it is impossible to say whether red water is transmissible or not, but judging from the results obtained it Avould be well to carry on further work with the microbic hypothesis kept constantly in mind. Symptoms To the uninitiated about the first symptom that presents itself is the passing of bloody urine. Those that are better acquainted with the disease usually notice that some days be- fore the appearance of bloody urine the affected cow urinates quite frequently. The act is accompanied with some straining ,and much switching of the tail and the urine is scanty. When the urine becomes bloody it may either be uniformly red in color or the greater portion may be passed clear, with just a 16 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station tinge of red as the act of micturition terminates. Further than this no other symptoms are noticed; the animal seems in per- fect health, the appetite is good, the temperature, pulse and respiration are normal and the milk flow unaltered. In a heifer having her first calf these symptoms come on after parturition, but in a milk cow they may become manifest before calving. The writer has never observed red water in a heifer before calving nor in a sterile cow. This first attack may last only a few days or again it may continue for weeks or months. If it lasts only a few days the urine clears up and the condition is frequently attributed to one of a number of simple causes, such as injury during partu- rition, a fall or a kick or some form of forage material. If the condition continues for a longer period of time, the urine remains bloody, varying in color from light to deep red, re- sembling at times pure blood and even containing clots. This color of course depends upon the severity of the hemorrhage within the bladder. The urine, probably because of the salts it contains, pre- vents to a marked extent the clotting of blood. To what ex- tent this property is manifested in the living animal has not been determined. Samples of urine taken from red water cows in which no clots were present have shown as high as ten per cent corpuscles on centrifuging. In experiments outside of the body with normal cows^ urine and blood this property of non-coagulation has not run as high as w^ould be indicated from samples of red water urine. In a number of experiments, where normal fresh cow blood was mixed with normal urine, clotting has always taken place in dilutions of over five per cent blood. This property of clot- ting probably depends upon the amount and variety of salts in the urine, the state of anemia of the subject and probably to some extent upon the rapidity of the outflow of blood. A cow affected with red water and in the last stages of tha disease, in which the corpuscular count would be very low, would probably have more fluid blood in the urine than a cow that had recently contracted the disease. On the other hand, a recent case of hematuria might pass clots of blood; but this Investi^tions of Bovine Red Water 17 would not necessarily mean that the case was an exceptionally severe one. Many cases have been known to pass clotted blood in the urine, apparently recover and live for months or even years after the attack. After the first attack, whether it be of short or of long duration, the urine again becomes clear and remains so for varying periods of time. Even though urine appears clear to the unaided eye, we have never failed to find red blood cells in it by microscopic examination. This is the time, i. e., when the urine clears up, when the unscrupulous owner, knowing that the animal will again show the symptoms at a future period, seeks to dispose of his ani- mal to an unsuspecting neighbor. Where such a procedure is suspected it is only necessary to pass a soft rubber catheter which always tells the tale. The periods of subsidence vary greatly in different indi- viduals. Some animals pass bloody urine at irregular inter- vals of several days, some every few weeks and some have an attack every few months, the attack usually lasting several days. The more 'common case is that the symptoms subside com- pletely after the first attack and do not again appear until just before or after the next parturition, an act which seems always to increase the severity of the disease. At this period the attack is usually more severe, lasting a longer time, the hemorrhage becomes greater and other symptoms of a graver nature develop. The patient begins to emaciate, the milk flow decreases and wdth the constantly increasing hemorrhage the cow becomes quite weak. The small tuft of hair at the inferior commisure of the vulva as well as the tail and posterior extremities be- come soiled with blood. The hemorrhage may be so great as to cause large clots to form in the bladder, thus obstructing the urethra. In such a case the bladder sometimes becomes dis- tended and its walls paralyzed; the fluid contents gradually overflow and there is a dribbling from the urethra. The appetite is always good, in fact voracious; the animal eating anything within reach; at times the appetite is much 18 Washington Agriculturar Experiment Station perverted and there is a tendency to eat barnyard manure and especially earth, probably to satisfy a craving for salts, which are lost with the extravasated blood. The thirst is always excessive because of 'the great loss of fluids from the body. In advanced cases the visible mucous memibranes are always anemic. A rise in temperature above normal has never been noted in a case of red water, but frequently there has been a fall of two to four degrees Fahrenheit a short time prior to death. As the disease progresses the periodic attacks become more frequent and prolonged; the drain upon the system is enor- mous; the haematopoietic organs are unable to regenerate blood rapidly enough to replace that which has been lost and death ensues as a result. Blood changes : During the early stages of hematuria there is but little change in the blood. The hemorrhage at this time is but slight and the blood forming organs can readily replace the corpuscles that have been lost. As the disease advances and the hemorrhage becomes more pronounced, there is a gradual diminution of the number of red cells and usually a corresponding decrease in leucocytes. The hemoglobin con- tent is also diminished, but does not necessarily correspond with the decrease in erythrocytes. In the later stages of the disease, when the hemorrhage is continual and severe the erythrocytes sometimes diminish to less than one million per cu. mm. of blood and the corpuscles resemble very much those found in true pernicious anemia. Examination of stained smears reveals the presence of a few normoblasts, many stippled cells, microcytes, macrocytes and poikilocytes. In early cases of hematuria the percentage of the varieties uf leucocytes is quite uniform and almost normal, as may be seen by Table 1., Group 11., but in the later stages there seems to be marked variation (Table L, Group I.) in this respect. No explanation is offered at this time for this variation, but no doubt it has some bearing on the development of the disease. Urine : The urine always shows an admixture of blood. As previously stated, although the urine may appear clear to the Investigations of Bovine Red Water TABLE I. 19 Group 1 — td Polymorphonuclear Leucocytes W ( 3 - i-j o p •-t n •p o •-j P o <-► cr* p' fD <-»• •-* >-i O n « P CO CD p o o P *P CO (t> o oB: P VJ <-♦■ r+- . Ct) . 03 iclear ;ent . . P n 2 P* 2 tP • r B B c B •• i-t- p' . cc p r ® * c» p 2 <4- “ • 0) • p • o • o B . ^ . CD • ro 3 3 , 200,000 3,000 50.0 85.0 2.0 1.0 9.5 2.5 4 4 , 650,000 4,000 70.0 22.0 2.0 2.0 74.0 0.0 5 1 , 920,000 13,000 50.0 64.0 1.0 1.0 24.0 10.0 6 3 , 480,000 4,000 75.0 41.8 7.4 0.0 50.4 0.4 7 1 , 600,000 3,000 30.0 23.5 17.5 1.0 46.0 12.0 12 3 , 250,000 4,000 30.0 32.5 6.0 3.5 55.5 2.5 13 1 , 960,000 Group 2 — 6,000 40.0 35.0 21.0 4.0 40.0 0.0 1 6 , 580,000 8,000 80.0 24.0 17.5 1.0 51.0 6.5 8 6 , 520,000 11,000 100.0 22.0 18.0 4.0 51.0 5.0 9 6 , 400,000 7,000 100.0 25.0 13.0 1.0 60.0 1.0 unaided eye, microscopical examination after sedimentation has always revealed the presence of red cells. The color of the urine then varies with the severity of the hemorrhage, and may appear clear, slightly tinged with red, or it may be dark red, resembling pure blood and even contain clots. When it is of a distinct red color it appears opaque and if allowed to stand in a vessel for a few hours the corpuscles settle to the bottom and there is a distinct stratum of clear urine above. In this way the condition can be readily differentiated from hemo- globinuria as here the urine is either a bright red and trans- parent or dark brown in color and remains the same when allowed to set in a vessel. When examined under the microscope without staining the urine in hematuria shows large numbers of -unaltered red cells which retain their shape remarkably well for a number of days if the urine be placed in a cool place; leucocytes and bladder epithelium are also present. The urine is alkaline in reaction and owing to the admixture of blood albumen is always present. 20 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Morbid Anatomy When an animal dies of red water or is killed in the last stages of the disease the carcass is always much emaciated. The subcutaneous tissues and skeletal muscles are flabby and appear pale. The blood is thin and watery and coagulation tardy. Upon opening the abdominal cavity the contained viscera appears pale, resembling very much that of an animal which has been bled to death. In a few cases there have been ob- served a few slight hemorrhages on the peritoneum covering the spleen and intestinal walls. The liver and kidneys usually appear paler than normal, but are not enlarged. These show, upon microscopic examination, cloudy swelling of their cells, which sometimes has advanced to fatty degeneration. ■ In two cases there have been noted a chronic interstitial hepatitis, the result of fluke infestation. In one case there was also noted an anemic infarct of one kidney which was of unknown origin. The ureters in every case have been found free of pathological lesions. The spleen is usually normal in size and in micro- scopic appearance; in one case a marked hemosiderin pig- mentation was found. The lymphatic glands both somatic and visceral have always been found normal. The entire digestive tract is nor- mal as far as inflammatory or other primary lesions are con- cerned. The heart and lungs are usually normal but slight hemorrhages have been encountered in two cases in the pleural covering of the lungs and on the pericardium. In short, pri- mary lesions involving any organ with the exception of the bladder are conspicuous by their absence. The bladder is the chief and only seat of red water lesions thus far encountered in the autopsy of twelve cases. If the case be one of purely red water without eoniplica- tions, the external surface of the bladder is normal but appears dark in color on account of its bloody contents. It may be very much distended, especially so if it contains clots which have l>een sufficiently large to obstruct the urethra, and be full of bloody urine. If the contents are fluid and free of clots the Investigations of Bovine Red Water 21 viscus is only moderately distended. Upon opening the blad- der one finds distributed over various parts of the mucous membrane blood red areas varying in size from mere pin points to the diameter of several inches. There is a great variation in the number and size of these areas in different cases of hematuria. The most dependent portion of the bladder seems to be the first to show these lesions, but later all portions of the mucosa may become involved. In some cases most of the lesions are pedunculated, being attached by a small fibrous tissue neck and freely movable. In other cases the lesions are mostly sessile and small, but in most cases both varieties of lesions are to be found. In some cases there are also noted a few elevated areas which are pale and quite firm (Fig. V., a). The mucous membrane of the bladder between the lesions is always much thickened, showing in places evidences of healing by scar formation. These cicatrices probably account for the surprisingly small number of lesions in some of the long stand- ing cases of red water. It is impossible to determine the duration of the disease by the size and character of the bladder lesions. The hemorrhage from the bladder is sometimes just as severe from small lesions as it is from large ones in advanced cases. In figures IV. and V. the variation in the size and shape of the lesions is well illus- trated ; each of the animals from which these bladders were taken had been affected about fifteen months and hemorrhage was equally severe in both cases. Microscopic examination of the bladder wall after section- ing shows the submucosa to be very much thickened by fibrous tissue and containing many round cells. The epithelial cells of the mucosa are either much altered or exfoliated and replaced by fibrous tissue. The small red sessile lesions are composed of dilated blood vessels, mostly veins, filled with blood and surrounded by fibrous tissue. The epithelium covering these is usually increased in thick- ness or it may be entirely eroded, in which case hemorrhage takes place from them. The larger red pedunculated lesions are composed of a series of venous sinuses of varying size and separated by fibrous connective tissue trabeculae (Figs. YIII. 22 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station and XI.). They resemble very much normal erectile tissue or again they may be likened to the blood spaces seen in cavernous hemangiomas. These sinuses are usually lined by a single layer of flat epithelial cells. In one case, however (Figs. VIII. and IX.), these epithelial cells assumed the appearance of pro- tozoa and were at first thought to be such; they were very large, some round and others oval, the nucleus stained deeply and presented numerous deep staining granules ; some of these cells were apparently loosened from the basement membrane and were free in the sinus. The sinuses are filled with blood, except where they have been emptied of their contents by manipulation after death. The trabeculae between the sinuses are variable in size; those near the surface of the lesion are usually quite thin, while in the deeper portions they are com- paratively thick. They are made up of white fibrous connect- ive tissues and contain many connective tissue cells, fibroblasts and leucocytes. A few small arteries may be found embedded in these trabeculae. In some of the lesions one may also find a few foci of leucocytes within the trabeculae (Fig. X.) ; these are probably the result of a secondary infection by some pyo- genic organisms. In some cases we find that the venous sinuses are comparatively small, assuming the shape of much dilated veins and surrounded by a very thick fibrous wall (Fig. XII.). The epithelium covering these lesions is also quite variable ; sometimes it is seen to retain its transtional* type, at others it seems much altered and one can always find areas where the epithelium has been eroded. The bleeding in hematuria no doubt takes place from these eroded areas. The pale lesions to which I have already alluded are not as much in evidence as those of the venous type. They are usually quite small, about an eighth of an inch in diameter and are entirely absent in many cases. Microscopically they pre- sent entirely different features. The lesion is made up largely of fibrous tissue in which are embedded a number of small arteries (Fig. XIII.). These arteries are always empty and are made up of an inner lining of flat epithelial cells surrounded by a comparatively heavy wall of circularly arranged smooth Investigations of Bovine Red Water 23 muscle cells. In parts of the lesion there may also be foimd a few venous sinuses, but these are in the minority. In typical cases of hematuria we may then, according to the foregoing, consider two kinds of bladder lesions : first, the red hemorrhagic or venous lesions which are of varying size and may be either sessile or pedunculated; and, second, the small, pale arterial lesions, which are always few in number and in some cases absent. Not all cases of red water, however, are uncomplicated and other lesions might be associated with those commonly found. Organisms of various kinds readily gain access to the urinary organs, and it is obvious that such lesions as are found in hematuria are favorable fields for their development. In one case under observation the bladder (Fig. VII.) was quite badly infected and there were two areas of granulating tissue about two inches in diameter on the mucous membrane. The inflammatory process extended through the wall of the bladder and a clot of blood about the size of a hen’s egg was firmly adhered to its external surface. The contents of the bladder also contained clots, some of which were adhered to the mucous membrane at the granulating areas. In another case we found associated with the red water lesions a papillomatous new growth covering an area about two' inches in diameter in the fundus portion of the bladder. As we sometimes find papillomas in the bladder there is no doubt but what the two conditions developed independently and had nothing in common, their development at one and the same time being simply a coincidence. Treatment Inasmuch as hematuria occurs mostly in the coastal region of Washington, and the Experiment Station is located in the eastern part of the State it has been rather difficult to treat affected animals with any degree of satisfaction. In order to study the disease it has been necessary to bring red water cows to the Station and a few of these have been treated by various methods. In the main, treatment has been carried out through correspondence with owners of affected cows. 24 Washington AgTicultural Experiment Station but this has been rather unsatisfactory. In such cases the owner usually expects immediate results from his treatment and failing in this respect resorts to any and all remedies recommended. Any form of treatment in this disease, at best, has thus far been found unsatisfactory. Many different drugs have been used and a great many seem to cause temporary relief, i. e., there is, following their use, a temporary subsidence of the discharge of bloody urine. This, however, can not always be attributed to the drug administered, for we find the same symptom of subsidence and recurrence of bloody urine from day to day in animals receiving no treatment whatsoever. Calcium chloride has been given by some authorities a very prominent place in medicine as an internal hemostatic, This property is said to be due to the power the drug possesses of increasing the coagubility of the blood. If this be correct, it would undoubtedly be indicated in such 'diseases as hema- turia. That the discharge of blood temporarily ceases in some cases of red water after administering calcium chloride is readily demonstrated. On the other hand, increased coagu- bility of the blood was not evident after administering the drug in cases where we have had opportunity to test this property. The time required for the coagulation of blood of red water cows, according to our experiments, varies from six to forty minutes. In three eases experiments have been conducted in which the coagubility of the blood was tested before and after administering calcium chloride. The Biffi- Brooks coagulometer was used for these tests. The blood in the first case was tested before treatment and required six minutes^ time for coagulation. 'The cow was then given fifteen grams of calcium chloride daily for three days; after that the dose was increased to thirty grams daily and the treatment continued for a period of three weeks. The blood was tested daily for the first seven days of treat- ment, but showed no increase in coagubility. At the end of the three weeks ^ treatment it was again tested, but still 'the coagulation point remained the same. Clinically the animhl Investigations of Bovine Red Water 25 remained about the same throughout the treatment and there was no cessation of bloodj^- urine. Two other cases were treated the same as the preceding one with like results as regards the coagubility of the blood. In one of these the blood required eight minutes for coagu- lation and in the other fourteen minutes. The discharge of bloody urine ceased in one case during the fourth day of treatment, but reappeared on the eighth day. In the other case bloody urine ceased on the fifteenth day of treatment and did not reappear until five da3's after the treatment was discontinued. Calcium chloride and also the lactate in one ounce doses daih" have been recommended to many owners of red water cows, but results have varied greatly. Some have obtained very gratifying results, claiming that the urine cleared up after administering two or three doses, while others have used the drugs for periods of two weeks or more with no results whatever. Other drugs which seem to arrest the cystic hemorrhage temporarily are : Lead acetate given in four-gram doses alternately with solution of ferric chloride four grams once daily; Epsom salts in laxative doses; potassium iodide, potas- sium chlorate, iodine and quinine. Many others of course have been used by veterinarians and others in the field, but no satisfactory results have been obtained. The injection of astringent lotions into the bladder seems to be of little value. When this method of treatment is used great care must be exercised, as any slight irritation of the vascular lesions in the bladder of red water animals will erode their covering, which is very thin, and cause an out- pouring of blood. In cases where the urine has become per- fectly clear passing of a soft rubber catheter into the bladder will invariabl}^ produce a hemorrhage. We have tried injections of adrenalin, normal salt, weak alum, and tannic acid solutions into the bladder^ but results have been unsatisfactory. 26 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Disposition of Affected Animals From what has been said in the foregoing pages it is ob- vious that although red water is not a rapidly fatal disease, it is one that is most certain to cause a depreciation in value and eventuall}^ death of an animal that has contracted it. For this reason and for the further reason that it is apparently an incurable malady at the present time, it is suggested that the affected animals be disposed of early. The disease seems to be essentially a local one, confined to the bladder, and so long as an affected cow is in good physical condition the meat may be considered perfectly wholesome. Hence, the most profitable procedure under the present cir- cumstances would be to fatten all affected cows and dispose of them for beef. It is also important not to breed a cow after she has once contracted the disease as the act of par- turition always seems to aggravate the symptoms. In concluding, the author wishes to express his apprecia- tion to Dr. S. B. Nelson for valuable suggestions offered dur- ing the investigation of red water. Thanks are also due Doctors W. E. Ralston and E. E. Wegner of the Veterinary Department for help in various ways. Others who have ren- dered valuable assistance, either by locating red water cows or forwarding specimens to the laboratory, are Dr. Willis Wil- son of Dayton, Doctors Trippeer and Baddeley of Walla Walla, Dr. Carl Cozier of Bellingham, Dr. E. N. Hutchinson of Blaine, Dr. R. A. Button of Tacoma and Mr. G. W. Kincaid of Monroe. Many stockmen to whom we feel duly indebted have also rendered material help by contributing red water cows to the Station for experimental purposes. SUMMARY I. — Red water is a specific disease . of cattle and is quite common in the western part of Washington. II. — It is characterized clinically by the constant or peri- odic discharge of bloody urine and by its chronic course; and Investigations of Bovine Red Water 27 pathologically by the characteristic vascular lesions which occur on the bladder mucosa. III. — The cause of the disease is yet to be discovered. IV. — Blood of sick cows seems to be innocuous to healthy ones. V. — The disease has been apparently transmitted from a sick to a healthy cow by inoculation of the latter with the bladder lesions of the former. VI. — Although some drugs seem to render temporary relief, treatment as a whole has been very unsatisfactory, VII. — Permanent recoveries from red water are doubtful; a cow once affected with the disease nearly always eventually succumbs to it. Fig. I. Red water cow No. 6. eight hours before death. A typical case of red water about forty- Case of about fifteen months standing. Pig. IT. Red water cow No. 9. This cow, although apparently healthy, has been affected with red water for ffve years. Fig. Ill Inverted bladder of red water cow No. 12. Case of about eighteen months standing. Fig. IV Inverted bladder from red water cow No. 3. Although the lesions in this case appear insignificant, most of them being very small, death resulted from excessive loss of blood. Case of about fifteen months standing. Fig. VII Inverted bladder of a red water cow showing marked development of granulating tissue and severe hemorrhage, probably due to a secondary infection, (a) blood clot firmly adherent to the mucosa; (b) granulating tissue and' typical red water lesions, mostly the former. The infiammatory disturbance in this case was so severe that the external surface of the bladder was involved and several clots of blood were adhered to it. Inverted bladder of red water cow No. 6. Note the number and size of the lesions some of which are pedunculated. All are blood red in color except the one at (a) which is pale. At (b) is the normal vaginal mucous membrane. Fig. V Inverted bladder of cow' showing a case of artificially induced red water by inocu- lation wdth lesions obtained from the bladder shown in Fig. IV. Pig. VIII. Microphotograph of a red lesion taken from the bladder shown in Fig. V. a — Blood in venous sinuses; b — empty venous sinuses; note the large cells (presumably epithelial), which form the inner lining; c — small connective tissue trabeculae near surface of lesion; d — large connective tissue trabeculae containing fibroblasts, wan- dering connective tissue cells, leucocytes, etc.; e — surface of lesion composed of much altered bladder epithelium. X — 90. Fig. IX. Same as Fig. VIII., but more highly magnified, a — Large cells (probably epithelial) within a venous sinus; these cells, when first seen, were thought to be protozoa. Similar cells have not been seen in other like cases; b — red blood corpuscles; c — connective tissue surrounding the blood sinuses. X — 500. Fig. X. Another field from the same preparation as Fig. VIII., showing a focus of leucocytes at “a”; this is probably the result of a second- ary infection. At “b” is shown the altered bladder epithelium which is exfoliated at “c.” X — 90. Fig. XI. Microphotograph of a lesion taken from the bladder illustrated in Fig. TIT.: a — venous sinuses of various shapes and sizes filled with blood: note the abseno.e of the large cells found lining the sinuses in Fig. IX.; b — fibrous connective tissue trabeculae; c — surface of lesion lined by epithelium which seems to retain its transitional type. X — 90. Fig. XII. Microphotograph of a small red lesion from the bladder illus- trated in Fig. IV.: a- — venous sinuses filled with blood; note their small size when compared with those seen in Figures VIII. and XI. Note also at “b” the relatively large amount of connective tiss’ie between the sinuses. X. — 90. Fig. XTII. Microphotograph of a small pale lesion from the bladder illus- trated in Pig. IV.; a — newly formed arteries; b — connective tissue. This illustrates well the character of the pale lesions which are made up of both arteries and venous sinuses but in which the former predominates. X — 90. Fig:. XIV. Microphotograph of a lesion from the bladder shown in Fig. VI.: a — venous sinuses filled with blood: b — focus of leucocytes, probably a secondary infection; c — fibrous connective tissue; d — surface of lesion from which the epithelium has exfoliated. X— 90. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTUR AL EXPERIMENT STATION PUI.LMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF BOTANY Plants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range By R. KENT BEATTIE BULLETIN No. 113 December, 1913 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director - BOARD OF CONTROL. D. S. TROY, President Chimacum JAS. C CUNNINGHAM, Vice-PresicTent......;: Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Sec’y- Ex-Officio.. ..President of the College, Pullman R. C McCROSKEY Garfield PETER McGREGOR Spokane LEE A. JOHNSON Sunnyside STATION STAFF. IRA D. CARDIFF, Ph. D ELTON FULMER, M. A S. B. NELSON, D. V. M O. L. WALLER, 'Ph: M .: A. L. MELANDER, M. S O. M. MORRIS, B. S....^..: GEO. M. SEVERANCE, B. S... C. C. THOM, M. S ‘. A. B. NYSTROM, M. S ^ GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S W. T. SHAW, B. Agr., M. S R. C. ASHBY, B. S J. G. HALL, M. A E. G. SHAFER, M. S J. W. KALKUS, D. V. S C. A. MAGOON, M. A M. A. YOTHERS, B. S HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S E. F. GAINES, B. S C. F. MONROE, B. S. A W. J. YOUNG, B. S C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S D. C. GEORGE, B. S c. K. McWilliams, m. a H. M. WOOLMAN ELLA W. BROCK Director and Botanist State Chemist Veterinarian . . : i I rVigatioh Engineer Entomologist :. ..... ^Horticulturist Agriculturist ‘ Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Agronomist Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Bacteriologist Assistant Entomologist ... ..........Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Cerealist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant Horticulturist Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist j\ssistant Chemist Assistant Plant Pathologist : . . . . .7. . . .Executive Clerk Plants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range. BY R. KENT BEATTIE, A. M. Professor of Botany and Head of the Department of Botany, S. C.^ The plant growth of a forest region is not confined to trees which are valuable for wood products and lumber. Associated with them are other smaller trees and many shrubs and herbs. All these together form a secondary but at the same time a very important source of the usefulness of the forest — the supplying of food plants for grazing animals. An economical management of the forest involves a wise and eco- nomical use of this forest food. As much use of it must be made as is consistent with the main object of the forest, the production of wood products and lumber, and with the preservation of a continued supply of grazing for future years. The state of Washington contains seven well marked vegetative regions: (1) The sagebrush plains of central Washington, (2) the bunch-grass hills of the Palouse country, (3) the moist west side fir forests, (4) the yellow pine forests of the Blue mountains, Stevens, and Ferry counties and the eastern slope of the Cascade mountains, (5) the white pine and white fir forests of the Cascade and Blue mountains, (6) the subalpine fir and black hemlock forests of the higher Cascades and Olympics, and (7) the high arctic vegetation above timber line in the Cascades and Olympics. All of these regions enter more or less into cattle, sheep, and horse raising. Only the sage-brush plains, the bunch- grass hills, and the yellow pine and white pine forests enter into this discussion. The sage-brush plains and their adjacent river valleys lie below 1200 feet elevation and have a rainfall of 5.7 to 13 inches per year. About three-fourths of this rain falls during the months from November to May, while July, August, and September are almost rainless. The winters are mild. The temperature in winter averages but little below freezing and seriously cold weather comes but seldom. These condi- *Resigned September 15, 1912. 4 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. tions provide a large acreage of land unsuited to ordinary agriculture, except in the small area where irrigation water is available, but they furnish a large amount of valuable winter forage easily supplemented by alfalfa hay from the nearby irrigated lands. The dry summers, how- ever, make it impossible to carry any large amount of stock on this range throughout the year. The effective use, therefore, of this vast amount of the raw material out of which human food and clothing are made by range animals is conditioned on the use of other summer range lands during the dry and barren period from June 1 to November 1 . Fortunately for the producers and consumers of stock in the state, the sage-brush region is surrounded on all sides by other higher, cooler, and moister regions available for summer range. The bunch-grass hills which immediately surround the sage-brush are almost entirely settled up and fenced and are given over to wheat raising and general farming. They are not available for grazing till when the grain has been threshed and the wheat fields have become stubble fields. But back of and above these in the foothills and in the mountains lie the yellow and the white pine forests. Parts of these forests are cleared and other parts will in the future be cleared and converted into agricultural land, but large areas are valuable only for forest purposes. They are now mostly under the control of the nation, the state or large lumber in- terests and are available for summer range. The preservation of these forests and the proper use of them as summer range demands intelligent management. Intelligent manage- ment can only be based on knowledge. There is at the present time in this, as well as in every other branch of science, too great a tendency to draw general conclusions on but few local data. Because the sheep tramp out the grass in one region does not signify that they will in another. Because one plant or one sort of plant is the chief food plant in one region does not prove that it is in another. It is therefore very desirable that range data be secured in many different and varied regions. To gather data which might represent the conditions in one part of this vast northwestern summer range, the writer spent the month of August, 1911, in a study of the sheep food plants on the summer range in the Mica Mountain region of Latah county, Idaho. Although this region lies outside the state of Washington, it is an easily accessible ex- tension of the Washington vegetative regions and is much used by Wash- ington sheep from the winter ranges in southwestern Whitman and adjacent counties. Again in the latter part of July, 1912, a second visit was made to the region before the sheep reached it to check up the effect of the previous year’s grazing. The work resolved itself into a study of the food habits, the range management, and the effect on the range of two well-handled bands of sheep grazed on a leased range which was well supplied with food. I am very greatly indebted to McGregor Brothers of Hoop^er, Washington, whose sheep were the subject of this investigation, and to 5 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. their employees for the numerous courtesies which made the work pleas- ant and indeed possible. I am also indebted to the Potlatch Lumber Company of Potlatch, Idaho, for information as to their forest lands leased for grazing purposes. MANAGEMENT OF THE SHEEP. In the year 1911, McGregor Brothers raised about 12,000 sheep. They were wintered on the McGregor ranch on the breaks of Snake river, just east of the Palouse river, near Hooper, Whitman county, Washington. The lambing season began about March 20 and con- tinued for six weeks. Shearing was begun about April 25. The sheep were started for the summer range as soon as possible after the shearing season. Half of them were sent north of Spokane, Washington, into the Huckleberry Range of mountains lying between the Columbia and the Colville valleys. The other six thousand, with which we are con- cerned, in two equal bands, started on June 1 for the Idaho range. They were seven days on the road. McGregor Brothers had leased the grazing privileges from the Potlatch Lumber Company on all its forest land lying between the head- waters of Hatter creek (a tributary of the North Palouse river, which rises in the Thatuna hills and empties into the Palouse near Princeton, Idaho) and the Shay meadows, which lie about four miles west of Bovill, Idaho, on a small tributary of the Potlatch river. The region leased was two miles wide and about twenty-two miles Ion". The two drainage basins, the Palouse and the Potlatch, are separated somewhat east of the middle of this strip by the Mica m^ountains, a small range of mountains which rise to an altitude of about 4500 feet. The grazing region crossed over a large section of this ridge and these mountains furnished one of the most valuable sources of food supply. Part of the strip of land has been logged; some of it is now being cut; but much of it is still in virgin forest. Here and there arc a few hom.e- steads and developed farm.s belonging to individual owners and cleared and developed by them, but these interfered but little with the "razing of the tract. The same region has been grazed by the McGregor Broth- ers’ sheep for a number of years in the past but had been ungrazed for a year or two about 1 908 or 1 909. It is bisected for nearly its whole length by public and private roads which follow more or less closelv the township line. It is made easily accessible by the Washington, Idaho & Montana Railroad, a fully equipped railroad about fifty m.iles long, con- necting the Palouse line of the Northern Pacific at Palouse Washington, with the Elk River line of the Chicago, Milwaukee & Pu"et Sound Railway at Bovill, Idaho, carrying legular passenger and freight traffic as well as being used for the hauling of logs to one of the largest saw- mills in the United States at Potlatch, Idaho. The sheep reached the summer range at the west end and moved slowly eastward throughout the summer, reaching the Shay meadows at 6 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. the eastern end about October 1 . Here they were finally counted and sorted in the permanent corrals kept at this place for that purpose. In three days they were driven back to the western end of the leased land, feeding on selected grazing grounds which had been saved during the eastward trip. They were then moved into the wheat stubble fields north and west of Potlatch, Idaho, through which they gradually moved south- westward during the month of October and the first half of November. They then returned to their winter range near Hooper, Washington. On August 7, when the writer began this study, one band of about 3000 sheep had reached the Vassar meadows, which lie in sections one and two of township 40 north, range 2, west of the Boise meridian, and were feeding in the white pine region. The other band of about the same size was on the Mica mountains back of Lundsford’s meadow in section thirty-three of township 41 north, range 2, west. They were grazing in the yellow pine region. During practically the whole month of August, while the sheep were under observation, the two bands re- tained this relative position, one south of the middle line of the grazing region moving eastward through the white pine, the other north of the middle line moving eastward through the yellow pine. The Horse Camp, so-called, or headquarters camp of the outfit was on the Windus meadow, in section one of township 40, convenient to both bands. With the two bands of sheep were four men, a boss, a helper and two herders. The herders camped with the sheep. The boss and the helper lived at the horse camxp, moved the herders’ camps when neces- sary, purchased and hauled supplies, hauled drinking water for the camp and salt for the sheep, looked up stubble field range for the autumn feed- ingi* repaired the roads, and in general looked after the welfare of the sheep and of the herders who could not leave them. The boss, Mr. Robert Clyde, of Potlatch, Idaho, has lived in the region for twenty- five years, is thoroughly fam.iliar with every foot of its intricate geog- raphy, and has worked for McGregor Brothers for a long time. The other three men are natives of Hautes-Alpes, a province of eastern France,, come from a race of sheepherders, and have had several years of experience with sheep in this country. The McGregor Brothers .prefer and usually secure French herders, of whom there is quite a colony in the vicinity of Walla Walla, Washington. THE GRAZING REGIONS CONSIDERED. The food plants of the sheep vary greatly in the different vegetative regions under different climatic conditions. What the sheep eat de- pends on what they have to eat. The vegetation of the four regions herein considered is therefore described below. The Sage-Brush Plains and Valleys. This region is used by the sheepmen only as winter range. . It has been fully described and its food plants discussed in Bulletin 60 (7)^’ ^See Bibliography. 7 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station by Mr. J. S. Cotton, who,, in the years 1901 to 1903, investigated the winter ranges of cen- tral Washington and the summer ranges in the adjacent parts of the Cascade mountains. The dominant plant of the sage-brush region is naturally the .‘sage-brush, Artemisia trideniata Nutt., which is accom- panied by rabbit brush, Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall.) Britt., and antelope brush, Kunzia trideniata (Pursh) Spreng., and others. The region is hot and dry in summer and its sparse covering of the more tender herbs and grasses wither or cure into hay as the dry season approaches. . The Yellow Pine Forests. From the standpoint of plant geography, the yellow pine forests form the upper part of the Arid Transition region (18) (17). If the sage-brush region be taken as a center, the yellow pine region is the second’ concentric zone lying around it. Between the two lie the bunch- grass prairies of the lower part of the Arid Transition zone. These will be considered later. . ; ^ . . In eastern Washington, the yellow pine forests lie in general be- tween altitudes of 1800 and 3300 feet (18, page 50), but in the eastern part of this region in Latah county, Idaho, and especially in the Mka mountains, the region of this investigation, the upward ex- tension of the yellow pine is somewhat greater. The yellow pine as a dominant Tree here reaches 4500 feet, although the underbrush changes to. that more typical of the white pine region at about 4000 feet. The principal species of this forest is the western yellow pine, Pinus ponder osa Dough This is an important timber tree which in this region frequently reaches a diameter of three feet and a height of one hundred feet. Here the yellow pine forests cover granitic hills and mountains and are open in character. Mixed with the yellow pine is a considerable amount of western larch or tamarack, Larix occidentalis Nutt. On one of the southwesterly ridges of the Mica iliountains, in limited localities, it dominates certain •parts of the ridge and occur.® in almost pure stand. Elsewhere in the region it- is scattered or is occasionally abundant on steep slopes. ^ ^ Spruce, Picea engelmanni Parry, lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta Dough, and Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata Raf., form secondary species in the yellow pine forest. There is very little second growth timber except in clearings where it usually consists of lodgepole pine, Douglas fir and white fir, Abies grandis Lindh . A considerable amount of shrubby growth occurs in clumps espe- cially just below the crest of the hills where it sometimes ‘ forms dense thiejeets, but it nowhere presents the uniformly thick undergrowth so characteristic of the white pine forest to be described below. The shrubs of -the yellow pine forest consist chiefly of buckbrush, Ceanotbus san~ .gutneus Pursh,' nine-bark, Opulaster pauciflorus (T. & G.) Heller, 8 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. coral berry, S^mphoricarpos racemosus Michx., ocean spray, Holodiscus discolor Maxim., wild rose, Rosa pisocarpc Gray, and thimble berry, Rubus parviflorus Nutt. The open ground is covered with pine grass, Calamagrostis sul^s- d 01 fit Scribn., mixed with various herbs such as species of Lath^rus and Fragaria. Higher up on the mountains, above 3500 feet altitude, the under- brush becomes more abundant and changes in character. Sticky laurel or buckbrush, Ceanothus velutinus Dough, replaces the common buck- brush, Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh of the lower level. At about 4000 feet a great deal of huckleberry brush, V accinium macroph^llum (Hook.) Piper, comes in. The \^hite Pine Forests. In northern Idaho, the western white pine, Pinus moniicola Dough, is the dominant tree of what the plant geographers call the Canadian zone. As represented in the region under consideration, this is a very sharply limited :\nd easily distinguished zone. Here it does not begin at the upper edge of the yellow pine and run up mountain sides but it covers a wide expanse of lower country bounded on the southwest by the Mica and other mountains and extending east.vardly to the Bitter Root mountains. The white pine region lies at altitudes varying around 3000 feet. It is composed of innumerable small hills separated by rather steep can- yons in which flow small streams. At intervals the stream bottoms widen out into wet meadows. It* is these m.eadows which, from the standpoint of human geography, form the key to the country. (Figs. 1 , 3, and 4.) The Woods. The white pine forests cover the hills and run down to the edge of each meadow, extending out into the meadow just as far as the wet- ness of the soil will permit. The western white pine is the dominant tree but the white fir, Abies grandis Lindl., is almost as abundant and along the edge of the meadow far outstrips in number of individuals all other trees. Here it stands in striking groups. There being no crowd- ing, its branches are retained to the ground and the individuals of vary- ing sizes form conical spires which excel in beauty of shape and in artistic grouping the best effects of the landscape gardener. Douglas fir is also mixed with the white pine in considerable quantities. The white pine woods are dense and dark, and are alvvays moist. The underbrush is dense and uniform. It is composed chiefly of huckleberry, V accinium macroph^llum (Hook.) Piper, mixed with ser- vice berry, Amelanchier florida Lindl., alder, Alnus sinuata (Regel.) Rydberg., coral berry, Sy^mphoricarpos racemosus Michx.. honeysuckle, Lonicera utahensis Wats., Pachistima m^rsirites (Pursh) Raf., and the 9 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. thimble berry, Rubus parviflorus Nutt. The ground beneath the bushes is covered with such plants as the dogwood, Cornus canadensis L., meadow rue, Thalictrum occidenlale Gray, Clinionia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth., false miterwort, Tiarella unifoliata Hook., false Solomon’s seal, Vagnera sessilifolia (Baker) Greene, and the twin flower, Linnaea americana Forbes. The Meadows. Coming out of the woods into the meadows, we meet with very different conditions. While the woods are cool and moist, in August, the meadows are hot and dry and the ground is baked hard. Most of the meadows are under cultivation and are producing large crops of tim- othy. A few of them are growing oats. These are cut in the milk for hay. Around the edges of the cultivated meadows and all over some small uncultivated ones, the native vegetation still exists. Wherever it is dry enough in winter for the trees and shrubs to encroach, we find a few spruces, Picea engelmanni Parry, white firs and the coral berry. The open meadow is covered with a dense growth from three to five feet high of such plants as yarrow, Achillea millefolium var. lanulosa (Nutt.) Piper, aster, Aster hendersoni, fescue, Festuca sublata Trin., aconite, Aconitum columbianum Nutt., false bugbane, Trautvel- teria grandis Nutt., golden rod, Solidago elongata Nutt., and cinque- foil, Potentilla nuttallii Lehm. or a related species. The Bunch-Grass Hills. The bunch-grass hills which form the fourth vegetative region in- volved in the feeding of the bands of sheep which are herein considered, lie between the sage-brush plains and the yellow pine forests. They form the region called by plant geographers the lower Arid Transition region. These hills are almost entirely under cultivation. TTie land is all fenced and is to a very large extent raising wheat. The native vege- tation which once covered the hills consisted largely of bunch-grass, Agropyron spicatum (Pursh) Scribn. & Smith, mixed with numerous prairie herbs. Except along streams in the valleys or on very steep north hillsides there were no trees and shrubs. The native vegetation is now so scarce that it does not enter as a factor into sheep grazing. The wheat raised on these hills ripens in July and August and between the fifteenth of July and the first of October is harvested. It is cut with a binder and shocked or else cut with a header, but in any case is threshed direct from the field without stacking before the winter rains come, which usually begin between September fifteenth and October first. The stubble fields filled with straw, shattered grain, wild oats, Avena fatua glabrata Petermann, and sprouting weeds are thus available for the feeding of sheep in October and November. 10 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. THE HERDING SYSTEM. In the two very different regions of the summer range, the yellow pine and the white pine, the two bands of sheep mentioned above were grazed and studied in the month of August, 1911. The typical method of herding them was as follows: The herder established his camp on the edge of a meadow, near a piece of level bottom land, or on the edge of a clearing on a hill. Here was the bedding ground of the sheep; that is, the place where they were gathered for the night. To this same ground the sheep returned every night till they had grazed over all the ground available from this point. They were then moved on to the next bedding ground. This system is dia- grammatically represented in figure 1 7, which represents the grazing plan for one week. In this case the sheep were moved from bedding ground A to bedding ground B on the first day. Bedding ground B is located on the edge of a small timothy meadow at a point where two or three small ravines run back into the hills. Early on the second morning the sheep begin to stir and are guided out into the timber in the region marked 2. In the main they are started out on the side of the range opposite the ground they covered the day before. They are guided and held from too great scattering by careful quiet circling movements of the herder, who, after an early breakfast which he cooks and eats at his tent, puts in the most of the forenoon in handling the sheep. It is his effort to get the sheep out about a mile from the camp in the forenoon and to spread them out in small groups so that all will have an opportu- nity to feed. Although the herder usually has a couple of dogs with him he uses these but little in the woods except in an emergency. Dovs are used more when the sheep are traveling along a public road. The McGregor outfits use dogs which are a cross between the collie and the Australian wolfhound. Sheep are easily frightened and, especially in the forenoon, will, if disturbed, hasten back to last night’s bedding ground. By ten-thirty or eleven o’clock when the heat of the day has arrived, the sheep find their way into the deep shade and lie down quietly for a noon siesta. When the sheep settle down at noon, the herder goes to camp and cooks his dinner. About two or two-thirty o’clock or even later on hot days, the sheep rouse themselves and begin to graze back toward the bedding ground. The herder guides them back on the side of the graz- ing ground next to yesterday’s path, hoping thus to pick up any stragglers which may have been lost the day before and are now hunting the other sheep. By five-thirty or six o’clock the sheep have reached camp. The herder scatters small piles of crushed rock salt over the bedding ground and calls his sheep. They rush out of the woods, lick up the salt and gather closely together for the night. For an hour or two a period of adjustment occurs. During the day, lambs and their mothers have be- Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 1 1 come separated. They now call each other and get together. The shepherd has in his flock a small number of sheep wearing bells and a small number of black sheep. The number of bells and black sheep varies with the tastes of the different herders. It is impossible for him to count his whole flock of approximately 3000 sheep except with help and at rare intervals, but each night he counts his bells and his black sheep. If one of these js missing he scours the feeding ground for lost sheep. Knowing the gregarious habit of his sheep, if all his bells and black sheep are present, he is reasonably sure that no large group of sheep is likely to be missing. The first night on a new bedding ground is the most difficult night. So fixed is the habit of the sheep to return to the old bedding ground that continual care must be exercised during the afternoon and evening to get them all together at the new place. On the third, fourth and succeeding days, the sheep are handled as they were on the second day, till the range available from the bedding ground is exhausted. If the camp is established on the edge of a cul- tivated hay meadow, the feeding grounds will probably all lie to one side of the bedding ground as shown in figure 1 7. In other cases the feeding grounds may radiate in all directions. In any event the feeding ground which lies in the direction of the next bedding ground is saved until the last day. On moving day, the herder starts the sheep out in the morning and moves them during the day toward the new bedding ground, endeavoring to get them there rather early in the day so that he may have plenty of time to make camp and pick up stragglers. Meanwhile the boss or his helper has come with a wagon and loaded the herder’s camp outfit, his tent, his stove, his bedding, and his grub box and moved them around by convenient roads to the new camp site. Here he pitches the tent and sets up the camp and if necessary helps the herder to gather in the strag- glers. From this new bedding ground the feeding system is repeated. Sometimes when the feeding grounds are far from roads and in regions where wild animals are few, the herder will bed the sheep for a tew nights away from his camp, but even then many of the sheep will often take matters in their own hands and return to the old bedding ground at night. In the Mica Mountain region, no effort is made to water the sheep. The forage in the woods is so succulent that the sheep go for days at a time without drinking water. While the herders thus remain inseparable from their sheep, the two camp tenders, the boss and his helper, are headquartered at what is called the ‘ horse camp,” in a convenient fenced meadow from which the timothy has been cut and the use of which they have leased from some farmer. Here they pasture their saddle horses and draft mules and keep extra dogs for the herders. Here also they pitch their tent and eat and sleep. During the day they are busy, as explained above,in caring for the wants of the herders and the sheep. When a convenient fenced 1 2 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. pasture for the horsecamp is not available, as is often the case early in the season before the timothy meadows have been mowed, the tenders camp with the herders and depend upon hobbles to keep their horses from straying. WHAT THE SHEEP EAT. The author’s notes on the food plants of the sheep have been gained by spending the days in the woods with the sheep, watching their feeding habits, identifying the plants as they ate them, and collecting herbarium specimens of the various species. Sets of the plants collected have been deposited in the Washington State College Herbarium and in the United States National Herbarium. The determination of the actual plants eaten is made somewhat difficult by the timidity of the sheep. It was only by the exercise of great patience and care that one could get among the sheep and close enough to them to make exact observations. Especially was this true in the forenoons. The desired result was attained usually by posting ones- self on a convenient log or stump ahead of and in the path of the sheep, remaining perfectly quiet, making no sudden movements and observing most of the eating by the aid of a pair of binoculars. In both regions studied, the sheep spent most of their time eating shrubby plants and young brush. Very little attention was paid by them to the grasses and herbs which grow close to the ground. A fair esti- mate is that two-thirds to three-fourths of the sheep’s time was devoted to the layer of brush, while the remaining one-fourth to one-third was spent eating the herbs on the ground. In this respect they differed from those mentioned in the usual reports on the food habits of sheep, which mostly devote their attention to the “grasses” which the sheep eat and discuss them as if their chief food consisted of grasses and tender herbs. Some authors have mentioned the browsing of sheep on the herbage of shrubs and trees but most of the literature on the subject neglects this phase of the feeding. This may perhaps be due to the fact that in other regions the shrubs do not form as important a factor in the food supply of the sheep. The brush was eaten as high as the sheep could reach. Often they would climb upon a log or on the raised butt of a fallen tree to gather leaves, young twigs, and fruit of some bush or young tree which were far beyond their reach from the ground. Where the shrubs grew tall and were especially desirable, they would stand on their hind feet and beat down the brush with their bodies till they could reach much of the upper parts of the foliage. The White Pine Forests. In the white pine forests the principal sheep food plant is the huckleberry, V accinium macroph^llum (Hook.) Piper. This plant forms a large part of the shrubby undergrowth. The bushes are vase- 13 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. shaped and vary from one to five feet in height. In August, 1911, they were full of luscious acid berries, sometimes dark red but usually blue- black in color, and the young twigs were covered with large tender leaves. In the dense woods, these leaves remained more or less moist and succulent all day long. In addition* to the huckleberry, this region furnished an abundance - of shrubby growth of various other species which the sheep consumed • with relish. The following grazing notes were here taken: Plants of the White Pine Forests Which the Sheep Eat Readily and Use Much for Food. Vaccinium macrophyllum (Hook.) Piper. Broad leaved huckleberry. The most important sheep food in the white pine region. S^mphoricarpos racemosus Michx. Coral berry. Very much liked by the sheep. Especially abundant near the edges of the woods. Amelanchier florida Lindl. Service berry. Well liked but not very leafy and not very abundant in the deep woods. ' 'Acer douglasi Hook. Maple. Well liked but not very abundant. The sheep climb high to get the leaves of this. Rosa nutkana Presl. Rather abundant and much eaten. Cornus stolonifera Michx. Red dogwood. Well liked and fairly abundant. Thermopsis montana ovata Robinson. Well liked but not abundant. Menziesia glabella Gray. Abundant and much eaten but not supplied with a very large amount of foliage. Lonicera utahensis Wats. Honeysuckle. Abundant and much eaten. - Spiraea cor'pmbosa Raf. Spirea. Much eaten but too small to furnish -,;{i ■ a very great amount of food. Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt. Rose. Rather abundant and much eaten. _Alnus oregona Nutt. Alder. Abundant and much eaten. iVagnera sessili folia (Baker) Greene. False Solomon’s seal. One of i;! the delicate herbs which was much relished by the sheep and was ; fairly abundant. i' - . Plants Eaten Very Little and of No Practical Grazing Importance. Pachistima m^rsinites (Pursh) Raf. This rather pretty evergreen shrub is occasionally nibbled at by sheep but although it is very abundant in these woods it furnishes practically no food to the sheep because of their dislike for it. Rubus parviflorus Nutt. Thimble berry. This large leaved plant is abundant in the white pine woods. It is, however, not often touched by the sheep. It forms no appreciable factor in their food supply. Holodiscus discolor Maxim. Ocean spray. For some unaccountable reason the sheep eat but little of this abundant shrub. Cornus canadensis L. Dogwood. 14 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. Clintonia uniflora (Schult.) Kunth. Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt. Princess pine. Linnaea americana Forbes. Twin flower. P^rola picta inlegra (Gray) Piper. Shin leaf. Pyrola bracteata Hook. The last six plants form a considerable part of the surface vege- tation under the trees and bushes. They are nibbled a little by the sheep but none of them are relished and they play but little part in the food question. Plants Not Eaten at All. A thorium cpclosorum Rupr. Spleen wort. Phegopteris dr^opteris (L.) Fee. Oak fern. Pol'pstichum munitum (Presl.) Kaulf. Abies grandis Lindl. White fir. Pinus monticola Dough White pine. Pseudotsuga mucronala (Raf.) Sudw. Douglas fir of red fir. At this season of the year (August) , other food is abundant and the ferns and conifers are practically never eaten. During the four weeks in which the writer studied the habits of 6000 sheep, he saw one sheep eat a few leaflets of A thorium c^closorum once. The sheep are very fond of various species of mushrooms {Agaricus and related genera) but these can scarcely be said to have much food value. The Meadows in the White Pine Region. Strange as it may seem, the meadows which under cultivation produce large crops of timothy hay and are so valuable in other forms of agriculture are of little value in sheep grazing. The plants of the meadow are too dry and the meadow is too hot and light. The sheep prefer the dense woods and the moist succulent plants of those woods. In the early morning and in the evening when the meadows are cooler and are moist with dew the sheep will graze upon them. In the middle of the day they will scarcely touch them. Since the larger ones are under cultivation by private owners or lessees, it is only the very small ones and the edges of the larger ones that are accessible to the sheep. Here such plants as the following were readily eaten and furnished food. Plants of the Meadows Which Were Eaten AND Furnished Food. Trauivetteria grandis Nutt. False bugbane. This plant has large leaves with long petioles. It is eaten with avidity. Rudbecl(ia occidentalis Nutt. Cone flower. Abundant along the edge of the meadows and readily eaten in the evenings. V erairum calif ornicum Durand. False hellebore. The sheep are ex- traordinarily fond of this plant, which grows in wet places at the edges of meadows and in ravines in the woods. When they strike 15 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. a patch of it they eat it clean leaving nothing but about an inch of the central core of the stem projecting above ground. This plant is reputedly poisonous. This phase of the question is dis- cussed later. (Fig. 8.) Solidago elongaia Nutt. Golden rod. Abundant and eaten in the • evenings. Thalictrum occidenlale Gray. Meadow rue. Eaten in the evenings but not very leafy. Aconitum columbianum Nutt. Aconite. Eaten in the evenings. Possesses considerable foliage. Festuca subulaia Trin. Fescue. A tall grass but not furnishing a great amount of forage. Castilleja m'miaia Dough Indian paint brush. Eaten only in the evenings. Potentilla nuttallii Lehm. Cinque foil. Eaten in the evenings. There seemed to be no plants on the edges of the meadow which the sheep consistently avoided. If they ate there at all they ate every- thing. They swept over the ground and mowed it clean. The eagerness with which the sheep ate V eratrum cal'if ornicum is quite interesting in the light of the reputed poisonous qualities of this plant. Many farmers are in the habit of attributing to it the death of sheep, cattle, and horses. On the smaller Vassar meadow near the south end there was a large quantity of this plant. With its large green leaves and panicles of young fruits it stood about five feet high and was mixed with other typical meadow plants. On one evening the writer saw the sheep sweep over this patch and in less than fifteen minutes east every V eratrum plant clean on about one acre. As is shown in figure 8, they left nothing but a stub. The writer has also re- ceived a report from near Lake Pend d’Oreille, in Idaho, of horses eating and relishing this plant. There is no doubt but that for sheep at least his plant is not only not poisonous, but is greatly relished and is a useful article of food. The Yellow Pine Forests. In the yellow pine forests the principal food plant is the buck- brush, Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh. The sheep are very fond of this plant. They strip it of leaves and fruits as high as they can reach and beat down the taller bushes with their necks and bodies and eat up just as far as they can. Higher up on the mountains the sticky laurel, Ceanothus velutinus Dough, replaces the buckbrush in the vegetation. It is equally relished by the sheep, but in the region studied the sheep rarely got up to it. The fruits of both of these species of Ceanothus are very oily and are very fattening. Sheep grazing upon them become sleek and fat very quickly. These two plants are the most fattening 16 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. on the range and altogether are the most valuable sheep food plants in this whole region. While buckbrush is the most abundant shrub in he yellow pine forest, there are a number of other shrubby plants which are also used for food. < ’ Plants of the Yellow Pine Forests Which THE Sheep Eat. Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh. Buckbrush. Ceanothus velutinus Dough Sticky laurel. The two most important food plants of the region. S'^mphoricarpos racemosus Michx. Coral berry. This plant is quite abundant in the yellow pine forests and ranks next to the buck- brush as a food plant. Opulaster pauciflorus Piper. Ninebark. The sheep eat the. flowers, and ^the surrounding bracts of this plant but eat very few of the leaves. ... . .i, Acer douglasii Hook. Maple. . , . Thalictrum occideniale Gray. Meadow rue. V agnera sessilifolia (Baker) Greene. False Solomon’s seal. ' These three plants are eaten in the yellow pine region and bear about the same relation to the forage as they do in the white pine woods and meadows. Berheris repens Lindl. Oregon grape. ’ M • Cornus occidentalis (Torr. & Gray) Coville. Dogwood. Both of these plants are eaten readily but are not sufficiently abun- dant to be great factors in the food supply. ' Coptis occidentalis (Nutt.) Torr. Goldthread. Eaten a great deal by the sheep but not large enough to be important. Cornus canadensis L. Dogwood. This plant seemed to be eaten more by the sheep which were grazing in the yellow pine than by those grazing in the white pine. ' ^ ' Spiraea cor'pmbosa Raf. Spirea. ' Readily eaten but too small to be important. Plants Which the Sheep Do Not Eat. Arctostaph'plos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. Kinnikinnick. Rubus parviflorus Nutt. Thimble berry. Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt. Princess pine. These three plants are very rarely eaten by the sheep and enter not at all into the food supply for sheep of this region. EFFECT OF GRAZING ON THE FORnST. Upon the questions connected with the effect of sheep- grazing on the reproduction, fire protection, and other problems of forest man- agement there are many differences of opinion. Many conclusions have Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 1 7 been drawn based only on local data or on the mere opinions and prejudices of the men involved. Such conclusions are not only unscien- tific but they have often been the cause of mistaken forest policy and much ill-feeling among the parties affected. The facts herein presented and the conclusions drawn relate only to the conditions as described herein when well-managed bands of sheep were being grazed on leased land which had an abundance of forage for the number of sheep which it was sustaining. Forest Reproduction. As far as the trees which make up the wood products of this forest are concerned, the sheep grazing observed had absolutely no dele- terious effect upon reproduction. The sheep never ate the young conif- erous trees or any of their foliage. There are no hardwoods produced in this region. The herding system described above so scattered the sheep that there was no serious trampling or breaking of seedlings and young trees. The trails formed by the sheep were not deeply cut ex- cept in the neighborhood of the bedding grounds. The sheep feeding described had no deleterious effect on the shrubby plants and herbs of the region. The brush was as abundant when the grazing grounds were re-examined in the summer of 1912 as it was before the sheep reached it in 1911. Compare figures 5 and 6 taken on the same hillside in 1911 and 1912. Even the bedding grounds of the sheep were not all ruined by the excessive tramping and over-grazing, as is usually contended by the oppjonents of sheep graz- ing. Figures 7, 8, and 9 were taken on the same bedding ground; figures 7 and 8 in 1911, just after the sheep had passed over it, and figure 9 in 1912, after it had a winter and spring to recover. The sheep were bedded here for five nights in 1911. Figure 1 3 represents a piece of ground which according to the men in charge of the sheep they had used for four nights as a bedding ground in 1910. It was taken before the sheep reached it in 1911. The spontaneous growth of timothy which has occurred is greater than is often found on planted meadows. Across the road from it is a patch of coral berry which was grazed clean in 1910. It is repre- sented after its recovery in 1911 in figure 1 4. The only bedding ground observed which had really suffered and had not recovered from its previous year’s grazing is illustrated in fig- ures 11 and 12. Figure 11 represents it after the sheep had been bedded on it two nights in 1911. They remained there altogether eight nights. The herder had planned to bed them up on the ridge after the third night but the habits of the sheep were too strong and they returned to this bedding ground every night. The plants which originally occupied this ground were of the type usually found on the edges of meadows and were mostly tall weedy herbs, and of little forage value. 1 8 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. Fire Protection. b’C:.- The actual grazing of the sheep has little bearing on the fire pro- tection* of the forests examined. The eating of the shrubby underbrush removes sonie of the danger of the start and spread of ground fires." But the sheep do not touch the young pines and firs and spruces and these burn much more readily than do the deciduous shrubs and trees. The presence of the sheepmen in the woods is, however, an aid in fire pro- tection. The first and most essential thing in fighting a forest fire is to know quickly that one exists and to have some one there before it is large. The sheepmen fear fire. Their sheep, are very unwieldy and in case of a fire of any size would be destroyed in large numbers. They are, therefote, very watchful of 'camp fires, both of their oWn and of other campers whom they may find in the woods. The woods' during the huekleberry season are well filled with campers, many of whom are inex^rienced and do not realize the fire-danger. The she^mert' arfe constantly: on the lookout- and are ready to get word to the 'fore'sf' fire patrol and to stamp out a fire in its incipiency. They clear out the roads so that they may move their sheep and camp supplies and thus make the country accessible to the fire fighters. ... The usual contention that it is to the interest of the owner of stock to bum over the forest floor and thus to induce a new growth of Weeds and grass can not apply to the sheepmen in this region. Weeds and grass are not what he wants. He wants the dense woods full of moist And succulent brush and these would be desroyed by a forest-' fite. In the. Pacific Northwest, the fire season is the months of July, August, and September. These are the months when the sheep are in the' woods and when the sheepmen most dread the fires. After the forest is logged and burned over, it is several years before the brush re-establishes itself to such an extent as to form good grazing. Figure 15 shows a piece of yellow pine land which was burned over, by the owner, the lumber company, after logging oper- ations in*. b907, four' years before. It is not yet as valuable for sheep grazing ^as'-unburned land. ‘ ' Relations of the Sheepmen and Local Farmers. .. " In the days of the open and uncontrolled range, much ill-feeling and hostility arose between the sheepmen and the local farmers of the region grazed over who were usually trying to raise some cattle and horses. The present leasing system followed by the Potlatch Lumber Company eliminates all such difficulty. .The sheepman pays. for and owns the grazing on certain definite tracts of land. The farmers have' their own land pr lease definite tracts from the lumber ‘company.. E.ach party .knows his own land and respects the other rrian’s ^rights. v ' . In. the olden days under the “first come first served’’ system: of the open , range, each year saw a race between sheepmen , for ' the;; best la,Qd. The finest grazing was the most overstocked. Such strenpous Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 1 9 competition resulted always in the disregarding of the rights of others and'hostility was the inevitable outcome. The writer believes that such grazing as is here 'reported of sheep oh mountain summer range is a very important and vatebf^^-^kctor’^ in the development of sheep raising in the nofthwBt. ^ The^’ passing of the open, uncontrolled range should not mean' the passing' of sheep grazing. Sheep are valuable animals for any country and Wtee”so much range land must always remain available, it ought to be used wisdy under a leasing system so that it will not be abused, for the prbduction of a large amount of mutton and wool. ^ ,’T' ' '' SUMMARY. '■ >> 1 . The use of the winter range is conditioned on the use of summer ranee. , ;; 2. In the region studied, shrubby plants and’ brush are much more important as sheep food than are grasses and herbs. 3. The principal food plant of the yellow pine forest is the buck- brush. Its two species are by far the most fattening plants on the range. 4. The principal food plant of the white pine forest is the huckle- berry. 5. Under the conditions observed, the sheep never eat ferns and conifers. 6. Well managed sheep grazing is having no deleterious effect on the reproduction of the forest or of its grazing plants. ^ ' 7. The presence of the sheepmen in the forest during the fire season is an assistance in fire protection. 8. The leasing system for grazing lands tends to eliminate injurious competition, over-grazing, and grazing feuds, and is by far the most satisfactory method of handling these lands. 9. Well-managed sheep grazing, such as is here reported, is a val- uable and important factor in the sheep business of the northwest. Such grazing should be encouraged and cxten^d till every square mile of available .summer and winter range is in use and the wool and mutton used in the northwest is produced in the northwest. BIBLIOGRAPHY.' \. Anonymous. The Use of the National Forests. Forest Service. 1907. '2. Anonymous. National Forest Fire Losses Show Need of De- veloping Wider Use of the Range. Forest Leaves. Vol. 13: page 7. F 1911. U.' 3. Anonymous. Grazing Examiners. American Forestry. Vol. 17: page 176. Mr 1911. // 20 Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 4. Anonymous. New Grazing Regulations. American Forestry. Vol. I 7 : page 236. Ap 1911. 5. Anonymous. Report on Supervisors’ Meeting at Denver, Colo- rado. Forestry Quarterly. Vol. 9: page 446. S 1911. 6. Bentley, H. L. Cattle Ranges of the Southwest. U. S. D. A. Farmers Bulletin 72. 1 898. 7. Cotton, J. S. A Report on the Range Conditions of Central Washington. Wash. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 60. 1904. 8. Cotton, J. S. Range Management in the State of Washington. U. S. D. A. Bu. Pi. Ind. Bui. 75. 23 My 1905. 9. Coville, Frederick V. Forest Growth and Sheep Grazing in the Cascade Mountains of Oregon. U. S. D. A. Div. For. Bui. 15. 1898. 10. Graves, Henry S. Grazing and Fires in National Forests. American Forestry. Vol. 17; page 435. J1 1911. 1 1 . Griffiths, David. A Protected Stock Range in Arizona. U. S. D. A. Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. 1 77. 1910. 1 2. Hitchcock, A. S. Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States. U. S. D. A. Bu. PI. Ind. Bui. 31. 1902. 1 3. Jardine, James T. Preliminary Report on Grazing Experiments in a Coyote-Proof Pasture. Forest Service Circ. 156. 1903. 1 4. Kennedy, P. Beveridge and Doten, Samuel B. A Preliminary Report on the Summer Range of Western Nevada Sheep. Nevada Agricultural Experiment Station Bui. 51. D 1901. 15. Kennedy, P. Beveridge. Summer Ranges of Eastern Nevada Sheep. Nev. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 55. N 1903. 16. Mackie, W. W. The Value of Oak Leaves for Forage. Calif. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 150. Ap 1903. 1 7. Merriam, C. H. Life Zones and Crop Zones. U. S. D. A. Div. Biol. Surv. Bui. 1 0. 18. Piper, Charles V. Flora of the State of Washington. Cont. U. S. Nat. Herb. Vol. 11. 1906. 19. Roth, Filbert. Grazing in the Forest Reserves. U. S. D. A. Yearbook. 1901: pages 333-348. 20. Sampson, Arthur W. and Coville, Frederick V. The Revege- tation of Overgrazed Range Areas. U. S. D. A. Forest Service. Circ. 158. 7 D 1908. 21. Smith, Jared G. Grazing Problems in the Southwest and How to Meet Them. U. S. D. A. Div. Agrost. Bui. 1 6. 1 899. 22. Spragg, Frank A. Forage Conditions of Central Montana. Mont. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 36. Je 1902. 23. Thornber, John J. The Grazing Ranges of Arizona. Ariz. Agric. Exp. Sta. Bui. 65. 21 S 1910. 24. Wilcox, Early Vernon. Sheep and the Forests. The Forum. Vol. 31 : pages 31 1-317. My 1901. Plants Used by Sheep on Mountain Range. 21 25. Wilcox, Early Vernon. The Grazing Industry. Hawaii Agric. Exp. Sta. 1911. 26. Wilson, James. Forests and the Livestock Industry. For. Serv. Circ. 35 : page 22. 1905. PLATE I Fig. 1. Sheep gathered on the bedding ground, settling down for the night. This bedding ground is on a small meadow south of the Windus meadow. The meadow has not been cultivated and is covered with its native flora. Fig. 2. Sheep grazing on the edge of the Round Vassar meadow. The forest in the background is chiefly white pine and white fir. PLATE 11. Fig. 3. Lundsford’s meadow. The Mica Mountains show in the background. The trees in the foreground are yellow pine. Fig. 4. A corner of the Round Vassar meadow. The trees are mostly white pine and white fir. PLATE III. Fig. 5. A typical feeding ground in the while pine forest. The bushes in the foreground are the broad-leaved huckleberry, the chief food plant for sheep in this region. The large trees are white pines. Fig. 6. A similar spot in the white pine forest just after the sheep had grazed over it. It is evident that they have done but little damage to the huckleberry brush. PLATE IV. Fig. 7. At the edge of the Round Vassar meadow. The sheep had just grazed this for the first time. Here they were bedded for five nights. Fig. 8. Near the spot shown in Fig. 7. The white stubs in the foreground are the bases of the stems of Verairum californicum which the sheep had just eaten to the ground a few minutes before the picture was made. PLATE V. Fig. 9. The same ground as shown in Figs. 7 and 8, showing the vegetation which had sprung up one year later before the sheep reached the place. There was no injury to this bedding ground. Fig. 10. The Yellow Pine region on the Mica Mountains. Buckbrush (Ceanothus Sanguineus) in the foreground, which has just been grazed by the sheep. The leaves and fruits are eaten as high as the sheep can reach. A J PLATF VI. biG. 11. The bedding ground behind the camp shown In Fig. 16, after the sheep had been on it two nights. It was originally covered with a dense growth of herbaceous weeds. Fig. 12. The same bedding ground as pictured in Fig. 11, taken one year later, before the sheep reached it. This was the only bedding ground which was Injured by the sheep. PLATE VII. Fig. 13. The year before this picture was taken this was a bedding ground of the sheep and was grazed clean. One could scarcely ask for a better stand of timothy. Fig. 14. This is just across the road from Fig. 13, and shows coral-berry which was grazed clean the year before. Note the perfect recovery. PLATE VIII. Fig. 15. A piece of yellow pine forest near Yale, Idaho, which has been logged and burned. The vegetation is not as favorable for sheep grazing as it was before burning. The burn is four years old. Fig. 16. A sheepherder’s camp. The bedding ground of the sheep shown in Figs. 1 1 and 12 lies just behind this tent. One of the sheep dogs is shown in the fore- ground. Fig. 17. Diagram of the herding system. O STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN. WASHINGTON DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE TUBERCULOSIS . A Report of the Results of the Continued Injedlions of Tuberculin Upon Tubercular Cattle By S. B. NELSON BULLETIN No. 114 Odlober, 1914 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director BOARD OF CONTROL D. S. TROY, President Chimacum JAS. C. CUNNINGHAM, Vice-President Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman President of the College R. C. McCROSKEY Garfield STATION STAFF IRA D. CARDIFF, Ph. D ELTON FULMER, M. A S. B. NELSON, D. V. M O. L. WALLER, Ph. M A. L. MELANDER, Ph. D O. M. MORRIS, B. S GEO. W. SEVERANCE, B. S. . . C. C. THOM, M. S A. B. NYSTROM, M. S GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S. W. T. SHAW. B. Agr., M. S J. G. HALL, M. A E. G. SCHAFER, M. S WM. HYSLOP, M. S J. W. KALKUS, D. V. S C. A. MAGOON, M. A M. A. YOTHERS, B. S HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S E. F. GAINES, B. S C. F. MONROE, B. S. A C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S D. C. GEORGE, B. S H. M. WOOLMAN F. W. ALLEN, M. S A. L. SHERMAN, B. S Director and Botanist State Chemist .Veterinarian Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman . ' Chemist Zoologist Plant Pathologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Bacteriologist Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Cerealist . . . .Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist ELLA W. BROCK Executive Clerk TUBERCULOSIS A Report of the Results of the Continued Injections of Tuberculin Upon Tubercular Cattle By S. B. NELSON Veterinarian, Washington Experiment Station The treatment of tuberculosis in riie human family by the subcutaneous injection of tuberculin has received very consid- erable attention by the medical profession during the past decade. As to the value of this form of treatment there ap- pears to be a wide difference of opinion among physicians. Some have given up the use of tuberculin entirely, believing it to be of negative value; while other claim for it that, with the better knowledge obtained through its increased use, the results are constantly better and more encouraging. It was through the observance of this work in the human family that the veterinary department of this station planned a series of experiments to study the effect of subcutaneous in- jections of tuberculin into cattle under the conditions under which they are generally kept; that is, a fairly well-kept stable in the winter time, being outdoors a part of the day time, and a run to pasture during the summer months, being kept in the barnyard at night during this time. The first series of experiments were carried on during the year 1900, and the second series during 1903-07. The first ex- periments were carried on with Jim, a four-year-old Jersey bull, and Lora, a three-year-old grade Holstein- Jersey heifer. The object of these experiments was to observe the action on these animals of continued injections of tuberculin. The action of the injection was to be observed through the temperature of the animals, their general appearance, and a study of the post-mortem lesions. These two animals were tested with the other animals in the herd March 1, 1900, giving the following reactions: March 1st and 2d: CO rH CO ••t* CO * 00 Co’ oo rH rH CO rH rH o rH O o o o O o o o ' O o rH ^ rH rH rH 'i rH r-^- tr- 00 oa CO CO CO CO CO CO* rH :d ■rr 00 CO o o o o o 1 o o o o rH T— t Ph r-l rH Ph' rH rH X CO rtf' CO CO CO CO 00 io CO CO rd rH rH 1—’ rH CO CO o o o o o o o o a rH lH rH a ,'rH rH CO 03 CO «r> 'M CO CO CO H#< CO rH o' CO oo OOJ co’ o o o o o o o o O TH 1-H rH I—* rH rH rr rH- rH Tj- c3 CO CO cc o CO OC) T— 1 LO HH rH CO 00 C?5 rH rH rH rr’ O” o o W o o • o o O o rH tH C<1 rH < rH rH < rH rH T— 1 CO >5 oS O o CC CC rH iro CO •rH tH CO CO c- CO o’ 00 05 00 o o o o o o 05 05 rH rV < rH rH rH Hf o ■•C lO o 00 05 lO CO 00 rH CO -H CO rH rH CO O O O rH o o . o o o o rH tH lO tH rH i^. rH rH rH tH O C£> HP CO OO CO rH «© 'co rH l-O CO rH ic co’ rH tr- O O o O o o ! • o o rH rH rH rH rH tH .Mh rH rH HH o o rH CO I CO 00 1 ’ * CO Hf CO 1— 1 tH tH tH o co’ rH rH O rH rH rH o o o o o o 1 o o rH rH ’-1 ’-1 tH rH rH tH Qh‘ (M rf CO o' CO < rH O r-H t- rH CO 00 rH O . O O O O o o o rH rH d rH tH rH rH cd s 10 rH 00 o o o -rH Oi CO CO o CO o rH tH tH CO 0) 0) o C c/j O CO 0? a» tr 1 • (h Uc bJD r-H 1 bJD be Eg GJ 'C cd a . a v O o u o CO a o rH O '5 ^H o 10 -5 lO ^ o CO o TH O S r^ -H 2 c. d CO (D dd cd rC ••C' 3 c 3 c. < 0) (h dd -tH CO CO o . a CO CO ci - .TH cd cd - £ cd - o S H a S tr o r*) jd O g Cd og J ^ <3J Figures indicate degrees, Tuberculosis 5 The original test of March 1st and 2d was considered a typical tuberculin test, while the three tests following were not so considered, even with the injection of 3 c. c. in the last two. It was nevertheless decided to continue the injections of constantly increasing doses ol tuberculin as previously indi- cated. In both animals the temperature was taken three times daily during the experiment. Lora was given the following injections: June' 10th 2 c. c. tuberculin June 17th 3 c. c. tuberculin June 23d 1 c. c. tuberculin June 27th 5 c. c. tuberculin July 5th 6 c. c. tuberculin July 10th 7 c. c. tuberculin July 14th 8 c. c. tuberculin July 18th 9 c. c. tuberculin A study of the temperature chart shows an observable dif- ference between the morning and evening temperatures, that of the evening averaging 0.6 degree higher than the morning one. The average temperature on the day after each injection is generally lower than the corresponding average of the day before the injection. There is very little difference between the average temperatures of the three days immediately preceding and following the injections. Lora was killed August 29, 1900. She was in fairly good flesh when killed. Post-mortem examination showed the mediastinal glands filled with calcified tubercular nodules. The caudal extremity of the left lung was filled with a number of small caseated tubercles. No new foci of infection were found. Jim received injections as follows: June lOth June 17 th June 23d June 30th July 7th ; July 14th 2 c. c. tuberculin 3 c. c. tuberculin 4 c. c. tuberculin 5 c. c. tuberculin 6 c. c. tuberculin 7 c. c. tuberculin 6 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station In Jim’s case the evening temperature was 0.4 degree higher than the morning temperature, 0.2 degree less difference than was found in Lora. The general temperature of Jim ran about 0.5 degree louver than it did in Lora. There is no constant difference between the average tem- perature of the day before and the day after the injection. The same holds true of the average temperature of the tliree • days immediately preceding and following the injection. The average temperature of the week after the last injection is the same as that of the week after the first injection. Jim was killed the same day as Lora. Post-mortem lesions found were a few small caseated miliary tubercles on the left pleural sur- face and one on the pericardium; the animal Avas otherwise healthy. Without doubt on IMarcli 1st, when these two animals were first tested, they Avere affected Avitli tuberculosis, possibly in a very slight degree, and the lesions Avere primary in character at that time. Probably after this test the lesions began to be- come caseous, the acute form of the disease passing into a more or less chronic form, a possible recovery gradually taking place, and therefore at the following three tests a typical re- action was not obtained. Because of this probable recover^’ and absence of the tubercle bacillus the repeated injections of the constantly increased doses of tuberculin failed to give any appreciable rise of temperature at any time during the experi- ment. The next series of experiments were planned along more extensive lines. The animals experimented upon consisted of eight cows and one bull. They were all registered Jerseys, Avith th exception of one cow, Avhich was a grade Jersey. The series included four experiments, as follows: Experiment 1. — Including cows Nos. 52 and 53 and bull No. 48. To test the injection of 2 c. c. of tuberculin and doubling the doses monthly. The temperature to be taken every night and morning, with the exception of the day after the injection, Avhen it is to be taken every two hours. Tuberculosis 7 Experiment 2. — Including cows Nos. 49 and 51. To test weekly injections of tuberculin, beginning with 2 c. c. and weekly adding 1 c. c. Temperatures to be taken the same as' in Experiment 1. Experiment 3. — Including cows Noc. 54 and 55. To test the injection of tuberculin, beginning wnth a weekly injection of 2 c. c., lessening the period one day between each succeeding injection until it becomes daily, then increasing the dose 0.5 c. c. daily. The temperature to be taken each night and morn- ing, with the exception of once weekly, when it is to be takeii every two hours. Experiment4. — Including co’^’s Nos. 50 and 56. To test the injections of tuberculin, beginning with 0.5 c. c., continuing the injections whenever the temperature was normal, but increas- ing or decreasing each succeeding dose so as not to increase the temperature ; if possible to prevent it. These animals had been tested wi»:h tuberculin and re-acted, and the owner, not v/ishing to be troubled with keeping them separated from his other cattle, decided to send them to the experiment station for experimental purposes. They were ro tested December 9 and 10, 1903, at which time they all gave very typical reactions. They were placed in the experiments December 12, 1903. Experiment No. 1 — Monthly Doubled Injections In experiment No. 1 cow No. 53 received the first injection, of 4 c. c., January 14, 1904, and the last, of 8 c. c., February 13th. She was destroyed March 5th. To both injections she gave decided reactions. For several weeks prior to this animal’s death she had been gradually growing weaker. She showed quite marked symptoms of en- teritis. Great dullness, accompanied at times with exhibitions of pain; pulse weak; respirations rapid and catching; appetite, however, fairly good, but not regular. On the 28th of Febru- ary she, with others, had been turned out to pasture. The weather became rainy and cold, and this animal was so caiiied and exhausted that she could not return to the stable that 8 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station evening, but was hauled in early the following morning. March 5th she was so weak that it was deemed best to de- stroy her. Post-mortem held immediately: Lungs normal except a few lesions of lobular pneumonia. In the intestines were t'ound sevc.ral tubercular ulcers, some of them penetrating the jejunum. About ten of the mesenteric lynrpn-glands were tubercular ^nd quite calcareous. The lymph-glands in general showed evidence of great emaciation, being deeeply pigmented and watery in the center. The peritoneum on the left side was normal, but on the right side it showed marked chronic peritonitis. The membrane was 4 cm. thick in many places, and liquefactive necrosis was in progress. The peritoneal cavity contained about four liters of foul-smelling liquid. Cow No. 52 received her first injection, of 4 c. c., on January 14, 1904, and the last, of 2048 c. c., on November 25, 1904. She died April 10, 1905, being found dead in her stanchion after she had eaten a feed of green grass. She was greatly bloated, and her death was in all probability due to tympanites. She was in fairly good condition and had a thrifty appearance. The lungs contained a few old tuber- cular foci. The post-pharyngeal, bronchial, anterior and posterior mediastinal glands were tubercular and were passing into the stage of calcification. All other tissues and glands were normal. The bull No. 48 received tuberculin injections the same as cow No. 52, but because of his vicious temper it was deemed advisable not to try to take his temperature, as was done with the cows. There is therefore no temperature record in his case. This animal was in good condition when he was put into the experiment. He had absolutely no physical symptoms of tuberculosis. He was given a shed suall and paddock to run in and was well fed during the entire experiment. In October, 1904, he began to show external symptoms, such as lameness, swelling of the shoulder-joints, rough, staring Tuberculosis 9 coat, occasional diarrhea. From this time on he failed rather rapidly, and when he was killed, September 19, 1905. he was unable to get to his feet when down. Post-mortem lesions. In general ante-mortem appearance the animal was very eemaciated, the skin was rough, and the coat stary. Post- pharyngeal lymphatics were greatly enlarged, tubercular, and calcareous. The left axillary and pre scapular glands were tuberculous, as were the small supernumerary glands of the anterior mediastinum. The portal lymphatic was tuberculous. Several of the small gastric and nearly the entire chain of mesenteric glands were also tubercular. The bronchial and mediastinal glands were extensively dis- eased. Nearly all parts of the lungs contained tubercular foci. Neither the pleura nor the pericardium was involved. In the liver were a number of quite large tuberculous nodules. The intestines contained ulcers, evidently tubercular in character. One nodule was found on the left kidney. No. 52 gave reaction to the following injections: Jan 14, 1904, 4 c, c 102.7 105.3 105.4 105.1 105.5 Feb. 13, 1904, 8 c. c 102.3 104 104.2 103.7 102.9 March 13, 1904, 16 c. c 103.5 103 102.8 102.4 102.1 April 14, 1904, 32 c. c 101.4 102.1 102.2 102 101.6 Figures indicate degrees. The April record would hardly be considered a reaction, and none occurred after that date. It is rather interesting to note that during the early part of the experiment the morning temperature of both Nos. 52 and 53 was higher than the evening one. In No. 52 this was true during the first six months, or up to the time she had received 32 c. c. of tuberculin at that injection. From that time until the last injection, of 2048 c. c., the temperature in the evening averaged higher than in the morning. During the last four months her temperature ran more irregularly. It would some- times go to 103 to 104 degrees for a day and then drop to 99 to 100 degrees. 10 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station The evidence in these three experimonts tends to show that in Nos. 53 and 48 the results were negative, while in No. 52 the injection may possibly have had beneficial action. Experiment No. 2 — Weekly Injections Adding 1 c. c. In experiment No. 2 cow No. 49 received her first injection, of 2 c. c., on January 3, 1904, and her last injection, of 16 c. c., April 17th of the same year. She gave a reaction of 103 degrees to every injection. She was very poorly nourished, hair rough and staring, mucous membranes anemic, pulse and respirations rapid. Post-mortem lesions found were : Anterior middle lobe of right lung completely solidified and filled Avith tubercles varying in size from one to five em.- LoAver tAvo-thirds of posterior lobe also filled with tubercles. In the left lung Avere found the same conditions as in the right, except to a less degree. The tubercular foci Avere nearl}^ all calcareous. The udder contained tubercular foci that had undergone cal- cification. On the surface of the omasum there was one tubercle about 1 cm. in diameter, filled with calcareous material. The external inguinal, superior mammary, mesenteric, por- tal, and bronchial glands were all affected, the latter being greatly enlarged and calcareous. The anterior and posterior mediastinal glands Avere also affected. CoAV No. 51 AA^as alwa 3 ^s in good flesh and condition up ta the time she Avas destroyed, July 8, 1907. A very careful ex- amination gaA^e no macroscopical evidence of any lesions of tuberculosis, Avhich makes this case a very interesting one. The folloAving preliminary tuberculin te.st Avas considered a char- acteristic one: A. M. P. M. 6 8 10 12 4 6 10 Dec. 9, 1903.. 97.1 98.4 101.3 101.6 Dec. 10, 1903.100.5 102 103 104.3* 104.5 103.2 Figures indicate degrees. Tuberculosis 11 • From January 3, 1904, when she was injected 2 c. c. of cuber- culin, until June 13, 1901, when the injection had been in- creased to 25 c. c., she gave rather irregular and indefinite temperature reactions. From June 13 to Deecmber 26, 1904, with a gradual increase in the injections to 48 c. c., her tem- perature at no time went above 102.8 degrees, giving no re- action. From January 7, 1905, to January 1, 1907, when she received 150 c. c. of tuberculin, she gave quite characteristic . reactions. A.M. P. M. 8 10 12 2 4 Jan. 14, 1905, 51 c. c ..102.5 103.7 104.2 104.1 104.8 Feb. 10, 1905, 55 c ..100.2 102 2 103.3 103.4 102.6 Feb. 25, 1905, 57 c. c. . . . . .101.6 102.7 102.6 105.6 105 March 18, 1905, ( 30 c. c.. , . . 101 101.5 102.8 105 105.7 May 26, 1905, 70 c. c. . . . . .101.3 102.4 102.8 103.8 103.6 Figures indicate degrees. These, I think, are fair examples of how the weekly tests ran. Some ran higher and some lower than these. From January 1, 1907, to May 28, 1907, there was no reaction what- ever to any of the injections. It is probable that this cow' had tuberculosis to a very slight extent when she was first tested, and recovered by June 13, 1904, to become reaffected by January, 1905, because of her confinement with the other tubercular cattle during the earlier winter months, and again recovering by January, 1907; and yet we were not able to find any traces of pathological lesions. Is it possible that the disease could exist to a sufficient extent to give the temperature reactions and yet not form the usual lesions because of the large amounts of tuberculin continually kept in the animal’s body? Or was the reaction an error the greater part of the time? It seems most reasonable to believe that the animal subjected to continual exposure by being kept in the stable in close con- tact with the other extensively diseased animals was continu- ally being infected, and the large doses of tuberculin prevented the development of the pathological lesions. 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station In this experiment with these two cows the temperature shows entirely opposite conditions as to the relation between the morning and evening temperatures. In No. 49 the morning tem})erature. with the exception of just a few mornings, ex- ceeded tl;e evening temperature. This is rather unusual in this disease. While in No. 51 there ^ras marked exaeerbaiion of the evening temperature. • The injection of the tuberculin as carried on in this experi- ment may have had therapeulic value in both of these animals. In No. 49 the lesions were to a marked extent calcified, show- ing that a strong recuperative force was present. In No. 51, if it Avas of value, it Avas probably prophylactic in character. Experiment No. 3 — Daily Injections In experiment No. 8 coavs Nos. 54 and 55 received-their first injections, of 2 c. c., on January 3, 1904, and the last one, of 48 c. c., on June 13, 1904. No. 55 Avas -killed June 15, 1904. She Avas so Aveak and ema- ciated that it Avas thought adAusable to kill her. She had been suffering from diarrhea for about a month, \Adiich at times Avas so seA^ere that the feces were smeared Avith coagulated blood. Post-mortem lesions found immediately after death Avere that the limgs contained a fcAV tubercular lesions ; here and there on the pleura Avere a feAv pearly tubercles; the bronchial lymph glands were greatly enlarged and contained calcareous nodules in large numbers; the posterior mediastinal gland Avas also much enlarged and extensively affected; the intestines shoAved enteritis, but no definite tubercular lesions; all other organs AA^ere apparently healthy. CoAv No. 54 was killed July 7, 1907. This animal vvas in a thrifty condition, as Avas evidenced by the flesh she Avas in and by the appearance of her coat. She Avas suffering from a slight leukorrhea, due to local vaginitis. Post-mortem lesions found Avere tubercular lungs, pleura, in- testines, liver and lymphatics. The anterior and inferior lobes of the right lung contained many tubercles, and the diaphragm was covered Avith quite a number of them over the affected Tuberculosis 13 part of the lung. The small intestines contained in their wall a number of calcified abscesses. The same was true oC the liver, where there were fifteen or twenty calcified tuoercles on its surface. All of the lymphatics had calcified tubercular lesions in them. In both of these cows the temperature chart showed that from the beginning of the experiment to the time the injec- tions were discontinued the temperatures ran very irregularly. There was no definite relation betwv^en the morning and even- ing temperature.' During the first month of the experiment, that is, up to the. date that 7 c. c. were injected, the weekly two-hour temper- ature record shows reaction to the injection. At no time alter that is there any indication of any reaction, except that on June 4th, after the injection ol 43.5 e. c., both animals showed a rise in temperature. From June 13ih, 1904, to May, 1907, No. 54 ran quite a regular w^eekly temperature — practically the normal temperature of a healthy cow. In both of these cows the lesions w^ere old and calcareous. No fresh centers of infection were found in either one of them,, although in No. 55 the enteritis, diarrhea, and high tempera- ture during the last three weeks might have indicated enteric tuberculosis. The cessation of reaction seemed to show that the injections had had positive influence on the disease, or that the large daily injections had so filled the animal’s body with tuberculin that reaction from the next injection was impossible; but the additional evidence of the chronic lesions found w^ould point toward the positive influence of the injections in this experi- ment. Experiment No. 4 — Small Fluctuating Injections Cow No. 50 Avas in very good flesh up to within three months before she died, July 21, 1905. This breakdown in condition began soon after she calved, March 9, 1905. Post-mortem lesions: The lungs were extensively affected, shownng many foci involving large areas. There were also 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station countless numbers of miliary tubercles indicating- either that the old local lesions had given rise to generalized tuberculosis or that she had become re-infected. The indications are that it was from the former, as all the organs and glands, lungs, liver, spleen, diaphragm, mesentery, uterus, and udder, were all extensively affected, as well as the lymphatic glands. The posterior mediastinal was about 25 cm. in length. This was one of the severest cases of generalized tuberculosis that has come under our observation. Until in February, 1905, she did not give any appreciable re- action to the injection of small doses, but subsequent to this 'time, with double the amount of tuberculin, she would continu ally run to 104 to 106 degrees. On April 11th she showed an evening temperature of 104.7 degrees. This was the beginning of her very high evening temperatures. At first, from April 11th to May 11th, this high temperature only occurred weekly, but from May 11th to the day she died her evening temperature was constantly very high. CoAv No. 56 had for some little time been quite poor in flesh, and just before her death she was extremely emaciated. Post-mortem: On the right side of the neck, between the skin and fascia, there was a small tubercular nodule. The lungs were extremely tubercular. They contained in some places broken down areas with cavity formation containing broken down tissue and pus. The entire chain of lymphatics was dis- eased. The small intestines, especially the ileum, contained tubercular ulcers. The liver, spleen, pleura, pericardium, and udder were apparently healthy. This animal showed from the first of the experiment an in- creased evening temperature, but after May 10, 1905, she (con- stantly presented an increasingly high evening temperature, although her morning temperatures were nearly always normal. During the last three days that she was alive her temperature was sulinorma], at no time reaching 99 degrees. In this experiment of using small doses of tuberculin the original plan was slightly deviated Irom ,m that toward the^ end of the experiment tlu' dose of tuberculin injected wasj Tuberculosis 15 kept at 2 c. c. nearly all of the time, and each injection resulted in a rise of temperature, when the dose should have been so varied as to have prevented the rise of temperature, if possible. In both of these animals the weekly injections of what is considered a normal dose of tuberculin constantly gave a typical reaction. The rise of temperature, however, began very soon after the injection, reaching its maximum in six to eight hours, instead of waiting six to eight hours before beginning to rise, and then not reaching its maximum before fourteen to eighteen hours; In these advanced cases of tuberculosis small continued doses of tuberculin did not exhibit any positive therapeutic value. CONCLUSIONS 1. The injection into tubercular cattle of large monthly or small weekly doses of tuberculin does not apparently have therapeutic value. 2. The injection of constantly increased^ daily or weekly doses of tuberculin apparently does have therapeutic value. 3. The evening temperature is usually higher than the morn- ing temperature in tubercular cows. 4. The oftener tuberculin injections are made into tubercular cattle, the sooner the temperature reaction begins and the sooner the zenith is reached. fit- 0 M. f'" ), r’ ‘r aiiWf i •i,^'i-J.' :' .'«»• 'ttii - ' v-^ -s > ■ ?"nSfcf1‘hjsRJo • Skf ■r^r- V L > '■ ' ^’ 1 *: )■ ' • ' ‘ -‘ j . ::■ 1^- \i.v. - .-. - oKii.ir^r’^'^:,. -, .‘i. .-1 • -- ; - . ' . 1 ' '■ '••*' - :yi ^ -'y ' ■*’ -v' x i!'^ r • • /.-^4 *^'fV • - - ; ^*»V 'fj'it' 1.’ • V.f.v ('i -’t* .'-•*/ > . ■ ■*^- .' ■H . ■ • ■' . V. ‘of^ STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF BOTANY Studies on the Relation of Certain Species of Fusarium to the Tomato Blight of the Pacific Northwest By H. B. HUMPHREY BULLETIN NO. 115 October, 1914 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BOARD OF CONTROL D. S. TROY, President Chimacum JAS. C CUNNINGHAM, Vice President Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman President of the College R. C. McCROSKEY Garfield STATION STAFF IRA D. CARDIFF, Ph. D ..Director and Botanist ELTON FULMER, M. A State Chemist S. B. NELSON, D. V. M ..Veterinarian O. L. WALLER, Ph. M Irrigation Engineer A. L. MELANDER, Sc. D ....Entomologist O. M. MORRIS, B. S .Horticulturist GEO. SEVERANCE, B. S Agriculturist C. C. THOM, M. S. ..Soil Physicist A. B. NYSTROM, M. S. Dairy Husbandman GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S Chemist W. T. SHAW, B. Agr., M. S Zoologist J. G. HALL, M. A Plant Pathologist E. G. SCHAFER, M. S Agronomist WM. HISLOP, M. S Animal Husbandman J. W. KALKUS, D. V. S Assistant Veterinarian C. A. MAGOON, M. A Assistant Bacteriologist M. A. YOTHERS, B. S Assistant Entomologist HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S Assistant Soil Physicist E. F. GAINES, B. S ..Assistant Cerealist C. F. MONROE, B. S. A Assistant Animal Husbandman C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S. . D. C. GEORGE, B. S. . H. M. WOOLMAN F. W. ALLEN, M. S. .. A. L. SHERMAN, B. S, ELLA W. BROCK Assistant in Horticulture .Assistant Plant Pathologist .Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Executive Clerk STUDIES ON THE RELATION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF FUSARIUM TO THE TOMATO BLIGHT OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST Bp H. B. HUMPHREY,^ Ph.D., Plant Pathologist INTRODUCTION Certain of the Solanaceae are peculiarly susceptible to diseases of the roots or other subterranean organs ; and foremost among these may be placed the tomato and potato. Often, as for example, in the dry end rot of the potato and the so-called Southern tomato blight described by Smith^ as occurring in California, two or more diseases may be induced by one and the same organism. Particularly is this true when the causative organism is a species of Fusarium. The tomato blight of the Pacific Northwest referred to through- out this Bulletin as the Yellow Blight of the tomato, is due primarily to root-destroying fungi, and should not be confused with the disease known as Sleepy Sickness, so prevalent throughout certain of the Cen- tral and Southern States. Geographically, it appears to be confined to the Pacific Northwest; and even here is most epidemic and virulent in those localities where high July and August temperatures prevail. For example: Tomatoes grown from the same variety and lot of seed, but transplanted part in the soil of the Snake River bottom land and the remainder near Pullman, Washington, may blight severely in the former situation and not at all or but little at the higher, and noticeably cooler elevation. A like difference in severity obtains when we compare notes relative to prevalence of the disease in the Yakima Valley and the coun- try about Pullman. Tomato-growing in the valleys of the Snake, Columbia, and Yakima Rivers constitutes an important source of income, notwith- standing the fact that in years of severe blight the loss may average in some localities as much as 30 to 50% of the total crop. The re- currence of severe blight epidemics from year to year led the Wash- ington State Experiment Station in 1896 to undertake an investigation of the disease, its cause or causes, and possible means of control. ^Resigned March, WiJ. tSmlth, R. E. 1906. Tomato Diseases in California. Bull. 1 75 Cal. Agr. Exp. Sla. 2 Studies on Relation of Species HISTORY From 1896 to 1902 the project was in charge of C. V. Piper, then Botanist of the Washington State Experiment Station. Piper’s notes indicate his belief at that time in a bacterial causation of the disease, and he isolated several pure cultures of bacteria from diseased plants. In one series of inoculation experiments with one of these organisms several of the treated plants acquired all the symptoms of the blight, but in subsequent attempts to produce the disease with the same specific organism the results were purely negative. The data were never published. Piper also tested a large number of tomato varieties in the Yakima Valley with a view to discovering a blight resistant strain. These showed a wide variation in susceptibility to the disease, but all varieties tested suffered a considerable percentage of blighted plants. Following Piper, his successor, R. Kent Beattie, assisted by N. R. Hunt, continued along lines of investigation of a somewhat more comprehensive character. They made continued and frequent unsuc- cessful attempts to recover from diseased foliage and shoots the sus- pected parasite, apparently adhering to the theory of a bacterial origin of the disease. Carefully conducted field studies were made during the summer of 1907 with a view to ascertaining the nature and extent of the influence of environmental conditions. During the same season observations were also made with reference to the relative resistance capacities of different standard varieties^. In 1 909 the project was assigned to the writer. Although there still remain many points of interest needing further study, it may be assumed that the investigation has advanced sufficiently to warrant the publication of such data as have been recorded during the past five years. Distribution of the Yellow Blight As stated on another page, the yellow blight of the tomato is most general and destructive in those parts of the Pacific Northwest subject to prolonged periods of high summer temperature. It seems also to be a fact that light, quickly heated soils, other factors aside, afford a more favorable environment for the incubation of the causative organ- isms than is true of the heavier, more compact soils which are less readily aerated and more slowly heated. The disease known as “Summer Blight,’’ common throughout the larger agricultural valleys of California and described by Smith^, ’06, is probably not identical with the disease described in this bulletin. *The results of these studies will be incorporated in a subsequent bulletin dealing with the subject of Breeding and Selection for Disease Resistance in Tomatoes. *Smith, R. E. Tomato Diseases in California. Bulletin 175, Jan. 1906. OF Fusarium to Tomato Blight 3 although the seat of fungus growth and activity is confined to the same part of the host plant, namely, the root system. To the writer’s knowl- edge, the occurrence of yellow blight has not been reported from any state east or south of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho. SYMPTOMATOLOGY During the incipient stages of the disease, the host, while producing its first flowers, or in many instances, after its fruit is a third or half- grown, begins to show first symptoms; i. e., a slight torsion of the entire leaf accompanied by a purpling of the leaf veins. With the general torsion of the leaves, one may also observe a twisting and rolling in- ward followed by drooping (not wilt) of the leaflets and leaves. The lower leaves of field-grown plants are not necessarily the first to become yellow. They not infrequently remain green for several days after leaves of subsequent growth have begun to fade and die. Even in the latest stages of the disease the foliage does not wilt, but seems to become brittle, at first taking on a glaucous sheen which from a dis- tance gives the afflicted plant a greyish appearance. Immature toma- toes, one-half inch or less in diameter, become yellow and ultimately take on a depth of color indicative of ripeness. The pulp of these toma- toes is quite agreeable to the taste, though it- lacks the aroma and pal- atable flavor of a fully matured and properly ripened tomato. The seeds of these small fruits fail to develop. With the onset of the blight there is a marked cessation of growth, and all affected plants assume an erect habit, excepting those cases in which the invasion of the root system occurs late in the season after the host has borne heavily and has become prone from heavy fruitage. Plants suffering from the yellow blight, but grown under condi- tions which obtain in the average greenhouse, do not present in anything like so striking a degree the symptoms manifested by plants of the same variety when grown in the field. Our studies have progressed suf- ficiently to justify the opinion that such factors as soil temperature and moisture, wind movement, air temperature, and light intensity are the controlling factors in this disease. In our greenhouse experiments we have been able to produce yellow blight, but never have these experi- ments yielded blighting plants which would present the same symtom- atic complex as those grown under out-door conditions. And there is no reason why they should ; the soil temperature in the greenhouses where our experiments were conducted was rarely if ever as high as the optimum temperature (86° F.) of the causative organisms. Hence, fungous growth within the roots was more or less inhibited. It must also be patent enough that growth conditions affecting the host when grown in a greenhouse are so nearly ideal as to afford it a far better fighting chance against invading fungi. Infected plants maintained in the greenhouse manifest the first signs of blight in the twisting of leaves and leaflets and by their light- 4 Studies on Relation of Species ened color and the characteristic purpling of the veins. The whole plant lags in growth, assumes a spindling habit, and produces very in- ferior fruit. An examination of the root-system of such a plant will reveal the fact that many of the roots and their branches, especially at their tips are decayed. The entire root-system, instead of presenting the ivory-whiteness of healthy tomato roots, has become discolored to a light bufF or darker hue. In those roots most severely diseased the cortical tissue, if not already gone, m.ay be easily slipped off between finger and thumb, leaving behind the m.ore resistant vascular, woody tissue. If we compare the root-system of such a plant, artificially inocu- lated and grown in sterile soil, with that of a diseased plant grown in the field we shall find the two all but identical as to color, lesions, and manner of advance of the fungus within the roots. Field Studies Plate III, fig. 3, represents the appearance of a field in which many of the tomato plants had already succumbed to the blight. It will be seen from the figure that the disease does not uniformly affect all the plants in a row, but at first claims a host only here and there throughout the field, becoming more widespread and destructive as the season advances. Failure to recover a causative organism from the aerial organs of diseased plants led us to make a more comprehensive study of their root systems. In order to determine whether or not a definite and consistent correlation obtained in the condition of the roots and the parts above ground it was necessary to remove the plants from the soil by hydraulic pressure. In this manner the entire plant could be washed out with but little injury to any part of the root system. And thus we were enabled to determine approximately the extent of damage suffered by different plants in varying stages of disease. This investigation of the roots was extended to include plants manifesting every degree of health, not ex- cepting those showing no external symptoms of any diseases, whatever. Moreover, the work of washing out these plants was not confined to a single season, nor to one locality, but covered three seasons and included plants growing in such diverse soil conditions as obtain in the sandy loam of the Snake River bottom land, the basaltic soil near Pullman, Wash- ington, and the porous, gravel drift of the Spokane Prairie. Upwards of two hundred individual plants were thus studied and careful notes made with reference to condition of parts above and below ground, with the result that, regardless of the character of the soil or variety of tomato, there was found to exist in every case a striking correlation between the diseased condition of the roots and the symptoms of dis- ease shown in the foliage. To illustrate the degree of this correlation the following excerpt from notes made in 1910 is here inserted: OF Fusarium to Tomato Blight 5 No of Plant Date 1 6 July 25 Condition of Foliage First symptoms very pro- nounced: leaves and leaflets show characteristic torsion ; veinage purple ; a few leaves becoming yellow. Condition of Root System Root system of 9 primary branches. Three of these diseased from a point where diam.eter is 1 mm. Many small roots near surface de- stroyed. Small laterals o r “feeders ’ of the three dis- eased primary roots wholly destroyed. l?a July 25 Yellow. Nearly a 1 1 small branches and feeders destroyed. 17 10 July 25 Badly blighted. In late stages: leaves all yellow or dying. Plant stunted. All but one large root de- stroyed to within twelve inches of base of plant stem. Smaller branches all gone except those of the one re- maining primary; and many of these are rotting. Aug. 8 Diseased. In late stages: leaves yellow, twisted and brittle. Of 20 primary roots, 1 1 are decayed from points vary- ing from Yi inch to 1 2 inches from point of origin. Two of the remaining 9 primary roots were divided into 3 secondary branches. Showed no signs of decay as far out as uncovered (3 feet). Som.e small lateral branches of remaining seven primaries show decay. 12 Aug. 8 First unmistakable symptoms leaf torsion and general dull- ing of color of foliage. Habit, rigid. Out of a total of 28 large roots, 6 were infected at from 12 to 36 inches of point of origin. Several root- lets destroyed. The above tabulation of notes taken in the field at the time the plants were washed out will serve to illustrate the uniformity of rela- t.onship existing between the conditions obtaining in aerial and under- ground parts of individual plants. 6 Studies on Relation of Species Laboratory and Greenhouse Studies Microscopic examination of living diseased roots revealed in every instance the hyphae of fungi confined at first to the cortical tissue, but subsequently extending to the phloem and xylem of the vascular tract. The discovery of these organisms in the root afforded a basis for further field and laboratory study the results of which, while they in no sense represent the last word on the subject of the yellow blight, may at least, be regarded as pointing the way. During the summer of 1910 plate cultures of a considerable num- ber of plants in various stages of blight were made in accordance with the following technique: The roots after being thoroughly washed and freed from clinging soil were placed in a flask containing a 1-1000 solu- tion of mercuric chloride. After standing five to ten minutes in this solu- tion they were washed in three changes of autoclaved water. They were next removed from the flask by means of flamed forceps and re- duced to a finely divided pulp by running them over a close-meshed, sterilized sieve used as a grater. This root pulp was then placed in a flask of autoclaved water and dilutions were made from the mixture. From these dilutions were made the plate cultures, in which the medium employed consisted of tomato root or stem and leaf decoction added as a nutrient base to shredded agar. Other media were tried, but none proved any more satisfactory than the one containing tomato decoction. Every attempt at isolation of root infesting organisms resulted in the appearance of one, or sometimes two, species of Fusarium^. The apparently constant presence of one or both of these species suggested to the writer their possible casual relation to the yellow blight. Hence, the next step was to determine whether by artificial means the disease could be produced by these two species of Fusanum, all other organ- isms being eliminated from the cultures. Inoculation Experiments In July, 1911, a series of experiments was started with a view to developing the blight artificially. Seed of the two varieties known as Sparks’ Earliana and Truckers’ Favorite was first subjected to fungi- cidal treatment by immersion for ten minutes in a 1-1000 solution of HgCl‘ 2 . The seed was next planted in common garden soil which had been sterilized in the autoclave at 1 20 degrees C. The seedlings, from their appearance above ground until the date of transplanting (August 1 7th to 30th) were irrigated only with sterilized water. Every pos- sible precaution was observed in an effort to prevent accidental intro- duction of blight-producing organisms. Two hundred and sixty-five 6-inch flower pots were next filled with thoroughly pulverized garden ^Subsequently identified by Dr. H. W. Wollenweber, U. S. Dept, of Agr., as belonging to the section Elegans of the Genus Fusarium. The more constant species is F. orlhoceras, App. & Wr., the less constant species is F. ox})sporum (Schlecht). OF Fusarium to Tomato Blight 7 soil and the whole lot thoroughly sterilized at 1 20 degrees C. One hundred and seventy-five of these pots were planted to Earliana seed- lings, 80 of them being set aside as check plants. The remaining 95 were inoculated by placing a small fragment of spore-bearing mycelium of the suspected Fusarium species on the exposed roots of the intended host. In the same manner 46 Truckers’ Favorite plants were inocu- lated from pure cultures of the same organism and 44 seedlings of this variety were set aside as check plants. Upon the recovery of these plants from the shock induced by transplanting they were all trans- ferred at one time to the department greenhouse where they were kept throughout the fall and winter months of 1 9 1 1 . At this time we were unaware of the fact tnat the organisms associated with the disease in question are characterized by high optimum temperatures. The tem- perature of the greenhouse in which these plants were kept was at no time during the experiment equal to the optimum of Fusarium orthoceras or F. oxysporum. And this probably accounts in part for our failure to secure a quite typical symptomatic complex. Owing to a protracted period of cold weather and failure to supply the greenhouse with sufficient heat fully six per cent of the inocu- lated plants were lost by freezing. Of those which survived, 38 mani- fested more or less typical symptoms of the characteristic blight, but in no case was the evidence above ground absolutely convincing. It was only after washing the roots of these plants free from soil and com- paring them with the roots of the check plants that the diseased condi- tion of the former was made more evident. From the roots of the blighted plants we were able each time to recover the organism used in inoculation as was later determined by comparison with the original cultures. Six additional plants showed only a trace of the disease in the roots. Of the 90 check plants all but four were free from disease. From the surface roots of these four a species of Fusarium belonging to Section Elegans was recovered which, if not identical with, is closely related to Fusarium ox'^sporum. Pure Culture Inoculations In order to determine the method of infection produced by the causative organism, seeds were removed from the interior of thoroughly ripe tomatoes and placed in tubes of slanted soil agar where, after five days they germinated. Transfer was then made from a pure culture of Fusarium orthoceras to each of several uncontaminated seedling cul- tures and placed in a culture chamber the temperature of which was approximately 2U C. (68.3° F.) Within 36 hours a visible growth of mycelium had developed. The hyphae soon spread in the direction of the young root and within 48 hours noticeable discoloration was apparent. 8 Studies on Relation of Species Four days after the inoculation of the seedlings several thin hand sections of a diseased radicle were made. These were mounted in water and examined with the microscope. Without the use of stains or other reagents the m.ethod of infection and progress of the invading hyphae were easily and distinctly visible. Fig. 7, Plate IV, represents a section of the peripheral cells of an infected radicle and illustrates the habit of the organism and its manner of cell invasion. The infecting hyphae as shown in Fig. 8, Plate IV, grow from an already occupied cell directly through the cell wall into the neighboring cells. And as was frequently observed the cytoplasm in contact with the cell wall of a newly invaded cell is pushed in toward the center of the cell as much as 1 Yl mmm. by the hyphae which have effected an entrance through the cell wall. All infected cells speedily break down, their walls becoming yellowish and in time quite collapsed. Growth of the fungus within its host is both intercellular and intracellular. With the progress of the hyphae the cells rapidly come to be completely occupied with mycelium, the cor- tical tissue being the first to suffer. But in time the vascular tract is encroached upon and ultimately yields to the advancing parasite. Cross-sections of the hypocotyl of the infected seedling showed no evidence of the fungus so long as any part of the root remained in- tact. With the destruction of the root there was always a gradual cessation of growth of the aerial portion of the seedling followed by loss of color and final collapse. Repeated experiments involving the inoculation of tomato seed- lings in pure culture invariably resulted in destructive infection, Snd this without previous mechanical or other iniury having been suffered by the plants. The writer has demonstrated by these experiments and those involving artificial infection of potted plants the fact that in Fusarium orthoceras we have to do with a facultative saprophyte which in its relation to the tomato plant is a fungus of well-defined and vigorous parasitic character. Field and laboratory studies all po to show that invasion of the roots of the tomato does not necessarily depend upon infliction of mechanical injury upon these organs, though there can be no doubt as to such injury acting as a contributing factor in fields de- voted to transplanted plants, subsequently carelessly cultivated. As stated in another part of this paper, there seems good reason to believe that at least two varieties of Fusarium ox\jsporum are fre- quently found associated with F. orthoceras in the diseased roots of blighting tomato plants and have been isolated from the vascular tissue of the roots of plants killed by the disease. In the course of the studies upon this type of tomato blight the writer has prepared hundreds of permanent stained slides of transverse and longitudinal sections made from the roots of plants in every stage of the disease; but it should be OF Fusarium to Tomato Blight 9 noted that with few exceptions these slides show hyphae only in the cortical tissue. In August, 1913, Wollenweber reported having found Rhizoc- tonia in the roots of blighting plants collected at Hermiston and Hood River, Oregon. This discovery inclined Dr. Wollenweber to the opinion that Rhizoctonia may be an important factor in the development of the yellow blight. Culture experiments to determine the possible rela- tion of Rhizoctonia to the yellow blight have not yet been made except in a preliminary way. Six healthy tomato plants transplanted to six- inch pots of unsterihzed greenhouse soil were inoculated with Fusarium orthoceras and Rhizoctonia. A similar number of plants were inocu- lated with Fusarium orthoceras only, and a like number were planted without inoculation. These plants were kept for four months in the Arlington, Va., greenhouse at a temperature somewhat under the opti- mum for these two fungi. When the plants began to set fruit symptoms of blight became noticeable, but no differences could be noted between those inoculated with Fusarium alone and those inoculated with Fusa- rium and Rhizoctonia. In an effort to recover the two organisms from the several diseased plants positive results followed with reference to Fusarium, but Rhizoctonia appeared in none of the cultures. It is, therefore, barely possible that the inoculations with the latter parasite failed to result in infection. It should also be noted here that in none of the many plate cultures made during 1910 and 1911 were any colonies of Rhizoctonia observed, notwithstanding the fact that these cultures were made from plants representing the several stages of the disease from its incipiency to the actual death of the parts above ground. Just what part, if any, of this type of root disease is played by Rhizoc- tonia remains yet to be insevtigated. The optimum temperature for Rhizoctonia is essentially the same as that for the two species of Fusa- rium isolated from diseased plants. It would, therefore, seem reason- able that if Rhizoctonia is a prime factor in inducing this type of tomato blight the disease should have been reported from other parts of the United States, for Rhizoctonia maybe found in cultivated soil almost anywhere in the United States, and is known to induce disease in the roots of many of our cultivated plants^ including the potato. In their refer- ence to the several plants subject to Rhizoctonia infection Stevens and Hall do not report the tomato as a host of this organism, nor does it appear until August, 1913, that Rhizoctonia has been observed as seriously affecting the tomato. Culture Studies of the Fusarium Species Various media, including 1 Yl potato agar, potato cylin- ders, carrot agar, wheat heads, pear agar, tomato agar, stems of various plants including tomato, cotton and flax, and grains of corn and rice ^Stevens & Hall: Diseases of Economic Plants. P. 61, 1910. 10 Studies on Relation of Species were employed in the culture studies of the Fusarium species isolated from the diseased roots of plants grown in the field and those arti- ficially inoculated and grown in the greenhouse. In addition to the foregoing, sterilized garden soil consisting chiefly of decomposed basalt was successfully used. Of all media employed, steamed potato cylinders, boiled rice, and wheat heads produced the most abundant growth of aerial mycelium ; whereas the soil cultures showed scant growth on the surface and a profuse subterranean growth. \\/hen grown on rice the sclerotia of F. ox^sporum vary in color from light pink to a deep wine red. On steamed potato cylinders they are blue. This development of color is apparently influenced by temperature, for it was found on experiment that when cultures were incubated at 30° C. the hues were faint or in some cultures of F. orthoceras failed altogether. On the other hand, when subjected to a temiperature of 1 8° C. or lower the colors were intensified, though less brilliant in F. orthoceras. These observations as to the possible influence of temperature on the depth of color agree with those recorded by Lewis, 1 9 1 3^, in his studies of several disease- producing species of Fusarium. Numerous efforts to produce the normal stages of the two species of Fusarium on the various kinds of agar media failed in whole or in part. But pure cultures grown on the young stems of woody plants or the older stem tissue of herbaceous plants such as the tomato or potato, or on heads of wheat resulted in the normal development of microconidia, macroconidia, and chlamydcspores, provided the cultures were grown under conditions of favorable temperature and humidity. Of the various kinds of agar, best results obtained through the use of a V/ 2 % potato agar. Wollenweber, 1913^, in his studies of the genus Fusarium, has found that when certain species are grown on boiled rice, potato or other starchy media certain secondary characters develop, characters which miay not appear at all when the same species are grown on the steamed stems of woody or herbaceous plants. Granting the importance of employing non-starchy media as a convenient method of securing the development of normal stages, in the life history of Fusarium ox'psporum and F. orthoceras the writer has demonstrated by experiment that any radical change of one or more growth conditions may, regardless of the nature of the sub-stratum, induce abnormalities in the mycelium or in the number and kind of spores. These abnormalities, however, disappear when transfers are again made to non-starchy media and incubated at the optimum tem- perature and normal humidity, thus proving their physiologic nature. ^Lewis, Chas. EL. Comparative Studies of Certain Disease Producing Species of Fusarium. Bull, 219, Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., 1913. ^Wollenweber, H. W. Studies on the Fusarium Problem. Phytopathology: 3, 25: 1913. OF Fusarium to Tomato Blight 11 To determine the possible effect of growth on the same kind of medium for a period of years, an isolation of Fusarium orthoceras made from the root of a diseased tomato plant on July 3, 1911, was trans- ferred on July 31, 1911, to tomato agar consisting of a nutrient base of tomato root and stem decoction to which was added 1 2 grams of commercial agar to every liter of decoction. From this culture, known as al, transfers were made on Nov. 1 , 1 9 1 1 , to tubes containing tomato agar of the same strength. On August 28, 1912, transfers from the November, 1911, cultures were made to tomato agar and allowed to dry out in the laboratory until September 24th, when they were used in making transfers to 1 !/2% potato agar. In every instance the cultures were subjected to tem- peratures varying from 1 6° to 30° C. and throughout the growth of the fungus on tomato agar, a period covering 38 months, no notice- able variation affecting the cultural characters was observed. When transferred to lactose agar or 1 J/ 2 % potato agar the growth of my- celium was vigorous and noticeably more abundant than when grown on tomato agar. F. orthoceras, grown on lactose agar, produces marked sub-aerial growth, whereas when grown on tomato or potato agar, the growth is almost wholly aerial. The Temperature Factor Field observations covering several seasons invited the inference that the influence of temperature as a factor in the development of the root-infesting organisms might be of considerable importance. To secure data on this and other questions such as previous treatment of land now devoted to tomatoes, methods of transplanting, cultivation, etc., the writer secured the co-operation of 62 tomato growers, most of whom live in the Yakima and Snake River Valleys. It was reported by all but six or eight that in their opinion the heat and wind greatly accele- rated the disease. These deductions were not founded upon ascertained facts regarding soil temperature, light intensity, wind movement, etc., but upon investigation it has been found that a certain and definite rela- tion exists between the temperature of the medium in which the roots grow and the appearance and severity of the disease. Many growers have for years made it a practice to transplant their tomato plants in from six to eight inches of soil and usually very much to their profit owing to the consequent reduction in the number of blighted plants. Cn the 14th of May, 1911, 467 healthy, vigorous plants were planted in an open, unshaded field previously devoted to wheat. These plants were set in holes varying in depth from four to six inches. They were frequently irrigated and received sufficient cultivation to give them every possible advantage through maintenance of favorable tillage. The following tables give the results of field observations made on two sepa- rate occasions during the season of 1911: Blighted Plants Per cent. (N 00 29.07 12.63 24.75 If ammonium citrate is the expression of a dicalcium salt of phosphoric acid, then the phosphate under question contains considerable dicalcium phosphate, even .though the results obtained do not check Avith the claims of the manu- facturer. The action of the citric acid on this particular fertilizer has been very rapid, indicating that the material is readily soluble in citric acid of 0.1 normality. The AAunter Avill present data later to shoAv that this phosphate fertil- izer could not exist in the mono- or dicalcium forms. Thus the Fresenius, Ncubauer, and Luck method Avith modifications has been in continual operation since 1871. Its use has been limited to the determination of phosphoric acid in fertilizers and the results for this determination are meaningless. It can not be used for soils, plant or animal tissue, nor can it be applied to the determination of phosphoric acid in the dicalciuin salt of phosphoric acid. It is evident from Avhat has been said that if it is de- sirable to express the different forms of phosphoric acid as they exist in fertilizers an entirely different method of procedure Avill have to be inaugurated. A method that AAdll differentiate betAveen the different forms of phosphoric acid as they exist not only in fertilizers, but also in plant and animal tissue, soil, etc., is needed. One of the possibilities for a suitable method depends upon the reactions of cal- cium salts of phosphoric acid A\dth an excess of ammonium hydroxide. In case of mono, di, and tricalcium phosphates the reactions are as folloAA^s : 1. 30aH4(PO4)2+12NH4(OH)=0a3(PO4)2+4(NIl4).sFO4 +I 2 H 2 O. 6 2. 3Ca2H2(P04)2+6NH40H = 2Ca3(P04)2 +2(NH4)3P04 + mio. 3. Oa3(P04)2+NH4(OH)=No reaction. In the first equation the nionocalcium phosphate in an excess of ammonium hydroxide reacts forming trical- cium phosphate and ammonium phosphate. The tricalcium phosphate is insoluble while the ammonium phosphate is soluble. In other words, one-third of the nionocalcium phos- phate has been rendered insoluble in the presence of am- monium hydroxide. In the second equation that of dical- cium phosphate two-thirds of the phosphoric acid has been rendered insoluble with ammonium hydroxide, while in case of the tricalcium phosphate all of the tricalcium phosphate remains insoluble in the presence of ammonium hydroxide. Whether or not the three forms of calcium phosphate reacted with ammonium hydroxide in accordance with the equations given above to give quantitative results can be readily determined. The first method which suggests itself is to take the pure salts of mono, di, and tricalcium phos- phates and determine the phosphoric acid contained in the ammonium hydroxide filtrates. Our experiences with ana- lyzed chemicals, however, convinces us that the purity of them is unreliable. Such a procedure ivould then be ques- tionable. The alternative is to make the mono, di, and tri- calcium phosphates in the purest possible forms. This pro- cedure is unnecessary. The easiest way, and unquestionably as satisfactory, is to determine the phosphoric acid in pure phosphoric acid and likewise determine the linie content in a pure salt of calcium'. It is obvious that the iron, aluminum, or any other basic material, combining with phosphoric acid in the presence of ammonium hydroxide would have to be re- moved, before proceeding to determine either the phos- phoric acid, or calcium, in the respective solutions of phos- phoric acid, or calcium. The method of procedure adopted by the writer was to treat solutions of phosphoric acid, and calcium chloride dissolved in the presence of a small amount of nitric acid, with excess ammonium hydroxide, followed by filtering. The filtrates Avere in this way freed from iron, aluminum or other basic materials, which would combine with phos- phoric acid, and be precipitated with ammonium hydroxide. The filtrates Avmre then acidified Avith nitric acid, made up to knoAvn volumes and thoroughly mixed. Aliquots of the 6 phosphoric acid and calcium solutions were taken. Phos- phoric acid Avas determined by the molybdate method, titrat- ing the yellow ammonium phospho-molybdate Avith sodium hydroxide of the correct strength (see page 4, BuL 107 (re- vised edition) U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem.). The lime Avas determined according to the ammonium oxalate method, after having treated the aliquots Avith ammonium hydrox- ide folloAved by acidifying Avith acetic acid. It Avas found that the phosphoric acid solution con- tained 0.3621% P-iOs and the calcium solution contained 2.420% CaO in each c.c.m. A portion of the phosphoric acid solution Avas diluted ten times and the calcium solu- tion was diluted one hundred times. The phosphoric acid and calcium Avere mixed together in the proportions to make mono, di, and tricalcium phosphates as folloAvs : A. Monocalcium phosphate. 9.89 cc of a solution each cc = 0.0242 CaO 16.760 cc of a solution each cc = 0.03621 P 2 O 5 B. Dicalcium phosphate. 17.00 cc of a solution each cc = 0.0242 CaO 14.420 cc of a solution each cc = 0.03621 P2O5 C. Tricalcium phosphate. 22.44 cc of a solution each cc 12.65 cc of a solution each cc 0.0242 CaO 0.03621 P2O5 These mixtures Avere then made up to knoAvn volumes and thoroughly mixed. Aliquots Avere then taken, treated Avith excess ammonium hydroxide and filtered. The pre- cipitates AA^ere Avashed in cold Avater and the phosphoric | acid determined in the series of filtrates Avhich Avere slightly “ acidified A\dth nitric acid, AAdiilc the calcium oxide Avas de termined Avith potassium permanganate in the other series acidified with acetic acid. The results were as folloAvs : A. Per cent P205 Per cent CaO Per cent P205 Calc, for CaH4(P002 Found 0.4085 none 61.27 Theoretical 0.4045 none 60.69 B. Per cent P20r) Per cent CaO Per cent P20.'> Calc, for Ca2H2(P04)2 Found 0.177 none 53.10 Theoretical 0.174 none 52.21 C. Per centP205 Per cent CaO Found none none Theoretical none none 7 The experiment was repeated, using more solutions or stronger solutions as follows : A. Monocalciuin phosphate. 98.88 cc of a solution each cc = 0.0242% CaO 16.76 cc of a solution each cc = 0.3621% P20r) B. Dicalcium phosphate. 170.08 cc of a solution each cc = 0.0242% CaO 14.42 cc of a solution each cc = 0.3621% P 2 O 5 The results were as follows : A. Per cent P20ri Per cent CaO Per cent P 2 O 5 Calc for CaH4(P04)2 Found : j 4.028 I 4.035 none 60.47 Theoretical 4.046 none 60.69 B. Calc, for Ca2H2(P04)2 Found j 1.730 I 1.740 none 52.06 Theoretical 1.74 none 52.21 From the results obtained it will be seen that not only do the reactions take place as equated, but they react quantitatively. Here we have then a method of procedure to determine the purity of calcium salts of phosphoric acid. It is based upon a scientific principle and should prove applicable (unless there are some substances which inter- fere with these reactions) that will permit of its use in various ivays with fertilizers, plant and animal tissue, soils, chemicals, etc. It gives us a foundation for determining the presence of the different forms of calcium phosphate, if they exist as such, in the presence of each other. Satisfied that mono, and dicalcium phosphates react in the presence of an excess of ammonium hydroxide in agree- ment with the equations as deduced, we have then a means to test the purity of the three salts of calcium phosphate. In our stock of chemicals we have preparations of monocalcium phosphate which were sold to us as C.P. goods, Avhich we know on account of their insolubility in Avater to be something else than what they Avere purported to be. In addition to the above chemicals Ave have both the. mono and dicalcium phosphates in bottles labeled “ana- lyzed” or “standard of purity.” These last tAvo com- pounds of calcium phosphate have been subjected to analyses. We Avill consider first the monocalcium phos- phate and then the dicalcium phosphate. Tavo grams of monocalcium phosphate containing one molecule of Avater Avas dissolved in water containing nitric 8 acid, cooled and made up to 200 cc volume. After having been thoroughly mixed 100 cc aliquot was made alkaline with ammonium hydroxide and then thoroughly stirred, diluted to 175 cc, stirred again, and then filtered to remove the tricalcium phosphate formed. The precipitate on the filter was then washed with cold distilled 'water until about 195 cc of filtrate was obtained. Additional water was added to make the volume equal 200 cc, followed by a thorough shaking. Aliquots of 25 cc each were drawn and made slightly acid with nitric acid followed by heating to 65° C, when an excess of ammonium molybdate Avas added to cause complete precipitation. After digestion the precipitate of yellow phospho-niolybdate Avas recovered and thoroughly Avashed with cold distilled water. The phos- phoric acid Avas determined Avith sodium hydroxide accord- ing to the optional method p. 4 (B. 107). Total phosphoric acid was also determined. The results were as folloAvs: Per cent Total Per cent not Per cent Total Per cent P 2 O 5 ppt. P 2 O 5 P 2 O 5 Calc .CaH4(P04)2H20 from not ppt. Calc. Found 52.13* ( 33.436 I 33.350 50.09 95.167 Theoretical 56.35 37.57 52.13 100,000 or 34.76t The above results after alloAving for excess Avater shoAV that 95.17% is pure Ca H 4 (P04)2. H 2 O Avith 2.040 per cent phosphoric acid in some other form as Cas (P04)2 (the difference 50.09 and 52.13 or 2.04), multiplying 2.04 by 2.183 (factor for Cas (P04)2) equals 4.455 per cent of tri- calcium phosphate. Calculating all of the phosphoric acid present in combination with calcium there is but 0.398 per cent of unaccounted impurities according to the analysis. This salt contains a slight amount of insoluble phos- phate Avhich, Avhen separated and tested, shoAvs it to be tricalcium phosphate and not dicalcium phosphate. The method of procedure for the preparation of the dicalcium phosphate Avith tAvo molecules of Avater Avas the same as for the monocalcium phosphate. The results Avere as follows : Per cent Total Per cent P205 Per cent P205 Per cent P 2 O 5 not ppt. Calc, from not ppt. Ca2H2(P04)2 . 2 H 2 O Calc Found 42.50 ^ 8.246 } 8.220 24.70 59.845 Theoretical ... 41.28 13.76 41.28 100.000 *Contaiiis other water besides water of molecular combination which when corrected for, changes the results to 55.59%. tWhen based on total PaO.r, content of 52.13%. 9 Based upon a phosphoric acid content of 42.50%, there is only 59.85 per cent of pure Ca 2 H 2 (P04)2. 2 H 2 O, with 17.80% phosphoric acid in some other form as tricalcium phosphate. Multiplying 17.8 by 2.183 equals 38.87 per cent of tricalcium phosphate. Calculating all of the phosphoric acid present in combination with calcium, there is 1.287 per cent of other forms of unaccounted impurities accord- ing to the analysis. This salt of phosphoric acid did not contain any phos- phoric acid which was soluble in water. Consequently it should contain either the di or tricalcium phosphates, or both which are insoluble in water. Upon analysis it was found to contain both forms which are insoluble in water. From this method of procedure it has been possible to test the purity of both mono and dicalcium phosphates and find that chemicals are not necessarily pure because they have been placed in bottles as ‘‘analyzed’’ or “stand- ard of purity.” Every step thus far points to the fact that the reac- tions as formulated are correct, and this is particularly em- phasized in case of the monocalcium phosphate, which agrees close enough to show that a combination as represented by the equations can only take place. We have here a means for determining the purity of mono and dicalcium phos- phates. Neither one of the two chemicals analyzed are of value to prove that reactions take place in the manner deduced. The first chemical contained monocalcium phosphate and tricalcium phosphate but no dicalcium phosphate. The second chemical contained both the di and tricalcium phos- phates but no monocalcium phosphate. Suppose we had a chemical containing all three, the mono, di, and tricalcium phosphates. Can we separate them quantitatively in the presence of each other? The question has been answered indirectly in connection with the dis- cussion of the mono and dicalcium phosphates. The mono- calcium phosphate is soluble in water, while the di, and tricalcium phosphates are not, consequently if we deter- mine the phosphoric acid in all of the water soluble or that part of the water soluble which is not precipitated with ammonium hydroxide, the total phosphoric acid sol- uble in water can be computed from the data obtained in the non-precipitated phosphoric acid. Another portion of the mixture is digested with nitric acid and made up to 10 volume. Aliquots are taken for both the total and that which is not precipitated by animonium hydroxide. For the latter the di?;solved salt is made alkaline with an ex- cess of ammonium hydroxide, filtered and the preciioitate thoroughly washed with water. The filtrate is then slightly acidified Avith nitric acid, ammonium molybdate added in excess, etc. The amount of phosphoric acid found in the hltrate contains both the mono and dicalcium phosphates not precipitated by ammonium hydroxide. It is then only a matter of computation to determine the amount of each. The phosphoric acid found in the Avater soluble not pre- cipitated by ammonium hydroxide is subtracted from that found in hltrate not precipitated by ammonium hydroxide after digesting the material in nitric acid. This quantity of phosphoric acid multiplied by three Avill give the phos- phoric acid present in the dicalcium phosphate, and that found in the non-precipitated ammonium hydroxide Avater- soluble solution divided by four and multiplied .by six or multiplied directly by one and one-half (1.5) Avill give the phosphoric acid present in the monocalcium phosphate. The sum of the phosphoric acids for mono and dicalcium phosphates subtracted from total phosphoric acid is the phosphoric acid in combination Avith lime to form trical- eium phosphate. The data obtained for the total and non- precipitated phosphoric acids computed to their respective calcium salts should equal 100% after alloAving for the Avater in molecular combination and free moisture. The results should be confirmed by determining the lime con- tent. This can be determined in the i^recipitates and after making the jAroper calculations should check Avith not only the total calcium iDresent in the mixture, but also Avith the results o])tained for lime as calculated from the phosphoric acids found in the mono, di, and tricalcium phosphates. We Avill noAV return to the phosphate fertilizer Avhich Avas represented to the • Avriter as being nearly all soluble in ammonium citrate. One gram of the fertilizer Avas digested in aqua regia, diluted Avith Avater, filtered and made up to 500 cc volume. Aliquots Avere taken, treated Avith ammonium hydroxide and filtered. The resulting filti’ates Avere then slightly acidi- fied Avith niti'ic acid and treated Avith ammonium molyb- date according to the usual method. The total phosphoric acid and calcium Avere determined. The results Avere as folloAvs : 11 Per cent Total Per cent Total Per cent P205 Per cent P205 Calc, as CaO P 2 O 5 not ppt. Ca2H2(P04)2 44.7 29.07 none none There was no water-soluble phosphoric acid in this fertilizer, consequently no monocalcium phosphate could be present. If dicalcium phosphate Avas present we should have obtained phosphoric acid that was not precipitated with ammonium hydroxide. The excess of lime, on the other hand, shoAvs at a glance that the lime content is in excess of that required to form tricalcium phosphate. Perhaps the compound is a tetra-calcium phosphate (Ca 4 P2O9), but Ave find upon basis of phosphoric acid analysis that the lime content is in excess of that required to form this comx^ound. The question is, shall Ave regard this fertilizer as tri or tetracalcium phosphate? AVith reference to the latter compound there is some dispute as to Avhether or not there is such a compound. We knoAv, on the other hand, that tricalcium phosphate exists and this is probably the com- pound that is present in Basic-slag. The balance of the lime Avould then be in some other combination as, e. g., AAuth silica and not phosphoric acid. So far as our reac- tions are concerned the lime and jjhosphoric acid are pre- cipitated as the tricalcium phosphate Avith ammonium hy- droxide and the excess of lime enters into the filtrate in the method described. There are good reasons to believe that the above fertilizer is a fusion of tricalcium phosphate and lime, AA^hich through the process has been modified to give an increased citrate soluble over that obtained for tricalcium phosphate or floats. The statements made in the preceding jAaragraph lead us to more interesting ones Avith reference to commercial fertilizers knoAAui as superiDhosphates, reveitcd phosphates, or available phosphates. As has been said these tAvo foT*ms of fertilizers are regarded as monocalcium, and dicalcium ph()sx)hatcs, and in these forms are considered as available phosphoric 'acid. Let us consider the reactions of trical- cium phosphate AAuth sulfuric acid. 1. Ca3(P04)2+3H2S04+6H20=80aS04.2H20+2H3P04. 2. Ca3(P04)2 + 2H2SO4+5H2O = 2CaS04.2H20 + CaH4 (P04)2.H20. 3. 0a3(PO4)2+H2SO4+4H2O-=CaSO4.2H2O +0a2H2(P04)2 ..2H2O. In all three of the above equations avc have calcium sulfate, the amount varying in i)roportion to the amount 12 of sulfuric acid used in the equation. Besides gypsum there is either phosphoric acid, or mono, or dicalcium ohp-s phate. The monocalcium phosphate in the presence of the gypsum is known as the superphosphate, while the dical- cium phosphate in the presence of gypsum is known as the reverted phosphoric acid, or ammonium citrate soluble phos- phoric acid. The superphosphate is soluble in water, while the reverted is not. The gypsum is practically insoluble in water. Does this mean anything? Let us see! The tri- calcium phosphate is treated with sulfuric acid with the purpose in vieAv of rendering the phosphoric acid in tri- calcium phosphate, when applied to the soils, more readily available as a source of phosphorus for plants, than would be possible in the more difficultly soluble forms of phos- phoric acid. But inasmuch as the gypsum is not separated from the mono, or dicalcium phosphates formed, the gyp- sum is also added with the more soluble calcium phosphate. From this point it will be necessary to digress somewhat from the main subject. The exact reactions of gypsum in soil are not satis- factorily known, but are believed to be very beneficial in increasing the potash content available for crops, perhaps in a manner something like this : Al203.K20.6Si02 + 0aS04.2H20+002 =- K 2 SO 4 +AI 2 O 3 . 2Si02. 2 H 2 O A 4Si02+ OaOOs. This effect of gypsum appears to be more noticeable on clay than on sandy soils. In acid soils, applications of gypsum are considered undesirable, because it tends to promote an increased acid- ity, and with it, increases the plant food to quantities that are apt to be carried away in the seepage waters. On neu- tral soils, gypsum also tends to make the soil acid and the conditions change to one very similar to that just explained for the acid soils. Owing to the increased acidity resulting it has been frequently recommended to apply calcium car- bonate, or calcium hydroxide, in conjunction with super- phosphate to overcome the acid tendencies of gypsum. The application of gypsum to soil, unless it be for the sulfur that it contains, possesses no desirable benefits that can not also be ol)tained from applications with other forms of lime on acid or neutral soils. And on these when amply supi)lied with sulfur, the latter form of lime is to be pre-‘ ferred. Further the application of different forms of lime IS phosphate containing gypsum should be discouraged rather than encouraged. On alkaline soils, those that contain both the sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate, the application of gyp- sum tends to overcome the alkaline condition forming the calcium carbonate and the less injurious sodium sulfate as follows : 0aS04+Na2003-=Na2S04+0a003. The practice of applying gypsum to alkaline soils has been quite extensive, and it appears that since gypsum over- comes the injurious elfccts of black alkali, the application of superphosphate would be more desirable on alkaline soils than on either the neutral or acid reacting ones. But we find here also that the gypsum tends to increase the dif- ferent forms of plant food, and its effect then, is only of a temporary nature. More sodium carbonate is formed and more gypsum would have to be added. We are, therefore, led to believe that the application of superphosphates on such soils does not have any material advantage that can not also be obtained by adding the gypsum directly. On the other hand, where the soils run low in sulfur ; and sulfur is considered of importance to plant growth, the addition of gypsum will overcome the deficiency and in that way be of direct value to the plants. But the re- moval of the sulfur in gypsum also changes the form of lime and we have nothing left in gypsum that can not also be obtained by the addition of calcium carbonate. Where there is plenty of lime in the soil, sulfuric acid will be equally as valuable as the gypsum and can be applied much cheaper. In addition to the above facts there is another point with reference to the application of superphosphates to alka- line soils that must not be overlooked, viz., the action of the sodium carbonate, just as in the case with the ammo- nium hydroxide reaction, upon the superphosphate chang- ing the latter from the water soluble to the water insoluble or to tricalcium phosphate as follows : 2Na2003-+CaH4(P04)2.H20 + 20aS04.2H20=Oa3(P04)2+ 2Na2S04+5H20-f2002. Under this condition we find that there is nothing gained by adding a superphosphate to an alkaline soil that can not also be accomplished by adding tricalcium phos- 14 pliate and gypsum or sulfuric acid independently and much cheaper. Let us now return to the neutral soils that contain cal- cium carbonate, and the acid soils where calcium carbon- ate is needed. In the latter case it is inadvisable to add a superphosphate and increase the acidity. To overcome the acidity, the cheapest and easiest way is to add calcium carbonate. The addition of calcium carbonate will overcome the acidity and make the acid soil neutral and from this point both the acid and neutral soil may be considered from the same point of view. The application of superphosphate owing to its gypsum content will tend to make the soil acid again. This is objectionable because it has been nec- essary to add calcium carbonate to the soil to overcome this tendency. If, however, there has been applied or there is ample calcium carbonate present in the soil to overcome any immediate tendencies of gypsum to change the soil to acid, we must not overlook the fact that the calcium car- bonate will react with the monocalcium phosphate and change it to the less soluble calcium phosphate. For mono- calcium phosphate the reaction may be expressed as follows : 0aH4(P04)2 .H‘20+0a003--0a-2H2(F04)2.2H‘20+002 This reaction takes place rather rapidly. But since su- perphosphate contains both gypsum and monocalcium phos- phate there will be naturally a more complicated reaction in the soil, perhaps as follows : 0aH4(P04)2 .H20+0aS04 .2H20+0aC03 + AI 2 O 3 . •K 2 O. ()Si02 = Oa2H2 (P04)2 -.2H20 + OaOOs + K2S04-f Al203.28i02. 2H20+4Si02 If the dicalcium phosphate is formed in the soil from monocalcium phosphate then it appears as reasonable to believe that the dicalcium phosphate is transformed into the insoluble • tricalcium phosphate as follows : Ca2H2(P04)2.2H20+0a003=0a3( P04)2+002+3H20 We have found that this reaction takes place much more slowly than the preceding one, but in the soils, in conjunc- tion with water, the reaction takes place rapidly because the carbon dioxide is readily neutralized by basic materials in the soil. The calcium phosphate not changing to the in- soluble forms must be largely lost through seepage, etc. 15 Fertilizers made up of available phosphoric acid whether in the presence of gypsum or not tend to react when mixed with tlie soil to form compounds nioi-e difficultly soluble, as, e. g., tricalcium phosphate, and that the artificial fertil- izei's can not he considered ti'uly speaking mono, or dical- ciuin phosphates, in the presence of gypsum, but rather sulfuric acid interchanging with phosphoric acid and cal- cium. For superphosphate as follows: Ca3(P04)2.4H3P04+60aS04.2H20-=3Ca3(P04)-2-b()H2 804 + I2H2O while for the reverted the reaction would be: 20a3rP04)2.H3P04+ 3Ca804.2H20=-3Ca3(P04)2 + 3 H 28 O 4 + ()H20 In the final analysis so far as the application of phos- pliate fertilizers to the soil is concerned, we should only regard them as tricalcium phosphate. This is emphasized from the undesirability of introducing gypsum on acid, neu- tral and alkaline soils, and that the calcium phosphate will change to the tricaleium phosphate in the presence of cal- cium carbonate and particulai'ly in the semi-arid west, espe- cially where the soils have been formed from the erosion of basaltic overflows. The reaction of superphosphate and reverted phosphoric acid with alkali shows them to be tri- calcium phosphate. Further Ave knoAV that tricaleium phos- phate is available to the plants. There is no need for modifying the tricalcium phos- phate other than reducing it to suitable fineness to offer the largest . possible surface to be acted upon by the soil and plant solvents in the soil. All chemical tests of phosphate fer-tilizers should be lim- ited to the analysis of the total phosphoric acid and that Avhich is not precipitated Avith alkali such as ammonium hydroxide and not hoAv much is Avater, or ammonium citrate soluble. This brings us to the application of the method for estimating the different forms of calcium phosphate and the method of differentiation. With pure calcium phos- phates its application has been determined, and in phos- phate fertilizers or other phosphate chemicals Avhere there is an excess of, say, calcium, it is questionable Avhether or not a calcium phosphate could exist in any other form than that Avhich tends to be most stable. In ammonium hy- droxide, superphosphate is only stable as tricalcium phos- 16 phate. In a similar way we regard the iron and aluminum phosphates to be more stable than tricalcium phosphate and tricalcium phosphate is certainly more stable than gypsum. We will, therefore, consider all forms of calcium phosphate in sufficient calcium salts existing in the form of trical- cium phosphate, consequently any phosphate that is not precipitated with ammonium hydroxide must be regarded as a part of either mono, or dicalcium phosphate, or some other salt of phosphoric acid. In a few of the soils that have been examined in our laboratory with water and weak acid solutions there ap- pears some uncombined phosphoric acid. But when these soils are boiled with water to expel the carbon dioxide or when digested with strong acid such as nitric acid it is found that all of the phosphoric acid is in combination in forms that are precipitated with ammonium hydroxide. We must, therefore, conclude so far as the soils examined are concerned that the phosphates are in very stable forms, and not as mono, or dicalcium phosphates. The soils that have been examined are alkaline in na- ture, but are, nevertheless, very productive. The water sol- uble phosphoric acid in these alkaline soils is undoubtedly the result of a series of changes taking place, first with the sodium carbonate, and then with the sodium bicarbonate as follows : 1. Na2C03+H2003=2NaH003 2. 2NaHC03+2H2C03+Ca3(P04)2=CaH4(F04)2. H 2 O+ 2Ca C03+Na2C03+C02 In plant and animal tissue, if phosphates are required in larger quantities than the calcium in certain parts of the structure, it is possible to detect and determine the quan- tities and the possible form in which they may be present in the different parts of the structure. In soils, plant and animal tissue besides calcium, we have iron, aluminum, magnesium, etc., to contend with, and which may, depending upon the amount of phosphoric acid present, be in combination with phosphoric acid. In such a case the problem of differentiating is somewhat complex. The presence of monocalcium or other water-soluble forms of phosphoric acid should be determined in the fil- trates resulting from filtering the water digested material after prolonged boiling. If phosphoric acid is present in the filtrates after following the above treatment the nature 17 of the phosphate must be determined. If it exists as a cal- cium or magnesium phosphate it is unquestionably a mono- calcium or magnesium phosphate. By following the method outlined for the calcium phosphates, not only the calcium phosphate can be determined but also the magnesium phos- phate by determining the calcium and magnesium precipi- tated with ammonium hydroxide and the phosphoric acid in the resulting filtrate. The soil, plant or animal tissue can now be digested with cold nitric acid or Avith aqua regia over a flame and in such case the latter Avould also contain organic phos- phorus as phosphoric acid. In such a case the cold nitric and the aqua regia digestions should give, if there are not substances interfering, differences in the amount of phos- phorus Avhich is unquestionably in organic form. But the difficulty is that some of the organic phosphorus may be soluble in cold nitric acid and in such a case the problem is not at all simple. All of the inorganic phosphorus should be soluble in strong cold nitric acid. If iron and aluminum are present in large quantities and the phosphoric acid in only limited quantities, the phosphoric acid will enter in combination with the iron and aluminum. On the other hand, if the phosphoric acid is in excess of that required to satisfy the iron and aluminum the excess phosphoric acid- will be in combination Avith some other basic material such as cal- cium, magnesium, etc. The method for the differentiation of the phosphoric acid and the basic materials being knoAvn the nature of the inorganic phosphate can be determined. Just as in the case of the calcium phosphates; so it is also possible to determine the different salts of phosphoric acid AAffiich are in combination Avith sodium, potassium, etc., by indirect methods. In the case of sodium phosphate, the phosphoric acid and the sodium are first determined, and then calcium equal to an amount necessary to replace the sodium AAffiich AAms in combination, is added. If the cal- cium combines Avith the phosphoric acid and the mixture remains soluble it is a monosodium phosphate, which can be confirmed by precipitating the tricalcium phosphate with ammonium hydroxide and determine the phosphoric acid in the filtrate Avhich should be equal to two-thirds of the total phosphoric acid present in the salt. If the salt is a disodium salt of phosphoric acid, the addition of the sodium equivalent in calcium Avill form the insoluble calcium phos- phate Avhich AAffien treated with ammonium hydroxide will 18 form tricalciuin phosphate and ammoninm phosphate. The phosphoric acid in the filtrate would be equal to one-third of all of the phosphoric acid present in the sodium phos- phate. In case of the trisodium phosphate and its sodium equivalent in calcium, no phosphoric acid would be found in the filtrate after the addition of ammonium hydroxide. CONCLUSIONS 1. Ammonium citrate acts upon tricalcium phosphate as well as dicalcium phosphate. The method in use is wholly empirical and does not separate the dicalcium phos- phate from tricalcium phosphate. 2. Substances soluble in ammonium citrate are not nec- essarily mono and dicalcium phosphate, but also tricalcium, iron, and aluminum phosphates. 3. Ammonium citrate soluble is not a measure of the phosphoric acid contained in a fertilizer available for plants. 4. If it is desirable to estimate the mono, di, and tri- calcium phosphates, this can be done in a scientific manner bj^ dissolving the substance in nitric acid and precipitating the solution with ammonium hydroxide. For the monocal- cium phosphate two-thirds of the phosphoric acid will be present in the filtrate and for the dicalcium phosphate one- third the phosphoric acid will be present in the filtrate. Upon these bases the three forms of calcium phosphate can be differentiated and determined quantitatively in the pres- ence of each other. 5. The ammonium hydroxide method is applicable for the testing of the purity of phosphate chemicals. It can also be applied to differentiate between the different forms of phosphoric acid that may be present in soils, plant, and animal tissue. 6. Indirectly, by adding the equivalent of a base with calcium the different forms of phosphate salts can be de- termined. 7. In soil mono and dicalcium phosphates tend to re- act, forming tricalcium phosphate. There is then nothing to be gained by applying either superphosphate or reverted phosphoric acid to soil. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON Report on Fires Occuring in Threshing Separators in Eastern Washington During the Summer of 1914 By Ira D. Cardiff, Director of Experiment Station 0. L. Waller, Professor of Civil Engineering H. V. Carpenter, Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Geo. A. Olson, Experiment Station Chemist E. G. Schafer, Professor of Farm Crops A. L, Sherman, Asst. Chemist BULLETIN NO. 117 November 3, 1914 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BOARD OF CONTROL D, S. TROY, President Chimaeuni dA8. C. CUNNINGHAM, Vice-President Spokane E. A. BRYAN, Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman President of the College R. C. McCROSKEY Garfield STATION STAFF IRA L). CARDIFF, Ph. I) ELTON FULMER, M. A S. B. NELSON, 1). V. M O. L. WALLER, Ph. M A. L. MELANDER, Sc. D O. M. MORRIS, B. S GEO. W. SEVERANCE, B. S C. C. THOM, M. S A. B. NYSTROM, M. S GEO. A. OLSON, B. S. A., M. S. W. T.SHAW, B. Agr., M. S .1. G. HALL, M. A E. G. SCHAFER, M. S WM. HI SLOP, M. S C. A. MAGOON, M. A J. W. KALKUS, 1). V. S M. A. YOTHERS, B. S HENRY F. HOLTZ, B. S E. F. GAINES, B. S C. F. MONROE, B. S. A C. B. SPRAGUE, B. S D. C. GEORGE, B. S H. M. WOOLMAN F. W. ALLEN, M. S ELLA W. BROCK A. L. SHERMAN, B. S Director and Botanist State Chemist Veterinarian Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandtnan Chemist Zoologist Plant Pathologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Bacteriologist Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Assistant Cerealist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Horticulturist Executive Clerk Assistant Chemist Report on Fires Occurring in Threshing Separators in Eastern Washington During the Summer of 1914. By Ira D. Cardiff, Director of Experiment Station 0. L. Waller, Professor of Civil Engineering H. V. Carpenter, Professor of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Geo. A. Olson, Experiment Station Chemist E. G. Schafer, Professor of Farm Crops A. L. Sherman, Asst. Chemist INTRODUCTION. The great area of inti'r-niouiitain country cotiiprisiug Eastern Wnsliington, Ensic'rn Oi'C'gon and Northern Idalio is an agiacultural r(‘gion ])(‘cnlinrly {ulapt(Ml to v/lunit rais- ing. Tlie annual production for this distinct will average close to 50,000,000 husluds, or nlinost one-t(‘nth of the wlnnit production of the whoh' United States. Failures in this cro]) in the district inentioiu'd are practically unknown. The chief fluctuation in the croj) is ])roduc(al by lightiu* rains certain S(‘asons in some of the dricn* ])ortions of the district and the presence of the stinking smut (TilhTia tritici (Benj.) Wint.). in the highei* altitudes. Occurrence of Fires. The season of 1014 promised to be an unusually good one for wheat ])roduction. Bumjan* crops w(U‘e th<‘ ])i‘os- p(‘cts throughout th(‘ entir(‘ district. With the opi'uing of th(‘ thr(‘shing season about duly 1st, lioAveviu*, sc'rious difficulty was at once encountered. Throughout that portion of the tei'i'itory occu])ied by Whitman County, Wash in g1 on, nnd ])ortions of the neighboring counties, there occurrial nu- mei'ous fii-es, or what were commonly terimal exjilosions in 2 threshing separators. These increased in frequency as the threshing season got under way until it was no uncommon thing to have a report of six to eight of these fires per day. The nature of the fires, that is, their sudden and almost explosive character, caused them to be termed ex- plosions and was also responsible for a very prevalent belief that they were due to incendiarism. These fires increased in frequency and destructiveness until near the end of the threshing season about September 1st. They usually ap- peared to originate in the threshing separator at or just back of the cylinder, and within two or three seconds the entire separator would be a mass of flames, so hot that it prevented the approach of workmen and very soon resulted in the complete destruction of the machine, the fire usually spreading to the straw pile and frequently to the threshed grain and also the unthreshed grain in the surrounding fields. In a number of cases workmen were seriously, injured usu- ally by fire, though in a few cases by the force of the ex- plosion. When these fires occurred, of course, it necessitated the immediate purchase of a new separator at a cost of from $1200 to $1500. Conservative estimates place the number of these fires, or so-called explosions, for this district during the past season at very close to 300. Calculating loss of machinery, loss of both threshed and unthreshed grain, loss of time and injury to men, the total would doubtless con- siderably exceed half a million dollars for the season. It has been the habit of practically all machine owners to carry insurance on their outfits. With the occurrence of fires during the season in question practically all insur- ance companies cither cancelled their insurance or refused to insure new machines when purchased for work in this region, thus inflicting a heavier loss than otherwise upon the machine owners. Scope of Investigation. At the outset of the trouble the State College detailed a numbei* of members from its scientific staff' to investigate the mattei*. These investigations were carried on more or less continuously for upwards of two months by Vice Presi- dent AValler, Professors Carpenter, Olson, Schafer, Mr. Sher- man and Director Cardiff. Investigations were carried on both in the field and laboratory. A searching investigation was conducted in regard to the distribution of these fires, the date at which they occuri'ed, the time of day, the make 3 of machines in which they occurred, the speed of the cylin- der, the character of the grain and the quantity of smut, also the character of the oil used. Samples of wheat and straw were collected and analyses made for moisture con- tent and this was compared with that of previous years. Numerous devices invented by machine owners for pre- venting or controling fires were investigated. Competent detectives were employed to investigate the question of in- cendiarism. In fact, the investigation was made as search- ing and thoro as time and means would permit. Approximately 60 machines where fires occurred were visited in person and carefully investigated from all the above mentioned standpoints. The opinions of the machine owners and the workmen were also solicited and recorded. These opinions were carefully considered and the various men were questioned closely for evidence supporting their opinions. With reference to the latter it was apparent from the beginning of the investigation that the farmers and ma- chine owners were about equally divided in their opinions as to the cause of the trouble between two theories; one incendiarism, and the other smut (stinking smut of wheat, Tilletia tritici). It should be stated at the outset that such fires have occurred in the wheat belt previous to this year, though very much less numerous, there rarely occurring more than half a dozen to a dozen in the three northwestern states annu- ally. Heretofore such fires have usually been attributed to smut and commonly have been called “smut explosions.” Incendiarism. The frequency of the fires the present season has led many farmers to conclude that smut could not alone be re- sponsible as smut had been as prevalent other years as the one in question, and it was also found that these fires occurred in grain with 5 or 10% of smut as well as in grain with three or four times this amount of smut. This nat- urally led to the incendiarism theory. As a result of this several arrests were made of parties variously accused of setting fires or placing matches or explosives of various kinds in the unthreshed grain. In one case one of the accused party arrested confessed to having placed matches in the shocks. The individual in question was arraigned before the court of Latah County, Idaho, pled guilty and received sentence. After being sentenced, however, he stoutly repudi- ated his entire confession and claimed that he knew nothing 4 at all about the fires or their cause, stating that he only confessed because, being an Indian (he was a' half-breed), he “knew he would stand no show in the court,” and there- fore confessed to get a light sentence. As stated above com- petent detectives were employed to investigate this phase of the question and, Avhile the details of their work need not be here discussed, it can be very positively stated that no con- clusive evidence whatsoever, either through detectives or other sources, has been presented to bear out the theory of incendiarism. Methods Adopted for Combating or Preventing Fires. Several machine owners, acting upon the theory that the fires Avere caused by smut, tried to prevent the same by the introduction of live steam into the separator. The College generally favored this plan for a time and advised its adoption. It also constructed and attached to a number of machines an outfit for carrying steam from the engine to the separator and distributing it throughout the sepa- rator for this purpose. This method of combating the fires was adopted on the theory that the smut-air mixture could be made much less explosive by the addition of moist- ure, since Avhen steam condenses it always forms drops on any dust particles which may be near. This makes the steam act of its own account at the exact point Avhere it Avas needed. It Avas hoped that the moisture and steam Avould help in reducing the combustibility of the air-dust mixture and also, by increasing its powers of conduction, thus serving more easily to conduct off any static electricity Avhich might be the cause of the explosions. After considerable experimenting it was concluded that either live steam or exhaust steam would Avork equally Avell for this purpose, though as a matter of practice it Avas found that most engineers preferred to supply the live steam since' a smaller pipe line could be used, thus lessening the trouble in moving. The steam Avas usually conducted from the en- gine to the separator by a three-quarter inch pipe Avith flex- ible hose connections. A pipe Avas put into the separator parallel to the cylinder shaft, Avith a roAv of holes (about 8 in. apart and each 3-32 of an inch in diameter), so placed as to direct the steam into the grain just as it strikes the cylinder. To this arrangement was usually added a sprinkler system so arranged that by opening a valve at the sepa- rator and another at the boiler Avater from the boiler could be forced in a spray all through the separator very quickly. 5 The latter arrangement was to be used only in case of fire in the separator. The introduction of steam into the work- ing separator did not act as a certain preventive for fires since some fires occurred in separators in which this system was used. It also, of course, increased the amount of fuel necessary at the engine. The latter fact, however, was not of serious consequence since straw was used for fuel. It simply entailed more work on the part of the fireman. In a few other cases machine owners and farmers adopt- ed other precautions in order to lessen danger from fire, chiefly by arrangements for attaching the separator quickly to the engine by means of a long cable so that it could be quickly pulled away from the straw stack, or by keeping a certain number of chemical fire extinguishers, or a supply of water near the separator. In a great many cases, how- ever, none of the above precautions or any others were taken to prevent losses, the general attitude being that it was preferable to gamble on the chance of no fire. The attitude of machine owners in regard to this matter, how- ever, changed somewhat as the season progressed. Relative Humidity and Per Cent Moisture in Grain and Smut. For the sake of comparisons the July and August rec- ords for relative humidity as reported for the past five-year period by the Walla Walla and Spokane Observatories, have been incorporated. The U. S. observations were made at 5 A. M. and 5 P. M. TABLE I. Average Morning and Evening Per Cent of Moisture for July and August. Walla Walla Spokane July August July August 1909 A. M. 56.5 48.2 72.5 50.0 P. M. 25.5 16.8 33.6 18.4 1910 A. M. 44.8 48.1 51.3 56.5 P. M. 15.7 18.9 18.6 22.3 1911 A. M. 41.0 45.5 57.6 73.7 P. M. 15.5 20.3 21.3 31.9 1912 A. M. 54.6 58.0 74.3 74.5 P. M. 26.1 32.8 33.6 36.6 1913 A. M. 51.5 46.2 72.0 69.4 P. M. 20.5 23.8 25.7 28.2 1914 A. M. 48.5 42.3* 62.6 54.1 P. M. 20.7 16.7* 21.9 17.1 Lowest P. M. Av. 15.5 16.7 18.6 17.1 Lowest P. M. average for Pullman the present season was: July 18.8 August 15.0. *11 days. 6 The average relative humidities observed at 5 P. M. at both Walla Walla and Spokane for August of this year are the lowest of any recorded for the past six years at the respective places. It is reasonable to believe that the local relative humidity is as low, if not lower, than that for pre- ceding years. Without rain and with the per cent of atmospheric moisture exceptionally low, there has been a tendency to rapidly reduce the per cent of moisture in the grain and particularly in wheat, as will be seen from the following data : TABLE II. Per Cent Moisture in 1914 Grain. Place Geo. Miller’s H. H. Curtis’ W. L. Morris’ S. S. Sugart’s Ella Strupler’s Geo. Miller’s (straw) Per Cent Moisture 2.30 3.73 4.66 5.41 1.80 3.75 Average (grain) 3.58 The amount of moisture found in the wheat this year is the lowest that is on record for this department. To the writers’ knowledge it is the lowest on record anywhere. The lowest previously noted was 6.17%. The average moisture content for six years was 9.98%. Several samples of smut balls were also analyzed for their moisture content, with the following results : TABLE III. Per Cent Moisture in Smut Balls. Owner of Machine S. Palmatier E. E. Snyder W. W. Kobertson . Ella Simpler Per Cent Moisture 3.60 4.80 5.00 7.49 Average 5.22 Pure smut 4.48 The amount of moisture found in samples of smut was somewhat higher than was observed in case of the samples of wheat. With the exception of the sample containing 7.49% water, these results are low in moisture content. The unusually dry season with a relatively low per cent of moisture in the atmosphere, together with an abnor- mally low per cent of moisture in the grain and smut have 7 been favorable for both conflagration and machine explo- sions. Flash Tests of Oils and Greases. It is not uncommon to find men who believe that the cause for separator fires or explosions are due to the oils used as lubricants. Poor grades of oil and hot boxes might be a possibility, but definite information that hot boxes pre- ceded a fire or explosion are wanting. On the other hand, it is easy to determine whether or not the lubricants that are used are safe by determining the flashing points. This had been done and the temperature at which the oils flashed have been recorded and are approximately correct for this elevation. TABLE IV. Flashing Points of Oils and Greases. Where Taken Type of Oil Flashing Point (Fahrenheit) t Pullman *Castor 284° < ( Cylinder above 518 1 1 374 i ( 311 Strevy ’s Morris ’ Machine 473 Grease 356 Strevy ’s Grease 347 Pullman 437 ( ( Grease 410 ( ( B. Valve 401 Torpy’s 374 Pullman 609 Torpy’s 374 As will be seen from the date recorded in Table IV, the lowest flashing point was obtained in case of a machine castor oil (284° P.). This was evidently a light grade ma- chine castor oil. A medium grade machine castor oil flashed at 311° F. The highest temperature (609° F.) at which an oil flashed was in case of a cylinder oil obtained in one of the stores in Pullman. The samples of oil which were used on separators had high flashing points and were satisfac- tory for use on separators. All of the oils under test had sufficiently high flashing points and cannot therefore be associated even as a possibility with the fires which originated in the separators. Machine Castor’’ — An oil compounded of castor oil and petro- leum oils. tMany of these oils were collected from machine owners and in a number of instances it was not possible to ascertain make of oil, except that they were purchased in Pullman. 8 Influence of Steam on Appearance and Quality of Grain. Early in the threshing season at the suggestion of the College a number of machines were equipped with steam sprayers. It was claimed by some that steamed grain was difficult to clean; that it was ruined for milling purposes, and that it had lost its vitality. The following results bear upon this: TABLE V. Per Cent Moisture in Shocked and Threshed Grain Compared. Per Cent Owner of Separator Shocked McAlpine Bros 2.30 A. D. Carnegie 3.73 W. L. Morris 4.66 S. S. Suggart 5.41 Moisture Threshed 6.60 4.12 5.12* 5.78 The methods of sampling that had to be followed were not scientifically correct and can only be considered, there- fore, approximately correct. The fact that the grain coming out of the separators without exception contained more water than was found to be present in the samples taken from the shocks indicates that the steam and water in- jected into the separator was partly absorbed by the grain. The increased amount of moisture which the grain absorbed was even under this condition below the average water con- tent of wheat observed in preceding years. In the following table the results for per cent yield of flour, bran and shorts, wet and dry gluten are recorded. TABLE VI. Milling and Gluten Content of Shocked Grain as Compared with Steamed Grain. From Shock From Separator Per cent flour 72.6 74.4 “ bran and shorts 27.4 26.8 “ “ wet gluten 22.7 24.1 “ “ dry gluten 8.1 8.4 Eliminating a questionable point, it cannot be said that the grain had in any way been damaged by steam so far as the milling qualities are concerned. Samples of steamed wheat tested from 95 to 98% germ- ination and were, therefore, not noticeably affected by the steam injected into the separators. Water poured on material entering separator. 9 In past years it has rarely been the case that the number of cracked kerne] s exceeded one-half per cent, but this year it has been found that from 7.0 to over 20.0 per cent of the wheat has been cracked. This cracking of kernels may have been due to several causes : first, the dry and brittle condi- tion of the wheat; second, the cylinder teeth in some cases may have run too close to the concave teeth ; third, the speed of the cylinders may have been too high. SMUT. Naturally the smut came in for a considerable amount of investigation and in the chemical laboratories of the Ex- periment Station investigations were conducted with refer- ence to the composition and combustibility of smut. Composition of Smut. Besides the moisture content, fat, ash, crude fiber, vola- tile matter, fixed carbon and nitrogen were determined in pure smut with the following results: TABLE VII. Composition of Smut. Moisture 4.48% Fat 0.89- 1.06% Fat after thorough grinding with quartz 4.20% Nitrogen 2.87% Crude fiber 64.75% Ash 3.66% Nitrogen free extract 18.81-18.98% There was but 0.24 per cent alcohol soluble nitrogen and no gluten present, indicating that there was very little foreign material other than smut analyzed. The use of the microscope also showed the specimens to be comprised of smut grains, all of which were intact. That the composition of smut is not very different from other known inflammable and explosive organic materials can be seen from the data on the composition of such ma- terials taken from Bulletin No. 50, Bureau of Mines, United States Department of Interior, compared with the results obtained for pure smut. TABLE VIII. Volatile and Fixed Carbon in Various Substances. Lyeo- Smut Flour Oak Dust Starch podium Per cent moisture 4.48 11.09 3.22 14.58 2.04 < < 1 i volatile matter 76.67 63.58 77.05 70.21 87.39 i ( ( ( fixed carbon 12.18 24.90 16.56 14.87 8.98 i i ( ( ash 3.66 0.43 3.17 0.34 1.59 10 According to the analyses recorded in Table VIII one would expect to find that smut is as explosive as any of the other substances which have been analyzed, the explosi- bility of which is determined. Experiments on the Inflammability or Explosibility of Pure Smut. In this investigation an open cylinder was used. Within ^ the cylinder a small gas flame was adjusted so that it would 1 ignite the smut when forced through the cylinder. For the j latter arrangement a funnel to hold the smut and an air • bellows to blow the smut through the cylinder was used. The inflammability of the smut was compared with flour and starch and in one instance approximately 1-2 gram or 1-50 of an ounce of smut formed a conical flame six inches at bottom, two feet at top and approximately five feet high. In most of the experiments the height varied from two to : three feet. The inflammability of smut was in all cases ; very great and exceeded that of any other organic dust. ’ Under ordinary conditions where smut has gathered in large quantities the smut is not easily inflammable, neither is flour. Under other conditions when the smut is well dis- tributed or caused to float it ignites very readily and in these cases there must always be a good supply of air. With a large supply of air surrounding the particles of smut there is always danger of conflagration or explosion. The source of the ignition of smut in separators has not been definitely proven. There are several theories ad- vanced. One is the striking of the teeth of the cylinder with the teeth on the concaves, or other metallic or hard substance capable of giving off sparks. Another is the dis- charge of static electricity and the third has been attributed to incendiary causes. The first of these is untenable, as it has been proven that such sparks are not hot enough to ignite air gas mixtures, and no conclusive evidence has yet been adduced in support of the theory of in- cendiarism. In our experiments it has been impossible to ignite the smut with a piece of glowing charcoal. It appears that a flame or electric spark is necessary for the ignition. Investigations upon the possibility of ignition of air- smut mixture from electric sparks were conducted with the above mentioned apparatus. Substituting an electric spark for the flame in question it was found that a spark of static electricity very readily ignited the smut-air mixture pro- 11 ducing the same type of explosion as with the flame. This was possible even though the electric spark was rather small. Therefore, the elimination of the static electric sparks, which seem to be always present in the cylinder, would remove one possible source of the trouble. A number of machines have been grounded by wires leading from the cylinder boxes, etc., to the ground, but an examination shows that this does not stop the sparks which jump from the cylinder teeth to the concave. The reason for this seems to be that the cylinder shaft is always well lubricated and the oil acts to insulate the shaft from the box. It is necessary, therefore, to make a dry brush contact with the shaft itself to get rid of the sparks. A wire from this brush to the main castings which support the concaves and to the other metal parts of the machine will reduce the sparking to a minimum, A connection with the ground can be made by means of an iron peg driven into the ground, for if the metal parts inside the machine are connected to- gether a good ground is not need. The wire used may be made as small as is convenient to use as the amount of current to be carried is very small. The sparks appear not because there is any large amount of electricity generated, but because the parts are so well insulated that the path through the air is the easiest one. Ordinary strand- ed lamp cord is recommended for the wiring because it is strong and flexible. It may be stapled to the wooden frame of the separator in any convenient way and can be so installed that it will not cause delay or trouble of any kind. A wooden block can be fitted to the frame in such a way as to carry a brush made up of several wires so placed as to rub on the cylinder shaft. This should be so made that it will not be knocked off by the belts and so that it can be easily kept clean and free from grease. A little clean oil will not insulate a brush of this sort, but on ac- count of the dust the best results will be had by keeping the brush clean- and dry. The experiment has been enlarged upon by studying the possibilities of igniting smut carrying different per cents of moisture ; also the ignition of smut forced through an atmos- phere moistened with steam. In these experiments it has been found that smut is subject to ignition or explosion when it contains large quan- tities of water. Smut containing as much as 35 per cent of its weight in water will ignite and be consumed quite 12 rapidly, but in no case has the consumption been as rapid as in less moist samples. Between 40 to 45 per cent of moisture renders the smut unfit for combustion. This is largely due to the surface tension of the water in hold- ing the spores together 'in large numbers. With a more powerful force than that which has been used in our ex- periments it is possible to overcome the surface tension and cause the material to ignite. This would mean that under such conditions the smut would have to carry con- siderably more water than 45 per cent to be non-com- bustible. This condition never exists naturally. The mix- ing of steam with the air-smut mixture also failed to prevent, or materially reduce its explosibility. From experiments conducted, it appears that steam may be considered as a partial preventive, but not a cure for this trouble. In the laboratory the smut has been subjected to de* composition and products are present in the distillates which are very inflammable. Some of the distilled product can be ignited at room temperature. Other portions ignite approx- imately at 158 degrees F., 212 degrees F., 230 degrees F., and 320 degrees F. These products may be very similar if not identical to those obtained in the process of distill- ing wood or crude petroleum, and in such cases could be readily identified. On the other hand if they are entirely new substances the identification would not be as easy. To a certain extent we would 'expect to find some ether and alcohol in most plant materials and in this case there is some indication that this is so from the ignitions obtained at temperatures corresponding to the ignition of ether and alcohol. In an effort to determine the ignition point of smut it has been observed that the material begins to decompose at a recorded temperature of 40 degrees C. At 55 degrees C. the volatile materials pass off very rapidly. Most of the material, however, does not pass over until very high tem- peratures are reached. This report has been considered from the smut point of view, but inasmuch as other materials such as starch, flour, or other organic dust are also subject to similar dan- gers, it should not be construed that all of the fires or ex- plosions that took place during the past season were due entirely to smut. On the contrary, the speed of the cylin- ders not only cracked wheat but reduced a part of the wheat 13 and straw into a powdered dust, a combination of which, or any one of them properly mixed with air could easily ac- count for the disasters. Field Investigations. In order to obtain first-hand information in regard to the fires, one or more of the writers, with an automobile, in- vestigated, in person, 60 fires, obtaining information in de- tail on 31 of these and partial information on the remaining 29. The following blank was filled out on the ground by the person making the investigations: Name of machine owner Address Name of grain owner Address Location of explosion or fire Date of explosion or fire , Time of day of explosion or fire...'. Nature of explosion or fire Where started DAMAGE : Machine Accessories Straw Grain Field Men Stock Others Time lost Total loss $ Insurance carried Bound, headed or combined grain Opinion as to cause of fire or explosion Facts supporting opinions Oil used Make of separator .; Speed of cylinders Frequency of hot boxes Power used Percentage of smut in wheat (actual count — not estimated) Variety of wheat being threshed Estimated or actual yield Methods used for prevention or for combating fire or explosion If a device was used for prevention or combating — effect of same on quality and quantity of wheat threshed Cost of device Eemarks on back of sheet. The results of the 31 fires in question have been care- fully digested and tabulated. The remaining 29, while more 14 or less incomplete, tend to confirm the information obtained from the 31 in question. The following tables have been compiled from this investigation: Approximate Location of Explosions or Fires* Oakesdale 7 Elberton 1 Farmington 2 Steptoe 1 St. John 4 Diamond 1 Garfield 2 Werner 1 Palouse 5 Albion 1 Colfax 2 Pullman .*. 2 Sunset 1 Fallons 1 “H" Dates of Explosions or Fires. July 25 1 28 3 29 2 31 2 Aug. 3 6 4 2 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 2 10 5 12 2 13 1 14 1 15 1 31 Time of Day Fires Occurred. A. M.— 5 to 6 2 6 to 7 2 7 to 8 4 8 to 9 3 9 to 10 2 10 to 11 4 11 to 12 1 P. M.— 2 to 3 4 3 to 4 2 4 to 5 2 5 to 6 : 3 6 to 7 1 8 to 9 1 31 *Data in these tables refers only from the thirty-one fires fully in- vestigated, and not to all fires occurring during the season. 15 Place Where Fires Started. At cylinder 12 Well inside separator 4 Behind or very near cylinder 11 Over fan 1 All over 3 31 Damage to Machine. Entire loss 18 Partial loss 7 Slight damage 2 No damage 4 31 In four of the 31 cases investigated there was little or no loss to the machines from fire. Of the remaining 27 the loss varied from $20 to $1500, the total loss on the 27 being $20,620. Make of Separator. Rumley 8 Aultman & Taylor 4 Nichols & Sheperd 1 Red River Special 2 Pride of Washington 3 Peerless 2 J. I. Case 6 Buffalo Pitts 1 Advance 4 31 Speed of Cylinder 600 revolutions 1 650 “ 1 750 “ 1 800 4 850 “ 4 900 3 950 '' 3 1000 “ 5 1050 “ 2 1100 “ 5 1300 '' 1 Not given 1 31 Power Used. steam 27 Gasoline 4 31 16 Percentage of Smut in Grain Being Threshed. No smut 1 Less than 1 % 6 1 to 5% 1 5 to 10% 2 10 to 20% 5 20 to 30% 10 30 to 40% 2 40 to 50% 1 Not given 3 31 Variety of Wheat Being Threshed. Amber 2 White Amber 4 Fortyfold 7 Eed Eussian 14 Hybrid 143 1 White Hybrid 1 Hybrid 128 1 Scotch Fife 1 31 Devices for Combating Fires. Water available in kegs, buckets, hose, etc 6 Steam forced into cylinders 3* Fan installed to remove smut It Shovels 1 Fire extinguishers 1 Pipes running full length of machine connected with engine for forcing water into separator in emergency 1 No device 18 31 It will be seen from the above tabulations that the fires are more or less generally distributed over the Palouse coun- try ; that is, there is no evidence that they are more abundant in one locality than another. The same is true with reference to the date and time of day. With reference to the particular portion of the machine where fire started, the evidence is inconclusive, as became apparent from questioning the machine owners. The fires in- variably spread so rapidly or were so nearly of an explosive character that it was very difficult, indeed, for anyone under *The devices for forcing steam into the cylinders were put in at a cost of $20, $30 and $50 respectively. +The fan was installed at a cost of $15. 17 the excitement of the occasion to determine definitely the point of origin. The fact that so large a number of the machines were entirely lost as a result of the fire is often a sad commentary on the carelessness of machine owners. It is doubtful whether any significance can be attached to the make of the separator. With reference to the speed of the cylinder it is apparent in a number of cases that ma- chines have run at much higher speed than is necessary. This high speed, of course, will contribute to increased elec- trical discharge, also increased dust from damaged grain. With reference to the amount of smut in grain being threshed, it is quite evident that the quantity of smut during the season in question is very much above the normal. No particular significance can be attached to the variety of wheat being threshed, unless perhaps it is the fact that Red Russian smuts worse than some of the other wheats. That this is true has been found by previous investigations (Popular Bulletin No. 73, Washington Agricultural Experi- ment Station). Lack of devices for combating the fires in a large number of cases is evidently responsible for a considerable amount of loss. In twenty-four of these thirty-one explosions, the fires spread to the straw stacks and destroyed them. In the fires that were investigated two horses were burned somewhat. In six out of the 31 the fires spread to standing grain and did more or less damage. In these 31 fires investigated seven men were slightly and one severely burned. In 10 cases out of the 31 the fire damaged the threshed grain more or less, the loss totaling 1163 sacks. In most cases more or less damage was done to tools and accessories, belts and other materials near the separator. Of the 31 fires in question, complete information was obtained in regard to the time lost for 24 of them. This varied from a few hours in the case of 4 fires to a total of 10 days in the case of one. The average time lost was from 1 to 4 days. The total number of days lost for these 24 fires was 92, or a total loss in labor of between $7500 and $8000. Of the 31 outfits in question, two carried no insurance, information was not available for three and 26 carried in- surance. In some cases this insurance was adjusted in full, 18 in some cases for half and in some cases has not been adjust- ed at all. Twenty-eight of these fires occurred while threshing bound grain, two while, threshing headed grain which had been stacked for a little time, and one while threshing headed grain direct from the header. Two fires were re- ported to have occurred in combines, tho these Avere not investigated. Various opinions Avere held by the machine OAvners in regard to the cause of the fires, as follows: Incendiarism 16 Smut 6 Oil 2 Dry weather 1 No opinion 6 '31 It might be added also that early in the season it Avas the opinion of several machine OAvners AA^ho were . threshing Avith gasoline power, that the fires were caused by sparks from engines. However, this theory Avas dispelled later on by a number of fires occurring in outfits using gasoline. While it was not possible to make an investigation of all or even of the majority of the fires occurring the past season, the Avriters are satisfied that the 31 fires reported upon in detail and the others investigated in part are repre- sentative of the fires occurring throughout the season — that is, no ncAv features have come to the attention of the inves- tigators in regard to any of these fires that do not appear in the 31 reported in detail. SUMMARY OF INVESTIGATIONS AS TO CAUSE. Summarizing the findings of the investigations thus far, it is quite evident that, within the district mentioned at the beginning of the report, there is no significant geo- graphical distribution of the fires, nor is there any signifi- cant distribution with reference to time of day at Avhich they occurred. The season in question has been an unusually dry one. Not only has the humidity been Ioav throughout the summer but the moisture content of the soil Avas considerably beloAV normal, OAving to a shortage of 3 or 4 inches of rainfall during the previous Avinter and spring. These conditions contributed to an unusually low moisture content in the grain and straw, thus increasing its combustibility and mak- ing it more easily broken up by the threshing machinery. 19 The same dry condition also contributed to an increase in the normal amount of static electricity developed by the cylinder and other portions of the machinery. Smut is found to be exceedingly inflammable owing to the fact that the individual spores are very small and con- tain about 4 or 5% of oil Tt is also found that the amount of smut in wheat during the season in question was considerably al)ove that of pre- vious years. It thus becomes reasonably certain that the fires, so- called explosions, were caused by a com])iuation of condi- tions ; namely, exceedingly dry season, unusually large amount of smut, increased amount of organic dust from ])roken grain and straw, increased coml)ustibility of l)oth smut and dust, increased amount of static electricity. (It must be borne in miud that similar fires and explo- sions have occurred in previous years, though in very much, smaller numbers.) No conclusive evidence was found of incendiarism or of fires caused by lubricating oils or by hot boxes. General carelessness in regard to ordinaiy precautions foi* preventing and extinguishing fires was, of course, re- sponsible for greatly increased losses. FIRE RETARDERS. There is no known chemical substance familiar to the writers that can be applied as a satisfactoiy fire-proofing for wood. Even a lining of tin or iron will not protect wood against fire. Asl)estos lining is better than ii*on in many places but has the disadvantage over the ii*on in offering a poor wearing surface. Wood and peat that have been subjected to high j^ressure are very T*esista,nt and this foi'in of wood is perhaps superior to any Avood treated chemically. We must, therefore regard such substances that are used as fire retarders, and not proof against fii*e. In a series of investigations with chemicals generally recommended to protect Avood from fire it has been found that applications of strong solutions of common lye are as efficient as any of the ‘‘fire-proof paints.” The next best material is one composed of casein, sodium silicate and cement. The treatment, hoAvever, has no particular advan- tage over untreated A\M)od unless it is possible to control the fu'os immediately following the blaze. 20 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS. Fire extinguishers are of two types, the liquid and the powdei*. Of the liipiid forms perhaps the sodium bicarlxm- ate (baking soda), water and sulfuric acid combination is th(^ most extensi\(‘ly used. Sodium bicarbonate is also us(‘d in the dry foi'iii for the sanu' purpose. Other di‘y powd(‘rs us(‘d as (‘xtinguishers are combinations of sulfate and chlo- ride salts of soda or ammonia or with sodium bicarbonate' in combination. Fi'om a compai'ative point of view it appears that the lieiuid form is to be pre'feu-re'd ov('-r the dry powder. In our (‘xjx'rinu'nts on this phase' eif the subject the sexlium bicar- be)imte^ ])e)wele'r has neit preive'ii te) be very satisfacteiry. The me)st eflicie'nt mate'i'ial tliat we have worked with is ammeinia eliluted with water. Dilutienis eif one to three parts eif streing ammeiiiia wate'r te) ten parts of water have been very e'fficient. Anime)nia appe'ars te) sme)ther the tire and its main value e)ve'r that of water is unde)ubteelly due to this jK^culiar fact. If tire e'xtinguishe'rs are te) be used it aiipears advisable' that be)ttles e)f stre)ng ammeinia water be kept in convenie'iit jilaces abe)ut the' separate)i*s. REMEDIES SUGGESTED. While the results e)btaineel are meire e)r less tentative, it ^ is evieh'iit that there' can be' ne) single cure e)r jire've'iitative for a elifticulty e>f this kinel. It ge)e's withe)ut saying that e)i'dina,i‘y precautieins she)idd be take'ii against tire, regai'elless e)f its cause. Especially is this true in cases like threshing : e)uttits vvhei'c the elange'r is se) great be)t,h e)n a.cce)i’nt e)f the' ' ve'i*y ce)nd)ustible mate'i'ial aiiel alse) the' fui'the'r fact that a : setting is usually se)me ce)nsiele'rable elistance from a watei' , sujiply. j Fire can also be' gre'atly retarded by the use of so-called fii'e'])i'e)e)f jiainls aiul caustic ])e)tash, as state'el earlie'r in this I)ublicat ie)n. Anything that will re‘tai*el the^ tire toi* a few t))e)me'nts e)i' eve'ii a lew se'ce)nels until it can be ce)ntre)lleel is e)f ail aelvantage. With refe'i-ence te) tire extinguishei's, it is eviele'iit that te)0 gi-e'at re'liance' canne)t be' ]ilace'el ui)e)n the'in, the)Ugh the'y are e)f se)me aelvantage' anel will, like' the' tire'])i‘e)of paint, aie in i*('tai‘eling a sueleh'n tire'. It is he)pe'el alse) that the manu factui'ing ce)m])anie'S may se'e' tit te) give se)me' atte'ntie)n te)l the' ce)nstruct,ie)n e)f tii‘e‘])re)e)f se'})ai‘ate)rs. This is be'ing take'iii U]) with the ce)m])anie's by the’ State College. 21 The following* reconiinendations are vei*y strongly urged to the attention of the machine owners and fai*mers : Fii'st, that the cylinder of the sc'parator he gi*ounded l)y means of an electric brush connected to the ground l)y wire. This connection should l)e made by an ii*on peg driven a foot or two into the gi*oiind. It will serv(‘ to conduct off at least a large portion of the electricity generated and is an inexpensive precaution. Second, that (weiy machine he ])rovid('d with a system of wat(‘r sprinlvlers. A thr('('-(|nart(‘r inch gas pi[)e with Ilexihle hose coniu'ctions I'unning from tin' l)oih'r to tlie S(‘pai*at(‘d should l)e conmmted to a gas pip(‘ I'lmning across th(‘ intc'rior* of tin' s(‘])ai'atoi*, aud from tliis pipe two or thi-ee l)ranches should extend the entire' hmgth of tlu' s('pai‘ator. In th(\s(‘ ])ip('S should Ix' drilhxl at int(U'v;ds of six or eight inclu's, hoh's 2-82 to 2-32 of nn inch in diametei', thus mahing an ('ffectivc' sprinkling systtmi. The pipes should h(‘ so adjust(‘d iu the niachim' that wlum the water is tui'iic'd into them tlu' (mtir(' ('interioi* of the machine Avill Ix' filhxl with a si)ray of wat(u-. Tlx^ whole outfit can h(‘- avrang(xl tluit th(‘ o])('ning of a valv(' at tlu' ('ugiiK' Avill flood th(' s('i)arator insidi' t(vn oi* fiftcxm st'conds. The expense of such a device would not exceed -f20 or $30. Third, that a (luantity of Avatcu* in hai'rels or otlu'r re- C(']:)tach‘s he placed near or u])on the S(‘parator and buckets, used for no other purpose, he provided for distributing this water in case of fire. A supply of shovels could with ad- vantage be kept on hand, enabling the creAv to fight the fire with dirt. Fourth, that a couple of furrows be plowed around the setting before the threshing is commenced in order to pre- vent the spreading of fire from the straw pile and machine to adjacent fields or other property. Fifth, that in all cases the separator be connected with the engine by means of a strong cable enabling it to be pulled aAvay from the straw pile upon the outbreak of fire. The separator should be kept running until the straw is out. One difficulty in connection with this, however, is the usual presence of a pile of straw for fuel directly in the rear of the engine. It is suggested that this straw for fuel could be kept in a light wagon constructed for this purpose in- stead of upon the ground. Said wagon could then be easily moved from behind the engine, This will, of course, neces- 22 sitatc the use of two instead of one wa^on for conveyance of straAv from the straw pile to the engine. Sixth, that the members of the crew be given definite directions as to just Avhat to do in case of fire; i. e., an organized system of fii*e fighting should be arranged for. This will tend to prevent individual members of the crew from losing their heads under the excitement of a fire and avoid duplication of effort. In other words, it is believed that if a number of pre- cautions against fire, such as are ordinarily adopted, be used that a great deal of loss from this source will be avoided. Since smut is undoubtedly one of the primary causes of the fires, it becomes especially important that systems of ngi'icidture be adopted which will tend to eliminate smut so far as possible, in the wheat crop. The greatest care •should be exercised in regard to seed treatment, suggestions in regal'd to which can be obtained from Popular Bulletin No. 78 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. The amount of smut in grain can also be greatly di- minished by. the abandonment of the agricultural practice of growing but one crop, namely wheat, on a farm. With a pro])er system of crop rotation and diversification the amount of smut in wheat will be greatly diminished. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIRECTOR’S OFFICE Twenty-fourth Annual Report For the Year Ending June 30, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 118 November, 1914 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. *The Twenty-thir4 Annual Report was not published. BOARD OF CONTROL James C. Cunningham, President Spokane R. C. McCroskey, Vice President Garfield E. A. Bryan (President of the College), Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman D. S. Troy Chimacum EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph.D Elton Fulmer, M. A O. L. Waller, Ph.M A. L. Melander, Sc.D O. M. Morris, B. S Geo. Severance, B. S C. C. Thom, M. S A, B. Nystrom, M. S Geo. A. Olson, B. S. A., M. S. W. T. Shaw, B. Agr., M. S E. G. Schafer, M. S Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph.D C. A. Magoon, M. A J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S M. A. Yothers, B. S Henry F. Holtz, B. S E. F. Gaines, M. S C. F. Monroe, B. S. A C. B. Sprague, B. S D. C. George, B. S H. M. Woolman R. L. Buchanan, B. S F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist ...^...Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Assistant Bacteriologist Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant in Farm Crops Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Pullman, Wash., Nov. 14, 1914. Honorable Ernest Lister, Governor, Olympia, Washington. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the Twenty-fourth Annual Report of the State Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion covering the work of this Station for the year ending June 30, 1914. IRA D. CARDIFF, Director. Pig. I. New James Wilson Hall of Agriculture (Ready for occupancy in Septem- ber). A portion of the Experiment Station work will be housed in this building. Twenty-fourtK Annual Report, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station CHANGES IN STAFF With the beginning of the fiscal year 1913-14, Ira D. Cardiff, Head of the Department of Botany of the College and Plant Physiologist of the Experiment Station, entered upon the duties of Director of the Station. Several other changes and additions to the staff of the Station follows : George Severance, Superintendent of the Western Washing- ton Station at Puyallup, was appointed Agriculturist. E. G. Schafer, Assistant Agronomist in the Kansas Experiment Station, was made Agronomist in the place of Paul White, who resigned to accept a position in a private institution of Southern California. R. L. Buchanan, an Assistant in Farm Crops of the Michigan Experiment Station, was appointed Assistant in Farm Crops in the Washington Station. C. K. McWilliams of the University of California was appointed Assistant Chemist in the position made vacant by the resig- nation of W. L. Hadlock. The resignation of Alex Carlyle, Cerealist of the Station, to accept a position in the Univer- sity of Minnesota, was filled by the appointment of E. F. Gaines as Acting Cerealist. C. A. Magoon, Assistant Director of the Boston Biochemical Laboratories, was appointed Assist- ant Bacteriologist of the Experiment Station. R. C. Ashby, Animal Husbandman, resigned just previous to the close of the fiscal year to accept a position in the University of Min- nesota. CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION For the purpose of facilitating administrative work and to affect a more logical organization of the Station, two changes in organization were made early in the year. The Divisions of Animal Husbandry, Crop Production, Dairying and Soil Physics were placed under one adminis- trative head, who is directly responsible to the Director in matters concerning organization and finance. The Division of Plant Pathology was abolished and in its stead was organized a Division of Botany, with a Botanist 6 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION as Head, and a Plant Pathologist, two Assistant Plant Path- ologists. and an Assistant Bacteriologist on the staff of this Division. INVESTIGATIONAL WORK ^ For convenience, the administration of the investigational work of the Station is conducted in ten different divisions. DIVISION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Owing to changes in the station staff several projects in Animal Husbandry were suspended during the year. One project on testing of forage crops for pork production was carried through the year. Different lots of hogs were fed upon rations of oat and pea forage, combined with grain, tankage, and milk in various proportions and combinations. The results of the experiment seem to indicate that after paying $30 per ton for grain and 25c per cwt. for milk consumed, the net gain from the forage crops varied from $28.80 per acre to $46.41 per acre, depending somewhat upon the character of the concentrated feeds used with the forage crops. The investigation indicates that the greater the grain ration fed to pigs on oat and pea forage, the great'er return for the forage up -to a three per cent grain ration. The feeding of grain ration in dry lot was distinctly unprofitable. DIVISION OF BOTANY Work in the Division of Botany was conducted on five projects during the year. In addition, a considerable amount of miscellaneous investigation has been carried on in con- nection with diseases reported from various portions of the state. Among the diseases reported and upon which more or less investigation has been -conducted and assistance ren- dered to farmers during the year are the following: Alfalfa: Downy Mildew, Root Rot due to Sclerotinia. Apple: Anthracnose, Baldwin Spot Fire Blight Crown Gall, Mildew, Root Rot caused by Armillaria Mellea, Rosette, Scab. ■ , Apricot: California Peach Blight. Barley : Smut. Blackberry : Rust. Cherry: Brown Rot, Gummosis. Currant : Blight. Gooseberry : Mildew. Grape : Crown Gall. Onion: Bacterial Rot. O o D 'r:! ^ ^ OJ cc C - III ^ Is ^ -^cc ;h M . o €«- O (P . fl

•' <3; , • ’C ^ 2 a ^ CC Sh €«• 02 »CO o 5 CC 4J rt CO n ^ 02 02 9 ^ o S •n *:= "tj cO C SCO ” ft ^ ■£ ■2^!“ H_> fi c 02 02 O !-i M Q. 02 CJ g.i>M 02 aae- o after year. 8 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Peach: California Peach Blight, Peach Leaf Curl, Pow- dery Mildew. Pear: Fire Blight, Crown Gall, Mildew. Quince: Fire Blight, Crown Gall. Potato: Black Leg, Dry Rot, Early Blight, Late Blight, Rosette, Scab. Prune : Crown Gall. Raspberry: Bluestem. Rose: Blackspot, Mildew. Tomato: Yellow or Western Blight. In addition to these, a very large number of inquiries and specimens have been received concerning injuries caused by winter killing. A considerable amount of work has also been done in the accumulation and systematic arrangement of a large number of disease-producing fungi found in the state, so that there is now on hand a very good working herbarium of the major portion of the fungous pests of Washington. Tomato Blight. This is a project upon which considerable work has been done by this station. The results of a portion of the investi- gations have been published during the current year in General Bulletin No. 115. These results are largely of scientific interest, dealing primarily with the causative or- ganism which is found to be two species of Fusarium. The results of the investigations indicate that a species of Rhi- zoctonia is also involved in the disease, and investigations are being continued upon this phase of the problem. A lim- ited amount of data has also been accumulated with refer- ence to the control of the disease, and work along this line is being prosecuted; also investigations are being made with reference to the resistance of varieties and the production by breeding of resistant varieties. A popular bulletin deal- ing with the phases of the problem of general interest will very shortly be published. Gooseberry Mildew. An experiment dealing with the best methods of spray- ing for gooseberry mildew has been carried on. Results will shortly be published. Smut. This is one of the oldest and most important projects of the Experiment Station. The fact that this fungus causes the loss of millions of dollars annually in one of the leading wheat-producing states, makes it an economic problem of TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 9 great importance. Work is being conducted upon this prob- lem in several different lines : First, in the field of seed treatment, a considerable amount of experimentation has been conducted within the year, throwing much light upon the question. On the whole, a treatment of seed for 10 minutes Avith a solution of 1 lb. of copper sulphate plus 1 lb. of sodium chloride to 5 gallons of Avater has proved the most feasible form of treatment. Information was obtained in regard to the injury of seed due to treatment. Investigations led to the discovery that a very large percentage of the Avheat seed is so injured by threshing that treatment for smut re- sults in destroying the Autality of the seed. In fact, it has been found that ordinary commercial threshing )ne- chanically destroys the vitality of approximately 30 per cent of the seed. Second, the problem has been attacked from the standpoint of soil sanitation, or so handling the soil as to destroy the smut, Avhich is retained therein from year to year. It has been conclusively established that approximately half the smut infection results from smut carried over in the soil rather than that upon the seed. Third, the problem has been attacked from the standpoint of breeding and selec- tion. Efforts ai*e ])eing made to breed resistant varieties of AA^heat. Variety tests of AA'heat Avith reference to their susceptibility to infection indicates that there is Avide varia- tion among the different Avheat varieties. Of all those tested in these experiments, Hybrid 143 has proven most resistant. Fourth, a study is being made of the life history of the fungus itself, especially as to the mechanics of infection and the behavior of the fungus during the groAving period of the AA^heat. Many of the results thus far obtained in the aforementioned lines of Avork have been published in Popu- lar Bulletin No. 73. During the past summer, a neAV phase of the smut prob- lem forced itself upon the Station. With the opening of the threshing season, there occurred numerous fires and explo- sions in threshing separators, some three hundred of them in all having been reported. The Station at once detailed a force of a half dozen members of its staff to Avork upon this problem, Avith the results that it Avas found that the fires AA^ere largely due to smut combined Avith an unusually dry season. The report of this Avork has been published in Gen- eral Bulletin No. 117. Physiological Effect of Sprays. This is a project dealing Avith the effect of various spray materials, which are in commercial use, upon the 10 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION physiology of different varieties of economic plants. The work is conducted with some thirty different kinds of spray materials and thus far upon tomatoes, potatoes, prunes, and apples both under field and laboratory conditions. Soil Physiology. This project deals with the physiological effect of micro- organisms on soils under different methods of tillage and cropping, and a systematic study of the organisms inhabiting these soils. During a portion of the year the Division of Botany co- operated v/ith the Dairy Division in the study of organisms involved in the abnormal fermentations of milk. DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY In addition to seven regular projects, the Chemistry Di- vision has carried on a great deal of wmrk in assistance to other divisions of the station, especially by way of analyses. It has also made, during the year, a large number of analyses of soils, foods, fertilizers, and other materials for citizens of the state. The research work of this division is conducted in the following projects : The Function of Sulphur as Plant Food. The work involved under this project has been along several lines and may he summarized as follows : Comparative quantitative determinations of total sul- phur in plant residues, both by the sodium peroxide method and bomb explosion method ; analyses for surphur content of plant residues, soils, water, and chemicals; analyses of wheat with the object of differentiating between organic and inorganic sulphur and a study of the importance of sulphur as a plant food material. The Progressive Development of the Wheat Kernel. The aim of this project is to determine by cytological methods the development of the grain from its youngest stage to maturity, and attempt to determine at what time the starch and proteins are laid down and in what order, and to ascertain, if loossible, the importance of such changes as occur in the formation of gluten. The work of the past year has been largely of a chem- ical nature, having to do with the determinations of the chemical changes taking place at various stages in the de- velopment of the wheat. The relation of the accumulation and deposition of foods to the moisture content and tern- TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 11 perature has ' been studied. Efforts have been made to iso- late the enzymes involved in the deposition of gluten ; also the relation of phosphorus and sulphur to the metabolic pro- cesses involved. Owing to changes in the staff, the cyto- logical phase of the work was temporarily suspended during the year, but is being resumed during the present year when it is hoped to bring the project to a definite conclusion and publish the results. Baking Qualities of Flour. Additional samples of modified flour were prepared this year and studied. As in the preceding experiments, it has been found that floui* which can be made into bread can be pre- pared without gluten. This work is incorporated in Gen- eral Bulletin No. 100 on Wheat and Flour Investigations, Part II. It is planned during the coming winter to con- tinue the study of this interesting problem : First, to see what importance different components of flour play in the technique of bread making; second, to determine, if pos- sible, a means for measuring strength. The results obtained thus far indicate that surface tension is a very important factor so far as strength is concerned, but up to the present, the methods in use for measuring surface tension have been of no particular value to show differences in flours, the baking qualities of which are known to be different. Influence of Cultivation on the Nitrogen Content and Yield of Wheat. Just why the nitrogen content should vary under the same climatic conditions cannot be answered from LeClerc’s or Thatcher’s work, because it has been found that nitrogen content varies from 1.5 per cent to as high as 3.25 per cent in a locality, and this is as wide a range as observed by dif- ferent investigators under different climatic conditions. It seemed that the variation in nitrogen was due to the methods of handling the soil, which has not been explained by agro- nomists in some twenty odd treatises for preparing land for wheat culture, since none of them associated quality with such a practice. The experimental work last year was ]im- ited to one variety grown on the Experiment Station Farm. The results of the first year’s trials for winter wheat indi- cate that cultivation and the distance which the rows of wheat are apart have very much to do with the nitrogen com- position of wheat. In fact, it has been possible to increase the nitrogen by means of cultivation, in quantity varying as much as has been attributed by investigators to climatic 12 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION influences. With spring grain, the extremes of variation are not so marked ; the tendencies are to form wheat of high nitrogen content, but, as in the case of winter wheat, the spring varieties also increased by means of cultivation and with the distance apart which the wheat was grown. The possible reason why the spring wheat, under the same con- ditions, tends to be higher in nitrogen than Avinter wheat may be explained through the spring cultivation which the land received before sowing to Avheat. The winter Avheat very rarely receives a spring cultivation. It might be well to mention in this connection that some of the Big Bend farmers Avho grow Avinter AA^heat also cultivate in the spring, and this practice results in Avheat of plumper grain and equally as high in gluten or nitrogen content as is possible by groAving the spring varieties. This year the experiment Avas elaborated on and the varieties of Avheat increased from one to six. The experi- ment is being conducted both at Pullman and Ritzville under similar methods; Avhile at GrandvieAv tAvo varieties of spring wheat Avere groAvn under the same methods as at Pullman but with variable quantities of Avater folloAved by culti- vation. Relation of Composition of Wheat to Soil Types. This project has for its object a determination of Avhether types of soil found on different hill slopes affect the chemical composition and quality of AA^heat. Little Avork was done upon this project during the year OAving to the fact that the Avheat crops on the ground under investiga- tion are groAvn alternate years. Liming Alfalfa. The project Avas suspended during the year OAving to changes in the Experiment Station Farm. Analyses of Insecticides. This is a project involving the routine analyses of va- rious neAv insecticides and fungicides offered for sale in the state. Work on the project is conducted at irregular in- tervals. The Division of Chemistry also has a project entitled, Co-operative Work With the Association of Official Agricul- tural Chemists, Avhich has for its purpose the improvement of chemical methods and chemical technique as applied to agricultural nroblems. During the past year an important piece of Avork Avas carried on under this project Avith refer- ence to the quantitative determinations of mono, di, and tri calcium phosphates and their application. The results of TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 13 these investigations have been published as General Bul- letin No. 116. DIVISION OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY Owing to lack of funds it has been impossible to do more than a small amount of work in the dairying lines during the past year. It is hoped that funds will be pro- vided in the future in order that investigations commensu- rate with the importance of this phase of agriculture can be conducted. The dairying industry is developing rapidly in all sections of the state and numerous problems in con- nection with the feeding of dairy cows, manufacturing of butter and cheese, and the feeding of calves as well as in- vestigations along the lines of sanitation as applied to the dairy industry, should be conducted. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY The work of this division is being conducted under five regularly organized projects. Progressive Immunity of Insects to Insecticides. This is a project dealing with the increased resistance seemingly shown by the San Jose scale and other insects to insecticides. Investigations were conducted with the view to determine causes responsible for this resistance, and work was largely carried on during the past year by the Ento- mologist, working at the Laboratory for Experimental Evo- lution at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I., N. Y., and at the Bussey Institution, Harvard University. Field work along the same lines was conducted in this state by the Assistant Ento- mologist. The Gypsy Moth was also selected as material for experimentation along these lines. It has not been found possible to artificially produce any considerable immunity to arsenic. Interesting, altho inconclusive, results have been ob- tained in similar experiments upon the San Jose scale, some of the results of which were published in the Journal of Economic Entomology, 7:167 (April, 1914). Opportunity was afforded, while the Entomologist was working in the East, for a study of the methods of spraying for the Codling Moth and other insect pests by eastern in- vestigators. A co-operative experiment on Spraying for Cod- ling Moth was arranged with the New York Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y., the results of which show that the 14 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION methods of application devised at the Washington Station are superior to those in vogue in the East. Colorado Potato Beetle. This project was established during the year owing to the fact that the Colorado potato beetle has finally estab- lished itself within our state. Owing to the change in en- vironmental conditions from those which obtain in the home of this insect in the blast, it was deemed advisable to insti- tute a series of experiments and observations here with the view of controlling the pest. These studies and experi- ments have been conducted thruout the year and are still under way. It was found that there are two broods or generations of the beetles during the season ; the maximum of the first brood being about, the last week of June, and of the second brood about the middle of August. These dates would, how- ever, vary somewhat with the season. In the experimental work with sprays for the control of the larvae, the follow- ing tests were made, all of which give satisfactory results : Inasmuch as the weaker strength of each of these poi- sons gave perfect results where carefully applied, it is evi- dent that the stronger and more expensive sprays are en- tirely unnecessary and inadvisable. Paris green: 1 lb. to 100 gallons of water; 1 to 75; 1 to 05; and 1 to 50. Arsenate of lead past: 1 lb. to 50 gallons of water; 1 to 35; and 1 to 25. Powdered arsenate of lead: 1 lb. to 100 gallons of water; 1 to 50. Arsenite of zinc: 1 lb. to 200 gallons of water; and 1 to 100. Root Maggots. The experiments on root maggot control, begun in the year 1913 at Vashon Island, Western Washington, were con- tinued throughout the summer. The results of these experi- ments indicated that of the various materials used, the most effective ti'eatment to prevent the flies from laying their eggs on and about the cabbage plants was to scatter naphtha- lene flakes about the plants, at the rate of one teaspoonful to each plant, every eight or ten days. This treatment, how- ever, cannot be recommended without further verification. During the present season expei'iments were begun at the College gardens on control of the root maggot, but no results were obtained, owing to the fact that there were few maggots present. It was, howevei*, determined that naphtha- lene may be detrimental to the life of the cabbage plants, TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 15 and further tests are necessary along this line before this substance can be recommended. Endoparasitism. Most of the work on this project during the past year has consisted of a closer study of material previously pre- pared. There being no equipment in the way of an in- sectary for the rearing of parasites and hosts, this necessary phase of the work could not be carried on, and accurate data could not be obtained. It was necessary to follow a more or less haphazard method of securing parasitized ma- terial. The study on this project has been so far largely confined to the parasitism of the aphides, or plant lice. Con- siderable study has been made in a comparative way on the tissues of normal and parasitized aphids, and many rec- ords and drawings made to show the difference between normal tissues and jiarasitized tissues. The work of the project is greatly hampered from lack of ' an insectary, tho considerable progress has been made upon this line of work. Bud Weevils. This project deals with numerous beetles inhabiting the sage-brush districts of Washington which cause more or less damage to the buds and young twigs of fruit trees on new land. The life history and habits of a large number of species of these insects has been studied and the work of the project brought to a conclusion. The results of this project will be published very shortly in a technical bulletin of the Experiment Station. The Columbian Ground Squirrel. The work of the zoologist has been confined exclusively to a project dealing with the life history, hibernation habits, food, period of gestation, prolificacy, natural enemies, etc., of the Columbian Ground Squirrel, Citellus columbianus. In connection with this some work has also been done upon the Townsend Squirrel, C. Tovpnsendi, which inhabits in part the same district as the Columbian Ground Squirrel. The work of this project has been carried on approx- imately five years, during which time a very large amount of valuable information has been obtained in regard to these animals. Notwithstanding the fact that the work has been almost wholly of a scientific character, being conducted under the Adams fund, the information obtained has been of such value Fig. III. Some of the new Budweevils, or fruit tree destroying- insects, which were investigated under the Budweevil project. Some of these are new as orchard pests, while others are entirely new to science. Efficient methods of control have been found for these insects. These weevils have no common names. The scientific names are as follows: 1. Tosastes cinerascens Pierce. 2. Mimetes setulosus Schon. 8. Melamomphus luteus Horn. 4. Panscopus aequalis Horn. f). Geoderces melanothrix Kirby. 6. Mylacus saccatus Leconte. 7. Cercopeus artemisiae Pierce. 8. Tychius lineellus Leconte. TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 17 as to suggest valuable methods of eradication of these ani- mals, which have proven an agricultural pest of no mean importance in the Palouse Country. The results of the investigation are at the present time being prepared for publication, and will very shortly appear as a technical bulletin of the Ex'^eriment Station. In addition to the above mentioned regular projects, the members of the staff of this division have rendered valu- able assistance to agriculture in many ways during the year, by visiting different portion of the state which were having trouble with insect pests. Notable among these was an in- vestigation concerning a report of the Alfalfa Weevil in this state. The weevil had been reported from several dis- tricts of the state and an investigation was at once made by the Assistant Entomologist. Careful investigations of the alfalfa fields of the districts in question failed to find the slightest evidence of the insect, the reports evidently having originated from persons mistaking certain small ground beetles for alfalfa weevils. As a result of this scare a popular bulletin (No. 70) was prepared, describing, by means of illustrations and de- scriptions, the alfalfa weevil with the view of enabling farmers to identify the insect in case it should appear. Hap- pily, the state thus far has been entirely free from this pest. Investigation and advice has also been given in the fruit districts in regard to the handling of aphis and other insect pests. During the early part of the fiscal year, an unusual out- break of grasshoppers was reported in the valleys of the Snake and Columbia Rivers. The Assistant Entomologist was at once detailed to make an investigation of the trouble, and devise means for controlling the pest. The latter was accomplished very largely by the use of bran mash contain- ing poisonous materials, chiefly arsenic. Countless numbers of the grasshoppers were thus killed but the outbreak was reported to the Station too late to save all the crops. A similar outbreak of the Coulee Cricket, an insect native to North Central Washington was reported from Grant and Douglas Counties. The Coulee Cricket, while a pest of considerable local importance, does not work over wide areas. Large numbers of the animals will appear, covering areas of a few square miles, and at the time cause consider- able damage to crops ; in fact, virtually destroying the crops of the districts infested. It Avas found by the Entomologist, however, that the trouble could be greatly alleviated by the 18 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION plowing of a trench about the infested fields and thus prevent the migration of the insect, which is not able to fly. These furrows are plowed with the vertical side of the trenches toward the crop to be protected. The insects seem ‘ to be unable to climb the AValTof the ‘furrow, and while collected in this furrow can be killed in va'rious ways. DIVISION OF , FARM CROPS In the Division of Farm Ci'ops, Avork is being conducted upon five projects. The oldest of these projects is one started in 1899 by Professor W. J: Spillman on rotation and tillage. The work was conducted upon thirty different plots, each receiving different treatment 'from the standpoint ' of fertilization, tillage, time of seeding and crop rotation. These plots demonstrate some valuable facts with reference to grain production, crop rotation, and fertilizer application in the Palouse Country. These experiments, 'showing the results of fifteen years’ work, Avill be published as a bulletin of the Experiment Station at an early date. For a number of years there has been a project in the Experiment Station known as ‘‘Cereal Investigations.” The project, for convenience in administration, has been divided into three neAV ones, each dealing Avith its specific lines of work; namely: (1) variety testing; (2) increase and distri- bution of seed; (3) inheritance studies, the last mentioned being conducted upon the Adams fund. There has also been approved in this division during the past year a new project, Forage Investigations. Variety Testing. The project on Variety Testing includes the testing of varieties and groAving selections of Avinter Avheat, Avinter barley, spring Avheat, spring barley, spring oats, field peas, corn, soy beans, sorghum, rye, millet, flax, and buckAvheat. The Avork Avith sorghum, rye, and buckAvheat Avas started in 1914. Work Avith the other crops is being conducted in a method similar to that of previous years. Winter Wheat. One hundred seven strains of winter wheat Avere tested in rod rows in triplicate in 1913. Of these the Old Washington Turkey Red, No. 226, gave the highest yield. Thirty-six of the least desirable ones AA^ere dropped and fourteen neAv ones added for the 1914 crop. During 1913, thirty hybrid strains of winter wheat were tested in 1-16 acre field plots. Hybrid 143 Avas used as a check. Washington No. 588, a hybrid of Turkey and Winter Fife, gave the largest yield (55,7 bu.) per acre. Hybrid 143, 20 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION however, ^ave the highest yield (49.5 hu.) per acre as an average for four years. On the completion of this four-year record, nineteen of the thirty hybrid strains were dropped. Eleven of the hybrid strains were continued in 1914 in com- parison with ten commercial standard varieties and five new hybrids all having been tested in the nursery in 1913. They were planted in 1-20 acre plots in duplicate, Hybrid 143 again being used as a check. The five new hybrids from the nursery were the highest yielders among the hybrids in the nursery and are being tested in both the 1-20 acre plots in duplicate and in the triplicate rod rows in the nursery, as are all the 1-20 acre field plots. Twelve varieties of winter wheat wer^? tested at the Eitzville Station in 1913. Jones’ Winter Fife gave the highest yield. These twelve, with the addition of Turkey Red, were planted for the 1914 test. Winter Barley. Twenty new hybrids of beardless winter barley were grown in 1913. They winter killed badly, but from the three most vigorous strains, ten plants were se- lected and planted in the fall. They all came thru the winter well and are looking promising. Their awnless char- acter should make them desirable. Four standard varieties of bearded winter barley are being tested in 1-20 acre field plots. Tapps Winter shows stiffest straw, largest heads, and most vigorous growth. Spring Wheat. Ninety-seven strains of spring wheat were grown in rod rows in triplicate in 1913. Red Allen gave the heaviest yield. Thirty-seven of the poorest strains were omitted from the 1914 planting and twenty-nine new ones from various sources were added. Thirteen of the best spring wheats are being grown in field plots in 1914. There were no field tests of spring wheat in 1913. Spring Barley. Twenty-nine strains of spring barley were tested in rod rows in triplicate in 1913. California Centgener No. 3318 (Wash. No. 189) gave the largest- yield but has weak straw. These strains were all included in the 1914 planting with thirteen new ones. Oats. Fifty strains of oats were tested in rod rows in triplicate in 1913. Danish (Wash. No. 141) was the highest yielder, with Banner (Wash. No. 179), a new importation from Scotland, as a close second. Field Peas. Eiq’ht varieties of field peas were tested in 1-20 acre plots in 1913. Amaroti variety gave the highest two shocks are the product of equal sized plots. Both plots have grown fall wheat annually beginning with 1899, the only difference in treatment being an application of barnyard manure annually at the rate of 10 tons per acre to plot at readers left with none applied to plot at right. The average yield from 1899 to 1915 for the manured plot was 46.6 bushels, and for the unmanured plot 23.4 bushels. 22 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL^EXPERIMENTlSTATION jaeld. Five of these and one additional variety are included in the 1914 test. Corn. An ear-row test of two varieties of corn (Windus White and Thayer Yellow) was planted in 1914. The ear- row test includes twenty-five ears of each variety and is planted in duplicate. The purpose of this test is to purify the variety and make selections of the highest yielding strains. Three rows, each of five rates of thickness, were planted of each variety of corn. Five varieties of soy beans, thirteen varieties of sor- ghum, five varieties of rye, three varieties of millet, three varieties of flax, and one variety of buckwheat are being tested. The varieties of rye are being tested in triplicate rod rows. Increase and Distribution of Seed. The crops that have proved successful at Pullman, in- cluding varieties that have been developed at the Station, are being tested in many counties thruout the state. This work is being done in co-operation with farmers, who are willing to grow the crops under the direction of the Divi- sion of Farm Crops and furnish reports as to the success of the crops tested. Seeds of the various crops were sent to five hundred and ten farmers in thirty-seven counties of Washington. A total of 3,565 pounds of corn, 12,543 pounds of field peas, 1,084 pounds of oats, 11,680 pounds of wheat, 6,140 pounds of winter barley, 302 pounds of alfalfa, 198 pounds of clover, 59 pounds of sorghum, 27 pounds of millet, 3 pounds of marrow cabbage, and 1' pound of Sudan grass were dis- tributed among these farmers. Pure seed of the different crops are again being grown to continue this work. Plantings available for seed distri- bution include corn, wheat, oats, barle}^, and field peas. De- sirable strains of alfalfa, clover, and some of the other crops will also be distributed. Inheritance Studies. In this project, investigations upon the hereditary per- formance of different varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and rye are being conducted. The characters especially dealt with are head length, color, beards resistance to disease, re- sistance to drouth, milling qualities, hullessness, number of rows in head, and shape of grain. The project is one which has been carried on for a number of years and important results have been obtaine'd,~some of Avhich will be published TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 23 A .4.^' * 1 ,' • Male Bf o.wn* s Glory Hybrid Female (Pi) Blue- . ‘ Stem 169 Awned long li^ybrid pure short short Pure Awnless long hybrid pu; short sh Hybrid Awnless Fig. VI. Inheritance in Cereals. Some Facts Learned in Ex- perimenting with Wheat Hybrids. “A” — Parents and resulting hybrid the first year after the cross is made. “B,” “C” and “D” — The resulting types when this new hybrid is planted. They occur in the following percentages: a — 61 ^%; b — 12 1/2%; c — 6 %%; d — 121/2%; e — 25 %; f— 121/2%; g— 6 %%; h— 121/2%; i— 6 iA%. “a,” “c,” “g,” and “i” breed true in every respect, “b” breeds true to beards but not to head length, giving again all the types in “B” in the ratio 1-2-1. “d” and “f” breed true to length but one-fourth of their offspring are bearded, “e,” when planted, gives again all the types of “B,” “C,” and “D.” “h” breeds true to beardlessness but one-fourth of its offspring has long heads. 24 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION in a technical bulletin of the Experiment Station some time during the coming year. Forage Investigation. In this project the work is carried on with alfalfa, clover, and perennial grasses. The work is being conducted in a well-arranged forage crop nursery and deals primarily with the breeding and selection of forage crops especially suitable for the State of Washington. A project dealing with the effect of cultivation on the quality of wheat is carried on co-operatively between this Division and the Chemistry Division. DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE. The Division of Horticulture has under more or less active investigation thirteen different projects. Some of these projects, however, are of such a nature that they can be conducted only at more or less irregular intervals. Others depend entirely upon the season for their prosecution. Thus the staff of the division is not attempting to conduct work upon such a large number of projects continuously. Ornamental Shrubs and Vines — Shade and Ornamental Trees. These two projects are conducted from year to year and have to do with observations upon, and collection of data in regard to trees, shrubs, vines, etc., suitable for ornamental purposes in the State of Washington. A large amount of interesting and valuable information has been thus col- lected and it is planned very shortly to publish some of these results. Orchard Pollination. Work of this project was done in the Experiment Sta- tion orchard at Pullman, and in several private orchards in the Spokane valley. The work has quite definitely shown this year the blossoming dates of the most popular varieties of apples grown in the Palouse district, in the Spokane dis- trict, Wenatchee district, and in the Yakima district. In this it is evident that with one or two exceptions the varie- ties of apples blossom so nearly at the same date that inter- pollination can take place between any of the common com- mercial varieties. The work on self-sterility of varieties indicates that Spitzenburg, Gravenstein, Grimes Golden, Mc- Intosh, Oldenburg, Rhode Island Greening, Wagener, White Winter Pearrnain, and Winesap may under certain circum- stances prove partially self-sterile. Delicious, Spitzenburg, Jonathan, King David, Lawyer, Maiden Blush, Northern Spy, TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 25 Rhode Island Greening, Tompkins King, Twenty Ounce, Wagener, Winesap, Winter Banana and Yellow Transparent under one series of tests proved self-sterile. It is not be- lieved, however, that this justifies the' conclusion that these varieties are self-sterile even to a dangerous degree for planting in solid blocks. For instance, the Ben Davis in a total number of 509 blossoms, set one fruit. This variety is known in many sections to be quite satisfactorily self- fertile and produces abundantly when planted in large blocks. The Winesap also in the State of Washington is fruiting satisfactorily in several large blocks. The same can be said of other varieties in the list. Some of the other problems involved in this orchard pollination work gave results sufficient to be of interest, but not sufficient to war- rant us to make any more than partial report, or tentative statements. The general study of the work indicates that the Delicious, Grimes Golden, McIntosh, and Wagener were among the best pollinators. The Rome Beauty shows espe- cially strong as a pollen producer and is an excellent va- riety to plant among other varieties for the reason that it produces an abundance of pollen and blossoms through more than the ordinary length of time. The Winesap does not seem, from the tests made, to be an especially strong va- riety for pollen production nor do other varieties seem to be especially receptive to the Winesap pollen. This is a phase of the work that can only be tested thoroughly with several years of work in the future. Indications are that while several of the varieties may, under certain circum- stances, be partially or entirely self-sterile, under normal orchard planting in the thickly planted orchard sections, solid blocks may be considered fairly successful. Mendel’s Law in Relation to the Blackberry and Raspberry Hybrids. , The work of this project is purely of scientific interest, dealing entirely with principles of heredity. The work as yet has not been carried far enough to warrant any conclu- sions. Winter Dessication of Fruit Trees. The work of this project is designed to determine the infiuence of the absence of humus and the relation of water supply and plant food materials to winter dessication. The work is conducted in both greenhouse and orchard under controlled conditions as well as by observations in the field. While a large amount of data has been accumulated, con- 26 ;;WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION elusions at this stage of the investigation are probably un- warranted. The Keeping Quality of Fruit. This project is designed especially to determine the re- lation of moisture content of soil to tlic keeping quality of fi'uit, especially apples. Ari*augements wore made with fruit growers in the Spokane valh'y for obtaining fruit from trees that received an over-supply of water for their best develop- inent; and from trees that I'eceived less water than they would use to good advantage, shov/ing that their develop- ment and the development of their fruit was very pei'ceptibly retarded. The fruit was carefully picked, handled, brought to Pullman, and placed in storage. The indications are that the fruit developed on trees that received an excess of Avater haA^e their keeping (piaii- ties greatly impaired, the tissue is soft, easily broken, and goes doAvn (juickly in storage. The fruit developed on trees receiving approximately the cori'ect supply of Avater for nlevelopmeiit of medium sized, firm fruit have the }naximum keeping- quality. Pi'uit developed on trees that recei\"ed less Avater than needed to develop their frnit to a medium size for the variety is inferior in (luality and tends to shrivel before decaying, and at no time presents a satisfactory ap- peai'ance. Methods of Top Grafting. This is a project designed to determine the )nost suc- cessful methods of grafting for commercial orchards. The results so far as they are of practical value have been re- ported in Popular Bulletin No. 67. The Avork of the project is being continued. Orchard Cover Crops. The Avork of this project deals Avith the relation of the various cover crops, Avheat, rye, oats vetch, field peas, red clover, etc., as Avell as Auirious methods of tillage, to the groAvth and productivity of apple trees. Renovation of Prune Orchards. This project has for its purpose the determination of the cause of the troublesome variations in the productivity in prune orehards in Western Washington and methods of im- proving systems of prune groAving in this district. The re- sults of the investigations thus far obtained have just been published in Popular Bulletin No. 57. TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT;; 27 Variety Testing of Vegetables. - This is a project designed to furnish information in re- gard to the value of different varieties of vegetables, the seeds of which are offered for sale in the state. Garden tests of the vegetables were made as Avell as tests of the seeds' for purity. In a very large numlier of cases it is found that the seeds offered for sale are not true to Jianie and In many' cases have a high percentage of impurities. The work of the project has been greatly handicapped during the year from lack of funds. Improvement of the Starch Content of Potatoes. .This is a project Avhich was completed during t;he‘'y^^il the results of Avhich Avill very shortly be pubkslied. Control of Pear Blight. This is a project having to do A'dih the methods of or- chard .management Avith the vieAv to controlling this serious pest AAuth a minimum amount, of damage to orchard and loss of crop. It., also includes' a study of the vitality of the pear , blight bacillus, its resistance to dessication, the^ methods by jwhich it is disseminated, ^ NotAAdthstanding the fact that this is a field of AAU)rk of the greatest importance to the agricultural interests of. the state at the. present time, the investigation thus far con- ducted Avould not Avarrant any conclusions in regard to the control of the disease other than those Avell-knoAAm, — namely, the cutting otic of the blight and destruction of the infected portions of the tree by. burning. . V . Work upon projects .dealing, with the protection of or- chards from frosts and the application of winter sprays, has been temporarily suspended on account of lack of funds. . V DIVISION OF IRRIGATION ENGINEERING / OAAung to shortage 'of funds no investigations have ])een conducted during' the year in this division. HoAvever, the irrigation agriculture of the state has developed to such a point as to call for ‘extensiAm iiwestigations along these lines, and it is hoped that funds Avill be provided during the en- suing year Avhich Avill enable the Station to cope Avith some of the problems involved. DIVISION OF SOIL PHYSICS " This Division has in its charge three active projects. 28 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Co-operative Meterological Investigations. This has for its purpose the collection of climatological data bearing upon the agriculture of Washington. Dry Farming Investigations. This project deals with the possibilities and best methods for the conservation of moisture in the semi-arid regions and the methods of tillage adapted to these districts. Some of the conclusions arrived at as a result of these investigations are embodied in Popular Bulletin No. 69, published during the year. Soil Moisture Studies. By far the larger proportion of the work of the Divi- sion has been upon this project, dealing with the funda- mentals of the relation of soil moisture to the growth of agricultural plants'. Since the season of 1911, eighteen agricultural crops have been grown each season in lai'ge tanks (2 ft. in diameter by 3 ft. deep) to determine the exact amount of water re- quired to produce a unit of dry matter for each crop. In the spring of 1912 a tract of land lying south of the city of Pullman, and known as the Hegnauer Tract, was rented for a period of five years. Three and one-half acres of this tract have since been devoted to parallel experiments to de- termine how far results of the water requirements of the same crop when grown in field plats would check with those found under control in large tanks. The field Avork on the Hegnauer Tract has been carried on in duplicate on plats one-tAvelfth of an acre each. Determination of the moisture in the soil in each plat were made in duplicate (10 ft. from each end of each plat) for each foot to a depth of ten feet, making in all twenty samples of soil from each plat Soil moisture determinations were made just after the crops were planted, again when the crops were about one-half grown, and lastly, just after the crops Avere harvested. The water requirements of crops, as determined from field plats, haA'e checked more closely with those determined in the tank^ than was at first thought possible. Only in one or two in- stances is there any Avide variation. The field tests are being repeated during the season of 1914. The water required to produce a unit of dry matter in any given plant has been found to vary widely. No tAvo in- vestigators have been able to agree on the same amount. The factors which cause this variation in Avater require- ment has been given considerable study by this Division TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 29 / fan T Z. F^£: T to V k Q f. 3 £1 r V >■ U Uj *0 % K Q ft k k a: k 0 ft ^ r£ EIT ^ t- c 5: 5 <1. Ik ft O .5 r £££1 7" ^ £, rr- /- 7- r £- £- F- T g rEZEZT DEPTH VV/-//CA/ CROPS 9 r£: £2 T TAKE \HA TER /O F-ETFIT Fig. VII. Soil Moisture Investigations. This chart shows the depth at which different crops take moisture and food materials under climatic and soil conditions of Eastern Washington. Fig. VIII. This chart shows the effect of strength of plant food solution upon the proportional development of roots and stalks, the amount of crops produced, and the amount of water required to produce a unit of dry matter. The line of dashes gives the per- centage of whole plant as stalks, and the line of alternate dots and dashes the percentage as roots. The solid line gives the relative amount of crop produced in the different strengths of solution. The dotted line gives the amount of water required to produce a unit of dry matter from each strength of solution. The horizontal line of figures at the top gives the different strengths of soil solu- tion used expressed in parts of 1%. The vertical line of figures at the left expresses the relative amount of roots, stalks, and total crop produced for each strength of solution. The vertical line of figures on the right gives the pounds of water required to produce a unit of dry matter from each strength of solution. 30 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION (luring- tlic past year, ^side from the kind of crop, the most important influence has been forriid +o be the strength of the soil solution in plant food. Th(‘ richei* the i:vO:l in available plant food, the less will be the water re(iuirement to produce a unit of dry matter for any given crop. The work is conducted with reference to the relation of age of plants to water requirement, the influence of the pi*e- vious crop, the evaporation (including the various factors, such as wind velocity, altitude, temperature, sunlight, etc., which influence evaporation). Especial attention is given to the relation of soil moisture to the question of fertility. The investigations are carried on both in laboratory and in field. The field experiments are conducted upon the Station Farm at Pullman and upon small sub-stations, established for Pig. IX. This (ihart shows the position of nitrates in the soil in the spring of the year. The nitrates have been leached down to the third foot by the winter rains. The vertical lines represent feet in depth, while the horizontal lines represent the parts of nitrates per million of dry soil. Distance between horizontal lines expresses 10 parts of nitrates. this purpose solely, at Eitzville, in the dry belt, and at Grand- view, in the irrigated district. The Avork has been prose- cuteci actively for the past three years and a vast amount of data have been accumulated. It is planned to publish during the current year a technical bulletin embodying many of the results of this investigation. In addition^ to the work of the three above mentioned projects, this Division has carried on, during the year, a large amount of Amluable work in the Avay of direct assist- ance to the farmers of the state. A large number of soil examinations huve been made from samples sent to the Sta- tion Laboratory. Personal visits have also been made by members of the staff, in many cases, for the purpose of giving advice and assistance concerning soils. One of the most important pieces of work of this nature Avas a soil survey of the Palouse project. This survey Avas made by TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 31 the Assistant Soil Physicist at the reciuest of E. C. ^IcCiil- lough, engineer in charge of the survey of the proposed Palouse Project. The field woi'k of the siii'vey was com- pleted during Jinip of the year in question, iho the report was not made until the fore part of the current year. This work proved of great worth to those determining the value of the lands of this project for irrigation purposes. Th(‘ data accumulated from this survey, of course, are availal)le for future reference, and will prove of great value in giving advice and assistance to farmers at any time if this land is brought under cultivation. DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE This Division has two projects under investigation. Pernicious Anemia in Horses. This is a project upon wliich very little work has been done during the year owing to scarcity of diseased horses. A Study of Redwater (Hematuria) in Cattle This is a project which has been conducted for several years by the Assistant Veterinarian, with the accumulation Pig. XI. An inverted bladder of a cow that died of red water. This shows to good advantage the char- acteristic lesions occurring on the inner lining of the bladder. of a large amount of information in regard to the disease. However, the causative agent in the disease has not yet been discovered. The results of this investigation were published 32 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Fig. X. A cow in the advanced stages of red water. Photo- graphed about forty-eight hours before death. during the year in General Bulletin No. 112. It had been planned to continue the work along these same lines, laying especial emphasis upon methods of control and treatment of the disease. However, owing to a large amount of ad- vice given from the Station with reference to the disposition of the red water cattle, it has become almost impossible to obtain sufficient material for adequately conducting the work without the expenditure of more funds than the Station would be warranted in putting into it. CO-OPERATIVE WORK The Experiment Station during the year has conducted a number of lines of co-operative work. An experiment with the view to determining the effect of varying condi- tions of climate and soil on the chemical composition of grain, is conducted with the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture. In this experiment, grains of different varieties are grown at several experiment stations (North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Montana, and Washington). Seed pro- duced in one place is grown in another for comparison with the home-grown seed, and records kept of the quality, yield, date of coming up, date of heading, date of ripening, length TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 33 of fruiting period, amount of lodging, susceptibility to smut and rust, etc. The exneriment has been conducted since 1909. In the Smut Investigations the co-operation of the Divi- sion of Cereal Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Indus- try, United States Department of Agriculture, was had to the extent of $300 on the salary of an assistant pathologist. In the Division of Farm Crops over 500 farmers co- operated in the testing of various crops. Something over 600 such tests were made, as follows : Corn 352 Field Peas 92 Alfalfa 100 Clover 52 Sorghum 20 Total 016 The recent organization of the Bureau of Farm Develop- ment, under which the work of county agriculturists of the state is conducted, has proven an efficient co-operative agent in conducting demonstration work and making various prac- tical tests of crops and methods originating in the Experi- ment Station. In the future, this agency will undoubtedly prove the most efficient that has yet been devised for car- rying the results of scientific investigation to the farm, and insuring their practical application. On account of the fact that the Director of the Experiment Station is also, by law. Director of the Bureau, the closest co-operation between these two inifiortant state departments ])ecomes possible. (For information in regard to this line of work, see First Annual Report of the Weshington Bureau of Farm Develop- ment.) In the dissemination of literature and agricultural in- formation, as well as in certain lines of demonstration work, the new State Department of Agriculture has also co-oper- ated in an effective manner. The new Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experiment, created for the dissemination of information and conducting of demonstrations and experiments in the semi-arid portions of the state, has also proven an efficient co-operative agent in the solution of some of the agricultural problems of the dry belt. (See the First Annual Report of the Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experi- ment.) On account of the fact that the three last mentioned departments are of recent organization, much greater results 34 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION may be looked for in these lines in the future than have been obtained during the past year. The Station is also indebted to various academic de- partments of the College for efficient aid and co-operation in different lines; namely, the Chemistry Department, in analysis of soils, feeds, fertilizers, etc. ; the Department of Botany, in the sanitary analysis of Avater, the examination of seeds, identification of plants, etc. ; and especially to the Extension Department in the distribution of literature and agricultural inf orinati on. The activities of the various agencies for agricultural extension, especially of the county agriculturist,, has reacted in a marked manner upon the Experiment Station in bring- ing forcibly to the attention of the Station new and impor- tant problems and increased demands for agricultural in- vestigation. DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION An effort has been made to render as efficient aid as possible to the farmers by the dissemination of inform- ation from the Experiment Station. The press of this and adjacent states has rendered efficient aid along these lines and has proven one of the most valuable agencies for the dissemination of agricultural knowledge. In carrying on this Avork of popularizing the results of the investigations in the Experiment Station, something over five million pages of printed matter have been sent out during the year. In addition to this large quantity of printed matter distributed, the various members of the staff, during the fiscal year, have written 23,350 personal letters to farmers and others inter- ested in agricultural Avork. These letters have covered a wide range of information, have ansA\mred definite inquiries, and have been productive of great assistance to the citizens of the state and at a time AAdien assistance AAms most needed. PUBLICATIONS During the year the Station issued tAvo technical bulle- tins, eighteen popular bulletins, and some fifty press bulle- tins. EolloAAurig are brief summaries indicating the scope and chai'acter of the technical and impular bulletins. General (Technical) Bulletins No. 112. A Preliminary Report on the Investigations of Red Water (Hematuria) of Cattle in Washington by J. W. Kalkus. TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 35 This bulletin is a rather detailed report of several years’ investigation, carried on under the Adams Fund, on red water of cattle in Western Washington. It discusses the etiology of the disease and the opinions of the stock-raisers in regard to it. It sets forth the results of a series of inocu- lation experiments designed to determine whether the dis- ease is infectious, together with post-mortem examination and detailed study of tissues from the animals inoculated. The symptoms of the disease are discussed in considerable detail, as are a number of ])lood examinations taken from the diseased animals. A study was made of the morbid anatomy of the animals and suggestions offered for treat- ment of the disease. Unfortunately it has not yet been pos- sible to ascertain the exact cause of the disease. Some evi- dence was obtained which would indicate that the disease is of an infectious nature and ''although some drugs seem to render temporary relief, treatment as a whole has been very unsatisfactory.” It is found that animals once affected with the disease rarely recover. The bulletin is illustrated with colored plates. No. 113, entitled "Plants Used for Pood by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range,” is a record of work by R. Kent Beattie, formerly Botanist of the Experiment Sta- tion. The bulletin will appeal especially to the larger sheep owners; that is, those raising sheep on the range. It dis- cusses the economical use of the forest as a grazing ground and gives a large amount of informatioii of value to owners pasturing on the range, as Avell as to foresters and those interested in forest management. A number of troublesome and controverted questions in regard to the effects of sheep upon the forest are cleared up in so far as this range is concerned. The types of plants used as a food by the sheep has been the subject of much controversy aiid a good many of the popular notions will be dispelled by this piece of in- vestigation. Popular Bulletins No. 53. Cause of Variation of Per Cent of Pat of Market Cream fi'om Farm Separatoi's. by V. R. Jones, Assistant in Dairy iVlanufactures. The bulletin explains the causes of variation due to effect of richness of milk ; speed of separator ; changes in temperature; rate of inflow; amount of skim milk or water used to flush the separator bowl; and unbalanced sepa- rators^ It explains how a patron can calculate within a 36 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION few per cent what his cream should test before taking it to the creamery. Financial loss through carelessness in hand- ling separators is pointed out. No. 54. Preserving Eggs, by Geo. A. Olson, Chemist. This bulletin gives detailed directions for the prepara- tion of water-glass and its use in the preservation of eggs. No. 55. Cleanliness and Cold as Applied to the pairy, by A. B. Nystrom, Dairy Husbandman, is an effort to im- prove the sanitary condition of the dairies of the state by pointing out the advantages and methods of improved sani- tation. No. 56. ‘‘Fire Blight” of Pear and Apple, by John G. Hall, Plant Pathologist, calls attention to the necessity of an active campaign against the serious disease “pear blight,” explains the appearance of the disease by means of illustra- tions. and discusses in detail control measures and methods of combatting the disease. No. 57. Prune Growing in Southwestern Washington, by 0. M. Morris, Horticulturist, is the result of investiga- tions conducted in prune orchards of Clark County with the view to ascertaining the causes of crop failure and variations in crop from year to year and variation in different por- tions of the same orchard. The bulletin is a tentative and preliminary report. It discusses the relative value of dif- ferent varieties of prunes; the relation of soil and soil cul- tivation, the weathei;, and pruning to crop failures. From the preliminary investigations it would seem that most of the trouble arises from failure to properly eultivate, to main- tain fertility, and to properly prune the orchards in question. No. 58. Sheep for Washington Farms, by R. C. Ashby, Animal Husbandman. This bulletin is designed to encourage the keeping of a small flock of sheep upon every farm. In the bulletin the following points with reference to sheep husbandry are dis- cussed ; equipment ; plan of management ; size of flock ; choice of stock ; selection of ewe and ram ; age to bre'ed ; breeding; fall and winter care; lambing; feed supply; dock- ing and castrating; shearing; dipping; weaning; summer care; feeding and marketing; feeds; system of feeding; buy- ing stock to feed; mutton for farm use; killing and dressing sheep ; and practical experience of farmers is also cited. No. 59. Spraying Calendar for 1914, by John G. Hall, Plant Pathologist, and M. A. Yothers, .Assistant Entomolo- gist, sets forth directions for treatment of fungous diseases TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 37 and insect pests, including definite information as to appear- ance of trouble, time and number of applications of sprays, as well as formulae for preparing same. No. 60. Corn Growing in Washington, by George Sev- erance, Agriculturist, sets forth the advantage of corn as a crop in the agricultural system of the state. Attention is called to the fact that a profitable ci'op of corn can be used in place of the summer fallow, so populai* in ;manv portions of the state. A resume of the investigations of corn varie- ties and culture, planting, and development of acclimated strains at the Experiment Station is given, and also of co- operative work carried on by tlu Station. Recommendations are made in regard to preparation of soils, methods of seed- ing, cultivation, selection of seed, and harvesting. Emphasis is laid upon the value of coi*n as ensilage. No. 61. The Peach Twig-Borcn*, by M. A. Yothers, Assistant Entomologist, gives the life histoi\v, habits, and methods of control of this insect i)est. The bulletin is illus- trated. No. 62. Potato Growing in Washington, by O. M. Morris, Horticulturist, J. G. Hall, Plant Pathologist, and M. A. Yothers, Assistant Entomologist, discusses in consider- able detail the various problems connected Avith potato grow- ing in the Northwest. Directions are given in regard to preparation of soil, planting and selection of seed, use of fertilizers, cultivation, the selection of varieties, etc. The bulletin is illustrated Avith figures of the various potato diseases and the insect pests of the potato. Detailed direc- tions are given for combatting these pests. No. 63. SAvine Husbandry in Washington, by R. C. Ashby, Animal Husbandman, and C. F. Monroe, Assistant Animal Husbandman, sets forth the advantages of swine raising as follows : (1) Little capital is required to get a start — the price of one grade coav Avill buy tAvo to four bred soavs ; (2) Quick returns are secured- — the first crop of pigs may be made ready for market Avithin a year from the date of breeding the soav; (3) But little investment is required in buildings and equipment ; (4) Hogs turn Avaste and by-products into a valuable market commodity. The bulletin discusses the relative merits of all the common breeds of hogs and illustrates these. Directions are 38 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL’ EXPERIMENT STATION given for starting in the business, selecting stock, feeding, breeding, and general management of the herd ; also brief directions for ti*eatment of various diseases. No. 64. Winter Sprays, by A. L. Melander, Ento- mologist. This bulletin sets forth the advantages and methods of using sulfur-lime and crude oil emulsions as orchard sprays. Explanations for making sulfur-lime are given to- gether with suggestions for modifying the sprays to meet certain conditions. No. 65. A postcard bulletin on ‘‘Fire Blight,” by J. G. Hall Pathologist, designed to keep before the fruit grow- ers the necessity of being constantly on their guard in com- batting the blight. It calls attention to the following facts: Blight cannot be cured by spraying or injecting ma- terial into the tree. Blight can be stamped out, but only by surgery. Blight is our most dangerous fruit disease. Every citizen should aid in combatting blight. No. 66. Onion Culture, by 0. M. Morris. Horticulturist, contains a discussion of the various problems connected with the production of onions in a commercial way in this state. No. 67. Top Grafting of Fruit Trees, by 0. M. Morris, Horticulturist, and C. B. Sprague, Assistant Horticulturist, sets forth the various methods of top grafting and the ad- vantages of each. Detailed directions are given for grafting, these being supplemented by well-prepared illustrations. No. 68. Report on Chemical Composition of Wheat, by Geo. A. Olson, Chemist. This' is a popular resume of General (Technical) Bul- letin No. Ill on the influence of environmental factors on the chemical composition of wheat and also the results of investigations in breeding and selection for nitrogen con- tent carried on at the KStation for several yeai’s previous. No. 69. Dry Farhiing in Washington, by C. C. Thom, Soil Physicist, and H. F. Holtz, Assistant Soil Physicist, dis- cusses the problems of farming in the semi-arid districts of the upper Columbia River valley. The bulletin embodies the results of some of the investigations conducted in the Division of Soil Physics for several years. Suggestions are made in regard to disking, fall plowing, listing, use of soil mulches, the general treatment of soil, sub-surface packing, summer fallowing, etc. The Aveed problem and the blow problem are considered as Avell as the problem of conserv- TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 39 ing the humus supply in the dry land soils. Data are given with reference to the nioistui*e reciuirements of various crops and the problem of keei:>ing up the fertility of soils. The bulletin contains a rainfall map of the state, and also gives brief suggestions in regard to crops suitable to the various rainfall belts. No. 70. The Alfalfa Weevil, by AV. 0. Ellis, Assistant in Entomology, illustrates and describes the various stages in the life history of the alfalfa weevil, and also discusses its habits. AVhile the alfalfa Aveevil is not native to the State of Washington and has never been found in the state, this bulletin is designed to enable the farmei’s to recognize the insect should it appear, and suggests methods of control- ling it. In addition to the eighteen popular bulletins there was distributed an edition of twenty-five thousand bulletins on ‘‘Pasture and Grain Crops foi' Hogs in the Pacific Northwest,’’ prepared by Byron Hunter and printed by the United States Department of Agriculture. AGRICULTURAL NEEDS OF THE STATE Notwithstanding the fact that the agricultural develop- ment of the State of AVashington is in its infancy, its evolu- tion is exceedingly rapid. It must also be borne in mind that the agricultural conditions of the state are extremely diverse, probably more so than in any other state in the Union, excepting possibly California. These facts make the demands upon the Experiment Station for the solution of agricultural and scientific problems very great. As will be noted from the financial report, the resources of the Station are $15,000 from Adams Fund, all of Avhich must be used in research upon fundamental principles of scientific agricul- ture ; $15,000 from Hatch Fund, Avhich may be used for experimental work and, in part, for the dissemination of agricultural knoAvledge ; and $9,000 from State Fund, Avhich may be used in any of these lines, as Avell as in the conducting of demonstrational work. One conversant Avith the agricultural needs of the state and the problems confronting the Experiment Station for solution, is at once impressed Avith the fact that these funds are wholly inadequate to meet the situation. A comparison with other states Avill reveal the fact that Washington is not supporting its Experiment Station as is being done else- where. Neighboring states with smaller population and less Fig. XII. Xew Mechanic Arts Building. (Ready for occupancy in September.) TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 41 resources are putting much larger amounts into their Sta- tions for the improvement of agricultural conditions. When it is realized that the state expends for the care of its defective members of society (criminals, insane, etc.) annually $1,500,000 as compared with about one-fifth this amount for its Agricultural College (including Experiment Station), one need have no hesitancy in asserting that a liberal increase should be made for the support of the Ex- periment Station and for the benefit of those progressive and wide-awake farmers who are the producing members of society. There is a crying need for increase in almost every phase of the Experiment Station work. The Division of Chemistry of the Station is totally unable to cope with the demands made upon it for assistance. In Animal Husbandry and Dairying additional investigations are needed in feed- ing and breeding to meet the conditions peculiar to this state. A reduction of the amount of live stock of the United States ten to twenty per cent during the past decade empha- sizes this fact most forcibly. In the Division of Soil Physics there is constant demand for assistance which cannot be given, owing to lack of suf- ficient funds. These demands are both for investigation and routine examination of soils. In the Division of Farm Crops there -is needed extra help for the purpose of putting the results of the breeding and testing experiments of the Division into the hands of the practical farmer. In Horticulture, the demand for work on the various critical problems of the horticultural industry is probably greater than that in any other agricultural line. The prob- lem of the handling of by-products; questions of orchard management; storage, etc., call for greatly increased equip- ment. The constant appearance of new insect and fungous pests tax the resources of the Division of Entomology and Botany far beyond their present capacity. Additional men are needed in both of these departments for meeting these problems. The annual loss from wheat smut in the grain belt of Washing- ton makes this problem of pressing importance, and calls for increased funds and elforts toward its solution. Several animal diseases of the State of Washington are needing attention which the Division of Veterinary Science is unable to give on account of limited funds. The early development of agriculture in the State of 42 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Washington was in two localities; the high plateaus of the Palouse aiid Walla Districts in Eastern Washington, and certain- valleys in. the western portion of the state. Scien- tific assistance in these two districts has been provided for by the establishment of the main Exp.eriment Station at Pullman, and a well-equipped branch station at Puyallup. The last two decades, however, has seen the develop- ment of two almost entirely new lines of agriculture in the dryer portions of the upper Columbia valley. Here the agri- cultural problem is of two types; one in the region where there is not water for irrigation, a problem of dry land agriculture; the other, in the valleys of this district, an irrigation problem. With the present facilities at the com- mand of the Station, it is impossible to adequately cope with these two relatively new agricultural needs. There should be established two additional substations : one, for the study of the problem of dry land agriculture ; the other, for investigations in irrigation agriculture. These should be located with extreme care in typical dry land and irriga^ tion districts. The work conducted in the dry land station should be in connexion with the conservation of soil moist- ure, tillage, the weed problem, the testing and introduction of suitable varieties of crops, the encouragement of the live- stock industry, the encouragement of tree planting, and, in general, the improvement of the living conditions in this portion of the state. From this station a great deal of dem- onstration work should be conducted. The need of facilities for performing this work has become so pressing that a number of individuals interested contributed, heavily from their^ personal means for; the establishment of a private dem- onstration farm near Cunningham, Washington. While this farm has been productive of much good in its immediate vicinity, it is handicapped from lack of scientific supervision and facilities for the dissemination of the information ob- tained there. - . In the irrigation station there should be handled the various problems in connexion with fruit by-products, the duty .of water, the handling of drainage, the various . prob; lems concerned with the maintenance of soil fertility, and* the elimination of alkali, as well as the numerous i^roblems connected with- orchard management, fungous and insect pests, and general problems of farm management suitable to the irrigated districts. These two stations should be made sub-stations of the main station, thus giving them the advantage of the federal TWENTY-FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT 43 funds appropriated for the main station at Pullman and the advantages of the fundamental investigations conducted there; also the use of the franking privileges, and the elim- ination of the unnecessary duplication of effort and expense. Unless two such stations are established in the not very distant future, the great agricultural district included in the dry, central portion of our state is sure to be greatly handicapped in its economic development. When one real- izes that from a single shipping point in the Dry Belt more wheat has been shipped annually than from any other point in the world, and that from a single irrigated valley in this district agricultural products exceeding eight millions of dollars are produced annually, the importance of the upper Columbia River valley as a food-producing district is ap- parent. When one is also confronted with the fact that in many parts of this district the crop yields have greatly de- creased during the past few years, due to improper agricul- tural methods, the necessity of prompt, scientific aid in the development of this district becomes equally apparent. In addition to the above, there is greatly needed in the main station at Pullman, a glass house for conducting work in plant pathology and physiology, and an insectary for work upon the constantly increasing varieties of insect pests in the state. SUMMARY OF PORTION OF STATION WORK Number of Projects under Investigation Number of Farmers Co-operating Number of Pounds of New and Improved Seed Distributed Number of Plant Diseases Investigated Number of Newspapers Supplied with Material Weekly Editions of Bulletins Issued: Technical Popular Newspaper Number of Names Added to Mailing List During the Year Number of Names on Mailing List Number of Bulletins Distributed Upon Special Request Number of Pages of Printed Matter Distributed 6, Number of Personal Letters Written in Reply to Inquiries 43 510 35,602 38 450 2 18 36 4,640 22,405 25,346 500,000 23,350 FINANCIAL REPORT 44 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Total Receipts $39336.75 Total Expenditures.-- 38945.60 Balance ...$ 391.15 The following bulletins are available for distribution. They may be had without cost by addressing AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Pullman, Wash. General Bulletins* 74. — Two Insect Pests of the Elm. 78. — The Goat Industry in Western Washington. 79. — Steer Feeding Under East- ern Washington Conditions. 91. — Wheat and Flour Investi- gations — Crop of 1906-1907. 100. — Wheat and Flour Investi- gations. I — The Crops of 1908- 1909. II — The Composition and Milling Quality of Washington Wheats. Ill — A Simple Appa- ratus for Determining the Mill- ing Qualities of Wheats. 102. — Wheat and Flour Investi- gations. IV. 106. — The Penetration System of Spraying. 107. — Plant Diseases Induced by Sclerotinia Perplexa. 108. — Bluestem of the Black Raspberry. 109. — Twenty-second Annual Report. 110. — Commercial Fertilizers. 111. — The Chemical Composi- tion of Wheat. 112. — A Preliminary Report on Investigations of Red Water (Hematuria) of Cattle in Wash- ington. 113. — Plants used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range. 114. — A Report of the Results of the Continued Injections of Tuberculine Upon Tubercular Cattle. 115. — Studies on the Relation of Certain Species of Fusarium to the Tomato iSlight of the Pa- cific Northwest. 116. — The Quantitative Deter- minations of Mono, Di and Tri Calcium Phosphates and Their Application. 117. — Report on Fires Occur- ring in Threshing Separators in Eastern Washington During the Summer of 1914. 118. — Twenty -fourth Annual Report. Popular Bulletins 1. — Announcements. 14. — Planting an Apple Orch- ard. 19. — The Use of Fertilizer Lime. 23. — Trees in Washington. 26. — Currants for the Home Garden or Commercial Planta- tion. 29. — Milling v^uality of Wash- ington Wheats. II. 31. — Clover in the Palouse Country. 35. — Killing Ground Squirrels. 36. — Field Peas on a Palouse Wheat Farm. 37. — Commercial Fertilizers. 39. — The Milling Quality of Washington Wheats. III. 42. — Alfalfa Seed Production. 44. — Some Soil Fertility Prob- lems. 45. — The Control of the Cod- ling Moth. 46. — Silos and Silage. 47. — How to Make Bread from Soft Wheat Flours. 49. — Experiments in Fertiliz- ing Alfalfa. 51. — Commercial Arsenates of Lead and Lime Sulphur. 53. — Cause of Variation in Per Cent of Fat of Market Cream from Farm Separators. 54. — Preserving Eggs. 55. — Cleanliness and Cold as Applied to the Dairy. 56. — Fire Blight of Pear and Apple. 57. — Prune Growing in Wash- ington. 58. — Sheep for Washington Farms. 60. — Corn Growing in Wash- ington. 61. — The Peach Twig-Borer. 62. — Potato Growing. 63. — Swine. 64. — tVinter Sprays. 65. — “Fire Blight.” 66. — Onion Culture. 67. — Top Grafting of Fruit Trees. 68. — Report on Chemical Com- position of Wheat. 69. — Dry Farming in Washing- ton. 70. — The Alfalfa Weevil. 71. — Preparation of Fruit Ex- hibits. 72. — Handling Apples for Stor- ige. 73. — Stinking Smut of Wheat. 74. — Lice and Mites. 75. — The Babcock Test and Its A-pplication. 76. — Winter Egg Production. 77. — Spray Calendar for 1915. 78. — The San Jose Scale In- sect. Special Series 8. — The Cost of Clearing Land. Extension Series. 1. — Alfalfa Without Irrigation in Washington. 2. — How to Measure Water. 3. — Principles and Practice of Poultry Feeding. 4. — Forest Windbreaks as a Protection to the Light Soils of the Columbia River Basin. 5. — Sewage Disposal for Coun- try Homes. Extension bulletins are not mailed out to the regular mailing list addresses of the Experiment Station at the time of publication, but they will be sent to anyone making request for same. Requests for these extension bulletins should be addressed to the Extension Department of the State College. ♦The “General” bulletins are for the most part of a technical character. V STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIRECTOR’S OFFICE FirsSl Annual Report Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experiment For the Year Ending December 31, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 119 January, 1915 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BOARD OF REGENTS OF COLLEGE James C. Cunningham, President Spokane R. C. McCroskey, Vice President Garfield E. A. Bryan, (President of the College), Secretary Ex-Officio Pullman D. S. Troy Chimacum W. A. Ritz Walla Walla E. T. Coman Spokane DRY LAND DEPARTMENT STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. Director M. A. McCall, M. S Vice-Director Grover Burford Demonstrator Peter Jacquot 1 Demonstrator LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Pullman Washington, Jan. 30, 1915. President E. A. Bryan. State College of Washington, Pullman, Washington. Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith the report of the Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experiment from the organization of the Department, March 1, 1914, to December 31, 1914. Very respectfully submitted, IRA D. CARDIFF, Director. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT, DEPARTMENT OF DRY LAND DEMONSTRATION AND EXPERIMENT, STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON The Departuient of Dr> Land Demonstration and Ex- periment was organized l)y the Board of Regents of the State College in 1914. The establishment of this Depart- ment for agricultural investigation and extension was in response to a constantly increasing necessity for work in connection with the agricultui*e of the semi-arid portions of the state. One of the four great agricnltural districts of the State of AVashington is what is commonly known as the ‘‘Dry Belt,” a great area extending from the eastern slope of the Cascades on the west to near the 118th meridian on the east and from the Canadian to Oregon border. It in- cludes portions of the comities of Okanogan, Stevens, Ferry, Douglas, Lincoln, Adams, Grant, Kittitas, Yakima, Benton, Frankiin, Klickitat, Walla Walla, and Chelan. The district in question is entirely within the basin of the upper Co- lumbia river and with the exception of those districts which have been brought under irrigation it must for the most part be farmed according to what is known as “dry land methods” of agriculture. It is a region peculiarly adapted to the production of cereals and live stock and is a dis- trict of tremendous potential possibilities in these lines. Ritzville, a village located Avithin this district, at one time shipped larger quantities of Avheat than any other shipping point in the world. The importance of this district from the standpoint of food production and the general economic development of the commoiiAvealth makes it necessary that especial attention be given to the perfection of agricultural methods for the region. While methods of dry farming are relatively new, great advances have been made in this type of agriculture Avithin the last quarter of a century. HoAvevei’, most of the prac- tices and principles in these lines have been Avorked out in that type of dry land agriculture existing east of the Rockies; that is, in the Great Plains states. Dry land agri- 4 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT culture in the district east of the Rocky mountains, how- evei', presents decidedly different problems from that ex- isting in the basin of the upper Columl)ia. In the last men- tioned region the rainfall occurs mostly in the non-growing season; that is, in the late fall, winter and early spring; while east of the Rocky mountains the rainfall occurs pri- marily during the growing season of the crops. This fact alone is sufficient to render the problems radically different in the two districts. However, there are other differences. The climate is warmer in the upj^er Columbia basin and the soil is, for the most part, of a lighter and more sandy char- acter. These facts, together with the fact that a great deal of the farm land of the Washington dry belt has thus far been exploited rather than farmed, give us in the State of Washington an agricultural problem at once unique and difficult, one which will call for the best of ability and work for its solution. However, its solution is by no means a hopeless task. Given the necessary financial support and a little time and radical changes for the better will take place in this important agricultural district. ^^H^'or many years in a limited way important investi- gations in the principles underlying dry farming have been conducted by the State College. It can justly claim a large share in the progress in this type of farming in the state and in the nation. But limitation of funds made it impos- sible to do as much or in as extensive a way as the im- portance of the subject deserved. The attention of the Leg- islature was called repeatedly to this matter and small sums were from time to time given for this purpose. The state is deeply interested both directly and indirectly in the solu- tion of these problems for not only would progress mean increase in the taxable property and wealth of the state but the state is the direct owner of something like half a million acres of land lying in the arid and semi-arid belt. ‘‘A series of someAvhat disastrous years in the belt on the verge of cultivation and great increase in the prevalence of certain noxious weeds and the blowing of the soil brought matters to a focus in 1913. To such an extent had the dif- ficulties increased that some persons left their lands and gave up the struggle. In other cases, careful men produced fair crops and gave the hope that prudent farming might overcome the difficult}". In this situation, a group of gen- tlemen living in Eastern Washington and deeply interested 'Quoted from Biennial Report of the President, State College of Washington, 11)14. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 5 in the problems involved met with the Board of Regents” for the purpose of urging that greater attention be given to the agricultural and economical problems of the district. These gentlemen expressed their Avarin appreciation of the excellent Avork of the college in agricidture and other lines and especially commnded it for its spirit of friendship and co-operation in their efforts to solve the agricultural prob- lems of the state. The college Avas urged to attack the problems of the “volcanic ash” belt of Central AVashington Avith increased vigor and ascertain Avhat could be done in the Avay of in- troduction of drought resistant crops, improved methods of tillage, etc. It Avas pointed out by these gentlemen that as far back as 1899 these dry counties produced as high as 15,000,000 bushels of AAdieat annually, as against 5,000,000 bushels produced in the so-called Avet or normal counties in the extreme eastern portion of the state. In 1909 the dry counties produced 52,000,000 1)ushels, Avhile the normal coun- tiesof Eastern AYashington produced 8,000,000. In 1913 the production of Avheat in the dry counties had dropped to 27,- 000,000 bushels. These facts alone, it Avas urged, pointed to the great importance of this district economically and also to the necessity of agricultural investigation. These gentlemen pointed to the fact that farmers had settled in this district, raised large crops Avith little effort on the virgin soil, became OAmr-confident, increased their holdings and exploited the soil until it became deficient in humus and infected Avith Aveeds. thus resulting in agricultural dis- aster. due primarily to bloAving and Aveeds. It Avas pointed ont by this committee that the remedy for this condition Avas not to be expected in a day, that time Avas necessary to bring about a uoav system of agri- culture AAdiich Avould include diversihcation and live stock. After an explanation on the part of the College and Experi- ment Station officials as to Avhat aavos l)eing done and Avhat Avas planned for the agricultural development of this dis- trict primarily, thru the agency of the Experiment Station and the Bureau of Farm Development, the Board of Regents agreed that a neAv department of the college should be organized for handling this problem. The Board proposed that this department be organized Avith the Director of the Experiment Station as its head in order to closely cor- relate the Avork of the department Avith that of the Experi- ment Station and the Bureau of Farm Development and it Avas further planned that one or more experts Avho were 6 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT especially trained and who had especial experience in the handling of dry land problems should be employed. It Avas further agreed that especial efforts should be put forth by the Bureau of Barm Development in this work and also every assistance possible be given to the private demonstra- tion farm operated by the above mentioned gentlemen at Cunningham, Washington. Further work in connection Avith tree planting, intro- duction of live stock, XAublication of dry land bulletins, etc., Avere agreed upon for the current year, all of Avhich were to be considei’ed as temporary arrangements for the pur- pose of handling these problems until the Legislature could convene and provide adequate financial support for the e(iuipnient of the branch Experiment Station in the dry belt. On March 1st, Mr. H. E. GoldsAvorthy Avas appointed Vice Director of the Department to have immediate charge of the field Avork. Mr. OoldsAvorthy Avas raised' on the edge of the dry belt, had been technically trained in the State College of AVashington and had had several years’ success- ful experience in dry land farming on a large scale in Alberta. The problems, therefore, Avere not new to him. HoAvever, owing to circumstances unforseen at the time of his employment, Mr. ColdsAvorthy unfortunately found it necessary to suddenly resign from his position in June. Mr. ColdsAvorthy ’s head(iuarters Avere temporarily established at Lind. He Avas provided Avith an automobile and started the Avork at once. Manifest!}' one of his first problems Avas to acciuaint himself Avith the farming conditions and needs of the dry territory. Therefore, a good deal of time the first feAv months Avas devoted to this line of work; at the same time a great deal of assistance Avas given farmers in various localities by means of individual advice and sug- gestion. SURVEY BY COUNTIES A sui'Amy Avas made of that portion of the dry belt lying chiefly in Adams, Franklin, Grant, Douglas, Benton, and Walla AValla counties. Adams County. — Adams county possesses a marked va- riety of conditions. Land north and Avest of Ritzvillc and from llitzville east and south in the direction of, and in- cluding. Ralston and Washtuena and also what is knoAvn as Michigan Prairie and Rattle Snake Flats, comprises the better part of the county. This land is light and to some FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 7 extent subject to blow. However, not to the extent that obtains in the remainder of the county. It was found that fall tillage is quite generally prac- ticed throughout this district, resulting in the conservation of winter moisture and also the destruction of the Russian thistle. In the spring the land is usually plowed and har- rowed early, most of the plowing being done in April. In the southwest portion of the county the rainfall is less and the soil much lighter than in the above mentioned district. The soil blowing problem is greatly intensified. In fact, it is the chief agricultural problem of this district. Many devices are used to prevent the blow. It was found that fall tillage is not practiced to the extent that it should be. Early spring plowing or disking is found to give much better results than the later plowing. Of course, through- out this entire district summer fallow on alternate years is the necessary custom. It was found that many of the farmers plow with the mole boards off, thus leaving the trash on top of the land and in this manner preventing the blow. With reference to seeding, it was found that the best results are obtained by waiting until a few days after the rains come in the fall, then cultivating to kill the young weeds and seeding immediately following. Franklin County. — Northern Franklin county corre- sponds to southern Adams, being better in the eastern than in the western portion. The rainfall gradually decreases farther south till from Eltopia southward little farming is done except under irrigation. In the northern portion of the count}" the farming operations and soil conditions are much the same as described for southeastern Adams county. Throughout this district there seems to be a growing senti- ment in favor of the production of live stock and the grow- ing of winter rye for forage. A good many of the farmers are going into the hog business and a number are raising hogs. Grant County. — The section of Grant county that lies east of Moses Lake from Warden north to Wheeler and thru toward the line of the Great Northern railway is the section in which agricultural conditions seem to be fairly good. The district is inhabited largely by German Russians. The farms are well tilled , the weeds kept down and the people are industrious, tho many of them are handicapped from lack of ability to use the English language. They are good farmers and are getting good results. DRY LAND DEPARTMENT In northern Grant county the soil is heavier and less subject to blow. The rainfall is somewhat greater and the agricultural conditions are promising tho the country is broken considerably by scab land. Douglas County. — A considerable portion of Douglas county has a heavy black soil with a rainfall of 12 or 13 inches. The dry land problems of this county are less severe than those farther to the south; that is, Grant, western Adams and Franklin counties. The blowing of the soil is not a serious problem unless the land is farmed in a care- less manner. It is found that some of the most successful farmers in this region plow fairly early, about six or seven inches deep, following the plow with a packer. Weeding is frequently done with a spring tooth harrow. Those farmers who put a large amount of work upon their land and do not try to farm too large areas seem to be getting the best results and larger prolits. Such crops as alfalfa, peas, corn, etc., do reasonably well in this district. 0]ie of the chief problems of the county is that of transportation. Farmers are obliged to haul their grain long distances to market. It is the opinion that the intro- duction of live stock and the feeding of a large portion of the products of the farm Avill solve this problem. Benton County. — This countj^ contains tAvo dry land dis- tricts — the Horse Heaven country to the south of the Yakima river and the Rattle Snake Hills to the north. In the dry land region of this county the population is sparse, aver- aging perhaps half a dozen families to the township. Care- less methods of farming on the part of some farmers have resulted in great inroads being made by the Russian thistle and the tumbling mustard. There is a great deal of vacant land and the blow prol)]em is serious. Those farmers Avho are raising some hogs and other live stock are the more successful. Tillage, whether disking or ploAving, is done to a depth of only a feAv inches. That there are agricultural possibilities in these districts is evi- dent from the fact that some farmers haAm lived here for long periods of years and haAm made a success of it. One of the great handicaps of this district is the depth to Avhich one must drill for Avater. It becomes necessary to haul Avater, in many cases, considerable distances. Walla Walla County. — The dry land sections of Walla Walla county lie in its northern part. Around Atkins and west to the river, also along the river to the north, the FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 9 soil is very light sand and subject to blow. Around Eureka and from here north and east the soil is heavier and good crops are raised. The blow problem is not serious, nor is the weed problem. It is possible to handle the weeds, for the most part, Avith the harrow. Alfalfa and peas do Avell in this district. Conditions here could probably be greatly improved by more fall tillage. Owing to the limited time it was not possible to com- plete an adequate survey of the entire dry district. No work being done in Ferry, Okaiiogan, Kittitas, Yakima, Lin- coln or Klickitat counties. It is belieA'Cd that the one factor that will contribute most to the agricultural improvement of this district is the more extensive production of live stock. The farm of medium size which has a bunch of hogs, a few dairy cows, Avork stock — Avhich is mares raising colts — a good poultry yard, etc., is the farm that pays. The quite general idea that the lack of forage crops make live stock raising impossible is an erroneous one. In the drier portions of the district where alfalfa, corn or peas are not possible, Avinter rye can be grown for forage. SAA^eet clover also probably has great possibilities, tho its groAvth is someAAdiat in the experimental stage, as is also the case of Sudan grass. In many portions of this region the pit silo can be used to good advantage, Avith Avheat or rye as silage. In the better portions of the dry belt, as mentioned above, alfalfa, peas, corn, sorghums, etc., aauII make live stock production a profitable industry. CO-OPERATIVE WORK A good deal of the Avork of the department during the forepart of the year AA^as carried on in co-operation with the county agriculturist. Arrangements Avere made for car- rying on co-operative Avork Avith a number of farmers, AA^hich Avork is being continued. Especial attention aauis given to placing farmers in touch with sources of information for agricultural assistance. Some tAAmnty farmers’ meetings of various kinds AA^ere held for the purpose of encouraging better farming and making a closer study of the agricul- tural problems of the district. The fact that the work was started during the ‘Svork season” prevented more activity along this line. Early in the summer arrangements Avere made thru public spirited citizens of WaterAulle for the use of an 80- acre tract of land near this toAvn for experiments in dry land agriculture, especially in the testing of cereal and 10 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT forage crops. Grover S. Burford was placed in charge of this work, a portion of the land was gotten into condi- tion for experimental work and a number of fall crops planted. It is planned during the coming spring to gi’eatly enlarge the work at this point, especially the work on forage crops and, if possible, secure the co-operation of the United States Department of Agriculture in connection with the work here. Early in the spring a considerable amount of co-oper- ative work was started in tree planting throughout the dry belt. The department had in mind two purposes in this work ; one, the use of trees to prevent the blowing of the soil in the dry district; the other, improvement in the gen- eral comfort and appearance of the farm home. Approx- imately 40,000 trees were thus distributed. These consisted chiefly of honey locust, black locust, and Kussian olive to- gether with a limited number of fruit trees. Following the resignation of Mr. Goldsworthy, M. A. McCall was appointed to the vacancy in the Vice Director’s office, taking up the work October 1st. Peter Jacquot was also added to the staff as Assistant Demonstrator for the Benton county district. Demonstrations and general assist- ance were carried on in Benton county. A general survey was made of the field and plans were effected for prose" cuting the work actively during the coming season. During the fall months practically every farmer in Horse Heaven was visited and induced to take up some line of co-operative tillage work. A portion of these men more fortunately situ- ated as regards conditions of their farms, are undertaking cropping trials with forage crops. The result of the fall’s work in the Horse Heaven district has been quite satisfac- tory. To quote a local capitalist: ‘‘More and better fall work for summer fallow has been done in the Horse Heaven this past season than ever before.” This is directly attribut- able to the efforts of the Department. Two meetings were also held in the Horse Heaven, each having an attendance of twenty-five, a very good attendance considering the thinly settled character of the country. At various places throughout the Dry Belt pure blooded live stock was placed at the disposal of the farmers by the Department. A Duroc boar and two sows, and also a “dual purpose” Shorthorn bull were placed with W. W. Haile on the private demonstration farm at Ounningham. and a Tam worth boar and sow were placed with Peter Timm, and a Duroc boar with Kelso Brothers in Horse Heaven. The FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 11 services of these animals are free to any farmer and have been made use of to a certain extent. All boar progeny from sows so placed are to be further distributed. PLANS FOR FUTURE WORK Because of the ver^^ general and indefinite nature of the Avork to date a detailed report is almost out of the (ques- tion for the past year’s operations. However, the follow- ing brief outline will indicate the plans of the Department for the coming season : Co-operative Trials and Demonstrations: A. Tillage — 1. Fall disking compared Avith leaving the land in stubble over Avinter. 2. Fall ploAAung compared Avith spring ploAving. 3. Early spring disking before plowing as compared Avith undisked land late ploAved. 4. Early spring vs. late ploAving. 5. Clean tillage of summer fallow vs. Aveeds. 6. Fall listing a^s. ploAving for light soils tending to drift. 7. Deep ploAving vs. shalloAv nloAving. 8. Special tillage methods for controlling soil drifting. 9. The use of press Avheel drills in seeding vs. drills Avithout press Avheels. 10. Spring cultiAmtion of fall seeded crops Avith trials of the Hallock Aveeder for this purpose as com- pared Avith the harroAv. 11. Introduction and trial of any ncAv and promising tillage implement. 12. Moisture observations to demonsti’ate the relative* efficiency of various methods. B. Cropping— 1. Alfalfa: (a) Trials of the Baltic Amriety seeded in roAvs thirty-five inches apart for forage purposes. (b) Trials of the Baltic vaidety seeded in roAvs for seed. ComparatiAm trials of plants at various distances apart in the rows for seed production. 12 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT 2. Sweet Clover : (a) Seeded in rows for forage. (b) As above for alfalfa for seed. 8. Field Peas (Rainfall 10 Lnclies or More) : (a) Seeded in double rows thirty-five inches apart for seed production. (b) Seeded in double rows thirty-five inches apart to be hogged or sheeped off. 4. Sudan Grass : (a) Seeded in rows to be tested both for forage and seed purposes, especially where too dry to produce alfalfa or sweet clover to ad- vantage. 5. Feterita : (a) Where temperatures are high enough to war- rant and especially on sandy soils at lower elevations to be tried for forage and seed purposes. 6. Proso : (a) A drought resistant millet to be tried for seed and forage. 7.. Winter Vetch and Rye: (a) To be tried for forage and seed purposes on sandy soils with a tendency to drift, espe- cially. 8. Rye : (a) Encouraging the growing of rye under more extreme conditions and introducing and tiy- ing improved strains and varieties. 9. Rape : (a) Under more favorable conditions to be tried as a source of continuous summer succulent forage for hogs and sheep. 10. Corn : (a) Tests of Experiment Station varieties, Thay- er’s Dent and Windus’ White Dent, as com- pared with locals. (b) Tests for hogging off corn. (c) Corn for silage. 11. Wheat: (a) Where advisable trials of new and improved varieties against the ones commonly grown. Tnti'oduction of such where deemed advisable. (b) Lighter seeding, 30 lb. to 45 lb. per acre, as compared with customary seeding at one FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 13 bushel or more. (c) Trials of tlu^ effect of careful seed grading and treatment. 12. Barley : (a) As a grain crop under more favorable rain- fall. (b) Hogging down of the crop. 13. Enimer : (a) Both winter and spring varieties for feed crops under more extreme conditions. Preliminary to the co-opei‘ative work in various crop- ping trials orders have been .placed for considerable quan- tities of the less common of these seeds, Baltic alfalfa, sweet clover, Sudan grass, Proso, Feterita, vetch, and field peas. Where possible the co-operator is expected to pay for seed used unless the trial is decidedly in the nature of an ex- periment. C. Miscellaneous — 1. Distribution and a supervision of tree plantings foi* Avindbreak trials (17,000 trees have been se- cured thru the Forestry Department of theOollege) 2. Placing of pure bred live stock for the service of dry belt farmers. 3. Encouraging the use of all straAv and manure pro- duced on the farm. Trials to demonstrate proper methods for using and handling same for profit and to prevent soil blowing. Trials of the straw spreader. 4. Co-operative poultry work. 5. General improA^ement of farm conditions from the social and living standpoint. 6. Consideration of problems of farm management under dry belt conditions. 7. Silos and silage possibilities for the dry belt. 8. Soil examination and sampling. Collection of representative soils, grasses and Aveeds. 9. Kain gauges are being placed at various points in the dry belt and attention will be given to the collection of complete and adequate data in regard to rainfall for the entire dry district. This briefiy outlines the phases of co-operative work to be undertaken during the succeeding season. As yet co- operative trials are, from limited facilities, the only type possible, altho there is much to be desired in the way of a 14 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT more technical study of dry belt problems. From the limited survey already made it would appear that soil as well as moisture conditions play a very important part in deter- mining the severity of conditions to be met and a soil survey of the Central Washington area would do much to aid in giving correct recommendations. It is desired that those who are interested in the agri- culture of the dry belt send the names of parties who may prove suitable co-operators to this Department. These par- ties will be communicated with and if advisable plans of co-operation arranged for. An agreement in writing will be reciuired from each in order that as nearly an exact ful- fillment of instructions as possible may be secured. Records are kei^t of all trials and all results are in such shape that a full and complete, report is possible. NEEDS OF THE DRY BELT The needs of dry land agriculture in Washington are great. They may be grouped under four heads, as follows : First Improved Methods of Tillage; second, Introduction of Live Stock; third. Improved Crops, especially forage crops; and, fourth. Better Living Conditions in and About the Farm Homes. Improved Methods of Tillage. — With reference to the first of these there is needed a considerable amount of in- vestigational work along the line of moisture requirements of plants, the handling of soil to conserve moisture and fer- tility, and prevent blowing. Considerable investigation has been carried on in this line, but much remains to be done. There is also great need of the dissemination among the farmers of the knowledge already obtained. Investigations in this connection must be carried on primarily in the Dry Belt. Introduction of Live Stock. — The more extensive produc- tion of live stock will undoubtedly solve many of the agri- cultural problems of this district. This problem is one Avhich calls for propaganda Avork rather than investigation. It can best be made by rendering assistance to farmers in obtain- ing and selecting stock and giving instruction for the caring of the same and production of suitable feed. The state can Avell afford to expend some money in the introduction of good stock for breeding purposes into this district. The use of this stock should be carefully supei*vised by members of the Department staff, and the stock placed Avhere it Avill do the most good. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 15 Improved Crops. — Perhaps the j>reatest need in the Dry Belt at the present time is investigation to determine the forage crops most suited to the district. New and prom- ising forage crop plants are constantly being introduced into the country or being produced by plant breeders within the country. These should be tested out under the crop con- ditions of our Dry Belt and distributed among the farmers first in an experimental way, and later, if satisfactory ex- tensively encouraged. This work of crop testing and breed- ing of agricultural plants can he carried on adequately only by the establishment of a branch Experiment Station in the Dry Belt. This, then, becomes the greatest need of this district. The establishment of such a station will go far toward solving many of the problems of the district. Improved Living Conditions. — One of the difficulties con- nected with the dry land agricultui*e in Washington is the lack of home conveniences and comforts on the farm. As one travels over this district farmhouse after farmhouse is passed wuthout seeing a tree or shrub growing near. The houses themselves are frecpiently poorly constructed, and anything but homelike. The general planting of trees both for shade and fruit about the farm homes will do much to ameliorate living conditions. Much also may be done by the encouragement of poultiy raising, gardening, and work along the line of home economics ; for upon many of these farms which are more remotely situated from the main lines of travel, the life of the wmnien and children must be far from attractive. Their nearest neighbors are frequently two or three miles distant. Anything, therefore, w'hich can be done to improve living conditions will tend to render the tenancy of the land more stable and greatly improve the economic conditions of the country as a whole. To sum up : the needs are of twm-fold character. First, there is great need of investigation in the lines above mentioned. This can only be done by the establish- ment of a branch Experiment Station. Second, the need for dissemination among the farmers of the knowledge already in possession of Experiment Sta- tions. or to be obtained from the new station. This can best be accomplished by field men, working directly with the farmers as demonstrators and can be most feasibly ac- complished by the employment of county agriculturists. Each county in the Dry Belt should employ a competent agriculturist. Fortunately, many of the dry land counties 16 DRY LAND DEPARTMENT have already done so, and important results have been ob- tained from the work of these men. In the establishment of a braneh Experiment Station, great care should be exercised in locating the same. It should be borne in mind that the station is to be located not for a few years, but probably for centuries, and will become a relatively permanent state institution. It, there- fore, should be located wdiere it can best aid in the solu- tion of all the problems of the Dry Belt. Local influence, local contributions, etc., should have relatively small part in the location of such a station. FINANCIAL STATEMENT The following is the financial statement for the Depart- ment up to the end of the calendar year, 1914 •. Salaries $1,205.51 Labor 145.70 Freight and' Express 59.96 Office Bent, etc 180.42 Postage, Telephone, and Telegraph 59.33 Automobile 632.25 Furniture and Fixtures 145.95 Books 26.50 Traveling Expenses 463.41 Auto Repairs and Gasoline 317.59 Live Stock 235.00 TOTAL EXPENDITURES $3,471.67 STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIRECTOR’S OFFICE Fir^t Annual Report Bureau of Farm Development For the Year Ending December 31, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 120 January, 1915 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D Byron Hunter, M. A T. J. Newbill E. N. Miller, M. S Geo. A. Nelson, B. S Lee M. Lampson, B. S Roy G. Adams, B. A J. R. Shinn, B. S O. Virgil Patton, B. S Albert M. Richardson, B. S. James A. Hughes, B. S Floyd W. Rader, B. S O. C. Van Houten, B. S Director Vice Director State Leader of Boys^ and Girls’ Club Work ^.Farm Management Demonstrat or Agriculturist for Wahkiakum Co. Agriculturist for Benton Co. Agriculturist for Adams Co. Agriculturist for Spokane Co. Agriculturist for Walla Walla Co. Agriculturist for Douglas Co. Agriculturist for Okanogan Co. Agriculturist for King Co. Agriculturist for Thurston Co. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Pullman, Washington, January 31, 1915. ✓ Honorable Ernest Lister, Governor, Olympia, Washington. Sir: I beg leave to submit herewith the First Annual Report of the Washington Bureau of Farm Development for the calendar year 1914. On account of the fact that the Bureau did not come into legal existence until the middle of the year 1913, the work of that year was largely of a preliminary character, and has been embodied in the report of the year 1914. The report is made in considerable detail because of the fact that the work is relatively new in the State and its char- acter unknown to many. Very respectfully submitted, IRA D. CARDIFF, Director. First Annual Report of the Washington Bureau of Farm Development ^^The most important piece of legislation passed by the last Legislature was the Act creating the Bureau of Farm Development,” states the Washington Commission on Rural Credits in making its report to the Governor. Such a state- ment, coming from men of experience and insight into agri- cultural and industrial affairs, is significant. Strange to say, too little is known of this most important piece of legislation. According to said Act, this Bureau “shall consist of the Director of the Experiment Station of the State College of Washington, Avho shall be Director thereof, and of the Boards of the County Commissioners of all counties of the State of AVashington desiring to partici- pate therein.” It is further provided in this law that “The Board of County Commissioners of any county may, by re- quest in writing, apply to the Director of the Bureau of Farm Development, who shall appoint and assign to such counties a competent agricultural expert.” And further, “Such experts shall give individual instruction and conduct experimental work with the object of improving the agri- cultural methods and conditions of their counties, and shall perform such other duties as may be required subject to the general supervision and control of the Director of the Bureau of Farm Development.” The general purposes of the framers of this Bill is to place directly in the hands of the farmer the successful methods and practices that have been determined by the Experiment Stations of the country, and in such a way that the farmer can readily understand and make use of these methods. The County Agriculturist, as this official has been desig- nated, also observes local conditions and the best farm prac- tices of his community and as he travels from place to place disseminates this information among all farmers of the com- munity. Investigations of the United States Department of Agri- culture during the last six or eight years have revealed the 6 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT fact that not over 50 per cent of the farmers make any use of the scientific results and practices in agriculture which have been worked out by the Experiment Stations, the United States Department of Agriculture, and other agencies interested in scientific investigation. Heretofore it has been the practice to disseminate this information very largely by means of instruction in Agricultural Colleges, bulletins, news- papers, demonstration trains. Farmers’ Institutes, etc. While many of these agencies have been very efficient in their re- spective lines of agricultural extension work, the- fact still remains that half the farmers have not come in contact with any of them. These investigations conducted by the United States De- partment of Agriculture also reveal the fact that the differ- ence between success and failure on most farms can more often be attributed to management or mismanagement than to any other one cause ; for instance, two farmers will be living neighbors under like conditions of soil and climate with like capital invested and like equipment upon their farms. One will make a profit each year; the other operate his farm at a loss. The difference is largely one of man- agement or organization of the various enterprises of the farm and the facility with which one makes use of modern agricultural practices. As a result of these findings by the United States De- partment of Agriculture, experiments were started in various parts of the United States to test the value of a local ‘‘Farm Adviser,” “Farm Demonstrator,” “Itinerant Teacher,” “Agent” or “Agriculturist,” as he is called in various com- munities. A careful study was made by these local men of farms or groups of farms in their respective communities and each and every factor involved in the general profit- ableness of the farm was carefully considered. The Farm Adviser or Agriculturist was then in a position to make sug- gestions in regard to improvement. These experiments in agricultural extension work were tried for several years and in every case were unqualifiedly successful. Farms which have long been operating at a loss were converted into profitable business-like concerns. As a result, a popular widespread movement started for the adoption of this method of the dissemination of agricultural knowledge. The State of Washington provided for this work thru the organization of the Bureau of Farm Development, as mentioned above. The last session of the National Congress also passed the Smith-Lever Bill providing federal assistance FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 7 for this type of work, to be conducted thru the co-operation of the agricultural colleges of the several states. The movement to employ an experienced, practical and scientifically trained agriculturist for each county had its beginning in this state in the fall of 1912, previous to the organization of the Bureau. In November of that year a man was employed for Wahkiakum County. The United States Department of Agriculture and the Pamona Grange provided $1440 and $760 respectively toward his salary and expenses. Other counties attempted to take up the work at that time but found it difficult to raise the funds by pri- vate subscription. In the first two counties to operate under this law a portion of the necessary funds for salary and expenses was raised by private subscriptions. The balance of the funds was provided by the County Commissioners by taxation. In the next five counties that took up the work the entire amount necessary for salary and expenses was pro- vided by the County Commissioners. Inasmuch as the Bureau did not come into existence until June 1, 1913, many counties were not prepared to take up the work during that year. On the first of January, 1914, the State College provided the necessary funds for the employment of a Vice Director, who has immediate super- vision of the work of the various County Agriculturists. The Bureau was fortunate in securing for this position a man who had had training and experience in this line of work with the United States Department of Agriculture, and one who understands the agricultural problems of the state. On July 1, 1914, funds from the Smith-Lever Bill and the annual appropriation to the United States Department of Agriculture became available for this” work. From these two sources the State College is now putting approximately $75 per month into each of the counties employing an agri- culturist. The County Commissioners, by taxation, provide the rest of the necessary funds. In August, 1914, provision was further made thru the State College and the United States Department of Agri- culture for the co-operative employment of a Farm Manage- ment Demonstrator who gives his time exclusively to the problems of farm management and farm organization, work- ing only in those counties which have become members of the Bureau. On September 1st of the same year thru the additional co-operation of the State College and the United States De- 8 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT partment of Agriculture, the Bureau employed a State Leader of Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work, who has charge of the agri- cultural and industrial work in so far as it applies to boys and girls. Here again the Bureau was especially fortunate in securing a man of wide and successful experience in this line of work. The Bureau is also employing additional demonstrators in dairying, club work, and other lines, who will give espe- cial aid to the County Agriculturists in their respective counties. Up to date nine counties of the state have joined the Bureau, as follows : Adams, Benton, Douglas, King, Okan- ogan, Spokane, Thurston, Wahkiakum. Walla Walla. In two of these (King and Thurston), however, work has been conducted but a short time. King commencing the work October 15th, 1914, and Thurston January 1st of the present year. It would have been possible to have placed agricul- turists in more counties than this but it was felt by those in charge of the work as well as by officials of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, co-operating, that the work should not be pushed too rapidly at the outset. The work for the state is, to some extent, a new departure and to have rushed a large force of men into the field without adequate supervision would have meant certain failure in some counties. As it was, great care was exercised in the selection of men, only men of thoro technical training and a considerable amount of practical experience have been ap- pointed. As soon as a man is appointed in a county he is given a large amount of assistance and supervision, thus in- suring the efficiency of the work from the start. Agricultural development is slow and considerable time is usually required in order to make sufficient progress to demonstrate the value of the work. The County Agricul- turist must deal with mature minds that have met the prob- lems of life in their own waj^s, minds that demand practical results immediately. In starting and developing the work in any county experience, not only in this state but other states as well, has thoroughly demonstrated that the fol- lowing are highly important: 1. Before an agriculturist is employed for any county, a good number of the farming population should be in favor of the work. In order to secure this approval the farmers must be led to understand reasonably well the char- FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 9 acter of the work to be done, and the part that they have to perform in its prosecution. 2. When the work is undertaken in a county the matter should be adequately financed for at least two years. The County Agriculturist must be given sufficient time to get work under way that will show the value of the movement. In some counties this can be done in a few months while in others two or more years may be needed. 3. The supervising institutions, the State College and the U. S. Department of Agriculture should contribute mar terially to the funds for the work in each county. 4. The man selected as County Agriculturist should be reliable, competent, experienced and scientifically trained in agriculture. The best material available is needed for this work. To organize from 2000 to 3000 farmers into working units and apply the available agricultural information to their needs and demands is no small undertaking. It re- quires leadership of a high order. In order to employ an Agriculturist the Board of Com- missioners makes application in writing to the Director of the Bureau of Farm Development for the appointment of a man."®^ The Board of County Commissioners has the right to reject all appointments until a man is secured that is satisfactory to it. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1915, the State College and the U. S. Department of Agri- culture jointly contribute $75 per month to the salary of each county agriculturist. The Board of County Commis- sioners provides the remainder of funds necessary for salary and expenses of the agriculturist. While it would seem from this arrangement that the county pays a disproportionately large share of the expense, such is *not in reality the case. The salary of the director and the expenses of the office are borne by the State College. The work in each county is supervised by the Vice Director, whose salary and expenses are paid jointly by the State College and U. S. Department of Agriculture. In addition to this supervision the work of the county agriculturist has been further strengthened by the joint employment, by the State College and U. S. Department of Agriculture, of a Farm Management Demon- strator, a State Leader in Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work, and other special demonstrators who work practically exclu- sively in those counties which have joined the Bureau. The State College and the U. S. Department of Agriculture also *See Appendix, page 34. 10 bureau of farm development furnish stenographic help, offices and office equipment, post- age and stationery, and pay traveling expenses of all of these officials. The total amount thus expended in support of the work considerably exceeds the total expended by the counties which have joined the Bureau. Upon taking up his work the County Agriculturist be- gins a systematic study of the agricultural conditions of his county. He searches out the most reliable and successful farmers, visits them on their farms, studies their methods and practices in detail and learns their viewpoint of the agricultural problems of the county. Such a study reveals the agricultural needs and local problems. It shows the line or lines along which the agriculture of the county should be directed. The successful methods and practices learned in this way are passed on from farm to farm. During recent years the various state experiment sta- tions and the United States Department of Agriculture have worked out a mass of agricultural data which, if properly put into farm practice, would result in a tremendous finan- cial gain to the farmers and the country as a whole. In the past this information has not reached the farmer in an effective way. The Experiment Station bulletins of one state are seldom sent to farmers of other states and com- paratively few farmers make use of the bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture or their own State Experiment Station. The County Agriculturist acts as a clearing house for all this information. He receives the bulletins issued by the various State Experiment Stations and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. He sifts this in- formation and applies and disseminates that which is ap- plicable to the local conditions of his county. This is done by farm demonstrations, personal farm visitations, the dis- tribution of bulletins, lectures, institutes, short courses, and writing circular letters and newspaper articles. The study of local conditions frequently reveals prob- lems that require careful scientific investigation. Being a representative of both the State Agricultural College and the U. S. Department of Agriculture, the County Agricul- turist calls the attention of these two institutions to the problems he cannot handle himself. In this way the county receives the services of specialists on specific problems. Perhaps the Agriculturist can render the greatest service to his county as a leader and organizer. He furnishes the necessary enthusiasm to inspire action. He leads the people to concentrate upon the essential things. He organizes his FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 11 county so that he can deal with groups instead of indi- viduals. This is especially essential in counties containing from 1000 to 3000 farms. RESULTS BY COUNTIES The main lines of work undertaken in the different counties varies considerably. This is due to the wide varia- tion in the climatic conditions, types of farming and agri- cultural possibilities of the counties of the state. In prac- tically every county in which we are now operating a very large per cent of the men’s time is consumed in giving advice and handling matters upon which a measure of value cannot adequately be placed. In spite of this, however, problems that are of fundamental importance are taken up in each county. The following discussion deals only with the more important of these problems. Adams and Douglas Counties. The rainfall of Adams County varies from approxi- mately 8 inches in the western end of the county to 12 inches in the eastern end. The soil of much of the county, especially the western portion, is light and subject to blow- ing. Tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum L.) and Rus- sian thistle (Salsola Tragus) are very troublesome pests. In Douglas County the altitude is higher; the rainfall is from 2 to 4 inches greater and a much smaller propor- tion of the land is subject to bloAving. Some of the agri- cultural problems that are most vital and to Avhich the two county agriculturists have given particular attention during the year are as folloAvs : 1. The control of blow soils. 2. The control of Aveeds. 3. Determination of the forage crops best suited to these counties and hoAv to use and groAv them. 4. Determining the most satisfactory methods of sum- mer fallow tillage. The scant rainfall of these two counties and the lia- bility of much of the soil to bhnv makes the solution of these problems Ycvy difficult. Comparative studies of the methods and results of the most successful farmers with reference to these problems have been made. The information gathered in this way to- gether Avith the experimental and demonstrational work of the season has shoAvn that bloAv soils can usually be con- trolled (a) by proper tillage and (b) by substituting stock raising for the summer falloAv wheat system. The year’s 12 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT work has also shown the methods and principles that must be observed in controlling weeds. Farmers in various parts of the county are co-operating in growing forage crops. Alfalfa in rows, sweet clover and Sudan grass gave very promising results the past season. During the past season the work, of necessity, has been largely investigational. The coming season it will assume a more positive form. It will be more purely demonstra- tional. Benton County In Benton County there are two distinct types of farm- ing, irrigated and non-irrigated. Since the Dry Land De- partment of the State College has a special representative who is giving his entire time to the dry farming districts of the county, the County Agriculturist has given most of his attention to the irrigated farming. When the Agricul- turist began work in May, 1913, orcharding and alfalfa production for the market were the prominent features of the agriculture of the county. Many of the alfalfa fields were so badly infested with so-called “wild cheat” that the quality of the hay was seriously damaged. The price of hay was also so low that there was little profit in its pro- duction. The irrigated soils of the county are naturally deficient in organic matter and nitrogen. This condition was further aggravated by the fact that the majority of the orchards were given clean cultivation. Many of the orchardists were having difficulty in making a living be- cause they were relying too much upon the fruit crop as a source of income. With these conditions duly considered the following were made the principal lines of work during the past season: 1. Building up the fertility of the soil with green manures and cover crops. 2. Building up the hog and dairy industries. 3. The production of corn for ensilage and grain feed. 4. Keeping cheat under control in alfalfa fields. Much interest has been manifested along all these lines. The use of cover crops is becoming very general. In the past the hog and dairy industries have been seriously handi- capped for the want of a grain crop. This want is being met by the production of corn. The acreage of corn grown in the county this year is ten times that of any previous year. Eighteen months ago the number of silos in the county was seven, while at the present time there are forty- Fig. I. A Benton County hog excursion party inspecting the farrowing pens of Kraber Brothers, Finley, Washington. Lee M. Lampson, Agriculturist for Benton County, conducted the excursion. During the day five hog farms were visited. 14 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT two. During the past year eighteen farmers- carried on demonstrations to control cheat in alfalfa. This is done by disking the field thoroughly in the early fall and sowing a bushel of winter wheat per acre. The wheat, if started early in the fall, prevents the growth of the cheat. Okanogan County In Okanogan County approximately 22,000 acres of irri- gated land has been planted to orchards. The average age of the trees is four years, from date of planting. Very generally these orchards are owned by parties having no previous horticultural training or experience. Many of them are non-residents who hire their work done. The pruning, spraying and orchard management in general has been carried on in most cases upon the paid advice of consulting horticulturists. Such advice is usually expensive. In some instances it has been satisfactory, and vice versa. One of the chief objects the County Commissioners had in view when they called for the appointment of a County Agriculturist was the placing of the orchard industry on a more substantial basis. That is, they desired to make the individual growers more independent. In addition to this the planting season was practically over when the work was begun in Okanogan County, which commenced April 20. Because of these conditions the major portion of the work this season has been devoted to orchard management. There has been two principal phases to the orchard work; 1. The control of orchard pests. 2. The encouragement of the use of cover crops. The work on fire blight will serve to illustrate the first of these. In the Wenatchee and Cashmere districts to the south and in the Penticton district in British Columbia to the north, fire blight has been playing havoc for several years. This year it made its appearance in five places in Okanogan County. The orchardists became very much alarmed and a great blight scare prevailed. Everyone imagined his orchard was affected and was anxious for the County Agriculturist to visit his orchard to be sure that there was no blight or other contagions diseases. In one week 162 calls were made asking for orchard inspection. During the season, 720 farms Avere visited. By prompt action in cutting, burning and disinfecting, the blight was apparently stamped out of the five orchards. In order to teach the growers hoAv to recognize and fight blight, three blight excursions were made to Penticton, British Columbia, culturist for Okanogan County. 16 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT where they saw the real blight and blight fighting. Auto- mobile owners donated the use of their cars for the good of the cause and 130 interested men made the trip. These men were selected so that there would be someone in every community who knows blight. The orchard soils of Okanogan County, like those of Benton, need building up in organic matter. In many of the orchards cover crops were already being grown. By taking well-managed orchards as illustrations a constant campaign has been carried on for cover crops and against clean cultivation. As a result, it is estimated that there has been an increase of 25 per cent in the use of cover crops. Beginning February 1st pruning schools will be held as follows: Two weeks on the Reclamation Project at Omak; one week on Brewster Flats, and one week in the Methow Valley near Carleton, Washington. These schools will be conducted in co-operation with Messrs. Clawson and Barn- hill of the State Department of Agriculture and instructors from the State College. Those in attendance will be drilled in pruning trees of different ages beginning with one-year- old trees. Spokane County Spokane County, it is estimated has $30,000,000 invested in the apple industry. During the season of 1913 the rav- ages of apple scab were so severe that not more than 10 to 15 per cent of the crop graded as fancy and extra fancy. Fire blight and other diseases also were giving considerable trouble. The work undertaken in Spokane County has chiefly dealt with horticultural problems. In the early winter of last year an educational campaign as to the best methods of handling apple scab and other orchard diseases was started. Much of the winter was consumed in holding meet- ings in the apple growing localities, at which instructions were given as to how to combat apple scab. As a result of this work few orchards in the Spokane district had any perceptible amount of scab in them during the season of 1914. While the scab campaign was going on during the late winter and early spring, pruning demonstrations were also conducted. The men assembled were taken into the or- chards where considerable time was spent pruning trees of different ages and varieties. After holding a pruning dem- onstration the balance of the day was spent on individual FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 17 farms where at least one tree was pruned in order to leave an illustration of how the work should be done. So effective were these demonstrations that the County Agriculturist has been accused of putting the professional pruner out of business. The County Agriculturist has also rendered valuable service in identifying orchard diseases and teaching the growers the nature of and how to combat the same. Sev- eral diseases have been prevalent in this county for several years but their identity was not known to the orchard men. Among the diseases so identified were California peach blight and anthracnose of the apple tree. Upon several occasions the State Experiment Station was called upon and rendered valuable assistance in handling orchard pests. The County Agriculturist of Spokane County has the distinction of having organized the first apple club in the world. Each club boy took complete charge of a block of 12 bearing trees. These trees were pruned, sprayed and cultivated and the fruit was thinned, picked and packed by the boys themselves. An account of doing all this work was also kept and the cost of production determined. Perhaps one of the most important achievements in Spokane County during the year has been the gathering of information that shows that clover and alfalfa can be successfully sown with the cereal crops and working out a suitable rotation containing clover. A number of farmers were found who successfully seed clover with a nurse crop, spring barley being the most satisfactory. The rotation as developed is as follows*: First year, spring barley with clover ; second year, clover ; third year, field peas ; and fourth year, winter wheat. Wahkiakum County Wahkiakum County is rough and covered with brush and timber. The land best suited to farming is situated in the small valleys and along the Columbia River. Much of this, however, is tide fiats which must be diked and cleared before it can be farmed. Only a very small per cent of the county is under cultivation and one of the greatest needs at the present time is the reclamation of the tide flat lands. The agriculture of the county consists almost entirely of specialized dairy farming. Approximately 95 per cent of the total farm receipts are derived from the dairy herd. During the year just closing there has been two chief pur- poses in the work of the County Agriculturist. These are as follows: 18 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT 1 . The reclamation of tide flat land. 2. The building up of the dairy industry. Puget Island in the Columbia River contains 3400 acres of tide flat land. It is owned and settled by fishermen. Sev- eral times they have attempted to organize and reclaim the island. Every attempt was a failure until they secured the assistance of the County Agriculturist. He studied the diking law anct airectcd tlic organization of a diking district. The present speculative value of this land is $20 per acre, or $68,000. The land when diked Vvnll easily be worth $200 X)er acre, or $680,000. This will give the county an in- creased valuation of approximately $487,000. Fig. III. A meeting of the residents of Puget Jsiand, called by Geo. A. Nelson, Agri cnlturist of Wahkiakinn County, for the ])urpose of organizing a diking district. The dairy industry is being improved in a number of ways : 1. In relation to feeds. Kale has been introduced to furnish succulent feed during the fall and winter, field peas to be used as a soiling crop during the summer, and clover to improve the quality of the grass hay. Considerable atten- tion has also been given to more economical and more nearly balanced rations. Fig. IV. (''anniiig Club in Wabkiakuin County, Geo. A. Xelscn, County Agriculturist, working with club in Seal Eiver School. 20 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT 2. In relation to diseases. Contagious abortion has caused heavy financial losses in this county. The County Agriculturist secured the assistance of the State Experiment Station veterinarian and held a series of meetings. He placed literature on the subject into the hands of those interested and gave them personal assistance. At the present time this disease is under much better control. 3. In relation to the quality of sires. An investigation of fourteen dairy herds of this county shows a production of $20 more per cow by the herds that have been headed by registered sires than is produced by the herds using grade and scrub sires. During the year eight registered sires have been purchased to replace scrubs. During 1913 twelve were purchased. Since the twenty bulls head herds containing about 350 cows, this should result in a financial gain of $7000 per year. 4. In relation to quality of cows. A farm survey of 44 farms by the County Agriculturist shows that the aver- age receipts from milk and butterfat was $60 per cow on the 16 poorest farms and $92 on the 12 best farms. The receipts from many cows were much less than $60. Hence, the importance of determining the performance of each cow in order to be able to discard the poor ones. During the year 1914 sixty-two farmers co-operated in weighing and testing the milk from 834 cows. This is an increase of over 700 cows during the last two years, a little more than 100 cows being under test when the farm bureau work began in the county in November, 1912 . By keeping records of his cows and using good bulls one dairyman increased the production of butterfat 18 lbs. per cow each year for five years. If as good results are secured with the 700 cows this will mean an increased pro- duction of 12,600 lbs. of butterfat each year. At 30 cents per pound this will amount to a gain each year of $3780 over the previous year. Walla Walla County Walla Walla County contains some of the oldest or- chards in the state and the apple is one of its most impor- tant crops. During the last four years fire blight has b6en a serious menace and the codling moth has been extremely troublesome for many years. It was to handle these and other horticultural problems more especially that the Walla Walla County Commissioners called for the appointment of a County Agriculturist. The control of these two pests, (2CO O << ^ ^ O m O C S rO .al s fciC m a ^ o §-^ a . O tH O 05 22 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT therefore, was made the leading feature of the work in Walla Walla County. In undertaking these problems it was recognized that permanent progi*ess could be attained only in an educational campaign in Avhich the growers would learn the nature of the pests and the reasons for taking each step in their control. With the assistance of the District Horticultural In- spector, and many others interested in the fruit industry, the AValla AValla County Fruit Protective Association was formed. The county was divided into districts and a com- mittee appointed for each division. Each committee was expected to inspect the orchards in its district. Nine dem- onst]*ational meetings were held in different parts of the county with a total attendance of 462. The purpose of these meetings was to let the growers sec blight in as many forms as possible and teach them by demonstration the methods of conti'ol. The Count}^ Agriculturist also held 163 individual consultations with growers on the nature of this disease and the methods of its control. Few apple growers really know the codling moth. They all know the worm but they do not know the insect in the four stages of its life cycle — the moth, egg, pupa, and larva or worm. There were two purposes in the work un- dertaken v'ith reference to the codling moth; (1) to teach the growers moi'e about the insect; and (2) to determine as acciu'ately as possible the time to give the later spray application. This was done by the use of nine breeding cages located in different parts of the county. Ninety per cent of the apple gi*owei*s followed the spray date very closely, as announced, in doing their spraying. The follow- ing are some of th<‘ results secured: Apples free from worms, Mr. Taggard of Waitsburg, 97 per cent; Mr. Maltorn of Walla Walla, 93 per cent; Mr. Johnston, Horticulturist for the Baker-Eangdon 6C0-acre orchard, 98 per cent on 200 acres, the second year in bearing with wormy orchards on three sides. Last year JVIessi's. Allen and Maltorn had nearly 50 per cent of woi'iny apples. The breeding cage work also demonstrated the fact that a large number of worms would 1)0 entering the apples the latter part of August. The spray date for this })rood of Avorms Avas announced. The owner of one large orchard Avho sprayed at this time left one row of trees unspi*ayed. A careful check of the results shoAved the sprayed portion to be 7 per cent freer of worms than the unsprayed. Walla Walla County. The party consisted of 250 people. Three hog farms were visited. 24 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT One local produce dealer states that he sold eight times as much arsenate of lead this year as last year and that the apples he received were from 20 to 25 per cent freer from worms than those received in 1913. Thirty of the growers co-operated in using the double blossom spray and the County Agriculturist held 231 consultations with indi- viduals regarding the codling moth, spray dates, manner of spraying and material to use. FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR COUNTY AGRICULTURISTS The following statement shows the expenses for the agriculturist alone in each county during the year 1914. This takes no account of the overhead expenses of the Bu- reau, the expense of supervision or additional assistants pro- vided. County Months Salary* All Expenses Total Adams 12 $ 1,800.00 . $ 669.60 $ 2,469.60 Benton 12 1,667.00 891.50 2,558.50 Douglas 12 1,915.00 1,180.35** 3,095.35 Spokane 12 2,400.00 1,100.38** 3,500.38 Walla Walla 12 1,360.00 664.00 2,024.00 Wahkiakum 12 1,600.00 492.37 2,092.37 Okanogan 8 % 1,250.00 1,127.75 2,377.75 Total $ 6,125.95** $18,117.95 Average salary .... ..$ 1,791.71 *Including $75 per month for each county, paid by the State College and U. S. Department of Agriculture. **Contains one-half of the purchase price of an automobile. Except in Wahki- akum County, each county agriculturist is provided with an automobile, since this increases his elhciency from two to three-fold. The first cost of the automobile, of course, makes the expenses of the office high for the first year. After the first year the expenses are considerably reduced. FIRST ANNUAL REPORT 25 SUMMARY OF THE WORK OF THE COUNTY AGRICULTURISTS January 1, 1914, to December 31, 1914 The following pertains exclusively to work done either by the seven County Agriculturists or on their recommenda- tions : (A) Work Done in Relation to the People: 1. Farmers visited on their farms 2,518 2. Total number of farm visits made 4,067 3. Business calls on Agriculturist at ofi&ce 543 4. Meetings addressed 340 5. Total attendance at such meetings 20,081 6. Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs organized 24 7. Total membership in such clubs 374 8. Agricultural articles published in county papers 98 9. Circulars, circular letters or bulletins written 13 10. Copies of such circulars or bulletins distributed 1,825 11. Copies of annual report distributed 42 12. Copies of State and U, S. Bulletins distributed 5,470 13. Letters written 3,393 14. Schools assisted in developing agricultural instruction 92 15. Pupils reached by such instruction 3,000 16. Agricultural observation parties conducted 25 17. Total persons in such parties 1,118 18. Farmers conducting demonstrations for Agriculturists 562 19. Meetings held to inspect demonstrations 30 20. Total attendance at such meetings 204 (B) Work Done in Relation to the Farm and Farmstead on Suggestion of County Agriculturists : 21. Farm buildings planned or improved 32 22. Silos constructed 11 23. Home grounds planned or improved 6 24. Sanitary conditions improved 27 25. Farm plans made, either partial or complete 150 26. Farms upon w^hich the seasonal distribution of labor has been improved 450 27. Drainage systems planned 6 28. Irrigation systems planned 16 (C) Work Done in Relation to Crops on Suggestion of County Agriculturists or Under Their Direction: 29. Farms field selecting seed corn 98 30. Farms testing corn for germination 20 31. Farms growing corn 463 32. Acres of corn grown 1,793 33. Farms growing wheat 80 34. Acres of wheat grown 2,735 35. Farms growing oats 52 36. Acres of oats grown 354 37. Farms using hill-selected seed potatoes 90 38. Farms treating potatoes for scab 165 BUREAU OF FARM DEVELOPMENT 26 39. Farms growing potatoes 345 40. Acres of potatoes grown 1,100 41. Farms growing hay 410 42. Acres of hay grown ; 3,250 43. Farms planting alfalia 218 44. Acres of alfalfa planted 1,350 4 5. Acres of field peas grown on summer fallow 200 4 6. Farms growing barley 31 47. Acres of bailey grown 226 48. Orchards cared for in whole or in part 1,450 (D) Work Done in Relation to Livestock on Suggestion of County Agriculturists: 49. Registered bulls secured 15 50. Registere|)Ii> cation to Director BOARD OP CONTROL James C. Cunningham, President Spokane R. C. McCroskey, Vice President Garfielti E. A. Bryan (President of College). Secretary Ex-Officio. . Pullma» D. S. Troy Chimacum W. A. Ritz -....Walla Walla E. T. Coman ^ Spokane EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff. Ph. D Elton Fulmer, M, A O. L. Waller, Ph. M A. L. Melander, Sc. D O. M. Morris, B. S Geo. Severance, B. S C. C. Thom. M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S Geo. A. Olson. B. S. A.. M. S W. T. Shaw, B. Agr., M. S. . . B. G. Schafer, M. S Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D C. A. Magoon, M. A J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S M. A. Yothers, B. S Henry F. Holtz, B. S E. F. Gaines, M. S C. F. Monroe, B. S. A C. B. Sprague, B. S D. C. George, B. S H. M. Woolman R. L. Buchanan, B. S F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Assistant Bacteriologist Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . . .Assistant Animal Husbandman Assistant In Horticulture Assistant Plant Patholoc-lst Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant in Farm Crops Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist WaShingfton Wheats By E. G. SCHAFER, Agronomist, and E. F. GAINES, Acting CerealisI A study of Washington wheats shows the presence of many vari- eties. The large number has added confusion to commercial grading and has made the situation of wheat improvement difficult. Fre- quent mixtures in commercial lots of wheat have not encouraged stringent regulations in wheat inspection and have resulted in lower market values. The numerous varieties differ in yield and quality and where varieties of outstanding merit have not been developed, inferior varieties are often used. A few of the more prominent varieties are described in the follow- ing pages. This and other information recorded has been derived from studies conducted in the field plots, nursery and laboratory. The wide climatic adaptation of wheat makes possible its general distribution in the various agricultural districts in Washington. Even though there is wide range in altitude, temperature, rainfall and soil conditions, wheat is extensively grown and not limited to one set of conditions. Through an endeavor to obtain suitable vari- eties for the various localities, a large number have been introduced. No one variety does equally well in all places. Bluestem and Jones Fife, which are the leading varieties in the drier wheat sec- tions, give way to Red Russian, Forty Fold, the Clubs and others in the districts of more rainfall. Because of the marked variations in climatic conditions within short distances, different varieties have been brought into nearby districts. A further distribution of these varieties has caused them to overlap, with the result that several varieties may be found growing in the same locality. The situation would be less serious if these varieties could be kept pure. Mixing of varieties occurs through threshing and further mixing may occur through volunteering where one variety follows another on the same farm. When it becomes fully proved that one variety is clearly superior, it should be grown to the exclusion of the others. No one wheat has proved clearly superior in all localities. Acknowledgment is made of the work of Alex Carlyle, cerealist of the Station during 1911 and 1912. The Chemistry Division of the Experiment Station made the flour, gluten and nitrogen determinations reported. 4 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station NECESSITY OF COMPARATIVE FIELD EXPERIMENTS IN DETERMINING THE MOST PROFITABLE VARIETIES Different varieties of wheat show variation in shape and size of head; in shape, size and color of grain; and in many otlier })arts. There is often just as great variation between different varieties growni under uniform conditions, in regard to yield per acre and per cent and strength of flour produced. It is not difficult to detect dif- ferences of wide variation in yield, but it is impossible l)y general observation to detect the smaller differences of one to five bushels per acre. AVith variations that occur in climatic conditions from .year to year, the same variety does not always give the highest yield, and the selection of the best variety is difficult where se\’eral are- being considered. The selection of a vraiety is often made by prac- tical wheat growei's ])y e()m[)ariiig the yield of one variety one year with the yield of anotlier variety another year when the v'eather 1 conditions ai'e (init(' different. To ( onipare the merits of diffei-ent i varieties they must be grown in plots side by side. The size of the plots must be accurately determined and the yield of the plots ob-| tained. Comparative production for several years is necessary before i reliable conclusions (aiii be drawn. (Quality must b(‘ taken inio con- ! sideratioji as weW as yield. In the abseiK-e of properly conducted ex- i perimental tests nuiiKn-ous ^’arieties ainl mixtures woidd continue to I exist. { DESCRIPTION OF WHEAT VARIETIES | Wheats of great dissimilarity have been grown wdth varying de- j grees of success in Washington. It will be observed from a study of ; Table I that most of the Washington wheats are beardless. In gen- ; eral the club wdieats have shorter and stiffer steins than the long f headed wheats. There are more winter varieties than spring vari- eties. About one-third of those d(‘scribed live through the winter as | winter wheats, yet Ixdiave lik(‘ spring wheats Avhen seeded in the i spring. Ten of the s('vent(‘en ^'arie1ies desi-ribed have white grain. * Bluestem of the Pacific Coast states has smooth or glabrous chaff' | and white grain. It is very uidike. the velvet chaff, red grain Blue- , stem of the states east of the Rockies. The Washington Bluestem is | probably of Australian origin. It is extensively grown in the drier | sections as a spring wheat, bnl is ocamsionally fall seeded where the j wintei's are mild. Its [)opnlai-ily in the dry belt is due to its drouth ’ Tesistanc(‘, heavy yiidding capacity, iion-sliattering character and : in CO S to. -a cn — I k-i CC 05 to 2 ' ” I ^ ^ o i cn O CO ^ 05 CO a\ to CD 05 h-i c< to CD ^ CO O CJ! OI CD CD O to I (t; o CO i P P P : Cc cL Cc ; cT - CO Ik — X • cc :c W W CD CD P P CO CO 75 75 CC CO cd W CD CD p p d & CO CO CO 75 75 75 IC 75 CO W W CD CD p p CO CO 75 75 75 7-5 hj (Tj CD 6 p p ^ 'S £ £ 75 75 CC 75 r-i r. ^ ^ Oq’ d fP O O O P P P O 70 70 70. '0 ^ ^ W ^ Ui ^ w u: P'0 O O P'P'O ^'P'^P'^ opppoop^o^oo ;4. aq CP. 70 ;5, Gp ^ ^ •D con ^CD^OCO o o 5 2 PS p! 2 o o O p P p p o P ■p p; “P PS p PS p p p p 70 p o o P o d d d d d p p CD O 05 CO to CD ►t* 4- CO 4^ >0* CO to CD C71 O to •D CO CD DO OC OO GO OC --3 CD CD 00 CD CD cro CD CD OG - 1 +- CD CD -1 CD to CD C5I lO 05 --1 00 05 Z:. d'P dd — P P d

8 is rapidly inenaising in popularity as a Avintei* vari(d.y. It is a good yielder iimh'r eondijions of extreme- Fig. IT. Tliree varieties of wlieat extensively srown in tlie more liumid sections of Washington: 4. Red Russian. 5. Hybrid 143. Ti. Forty Fold, Hybrid 19, s is almost identical with Hybrid 143 in the appearance of the head. • ^ f 10 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station drouth and grades well on the market. Both Hybrid 150 and Hybrid 63 were produced by crossing Turkey Red and Little Club. Red Allen, White Elliot, Sonora and Jenkins Club are spring vari- eties and have all been grown to a limited extent within the state. Less area is devoted to their production now than formerly. None of them, thus far, have proved of sufficient merit to warrant their general introduction. VARIETY TESTS OF WHEAT IN FIELD AND NURSERY AT PULLMAN The fields devoted to variety testing at Pullman are a part of the 400-acre farm of the Experiment Station. The main tests are con- ducted in the larger fields under ordinary field conditions. In addi- tion to this a nursery field is maintained for testing a large number of varieties in smaller plots. Much care is exercised in making the field variety tests. A field of uniform soil conditions and uniform previous cropping is selected for the work. The land is all plowed at the same time and receives the same preparation. The plots for the different varieties to be tested are laid off in long strips of uniform size and shape and are side by side. The varieties are all seeded the same day and with the same drill. The plots are labeled with a stake showing the name of the variety, and a record is also made in the field record book. When the wheat is ripe each plot is harvested with a self-binder, thrashed and weighed separately. In order to overcome errors that might occur through lack of uniformity of conditions the variety test is repeated or duplicated the same year in another group of plots. The second group or series of plots receives the same care and attention as the ones just described. The average yield of any one variety in the two series of plots is used in making the comparison of the dif- ferent varieties. A nursery field is used in making preliminary tests and propagat- ing new varieties. It is evident that the number of varieties tested under field conditions must be limited for lack of space. For this reason, preliminary tests are made in a smaller field. These tests are made in single rod rows, but repeated twice. The average yield of the three rows forms a basis for comparison. If a new variety does not show up well in the preliminary tests it is not considered valuable and is not taken to the field. The varieties that show up well in the nursery in comparison with the standard varieties, which are also Washington Wheats 11 grown there, are placed in the field tests the next year, and also continued in the nursery. The results from both the field ana nursery are accessible in making comparative variety studies. Field Test of Winter Wheat Table II — Yield of Wheat Varieties (Field Test) 1911 1912 1914 Average Wash. Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Variety No. per acre per acre per acre per acre Hybrid 128 592 48.6 38.1 44.7 43.8 Hybrid 143 590 46.1 34.9 43.3 41.4 Red Russian 270 42.3 41.5 42.7 42.2 Hybrid 123 593 45.1 37.0 41.9 41.3 Forty Fold 351 36.8 36.5 38.7 37.3 Jones Winter Fife 371 45.6 38.2 37.8 40.5 Little Club 500 42.2 41.0 43.7 42.3 Hybrid 108 591 30.3 39.9 35.1 Turkey Red 326 41.6 Winter Bluestem 536 49.9 39.8 41.1 43.6 Triplet 597 53.9 Hybrid 60 594 44.3 4’2’.2 41.2 4 2. 6 Hybrid 150 595 40.3 Table II shows the average yield per acre of a number of varieties for a period of three years. It will be seen from the table that there is considerable uniformity in yield per acre of the varieties tested. Forty Fold and Hybrid 108, however, give distinctly lower, yields than the others. Table II also shows that a single year's test may give results contrary to the results of a term of years. The yield for 1911 shows Jones Winter Fife to be ahead of Red Russian by 3.3 bushels per acre, but the average for the three years shows Red Rus- sian to be in the lead by 1.7 bushels per acre. No data are given for 191.3 as the field tests were not conducted for that year. Table III — Comparative Yield of Wheat Varieties With the Average of All Varieties (41.6 Bu.) Taken as 100 (Field Test) Variety W’ash. No. 1911 1912 1914 Average Hybrid 128 592 116 91 107 105 Hybrid 143 59 0 no 83 104 99 Red Russian 270 101 99 102 101 Hybrid 123 593 108 88 100 99 Forty Fold 351 88 87 93 89 Jones Winter Fife 371 109 91 90 97 Little Club 500 101 98 105 101 Hybrid 108 591 72 95 84 Turkey Red 326 100 Winter Bluestem 536 119 95 98 104 Triplet 597 129 Hybrid 60 594 106 101 100 102 Hybrid 150 59 5 96 12 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station In Table 111 the yields are reduced to a comparative basis with the average of all varieties grown for three years taken as 100. Table IV — Comparative Yield of Wheat Varieties With the Average of All Varieties (2287 gms.) Taken as 100 (Nursery Test) Wash. Variety No. 1911 1912 1914 Average Hybrid 12 8 592 117 114 90 107 Hybrid 143 590 142 83 74 100 Red Russian 270 117 103 70 97 Hybrid 123 593 118 87 82 96 Forty Fold 351 158 78 65 100 .Tones Winter Fife 371 143 66 5 9 87 Little Club 50 0 112 66 7 5 84 Hybrid 108 591 107 68 69 81 Turkey Red 326 153 84 1 19 Winter Bluestem 53 6 74 Triplet 597 192 110 87 130 Nursery Test of Winter Wheat Table TV sIioavs the yield of varieties of wheat grown in the nursery reduced to a comparative basis. The average of all varieties is used as a standard and is given a ^'alue of 100. As stated in another placep the nursery is used for preliminary testing and the yields are not' given in bushels per acre. Table V — Results From Field and Nursery Averaged (Taken From Tables 111 and IV) Variety Field Nursery Average Rank ' Hybrid 128 1 05 107 106 1 1 Hybrid 143 99 100 99.5 2 ( Red Russian 101 9 7 99 3 , Hybrid 123 99 96 9 7.5 4 t Forty Fold 89 100 94.5 5 i .Jones Winter Fife 97 89 93 6 . T^ittle Club 101 84 92.5 7 Hybrid 108 '84 81 82.5 8 Table V showf- ; a comparison between the residts obtained in the field and nursery . In general it shows that the i varieties that ranked liigli in the field also ranked hi; gh in the nursery. It will be noted that Hybrid 128 ranks first in both places and tliat Hyl )rid lOS ranks last in l)oth plat-es. The average : of the results of tli(' f ield and iiiu’s- ery tests is llu' most trustwoidhy value that (oin ])e g'i\'(Mi each of tlies(‘ ^'a^•iti(^s. Sonu' \ ai‘i(0i(‘s were test('d only in lh(‘ i'icdd oi* only in tlie nnrsei*y and for tliat reason ari^ not ineluded in Tabl(‘ \^. Spring Wheats Table ^"l gives the la'snlts of two yeai*s test in tlie nui’sery, too short a time to establish the comparative \aliie of varieties. Washington Wheats 13 Table VI — Comparative Vield of Spring Wheat Varieties With the Average of All Varieties Taken as 100 (Nursery Test) Variety Wash. No. 1913 1914 Average Bluestem 362 95.5 115.0 105.2 Hybrid 143 . 590 96.6 92.5 94.5 Little Club 500 9 5.2 93.0 94.1 Marquis 576 119.6 100.6 1 10.1 Red Chaff 421 11 3.8 96.2 105.0 Early Bark 618 81.5 In 1913 Marquis , which ripens very early, e^ reaped the hot winds and ranked first. In 1914 in th e absence of early hot Avinds the later maturing llluestem took first place. COMPARATIVE QUALITY OF VARIETIES It is essential to have a wheat of good quality or high milling value just as it is to have one that produces a satisfactory yield per acre. The term quality as commonly used in connection with wheat refers to utility value, but has an uncertain meaning. It is unfortunate that there is not some unit available by which quality might be measured. The properties of quality have been considered in determining market classifications and grades. Grain dealers base their estimates of value on such physical characteristics as color, size and shape of kernel, and weight per bushel. They classify wheat and determine grades largely by observation of these characteristii's. Often a dif- ference of five to ten cents per bushel is paid for wheat of different classes, or even different lots of the same class. The difference is at least partly due to difference in quality. The rules and regulations governing the inspection and grading of grain established by the Public Service (Commission of Washington prescril)e that. ^‘Choice milling wheat must be sound, dry, plump, of good color, free from smut, clean and not mixed.” A general classification placing Avheats into several classes, and as mapy as four grades has been based upon the appearance of physical characteristics. Sufficient accuracy, how- ever, can not be obtained by the trained individual by inspection to make it possible to rate differeiit samples of wheat according to their milling value. Attempts have been made to compare the quality of different wheats by determining the per cent of flour they will produce and the per cent of dry gluten, wet gluten, and nitrogen they contain. These attributes do not fully account for quality as some varieties 14 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station may contain gluten of a higher grade than others. 'However, they all may be considered important as they have an influence on the size, texture, and value of the loaf of bread that may be made from the flour. Table VII — Analyses of Washington Wheats Grown on Plots in 1914 Under Uniform Field Conditions Wash. Pet. Pet. Wet Pet. Dr: y Pet. Variety No. Flour Gluten Gluten Nitrogen Hybrid 128 592 78.42 39.8 16.2 2.185 Hybrid 143 590 79.59 35.8 13.0 2.120 Red Russian 270 82.96 25.1 10.0 1.785 Hybrid 123 593 77.66 33.5 13.6 1.955 Forty Fold 351 82.44 34.6 13.3 2.015 Jones Winter Fife 371 80.05 27.0 9.9 1.850 Little Club 500 78.32 28.0 10. 0 1.830 Hybrid 108 591 76.94 26.5 9.7 1.865 Turkey Red 326 78.34 39.8 14.3 2.185 Winter Bluestem 536 80.75 30.2 10.0 1.940 Triplet 597 75.80 32.8 11.0 1.950 Hybrid 60 594 81.90 29.3 11.7 1.615 Hybrid 150 595 79.32 22.0 8.2 1.725 Bluestem* 362 81.97 27.3 10.0 2.065 Marquis* 576 73.65 32.2 14.2 2.190 Red Chaff* 421 81.20 28.9 10.2 2.040 Little Club* 500 79.02 30.5 11.1 2.160 Hybrid 143* 590 78.62 30.0 12.0 1.990 Average * Spring grown 79.3 30.7 11.6 1.970 Table VII gives the per cent of flour produced, per cent of wet gluten, per cent of dry gluten, and per cent of nitrogen contained in the group of wheats studied. Table VIII — Comparative Quality Values of Washington Wheats Variety Wash. No. Flour Gluten Nitrogen Av.Qual. Hybrid 128 592 98.9 134.6 110.9 114.8 Hybrid 143 590 100.4 114.3 107.6 107.8 Red Russian 270 104.5 83.8 90.6 93.0 Hybrid 123 593 97.9 113.2 99.2 103.4 Forty Fold 351 103.9 113.6 102.3 106.6 Jones Winter Fife 371 100.1 86.6 93.9 93.5 Little Club 500 98.8 88.7 92.8 93.4 Hybrid 108 591 97.0 85.0 94.7 92.2 Turkey Red 326 . 98.8 125.3 110.9 111.7 Winter Bluestem 536 101.8 92.3 98.5 97.5 Triplet 597 95.6 100.8 99.0 98.5 Hybrid 60 594 103.3 98.1 82.0 94.5 Hybrid 150 595 100.0 . 71.0 87.6 86.2 Bluestem* 362 103.4 87.6 104.8 98.6 Marquis* 576 92.9 113.6 111.2 105.9 Red Chaff* 421 102.4 91.0 103.6 99.0 Little Club* 500 99.6 97.5 109.6 102.3 Hybrid 143* * Spring grown. 590 99.1 100.6 101.0 100.2 Washington Wheats 15 Table Vlll gives the same values at Table Vll but in another form, and a single expression for the value of each variety. Each percent- age column in Table VII was reduced to a comparative basis by taking the average of all the values in the column as 100 and rating each value accordingly. The values thus obtained from the wet gluten and dry gluten columns were merged into one column (gluten) by taking their average. The final column is the average of the three columns, flour, gluten, and nitrogen. The final result shown in this table is based on the assumption that per cent of flour produced, per cent of gluten, and per cent of nitrogen all have an equal share in determin- ing value or quality. RESULTS OF WHEAT EXPERIMENTS IN DRY BELT The land used for experimental work at Ritzville is upland sandy loam and is representative of much of the soil in the Big Bend country. Experimental tests have not been carried on at this point for a sufficient length of time to determine the wheats of greatest value. There is no one variety that is clearly superior to all others. Jones Winter Fife and Winter Bluestem were among the higher yielders of the winter varieties. Jones Winter Fife has been a favored winter wheat in the dry sections and its yield per acre justifies its wide distribution. Winter Bluestem which is described In Table I is similar in appearance to the extensively grown spring Bluestem, but is hardy and withstands the winter conditions successfully. It would seem to merit more attention as it is a hardy winter wheat and grades commercially as Bluestem. Hybrid 128 has been a good pro- ducer in parts of the dry belt and merits more attention. LOCATION OF FIELD EXPERIMENTS The field experiments have been conducted at Pullman and Bitz- ville. These two points are representative of a vast wheat producing area of Washington. Pullman is situated in Whitman County, which is representative of the districts better favored in rainfall. Ritzville is situated in Adams County, which is representative of much of the drier wheat growing area of the state. Over one-third of the wheat grown in Washington is produced in these two counties. Experimental tests which are trustworthy must be conducted under conditions similar to those which they are expected to represent. The results of the experiments conducted at these two places probably furnish the best available data on the comparative value of the 16 Washington Agricultural Experiment Station A’ciriclics of wheat ineliuled in the tests. Other tests should be con- duet(‘d in otlier plaees where tlie environmental eonditions are differ- ent so that similar infoi'ination may Ije had for a wide range of conditions. CONCLUSION The large number of varieties of wheat grown in \\ ashington make propt'r classification difficult. The mixing of varieties either on the farm or during marketing, which is another result of numerous varieties, has a tendency to reduce wheat prices. Owing to different soil and climatic conditions in various parts 'i the slate several varieties are necessary to suit all re*iuirements. The number of varieties grown shoulii be redm-ed to as few as possible. In making seh'ction of the proper varieties, ijuality as well as yield should be considered. Hasty conclusions should not be drawn from the yields obtained in abnormal years. The average production for a period of several years gives more trustworthy information. t)f the varieties reported in this Imlletin llyluid T28 has excelled all others, both in yield per cent and quality, as shown by the tests at the Experiment Station, lleports from tanners also indicate the high merit of this wheat. It gives a six per cent greater yield than the average of the other varieties t(‘sted. With Washington pro- dinnng a yield of forty million bushels, an increase of six per cent would nu'an an increased wheat production of 2.4 million bushels for the statie It would seem that this imn-ease, which might come from the (dioi(‘e of the ])roper variety, is not an impossibility. Another incri'ase in the ^mlue of A\ ashington wheats should result fiom the better and more uniform (juality obtained through the use of f(‘wer commercial wheats. Some of the wheats which are known as hybrids have been con- sidered in one class and called mixed. It shonld bi' understood that a wheat of hylirid origin may be just as pure as any other wheat. Hybrid 128. for example, is a distinct variety and if kept free from outside mixtures may be expected to remain pure, just as Eluestem, Red Russian, and other standard varieties. The fact that a particular wheat rates Avell in one location does not prove its general value. Further improvement of wheats will be more easily accomplished when millers mid gi’ain dindin-s agi'cc* on <'('rtinn definite clmracter- isti(‘S for wlumt of high (lnalit^'. iiOOM STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERLMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF BOTANY A Study of Grazing Conditions in the Wenaha National Forest by H. T. DARLINGTON BULLETIN NO. 122 May, 1915 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. Board of Control E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. A. Bryan (President of College), Secretary ex-Officio Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C. McCroskey Garfield Experiment Station Staff Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D Elton Fulmer, M. A O. L. Waller, Ph. M S. B. Nelson, D. V. M A. L. Melander, Sc. D O. M. Morris, B. S Geo. Severance, B. S C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S Geo. A. Olson, B. S. A., M. S, W. T. Shaw, B. Agr., M. S. . . E G. Schafer, M. S Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D C. A. Magoon, A. B J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S M. A. Yothers, B. S Henry F. Holtz, B. S E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S D. C. George, B. S H. M. Woolman R. L. Buchanan, B. S Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Veterinarian Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Assistant Veterinarian Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . .Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist .Assistant Plant Pathologist ...Assistant in Farm Crops F. W Allen, M. S Assistant Horticulturist A. L. Sherman, B. S Assistant Chemist A Study of Grazing Conditions in the Wenaha National Forest by H. T. DARLINGTON Formerly Assistant Professor of Botany, State College of Washington GENERAL SUMMARY The principal forage plants of the higher portions of the Wenaha National Forest are perennial in character, consisting principally of shrubs. With the exception, possibly, of the tops of some ridges there seems to be no deterioration in the grazing areas. The tops of the ridges, forming a small part of the total grazing area, and being necessary highways for the sheep, may be con- sidered negligible. This does not apply to the glades. On account of snow, the range is limited to about five months grazing. This fact is a valuable element of strength, which will be permanent. Lists of the relative distribution and abundance of the principal forage plants should be made from time to time, to indicate whether there is any undesirable plant succession going on. The full carrying capacity of the range is not being utilized. A more complete utilization will require the con- struction of new trails. So far as the regulation of the sheep industry and the en- forcement of law and order are concerned. Government leas- ing to single individuals has been a marked success in the Wenaha National Forest. GENERAL INTRODUCTION The free range policy of the past has produced serious conditions in several of the Western states. It has led not only to bitter feuds at times between sheep men and cattle men, but in some cases to the depletion and serious damage to the range. Belief, on the part of the early settlers, in the inexhaust- ibility of free ranges and the lack of any tendency to conserve them finally made government intervention and regulation a 4 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITION necessity. It soon became apparent that especial efforts were necessary and desirable to conserve the rang^e, or improve it, at the same time to preserve its utility to the fullest extent. Working out of some method of improvement becomes ad- visable for many of the depleted areas. The majority of range investigations heretofore have been in the arid or semi- arid regions. These areas have lent themselves to the opera- tions of the large stockmen better than the mountianous dis- tricts, Such large, seemingly waste tracts, particularly those of the Southwest, have been among the first to suffer. It is here that a vegetative covering holds its own by only a small margin against the adverse conditions of environment. (Where only a slight rainfall obtains the quick maturing grasses and drouth-resistant plants are the prevailing types). Where this balanced condition has been destroyed by man, a barren waste soon results. Later investigations, however, are taking account of those areas where vegetation has, naturally, less opportunity of holding its own. The conservation and proper utilization of any particular range is affected by the location, climate, and altitude of the range as well as the breed and number of head grazed and the methods of herding. The influence of the leasing system and the effect of governmental control must be considered in the future in making comparative studies of grazing. CONDITIONS IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST This report is a description of the work accomplished by an expedition from the Department of Botany of the State College of Washington to the Blue Mountains for a period of six weeks, during the summer of 1913, for the purpose of de- termining the character and carrying capacity of the grazing areas centained in the Wenaha National Forest, situated in the southeastern part of Washington and the northeastern part of Oregon. An effort has been made to interpret the conditions found there in the light of modem investigations, and thus throw some light on what may be expected as to the future development and maintenance of the grazing areas contained therein. The area examined is used as a summer range for a large number of sheep, which winter in the more or less open country between the mountains and the Snake River. Some of the more specific objects of the study were: (1) To de- termine the character of the areas grazed over; (2) to ascer- tain so far as possible in the given time, whether there has been either deterioration or improvement in the range; (3) to make lists of the plants eaten, and also those avoided by the IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 5 sheep; (4) to determine whether the full carrying capacity of the range is being utilized, and (5) to obtain information which might be of value to those who should have the future care of the range. The party drove into the mountains by way of Pomeroy. Through the courtesy of Mr. R. A. Jackson, a large sheep own- er of Washington, the party was afforded an opportunity to study certain bands of sheep in the upper reaches of the Tu- canon River, one of the larger streams on the north side of the divide; and other bands between Butte Creek and Crooked Fork, streams on the south side, flowing into the Wenaha, or Little Salmon River. The party is indebted to Walter Jack- son, who unofficially acted as guide over most of the trails leading to the more inaccessible portions of the mountains, and to his assistance in packing supplies and equipment. Mr. Andy Graden, Range Inspector of the Reserve, kindly loaned the party maps and furnished information in regard to trails. Mr. G. R. 'Kerns, a student of the State College, act- ed as assistant on the expedition. The investigations commenced in the upper Tucanon Val- ley June 20th. On account of the wet weather this season, the bands were late in getting into the mountains. They are usually driven in between the middle of May and the middle of June, and are kept in the mountains about four months. During the fall their food is principally the wheat bunch grass {Agropyron spicatum Pursh) which is common in eastern Washington, being typical of the lower portion of the Arid Transition zone. In the early spring “silver top” (Plantago purshii R. & S) forms an important part of their food as well as several species of grasses. During the worst of the winter they are fed on alfalfa hay, thirty pounds to the head usually being sufficient to carry them through the winter. In appor- tioning range land for winter feed, about one and one-half acres is taken as a basis for calculations; i. e., a band of 2,500 should be allowed about six sections. Mr. Jackson’s sheep are in charge of French herders. One man, with the aid of two dogs, handles one band. The herders live in log houses on the open range during the win- ter, their headquarters during that time being rather per- manent in character. In the mountains on the summer range, they live in tents, moving camp every week or ten days. The bands observed contained approximately 2,500 sheep each, about 1,000 of them being lambs and the rest ewes. The lambing period for mutton sheep begins about February 1; for fine wools, about March 1. Mr. Jackson makes a specialty of American Rambouillets, 6 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS GRAZING AREAS In studying- the grazing- problem, it is necessary to know something of the physical features of the area grazed over. The Wenaha National Forest contains 1,237.5 souare miles, 500 square miles being situated in the State of Washington, in Garfield, Asotin, and Columbia counties. This part of the Blue Mountain range extends in a general northeasterly and southwesterly direction, the outer portion consisting of rather low-lying foothills. The topography of the inner portion is quite rugged, consisting of high ridges with deep valleys be- tween, accessible during only a few months of the year. This is where the sheep are summer-ranged. The nar- row valleys between the low foothills, which were form- erly used as ranges, are, in most cases, fairly well set- tled up with small ranches. A good deal of hay is grown on the lower, more level and onen land, furnishing a large sup- ply of winter feed. The higher valleys are wooded and so narrow as to make ranching, even on a small scale, imprac- ticable. Fairly good mountain roads are found in the lower val- leys, but the interior nortions of the mountains are reached only by pack horses often over steep, rugged trails. Many of these trails have been built by pioneer sheep men at con- siderable labor and expense. They are maintained and kept open at present by the Government forest rangers, and al- most invariably follow the tops of the ridges, forming the only practicable means of access to the region. There is no difficulty in driving sheep over the roughest of them, tho there may be trouble in getting pack horses over. The deep interior valleys are covered with a dense stand of timber near the bottoms, which usually thins out toward the tops of the ridges. Many of the latter are rocky and barren in places, affording only a slight growth of grasses. This alter- nation of deep valleys and high ridges, with variations of from 2000 to 3000 feet, naturally produces marked varia- tions in the physical factors which influence the vegetative covering. The valleys, with their mountain streams and dense brush and timber, are always cool, even in summer. These small streams are usually bordered with a dense growth of underbrush; the banks of the streams are often steep and rocky, so that trail building along the bottoms of the valleys is unusual. The trails would be expensive to maintain as well as to build, on account of the fallen timber and luxuriant growth of shrubbery which would have to be removed from time to time. The valleys, however, are more equable in IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST. 7 their climate than the ridges. The latter become dry in sum- mer and cold and wind-swept in the winter, giving the great- est extremes of temperature. The highest points in the section of country visited are the iilast and west Oregon Huttes, the former reaching a height of bdOO feet above sea-level, in the vicinity of these buttes, snow lies well into the middle of summer, and several swift mountain streams rise in this vicinity, from watersheds sloping in nearly every direction, all eventually pouring their waters into the Snake River. From observations made by K. A. Jackson, extending over a period of twenty years, it is thot the ramlall m this section of the mountains will average 2o inches, iiy the middle of October, the range usually be- comes snowbound, and the sheep must be taken out a week or more before this time, and put on the winter range until May. Light rams are of frequent occurrence during the sum- mer months, so that the range is not subjected to those long periods of drouth which are characteristic of the open ranges of the Southwest. So far as the writer knows, no experi- ments have been made as to the depths to which the soil is wet by either the summer rains or the winter snows. Gen- erally speaking, the soil on top of the ridges is of an open, more or less friable nature, adapted in every way to a rapid run-off. In places it is only a few inches deep, and supports only a few hardy plants, especially those forming rosettes. Several ridges, however, are timbered entirely to the top, where the soil accumulates more humus, and retains more moisture, so that a greater variation is found in the types of vegetation. The soil in the bottoms of the valleys is natur- ally more loamy, containing those elements which enable it, together with the greater moisture and more uniform temp- erature, to support a greater variety of plant life. From what has been said, it is evident that the physical factors favor perennial forms of vegetation. The predom- inating species are, in fact, perennials. This is especially true of the lower, cooler slopes. The exposed places higher up, having greater extremes of temperature are better suited to annual types. It is fortunate that the range is inaccessible until late in the spring, since the young seedlings are then well rooted, and the ground has had some chance to stiffen up after the melting snows. In general, three zones of vegetation may be recognized in the region examined, the lowest in altitude being what is usually termed the yellow pine zone. Above this come the Canadian and Hudsonian zones, these constituting most of the grazing areas for the sheep. There are no sharp limits to 8 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS these zones, which necessarily overlap each other. However, each is usually marked by more or less predominant species of plants. The conditions of the yellow pine or Transition zone are confined almost entirely to the lower valleys. The lower portion of such streams as Tucanon Creek, Touchet Creek, and of several streams flowing south into the Grande Ronde River fall into this zone. Yellow pine (Pinus ponde- rosa Dougl)., is the dominant type of tree. It is usually associated with Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga mucronata Raf.) and white fir (Abies grandis Lindl.), with scattering trees of Western Larch (Larix occidentalis Nutt.). There is con- erable variation in the density of the stand of yellow pine, and in the amount of shrubbery present. As before stated, the lower, wider portions of the valleys have been settled for many years. in the Canadian zone, which runs up to 5000 feet, the yellow pine almost disappears. Lodgepole pine, a form of Pinus contorta Dough, was found to be common in certain sections of the zone, Douglas fir and white fir seem to be almost equally distributed. However, these trees are usually confined to the draws running down from the ridges and to north slopes. Englemann’s spruce (Picea engelmanni Parry) is found occasionally in the deep, cool valleys. The south slopes are almost devoid of timber, but have small areas of bunch grass (Agropyron spicatum Pursh) and brome grass (Bromus marginatus Nees.) here and there. Several im- portant shrubs are found here, which, together with the grasses, afford good grazing for the sheep. On account of the very rugged character of the country, with its extremes of altitude, exposure and temperature, the conditions of the two zones mentioned are strangely mixed. For instance, on hillsides with south exposures in the Canadian zone, especial- ly where the soil is of a gravelly nature, it is not unusual to find a patch of yellow pine. Still further in the interior of the ranges, the character of the country is somewhat different. Some of the principal higher ridges broaden out on top to form plateaus, designat- ed locally as “glades.” The predominant tree of this zone, the Hudsonian, becomes the Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa Hook.), tho Douglas fir is quite common. Mountain mahog- any (Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt.) and Rocky Mountain juni- per (Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.) are found here on barren, rocky ridges, not appearing in the other zones. Tho there is some grass in this zone, by far the greater portion of the food of the sheep is “browse” from the shrubs which cover IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 9 a large portion of the steep hillsides. Trails are quite easily constructed thru the glades, as a usual thing; tho occasion- ally one encounters a dense stand of lodgepole pine, or a “burn.” The glades contain a considerable amount of pas- ture land, but they necessarily form part of the highways for the sheep, and furnish pasturage for the pack horses, so that they are kept closely cropped. Being comparatively level, they afford good camping places, and corral grounds for counting and segregating the sheep. It is not unusual to find good springs of water in the glades; in fact, small patches of marshy ground, abounding with various sedges, are not uncommon in places. The grazing area described above is controlled by the federal government and is leased to individual sheep owners under well known rules and restrictions. THE CAMP AT TALLOW FLAT It was decided to study first a band of sheep which was stationed at Tallow Flat, a point on the main ridge between Tucanon Creek and Little Tucanon, in section 36, Twp. 9 N., R. 40 E. This ridge is typical of all the lower ridges; there- fore a description of conditions found there will be illustra- tive of most of the Canadian zone. In all cases observed, the sheep were bedded on the tops of the ridges, the herding system being adopted. The Gov- ernment, in cooperation with certain sheep owners in the Re- serve, is making experiments in which the bedding out sys- tem is compared with, the above-mentioned system. The herders show an unwillingness to adopt the bedding-out sys- tem, claiming that it is too hard work for both the man and the dogs. In the herding system the sheep leave the bedding ground in the morning and return again the evening, the time of leaving and returning depending somewhat on tne state of the weather, in the vicinity of Tallow Flat, the top of the ridge broadens out from 200 to 300 yards in places. In other portions of the ridge close by, it narrows on top to only a few yards in width, with rocky, rather precipitous slopes in places. At this point, the faces or slopes of the ridge are about a mile in width, marked and furrowed with secondary ridges and valleys, forming watersheds to the streams above mentioned. The top of the ridge in places is timbered, and forms a good camping ground. Springs are found nearby in the timber, and such springs originating near the tops of the ridges are not uncommon. The flat por- tion of the ridge, which is almost destitute of any vegeta- tion, is used as bedding ground for the sheep. On the edge 10 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS of the timber close by, the herder has his camp. He thus has his sheep close enough at night to make them comparatively safe from the molestations of any wild animals. Cougars and bob-cats have occasionally given some trouble, but the dogs usually give the alarm. Such a bedding ground is used year after year. There is an advantage in this, since the sites chosen have natural advantages such as shelter for the tent, wood supply and water, besides trails, salt-troughs for salting the sheep, and other more or less permanent structures which the ingenuity of the herder may suggest. From this camp as a temporary headquarters, the herder grazes tUe sheep on both sides of the ridge, supposedly within the ter- ritory covered by the lease. The areas covered by the lease are usually bounded by creeks and ridges. Upon the camp mover, who packs in supplies and moves the camps from time to time, devolves the responsibility of keeping the band within leased territory. PLANTS EATEN BY THE SHEEP Two bands were studied for some time, one in the Can- adian, and one in the Hudsonian zone. Notes on others were taken as occasion offered. A careful record was made of the plants eaten at each place. So far as most of the shrubby plants are concerned, the conditions were very similar in both cases. . The exceptions will be noted later The common shrubs growing on the hillsides which furn- ish the chief food of the sheep are: service-berry ( Ame^an- chier florida Lindl.); Ninebark {Opulaster paucifiorus (T. & G.) Heller); ocean spray {Holodiscus discolor (Pursh) Max- in); mountain maple {Acer douglasii {^ook.) (Piper); Scouler willow ^ {Salix scouleriana Barratt); wild cherry {Prunus emarginata (Dough) Walk.); and Spiraea corymhosa Raf. The sheep browse on the leaves and tender shoots of these shrubs. The relative abundance and distribution of these plants vary considerably. In general, they are more abun- dant in the small draws having a north or west exposure. This is especially true of the willows, maples, wild cherry and service-berry. Sheep are very fond of the leaves of service- berry, often standing on their hind legs to pull down the branches. Ninebark is abundant and much eaten. Spiraea and ocean spray are found on the drier situations. The leaves of these are drier and not liked as much as some of the other shrubs. However, the wild rose bush, which often grows in dry situations, produces tender leaves and shoots which are relished by the lambs, as well as the older sheep. The wax- berry hush (Syn).phorica7y os racemosus Michx.) is not usually IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 11 eaten during the summer, the leaves being tough and leath- ery. Neither the chokecherry {Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Dietr.) buckbrush {Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh); nor sticky laurel {Ceanothus velutinus Dough) were common at Tallow h'lat camp. Where present, however, they were eaten with relish. The sheep are very fond of the younger, more succulent shoots of species of elder {Sambucus glauca Nutt.) and (5. melanocarpa Gray). The latter, tne red-berried elder, is found commonly in the higher portions of the mountains. Whether this shrub will be able to persist when the young shoots are destroyed year after year is a point worth watch- ing. A certain amount of wheat bunchgrass is usually found on the drier hillsides, but grass is scarce amongst the brush. Tufts of brome grass yBromus marginatus Nees) and sheep fescue {Festuca ovina Hack.) are not common. Where bunch- grass and brome grass appear, they are stripped of their leaves by lambs, the flowering heads often being left un- touched. Some of the common herbs are eaten more or less, but they form a comparatively unimportant part of the for- age. Among those eaten are “wild parsnip” {Pteryxia foe- niculacea Nutt); yarrow {Achillea millefolium Yar.lanulosum (Nutt.) Piper); painted cup {Castilleja Sp. );alum root {Heu- chera glabella T. & G. ); purple avens {Sieversia ciliata (Purshj G. Don.); hawkweed {Hieracium scouleri Hook.) and {Gilia aggregata (Pursh) Spreng.). The “wild parsnip” is eaten wherever found, and seems to do no injury. The sheep eat the leaves of certain lupines, but avoid the yellow lupine {Lupinus sulphureus Dough). The plants mentioned above supplied practically all of the food in the vicinity of Tallow Pdat, which may be taken as fairly representative of the low- er portion of the range. CAMP AT POVERTY FLAT Three weeks later the party was located in the higher, interior portion of the range, about two miles south of the East Oregon i_.utte, between Butte Creek and Crooked Fork, the vegetative zone being the Hudsonian. Here another band was studied. As before stated, the tops of the ridges here often broaden out into plateaus of considerable extent, which are frequently timbered. These often border rather abruptly and sometimes precipitously on very deep valleys, which include a wide range of vegetation from top to bottom. In this zone sticky laurel becomes abundant and forms an im- portant part of the forage. Besides most of the shrubs men- tioned for the Canadian zone, the following were noted as forming a part of the food of the sheep; red osier dogwood 12 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS i^Cornus stolonifera Michx.); mountain ash setchensis (Room.) Piper); fly-honeysuckle (Lonicera involucrata Banks.), and various species of wild currant {Ribes). Some of the important herbs eaten here were: cinquefoil {Drymo- callis glandulosa (Lindl.) Kydb.); wild rye grass {Elymustri- ticoides Buckl.); various species of sweet cicely {Osmorkiza), and brome grass. The latter is frequently abundant on old bedding grounds, though often smutted. Some of the older bedding grounds are covered with Monolepis nuttalliana (Roem & Schult.) Green, lambs quarters {Chenopodium al- bum L.), and other weeds of the same character. “What the sheep eat depends largely on what they have to eat.” Their favorite “browse” among the above mentioned shrubs are service-berry, ninebark and sticky laurel. Various species of Pentstemon, including P, deustus Dough, F. dif- fusus, P, fruticosus (Pursh.) Green, and F. attenuatusDougl. are exceedingly common in the Blue Mountains and form a larger part of the herbaceous vegetation in the higher parts, but so far as the writer observed, the sheep will not touch them. In addition, the following plants were generally avoid- ed: The bracken fern {Pteridium aquilinum Underw.) the meadow rue {Thalictrum occidentale Gray), Phacelia het- erophylla Pursh. and Lupinus sulphureus Dough When feeding the older sheep scout ahead, and browse on the larger shrubs, while the lambs seem to eat nearly ev- erything they can get: i. e., their forage seems to be more diversified. Grasses, however, form a larger proportion of their food than that of the older sheep. There were no cases of poisoning so far as the writer knows in either of the bands during the time they were un- der observation. Special care was taken to observe whether the sheep ate larkspur (Delphinium menziesii D C. ). The plant was frequently met with where the tops were nipped off, but no injury seemed to follow. Another band in the vi- cinity of the Oregon Buttes (not belonging to R. H. Jackson), reported several lambs lost by poisoning. The herders report that the lambs suffer the most frequently from poisoning, and that it occurs most along streams in the timber. The sheep are rarely watered. From all observations, it is evident that the leaves of shrubs, or “browse,” constitute the chief food of the sheep in the higher portions of the mountains. ANNUAL AND PERENNIAL RANGES In any discussions of those causes which may operate to maintain or improve the range under consideration, it is well IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 13 not only to consider rather carefully the character of the range, but to point out some of the essential differences be- tween annual and perennial ranges. An annual range is one in which the predominating forage plants are annuals, or plants lasting but one year. Annuals usually produce an abundance of viable seed. Such ranges are characteristic of arid or semi-arid regions. Where perennial forage plants are the most abundant, the areas are known as perennial ranges. They are characteristic of those sections where rains are more or less frequent. Mountainous or timbered grazing areas as well as many of the northern grassy plains are of this character. In general they are more plastic and endur- ing than the annual type of range. Since the latter depends on the production of seed for its preservation, close cropping before the seeds mature means a destruction of a large part of the next generation, as well as the present. This may not always show on a virgin range, as there is a certain amount of ungerminated seed lying dormant. An annual range should therefore never be cropped too closely. A certain percentage of the plants should always be left, varying with the strength of the range. Injury due to close cropping is not so apparent in a perennial range as the principal forage plants persist by means of underground parts which live over winter and are the principal means of renewing the growth' of the plants in the spring. On the other hand, annuals can take advantage of the seasons; their occupation of an area is often only temporary. In some cases, they may germinate, mature and seed in the short space of five or six weeks; such are the so-called summer annuals. Where they germinate in the fall, rest during the winter by forming ros- ettes, and mature the following spring, they are known as winter annuals. To use a range intelligently, evidently something should be known of the life history of the principal forage plants. In the Wenaha National Forest, annuals form an unimportant part of the forage. The problems to be considered are those of a perennial range. RANGE DETERIORATION To work out a satisfactory scheme of range mainten- ance for any locality, it is necessary to understand some of the causes which have led to deterioration in some grazing sections. The primary cause has been overgrazing, but this may take several phases: 1. There may be too many ani- mals to a given area. 2. The bands or herds may be kept too long in one place. 3. The grazing may be started too 14 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS early in the spring before the seedlings are sufficiently de- veloped. 4. In the case of some annual ranges, proper al- lowance is not made for a poor, dry season, when the propor- tion of forage is below the normal. The free range has been particularly subject to overcrowding, because of the absence of any restrictions. The effects of overstocking are not at first apparent; they are cumulative. Again, the community grows; more settlers move in; part of the range is often farmed, leaving less to be grazed, and the roads and trails be- come continually more accessible. All of these have their effects, where the bands or herds are kept too long in one place, they do darnage not only by too close cropping, but of- ten by injuring the physical character of the soil. Continual tramping on a clayey soil packs it so closely as to prevent plant growth. The erf'ects of this are found around watering- places. Gravelly soils, on the other hand, are sometimes loosened and furrowed by sheep bunching too closely. Even when it is apparent that the carrying capacity of a range has been reduced by adverse climatic conditions, such as prolonged drouth in certain sections, it is sometimes found impossible to reduce the herds. Again, in certain range re- gions, it has been found that the more abundant raising of hay has been an indirect cause of the depletion of the free ranges, by increasing the number of stock that can be win- terded over and fed on the summer range. When close cropping is practiced, a selective process goes on, which eventually hastens deterioration. The best forage plant is that which is eaten most closely; this is the first to suffer. Weakened until it ceases to be the dominant forage species, a less valuable plant then takes its place and becomes the dominant type. The succession is often grad- ual and unnoticeable, but eventually a new plant society is established, and the dominant species are found to be worth- less weeds. Some of our perennial ranges, of whose value and permanence we feel most assured, are deceptive in this respect. The principal forage plants of such ranges should be watched and lists of the more valuable plants checked up from time to time in regard to their relative quantities and distribution. The grazing lands included within the Wenaha National Forest are fortunately free from the injuries common to many ranges. The character of the range and the compara- tively late season at which it can be entered are in its favor. Overcrowding and overcropping in the ordinary sense are prevented by Government control. It is believed, however. IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 15 that a careful watch should be made of any tendency toward an undesirable plant succession. CARRYING CAPACITY The question as to how closely a ran^e may be safely grazed is an important one. It will depend on the character of the range as well as the time of year. If an annual range is grazed before the important forage plants mature their seed, evidently it will not be safe to graze to the maximum capacity. If the same sort of range is grazed after the seeds have matured and dropped, fairly close grazing will not in- jure it, altho the nutritive value of annuals at this period is low, and even in the case of the perennials the plants are -less palatable than before the seeds mature. This applies particu- larly to some of the important forage grasses. Where the forage of a perennial range consists almost entirely of “browse” from shrubs, it is less likely to be injured than a perennial grass range. The highest utilization of the range within limits, having a proper regard for the future, is often designated its optimum caqacity. This is evidently less than the maximum capacity for any given year. The difference between the maximum and the optimum forms the reserve strength of the range, which must be guarded. The com- monest mistake of sheep and cattle men is to put the op- timum too high. Deterioration is rapid after the optimum is reached. This makes it highly desirable that careful experi- ments be made to determine the optimum in a given range. The optimum in an annual range is lower than that of a per- ennial. The forage value of the annual is also less. The grazing plants of the Wenaha National Forest, being mostly shrubby, suffer only from partial defoliation. This takes place during the summer and early fall, when the plants are in flower or fruit. Whether this partial defoliation year after year will sensibly weaken these plants, is a ques- tion. It seems impossible to determine this in a short time; so far as can be judged on the spot, there seems to be no evi- dence of it. If the sheep were allowed to browse on these shrubs during the early spring months, probably injury would result. The only parts of the range which are denuded are the tops of the ridges. These have for years formed highways for the sheep in passing from one place to another. The total surface thus used forms a comparatively small portion of the total area. But taking the area observed as typical of the Blue Mountain section, it would seem that the range is not being utilized to its full carrying capacity. In the 16 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS bands studied the sheep pastured from one-third to one-half the distance down the side of the ridge. The remaining two- thirds or one-half the hillside is left ungrazed. This is due to the fact that the bedding grounds are on the tops of the ridges. The distance the sheep go down and return in a day represents the days feeding. The next day they are fed from another point of the ridge. Below the area of a day’s feed- ing it would be hard to go from a bedding ground on top of the ridge, as the sheep are driven with difficulty over a pre- viously grazed area. They resist the driving efforts of the dogs, bunch together and plant their feet in the ground in such a way as to plow furrows and even destroy shrubby veg- etation. The only solution would seem to be to construct more trails lower down on the hillsides. This would mean some expense, but would probably be justified by the greater utilization of the range. RANGE IMPROVEMENT The principal cause leading to range investigation has been deterioration of the ranges. Various efforts have been made to restore depleted ranges to their original condition. These efforts have been directed along several lines, such as (1) fencing and resting the land during parts of one season or for parts of several seasons, (2) rotation of pastures, (3) reduction in the number of stock over a given area, and (4) reseeding with or without cultivation. In the range pos- sessing little reserve strength, such as some of those of the arid regions, recovery is a serious question. In places, des- truction has gone on so far that erosion has set in, due to the lack of any sustaining plant roots, or to the furrowing pro- duced by the feet of grazing animals. Artificial reseeding on such large areas is probably not practicable at the present time. Careful experiments, however, have shown that it is possible, especially where the ground is cultivated. This of course should be done if the returns will justify the ex- pense. The cheapest and most practicable way of restoring such ranges is to give them some form of rest. This always involves a number of economic problems, which should be made secondary to the main problem — the restoration of the range. The solution of the economic problems is often a mat- ter of legislation. Where land is held in private ownership, it can be fenced; on public land some sort of range inspection seems necessary. In the stronger and more valuable per- ennial ranges, there is more chance of improvement. Re- seeding is often advisable; new forage plants may be intro- duced with success The question naturally arises as to what extent a primitive range may be improved. IN THE WENAHA NATIONAL FOREST 17 In the Wenaha National Forest, there is a large amount of open, un timbered land. As stated elsewhere, this is usual- ly on the south and east slopes. In many places even the shrubby vegetation is sparse. Bunchgrass occupies some of these open spaces. In other places there is little vegetation of any kind. In some of these seemingly sterile places brome grass seems to grow readily. This is a fairly good forage grass; the sheep are fond of it. Whether this grass can be made to grow abundantly on these open areas is a question for the future to determine. In the moist valleys of the Can- adian zone, and the open meadows of the Hudsonian, there seems to be no reason why timothy and redtop could not be introduced. Seed could be sown in the higher valleys and draws in autumn before the snow falls. Cultivation would probably not be practicable at present, except perhaps in some of the glades, on account of the inaccessibility and very rough nature of the country. In closing, it may be said that the future of the We- naha range is promising. Tho not so intensive, acre for acre, as a grass range, its shrubby nature gives it an element of stability which a purely grass range lacks. However, in the treatment of a grazing area, it is well to keep in mind the old adage, “An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.” In those parts of our country where the climate and rainfall are adapted to tilling the soil, only the roughest por- tions will eventually be left as grazing areas. This condition applies to the Wenaha National Forest. , BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Beattie, R. Kent. Plants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range. Washington Agri- cultural Experiment Station, General Bulletin No. 113, 1913. 2. Bentley, H. L. Experiments in Range Improvements in Central Texas, Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 13. 1902. 3. Blankenship, J. W. Range Improvement, Montana Experiment Sta. Rp., pp. 71-75, 1902. 4. Cotton, J. S. Range Management in the State of Washington; U. S. D. A., Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 75, 1905. 5. Cotton, J. S. The Improvement of Mountain Mea- dows; Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 127, 1908. 6. Cotton, J. S. Range Management; U. S. D. A. Yearbook, pp. 225-238, 1906. 7. Davy, J. B. Stock Ranges of Northwestern Cali- fornia. Bur. Plant Indus. Bui. 12, 1902. 18 A STUDY OF GRAZING CONDITIONS 8. Forbes, R. H. Range Improvement and Adminis- tration. U. S. D. A. Exp. Sta. Bui. 115, pp. 85-86, 1901. 9. Griffiths, David. Forage Conditions and Problems in Eastern Washington, Eastern Oregon, Northeastern Calif- ornia and Northwestern Nevada; B. P. I. Bui. 38, 1903. 10. Griffiths, David. The Reseeding of Depleted Range and Native Pastures; U. S. D. A., B. P. I. Bui. 117, 1907. 11. Kennedy, P. B. A Preliminary Report on the Sum- mer Ranges of Western Nevada; Nev. Exp. Sta. Bui. 51, 1901. 12. Piper, C. V. Flora of Washington. Contributions from the National Herbarium. Vol. XL, 1906. 13. Sampson, A. W. Grazing Lands. Forest Service, Cir. 169, 1909. 14. Sampson, A. W. The Revegetation of Overgrazed Range Areas, Preliminary Report. Forest Service, Cir. 158, 1908. 15. Thornber, J. J. The Grazing Ranges of Arizona; Ariz. Ex. Sta. Bui. 65, 1910. 16. U. S. D.. A., Forest Service. Revised Regulations and Instructions in Reference to Grazing. 17. Wooton, E. 0. The Range Problem in New Mexico; N. Mex. Exp. Sta., Bui. 66, 1908. Fig. 1. Typical scenery in the yellow pine zone, which is from 1800 to 3300 feet above sea-level. The characteristic tree is yellow pine {Pinus Ponderosa) . R. H. Jackson’s outfitting camp on Tu- canon Creek. Fig. 2. Sheep feeding in the morning on a south slope at Tal- low Flat, in the Canadian zone. The picture shows a small area of bunch grass, which is occasionally found on sunny slopes in this zone. Fig. 3. One of the highways of the sheep in the Hudsonian zone. The latter are shown here moving to another camp. Parts of this trail are very rough and pack horses find difficulty in going over it. No place is too rough for the sheep. \ Sr ■V.- . ..rf' 'i "j' \:‘-i/''’' ■ ■*■ ■ a' • ' ■■ t - r‘5j . t-V ■■ ^ .. ;i. V . -.. ‘ V.?: :■;; - V- A. 'a -' 'I. . •"♦. ••r> - v' •**^ ■ T’. K. ■' r"'- T,'< V . ,, ■ f* ■ ■■*; 1 J* ■i It: P'ig. 4. This picture shows the usual shrubby type of vegetation on which the sheep browse. See pp 10-11 of report for enumeration of shrubby vegetation. Fig. 5. A “glade" in the Hudsonian zone. The Alpine fir is the predominant tree. The picture shows one of the occasional “burns” found here. This is a difficult place in which to herd sheep. l^ig, b. ihis IS a closer view of the ridge shown in Fig. 3. The plant on the slope in the foreground, which looks like a species of sagebrush in the picture, is a species of Pentstemon for which the sheep do not care. Fig-. 7. Browsing on a steep slope in the Hudsonian zone. It is probably 1500 yards to the bottom of this slope, but the sheep will not go down more than about 500 yards. The picture was taken in the evening when the sheep were returning to their bedding ground, which is on the level part of the ridge at their right. r i, ? A -A- \rl [• 1 ( STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF SOIL PHYSICS Time and Method of 7 illage on the Yield and Comparative Co^ of Produdtion of Wheat in the Palouse Region of Ea^ern Washington — by— 0. C. THOM, SoU Physicist — and — H. F. HOLTZ, Assistant Soil Physicist BULLETIN No. 123 July, 1915 All BuUetins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to the Director BOARD OF CONTROL E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. A. Bryan (President of College), Secretary ex-officio. . .Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C. McCroskey Garfield EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Tra D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . Elton Fulmer, M. A. . , O. L. Waller, Ph. M. . A. L. Melander, Sc. D, O. M, Morris, M. S. . . . Geo. Severance, B. S. . C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . . W. T. Shaw, M. S E. G. Shafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, M. S P. D. Heald, Ph? D C. A. Magoon, M. A. . . J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. Yothers, M. S. . Henry P. Holtz, M. S. . E. P. Gaines, M. S. . . . C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . D. C. George, B. S. . . . H. M. Woolman P. W. Allen, M. S A, L. Sherman, B. S, . Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist . . . . Assistant Bacteriologist Veterinarian . . . .Assistant Entomologist .. . . . . Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist l . .Assistant in Horticulture , Assistant Plant Pathologist , Assistant Plant Pathologist \ . . . Assistant Horticulturist . Assistant Chemist TIME AND METHOD OP TILLAGE ON THE YIELD AND OOMPARTIVE COST OF PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN THE POLOUSE REGION OF EASTERN WASHINGTON By C’. C. THOM, Soil Physicist and H. ¥. HOl/TZ, Assistant Soil Physicist This experiment is being conducted to determine the relative merits, for wheat production, of: Fall plowing vs. spring plowing of summar-f allow land; Fall plowing vs. fall disking and spring plowing of summer- fallow land; Early vs. late spring plowing of summer-fallow land; Sub-surface packing vs. not packing of early spring plowing of summer-fallow land; Packing vs. not packing late spring plowing of summer- fallow land; Disking vs. not disking before late spring plowing of summer-fallow land; Early vs. late spring tillage of fall plowed land for summer- fallow ; Wheat first year and summer-fallow the next year vs. wheat first year and corn the next year ; Wheat the first year and summer-fallow the next year vs. wheat the first year and field peas the next year ; Wheat the first year and summer-fallow the next year vs. wheat the first year and volunteer, used for pasture the next year. A tract of land having a uniform soil, of great depth and a gentle slope to the southward, was chosen. There is no possi- bility of surface or sub-surface drainage from adjacent lands to this area. The differences in yields on the plats are due entirely to time and method of tillage. That the soil might be as free as possible from the influences of methods of tillage of former years, the whole tract was plowed and planted to winter wheat early in October, 1911. No record of the yield of wheat was taken in 1912, hut as soon as the crop was removed the area was laid out in one-tenth acre plats and the work of the experiment began. Strict account of all operations performed was kept and charged for at the following rates : Plowing $1.50 per acre Disking 60 “ “ Harrowing 20 “ Packing 50 “ “ Seeding 40 “ “ Binding and shocking wheat 1.35 “ Cultivating corn 50 “ “ Harvesting corn 2.00 “ “ Corn for seed 30 “ “ Peas for seed 1.60 “ “ Harvesting peas .• 2.00 “ “ Threshing wheat and peas 10 per bu. Such matters as rent, taxes, the cost of wheat for seed, the ; cost of sacks, the cost of treating for smut, and the cost of ' hauling to market, all of which vary more or less between farms , and between communities, have not been taken into considera- ' tion in figuring costs. The costs as here given serve only as ; a dollar and cents basis of comparison of the merits of the • methods of tillage that were followed. ; HOW THE PLOTS WERE TREATED i i Plot I. I Plowed Nov. 1, 1912. ^ Disked April 3, 1913. ^ Harrowed April 22, 1913. \ Planted to corn May 7, 1913. Cultivated corn June 14, and July 6, 1913. Harvested corn Sept. 25, 1913. Yield — shelled corn, 30 bu. per acre, dry fodder 1 ton per acre. Plowed and disked Oct. 6, 1913. Harrowed and planted to wheat. Hybrid 143, Oct, 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 37.8 bu. per acre. Results Corn, 30 bu., at 80c per bu $24.00 Corn fodder, 1 ton at $2 per ton 2.00 Wheat 37.8 bu. at 80c per bu 30.24 Gross returns $66.24 Costs 13.66 Net returns $42.69 Plot II. Plowed Nov. 1. 1912. Disked April 3, 1913. Harrowed and planted to peas April 22, 1913. Harvested peas Aug. 10, 1913. Yield of peas 32 bu. per acre. Plowed and disked Oct. 6, 1913. Harrowed and planted to wheat. Hybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 33.7 bu. per acre. Results Peas, 32 bu., at 80c per bu $25.60 Wheat, 33.7 bu., at 80c per bu $26.96 Gross returns $52.66* Costs 17.35 Net returns $35.21 Plot in. Plowed Nov. 1, 1912. Disked April 3, and May 7, 1913. Harrowed April 22 and July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat, Hybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 49.4 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 49.4 bu., at 80c per bu $39.60 Costs 10.05 Net returns $29. 4S Plot IV. Plowed, packed, and disked April 3, 1913. Disked May 7, 1913. Harrowed April 22 and July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat. Hybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29. 1914, Yield of wheat 49 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 49.0 bu., at 80c per bu $39.20 Costs 10.55 Net returns $28.66 Plot V. Plowed and disked April 3, 1913. Disked May 7, 1913. Harrowed April 22 and July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat. Hybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914, Yield of wheat 61.7 bu. per acre. ttesults Wheat, 51.7 bu., at 80c per bu $41.30 Costs 10.35 Net returns $31. 01 Plot VI. Left grow to volunteer and pastured during season of 1913. Plowed and disked Oct. 6, 1913. Harrowed and planted to wheat, Hybrid 14 3, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 20.2 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 20.2 bu., at 80c per bu $16.16 Pasture at $1 per acre 1.00 Gross returns . . . ; $17.16 Costs , 6.15 Net returns $11.01 Plot vn. Plowed, packed and disked June 10, 1913. Harrowed July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat, Hybrid 143, Oct. 14. 1913. Yield of wheat 38.5 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 38.5 bu., at 80c per bu $31.00 Costs 8.80 Net returns $22.20 Plot vm Plowed and disked June 10, 1913. Harrowed July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat. Hybrid 14 3, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 36.6 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 36.6 bu., at 80c per bu . .$29.28 Costs 8.05 Net returns $21.23 Plot IX. Disked April 3, 1913. Plowed, packed and disked June 10, 1913. Harrowed July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat. Hybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 42.4 bu. per acre. -Itearalti-” ' Wheat, 42.4 bu., at 80c per bu $33.92 Costs 9.70 Net returns $24.22 Plot X. Disked Nov. 1, 1912. Plowed, packed and disked June 10, 1913. Harrowed July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat, Plybrid 143, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of what 37.3 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 37.3 bu., at 80c per bu $29.84 Costs 9.20 Net returns $20.64 Plot XI. Plowed Nov. 1, 1912. Disked June 10, 1913. Harrowed July 6, 1913. Disked and planted to wheat. Hybrid 14 3, Oct. 14, 1913. Harvested wheat July 29, 1914. Yield of wheat 49.7 bu. per acre. Results Wheat, 49.7 bu., at 80c per bu $39.76 Costs 9.45 Net returns $30,31 It should be noted that: All plots received like cultivation on the same date. All plots were seeded on the same date. All plots were seeded to the same variety of wheat. All plots were harvested on the same date. It is a two-year rotation. The comparative net returns are for two years. The following tabulation presents these same results in much better form for comparison : No. of plot . . . How Treated Yield in bu. per acre. . . Gross returns per acre . . . Cost per acre . . . Net returns per acre. .‘. 1. Corn and wheat alternating, fall plowed each year. corn 30.0 wheat 37.8 $56.24 $13.65 $42.59 2. Peas and wheat alternating, fall plowed each year. peas 32.0 wheat 33.7 52.56 17.35 35.21 3. Wheat and summer fallow, fall plowed after wheat. wheat 49.4 39.50 10.05 29.45 4. Wheat and summer fallow, early spring plowing, April 3, packed. wheat 49.0 39.20 10.55 28.65 5, Wheat and summer fallow, early spring plowing, April 3, not packed. wheat 51.7 41.36 10.35 31.01 6. Wheat and volunteer, volunteer used for pasture, fall plowed after volunteer. wheat 20.2 17.16 6.15 11.01 7. W'^heat and summer fallow, late spring plowing, June 10, packed. wheat 38.5 31.00 8.80 22.20 8. Wheat and summer fallow, late spring plowing, June 10, 1 not packed. wheat 36.6 29.28 8.05 21.23 9. 1 Wheat and summer fallow, 1 early spring disked, April 3, late spring plowing, June 10, 1 packed. wheat 42.4 33.92 9.70 24.22 10, 1 Wheat and summer fallow, 1 fall disked, j late spring plowing, June 10, packed. wheat 37.3 29.84 9.20 20.64 11. 1 Wheat and summer fallow, 1 fall plowed, 1 late spring disking, June 10. wheat 49.7 39.76 9.45 30.31 As these are the results of hut one test the writers are not justified in drawing any definite conclusions, but the reader’s attention is directed to, and he is asked to carefully compare 1st — Plots 1, 2 and 3. Continuous cropping vs. summer-fallow. 2nd — Plots 4 and 6. Packing vs. not packing of early spring plowing. 3rd — Plots 7 and 8. Packing vs. not packing of late spring plowing. 4th — Plots 4 and 5, with 7 and 8. Early vs. late spring plowing. 5th — Plots 7 and 9. Disking vs. not disking before late spring plowing. 6th — Plots 10 and 11. Fall plowing vs. fall disking, 7 th — Plot 6 vs, any other plot. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON. Division of Entomology and Zoology Bud Weevils and Other Bud-eating Insets of Washington By M. A. Yothers, Assistant Entomologist. BULLETIN NO. 124 February, 1916 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on, application to Director Board of Conirol. E. T. Coman, President .Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla "Walla E. O. Holland (President of the College) Secretary ex-officio Pullman R. C. McCroskey Garfield D. S. Troy Chimacum J. C. Cunningham Spokane Experiment Station Staff Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . Elton Fulmer, M. A... O. L. Waller, Ph. M . . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D. O. M. Morris, M. S. . . . Geo. Severance, S. . C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . . . W. T. Shaw, M. S E. G. Schafer, M. S. .'. Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . . C. A. Magoon, A. B. . . , J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. McCall, M. S. . . . J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D. . M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F. Holtz, MS... E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . . D. C. George, B. S H. M. Woolman F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S. Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman » . . . Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist , . . . By-products Specialist , . . . Assistant Entomologist . . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist . . . Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist . . Assistant in Farm Crops errata. Pages,' Page : ^oederces,” read “Geoderce.s.” ” ‘‘'^'tonia,” read “Sitona.” 4. line 5, for “.34,” read “.33”; 4, line 6, for “3.5“ read “34.”; “^‘'‘drilineatiis,” read qnadri- h 25, last nund,er in table No. 4, for “6,” read “0”; r “have” read “ha.s”; "" ''RtneToSo^' “Rhyncophora” read Re II., Fiff. 1 , for “lobia-eriu.s” read “lobigerinu.s.” CONTENTS. Introduction 5 Subject defined 5 Nature and extent of injury 5 General distribution of species studied 6 List of species studied 6 Food plants of the several species 7 Earliest and latest dates weevils were collected 8 Methods of control - 10 Cercopeus artemisiae 12 Cleonus lobigerinus and Cleonus quadrilineatus .’14 Goederces melanothrix 15 Melamomphus luteus 16 Melamomphus nigrescens 18 Mimetes setulosus 18 Laboratory notes on Mimetes 20 Mylacus saccatus ..21 Panscopus aequalis 21 Oviposition in the laboratory ; 25 Incubation of eggs in the laboratory : 25 Experiments with adult weevils in the laboratory 26 Panscopus sulcirostris 27 Sitonia apacheana 27 Tosastes cinerascens 28 General remarks 28 Nature and extent of injury 28 Distribution 29 Food plants 29 Life history Eggs 29 Number of eggs per female 30 Oviposition of eggs in the laboratory 30 Comparative length of life of adults in laboratory 31 Life of adult weevils 32 Miscellaneous field notes Action with reference to light 32 Copulation 33 Manner of feeding of adult weevils 33 Distribution of weevils in an orchard 34 Table showing the comparative number of the two sexes 35 Tricolepsis sp 35 Tychius lineellus 35 Species of bud eating beetles other than weevils. Cotalpa granicollis 35 Eusattus muricatus 36 Glyptoscelis alternata 37 Polyphylla decemlineata 38 Syneta albida 39 Summary 41 Bibliography 42 Explanation of plates 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55 Plates illustrating the various species, etc 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55 BUD WEEVILS AND OTHER BUD FEEDING INSECTS OF WASHINGTON. By M. A. Yothers, Assistant Entomologist. INTRODUCTION. The present paper contains miscellaneous notes on the life history and habits of certain species of Rhynchophora and other insects which have been found injuring the buds- of fruit trees in Washington. Field studies of the various species were pursued for two weeks in the spring of 1911, and one month in the spring of 1912. These records therefore are incomplete and do not attempt to give full information for any species. They are presented merely as a preliminary record of studies thus far. The investigations were discon- tinued in 1912, when satisfactory control measures were dis- covered. Beginning with the year 1909 more or less complaint was made by the orchardists throughout the central part of the state of certain small insects found devouring the buds of young fruit trees. A number of different species 'sent to the Experiment Station from time to time, proved to be little known and others entirely new to science. Practically noth- ing was known of the life history and habits of any of the species, and it was necessary to base recommendations for control upon knowledge of other more or less related, known species. Investigations upon these insects were begun at Prosser, Washington, in 1911, where they had first been reported as present in damaging numbers. It was soon found that sev- eral of the species were native feeders on the sage, Artemisia tridentata, which is the principal plant in Those districts where the weevils were found. Under natural conditions the weevils live on the sage, but when it is cleared from the land and fruit trees are set out in its place, they feed upon the new plants as their only available food. Our studies showed that in so far as the true bud weevils are concerned the boundaries of the Upper Sonoran Zone in Washington are the approximate limits of their distribution. 6 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON The injury caused by the various species of weevils and other bud feeding insects is considerable when all is taken into consideration. Sometimes every bud is eaten out by the insects and the trees die or do not get a start after they are planted. Sometimes only a few of the buds are destroyed and the trees are able to maintain themselves. In some orchards it was found that as many as half of the young trees were killed, but this was an unusually high per cent, although it was not uncommon to find new plantings with a loss of twenty per cent. The studies were carried on in 1911 at Wenatchee, Brew- ster, Okanogan and Omak. In 1912 studies were continued at Kennewick, Benton City, Hanford, White Bluffs, Wenatchee, Orondo, Chelan, Chelan Falls, Lakeside, Brewster, Okanogan, Omak, Riverside, Tonasket and Oroville. The following is a list of the various species investigated: Rhynchophora — Cercopeus artemisiae Pierce. Cleonus lobigerinus Casey Cleonus quadrilineatus Chev. Geoderces melanothrix Kirby Melamomphus luteus Horn Melamomphus nigrescens Pierce Mimetes setulosus Schoen. Mylacus saccatus Leconte Panscopus aequalis Horn Panscopus sulcirostris Pierce Sitona apacheana Casey Tosastes cinerascens Pierce Tricolepsis sp. Tychius lineellus Leconte Other beetles — Cotalpa granicollis Hald. Eusattus muricatus Leconte. Glyptoscelis alternata Crotch. Polyphylla decemlineata Say Syneta albida Leconte. other bud-feeding- beetles occur. ■d c ’> 0 ) (U f uiaqAi-BJ^s - .laAVoyuns : ::::::: a.9i?s : : : : : : : : : : : osoH ouu.i,T : : : Jivoa i{0U0fT; : : : : : : : : : : : siuiulu’'! : : : : : : : aclLMO .^.i.iaqn : : lur.i.iuD aitlcl V w 1 8 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON Table No. 2 , showing the earliest and latest dates at which several specimens were collected. Inasmuch as the wee- vils were studied only at the spring season these dates show only at about what time they could be found. At this time of year they were at least most abundant. Name of species Locality and earliest date Locality and latest date Cercopeus artemisiae. Geoderces melanothrix Melamomphus luteus. . Melamomphus nigres- r.ftns Prosser, March 28, 1911 Puyallup, March 8, 1911 Prosser, April 1, 1910 Riparia, March 22, 1911 Tonasket, March 31, 1911 Okanogan, Apr. 14, 1911 Riparia, March 22, 1911 Oroville, May 10, 1912 Puyallup, Mar. 16, 1911 Mission, May 5, 1911 Riparia, Mar. 22, 1911 Oroville, May 11, 1912 Wawawai, May 14, 1912 Oroville, May 11, 1912 Mimetes setulosus Panscopus aequalis. . . . Tosastes cinerascens. . . I r dj o . Lil o c 0) (U ^ O c a i D CD OJ '4:; ^ "C jc t; o o 0) O Il> 'U fl-’ , , ooo%<^ O M 73 iJ ^ <^73 X' ^ (D a; 0) 03 r; 03 ^ C> > > >o > ^ pj 4:4 14 4:4 4:; .^4^ Or-'03 03 03 03 0J'13 K 44 'c iC t; id ^ iC ^•p03030)0d O ^32 d 6 S'-n M O CO d f- rt P' It i:id Pn^a; o o 03 03 id id 03 03 d d o o [i( o o I o o 1 00 P ^ Op o d 03 - id a 03 d 03 'd Oo S I 03 1 « m m P cc5 P So HP “d p •S dO cj o3+J he G 03 ss>> •0 “'S +-’ d ^ 0 o o . .-d^dd: d ^ w 03 m 03 m c^ 03 d ^ ^ cc3>K*t^ d ... dOc ^^'5 - M M w M „ pS ^ ^ 0 > <3; (]; C +p .CQ P 03 03' 03'' 03 d2 03 . d V O'- T. d >' ^opel : P- 0 pi d id^ddPi . . di dd w , 03 03 d d d • "5 i . .v^ i d o 0 i hc.^ jT 03 I 2 d 03 d d I P 03 O 73 I dffi o P p P P d d 73S 03 03*^ o3 d . 03 d P .-.dd . . 03 . - P “ S^sSt^P ^5 -'(om 03 O EO 5 p 03 ^ 03 ' <2 oT I 03 '® EO S ^PQ 03 :3 03 jn oT i^si§ ep-d|s . K.' . ^ . ^.o dffiodoi , o . 03 Ph . 03 Ot 03 ”Po;>>?.da3-.b O ct ^ 03U 03 orj) §m. S o3d P > “ gd-'^ 73 ^j" . id 73 03 d d ^ ^ ci3 O p w bec-'.p; id §r:^o o.SSp , -'J 5h O’d 03 03 erH P 03 d '^' S fTj |r|W„- ki dd 03 m d d M 03 ^ 03 Ki 03 03“ d d <, d do a3 03 P 03 d c3 ffi O f ■ o he 03 dt‘ 03 03 p4 03 Si P ' d k u ^ - Pd G 2 CQv> ^ ^ ' he p o jj P ■P h/Jd §■3“^ “§ = S I i; I C 03 Ut GO 03 d 03 03 o''^4P §sS ShS d ^i-- m-§5 ■;gp .42 P <53 .4J > p-s ogg |s^ d C . t>£'p 03 -Pi P “ P P idd^ . d d 03 CQ^ ©d "4. s- +j 03.2 d o .P '3 03"^ d P ©^ _mO§^ g 6^i •Po -d 0 © M 03 03 >1 d PwE-i d 03 • r !-.0 o .0 .0 'C P (U_ td2 d 4J Id od od qn rjq-i >• gl.S© «H?i^d o P-^ 0 t- © t-d ^d o •r^4-' , 03 P ^d nf > 03 '^d 03 o S £^©o P-Ps O 10 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON METHODS OF CONTROL. Table No. 3 gives in a concise form the various remedies tried against the weevils and other bud feeders. No experi- mental control work was undertaken by us but our recom- mendations are based largely upon the results obtained by responsible orchardists and upon our observations of the ef- ficiency of the methods used as v/e found them in our field studies. Some additional control measures are given under the discussion of the various species. A large number of testimonials as to the efficiency of the various methods of control could have been given in the table, but the ones selected represent more the opinions of the managers and superintendents of large orchard com- panies, some of whom have thousands of acres under their charge, and are therefore more authoritative. Judging from the results obtained by a number of the larger companies and many individual orchardists with the use of the paper cone tree protectors (Figs. 1,’ 2), there is little doubt but that they are the most effective and practicable means of pro- Fig. 1. Showing the manner of cutting the paper for making the paper cone tree protector. The dimensions are approximately 10 inches wide at the base, 6 inches tail and 3 inches wide at the top. About one-sixth natural size. tecting the trees against the weevils. The paper cones are effective not only against the weevils but also against the climbing cutworms, thus serving a double purpose that is of great importance to the orchardist. The cones are also much more permanent than any of the other remedies, for once put on the trees in the spring they will, with but little adjust- ment, prevent the ravages of the weevils and the cutworms throughout the entire season. The paper cones are made of heavy paper that will with- stand to a considerable extent the influences of wind, sun and moisture. The papers are cut in the shape indicated in Fig. 1, BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 11 and according to the dimensions given. As the paper cones are used on one- or two-year- old trees, and for this size these dimensions are recommended, but if the cones are to be used on larger trees the size of the cones will have to be increased accordingly. When the papers are cut and ready to be placed on the trees each is smeared on one side with a three- or four-inch band of “tanglefoot” which should not reach to the lower or broad edge of the paper on account of making it difficult to handle. A small pinch of cotton is then placed about the trunk of the tree about eight inches from the ground. The paper is then placed carefully about the tree, with the tanglefoot inside, in the shape of a cone with the broad end below and about three or four inches from the ground, and the small end about the cot- ton. In order to fasten the paper together it should be pinned in the manner indicated in the figure. The purpose of the cotton is to protect the tender tree from injury by the edge of the paper, and also to insure a more perfect union of tree and protector. The paper cone is shown in position about a young tree in Fig. 2. The best manner of cutting the heavy paper for the 'cones is shown in Fig. 1. The proper dimensions for the different sides of the papers are given and when cut according to this method the papers will be uniform in size and there will be the least possible waste of material. The weevils may begin to destroy the buds within a few hours after the young trees are planted, therefore the cone protectors should be applied immediately after the trees are set, thus insuring complete protection from the beginning. With a little care and attention to the adjustment of the cones they will give protection throughout the first sea- son which is usually as long as is necessary for protection against these weevils since they do not often injure older trees. a usual thing Fig. 2. Showing one of the paper cone protectors in position on a young tree. About one-third natural size. BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON CERCOPEUS ARTEMISIAE Pierce. (Plate L, Fig 7). This weevil is the smallest of those found infesting the buds of young fruit trees in this State. It is also considerably less important than most of the other species although not the least by any means. Its distribution is about the same as that of Mimetes setulosus, '1 osastes cinerascens and the chry- somelid, Glyptoscelis alternata. Wherever the common sage- brush, Artemisia tridentata grows in the valley of the Co- lumbia River and its principal tributaries these weevils are found. It has been found on Artemisia tridentata in Mon- tana and was originally named and described from specimens collected m that State. The work of this species on the sage is quite noticeable and readily distinguishable from that of the other species of weevils. When feeding it pierces tmy holes through the leaves of the plant and these holes are often so abundant that they occupy almost the entire surface of the leaves. These feeding punctures are about the size of pin pricKs. In most cases this species was present on newly planted and one-year-old fruit trees wherever any of the other spe- cies of weevils were present. Apparently the weevils are very fond of sap oozing from the pruned surfaces of twigs and also from the partly eaten buds. Owing to this fondness for the sap they may very commonly be found on the cut ends of twigs with their proboscides stucK into tne huhbles oi sap (Plate 111., Fig. 1). They are also frequently found in the axils of the buds where it is somewhat difficult to distinguish them owing to their close resemblance in color to the bracts of the buds. They feed in the daytime, for the most part at least in the early morning and late d,fternoon. in one orchard they were not to be found at 4 o’clock in the after- noon but at 6 o’clock they were plentiful, three or four being found to a tree. During a part of the day they were hiding in the cracks in the soil at the base of the trees. When they are on the tree and are suddenly disturbed they release their hold and fall to the ground as if dead. They curl their legs up close to the body when they hit the ground and it is then difficult to find them. They seem to roll nearly always into some of the cracks at the base of the tree. There seems to be no doubt but that Cercopeus artemis- iae is a native of the sage brush country. The writer has taken it from sage brush, tridentata, not only ad- jacent to orchards but many miles from any planting. They BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 13 are apparently not so plentiful on saes’ebrush as on the fruit trees but that is explained by the face that there are many hundreds of native plants to the acre and many millions of leaves while in the orchard there are only a very few slender twigs and very few buds and consequently a few hundred weevils would seem all too plentiful in the orchard but would be practically lost in the sagebrush. Like the other weevils this one is never found on trees more than two years old nor on land more than two years re- moved from the native state as by that time they are either destroyed or driven out into their native habitat. In fact it is more than probable that both happens. Many of them must certainly be killed by the intensive process of cultivation which is usually practiced in the arid regions in order to con- serve the moisture during the spring until irrigation is begun in early summer. This same intensive cultivation possibly at the same time drives many of the weevils b^^ck into the sao-e- brush. This is suggested by the fact that the weevils are al- ways many times more abundant at the edge of the sagebrush where it adjoins the cultivated land than they are either in the middle of the sagebrush or the middle of the orchard. The fact that their color so closely resembles the sagebrush is additional evidence that they live upon this plant under normal conditions. Cercopeus ortemisiae has been collected on the buds and ^oung leaves of apple, peach, pear and sage. It has been ob- served feeding both during bright sunlight and during dark cloudy weather. The only reference in literature to this species is the des- cription by W. D. Pierce (11 a) of the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C., and the note which he appends to his de- scription which is, presumably from a letter written by R. A. Cooley of Montana.'^ In this letter Prof. Cooley states that the weevil had done considerable damage over large tracts of new- ly planted orchards in his state. It was especially injurious to cherry trees but Prof. Cooley traced it to the sagebrush and decided that it was a native feeder on that plant, '^Numbers refer to literature cited in bibliography. 14 liUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON CLEONUS LOBIGERINUS Casey. , CLEONUS QUADRILINEATUS Chev. (Plate II., Fig. 1) and (Plate II., Fig. 2). Two species of Cleonus have been sent in by frniP growers a number of times and reported as injurious to buds of young fruit trees. Cleonus lobicjerinus C&sey was especi- ally destructive to apricot buds at Okanogan in the spring of 1909. Both cherry and apple trees on either side of the apri- cots were left. This species has been collected at Okanogan, Brewster and Mission, Washington. It is, however, so scarce that nothing was learned of its life history and habits. The writer found specimens of Cleonus quadrilineatvs Chev. on apple trees and on a species of Lupinus at Brewster, Washington, in April, 1912. They did not seem to be very des- tructive to the fruit tree buds although they had eaten of them. They were so few in numbers that they could not do much harm. A species very similar to these two has been found doing similar damage to the young fruit trees in Colorado and Utah. Prof. C. P. Gillette reported that the species found there, Cleonus canescens, destroyed the buds of young peach and apple trees in 1908 and 1910. At Westlake, Utah, according to this writer it was “present in considerable numbers on eyery tree examined.” In every case where this beetle was report- ed the trees were newly set or not over two years old and on virgin soil. Figures 2 and 3 (Plate III) show the side view of the head of the two species found in Washington; (2, Cleonus lohi- gerinus Casey; 3, Cleonus quadrilineatus Chev.) . Chittenden (3) refers to Cleonus quadrilineatus as the “Four-Lined Loco Weeyil,” stating that it is known to breed in considerable numbers in Aragalluslawherti in Colorado, doing very appreciable injury to this plant. “Practically nothing is known of the life history of any species of this genus of which there are quite a number. The beetles are partial to Astragalus and Araqallus and feed also upon Lupinus and related plants. The laryae are undoubtedly root or stalk feeders. The present species in the laryal stage forms in the ground in comparatively large earthen cocoons.” Wickham (13,a) refers to this species as follows: “Found at ground at roots of low plants in Arizona.** The original description of Cleonus lobigerinvs is by Casey (1, b), and that of Cleonus qadrilineatus is by Chev- rolat as given by Horn (6, d). BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 15 GEODERCES MELANOTHRIX Kirby. (Plate I., Fig. 5). Early in March, 1911, specimens of Gioderces melano- thrix Kirby were sent to the department of Entomology from Puyallup with the information that they were destroy- ing the leaf buds of raspberry canes. During a visit to this locality in March, 1911, it was learned that the weevils were of only local interest and not at all to be considered a serious pest. Only a small plantation was found affected. In this field of about an acre most of the buds were partly or entirely destroyed. Although a couple of hours were spent in trying to find the weevils feeding, at no time were any of them observed doing so. When found during the day time they were always in hiding, either among the dead leaves on the ground or secreted between the canes and the posts which supported them. It seems quite probable that this species feeds at night. The soil in which the canes were growing was very sandy and had been under cultivation about twelve years. The land originally supported a very heavy growth of cedar. The weevil worked only on the Marl- borough and Cuthbert varieties. It m-^y be that was because the Antwerps are a later variety and were not in the proper condition for them. The owner of the bushes had sprayed them with arsenate of lead and then covered them with lime. It was two days after the vines had been thus treated that the writer examined them. No evidence was seen that the weevils had eaten any of the buds or the spray mixture since it had been applied. The lime was still on the buds com- pletely covering them. Some of the vines which were not treated showed the partly eaten buds, but it was impossible to tell how recently the feeding had been done. A considerable portion of the affected berry patch had been injured the previous year. Although great numbers of the weevils had been present in this patch none were found in either of the adjoining fields. Th^ owner of the place claimed that he had gathered “about a bushel” of the weevils a short time before the writer visited him. Barnyard manure had been nlaced about the bushes throughout the winter and about these it was almost impos- sible to find the weevils owing to their color resemblance to the manure. The weevils made their first appearance about March 7, 1911. No further study of this speems has been made and no additional information is at hand. The collected specimens are 16 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON preserved in the collection of the State College of Washing- ton. The technical description of this species is given by Le- conte and Horn (10, c). Mr. W. D. Pierce (11, d) mentions the distribution of this species as follows: “Michipicoten Island, Lake Superior, July; Gargantus, Lake Superior, August; White Fish Point, Lake Superior; Marquette, Michigan July 10 (Hubbard and Schwarz); Bayfield, Wisconsin (Wickham); Departure Bay, Vancouver; Massett, Queen Charlotte Island, British Columbia (J. H. Keen).” MELAMOMPHUS LUTEUS Horn. (Plate L, Fig. e3). . This species was first reported in the spring of 1909 at Grandview, Washington, where it was feeding on young peach tree buds. In the spring of 1910 it was reported as very abundant and destructive at Prosser, Washington, in the two hundred acre orchard of the Northern Pacific Railway Com- pany. At that place it was especially destructive to one- and two-year-old apple and pear trees. Specimens were sent to the Entomological department of the State Experiment Sta- tion for determination. Methoods of control were also asked for. The first published record of this insect was by Mr. G. M. Chase (2, a), manager of the Northern Pacific orchard at Prosser. According to Mr. Chase these weevils were very de- structive to the buds of the young trees. So serious seemed the injury that he feared for the safety of the 16,000 trees. In discussing the habits of the weevils. Mr. Chase men- tioned that they go into the cracks of the soil, making it very difficult to find them when the soil is disturbed. As many as two dozen weevils were found to the tree. The young apple trees were more severely injured than were the pears which had not been pruned. The greater the abundance of buds the less was the injury. Mr. Chase found the weevils from the first of March to the middle of April. In a second paper on this weevil Chase ( 2 . hi states that the weevil works only during the more favorable part of the day and night. During the dav it likes cloudy weather best, and will go into the ground if the weather is too cold. Mr. Kruger (9), who has made some observations on this species, claims that the weevil works only in the mornings, especially during the warm days. According to Mr. Kruger, BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 17 it attacks the buds and the bark as well and girdles the tree completely at the top, and later feeds upon the leaves. The weevil may be found commonly at the base of the trees. By digging carefully it may be found adhering to lumps of dirt or scattered about in the dirt a couple of inches beneath the surface. It is not unusual, according to Mr. Kruger, to find forty or fifty weevils to the tree. It seems certain that this species is, like a number of others, a native of the sagebrush, Artemisia spp., and that it is more or less generally distributed throughout the Upper Sonoran Zone in Washington, but perhaps more confined to the southern part of that area. The difference between the males and the females is quite noticeable and was the cause of much of the confusion in the determination of the species. The difference caused the two sexes to be placed in separate genera and confusion re- sulted. METHODS OF CONTROL. Mr. Chase (2, a) tried to control the weevils by spraying with strong arsenate of lead and also with sulphur lime, but found neither effective. A ten per cent solution of kerosene emulsion then tried gave him perfect results on 16,000 trees, although its apparent efficiency may have been due to the lateness of the season, the weevils having already disap- peared. Mr. Kruger of North Yakima, who also made observa- tions on this species, claimed (9) that either kerosense emulsion or sulphur-lime was a good treatment for its control. Prof. Thornber (2, a) suggested that delayed pruning would tend to prevent the depredations of these weevils to a certain extent in that there would be more buds on the young trees for them to feed on and therefore less liklihood of their injuring all the buds. Prof. Melander (2, a) has suggested controlling the weevil by means of the inverted umbrella as employed in other parts of the country against the plum curculio. He also stated that arsenicals are ineffective as a remedy against the weevils. In our correspondence we have recommended either hand picking, the inverted umbrella or the paper cone tree pro- tector as methods of controlling this as well as other species of weevils. Concerning Melamomphus luteus, Pierce (11, h) has the following to say in his discussion of the American weevils: BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON as “Melamomphus luteus Horn. (Tricomigus luteus Horn). “The material before the writer which most nearly an- swers the description of this species is the female series froih Prosser, Washington. The males and females of this series collected April 1, 1910, and transmitted by Mr. M. A. Yothers, belong in different genera according to Horn’s table. The writer has selected this series to stand for Horn’s species because the females lack a posterior tibial mucro and have the first abdominal suture somewhat arcuate. Specimens are also at hand from Mission, Washington, May 5, 1911.” The specimens from Mission, Washington, are also from the Washington Experiment Station, and were collected by the writer. The original description of this species is by Horn (6, a) and at the conclusion of the description is the following note: “Occurs in Bitter Root Valley and in Colorado.” MELAMOMPHUS NIGRESCENS Pierce. (Plate II., Fig 8). This species has been taken at only one place — Riparia, Washington. On the 22nd of March, 1911, specimens were sent to the Department of Plntomology for determination. These specimens were in poor condition, most of them being more or less crushed. They were reported as destructive to the buds of young peach and apple trees. The only information extant of this new species is the note and description by Pierce who kindly made the determin- ation (11, g). MIMETES SETULOSUS, Schoenheer. (Plate I., Fig. 2). This is the most abundant and one of the two most in- jurious bud weevils. It seems to have a wider distribution and a larger number of host plants than any of the other s])ecies. It is found throughout the valley of the Columbia River and its tributaries within the Upper Sonoran Zone in Washington. It has been taken as far south as the Yakima Valley, and as far north as Kaledon and Penticton, British Co- lumbia. It feeds in its native state on the sage, Artemisia tri- dertata, and no doubt breeds in or about this plant although BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 19 this point has never been determined. The life history of this weevil is entirely unknown except for the few miscellane- ous notes here recorded on the habits of the adult. It feeds in the garden and orchard on apple, peach, pear, currant, blackberry, gooseberry and black walnut. In its natural en- vironment it feeds on wild sunflower, or balsam root, Bal- samorrhiza sagittata, and on a species of Lupinus, Like other species of weevils it feeds almost altogether on the buds of the one- and two-year-old fruit trees during the three spring months. Being both larger and more numerous than Cercopeus artemisiae, with which it is closely associated it no doubt does more injury than that species, and although not so large as Tosastes cinerascens it is at least as abundant and as destructive. No distinctive difference has been notic- ed between the nature of the injury of this species and that caused by any of the other species. They eat out the centers of the buds as do all the other species and when the inside of the bud is devoured they continue feeding until nothing of the bud remains. If food is scarce they will eat out the bud well down into the wood leaving a small hole where the bud had been. When the buds are eaten out in this manner they seldom, if ever, recover, but if they are only partly destroyed they often put out new buds later in the spring or more commonly in the early summer and thus save the tree. This species is about the size and shape of a grain of wheat only slightly more slender. It is of a grayish color, closely resembling the gray green of the sage and the gray pubescence of the unopened apple tree buds. It is also some- what the color of the sandy soil so characteristic of the sage- brush region, and when it is disturbed and falls to the ground one often has some little difficulty in finding it. In many of the one- and two-year-old orchards visited during April, 1911, and April and May, 1912, it was found that many of the trees were badly eaten by this weevil. Some of the trees had no buds at all while others had still a bud or two left on the trunk. Sometimes as many as a dozen weevils were found on a single tree. It was no uncommon sight to see a weevil with its head and proboscis stuck well down into the hollowed out bud. The beetles are sometimes found in the bottom of the holes dug for setting trees into, and it is a common supposition that the weevils live down in the soil to the depth of two or more feet, but the truth of the matter is that the weevils either fall into the holes when they are being dug or else afterwards. They are also found some- times on top of the stakes placed in the ground to mark the 20 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON place for planting the trees. One must look closely to see them when there for they are much the color of the weather- worn stakes. It is of interest to note that the weevils soon find the new host plant, the apple or the other fruit tree, and it does not take long for them to acquire a taste for it. The weevils have often been found feeding on the recently pruned tips of apple trees which had not been planted more than a few hours. In certain instances they may be found on land cleared for more than two years, but in such cases the land has not been thoroly cleared. An instance of this was noticed at Wenatchee in an orchard where the sage brush had been cleared off several years before the trees were planted, but a few bushes had been allowed to remain and on these and on the fruit trees as well there were many of the weevils. The weevils are not found on the “bunch grass’' land ad- joining the sage brush, Artemisia tridentata, in the more northern part of the Upper Sonoran area. Where the flora characteristic of this region gives way to that of the higher and more moist lands the weevils also disappear. This fact was determined repeatedly at Brewster, Riverside, Chelan, Okanogan and Oroville. At Wenatchee, April 23, 1912, many of the weevils were found on the balsam Tooi,Balsamorrhizasagittata3J].di judging from the great number of holes in the heads of the flowers the beetles had been feeding on them. At Chelan, April 27, 1912, many of the weevils were found on sagebrush just at the edge of town while a slow, drizzling rain was beginning. It was just dusk and one could not tell whether or not they were feeding, but it seemed peculiar to find them in full view at dusk in the rain. Mr. Royce, of near Riverside, found some of the weevils very early in the spring on the snow. He first took them for ticks but soon found that they were the beetles he had seen the spring before. Laboratory Notes on Mimetes setulosus. With a lot of weevils from Brewster, collected May 1 and examined May 14, were many elongate, cylindrical black eggs almost hidden in the pubescence of sunflower leaves, stems and heads. Some of these eggs were also found on the sage leaves (Plate 111., Fig. 4). It is not certain that these eggs are those of M. setulosus for they were on the leaves be- fore they were placed in the jar. Some small, white larvae hatched from the eggs on May 17. BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 21 From one female collected at Oroville, May 10 and ex- amined May 13, were dissected ten eggs. From another col- lected at Brewster, May 2, one egg was dissected May 22. We find only two references in entomological literature to this species other than the technical description by Schoen- herr and both are by Pierce (11, b and 11, f). MYLACUS SACCATUS Leconte. (Plate I., Fig. 6). This species was reported as destroying strawberry buds and leaves at Kettle Falls, Washington, May 7, 1912. At Deer Park, May 22, and at Hunters, May 11, it was reported as destroying young apple tree buds and leaves. Specimens were sent to us from these places for our determination, and the correspondents asked for methods of controlling the new pests. The writer collected many specimens of this weevil on one- and two-year-old apple trees at Brewster, Washington, in Ap/il and May, 1911 and 1912. They were also found abundant on the wild sunflower, Balsamorfhiza sagittata, which grows in many parts of the sagebrush region in great abundance. At Brewster, Washington, where so many of these weevils were found the sunflower was very plentiful just outside the young orchards. It is quite certain that Mylacus saccatus feeds at least to a considerable extent on this wild sunflower, for on some of the flower heads the flow- ers were largely eaten away. In several instances they were observed eating on the flowers. Although many of the flower heads were examined no eggs or larvae of the weevils were found on or in them. We have been unable to find any literature on the life history and habits of this weevil although it has been men- tioned before. Pierce (11, c) mentions Mylacus saccatus as follows: ''Mylacus saccatus Leconte, Spokane Falls, Wash- ington, (Hubbard and Schwartz); Easton, Washington, (Koe- bele). The original description by Leconte (10, b) bears the fol- lowing note: “Occurs in California and Oregon.” PANSCOPUS AEQUALIS Horn. (Plate I., Fig 4). Panscopus aeqnalis Horn is, it seems, also a native of the sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata, and is more or less generally distributed over the Sonoran area of the whole Northwest. It 22 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON has been recorded from the following places by Pierce (11. i): Green River, Wyoming; National Park; Montana; Utah; Ton- asket, Washington; and California. The writer has col- lected it in Washington at the following places: Okanogan, April 14, 1911; Chelan Falls, April 26, 1911: Tonasket. May 2, 1911; Mission, April 5, 1911, and Malotte, May 4. 1912. This record for Washington shows that it is not found, or at least has not been collected, in the southern part of the Upper Sonoran zone. The injury caused by this species is much the same as that caused by the other species of weevils. We have ob- served that it, like the other weevils, feeds on the young fruit trees, destroying their buds in the spring, but we have not had the opportunity to make a detailed study of its feeding habits and life history. The weevils are fond of the sap oozing from the freshly cut twigs and can he found sipping it on the topmost part of the young trees. It is never found in very great numbers and consequently it does not cause serious damage as do some of the other species. This is a more hardy species apparently than any of the others, unless it is Tosastes cinerasrens, for it was able to live longer in con- finement than the other species. Panscopus aeqvalis was first reported in Washington from Tonasket in April, 1911. Since then it has been col- lected at the different places mentioned above, but at no place was it so abundant as at Tonasket. At Malotte. May 4. 1912, at 6:00 p. m. on a cloudy day specimens were collected. They were found feeding on one-year-old apple tree buds. This was the first time the writer had seen them eating. They were quite wary and upon being seen suddenly fell to the ground where they lay as if dead. They lay so still and so closely resembled the brown color of the sandy soil of that region that it was difficult to find them. At Okanogan May 6 1912. a number of the weevils were found eating the buds and unfolding leaves on new grafts on three- and four-year-old apple tree stock. The owner of the orchard reported that the beetles had done considerable dam- age in the past month during which they had been present. At this time and place some were found that were not feed- ing but were hiding in the notches in the bark and in any little scars in which they could conceal themselves. All of the weevils did not fall to the ground, but some stayed on the tree and remained perfectly still when they were aware of being watched. The remarkable thing about this species at this particular place is that these trees upon which the weevils were feeding were BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 23 planted on land that had been under cultivation for seven years and more. Only a couple of specimens ot this weevil have been found on the sagebrush and con- sequently it cannot be said that it is a native of that plant. The fact that it was found on this land which had been under cultivation so long would lead one to suspect that it is perhaps a greater traveler than the other species, and that it had come into the orchard f rom the native habitat just outside. At the place above mentioned the grafts were so hardy that the foliage was well out at the time, the leaves being as much as two inches long, or about half to two-thirds grown. The beetles were not feeding upon the leaves but upon the unfolded terminal or center buds. At noon when the sun was bright and warm the weevils seemed to be all hidden away. At Malotte, Washington, this weevil did con- siderable damage to the Okanogan Orchard, working to- gether with Mimetes setulosus and Tosastes cinerascens and killed many of the young trees. They were injurious in both the springs of 1911 and 1912. In 1912 they began their work as near as could be determined about the 28th of March. By May 8, scarcely any weevils could be found. In the spring of 1911 thousands of the weevils were pres- ent in the young orchard of Mr. M. B. Picken of Tonasket. Mr. Picken was the first person to send specimens of this particular species to the Experiment Station. He reported that the beetles did considerable damage to many of the trees and completely killed a couple of dozen. On May 9, 1912, many of the weevils were found in this same orchard. It was getting late in the season for bud weevils to be pres- ent and no other species were found. Some were found in the young leaves and on the buds, but most of them were on the ground under clods and in cracks in the soil. Several were found under horse manure mulch which had been spread about these trees. The sun was bright and warm on the day these weevils were found, and most of them were secreted as mentioned above. It might have been possible that had the day been cloudy they would have been busy feeding on the buds and leaves. Twelve weevils were found under one tree. Although the weevils had done some very serious injury earlier in the spring they had practically all disappeared at this time. Laboratory Experiments With Panscopus aequalis. Oviposition. On May 8, 1912, a package of bud weevils was received from Mr. M. B. Picken of Tonasket, Washington. About 24 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON forty of these were alive. They were placed in a moist cham- ber with some fresh apple leaves. Many of the weevils died from day to day, but the live ones were given fresh leaves daily and the dead and the withered leaves removed. On May 15 a female was noticed with her posterior parts thrust into a fold of a tiny apple leaf (Plate III., Fig. 5). She was removed to another chamber containing fresh leaves. Upon examination on the morning of May 17th it was found that the tiny leaf fold contained five small, white, cylindrical eggs. These eggs were 1 mm. long and 0.5 mm. in diameter. A sketch was made of these to show their position (Plate III., Fig. 6). Upon further examination it was found that on one of the leaves that had been • put in the chamber with the weevil there were three of the folds and that these contained eggs as follows: three, four and ten, respectively. A sketch was made of these leaf folds (Plate IV., Fig. 3). On May 17 another female was found ovipositing in the fold of a leaf in the original chamber with the other weevils. The fold was already made and she was laying her last egg in the last group when she was first observed. She was placed in a small chamber with a fresh apple leaf to determine if she would oviposit any more and if she would do so at night, for it was dark at this time. She laid no more eggs that night nor the next day, but during the second night she laid several groups. May 19 the leaves were examined in the original cage containing the lot of weevils and many of the leaf folds con- taining the eggs were found. Several groups were examined and from four to nine eggs were found in the groups. At dusk on May 18 eight specimens were placed in a chamber by themselves and given fresh apple leaves. This was to see if they would oviposit at night. The cage was kept dark until eight o’clock the next morning when three groups of eggs were found in the characteristic leaf folds. In another lot similarly treated one group of eggs was found. At eight o’clock A. M. this same day six weevils (some of which had already laid some eggs) were put into a chamber with new leaves and the cage darkened throughout the day. At the same time seven specimens were placed in a cage on new leaves and kept in normal light. At 5 o’clock P. M. four groups of eggs were found in the darkened cage and none in that kept in the normal light. This brief but definite experiment would indicate that this species oviposits only at night at least when confined in the laboratory. When apple leaves were not present for the weevils to oviposit in they always laid their eggs separately in the bot- BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 25 tom of the chamber. Although stale sagebrush leaves and some stems of Balsamorrhiza sagittata were placed with the beetles yet they never deposited any eggs on them. Hund- reds of eggs were scattered promiscuously over the bottom of the various glass chambers in which the weevils were con- fined. Inasmuch, however, as the larvae hatched out quite readily even under the laboratory conditions it would seem that it is not necessary for the eggs to be deposited in any particular place or manner. Table No. 4, showing egg-laying period and hatching per- iod in laboratory: Adult weevils collected l^lggs laid in laboratory Hatcinng period in laboratory Numl)er Hatched 2 Okanogan, Apr. 14, 1912. May 15 began June 2 to 5 50 3 Chelan, Apr. 26, 1912. .. . May IC) l)egan June 6 Many 10 Tonasket, May 2, 1912... .May 17, 22 June 7 Many 12 Mission. May 5, 1912.... May 18 many June 8 Many May 19 many June 9 SO June 10 48 June 11, 12 200* June 13 40 June 14, 15 55 .lune 16 20 June 17 10 June 19 7 June 2 0 6 *Tlie 11th and 12th of June were two very hot days — the first of the season. The tliermoineter registered 92° in the shade outside the labora- tory and it was perhaps even hotter in the lalioratory where the cages were. This inaxiiniun teinpei-a Jure, which must liave more closely ap- proached that of the natural conditions in tlie weevil’s native habitat, no doubt hastened the hatchirig- of the eggs. Owing to the writer’s absence from the laboratory no egg laying record was kept between May 19 and May 31, and con- sequently the exact time when the weevils ceased laying eggs was not d etermined. None were laid after May 31. Incubation of Eggs in the Laboratory. It will be seen from the foregoing table that the incuba- tion period for the eggs in the laboratory was about from the middle of May to nearly the last of June. The first eggs were laid on May 15 and the last sometime between May 19 and May 31. The first eggs were hatched between June 2 and 5, and the last about June 19. All larvae hatched out June 2 to 5 were from eggs laid May 15 to 19. The minimum time, therefore, for the eggs to lie in incubation is fourteen days, and the maximum twenty-one days. All eggs which hatched out June 19 had been laid at least nineteen days, for 26 BUD WEP:VILS of WASHINGTON none were laid after May 31, but there is the possibility that they were laid as early as May 19. Judging, however, by the minimum and maximum time required for the first lot of eggs to hatch and the minimum required for the last lot it can be safely stated that the time required, under the labor- atory conditions, is between nineteen and twenty-one days, although they would, as is well known, require less time with the higher temperatures. Feeding experiments with young larvae were carried on but the results were rather indefinite and not worth record- ing here. Notes on Weevils in the Laboratory. Seven weevils were placed in a glass jar and given fresh apple leaves on May 8, and fresh leaves were supplied about every second day thereafter. On May 18 the weevils were placed in another jar in the normal light and kept there throughout the day to see whether they would lay eggs. They did not lay eggs during the first day but sometime between May 18 and May 31 they laid from seventy-five to one hund- red eggs. Some were deposited loosely on the bottom of the jar, but others were inserted between the folds of the leaves which the females had in some manner formed for that pur- pose. Four of the weevils were dead June 6. The other three were on their backs which position they had occupied for sev- eral days. On June 9 they again ate a little of the apple leaves. On this date they were transferred to a jar contain- ing moist soil and fragments of grass roots, and within five minutes after having been placed in the jar they were all hid- den from sight. On June 10 they were still in the ground. On June 12 the soil was moistened slightly and on the 13th of June the weevils were on top of the soil and feeding raven- ously upon the apple leaves. At this time they were very ac- tive and when disturbed they did not play as if dead but scampered away with considerable agility. During the night of June 15 they ate about three-fourths of an inch square of apple leaf. They continued eating the leaves until June 21 when the soil in the jar was loosened and inside of five min- utes they were hidden down in the soil and out of sight. One half an hour later, however, they were again feeding on the leaves. On July 7 they seemed alive but inactive, and on July 8 they showed the last signs of life. The original description of this species was given by Horn (6, b), as I^ocheles aequaiis with the tabular name A". cinereiis, hut as the tabular name was not used with the des- cription it has not been accepted. BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 27 At the conclusion of his description Horn makes the fol- lowing statement as to its distribution: “Occurs from Kansas to British Columbia.” Although Horn gives this distribution for this species it is the opinion of the writer that this is too general a state- ment judging from the localities from which it has been col- lected. Our studies would lead us to believe that its distribu- tion could be more properly limited to the Sonoran Zone with- in the area designated by Horn, including a more southerly distribution into California. Pierce (11, j), discusses the synonomy and distribution of this species, and credits the writer for specimens from this state. PANSCOPUS SULCIROSTRIS Pierce. This new species of weevil is not known to be injurious, but inasmuch as it is a species entirely new to science and nothing is known of its habits it is reported here since there is a possibility that further investigation may show it to be harmful. A single specimen was collected at Oak Point, Wash- ington, April 30, 1910. This specimen was sent to the Depart- ment of Entomology, State College of Washington, but was referred to the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C., for determination and description, and it proved to be a new species. The specimen had been taken from a lily plant, but what kind and whether it was doing any harm our correspond- ent did not say. The description of this weevil and a short note is by Pierce (11, i). SITONA APACHEANA Casey. (Plate II., Fig 7). This weevil was found in considerable numbers at Brew- ster, Wash., on one year old trees where it did some damage. It does not cause as much injury as the other weevils. It has also been collected by the writer at Okanogan, Wenatchee and Tonasket. The nature of its injury is so much like that of the other species that no distinguishing characteristics were notic- ed. Specimens were taken also at each of the above mentioned places on a species of Lupinus along withCieonus lohigerinus Casey, and Cleoniis quadrilineatus Chev. At Brewster and at Okanogan some specimens were collected on sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata. BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON So far as the writer has been able to learn there is noth- ing known as to the life history and habits of this weevil. The technical description is by Casey (1, a). TOSASTES CINERASCENS Pierce. (Plate L, Fig. 1). This weevil is without doubt the most important from an economic standpoint, of any of those discussed in this paper. It is relatively new to science, having been described by Pierce in 1913 (11, e). It is an exceptional example of an unknown species suddenly becoming, under changed ecologi- cal conditions, a serious pest and an important agricultural problem. In its natural habitat it is a native of the sage- brush, Artemisia tridentata, but when its natural food plant IS removed from the land and another substituted it tries to adjust itself to the new conditions, or at least save itself from starvation, and so feeds upon the young trees instead of its native food. Nature and Extent of Injury. The weevils are of economic importance on account of the serious injury they do by eating the buds of young fruit trees. They feed upon the buds of one- and two-year-old trees only. However, at this age the trees are so small and the buds so few that a small number of weevils can do very serious harm. The feeding upon apple buds is done during the spring months. We do not know what they feed upon after that period. They first appear in March, either just after they have transformed from the pupal stage, or else after emerging from their hibernation quarters where they spent the winter as adults. When they first appear they climb up onto the recently planted trees and feed on the un- opened buds. Sometimes they eat out the center of the buds well down into the wood. When the buds are thus badly eaten they do not recover and the tree dies, but many times only a few of the buds are thus destroyed, or they are only partly eaten, in which case they sometimes recover and put out new buds and thus save the life of the tree. The char- acter of the injury caused by this weevil is shown in Fig. 9., Plate IV., and Figs. 12, 13, Plate VI. Inasmuch as they are native on the sagebrush and cannot survive long after they are deprived of their native food and since apparently they cannot propogate themselves under changed conditions, it is evident that they cannot long persist BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON 29 in cultivated land. They are always most abundant in virgin land, and are seldom if ever found in orchards that have been planted on land under cultivation over one year. During the years from 1909 to 1914, while the weevils were more or less under our observation, thousands of acres of arid land were cleared of sagebrush in Washington and planted to fruit trees. This more or less sudden encroachment by man upon the domains of the fauna native to that region caused the weevils to assume importance as a pest. This species in particular, being larger than the others and also much more abundant, caused thousands of dollars of damage to the orchardists throughout the whole of the arid region in Washington. Distribution. Tosastes cinerascens, being a native of the sagebrush, is found in Washington in the Upper Sonoran Zone only where that plant is endemic. It has been sent to the Experiment Station by correspondents and collected by the writer in a great many places throughout this arid zone which extends in a more or less irregular strip across the State from south to north, along the Columbia River and its tributaries. Food Plants. Besides its native food plsucit, Artemisia tridentata, Tosas- tes cinerascens feeds more or less on the following plants*. Apple, apricot, cherry, currant. Lupine, peach, prune, pear, plum, rose and sunflower. Upon some of these hosts speci- mens have been found but a few times and then it was not definitely known that they were feeding upon them, but upon most of them the weevils were found in considerable abund- ance. From an economic standpoint their destruction of the apple buds is of chief importance. Life History. Egg stage. Definite data as to the exact number of eggs contained normally by the weevils were not obtained owing to the fact that some specimens may have oviposited before they were captured or before they were dissected. The figures given, however, are worth something to show the possibilities of oviposition of this species. About one hundred and twenty specimens in all were dissected. Some were dissected while still alive, but practically all had died within the preceeding twenty-four hours. In table No. .5 are shown the results of the 30 BUD WEEVILS OF WASHINGTON dissections. . A summary shows that there were several fe- males containing- no eggs, and that there was no consistent average number of eggs in the weevils examined. The maxi- mum number was fifty-two. Table No. 5, showing the number of eggs dissected from the different weevils: 5 weevils contained 1 egg each 8 weevils contained 2 eggs each 3 weevils contained 3 eggs each 8 weevils contained 4 eggs each 2 weevils contained 5 eggs each 7 weevils contained 6 eggs each 2 weevils contained 7 eggs each 13 weevils contained 8 eggs each 5 weevils contained 10 eggs each 1 weevil contained 12 eggs ■ ' 2 weevils contained 13 eggs each 7 weevils contained 14 eggs each 6 weevils contained 15 eggs each 3 weevils contained 16 eggs each 7 weevils contained 18 eggs each 3 weevils contained 20 eggs each 4 weevils contained 22 eggs each 1 weevil contained 23 eggs 5 weevils contained 24 eggs each 5 weevils contained 26 eggs each 2 weevils contained 27 eggs each 1 weevil contained 30 eggs 4 weevils contained 32 eggs each 2 weevils contained 36 eggs each 1 weevil contained 42 eggs 1 weevil contained 43 eggs 1 weevil contained 46 eggs 1 weevil contained 52 eggs Description of Egg of Tosastes cinerascens. The egg is of a creamy white color, somewhat longer than wide, with ends bluntly rounded. Length, 0.75 mm.; di- ameter, 0.5 mm. (Plate IV., Fig. 10, c). Oviposition of Weevils in Laboratory. TABLE NO. 6. Collected from Date of ovioosl- tion , Number of es'g’s 1 Remarks 1 Brewster, April 2!) May 14 Several i ( )n sunflo wer Hi-ewstei-, Miiy 2. M ' /■■>•. ■ * a --■ »■ i * ,1 ‘^A <'.! It^l t /.i: ' •> - ',T •'.' i'-. av/lft ovrt; 4«; %^:ul rfe|(oa •r-jr: -i:- s PLATE V. Pig. II. A, Female T. cinerascens (X5^); B, male (X5^); C, ventral abdominal segments of female (X15); D, ventral seg- ments of male at the same magnification; E, ovipositor of T. cinerascenes exerted (side view) (X25); F, oviposi- tor shown from upper or dorsal side. ■4 PLATE VI. Fig. 12. Characteristic work and attitude of T. cinerascens (Natural size). Fig. 13. Extreme case of injury by T. cinerascens to the buds and bark of young apple tree (Natural size). Fig. 14. A comparison of the number of weevils on sod and culti- vated land. Fig. 15. Egg of Cotalpa granicollis (X35). Fig. 16. Wing of Glyptoscelis alternata (X7). Flig. 17. Egg of G. alternata (X23). Fig. 18. Eggs of G. alternata on sage leaf (X2). ; \ : r 'va tf.:: Vi k..ii 'iW. i»t;v y ' fm:-0 :0 1 0 ;■•’•■ V* r-l- \ .:y~: H: V . li-t -• f.'%- '■' .t\'' M ?> ■ *, i, - 'i V- X \ w ■ 0^1 ■: -yr f ^i •-e»> ; -*i- . ^■r;' 'j:T,.} .”,. ..) - ! '■ r. ^ . 6lft^5y'f oJl ST':-. , .'V V ' '.' -. .jj I'-tf r, j. . 5 : [ :r 0 •(v . - . -X).. j< 4V i " «tr ■■" . . .>V ‘ .ta > A. ' STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON. DIVISON OF BOTANY Preliminary Note on Leaf Invasions by Bacillus amylovorus By FREDERICK D. HEALD BULLETIN NO. 125 September, 1915 All Bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director Board of Control E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. A. Bryan (President of College), Secretary ex-Officio Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C, McCroskey Garfield Experiment Station Staff Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . . Elton Fulmer, M. A. . . O. L. Waller, Ph. M. . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D O. M. Morris, M. S Geo. Severance, B. S. . C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S.. . . W. T. Shaw, M. S E G. Schafer, M. S.... Wm. Hislop, M. S. . . . F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . , C. A. Magoon, A. B.... J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F. Holtz, M. S. . E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . . D. C. George, B. S.... H. M. Woolman F. W Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . . Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian ... .Assistant Entomologist ....Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . .Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist .Assistant Plant Pathologist ....Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Preliminary Note on Leaf Invasions by Bacillus amylovorus BY FREDERICK D. HEARD, PATHOLOGIST. HISTORICAL STATEMENT. Investigators who have made a special study of fire blight or pear blight due to Bacillus amylovorus agree that the dis- ease manifests itself in the four following ways according to the parts invaded: 1. Blossom blight, due to original infection through the nectaries by bacteria disseminated by insects which visit the flowers in search of food. 2. Twig blight, due to infection through wounds made by insects or other agents in the succulent tissue of terminal shoots. 3. Fruit blight, due to primary infections through some wound or migration of the bacteria up the pedicel into the pulp of the fruit. 4. Cankers or body blight, due to migration of the ba- cillus down fruit spurs, from twigs or water sprouts showing twig blight or by primary infections through wounds. The only intimation that the writer has found concern- ing the probability of direct invasion through the leaves is contained in the following statement^ by Duggar: “Nevertheless, it is also true that infection may result through growing twigs. Biting or piercing insects are doubt- less of much importance in spreading the disease in this way. Injuries and sometimes, perhaps, even water-pores may be the seats of infection. In general, however, it is certainly true that the presence of germs upon the surface of healthy tissues would not result in the production of disease in those parts.” The above statement appears to admit the possibility of invasion through the water-pores, although no observations or experiments are offered in substantiation of this behavior of the blight bacillus. The general opinion of pathologists in regard to leaf in- 1. Duffirar, B. M. Fungrous diseases of plants, p. 125, 1909. 4 PRELIMINARY NOTE ON LEAF INVASIONS vasion is that presented by Waite h He states first that “while the bacteria themselves rarely kill the leaves, at most only occasionally attacking stems and midribs of the young- est ones, all the foliage of the blighted branches must of course eventually die.” A proper interpretation of this statement would mean that sometimes the bacteria migrate from the stem up the petiole and into the mid-rib of the leaf, but certainly does not suggest a downward migration from an original leaf infection. Concerning the origin of twig blight in nursery stock or vonng trees which have not yet blossomed the same author^ writes, “Another way in which the blight gains entrance is through the tins of grow- ing shoots. In the nursery when the trees are not flowering this is the usual mode of infection.*’ It is generally conceded that the infections in the vege- tative shoots are c^msed bv b^’cteria introduced by biting or sucking insects. Whetzel and Stewart^ write. “Our own observations tend to show that the aphides and leaf hoppers are largely the responsible agents in introducing the bacteria into the tips of growing shoots, while the same insects and the curculio frequently introduce them into wounds which they make in the fruit, thus giving rise to Fruit Blight.” The same writers^ continue, “During rainy weather the bac- teria ooze from these blighted blossoms and are carried by plant lice, leaf hoppers, and other sucking insects to the tips of the twigs that are now growing rapidly; here in sucking the sap the insect introduces the bacteria into the tender tissues where they multinly rapidly, producing in a few days the characteristic ‘Twig Blight.’ ” The possibility of either stomatal or water-pore invasion would seem to be excluded by WhetzeH as is evidenced by the following quotations: “As a general deduction, then, it may be stated that infection occurs only through a wound of some sort.” This opinion is presented in a discusion of the origin of body blight. Whetzel and Stewart^ state later that, “It is certain that unless these bacteria are introduced into the trees by insects or by the grower himself, no blight will result.” 1. Waite, M. B. The cause and prevention of pear blight. Yearbook U. s. Dept, of Agr., 1895, p. 295-296. 1896 2. Ibid, p. 2 97. 3. Whetzel, H. H. and Stewart, V. B. Fire blight of pears, apples. Quinces, etc. Bui. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., 272: 39-40. 1909. 4. Ibid, p. 41. 5. Whetzel, H. H. The blight canker of apple trees. Bui. Cornell Unlv. Agr. Exp. Stat., 236: 119. 1906. 6. Ibid, 43. Fig. 1. Apple leaves showing characteristic terminal and mar- ginal invasions by Bacillus amylovorus. Fig. 2. Apple leaves showing central lesions caused by Bacillus amylovorus. BY BACILLUS AMYLOVORUS. 5 The recent investigations by Bachmann^ on the migra- tion of Bacillus amylovorus in the host tissue would seem to pave the way for stomatal or water-pore invasion, since this investigator has shown that the bacteria migrate in the intercellular spaces, rather than by penetration of the cells. It may be noted also that this writer has shown that the blight bacdlus enters the vascular bundles and migrates along the vessels of the xylem. A statement made by Arthur in reporting on his early investigations of blight^ has not been disputed by later workers. “Bacteria can not be found swarming in the leaves as in the bark and wood; the conditions do not seem favorable for their development.” OBSERVATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS RELATING TO LEAF INVASIONS. During the past season the writer has had an opportun- ity to visit a number of the apple and pear growing regions of Eastern Washington. As a result of some preliminary studies made in the field and supplemented by laboratory tests it can be stated that leaf invasions by Bacillus amylov- oruLS are common. The first observations were made at North Yakima on July 6th. Leaves of Bartlett pears showing lesions advancing from the edge or tips were collected. During the following night there was a shower and similiar material collected early the next morning showed drops of bacterial exudate. On July 10th and 11th an examination was made of blight in- fested apple orchards in the vicinity of Spokane. Very simi- lar leaf invasions were found upon Wagener, Jonathan, and Rome Beauty trees. The orchards at North Yakima were ir- rigated, while those visited at Spokane were not. Later col- lections have been made at Walla Walla, Kennewick, and Prosser from both pear and apple trees. In the majority of cases the leaf infections start at the margin and are either lateral or terminal, (Fig. 1) although central lesions have been found in some cases on apple leaves. (Fig. 2). The lesions on the apple leaves are a light brown or yellowish brown and frequently show a faint purpl- ish border at the advancing edge. In acitive lesions the ad- vancing edge shows a narrow watery zone. Those on pear 1. Bachinann, Freda M. The inij^ration of Bacillus amylovoiais in the liost tissue. I’liy t holoay •!: ;>-i:i. I'.iFl. 2. Arthur, .J. C. l^ear blight and its causes. Am. Naturalist, p. 1178. 1885. 6 PRELIMINARY NOTE ON LEAF INVASIONS leaves are darker in color and exhibit a mottling of various shades of dirty brown. There is a noticeable tendency for the bacteria to advance more rapidly down the midrib or cer- tain lateral veins, so that many young lesions are more or less triangular in outline. In some cases the migration of the bacteria can be noticed along certain veins in advance of the general border of the dead area. All stages of leaf invasions have been found from slight marginal infections to lesions which have advanced through- out the entire leaf blade and down the petiole. These leaf infections were not rare but it was possible to find dozens of them on a single five-year-old tree. The writer is of the opinion that the 'bacteria enter the intercellular spaces through the water-pores and also by the stomata to some ex- tent and later penetrate the vessels in the way suggested by Bachmannh It remains for further investigation to def- initely substantiate this view. It is an easy matter to verify the presence of the bacteria by microscopic examination. Dissections made from the ad- vancing edge of a lesion give the organisms in large numbers and if the tissue selected includes one of the larger veins they can be seen to ooze out from the broken ends of the vessels. A sufficient number of lesions have been examined to leave no doubt as to the constant presence of the bacteria. The lesions have also been tested by cultures for the presence of living bacteria. Mr. H. W. Samson, Horticult- ural Inspector at Spokane, assisted in collecting material and also sent fresh specimens to our laboratory for use. It was at his solicitation that the writer first visited Spokane to make field observations. In many of the isolations tried the bacteria were found to be dead, but pure cultures were ob- tained from others by the poured plate method. (Fig. 3). Since the study of these leaf lesions was not begun until July, this condition is what one would expect, as at this time of the year the bacteria are dead in a good per cent of the twig infections. In some cases where microscopic examina- tion showed an abundance of bacteria, the cultures showed that only a relatively small per cent were alive. It seems probable that a certain per cent of the leaf lesions will be- have like the twig lesions, and the bacteria become active in them after the return of more favorable conditions. The pure cultures isolated from the leaf lesions have been used for making inoculations into seedling apple trees. 1. Ibid, p. 7. Fig. 3. Apple leaf with a well-developed lesion showing place (a) from which tissue was removed to make isolation of Bacillus amylovorus by the poured plate method. BY BACILLUS AMYLOVORUS. 7 The trees to be inoculated were placed in the inocluation chamber and kept well watered for 48 hours previous to in- troducing the bacteria into the tips just back of the terminal bud. The inoculations were made July Blst, and by August 8th the seedlings exhibited hre blight in severe and typical form. The microscopic examinations and the results from in- oculations leave no doubt that the leaf lesions described above were due to Bacillus amylovoriis. To what extent twig blight is caused by the advance of the bacteria down the leal petiole and thus into the twig has not been determined. This must be left undecided until the work of another season. It seems probable that we have here an explanation for many infections which have been at- tributed to insects. This information is also of somiO funda- mental importance as it may explain why blight reappears in certain cases when all cankers and twig blight have been re- moved. It certainly complicates the practice of blight con- trol by the cutting out method. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON. DIVISON OF BOTANY Bunt or Stinking Smut of Wtieat By FREDERICK D. HEALD and H. M. WOOLMAN BULLETIN NO. 126 November, 1915 All Bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director *The Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S, Department of Agriculture, has contributed $300 per year toward the expenses of these investigations. Board of Control E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. A. Bryan (President of College), Secretary ex-Officio Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C. McCroskey Garfield Experiment Station Staff Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D . . . Elton Fulmer, M. A... O. L. Waller, Ph. M... A. L. Melander, Sc. D 0. M. Morris, M. S Geo. Severance, B. S. . C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. ... W. T. Shaw, M. S E G. Schafer, M. S. ... Wm. Hislop, M. S.... F. D. Heald, Ph. D... C. A. Magoon, A. B.... J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. McCall, M.. S.,..., M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F. Holtz, M. S. . E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S D. C. George, B. S.... H. M. Woolman F. W Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S.,. Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist Assistant Entomologist . . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . .Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist .i^ssistant Plant Pathologist . . . .Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist Assistant in Farm Crops TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Introduction 5 Prevalence of Stinking Smut 5 Loss Caused by Stinking Smut 5 The Cause of Wheat Smut 6 Life History of Stinking Smut 6 The Effect of Smut 8 Variation in Normal and Smutted Heads in Partial- ly Smutted Plants, Table 1 10 Variation in Varieties in Number of Completely and Partially Smutted Plants, Table II 10 Variation in Smutted and Partly Smutted Berries, Table III 10 How a Crop May Become Infected 9 Smutty Seed 9 Clean Seed in Smutty Soil 11 Persistence of Infective Power of Smut Balls when Placed in the Soil, Table IV 12 Relation of New Soil to Smut, Table V 12 Methods of Control 13 Crop Rotation 13 The Use of Clean Seed 14 Seed Treatment 15 Relation of Treatment to Reinfection, Table VI. . . 17 Cultural Practices 17 General Factors Influencing the Amount of Smut. 17 The Depth of Planting 18 Effect of Depth of Planting on Amount of of Smut, Table VIII 19 The Time of Planting 18 Effect of Time of Planting on Amount of Smut, Table VII 19 Tillage 18 Breeding and Selection of Varieties 21 Comparative Resistance of Winter Wheats to Smut Infection, Table IX. and X 23 Summary of Recommendations 22 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1. The Loose Smut of Wheat Caused by Ustilago tritici, facing page 6 Fig. 2. Various Stages in the Germination of the Spores of Stinking Smut 7 Fig. 3. Smutted and Normal Heads of Winter Fife and Hybrid 108, facing page 8 Fig. 4. Smutted and Normal Heads of Turkey Red and Forty Fold, facing page 8 Fig. 5. Partially Smutted Berries of Red Russian and Hybrid, facing page 10 Bunt or Stinking Smut of Wheat By F. D. Heald and H. M. Woolman. INTRODUCTION. Bunt or stinking smut is beyond question the most ser- ious disease of wheat in the Pacific Northwest. This trouble is very generally present in the wheat fields of Washington. It is the most destructive in the Palouse region of Eastern Washington and adjacent territory, and gradually decreases in severity as one passes from the more humid eastern part of the state to the semi-arid country. Comparatively few wheat fields can be found that are entirely free from smut. The disease may be present in traces only or a very high per- centage of the heads may be destroyed. The amount of smut varies from year to year, but in general the disease has in- creased in prevalence during recent years. The general cli- matic conditions in the Palouse Country and the farming methods practiced have been favorable for the propagation of the fungus causing smut, so that the disease has attained greater severity than in any other part of the world, with the possible exception of Australia. Whitman County, which is the center of the area of severe smut infection of wheat, has pro- duced the highest average yield of wheat per acre of any county in the United States. The question may be asked, 'what would the yield of Whitman County be without smut? It is our hope that the work of the Experiment Station will ultimately bring an answer to this question, not only for this favored county, but for all other parts of the state. While smut will probably never be eradicated from our fields, we have every reason to expect that careful methods and per- sistent efforts will so reduce its prevalence that it will become a minor factor in wheat production, instead of occupying the foreground as it does at present. An estimate of the financial loss caused by wheat smut in this state would be purely a guess, but conservative producers place it in the millions of dollars for each season. The loss is four fold: first, the increased cost of production necessitated by seed treatment, soil sanitation and cultural practices de- signed to reduce infection; second, the reduction in yield per 6 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. acre; third, the lowering of grade or quality, and fourth, the loss from separator fires caused by smut explosions. THE CAUSE OF WHEAT SMUT. Wheat is attacked by three different types of smut which produce entirely different effects: 1. Loose smut caused by Ustilago tritici (Fig. 1.) 2. Bunt or stinking smut caused by either tritici or Tilletia foetans. 3. Flag smut caused by Urocystis tritici. The first species of smut is relatively rare in Wasington, while the third is entirely unknown in this part of the world. Bunt or stinking smut is caused by two different species of microscopic fungi which live as parasites in the wheat plant. Both are essentially similar in their effects and their life his- tory. Tilletia tritici, or the rough-spored variety, is the com- mon stinking smut of the Pacific regions, while Tilletia foetans, or the smooth-spored species, is the one generally found in the Eastern United States. The smut “berries” or “balls” from an infected head con- tain millions of minute bodies, the spores or “seeds’* of the smut fungus. These reproduce the smut in somewhat the same way that a true seed develops into a new plant. In a threshing operation the dust that issues from the separator is laden with these spores in countless numbers, due to the breaking of many smut balls. Many of the loose spores not carried away will lodge upon the surface of normal grains, the groove, or “suture,” and the “brush,” or hair tuft at the terminal end, serving as resting places for large num- bers. Wheat from an infected field will also contain many unbroken balls, and spores from these may be liberated later by the rupture of the thin enclosing membrane. A single smut ball of average size contains a sufficient number of spores to give one for each grain of wheat in five or six bush- els, or if scattered over an acre would give 75 spores for each spuare foot. It takes eight smut spores to equal the diame- ter of a human hair. These comparisons are given to em- phasize the minuteness of the smut spores, and call attention to the difficulty of excluding such minute bodies from the surface of seed wheat. Normal wheat grains from an infected field may have so many spores lodged on their surface as to give them a dark color, but other grains which show no dif- ference in color to the naked eye may still contain a suffic- ient number of spores to produce a smutty crop if seed treat- ment is not practiced. Fig. 1. The 1 ose smut of wheat caused by Ustilago tritici. Fig. 2. Various stages in the germination of spores of stinking smut, Tilletia tritici. a. Spore surface showing characteristic reticulate ridges; b, spore in early stage of germination with young promycel- ium protruding from the ruptured spore wall; c, a later stage in the formation of the promycelium; d, mature promycelium with a tuft of H-shaped sporida, 5 , borne in its summit; e, a separated sporidium which has produced secondary sporida, ss; f, a separated sporidium which has given rise directly to an infected thread, in, several sec- ondary sporida which have started to germinate or have produced infection threads. 8 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. When living smut spores are introduced into the soil with the seed wheat or exist in the soil in which smut-free wheat is sown a certain percentage of the wheat plants are likely to become infected. The smut spore germinates (Fig. 2) and produces first a stage of the smut plant in the soil. This first stage is called the promycelium and it never infects a young seedling direct, but gives rise to secondary spores or sporida (Fig. 2s) from which infection threads may arise, or secondary sporida (Fig. 2ss) may be developed which later produce infection threads. Under favorable con- ditions one or more infection threads penetrate the shoot of a young seedling and reach the growing point. Here the fungus threads keep pace with the growth of the plant, but give little or no external evidence of their presence until the production of heads, when they enter the ovaries and begin the development of the spores which reach maturity at or slightly before harvest time. THE EFFECT OF SMUT. Since this disease is caused by an internal parasite it is natural to expect certain responses to its presence. We should note first that the smut fungus is living at the ex- pense of its host plant, the wheat. Its effect on the host may be summarized as follows: 1. The consumption of food. 2. The destruction of seed in the sporulating process. 3 . The stimulating or retarding effect on normal physio- logical processes. Badly smutted plants remain in many cases under size and produce fewer and smaller heads than normal plants. Observations and experiments lead to the belief that stools may harbor the smut fungus, when no smut develops in the heads. In such cases the mycelium, or vegetative body of the fungus, fails for some reason to reach the heads. The con- dition might be expressed in this way: In a young infected seedling there is a race between the smut fungus and the growing points of the flowering shoots in the upward growth. In some cases the fungus falls behind and never enters the heads, while in others it reaches its goal and penetrates the ovaries. The presence of the smut causes certain deviations from the normal in the form of the infected heads. In the club varieties such as Hybrid 143 and others (Fig.3b) , the normally compact head is changed to a more slender type. Fife or Blue Stem varieties and others of a similar type do not show such a noticeable change of form, but infected heads have a more Fig-. 3. a. Smutted and normal heads of Winter Fife; b, smutted and normal heads of Hybrid 108. Pig. 4. a. Smutted and normal heads of Turkey Red. In this variety the awns on the smutted head break off easily since they are very brittle, b. Smutted and normal heads of Forty Fold. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT 9 loose or open appearance due to the divergence of the glumes (T igs, da and caused by the enlargement of the smutted berries. Especially in the TTie and ulue Stem varieties the infected heads previous to maturity exhibit a darker green color, and remain green longer than normal heads. In some varieties the infected heads stand erect, when normal ones begin to droop as a result of the increasing weight of the ripening gram. The most evident injury from wheat smut is due to the destruction of the gram or “berry” in the production of spores. The smut fungus enters the young ovary and uses up the food that is ordinarily accumulated and at the same time destroys the embryo, so that a fully smutted grain consists of only the brown outer seed layer (pericarp) enclosing the mass of smut spores. A plant may be wholly or partially smutted, that is, all heads produced by a given stool may be smutted or only part of them may be invaded. The completeness of smutting varies with the different varieties and with the same variety fluctuates to some extent, apparently being influenced by the conditions which prevail during: development. The following tabulations will show this variation (Tables I. and II.). A smutted plant frequently produces heads which are only partially smutted, that is, some grains may be normal, while others are infected. The normal grains may be variously distributed, bearing no definite relation to position. Partial- ly smutted grams are sometimes very common (see Table III.) and the degree of smutting varies from those which show a minute black speck to those in which nearly the entire grain is involved. (Fig. 5). Heads have been found which showed only a single partially smutted “berry,” all the others being uninfected. The question is naturally suggested at this point as to whether there may not be an invisible infection, since there are all degrees of visible infection. The production of partially smutted berries is much more common in some fields than in others, and suggests a possible explanation for some of the ineffective results of seed treatment. HOW A CROP MAY BECOME INFECTED. The information available at the present time shows that a crop may become infected with smut in a number of different ways. In some fields it is probable that the smut spores come from a single source, while in other fields their origin may be from two or more sources. Smut was origin- ally introduced with the seed and many farmers are still planting smut every season with their seed wheat. Wheat 10 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. TABLE I. Showing Variation in Number of Normal and Smutted Heads in Par- tially Smutted Plants. Hybrid 143 Forty Fold No. of plant Normal Heads Smutted Heads Normal Heads Smutted Heads 1 2 4 1 1 2 3 2 2 4 3 2 4 3 11 4 4 5 4 6 5 4 2 8 10 6 6 3 1 14 7 4 3 3 1 8 10 1 10 1 9 8 1 1 6 10 6 20 5 8 TABLE II. Showing the Number of Completely Smutted and Partially Smutted Plants in Several Varieties. Six rod rows of each variety. Variety dumber of normal plants Number of completely smutted plants Number of partially smutted plants Red Russian 129 127 135 Forty B''oia 133 155 158 'J’urkey Red 117 57 358 Winter File 43 414 82 Hybrid 60 37 494 58 Hybrid 108 45 299 63 Hybrid 123 34 394 72 Hybrid .143 15 369 1 20 TABLE III. Showing the Relative Percentage of Smutted, Partially Smutted and Smut-Free Berries in 20 Heads. Variety Number of smutted berries Number of partially smutted berries Number of smut-free berries Total No. of berries Red Rusian 725 33 219 977 Forty Fold 735 35 253 1023 Hybrid 128 1001 11 128 1040 Early Wilbur 580 7 159 746 Fig. 5. a. Partially smutted berries of Red Russian wheat. /;, Par- tially smutted berries of Hybrid 128. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 11 taken from a smutty crop will have countless numbers of loose spores adhering to the grains, in many cases visible to the naked eye, m other cases too few to be noticeable except by the aid of a microscope. Wheat from an infected field will contain a certain num- ber of 'unbroken smut balls, the number varying with the severity of infection and the variety of wheat. These un- broken smut balls are always a source of danger, even when the seed is treated with fungicides previous to sowing. In seed treatment the fungicide does not reach the interior of the smut ball, and they are frequently broken during the seeding process and the spores scattered over the grain. The partly smutted berries are also a source of contamin- ation, and if present in seed wheat to any amount may rend- er seed treatment ineffective. The partly smutted grains show little or no variation from normal in either size or weight and would not be removed in the ordinary processes of cleaning. There are also chances for the infection of a crop with smut if absolutely smut-free seed is employed. In such a case there are two possible sources of infection: first, soil in- fection from a previous smutty crop; second, soil infection from wind-blown spores. If wheat follows wheat and the first crop was smutted, the soil will contain large numbers of smut spores. Some of these are separated spores scattered at the time of harvest or later but many are in the form of unbroken smut balls, in many cases connected with the head. Following a harvest of a smut-infected field a sufficient number of smut heads have been found to give 570,000 spores to each square inch of surface. It is known that the spores in unbroken balls lying in the open fields on the surface of the ground re- tain their viability for at least one year, or from harvest to the following fall seeding time. Our experiments have shown, however, that the separated spores from crushed smut balls lose their infective power in from two to three months provided the soil is moist and loose. (Table IV.), and in no case do they survive a winter. It is not known how long the spores remain viable in uncrushed smut heads when plowed under. Some tests, however, of smut heads which had been buried through two winters failed to give any viable spores. Their duration of life under such conditions probably depends upon temperature, depth, moisture, and compactness of soil. There is no longer any doubt that under present con- ditions smut is extensively disseminated by the wind in the wheat growing regions of Washington. The evidence for this is two-fold: first, the actual determination of the number of 12 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT TABLE IV. Showing- the Persistence of the Infective Power of Smut Balls When Placed in the Soil. Dates of planting 1914 Dates upon May 9 1 which crushed smut balls were placed in the soil 1914-1915 June 26 1 July 30 1 October 7 1 March 3 Percentag-e of infected plants Sept. 14 ... 60.0 Sept. 17 ... 16.0 56.0 83.0 Sept. 19 ... 45.0 88.0 Sept. ‘28 ... 10.0 44.0 78.0 Oct. .8 11.0 20.0 62.0 Oot. 8 32.0 70.0 ( )ct. 11 .... 0.7 0.7 58.0 Oct. 18 .... 8.0 12.0 61.0 Oct. 2F. ().() : 2.0 14.0 Oct. .81 0.0 0.0 6.0 Nov, 0.5 8.0 Nov. 9 a.o 5.0 72.0 Nov. 28 0.0 2.0 1915 i- MnrcU ... 0.0 79.0 March 8 . . . 0.0 84.0 M;irc!^ 18 . . 0.0 0.0 ; 9 5.0 Ma ch 22 .. 0.0 0.0 ' 71.0 April IS ... 0.0 0.0 i 9.0 April 24 . . . 0.0 0.0 2.8 May 8 0.0 0.0 0.0 TABLE V. Sh< wing the Amount of Smu^ from Treated fTeed Planted in New Soil on Various Dates. Dates of Planting- 1914 Percentage of smutted iilants July 80 to Allgust 81, 19 plantings 0.0 Septemlier 4 20.0 .Septemiier 14 21.0 S(M>tember 17 41.0 September 19 60.0 September 2 8 36.0 tictober 5 27.0 October 11 14.0 fictober 25 n.7 October 81 0.7 November 5 0.0 spores carried by the wind under certain conditions, and sec- ond, the production of a smut-infected crop in new soil. For example, at Pullman during the first week of Sep- tember, 1915, 17,000 smut spores fell on each square inch of surface at a point one-quarter mile distant from the nearest wheat field. Smut spores can be found in abundance upon the surface of vegetation at varying distances from any BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 13 wheat fields. Twenty-five apple leaves taken from an orchard at least a quarter mile distant from the nearest wheat field, when collected and examined on September 9th were found to have over three million smut spores lodged upon their sur- faces. The results shown in Table V. are presented as evidence of infection from wind-blown spores. The tract used in this test had never had wheat grown upon it, nor had wheat been grown near it in recent years, while every possible care was taken to keep it free from smut. The seed was hand-threshed from selected smut-free heads, and was probably smut free. It was, however, treated for 20 minutes with a solution of one pound of bluestone and one pound of salt to 5 gallons of water, as an added safeguard against infection. Light rains began September 6th and the soil was well moistened by September 15th. No other explanation except wind-blown spores can be given for the high percentage of smut shown by the various plantings. METHODS OF CONTROL. It does not seem probable that wheat smut will be con- trolled by any single practice, but rather by the combined use of various methods. At this time emphasis should be placed upon five different lines of attack as follows: (1) Crop rotation. (2) The use of clean seed. (3) Seed treatment with fungicides. (4) Cultural practices. (5) Breeding and selection of varieties. • 1. Crop Rotation. Failure to practice crop rotation is undoubtedly one of the main explanations for the general prevalence of smut in the wheat fields of Eastern Washington. Single cropping is not only a poor practice from the standpoint of soil exhaus- tion, but offers an opportunity for the gradual increase in severity of a disease after it is once introduced. In the in- terests of smut control we must urge more attention to ro- tation of crops. Wheat following wheat is very likely to be smutty for the reason previously outlined. Even with an in- tervening summer fallow, the smut from a previous crop may be a souce of infection. Many experiences show that a fall stubble crop is less liable to smut infection than a crop following summer fallow. The apparent explanation for this condition is the fact that the summer fallow becomes infected with wind-blown spores, while in a stubble crop, the wind- 14 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. blown spores as well as those originating from the previous crop are buried in plowing. It is not within the scope of this bulletin to discuss the various rotations that may be em- ployed. These must be suited to the conditions which prevail in the various sections. Many farmers ,vho are practicing a wheat, oats, su nmer fallow rotation, and are treating their seed, have generally reduced the smut to a considerable ex- tent. It is worthy of note in this connection that experience on the Experiment Station farm where the rainfall is 23 inches has shown that summer fallowing is not an essential practice. It seems probable that a rotation which would elim- inate summer fallow would help in solving our smut problem, and it is recommended for regions which do not require sum- mer fallowing for the conservation of moisture. 2. The Use of Clean Seed. If clean seed or properly treated seed had been used by all farmers we should never have had a smut problem. It is very apparent that too little care has been used hi the selec- tion of wheat for seed purposes. ¥/e can not advise the use of visibly sreutted seed under anv cireurnstances where it is possible to obtain clean stock. The farmer who has only smutted seed available would profit by selling his entire crop and purchasing smut-free or at least clean seed. If wheat showing unbroken smut balls must be used for seed it should be thoroughly cleaned to remove as many of these as nossible. The danger from the few smut balls left in the seed wheal has already been pointed out. The difficulty of effecting their complete removal, either by the fanning mill or bv the t^nk method of treatment, gives ample reason for placing empha sis upon the selection of clean seed. Farmers who are not willing to adopt a general rotation for the reduction of smut would do well to set aside a seed plat of sufficient size to furnish their required amount of seed and practice a systematic rotation like wheat, oats, sum^^er fallow or any other suitable sequence. With some att^^n^ion to cleaning the separator, it should be possible by this method to always have a supply of clean wheat. The wrii-ers would advise threshing this seed wheat at low speed, to lessen the injury to the grains, since it is known that separator iniury is an important factor in reducing the per cent of viable seed and also increases the injury from seed treatment. The effect of separator injury upon the germination of wheat was discussed in some detail in a previous publicationh 1 Woolman, H. M.. Stinking Smut in Wheat. Popular Bui. Wash. Agrr. Exp. Sta., 73. 1914. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 15 and will not be repeated here. In order to emphasize the danger of seed injury in theshing, the following facts based on tins bulletin are presented: In a number of tests, hand- tlireshed wheat gave a germination percentage of 92-100, whde for machine threshed grain the germination percentage ranged from 66-88. After a five-minute treatment in blue- stone, one pound to 2^ gallons of water, the germination per- centage of forty Fold was as follows: hand-threshed, 100; threshed at low speed, 50; threshed at high speed, 35. While the strength of the copper solution was greater than that commonly employed in seed treatment, the figures show that grain threshed at high speed of the separator is injured more by seed treatment than seed threshed at low speed. 3. Seed Teatment. Unless seed is known to be smut-free some treatment must be employed to kill the spores lodged upon the surface. If seed which does not contain unbroken smut balls is used and it is planted in an uninfected soil, the proper care in seed treatment should give either a smut-free crop or only traces of smut. High per cents of smut indicate either soil infection or imperfect treatment. Either physical or chemi- cal agencies are in use for treating cereals for the various species of smuts. The hot-water treatment is quite effective for all smuts that are seed-borne, but the method is quite laborious and is only recommended when one of the chemi- cal “steeps” is not effective. The hot-water method must be used for the loose smuts of wheat and barley in which there is an internal seed infection, but smuts like bunt of wheat, and the loose smuts of oats and barley in which the spores are superficial, can be treated to better advantage with chemical poisons. The principle of the chemical treat- ment is to use a poison which will kill the superficial spores of the smut and not materially injure the germinating power of the seed. Of the many different chemicals tried up to this time at this Station and elsewhere only a relatively small number have proved to be practical and at the same time effective. Many ineffective poisons are excluded on account of their cost. The two which have come into general use are copper sulfate, or bluestone and formaldehyde. The form- ulae for these two solutions are as follows: 1. Copper sulphate (bluestone) one pound, sodium chlo- ride (common salt) one pound, water five gallons. 2. Formalin or a 40 % solution of formaldehyde, one pound to 30 or 40 gallons of water. 16 BUNT OR STINGING SMUT OF WHEAT. These solutions should not be prepared by guess, but very accurately by weight and measure. It should be expressly understood that we do not recom- mend the use of seed which contains unbroken smut balls. If however, necessity forces the use of seed of this type, the open tank method of seed treatment should be employed, the grain thoroughly stirred in the fungicide and all smut balls skimmed off. A convenient procedure is as follows: Jcrl„ 1. Construct a water-tight tank or trough (8x2 feet and 14 inches deep is a good size) . 2. Fill the tank two-thirds full of the fungicide. 3. Pour seed wheat slowly into the fungicide until the trough is nearly half full. 4. Stir thoroughly in order to float the unbroken smut balls to the surface. -• 5. Skim off the smut grains and destroy them. 6. Allow the grain to remain in the fungicide for at least ten minutes, then remove to sacks or pile in heaps and cover with moist sacks until the next day, when it should be used for seeding. If formalin is used a new solution should be prepared every day as it loses its strength very rapidly. A stock solu- tion of bluestone may be kept until it is used up as it does not lose strength. If the formalin method is used and the seed is to be planted, as soon as taken from the steep the period of im- ' mersion in the solution should be extended to thirty minutes ’ to give a protective effect equal to that of the copper sulfate. On the supposition that the seed employed is practically free from smut balls the following method can be employed, using either one of the solutions: 1. Put a sufficient amount of the solution (35 to 40 gallons) into a barrel to completely immerse a sack of seed , or use a larger quantity in a tank. 2. Put seed to be treated into sacks (one and one-half bushels) and dip each sack into the solution, allowing it to remain ten minutes. 3. Remove the sack and drain, allowing the excess of the steep to run back into the barrel or tank. Replenish the solution as often as necessary from a stock solution, so as to always have the sack completely immersed. 4. Allow the treated seed to remain over night in the wet sacks and use the next day. ^ ^ ■ In seed treatment “safety first” is good policy, there- fore the open tank method is strongly recommended. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 17 Two effects of the “steeps” upon the seed should be borne in mind: first, the absorbtion of water causes more or less swelling of the grains; second, the toxic or poisonous action of the fungicide causes a reduction in the per cent of germination. In seeding due allowance should be made for the increase in size of the grains by setting the drill to sow more than the ordinary quantity of seed. Since the per cent of germination of untreated seed varies within wide limits, and the fungicides still further decrease the per cent viable, it is always advisable to make germination tests of the treated seed, and regulate the amount used per acre in accordance with this reduction. The injurious action of the bluestone can be greatly re- duced by soaking the seed in lime-water made by slacking one pound of quick lime and diluting to ten gallons. For careful work the sacks may be dipped in this solution for five to ten minutes immediately following their removal from the blue- stone. In case there is not a soil infection bluestone and formal- dehyde seem to have about an equal protective action. In case of a soil infection, a condition which is found to be fairly common in Washington, the bluestone treatment seems to give slightly better results. This is explained by the fact that formaldehyde being a volatile poison, soon evaporates, while some copper is left behind on the seed coats, and pass- ing into solution in the soil may inhibit or retard the germin- ation of spores in the soil that are near to the young seed- ling. (See Table VI.). TABLE VI. Showing the Comparative Efficiency of the Bluestone and Formalde- hyde Treatment in Preventing a Reinfection. Percentag^e of infected plants Bluestone treat- Formaldehyde ment treatment rrfiatfid sp.ftjl In smutty soil 16.3 50.1 Treated resmutted seed in clean soil 4.1 22.9 4. Cultural Practices. Certain cultural practices are beneficial in reducing the amount of smut in all cases, while the value of others depends to some extent upon the source of the smut spores. The factors which always influence the amount of smut are (1) the temperature of the soil during the germinating period, (2) the 18 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. amount of soil moisture, and (3) the depth of seeding. Where seed-borne spores are the only sources of infection, attention to the three factors mentioned, will give the only cultural practices for reducing the amount of smut. The temperature of the soil at the time of germination of the wheat is very important. Table VII. shows that the amount ol infection from seed-borne spores when the mean soil temperature is 65 ¥. or over is much less than when it ranges between 60 '' and 40° h\ It is also shown that still lower temperatures give a reduction in the amount of smut. A similar condition prevails when the smut is already in the soil (see Table Vll.). The great reduction in smut in the later plantings in the infected soil was due in part to the death of the spores which had been in the soil for three months. Our experiments have given some evidence that planting when there is just sufiicient moisture to induce germination is a good practice, and even. that dry planting and waiting for a ram is better than planting in a very wet soil. The rela- tion of soil moisture to infection is still being investigated. Our results during the past summer show that deep planting increases the amount of smut. This is true whether clean seed is used in an infected soil or smutted seed in a smut-free soil. (See Table VIII.). When the source of smut spores is from a previous crop certain known facts should be taken into consideration: ( 1 ) The infection power from separated spores is limited to 2 to 3 months in n oist soil; ( 2 ) spores in the unbroken balls may retain their viability for one year or more under natural field conditions: (3) separated spores do not live through the win- ter under normal field conditions. From these facts it seems certain that any operation on a smutty stubble field in the fall that destroys or crushes the balls and mixes the smut with the soil will be beneficial in reducing the amount of smut. Such practices as burning, rolling, dragging, disking, and heavy pasturing are suggested. It is recognized that burn- ing is objectionable as a general practice, and should only be resorted to in extreme cases. Early spring plowing of land with tillage before the spring rains cease should give good results, while late plowing followed by tillage when the soil is relatively dry would offer an opportunity for much infec- tion. In the former case a high percentage of the spores would succumb before seeding time, while in the latter case the liberated spores would remain viable until the fall rains, and would be ready to infect the crop. It seems probable that fall plowing proceeding summer fallow will also give good results, but it has not been tried to any extent. The BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 19 TABLE VII. Showing Effect of Time of Planting on the Amount of Smut. A. Clean (Hybrid 143) treated seed in soil heavily smutted on 7-30-14 B. Untreated and smutted seed (Hybrid 143) in clean soil. C. Untreated and smutted seed (average of 6 varieties) in clean soil. Date of planting 1914 Mean soil temper- ature during germination. ° F. A Percentage of smutted plants B Percentage of smutted plants August 24 69 28.0 3.1 August 31 67 33.3 3.9 September 2 66 25.5 5.5 September 17 .... 55 83.0 91.3 October 3 52 62.1 99.1 October 3 50 68,4 96.6 October 18 47 44.9 97.5 October 25 1 46 15.4 93.6 November 2 42 92.5 November 9 39 5.4 88.6 November 23* .... 36 2.0 20.6 1915 C April 23 54 25.6 May 3 59 3 b,-.: May 8 56 14.7 May 15 53 34.2 May 22 60 10.6 *Did not come until spi'ing'. TABLE VIII. Showing the Effect of Depth of Planting on the Percentage of Smut. Hybrid 143. Treated seed in smutted soil. Depth of 1 No. of plants No. of plants No. of plants planting | smut-free 5ompletely smutted partly smutted 0.5 in. 117 16 16 1.0 in. 83 20 58 1.5 in. 39 15 40 2.0 in. 25 32 39 2.5 in. 11 47 11 3.0 in. 9 45 5 Smutted seed in clean soil. 0.5 In. 1 29 1 0 1.0 in. 16 4 25 1.5 in. 35 28 14 2.0 In. 17 31 30 2.5 in. 16 88 25 3.0 in. 18 140 38 20 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. results given in Table IV. show that spores liberated in the soil during the dry period remain viable until the fall rains. Since it is the smut heads left near or on the surface of the ground that will furnish the spores for the infection of a fol- lowing crop, an attempt should be made to bury these as com- pletely as possible in plowing. For this reason the use of a jointer is recommended. It has previously been shown that there is a general dis- semination of smut spores during the threshing season. At present there is no way to prevent this and infection from wind-borne spores must be prevented by cultural practices. The summer fallow fields seem to be well seeded with wind- borne spores in the majority of cases. The practices sug- gested are: (1) seeding before the smut shower or if this is not possible at least before the fall rains; (2) replowing of the summer fallow after the first fall rains, and (3) late planting. Early seeding of summer fallow is designed to elimin- ate or reduce not only the infection from the wind-borne spores, but is beneficial in case of seed or previous soil in- fection, on account of the high temperatures at that time of the year. (See Table VII.). By proper treatment of a summer fallow sufficient moisture can be retained at plant- ing depth to insure prompt germination and growth. Even if the soil should be too dry for germination, planting to await the rain would be safer than planting soon after the fall rains begin. From the agronomic and farm management standpoints early planting has both advantages and disad- vantages. The advantages aside from the reduction of smut may be summarized as follows: (1) The stand is always well developed and reduces the soil washing in the early spring. (2) A greater part of the growth is made during the early spring, using moisture which would otherwise be lost by evaporation, and as a result the crop matures ahead of the season when burning is likely. (3) The heavy fall growth furnishes a considerable amount of pasture. Some of the disadvantages may be mentioned: (1) The early planting comes at a busy season. (2) The seed would have to be carried over from the previous harvest in most cases. (3) There is greater danger of winter-killing and there is a chance for too heavy a growth of straw. The winter- killing can, however, be prevented by sufficient pasturing. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 21 Early seeding has been practiced by various farmers, and they report a marked reduction in smut and are well sat- isfied with the results. Duling and Bishop of Garfield have followed this method for three years and report that the pasture alone netted them six to eight dollars per acre during the last season. The replowing of summer fallow after the first fall rains is generally effective in reducing the amount of smut. It has been claimed by some that this practice reduces the yield, but this has not been true in any cases known to us. On the other hand there has been an apparent increase in yield. The summer fallow land of James Carnegie, near Pullman, was replowed during the fall of 1914, and a yield of 50 bushels of nearly smut-free wheat per acre was harvested during the past season. Very late planting, that is, four or five weeks after the first good fall rains, is also an effective practice. This is shown by the results presented in Table V. and is substan- tiated by many farm observations. Fall tillage of summer fallow other than plowing seems to be beneficial, but since this is generally associated with later planting, it is rather difficult to say just how much of the benefit comes from the tillage and how much from the late planting. 5. Breeding and Selection of Varieties. No smut-immune varieties of wheat are known but the standard varieties show varying degrees of resistance. This fact has suggested two lines of work: (1) the testing of es- tablished varieties to determine their comparative resistance and the selection of resistant strains if such can be found, and (2) the production of resistant varieties by crossing, which shall also possess the other desirable qualities. The sec- ond phase of this work offers much of promise, but it has not progressed to a point where definite statements can be made. The evidence concerning comparative resistance of varieties is somewhat conflicting and it will require more detailed tests for a number of years to give conclusive evidence. In the first place it should be noted that spring wheats generally suffer less from smut than winter varieties. This is not due to any superior resistance, but rather to the fact that they escape infection. If only spring wheats were grown our smut problem would largely disappear, but a return to this prac- tice is not suggested, since the winter wheats are much more desirable. A brief discussion will be presented of some results of our tests of a few winter varieties. The summary presented, 22 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OP WHEAT. (see Table IX.), is the result of six plantings of each variety in three different locations. It will be noted that the relative resistance based on a count of plants showing infection is different from that shown by the count of heads. When infected and smut-free plants are counted, Red Russian shows the least smut, with Forty Fold second and Turkey Red third. The count of heads reverses the order, Turkey Red being best, while Forty Fold is second and Red Russian third. This is due to the fact that Turkey Red and Forty Fold produce many smut-free heads on infected plants. This indicates a capacity on the part of these varieties to outgrow an infection, and suggests one of the possible elements of re- sistance. It seems probable that the conditions which pre- vail during the growing season may have considerable in- fluence on the per cent of smut in any given variety. Essentially similar results have been obtained in the in- vestigations conducted by the Division of Farm Crops as shown in Table X. . ^ ^ The evidence as it stands at the present time indicates that wheats of the Club type ( T, compactum^ are in general more susceptible than the common varieties (T. vulgare) with the long heads. The Winter Fife is apparently an ex- ception to this, standing very close to the Club Hybrids in susceptibility, and other exceptions will probably be found as the investigations are continued. The greater suscepti- bility of the Club varieties to smut should not of necessity discourage their planting. It should be noted that some of the College Club Hybrids have excelled all others^ in both yield and quality.^ This being true it may be advisable to grow them rather than some of the more resistant varieties which give a poorer yield. The search for resistant yarieties suited to Eastern Washington is being continued. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS. The control of smut will only be accomplished by the combined use of various practices. These are not presented in the order of their importance and they must of necessity be varied in different sections of the state. 1. More attention should be given to crop rotation, since single cropping to wheat is favorable to the continua- tion of smut. 2. The use of clean or smut-free seed is advised. It is a bad practice to use visibly smutted grain for seed, and es- 1 Schafer, B. G., and Gaines, B. P. Washington Wheats. Bui. Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta., 121:1-16. 1915. BUNT OR STINKING SMUT OF WHEAT. 23 TABLE IX. Showing the Comparative Resistance of a Number of Winter Wheats to Smut Infection. Heavily smutted seed planted October 16, 1914; the figures represent the average from 6 plats of each variety in three different loca- tions. Variety Percentage of clean plants Percentage of smutted plants Percentage of partially smutted plants Percentage of smutted heads Red Russian 36.0 35.2 28.8 45.8 Forty Fold 27.0 36.8 36.2 50.3 Turkey Red 22.0 11.2 66.8 40.2 Winter Fife 8.1 76.7 15.2 79.1 Hybrid 60 5.1 85.0 10.0 89.1 Hybrid 108 9.0 78.4 12.6 85.0 Hybrid 123 6.8 78.8 14.4 86.7 Hybrid 143 5.0 91.3 3.7 93.8 TABLE X. Showing the Comparative Resistance of a Number of Winter Wheats to Smut Infection.i Heavily smutted seed planted November 7. The figures represent re- sults from a six-rod row of each variety. Variety Percentage of clean plants Percentage of complete- ly smutted plants Percentage of partially smutted plants Percentage of damage Turkey Red* 49.36 0.0 50.64 1 4.56 Red Russian* 9.96 I 12.45 77.59 67.85 Forty Fold* 7.36 16.56 76.07 72.47 Triplet’s Sister* 13.95 32.56 53.49 73.69 Turkey X Bluestem* . . . 8.98 44.08 46.94 80.22 Hybrid 128** 8.75 68.17 23.08 86.63 Triplet* 1.91 41.19 56.90 88.13 Hybrid 108** 9.37 70.31 20.31 88.08 Jones Winter Fife* .... 5.41 74.20 20.39 89.35 Hybrid 143** 3.03 76.03 20.94 92.57 Turkey X Winter Fife*. 3.82 78.82 17.35 93.15 Hybrid 123** 1.67 50.63 47.70 93.89 Little Club** 2.26 87.22 10.52 96.24 ••Average percentage of damage to Compactum types, 91.5. •Average percentage of damage to Vulgare types, 80.7. iThis table was compiled by Mr. B. F. Gaines of the Division of Farm Crops and is based on tests made in the Cereal Nursery of the Bxperi- ment Station. 24 BUNT OR STINKING SMUT IN WHEAT. pecially so if the smut is in the form of unbroken balls. It is impossible to completely remove all unbroken smut balls either by the use of the fanning mill or by the tank method of seed treatment. The occurrence of partially smutted grains is an added source of danger that emphasizes the need of planting seed that is known to be smut-free. 3. Unless the seed is known to be smut-free, it should be treated with one or the other of the standard fungi- cides. ^ The bluestone treatment has a slight preference for Washington conditions since it has some protective action in preventing infections from smut spores that are already in the soil. 4. The cultural practices which are known to prevent smut or reduce the per cent of infection should be followed as closely as possible. The most important facts to keep in mind are as follows: (a) Early seeding either before the smut shower or at least before the fall rains begin will be likely to give a low per cent of infection or a smut-free crop. (b) Seeding of summer fallow land during the first three or four weeks following the first fall rains will be likely to give a large amount of smut. (c) Replowing of summer fallow reduces the amount of smut, if this operation and seeding take place after the first fall rains. (d) If clean or properly treated seed is used, a fall stub- ble crop following a previously infected crop will show little smut if the plowing is done after the period of wind dissem- ination, that is, after the advent of the fall rains. (e) Late fall planting will tend to decrease the amount of smut. (f) Deep planting gives a larger amount of smut than shallow planting. (g) Separated smut spores, that is, spores from crushed smut balls lose their infective power after 2 to 3 months in moist soil and never live through the winter under normal conditions. For this reason field operations which tend to crush the smut balls scattered during the harvest period are of importance. 5. The variation in susceptibility of varieties may ulti- mately make possible the selection of those which are highly resistant. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN. WASHINGTON. DIRECTOR’S OFFICE Twenty-Fifth Annual Report For the Year Ending June 30, 1915 BULLETIN NO. 127 December, 1915 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director Board of Control. E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. A. Bryan (President of College) Secretary ex-officio Pullman R. C. McCroskey Garfield D. S. Troy Chimacum J. C. Cunningham Spokane Experiment Station Staff Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . Elton Fulmer, M. A... O. L. Waller, Ph. M . . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D. O. M. Morris, M. S. . . . Geo. Severance, B. S. . C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . . . W. T. Shaw, M. S E. G. Schafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . . C. A. Magoon, A. -B. . . . J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M A. McCall, M. S. . . . J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D. . M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F Holtz, M. S. . . E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . , D. C. George, B. S H. M. Woolman F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S. Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist , . . . By-products Specialist . . . . Assistant Entomologist Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . . Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist . . . Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist . . Assistant in Farm Crops LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Pullman, Washington, December 10, 1915. Honorable Ernest Lister, Governor, Olympia, Washington. Sir; I have the honor to submit herewith the Twenty-Fifth Annual Report of the State Agricultural Experiment Station covering the work of this Station for the year ending June 30, 1915. Very respectfully, IRA D. CARDIFF, Director DR. E. A. BRYAN REGENT R. C. McCROSKEY Twenty-fifth Annual Report, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station AN APPRECIATION. The publication of this report marks the end of a quarter of a century of work by the Washington Agricultural Experi- ment Station. In view of this fact it is fitting to call atten- tion to the work of two men who have had largely to do with moulding the character and work of the Station during its formative period. Honorable R. C. McCroskey has been identified with the College in one way and another almost continuously since the founding of the institution. He was a member of the legislature which passed the laws providing for the founda- tion of the institution, and had an active part in the formu- lation of the bills in connection with this legislation. He was then offered a position upon the board of regents of the col- ege by Governor McGraw but was obliged to decline on ac- count of having had an active part in the passage of the laws providing for the establishment of the school. However, in 1^97 he was appointed to the board by Governor Rogers and since then has worked untiringly lor the upbuilding of the institution, having seiu ed for several years as president of the board. It is especially fitting at the present time to call atten- tion to the work of President E. A. Bryan, Director of the Station for fifteen years (1892-1907), inasmuch as he is sever- ing his connection with the College during the present month, after twenty-three years of service as President of the State College of Washington. Dr. Bryan’s period of public work therefore is practically coincident with the existence of the institution itself. Nor is it mere coincidence, for the insti- tution as it stands today is largely the result of his untiring labors and personal devotion. His was the work of an educa- tional pioneer and the building of a great educational insti- tution of this type called for a will power and courage of the highest order. Like many other educational institutions ex- periencing the growing pains of a young and rapidly devel- oping state, the College has passed periods of great financial 8- TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT stress and political difficulty. It has been subject to the at- tacks of politicians or promoters who vainly endeavored, during the early period of its existence, to either exploit it or destroy it, and the friends of the instution and of higher education, not only in Washington but in the country as a whole, owe a debt of gratitude to the man who, as chief ex- ecutive, successfully withstood these attacks and brought the school to its present position in the educational world with a career untarnished by political corruption. In his great work as a pioneer educational builder Presi- dent Bryan has always been ably supported by the judgment and foresight of Regent McCroskey, who this year enters up- on another term as regent. It is rare indeed that the govern- ing board of a public institution of learning can boast of a record of a member equal to that of Senator McCroskey. Be- ing a leader in a political party which is usually in the minor- ity, it is evident that his position on the board is the result of genuine worth. To these two men the Northwest is in- debted for fundamental and far-teaching work in the pro- motion of higher education. CHANGES IN STAFF. Changes in the Station staff for the fiscal year 1914-1915 include the following: William Hislop was appointed Animal Husbandman and F. D. Heald Plant Pathologist in place of R. C. Ashby and J. G. Hall, respectively, who resigned near the end of the previous fiscal year. C. A. Magoon was pro- moted from the position of Assistant Bacteriologist to that of Bacteriologist, and J. W. Kalkus from the position of Assist- ant Veterinarian to that of Veterinarian. A. L. Sherman was appointed Assistant Chemist vice K. C. McWilliams resigned, and F. W. Allen, Assistant Horticulturist vice W. J. Young resigned. M. A. McCall, Vice Director of the Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experiment, was made Dry Land Specialist of the Station as a result of this department being made a part of the Station. CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION. On April first, 1915, the Department of Dry Land Demon- stration and Experiment, with headquarters at Lind, was made the Dry Land Division of the Experiment Station. INVESTIGATIONAL WORK. The following is a brief summary of the work of investi- gation by divisions and projects: WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 9 DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE. Dairy Husbandry. Two feeding tests, one on beet pulp vs. corn silage and one on the use of milk substitutes for calf feeding were con- ducted. The former was carried on with the assistance of Mr. R. E. Hundertmark, and the latter with the assistance of Mr. A. L. Beam and Mr. R. E. Clark, who carried it on as an agri- cultural thesis problem. Beet Pulp vs. Corn Silage. In order to test the value of dried beet pulp soaked, as compared with corn silage the station selected eight grade cows in different stages of lactation. Dried beet pulp was fed to one-half and corn silage to the other half for a period of one month. The results of the test showed that beet pulp, moistened with five parts by weight of water, was a very palatable feed and was consumed with considerable relish. The milk flow increased from one to two pounds per day as soon as the stock was well on the beet pulp ration and this increase was main- tained for the remainder of the month. It was found that al- though it was difficult to accustom the cows to eating the new feed at first, later they would eat from six to eight pounds more of the soaked pulp than they would of the corn silage. The general condition of the cows fed the beet pulp was comparable with that of those fed corn silage and there was no appreciable difference in their weights from the be- ginning to the close of the month. The succulence in a ration when fed 36 pounds of corn silage at $6.00 per ton would cost 10.8 cents and when fed 48 pounds of wet beet pulp at $27.00 per ton for the dried beet pulp would cost the same. Since their feeding value is also about the same, it would seem that the extended use of beet pulp as a substitute for silage would depend largely on the relative cost of producing and preserving silage and cost of dried beet pulp. Substitutes for Skim Milk in Feeding Calves. In this state where a great deal of milk is being sold as whole milk to condensaries and to city trade, there is a con- stant demand for some milk substitute for feeding calves. Hence a 90-day feeding test to compare skim milk with Blatchford’s Calf Meal and a home made mixture was carried out, using eighteen calves in three groups. A, B and C. The calves were fed all the grain they would clean up twice daily. This consisted of ground oats, wheat and bar- 10 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT ley with bran. Clover or alfalfa hay was kept before the calves at all times except while they were in the pasture. This hay was weighed and averaged equally among the calves according to age. The skim milk and the gruel from the calf meal was weighed for each calf at each feed. The grain mix- ture was fed to lot “C” in addition to any other grain or skim milk that they received and the amount given each calf was measured. After each feeding the utensils were all washed and scalded. The barn was fitted with stanchions and the calves were kept in them for a few minutes after each feed- ing. Hay was fed outside at all times except during bad weather. The barn was kept clean and was well bedded with straw. Clean water and salt were before the calves at all times. Tentative conclusions follow: Skim milk gave the best results as a substitute for whole milk, yet other foods, Blatchford’s calf meal and the grain mixtures, together with a limited use of skim milk, gave fair results. The skim milk lot made the largest gains per day with the lowest cost per pound. Grain mixtures fed dry rather than mixed with milk gave the best results. Blatchford’s Calf Meal and grain mixture should be fed with the same re- gard for cleanliness and sanitation as in feeding milk. The Economy of Production from Large vs. Small Cows. There is much discussion in the dairy press of today on the relative merits of small cows vs. large cows. In order to determine whether large cows are more economical and more profitable producers than small cows, or vice versa, an experi- ment was started during the year. The cows were divided without regard to breed into groups of large and small cows. Cows weighing 1100 pounds or more were taken as large cows and those weighing less than 1100 pounds as small cows. This test was started by Mr. P. R. Feddersohh, a student of the Dairy Division of the College, under the supervision of Mr. R. E. Hundertmark, and lasted but five months. The results showed that with the cost of feed alone considered the small cows produced butter fat for one cent per pound less than the large cows, but did not produce milk as cheaply. When the total expenses were considered the large cows produced but- ter fat at three cents less per pound and milk at 57 cents less per hundred than the small cows. The data taken on this short test tend to show that the larger dairy animal having a large capacity for consuming feed is the more economical and more profitable animal. However, these conclusions are tenta- WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 11 tive, and to obtain conclusive results it will be necessary to continue the test for several years, which it is planned to do. Farm Crops. The experimental work in Farm Crops consists large- ly of experiments conducted in the field. The year’s work includes the results of the 1914 crop and the planting of the 1915 crop. The investigations are being con- ducted under four separate projects. Variety Testing. The variety testing has been continued and includes tests with winter and spring wheat, winter and spring bar- ley, rye, corn and grain mixtures. Sixty-five varieties of winter wheat and eighty varieties of spring wheat were tested in the nursery; twenty-three varieties of winter wheat and thirteen varieties of spring wheat were tested in the field plots. Seventy-eight varieties of winter and spring barley were tested in the nursery and ten in field plots. One hundred and twenty-three varieties of oats were tested in the nursery and ten were tested in field plots. The nursery tests were made in rod rows run in triplicate and the field tests in duplicate one-fortieth acre plots. Several tests were made of rye and grain mixtures. The two leading varieties of corn grown at the Experi- ment Station have been imnroved by selection. An ear-row test was conducted with each of these varieties. The product of the highest producing ears of the 1914 crop was used for seed in 1915. A rate and spacing test was conducted with corn. Two and three stalks per hill p*ave a larger yield than three and four stalks per hill. The hills were planted 34- feet apart each way. Twelve varieties are being tested in 1915. The tests carried on in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture to determine the value of local and introduced seeds was continued. Bulletin No. 121 of the Washington Experiment Station gives the results of variety testing with wheat for a period of years as well as the yields for 1914. Hybrid 128, a winter variety, stands highest of all the varieties tested in both yield and quality. Bluestem gave the highest yield of the spring wheats in 1914, but Marquis gave a higher yield for a two-year average. Swedish Select oats proved to be superior of the oat varieties and Tapp’s Winter barley was the highest yielding barley. C C C3 93 ;G.L Each pile of corn is the product of a single ear. The parent ears were planted in rows of equal length under uniform conditions. Corn is being improved by saving the seed of those ears which produce a high yield, discarding the seed of inferior ears. WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 13 Increase and Distribution of Seed. Seed of the most successful varieties was again distrib- uted among farmers in order to encourage their production., Seeds of superior varieties not known to be generally suc- cessful were sent to farmers in special cases to obtain in- formation concerning their value. The following table shows the number of persons receiving seed and the number of counties into which it went: Name of Crop No. of Parties No. of Counties Corn 892 37 Field Peas 116 30 Oats 38 19 Wheat 1 36 9 Barley 1 16 9 Sudan Grass ! 22 1 14 Twenty-one samples of miscellaneous crops were distrib- uted to various persons. Inheritance Studies. The studies of inheritance have been conducted with wheat, oats, barley and rye. The investigations with wheat include the qualitative characters and smut resistance. The inheritance of such specific characters as beards, head length and grain color, and the general characters of drought resist- ance, milling quality and stiffness of straw are among those which are being investigated. Many of the specific charac- ters have been found to behave in a manner that can be def- initely predicted when certain varieties are crossed. The in- heritance of some of the more general characters remains to be determined. The difference in the resistance of different varieties of wheat to smut has been determined. Various crosses are be- ing made for the purpose of producing more valuable varie- ties with a less tendency to smut. The studies with oats include the inheritance of panicle type, glume color, hullessness, etc. Similar studies are being made with barley. In the work with rye attempts are being made to obtain a variety without beards. Three generations or four crop seasons are necessay to determine the inheri- tance of specific characters of unknown value. Forage Investigations. The major part of the forage investigations now being conducted were started in the spring of 1914. Work is being done principally with alfalfa, clovers and perennial grasses. FIG. IL Varieties of wheat and other small grains are tested in small plots in the grain nursery where a careful study is made of them. They are also tested in larger plots in the field. • WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL. EXPERIMENT STATION 15 Ninety selections were started with 100 plants in each plot. These plots show that there is sufficient variation within a single commercial variety to make further improvement by straight selection. A rate of seeding test was started with alfalfa. The fol- lowing results were obtained in 1914 for the total of two crops harvested: Rows 7 inches apart, 7443 pounds per acre Rows 14 inches apart, 7271 pounds per acre Rows 28 inches apart, 6270 pounds per acre A variety of alfalfa developing root stalks was found in the forage nursery. Desirable plants of the clovers and per- ennial grasses have been selected for the improvement of these crops. A field of mixed pasture was planted in the spring of 1912. The object of this experiment was to de- termine the ability of these crops to endure under pasture conditions. The mixture included Kentucky blue grass, timo- thy, orchard grass, brome grass, red top, alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover and white clover. Abundant pasture has been furnished from this field each year. Some of the grasses, however, are giving way to others which are more hardy. Orchard grass predominates, and timothy, Kentucky blue grass and brome grass are found in less quantity and there is only a trace of red top. Alfalfa has persisted better than the other legumes. Besides the four projects named above the division is co- operating with the Chemistry division in determining the ef- fect of cultivation on yield. Soil Physics. Soil Moisture Investigations. For the past three seasons investigations have been con- ducted to determine the water requirements of some of the more important agricultural crops. These investigations were carried on in the field under semi-arid conditions. One- twentieth acre plots were used and all trials were conducted in duplicate. There were eight check plots, upon which no crops were grown. These check plots were kept well mulched with a three-inch granular mulch throughout the growing season. Owing to the slight summer rainfall, the mulch was well maintained and quite uniform during the entire period. Moisture determinations were made to a depth of ten feet at time of planting and at harvest on both cropped and check plots. From these moisture determinations the loss throughout the season was ascertained. The difference be- 16 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT tween the cropped and check plots is what was taken by the crops. To this must be added the rainfall during the grow- ing period. The total amount of moisture necessary to grow the crops herein mentioned is the sum of the three factors, viz., transpiration, soil evaporation and the rain which fell during the growing season. The following table gives the yield and water require- ment of seven of the more important agricultural crops. The first column gives the name of the crop, the second the yield of grain, the third the yield of straw and the fourth the ratio of weight of grain to weight of straw (meaning that for every 100 pounds of wheat there was 145 pounds of straw produced). The fifth column gives the acre inches of water transpired through the growing crop, the sixth column, the acre inches of water evaporated from the soil during the growing season, the seventh column, the amount of rainfall during the same period and the last column, the total acre inches necessary to produce the amount of crop given in the second and third columns: Crop 1 Yield, Average 3 Yrs. Ratio ; Grain to Straw j Water Boss- -Acre Inches { Grain ' Bushels straw Tons Transpi- ration Evapora- tion Rainfall ’ 1 Total Wheat 44.2 1.86 1:1.4 5 12.75 3.36 3.30 ! 19.41 Oats. . 85.0 1.72 1:1.27 9.95 2.47 3.30 1 15.72 Barle> 48.4 1.64 1:1.50 , 8.80 2.00 3.30 1 14.10 Corn. 33.4 1.88 1:1.61 3.72 2.36 3.15 ! 9.2 3 Peas . 31.5 1.27 1:1.34 1 7.33 1.82 3.30 12.45 Beans 9.7 .51 1:1.75 3.47 2.57 3.15 ; 9.19 Millet 2.75 1 6.54 1.92 2.4 5 10.91 The variation in the amounts of evaporation from the soil for the different crops is due to the difference in length of growing seasons of the several crops. The rainfall given is for the growing season of the crop in question. The last col- umn gives the amount of water necessary to grow the above crops and in a way shows what can be done with a given rain- fall. In studying the nitrate development of the soil, it is a common occurrence to find a soil sample having an exception- ally high nitrate content, out of proportion to any other sample in the field at that depth or on that plot from which it came. Because of this occasional high sample, an attempt was made to ascertain whether there is any variation in the distribution of the nitrates at relatively small distances. The method employed in this experiment is as follows: A cubic yard of soil was so laid off that a sample was tak- en every four inches, parallel to the faces of the cube. This WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 17 made one thousand samples from the cube. These were an- alyzed for nitrate content and the summary of the results are shown in the following table: Table, showing the nitrate content of a cubic yard of soil sam- ples taken at intersection of planes, 4 inches apart, in the three djl- mensions. The table gives the nitrates between certain limits, e. g., 1-2 P. P. means that readings were between one and two parts per million of dry soil. No. of samples with a nitrate content between 100 samples at each depth. 1-2 2-3 P. P. P. P. M. M. 3-4 P. P. M. 4-5 P. P. M. ! 5-6 6-7 P. ! P. P. P. M. M. 7-8 P. P. M. 8-9 P. P. 9-10 1 P. 1 P. M. 10- 1 p. ; P- _M.^ Surface 5 , 40 34 11 3 , 11 2 1 2 1 4 inches 7 - 45 30 9 4 ! 0 1 2 0 2 8 inches 4 31 47 10 2 1 2 3 0 0 12 inches 4 29 35 21 4 0 2 2 2 1 16 inches 13 52 23 8 1 i 0 1 0 1 1 0 20 inches 19 47 22 7 2 1 0 0 0 i 2 24 inches 28 44 19 5 , 0 , 1 2 1 0 0 28 inches 29 47 21 2 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 .12 inches 27 36 21 2 i 2 0 0 i 0 1 3 .36 inches 20 i J8_ 21 6 ! 7 3 0 _lj __0__l 2 Total 156 409 273 87 25 20 10 1 10 1 6 1 11 The samples containing more than ten parts per million of nitrates were as follows: Depth at which samples were taken Number of sam pies containing more than 10 P. P. M. iNirate P. content Ir P. M. Surface 1 15.6 4 inches 2 37.4 16.1 8 inches 0 12 inches 1 10.4 16 inches 0 20 inches 2 104.0 10.9 24 inches 0 28 inches 0 32 inches 3 15.6 26.0 17.2 36 inches 2 41.6 19.8 The samples containing more than ten parts of nitrates per million of dry soil constitute 1.1% of the total number of samples taken, and their total nitrate content is approximate- ly 10.0 7o of the total nitrate as contained in all samples. Cultivation has a marked effect on nitrate development in the silt loam soil of the Palouse region. A selected tract was laid out in eleven one-tenth acre plots, each plot received different methods of tillage as indicated in Bulletin No. 123. Nitrate determinations have been made in this field the past year for the purpose of studying the effect of tillage upon the nitrate development in the soils of each of these plots. 18 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT The results indicated that in early spring, just before the plants begin to use the soil solution, we find the highest nit- rate content in the soil. Two months later there is only a small amount left, but it is in the same proportion as in April and at harvest time there is still less. In November, two and one-half months after harvest there is a slight increase but not until the fall rains come is there a very material devel- opment. Then again the following spring saw a marked in- crease in those plots which were fall plowed, showing the ad- vantage of fall plowing. There is a very marked difference in the physical con- dition, humus and water holding capacity of the soils of the different hill slopes and hill tops of the Palouse country and along with the above difference there is also a difference in the nitrate content. (See Page 29). During the past season (1914) a portion of the sub-sta- tion at Grandview, in the irrigated section of the Yakima val- ley, was set apart for duty of water study. The crops se- lected for these studies were corn and potatoes. The rainfall for the season was 7.35 inches, nearly all of which was avail- able to the growing crops. The following table gives the results of these experi- ments: Crop Inches of water applied Bushels per acre Busliels per acre inch Corn 4 64.0 16.0 Corn 8 65.8 8.2 Corn 12 57.8 4.8 Corn 16 47.4 2.9 Corn 20 48.6 2.4 Potatoes 4 165,6 41.4 Potatoes 7 176.6 . 25.2 Potatoes 10 217.0 21.7 Potatoes 13 233.6 17.9 Potatoes 16 241.6 15.1 Potatoes 19 233.6 12.3 Potatoes 21 247.3 11.8 Potatoes 24 222.0 9.2 2Q TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT During this same season (1914), a study of the percola- tion of water was made in different soils. The soils selected and given in the following chart are coarse sand, medium FIG. IV. Percolation of irrigation water per hour per 100 feet of furrow. A. Uniform, coarse, sandy loam of great depth. B. Med- ium sandy loam with impervious hardpan at twent-two inches. C. Uniform, fine, sandy loam of great depth. sandy loam and fine sandy loam. Attention is called to the gradual decrease in the absorptive power of the soil as the time increases with the application of water. DIVISION OF BOTANY. In addition to the regular work upon six projects the Di- vision of Botany has done a large amount of analytical work in connection with the bacteriological examination of cream, milk, butter, cheese, and water. Identification and Study of Miscellaneous Diseases and Fungi. The work indicated by the above topic has included speci- mens and inquiries from the following sources: 1. General disease inquiries from farmers, orchardists, or others interested in plant production. WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 21 2. The study of specimens submitted by the county ag- riculturists and the state horticultural inspectors. 3. The study and identification of diseases found by the pathologist and assistants in the vicinity of Pullman and on the Experiment Station farm or elsewhere in the state. A detailed report on the diseases known to be prevalent will be completed at a later time and submitted for record and publication. All specimens received for diagnosis are numbered and filed for future reference, togetlier with full information concerning studies made, and a copy of the information furn- ished to the person sending the material. The material re- ceived for identification is filed under the “Identification Series.” The material collected is recorded and filed under a separate “Collection Series.” Both series are made readily available by a card catalog arranged according to hosts. As a result of this work up to date a large number of new or little known diseases have been studied and quite a number appear to be of considerable importance and merit further and more detailed consideration. Among those of special importance the following may be mentioned: 1. Blight of alfalfa, due to a fungus as yet undeter- mined. 2. Bacteriosis of cherries, a fruit disease. - 3. Bacteriosis of field peas. 4. California blight as a disease of plums and cherries as well as peaches and apricots. 5. “Tubers but no tops,” a potato trouble of Western Washington. 6. Crown rot of the apple. 7. Rough b?rk disease of prune. 8. Silver twig of prune. 9. Cane blight of roses. 10. Septoria blight of wheat. In addition many diseases have been reported for which the control me?>sures are only im.perfectly known. Many di- seases of scientific interest but of minor economic importance have been brought to the attention of the department. Work on the life history of the causal organisms of one of these troubles, the Sclerotinia disease of Prunus demissa and Amel- anchier cusickii, has been conducted. Brown Rot of Prunes. Complaints of prune failures in Clarke County have led to the beginning of an investigation of the part which the 22 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT brown rot iungus,, Sclerotinia cinerea, is playing in these loss- es. A visit to the region was made during the month of March and affected orchards were inspected at this time the orchards were nearly ready to blossom. The first study to be made was concerned with the deter- mination of the presence of blossom blight. Since it was not possible to remain in the region and study the problem under field conditions, the next best method of procedure was adopted. A selected list of about 75 prune growers, each own- ing 10 or more acres of trees, was obtained. Some of these were visited personally and a circular letter was at once sent to all. As a result of the study of the specimens received the following facts can be reported: 1. Blossom blight of prunes, due to Sclerotivia cinerea is present in Clarke County and is at least one of the factors in causing prune failures. 2. A condition termed “silver twig” is generally pres- ent. Whether this is of importance remains to be -proved by further studies. Powdery Mildew of Apple. Experiments on the control of powdery mildew of apple have been in progress in the orchard of A. M. Pearce, North Yakima, and are designed to give some light on the two fol- lowing points: 1. The comparative efficiency of certain fungicides: (a) The modified Ballard formula. (b) Precipitated sulphur (3 formulae). (c) Atomic sulphur. (d) Lime-sulphur. 2. The value of pruning or the removal of the blighted shoots in the control of the disease. The many inquiries concerning powdery mildew indicate that this trouble is rapidly increasing in Washington, on the West Side, as well as ‘in the irrigated sections of the Wenat- chee and Yakima valleys. ^Gooseberry Mildew. _ The work on this project was continued during the past spring and the results were most gratifying. Since previous work had pointed to the fact that lime-sulphur was more ef- fective than any of the other fungicides tested it was decided to use this alone and vary the concentration and number of applications. The very satisfactory control of the mildew on both Euro- pean and American varieties of gooseberries during the past WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 23 season seems to justify the conclusion that the method fol- lowed is entirely effective. This control calls for: 1. Careful pruning and cultivation. 2. Spraying with lime-sulphur. Much of our success is to be attributed to the first one of these operations. It shoud be pointed out that the season was very favor- able for mildew, and this is substantiated by the severe in- fection of the unsprayed fruits. Tomato Blight. During the present season it was deemed advisable to re- strict the experimental work on this disease to Pullman, since the profitable continuation of the study involves the estab- lishment of a number of fundamental facts. Since the publi- cation of Bulletin 115 some doubt has been cast on the valid- ity of the conclusion that the blight is caused by Fusarium. The experimental work in progress has been planned to give some definite facts which will settle the following with reasonable certainty: 1. Is Fusarrium orthoceas related to the tomato blight as the casual agent 2. Is there any relation between Rhizoctonia infected soils and the Western Blight? The answers to the two questions is fundamental and the nature of further work must hinge upon the results obtained. If the conclusions of the season’s experiments point to the causal relation of Fusarium or any other parasite to the disease the further work on the prevention or control of the disease must be along the following lines: 1. Selection and breeding of disease resistant varieties. 2. Testing the effect of cultural practices. Wheat Smut. One of the largest agricultural problems confronting the Experiment Station at the present time is the control of stinking smut of wheat, probably one the of the most ser- ious plant diseases of the Pacific Northwest. In September, 1914, a bulletin (Popular Bulletin No. 73) was published set- ting forth the results of investigations to date in regard to the smut question. The investigations were conducted in three separate lines: first, variety testing for resistance to smut; second, methods of seed treatment, and third, soil treatment. Results of the year’s variety tests with reference to smut resistance, as published in the above mentioned bulle- 24 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT tin, would indicate that Hybrids 143 and 128, club wheats, were much more resistant than Forty Fold and Red Russian. However, results obtained the following season, that is, dur- ing the fiscal year lyl6-16, throw considerable doubt upon this point and indicate that the club wheats are perhaps more susceptible than others. On the whole, it would seem that considerable variation in a given variety with reference to smut resistance must exist from year to year. It is prob- ably not safe to draw general conclusions in regard to the re- sistance of the various wheats to smut from the data at hand. Considerable popular prejudice exists in some quarters against the club wheats on account of the fact that it is thought that they are more susceptible to smut. The fact, however, that these same club wheats usually will consider- ably outyield the other varieties and thus more than offset any increased susceptibility which may exist might still make it advisable to grow them in preference to the other wheats. With reference to seed treatment, little can be added to results given in last year’s report: namely, that a treatment of seed for ten minutes with a solution of one pound of cop- per sulfate plus one pound of sodium chloride to five gallons of water has proved the most feasible form of treatment. The use of formaldehyde, one pound to forty gallons of water, for not less than thirty minutes is equally efficient, but the method is not so satisfactory for Washington conditions as the copper sulfate method. The fact that effective seed treatment does not entirely solve the smut problem in Eastern Washington renders the whole question more complex and difficult than in some other portions of the world. That smut in the form of smut balls can remain in the soil from year to year and retain its vitality, thus infecting plants whose seed have been previously treat- ed, makes the problem much more complex. This is further aggravated by the fact that during the threshing season enormous numbers of smut spores are scattered over the sur- face of all fields. With the arrival of the fall rains and the proper temperature these spores, of course, germinate. If wheat is sprouting at the same time, the result is a large measure of infection. Experiments are being conducted to determine the dura- tion of soil infection when crushed smut balls are placed in the soil at plow depth; also when whole smutted heads are so treated. Tests are also being conducted upon various tillage practices; as the effect of rolling the soil after planting with different weights to a given area of soil and the effect of dif- WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 26 ferent methods of tillage and summer fallow following a smutted crop. Experiments are being conducted to deter- mine the effect of varying percentages of soil moisture upon smut infection, and the duration of smut infection in the soil to which crushed smut balls have been added. Tests on the effect of the time of planting on the per cent of smut and the determination of the age of the seedlings at which smut infection cannot take place, and the portion of the seedling wmch IS most susceptible to smut infection are being con- ducted. During the previous fiscal year considerable work was done upon the relation of separator injury of seed to siiiut infection. This work is being followed the present year and tests to determine the comparative resistance of differ- ent varieties to threshing injury and the relation of this to smut infection are also being conducted. Anatomical and cytological studies are being carried on to determine more definitely the relation of the smut fungus to the host plant, especially from the standpoint of partial in- fection, which is not always visible by the production of smut balls. It has been found not only that large numbers of heads will be only partially smutted, but very frequently a single grain will be partialy smutted; that is, contain a small area of one-fourth to one-half the kernel occupied by smut spores. Dr. Sophia Eckerson, working upon the Progressive De- velopment of the Wheat Kernel from the cytological stand- point, incidentally discovered that wheat grains may be par- tially infected to a very small extent, containing but a half dozen spores. It is impossible, of course, to recognize any difference between wheat thus infected and normal wheat. Treatment of this kind of seed with fungicides would, of course, be ineffective; and the fact that wheat may frequent- ly be partially smutted in this way greatly increases the com- plexity of the smut problem as a whole. Metabolism of the Tubercle Bacterium. A study is being made of the metabolism of the bovine tubercle bacterium. Quick methods of isolation of the organ- ism have been devised and a synthetic medium has been made which promises to be of value in the work. The work upon the project has continued but a short time. Physiological Effect of Sprays. Work has continued upon this project both in field and greenhouse. A study is being made of the effect of various spray materials upon the transpiration, photosynthesis, res- 26 ' TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT piration and accumulation of food material in the plant tis- sues. A considerable amount of data has been accumulated and the project is being continued. Soil Physiology. Work upon this project dealing with the physiological activities of various micro-organisms in the soil and their ef- fect upon the soil and its fertility was conducted during the first portion of the year, but it was necessarily suspended during the latter part of the year owing to the resignation of Mr. Lindvall, who was conducting the work. DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY. In addition to the work upon six regularly organized pro- jects, the Division of Chemistry did a large amount of mis- cellaneous analytical work of soils, paints, sprays, foods, oils, etc. The new horticultural law, requiring the chemist of the Experiment Station to pass upon the composition of insecti- cides and fungicides, has increased materially the work of the Station in this line and will necessitate increased appropria- tions for the maintenance of the work. Cooperative Work With the Association of Official Agricul- tural Chemists. Following the policy inaugurated by the chemists of the several Experiment Stations in the United States, this Divis- ion has, under Project C4, cooperated with the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists along some useful line of re- search such as standardization of analytical methods. One of the lines of research that was followed is the estimation of mono, di, and tri calcium phosphates in the presence of each other. The results of the research work in connection with the estimation of the above described forms of phosphates have ben discussed and published as General Bulletin 116 of this Station. Recently the Division also did cooperative work for the Association on methods for the quantitative estimation of ar- senic tri and pentoxides. Sulphur as Plant Food. While there are various important lines for research on the sulphur project it has been found necessary to limit the investigational work to a study of the importance of sulphur as plant food. According to the present plans this problem is being pursued in two directions. In one series the investi- WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 27 gational work is with the local soil and in the other series with cultural material in pure quartz. The soil is divided into two lots, in one of which the sulphur content is being maintained and in the other the sulphur is gradually being removed with the harvest of each crop. The flowers of sul- phur added to the one lot of soils will not only determine the importance of sulphur as plant food material, but will also de- termine whether or not flowers of sulphur will act as a sub- stitute for the existing sulphur compounds in the soil util- ized by the plants. Later it is intended to determine wheth- er or not sulphur must be oxidized before it can be utilized by the plants. One lot of the quartz series is entirely free from sulphur while the other lot contains a definite amount of sulphur in combination with the other plant food constituents which are considered necessary to plant growth. Wheat, oats, barley and some legume such as Canadian field peas, vetch or soy beans have been grown in both the soil and quartz series with the object of determining the sul- phur needs of above types of crops. The total sulphur found in the local soil was 0.038%, while the sulphur treated soil showed 0.0413%. If the plants continued to draw upon the sulphur content to the extent found in the percentage composition of the plants, the supply of sulphur will be exhausted very rapidly. Taking the oat plants grown in one pot as an example it is found that they remove 0.2548 grams of sulphur from the soil of the pot. Computation shows the soil upon which they grew contained 3.1979 grams of sulphur. According to these results it would require only 12.55 such crops to completely remove the sul- phur contained in the soil. Liming Alfalfa. No work in connection with this project has been under- taken during the past two years. Reports from different parts of Oregon as well as in this state show large profitable yields from the use of gypsum, especially on land seeded to al- falfa. The plans as outlined in this project will furnish in- formation as to the value of sulphur compounds in connection with field trials on various kinds of crops. It is hoped that it may be possible to secure land for the continuation of this work. Analyses of Insecticides, Etc. The insecticide project was limited to the analyses of such samples of insecticides as time would permit. ERRATA,— Thru a printer s accident a transposition of LINES OCCURRED ON PAGE 27 OF A PORTION OF THE EDITION OF BuL. 127, Washington Exp. Sta. ■ -? i WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 27 Rational work is with the local soil and in the other series with cultural material in pure quartz. The soil is divided into two lots, in one of which the sulphur content is being- maintained and in the other the sulphur is gradually being removed with the harvest of each crop. The flowers of sul- phur added to the one lot of soils will not only determine the importance of sulphur as plant food material, but will also de- termine whether or not flowers of sulphur will act as a sub- stitute for the existing sulphur compounds in the soil util- ized by the plants. Later it is intended to determine wheth- er or not sulphur must be oxidized before it can be utilized by the plants. One lot of the quartz series is entirely free from sulphur while the other lot contains a definite amount of sulphur in combination with the other plant food constituents which are considered necessary to plant growth. Wheat, oats, barley and some legume such as Canadian field peas, vetch or soy beans have been grown in both the soil and quartz series with the object of determining the sul- falfa. The plans as outlined in this project will furnish in- formation as to the value of sulphur compounds in connection with field trials on various kinds of crops. It is hoped that it may be possible to secure land for the continuation of this work. Analyses of Insecticides, Etc. The insecticide project was limited to the analyses of such samples of insecticides as time would permit, phur needs of above types of crops. The total sulphur found in the local soil was 0.088%, while the sulphur treated soil showed 0.0413%. If the plants continued to draw upon the sulphur content to the extent found in the percentage composition of the plants, the supply of sulphur will be exhausted very rapidly. Taking the oat plants grown in one pot as an example it is found that they remove 0.2548 grams of sulphur from the soil of the pot. Computation shows the soil upon which they grew contained 3.1979 grams of sulphur. According to these results it would require only 12.55 such crops to completely remove the sul- phur contained in the soil. Liming Alfalfa. No work in connection with this project has been under- taken during the past two years. Reports from different parts of Oregon as well as in this state show large profitable yields from the use of gypsum, especially on land seeded to al- 28 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT The Progressive Development of the Wheat Kernel. This project is a cytological-chemical problem upon the development of the wheat kernel and is conducted cooper- atively between the Divisions of Chemistry and Botany. It has been under investigation for several years, the work done being chiefly of a macro-chemical nature, carried on by the Division of Chemistry. During the year work was con- tinued in the Chemistry Division, especially upon enzymes involved and their possible relation to gluten formation. Dur- ing the latter part of the fiscal year in question. Dr. Sophia Eckerson of the Department of Botany, University of Chi- ago, was secured to carry on the necessary micro-chemical work upon the problem. Dr. G. H. Jensen of the collegiate department of Botany assisted in the work in a study of the development of the wheat kernel from a morphological stand- point. The two lines of investigation were under way at the close of the fiscal year and will be completed early in the suc- ceeding year and results published. The Relation of Composition of Wheat to Soil Types. The project is limited this year to a control study of soils from the northern and southern slopes compared to the soil found on the hilltop. In the field experiments the three types of soil are placed along side of each other in plots three feet square and two feet deep in the plots. This plan permits of a study of the soils under the same conditions of exposure, sunlight, temperature and wind and any variation in composition, noticed under this condition must be attrib- uted to a variation directly influenced by the soil itself. The chemical composition (A. 0. A. C.) of the soils under study in this project are as follows: Chemical Composition of Soils in This Project. Hilltop Southern slope Northern slope Insoluble silica 78.26<7r 77.74<^ 76.76<^ Potash (K 2 O) .35 .36 .174 Calcium (CaO) .48 .67 .70 Ferric and aluminic oxide 1.15 1.11 1.04 Phosphorus pentoxide (^ 2 ^ 6 ^ .22 .17 .243 Volatile and organic matter 8.30 9.80 10.77 Nitrogen .126 .185 .232 WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 29 Mr. Henry Holtz of the Soils Division made the moisture and nitrate determinations of the soils used in this work on May 31, 1915. Moisture and Nitrate Content of Soils Used in This Project. Hilltop Southern slope Northern slope Moisture, first foot ; 25.16<^ 23.46% 29.70% Moisture, second foot 24 .68% 26.91% 32.10% X'O^, parts pel' million, first foot ; 30.9 50.5 127.0 NOg, parts per million, second ft. 83.7 136.0 162.8 In addition to the field experiments, pot culture method under greenhouse conditions with the above described soils, is also under study. The Baking Qualities of Flour. Additional experimental work on the water soluble com- ponents compared to the insoluble ones, such as gluten, con- firms the earlier investigational work that the water soluble ingredients play a far more important role than gluten does in panary fermentation, volume and texture of loaf. The loaves made from flour without the water soluble materials but with gluten in combination with starch result in com- pact, solid masses; while flour without the gluten but containing the water soluble ingredients, results in loaves of considerable size and open in texture. Influence of Cultivation on Nitrogen Content of Wheat. From approximately 800 samples of wheat grown at Grandview, Ritzville and Pullman some 2,000 nitrogen de- terminations were made. In the Pullman studies the results show increases in the nursery selections amounting to ap- proximately 33% more nitrogen than was found in the sam- ples taken from the check plots. The Grandview selections showed approximately as much nitrogen in samples collect- ed from the plots receiving 20 inches of water as was found in the samples collected from the plots where lesser quanti- ties of water had been applied. The results for 1914 show that winter wheat can be made to yield as high a nitrogen content as is found in spring grown crops. The percent of nitrogen in the Ritzville wheat compared to the Pullman grown wheat was higher. The more irregular growth and the poorer stand of some of the varieties grown at Ritzville compared with the better growth and the better 30 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT stand at Pullman is undoubtedly a factor for the nitrogen difference observed at the places mentioned. DRY LAND DIVISION. The work of this department is being organized with the view to the solution of the problems obtaining in the drier portions of the state where the annual rainfall is from seven to fourteen inches, the area comprised being chiefly the valley of the upper Columbia. The following lines of investigation have been planned: 1. Cereals — Varieties of wheat, rye, oats, barley, emmer, speltz, and other cereals; date, rate, and depth of seeding; spring cultivation of grain crops; breeding of cereals; and in- vestigations upon cereal diseases, especially smut. 2. Forage crops — Field trials of dry land alfalfa, wheat, clover, sorghums, millet, peas, vetches, rye, etc., which may be suitable for the dry belt; also breeding investigations upon these crops; methods and management of forage crops for pasture and for the production of silage. 3. Investigations in crop rotation. 4. Investigations in tillage. 5. Permanent fertility investigations. 6. Investigations in livestock feeding and management for the dry districts. 7. Farm management investigations, dealing with the proper organization of the various farm enterprises suitable for dry land farming. 8. Home betterment problems, dealing chiefly with orchard, garden and tree planting for improvement of liv- ing conditions of the home, as well as the improvement in farm buildings and sanitation. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY. In addition to a large amount of miscellaneous work in the control of agricultural insect pests this Division has, dur- ing the year, conducted work in five regularly organized pro- jects, one of which, namely, the work on the Columbian ground squirrel, has been completed. Increased difficulties with the codling moth in the fruit districts of the state have made it necessary for the Division to renew investigations along this line for the purpose of determining the values of varying applications of spray in order to get a measure if possible of the added benefit to be secured by more than the calyx application. The work was started during the spring of the fiscal year in question and therefore results are not yet WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 31 available. The work will be continued during the succeeding year. Progressive Immunity of Insects to Insecticides. Identical solutions were again sprayed this spring in or- chards at Clarkston, Walla Walla, Sunnyside, North Yakima and Wenatchee. Material sprayed included various forms of calcium polysulphide, sodium polysulphide,' several oil emul- sions, as well as the individual ingredients comprising the polysulphide sprays. The last group of sprays was tried to test the insecticidal value of the separate components. Following the spraying, tri-weekly counts were made of the scale insects to record the rate of death for the various solutions at the different places. In all upwards of 170,000 were individually dissected and their condition recorded. This project occupied practically the entire time of the entomologist and assistant during the spring months. A report on the conclusions for this year has been published in the Journal of Economic Ento- mology, Vol. 8, pp. 475-480, (Oct. 1915). The investigations have shown again that differences in viability are not due so much to the strength of the spray employed as to the local- ity where the spraying is done. Particularly in this year’s test weather conditions were favorable and uniform so that the immense fluctuating differences cannot be ascribed to climate; neither can they be ascribed to the conditions of the trees, to the water used in diluting these sprays, to the com- parative thoroughness of application, nor to apparently any combination of extrinsic factors. Apparently there are in- herent biological differences in the insects at the various lo- calities. Without question the San Jose scale has become so increasingly prevalent at Clarkston that an entire change in the spraying program must be immediately undertaken. On the other hand, the regulation spraying with sulphur lime at Wenatchee has so completely checked this insect that speci- mens for experimentation were hard to secure. It is of in- terest to note that within the limits of experimental error the sodium polysulphides have given similar results to cah cium polysulphides when used at similar concentrations. How- ever, at present prices this means that the cost of spraying with sodium polysulphide is unnecessarily great, amounting in fact to about twice the cost of using the calcium spray. In this series of tests comparing Wenatchee with Clark- ston, the scales at the former place averaged about 50% alive three weeks after the application. Three weeks later they averaged 2% alive irrespective of what strength of polysul- 32 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT phide spray was used. At the same time the standard oil emulsion had completely annihilated the scales at the first count. At Clarkston the scales averaged 80% alive three weeks after the spraying; 50% six weeks after; and still in the neighborhood of 50% as late as May 10th which was ten weeks after the application. Again the oil sprays effect prac- tical extermination of the scales by the end of three weeks. It may be noted that this year a small percentage of the scales survived even the oil bath although not nearly so many as were alive in the case of the sulphur sprays. There is certainly a much greater difference in effect produced by a single spray used at Wenatchee and Clarkston than there is between the effect of an excessively strong spray as compared with an excessively weak spray used at either place alone. Colorado Potato Beetle. This project is designed to study any changes which may manifest themselves in the life history of this insect as a re- sult in change of environment and methods of control of the insect in the Northwest. The beetle has now become acclim- ated to conditions in Eastern Washington and is proving to be as destructive here as elsewhere. It can easily be kept m check, however, by the use of sprays of Paris green, arsenate of lead or arsenite of zinc. Endoparasitism. Work has been conducted in the study of the endopara- sites of cabbage aphis and other insects. The cabbage aphis ( Aphis brassicae) is commonly para- sitized by Aphidius piceus and Xystus brassicae and possibly by Pachyneuron micans and Asaphes rufipes, although the two latter are perhaps hyperparasites. The effects of these two hymenopterous parasites appear identical. The period of incubation of the eggs of the parasite lasts but a few hours, or a day oi: two at most, and the larva developes rapidly, reaching maturity in about twenty days. No apparent effects are prouced upon the host by the presence of the egg, neith- er is there any effect noticed upon the host’s tissues by the presence of the larva until it is about six or seven days old. At about this time the first effects of parasitism appear. The “Secundare Dotter” material begins to show the first signs of degeneration, which is characterized by general disintegra- tion and evacuation. About this time the blood begins to disappear, and there is a noticeable evacuation of the adipose tissues. This degeneration of the “Secundare Dotter” cells, the disappearance of the blood and the breaking of the fat WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 83 cells continue until the parasite reaches an advanced stage when it begins to move about, destroying the remainder of these degenerating tissues and the vital organs as well. The host does not seem to be killed by any of the degenerating processes, but rather by the rapid and complete destruction of its vital organs. The construction of an insectary which will be available for use during the coming fiscal year will greatly facilitate the work upon this and other entomological projects. insects Affecting Human Health. Progress has been made upon this project, especially in connection with the study of flies. Taxonomic monographs of the North American species of Scatopsidae, Sepsidae and Piohilidae, flies which in part breed in human excrement, have been prepared and will be published soon. Root Maggots. The root maggot has proved to be one of our most seri- ous pests, seriously interfering with the growing of agri- cultural crops belonging to the botanical family, Cruciferae, and also the onion. During the months of April, May and June, Mr. Yothers was stationed at the Western Washington Experiment Station for work upon this problem. Definite positive results were not secured, the problem proving an un- usually difficult one. A large number of experiments were conducted on the control of root maggots on cabbage, cauli- flower, onions, radishes, turnips, marrow cabbage and rape. As a result of these tests the following general conclusions have been reached: 1. Hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost annually in Washington through the ravages of this pest. 2. The commercial market gardeners are subjected each year to the same severe loss, but the secret of their compara- tively smaller loss is at least partly explained by the follow- ing conditions: Intensive cultivation of the soil early in the spring before the seed is planted destroys many of the hiber- nating pupae. Large tracts of fields and beds tend to reduce the number of flies coming in from the outside. The method of growing radishes very rapidly tends to reduce the possi- bility of maggot infestation. 3. We do not know how to control the root maggot. 4. The results of our experiments are, for the most part, negative in character and do not indicate that one kind of treatment is much more effective than any other. 34 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT 5. The best methods yet devised for the protection of cabbage, kale, marrow cabbage and rape are as follows: First. In Western Washington these plants can be start- ed in the fall either in the seed bed or in the field and in either case allowed to remain over winter, being transplanted to the field in February or March. This will give them such a start that they will be almost immune from the maggot at- tack by the time the maggots become destructive, about the last of April. In the case of cabbage this method will give marketable heads by the last of May. Second. The plants above mentioned and in addition, cauliflower, can best be protected by placing tarred paper discs abut the stem close to the ground just as soon as they are set out. These discs are cheap and easy to make, apply and adjust, and the results are very satisfactory. Third. Later planting of such plants gives much more freedom from maggot infestation than early planting, al- though the practice will to a large extent tend to reduce the producer’s profits. Any of the mentioned plants if trans- planted after the middle of May will be comparatively little affected by the maggots. 6. Although many of the generally recommended ovi- cides, larvicides, preventatives, fertilizers, and poison bait treatments were tried on a large scale and with many dupli- cations, but few positive or even promising results were ob- tained. 7. In so far as radishes and turnips are concerned none of the many generally recommended, and some original treat- ments, gave any satisfactory results. Even where radishes were treated according to our own recommendations, there was found 90 to 95% maggot infestation, the same as in the check plots. 8. Radishes for home use should be grown in screened beds. 9. Napthalene flakes are unsuitable because ineffective as a repellant, volatile, expensive and injurious to the plants. 10. The “Stinkum"’ as used by Mr. E. B. Stookey in his experiments last year and which seemed promising cannot be used on account of its injury to the plants. 11. Carbolic acid emulsion (3%) as generally recom- mended cannot be used with safety on onions. 12. Soluble sulphur because seriously destructive to onions cannot be used as a powder. 13. The root maggots are found in groups or patches in a field and may be abundant in all sorts of treatments in one WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 35 place while they may be entirely absent in the same treat- ments somewhere else. 14. Cabbage, kale, cauliflower and onions if planted in clay soil were practically free from infestation. 15. The most promising method of controlling the root maggot in general is by the use of the poison-bait spray for the adult flies. Columbian Ground Squirrel. Work upon this project has been completed and the re- sults should be ready for publication soon. The objects for investigation were such problems as might throw light on a weakness in the life cycle, and the knowledge gained thereby used towards the squirrels’ ex- termination. The questions for investigation were intimately connected with the animal’s life, as follows: 1. Activities— daily and seasonal. 2. Estivation and hibernation. 3. Breeding habits. 4. Gestation period. 5. Number of litters per year. 6. Food habits — kind and amounts consumed at differ- ent seasons and during a given period. 7. Natural enemies. This work was carried on both in the field and in a series of yards and cabins especially constructed and maintained for that purpose. These yards were enclosures made about old wild squirrel dens, thereby producing almost natural condi- tions for carrying on observations. Two cabins were con- structed, one designed for taking observations on squirrels during the breeding season and the other for similar study at the time of hibernation. As a result of a study of the behavior of the animal, it was found that the daily activities showed the decided diurnal condition, with a marked preference for sunlight and warmth and a corresponding antipathy for cold, damp weath- er. In regard to seasonal activities, it was shown, during five years observations, that there was a considerable regularity, but a slight variation was noticed in regard to the going into estivation, due to the condition of the food plants as affected by a wet or dry season. The studies in regard to estivation and hibernation were carried on both in the wild and in the hibernation cellars. A great amount of time and effort was spent in gaining the facts of wild hibernation, which findings were abundantly FIG. V. Columbian Ground Squirrels at time of birth. FIG. VI. The same squirrels after 29 days of development. WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 37 supported by the observations made in the yards. Among other things learned was the duration of these periods, with the causes of early estivation, and the amount and the con- dition of the nutrition necessary to sustain the life of the animal during this period. Careful measurements and data were taken of the hibernation den. It was learned through field and yard observations, that breeding commenced very early after appearance from hiber- nation, and that the young were born and retained in the brood nests until partially grown and active, though the time thus consumed was remarkably short. In the study of this phase of the life history much information was secured relative to the dens inhabited by the animals during the breeding season and through the subsequent summer. The yards offered excellent opportunity for the study of the de- velopment of the young, making possible the securing of weights, photographs and color notations. The only certain means of ascertaining the gestation per- iod was by having the animals under absolute control. This information was obtained in the yards, where squirrels, brand- ed and of known sex, were allowed to breed, subsequent data giving this period as about twenty-four days. It has been pretty generally believed by persons who have casually observed the squirrels, that they breed more than once in the year, some going so far as to say that the young females of the first brood breed during the season of their birth. The data secured by this investigation showed beyond doubt that there was but one brood per year, and that for this locality the litter appeared above the surface about the first to the tenth of May. The work of previous investigators was substantiated in regard to the matter of food, the animal here as elsewhere showing a preference for growing vegetation. They were found to be carnivorous and cannibalistic. Their endeavor to secure the necessary amount of food from growing grains and alfalfa causes great damage, and failure to find food owing to the midsummer drought sends them into estivation, for this species does not drink water normally. They of necessity are abundant feeders — a female under observation consumed 33 % of her weight in one day. These squirrels have shown a desire for flesh, other than that noticed above, for the remains of mice, pocket gophers and birds are often observed at the entrance of their bur- rows. In turn the squirrel dens are the the object of investi- gation by badgers, which animals are perhaps its most persist- 38 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT ent enemy. Not only is the work of the badger noticed during the summer season, but far into the winter as well, at such a time as the squirrels are in a helpless state of inactivity. In regard to control, the fact has impressed itself upon the mind of the investigator more and more as the observations were made, that the one vital time to strike is at the time of coming from hibernation. Whatever means may be employed, if carried on persistently and thoroughly at this season will surely be accompanied by the most satisfactory resuiis DIVISION OF HORTICULTURE. Ornamental Shrubs and Vines. Shade and Ornamental Trees. These two projects have been continued as matters of record. Material of interest and value has been developed on the grounds of the College and the record of this is a valuable contribution to the knowledge of the trees and plants adapt- ed to this locality. Information along this same line is ob- tained in various ways from the different parts of the state and has been made available for the state at large. Orchard Pollination. The work on this project was continued during the year and the results are ready for publication. The results of the work indicate a large degree' of self sterility. However, va- rieties are so well distributed in the different localities that the normal agents of pollination carry out their work to a satisfactory degree. Trouble in the setting of cherry fruit will make it necessary to continue pollination studies with this fruit. Raspberry Hybrids. The project deals with fundamental problems in genetics and will require several years to obtain data sufficient for generalizations. Progress is being made in the work. Winter Desiccation of Fruit Trees. Progress has been made in the investigation of this prob- lem. The season’s work was largely confined to the treat- ment of soils with alkali and in making alkali tests of soils in which rosette appeared on trees. This trouble as it first mani- fested itself in the spring of this year seemed to be to a con- siderable extent independent of excessive alkali soil. However, no sample has been found in which the soil was not distinctly alkaline. An effort was made to learn something of the area WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 39 in which this trouble exists, and all of the information avail- able indicates that it exists only in areas in which the humus content of the soil is very low. Our previous tests indicate that humus content direct, however, is not a controlling fac- tor. This year the alkali treatment of soil is being continued with further study upon soil composition. A large number of grafts were set in which affected wood was set in vigorous, rapid-growing trees. The growth of the new twigs from these grafts is in every case normal. No ro- sette appears on a single twig in the entire lot. A large num- ber of whip grafts were made during the winter, but very few of them made any start. The few that did, show no di- rect evidence of rosette or winter desiccation. Soil Moisture and Keeping Quality of Apples. The work done on this proiect was continued with fruit grown in the Yakima valley. Valuable data were obtained. The results indicate that excessive watering is a harmful factor in developing apples with good keeping quality. This one factor, however, is evidently correlated with several oth- ers and up to date the work has been done under such con- ditions that it is not possible to obtain desirable data settling the question raised in this respect. The results indicate that excessive thinning and the size of the fruit developed is prob- ably as great a factor as the soil moisture supply direct upon keeping qualities. The temperature through which the fruit rnatures is a closely related factor. The kind of soil and the kind of cron fintercron or cover crop) growing on the soil are also modifving factors, but no effort will be made to seg- regate these factors until the work on the original question has progressed to a more satisfactory degree. Apples kept in cold storap^e have shown greater fluctuation in storage quality according to size than any other factor directly re- corded in this experiment. Orchard Cover Crops. Examination this year showed that in early spring the roots of the rye crop had reached the extreme depth of 107 to 109 inches. The work of the year indicates that the cereal crops such as wheat and rye have a greater value as orchard coyer crops than has been accorded to them in the past. Suf- ficient data have not been developed to justify conclusions. Renovation of Prune Orchards in Clarke County. The work of this project is proceeding along the line that was laid down in the twenty-fourth annual report. The work O 4J ^ 'H H C" o r, oj h-i a ^ > o ^ ^ t . O h£ O WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 41 promises to develop knowledge that will be of great value to the prune growers in certain sections of Clarke county, ine growth of the trees on certain fertilized plots this spring seemed to indicate that the nitrogen fertilizers are the ones most definitely needed in the light soils of that district. Variety Tests of Vegetables. In the spring of 1914 work was commenced upon variety testing of potatoes and is being conducted with the utmost thoroughness for the purpose of carefully classifying and de- veloping satisfactory descriptive notes of the different va- rieties in order to make descriptions thorough enough to be of value in identifying certain types; also for ascertaining the varieties most adaptable to this state and the degree to which they are acceptable in the market. There are many names applied to groups or classes of varieties which cannot be dis- tinguished and there are several misleading synonyms being used by the trade. Control of Pear Blight. Work on this project was done during July and part of August. Careful root pruning and thorough, deep plowing, and the planting of cover crops around the trees after the blight was well established seemed to have very little effect in checking the growth of the tree sufficiently to check or stop the spreading of blight. Top pruning, however, seemed to definitely continue the succulent character of growth and make possible the rapid spread of the disease. No blight was found in an active, developing state on any twig or branch which had been checked in grov/th sufficiently to form a terminal bud, and where blighted areas were discovered they seemed to stop their spread as soon as the trees ripened to a sufficient extent to form a terminal bud. This project has been discontinued. DIVISION OF IRRIGATION ENGINEERING. No regular projects of an investigational nature have been conducted in the Division during the year. However, Professor Waller has given valuable assistance to farmers in the organization and plans for irrigation and drainage work in various parts of the state. The Station is sorely in need of funds for properly equipping for this line of work. 42 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT DIVISION OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. The Division has three projects under investigation: Pernicious Anemia in Horses. Because of the scarcity of diseased animals, practically nothing has been done during the past year in the investiga- tion of equine pernicious anemia. Red Water (Hematuria) in Cattle. During the previous year, the experiment was tried of sending free medicine to owners of red-water cows. The prac- tice was continued during the fiscal year 1914-15, medicine and directions for treatment being sent to all who had made application for the same. Up to the present time 37 cases of red water have been treated in this manner. 25 cases were treated by the adminis- tration of 8 grams of salol twice daily over a period of 30 days, the other 12 cases were given a combination of 8 grams of formin and 12 grams of benzoic acid twice daily over a period of 30 days. Careful examination of the records of all these cases re- veals the fact that not one case has permanently recovered from the disease. Some of the owners thought that the treatment gave temporary relief while others are of the opin- ion that it was of no benefit whatever. In view of the fact that the results thus obtained are rather unsatisfactory, the work along this line will probably be discontinued. A new project, dealing with an animal disease more or less unknown to science, has been formulated and work com- menced upon the same. The disease in question is one which affects horses, cattle, hogs, sheep, goats, dogs, chickens, and possibly deer and human beings, and apparently is endemic to the eastern slope of the Cascade mountains, primarily in the counties of Okanogan. Chelan, Kittitas, Yakima and Benton. The disease manifests itself more particularly in the young, resulting in large numbers being born weak or de- fective in various wavs, some (pigs) devoid of hair, others (colts) are weak and unable to stand, others (calves and goats) with enlarged thyroid glands (big neck). (See Figs. TX., X. and XL). Most of these defective young die within a very few hours or a few days after birth. The disease has been known more or less for a number of years but seemingly has become more troublesome during the last year or two. Possibly it is more noticeable because of FIG. XL Still born “big neck” calf. 44 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT the larger amount of live stock grown in the district. It is reported to have been known by the Indians for upwards of a century. The cause of the disease is unknown and no remedy has been found which would in any definite manner ameliorate conditions with reference to the disease. During June of this year, Dr. Kalkus, Veterinarian of the Experiment Station, in company wih Dr. Carl TenBroek of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in Animal Dis- eases, spent several weeks in the district studying the distri- bution and amount of the trouble, making a careful re- port upon the same. This report is on file in the office of the Director and in the archives of the Rockefeller Institute. The Station is indebted to the Rockefeller Insti- tute for Medical Research, and especially to Director Theo- bold Smith, for assistance in making this preliminary investi- gation. As a result of the investigation in question, arrangements have been made for actively prosecuting careful and detailed investigations upon the disease with a view to, first, ascer- taining its cause, and second, remedying the same. SPECIAL. Separator Fires. Early in July of the fiscal year 1914-15 there occurred in Eastern Washington, Northern Idaho and Eastern Oregon a large number of fires in threshing separators. These fires started always inside the separator with a suddenness that caused them to be frequently characterized as explosions. A great variety of explanations were offered as to the cause of the fires, the most popular of which seemed to be incendiar- ism. The fires increased in severity and number for the first two or three weeks of the threshing season, being the most abundant in Whitman county and adjacent territory. It is very probable that during the season over three hundred threshing separators we^e thus destroyed. The season was an unusually dry one, therefore a fire once started usually was not controlled until the entire separator and often much of the surrounding grain and straw was destroyed. At the outbreak of the trouble six members of the Ex- periment Station staff were detailed to investigate the trouble. Competent detectives were employed to investigate the theory of incendiarism. However, no evidence whatso- ever could be obtained that the fires were in any way of an incendiary character. Approximately three weeks of invest!- FIG. XII. A threshing outfit on fire from smut explosion. Probably 20 to 25'7( smut in the wheat. 46 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT o-atlon revealed the fact that the fires were due to a combin- ation of unusually dry conditions resulting in a large amount of organic dust and an unusual amount of static electricity generated by the moving machinery, together with the large amount of smut prevalent during the season, the smut prob- ably being the chief factor in the difficulty. It was found that unusually large electric sparks could be drawn from al- most any portion of the moving machine. These served to ig- nite the mixtures of smut, dust and air within the separator with the resulting conflagrations. A summary of the investi- gations with suggestions for remedying the trouble has been published in General Bulletin No. 117. COOPERATIVE WORK. The Experiment Station, during the year, has conducted the usual amount of cooperative work and in some cases con- siderably increased the amount over previous years. Probably the most important cooperating agency during the year has been the Bureau of Farm Development. As the result of resident agriculturists in each of ten counties of the state during the year it has been possible to place the re- sults of the Experiment Station investigations directly in the hands of the farmers and in such a way that they can be most economically put into practice. The County Agricultur- ist is intimately associated with the agricultural problems of his county. He reacts in a way upon the Experiment Sta- tion, bringing the Experiment Station closely in touch with the problems upon which investigation is needed in the state. This relationship, in a state with as great diversity as has the State of Washington, where there are scarcely any two coun- ties with similar agricultural problems, is of enormous ad- vantage to the Station, and the close relationship of these two state departments will do much toward the solution of the ag- ricultural problems of the state. This is especially true of the dry land districts. The Station has just established a branch station at Lind and a sub-branch at Waterville for the purpose of conducting dry land investigations and experiments. The sphere of ac- tivity of this Station is largely the upper Columbia River val- ley, esi)ecially the region known as the Big Bend disrict. Six of the counties in this dry belt are provided with resident agriculturists in the Bureau of Farm Development. They are working in the closest cooperation with those in charge of the dry land station and thus place at the disposal of the agri- WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 47 cultural interests of the state a most efficient working force for agriculural betterment. The various divisions of the Experiment Station have conducted cooperative work with something over 1300 farm- ers during the year. The State Department of Agriculture has been a valuable cooperator from a number of standpoints, especially in horti- cultural lines, the local horticultural inspectors giving assist- ance in spraying experiments and demonstrations and in the dissemination of agricultural information from the Station. Between the Station and the State Department the utmost harmony prevails in an effort to better the general agricul- tural conditions of the state. The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research has coop- erated in the investigation of animal diseases. The cooperation with the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture with the purpose of determining the effect of varying conditions of climate and soil upon the chemical condition of wheat has been continued. The Bureau of Plant Industry has also cooperated to the extent of $300 per year on the salary of a pathologist in smut investigations. The Station has contributed greatly to the agricultural interests of the state by the introduction of new and improv- ed varieties of plants through the cooperation of the Office of P’oreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The various departments of the College have also coop- erated in an efficient manner with the work of the Station. Especial mention should be made of the work of the Depart- ment of Botany in this connection, which carried on investi- gations on range plants and range problems, results of which are published in General Bulletin No. 122. During the latter half of the year, Dr. G. H. Jensen, Assistant Professor of Plant Physiology in the Department of Botany, rendered val- uable assistance in investip*ations in connection with the pro- gressive development of the wheat kernel, results of which will shortly be published. The Department of Botany has al- so rendered valuable assistance in the testing of seeds used in the various lines of agricultural work, and in the identifica- tion of seeds, weeds and other plants. The Department of Forestry has cooperated in a very val- uable manner in tree planting work carried on in the dry belt. 48 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION. Efforts Piave been made during the year to render the work of the Experiment Station as practical as possible by ef- fectively disseminating information in its possession in such a way as will be of use to the citizens of the state. There have been published by the Station, during the year, twenty- one popular, forty-nine press and nine technical bulletins, aggregating 423 pages. Members of the Station staff have written over 31,000 personal letters in reply to inquiries, chiefly of an agricultural nature. Many of these letters have been of considerable length and have gone into great detail to explain various ag- ricultural practices to the farmers. One of the most efficient aids in the dissemination of the work of the Station has been the press of the state. During the year there have been issued 49 press bulletins upon the following topics: 106 — Apple Pollination in the Spokane Valley. 107 — Prevent Winter Injury to Fruit Trees. 108 — Preparing Fruit Exhibits. 109 — Pear Blight. 110 — The Woolly Aphid of the Apple. 111 — Don’t Summer Prune Raspberries. 112 — Lemons for Grasshoppers. 113 — Smut. 114 — Selecting and Storing Seed Corn. 115 — Fall Plowing. 116 — Fruit for Identification. 117 — Sudan Grass. 118 — Sirup from Apple Cider. 119 — Store Good Potatoes. 120^ — The Farm Inventory. 121 — Dairy Stock Should be Dehorned. 122 — The Rosy Apple Aphis (Aphis sorbi). 123 — Home-made Apple Vinegar. 124— Protecting Trees from Mice. 125 — Potato Day at Brewster High School. 126 — Curing Smoked Meats. 127 — Who Has Grain Seed for Sale? 128 — Seed Corn for Distribution. 129 — How to Prepare a Hot Bed. 130 — Two Insects Injurious to Clover. 131 — Preparation of Seed Bed for Corn. 132 — Sulphur Soda Sprays. WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 49 133 — The Brood Sow. 134 — The Pregnant Mare. 135 — Soft Shelled Eggs. 136 — Two-fold Use for the Manure Spreader. 137 — Feeding Brooder Chicks. 138 — Attracting Birds. 139 — The Ox Warble Fly. 140 — Cheat. 141 — Winter Injury to Fruit Trees. 142 — The Downy Mildew of Alfalfa. 143 — Bacilliary White Diarrhea of Chicks. 144 — A Common Cause of Chick Losses. 145 — When to Spray for Codling Moth. 146 — Leg Weakness in Chicks. 147 — The Pear Leaf Blister Mite. 148 — The Colorado Potato Beetle. 149 — Proper Method of Stewing Meats. 150 — Droopy Winged Chicks. 151 — Use the Garden Hose on Insects. 152 — Fire Protection for Threshing Separators. 153 — California Peach Blight. 154 — Powdery Mildew of the Apple. PUBLICATIONS. There have been issued from the Experiment Station during the year nine technical and twenty-one popular bulle- tins. The following are brief summaries indicating the scope and character of the bulletins in question: GENERAL (TECHNICAL) BULLETINS. No. 114. Tuberculosis, A Report of the Results of the Continued Injections of Tuberculin Upon Tubercular Cattle, by S. B. Nelson. The bulletin is a summary of the results of a number of years of investigations carried on by the Veter- inary Division of the Station and bearing upon the general problems of bovine tuberculosis. The results of the investi- gation indicate: 1. That the injection into tubercular cattle of large monthly or small weekly doses of tuberculin does not appar- ently have therapeutic value. 2. That the injection of constantly increased daily or weekly doses of tuberculin apparently does have therapeutic value. 3. That the evening temperature is usually higher than the morning temperature in tubercular cows. 50 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT 4. That the oftener tuberculin injections are made into tubercular cattle, the sooner the temperature reaction begins and the sooner the zenith is reached. No. 115. Studies on the Relation of Certain Species of Fusarium to the Tomato Blight of the Pacific Northwest, by H. B. Humphrey. The bulletin is the result of investigations conducted by the author, N. R. Hunt, and D. C. George on the cause and control of tomato blight. It discusses the distribu- tion and symptoms of the blight and records in detail the results of field observations and greenhouse studies, innocula- tion experiments, and cultural studies of the Fusarium orthoceras and i^. oxysporum, both of which species of fungi were studied more or less in detail. Experiments with the view to controlling the blight by various cultural practices were also carried, on. It is maintained that the two species of the fungus, Fusarium, are the causative organisms of the disease. See page 23 of this report. No. 116. The Quantitative Determinations of Mono, Di, and Tri Calcium Phosphates and Their Application, by Geo. A. Olson. This is a bulletin dealing with technical methods in certain phases of agricultural chemistry. The method of the use of ammonium citrate for the determination of the amount of available phosphoric acid in fertilizers is called into ques- tion and the results of this method are discussed in detail. The solubility of tricalcium phosphate and of phosphate fer- tilizer in ammonium citrate and citric acid is discussed. At- tention is called to the fact that the older methods in ques- tion are purely empirical and do not serve to separate the tri from the dicalcium phosphates. It is suggested that the prob- lem can be attacked in a scientific manner bv dissolving the substances in question in nitric acid and nrecipitating by am- monium hydroxide, it then being possible to differentiate the different forms of phosphate. Attention is called to the fact that nothing is gained by apnlying superphosphate or re- verted phosphoric acid to the soil. No. 117. Report on Fires Occurring in Threshing Sepa- rators in Eastern Washington Durinp' the Summer of 1914, by Ira D. Cardiff, 0. L. Waller, H. V. Carnenter, Geo. A. Olson, E G. Schafer and A. L. Sherman. The bulletin is a discussion of the occurrence of fires in threshing separators, and goes into the possible causes of these fires in detail. It is conclud- ed that the fires are caused by a combination of conditions, involving excessive quantities of smut and unusually dry con- ditions at the harvest time — the latter resulting in increased WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 51 amount of organic dust and an increased amount of static electricity formed by the moving machinery. The bulletin records the results of investigations upon the percent of moisture in grain and smut for the year in question and for previous years, the flashing tests of oils and greases used in separators, the influence of stacking grain upon its combustibility and quality, the effect on the grain of the injection of steam into the cylinder of the machine, the composition of smut and the explosibility of pure smut. Field investigations were also conducted for the purpose of deter- mining the number, location, date, time of day, place in ma- chine of smut fires and explosions. Data were also collected with leference to the amount of damage, make of separator, speed of machine, power used, and variety of wheat threshed, as well as devices for combating fires. The question of incen- diarism is dicussed with the conclusion that there exists no evidence of incendiarism. Remedial suggestions are offered for control and prevention of fires by grounding of machinery for the purpose of conducting off the static electricty, the use of fire paints to retard the spread of the fire to other por- tions of the machine, the equipment of the separator with sprinkling devices which can work automatically or be turned on very quickly, and other common sense precautions against fire or spread of fire. No. 118. Twenty-Fourth Annual Report, For the Year Ending June, 30, 1914, by the Director. This is a summary of the work including a financial statement of the Experiment Station for the fiscal year 1913-14. No. 119. First Annual Report, Department of Dry Land Demonstration and Experiment, For the Year Ending Decem- ber 31, 1914, by the Director. The bulletin records the re- sults of a survey of the dry land districts of Adams, Franklin, Grant, Douglas, Benton and Walla Walla Counties, together with suggestions for the solution of the dry land problem of these counties. Plans for future work of the department are outlined in detail and the needs of the dry belt discussed. A financial report is included. No. 120. First Annual Report, Bureau of Farm Develop- ment, For the Year Ending December 31, 1914, by the Direc- tor. This bulletin discusses the organization of the Bureau and its relation to the Experiment Station. The results of work by the agriculturists of Adams, Douglas, Benton, Oka- nogan, Spokane, Wahkiakum, and Walla Walla Counties are given in considerable detail. The bulletin contains a tabu- 52 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT lated summary of the work of the county agriculturists in these counties and also a statement of farm management demonstrations and boys’ and girls’ club work carried on in cooperation with the county agriculturists. The needs of the Bureau and the agricultural outlook of the state are discuss- ed. A financial statement and a copy of the law creating the Bureau are included. No. 121. Washington Wheats, by E. G. Schafer and E. F. Gaines. The bulletin is the result of several years of work in the Farm Crops Division in the testing of various varieties of wheat suitable to the State of Washington. The necessity for comparative field experiments for determining the most profitable varieties is discussed, and thirteen of the common varieties of wheat are described in detail, their diagnostic characters being also tabulated and to some extent illustrat- ed. Tables are given to illustrate the relative value from the standpoint of flour, percent of wet gluten, dry gluten, and nit- rogen, as well as an average of these qualities. During the period in question Hybrid 128 excelled all others both in yield and quality, with Hybrid 143 a close second. No. 122. A Study of Grazing Conditions in the Wenaha National Forest, by H. T. Darlington, records the results of range investigations as applied especially to the Blue Moun- tain region of Southeastern Washington. The general condi- tions of the native plants available for range food in the We- naha National Forest is discussed and the different types of grazing areas explained from a biological standpoint. Obser- vations upon the plants most used by the sheep are recorded and suggestions are offered for conserving and improving the range. It is found that the principal forage plants are peren- nial, consisting principally of shrubs. On account of the long winters it is found that there is little deterioration of the grazing areas in question. The full capacity of the range is not being utilized on account of the lack of- roads and trails. The bulletin is of botanical as well as agricultural interest. POPULAR BULLETINS. No. 71. Preparation of Fruit Exhibits, by R. J. Barnett. The bulletin is the result of frequent inquiry in regard to the methods of preparation of fruit for exhibition purposes. It discusses the reason for exhibiting fruits and sets forth var- ious lines of information which the exhibitor should have with reference to premium lists and rules; how to prepare an exhibit; where and how to select fruit; together with a dis- WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 63 cussion of the characteristics of show fruit from the stand- point of form, size, color, blemishes, uniformity and quality. Directions are also given for packing the various kinds of pack from the standpoint of keeping quality and attractive- ness. Methods of transportation of show fruit are explained, and, for the beneht of judges, the questions of nomenclature, score cards, etc., are discussed. The bulletin is illustrated. No. 72. Handling Apples for Storage, by W. J. Young. The bulletin discusses the various kinds of storage conditions which effect the keeping quality of fruit, together with de- tailed directions for picking, packing, grading and cooling fruit and the relation of the same to storage. It also contains descriptions of twenty-one of the more common varieties of apples, the descriptions being based upon the characters with reference to storage. No. 73. Stinking Smut in Wheat, by H. M. Woolman. This bulletin is a non-technical statement summarizing a por- tion of the results and investigations Carried on during the year with reference to seed treatment and soil treatment for smut control. Various methods of seed treatment are dis-. cussed in detail and the advantages of the copper sulphate and formaldehyde treatments are pointed out. The effect of threshing injury upon grain and the relation of the same to seed treatment is discussed in considerable detail. Results of variety tests from the standpoint of smut resistance are given. No. 74. Lice and Mites; Life History and Extermination, by Helen Dow Whitaker. The effects of these parasites upon poultry are discussed and remedies for the same suggested with detailed directions for their application. No. 75. The Babcock Test and Its Application, by R. E. Hundertmark. The bulletin discusses the value of the Bab- cock test and gives the detailed directions for making the same, together with descriptions and illustrations of the nec- essary, well-known apparatus. No. 76. Winter Egg Production, by Helen Dow Whitaker. This bulletin gives detailed and definite directions for the se- lection of birds, housing, feeding and general care and man- agement of poultry for the maximum production of eggs dur- ing winter. Tabulated statements of various feed combina- tions are given, together with an explanation of the principles of poultry feeding. No. 77. Spraying Calendar for 1915, by A. L. Melander and D. C. George. This calendar gives concise and tabulated directions for combating some sixty or seventy fungous and 54 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT insect pests of fruit. It also contains directions for the manu- facture of sulphur lime, oil spray, tobacco, Bordeaux, arsenate of lead, and other fungicides and insecticides. No. 78. The San Jose Scale Insect, by A. L. Melander. Numerous difficulties with the San Jose scale make necessary the dissemination of considerable information in regard to the insect. The bulletin describes the general appearance, life history, food plants, distribution and relatives of Aspidiotus pernicious together with detailed directions for methods of control. The bulletin also contains formulae for the manu- facture of crude oil emulsion and sulphur-lime. No. 79. Pruning, by 0. M. Morris. Definite directions for the pruning of various varieties of fruit and nut trees are given in considerable detail and explained by means of ex- cellent illustrations. Types of pruning tools are illustrated and their relative merits explained. The methods of handling wounds and ties and props are discussed, as is also the ques- tion of seasonable pruning. No. 80. Fire Blight, by Ira D. Cardiff. This is a poster designed to call attention to the great danger of the fruit in- dustry from fire blight and to urge a systematic campaign for the eradication of the disease. No. 81. An Efficient Alfalfa Ditcher, by Lee M. Lampson and Byron Hunter. The bulletin gives in detail the directions for the manufacture of a home-made ditching machine, the valuable features of which are its ability to run ditches to the entire margin of the field and also its low cost of construction. The bulletin is illustrated with working plans for the manu- facture of the ditcher. No. 82. The Yellow Blight of the Tomato, by D. C. George. This bulletin is a popular account of technical bulle- tin No. 115. No. 83. Hints on Goose Culture, by Helen Dow Whitaker. “Under favorable conditions geese are the easiest of all do- mestic fowls to handle” and they are much more profitable than they are usually given credit for. With a view to en- couraging goose culture this bulletin gives directions for housing, yarding, mating, care of breeders, hatching, pluck- ing; also food and care of goslings. No. 84. Care of Brood Sow, by William Hislop. This bulletin gives directions for the care of the brood sow both before and after farrowing, together with detailed statements of various rations suitable for her at different periods. No. 85. A Movable Hog House, by William Hislop. The bulletin gives in a concise manner the essentials of an ideal WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 55 hog house from the standpoint of warmth, dryness, light, shade, ventilation, cleanliness, safety and comfort, conven- ience, serviceability, durability, appearance and cost. It is illustrated with working plans, and there is given a bill of material and an estimate of cost for the construction of a movable hog house. Acknowledgment is herewith made to the Iowa State College for use of material obtained from Iowa liulletin No. 152, which was used largely in the prepara- tion of this bulletin. No. 86. Turkeys, by Helen Dow Whitaker. This bulletin describes in detail four of the leading breeds of turkeys and also gives directions for the selection of breeding stock; hous- ing and feeding, nesting, care of incubating, care of poults, etc., in turkey husbandry. Ten concise directions are given for the control and prevention of disease and directions are also given for fattening turkeys. No. 87. Profitable Hog Feeding, by William Hislop. This bulletin gives methods of hog feeding together with a table of nutrient values of various hog feeds. The relative value of tankage, skim milk, butter milk and whey, soy bean meal, lin- seed oil meal, wheat middlings, wheat bran, alfalfa and clover hay, cotton-seed meal and various grains is given. No. 88. Wheat Silage, by J. R. Shinn. An account of the use of wheat for silage in Snokane county by some fifteen or twenty farmers is given. Directions for the use of wheat for silage purposes and the relative advantage of this as com- pared to other crops is discussed. It is pointed out that the yield of wheat is much larger than that of corn in Spokane County and can be harvested and put into the silo much more economically than can corn. No. 89. Control of Tumbling Mustard, by Roy G. Adams and Byron Hunter. This bulletin is an attempt to ameliorate conditions from the standpoint of the mustard pest in the drier districts of central Washington. Tillage directions are given for the control of mustard. However, the bulletin deals primarily with a mechanical attachment which can be placed upon the header of a combine harvester and which will pre- vent the mustard from interfering with the operation of the harvester. The bulletin is illustrated with a view of a com- bine thus equipped and also working drawings for the manu- facture of a home-made mustard attachment. No. 90. Farm Manure: Methods of Preservation and Ap- plication, by Geo. A. Olson. This bulletin calls attention to the necessity for conserving the fertility of the soil and sets forth in detail the fertilizer value of the various crops com- 56 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT mon to the state. Tabulations are ^iven to show the value of various types of manure, both solid and liquid, as is also in- formation with reference to the effect of manure upon the soil. No. 91. Essentials for the Growth of Chicks, by Helen Dow Whitaker. Directions are given in this bulletin tor gen- eral care, selection of feed, water, etc., for the growing chick. Detailed statements of rations are included. NEEDS OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION. While very definite and valuable progress has been made upon most of the projects under investigation bv the Experi- ment Station during the year, nevertheless practically all of the work on these projects has been restricted more or less from lack of adequate financial suport. In the case of some projects under investigation, increased financial support is greatly needed: e. g., in forage crop investigations, investga- tions of animal diseases, et al. Two new and quite distinct lines of work have been re- cently inaugurated at the Station. One deals with dry land problems, the other with fruit by-products. These are both broad fields and contain each many separate problems for in- vestigation. They are among the most important problems affecting the agriculture of the state today and liberal finan- cial support is necessary for prosecuting the work in these lines. The agricultural needs of the state also call for a con- siderable amount of experimentation with silage, both from the standpoint of production and feeding. Calf feeding ex- periments with substitutes for milk are necessary as an aid to our rapidly developing dairy industry, as is also investiga- tions in connection with Pasteurization of milk. One of the pressing agricultural needs of this state at this time is investigation, research and experimentation in ir- rigation ae-riculture. The populous valleys of central Wash- in o-ton with their fertile soil and almost subtropical climate have received wholly inadequate attention from the stand- point of agricultural invest! nation. Rplatively the farms are small, the land high priced, the insect and fungous pests much more numerous and troublesome and the management of the farm and the various farm enterprises radically differ- ent from that of other parts of the state and country. These valleys have been settled relatively recently and by farmers, for the most part, wholly unused to this type of agriculture. Our lack of knowledge of the correct agricultural principles WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION 57 and practices of those irrigated districts handicaps us greatly in lending adequate aid to these farmers. There is greatly needed a branch station located in one of these irrigated dis- tricts for the investigation of these problems. On account of the great diversity of agricultural condi- tions found in this state, it is apparent that many of the re- sults obtained at the main Station are not generally applicable so far as these deal with soils and crops. It is very essential that the Experiment Station undertake additional investiga- tions from the standpoint of crop rotation and soil fertiliza- tion under the various climatic and soil conditions of the state. This line of work, when conducted as it should be, would probably involve the establishment or six or eight small experimental fields in different portions of the state. These, of course need not be large, as the various experi- ments are conducted on twentieth and tenth acre plots. We have now available for this work land at the Adams Branch Station at Lind, and upon the farm at Waterville, thus giving us two locations for starting the work. We should, however, next year procure land for one or two additional locations in the western portion of the state. The main Station at Pull- man is greatly in need of additional land for this work. In addition to increasing our forage crop work, appro- priations should be made for experiments with pasture crops — one of the great needs of Eastern Washington as an aid to the livestock industry. The critical condition of the horticultural industry of the state also calls for largely increased work in the field of ento- mology and plant pathology. There is urgent need for in- vestigations upon the crown rot and mildew of the apple, al- so the leaf curl of peach, the brown rot of prunes and numer- ous fungous diseases of potatoes. In addition there are scores of other little known but troublesome fruit diseases which should receive early attention from the Station. A plant dis- ease survey of the state should be undertaken and an in- creased amount of work is necessary upon the life history and habits of the codling moth, root maggots, orchard thrips, woolly aphis, rosy aphis and a large number of other insects causing devastation of farm crops in the state. Additional experiments are necessary to determine cor- rect methods of spraying for the control of various insect and fungous pests. In this connection our investigations on the physiological effects of sprays should also be increased. 68 TWENTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT Investigations upon methods and costs of irrigation by pumping should be taken up during the coming irrigation season. SUMMARY OF PORTION OF STATION WORK. Number of projects under investigation 46 Number of farmers cooperating 1,300 Number of pounds of new and improved seed dis- tributed 47,283 Number of trees distributed 12,000 Number of newspapers supplied with material weekly 475 Editions of bulletins issued: Technical 9 Popular 21 Newspaper 49 Number of names added to mailing list during the year 6,645 Number of names on mailing list 29,050 Number of bulletins distributed upon special re- quest 43,280 Number of pages of printed matter distributed . . . .6,609,000 Number of personal letters written in reply to in- ^quiries 1,000 '!'(» l);iiance Ironi apiii-opriations for 1913- Receipts $40,914.27 'Petal Expenditures ..36,924.47 Balance, withdrawn fi-oin Station for collep-iate uses i$ 3,989.80 The following bulletins are available for distribution. They may be had without cost by addressing Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Washington. (General Bulletins. 4 2. A New Sug-ar Beet Pest, 1900. 60. A Report on the Range Conditions of Central Washington, 1904. 70. The Powdery Mildews of Wash- ington, 1905. 74. Two Insect Pests of the Elm. 78. The Goat Industry in Western Washington. 79. Steer Feeding Under Eastern Washington Conditions. 91. Whf'nt nnd Flour Tnvestigat’ons — Crop of 1906-1907. 100. Wheat and Flour Investigations I. — The Crops of 1908-09. 11. — The Composition and Milling Quality of Washington Wheats. III. — A Simple Appaiatus for De- termining the Milling Qualities of Wheats. 102. Wheat and Flour Investigations IV. 107. Plant Diseases Induced by Sclero- tinia Perplexa. 108. Bluestem of the Black Raspberry. 110. Commercial Fertilizers. Popular 19. The Use of Fertilizer Lime. 29. Milling Quality of Washington Wheats. II. 31. Clover in the Palouse Country. 36. Field Peas on a Palouse Wheat Farm. 39. The Milling Quality of Washing- ton Wheats. III. 4 2. Alfalfa Seed Production. 4 4. Some Soil Fertility Problems. 4 5. The Control of the Codling Moth. 47. How to Make Bread from Soft Wheat Flours. 4 9. Experiments in Fertilizing Al- falfa. 53. Cause of Variation in Per Cent of Fat of Market Cream from Farm Separators. 54. Preserving Eggs. 56. Fire Blight of Pear and Apple. 57. Prune Growing in Washington. 58. Sheep for Washington Farms. 60. Corn Growing in Washington. 61. The Peach Twig-Borer. 62. Potato Growing. 63. Swine. 64. Winter Sprays. 65. “Fire Blight.” 66. Onion Culture. 67. Top Grafting of Fruit Treesj. 68. Report on Chemical composition of Wheat . Special s. The Cost of Clearing T^and. 111. The Chemical Composition of Wheat. . 112. A Preliminary Repo t on Investi- gations of Red Water (Hema- turia) of Cattle in Washington. 113. P'ants Used for Food by Sheep on the Mica Mountain Summer Range. 117. Report on Fires Occurring in Thieshing Separators in Eastern Washington During the Summer of 1914. 120. First Aununl Renort, Bureau of Farm Development. 121. Washington Wheats. 122. A Study of Grazing Conditions in the Wenaha National Forest. 123. Time and Method of Tillage on the Yield and Comparative Cost of Production of Wheat in the Pa- louse Region and Eastern Wash- ington. 125. Preliminary Note on Leaf Invas- ions by Bacillius amylovorus. 126. Bunt or Stinking Smut in Wheat. 127. Twenty-Fifth Annual Report. Bulletins. 69. Drj^ Farming in Washington. 70. The Alfalfa Weevil. 71. Preparation of Fruit Exhibits. 72. Handling Apples for Storage. 74. Lice and Mites. 75. The Babcock Test and Its Appli- cation. 76. Winter Egg Production. 77. Sp;ay Calendar for 1915. 78. San Jose Scale. 79. Pruning. 80. Fire Blight. (Poster.) 81. An Efficient Alfalfa Ditcher. 83. Hints on Goose Cultui'e. 84. Care of Brood Sow. 85. A Moveable Hog House. 86. Turkeys. 87. Profitable Hog Feeding. 88. Wheat Silage. 89. Control of Tumbling Mustard. 90. Farm Manure. 91. Essentials for Growth of Chicks. 92. Feeding Dairy Cows in Washing- ton. 93. Rural Sanitation. 94. Contagious Abortion in Cows. 95. The Dairy Barn and Milk House; How to Construct Them. 96. Butter-Making on the Farm. 97. Dairy Herd Records. Series. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF DRY LAND INVESTIGATION Forage Crops in Central Washington -By- M. A. McCALL BULLETIN No. 128 January, 1916 All Bulletins of this Station sent free to citizens of the State om application to Director. BOARD OF CONTROL E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. O. Holland (President of College), Secretary ex-officio. .Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C. McCroskey Garfield EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . Elton Fulmer, M. A. . . O. L. Waller, Ph. M. . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D, O. M. Morris, M. S. . . Geo. Severance, B. S. C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . W. T. Shaw, M. S E. G. Schafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, M. S. . . . F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . C. A. Magoon, A. B. . . J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. McCall, M. S. . . J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D.. M. A. Yothers, M. S.. . Henry F. Holtz, M. S. . E. F. Gaines, M. S. . . . C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . D. C. George, B. S. . . . H. M. Woolman F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S. Director and Botanist State Chemist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist By-products Specialist . . . .Assistant Entomologist . . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . .Assistant in Horticulture .Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist , . . .Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist . . .Assistant in Farm Crops Forage Crops in Central Washington By M. A. McCALL During the past season the Dry Land Department of the State College conducted something over 120 separate co-oper- ative trials of forage crops. Similar trials were carried on by the agriculturists of the various counties in the dry sections in co-operation with the Department. Several crops were tried, among them being corn, Sudan grass, feterita, alfalfa, sweet clover, and field peas. This report deals with results in those localities with a rainfall of 12 inches and less, and without irrigation. CORN For dry land conditions corn does not seem well adapted to Central Washington. Tonnage yields this season were rather light and did not compare with those obtained from equal acre- ages of wheat or rye. One strain of corn developed in Colorado at an altitude of 7000 feet and tried with a co-operator near Moses Lake this season gave a better return there than other varieties and seems to be promising. On the whole, yields were below the limits of profit, even for forage, and in most cases were negligible from the grain standpoint. Under a slightly greater rainfall, as in Douglas County, some favorable returns have been secured by growers, but on the whole the results, thus far, with corn indicate that it is not profitable. Selection and improvement of varieties may remedy this, but as yet corn growing should be 'taken up only in a very limited way. SORGHUMS Under certain special conditions, where the soil is light and sandy and the growing season warm, as in parts of Franklin County, Grant County, and in Douglas County along the Columbia River, Sudan grass has done fairly well, but in the main this crop has fallen below advance notice of its possi- bilities. Even where the crop has done best, for dry land pur- poses, winter rye will outyield it and any difference in feeding 3 Fig. I. Sudan grass grown by A. P. Guffin, Warden, Grant Co. This crop has not come up to expectations in Central Washington. value, if existing, will not counterbalance the difference in yield. Where limited amounts of water are available for irri- gation this crop has made a good growth, but as a strictly dry land crop it has not proven of value except for the few very special conditions. One drawback to all sorghum crops under Washington con- ditions is the fact that they do not mature until late, if at all, and growth continues until killing frosts. This results in a heavy drain on the soil moisture and plant food materials. This was strongly evidenced by a crop of field peas grown this sea- son by C. E. Comstock, Sixprong, Klickitat County. In this case the peas, grown on ground which during the previous year was in various cultivated crops, gave very favorable returns, except on a small area where a very scanty crop of Sudan grass had been grown. Peterita has given returns not greatly superior to the Sudan grass. Some few special conditions of soil, moisture and alti- tude report the crop as doing fairly well, but as a crop for the dry farmer of Central Washington not much can be said in favor of it. This is probably true of other sorghums. 4 ALFALFA Regarding alfalfa, testimony has been somewhat varied. Mr. L. O. Dana, Warden, Urant County, exi)resses liiiiiself as well Fig. II. Dry land alfalfa, L. O. Dana, Warden, Grant Co. This picture was taken May 29, 19 15, the second spring alter seeding. pleased witli this crop and is planning on seeding several acres for hog pasture. The accompanying ilJustration will give an idea of the growth this crop attained the second year from seed- Fig. III. Dry land alfalfa, .los. Clay, Quincy, Grant Co. Rows three feet apart. ing. The crop is in rows 30 inches apart and while the yield is scarcely heavy enough to compete with the cereals as a hay crop its value as a feed promises a profit where cheaply har- vested, as by “hogging off.” Jos. Clay, Quincy, Grant County, is also well pleased with his alfalfa seeded in rows and culti- vated. Though not tried under conditions offering a real test, there «eems to be a possibility of seed production making alfalfa growing profitable. Mr. J. A. Dorman, Wilson Creek, Grant County, has a quarter section seeded in rows for this purpose. Individual plants set seed heavily, but the yield as a whole was cut down through the growth of weeds, cultivation not being possible through press of other matters. Mr. Dana left a small tract to test its seed producing ability and this set a •quantity of good seed. Experience elsewhere has shown that it is sometimes difficult to get dry land alfalfa to set seed where too thick, therefore plantings for this purpose should be very thin. Other farmers, who have tried alfalfa, are not so optimistic regarding its possibilities. Failures are due to a number of causes, but in general the writer believes that below the 10-inch rain belt the crop will very seldom compete with the cereals for forage purposes. If the crop will produce seed in paying quantities this would seem to be the one factor that may make it one of the crops to consider for Central Washington. Variety «eems to have very little bearing on results. SWEET CLOVER Sweet clover seems to give more promise than alfalfa as a forage crop. Information is not, however, sufficiently com- plete to say definitely whether it can compete with rye and wheat, but the writer doubts its ability to do so be- low a 10-inch rainfall. It is worthy, however, of continued and careful trial, especially for hog and sheep pasture, or for hay for these animals. Clinton Bennett, Ritzville, Adams County, and A. D. Cross, St. Andrews, Douglas County, have both successfully pastured sweet clover with hogs. 6 Fig. IV. Sweet clover grown in Adams County. Demonstration Farm. Cunningham. Adams Co., June 15, 1915, FIELD PEAS Field peas in double rows and cultivated gave good returns in several instances this past season. A. F. Hauter, Warden, Grant County, and C. E. Comstock, Sixprong, Klickitat County, especially deserve mention for their results with this crop under Fig. V. Field peas in rows. A. F. Hauter, Warden, Grant Co. Seeded in February, harvested July 1. This shows the crop on June 25, 1915. 7 rather extreme (‘onclitioiis. Ju each case the peas were seeded very early, during late February, aud were carefully cultivated and weeded. Mr. Ilauter, from a four-acre tract, secured in straw and ripe seed a stack measuring a little over four tons. Keturns are not available as to seed yields, but both the alcove mentioned gave promise of profitable retuiais. In interpreting results it is, of course, necessary to remember that the past sea- son was an unusually favorable one. Even Avith that advantage, the results from Franklin County gave no apparent promise, nor Avere those from the Horse Heaven country in Benton County promising, leading to the opinion that the limit of probable prof- itable j)roduction for peas is not much beloAV the tO-inch rain area. Fig. VI. Hogs in field peas. July 1, 1915. Field peas offer particular advantages in the dry farmer’s scheme, as they can be cheaply harvested by hogs, in no wise in- terfering with the care or harvesting of the Avheat crop. They offer an opportunity for rotation where they can be groAvn, and being a legume, if properly inoculated, will increase the nitro- 8 Fig. VII. Winter Rye in Western Adams County. for the more extreme conditions of light soils and short rain- fall. It has possibilities as a silage crop and its worth for pas- ture makes rye particularly valuable. Mr. Bennett of Ritzville filled a 45-ton silo from two and one-half acres of rye grown on summer fallow, corn under the same conditions returning not over two to five tons per acre. A pit silo can be constructed at a very reasonable cost, the one in the accompanying illustration, with a capacity of from 20 to 25 tons, costing, including labor and all, not over $30. gen in the soil. In this connection it should be added that all legumes should be inoculated in Central Washington. RYE AND WHEAT Considered from all angles, winter ry.e and wheat are as yet the best forage crops for Washington dry farmers. AVinter rye will yield a larger tonnage per acre, is a more certain crop, and any faults it may have are offset by its advantages, especially 9 Machinerj^ for filling is less expensive than for the above- ground type, and with rye as a suitable silage crop there is no reason for not having one on every farm. Fig. VIII. Filling a pit silo in Grant County. Spring wheat is being used in this case for the silage. Rye pasture and the pit silo properly used can go a long way toward adding to the prosperity and wealth of the dry Fig. IX. Cattle on rye pasture, W. W. Haile, Cunningham. Mr. Haile is adding to his herd and seeding more rye. farmers of AVasliington, especially of those on the light drift soils. IQ RATE AND DATE OF SEEDING Sudan grass, alfalfa, sweet clover and peas have all given most favorable results when seeded in rows and given clean cultivation. Rows should be at least 30 inches apart and three feet is not too far. Peas should be in double rows, three feet apart, and where the rainfall is as much as 12 inches, sweet clover may be seeded 12 inches to 14 inches apart. Rates of seeding on dry lands should be very much lighter than under ordinary conditions. One pound of alfalfa seed and from two to four pounds of sweet clover are enough to seed an acre. Peas should be seeded comparatively thick in the rows to support the plants properly, 70 to 80 pounds giving best results. Alfalfa, sweet clover and peas should all be seeded as early as the ground will permit during February and March. Late seeding, particularly for peas, is disastrous. Seeding should also be shallow and preferably on summer fallow. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF AGRICULTURE Farm Crops Oats in Washington -By- E. G. SCHAFER — and — E. F. GAINES BULLETIN No. 129 March, 1916 All Bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BOARD OF CONTROL E. T. Coman, President Spokane W. A. Ritz, Vice President Walla Walla E. O. Holland (President of College), Secretary ex-officio. .Pullman James C. Cunningham Spokane D. S. Troy Chimacum R. C. McCroskey Garfield EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . O. L. Waller, Ph. M. . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D O. M. Morris, M. S. . . Geo. Severance, B. S. C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . W. T. Shaw, M. S E. G. Schafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, M. S. . . . F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . C. A. Magoon, A. B. . . J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. M. A. McCall, B. S. . . J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D.. M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F. Holtz, M. S. . E. F. Gaines, M. S C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . D. C. George, B. S. . . . H. M. Woolman F. W. Allen, M. S A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S. Director and Botanist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist By-products Specialist . . . .Assistant Entomologist . . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . .Assistant in Horticulture .Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist . . .Assistant Horticulturist . Assistant Chemist . . .Assistant in Farm Crops OATS IN WASHINGTON By E. G. SCHAFER, Agronomist and E. F. GAINES, Acting Oerealist The oat crop of Washington occupies a place second in im- portance to wheat. The average annual production of the state for the ten-year period ending with 1914 was 11,629,253 bushels, according to the Year Book of the United States De- partment of Agriculture. The average area for the same ten- year period was 242,831 acres, making an average yield of 47.9 bushels per acre. The average acreage for the five-year period ending 1909 was 198,261 and for the following five-year period it had increased to 287,400 acres. For the five-year period ending 1909 the average production was 9,619,307 bushels and for the following five-year period it was 13,639,200 bushels. This comparison shows that the total production as well as the area devoted to the oat crop is increasing. The greater part of the Washington oat crop is produced in two widely separated districts of the state. One center of production is in Skagit County in Western Washington, and the other is in Eastern Washingington in Spokane and Whit- man counties. A study of conditions is sections where oats are produced extensively, indicate that they thrive best in a rather humid climate.- Experiments conducted to determine the moisture requirements of different crops, show that oats require more water to produce a specified amount of dry matter than either barley or wheat. The highest yields are obtained where the growing season is long and comparatively cool. The heavier soil types are better suited to oat production than soils of lighter character; however, oats grow well on a great variety of soils. The character of soil is generally of . 3 Fig. I. Distribution of oats in Washington. less importance than climatic conditions. 'Because of their moisture requirements, oats are not extensively grown in the drier parts of Eastern Washington where wheat will produce a profitable crop with less moisture. Oats produce a profit- able crop on a less well-prepared seed bed than is required for wheat. They are often used in the cropping system after wheat, where there is sufficient moisture. It requires mure time to prepare a suitable seed bed for wheat, and wheat i& usually seeded on land’ that has been summer fallowed. An increase in the area devoted to oats in Western Washington may be expected as they should do well on much of the logged-off land in that part of the State. DESCRIPTION OF OAT VARIETIES One variety of oats may be superior to others because of its ability to produce a larger yield of grain per acre. When two varieties produce approximately equal yields, the choice of a variety may depend upon some favorable plant or grain char- acteristic, as stiffness of straw, date of maturity, etc. The tabular description of varieties in Table I shows points of similarity and difference in the varieties described. There is a variation of approximately ten inches in the height of the different varieties when grown under the same conditions. A similar variation is shown in the stiffness of the straw or in its ability to stand erect until maturity. The estimate of the stiffness of straw is recorded in per cent. Two of the varieties have a compact side panicle. The other fourteen have a spreading form of panicle. The grain of one variety is light yellow and one is dark gray. All other varieties are white. The variation in size of grain is indicated by the number of grains contained in five grams. The per cent of hull shows the relation between the hull and oat grain. The portion of grain not consisting of hull is kernel. The w^eight per bushel depends somewhat upon the plumpness of the grain but also on how compactly the kernels lie together. The date of ma- turity varies from July 25 to August 13, under the conditions-, at Pullman, Washington, where the tests were made. 5 Tabular Description of Oat Varieties Date ripe lO ^ — CO bibbflb]bW)^bX)W)W)bX)bi)W)bflbX)>»!5X)W) Weight per bu., pounds OC-Ot>-t:^Ol>t^0':t>-C:OC'-:oC0O a^a:c^r^Loa5I^-Ol^ir-lT^<^^LOcdl-^(^q Percent hull oC'^Lr5LOt~'^Oairocjoti-.OT— • J:oiO-t>-Giwi'Tt-'^utcr:Goi>- Size: No. of grains in five grams ?£>00-+iCNJaiOOO(MOT— c;cr:^?r>iocic V J r..k y. 0. !•.■> ■ V- A»‘v. STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY AND ZOOLOGY THE DIPTEROUS FAMILY SCATOPSIDiE -By- A. L. MELANDER BULLETIN No. 130 April, 1916 All Bulletins of this station sent tree to citizens of the State on application to Director. HOAIU) OF CONTROI W. A. Ritz, President Walla Walla D. S. Troy, Vice President * Chimacum E. O. Holland (President of College) Secretary ex-officio. .Pullman R. C. McCroskey Garfield James C. Cunningham Spokane E. T. Coman Spokane FXPFRLMFNT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . O. L. Waller, Ph. :\l.. . A. L. :\Ielander, Sc. H. O. :\1. :Morris, ^\. S. . . . Geo. Severance, B. S. . C. C. Thom, S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . . W. T. Shaw, :\I. S.... E. G. Schafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, ^I. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D. . . . C. A. :\lagoon, A. B. . . J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. . M. A. IMcCall, B. S. . . . J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D. . M. A. Yothers, M. S. . . Henry F. Holtz, M. S.. E. F. Gaines, IM. S. . . . C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . D, C. George, B, S. . . . H. Woolman F. W. Allen, IM. S. . . . A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . IM. B. Boissevain, B. S. ... .Director and Botanist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist By-products Specialist . . . .Assistant Entomologist , . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . .Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist . . . Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist . . .Assistant in Farm Crops THE DIPTEROUS FAMILY SCATOPSIDiE* By A. L. MP^LANDER, Entomologist Aldrich’s Catalog of 1905 lists two genera, Scatopse and As- pistes, with the Bibionidse, citing ten species of which three are considered “unrecognizable”. In 1912 Enderlein published an interesting division of the former of these genera, ranking the group as a Family, Scatopsid^e, most closely related to the Sci- aridae. Without passing judgment on the validity of Enderlein’s genera, based as they are principally on slight differences in neuration, his arrangement may be recited since it bears so strongly on the nomenclature of the North American species. The discovery of several new forms and especially of a remark- able micropterous genus living with the carpenter ant is further noteworthy and calls for the issuance of the present paper. Scatopsidae include minute black flies, at present bearing the stigma of human disapproval owing to their habits of living in houses but breeding in excrement. Several species have been reared from sewers, privies and exposed human faeces and the same species frequently swarm in windows. The following table of genera is an adaptation from that given by Enderlein. f As most of the characters are derived from the neuration, the following key to the veins of the wing will be of assistance. The costa and two adjacent veins are thickened, the remaining veins are weak. The two thickened veins, called by Enderlein the radius (r) and the radial branch (rr) are identified by Williston as the first (r^) and third (r4,5) veins, the second vein (r2,3) being represented by the short ra- dial crossvein. The media is forked, its branches, m^ and m2, sometimes being disjoined. The next two veins then are the two cubitals which are separate usually to the base of the wing. ^Contribution from the Zoological Laboratory of the State College of Washington. tOuenther Enderlein, Zur Kenntnis der Zygophthalmen. Zool. Anz. xl. 261-282 (Oct. 1912). 3 TABLK OF (JEXFRA OF SCATOPSIl).^] Third vein forked ( Fijj:. 7). ( ‘Subfamily Corvnoscelina; ) ..(^nrape) C'orynoscclis .tfioheman, 1858. Third vein simple, or the insect wingless. (Subfamily Scatopsinae) 2. 2. Wings present and normally developed. 3. Wings vestigial or absent. 14.. 3. Front tibiae ending in a thorn-like process (Fig 5) ; basal part of fourth vein wanting, media arising much beyond the radial cross- vein (Fig. 8) ; antennae of $ 12-jointed, of $ 7-jointed (Fig. 9). (Europe; North America) Aspis/es Meigen, 1818. Front tibiae without end-process. 4. 4. Hind metatarsi as long as or longer than the remainder of the tarsus; legs slender. (Europe) Anarete Haliday, 1833. Hind metatarsi shorter than the remainder of the tarsus; legs rather stout. 5. 5. Petiole of the medial veins arising much beyond the radial crossvein (Fig. 10). (Europe) Ectaetia Enderlein, 1912. Petiole of the medial veins arising before or at the radial cross- vein. 6. 6. Costa continued beyond the end of the third vein (r^), medial vein (mH incomplete toward the base, anterior crossvein proximal to the short first vein which ends beyond the middle of the wing (Fig. II ). (Europe) Synneiiron Eundstreem, 1910. Costa interrupted near the end of the third vein, base of the medial vein (m2) present, first vein independent from the third at the base of the wing. 7. 7. A more or less complete crossvein between the third and fourth veins. 8. No crossvein between the third and fourth veins. 9. 8. Crossvein between the third and fourth veins incomplete, arising from the fourth vein and extending halfway toward the third vein, seventh vein (CU2) lightly arched (Fig. 12). (Europe; North America; Australia) Scatopse Geoffroy, 1764. Crossvein between the third and fourth veins complete, last vein (cuo) strongly arched. (Europe) Holoplagia Enderlein, 1912. 9. Fourth vein (mi) complete. 10. Base of fourth vein w^anting. 12. 10. Apical cell relatively short, its petiole very long (Fig. 20) ; antennae short, 12-jointed; minute species. (Europe; North America) Szvammerdamella Enderlein, 1912. Apical cell relatively long, usually longer than its petiole. ii. 11. Last vein (CU2) straight or more or less bowed once (Figs. 17, 18, 19) ; antennae 12-jointed, but the last three joints more or less fused into a short club; petiole of apical cell sometimes as long as the cell. (Europe; North and South America; Australia) Reichertella Enderlein, 1912. Last vein (ciu*) strongly sinuous, bent two or three times, petiole of apical cell conspicuously shorter than the cell, third vein ending at the middle of the wing (Figs. 14, 15, 16). (Europe; North America; South America ?) Rhegmoclema Enderlein, 1912. 12. Last vein (CII2) twice bent almost at right angles (Fig. 13) ; an- tennae i2-jointed, the terminal joints not fused. (Europe) Aldrovandiella Enderlein, 1912. Last vein straight or at most simply arched at the base. 13. 13. Petiole of medial veins arising opposite or beyond the middle of the first vein. (Europe) Anapausis Enderlein, 1912. Petiole of the medial veins arising close to the base of the wing be- fore the middle of the first vein (Fig. 21). (Europe; Central America) Psectrosciara Kieffer, 1911. 14. Wings vestigial, apical cell closed (Fig. 4) ; antennae lo-jointed. (North America) Coholdia, new genus. Wings entirely absent; antennae 12-jointed, the individual joints dis- tinct. tEurope) Thripomorpha Enderlin, 1905. ASPISTES Meigen. jMeigen, Syst. Bes. I. 319 (1818) Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3410 (1850) Schiner, Fauna Austr. Dipt. 11 . 347 (1864) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 266 (1912) Artliria: Kirby, Fauna Bor. Am. Ins. 311 (1837) Front tibiae ending in a curved spinous process. Media aris- ing much beyond the basally located radial crossvein, its an- terior branch (the fourth vein) broadly disconnected from the posterior branch. Antennae S 10- 12-jointed, $ 7- or 8-jointed. Thorax robust, with an anterior, elevated, strongly margined, punctured, dorsal area. Abdomen broadly depressed. Femora stout, especially the front pair which bear fine bristles beneath, hind tibiae tipped with a set of stouter bristles, hind metatarsi as long as the remaining joints together. The two following species occur in Europe as well as in America : Femora and halteres black, tibiae and tarsi yellow ; thorax entirely black. A. berolinensis Meigen. Legs yellowish, the apex of the tarsi infuscated; halteres whitish; thorax typically margined with 3^ellow. A. analis Kirby. Aspistes berolinensis Meigen (Fig. 5 ) Meigen, Syst. Bes. I. 319, pi. xi. f. 16 (1818) Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3411 (1850) Walker, Ins. Brit. Dipt. III., pi. xxiv. f. 6 (1856) Schiner, Faun. Austr. Dipt. 11 . 348 (1864) Wulp, Dipt. Neerland. 1 . 209, pi. vii. f. 6 (1877) Theobald, Brit. Flies, 1 . 160, pi. iii. f. 5 (1892) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 266, f. 2. (1912) pullus Walker, Ins. Brit. Dipt. III. 145 (1856) Body entirely black, shining. Thoracic protuberance deeply punctured, the declivity to the scutellum and on the sides stri- ated, pubescence sparse but evident, reddish. Abdomen finely 5 punctulate, the last segment punctured and spinulose. Coxae and femora black, remainder of legs yellowish except the dark last tarsal joint. Halteres black. Wings clear hyaline, the anterior veins black and thickened apically, the first vein ending near the middle of the wing, the third vein extending widely distant from the first. Length 1. 5-2. 5 mm. The species occurs through North and Central Europe. A specimen received from Dr. J. M. Aldrich from Lafayette, In- diana, May 23, 1915, agrees so exactly with the detailed Euro- pean descriptions and figures that nothing would be gained by giving it a new species name other than to indicate its Ameri- can provenience. Aspistes analis Kirby (Fig. 9 , antenna) Kirby, Fauna Bor. Am. 31 1, pi. v. f. 8 (1837) Arthria Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Miis. I. 115 (1848) Arthria Kirby, Can. Ent. XIII. 165 (1881) borealis Loew, Stett. Ent. Ztg. VIII. 69 (1847) Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3413 (1850) Body black, thorax marked on each side with a reddish-yellow line from the collar to the base of the wing; halteres white; legs reddish-yellow except the black apex of the tarsi ; anus yellow as is sometimes the margin of the ventral segments. Northern Europe and Canada. Dr. Aldrich reports, in litt., that the Victoria Museum at Ottawa has a female specimen of this species from Banff, Alberta. var. Thorax not marked with the lateral reddish line. New jMexieo (Johnson, Tr. Ain. Ent. Soe. XXIX, 101 ( 1908 )). SCATOPSE (leoftVoy. Geoffroy, Hist. d’Ins. II. 545 (1764) Meigen, Illiger’s Mag. II. 364 (1803) Kirby, Can. Ent. XIII. 165 (1881) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 266 (1912) As restricted by Enderlein the genus Scatopse is thus dehned : front tibiae not continued in a prong; antennae 12-jointed, the last three joints closely united into a short club; a crossvein present extending from the fourth vein about halfway toward the third, the last vein (cuo) slightly arcuate, the prefurca of the medial fork arising opposite the radial crossvein. b Scatopse notata Linnaeus (Fig. 12, wing) Linnaeiis, Syst. Nat. ed. X. 588 (1758) Tipula Loew, Linnaea Entom. I. 325, pi. iii. f. i (1846) Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Miis. I. 113 (1848) Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3397 (1850) Walker, Ins. Brit. Dipt. III. 141 (1856) Schiller, Faun. Austr. Dipt. II. 351 (1864) Wulp, Dipt. Neerland. I. 206, pi. vii. f. 4 (1877) Skuse, Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales (2) V. 638 (1890) Theobald, Brit. Flies, 1 . 156 (1892) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 260, f. (1912) albipennis Fabricius, Ent. Syst. IV. 250 ( 1794 ) Tipula latrinanim Deeger, Mem. I’Hist. d. Ins. VI. 430, pi. xxviii. f. 1-4 ( 1776 ) Tipula longipcunis Skuse, Proc. Linn. vSoc. N. S. Wales (2) III. 1383, pi. xxxix. f. 9 (1889) punctata Meigen, Syst. Bes. 1 . 301 (1818) scatiwpsc Gmelin, Syst. Nat. V. 2827 (1792) Tipula Shining black but with yellow marks of variable extent on the mesopleural sutures, postalar spaces and sides of the first abdominal segment. Legs piceous, the center of the tibise usu- ally with a broad brownish annulus. Thorax sparsely pubescent, the hairs, longer on the scutellum. Abdomen broad, depressed, highly polished. Halteres yellow to brown. Anterior veins brown, the third vein closely parallel with the costa and almost attaining the last fourth of the wing; last vein uniformly sin- uous. $ hind metatarsi about one-half as long as the subsequent joint. Length about 2.5 mm. This species is widely distributed throughout both Europe and North America. It has been reared from human faeces. The North American records of distribution include: (}reen- land (Lundbeck) ; Alaska to Alabama (Coquillett) ; New Jer- sey (Smith Catalog). Specimens are in the writer’s collection from Pullman, Chehalis, Wawawai, Spokane and Prosser, all in Washington: Moscow Vlt., Idaho; Palo Alto, California, and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. SWAMMERDAMELLA Enderlein Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 277 (1912) First and third veins ending close together slightly beyond the end of the basal third of the wing; fork of the media very short, typically about one-third the length of the prefurca, and i widely triangular; last vein twice angled. Antennae short, I2- jointed, the basal joints very short and broad. To this genus belong those forms where the apical cell is markedly shorter than its petiole. The flies are most minute and occur in Europe and North America. The following two species are American : Fork of the media moderate, its branches beginning close together but apicalh' suddenly diverging, the anterior recurved, the posterior in- curved. S. pygmaea Loew. Fork of the media very short, its branches nearly straight and diverging to form an isosceles triangle. S. brevicornis Meigen. Swammerdamella brevicornis Meigen (Fig. 20, wing) Aleigen, Syst. Bes. VI. 314 (1830) Scatopse Loew, Linnae-a Entom. I. 332, pi. iii. f. 6 (1848) Scatopse Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Miis. 1 . 113 (1848) Scatopse Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3409 (1850) Scatopse Walker, Ins. Brit. Dipt. HI. 114 (1856) Scatopse Schiner, Faiin. Austr. Dipt. 11 . 351 (1864) Scatopse Wulp, Dipt. Neerland. I. 207, pi. vii. f. 5 (1877) Scatopse Theobald, Brit. Flies, 1 . 157 (1892) Scatopse Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 278, f. 9 (1912) Black, subopaque, the tarsi brown to black, the haltexes black. Wings hyaline, the costa and radial veins yellowish, the third vein ending much before the middle of the wing, prefurca about three times as long as the medial fork, the branches of which are nearly straight and diverge at an angle of sixty degrees. Length about i mm. Widely distributed throughout Europe. The writer has taken the species at Chicago, Illinois, and at Oroville, Washington. Swammerdamella pygmaea Loew Loew, Berlin. Ent. Zts. VIII. 56; Cent. V. no. 13 (1864) Scatopse 9 . Black, moderately shining, the tarsi yellowish. Antennae short, rather thick. Wings white hyaline, the costa and first two veins grayish, the others colorless ; the third vein extending a little beyond the first but not attaining the middle of the wing; fork of the media moderate but much shorter than the peduncle, its branches basally close together, apically suddenly diverging, the anterior recurved, the posterior incurved. Length .85 mm. D. C. (Translation.) The species is reported from New' Jersey (Smith Catalog). The \\ est Indian species identified as pygmaea by W illiston and others is certainly different, as its apical cell is much longer than the prefurca. Apparently it belongs to the genus Rhegmo- clema. REICHERTELLA Enderlein. Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 268 (1912) This is the dominant genus of the family possessing numerous European species. It is principally characterized by having the fork of the media complete, the last vein nearly straight or but little curved, the third vein attaining the costa well beyond the middle of the wing and rarely ending close to the first vein. The fork of the media, although variable, is usually consider- ably longer than the prefurca. The antennae have twelve joints, the last three of which are more or less fused but the others are quite distinct. The halteres of the American species are pale, provided this applies to varicornis in the description of which the color is not specified. The American species can be recog- nized by the following tabulation : 1. Antennae entirely black, the third joint shorter than wide; knees not paler ; halteres yellowish. 2. Joints 3 to 6 of antennae yellow, the third joint slightly longer than wide, the twelfth joint with a whitish reflection; body black; legs brown, the knees and tarsi yellowish. R. varicornis Coquillett. 2. Body entirely black with black pubescence; legs black, the femora stout; third section of the costa longer than the second, median fork more than twice as long as its petiole (Fig. 19) ; central fila- ment very short, hidden. R. femoralis Meigen. Sides of thorax partly yellowish like the notal pubescence; legs in part brown, the femora less robust; second section of the costa nearly twice as long as the third, median fork less than twice as long as the petiole (Figs. 17, 18) ; central filament exposed. 3. 3. Humeri and scutellum yellowish ; central filament nearly half as long as the abdoiuen, curving forward and ending in a spiral. R. collaris, new species. Humeri and scutellum black, the mesopleural sutures and postalar spots alone yellowish ; central filament one-fourth as long as the abdomen, erect and almost straight, clasped by two downward projecting black prongs of the same length as the filament. R. uncinata, new species. Reichertella femoralis Meigen (Fig. 19, wing) Meigen, Syst. Bes. VH. 55 (1838) Scatopse Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Mus. I. 114 (1848) Scatopse pulicaria Loew, Linnae-a Entom. I. 338, pi. iii. f. 16 (1846) Scatopse Schiner, Faun. Austr. Dipt. H. 351 (1864) Scatopse Wulp, Dipt. Neerland. T. 207 (1877) Scatopse Theobald, Brit. Flies, T. 158 (1892) Scatopse Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 272, f. 4 (1912) Body, antennae and legs entirely black. Thorax shining, its fine close pubescence black, abdomen rather shining, depressed, the central filament minute and hidden, a pair of very short but broad, downward-projecting terminal valves present; femora robust ; halteres sordid whitish ; wings translucent, the anterior veins yellowish, the three costal sections proportioned i : i : 1.3, prefurca less than half as long as the posterior branch of the median fork, last vein lightly curved. Length about 2 mm. This species is widely distributed and common throughout Europe. In America it is recorded from Virginia (Howard), New Hampshire (Slosson) and Wisconsin (Wulp). Howard reared the insect from human excrement and noted its occur- rence in both privies and dwellings. Reichertella collaris, new species (Fig. 17, wing) Body black except for the prothorax, broad mesopleural su- tures, root of wing, postalar spot, scutellum, base of abdomen laterally and narrow posterior margins of the abdominal seg- ments, which are yellowish ; halteres pale yellow, central fila- ment, pteropleurse and legs piceous brown ; pubescence yellow- ish, the scutellum with longer marginal yellow hairs, pubescence of base of abdomen distinct. Central filament of male very slender, as long as three abdominal segments, erect or curving forward, the apical third curved in corkscrew fashion, no ter- minal hooks visible, the hypopygium ending in two small pos- terior-directed rounded tubercles. Apical third of femora almost black. Wings nearly hyaline, the anterior veins testaceous, costal sections proportioned i: 1.3: i, prefurca about five-sixths as long as the posterior branch of the median fork, but relatively shorter in the female, last vein gently arched. Length 2 mm. Four males and two females, collected by the writer at Che- halis, Washington, August 23, 1911. Reichertella uncinata, new species (Fig. 18 , wing) $ . Black except for the broad yellow sutures bounding the mesopleurie, the reddish root of the wing, the postalar spots, the reddish sides of the basal abdominal segment, the red central filament, the white halteres and the pale wings. -Thorax, scutel- lum and the abdomen except on the sides shining, mesonotal pubescence yellowish, rather sparse and long; no scutellar bris- tles. Central filament erect, tapering, as long as two of the 10 abdominal segments, straddled at the base by a pair of jet black, downward-curving hooks which are slightly longer than the central filament; beneath the base of the filament the hypo- pygium expands in a pair of broad laterally directed quadrate plates ; pubescence of the apical portion of the abdomen rather long and dense, yellow. Basal two-thirds of the tibiae brown- ish, remainder of the legs jet black, pubescence yellow. Wings unusually large, grayish hyaline, the anterior veins yellow, the three costal sections proportioned i: 1.3: i, prefurca three- fourths as ‘long as the posterior branch of the median fork, last vein very lightly arched. Length 2.5 mm. A single specimen collected by the late Eldred Jenne at Doug- las, Alaska, August 5, 1901. Type in the writer’s collection. Reichertella varicornis Coquillett Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Miis. XXV. 96 (1902) Scatopse “Head and body black, mesonotum somewhat polished, an- tennae about as long as the head and thorax, black, joints three to six bright yellow, apex of the last joint with a white reflec- tion, joint three slightly longer than wide, the succeeding joints becoming successively shorter except the last one ; legs dark brown, extreme ends of femora, apices of tibiae, and whole of tarsi yellow, broad bases of tibiae white; wings grayish hyaline, veins brown, apex of third vein near three-fourths length of wing, penultimate section of fourth vein about two-thirds as long as the upper fork of this vein, the forks gradually diverg- ing from each other for a short distance, at which point the upper fork is strongly bowed upward, then extends nearly paral- lel with the lower one nearly to the wing-margin, where they diverge rather strongly from each other, fifth and sixth veins distinct, the latter strongly sinuous.” $ . Length 1.5 mm. Washington, D. C. RHEGMOOLEMA Enderlein Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 276 (1912) Third vein ending near the middle of the wing and usually very close to the first, petiole of the median fork short, fourth vein not interrupted, the last vein (CU2) strongly sinuous. An- tennae i2-jointed, the individual joints indistinct. Abdomen ro- bust, broad, flat above, the genitalia short but stout. The halteres of the American species are dark, even jet black 11 in color. Enderlein suggests the possibility of generic identity of Rhegmoclema with Reichertella. His principal character, the relative sinuosity of the second cubital vein, is rather elusive for a generic foundation. It may be that Coquillett’s varicornis will find its location here instead of in Reichertella to which it was assigned by Enderlein. The American species of Rhegmo- clema are separable by the following table : 1. First and second sections of the costa of nearly equal extent (Fig. 3) ; body rather opaque. Rh. atrata Say. Second section of the costa much shorter than the first section ; body more or less shining. 2. 2. Sides of mesonotum, pleurae in part, scutellum, halteres, tip of ab- domen and more or less of legs brownish; prefurca very short, about one-fourth as long as posterior branch of median fork. Rh. pygmaea Williston. Body and appendages entirely black; prefurca relatively longer. 3. 3. Anterior veins black, prefurca more than half as long as the pos- terior branch of the median fork (Fig. 15) ; scutellum with a couple of short lateral bristles; no postalar spot; abdomen opaque. Rh. aterrima, new species. Anterior veins yellowish, prefurca less than half as long as posterior branch of median fork (Figs. 14, 16) ; scutellum margined with eight bristles; a postalar yellow spot; abdomen shining along the middle. 4. 4. Thorax subshining, uniformly convex, not pitted ; telson $ with parallel sides. Rh. bimaculata, new species. Thorax shining, with a median row of confluent single punctures which become larger toward the scutellum; telson triangular. Rh. scrobicollis, new species. Rhegmoclema atrata Say (Fig. I, larva; Fig. 2, pupa; Fig. 3, adult) Say, Long’s Exped. II. 367 (1824) Scatopse Wiedemann, Auss. Zwfl. Ins. I. 71 (1828) Scatopse Say, Compl. Works, I. 250 (1859) Scatopse ? Arribalzaga, Natural. Argent. I. 299 (1878) Scatopse Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 276 (1912) fuscipes Meigen, Syst. Bes. VI. 314 (1830) Scatopse recurva Loew, Linnaea Entom. I. 330, pi. iii. f. 4 (1846) Scatopse Zetterstedt, Dipt. Sc. IX. 3407 (1850) Scatopse Wulp, Dipt. Neerland. 1 . 207 (1877) Scatopse Theobald, Brit. Flies, 1 . 158 (1892) Scatopse Black over all, only slightly shining, the deflexed sides of the abdominal tergites opaque velvety black ; tarsi and a vague middle annulus of the hind tibije more or less yellowish. Tho- rax and abdomen furnished with brief and rather close black pubescence; about six or eight short marginal bristles to the 12 scutellum. Abdomen of female with seven tergites, the sixth broadly and shallowly emarginate behind, the sixth sternite sharply and more deeply excised ; telson of male long and narrow. Costa, first and third veins black, remainder of wing hyaline, the third vein ending a little beyond the middle of the wing, the costal sections approximately 4: 3: 6, prefurca of media two-thirds as long as the posterior branch of the fork, last vein strongly sinuous. Length about 2 mm. Recorded from Pennsylvania (Say), New Jersey (Smith List), and Bermuda (Johnson and Verrill). The writer has found the species swarming on windows at Pullman and Col- fax, Washington. At Sacramento, California, he observed it breeding in incredible numbers in decayed lemons at the State Insectary. The dies would congregate at the edge of the cages to form solid black masses. The larvae (Pig. i) are yellowish slender maggots whose brown head remains attached to the puparium after pupation. Within the puparium the definitive appendages of the adult are visible while from its back project a pair of black bifurcate respiratory processes (Fig. 2). Doane has reared specimens at the Washington Agricultural Experi- ment Station from decaying pea pods. It is not improbable that Walker’s obscura from the Hudson Bay region is this species. The species is widely distributed in Europe and supposedly occurs in South America also. Ender- lein states that the second section of the costa is much longer than the first, which is not the case in the American specimens at hand, nor does it agree with the descriptions of recurva. Rhegmoclema pygmsea Williston (not Loew) Williston, Tr. Ent. Soc. Bond., 1896, 269, pi. viii. f. 26 (1896) Scatopse Coquillett, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. XXII. 250 (1900) Scatopse “ $ . Black, but little shining, the margins of the mesonotum, the scutellum, the pleurae in part, femora in part, knob of hal- teres, and tip of abdomen somewhat lighter colored or brown. The tibiae in part, and the tarsi, yellow or yellowish. Antennae black, stout, the joints closely united, and gradually increasing in width to very near the tip. Wings grayish hyaline, the an- terior thickened veins dark brown, the others light yellowish ; the short veins do not reach nearly to the middle of the wing; the short prefurca of the forked cell takes its origin nearly Id opposite the connecting crossvein of the subcostal • cell ; the l)ranches of the forked cell are very long and strongly curved away from each other near the margin of the wing/' Length 2 mm. Williston’s species with its short prefurca is undoubtedly dis- tinct from Loew’s, which has the prefurca unusually long. The latter has been here assigned to Swammerdamella. The West Indian records of pygmaea are considered to refer to Willis- ton's species. St. Vincent (Williston), Porto Rico (Coquillett), Bermuda (Johnson, 1913). Rhegmoclema aterrima, new species (Pig. 15, wing) $ . Entirely black, including the antennae, legs, halteres and anterior veins. Antennae thicker than the front tibiae, the indi- vidual joints indistinct. Mesonotum narrow, shining, its pubes- cence very fine and black ; scutellum with a few short black lateral bristles. Abdomen opaque black, with black hairs, rather cylindrical, as broad at the truncate apex as at the middle, six segments visible, the last half as long as the preceding and not excised. Third vein ending before the middle of the wing, the costal sections proportioned 2 : 1:4, prefurca about two-thirds as long as the posterior branch of the median fork ; last vein strongly arched. Length 1.2 mm. A single specimen obtained by the writer in grass sweepings at Chatcolet Lake, Idaho, at the close of August, 1915. Rhegmoclema bimaculata, new species (Pig. 14, wing) $ . Entirely black except for a conspicuous postalar yellow spot which includes the extreme sides of the scutellum. An- tennie scarcely as thick as the front tibiae. Mesonotum subshin- ing, its pubescence dark brown and rather sparse, scutellum margined with about ten black bristles. Abdomen oval, de- pressed and entirely shining, its sparse pubescence brown, telson (seventh tergite) U-shaped. Anterior veins yellowish, the costal sections proportioned 5 : 2 : 8, prefurca nearly one-third the length of the posterior branch of the median fork, last vein strongly sinuous, the first bend acute, the opposite bend round- ing rectangular. $ . Seventh abdominal segment not excised. Length 2 mm. U Type $ from Quilcene, Washington, August i6, 1910. Three $ paratypes from Tacoma and Vashon, Washington, and Sheep Creek, Alaska, the last collected by Eldred Jenne. Rhegmoclema scrobicollis, new species (Fig. 16, wing) $ . Entirely black except for a rufous postalar spot. An- tennae about as thick as the front tibiae. Mesonotum shining, its fine and rather sparse pubescence brown, the prealar hairs black, scutellum with ten long black bristles, a row of single punctures forming a median groove down the mesonotum. Ab- domen depressed, oval, shining, its short pubescence brown, tel- son V-shaped. Anterior veins yellow, costal sections propor- tioned 4: i: 5, prefurca one-third as long as the posterior branch of the median fork, last vein strongly sinuous, the first bend rectangular, the second obtuse. Eength 2 mm. A single specimen collected by Professor William M. Wheeler in San Diego County, California, March ii, 1897. Type in the writer’s collection. ALDROVANDIELLA Endcrlein Enderlein, Zool. Anz. Xfi. 278 (1912) Easily recognized among the Scatopsids in having the fourth vein (mj) imperfect basally and the last vein (CU2) twice bent almost at right angles. The antennal joints are distinctly sepa- rated. But a single species is known, occurring in Europe and America. Aldrovandiella halterata Meigen (Fig. 13 , wing) Meigen, Syst. Beschr. VII. 55 (1838) Scatopse Loew, Linnae-a Entom. I. 339, pi. iii. f. ii (1846) Scatopse Walker, List Dipt. Brit. Mus. I. 114 (1848) Scatopse Zetterstedt, Dipt. Scand. IX. 3404 (1850) Scatopse Schiner, Faun. Austr. Dipt. II. 349 (1864) Theobald, Brit. Flies, I. 157 (1892) Scatopse Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XL. 278, f. 10 (1912) albipennis Roser, Correspbl. Wuerttemb. 1 . 52 (1840) Scatopse minuta Zetterstedt, Ins. Lapp. 801 (1838) Scatopse Body with the antennae, mouth-parts, legs and genitalia en- tirely black, the knob of the halteres white. Abdomen strongly depressed, laterally opaque. Wings clear, narrow, the anterior veins brown, the third vein ending before the middle of the wing, the radial crossvein placed near the end of the first vein, the second medial vein straight with the prefurca and nearly 15 parallel with the imperfect fourth vein (mi), the last vein (CU2) strongly bent twice. I^ength 2 mm. The occurrence of the species in America is based on three specimens in the writer’s collection, received from Mr. H. S. Parish, who collected them by sweeping at Wabamic, June 14, 1915, and Sudbury, July 22, 1915, Ontario. PSECTROSOIARA Kieffer Kieffer, Tr. Linn. Soc. Lond. XV. 192 (1912) Enderlein, Arch. f. Natiirgesch., 1911, 1 . 3, Suppl. 192 (1911) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XI. 280 (1912) Readily characterized by the narrow head and elongate body, lo-jointed antennae, broadened front trochanters, long third vein, basal location of the radial crossvein and straight fifth vein (m2) which arises close to the base of the wing. Two southern species are known from America. Thorax and abdomen uniformly blackish brown, the abdomen as long as the head and thorax together ; anterior veins yellowish. Ps. scatopsiformis Enderlein. Abdomen densely pubescent and velvety black except for a middle shining dorsal stripe, the abdomen twice as long as the head and thorax to- gether ; anterior veins blackish. Ps. calif ornica Cole. Psectrosciara scatopsiformis Enderlein (Fig. 21, wing) Enderlein, Zool. Anz. XI. 281, figs. 12-14 (1912) • $ . Head and antennae black, proboscis brown. Thorax, ab- domen and legs dark brown. Wings hyaline, the costa, first and third veins yellowish brown, the third vein straight and almost reaching the distal fourth of the wing, radial crossvein located much before the middle of the first vein and opposite the origin of the medial vein (prefurca) which continues straight to the wing-margin, the forking of the radial branches imperfect at the middle of the wing, cubital veins nearly straight. Length 3 mm., of abdomen 1.5 mm. Costa Rica, Central America. Type in the Zoological Mu- seum of Stettin. The preceding diagnosis is abridged from En- derlein’s description (loc. cit.). Psectrosciara calif ornica Cole (Fig. 6) Cole, Rept. Laguna Marine Lab. I. 151 (1912) Scatopse calif orniana Cole, 1 . c. fig. 85 (1912) Scatopse $ . Entirely black, antennal joints indistinctly separated, 16 mouthparts black. Thorax shining, the notum with fine pubes- cence, no scutellar hairs ; abdomen densely pubescent, opaque velvety except for a moderate middle dorsal shining stripe which includes the elongate genitalia. Hind metatarsi as long as the following two joints. Halteres blackish. Wings hyaline, the anterior veins nearly black, costal sections equal, the third vein attaining the distal third of the wing, marginal cell very narrow, radial crossvein much before the middle of the first vein and opposite the origin of the straight medial vein (m2), the fourth vein (mi) arising beyond the center of the wing as an imperfect fork from the second medial, cubital veins nearly straight. Length 3 mm., of the abdomen 2 mm. Laguna Beach, California. Type in Pomona College, Clare- mont, California. The preceding notes were made from a topo- type from the collection of Dr. J. M. Aldrich, who received it from Professor C. F. Baker. COBOLDIA, new genus ' Eyes contiguous on the front from the ocelli two-thirds the distance to the antennse leaving a hairy space above the an- tennae ; mouth-parts vestigial ; antennae shorter than the head, lo-jointed, the terminal joint not annulate but as long as the three preceding together. Mesonotum closely short-hairy. Ab- domen elongate oval, comprising eight segments, the last one with small genitalia. Legs short, the femora only moderately thickened, the tibiae without spurs or end-process, tarsi slender. Wings vestigal, rather oval in outline, the costa continued around the margin although weakened beyond the apex, the first vein ending in the costa at one-third the wing-length, the second vein ending at two-thirds, the third and fourth veins mutually curving and meeting before the wing-apex to form a large lanceolate cell extending nearly the length of the wing. Genotype, the following species. The derivation of the gen- eric name is from Kobold, a mischievous goblin of German folk-lore inhabiting mines and caves. Coboldia formicarum, new species (Fig. 4 ) 9 . Dark brown in color, the tarsi yellowish ; scutellum with about eight marginal setulse ; halteres blackish ; wings strongly infumated, especially the middle cell. Length 2 mm. A single specimen collected by Professor A. C. Burrill, July 17 28, I9i4> Madison, Wisconsin. The species is myrmecophi- lous, living with Camponotus herculaneus, var. pennsylvanicus, the type specimen having been taken as it crawled from a popu- lous nest of this species in a cottonwood located on University Avenue next the University High School. This is the second genus of the Scatopsid^e which exhibits inability to fly. The other, Thripomorpha, was described in 1905 by Enderlein for an apterous species, paliidicola, occurring in Germany. In the wingless genus the twelve antennal joints are distinctly differentiated. Species of Doubtful Location The following three species were described by Francis Walker on page 114 of his British Museum Fist, from material col- lected at St. Martin’s Falls, Albany River, Hudson Bay region. Their descriptions are too vague to permit assignment to genera and the species must remain unrecognizable until a further study is made of the types in the British Museum , or until the collection of topotypes will give some clew to their identity. Scatopse nitens Walker “Body black, shining; abdomen coppery black; feelers black; wings slightly gray, hardly fringed; fore border veins tawny, the rest very indistinct; poisers piceous.” Length 2 mm. Scatopse obscura Walker “Body black, dimly shining; feelers black; legs piceous ; wings gray, fringed; veins and poisers piceous.’’ Length 1.5 mm. Scatopse pusilla Walker “Body deep black; chest shining, somewhat compressed; feel- ers black, stout, subclavate ; legs dark piceous ; wings colorless, fringed; veins pale; poisers piceous.’’ Length i mm. 18 EXPLANATION OP FIGURES Plate 1 Fig. I Fig. 2 Fig- 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Fig. lo Fig. II Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16 Fig. 17 Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Fig. 20 Fig. 21 Rhegmoclema atrata Say. Larva. Rhegmoclema atrata Say. Pupa. Rhegmoclema atrata Say. Adult male. Coholdia formicarum, gen. et sp. nov. Aspistes herolinensis Meigen. Psectrosciara calif ornica Cole. Plate 2 Corynoscelis eximia Boheman. Wing. (Enderlein) Aspistes sp. Wing. (Williston) Aspistes analis Kirby. Antenna, 9 . (Aldrich, del.) Bctaetia clavipes Loew. Wing. (Loew) Synneuron annulipes Lundstrcem. Wing. (Lundstrcem) Scatopse notata Linnaeus. Wing. Aldrovandiella halterata Meigen. Wing. (Enderlein) Rhegmoclema himaculata, sp. nov. Wing. Rhegmoclema aterrima, sp. nov. Wing. Rhegmoclema scrohicollis, sp. nov. Wing. Reichertella collaris, sp. nov. Wing. Reichertella uncinata, sp. nov. Wing. Reichertella femoralis Meigen. Wing. Swammerdamella brevicornis Meigen. Wing. Psectrosciara scatopsiformis Enderlein. Wing. (Enderlein) 19 PLATE 1. A. L. M., del. 20 PLATE II. 20 21 STATE COLLEGE OF WASHINGTON AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION PULLMAN, WASHINGTON DIVISION OF BOTANY EVAPORATION OF APPLES -By- J. S. CALDWELL BULLETIN No. 131 May, 1916 A’.l Bulletins of this station sent free to citizens of the State on application to Director. BOARD OF CONTROL W. A. Ritz, President Walla Walla D. S. Troy, Vice President Chimacum E. O. Holland (President of College) Secretary ex-officio. .Pullman R. C. McCroskey Garfield James C. Cunningham Spokane E. T. Coman Spokane EXPERIMENT STATION STAFF Ira D. Cardiff, Ph. D. . O. L. Waller, Ph. M. . . A. L. Melander, Sc. D. O. M. Morris, M. S. . . . Geo. Severance, B. S.. C. C. Thom, M. S A. B. Nystrom, M. S. . Geo. A. Olson, M. S. . . W. T. Shaw, M. S. . . . E. G. Schafer, M. S. . . Wm. Hislop, M. S F. D. Heald, Ph. D C. A. Magoon, A. B.. J. W. Kalkus, D. V. S. . M. A. McCall, B. S J. S. Caldwell, Ph. D. . M. A. Yothers, M. S. . Henry F. Holtz, M. S. . E. F. Gaines, M. S. . . . C. B. Sprague, B. S. . . D. C. George, B. S. . . . H. M. Woolman F. W. Allen, M. S. . . . A. L. Sherman, B. S. . . M. B. Boissevain, B. S. Director and Botanist Irrigation Engineer Entomologist . Horticulturist Agriculturist Soil Physicist Dairy Husbandman Chemist Zoologist Agronomist Animal Husbandman Plant Pathologist Bacteriologist Veterinarian Dry Land Specialist By-products Specialist . . . .Assistant Entomologist . . . .Assistant Soil Physicist Acting Cerealist . .Assistant in Horticulture Assistant Plant Pathologist Assistant Plant Pathologist . . . Assistant Horticulturist Assistant Chemist . . .Assistant in Farm Crops TA15I.K OF (OXTFXTS Page Summary 7 Introduction 8 Present status of the apple industry in Oregon 9 Acreage of bearing and non-bearing trees, yield and value of crop, 1899-1914, 9; Extent of losses at present sustained by the industry, 11. Production and losses of fruits other than apples 12 Conditions determining the sort of byproduct plant needed. ... 13 Requirements for success of cannery, 14; of evaporator, 15. Can evaporated apples be profitably produced in Washington?. . . 16 Market prices of evaporated apples, 1908-1916, 17; yield of dry fruit per bushel, 17; costs of production, 18; market- ing costs, 18. Marketing the evaporated product 19 Production of evaporated apples in the United States, 1899-19 09, 20; exports of dried fruits to purchasing coun- tries, 1910-1915, 22; percentages taken by purchasing countries, 1910-1915, 21; markets open to Northwestern producer, 2 2. Review of the literature relating to evaporation 23 Types of evaporators 28 Only such types of evaporator as are commercially profit- able considered, 28; sources of information, 30. The kiln evaporator 31 Essential features, 32; uses and limitations, 33; construc- tion of buildings, 34; advantages of fireproof construction, 34; two-kiln evaporator, 37; plans of model building, 38; construction of furnace rooms, 39; paring room and epuip- ment, 40; types of bleachers, 41; care of drying fruit, 44; construction of ventilators of kilns, 44; four-kiln evapora- tor, 46; plans of building and arrangement of equipment, 47; conveyors and bins for apples, 48; construction of work tables and of conveyors for pared apples, 49; plants of larger capacity, 52; floor plans and equipment of eight- kiln evaporator, 53. Heating apparatus 52 Types of furnace available, 56; arrangement of piping of furnace, 57; jacket-and-hopper construction, 60. TABLE OF CONTENTS — Contiiiiiecl Page The kiln floor, materials and construction 61 Steam heated kilns 62' Arrangement of heating coils, 63; advantages and dis- advantages of employment of steam, 63. The tunnel evaporator 64 Origin of tunnel evaporator, 65; essential features and ad- vantages, 65; plan of building, 67; construction of tun- nels, 68; the furnace room, 71; the furnace, 72; construc- tion of trays, 73; operation of the tunnel evaporator, 74. The Carson-Snyder All-purpose evaporator 76^ Origin, 76; construction of drying units, 79; capacity and time required for drying, 81; construction of furnaces, 82; advantages of the method, 83; suggested modifications, 84. Evaporator machinery and equipment 86 Paring machines, 86; slicers, 88; other equipment, 89. Temperatures at which drying should be conducted 90 Relation of temperature of air to moisture-carrying capacity. ... 92 Artificial means of increasing circulation of air in the evaporator 9 3 Moisture content of evaporated apples 93^ Determining when the fruit is properly dried 95 Grading and packing the dried fruit 96 Definition of various grades recognized by dealers, 96; sizes of containers and methods of packing, 97. Varieties best for evaporation 97 Yields of dry fruit from different varieties The utilization of peels and cores 100 Costs of construction of evaporator buildings 100 Detailed estimates of cost of materials and construction for two types of kiln evaporator, 101; for two tunnel plants, 103; Carson-Snyder evaporator, 105. Cost of production of evaporated apples 105 Cost of labor in each type of plant, 106; cost of fuel, 108; supervision, maintenance, and depreciation, 109; total costs of production, 109. ILLUSTRATIONS Page Figure I — Ground-floor plan of two-kiln evaporator 38 Figure II — Second-floor plan of two-kiln evaporator 39 Figure III — Power bleacher 42 Figrue IV — Details of construction of ventilator 45 Figure V — Side elevation of four-kiln evaporator 46 Figure VI — Ground-floor plan of four-kiln evaporator 47 Figure VII — Second-floor plan of four-kiln evaporator 47 Figure VIII — Sectional side view of four-kiln evaporator, show- ing chutes and conveyors for apples 48 Figure IX — Sectional end view of four-kiln evaporator, show- ing chutes and conveyors for apples 49 Figure X — Sectional view of evaporator showing arrangement of paring table conveyors, elevators, bleacher, and slicer. . 51 Figure XI — Side elevation of eight-kiln evaporator 53 Figure XII — Front elevation of eight-kiln evaporator 54 Figure XIII — First-floor plan of eight kiln evaporator 54 Figure XIV — Second floor plan of eight-kiln evaporator 56 Figure XV — Sectional side elevation of eight-kiln evaporator. . 57 Figure XVI — Systems of piping for furnace 58 Figure XVII — Sectional view of kiln showing jacket-and-hopper around furnace 59 Figure XVIII — Details of construction of jacket-and-hopper, ... 60 Figure XIX — Sectional side view of tunnel evaporator 69 Figure XX — Sectional front view, Carson-Snyder evaporator. , . 7 8 Figure XXI — Detail of drying chamber of Carson-Snyder evap- orator 80 Figure XXII — An efficient and durable power parer 85 Figure XXIII — A power parer with automatic trimming at- tachment 87 Figure XXIV — A good type of power slicer. 89 EVAPORATION OF APPLES By J. S. CALDWELL Fruit By-Products Specialist SUMMARY Lowgrade apples and surplus apples may be most easily and profitably utilized by the construction of evaporators. The operation of small evaporating plants of the “family drier” type is not profitable, the fruit produced invariably costing more than its market value. To secure a safe margin of profit, an evaporator must have a capacity of not less than 400 bushels of apples per day, and should have a complete equipment of modern labor saving machinery. Three types of evaporator, the kiln or hop drier, the tunnel evaporator, and the Carson-Snyder or all-purpose evaporator, are recommended as adapted for use under Washington con- ditions. Of these the kiln drier is slightly the cheapest, both in construction and in operation. It gives excellent results vdth apples but is not well adapted to the drying of peaches, berries, or prunes. The tunnel and all-purpose evaporators are more expensive to build and operate, but will dry all classes of fruits perfectly satisfactorily. If other fruits than apples are available in considerable quantities for evapora- tion, the plant should be of the second or third type. Details as to construction, equipment, and operation of each of these three types of evaporators, with estimates of the cost of construction and operation, are fully given in subsequent pages of this bulletin. One bushel of C grade or good cull apples will yield 6 % to 71/2 pounds of fruit having 25 per cent moisture content the exact yield varying with variety as well as with size and quality of fruit. 7 The total cost of evaporation per bushel of apples will vary, for the three plants here described, from 15 to 16.5 cents, when hand labor is reduced to a minimum through the em- ployment of machinery. At present prices for evaporated fruit, the evaporator can pay $8.00 to $9.00 per ton for apples, discard peels and cores and yet make a fair profit upon his investment. With evapor- ated fruit selling at 8 cents per pound, the operator will not find it profitable to purchase apples for drying at a price higher than $10.00 per ton, unless peels and cores can be util- ized in the manufacture of vinegar and jellies. INTRODUCTION The present publication is tlie result of the first of a series of investigations having as their general purpose to make possible the conservation and utilization of low-grade and surplus fruits thru the introduction, development, and im- provement of methods for the conversion of such fruits into marketable products. Since the losses at present being sus- tained by the apple growers of the state thru failure to utilize such fruits considerably exceed the losses in all other branches, of the fruit industry, the problem of the utilization of low grade and cull apples was logically the first to be undertaken, and this paper is concerned primarily with methods for the evap- oration of apples by means of artificial heat as being the most feasible and generally available solution of the problem. While the methods described are for the most part equally applicable to the evaporation of peaches, berries, and prunes, no attempt is made to deal in detail with the handling and drying of these fruits. The writer makes no claim of origin- ality for the material presented; all the methods described are in general and successful use in some portion of the United States, and it is the function of this bulletin to bring together and describe such well-tried methods in some detail rather than to present new methods Avhich have not been sub- jected to the test of practical use. 8 PRESENT STATUS OF THE APPLE INDUSTRY IN WASHINGTON Of all the varied agricultural industries of the state of Washington, none has increased in importance or in capital invested more rapidly than the apple industry. From a pro- duction of 728,978 bushels in 1899, which placed the state twenty-sixth in the list of states in the production of apples, with only .41 per cent of the total crop to her credit, she had climbed in 1913 to sixth place, with 4.74 per cent of the entire crop of the United States, or 6,900,000 bushels, and the crops of 1914 and 1915 each considerably exceeded 7,000,000 bushels. Consequently, the last fifteen years have witnessed an in- crease of practically 1000 per cent in the production of apples in the state. In how far the value of the crop is l)eing affected by this rapid increase in production may be determined upon consideration of the fact that the Census of 1910 placed the average value of the apple crop of the United States for 1909 at 56.4 cents per bushel, but valued that of Washington at $1.09, while the Bureau of Crop Estimates^ estimated the value of the 1915 crop on January 15, 1916, at 86.1 cents per bushel for the United States as a whole and at 95 cents for Washington. Thus while the average per bushel value of the crop of the country at large in 1915 was 152 per cent of the 1909 value, the value of the Washington crop had decreased in 1915 to 87 per cent of the 1909 value. This very material decrease in the face of a general increase in values can only be accounted for by the fact that facilities for marketing the crop are not keeping pace with the increase in production, and that a very considerable portion of the crop fails to yield a return upon the investment which it represents. That the situation indicated by these figures is destined to become very much more serious in the not distant future is immediately evident when the figures showing the acreage of orchards not yet come into bearing are considered. In 1909, the state had 120,000 acres of apple orchards, with 3,009,337 1. Monthly Crop Report, Bureau of Crop Estimates, U. S. Dept. Agric., Feb. 29, 1916, page 14. 9 trees of bearing age and 4,862,702 trees not yet of bearing age. On January 1, 1913, the report of the Commissioner of Horticulture 1 showed the following results of careful estimates of the acreage on that date and of actual counts of the num- ber of trees on January 1, 1912, for the more important fruits : — > o O 13 fD CC dd CP ►-S i-» 3 p =-l CP O. CP p ►-! P CP a CP H-i !- S’ a cc -5 cc 5'E cr«! p ^ E3 cn (t ^ CL cc Apples 217,840 4,510,336 5,707,566 1,029,331 Pears 13,279 571,910 695,925 366,489 Peaches 17,072 1,079,578 640,723 43,430 Plums and prunes 10,927 920,843 171,194 99.370 Cherries 6,104 335,199 187,516 130,059 A 'n’pi Q o ri H quinces 1,635 42,775 105,339 20,945 pE • CO )_i ^ a p . CP rt- V S • p cc ' - CP - CP • C_| (0 o O -a P- • p cc ^ -s . p .. to P • p w ■ • a . , • CP AA'hen there is considered in connection with these figures the fact that in the spring of 1914 there were planted in the state 555,962 apple trees, 100,659 pears, 51,381 plums and prunes, 35,389 cherries, and 21,231 quinces and apricots^, it is evident that planting was at that time going on at an enormously rapid rate, and that as a consequence production is destined to continue increasing rapidly for some years to come, thru the coming into bearing of younger orchards as well as from the greater age of the older ones. Many of the younger orchards, by reason of unfavorable location, lack of care, or other unfavorable conditions, will never come into bearing, but it is evident that present marketing facilities for fresh fruit will soon be hopelessly inadequate to handle the great volume of commercial fruit, and that unless the fruit interests of the state are to face the destruction of their mar- kets, methods for converting large quantities of fruit into stable marketable products must speedily be devised and put into operation. 1. First Biennial Report, Dept. Agric. of Washington, 1913-14, pages 80-84; 41-47. 10 The Extent of the Losses at Present Sustained by the Apple Industry Under the rigid system of grading in use in this state, a very considerable percentage of the apple crop is kept out of the markets by defects in color or minor imperfections which in no degree decrease its food value. In sections which give their orchards insufficient attention or in regions in which the attacks of insect and fungous pests are especially severe, C grade or cull fruit may make up half or more than half of the total product of the orchards. It is impossible to estimate the percentage of the crop^ which fails to find a mar- ket or is sold at a fraction of its real value for these reasons; Mr. Samuel Fraser, President of the New York State Evap- orated Fruit Producers’ Association, said in 1912, ‘‘Last year the equivalent of over 5,000,000 pounds of dried apples were wasted in the orchards of Oregon and Washington (this is approximately 750,000 bushels of fresh fruit) and at the present time only 33 per cent of the fruit grown on the Pa- cific coast is shipped in boxes, leaving 67 per cent of the crop which must be utilized in some other way or else allowed to decay. This is the statement of one of the best informed fruit growers of the eastern states, and while it is probable that his figures are now wide of the mark by reason of im- provements in the cooperative marketing of apples which have been made in the past four years, estimates by a num- ber of conservative persons who are thoroly familiar with conditions in the leading apple-producing districts of the state put the losses in their respective localities, when the total production in both commercial and small home orchards is considered, at figures ranging from 10 to 35 per cent. That such estimates are not far above the mark is indicated by some figures from the state of New York. That state, with her ma- terially different system of grading and her large home market for fresh fruit, puts a very much larger share of her crop on the market in the fresh condition than does Washington, while her 1. Fraser, Samuel, The Dried Fruit Industry in the United States, The Evaporator, Vol. 4, No. 12, September, 1915, pages 7-14, 11 large number of canneries, vinegar and cider factories, and other by-products plants, absorb proportionately more of the crop than is the case in AVashington. Despite these facts, that state, Avith a total yield in 1909 of 25,409,324 bushels, made from culls and loAver grades 33,652,115 pounds of eAmporated apples, equivalent to 4,900,000 bushels of fresh fruit, or very nearly 20 per cent of the entire crop. While Washington markets a larger proportion of her commercial crop in the fresh condi- tion, it can scarcely be doubted that Avith proportionately feAver by-product plants, she loses at least as large a share of her total crop as these comparisons AA^ould indicate. PRODUCTION AND LOSSES OF FRUITS OTHER THAN APPLES It is impossible to secure figures AAdiich represent the present production of fruits other than apples in the state of Wash- ington, since these fruits are not included in the estimates made by the Bureau of Crop Estimates. For the ten-year census period 1900-1910, the production of plums and primes increased 350 per cent; of pears, 297 per cent; of apricots, 105 per cent; of cherries, 154 per cent, and of peaches 4 per cent (since this year Avas generally unfavorable for peaches, these figures do not represent the real condition). Since 1910, plantings of pears, peaches, and cherries have been made at very rapid rates, and it is probable that for these fruits the number of trees three years of age or less is equal to the AA^hole number of bearing trees, hence it is- obvious that the next feAv years AAnll bring a A^ery large increase in the Amlume of these fruits coming on the market That such in- crease AAull be attended by very large losses is inevitable unless methods of converting these fruits into less perishable form at the centers of production are developed. It has been shoAAml»2 that Avhile red raspberries, cherries, and prunes 1. Ramsey, H. J., Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Red Raspberries from the Puyallup Valley. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 274. 1915. 2. Ramsey, H. .7., The Handling and Shipping of Fresh Cherries and Prunes from the AVillamette Valley. U. S. Dept. Agric. Bull. 331. 1916. can be shipped- for considerable distances in the fresh condi- tion, good results can be secured only when all the operations of picking, handling, and i)ack:ng are conducted with a degree of care which it is practically impossible to secure in ordinary commercial orchard practice. Consequently, shipment to dis- tant markets in the fresh condition cannot .be regarded as an immediately available means of disposing of any consider- able quantities of these fruits or of our rapidly increasing volume of loganberries and blackberries. It is evident from what has been said that the growers of the state are facing a very serious situation. No industry can have any reasonable hope of success so long as 10 to 25 per cent of the annual product yields no returns for the ex- penditure made upon it. This would be true even if every year were one of maximum production, but the crop is one which fluctuates very greatly from year to year, and a con- stant return upon the investment represented by an orchard can be secured only when every portion of every crop is converted into marketable products returning a margin of profit. Consequently, the problem before the fruit growers of the state is the devising of means for converting their highly perishable product into less perishable marketable forms. CONDITIONS DETERMINING THE SORT OF BY-PRO- DUCT PLANT NEEDED Since there are, broadly speaking, two general methods of preserving perishable foodstuffs, by sterilizing with heat and sealing or by reducing the moisture content to a point at which growth of bacteria and fungi cannot occur, the by- products plant must be either a cannery or an evaporator. If it is to utilize fully all the unmarketable and surplus fruits of its district, the cannery must carry on such related activi- ties as the making of jams, jellies, marmalades, preserves, fruit butters, and cider or vinegar, while the evaporating plant may advantageously utilize its waste by manufacturing vine- gar therefrom. Consequently, any step toward utilization of 13 lowgrade fruit in a community involves first of all a decision, as to whether a cannery or an evaporator will best meet the needs of the particular case. A very large number of fac- tors, some of which are obvious while others are apt to be overlooked by persons unfamiliar with the operation of such plants, need to be ver}^ carefully considered in making such a decision, and it may be of some value to briefly review these before going further. The writer desires to say frankly that his study of condi- tions in the state compel him to regard the establishment of a cannery, either by an individual or by a cooperative or- ganization, as a very doubtfully profitable undertaking unless- the conditions are favorable to a very exceptional degree. This attitude is, I believe, fully justified by the past history of canneries in general, and of cooperative canneries in par- ticular, in the Northwest. The Report of the Chief of the Office of Markets and Rural Organization for 1915 characterizes the business of the co- operative cannery as a hazardous one, stating that more than SO per cent of such canneries have been total failuresi. That office has just completed a survey of the business of 21 repre- sentative cooperative canneries in Washington, Oregon and California, and has brought together an enormous mass of data which may be obtained by those who are considering the estab- lishment of such a cannery upon request made to the Chief,. Office of Markets and Rural Organization, IJ. S. Department of Agriculture, AVashington, D. C. Briefly stated, success in the establishment and operation of a cannery demands ample capital for installing efficient modern equipment and employing well trained and exper- ienced supervisors of the technical processes involved, as well as for the purchase of cans, raw materials, and labor, and for carrjung the manufactured product in storage until favorable marketing conditions are obtained. There must be available at moderate prices an ample supply not only of fruits but of 1. Brand, Charles J., Report of the Chief of the Office of Mar- kets and Rural Organization, Separate from Annual Report Dept. Agric., 1915, pp. 7-8. 14 vegetables also, in order that overhead charges may l)e re- duced by a long working season at full capacity. Transporta- tion facilities must be good and rates must be favorable, since the plant will purchase its cans and its fuel at a dis- dance and will have to transport its bulky product to the markets. Fuel and labor must be obtainable at moderate rates. Finally, every cannery has to .solve a marketing prob- lem distinct from that of every other similar concern. Canned goods of the better grades are coming to be sold upon the reputation of the maker’s name or brand almost to the same degree as are smoking tobaccos or breakfast foods, and the new cannery must be financially strong enough to forego profits while it is establishing a reputation and a market for its goods. Lacking any of these conditions, or possessing them but lacking a manager who combines administrative ability and good salesmanship with unlimited energy, the new cannery is likely to prove a worse than doubtful investment. Comparatively speaking, the evaporating plant has many advantages over the cannery. The initial cost of building and ecpiipment necessary to handle a given volume of material is much less, the machinery is less costly and depreciates much less rapidly. The employment of a technicall}^ trained, high- salaried supervisor is not necessary. Therefore, the fixed charges (interest on investment, depreciation, insurance, .sup- ervision) are proportionately loAver, and many of the best evaporators of the Eastern apple districts make a profit de- spite the fact that they dry nothing but apples, hence operate only about 60 days each year. Under the conditions prevail- ing in Washington this would scarcely be possible, but there are few districts in the state in which an evaporator would not have either peaches, berries or prunes, in some quantity, to lengthen its operating season. While the evaporator is by no means independent of facilities for transportation, it has the enormous advantage that it produces a concentrated product which can be transported far more cheaply than either fresh fruit or canned goods ; which requires no outlay for expensive containers, and which can be stored almost indefi- 15 nitely, under proper conditions, in relatively small space. Finally, the product is one which is readily examined and graded, hence every lot goes on the market at the price to which its quality entitles it, and does not depend upon brand name or previously established reputation for its sale. What has just, been said must not be misinterpreted: the business of evaporation is one which has its hazards, the mar- gin of profit is low, and the poorly managed, badly located plant will fail no less certainly than if it were an improperly located, badly managed cannery. But given an assured and adequate supply of fruit of good quality at moderate prices, a modern equipment of efficient, labor-saving ma- chinery, and capable oversight and management, an evap- orating plant has more than a fair chance of realizing a rea- sonable return upon the investment anywhere in the North- west. CAN COMMERCIAL EVAPORATED APPLES BE PROFIT- ABLY PRODUCED IN WASHINGTON? In order to answer this question, the range of market prices for evaporated apples for some years past, the present cost of production and marketing, the probable cost of fresh fruit per bushel, and the average yield of dry stock therefrom must be considered. Some of these matters receive detailed dis- cussion in subsquent pagos, but the essential facts may be summarized here. Table I gives the wholesale prices per pound at which prime evaporated apples, packed in standard 50-pound boxes, were selling in car lots on the New York market on January 1, April 1, August 1, and November 1 of each year since 1908. It may be noted that for any given year the August quota- tions represent speculative offers for November or December deliveries and are based upon the crop condition and prob- able production, the November and January quotations rep- resent the prices at which the great bulk of the product is actually sold, while the April figures represent prices at which cold-storage stocks and the last small holdings in makers’ hands are cleared up, and are to some extent determined by 16 the prospects for the next crop. Figures for the New York market were selected for the reason that prices there set determine those paid thruout the country. Prices offered for choice and fancj^ stock regularly range % to 1% cent per pound above the prices quoted for prime. TABLE I Wholesale Prices Per Pound of Prime Evaporated Apples On The New York Market, 1909-1916. Jan. 1 April 1 Aug. 1 Nov. 1 cts. cts. cts. cts. 1909 6% 7 8 8 % 1910 71/2 6% 71/2 8t4 1911 10% 121/2 131/2 10 1912 8 1/2 71/2 7 6 1913 5% 51/2 6% 71/2 1914 8 1/4 91/2 6 51/2 1915 5 78 7% 7% 71/4 1916 7% 6 For the corresponding period, prices quoted by the Seattle and Spokane markets for prime evaporated apples are con- sistently 11/2 to 2 cents per pound higher than the New York market, as on April 1st, 1916, when the New York quotation for prime was 6 cents, that of Seattle and Portland 8 cents. Consequently, the price paid for prime boxed evaporated ap- ples, wholesale in the Washington cities has at no time within the past eight years ranged below 7% cents in so far as the avaliable records show. From 100 pounds of C grade or good culls, the evaporator may conservatively expect to secure 12% to 141/2 pounds of fruit dried to a moisture content of 25 per cent, the exact amount varying not only with the quality but also with the variety. Of this yield, 20 per cent should be of such char- acter as to grade ‘‘choice” or “fancy” and sell at a price ICo cents a pound above prime; at least 70 per cent will grade as prime, and the remaining 10 per cent will consist of broken or imperfectly cored rings which will sell as middling at a price % or 1 cent per pound below prime. Considering the whole output as prime, which is conservative in view of the fact that the increased price received for the choice stock will 17 more than offset the lower returns for the middling, and tak- ing the lowest yields per bushel stated above together with the lowest price reached on the Washington market within the past eight years, the evaporator would get from 100 pounds of apples I2V2 pounds of dry fruit which at 7% cents would yield 85.9 cents, or 42.9 cents per bushel for the fresh fruit. The cost of production of evaporated fruit With the types of evaporators to be described, as shown in detail on subsequent pages, will range from 15 to 16.5 cents per bushel. Since the cost of labor and fuel will vary considerably in different localities, the higher figure may be taken. Deducting 16.5 cents from 42.9 cents, there remain 26.15 cents out of which the operator must purchase his apples, pay the broker’s com- missions and shipping charges"^ on the dry product, and make his profit. An average price of $8.00 to $8.50 a ton, or 20 to 21 V4 cents a bushel, could safely be paid for apples with a fair margin of profit, even if no profitable disposition could be made of peels and cores, and if no windfalls and immature fruits, which make a satisfactory product if dried to a lower water content than mature stock, were used. The above figures are conservative, since the yield per bushel is figured at the minimum, the cost of production at the highest figures given, it is assumed that no returns are received from peels and cores, and the price of the dry stock is set at the lowest point reached within eight years. This has been purposely done, in order that persons interested in the subject may see exactly what the possibilities of the *In this connection attention may be called to the fact that the Northwest By-products Board is organizing an evaporated apple sales agency which will undertake the grading and marketing of all evaporated apples produced in the North Pacific states at a uni- form charge of 5 per cent of the sale price of the fruit. This serv- ice will reach a wider market than any with which the individual operator could hope to secure contact through his own efforts, and the charge named is certainly less than it would cost most individ- uals to market their product. Consequently, persons or communities establishing evaporators should by all means avail themselves of the services of this sales agency, as they will thereby secure better prices, a lower cost for the service given them, and will at the same time assist to maintain and stabilize a market which would become de- moralized under attem])ts to dispose of the product without the aid of such an agency. IS business, under the least favorable conditions of production and with lowest prices on the market, really are. That the figures are conservative is shown by the fact that several com- mercial evaporators in Oregon and Washington, with incom- plete equipment and consequently with higher costs of pro- duction than those here given, are operating at a profit after paying an average price of $10.00 per ton for their apples. It is evident from these figures that the evaporation of apples which can find a ready market in the fresh condition at a price of 30 cents or more per bushel will not be profital)le. That community which can dispose of practically all its pro- duct at prices above $10.00 a ton will not be aided by an evaporator. But any community which has annually 10,000 bushels or more of apples which cannot be sold at that price, or which decay in the orchards or are fed to animals in default of a market at any price, will be enabled to turn this loss into a source of revenue through the construction of an evaporator. MARKETING THE EVAPORATED PRODUCT The question, “Can the Northwest find a ready market for any considerable volume of evaporated fruits?” is one which may properly be asked as soon as evaporation begins to be seriously considered as a possible means of utilizing any con- siderable amount of fruit. While it is. beyond the province of this paper to enter into a detailed discussion of the market- ing problem, some pertinent facts relating to the question of production and consumption of evaporated fruits may be briefly stated. Table II shows the total production of evaporated apples in the United States and in each of the chief producing states for the years 1899, 1904 and 1909. The striking fact shown by these figures is immediately obvious; the production of evaporated apples is becoming centralized in New York and California, while the output of the apple producing states of the interior is remaining stationary or actually decreasing. AYhile accurate figures showing production in years subsequent to 1909 in the various states are not obtainable, all estimates 19 TABLE II Production of Evaporated Apples, United States, 1899-1909 1889 1904 1909 pounds pounds pounds United States 33,212,309 40,737,089 44,568,244 New York 21,542,897 31,458,702 33,652,115 Michigan 4,418,453 3,632,781 1,982,611 Illinois 1,424,149 1,518,145 202,100 Arkansas 1,402,000 3,001,003 1,571,945 Pennsylvania 570,490 218,454 293,750 California 3,087,220 811,254 6,860,170 Oregon 37,250 50,000 4,433 All other states 729,850 46,750 1,000 agree in indicating that the same general condition holds, that the interior states are not materially increasing their contributions to the total volume of evaporated apples, that New York produces practically 75 per cent of the average annual total production, while California, which now produces annually 8,000,000 or 9,000,000 pounds, furnishes approximate- ly half of the remainder. Therefore, in so far as markets within the boundaries of the United States are concerned, they must be supplied by shipment from centers of production at the northeastern edge of the Atlantic border or near the southeastern extremity of the Pacific seaboard. After home needs are supplied, Washington producers may hope to suc- cessfully compete for the business of supplying consumers in a certain portion of- the United States, while their geographic position gives them a practical monopoly of business with Alaska and portions of Canada, and enables them to compete on equal terms for business in South and Central America, which are already considerable purchasers of evaporated fruits and will enormously increase their takings when assured that they can purchase a product dry enough to keep under their climatic conditions. As regards the distribution to foreign markets, the war in Europe has completely transformed the situation. Table III shows the normal distribution of American evaporated fruits, in so far as statistics are available, to consuming foreign coun- tries for the five year period ending with 1914 and for com- parison with this the percentages taken by these countries 20 TABLE nil Distribution of American Evaporated Apples Exported, for the Five-Year Period 1910-1914 and for 1915. Pet. taken Pet. taken 1910-14 1915 Germany 49.7 .2 5 Netherlands 27.4 12.2 Belgium 5.5 . 0.0 Denmark 3.7 45.0 United Kingdom 3.4 12.0 Sv/eden 3.2 25.4 Norway 0.9 4.5 All other countries 6.2 .65 during the year 1915, under war conditions. Germany, which has been since 1895 our leading purchaser of evaporated ap- ples, taking nearly one-half the total exports and reselling a considerable share of her takings to Russia and the Scandi- navian countries, is of course, no longer a direct buyer. In- stead, Denmark and Sweden have become purchasers of nearly 70 per cent of our exported apples, most of which are of course resold to countries now at war. The takings of the United Kingdom show almost a fourfold increase, while those of the Netherlands are reduced to less than one-half of their former volume. Table IV shows in detail the exports of evaporated apples, prunes, apricots and peaches to the various purchasing coun- tries for the years 1912, 1913, 1914, and 1915. Notwithstand- ing the elimination of Germany from the list of direct pur- chasers, our exports of dried fruits as a whole increased, for the year 1915, 21 per cent over the five-year average for 191U- 1914. Consequently the depression of the markets for the past eighteen months has been due largely to manipulation, not to failure of the rest of the world to take their normal share of the fruit produced. The close of the war and the resulting gradual return to normal conditions will witness material changes in the avenues of distribution of American evaporated fruits, as of other products. The great orchard regions of northern France and 1. Figures compiled from Monthly Summary of Foreign Com- merce of the United States for the years 1910 to 1915 inclusive. 21 of Austria have been almost totally destroyed, and will no longer largely supply the commercial apple markets of Europe instead, these countries will become purchasers of both fresh and dried fruits produced in the United States. Russia and the Scandinavian countries will be larger purchasers than here- tofore, and will deal with the producers instead of buying thru Germany. Switzerland and Australia are coming into the markets for larger quantities of apples than heretofore, and there is every indication that there is to be an adequate market for a constantly increasing volume of American evaporated fruits. TABLE IV2 Exports of Evaporated Fruits, 1912-1915 Apples — 1912 1913 1914 1915 pounds pounds pounds pounds G# rmany ,17,208,305 19,257,477 8,502,178 Netherlands . . . . 11,201,345 10,669,483 6,325,337 4,238,894 Other countries. . , 9,338,542 8,807,505 16,200,036 29,666,714 Totals .37,748,192 38,734,465 31,027,551 33,905.608 Prunes — France 10,903,918 14,461,489 839,807 1,885,738 Germany ,33,278,279 33,834,016 2,941,801 United Kingdom . 7,808,016 11,238,160 7,248,311 15,677,907 Other Europe . . .26,561,769 19,700,649 11,557,292 18,572,416 Canada 11,355,414 12,223,800 9,896,534 10,941,789 All other c’ntries 2,731,069 2,886,043 2,744,992 3,897,787 Totals ,92,638,465 94,344,157 35,228,737 50,775,637 Apricots — France 3,963,415 3,288,422 1,249,970 2,937,203 Germany , 8,557,142 4,022,052 561,760 Netherlands . . . . 3,654,380 2,173,795 848,820 2,043,865 United Kingdom . 10,579,264 7,143,821 7,121,170 7,062,390 Other countries. . 5,771,220 4,697,438 6,759,502 13,704,142 Totals 32,525,421 21,325,528 16,541,222 25,747,600 Peaches — To all c’ntries (not on record) 4,609,867 5,723,904 18,720,272 1. H. W. Collingwood, former editor Rural New Yorker, in inter- view published in The Evaporator, Vol. 8, No. 2, November, 1915, p. 14. 2. Figures for years 1912-1914 from Monthly Summary of For- eign Commerce of the United States for December, 1914, pp. 490- 491; those for 1915 from same publication for December, 1915, ■page 31. 22 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE RELATING TO EVAPORATION While the evaporation of apples and berries has long been an established industry in certain sections of the United States, and the evaporation of prunes has in recent years become a business of very considerable magnitude, the literature deal- ing with the subject of evaporation is surprisingly small in amount. The methods in use today have been gradually de- veloped by practical evaporator operators and have never been subjected to systematic scientific investigation with a view to their improvement and increase in efficiency. Consequently such papers as deal with the subject, while they are for the most part publications of various experiment stations, are con- fined to descriptions of prevailing methods in use, with very few suggestions for their improvement. Since old methods are continually undergoing modifications or being entirely re- placed by more efficient ones, most of these descriptions have now little more than historical value, because they apply to machines and processes which have become obsolete. This brief review is inserted here in the hope that is may be of service to those desiring to acquaint themselves with the ex- isting literature. In 1895, Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell Universityl, in a bulletin on the evaporation of raspberries, outlined the his- tory of the evaporator industry in Western New York, briefly described the first small portable evaporators used, and de- voted a few paragraphs to steam and kiln driers. The paper is chiefly devoted to a detailed description of the then widely used Culver-Cassidy tower or stack evaporator, which has since gone wholly out of use in New York, altho it is still em- ployed in a modified form in California. Two years later. Professor U. P. Hedrick of the Oregon Agricultural Experi- ment Station, in a comprehensive bulletin of that station on the cultivation and caring of prunes, 2 devoted some twenty 1. Bailey, L. H., Evaporated Raspberries in Western New York, Bull. 100, Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Sta., 40 pp. 1895. 2. Hedrick, U. P., Prunes in Oregon, Bull. 4 5, Oregon Agric. Exp. Sta., 127 pp. 1897. 23 pages to descriptions of six evaporating plants used in the evaporation of prunes. Only two of these, the Allen and the Carson, have survived the test of time and have done so only thru extensive modification and improvement. Balmert in a bulletin on prunes issued l)y the AVashington Station in 1899, has described a number of evaporators, including sev- eral not mentioned by Hedrick, but diligent inquiry has failed to discover an operator Avho is using one of them at the present time. AhvoocH, in a paper appearing in 1895, described a small steam evaporator devised by himself, which appears to have .very little to differentiate it from a number of others put on the market about that time. Alwood’s experimental machine turned out a product of excellent quality but the cost of con- struction and operation was so high as to prohibit its use com- mercially, and the author abandoned the work without ob- taining any results of practical value. ^ Farmers Bulletin 218, by L. C. Corbett^, is devoted pri- marily to directions for the culture of raspberries, but takes up also methods of evaporation. Three types of evaporators, all derived by slight modifications from types generally in use for the evaporation of apples, are rather briefly- described. These are the shaft or flue evaporator, identical in general construction and operation with the tower evaporators em- ployed for apples, the cabinet evaporator, and the hop-kihi drier, which is the kiln universally used in the New York apple districts. Some general facts as to construction are given and the relative merits of the different types for use in drying raspberries are briefly discussed, but no estimates of cost of construction or of operation are given. 1. Balmer, .1. A., Prunes, Bull. 38, Washington Agric. Exp. Sta., 44 pp. 1899. 2. Ahvood. Wm. B., Evaporating Apples, Bull. 4 8, Va. Agric. Exp. Sta., 16 pp. 1895. 3. Alwood, Wm. B., The Utilization of Unmerchantable Apples, Bull. 57, Va. Agric. Exp. Sta., 16 pp., 1895. 4. Corbett, L. C., Raspberries. U. S. Dept. Agric. Farmers Bull. 213, 38 pp 1905. 24 The only paper dealing in ain^ detail with all phases of the •construction and operation of evaporators is that of Gouldl. The three types of evaporators just named are described there- in in considerably greater detail than in Corbett’s paper, especially in the case of the kiln evaporator. In addition, evaporator appliances and machinery, paring machines, slieers, bleachers, heating apparatus, the selection and preparation of fruit for drying, temperatures employed, time for drying, amount of fuel needed, and methods of packing the dry pro- duct are among the topics receiving attention. The paper is hy far the most satisfactory account of .the industry in print, .and the writer acknowledges liberal use of the material con- tained in it in the preparation of this paper. Other papers dealing with some phase of the industry are those of Warren^, Brackett^, Fraser^, Dosch^, and Allen^, The first named is a veiw^ brief popular statement of methods which describes a few small home or family driers, while Brackett’s paper is a purely general discussion of drying 5,nd canning. Professor Fraser’s paper reviews in some detail the development of the dried fruit industry in the various states concerned, and points out the need of scientific study looking toward the improvement of the product. The papers of Dosch and of Allen are concerned with the evaporation of prunes and are devoted to criticisms of incorrect practices rather than to systematic descriptions of drying plants or di- rections for their operation. 1. Gould, H. P., Evaporation of Apples,' U. S. Dept. Agric. Farm- •ers Bull. 291, 38 pp. 1907, re-issued without change, 1915. 2. Warren, G. F., Evaporating as a home industry in the United States, Bailey’s Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 4th ed, Vol. 2, pp. 174-177, 1912. 3. Brackett, G. B., Utilizing Surplus Fruit, Yearbook, Dept, of Agric., 1888, pp. 309-317. 4. Fraser, Samuel, The Dried Fruit Industry in the United States,, The Evaporator, Vol. 4, No. 12, pp, 7-14, September, 1912. 5. Dosch, Henry E., Fruit Evaporation, Fifth Biennial Report Board of Horticulture of Oregon, pp, 440-446, 1898. 6. Allen, R. D., The Prune and the Methods of Evaporation, Fifth Biennial Report Board of Horticulture of Oregon, pp. 485-493, 1898, Two recent papers^-^ from the Oregon Agricultural Ex- periment Station deal to some extent with the evaporation of fruits, in connection with a general discussion of means of utilizing surplus fruits. The first of these papers devotes four pages to a general outline of the process of evaporation in kiln driers, the second contains plans of a model tunnel evap- orator with a discussion of methods of picking, handling and drying loganberries and a statement of results of experiments with evaporation at various temperatures. Brown and Brad- ford of the Oregon Station, in a paper on the drying of prunes^ briefly describe the stack, tunnel and .Tory driers. Their paper also discusses methods of dipping and bleaching, temperatures for drying, and cost of the process. In a pul)lication received while this bulletin is passing thru the press, FarrelO has described and given full plans for the construction of a small cabinet evaporator devised by himself. The plan combines some features of the older family or cook- stove driers with others derived from the tunnel evaporator. The capacity of the plant is 30 to 50 bushels per day when oper- ated continuously, which would make its cost of operation pro- hibitive under the conditions prevailing in Washington. Brannt’s comprehensive treatise on the manufacture of vine- gar 5 contains a rather full description, with figures, of two tower evaporators called from their inventors the Alden and the Williams. The description of the kiln evaporator given is cpioted bodily from the paper by Gould already cited. Some general statements as to the methods of preparing apples and vegetables for evaporation are given, but the whole account 1. Lewis, C. L., and Brown, W. S., Fruit and Vegetable By-Pro- ducts, Oregon Agric. College Extension Service, College Bull. 12 8, pp. 48, 1914. 2. Lewis, C. I., and Brown, F. R., Loganberry By-Products. Ore- gon Agric. Exp. Sta., Bull. 117, 32 pp., 1914. 3. Brown, F. R., and Bradford, F. C., The Drying of Prunes. Bi- ennial Crop Pest and Horticultural Report, Oregon Agric. Expt. Sta- tion, 1911-1912, pp. 51-58. 4 Farrell, .T., Apple Drying. Journal of the Board of Agriculture Victoria, Australia, 16:196-211. 1916. 5. Brannt, Wm. T., A Practical Teatise on the Manufacture of Vinegar, 3rd Ed., Philadelphia, 1914, pp. 465-486. 26 is of a general character and contains little which would be of help to an amateur desiring to enter the business. A very brief description of a kiln evaporator is given in a publication by the Secretary of the Missouri State Horticultural Societ}"!. The directions for construction, estimates of ma- terial necessary, and suggestions for operation are clear and concise, but the type of building is the cheapest, most flimsy wooden structure possible. As regards chemical studies of the composition of evap- orated apples or fruits or of the changes in composition imdeiv gone in the process of drying, a diligent search of the literature reveals very little. In 1886, Edgar Richards^, working in the Bureau of Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, made comprehensive analyses of entire fresh fruits and of peeled and cored fruits, before and after drying, on 17 varieties of apples. The results show the character and extent of the slight changes undergone in the course of the drying process, and the methods employed in drying are very briefly described. In 1899, C. A. Browne, Jr., of the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, published a report of rather extensive studies of the chemistry of the apple and apple pro- ducts^. Five pages of this paper are devoted to discussion of chemical composition of evaporated apples in comparison with fresh fruits; to the effects of sulphuring, and to rela- tive yield of dry product from different varieties of apples.. Lastly, Brannt, in the work already cited, gives composition before and after evaporation for Baldwin apples. Studies of the chemical composition of fresh fruit and dried prunes have been carried on at the Oregon Station by G. W. Shaw. In a publication by Hedrick, already cited^, some eight pages are devoted to reports of Shaw’s analyses of a num- ber of samples of Italian and Silver prunes, fresh and dried, 1. Goodman, L. A., Commercial Fruit Evaporators, Circ. Inform. 14, Univ. Mo. Agric. Exp. Sta., 1903. 2. Richards, Edgar, Analyses of Apples, Report Com. Agric. for 1886, Washington, D. C., 1887, pp. 350-355. 3. Browne, C. A., Jr., A Chemical Study of the Apple and Its Products, Penn. Dept. Agric. Bull. 58, 46 pp. 1899. 4. Bull. 45, Oregon Agric. Exp. Sta., pp. 91-98. 27 aiul a later i)ul)lieatioii^ gave results of a more extensive- series of analyses of a nnmber of varieties. At the California Agrienltnral Experiment Station, extensive investigations of the chemical composition of prunes, peaches and apricots were made by G. E. Colby2 and are reported in the Annual Re- ports of that Station for the years 1891-94, while methods and effects of sulphuring are briefly discussed by E. W. Hilgard in a publication of the same station. 3 A considerable number of papers dealing in more or less general and popular fashion Avith some of the various phases of the subject of fruit evaporation are scattered thru the tiles of the horticultural journals. Mention of these is omitted, since the purpose of this re^dew is not to bring together a com- plete bibliography of evaporation, but to notice such papers as Avill be at once accessible and valuable. It Avill be obvious to the reader that of these, those of Gould, Corbett, and Lewis, and his co-Avorkers are the most recent, and therefore the only ones Avhich may be said to deal Avith methods actually in general use. Of the present paper it may be said that it has been the- author’s purpose to bring together from the literature all the existing data of value in regard to evaporators and their oper- ation ; to supplement this by including the results of personal' investigation and incpiiry, and to prepare someAA^hat more de- tailed plans for construction and instructions for equipment and operation of evaporators suitable for use in the NortliAvest than are at present to be found in print. TYPES OF EVAPORATORS In Avhat folloAvs it is the author’s purpose to describe in some detail those types of evaporating plants Avhich have been 1. ShaAv^ G. W., The Oregon Prune; Its Composition, Food Value, Soil Draught, Oregon Agric. Exp. Sta. Bull. 61, 18 pp. 1900. 2. ColbA% G. E., Analyses of Fruit and Vegetable Products, Report Agric. Exp. Sta. Univ. of Calif, for 1891-92, pp. 91-116; same for 1892-94, pp. 257-274; also Bulletins 93, 97, and 101 of that station. 3. -Hilgard, E. W., The Sulphuring of Fruits, Report Agri. Exp. Sta. Uni\^ of Calif., 189 0, pp. 131-133; also Bulletin 86 of that sta- tion. 28 subjected to the thoro test of long continued general use, and proven thereby to be efficient and profitable when operated upon a commercial scale. Consequently, no attempt is made to include such evaporating devices as have at some time in the past been in more or less extended use but have since been generally discardedi. Nor is any mention made of two or three machines, essentially new in tj^pe, which are just now attracting some attention in the Northwest, for the reason that none of these can be said to have passed the experimental stage, and it yet remains to be seen whether they can be con- structed and operated upon a commercial scale with any as- surance of a reasonable profit. Also, no description is given of any of the numerous ‘'family driers” or “family evaporat- ors” of small capacity, intended to be operated over a kitchen stove or small heater and to furnish a means of drying the winter supply of fruit for the family. It may be said of all these small machines that while the cpiality of their product is usually good, the expense of operation is high and the product invariably costs more, when labor, cost of raw material, fuel, and depreciation of the machine are considered, than the fruit produced could be sold for in the markets. Those who prefer to prepare their own family supplies at home may, by the exercise of a reasonable degree of care, make a satisfactory product with any one of a number of small portable driers, but no one should allow himself to undertake such a task in the belief that any real saving of money can be effected thereby or that the product will be superior to the standard grades obtainable in the market. Sun drying is not discussed here, but will be dealt with in a subsequent publication. In the descriptions of evaporator buildings and equipment which follows, no attempt has been made to draw up rigid detailed specifications covering all the details of construction. The intention is to present general schemes for the construction 1. The reader who is interested in the history of evaporation in the Northwest will find a large number of machines of the class here mentioned briefly described in “Prunes in Oregon/’ by U. P. Hedrick, Bulletin 45,- Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, 1897, and in “Prunes,” by J. A. Balmer, Bulletin 38, Washington Agricul- tural Experiment Station, 1899. 29 of buildings in which the general arrangement shall be as con- venient and as well adapted to the purpose as possible, hence the plans are drawn from buildings operated by practical evaporator men of long and wide experience in the business^ and commended by them as embodying the best possible fea- tures.. Local conditions must determine the materials to be used in construction, the extent to which power machinery shall take the place of hand labor, the type of heating equip- ment to be used, and many other details. The person entrusted with the constructimi of the building and the installation of the equipment must have had sufficient experience in con- struction and in the making or the interpreting of plans to be able to work out such modifications of the generalized plans as will adapt them to the needs of the particular case. It is believed that the descriptions are sufficiently detailed, when studied in connection with the accompanying sketches and the estimates of material necessary, to enable a workman of or- dinary experience to do this. Sources of Information — The '‘evaporator district” of the United States may be said to comprise a portion of Western New York, about 150 miles in length by 40 to 75 miles in breadth, lying along the shores of Lake Ontario from the Os- wego River on the east to the Niagara River on the west. It was in this region that the evaporation of apples first assumed the proportions of an industry, and it is in this territory that nearly three-fourths of all the evaporated apples made in the United States are produced. The writer visited this district in the winter of 1915-1916, inspected several scores of plants, and talked with more than one hundred and fifty representative operators as well as with many dealers in evaporated fruics, contractors and builders of evaporators, and makers of evap- orator machiner}^ and appliances. The greater part of the detailed information regarding kiln evaporators contained in the following pages was collected in the course of this trip. Among scores of others to whom the writer is indebted for detailed information as to prevailing methods of construction and operation, especially of kiln evaporators, cost of operating. 30 relative efficiency of various types of machinery and appli- ances, etc., especial acknowledgement for assistance rendered is due to jMessrs. L. A. Toan, Farm Bureau Agent of Monroe County, Kocliester; Eroy H. Anderson, Farm Bureau Agent of Niagara County, Lockport ; Samuel Fraser, Pres. New A^ork State Evaporated Fruit Producers’ Association, Geneseo ; E. W. Catchpole, North Rose; F. J. Aldridge, Honeoye Falls', E. Welch and T. R. Scott, North Rose; L. A. Pike, Lockport; D. W. Seeley, Sodus Point; George Hallauer and H. L. Phillips. Webster; and D. H. Wright and John Newell, editors and publishers of ‘‘The Evaporator,” AVebster, New AMrk. Similar acknowledgement should also be made to Alessrs, D. A. Snyder, Dayton, Oregon; R. AAA King, The Dalles, Ore- gon; Mark Ewald, Olympia, AA^ash. ; AY. II. Paulhamus, Puy- allup; and Paul II. AA'e^wauch, AValla AA^alla. In addition, free use has been made of every available source of ]nil)lished in- formation. THE KILN EVAPORATOR It may be said in the outset that in AA'estern New A^ork the kiln evaporator is universally used, having completely dis- placed the various types of tower or stack evaporators de- scribed by Bailey and (’orbett. Among the reasons given by operators for the abandonment of towers are that the fuel and labor cost per unit of output were greater, as ' was the initial cost of construction, and that the constant introduction of fresh fruit retarded the drying of that already in the tower, lengthening the process and permitting secondary changes in the fruit which resulted in an inferior product largely devoid of flavor. They claim for the kiln evaporator a lower cost of construction and operation and a decidedly improved quality of product. There can be no question that the first of these claims is true, as the labor required to operate a kiln is con- siderably less than is necessary for other driers of equal ca- pacity. Also, the quality of the dry fruit is generally better and more uniform, but it must be emphasized that the char- acter of the product depends upon the watchfulness and skill 31 of the operator at least as much as upon the type of plant employed. In its essential features the actual drying room of the kiln evaporator presents little that will be wholly new to those familiar with the construction of the hop kilns once so com- mon in certain parts of the state. The drying unit is two stories in Ireight and in the smallest plants is usually 20, much more rarely 18 or 22 feet square. In larger plants the building is divided by walls continuous from ground to roof into a single or double row of units of this size, each such unit constituting a kiln which can be operated independently of the others. The ground floor is usually 10 or 11 feet in height and contains the stoves or heating furnaces, one for each kiln, with space for the storage of fuel. The second floor is usually only suffi- ciently high at the eaves to permit a man to stand erect, and the ceiling is generally nailed to the lower side of the rafters, this forming an inverted hopper or trough which has a ven- tilating tower at its apex. The floor is made of narrow slats laid with an interval of one-fourth or three-eighths inch between them, and the fruit to be dried is spread in a uniform layer of four to six inches in depth upon this floor. For the greater utilization and more uniform distribution of the heat supplied by the furnace, the pipe collar is usually fitted with a, T joint, or the furnace may have two openings for pipe, and two lines of pipe are carried around the room one or more times, at a distance of about two feet from floor and walls, before pass- ing into the flue. Such a kiln will require 18 to 24 hours to dry a charge of sliced apples spread to a depth of five or six inches. As re- gards capacity, a 20x20 kiln is universally called a hundred bushel drier thruout New York, as it is reckoned that 8 square feet of kiln floor are necessary to dry the slices made from one hundred pounds of apples. The actual daily working ca- pacity for a kiln of this size varies from 100 bushels to 75 or less by reason of atmospheric conditions, peculiarities in the construction of the building, the varying efficiency of the furnaces employed, or the care employed in spreading and turning the drying fruit. 32 The Uses and Limitations of the Kiln Evaporator — The chief use of the kiln evaporator in New York, Pennsylvania, Mis- souri, and Virginia is for the drying of apples, and many long established plants had never dried anything else until the past Avinter, during Avhich many evaporators ran at full ca- pacity, drying carrots and cabbage for the use of the European armies. In the raspberry growing districts of New York, kilns are employed in the evaporation of the surplus crop, the method employed being to cover the kiln floor with burlap or sheeting,, to spread the berries in a layer not more than two inches deep, and to leave them undisturbed until sufficiently dry to stir Avithout crushing. Loganberries and blackberries can be sat- isfactory dried in the same manner. Unpeeled peaches can be treated precisely as apples are, peeled peaches are best han- dled in the manner suggested for berries. A somewhat more satisfactory product Avill be obtained in the case of loganberries; or raspberries by the use of trays supported by racks placed upon the kiln floorl. Prunes cannot be dried successfully except by the employment of trays. In a AA'Ord, if apples are the chief product to be handled by the eAmporator, the kiln type of plant is the most economical and efficient type of construction to employ. If prunes, logan- berries and raspberries make up the greater part of the raw material and apples are a distinctly minor part of it, a tunnel or a Carson-Snyder evaporator should be built. The cost of operation w^hen apples are being evaporated will be slightly 1. Inexpensive skeleton racks, each capable of holding one or tAvo tiers of 12 or 16 trays which are placed two or three inches apart to insure good circulation of air, are easily constructed and put in place on the kiln floor, with spaces between them to permit passing to and fro. The trays should be made as directed in the section on tunnel evaporators, page — , and should in no case be filled to a depth of more than 1 V 2 inches. As the drying in the lower trays will be much more rapid than in the opper ones, it will be necessary to shift the trays frequently to secure uniform drying. Obviously this method is too laborious to be practical when large quantities of berries or prunes are to be dried, but it is quite pos- sible to work up these fruits into a satisfactory product as a side line in an evaporator whose primary purpose is the drying of apples. 33 greater l)ut the qualitj^ of the product made from berries or prunes will be considerably better. The Construction of the Building — While the writer is fully conscious of the importance and necessity of keeping the cost of construction of buildings down to the lowest possible figure, and keenly anxious to prevent unnecessary expenditure, he must strongly advise against the building of such cheap, flims}^ sheds of rough lumber as have been suggested by one or two authors. In such buildings there is a very great danger of lire ; insurance rates, when insurance can be secured at all, are high ; the whole structure deteriorates rapidly, soon becomes an eyesore in spite of heavy annual repair bills, and must be torn down and replaced after a few years. Suc- cessful and economical drying depends upon perfect control of the temperature in the kiln, combined Avith the greatest pos- sible utilization of the heat produced. To secure these, one must have a building Avhich is practically air-tight except at air inlets and ATntilators, and one from which loss of heat by radiation is, as far as possible, preA^ented. In an old build- ing full of cracks and knotholes, or a rough structure Avith Avails made of a single layer of corrugated iron or rough boards, one may easily haA^e a constant loss of 25 per cent of the heat produced by his fuel thru radiation from the walls, Avhile Ihe drafts and cross currents of air AAdiich sAveep thru such a struc- ture on a Avindy, rainy day may practically stop the drying process or permit spoiling of fruit to occur. No one can make money AAdiile operating under such conditions. The evapora- tion of fruits, Avhere undertaken at all. should be undertaken as a definite and permanent part of the yearly program. To begin it Avith ramshackle buildings and makeshift ecpiipment is to assume the handicap of high interest rates thru rapid deprecdation of the inA^estment, large repair bills Avhich will increase in amount annually, heaAw insurance rates and great risk of fire, a large outlay for fuel AAdiich gives Ioav reinrns in Avork performed, an increased labor cost, and the occasional loss of a considerable amount of improperly cured product. Some or all of these factors aauII almost inevitably Avreck what 34 would, with the exercise of true and wise economy, have been a successful undertaking. For all these reasons, one must ad- vise that the building housing the kilns be a permanent one as nearly fire proof in construction as possible. The work of preparing the fruit for drying can, in case of necessity, be carried on in any building which can be made into a light, comfortable, sanitary workroom, but the added conveiiience of having everything beneath one roof and in a building especially designed for the purpose will repay the increased cost. The materials to be used in building will of course (bpend upon location and local conditions. Building tile makes an ideal building, since the dead air space within the tile materi- ally reduces loss of heat by radiation, l)ut the cost of tile is such as to be prohibitive. Brick will also be too costly in most localities. ' Where stone is available in the immediate locality, it Avill be cheaper than any other fire proof material. Con- crete or concrete block will cost much less than tile or brick, but perhaps the least expensive method of construction Avould be to use metal lath and plaster on both inside and outside walls on a wooden frame, with steel girders and metal roof. Old railroad rails, if obtainable, may be used as joists, by the use of wooden strips upon the upper surface to which floors may be nailed. Such a building, if supplied with steel doors, has literally nothing which can be burned except the kiln floors, and if the doors are kept closed, fire cannot spread from the kilns to the workroom. The cost of construction of a given building will, of course, vary considerably with location, railway facilities, local labor costs, and current prices of materials. In order to supply data from which probable costs can be worked out as ac- curately as possible by the individual builder, detailed bills of materials have been made out for several of the buildings described herein, and these have been submitted to architects in various parts of the state for estimates as to cost of ma- terials and of construction. Such bills of materials and cost estimates will be found on a succeeding page; it is hoped 35 that they may furnish a basis from which a prospective builder in any given section. of the state may reach a fairly accurate estimate of the probable cost of the plant he desires to construct. Figures on cost of actual buildings cannot be given, since diligent inquiry has failed to discover a single concrete, stone, or metal lath and plaster evaporator build- ing in the state of Washington. Much data as to comparative cost of concrete and woden buildings was obtained in western New York, and a few figures may be given by way of illus- tration. Messrs. Welch and Scott of North Rose, New York, are operators of a large number of small two-kiln and four-kiln plants which are models of their kind. The two-kiln evap- orator subsequently described fairly represents their plants, except that power machinery has been introduced. These gentlemen have a number of two-kiln plants, 32x36 feet in size and 15^ feet to the eaves, each with a paring room 12x30 feet, a storage bin 6x12 feet, and two kilns each 18x20 feet in size. These buildings are constructed of 6x8x10 inch concrete blocks and are roofed with corrugated iron. These plants, fully equipped with three hand power peelers, a hand slicer, a bleacher, and two furnaces for burning hard coal, cost $1450 each. Similar buildings constructed of wood and lined with asbestos sheathing thruout the furnace rooms, cost $1250 each. A four-kiln plant built of concrete blocks, with 20x20 foot kilns, with power parers, elevator, bleacher and slicer, cost $2360 for building and $625 for equipment witli power machinery and furnaces, while a wooden building, lined with asbestos, of the same dimensions and built from the same plans, cost $1983 for the building. The owner estimated that the additional cost of insurance, painting, and repairs will in seven to ten years make the wooden buildings cost fully as much as the concrete structures, with a rate of depreciation very materially greater. The plans which follow are the best obtainable after close study of various types of construction. They are intended lo serve as suggestions which may be modified to suit the 36 needs of the individual builder. Thus the two-kiln plant can be readily expanded into a three-kiln plant, that having four kilns into one having five or six. The plans contemplate the use of some source of power for running parers, bleachers, and slicers, but those who prefer to employ hand power ma- chinery will find some suggestions on a later page and can easily modify the plans here given to meet their needs. The writer wishes to strongly insist, however, that no more serious mistake than the installation of hand power machines in his plant could very well be made by any one starting into evaporation as a business. The labor of turning the hand driven parer is considerable, the women operators become fatigued, and a smaller output per machine of poorly pared, imperfectly cored fruit, requiring more work at the hands of the trimmers, is the result. The task of slicing the fruit with the best hand-driven slicer available is a laborious and time- consuming one. Moreover, the daily transfer by hand of 200 bushels of fruit from paring table to bleacher and from bleacher to slicer, with a climb to the second floor with each load included, is a task which few able bodied men will care to continue day after day. A gasoline engine such as is every- where used for spraying will eliminate this hand labor; the cost of hand and power driven machines is practically equal, while the saving in wages in two seasons will pay for the shafting, belting and labor necessary to construct conveyors. It is assumed that where power is employed, a gasoline en- gine placed somewhere outside the building will be used. Hence no special provision has been made in any of the plans for an engine placed inside the walls. Two-Kiln Evaporator — Figures I to IV show plans of a two- kiln evaporator with 18x20-foot kilns, having an average daily capacity of 175 bushels fresh fruit or a seasonal capacity for a 60 daj^ evaporating season of approximately 10,000 bushels if no peels and cores are dried. Since this amount of apples at least will be available in ordinary seasons in any locality vhere the construction of a commercial evaporator is l)eing seriously considered, plans for smaller plants are not included 37 here. Those desiring suggestions as to the building of a one- kiln plant will find plans and suggestions for their construction in Farmers’ Bulletins 213 and 291. It must be emphasized, however, that the operation of a one-kiln plant, under con- ditions prevailing in Washington, can scarcely be commercially profitable, while the two-kiln plant will yield a comparative- ly narrow margin of profit if any considerable portion of the labor employed must be paid for at current rates. Fig. I. Two-kiln evaporator, ground-floor plan. K, kilns, each 18x20 feet. W.R., work room, 12x36 feet. A.B., apple bin. W.T., washing tank. G., grader. P.T., paring table F., furnace. 1.1, ventilators, 3x1 feet. 2, fuel doors of kilns. 3, doors from work room. 4, chimney of furnaces. 5, piping of furnace. 6, parers. 7, apple conveyor on paring table. In the following description, details as to construction of a number of essential parts of the equipment, for example, paring tables, apple and waste conveyors, etc., are omitted. These are fully described and figured in the section on "‘iModel Four-kiln Evaporator.” The construction and arrangement are essentially the same in the two cases. 38 The building shown in the plans is 36x82 feet in size, and I 6 V 2 feet in height at the eaves. The first story is 10 feet in height to the floor, and is divided into two furnace rooms each 18x20 and a paring room 12x36 feet. The furnace rooms have considerable space available for the storage of fuel. The furnace, arrangement of piping, etc., is subsequently discussed in detail mider the head '^Heating Apparatus.” The most im- portant feature of the construction of the furnace room is that Fig. II. Two-kiln evaporator, second-floor plan. K.F., kiln floors. W.R., work room. C.R., curing room. S.B., storage bin. E., ele- vator. B, bleacher. S, slicer. F, Chimney of furnaces. adequate provision for inlet of air be made. The plans here given provide tAvo air inlets on each side of every kiln, each 3x11/2 feet, placed 6 feet apart and at a distance of 6 inches above the floor of the kiln. When kilns stand in series, the vrall betAveen adjacent kilns has these openings just as do the outside Avails, and upon the side on which the paring room ad- joins the kilns, openings in the outer Avail lead beneatli the 39 paring room floor to the openings in the kiln. Such an ar* rangement secures perfect control of the air movement irre- spective of direction of wind. Sliding iron doors running in grooves permit opening or closing of the air inlets to any de- sired degree. Each of the furnace rooms should have a she^ iron door opening to the outside, in order to permit the unloading of fuel directly into the kiln. This door may be centrally placed in the outer wall, as indicated in the plans, and need not be more than 5 feet high. It should be four feet in width to facilitate easy handling of wood. Most important of all, it should be htted with a good substantial lock and the key should be in the possession of the furnace man, in order that careless or irresponsible people may not stop the drying process by leaving the door open. The floor of the paring room should be of a good quality of matched flooring and should be carefully laid in order to fa- cilitate cleaning. It should be elevated sufficiently above the ground to permit free passage of air from the inlets in the outer wall to those in the walls of the kilns, as shown in the plans of side elevation of the four-kiln evaporator. One end of the par- ing room is occupied by a storage bin 12x6 feet, which may be given a capacitj^ of 575 bushels by carrying its walls up to the ceiling. The storage bin is filled from outside. As apples are used they are drawn thru a sliding door directly into a washing tank. If no power equipment is available, one man washes off adhering dirt, throws out over-ripe and rotten apples, runs the washed apples thru the grader if it be desired to separate the fruit into several sizes prior to. peeling, keeps the peelers supplied with apples, and removes peelings as they accumu- late. One man can easily do this while attending to the fires in the kilns, if the arrangement suggested is followed. If power •s available, a l)elt conveyor which carries the washed apples to a bin on the second floor, from which a system of chutes distribute them to the parers as needed, should be installed. This arrangement, which is fully described on a later page, enables one man to prepare enough apples for a day’s run in 40 a little more than an hour, leaving the remainder of the day free for other work. The paring table should be constructed as described on page 49. It is lighted by two large windows and the parers sit be- side these windows, with the light falling over their shoulders. The peeled fruit rolls across the table from the peelers to the trimmers, who sit opposite. The trimmers remove bits of par- ings, bruised spots and other imperfections, and throAV the trimmed fruit on an endless belt conveyor, shown in the center of the paring table and fully descril)ed in a later section, which carries the fruit into the elevator and thus to the bleacher. In the absence of a source of power, the trimmed fruit must be dropped into boxes which are carried to the bleacher by hand as they become filled. In no case should fruit l)e allowed to lie any length of time after peeling before placing in the bleacher, or darkening Avill certainly occur. Several types of bleachers are in use and the next step in the process will depend upon the particular type employed. The type which is most widely used consists of a long, tight box, 18 inches to 2 feet in width and with a length of six to ten feet per hundred l>ushe]s of daily capacity, or 24 to 40 feet for a four-kiln plant. The apples are carried by the conveyor into one end of the bleaching l)ox and fall upon an endless slat and chain belt which extends the length of the bleacher. By means of a worm gear, this belt is made to move very slowly, so that 30 to 40 minutes are recpiired for fruit to pass through the box and drop at the opposite end into a storage bin or directly into the hopper of the slicer. Sulphur is burned in a heavy iron pot or other suitable vessel placed just outside and below the apple inlet, and at the opposite end a small pipe conveys the fumes into the flue. Heavy leather or weighted canvas flaps close the inlet and outlet for apples, to prevent the escape of fumes into the room. Such bleachers are sold complete by a number of firms, but it is a matter of economy to purchase only the metal parts, since an intelligent carpenter can construct the box and set the machine up ready to run with the aid of the diagram. Fig. III. 41 42 Pig. 111. Power bleacher. In case the plant does not have a source of power, another type of bleacher must be employed. One very common type consists simply of a long box, high and wide enough to receive an ordinary apple box, and sufficiently long to accommodate six to ten such boxes placed end to end. Tightly fitting doors are provided at the ends, and a track along which boxes may slide is made by spiking two 2x4 scantlings on edge to the floor of the box. Sulphur is burned in a pan placed between the tracks at one end, and the fumes are carried off by a pipe at the oppo- site end. As apples are pared, they are placed in boxes, and as a box becomes filled it is pushed in at one end of the bleacher, moving those already there onward toward the opposite end, where they are withdrawn when sufficiently bleached. Another satisfactory bleacher consists essentially of a bureau- like structure carrying a series of shallow, tight-fitting trays or drawers whose bottoms are made of narrow slats or boards in which numerous %-inch auger holes have been bored. Sul- phur is burned in a tight compartment below the lowermost drawer, the fumes rise from tray to tray thru the fruit, and are drawn off by a small pipe at the conical top. A bleacher of this type should be made of such a size that each tray will carry a box of pared apples spread in a layer two apples deep. "While such a bleacher does very effective work, it must be em- phasized that the additional time and labor required in repeated- ly handling the fruit is very considerable and that power in- stallation is always strongly advised as a matter of economy. 'ATiatever the type of bleacher employed, it cannot be too strongly emphasized that the piping must be carefully done in order that the fumes may not escape into the room. They are intensely irritating to the eyes and throat, and they attack metal so vigorously that when allowed to escape at the level of a shingle roof the nails may be absolutely destroyed in the course of two or three seasons. Therefore, terracotta pipe care- fully cemented at the joints, or heavy castiron pipe (called by plumbers soil pipe) with the joints set in white lead, should be used, and it should be connected with one of the kiln flues in order to carry the fumes well above the roof. If iron pipe is 43 used, its term of service will be materially increased by flowing^ white lead paint repeatedly thru it, at intervals of a few hours, so that the inner surface gets a good heavy coating. AYhen taken from the bleacher the fruit should be sliced at once. There are several hand-operated slicers on the market, but the work with the best of them is slow and laborious and recjuires the time of two men. A power slicer costs very little more, does more and better work in a given time, is automatic in action if a power l)leacher delivering into the hopper of the slicer is used, and requires one man only if there is no power bleacher and apples must be fed from barrels or boxes. Consequently a power slicer will save its cost in labor in two seasons. From the slicer the apple rings fall into boxes or barrels standing on trucks, and are transferred to the kiln floor. Here they are spread as uniforml}^ as possible, usually by means of a wooden rake, to a depth of 4 to 6 inches, and are left undis- turbed until drying at the surface has made the slices tough enough to permit stirring without injury, which usually requires four or five hours. They are then thoroly stirred by means of wooden rakes and shovels. This stirring is repeated, at first at intervals of two hours, then more frequently, until the fruit receives three or four thoro stirrings in its last two hours on the kiln floor. AYhen dry the fruit is transferred from the kiln floor to tne storing or curing room, where it is piled up to a depth of a foot or more to undergo a slow after-curing process prior to being packed. The roof of the building is so constructed that the apex or ridgepole is directly over the middle of the row of kilns, which are ceiled directly on the rafters with metal or boards. The ventilating shaft occupies the apex of the roof, extends the entire length of the building, and should be three feet in width and at least four feet in height. A rather widely used type of ventilator is shoAvn in figure IV. Its distinctive feature is the fact that it is double walled, the outer walls having no connec- tion with the inner and being placed at a distance of 12 to 16- 44 Fig. IV. Details of construction of double-walled ventilator. Warm air escapes from the shaft through the continuous opening 12 inches in width at the top of the inner wall; the opening at the bottom of the outer wall permits cold air to enter and pass up be- tween the walls, assisting the draft, while the upper portion of the outer wall keeps snow or rain from blowing into the shaft. inches from them. These outer walls are not covered by the roof of the ventilator, but are boarded solidly except for a space of 12 inches in width at the bottom, which is left open for the entire length. The inner walls are boarded up solidly from the bottom for a distance of three feet, leaving a space a foot in width just beneath the ventilator roof, thru which the warm air escapes from the kilns. The outer wall thus has an opening at the bottom thru which currents of cold air moving along the roof of the building may enter the space between the walls, passing up between them and assisting in carrying off the warm moist air escaping at the top of the shaft. The outer wall makes it impossible for the wind to blow directly into the opening 45 in the inner wall, wliieli would interfere with the escape of the warm air, and also keeps rain or snow from driving into the shaft. AYhile such ventilators are said to work well, the fact that they cannot be opened and closed with varying atmos- pheric conditions make them less efficient than a second type, in which the side walls of the ventilator are made in sections exactly like the ordinary window shutter, the boards of which the shutters are built being three or four inches wide. By means of ropes attached to the shutters and passing over pulleys, the individual shutter can be opened or closed at will. Such an arrangement permits perfect control of the draft, without which it is impossible to secure uniform results. Model Four-Kiln Evaporator — Figures V to X give plans for an evaporator having four 20x20 foot kilns with an approxi- mate capicity of 400 bushels of apples per day. Many features of the construction and equipment are essentially identical with those of the two-kiln plant just described and will be clear without further explanation. In a plant of this or larger size it would be a fundamental and well nigh ruinous mistake to install anything else than a complete outfit of power machinery. AA'ith power driven parers, five girls or women will prepare at least as much fruit as six women using hand peelers, without the fatigue- the ventilating- openings in the wall, which permit free entrance of air beneath the floor of the work room to the air inlets in the walls of the kilns. 46 Fig. VI. Four-kiln evaporator, ground-floor plan. K.K., kilns, each 20x20 feet. W.R., work room, 80x18 feet. A. B., apple bin, 12x16 feet. W.T., washing tank. G., grader. P.T., paring table. E. , conveyors for apples and waste. V., ventilators, 5x1 feet. F. D., fuel doors to kilns I., I-beams supporting kiln floors. F., furnace with jacket-and-hopper construction. \V., windows. D., doors. Fig. VII. Four-kiln evaporator, second-story plan. K.F., kiln floors. F., flues from furnaces. 'V^R., work room. S.R., storage bin. B., bleacher. S., slicer. D., doors. W., windows. and consequent careless and imperfect work which occurs when machines are run by hand. With conveyor, bleacher, and slicer driven by power, one man can look after the fur- naces and keep the peelers’ table supplied with apples and clear of refuse, while a second man can take care of the fruit 47 at the slicer and on the kilns. AVere the fruit to be moved and sliced by hand, two additional men or a man and a strong boy would be needed. Consequently, complete power equip- ment easily saves the wages of tAvo or three hands in a plant of this size, and will pay for itself in three or four seasons. In the plan here given, the apples are delivered from the Avagons to the storage bin, which is 12x15 feet in size. If it is is desired to keep varieties separate, which is highly ad- Ausable, this bin may ])e divided into two or more compart- ments, in Avhich case both the outer receiving door and the door to the discharging chute aa^ouM be built in sections open- ing separately for each bin. From the bins, sliding doors open into a discharging chute thru which the apples are run directly into a washing tank. From this point there are tAvo possibilities. One man may Avash the apples, transfer them to the grader if it is desired to Avork up large and small apples separately, and carry the fruit from the grader to the tables, or a coiiA^eyor may be rigged to carry the apples from the Fig. VIII. Sectional vieAV of evaporator from side, showing belt conveyor from grader to storage bin and chutes from bin to paring table. A.B., apple bin with elevated floor and sliding door deliver- ing into W.T., washing tank. C., conveyor lifting apples from wash- ing tank into a hopper of G., grader. Ci, a second conveyor receiving apples from grader and carrying them to A.B., apple bin on second floor. Ch., chutes from second-floor bin to paring table. P. parers. 48 C., conveyor; A.B., apple bin with floor inclined to mouth of Ch., chute to P. T., paring table, Ci, conveyor from paring table to. bleacher. washing tank to the hopper of the grader, while a second conveyor, placed closely against the wall out of the way, re- ceives the fruit and carries it to a conveniently located bin on the second floor. From this bin a series of chutes pass thru the floor and descend to the paring table, each ending in a sliding door which opens into a box placed beside the parer. With this arrangement, one man can, in a couple of hours, wash and grade enough apples for a day’s run and is then free for other work. Since the floor of the bin has a slight inclination toward the chute, the apples pass by gravity from the bin into the chutes, keeping them filled so long as there are apples in the bin, and the parers have only to open the slid- ing doors for a moment to fill their apple boxes as these be- come empty. This arrangement is not shown in the floor plans, since it would make the drawings rather complicated, but it is diagrammatically represented in figures VITI and IX. The small ’apples are collected from the grader into boxes: 49 or barrels, and are worked up separately when a sufficient quantity has been collected. The shafting which drives parers, conveyors, and grader is suspended from the joists, and 12 inches below them, so as not to interfere with free movement around the work table. The apple waste conveyor is six inches wide, and runs in the bottom of a trough seven inches wide and four inches deep, raised six inches above the top of the table, as sho^vn in figure X. This elevation of the apple conveyor above the table has two advantages, the peels and cores do not fall into it as would be the case if it ran at the level of the table, also, apples upon it are visible from any part of the room, and it is im- possible for a trimmer to do careless work without being de- tected. The top of the table is slightly inclined — a drop of 1 inch in SYj feet is sufficient — toward the side at which the trimmers sit, which is faced with a 1x2 strip projecting % inch above the edge. The pared apples drop from the forks of the machines and roll down the slight incline, beneath the conveyor, to the opposite side, where they are arrested by the edging strip. When trimmed, a mere turn of the trimmers’ hand deposits the apple on the conveyor. The conveyor for waste is placed below the table, beneath and slightly to the inner side of the paring machines, and an opening 8 inches square just back of each machine permits peels and cores to drop directly upon the belt, while the waste from the trimmers’ side of the table is easily swept into the openings as it ac- cumulates. The work tabh^ shown in the plans has ample space for seven machines and for fourteen trimmers. AVith power parers kept in a good state of repair, six experienced peelers sliould. in a nine hour day. easily pare enough fruit to keep a 400-bushel plant going. The number of trimmers needed will depend upon the mechanical perfection and state of re- pair of the parers and to an even greater degree upon the character of the fruit. When working with good C grade fruit, three experienced trimmers may easily keep the tables clear for two machines. Avhile Avith small culls or fruit having 50 decayed spots or much codling moth injury, two trimmers to each parer may find it difficult to properly trim the fruit. In, any case, economy at the trimming table means fruit of poor quality which will find a market at less than prevailing prices for ‘‘prime” fruit. 9 1 T — T i 1 1 1 1 1 1 —7 \; \ 6 // n TTTTTTT M 1 1 1 1 1 ii f 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' r > j ■ . rb - -f-v 10 Fig. X. Sectional view of plant showing arrangement of con- veyors. 1, paring table. 2, position of paring machines. 3, endless' belt conveyor for pared apples. 4, elevator from end of paring table to hopper of 5, bleacher. 6, sulphur chamber of bleacher. 7, pipe of bleacher, opening into 9, flue of furnace. 8, slicer. 10, storage bin. 11, kiln. The conveyor from the work table delivers the fruit to the bleacher, which is suspended from the joists, QYi foot from the floor, out of the way of those working in the rooms. The bleacher delivers the apples into a bin placed at such a height above the floor that they may be brought to the slicer by gravity, or they may pass directly into the hopper of the slicer when it is in operation. From the slicer the fruit may be received in a barrel standing on a truck and pushed into the kiln by hand, or it is quite possible to construct a simple system of belt conveyors which will receive the fruit at the 51 slicer ^nd convey it to a point inside the door of the kiln which is being filled. In the plan here given, the conveyors from the work table deliver both apples and waste upstairs. In case peels and cores are to be discarded or used for stock feed without be- ing pressed for vinegar, the plan can easily be modified by extending the waste conveyor so that it delivers at any de- sired point outside the building. Plants of Larger Capacity — Figures XI to XV present plans of a model 8-kiln plant having an approximate daily capacity of 800 bushels, or a total capacity of 40,000 to 48,000 bushels for a season of 50 to 60 days. Only the exceptional individ- ual or community will have need for a plant of such capacity, and the plans are purposely generalized in order that they may be easily modified to make them suit individual needs. It may be pointed out that the building is as compact as it is ])ossible to make it, hence cost of construction will be minimum, and that labor-saving machinery driven by power replaces band labor wherever possible. The eight kilns are so arrangevd lhat free movement of air into each of them from any point of the compass is possible, which is not, the case when kilns are arranged side by side in a long row of six or eight. The full explanations accompanying the drawings, with the de- scriptions of smaller plants which precede, make detailed de- scription unnecessary. Heating Apparatus — Unfortunately there is at present no furnace on the market which can be recommended for use in evaporators. The ‘‘hop stoves” generally used in hop kilns are of good size, but are too light in construction to stand the continuous firing at utmost capacity for periods of 40 to ^10 days necessary in an apple kiln. The large cast-iron furnace Aveighing 1500 to 2000 pounds each, universally used in East- ern evaporators, are especially designed for burning hard coal. Soft coal cannot be used in such a furnace, as the pipes prompt- ly become clogged, while the opening of the door in firing ])ermits the escape of dense clouds of smoke and soot, covering the fruit with black flecks which completely ruin it. Since the 52 XL Sectional side elevation of eiglit-kiln evaporator. 53 S6 FT ])riees of hard coal entirely prohibit its use, furnaces of the prevailing types in use in the East are not available to the Northwestern evaporator, who is restricted to wood as the only fuel which he can successfully and economically use in his kilns. One or two makers of evaporator machinery make heavy, durable cast-iron furnaces intended to be fired with wood, and tliese are in successful use in some sections of the United States and Canada. All such furnaces with which the writer is acquainted, however, have the serious defect that the fire- boxes are at most 36 to 42 inches in length and not more than 12 inches in height, while the door is usually 10x10 inches. Pour foot cord wood must be cut in two and the larger pieces split, which entails considerable expense, while the fire box cannot Fig. XIII. First-floor plan, eight kiln evaporator. Paring table arranged for double row of paring machines with trimmers at a separate table. 55 be properly filled with the resulting two-foot lengths. Conse- quently, the fires demand constant attention and the temper- atures produced fluctuate considerably. If some foundr}" cen- trally located in the Northwest would put upon the market a lieavy, well made, durable wood-burning furnace, having a fire box long enough to take four foot wood and at least 24 inches in width, with doors 20x24 inches, it would find general favor. Cord wood could be used is it comes from the forest, and it would be relatively easy to maintain a constant temperature with a minimum of attention. It is hoped that such a furnace may soon be placed on the market. - The most satisfactory source of heat is a well built brick or stone furnace, properly lined with the best quality of hre Fig. XIV. Second-floor plan, eight-kiln evaporator. Grader has apple conveyor running longitudinally over paring table and open- ing at points marked F into hoppers which deliver apples by gravity to the paring table. Bleacher delivers apples to slicer, from which a conveyor carries them down the alley between kilns, delivering them at any desired point. 56 brick. Such a furnace should be at least 4 feet wide and deep enough to take wood in 8 foot lengths of any size that one man can readily handle. If the walls are properly laid with a good quality of mortar, such a furnace is practically everlasting except that the fire brick lining will need repairs and par- tial replacement every second season, while the first secti»ms of pipe will scarcely stand more than one year’s use. SiDC EtcvarioN Fig. XV. Sectional side elevation, eight-kiln evaporator. K, kiln with jacket-and-hopper construction. Paring table has endless belt conveyor to trimming table, from which the elevator delivers to bleacher. Endless belt from grader delivers apples to hoppers F over paring tables through openings marked G. The piping of the furnace is extremely important, since the operator must depend upon the arrangemtmt of his pipes imdh for utilization of the heat produced and for its uniform distri- bution to the drying floor. Several systems of piping are ui use, each with a number of strong advocates, but all are alike in that they use in an 18x18 or 20x20 foot kiln, 175 to 250 feet of 8 or 10 inch pipe, disposed in a series of loops or coils be- neath the kiln floor. The d escription which follows, if studied in connection with the diagrammatic sketches (Fig. XVI a. b. c.) will make the method of arrangement clear. The ''single pipe system,” in which the piping makes one circuit about the room, is used where the location oe the building or the construction of the flues makes it impossible to secure an ample draft. The "double pipe system,” in which the pipe, after being carried around (the walls, is brought back across the floor before it passes into the flue, is used in kilns of large size or wherever ample draft can 57 be secured. The double pipe system is preferable, since more of the heat is utilized and its better distribution to the floors results in more uniform drying than can be secured llie single system. No matter what system of piping may be adopted, con- nection with the furnace collar is made by means of a section of special double thickness Kussia iron pipe, 10 inches in diameter.. This is fitted with a T joint, the whole standing erect and rising to about 4^/^ feet below the kiln floor. To the T elbows are fitted, and two parallel lines of pipe 10 inches in diameter are led from these across the room to a point directly opposite the chimney and about 22 inches from the wall. These pipes are given such an inclination as will bring them at this point to within SYj feet of the kiln floor; a nearer approach would be dangerous because of the high temperature of the pipes. At this point ell)()ws are fitted on and the two pipes are carried in opposite di- rections around the walls of the room to the flue. In case the “single pipe system’’ is used, these lines may be given sufficient upward inclination to bring them to within 24 to 30 inches of the floor at the flue, where the two pipes are united by means of a T joint fitted with dampers, which enters the flue (figure XVI a). If the double pipe system is to be used, the rise given the pipe to this point must be more grad- ual, and the two lines, instead of being united, are carried back and forth across the room in one of the methods in- dicated in the diagrams (fig. XVI b, c,) Avith such upAvard A, single pipe system, used in small kilns or when jacket-and-hopper construction is employed. B, double-pipe system, employed in large kilns or tunnels. C, a still more efficient double-pipe system. 58 inclination as will bring them to the flue not less than 20 to 24 inches from the kiln floor. In the double pipe system, 10 inch or 9' inch pipe is generally used for the first circuit of the walls, while 8 inch pipe may be used for the remainder of the system. Wires or light chains are used to suspend the pipe from the joists of the kiln floor. In order to prevent overheating of the area immediately above the furnace, a deflector is employed. This may be simply a sheet of iron having the same dimensions as the fur- nace and spiked to the lower edge of the joists. A better plan is to cut and fold the edges of the sheet so as to give it the form of a low, flat inverted hopper, and to suspend H by means of chains so that it may be raised or lowered with hopper construction. P, furnace, enclosed by jacketing wall upon which base of hopper rests. H.C., coils of piping. K.P., kiln flue. Paring table and elevators for apples and waste, position of bleach- er, and location of shafting are also indicated, as is the construction of the ventilator. 59 changes in the temperature at which the kiln is being oper- ated. The efficiency of the furnace may be very considerably increased and the expense of piping materially reduced by the adoption of the “ jacket-and-hopper” plan of construction in the furnace rooms. In Ibis plan of construction the fur- Fig. XVIII. Detail of jacket-and-hopper construction. Detail of framing of hopper shown on left-hand side and front, framing cov- ered by metal lath with cement partially in place at back. nace is enclosed, at a distance of 12 or 18 inches from its walls, by a wall of stone, brick, or concrete which rises to a height of about six feet, thus forming a rectangular box in- side which the furnace stands. Each wall of this structure has at its middle an opening, 3 feet in length by 18 inches in height, placed 6 inches above the floor level, and at the front 60 of the furnace, these is a large sheet-iron door thru which the furnace tender enters. Upon the “jacket” thus formed, the “hopper” is built by constructing a frame of 2x4 scant- ling extending from the top of the jacket wall outward and upward to the wall of the room just below the kiln floor. Upon the frame thus made, perforated metal lath is nailed and the “hopper” is completed by covering the lath with a % or 1/2 inch layer of cement. The furnace thus stands at the bottom of a shallow, flaring hopper which is roofed by the kiln floor, with a current of air entering thru the venti- lators of the jacket, becoming warmed as it passes over tlie furnace and rising thru the floor above. (See diagram, fig. XVIII). This arrangement reduces loss of heat by lateral radiation to a minimum, gives more uniform distribution of - the heat to all parts of the kiln floor, and permits the use of the single pipe system with satisfactory results. Some operators claim that the efficiency of their plants is increased 25 per cent by the adoption of this arrangement, since the time required for drying is materially shortened even when the floors are more heavily loaded with fruit. The chimney should be built in the common wall between two kilns. It should rest upon a solid stone or concrete col- umn extending up to within 18 inches of the point of entrance of the flues. There should be no air openings into the chim- ney below the flues, as they will increase the consumption of fuel and cause trouble in other ways. The chimney should l)e 16 inches square if two flues open into it. iMany operators insist that better results are obtained if the chimney is made double all the way up, each opening being 10x12 or 12x12 inches, but the writer has seen so many plants with two kilns piped into a single 16x16 flue that he thinks a separate flue for each pipe entirely unnecessary. The chimney should extend far enough above the roof to insure good draft and to pre- vent damage to fruit by the blowing of smoke and soot down the ventilators on windy days. The Kiln Floor — The kiln floor is constructed of wooden strips, or slats, usually % or 1 inch square but beveled on 61 two sides so that one face is % inch wide. These are nailed to the joists, narrow face down, and are spaced i/4 or % inch apart. There are thus left narrow openings thru which the warm air rises, and as the beveling of the slats makes these openings wider below than above, they cannot become clogged by particles falling thru. In the Eastern evaporators, kiln slats are made of l)asswood, maple, beech, or poplar, and man}’ makers and dealers in evaporating machinery carry such slats in stock. Any hard wood which does not impart flavor to the fruit or warp badly can be used, but fir or other coniferous wood is worse than useless, as the constant high temperature will bring out the resin and give the fruit a persistent odor and flavor which ruins it. After the kiln floor is in place, it is oiled a fev/ times at intervals of two or three days Avith lard oil, paraffin oil, or a mixture of boiled linseed oil and tallow, applied very hot, in order to thoroly saturate the slats. This prevents sticking of the fruit. After the kiln is in use, one of two oilings each season will keep the floor in good condition, but it should be thoroly scrubbed with strong, hot soapsuds at least once, pre- ferably twice, each Aveek during the season. Steam-heated Kilns — Kilns in Avhich the heat was furnished by coils of steam pipe placed beneath the drying floor Averc at one time rather Avidely used in Avestern NeAv York, but have in recent years become extremely rare. The writer examined tAA^o plants of this type AAuth considerable (‘-ir.Ti. in the belief that this method of heating has decided advantages in regions which are restricted to soft coal or Avood as fuel. Unfortunately it was impossible to find in Avestern Ncav York a steam plant of any considerable size, or one in which modern business methods Avere employed. The plants seen were sm-ill, had been built and were operated largely or aaToIIv by the owners and their families, and absoluteiv no rec o’ds of cost of building materials or of construction had been kept, Avhile such data as to cost of operation as could be secured Avere merely crude estimates. Such data is of little value and is rendered less valuable by the extremely unsystematic, un- 62 business-like methods which were in use in both plants, but it indicates that the cost of construction was about 10 per cent greater than in ordinary kilns of equal capacity in the same locality, while the operating costs were practically the same. A steam plant located near North Chili, New York, had two 16x16 foot drying floors, with a total capacity of 150 bushels per day. The drying floor was placed three feet above the ground level, so that the building was only 10 feet in height at the eaves. From the boiler two main feed pipes were led off, one to each of the drying floors. One- inch pipe was used for the heating coils, which were placed 12 inches beneath the drying floors. Each heating coil opened directly out of the main feed pipe, and consisted of three 16 foot lengths of pipe, connected by elbow unions so that they passed three times across the floor, four inches apart, before entering the return pipe. Each 16-foot floor had sixteen such coils, each 49 feet in length inclusive of elbows and unions, or a total length of 784 feet of 1-inch pipe for 256 square feet of drying floor in each kiln. The 10-horse-power boiler supplied power for running parers as well as for operating a series of fans which forced the warm air thru the fruit, and when the boiler was run at 50 pounds pressure the drying of apples spread in a five-inch layer occupied about 18 hours when the fans were not used, 13 to 14 hours when they were operated. Despite the fact that evaporation by steam has been aban- doned in regions having abundant supplies of cheap hard coal, the method has certain advantages which in the writer’s opinion make it desirable that it be experimented with in the Northwest. Briefly stated these advantages are: 1. The expense of construction of the evaporator building may be much less, since the building need be only 10-12 feet in height, while the fact that danger from fire is negligible permits the use of wood construction. 2, The cheaper grades of soft coal or slack may be used in regions where wood is scarce or expensive and the labor of 63 firing is much less than in a kiln of corresponding capacity. 3. It is much easier to maintain any desired constant tem- perature with steam than with direct radiation, since auto- matic regulators can easily be installed. Consequently it is possible to improve the quality of the product and to shorten the time spent in drying. Over against these advantages must be set the disadvantages, namely that the initial expense of purchase and installation of steam piping is considerable while the deterioration of such pipe is rather rapid, while a steam boiler will usually be useful for no other purpose hence constitutes a charge of considerable magnitude against the plant. Taken altogether, the advantages of absolute control of temperature during the drying process and of being able to use an}^ sort of fuel make the method one which has con- siderable promise of value, and the writer believes tluu de- spite the very large number of unsuccessful methods of drying' by steam which have been devised in the past, success tul and economical methods may yet be worked out. Such methods will be developed, however, by the application of steam to other types of evaporators than the kiln. The use of successive tiers of trays, each heated ])y coils of pipe placed beneath, with fans to control the circulation of air, Avill give large drying capacity in a relatively small compass and v/ill per- mit less expensive construction, since the danger of fire will be practically absent. Several plants which employ stacks of trays heated by coils are in course of construction in the Northwest, but none of them liave been subjected to lln'i t(^st of practical use in competition with other methods (d* drying for a sufficient length of time to enable one to say whether any of them will be commercially successful. THE TUNNEL EVAPORATOR The need of the prune gr^-wing districts of the Nortliwest for an efficient and economical method of drying prunes led to the development in the early nineties of a great variety ol aporating machines. In a publication entiebid. ‘'I'runes 64 in Oregon,” issued as Bulletin 45 of the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station in June, 1897, Professor U. P. Hedrick, at that time horticulturist of the Oregon Station, described seven types of prune evaporators, each known by the name of its manufacturer or patentee, then in use. Two years later, J. A. Balmer, horticulturist of the Washington Agricul- tural Experiment Station, (Prunes, Bulletin 38, Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, May, 1899) described four of these evaporators with at least two others, as being at that time rather generally used in Washington. Of all these types of evaporators, only two have stood the test of years of prac- tical use, and it would probably be impossible to find one of the others in operation at the present time. The prune tunnel or tunnel evaporator as used today in the Northwest has been gradually perfected by modification of the “Allen Evaporator,” manufactured and patented by W. K. Allen, of Newberg, Oregon, and described by both Hedrick and Balmer in the publications just cited as in rather general use in Washington and Oregon. In so far as one can judge from the rather unsatisfactory drawings and descrip- tions given by these authors, the original Allen evaporator had most of the essential desirable features of the modern tunnel, with the very great disadvantage that the fruit, once placed in the tunnel, was out of sight or control of the oper- ator until drying had been completed. Tunnel evaporators have never come into' general use in those parts of the United States in which apples are the chief fruit to be evaporated, since the labor involved in handling the fruit on trays makes the process slightly more expensive than drying on kilns. Wherever prunes and berries make up a considerable part of the total volume of fruits to be dried, tunnel evaporators may advantageously be used, since prunes must of necessity be handled in trays, while loganberries and raspberries make a very much better product when so treated. In its essential feature the tunnel evaporator consists of a long, narroAV room, with the floor and ceiling inclined uni- formly from end to end, and with a furnace below the floor. 65 Tlie room is cut into a series of narrow chambers, ' the ‘‘tun- nels,’’ by parallel partitions, which may be solid or merely an open framework of slats. Jn some of the larger and more elaborate plants the trays upon which the fruit is spread are loaded upon trucks fitted with an open framework to support and separate them, and these trucks are rolled in one behind another at the upper end of the tunnel until it is filled. The dry fruit is removed at the lower end of the tunnel by with- drawing the truck carrying it, when the others move down by force of gravity, permitting a new truck to be rolled in at the upper end. This arrangement was a feature of the Allen Evaporator. It is objectionable in that the upper and lower trays of any given truck do not dry at equal rates, necessi- tating overdrying of the lower trays or transfer of the upper <>nes to another truck, and even more objectionable in that the operator cannot learn how the fruit toward the middle of the tunnel is drying except by rolling out all the trucks Tintil that which he desires to inspect is reached. Consequently, trucks are no longer generally employed in tunnel evaporators, and have been replaced by an arrangement which permits in- dividual trays to be moved Avith little difficulty. To build this, the individual tunnels of a group or series are separated one from the other by partitions or at least by a framing of 2x4 studs. To these partitions or to the studs are nailed a series of cleats, usually made of 1-inch strips, 2 inches wide, nailed flat, extending from end to end of the tunnel parallel with the inclined floor, and placed at equal distances, preferably 4 inches from center to center, apart. These cleats form a series of tracks, one above the other, which support the trays upon Avhich the fruit is spread, and the tunnel is fdled by pushing the trays in one after another at the upper end of the tunnel, and moving them along the tracks until all are loaded. The heated air is admitted at the lower end of the tunnel, from a furnace placed in the room, beneath, rises thru the successive series of trays, and passes off, loaded with moisture, thru a ventilator shaft at the opposite higher end. Steady air movement is secured by an arrangement of air 66 intakes in the furnace room, essentially identical with that already described for the kiln evaporator. All that has been said in the preceding pages as to the' relative merits of various building materials for constructing kiln evaporators applies equally well when the plant is to be of the tunnel type. The advantages and economy of perma- nent fire-proof construction are the same, as is the necessity for having the portion of the building in which the actual drying goes on as nearly air-tight as possible and with the loss of heat by radiation reduced to the lowest possible min- imum. The })uilding must consist of two portions, a portion in which the preparation of fruit for drying is carried on and in vv^hich the dried fruit, trays not in use, and fruit awaiting preparation can be stored, and a second portion in which the actual dry- ing is accomplished. In the first portion or preparation room there will be needed the same equipment described in con- nection with kiln evaporators, and its arrangement may con- veniently be essentially that shown by the plans for such plants. If berries or prunes are to be dried in any quantity, there vdll be needed space on the ground floor of the building for spread- ing tables and for storage of trays and of boxes of fruit brought in from the orchards. Notwithstanding these facts, the plans of two kiln and four kiln evaporator buildings may very Avell serve as suggestions for buildings for tunnel evaporators. Tunnels of a given capacity occupy less than one-hail: as much floor space as kilns of the same capacity. The tunnels may be constructed in a portion of the space given to kilns in the plans, and the remaining space becomes available for work tables, storage of fruit, trays, etc. The plans of kiln plants have purposely been so designed that when tunnels- instead of kilns are placed in them, the paring tables, bleacher, apple bins, and slicer will be as little in the way as possible when the building is used for drying berries or prunes. It is believed, therefore, that these drawings and suggestions give as much aid as possible in a publication of this general character,, since each builder of a tunnel evap- 67 1 orator must work out the details of the plan for a building I best adapted to his particular needs. Hence the detailed | discussion which follows is confined to the construction and 1 operation of the actual dr 3 dng units, the tunnels. The Tunnels — The number of tunnels to be constructed must be determined in every case by the volume of fruit to be handled. It needs to be emphasized, however, that the 1 length and size of the individual tunnel is not to be modified at the pleasure of the builder. It is usually difficult or im- possible to secure satisfactory and economical results with j tunnels more than 20 feet in length, since further increase ’ in length retards air movement and therefore slows down the drying. A tunnel higher than six feet or carrying more than ^ 16 or 18 tiers of, trays will dry very slowly on me upper trays, while the work of removing or inserting trays at the top Avill be inconvenient and fatiguing. For the sake of convenience in handling, three feet in width and four feet in length should be the limit in size of the trays. Conse- quently, tunnels 20x6x3 feet are as large as can be efficiently operated, and attempts to increase any of the dimensions are likely to result in constant trouble and lowered effi- ciency. A tunnel of the dimensions just indicated will carry j 18 tiers of five 3x4 trays, or 90 trays, each having a drying ; surface of 12 square feet. Each tray when spread to a depth j of iy 2 inches with apples will hold about 25 pounds of fresh 1 fruit, giving a total capacity of 2250 pounds, a quantity ' which would be yielded by 65-70 bushels of apples. Such I trays will carry 25 to 30 pounds of prunes or 16 to 20 pounds ' of raspberries or. loganberries. The time required for dry- j ing will depend to such a degree upon the circulation or air thru the tunnels that any statements must be taken as only indicative of what may be expected ; apples will require 7 to 16 hours, berries 12 to 17, and prunes 28 to 40 hours at the temperatures recommended in a later aragraph. The floor of the tunnel slopes uniformly from end to end, the inclination most generally employed being IV 2 or 2 inches per foot of length. Two differing types of construction are , 68 Fig. XIX. Sectional side view of tunnel evaporator. Tunnel 2 0x6x3 feet, carrying 18 tiers of trays J^ree air spaces of 7 Vs inches above upper tray and 1 1/2 inches between floor and lowest tray. Furnace di- rectly beneath opening 3x3 feet in size at lower end of tunnel. Piping of furnace extended beneath floor of second story to chimney at side of building. l 69 employed; in one the tunnel is tightly floored with sheet iron thruout its length except for a distance of two to four feet at its lower end, which is directly over the furnace. 'In the second type the tunnel has no floor, but is continuous with the furnace room. In either case the furnace stands beneath the lower end and an arrangement of piping similar to that described as being used in kiln evaporators distributes the heat thruout the length of the tunnel. Each of these arrangements has its strong advocates; that last described obviously makes somewhat better use of the heat produced by the fuel. If a number of tunnels are to be constructed it is advisable to build them in sets of three arranged side by side and heated by the same furnace. In ease the tunnels are are to be constructed in blocks of three, the furnace room should be made of the same size as the block of three tunnels, ex- cept that it is two feet longer, or 22x10 feet inside the walls. This added two feet gives space for the furnace, which is to be set at the lower end of the tunnels (see diagram fig XIX). The walls of the furnace room may be built of stone, con- crete, concrete blocks, or metal lath and plaster. The outer walls of the group of tunnels are merely upward continuations of the walls of the furnace room and may be built of matched lumber nailed to 2x4 framing, or better, of metal lath and plaster. The two ends of each tunnel are formed by the doors, which must be close fitting, of a height and width equal to the in- side dimensions of the tunnel, and must swing back far enough to permit ready insertion or withdrawal of trays. The roof of the tunnels should be of matched lumber. The ventilating shaft, for three tunnels each 20x3 feet, should be not less than 5x2 feet in cross section, should have a damper at its base, and should extend well above the peak of the roof of the building. (See diagram IV). The partitions separating the individual tunnels are built of matched lumber and are carried up to within 12 or 18 inches of the roof of the tunnel. Some operators omit these par- 70 titions entirely, merely making a framework of 2x4s to which the cleats which support the trays are nailed, so that the whole interior of the three tunnels is one continuous cham- ber. If the tunnels are walled up, the opening of one of the doors to insert or withdraAv a tray interferes with the drying in that tunnel only, whereas in the absence of such walls, the opening of any door results in the cooling down of the en- tire system. Even were this not the case, the more uniform and rapid movement of air thru the tunnels and the com- parative freedom from dead air pockets secured by the sep- arating walls well repays the expense of their construction. The Furnace Room — If built in accordance with the sug- festions made above, the furnace room will be 22x10 feet in size. The height to the floor at the lower end of the tunnel should be 7 feet; a rise of iy 2 inches per foot in the floor would give a height of 9^/2 feet at the opposite end, while a 2-inch rise would give a height of 10 feet 4 inches. The walls may be of stone, brick, concrete, or metal lath and plaster; if built of wood they must be lined with asbestos sheeting to reduce the danger of fire. Since the cost of such a lining will bring the expense of construction very nearly up to that of a concrete wall, it is the part of wisdom to cut the fire risk to a minimum by avoiding wood altogether. Adequate provision for an abundant supply of air is ab- solutely necessary. For three tunnels of the size here sug- gested, the furnace room should have four air inlets, one in the center of each of the walls, each 3x11/2 feet in size and placed about six inches above the ground. These will give a total air inflow of 2592 square inches. It will rarely be necessary to open all of the inlets to 'their full capacity, and sliding doors should be provided in order that any of the in- lets may be partially or wholly closed at will, but there will be an occasional still, humid day when the entire capacity of the air intakes will be used. If the furnace room occupies only part of the lower floor of a larger building, provision must be made for free access of air to the intakes on the enclosed sides. This may 71 best be si'eured by excavating the furnace room to a depth of 12 to 18 inches, elevating the floor of the remainder of the building, and providing numerous ventilating openings in the foundation walls thru which air may move freely beneath the floors to the furnace room inlets. The Furnace — The statements made in the section devoted to heating apparatus for kilns holds true here. The only economical and durable heating equipment is a well built brick or stone furnace lined with fired)rick, of sufficient height and depth to take ordinary cordwood without preliminary splitting or cutting to shorter lengths. The ordinary hop stove, built as it is of thin sheets of cast iron, will not stand up under the continuous heavy firing of a fifty or sixty day apple drying season. If the tunnels are floored except for a distance of two to four feet at the lower end, the furnace should stand imme- diately below this opening in order that the heated air may pass directly upward into the lower end of the tunnels. The fact that the furnace room is two feet longer than the tun-, nels permits the furnace to stand in this position. The chim- ney should be placed at one side of the building, the pipe rising from the furnace should be fitted with a T joint, and the two lines of pipe carried around the walls of the room before they are connected with the flue, as described in the section on piping of kiln furnaces, page — . If the floors are of sheet iron, the pipe may be brought up to within 24-30 inches of the floor and kept at that distance in its passage around the room; if the tunnels have board floors or no floors at all, it must be kept about a foot lower to prevent over- heating. The ‘bsingle pipe” system of piping will give suffi- cient radiating surface and the distance of the pipes from the walls should not be less than 24 inches. The pipe should be of the qualitj^ recommended for use with kilu furnaces and should be 9 inches in diameter. The chimney should be at least 12x12 inches inside, if only one furnace is piped into it, 12x18 if tAvo are connected with it. It should be solid up to AAuthin 18 inches of the entrance of the pipes, and should 72 extend 4 or 5 feet above the roof. As free access to both ends of the tunnel is necessary, the chimney should stand at the side of the building, with the pipe passing beneath tho floor to reach it. The Construction of Trays — Trays are l)est made from %xlV 2 -ineh slats. Cut two pieces 3 feet and two pieces 4 feet long, nail these together to form a rectangular frame, 4x3 feet and IV 2 inches deep. Cut a piece of wire netting 1 inch larger each way than the frame, turn the edges back to give a firmer hold for nailing, and nail the netting to the frame. Now cut a second set of slats, and nail these to the bottom of the tray, taking care that the wire is not allowed to project. Lastly, nail a wooden strip across the middle to prevent warp- ing of the frame. This gives a reversible tray which has no projecting wires to tear clothing and hands or catch in the tunnels. The bottom cannot become loose from the frame, and can be kept from sagging by using the tray either side up. Trays should be made of the best grade of galvanized wire screen obtainable, with meshes 1-4 or 1-5 inch square. An inferior, poorly galvanized wire will be attacked by the acid juices of the fruit with discoloration and injury to the pro- duct. The German government has long made strenuous ob- jection to the use by her people of apples dried on wire trays, on the ground that such fruit may absorb sufficient quantities of zinc to be injurious to consumers. While this claim -is not borne out by the results of chemical analysis, it has re- sulted in laws prohibiting the sale in Germany of apples con- taining more than a specified amount of zinc. While this amount is much less than is found in fruits dried on well- galvanized trays, it may be reached or exceeded when an in- ferior wire is used in making trays or when trays become rusty from long continued use. The employment of wooden trays offers a theoretical solution of the difficulty, but un- fortunately there are practical dificulties which prevent their use; such trays are expensive to make and heavy to handle, the strips making up the bottom must be so narrow, in order not to impede the circulation of air, that they are very fragile 73 unless made ol: some hard, tough wood as hickory or rattan^ and the fruit sticks rather badly unless the trays are oiled. For all these reasons, the use of metal trays seems practically unavoidable, but the operator should promptly discard those in which the destruction of the zinc coating has occurred. To paint such trays with white lead, as some operators do, is simply to add the more poisonous metal lead to the fruit, and such treatment of tra3^s is fraught Avith danger of serious conse- quences to the consumer of the product. The Operation of the Tunnel Evaporator — The metlu»d of operation of the tunnel evaporator differs from that of other driers in two respects ; first, the fruit is subjected at the be- ginning of the process to a very moderate temperature which is steadil.y increased as the drying proceeds; second, the Avarin air at its first entrance to the tunnel comes into contact with the dryest fruit, then Avith that containing more and more Avater, until it reaches fresh fruit and becomes saturated Avith moisture immediately before finally passing out of the tun- nel. It is generally claimed that such fruits as apples and berries retain more of their natural flavor when subjected to a temperature not higher than 120-185 degrees Fahrenheit in the first hours of dr^dng, but that the temperature may advantageously be graduall^^ raised to 150-165 degrees after the fruit has given up a portion of its water content. There is the additional advantage that berries kept at 120-185 de- grees until dr^dng is well l)egun do not have their CAdlular structure broken doAvn, hence do not run together into com- pact masses, Avhile neither berries, prunes, nor apples lose a portion of their sugar by ‘d)leeding’' or dripping, as is the case Avhen materiall.v higher temperatures are used at the outset. Consequently a heavier product Avith a larger sugMr content is obtained by maintaining a moderate lempijrature at the outset, facilitating the drying by increasing the heat only after the fruit has lost so much water that dripping no longer occurs. The tunnel evaporator provides at one time the various temperatures needed, since it is hottest at the loAAUu* (Mid, direc'tly over the furnace, and the temperature 74 steadily decreases toward the upper end; also the temperature at any point near the top of the tunnel is considerably below that at a corresponding point near the bottom. Consequentlv, fresh fruit introduced at the upper end of the tunnel, near the top, and pushed along the tracks until it is finally removed dry at the lower end, is subjected to a steadily increasing temperature thruout its stay in the tunnel. The second distinctive feature of the tunnel evaporator has an obvious advantage. The heated air upon entering the tun- nel passes over fruit which is almost dry and which conse- quently gives up only a small fraction of the amount oi: mois- ture which the air is capable of carrying. Thence the air rises thru successive layers of fruit, each containing more moisture than its predecessor, until finally, just before enter- ing the ventilator shaft, it passes over trays which have just been inserted. The tunnel thus exactly reverses the method of the old tower evaporator, in which fresh fruit was put in at the bottom, nearest the source of heat, and the moist air driven from it thru the trays of partially dried fruit above. In such towers, the air often had its temperature so much lowered before reaching the top of the stack that a part of the moisture carried by it was deposited upon the fruit in the upper trays. In the tunnel this is entirely avoided, and the time required for drying is very materially shortened with a corresponding improvement in the quality of the product. When the plant is operating, fires are kept going continu- ously in the furnaces and trays of fresh fruit are inserted at the upper end of the tunnels as they are prepared. During the day, the tunnels will usually be kept full to capacity by the replacement of the finished trays, as rapidly as they are withdrawn, by trays of green fruit, which necessitates the occasional shifting downward of the partially dried fruit to make room at the top. In the afternoon, before the em- ploj^ees cease work for the day, all other work may be stopped and a sufficient number of trays filled to replace those which v.dll become dry during the night. These are stacked near the tunnels. It is the duty of the night man to keep up the fires, to remove such trays as become dry, to keep the un- finished trays compactly together in the lower portion of the tunnel, and to put in fresh fruit as room is made for it. This method has many advantages ; it prevents the overheating and scorching likely to occur when the tunnels are gradually emptied during the night; it utilizes all the heating value of the fuel burned, and it gives continuous operation at full capacity, hence at a lower cost. Nothing will aid more in the rapid and economical drying of the fruit than constant attention to the A^entilation. The air intakes into the furnace room must be adjusted anew with every change in the force and direction of the wind, and the damper in the ventilating shaft must be at one time widely open, at another almost closed. The plant cannot be left in charge of a man who is either careless or unintelligent, he must understand clearly that it is just as much a part of his duty to maintain a vigorous draft thru the tunnel as it is to keep the temperatures shown by the thermometers in the tunnels constant, and that failure in either of these re- spects results in slower drying and an inferior product of greater cost. Consequently, the kiln man should be the most intelligent and capable employee about the establishment. If there is any difference, the best man should be selected a» night man, since the greater humidity and lower air temper- atures prevailing at night make the task of securing satis- factory drying during that period a very difficult one. Once the kiln men are selected and put to work, they should be held responsible for the management of the drying rooms, and no interference by others should be attempted or toler- ated. ‘‘Many cooks spoil the broth” is a proverb never more true than when applied to the ventilating and heating of an evaporator. THE CARSON-SNYDER “ALL PURPOSE” EVAPORATOR In some of the smaller “box” evaporators in household use thirty years ago, the fruit was spread on a series of trays, and a current of warm air was driven horizontally across each tray from one side, escaping at the other, instead of being 76 forced vertically upward thru the entire series, as is the case in the tunnel evaporator. This principle was first applied to the construction of a commercial evaporator in a patented machine called the Charlotte evaporator, and was later used in the Carson evaporator. This evaporator consisted essentially of two tunnel-like chambers, one on either side of a central hot air chamber, which was situated directly over a furnace. Trays were pushed into these chambers along run- ways, as is the case in the tunnels, but the cleats forming the runways were so arranged that the trays were several inches lower at the side next the central warm air chamber. Slits in the wall admitted the hot air at the inner side of the trays, it passed horizontally over the trays to the opposite edge, and escaped thru a second series of slits into a ventilating shaft. Professor U. P. Hedrick describes and figures such an evaporator in a publication to which reference has al- ready been made, stating that it was in 1897 the most generally used type of evaporator employed in drying prunes in the state. The reports of the Oregon State Boai^d of Hor- ticulture at about this time contain incidental rc.t'crences to the Carson evaporator as an efficient and satisfactory prune drier, but it seems to have gone out of use and the writer has not been able to locate a Carson evaporator which is now in operation. Mr. D. A. Snyder of the Dayton Evaporating and Packing Company, Dayton, Oregon, is an exceptionally ■. successfid evaporator of some thirty-five years’ experience, and operates a large plant in which he dries not only apples, prunes a] id berries, but also a wide variety of vegetables. AVhile some of the basic principles employed in the construction of his drier are identical with those of the Carson evaporator, jMt. Snyder worked them out independently, and as a result of years of study and experimentation he has devised so many improvements upon Carson’s plan and has so increased both the efficiency and the economy of operation of his plant that he deserves chief credit for the development of what I shall call the Carson-Snyder ^‘All-purpose” evaporator. 77 drying chamber. Di Ci, upper drying chamber. V, ventilator shaft. Direction of movement of heated air indicated by arrows. 78 Mr. Snyder’s plant has two independent drying units, each with its own heating system. Each of thesce units is two stories in height, and as the construction and arrangement of these differ materially, they must 1 h' separately desc'ri'ned. The lower story of each unit has a central hot air chamber, situated directly over the furnace. This chamber is without a floor, and is warmed by heated air rising from the furnace room below it. This hot air chamber is 18 feet in length, 7 in height, 7 in width at bottom, and 1 feet in width at the top. On either side of the hot air chamber is a drying cham- ber in which the trays are placed. Each of these drying chambers is 18 feet in length, 7 feet in height, and 2y2 feet in width. The walls, instead of being vertical, are inclined toward the heating chamber, which is thus made 8 feet nar- rower at top than at bottom. Each drying chamber lias 22 slat runways extending thru its length, made of ^Txl inch slats nailed on edge to the studding. These slats are 31^ inches apart from center to center, and are so arranged that the outer edge of each tray is 6% inches higher than the inner side. As the trays used are 1 inch in depth, there is an in- terval of 2% inches between the top of the fruit in one tray and the bottom of the tray above. The inner wall of the tun- nel, next to the hot air chamber, is built of 1 inch slats, which have intervals of 2^/2 inches between them, and these slats are so spaced that the upper edge of each slat is just flush with the top, while its lower edge is of course flush with the bottom, of the corresponding tray. The 2 V 2 inch spaces lie- tween trays are thus freely open to the hot air chamber. On the outer side of the drying chamber, the wall is also built of slats, but the intervals between these become progressively wider from above downward. Above the upper tray of the series the interval between slats is only 1-12 inch in width, above the next it is increased to 2-12, above the next to 3-12, and each successive interval is wider by 1-12 inch, so that the slit opposite the outer edge of the lowest member of the series of 22 trays is 1 11-12 inches in width. Warm air rises from the furnace room into the hot air 79 chamber and thence passes laterally thru the openings in the walls into the drying chambers. Since there is at the opposite side of each tray a slit opening into a space outside the outer Avail of the drying chamber, the air moves laterally across the face of the inclined tray and escapes into this space in- stead of rising thru the trays above. The tendency of the Avarm air to rise to the top of the hot air chamber before passing laterally over the trays is corrected by making the inlets into the drying chamber all of the same Avidth, while the outlets therefrom are successively wider from above down- ward, as already described. (See Fig. XXI.) A very uniform distribution of the Avarm air is thus secured, the temperatures on upper and lower trays of the series differing only by two to five degrees. Consequently this evaporator differs fun- damentally from the tunnel type in that all the fruit in any pair of chambers is kept at a uniform temperature. Fig. XXI. Detail of portion of drying chamber of Carson-Snyder evaporator, showing inclination of trays toward air inlets at right, graduated air exits at left. The second story of each unit has a pair of drying cham- bers identical in size, construction, and capacity Avith the lower pair, but differing from them in that they are in- clined outward instead of inAvard, and in that the outer Avail has uniform air inlets 2Y2 inches Avide between trays while 1 he inner Avail has the graduated slits for the exit of air. The Avarm air. after its passage thru the loAver drying cham- 80 ber, passes into a space between the drying chamber and the solidly boarded, vertical wall of the unit. This spkce is freely open above into the space between the upper chamber and the vertical wall. Consequently, the warm air escaping from the lower drying chambers rises in this space, passes from it into the upper drying chambers, where it flows across the in- clined trays to escape thru the graduated slits into a central space from which a ventilating shaft carries it thru the roof. Since the central hot air chamber and the drying chambers of the first story are solidly ceiled with matched lumber, while the second-story drying chambers and the space at the base of the ventilator shaft have a tight floor, air can pass from the heating chamber to the ventilator only by passing over the trays. The whole of this ingenious arrangement will be readily understood from an examination of figures XX and XXI. The upper drying chambers are of course much cooler than the lower ones, the difference averaging about 25 to 30 de- grees. Consequently the time required for drying apples, which is 6 to 12 hours in the lower chambers when these are kept at 155-160 degrees, is lengthened to practically twice the time in the upper chambers, where the temperature ranges around 130 degrees. Mr. Snyder says that in so far as he is able to determine, the upper chambers turn out a product which is in every respect as desirable as that from the lower ones. As previously stated, Mr. Snyder’s plant consists of two two-story units, each having four drying chambers. Each chamber has a capacity of 22 tiers of 6 trays each, each tray being 30x36 inches in outside dimensions. Each chamber has therefore an approximate drying area of 990 square feet, of 7920 square feet for the eight chambers. Of this area, one half will dry apples in 12 hours or less, the remaining halt in 24 hours, with a proportionate difference for other fruits and vegetables. The trays have a capacity of about 20 pounds of apple slices each. When operated continuously with the tunnels always full, the plant has a capacity somewhat in 81 exc'ess of (iOO l)ushels or To tons of apples daily, hut this is not the aelual working capacity, as the trays emptied during the night are not re-filled until work at the parers is begun next morning. Loganberries are spread more thinly on the trays, so that the drying chambers when filled carry six tons of fruit, which requires 15 and 24 hours in the upper and lower chambers, respectively. About 18 tons of prunes are required for one charge, and the time occupied in drying is 24 hours in the lower and 48 hours in the upper chambers. A wide variety of fruits and vegetables have been dried in this plant ; among the products shown the writer may oe mentioned potatoes, beets, carrots, onions, cabbage and celery. The company has built up a considerable business in the dry- ing and blending of vegetables for soup, so that the plant is in operation for a large part of the year. The furnaces are built of fire brick, and extend back for the entire length of the drying chambers, with a width of G feet. Cordwood is burned as it comes from the forest, hence comparatively little time is consumed in firing and one man can keep the fires going and look after the drying chandners, with occasional assistance when the fruit is being inserted or withdrawn. Each furnace is enclosed by brick walls whicn extend up to the floor of Ihe lower drying chambers, enclosing a space over the furnace 18 feet long, 9 in width, and 11 in heighv. In this space there are two tiers of pipe, one above the other, to increase the radiating surface. IMovement of air thru the system is secured by a series of openings in the side walls which enclose the furnaces. These openings are f2 or 15 in number; each made by leaving out a brick in building the wall. They appear to the writer to be entirely too small to permit adequate circulation of air. and it is certain that more rapid drying would be secured were the openings increased two to four-fold in area. Since the air does not pass thru a series of trays as it does in the tun- nel evaporator, there is not the same necessity for rapid cir- culation to prevent the saturation of the air with moisture, 82 ' but its sluggish movement results in greater reduction of temperature and consequently in slower drying in the upper chambers. This system of drying has a number of features which very strongly commend it. The most objectionable feature of the tunnel evaporator, namely, that the fruit in the upper portion of the tunnel is surrounded by nearly saturated air at a tem- perature many degrees lower than at the bottom of the tun- nel, is entirely avoided. The objectionable features of the Charlotte and Carson evaporators have been eliminated, and their desirable characters very materially improved and per- fected. The heat produced by the fuel is very fully utilized, and the plant has the advantage that the drying units can be made of any desired length, provided the size of the furnace and the radiating surface of the piping be correspondingly increased. The very satisfactory quality of the apples, prunes, loganberries, and vegetables produced is evidence that the method can be successfully used in drying any fruit or vege- table material which it might be desired to evaporate. For these reasons, the Carson-Snyder type of evaporator ought to receive careful consideration at the hands of those who de- sire a general purpose evaporator capable of handling a wide variety of fruits. No one should construct a plant of this kind, however, without equipping it completely with labor saving power machinery, or it is likely to prove an unprofit- able investment. It is true that Mr. Snyder’s plant at Dayton operates successfully practically without labor-saving machin- ery, but it is unique in a number of respects. It is located in a region which produces a large volume of each of the fruits commonly evaporated, and the plant therefore has an assured supply of an exceptional variety of materials, at moderate prices, for an evaporating season of maximum! length. Also, this plant has been the pioneer in the evaporation of vegetables in the Northwest, and has built up a substantial business in the drying and blending of vegetables for soup stock. Con- sequently, the plant operates for a very large part of each year, and fixed charges, such as interest on investment, de- 83 preciation, and insurance, are distributed over a long pro- ductive season. Fuel is cheap, and labor of an efficient char- acter is obtainable at rates very much lower than prevail in most fruit districts in Washington. All these favoring con- ditions have combined with Mr. Snyder’s long experience, ex- ceptional energy, enterprise, and business ability to make this plant a financial success. The operator of such an evaporator in W^ashington will scarcely find it feasible to undertake the drying of vegetables. The supply of fruits other than apples available from year to year will probably fluctuate rather widel}^, while the cost of fuel and labor Avill almost certainly be greater than at Dayton. Economy .of operation may best be secured by the substitution of power-operated machinery for hand labor wherever possible, by the installation of power parers, conveyors, bleachers and slicers. As the arrangement of the drying chambers one above the other necessitates trans- fer of fruit from floor to floor, an elevator and wheeled trucks for moving fruit in quantity will eliminate a very large ex- penditure of time and labor. There should be spreading tables on both drying floors in order that fruit may be delivered in quantity and placed on trays near the chamber in Avhich it is to be dried. It seems feasible to the writer to eliminate the handling of trays individually in the drying chambers by substituting wheeled trucks carrying an entire tier of trays, which could be handled as units.* Since the temperatures at bottom and top of a properly constructed and ventilated dry- ing chamber are practically identical, the rate of drying thru- *Such a truck need be merely a substantial base with small, heavy wheels, with a framework for carrying trays equal in height to the height of the drying chamber. The framework should be somewhat narrower than the trays, which should project at either side, and the cleats supporting the trays must be accurately spaced to correspond to the spacing of air inlets and outlets in the drying chamber. Trays should be inserted at the sides and kept in place by vertical strips at the end of the frame. When rolled into the. drying chamber, the projecting edges of the trays should be just above and should overlap the runways on the inner walls of the tunnel, thus insuring lateral movement of the air. If substantially built and properly braced to prevent warping, such trucks would soon pay for themselves in the saving of time and effort they would accomplish. 84 Fig. XXII. A popular and efficient type of power parer. 85 out should be uniform, and a truck need not be unloaded until it has been removed and transferred to the curing room. It may seem to the reader that undue space is given to dis- cussion of labor-saving devices and of minor economies of operation for eliminating hand labor wherever possible. That this is not done without good reason will perhaps be apparent when it is recalled that the evaporation of fruit is a business in which the margin of profit is relatively narrow and that profits depend upon the handling of large volumes of raw material, while the period in which work can go on is made a short one by uncontrollable climatic conditions. Anything which saves time or reduces hand labor increases output and lowers cost, hence widens the margin of profit. The writer has made an analytical study of a number of unsuccessful plants as well as of many very successful ones and can say that success is not so much dependent on the particular type of evaporator employed as upon economy of time and labor thru the employment of machines. The rock upon which at least eight out of ten evaporating enterprises are wrecked is the rock of too much hand labor. The plant in which the employees spend the day in the backbreaking task of carry- ing boxes of fruit across the floor and ap and down stairs or in turning a handpower slicer or hand parers, each of which needs t^vo or three trimmers to do what the machine should have done, will be a place in which employees will shirk and save themselves. It must compete with the plant in which this heavy time-consuming work is done by power, and the ultimate result will be that the sheriff wdll tack a sale notice on the door. The adoption of such labor-saving devices as are here suggested, and the constant taxing of one’s ingenuity to improve them and to develop others, will do more than any- thing else to insure a permanent business with satisfactory profits. EVAPORATOR MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENT Paring Machines — Paring machines to be operated by po'wer have been brought to a high degree of perfection, and there are several standard makes of practically equal merit on the 86 Pig. XXIII, A power parer having an automatic trimming device, 87 market. Aiiioiig^ sueh machines may be mentioned the Pa- cific No. 2,” the Goodell, the ''Ranger,” the "Improved Triumph” and the Coons. All these are heavy, well made, durable machines which .stand up well under hard and con- tinuous usage. The illustrations show the general plan of all such machines in that there are three forks; an apple is cored and discharged from one of these while that upon a second fork is being peeled, the operator meanwhile placing the fruit upon the third. While the claim is made by some makers that their machines have trimming attachments which make hand trimming unnecessary, it must be said that the writer has seen no machine which can do more than reduce the work of trimming by one-half when working with good fruit, or by perhaps one-third when small, irregular apples are being peeled. There are a number of good machines to be operated by hand; nearly every maker of evaporating machinery in the list given below makes a machine , which has been proven satis- factory. Slicers — Several power slicers, among which may be men- tioned the Boutell, the "Rochester,” the "Ontario,” the Evans, and the Goodell, are widely used and strongly rec- ommended b}^ users. Such machines are of two types, the under-cut, in which the knives which slice the apple pass beneath the fruit, and the overcut, in which the exact oppo- site is the case. A defect common to all overcut machines in so far as the writer is acquainted with them arises from the fact that the apple is permitted to roll somewhat before the knives, with the result that some fruits are sliced at oblique angles with the core hole or even parallel with it, while a larger percentage of slices are broken than is the case in the undercut machines. Most of the companies making power machines make also smaller machines to be operated by hand power. The illustration represents a good type of undercut power slicer. Graders — A good grader is a necessity in every evaporator; a larger ouG)ut per day will be handled by the parers and 88 Fig. XXIV. An efficient under-cut power slicer of large capacity. trimmers if fruit is separated into sizes before paring, and a better price will be obtained for the product if the larger fruits are worked up together, since price depends to some extent upon size of rings. Since a grader is likely to l)e avail- able as a piece of orchard equipment already in hand, no one should attempt to handle apples of all sizes indis('riminately mixed together. Other equipment — The construction of a good type of power bleacher has already been discussed. Any large wholesale hardware company can supply gearing, chains and other metal parts, and the wooden portions may be made by a good car- penter at a considerable saving over the prices charged by the supply companies. The same statement holds true of convey- 89 ors, tables, and all the wooden parts of the paring-room equip- ment; it may be made on the premises, only the shafting, belt- ing and gearing need be purchased, and the whole installed by any good mechanic. The list of companies given below not only manufacture hand and power parers and slicers but also manufacture or handle belting for conveyors, castings and chains for bleachers^ and practically everything needed for the equipment of an evaporating plant with power machinery: Boutell Manufacturing Co., Rochester, New York. Goodell Manufacturing Co., Antrim, N. H. Fruit Machinery Co., Ingersoll, Ontario, Canada. Coons-Mabett Manufacturing Co., Rochester, N. Y. Evans & Co., i\Iedina, New York. TEMPERATURES AT WHICH DRYING SHOULD BE CONDUCTED It must be said in the outset that no chemical studies of the changes occurring in fruits dried at different temperatures have ever been made, and we have at present no knowledge as to the extent to which loss of flavor, of solid constituents, conversion of starch into sugar, or other chemical changes occurring during drying can be controlled by controlling temperature. In the absence of such knowledge, the recommendations made here are simply those in which the great majority of evaporators concur. They have been worked out empirically by practical evaporators who fomid that best results were obtained when the temperatures suggested were used, and may need modifica- tion when exhaustive studies of the whole subject have been made. In the kiln evaporator, at least 95 per cent of operators main- tain a temperature of 155-165 degrees for the first five or six hours after the kiln is filled. If the temperature is raised higher than the second figure named the cellular structure of the fruit is destroyed by expansion of the contained vapor and serious loss of sugar by bleeding occurs; unless the temperature is kept up to this level the surfaces of the fruit become slimy and the 90 subsequent drying is retarded. After the first five or six hours, some operators allow the temperature to go down to 130 or 135 degrees, open the ventilators widely, and continue the dry- ing by using large volumes of air at lower temperature for ten to twelve hours, after which the temperature is brought up to 175-180 degrees and kept there until the drying is completed. Users of this method claim for it that it is economical of fuel — a claim which seems to be well established — and also that it makes a more springy, “lively” product which resists exposure to unfavorable conditions much better than fruit dried wdth a uniform temperature. This second claim does not appear to be fully substantiated, and most operators carry the fruit thru the whole process at a temiperatue of approximately 160 degrees. In the tunnel evaporator, the majority of operators maintain a temperature of 160 to 175 degrees in the lower and hotter end of the tunnel, while the upper end will be 15 to 25 degrees cooler. Since the fruit is introduced at the upper end and gradually moved toward the hotter end, it begins to dry at 135 to 150 degrees and is finished at the higher temperature. This is essentially what the operator of the kiln accomplishes by the first method described in the last paragraph. In the Carson-Snyder evaporator, a very different set of con- ditions prevail. Since the temperature in the upper drying chambers is usually 25 or 30 degrees lower than that in the lower ones, it follows that the fruit placed in the upper chamber is dried at a temperature considerably lower than that used in any other evaporator. In physical char- acters and appearance it is indistinguishable from other fruit, and, as already stated, we possess as yet no information as to whether chemical differences exist. In drying prunes and berries, the temperature at the out- set should not be allowed to rise above 125 or 130 degrees until the fruits have lost a considerable portion of their water, as otherwise there will be expansion and bursting with con- sequent dripping. The temperature which may be employed in the later stages of the process will depend upon the cir- culation of air; if ample air movement can be obtained a 91 temperature of 175 to 180 may be employed in the last half cf the drying period, but if the circulation of air is defective the temperature must be kept below this poinx or the fruit will be partially cooked, or dried at the surface while the in- terior is still too high in water content. RELATION OF TEMPERATURE OF THE AIR TO ITS MOISTURE CARRYING CAPACITY It must not be forgotten that the capacity of the air to carry moisture is a function of its temperature, and increases rapidly as the temperature is increased. How significant this fact is may at once be seen from consideration of '.he fact that 1 cubic foot of air at the freezing point can absorb 1-160 part of its weight of water, and that the water-absorbing capacity is doubled with every increase of 27 degrees in temperature. This is shown in the following table : Temperature. 1 cubic foot of air can absorb 32 degrees 1-160 its weight 59 degrees 1-80 ” 86 degrees 1-40 “ “ 113 degrees 1-20 ” 140 degrees 1-10 ” ” 167 degrees 1-5 194 degrees 2-5 ” 221 degrees 4-5 If we disregard the expansion of air with increasing tem- perature, which we may do since it amounts to only 1-490 of the volume for each degree rise of temperature, it will be seen that air raised from 86 degrees to 167 degrees has had its moisture-carrying capacity increased eightfold, whereas if the temperature be raised to 140 degrees the moisture-car- rying capacity will be increased only four-fold. It is, there- fore, easily seen that in drying any substance not easily in- jured by heating choice may be made between the use of a very large volume of air moderately heated or a much smaller volume of air raised to a higher temperature. The fact that under ordinary conditions the rate of movement of the air over fruit cannot be brought under the control of tlie opera- tor necessitates the use of higher temperatures in order to bring the time required for drying within reasonable limits. 92 ARTIFICIAL MEANS OF INCREASING CIRCULATION OF AIR The operator of a tunnel or Carson-Snyder evaporator who finds that the circulation of air thru the fruit is sluggish may increase it to any degree desired by installing suction fans in the ventilating shafts, or by employing a ventilating fan to drive air into the furnace room, over the furnace, and up- ward thru the fruit. In the case of a kiln, only the second method could be used, since the air movement produced by a suction fan would be mainly thru the center of the kiln and there would be margins along the walls in which drying would be very slow. Fans may be connected up with the main power shaft and operated constantly, or brought into service only on such still, humid days as make satisfactory drying with- out their help impossible. Since their use will necessarily low^er the temperature of the air, the operator must bear in mind what has just been said in regard to the relation of tempera- ture to moisture-carrying capacity in determining the speed at which his fans shall run. MOISTURE CONTENT OF EVAPORATED APPLES The only legislation regarding moisture ‘ content of evap- orated apples is found in the agricultural laws of New York, which forbids the sale of other than “standard evaporated apples,” which are defined as apples containing not more than 27 percent of water as determined by drying for four hours at the temperature of boiling water. This law was enacted in 1904, after the export business in evaporated apples had been seriously damaged by the shipment to foreign markets of fruit containing so much moisture that it spoiled in transit or short- ly after receipt abroad. It is clear that the allowable per- centage is too high ; bitter complaints have frequently been made by dealers in Belgium, Germany and Holland that fruit which had been imperfectly dried, or fruit properly dried but wetted at the time of packing, is supplied them by New York exporters. Such fruit immediately begins to deteriorate and cannot be carried thru the summer in ordinary storage. Tlie 93 Netherlands Association of dealers in evaporated fruits and spices has been especially emphatic in its protests against the shipment of such goods to its members, and two years ago published in the trade journals of this country a strong con- demnation of the quality of our apples, accompanied by a proposal that shipments made in the future should be ac- companied by certificates of quality and weight made by a sworn inspector. Complaint has also come from the tropics and from our own Southern states, for the reason that it is practically impossible to carry evaporated fruits thru tlie sum- mer months. Consequently, experienced evaporator men are agreed that the present legal limit of 27 per cent moisture is too high, and at a hearing of the Joint Committee on Defi- nitions and Standards of the Bureau of Chemistry of the De- partment of Agricuture, held at Buffalo, N. Y.', in February, 1916, the Committee was petitioned to urge the passage of a Federal law making the allowable water content of evaporated apples 25 per cent and establishing a system of certified in- spection of fruit intended for both foreign and domestic trade. It was clearly brought out at the hearing that apples with 27 per cent moisture cannot be kept in temperate climates out- side of cold storage, that the business has received great injury as a result, and that all evaporators favor a reduction to 25 per cent, while a considerable number advocate 22 to 24 per cent as a safer limit which would permit goods to be shipped into any climate. Operators of evaporators in the Northwest may profit by the experience of Eastern producers of dried fruits. There is no question but that the moisture content of 25 per eent which has been suggested is barely within the limit of safety, and is designed to permit the operator and dealer to dispose of just as much water as possible without deterioration of the goods. Apples dried to a lower water content, as for ex- ample 22 per cent, should find ready favor in the markets at a price more than equalizing the difference in cost of i ro- duction, since such fruit could be kept indefinitely in common storage and could be shipped into any climate without fear 94 of souring and spoilage. If the Northwest is to become a pro- ducer of commercial dried apples, she should take the same steps which have made her fresh fruit so well and favorably known. She should profit by the example of Eastern States, which have suffered the loss of much domestic as well as foreign trade thru dishonest practices on the part of makers and dealers, and should enact strict legislation setting up clearly defined standards of quality, reducing moisture content to 22 per cent or less, and establishing clearly defined grades and trade designations. Such action would make the pro- duct of the Northwester evaporator as distinctive and as much sought after as are her boxed apples, and would yield good divi- dends in the higher prices obtained for the product. DETERMINING WHEN THE FRUIT IS PROPERLY DRIED Fruit should be removed from the kiln floor or drying trays when it still contains slightly more moisture than the finished product is to have. The ability to judge accurately as to when the fruit has reached the proper condition for removal can only be gained by experience, but some general statements may be made. Fruit which is sufficiently dried for removal should be so dry that it is impossible to press water out of the freshly cut ends of the pieces, but should be sufficiently elastic not to break when the piece is rolled into a cylinder. AYhen a mass of slices are pressed firmly into a ball in the hand, they should separate at once when released. The surface should be soft and should adhere slightly to the fingers, leaving ^he hands ‘‘sticky” after handling them. Occasional slices will, of course, have more or less than this amount of moisture, but the general condition of the fruit should be that just described. When the fruit has reached this condition, it should be re- moved ta the curing room, where it is spread upon the floor to a depth of a foot or more. Here the moisture content of the whole mass gradually becomes equalized, a process which should be accelerated by stirring it thoroly once a day. A slow loss of moisture content will go on for some days or weeks, reducing the fruit as a whole to a weight 4-5 per cent less than it had on coming from the drier. 95 GRADING AND PACKING THE DRIED FRUIT The trade recognizes four standard grades of evaporated apples, which may be briefly defined. ‘‘Extra Fancy” is a name used to, designate the highest quality fruit, and consists of very white fruit in complete rings of large size, with only a very small admixture — 5-8 per cent at most — of broken pieces. It must be free of bits of skin and core, and must be perfectly clean. “Fancy” is also a clean white stock without skin or core, but may consist. of somewhat smaller rings with a somewhat larger proportion of broken pieces. “Choice” is, on most markets, a slightly darker, somewhat golden stock made from apples of high sugar content, reasonably free of skin and cores, and with 60 to 70 per cent of the slices in per- fect rings. “Prime” is a designation for fruit which, while fairly white, has more broken pieces, peel, or seed cells than are permissil)le in the “choice” grade, or which is reasonably free of these but is dark in color. A fifth grade, called “mid- dling” or by various other names, receives all fruit which has. been so badly trimmed and cored than it cannot be admitted to “prime,” wdiich contains too large a proportion of broken rings and chips, or which has been badly bleached and is con- sequently very dark in color. The best evaporators make several grades of stock from the same lot of apples, b}" grading the fruit prior to peeling and slicing, and drying large and small fruits separatel}^ When a power slicer is used, the separation into grades is carried further by dividing the chute from the slicer by partitions, so that the large slices from the center of the apple pass into one receptacle while the smaller slices from the ends pass into another and are separately dried. W^hen packing begins, the fruit is again sorted over, the largest perfect slices being put together as extra fancy, those also perfect but made from smaller fruits going into fancy, while the smallest slices are put together into prime, and only the broken bits of ring, slices with adhering seed cells or skin, and pieces Avith other imperfections, along with badly bleached fruit, remain to fall into the lowest grade. Such care is well repaid by the higher- 96 prices which will be received for the perfect fruit of the upper grades. In packing the fruit, wooden boxes containing 25 to 50 pounds are used for all grades above prime, while prime and middling are more frequently sacked in bags containing 50 or 100 pounds. A fifty-pound box is usually 22x11x10% inches, while the twenty-five-pound box is 18x9x9 inches, inside dimen- sions. These boxes are made with a loose side which becomes the bottom, not the top, of the box when it is filled. Packing is begun by '‘facing” the future top of the box with a layer of perfect slices of good size, which are laid in overlapping fashion, like the shingles on a roof, over the entire surface, after lining the box with paraffined paper which usually has a fancy lace edge. After the "facers” are in place, a second box of the same size but with both bottom and top removed is placed over the first one, and fruit is packed in by hand until the desired weight is reached, when the box is transferred to the platform of a hand press, a board slightly smaller than the inside dimensions of the box is placed on top, and pressure is applied until the fruit is forced down sufficiently to permit the bottom to be nailed on. The package should be finished by stenciling thereon the maker’s name and address, with the weight, grade, and the variety of fruit from which the product was made. A guarantee covering these facts may advantage- ously be added. VARIETIES BEST FOR EVAPORATION Since the prices of evaporated apples in the markets depend upon the color of the product as well as upon the care em- ployed in its manufacture, those varieties which make the whitest product are most desired by evaporators. In the East, Baldwin holds first place in this respect. Spitzenburg and Ben Davis make as white stock as Baldwin, and will un- doubtedly take rank among Northwestern evaporators corre- sponding to the Baldwin in the East. Winesap, Delicious, Jona- than, Black Twig, Rhode Island Greening, Rome Beauty and 97 Stayiiian Winesap will make a slightly less white, faintly goldeu stock, and will rank together in second place, while Roxbury Russet, ^lissouri and Yellow Newtown, Gano, Wagener, and Grimes Golden will be ranked as the '‘dark stock group” by reason of the fact that the fruit made from them will be a distinctly golden color which will command in the markets a price slightly below that of the whiter stocks. YIELD OF DRY FRUIT FROM DIFFERENT VARIETIES It may be said at the outset that color and weight of dry product are both directly dependent upon the sugar content of the variety used; that such varieties as are characteristic- ally low in sugar content will give the desired white stock, but will give small yields of dry product, while varieties high in sugar content will give a larger yield of a product of darker color. Of the apples named in the "white stock group” above, it may be said that an average yield of dry fruit from Baldwin, Spitzenburg, or Ben Davis will be 18 to 131/^ pounds per hundred pounds of fresh fruit; for the second group — AVinesap, Jonathan, Black Twig and Greenings, the yield will be, on the average, to 141/2 pounds per hun- dred, while Russets, Grimes Golden, and the others named with them as the "dark stock group” will give a yield of I 41/2 to 16 pounds of dry fruit per hundred. In all cases, these figures apply to mature apples of C grade or good culls, dried to a water content of 25 per cent. AA'indfalls and imma- ture fruits will make a slightly lighter product, as they must have the water content reduced to a lower percentage in orer to prevent spoiling. In this connection it may be of interest to state the results obtained by Mr. D. A, Snyder of the Dayton Evaporating and Packing Co., who dried during the past season a number of lots of apples sent him from Spokane, from points in Idaho, and * Since summer varieties are, as a class, very low in total solids and in sugar, the yield of dry fruit is so small that it is impossible to evaporate them with profit. For this reason no summer varieties are mentioned in this discussion. 98 from Portland, Oregon, for the purpose of making compara- tive tests of yields. The results follow : Variety Grade Origin Dry Fruit per 100 lbs. Arkansas Black . . . . . . C 12.84 Arkansas Black . . . . . . Culls 12.75 Ben Davis . . . C 13.12 Ben Davis . . . Culls 12.54 Rome Beauty . . .C . . . . Idaho .... 12.91 Rome Beauty 12.19 Winesap . . . C 12.96 Winesap . . . Culls 12.70 Wagener . . .C ,13.36 Wagener . . . . Spokane . . 14.68 Ben Davis Culls 13.09 Ben Davis B 14.68 These results would indicate that the yield of dry fruit from a given variety grown in the Northwest is practically what the same variety yields in other apple-producing regions of the United States. Extensive comparative studies of the chemical composition of the leading varieties of apples when grown under the various conditions of rainfall and irrigation occuring in the Northwest are badly needed. Such studies have thus far been made only for Idaho apples. Jones and Colver of the Idaho Experiment Station have made extensive series of analyses^ of the chief varieties of apples and other fruits grown in that state, with and without irrigation, and the results storngly indicate that there is no substantial ground for the widely current statement that Norh western apples are higher in water content, lower in sugar and total car- bohydrate content, and lower in nutritive value than apples grown in other sections of the United States. While the var- iations in composition of any given variety shown by the analyses of Jones and Clover are very considerable, equally great variations are found when analyses of varieties grown in other regions are compared, and the averages of any twa sets of analyses made in different portions of the United States fall very nearly together when compared. Conse- 1. Jones, J. S., and Colver, C. W., The Composition of Irrigated and Non-irrigated Fruits. Bull. 75 Idaho Agric. Exp. Sta. 1912', pp. 54. 99 quently, no one need give credence to statements to the effect that Northwestern apples will yield a materially smaller quantity of evaporated product than is obtained from the same varieties in the East. THE UTILIZATION OF PEELS AND CORES Every bushel of good, sound C grade apples will yield about 14 pounds of peels, trimmings, and cores, called in the trade “waste,” while culls will yield about 15 or 16 pounds. Con- sequently, the evaporator handling 50,000 bushels of apples in a season will have produced 700,000 to 750,000 pounds of waste, which has a sugar content approximately equalling that of the fruit from which it was made and averaging at least 8 V 2 to 9 per cent. In the Eastern states, waste is oc- casionally converted into vinegar by the producer, but is much more often dried and sold, most of it for export and conversion into vinegar abroad, while the remainder is pur- chased by vinegar and jelly vactories, which exhaust the dried material with water. Since state laws forbid the addi- tion of water in the process of manufacture of vinegar, this could not be done in Washington, but waste might profitably be pressed fresh and converted into vinegar or sold to vine- gar factories. Dried waste sells in the Eastern markets at prices ranging from IV 2 cents to cents per pound, and each bushel of fresh fruit will yield about 2% to 3 pounds of dry waste. When locally produced evaporated fruits come on the market in commercial quantities, there will no donbt be a market for peels and cores, but until that time, the in- dividual evaporator should endeavor to dispose of his pro- duct to a cannery or vinegar factory, or should work it up into vinegar on his own account, as it may readily be seen that the operator who makes no use of this material must neces- sarily operate under a heavy handicap. COST OF CONSTRUCTING BUILDINGS To present a complete itemized bill of materials and a destailed estimate of cost for each of the buildings described in the preceding pages would require more space than is avail- able. Such estimates have been prepared in detail, and will be furnished upon application to the Director of the Experiment Station, Pullman. Such requests should be accompanied by information as to the approximate capacity of the plant de- sired and as to the sorts and amounts of fruit other than apples to be handled by the plant, in order that the plans and esti- mates sent may be fitted to the needs of the particular case. The condensed estimates below are designed to furnish the prospective builder a working basis for his calculations of cost of his building. They supply accurate information as to the amounts and kinds of material necessary for constructing the buildings described, and the individual builder must substitute current prices in his own locality for those given, which are quotations by dealers and contractors in Pullman and will of course not hold good elsewhere. Materials and Cost of Construction for Two Kiln Plant — If this plant be built of concrete, with concrete walls 8 inches thick to the second story level and 6 inches thick above, with concrete foundations 11/2 feet wide and 1 foot thick below the ground level, it will require 80 cubic yards of concrete, which contractors in Pullman will put into the walls, furnishing everything necessary except reinforcing steel, for $11.00 per* cubic yard, or $880.00 ; 1200 pounds iron rods at 5 cents for reinforcing concrete, will cost $60.00, making a total of $940.00 for the concrete building. If brick walls 8 inches thick rest- ing on a concrete foundation feet wide and 1 foot thick be used, they will require 53,500 brick, which contractors in Pull- man will furnish and build into wall at $20.00 per thousand, or $1070, with an additional charge of $117.30 for 288 cubic feet of coucrete foundation, or a total of $1187.30.- Other items of cost, which will l)e identical for the two build- ings, are as follows : Roofing, 3-ply asphalt, 1672 sq. ft. at $2.50 per square... $ 42.50 or corrugated iron roofing, 1 748 sq. ft. at 4.00 per square 72.00 Sills and joists, 618 feet of 6x6 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 12.40 Rafters, 780 feet of 2x6 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 15.60 *This cost is excessive; in most localities prices average $6.00 to $8.00 per cubic yard. 101 Framing for ventilators and bins, 450 feet of 2x4 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 9.00» Flooring, 1100 feet at 28.00 per thousand 30.80 Ship lap, for sheathing roof, 1800 feet; for bins, 1100 feet; for ventilator, 9 00 feet; for stairway, 4 00 feet; total 4200 feet at $16.00 per thousand 67.20 Chimney, concrete base and brick flue, complete. 30.00 Concrete jackets and metal lath and cement hoppers around furnaces, two, complete . 60.00 Furnaces, brick, with firebrick lining, 8x4x3 feet, com- plete 54.00 Piping, 360 feet 9 inch pipe at 8 cents 28.80 Windows, 1 7 at $1.60 each 27.20 Doors, steel, 8 at $3.00 each 24.00 Framing and casing for doors and windows 37.50 I beams for supporting kiln floors, 80 feet, 1800 pounds at 3 % cents 67.50 Maple kiln slats, 720 square feet at $5.75 per hundred 41.40 Nails, hinges and minor hardware 25.00 Carpenters’ labor, master carpenter at $5.50; ordinary car- penter at $4.50 per day, 18 days each 180.00 Metal parts for bleacher, belts for conveyors, shafting, and belting from engine to main shaft ‘. . . 150.00 Lumber for paring table, conveyors, bleacher and chutes from storage bins, 1400 feet at $28.00 per thousand... . 39.20’ These items total $882.20 for building with asphalt roof and $911.70 for building with corrugated iron roof. Adding these items to the cost of concrete or brick walls, we have $1822.20 for concrete building with asphalt roof, $1851.70 for same building ivith metal roof, $2069.50 for brick building with as- phalt roof and $2098.00 for same with metal roof. Materials and Cost of Construction for Four Kiln Plant — For a concrete building, with foundations IVL’xl feet under all walls, walls 8 inches thick to second floor, 6 inches above, thei’O will be required 155% cubic yards of concrete -which at $11.00 per cubic yard will cost $1713.25, with an additional cost of $125.00 for 2500 pounds of iron rod for reinforcement. If built of brick, 103,500 brick costing $20.00 per thousand laid in wall will cost $2070.00 with an additional cost for concrete foundation iy 2 xl feet under all walls, 564 cubic feet at $11.00' per cubic yard, of $231.00, or a total of $2301.00. Other items identical for the tAvo l^ialdings are as follows: — Roofing, 3-ply asphalt, 4264 sq. ft. at $2.50 per square. . . .$107.50 or corrugated iron, 4582 sq. ft. at $4.00 per square. . . . 184.00 Sills and joists, 2100 feet of 6x6 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 42.00 Rafters, 2000 feet of 2x6 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 40.00 102 framing- for ventilators and bins, 1800 feet of 2x4 ins. at $20.00 per thousand 37.00 Flooring, 3600 feet at $28.00 per thousand 100.80 Ship lap, for sheathing roof, 4600 feet; for bins, 1800 feet; for ventilator, 1800 feet; total 8200 feet at $16,00 per thousand 131.20 Chimneys, concrete base and brick flues, complete 60.0 0 •Concrete jackets with metal lath and plaster hoppers around furnaces, four, complete 120.00 Furnaces, brick with firebrick lining, four, complete 108.00 Piping, 7 20 feet 9 inch pipe at 8 cents 57.60 Windows, 32 at $1.60 each * 51.20 Doors, steel, 17 at $3.00 each 51.00 Framing and casing for doors and windows 77.50 I beams for supporting kiln floors, 160 feet, 3600 pounds at 2 % cents 135.00 Maple kiln slats, 20 00 square feet at $5.75 per hundred feet 115.00 Minor hardware, nails, hinges, etc 60.00 Carpenters’ labor, master carpenter at $5.50; two ordinary carpenters at $4.50 each, 24 days each 348.00 Metal parts for bleacher, belts for conveyors, shafting, belt from engine to main shaft, belting to parers, etc 200.00 Lumber for paring table, conveyors, bleacher, washing tank, and chutes from storage bins to paring tables, 3000 feet at $28.00 84.00 These items total $1925.80 for building with asphalt roof, $2004.30 for that with metal roof. Yfhen added to the cost of concrete walls, the total is $3764.05 for concrete building with asphalt roof, $3842.55 for coiKU'cte building with metal roof, $4226.70 for brick with asphalt roof and $4305.30 for brick with metal roof. These estimates have been purposely made rather liberal, and the actual costs of construction Avill rarely exceed them. Costs of Tunnel Evaporator — In case the building for a two- kiln plant is to be used for housing a tunnel evaporator, two groups of three tunnels each, occupying an area 20x22 feet, may advantageously be placed ip a portion of the space de- voted to kilns in the plans, the remaining space being added to the work and storage room. From the estimated costs of $1822.20 for concrete or $2069.50 for brick building with as- phalt roof, the following deductions should be made: — Inside walls of kilns, 29 cubic yds. concrete at $11.00, $319.00, •or for brick building, 15000 brick at $20.00 with 87 cubic feet of concrete foundation at $11.00 per cubic yard, totaling $336.30 ; I beams, $67.50, kiln slats, $41.40, labor of laying kiln 103 floors, $20.00, a total of $447.90 for tlie concrete or $464.20 for the brick i)uil(.lin«-. Deducting- these sums, Ave have remain- ing $1274.40 for the concrete and $1605.80 for the brick build- ins. To these sums must be added the following: — Sills and joists, 1600 feet 6x6 in, at $20.00 $ 32.00 Flooring, 1960 feet at $28.00 56.00 Lumber for tunnels, 2000 feet No. 2 flooring at $22.00 44.00 Framing for tunnels, 500 feet 2x4 ins. at $20.00 10.00 Runways for tunnels, 500 feet lx% in. at $20.00 10.00 Metal sheets for floors of tunnels, 400 square feet at $4.00 per square 16.00 Labor for constructing tunnels 96.00 Trays, 800 at 65 cents 520.00 12 doors, double thickness, for tunnels 4 8.00 Nails and minor hardware 20.00 Total $852.00 Adding this total to $1874.80 and to $1605.80 gwes totals of $2226.80 for the concrete building and $2257.80 for the brick structure. In case the bidding suggested for a four-kiln plant is to be used for a tunnel evaporator, it may conveniently have four or six sets of three tunnels each. If six groups of three tunnels each are installed, the alterations in estimates of cost will be as follows : — Deduct 62 yards of concrete work at $11.00 per ^-ard, or $682.00, from the cost of concrete building, and $966.00 for 43950 brick at $20.00 per thousand with 210 cubic feet of con- crete work in foundation at $11.00 per cubic yard, from cost of brick building. From each deduct cost of I beams, $185.00. of kiln floor slats, $115.00, and labor of laying floor, $40.00. These total a deduction of $972 from the cost of the concrete building eciuipped with kilns, leaving $2792.05, and of $1256 from that of the brick building, leaving $2970.70 To these sums must be added the following: — 4400 feet flooring at $28.00 per thousand $123.20 2900 feet sills and ioists. 6x6 ins., at $20.00 58.00 Lumber for tunnels, 6400 feet at $22.00 1 40.80 Framing for tunnels, 1500 feet 2x4 ins. at $20.00 30.00 Runways for tunnels, 1500 feet lx% ins. at $20.00. . 30.00 Metal sheeting for flooring tunnels, 1200 sq. ft, at $4.00. . . 48.00 Additional labor on building by reason of changes. ........ 75.00 Labor of constructing tunnels 288.00 104 36 double thickness doors for tunnels, with hinges. . — v-. 14£p0 2 furnaces, complete • • •, • 54;b0 Jacket and hopper construction for two furnaces, 66!o'0 Pipe, 200 feet at 8 cents . • ; IS.'dO Nails, hinges and minor hardware. 50,0,P Trays, 2400 at 65 cents !. .1560*. 00 Total . $2677.00 Adding this amount to the costs of buildings above given, the total cost for concrete building with asphalt roof becomes $5469.05, that for the brick building, $5647.70. In case a smaller number of tunnels are to be installed in the building, an approximation of the cost can be reached from the data just given. Costs of Construction of the Carson-Snyder Evaporator — By reason of the arrangement of the Carson-Snyder evaporator, a building of three stories and of an essentially different type from those described in this bulletin will be necessary, and the details of construction will vary considerabl}" with the ca- pacity which the plant is to have. For these reasons, no at- tempt to give estimates of costs or of amomits of materials necessary for a building of a definite size is made ; detailed plans and estimates suited to the requirements of each par- ticular case will be supplied to those making application to the Director for them. In general it may be said that the cost of a Carson-Snyder evaporator of a given capacity will be almost identical with that of a tunnel evaporator of like capacity built of the same materials. COST OF PRODUCTION OF EVAPORATED APPLES The estimates of cost of production of evaporated apples here given are based upon data obtained from a number of evaporators in Washington and Oregon, together with a much' larger number of detailed estimates obtained in Western New York and are believed to fairly represent average conditions in the state of Washington. An attempt has been made to analyze the various elements entering into the cost of pro-^ duction in sufficient detail to enable the substitution of local fuel or local labor costs for the data here given. 105 Labor — The cost of paring and trimming may be placed at 5 cents per bushel. The majority of Eastern evaporators pay this amount as a flat rate to a “team” of two women or girls who work together, one paring while the other trims. Payment by the bushel is to be preferred to payment by the day, for obvious reasons. With a properly constructed par- ing table conveniently arranged and with power parers kept in good repair, such a team will handle 65 to 80 bushels of good C grade fruit in an eight-hour day, with 50-60 bushels as the output if small or wormy culls are being handled. If hand power parers are used, the output will be at lease 10 per cent less, and if inexperienced trimmers are employed, three may be necessary for each pair of machines. Women are almost universally employed as trimmers, since their manual dexterity and quickness in the ^rork are much greater than is the case with men. When power peelers are employed, girls or women are usvjal)}^ employed to operate them; it is sometimes difficult to secTire women who are willing to run hand parers because of tl e muscular effort necessary. If apples must be carried in from outside bins, washed, and delivered to the parers by hand, one man will be able to handle about 300 bushels daily. If these apples are carried by a power conveyor from the washing tank to a storage bin from which they are delivered by gravity chutes to the parers’ boxes, as provided for in the plans given in this paper, one man will wash 400-500 bushels of apples in two or three hours, and is then free for other work. Such a man may be a common laborer receiving $1.75 to $2 per day, or he may be a somewhat higher priced man who will be able to look after the gasoline engine, make minor repairs to machines, and keep everything in the paring room in working order. In a kiln plant, two kiln men will be needed, one for daj” and one for night duty. These should be the most intelli- gent and capable employees about the place and should have the direction of the furnace men. They usually receive $2.50 per day. One kiln man will be able to. care for four or even for six kilns thru the first half or two-thirds of the drying 106 period, but will need help for the remainder of the time, dur- ing which the fruit must be frequently stirred. In a tunnel of Carson-Snyder plant, one man will be able to take care of six to ten tunnels if trays of fruit, ready spread, are con- veniently stacked where he can insert them as dry fruit is removed, and if the dry fruit can be stacked as it is with- drawn and subsequently transferred to the drying room. One furnace man for night and one for day duty will be necessary and one man can very readily take care of four kilns or of a corresponding number of furnaces in plants of other types. These usually receive $1.75 to $2.00 per day. If a power bleacher and power slicer are used, the man in charge of the kiln floor will be able to oversee their opera- tion with the help of the laborer from the paring room while kilns are being filled. If a hand bleacher and hand slicer are used, the time of one man and a strong boy will be taken up in bleaching, slicing, and spreading the fruit on the four kilns. In case a tunnel or Carson-Snyder plant is being operated, the spreading of the fruit on the trays will require one woman or girl for each 75-100 bushels of fruit handled, and one man will be needed to keep the spreading table supplied with trays and remove those that are filled. Spreaders are paid $1.25 per day, or may be paid a flat rate per tray. Thus, for a plant handling 400 bushels of apples daily, the total labor bill would be approximately as follows : — 5 parers and 5 trimmers, at 5c per bushel $20.00 2 furnace men, 1 for day, 1 for night 4.00 2 kiln men, 1 for day, 1 for night @ $2.50 5.00 1 general purpose laborer 2.00 Total $31.00 In case the plant were without power machinery, there would be needed an additional peeler and a trimmer at $1.50 €ach per day, and two men or a man and a boy at bleacher and slicer. In a tunnel or Carson Snyder plant, there would also be necessary five girls at tlie spreading table, at a min- imum rale of $1.00 per day, and a laborer to wait on them nt $2.00, making a total of $7.00. These, estimates therefore 107 give for a plant with a capacity of 400 bushels a labor bill of $31.00 per day in a kiln with power machinery, $38.00 for the same plant without power machinery, and an additional labor bill of $7.00 per day if the fruit is dried on trays. Re- ducing this to a cost per bushel basis, we have 7.75 cents per bushel for kiln with power, 9.5 cents for kiln without power^ and 9.25 cents for power-equipped tunnel dryer. In the extreme case that the tunnel dryer has no power equipment, the cost would mount up to 11.25 cents per bushel, which is practically prohibitive. Fuel — Furnaces vary so tremendously intheir efficiency that any statement must be regarded as a mere generalization. With the systems of piping and the jacket-and-hopper type of construction described in this paper, something like 60 to 70 per cent of the theoretical heating efficiency of the fuel burned ought to be obtained if the furnace is properly con- structed. In a kiln, one and one-half to one and two-thirds cords of wood will be required to produce a ton of dried apples ; if the hopper construction is not used, two cords may be re- garded as a fair estimate. In the tunnel or Carson-Snyder driers, one and one-half cords is a rather liberal estimate and when the plant is continuously operated at capacity it will come somewhat under this. A ton of dry fruit may be re- garded as equivalent to seven tons, or 280 bushels, of fresh fruit, and if wood costs $4.00 a cord, a charge of $6.00 for fuel must be made against this amount of fruit, or 2.13 cents per bushel. Sulphur, Repairs, and Minor Items of Cost — Repairs to ma- chines and to the engine, oil for kiln floors, sulphur for bleach- ing, replacement of wornout belting, and similar minor items, are grouped together by many experienced operators as cost- ing them about 1/2 cent per bushel of apples handled, in the case of kiln evaporators, while gasoline for power may be added at cent per bushel, making a total of .62 cent per bushel for these items. In a plant which uses trays, these must be renewed on the average every third season, hence one- third their cost should be charged against every season’s run. 108 Overhead Charges, Superintendence, and Depreciation — Here it becomes impossible to make more than the most general statements, since every item varies so widely with conditions. In the best possible fireproof building, insurance may be dis- pensed with, while depreciation and repairs may amount to less than 10 per cent per annum; in a wooden building these same items may easily exceed 20 per cent of the investment. The plant may confine its activities to apples, or it may handle also prunes and berries, thus extending its working season and distributing its fixed charges over a period two and one- half or three times as long. The supervisor may be a high salaried employee devoting his whole time to the plant or may have other duties. Consequently it is just here that no defi- nite figures can be given, but it may be said in general terms that the better plants keep the total cost of these items, to- gether with the expense of l>oxing or packing the dry fruit, well under 4 cents per bushel. Adding together all the items enumerated above, we have costs in cents per bushel as follows: Kiln with power cents per bu Kiln without power; cents per bu Tunnel or Capson- Snyder with power; cents per bu Tunnel or C-S with- out power; cents per bu Labor . 7.75 9.5 9.25 11.25 Fuel . 2.13 2.13 2.13 2.13 Sulphur and minor supplies. . .62 .62 .62 .62 Overhead . 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Totals .14.50 16.25 16.00 18.00 These figures may fairly be taken to represent lowest possi- ble cost of production under conditions prevailing in this state. Inefficient furnaces, badly planned buildings, machines kept in poor repair, the substitution of hand labor for machinery, the employment of ‘‘cheap” inexperienced and irresponsible labor, will cut down the output and push the cost of production 109 above the figures here, given, wliile the cost of labor or of fuel may also vary consideral)ly from the average figures given. On the other hand, if peels and cores can be utilized in such man- ner as to bring a return, the cost will be reduced by the amount realized from them. From the data given on another page, it will be noted that about 6% pounds of dry fruit will be obtained, on the average, from one bushel of apples. At the costs of handling estimated above, it will be seen that the cost of production per pound ranges from 2.15 cents to 2.66 cents. With these figures be- fore him and with a knowledge of the current prices for evap- orated apples, the individual evaporator must determine for himself the upper limit beyond which he cannot go in the prices offered for apples without foregoing his opportunity to make a legitimate profit. IK) UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS-URBANA 3 0112 004316458