THE MILITARY TRACT 
 
 NORMAL 
 
 SCHOOL QUARTERLY 
 
 March, 1913 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 AGRICULTURE 
 
 Circular No. 3 Soil Experiment Field 
 
 ( Co-operative) 
 
 JOHN THOMAS JOHNSON, A. B. (U. of 111.) 
 
 Published by the Trustees of the Western Illinois State 
 Normal School, Macomb, Illinois 
 
NORMAL SCHOOL QUARTERLY 
 
 MARCH, 1913 NUMBER 18 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 This quarterly should have been issued one year ago, but there were a 
 number of things which prevented it. Among them was the fact that the 
 author, who was formerly head of the Department of Biology and Agricul- 
 ture in this school, accepted a position as Director of Science and Agricul- 
 ture in the Kent State Normal School, at Kent, Ohio, a short time before 
 the material for it was to have been put in shape. His new duties con- 
 sumed all of his time for several months. 
 
 I requested Mr. Johnson to prepare this quarterly because he had 
 started the work here in Agriculture in 1906, and had kept statistics on the 
 plots in the experimental field from that time until he left, a period of six 
 years. Thus he was entirely familiar with the larger bulk of this work. 
 
 Mr. Charles W. Finley followed Mr. Johnson as head of the Depart- 
 ment of Biology and Agriculture and has continued the experiments until 
 the present time. His results have been tabulated and are included also. 
 
 All of the data here used has been gathered in connection with experi- 
 ments carried on in the experimental field and laboratory in connection with 
 this school. These experiments grow out of work in the various courses 
 which are given at the institution each year and are outlined in the fol- 
 lowing: 
 
 Agriculture for Students in the Academy. 
 
 Agriculture 1. — The aim of this course is to create in the minds of the 
 students an intelligent interest in farm practices. Some of the things con- 
 sidered are plants; plant propagation; plant breeding; animals and animal 
 breeding; natural and commercial fertilizers; crops and crop rotation; farm 
 homes and farm management. The work consists of recitations, laboratory 
 exercises, field trips, and practical work in the experiment field. 
 
 Agriculture for Students Who are Preparing to Teach in the Country 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Agriculture 15. — This course deals with elements of agriculture and is 
 based on the primary needs of the farm and garden. Special effort is made 
 to assist the teacher who has had no training in the subject and who wishes 
 to meet the requirements of the county superintendent and the state course 
 of study. The school offers an opportunity to see farm crops growing on the 
 experiment field located on the campus. As much laboratory work is given 
 as the time permits. This consists of simple suggestive exercises. 
 Agriculture for Students Who are Taking Regular Normal School Work. 
 
 Agriculture 20. — Similar to Agriculture 1. More emphasis is given to 
 
0 
 
 the teaching of the subject in the grades and to study the course outlined in 
 the state course of study. 
 
 Agriculture 21. — Soils and Soil Fertility. Most of the work of this 
 course has to do with the work of soils and soil fertility. It is not 
 intended to go into minute detail of the structure and chemical composi- 
 tion of the soil, hut to learn in a practical way the methods of farm prac- 
 tices which will result in profitable crops. Some time is given to the study 
 of plant propagation; plant and animal breeding, and economic insects and 
 insecticides. 
 
 Prerequisites: Agriculture I and Botany. 
 
 Courses in physics and chemistry are recommended but not required. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 This Quarterly, No. 18, is a revision of Quarterly No. 8, known as Agri- 
 cultural Circular No. 2, and is printed because copies of that number are 
 completely exhausted, and repeated requests for it have shown the demand 
 for this publication. It is being put out as one of the regular bulletins of 
 the Western Illinois State Normal School, but is a joint production with the 
 Kent State Normal School of Ohio, being issued as Bulletin No. 9, because 
 Mr. Johnson is now located there. The need for such material as herein set 
 forth is ever increasing as agriculture passes from the haphazard trial and 
 error process to a scientific one based on experimental data which has been 
 repeatedly verified. 
 
 We trust this number may be as generally useful to those who are mak- 
 ing a special study of agriculture and to those who are introducing it and 
 teaching it in the public schools as the former one has been. 
 
 W. P. MORGAN. 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 Agriculture has been and always will be a fundamental industry among 
 rural people. Human existence makes it necessary. Rural communities 
 depend directly upon successful crop production with the accessory farm 
 industries. While it cannot be said that urban communities depend upon 
 crop production as exclusively as do the rural communities, yet in part they 
 are as directly bound to the soil for sustenance whether their chief interest 
 be manufacturing, mining, shipping, or any other form of commercial activ- 
 ity. Whatever form of industrial occupation man may choose, he is so 
 intimately related to agriculture that crop failure not only is a loss to the 
 people actually engaged in it, but a failure injures all others more or less. 
 A succession of only a few crop failures would transform any country into 
 a condition of panic, and there are some countries today which cannot suffer 
 a partial crop failure in one season without great distress. All of the fore- 
 going facts are well known and are interesting, not so much in their serious 
 aspect, as to the fact that they point to a grave situation which in the last 
 decade is taking hold of the consciousness of the people. No community, 
 however small or great, can experience a shortage of food or a high cost of 
 living without making some sort of appeal for relief. Naturally, one appeal 
 is for a reduction of price for commodities and the other is an appeal for an 
 increased supply. It is evident that the only relief must come from an 
 increased production, assuming that the ratio of the tilled acres and the 
 population remains the same. At present the rate of increase in popu- 
 lation is greater than the rate of increase of tillable acres, and the dis- 
 parity is likely to become greater rather than smaller. Increased production 
 seems likely to come either through scientific agriculture and intensified 
 farming, or the acquisition of agricultural lands not now under cultivation. 
 It should be borne in mind that while the geographical acreage untilled is 
 very great, yet according to the best estimation the available land suitable 
 for agricultural purposes is small and altogether would equal in area a 
 state about the size of Illinois. It would seem that out of the two possi- 
 bilities, the one which will afford the surest relief is a method of agriculture 
 based upon scientific principles. In order that the methods may obtain those 
 who are engaged in agricultural pursuits must in some way be made more 
 efficient. Several agencies are in existence which are designed to improve 
 the methods of agricultural practice. The state experiment stations, by 
 scientific investigation and the publication of the data in bulletins and cir- 
 culars for free distribution, furnish a wealth of information. The Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., in publishing its Farmers’ Bulletins 
 is performing a similar service for all of the states. Farmers’ institutes, 
 newspapers and the various agricultural organizations are accomplishing 
 much in the direction of better methods in farming. Notwithstanding the 
 benefits derived from the before mentioned agencies for improved methods 
 in agriculture the people are emphatic in their demand for agricultural 
 instruction in the public schools. In view of the present situation there is 
 little wonder that such a strong sentiment should prevail. It is remarkable 
 
8 
 
 how rapidly the sentiment has grown. School curricula are being reorgan- 
 ized, new text books are being written and old ones revised in order that a 
 new adjustment can be made to daily life relations. Schools are becoming 
 more efficient to the end that the husbandman and the craftsman may become 
 more efficient. Intelligent operations are being substituted for rule of 
 thumb practices, in a word, education is supplanting dogma. Our schools 
 are becoming more serviceable to the people for whom they are established 
 and by whom they are legalized and supported. In a few states this new 
 sentiment has been recognized by making agricultural instruction compul- 
 sory in the rural communities. North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennes- 
 see, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, South Dakota, Wisconsin, Oregon, Mississippi, 
 Louisian and Ohio require instruction in the public schools and there is no. 
 state or territory in which it is not taught. The public schools have a new 
 responsibility and at the same time a great opportunity. 
 
 In the early development of this country when the mode of living was 
 more simple, when the virgin capacity of the soil furnished food supplies in 
 excess of the demand, when marketing conditions were simple and easy, 
 where they existed at all, the old art of farming was efficient for prevailing 
 conditions and home instruction was sufficient. Considering only the wel- 
 fare of the community at that time, there was no necessity for special agri- 
 cultural instruction in the school which should supplement and supercede 
 home instruction. Neither at that time was there any science which could 
 offer any assistance. It was not long, however, till a better system of agri- 
 culture could be foreseen as a future necessity because the soils showed 
 plainly a lower limit of production. It is difficult to detect soil depletion 
 when obscured by complicating seasonal fluctuations, yet the large planters 
 in Colonial days observed the fact and urged the necessity of making a 
 careful study of soils and advised the rotation of crops. Benjamin Franklin 
 believed in improved methods and showed by practice that land well fer- 
 tilized yielded larger returns than similar land untreated. George Washing- 
 ton was a large planter in his time and did much to improve conditions in 
 America. Upon his estates he planted the best improved seed which he 
 secured from France. He sought advice from European experts and im- 
 ported the stock for his estates from abroad. The overseers who managed 
 his plantations were secured from Scotland. In a sense his fields were ex- 
 periment plots, which illustrated improved methods managed by agricultural 
 experts. He kept records, improved the seed by selection, and studied live 
 stock breeding. He was among the first to observe a decline in crop produc- 
 tion and as a means of preventing soil exhaustion, he adopted a rotation of 
 crops and fertilized the land. George Washington was not only a great 
 soldier and patriot, but he distinguished himself as an agriculturalist. His 
 fame was so great that he was consulted by the leaders in Europe. While 
 his duties as a general in the Revolutionary war claimed most of his time, 
 he always gave ample attention to his estates by directing all of the farm 
 operations in detail. It is a pleasure to note that he strongly advocated the 
 establishment of agricultural schools, and was a member of the first Agri- 
 cultural society which was organized in 1785. After his services in political 
 life were completed, he retired to Mount Vernon, where he hoped to spend 
 the remainder of his life in the enjoyable occupation of building up his 
 
9 
 
 estates. No better tribute can be found to the occupation of farming than 
 the following quotations from his pen: 
 
 “I think that the life of an husbandman of all others is the most delect- 
 able. It is honorable, it is amusing, and, with judicious management, it is 
 profitable. To see plants rise from the earth and flourish by the supreme 
 skill and bounty of the laborer fills a contemplative mind with ideas which 
 are more easy to be conceived than expressed. 
 
 “I know of no other pursuit in which more real and important service 
 can be rendered to any country than by improving its agriculture, its breed 
 of useful animals, and other branches of an husbandman’s care.” 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was a strong advocate of agriculture. As a matter of 
 evidence there is nothing so convincing as a portion of the address delivered 
 before the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society by Lincoln in 1859. Natu- 
 rally in the address the value of scientific methods and a thorough education 
 was considered from the farmer’s point of view, but the application of the 
 idea in our schools today in training the farmer’s son and daughter is 
 closely related and very apparent. It seems worth while to quote a part 
 of what Lincoln said. 
 
 “The effect of thorough cultivation upon the farmer’s own mind, and in 
 reaction through his mind back upon his business, is perhaps quite equal to 
 any other of its effects. Every man is proud of what he does well, and no 
 man is proud of that he does not well. With the former his heart is in his 
 work, and he will do twice as much of it with less fatigue; the latter he per- 
 forms a little imperfectly, looks at it in disgust, turns from it, and imagines 
 himself exceedingly tired — the little he has done comes to nothing for want 
 of finishing. 
 
 “The man who produces a good full crop will scarcely ever let any part 
 of it go to waste; he will keep up the inclosure about it, and allow neither 
 man nor beast to trespass upon it; he will gather it in due season, and store 
 it in perfect security. Thus he labors with satisfaction, and saves himself 
 the whole fruit of his labor. The other, starting with no purpose for a full 
 crop, labors less, and with less satisfaction, allows his fences to fall, and 
 cattle to trespass, gathers not in due season, or not at all. Thus the labor 
 he has performed is wasted away, little by little, till in the end he derives 
 scarcely anything from it. 
 
 “The old general rule was that educated people did not perform manual 
 labor. They managed to eat their bread, leaving the toil of producing it to 
 the uneducated. This was not an insupportable evil to the working bees, so 
 long as the class of drones remained very small. But now, especially in 
 these free States, nearly all are educated — quite too nearly all to leave the 
 labor of the uneducated in any wise adequate to the support of the whole. 
 It follows from this that henceforth educated people must labor. Otherwise, 
 education itself would become a positive and intolerable evil. No country 
 can sustain in idleness more than a small percentage of its numbers. The 
 great majority must labor at something productive. Prom these premises 
 the problem springs, ‘How can labor and education be the most satisfactorily 
 combined?’ 
 
 Pree labor argues that as the Author of man makes every individual 
 with one head and one pair of hands, it probably intended that heads and 
 hands should co-operate as friends and that that particular head should 
 
10 
 
 direct and control that pair of hands. As each man has one mouth to be 
 fed, and one pair of hands to furnish food, it was probably intended that 
 that particular pair of hands should feed that particular mouth — that each 
 head is the natural guardian, director, and protector of the hands and mouth 
 inseparably connected with it; and that being so, every head should be cul- 
 tivated and improved by whatever will add to its capacity for performing 
 its charge. In one word, free labor insists on universal education. 
 
 “This leads to the further reflection that no other human occupation 
 opens so wide a field for the profitable and agreeable combination of labor 
 with cultivated thought as agriculture. I know nothing so pleasant to the 
 mind as the discovery of anything that is at once new and valuable — nothing 
 that so lightens and sweetens toil as the hopeful pursuit of such discovery. 
 And how vast and how varied a field is agriculture for such discovery! The 
 mind, already trained to thought in the country school, or higher school 
 cannot fail to find there an exhaustless source of enjoyment. Every blade 
 of grass is a study; and to produce two where there was but one is both a 
 profit and pleasure. And not grass alone, but soils, seeds and season — 
 hedges, ditches, and fences — draining, droughts, and irrigation — plowing, 
 hoeing and harrowing — reaping, mowing and threshing — saving crops, pests 
 of crops, diseases of crops and what will prevent or cure them — implements, 
 utensils, and machines, their relative merits, and how to improve them — 
 hogs, horses and cattle — sheep, goats and poultry — trees, shrubs, fruits, 
 plants and flowers — the thousand things of which these are specimens — each 
 a world of study within itself. 
 
 “In all this, book-learning is available. A capacity and taste for read- 
 ing gives access to whatever has already been discovered by others. It is 
 the key, or one of the keys, to the already solved problems. And not only 
 so: it gives a relish and facility for successfully pursuing the unsolved ones. 
 The rudiments of science are available. Some knowledge of botany assists 
 in dealing with the vegetable world — with all growing crops. Chemistry 
 assists in the analysis of soils, selection and application of manures, and in 
 numerous other ways. The mechanical branches of natural philosophy are 
 ready help in almost everything, but especially in reference to implements 
 and machinery. 
 
 “The thought recurs that education — cultivated thought — can best be 
 combined with agricultural labor, or any labor, on the principle of thorough 
 work; that careless, half performed, slovenly work makes no place for such 
 combination: and thorough work, again, renders sufficient the smallest quan- 
 tity of ground to each man; and this again, conforms to what must occur 
 in a world less inclined to wars and more devoted to the arts and peace than 
 heretofore. Population must increase rapidly, more rapidly than in former 
 times, and ere long the most valuable of all arts will be the art of deriving 
 a comfortable subsistence from the smallest area of soil. No community 
 whose every member possesses this art, can ever be the victim of oppression 
 in any of its forms. Such community will be alike independent of crowned 
 kings, money kings and land kings.” 
 
11 
 
 SOIL EXPERIMENT FIELD. 
 
 Location. 
 
 The Western Illinois Normal Soil Experiment Field is located in the 
 northwest corner of the campus on the S. E. 2*4 acres of the S. E. 10 of the 
 N. E. 40 of the N. W. % of Section 36, Twp. 6 N. R. 3 W. of the fourth prin- 
 cipal meridian. 
 
 Soil Type. 
 
 The Soil Experiment Field is on a type of soil known as gray silt 
 loam, natural timber land, and is nearly level, situated in the Upper Illi- 
 nois Glaciation. The gray silt loam represents a large area of soil in the 
 Upper Illinois Glaciation, but not nearly so large an area as the brown silt 
 loam type. It is part of the general plan to have an experiment field upon 
 the, brown silt loam somewhere upon representative land in the near future. 
 
 Co-operative Plan. 
 
 The Soil Experiment Field is co-operative and is conducted by the 
 University of Illinois through its College of Agriculture and Experiment 
 Station, and the Western Illinois State Normal School through its depart- 
 ment of Biology and Agriculture. Prof. Cyril G. Hopkins, chief in Agron- 
 omy and Chemistry, who is recognized as an authority in the fertility of 
 soils, prepared the plans to be used in conducting the field experiments. 
 The Normal School, as its share of the responsibility, takes full charge of 
 the field operations implied in the plans. Such co-operation provides for 
 both scientific and educative values in the work and it is proposed to make 
 the results as far-reaching as is possible. Not alone to teachers, and pros- 
 pective teachers will it be valuable, but as well to persons now engaged in 
 such practice and to those persons who are not actively engaged in (such 
 practice), but are interested in agricultural methods and results. The 
 useful to all interested persons who are invited and always welcome to 
 visit the field at their pleasure and convenience. 
 
 In order that the plans may be of greatest service the details are 
 given in the following paragraphs as a guide to those who wish to ob- 
 serve the field operations and investigate the results of the experimental 
 work. It is suggested, since the year 1906 is the beginning it was not pos- 
 sible to conduct the field work in the regular way and the results of this 
 year are not to be thought to be as trustworthy as in succeeding years. 
 For instance, it is proposed to grow winter wheat in the rotation, but since 
 the experiment field was not available till spring, the only alternative was to 
 substitute spring wheat in order that the crops in the rotation might be 
 represented. However, it is to be borne in mind that the general aim is to 
 ascertain what this type of soil is capable of yielding under known condi- 
 tions, and that yields, though small, having comparative values are quite 
 as important as large yields without such values. 
 
 Details of Plan. 
 
 The experiment field is divided into forty (40) plots, each one rod 
 square, and each surrounded by a protecting border one-quarter rod wide. 
 The plots are arranged in two divisions, separated by a sod strip one and 
 one-half rods wide and bordered by sod strips two rods wide on the east 
 
and west and one and one-quarter rods wide on the north and south. 
 
 The individual plots are numbered from 1 to 5 from west to east, and 
 the series of five plots each from 100 to 800 from north to south. In this 
 way three figures will give at once the exact location of any plot. Thus, 
 plot 503 is the middle plot in the north series of the south division. Plot 
 805 is the southeast corner plot of the south division. 
 
 Systems of Farming. 
 
 The four series of the north division are devoted to a system of grain 
 farming in which the humus and nitrogen are to be maintained by plow- 
 ing under legume crops and the residues of other crops, such as the stalks 
 of the corn crop, and possibly the straw from the oat and wheat crops, and 
 all of the clover crop except the seed; also, the four series of the south di- 
 vision are devoted to a system of live stock farming in which the crops are 
 all removed from the land, including the corn stalks, straw, and clover hay, 
 while farm manure is to be returned in proportion to the crops produced. 
 
 Treatment. 
 
 The treatment for the north division of plots is as follows: 
 
 Plot No. 1 — No treatment. 
 
 Plot No. 2 — Legume treatment (turning back to the soil everything 
 grown upon the land excepting grains and clover seed). 
 
 Plot No. 3 — Legume, lime. 
 
 Plot No. 4 — Legume, lime, phosphorus. 
 
 Plot No. 5 — Legume, lime, phosphorus, potassium. 
 
 For the south division is the following treatment: 
 
 Plot No. 1 — No treatment. 
 
 Plot No. 2 — Manure. 
 
 Plot No. 3 — Manure, lime. 
 
 Plot No. 4 — Manure, lime, phosphorus. 
 
 Plot No. 5 — Manure, lime, phosphorus, potassium. 
 
 For each division is to be maintained the following four-year rotation: 
 
 Rotation. 
 
 First year, corn. 
 
 Second year, oats. 
 
 Third year, wheat. 
 
 Fourth year, clover. 
 
 The rotation applies to each of the four series in each division and be- 
 cause there are four series in each division it is possible to have each crop 
 represented every year and by having two divisions each crop is grown in 
 duplicate. 
 
 In starting the work, corn is put on series 100 and 500; oats on series 
 200 and 600; spring wheat on series 300 and 700; and clover seeded without 
 a nurse crop on series 400 and 800. 
 
13 
 
 Method of Seeding and Harvesting Crops. 
 
 The fertilizer is applied only on the exact square rod, but the crop to 
 be grown is planted on both the plot and the protecting borders. Thus, in 
 planting the corn on series 100, on each plot there are seven hills square 
 with three (3) feet, 3 3-5 inches between the hills each way, and the ex- 
 act plot line lies half way between the outside row and the next row in- 
 side. This provides for a wide middle between the two corn rows grow- 
 ing on the division strip between plots one and two and in all similar places. 
 
 The border rows around the plots will be harvested and removed, but 
 as a rule will not be weighed. As a regular practice only the plot rows will 
 be weighed and recorded. 
 
 In planting series 200 and 600 the oats are drilled across the entire 
 strip, iy 2 rods wide. At harvest time the oats growing on the borders 
 around every plot will be harvested first and removed, then the plots proper 
 will be harvested, removed, weighed and recorded. In seeding the oat plots, 
 a 5-hoe drill, making drills 8 inches apart, is used. Five times across the 
 plot makes 192 inches between the outside drill rows, while the plot is 198 
 inches. In other words, the outside drill rows are within 3 inches of the 
 plot line. One drill width is seeded on the borders for protection. This 
 leaves an unseeded strip through the middle of each division strip about 40 
 inches wide. 
 
 Application of Fertilizer. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 For the initial application of the fertilizers, manure is applied at the 
 rate of 8 tons per acre on series 500; 6 tons to the acre on series 600; 4 
 tons to the acre on series 700, and 2 tons to the acre on series 800. For 
 the next three years 8 tons are to be applied to each acre on the series 
 where clover is to be plowed under for corn and always after the manure 
 is to be applied on the clover ground to be plowed for corn, but at the rate 
 in proportion to the crops which have been produced upon the plot during 
 the preceding four years and apply manure in quantity equal to the air- 
 dried weight of the total crops produced. It is easily practicable to produce 
 that proportion of manure in a live-stock system of farming, even where 
 some grain is sold. It is to be expected, of course, that wheat and clover 
 seed and possibly corn and oats will be sold from live-stock farms. 
 
 Phosphorous. 
 
 For phosphorus on plots 4 and 5 initial applications of one ton to the 
 acre of rock phosphate were made on series 100 and 500; 1,750 pounds to 
 the acre on series 200 and 600; 1,500 pounds on series 300 and 700; 1,250 
 pounds on series 400 and 800. Afterward 1,000 pounds of rock phosphate 
 are to be applied to the clover ground to be plowed under for corn. 
 
14 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 For potassium on plot 5 initial applications of 400 pounds to the acre 
 of kainit were made on series 100 and 500; 300 pounds to the acre on series 
 200 and 600; 200 pounds to the acre on series 300 and 700 and 100 pounds to 
 the acre on series 400 and 800. After the first year 400 pounds to the acre 
 are to be applied on the clover ground and the clover, kainit and phosphate 
 are to be plowed under for corn. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 For lime initial applications of one ton to the acre of ground limestone 
 were applied on series 300 and 700; % of a ton on series 400 and 800; ^ a 
 ton on series 100 and 500; % of a ton on series 200 and 600. Afterward each 
 year one ton to the acre is to be applied on the land after the oat stubble has 
 been plowed for wheat, working the limestone into the surface soil in the 
 preparation of the seed bed for wheat for the special benefit of the clover 
 which is to be seeded for the following spring. Kainit is used instead of 
 potassium, since there is furnished naturally in the soil a sufficient supply 
 of the element. 
 
 Permanent Corners. 
 
 Permanent gas pipe stakes, fourteen in number, are set in the exact 
 line of the outer plot lines, and exactly one rod from the corner of the plot 
 proper. These gas pipes are 1% inches in diameter and thirty (30) inches 
 long, and they are set down so that the top of the stake comes just to the 
 level of the surface of the ground so a mower may be run over them. In 
 addition to these permanent stakes, other temporary stakes are placed to 
 aid in determining the exact plot lines when seeding and harvesting. 
 
 THE RELATION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL TO AGRICULTURE. 
 
 It is very evident to any one who has ever traversed even a part of the 
 territory known as the Military Tract in Illinois, that the leading industry 
 is agriculture. Surrounded as it is by a rich agricultural district, the 
 Military Tract State Normal School ought to be and is interested very 
 much in the general subject of agriculture. The natural environment sug- 
 gests agricultural instruction, the young men and women are many of them 
 anxious to study the new subject, and the school desires to encourage such 
 training. Although it is only recently that any attention has been given 
 to this work, something has been accomplished already in a very substantial 
 way. 
 
 In the spring of 1907, at a regular meeting of the board, the Trustees 
 expressed in a permanent way the desirability of offering instruction in 
 agriculture by setting aside a tract of land on the school campus about two 
 acres in area. Upon this tract are located the Soil Experiment Field con- 
 taining forty experimental plots hereafter described, and the School Garden. 
 It is obvious from the general plan that every grade from the lowest to the 
 highest shall have instruction in the most practical way. 
 
15 
 
 The Normal School is very fortunate in its position in the system of 
 schools. There is no department in the scheme of education which occupies 
 a place as favorable for agricultural instruction. Its sole function is the 
 training of teachers for the elementary and secondary grades. A large per- 
 centage of the graduates begin teaching in the rural and village schools 
 where previous agricultural training becomes effective in the schools where 
 instruction in agriculture is most desired. Teachers who are prepared in 
 the University, as a rule, seek positions in the larger cities. The Normal 
 School with its efficient corps of instructors, a complete laboratory equip- 
 ment, soil experiment plots, school garden, and the further fact that a large 
 part of the student body comes from the farm and after graduation re- 
 turns to the country and village schools, is the ideal school in which to 
 prepare teachers of agriculture. 
 
 Courses in agriculture are being rapidly introduced in the programs of 
 study in the rural and village schools. This change in the program re- 
 quires special preparation on the part of the teacher. Unfortunately, the 
 conditions are such in some instances that teachers are compelled to teach 
 the subject without preparation. The circumstance is brought about by 
 the demand being greater than the supply. The schools are unable to pre- 
 pare teachers in sufficient numbers. The situation is very suggestive to 
 candidates entering the work of a teacher and who intend to make it their 
 occupation for life. Salaries are much higher and the tenure of position 
 is nearly always certain when the teacher desires it. Two instances occur 
 at this moment where two teachers each had an offer of an increase of 
 salary of $25 per month by three different school boards, one of which was 
 the local board. As another instance of the recognition of the value of in- 
 struction in agriculture, the local board papered the school walls, pur- 
 chased maps, library books, installed a heating system, and volunteered 
 their services when other improvements were needed. No Detter attitude 
 on the part of the school board could be desired. It would seem that in- 
 struction in agriculture will prove to be the means of engendering a more 
 healthful school spirit in the rural schools and make the schools more 
 serviceable to the community. 
 
 DRAINAGE. 
 
 The value of proper drainage is likely to be underestimated. It is us- 
 ually supposed to have one benefit only, which is the removal of the excess, 
 or gravitational water. Of course, this is very essential, but it is one of 
 a number of benefits appearing in a soil after tile drains have been laid. 
 
 When the soil is wet with an excess of water, the soil particles tend to 
 float and are therefore kept at too great a distance apart making a soft 
 mass. As the water is removed in draining the film of moisture around 
 the particle becomes thinner and the force of capillarity draws the par- 
 ticles closer together, making a firmer soil and one which is less likely to 
 wash. Soils are easily “puddled” when in a wet condition, forming a soil 
 structure poorly adapted to plant growth. 
 
 A well drained soil in time forms granules of the fine particles producing 
 a condition known as good “tilth,” especially is this true when there is a 
 sufficient quantity of organic matter and calcium carbonate. In a wet soil 
 the granules, or crumb-like structure, are broken up, making a condition in 
 
16 
 
 which plant food is more difficult to liberate and in which the water perco- 
 lates less freely. A granulated soil always drains more freely. 
 
 Good aeration is a very important factor. Air cannot move through a 
 soil where the pore spaces are filled with water. The presence of air in 
 the lower strata is necessary for the best physical condition, chemical re- 
 actions, and for the respiratory functions of the low forms of organisms 
 present in all fertile soils. Some species of bacteria can live without the 
 direct presence of oxygen, but others must have it. Oxygen is required also 
 for the decomposition of the organic matter. 
 
 A wet soil is proverbially known as a “cold soil.” If the water table 
 is not lowered rapidly by good drainage, it may require weeks of time 
 before the soil may be in a condition for preparation and plant growth. A 
 free movement of air through the pore spaces tends to warm the soil to a 
 temperature suitable for the germination of seeds and consequent growth. 
 If the water is left to be removed by evaporation, the absorption of heat 
 from the soil is enormous. It has been calculated that 966.6 heat units are 
 necessary to evaporate one pound of water. The loss of one or two weeks’ 
 time in the spring may delay the maturing of the corn to a time when there 
 is danger of loss by damaging frosts. 
 
 It is known that there is a definite relation existing between maximum 
 crop yields and the presence of certain groups of bacteria. This is more 
 largely true of the leguminous plants which depend upon nitrifying bac- 
 teria to a great extent for a supply of nitrates. Unless these bacteria 
 develop in sufficient numbers, the plant growth is limited and succeeding 
 crop yields are reduced. These species cannot thrive in a saturated soil. 
 The organic matter which forms their food is not decomposed in sufficient 
 quantities to furnish a necessary part of the nourishment for the crops. 
 Indirectly there is a lessening of the liberation of the mineral plant food 
 due to a lack of carbonic acid produced by the decomposition of the organic 
 matter. 
 
 The depth of the root zone is increased in a well-drained soil. In 
 periods of drought the crops are better able to overcome its severity when 
 the roots penetrate the deeper strata. If the root zone is shallow the forag- 
 ing range is limited, which always lessens crop yields. 
 
 The Soil Experiment Field is tile-drained. A main runs parallel to the 
 border of the field about one and one-half rods from the ends of the series. 
 Four laterals connect with the main, one lateral between each pair of series. 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 The organic matter in virgin soils is derived from the slow accumulation 
 of decaying vegetable tissues, principally. A very small percentage is pro- 
 duced from animal tissues, but since this is so small, the organic matter 
 is generally considered to be of vegetable origin. In a state of nature, 
 plants after maturity, die and their dead tissues by means of various 
 agencies, become incorporated in the soil to a greater or less extent, depend- 
 ing upon conditions. The portions of plants embodied in the soil after a 
 period of decay form a substance known as “humus.” Humus is really 
 the name of the last stages of vegetable decay. Whenever the decay of 
 organic matter has proceeded so far that it cannot be identified as being 
 
17 
 
 some definite organic structure, either plant or animal, then it is said to 
 be humus. 
 
 It is evident then that the most rapid way of increasing the organic 
 matter in the soil would he to plow under the entire crop at maturity. But 
 since the farmer must sell a portion, or feed a portion of each crop in order 
 to get money for his labor, no farmer could follow such practice exclusively. 
 The produce of the land is thus divided into two portions, the salable and 
 unsalable, or the part which is used for feed and the part which cannot be 
 used. The portions which cannot be either sold or fed, naturally belong to 
 the soil and when removed in harvesting should afterward be returned. 
 Manure, which is composed of the portions of plant tissues remaining after 
 digestion by the animal, should be returned to the soil. Unfortunately, 
 previous methods of farming have not provided for the total return of crop 
 residues and manure. Consequently, agricultural lands have suffered 
 through impoverishment, which is very manifest in lower crop yields than 
 the yields produced on virgin soils. All crop residues as straw, corn stalks, 
 clover chaff and damaged hay crops should not be burned, but returned to 
 the land and plowed under to furnish organic matter. All manure produced 
 from grains and edible portions of the plant, together with the bedding 
 used, should be returned. Great care must he exercised in handling manure 
 to prevent the loss of plant food which it contains. 
 
 Manure represents the difference between the total amount of feed- 
 stuff used in feeding and the part removed by digestion to nourish the 
 animal. It is never possible to recover as much plant food in the manure 
 as is contained in the total amount of feed used. The fact that a portion 
 of the feed is indigestible does not detract from the general statement. The 
 portion of plant substance removed by digestion to support the animal 
 should be replaced by some cheaper substance in the form of commercial 
 fertilizer containing the same kind and amount of the chemical elements 
 removed from the feed in the process of digestion. This practice is known 
 as “reinforcing manure.” Some form of phosphate and potassium salt are 
 conceded to be the best in this connection. Other substances are used as 
 absorbents. 
 
 Manure is a natural fertilizer and the one most universally used. The 
 circumstances under which it is produced makes it impossible to be pro- 
 duced in sufficient quantity to properly fertilize every acre of land in culti- 
 vation. This situation makes it necessary for the farmer to purchase 
 some form of commercial fertilizer either directly or else indirectly in feed. 
 Furthermore, manure is not a balanced food for plants when applied with- 
 out being reinforced, or in connection with other fertilizers. The average 
 analysis of a large number of samples of manure show that it contains 
 about 10 pounds of nitrogen, 2 pounds of the element phosphorus, and 8 
 pounds of the element potassium in a ton of 2,000 pounds. This statement 
 applies to fresh farm manure, not the well-rotted manure commonly 
 thought of. The element deficient in the largest proportion is phosphorus. 
 Whenever manure is treated with a form of fertilizer containing the ele- 
 ment phosphorus, a marked increase in fertilizing value is always observed. 
 
 When manure is left exposed to the weather in the warmer months, it 
 loses plant food very rapidly, sometimes as much as one-third to one-half 
 of the original amount. At the Ohio Experiment Station, manure was 
 
18 
 
 exposed from January to April, in 1,000-pound piles and it lost one-third of 
 its value. When the months of the year and the length of time exposed 
 are considered, one may get some idea of the loss due to weathering. 
 Ordinarily, manure allowed to accumulate in the open barnyard loses one- 
 half of its value. Stall manure is worth twice as much if applied im- 
 mediately from the stall as it would be if exposed to the weather for one- 
 half year and then applied. The custom of leaving manure piled against 
 the side of the barn several months in the year before spreading, is very 
 wasteful. It should be spread upon the land as fast as it is produced. The 
 habit of unloading it in piles and allowing it to remain several weeks before 
 spreading is a poor method because most of the soluble portion is absorbed 
 by the soil under the pile, thus preventing an equal distribution of all of 
 the plant food. According to government statistics, enough plant food is 
 lost through careless methods of handling to equal about $100 for each farm 
 every year. A large amount of the nitrogen and potassium is contained 
 in the liquid excrement which is lost in great part through the lack of 
 having a sufficient quantity of absorbent bedding in the form of straw or 
 other plant residues. 
 
 The fertilizing value of manure is best shown, probably, by the results 
 of the Rothamstead Experiment Field, England. On one piece of land 
 manure was applied continuously for more than fifty years, on another for 
 twenty years only, and on another no manure was applied. On the land 
 manured continuously, the crop yields were maintained. On the land ma- 
 nured for twenty years only, the crop yields became gradually lower, but 
 were twice as large as those on the unmanured land. On the land where 
 no manure was applied the crop yields became gradually lower through the 
 entire period. The rate of application was nearly sixteen tons per acre, 
 which is much greater than the average farmer can produce for the entire 
 farm. 
 
 LIME AND ITS USES. 
 
 The term “lime” as it is commonly used is somewhat confusing. The 
 different forms should be clearly understood and then used correctly. The 
 expression “Lime” may mean any one of three, possibly four, forms. “Caustic 
 lime,” “quick lime,” “burned lime,” “stone lime,” “unslaked lime” are dif- 
 ferent expressions in common usage for one and the same form, calcium 
 oxid (CaO). “Hydrated lime,” “slaked lime,” “agricultural lime” are used 
 to mean calcium hydrate (Ca(OH 2 ) ). There is probably no confusion 
 when the term “ground limestone” is used to mean calcium carbonate, 
 (CaCOs), Calcium sulphate (CaSCh), is rarely confused with the other 
 forms, because it usually goes by the name of land plaster. It is always 
 preferable to use the chemical name for the form under consideration. 
 
 When calcium carbonate (CaCOs) is burned in the kiln, the heat sets 
 free carbon dioxid (CO 2 ) forming calcium oxid (CaO). In burning 100 
 pounds of calcium carbonate, it is reduced in weight to 56 pounds of calcium 
 oxid by the liberation of carbon dioxid. If the 56 pounds of calcium oxid 
 be exposed to moisture either by the addition of water, or moisture in the 
 
19 
 
 soil, the weight is increased to 74 pounds, forming calcium hydrate. When 
 the 74 pounds of calcium hydrate is exposed to the atmosphere, or to the 
 soil air when applied to the land, it slowly absorbs carbon dioxid forming 
 calcium carbonate equalling 100 pounds in weight, which is the same in 
 weight as the original quantity before burning in the kiln. The foregoing 
 statement explains what changes have taken place when “lime” is “air 
 slaked.” The same changes occur when calcium oxid is applied to the soil. 
 These facts are significant in relation to agriculture. 
 
 Calcium oxid may be used upon the soil, but its use should be consid- 
 ered in relation to its properties. Its chief property is its caustic effect 
 upon organic substances. Because of this property, it is disagreeable to 
 both man and his team, being very irritating especially to the eyes and 
 nostrils on windy days. It is very destructive to the organic matter in the 
 soil, and since it is difficult to maintain the humus contents of the soil, 
 good judgment must be exercised in its use. It has been demonstrated on 
 experiment plots that the amount of organic matter destroyed during a 
 four-year rotation is a little more than the equivalent of eight tons of 
 manure. When it is realized that in the usual farm practice it is the ex- 
 ception to find a farmer who applies manure at the rate of eight tons per 
 acre in each rotation, it is easily understood why the organic content of 
 the soil is rapidly depleted when continuous applications of calcium oxid 
 are made. These results are more obvious in the East where the use of 
 this form of lime is more prevalent. 
 
 Calcium hydrate is caustic in its effect, but is not so pronounced. It is 
 being substituted for calcium oxid, and commonly goes by the name of 
 “agricultural lime.” The effect upon the organic matter is not so severe, but 
 it is quite appreciable. 
 
 Calcium carbonate is a natural rock and when finely ground, is more 
 suitable for agricultural purposes than either of the other forms. If the 
 particles vary in size from dust to pieces no larger than a grain of wheat, 
 the ground limestone is best suited for soils. Mistakes have been made by 
 purchasing screenings of larger particles which require too much time for 
 disintegration. Persons applying screenings are, as a rule, disappointed 
 with results which are delayed too long. Before the introduction of rock 
 grinding machinery, calcium oxid and calcium hydrate have had the advan- 
 tage by being in a more finely divided physical condition. Ground lime- 
 stone has the advantage of being more pleasant to handle, being free from 
 irritating effects. Its action upon the organic matter in the soil is more 
 desirable. Ground limestone is the form chosen for use upon the Soil 
 Experiment Field, as it seems to be the best form when all factors are con- 
 sidered, and it may be said that the experiment stations of the United 
 States are favoring its use quite generally. 
 
 The neutralizing effects upon acid soils of each of the three forms may 
 be stated as follows: 1,000 pounds of calcium oxid is equivalent to 1,321 
 pounds of calcium hydrate, or 1785 pounds of calcium carbonate. In other 
 words, about 1 V 3 times as much calcium hydrate, or about 2 times as much 
 calcium carbonate should be applied to get the same effect as the customary 
 amount of calcium oxid applied. The average price of calcium oxid is $5.50 
 per ton, while ground limestone is $2.00 per ton. Although the amount 
 
20 
 
 of ground limestone required is nearly double, this is more than com- 
 pensated by the low cost. 
 
 The following table of results reported by the Pennsylvania Station 
 resulting from a twenty-year test shows the comparative value agriculturally 
 of burned lime and ground limestone. The table is quoted from Hopkins 
 Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture. While the evidence in itself is 
 convincing, other data of like significance has been secured which 
 strengthens it. 
 
 Twenty Years’ Produce Per Acre. 
 
 Soil 1 
 
 Treatment 
 
 CORN 
 
 OATS 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 Hay 
 Tons 
 19 Yr. • 
 
 Grain 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Stover 
 
 Tons 
 
 Grain 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Straw 
 
 Tons 
 
 Grain 
 
 Bushels 
 
 Straw 
 
 Tons 
 
 None 
 
 
 819 
 
 18.8 
 
 678 
 
 14.3 
 
 279 
 
 13.2 
 
 24.9 
 
 Burned 
 
 lime 
 
 699 
 
 16.5 
 
 617 
 
 17.8 
 
 318 
 
 14.6 
 
 23.6 
 
 Ground 
 
 limestone . . 
 
 798 
 
 18.6 
 
 733 
 
 20.4 
 
 1 331 
 
 16.6 
 
 29.2 
 
 Applying the Limestone. 
 
 The limestone is spread upon the wheat ground just previous to the first 
 harrowing. Lines are run from the permanent corner posts in the same 
 manner that the plots are located before harvesting the grain. When the 
 
 Applying the Limestone 
 
 position of the plots has been determined the limestone is spread evenly 
 over the exact plot. In no instance is any of the limestone spread upon 
 any part of the protective border strips. The same is true when any of 
 the fertilizing substances are applied. Care is exercised when harrowing to 
 prevent any of the soil from being dragged from one plot to another. If 
 the harrow teeth be set at the proper angle the soil is shifted very little in 
 a horizontal direction. If the harrow were set “to drag,” clods and loose 
 earth would accumulate and the soil from one plot would be carried over to 
 another. This would disturb the treatment somewhat. Three or four 
 times over with the harrow have been sufficient to pulverize and level the 
 soil. The rainfall during the time that the ground lay fallow has packed 
 
21 
 
 and firmed the ground. The more thorough the pulverization the better is 
 the limestone mixed in. Repeated cultivation tends to carry the limestone 
 deeper. The purpose of applying it at this time in the rotation is to correct 
 the acidity of the soil for the benefit of the clover which is seeded in the 
 wheat the following spring. 
 
 In the illustration which shows the method of spreading the limestone, 
 the man employed to prepare the seed bed is making the application. When- 
 ever possible, students who are planning to receive special instruction in the 
 subject make the application under the direction of the instructor. It is 
 well to say in this connection that every operation on the experiment field 
 is performed when, and only when, the instructor is there to direct it. 
 This measure is necessary to prevent errors. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS. 
 
 There is no element of plant food more important than phosphorus. 
 Nearly all soils are more or less deficient in this element. Whenever it is 
 applied to the soil an increase in crop yields is invariably the result. A 
 normal, fertile soil should contain 2,000 pounds of the element phosphorus 
 per acre in the first seven inches of depth, or the part usually turned by 
 the plow. Pew soils, however, contain more than 1,500 pounds and many 
 contain an amount fewer than 1,000 pounds. It is always safe and nearly 
 always profitable to apply it to any soil. 
 
 There are several forms for sale upon the market, chief of which are 
 ground raw rock phosphate, acid phosphate and ground bone meal, either 
 raw or steamed. Other forms are comparatively little used, owing to their 
 scant supply and adaptability. 
 
 Ground rock phosphate is coming into more general use recently. It 
 has been objected to largely on the ground of its insolubility. Recent inves- 
 tigations have shown that it may be made soluble by the use of sufficient 
 quantities of organic matter in the form of manure, or leguminous crops. 
 If the ground rock phosphate is applied directly to either of these organic 
 substances in such a way that there is physical contact between them, the 
 decaying organic matter liberates the phosphorus from the insoluble ground 
 rock phosphate. It would be a mistake, of course, to plow under the organic 
 matter and apply the ground rock phosphate to the freshly plowed soil, thus 
 separating them by five or six inches of earth. At some subsequent time, 
 however, the phosphorus may be liberated by another application of manure 
 or in turning under a leguminous crop. This has occurred in more than 
 one instance. Rock phosphate occurs in all soils and is the natural source 
 of the element phosphorus in virgin soils when crops were grown without 
 the use of farm manure or commercial fertilizers. It is the cheapest source 
 of phosphatic fertilizers, costing about $8.00 per ton, in carload lots. Taking 
 into consideration the fact that it is a natural fertilizer and its compara- 
 tively low cost, it is a very desirable form for use in improving the land. 
 It has no tendency to make the land sour as some other forms have. Ground 
 rock is the form used upon the Soil Experiment Field. 
 
 Acid phosphate has been used a great deal because it is soluble to a 
 great extent in water, and because it was thought plants could not get the 
 phosphorus, either directly or indirectly, from the insoluble ground rock 
 phosphate when applied to the soil. Acid phosphate is made by adding an 
 
22 
 
 equal amount of concentrated sulphuric acid to ground rock phosphate in 
 most instances, though bone-meal and other phosphates are sometimes used. 
 It should be borne in mind that one-half of the weight of acid phosphate is 
 due to the sulphuric acid added in its preparation and that acid phosphate 
 contains one-half as much of the element phosphorus per ton as the ground 
 rock phosphate. The cost of acid phosphate is from $14 to $16 per ton, 
 making a pound of the element cost about four times as much as in the form 
 of the ground rock phosphate. 
 
 On soils low in organic matter, acid phosphate gives good results when 
 applied. It has given good results also when applied in connection with 
 manure and legumes. On the older soils it seems advisable to use acid 
 phosphate in order to secure immediate returns. After the system of farm- 
 ing is well under way, and a sufficient quantity of manure and legumes can 
 be produced, it is possible to substitute ground rock phosphate. On the 
 newer corn-belt soils ground rock phosphate has given excellent results 
 when used in connection with some form of decaying organic matter. It 
 seems to be a debatable question among agriculturists which is the better 
 form, but it is quite within the truth to say that either form will produce 
 good results when managed in the proper way. 
 
 Bone meal is a by-product of the packing houses. Most of the bone 
 meal is steamed, which removes most of the fat and nitrogenous matter. 
 It is a slow-acting fertilizer and should be used with decaying organic mat- 
 ter to liberate the phosphorus. Like ground rock phosphate, it contains 
 about 12% per cent of the element phosphorus. It is sometimes treated with 
 sulphuric acid to make acid phosphate. In addition to the phosphorus, hone 
 meal when untreated with acid contains about 1% per cent of nitrogen. Raw 
 bone meal is more slowly soluble than steamed bone meal, because the fat 
 acts as a preservative. 
 
 The value of phosphorus is becoming generally recognized. Both plot 
 tests and field demonstrations show that it lies at the very foundation of 
 successful agriculture. If a soil is deficient in this element, neither manure 
 or legumes can be substituted for it nor can either be relied upon to produce 
 the highest results. The following table quoted from the Soil Report No. 2 
 of the Illinois Experiment Station shows the results of ten years on the 
 Bloomington Experiment Field. The evidence of the data presented is 
 convincing. 
 
 
 
 Yield 
 
 Yield 
 
 Increase 
 
 Value of 
 
 
 
 Without 
 
 with 
 
 for 
 
 Increase 
 
 Year 
 
 Crop Grown 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Per Acre 
 
 1902 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 37.00 
 
 41.70 
 
 4.70 
 
 $ 1.64 
 
 1903 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 60.30 
 
 73.00 
 
 12.70 
 
 4.44 
 
 1904 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 60.80 
 
 72.70 
 
 11.90 
 
 3.57 
 
 1905 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 28.80 
 
 39.20 
 
 10.40 
 
 7.28 
 
 1906 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 .58 
 
 1.65 
 
 1.07 
 
 6.42 
 
 1907 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 63.10 
 
 82.10 
 
 19.00 
 
 6.65 
 
 1908 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 35.30 
 
 47.50 
 
 12.20 
 
 4.27 
 
 1909 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 53.60 
 
 63.80 
 
 10.20 
 
 3.06 
 
 1910 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.09 
 
 4.21 
 
 3.12 
 
 18.72 
 
 1911 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 22.50 
 
 57.60 
 
 35.10 
 
 24.57 
 
 Total value of increase in ten years $80.62 
 
 Total cost of phosphorus in ten years 25.00 
 
 Total value of increase in ten years $80.62 
 
 Total cost of phosphorus in ten years 25.00 
 
 Net prot in ten years 
 
 $55.62 
 
23 
 
 POTASSIUM. 
 
 There are three forms of potassium fertilizers used as a rule. These 
 are potassium chloride, or muriate, as it is commonly called, potassium sul- 
 phate, and kainit. Wood ashes contain a small amount of potassium in the 
 form of potassium carbonate, hut ashes are used only to a limited extent. 
 
 The principal source of the salts is the Stassfurt mines, in the region 
 of the Harz Mountains in northern Germany. The deposits are large enough 
 to supply the world at the present rate of use for many thousand years. 
 It is thought that these beds were deposited by the evaporation of sea water 
 ages ago. 
 
 Muriate is composed chiefly of potassium chloride and runs about 80% 
 pure. This salt contains about 42% of the element potassium. It is made 
 from the deposits of the Stassfurt region and has common salt as an im- 
 purity. When applied as a fertilizer it is sometimes said to have an in- 
 jurious effect on tobacco, sugar-beets, and potatoes, if applied in large 
 amounts. It is unquestionably beneficial in its effects upon the cereals, 
 legumes, and grasses. 
 
 Kainit is composed of a mixture of at least three substances and it is 
 applied in a crude state. About one-third of its weight is sodium chloride. 
 There is about 10% of the element potassium in kainit. In the ordinary 
 soil which contains a high percentage of potassium, it is applied for its 
 stimulating effect rather than as a plant food. This form of potassium 
 fertilizer is used on the Soil Experiment Field. On muck or peat soils, 
 where there is a large deficiency of potassium, muriate is generally used as 
 the most desirable form. 
 
 Potassium sulphate is made from kainit and is about 95% pure. The 
 amount of the element potassium, like muriate, is 42%, on the average. It 
 is said to be free from injury to crops. 
 
 CORN. 
 
 “A man puts some ashes in a hill of corn and thereby doubles its yield. 
 Then he says, ‘My ashes have I turned into corn.’ Weak from his labor, he 
 eats of his corn, and new life comes to him. Again, he says, ‘I have changed 
 my corn into a man.’ This also he feels to be the truth.” 
 
 JOHN DARBY. 
 
 According to the plan of rotation the corn succeeds the clover. Before 
 the clover stubble is plowed in the spring the students compute the various 
 amounts of fertilizers required by the several plots in the corn series. The 
 plan provides further that manure, phosphorus, and potassium are the plant 
 foods to be applied at this time in the rotation, and that they shall be 
 spread upon the clover stubble before the ground is broken. Good stable 
 manure which has not been exposed to the weather is the form chosen. 
 Phosphorus in the form of finely ground raw rock phosphate carrying 12 1 %j% 
 of the element phosphorus is used. Potassium is applied in the form of 
 kainit. The exact plots are located by measurements from the permanent 
 corner posts and lines are stretched from the established plot corners. 
 These lines define the boundaries of the plots while the treatments are being 
 applied. The ground is then plowed, turning under the fertilizers. It is 
 
24 
 
 thought to be the best practice to spread the raw rock phosphate upon the 
 manure, because the decaying vegetable matter in the manure liberates the 
 plant food in the rock phosphate. Under ordinary conditions the rock phos- 
 phate is insoluble and hence the phosphorus is not available as a plant food. 
 Also, it is thought that corn is the best crop in the rotation to follow an 
 application of strong stable manure. 
 
 The Seed Test. 
 
 In every instance the seed has been tested previous to planting. Reid’s 
 Yellow Dent has been chosen as a variety 
 well suited to the type of soil on the ex- 
 periment field. The Experiment Station 
 at Urbana, Illinois, furnished a sufficient 
 quantity of pure bred seed. Although 
 the corn was tested before it was sent 
 from the Experiment Station, the stu- 
 dents were required to make a second 
 test for the purpose of becoming ac- 
 quainted with the method. The results 
 of one part of the test may be seen in 
 the illustration. Afterward, when the 
 corn germinated in the field, there was 
 not one hill missing. There were a few 
 hills with only two stalks — three kernels 
 were planted in each hill. Similar results 
 have been obtained for three years, but 
 this year the stand was imperfect, which 
 was due to moles and not the seed corn. 
 
 Corn-Root Aphis. 
 
 Probably no other insect pest is so destructive to corn as the corn root- 
 aphis. It is a greenish, soft-bodied insect and is commonly known as a 
 plant louse. This particular species attacks the young roots of growing 
 corn, sucking large quantities of sap from the young plant soon after 
 germination, and continues its injuries until late in the season. The infested 
 plant suffers much from this pest and in some instances dies before maturing. 
 
 Were the corn root-aphis dependent upon its own activities, little injury 
 would be done. With it there is associated a species of ant known as the 
 corn-field ant, upon which the aphis depends for every want, apparently. 
 The ant jealously cares for the eggs of the corn root-aphis and places the 
 young aphids upon the roots of the corn plants. As a reward for this ser- 
 vice the corn root-aphis excretes a sweet fluid from its body, which the ant 
 eagerly laps. Neither insect of itself is injurious, but the two associated are 
 very destructive, especially during the first six weeks after germination. 
 
 No perfect means of controlling these insects has ever been discovered. 
 
 Dr. S. A. Forbes, State Entomologist, advises the practice of deep plow- 
 ing to the depth of six or seven inches, followed by rolling and several 
 thorough diskings to the same depth. The object is to break up and scatter 
 the contents of the underground nests, interfering as much as possible with 
 the development of the ants and especially the root-lice. This may be done 
 
25 
 
 A Perfect Ear. 
 
26 
 
 in the fall, but probably it can be done with more convenience in the early 
 spring. The longer and more thoroughly the ground is worked the better 
 the results. At the same time the weeds upon which the root-lice live before 
 infesting the young corn plant will be destroyed. If the insects’ food is 
 destroyed and the nests can be broken up repeatedly, scattering the con- 
 tents through the soil, the corn will suffer little damage. Several field trials 
 among farmers have proven the advantage of this method. At Galesburg, 
 Illinois, a field which received the most careful cultivation in the preparation 
 of the seed-bed, yielded 28% more corn than a field prepared in the usual way. 
 
 When wet springs will not permit of the best preparation, Dr. Forbes sug- 
 gests an additional treatment. He has discovered that the odor of some 
 oils is very objectionable to the corn-field ant. He says: “These ants may 
 be virtually paralyzed and finally killed by confining them to an atmosphere 
 charged with certain strong-smelling vapors, and if free to escape they will 
 abandon the places where these odors are strong, even leaving their own 
 young to perish in order to save themselves.” The following seems to be 
 the best substance: “Take a hundred pounds of bone-meal for each acre 
 of land to be treated and moisten this, by sprinkling and stirring until the 
 fluid is very equally distributed, with one-fourth of a pound of oil of tansy 
 and one gallon of denatured alcohol, or wood alcohol, whichever may be 
 the cheapest and most convenient. Put this mixture in the fertilizer dropper 
 and plant with the corn.” 
 
 Under field conditions it is not likely that this treatment will kill the 
 ants, but it will act as a strong repellent. Wet seasons are very unfavorable 
 to the development of these insects, which is very fortunate for the farmer. 
 If the farmers were to co-operate in the use of the foregoing methods, the 
 damage done the corn crop by these insects would be greatly reduced and, 
 perhaps, the insects could be controlled. One farmer acting alone can do 
 little more than protect his own crops, yet this has actually been done with 
 profit, while the neighbors suffered very much from these pests. 
 
 Each year the seed corn used in seeding the Normal Experiment Plots 
 has been treated with a solution of oil of lemon and wood alcohol. While 
 the plots were never free from injury, it is believed when they were com- 
 pared with growing corn not similarly treated that the injury was con- 
 siderably reduced. To prepare the oil of lemon solution one pint of oil of 
 lemon is added to one gallon of wood alcohol. Three ounces, or six table- 
 spoonfuls, of the solution are mixed with one gallon of seed corn, and 
 thoroughly mixed. The corn is ready and should be planted immediately. 
 The cost of the treatment is approximately ten cents per acre. The stu- 
 dents in the class of agriculture prepare the solution, treat the corn, and 
 plant it in the experiment plots. These operations are easily performed 
 and make a very interesting and instructive laboratory exercise. Especially 
 so when later they can observe the effects upon the corn-field ants in the 
 corn on the plots. 
 
 The corn is planted in hills three (3) feet, three and three-fifths (3 3/5) 
 inches each way. This distance between hills permits twenty-five (25) hills 
 of corn to be grown upon each plot. In checking the plot previous to plant- 
 ing, the series is marked off with a marker, which makes three marks 3 feet 
 3 3/5 inches apart. The students made it as one of their exercises in manual 
 training. The marker is light in weight and can be drawn easily by two 
 
27 
 
 students. When the surface of the ground is a little uneven or cloddy, a 
 weight is added to make the marks more distinct. In beginning, a line is 
 stretched across the series to indicate the position of the first row of corn. 
 In crossing with the marker, similar lines are stretched to locate the first 
 row in each separate plot. 
 
 Planting Corn. 
 
 The corn, which has been tested and treated with a solution of oil of 
 lemon, is planted in the old-fashioned way. The girls drop the kernels, — 
 three kernels in each hill, — and the boys follow with hoes, covering each 
 hill to a depth of two inches. The required amount of time to check the 
 plots and plant the corn is about ninety minutes, or one double period. A 
 record of this work is entered in their note books. 
 
 Cultivating Corn. 
 
 It is advisable to use a cultivator having small shovels when stirring 
 the corn ground. Until now the school has been depending upon the use of 
 the type of plow in use by the man employed to do the labor. Uniform cul- 
 tivation throughout the rotation could not be obtained in this way. It is 
 proposed and arrangements have been made to purchase a cultivator of a 
 suitable type for this work. Previously it was thought that there was not 
 enough service demanded to justify the purchase of a cultivator at such a 
 large comparative cost. From three to four cultivations are enough to keep 
 the surface in good condition. What is known as level shallow cultivation 
 
28 
 
 is practised on the experiment plots. The illustration shows one of the 
 students crossing the corn with a single cultivator. 
 
 A Comparison. 
 
 The two stalks of corn in the illustration were grown in the border 
 rows of corn. The small stalk was taken from the check plot and, since 
 there is no treaiment upon this 
 plot, it had every advantage 
 which all of the other stalks 
 had and which was in this case 
 the native fertility of the soil. 
 
 The other stalk was taken from 
 plot No. 5 in the series, which 
 had full treatment; namely, 
 manure, lime, phosphorus, and 
 potassium. This stalk could 
 secure the applied fertilizers 
 from one side of the row only, 
 because it grew in the border 
 row. Neither was it so good as 
 the corn growing upon the 
 treated square rod. Illustrative 
 samples are rarely taken from 
 the border rows, and they are 
 never taken from treated areas 
 because of the influence it would 
 have upon the yield. The illus- 
 trative stalks were cut July 21st, 
 
 1909, and photographed the same 
 day. The young man in the il- 
 lustration afterward pursued a 
 course in the College of Agricul- 
 ture at the University of Illinois. 
 
 Without doubt these two stalks 
 of corn had some influence upon 
 him in making his plans. 
 
29 
 
 Prize Corn 
 
30 
 
 No Treatment. 
 
31 
 
 Manure. 
 
32 
 
 Manure and Limb. 
 
33 
 
 Manure, Lime, and Phosphorus. 
 
Manure, Lime, Phosphorus, and Potassium. 
 
35 
 
 Students Comparing Corn Plots. 
 
36 
 
 Treatment. 
 
37 
 
 Full Treatment. 
 
38 
 
 Oats. Removing Protective Border. 
 
39 
 
 Oats. Protective Border Removed. Grain Ready to Harvest. 
 
40 
 
 Oats. No Treatment. 
 
41 
 
 Oats. Full Treatment. 
 
42 
 
 Students Comparing Oat Plots. 
 
43 
 
 Harvesting the Oats. 
 
 The oats grow upon two series, each containing five plots. One series 
 is located in the system of grain farming and the other is located in the 
 system of mixed, or live stock farming. The plan provides for a protective 
 border of grain one-fourth of a rod in width around each plot. The pro- 
 tective border is removed from around each plot before harvesting the 
 
 Harvesting Oats. 
 
 square rod, which contains the grain grown in the experiment. It is neces- 
 sary to measure these areas very accurately in order to get the exact loca- 
 tion of the plot and obtain one square rod of grain. Lines are run from the 
 permanent corner posts to the series lines which separate the series of five 
 plots from the protective border strips. Lines are run at right angles to 
 the series. These secondary lines separate the series into five plots with the 
 protective border strips intervening. When the grain growing on the pro- 
 tective borders is harvested, it is bound in sheaves and placed in shocks a 
 short distance away from the experiment plots. When this is practiced 
 there is little danger of confusion in the sheaves. The series now presents 
 five separated plots and offers the best opportunity for comparing the ef- 
 fects of the treatment at any time during the growing of the crop. The 
 students in agriculture assist in harvesting the plots and at the same time 
 make observations. The differences in the crops grown upon the five plots 
 are marked so distinctly, usually, that the effects of treatment are seen 
 readily. There has been little apparent difference as a rule between plot 
 No. 4 and plot No. 5 in each series, when observed in the field, but in most 
 instances there has been a difference shown when the yields were weighed. 
 The color of the straw, the height of the grain, the size of the head, the 
 
44 
 
 number of plants, i. e. “the thickness of the stand,” and other qualities 
 are manifest. When convenient other classes are invited to visit the field. 
 A number of County Superintendents who happened to be visiting the 
 school have seen the grain at harvest time. Each plot is harvested sepa- 
 rately and the sheaves are labeled with the number of the plot and the 
 number of the series upon which they grew. The sheaves are then placed in 
 five separate shocks to cure. 
 
 Threshing the Oats 
 
 When the sheaves are thoroughly dry, which usually is in about ten days, 
 the oats are threshed to determine the yield per acre. The method of 
 threshing is accomplished indirectly by taking uniform samples and thresh- 
 
 ing the samples in duplicate. A sample sufficiently large to represent the 
 plot is weighed in the sheaf, i. e. both grain and straw. The grains are 
 carefully threshed out by palming the heads. The straw is then ex- 
 amined and any remaining grains are picked off one at a time. The chaff 
 is thoroughly blown out and the duplicate samples weighed on a pair of 
 balances sensitive to one-tenth of a gram. The proportion of grain to 
 straw is easily reduced to a percentage basis. The sheaves on the entire 
 plot are now weighed and the amount of grain computed. Since the ex- 
 periment plot is one square rod in area it is readily reduced to the acre 
 basis. While this method is not the best, it is more accurate than thresh- 
 ing such small amounts in a steam thresher. The method has shown only 
 a slight variation when checked, which indicates reasonable accuracy. It 
 is planned to have constructed a small threshing outfit which will separate 
 all of the grain from the straw. This latter method is the best of any 
 without doubt. 
 
 The methods employed in handling the oat crop are used throughout 
 in computing the yield of wheat. The grain is cut with a cradle, which is 
 
45 
 
 the best method considering the size of the plots. Occasionally when the 
 grain is tangled a reap hook is used. With one or two exceptions a man 
 living near the campus has been employed to cradle the grain. 
 
 Oat Smut 
 
 The treatment for oat smut is very simple and inexpensive and when 
 it is once realized, the loss due to the damaging effect of smut can be over- 
 come with little inconvenience.. In an experiment of eight tests with as 
 many varieties of oats treated with a solution of formalin, reported by one 
 investigator, no signs of smut were found in the growing grain. The pro- 
 portions were, one pint of formalin to twenty gallons of water. The cost 
 of the treatment is a little more than ten cents per acre. 
 
 The students prepared a solution of formalin and treated the seed oats 
 the day previous to seeding. The amount of seed required for the experi- 
 ments was small and the treatment was performed as one of the laboratory 
 exercises. The seed was spread out evenly upon a table and sprinkled with 
 the solution and thoroughly mixed. Then the treated seed was put into a 
 large jar and allowed to stand for about ten minutes after having been 
 carefully covered. When the solution had acted sufficiently, the seed was 
 again spread upon a table evenly and allowed to dry. No trace of smut 
 was observed upon any of the plots at any stage of the growing crop. 
 
46 
 
 Wheat. No Treatment. Ready to Cut. 
 
Wheat. Pule Treatment. Border Removed. Ready to Cut. 
 
48 
 
 Students Harvesting Wheat. 
 
49 
 
 Wheat. The Harvest. 
 
50 
 
 No Treatment. 
 
51 
 
 Manure. 
 
5 2 
 
 Manure and Lime. 
 
53 
 
 Manure, Lime and Phosphorus. 
 
54 
 
 Manure, Lime, Phosphorus and Potassium. 
 
55 
 
 Comparison op Plot Yields. 
 
56 
 
 The Clover Plots. 
 
57 
 
 THE BABCOCK MILK TEST 
 
 Acid 
 
 Measure 
 
 The Babcock milk test affords one of the most practicable of all class- 
 room exercises. Its operation is so simple that any fifteen years old student 
 with a little instruction can perform the test accurately. Samples of milk 
 can be secured at home and the percentage of butter fat determined quick- 
 ly and easily. 
 
 The materials necessary to make the test are a hand-power tester, a 
 few milk test-bottles, an acid measure graduated to 17.5 cc., a bottle of sul- 
 phuric acid with a specific gravity of 1.82, a pipette graduated to 17.6, 
 one-half pint of milk, and some hot water. 
 
 Sample. The milk should be poured several times 
 from one pail to another to insure thorough mixing, and 
 a small quantity taken at once and tested. Carefully draw 
 into the pipette by sucking a quantity of milk a little 
 above the 17.6 cc. mark and quickly place the first finger 
 over the upper end. Gently release the 
 finger and allow the milk to run out till 
 the upper surface of the milk in the tube 
 is even with the 17.6 cc. mark. Place the 
 lower end of the pipette in the neck of the 
 test-bottle and incline it so the milk will 
 run down the side of the neck. Wait till 
 as much of the milk will drain out of itself 
 as is possible, then blow the last drop out. 
 
 It is necessary that every drop should be 
 taken. The milk should be sampled in duplicate to check 
 results. 
 
 Before making another test, rinse out the pipette with 
 the milk to be tested. 
 
 Acid. The acid is very corrosive and should not be al- 
 lowed to come in contact with the hands or 
 the clothing. Should any be accidentally 
 spilled, it must be washed off immediately 
 with plenty of water. 
 
 Carefully fill the acid measure to the 
 17.5 cc. mark and pour it slowly into the 
 test-bottle containing the sample of milk. 
 
 This is done by inclining the test-bottle and 
 allowing the acid to run down one side of 
 the neck of the test-bottle slowly. By this 
 method the small quantity of milk in the 
 neck is washed down. If this is done prop- 
 erly a layer of acid will form under the 
 
 M milk. 
 
 Hold the test-bottle by the upper end of 
 the neck and with a circular motion mix the acid with 
 milk. By the time the contents are thoroughly mixed the 
 mixture will be dark colored .and quite hot. The acid has 
 now dissolved all of the solids of the milk except the but- 
 ter fat. 
 
 Pipette 
 
 Test Bottle 
 
58 
 
 Separation of Butter Fat. The bottles should he placed in the tester 
 and whirled while hot. Always place the duplicates opposite each other to 
 preserve the balance of the tester. The bottles should be whirled five min- 
 utes at the speed indicated by the tester which is in use. Do not stop the 
 tester. Let it stop itself. Fill the bottles up to the lower end of the neck 
 with hot water, and whirl again two minutes. Let the tester stop. Fill 
 the bottles with hot water again till the upper edge of the butter fat is 
 nearly up to the top of the graduations on the neck of the bottle. The 
 bottles should be whirled again one minute. If the test is properly made 
 the butter fat will appear in the neck of the bottle and form a clear column 
 of fat. 
 
 How to Read the Percentage. The fat must be kept warm and fluid. 
 Take hold of the upper end of the neck of the bottle and bring the upper 
 graduation line on a level with the eye. The upper and lower surface of the 
 fat will form a curved line. Read the butter fat as illustrated in the cut. 
 from A to B. The upper reading is 4.4. The lower reading is .3. The per- 
 centage of butter fat is the difference between them, or 4.1%. 
 
 The difference between the two readings is the per cent 
 of butter fat. Usually the graduations read as high as 
 10 per cent. Each space representing 1 per cent is divided 
 into smaller spaces each representing .2 per cent. If for 
 instance the upper reading is 9.4 and the lower is 6.2, the 
 difference is 3.2, which is the per cent of butter fat. This 
 would mean that there are three and two-tenths pounds 
 of butter fat in one hundred pounds of milk tested. 
 
 The directions given above are very brief and serve 
 merely to give an idea of the method. With every tester 
 there is supplied more complete directions which give rea- 
 sons for every step. 
 
 -& 
 
 How to Read 
 Per Cent of 
 Butter Fat 
 
 BABCOCK MILK TEST IN THE COUNTRY SCHOOL 
 
 A Babcock milk tester could be very easily and cheaply 
 obtained for use in the country school and it is desirable 
 that each school should own one. The cost need not ex- 
 ceed five dollars for the complete outfit. The teacher could 
 learn to operate it by carefully reading the directions and 
 making one or two preliminary trials. If the teacher pre- 
 fers, she may learn the method in a few minutes by ob- 
 serving some one to make the test as a demonstration. 
 
 There is no better way of introducing the subject of agriculture in the 
 country school than by making the pupils and their parents familiar with 
 the value of this test. The knowledge of its use is valuable to every fam- 
 ily in the district. As an exercise for the pupils in the upper grades, it is 
 without comparison. The pupils could bring samples of milk from the 
 cows at home, make the determination of butter fat, and take the results 
 home to their parents. There is no better mediator between the home and 
 the school than the pupil, and when the confidence of the parents in the 
 teacher is once established there would be little trouble in introducing 
 other exercises in agriculture. It may be safely said that the teacher should 
 introduce the subject of agriculture with some exercise having a scientific 
 aspect and one which is both simple and practical. 
 
59 
 
 As an illustration, it may be interesting to narrate the following exper- 
 ience. During the McDonough County Institute, Supt. B. E. Decker re- 
 quested that something he given in one of the lectures before the institute 
 which would be practical in teaching agriculture in the country schools, 
 and it was hoped, stimulate some of them enough to begin some sort of 
 work in the subject. The Babcock milk test was chosen. Samples of milk 
 were tested before the institute and each step of the method explained as 
 the test proceeded. With the percentages of butter fat and other facts at 
 hand, the teachers easily calculated the value of each individual cow. By 
 a little comparison it was clearly seen which cow would yield a profit, and 
 which would not earn her keep. In order to convince the teachers of the 
 ease with which the test could be made, a young man who observed the test 
 brought five samples of milk from home the next day and performed the 
 test determining the percentages of butter fat in his own cows before a 
 group of sixty interested teachers who wished to see the method of testing 
 milk repeated. This is evidence enough to convince any teacher that she 
 can test milk with the Babcock Tester without having had previously any 
 considerable experience. 
 
 Sample 
 No. 1 
 No. 2 
 No. 3 
 No. 4 
 No. 5 
 
 Result of the Test. 
 
 Butter Fat 
 3.6% 
 4.0% 
 3.6% 
 5.8% 
 4.0% 
 
 Pounds of Butter Fat. 
 
 The method of determining the number of pounds of butter fat is under- 
 stood very easily, and may be employed as a useful exercise by the teacher 
 in the arithmetic class. It may be illustrated by one of the tests given 
 above. The cow whose milk in Sample No. 1 yielded a percentage of 3.6 
 produced 44 pounds of milk as a daily average. To find the pounds of 
 butter fat multiply the daily average, 44 pounds, by the percent 3.8, and 
 divide the product, 158.4, by 100 and the quotient, 1.584, is the weight of 
 butter fat. 
 
 It is gratifying to learn since, that ten of the teachers mentioned in 
 the foregoing narration have decided to use the Babcock Tester in their 
 schools. Supt. B. E. Decker authorizes the following statement: “I am go- 
 ing to purchase a Babcock Tester and take it with me when I visit schools, 
 and show the teacher how to use it.” 
 
60 
 
 Babcock Milk Tester. Four Bottles. 
 

 ihmc; - 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 i 
 
 • Is 
 
 Babcock Mii.k Tester. Six Bottles. 
 
62 
 
 Jennie. 
 
63 
 
 Jennie. 
 
 Jennie is a full bred Jersey cow and was purchased when four years of 
 age for $75 by a member of the Normal Faculty. She is now five years old 
 and her performance during the past year is very creditable, so good that 
 it is worth while to mention the essentials for comparison. The owner has 
 furnished the data which forms the averages and may not be exact for some 
 specific data but the owner agrees that the averages and the tests are per- 
 fectly reliable. 
 
 Her period of lactation, which is the total number of days in milk, in the 
 last instance is eleven months. During this time she produced 8430 pounds 
 of whole milk. At four different times her milk was tested with the re- 
 sults as given below in a table. 
 
 Date Daily, Lbs. Fat % 
 
 January 1 36 6 
 
 May 1 30 6.4 
 
 September 1 22 6.75 
 
 November 1 8 7 
 
 It may be supposed that 33 pounds per day is an average production of 
 milk from January 1 to May 1, which would make a total yield of 3960 
 pounds in 120 days. Similarly, if 30 pounds per day be taken as the average 
 from May 1 to September 1, the total yield would be 3120 pounds. And for 
 the last period of three months at an average daily production of 15 pounds, 
 the total would be 1350 pounds. Considering these quantities to be rea- 
 sonably correct, the entire milk production during the period of lactation 
 would be 8430 pounds. Some of the milk was used in the family, but the 
 remainder was sold at six cents a quart. If all of the milk had been sold 
 the gross income would be $252.90. After deducting the cost of feed and 
 pasture, which was $55, the profit is $197.90. The cost of labor is not 
 reckoned because the by-products balance it. The interest on $75, the cost 
 of the cow, and her share in the upkeep of the buildings, $12, and her de- 
 preciation in value, $5, make all together $29.50, which should be de- 
 ducted, leaving a net profit of $178.40. 
 
64 
 
 SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 
 The school garden occupies a rectangular piece of ground iy 2 rods in 
 width by 7 y 2 rods in length lying south of the soil experiment field, and 
 is enclosed by the same fence. For convenience two gates, one small and 
 
 one large, are placed at the corner nearest the Normal building. It was 
 
 found necessary to protect the garden plants and the field crops from tres- 
 passers and various domestic animals. Besides thoughtless persons; cattle, 
 horses, and dogs injured the growing crops. A woven wire fence having 
 small meshes, supported with cedar posts, was erected. The fence is five and 
 one-half feet high. To prevent dogs from climbing over, two hog wires were 
 stapled at the top of the post, one on the inside and the other on the out- 
 side. The fence is proof against all trespassers. The posts are painted a 
 
 forest green color, which improves the general appearance of the field and 
 garden very much. 
 
 At the beginning the garden was divided equally into four areas, one 
 for each two grades, but later it has been divided equally into three areas 
 and set apart for the first six grades. The seventh and eighth grades now 
 occupy a similar area just west of the original tract. The first area is cul- 
 tivated by grades one and two, which correspond to the grouping of grades 
 in the training school. This plan is carried throughout the entire eight 
 grades. The head instructor in Education in co-operation with the in- 
 structor in Agriculture works out the details of the plan, and with the 
 assistance of the training teachers directs the work of the pupil-teachers 
 and pupils. Educative values and principles of cultivation including the 
 economic phases are emphasized rather than the cultivation of a large va- 
 riety of garden products. The plans include a variety of garden crops suf- 
 ficiently large to cover the practice in the ordinary home vegetable garden. 
 These varieties are arranged in an ascending sequence of difficulty in cul- 
 tivation, assigning of course those requiring the least care to the lowest 
 grades. And while the lower grades have no responsibility in the care or 
 the garden in the upper grades, they have the opportunity of observing all 
 others at work. The same advantage is offered to the other grades. 
 
 The garden work is correlated to their work in nature study and man- 
 ual training. 
 
 School Garden. 
 
65 
 
 FARMERS’ INSTITUTE 
 
 The Soil Experiment Field besides being a vital factor in aiding the 
 students in their courses in agriculture is available for inspection to any 
 one interested. Visitors are welcome at all times, and especially those who 
 are engaged in agricultural pursuits are invited to visit the field and observe 
 the growing crops. While a large number have seen the grain upon the 
 plots and have expressed themselves freely upon the merits of scientific 
 methods in agricultural practice, it is desired that others may find it con- 
 venient to visit the field at a time when the results of the treatments show 
 the effects at a good advantage. 
 
 The Normal School co-operates heartily with the Farmers’ Institute 
 by sending its instructors to lecture at the various meetings which are held 
 during the year. It enourages the students to attend the sessions of the 
 institute where they can hear men speak who are experts in some depart- 
 ment of agricultural investigation. Some of the young men who have at- 
 tended these lectures and have seen the crops growing on the Soil Experi- 
 ment Field have induced their parents to purchase raw rock phosphate and 
 ground limestone. In one instance a young man induced his father to pur- 
 chase a car load of phosphate. It is very convincing to see plots of grain 
 growing only a few feet apart with such a marked difference in yield as indi- 
 cated by the last wheat harvest illustrated on another page. 
 
 The prize corn in the illustration was grown by a young man who is a 
 regular attendant at the Farmers’ Institute and who attended three short 
 courses at the College of Agriculture, Urbana, Illinois. As the ribbons 
 indicate, he received two prizes. One was the first premium in a contest 
 between the growers over all contestants in the entire state who were in at- 
 tendance at the short course given at the College of Agriculture. He grew 
 the “Perfect Ear,” also, which is found on another page in this circular. 
 The variety of corn is Reid’s Yellow Dent and is grown from pure bred 
 seed. For four years he has been growing this variety upon a separate 
 tract of about five acres. The high grade of corn shown in the two illus- 
 trations is the result of continued selection. It was his intention to de- 
 tassel the corn but he was unable to accomplish this over the entire tract. 
 
 The foregoing is given as an illustration of the interest among the 
 young men on the farms who are looking toward better agriculture. Among 
 a total attendance of nearly five hundred at the institute about one-third 
 were young men. 
 
66 
 
67 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENT PLOTS. 
 
 The land upon which the plots are located was an open tract for twenty- 
 five years and was used more or less as a village pasture according to 
 statements made by some of the old residents. Formerly it was used for 
 farming, but since it did not produce profitable crops it was allowed to run 
 wild. Trespassers made a diagonal road across it, thereby making a short 
 eut between the village and Crooked Creek, a stream flowing to the north 
 of the field approximately one mile. Two factors tend to disturb the fer- 
 tility and productivity of the plots. One is the road and the other the re- 
 sults of the grazing animals. The influence of these factors would of course 
 be more pronounced when the plots were planted to crops. The situation 
 was accepted with the hope that continued treatment would in time over- 
 come the original unevenness existing between the individual plots. The 
 plots were not enclosed with a fence till the third year. As a result some 
 of the plot yields suffered injury through the carelessness of trespassers. 
 Some of the crops were damaged by animals. Some person walked across 
 the corn series and broke down twenty-two stalks of corn in crossing five 
 rows. This was something more than carelessness. One night in 1908 so 
 much of the corn was stolen from series 400 and 800 that the yields were 
 unreliable and useless for record. As a rule the plots in the grain system 
 of the north division suffered more often. The experience in conducting 
 the plot experiments teaches at least two important essentials in success- 
 ful operation; first, the plots must be protected by a suitable fence, and 
 second, the plots must be uniform in original fertility. The latter is shown 
 by the plot yields. Plots number 504 and 505 in the 500 series, and 604 
 and 605 in the 600 series were crossed by the diagonal road mentioned 
 above. In nearly every instance they produced a smaller yield than plots 
 503 and 603 though they received more fertilization. In comparing the eight 
 series of plots by the crops produced in all the years, series 700 and 800 
 seem to have been more nearly uniform in original fertility. The treatment 
 on these plots always showed well defined contrasts in yields, making ideal 
 object lessons for student observation. On the other series of plots the 
 negative factor in crop yields was always traceable, and although the gradu- 
 ated sequence in yields anticipated by treatment was sometimes broken, 
 the lesson taught was quite as valuable as in the yields of the series 700 
 and 800. Some of the factors are mentioned for purposes of illustration. 
 A horse rolled on oat plot 202 in 1907. Some clover plots winter-killed 
 more than others; the corn root-louse and moles injured some of the corn. 
 Plots 101 and 103 produced the largest yields in some instances, which 
 seem to indicate greater original fertility. 
 
68 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1907. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 Spring wheat, bu 1 . . . . 
 Clover, tons 2 
 
 70.28 
 
 27.00 
 
 69.14 
 
 27.88 
 
 71.71 
 
 36.60 
 
 73.14 
 
 43.78 
 
 75.43 
 
 47.36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1907. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 '600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 Spring wheat, bu 1 .... 
 Clover, bu. 2 
 
 74.27 
 
 27.69 
 
 74.68 
 
 28.19 
 
 74.87 
 
 39.70 
 
 73.48 
 
 19.74 
 
 73.71 
 
 19.20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Spring wheat failed. 
 2 Clover failed. 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1908. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 Corn bu. 1 
 
 40.95 
 
 12.90 
 
 1.04 
 
 37.08 
 
 13.81 
 
 1.20 
 
 38.95 
 
 16.32 
 
 1.60 
 
 37.40 
 
 19.28 
 
 1.92 
 
 40.80 
 
 19.42 
 
 1.92 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1908. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 45.50 
 
 46.45 
 
 42.14 
 
 43.03 
 
 47.36 
 
 600 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 14.76 
 
 15.87 
 
 16.09 
 
 12.38 
 
 10.30 
 
 700 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.28 
 
 2.08 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.32 
 
 2.40 
 
 800 
 
 Corn bu. 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Corn husked by trespassers; results unreliable. 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1909. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 26.10 
 
 29.47 
 
 28.13 
 
 29.25 
 
 30.04 
 
 200 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.26 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.98 
 
 2.14 
 
 2.32 
 
 300 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 49.58 
 
 50.16 
 
 54.12 
 
 61.02 | 
 
 66.12 
 
 400 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 44.10 
 
 47.60 
 
 47.60 
 
 48.10 
 
 48.10 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1909. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 22.73 
 
 29.60 
 
 31.73 
 
 32.50 
 
 31.50 
 
 600 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.96 
 
 1.62 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.84 
 
 1.94 
 
 700 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 65.68 
 
 77.33 
 
 88.52 
 
 86.34 
 
 86.06 
 
 800 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 44.10 
 
 55.60 
 
 58.10 
 
 59.80 
 
 61.60 
 
 Corn plots 704 and 705 were damaged by moles. 
 
69 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM. 1910. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 Clover tons 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 43.42 
 
 47.71 
 
 43.71 
 
 46.42 
 
 48.71 
 
 300 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 46.00 
 
 52.00 
 
 52.00 
 
 58.00 
 
 59.00 
 
 400 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 12.63 
 
 21.70 
 
 23.32 
 
 24.24 
 
 24.24 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1910. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 Glover, tons 1 
 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 48.00 
 
 700 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 40.00 
 
 800 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 12.70 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 52.85 
 
 54.00 
 
 49.71 
 
 42.61 
 
 58.00 
 
 62.00 
 
 66.00 
 
 67.50 
 
 20.05 
 
 25.03 
 
 32.00 
 
 35.70 
 
 1 Clover winter-killed. 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1911. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 Wheat, bu. 1 
 
 51.75 
 
 29.36 
 
 58.94 
 
 31.24 
 
 66.70 
 
 32.12 
 
 63.54 
 
 34.12 
 
 65.89 
 
 36.62 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.32 
 
 .56 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.96 
 
 1.96 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1911. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 600 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 Wheat, bu. 1 
 
 54.05 
 
 31.36 
 
 56.35 
 
 37.10 
 
 61.33 
 
 33.62 
 
 68.42 
 
 33.62 
 
 66.70 
 
 26.12 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 1.24 
 
 1.68 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.20 
 
 3.20 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1912. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 42.20 
 
 45.45 
 
 55.00 
 
 51.37 
 
 52.80 
 
 200 
 
 Oats, bu. 2 
 
 55.00 
 
 59.50 
 
 66.00 
 
 67.45 
 
 68.46 
 
 300 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 2.26 
 
 1.36 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.04 
 
 2.84 
 
 400 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 53.71 
 
 l 53.71 
 
 62.86 
 
 70.86 
 
 68.00 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1912. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 47.81 
 
 54.23 
 
 56.17 
 
 51.35 
 
 39.15 
 
 600 
 
 Oats, bu. 2 
 
 59.18 
 
 61.21 
 
 1 69.19 
 
 64.90 
 
 43.12 
 
 700 
 
 Clover, tons 
 
 2.62 
 
 2.82 
 
 3.24 
 
 3.50 
 
 3.62 
 
 800 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 52.57 
 
 74.57 
 
 88.00 
 
 88.00 
 
 85.14 
 
 x Wheat winter-killed. 
 
 “Wheat winter-killed and oats were seeded on the wheat plots. 
 
70 
 
 GRAIN SYSTEM, 1913. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 100 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 22.02 
 
 22.25 
 
 26.17 
 
 23.87 
 
 22.08 
 
 200 
 
 Clover, 1st crop, tons. 
 
 .46 
 
 .78 
 
 1.04 
 
 1.42 
 
 1.24 
 
 
 Clover, 2d crop, tons. 
 
 .30 
 
 .32 
 
 .31 
 
 .38 
 
 
 300 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 25.20 
 
 12.30 
 
 22.20 
 
 30.90 
 
 27.90 
 
 400 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 34.56 
 
 17.31 
 
 22.32 
 
 27.65 
 
 26.76 
 
 LIVE STOCK SYSTEM, 1913. 
 
 Series 
 
 Crop 
 
 Plot 1 
 
 Plot 2 
 
 Plot 3 
 
 Plot 4 
 
 Plot 5 
 
 500 
 
 Wheat, bu 
 
 23.21 
 
 25.96 
 
 23.69 
 
 27.62 
 
 21.17 
 
 600 
 
 Clover, 1st crop, tons. 
 
 .38 
 
 1.02 
 
 1.58 
 
 1.66 
 
 1.16 
 
 
 Clover, 2d crop, tons. 
 
 .18 
 
 .26 
 
 .42 
 
 .40 
 
 .30 
 
 700 
 
 Corn, bu 
 
 20.40 
 
 19.50 
 
 32.70 
 
 32.70 
 
 29.40 
 
 800 
 
 Oats, bu 
 
 23.15 
 
 28.56 
 
 32.01 
 
 37.56 
 
 39.12 
 
 The Soil Experiment Field was under the direction of Mr. Charles W. Finley 
 during- the year 1913. The above records were reported by him. 
 
3 0112 105794439 
 
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