COLONEL ARTHUR LEE. FORMER BRITISH MILITARY ATTACHE AT WASHINGTON, WHO HAS BEEN MADE CIVIL LORD OF THE ADMIRALTY IN THE BALFOUR CABINET. LRILOUS VOYAGE AT SEA Remarkable Experience of Captain of a German Ship. the rudder and take shelter. Neither Cap- tom Rowsell nor his officers tasted tood nor stept a moment during the thirty hours the TiS-r f -m Australia t.^utto manageable. Her second officer M^ ^stone^ left with a crew of seven m one of the snip s for the nearest^iort^adan^^ lis Craft Dismantled During a Terri- ble Storm in Midoeean. leld Prisoner in Upturned Hull for a Fortnight. |ttempts at Rescue Vain for a Time, but Fortune Favored at Last. short time ago Captain Engellandt of the Jerman ship Erndte had the unexampled ex- perience of voyaging for twelve days and lights in a capsized ship. It is a little re- liarkable that he was but little the worse for lis terrible captivity, .and after a rest of a lev/ days was ready to again resume his post |s soon as the necessary vessel w r as offered j^The Erndte left Memel with a cargo of tim- ber on April 16, and at once ran into rough leather. Two days later, when the captain £d just retired to his cabin after a long fratch on deck, a sudden squall capsized the ressel. The crew were swept away, but the matra, 650 miles away. Gales swept down * on them, and the first thing that happened was the utter smashing of their rudder. They were forced to steer with an oar. Then the boat -started leaking, and their only material for patching it was soap. Soon afterw r ard a horrible-looking sea monster twenty feet long came dangerously near them. At last they were rescued by the Dutch steamer Reael and taken to Calcutta. They arrived there on the very day that the Darius was tow'ed in. Even w'orse was the experience of the chief officer of the Athena, a fine ship which in March tw^o years ago ran on a reef off the Patagonian coast and sank in less than half an hour. Two boats put off. The captain’s was swamped and all drowned, in spite of desperate efforts at rescue by the chief offi- cer and his crew. Brave Fig-lit for Life. In the effort at rescue the chief officer’s boat shipped a huge ’sea, which smashed the compass and the rudder, spoiled all the fresh water and sv/ept the chief officer himself into the water. It was with the greatest difficulty that he was rescued. The boat, too, began to leak. Yet undiscouraged they made for the coast and after fifty-tw*o hours’ struggle, during which four of them died of cold and exposure, they were picked up by the steamer Eskside. There are few more terrible tales of the sea CHECK-CASHING SYSTEM. \B ■ 9 S O ■£ 5* % % 3 a a g a 5 ^ 3 ri'b.L- BRITANNIA GO., ENGINEERS' TOOL MAKERS, COLCHESTER, ENGLAND. MAKERS OF LATHES TO THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT SPECIAL DEPARTMENT FOR AMATEURS Attention invited to the Lathe as shown. No. 13 Strong Screw- cutting Lathe, with 22 change wheels, 2ft. 6in. bed 15 15 o Do. 3ft. bed 16 16 o Do. 4ft. bed 25 40 Do. 5ft. bed 30 9 o Division Plate and Index, £2 extra; Overhead, as shown, £5 5s. We haue 130 varieties of Lathes , Price from 35 - to £250; and Fiue varieties of Fret Saws from 15I-. /tests, Circular Saws, Fret Arms, to fit any Lathes. Lathe Tools sent to any distance for selection. V/fHT* Any Article not made to order will be exchanged if not approved. Send one Stamp for Circular AGENTS IN ALL PARTS OF THE I VOR ID . A LUXURY UNKNOWN IN ENGLAND. BARBER & COMPANY’S (See that you have none other) FRENCH COFFEE AS USED IN PARIS. In its Highest Perfection, TENPENCE PER POUND. This is the Choicest and most carefully selected Coffee, “ Roasted on the French principle,” and mixed with the Finest Bruges Chicory. 2 lbs. in tins sent free for 2s. 4d., by Parcels Post, to any Post Town in the United Kingdom, and 5 lbs in tins for 8s. 6d. BARBER & COMPANY, 274, REGENT CIRCUS, OXFORD STREET, W. 61, Bishopsgate Street, City. I 102, Westbourne Grove, W. II, Boro’ High Street, S.E. j 42, Great Titchfield Street, W. King’s Cross, N. Manchester-93, Market St. Birmingham-Quadrant, New St. Brighton — 147, North Street Bristol — 28, Corn Street. Preston — 104, Fishergate. Liverpool — I, Church Street; and Minster Buildings; and London Road. Remittances to be crossed “London and Westminster Bank.” Postal Orders from is. 6d. to ios. 6d. can now be obtained for one Penny. rary Univ.of Iu Lib 5 3 /srY Miss Ethel Ricker from the Library of her Father Nathan Clifford Ric ker Head of the Department of Architecture, 1873-1911 Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 / https://archive.org/details/everymanhisownmeOOchil ORDINARY TYPES OF TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. (For Classification of Tools, sec page 77.) EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC % Cxrwfitete anb CBmjmfonsiixe (Smbe TO EVERY DESCRIPTION OF CONSTRUCTIVE AND DECORATIVE WORK THAT MAY BE DONE BY THE AMATEUR ARTISAN, AT HOME AND IN THE COLONIES. IN THREE FARTS:— PART I. HOUSEHOLD CARPENTRY AND JOINERY. PART II. ORNAMENTAL AND CONSTRUCTIVE CARPENTRY. PART III. HOUSEHOLD BUILDING ART AND PRACTICE. Illustrated with Seven Hundred and Fifty Engravings on Wood. SIXTH EDITION. LONDON : WARD, LOCK, AND CO., WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. NEW YORK: BOND STREET. PREFACE. For such a book as “ Every Man His Own Mechanic ” but few ■ \ words in the form of an apology can be needed. In its pages it has been sought to furnish the Amateur Artisan with hints and suggestions regarding all that he may undertake in Con- structive and Decorative Work at home, and to show him clearly and in a thoroughly practical manner how each kind of manual labour is to be carried out, and with what appliances, tools, and materials it is to be done. If any think that simple operations are too fully and minutely described, it must be remembered that this book is not put forth as a text-book for skilled artisans, but rather as a guide for those who are altogether inexperienced in handicraft, or very nearly so, r?nd therefore need to know something about the very A E C of the work that they propose to take in hand. The information presented in its pages is practical and reliable. It has been gathered chiefly from observation and actual experience, and the book is therefore offered to those who have a liking for Carpentry and Joinery, and the various departments of the Building Trade, in the hope that they may find in f. V v N it a vade-mecum , which the writer has often desired to have when engaged in the various kinds of handiwork that are described therein. Much that is said in it cannot be found in any recognised text-book, because the authors of such works take for granted that those for whom they write know all about the elements of their craft, and that it is therefore needless to say anything about them. In this they are Preface . viii right enough, but, on the other hand, it is in this very respect that their books fail to meet the requirements of amateurs. It is just possible that some may think that too much has been said about tools and appliances of various kinds to be purchased, their prices, and the persons of whom, and the places where, they may be obtained. This, however, has been done purposely, for it is next to useless to speak of any article in a work that is intended to be of as much service as possible to its readers, without mentioning where it may be bought, both good and at a price which is sufficient to insure its goodness. If it be thought to have the appearance of advertisings the writer can say without the slightest reservation, that neither he nor the publishers have benefited directly or indirectly to the value of even so much as a penny-piece, by the mention of persons, places, and things that has been made ; and more than this, the writer is personally known to only two of those persons whose names are mentioned. In every case attention has been called to their wares for the guidance and benefit of the readers only ; and, surely, in these days when things are not always what they ought to be, or what their makers profess them to be, it cannot be amiss to say — Caveat emptor . F. Y. CONTENTS, PART I. l?otts>eljolti Carpentry anti Jlomerp. % CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY : KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS USEFUL TO ALL MEN 2 CHAPTER II. THE VARIOUS WOODS USED IN CARPENTRY, ETC. : SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBER l6 CHAPTER III. FELLING AND SEASONING OF TIMBER : DESIGNATIONS AND MARKS OF TIMBER : TIMBER AS SUPPLIED BY TIMBER MERCHANTS : ITS prices 47 CHAPTER IV. THE TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY : THEIR CLASSIFI- CATION ACCORDING TO TPIEIR. USES * 75 CHAPTER V. SHARPENING TOOLS : THE WAYS AND MEANS EMPLOYED ... ... I44 CHAPTER VI. HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS, AND HOW TO USE THEM ... 1 57 CHAPTER VII. VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN JOINING TIMBER ... ... 1 82 X Contents chapter VIII. THE CARPENTER’S BENCH AND ITS VARIOUS FITTINGS : THE SAWING STOOL AND TRESTLES ... 206 PART II. Ornamental and Constructional Carpentry and 3)omerp» CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY : ORNAMENTAL CARPENTRY AND ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES 243 CHAPTER II. THE TURNING LATHE, AND HOW TO USE IT 250 CHAPTER III. VENEERING AND CURVED WORK 2 j 6 CHAPTER IV. ORNAMENTAL WORK IN CARPENTRY: FRET-SAWING AND CARVING IN WOOD .... 292 CHAPTER V. SIMPLE AND EASY CARPENTRY : FIXTURES, TEMPORARY AND OTHER- WISE, WITHIN DOORS 321 CHAPTER VI. TABLES, STOOLS, CHAIRS, AND COUCHES : GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION, MAKING, AND MENDING 346 CHAPTER VII. WINDOWS, DOORS, AND GATES 374 CHAPTER VIII. BOXES, DRAWERS, PIGEON-HOLES, CHEST OF DRAWERS, WARDROBE, CUPBOARDS, BOOKSHELVES ... ... ... ... ... 396 Contents. xi CHAPTER IX. COMBINED CHAIR AND HOUSE STEPS PICTURE-FRAMES : FLOWER STANDS AND STAGES : GLAZED WINDOW-BOX : FOUNTAIN. SWINGS 429 CHAPTER X. OUT-DOOR STRUCTURES FOR THE GARDEN : CUCUMBER-FRAME, GREEN- HOUSE, SUMMER-HOUSE, FOWL-HOUSE, PIG-STY, RUSTIC-WORK, AND STEPS CHAPTER XI. builders’ and carpenters’ ironmongery suitable for amateurs 486 PART III. Pottsseljolti Builtn'ng- act anti practice. CHAPTER I. THE VARIOUS DIVISIONS OF THE BUILDING TRADE : AMATEUR’S BUILDING I THE PLANT IIE WILL REQUIRE 49 1 CHAPTER II. EXCAVATING, AND WHAT IT IMPLIES: TOOLS: CONCRETE, ETC. ... 5-0 CHAPTER III. BRICKLAYING, ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES : TOOLS, PROCESSES, ETC. ... 53 2 CHAPTER IV. BUILDING WITHIN THE SCOPE OF AMATEURS ... • •• 5^S CHAPTER V. MASONRY AND THE WORK IT INVOLVES 600 CHAPTER VI. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS : MATERIALS ROOFING WITH SLATE AND OTHER 6lO CHAPTER VII. PLASTERING IN ALL ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES 628 Xll Contents . CHAPTER VIII. smiths’ work, including forging, casting, —fitting, and DRILLING 647 CHAPTER IX. SOLDERING AND BRAZING : ZINC-WORKING, AND WORKING IN SHEET METAL! PLUMBING! GAS-FITTING*. BELL -HANGING AND WIRE- WORKING 677 CHAPTER X. PAINTING, GRAINING, STENCILLING, STAINING, VARNISHING, AND GILDING 703 CHAPTER XI. PAPER-HANGING, AND HOW TO DO IT *. GLAZING, OR WORKING WITH GLASS 730 I. General Index ... 763 II. Index to Diagrams, Illustrations, Etc . ... 807 Every Man His Own Mechanic, PART L ^ousefjolD Carpentry anti 3fomerp. TIMBER , TOOLS, AND SIMPLE PROCESSES. ©Ijiatsotbcr t{in fianb fhxbdlr lo be, bo it foitlj ibn migljt . — Ecclesiastes ix. io. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY— KNOWLEDGE OF THE MECHANICAL ARTS USEFUL TO ALL MEN. Requirements of the times — Competition more keen — Those most affected — Notice- able signs of the struggle — Adulteration and other trade frauds— Advance in prices : how caused — The artisan his own tax-master — Strikes raise prices — In- comes of clergy, etc,, inelastic— Self-help possible and desirable— A case in point — Broken window : how to mend it— Cost of materials — What the workman will do — Professional charges— Labour must be paid for — Building operations why expensive — Artisans’ wages — Cost of job per time — Scale of wages — Decorator’s wages — Prices charged by builders — Every man has time for neces- sary work — Knowledge and practice, how to obtain them — Knowledge must be paid for — Technical education — Workshops attached to schools — Practical knowledge, to whom useful — Choice of handicraft trade — Carpentry most desir- able — Wireworking — Bricklaying and masonry — Setting stone or step — Excava- ting— Carpentry and joinery — Carpentry, why attractive to amateurs — Amateur’s working dress — Working man : meaning and application of term — Artisan,, artificer, and artist — Social distinctions nothing — The carpenter and his work — The joiner and his work — Derivation of these terms— Carpentry, how divisible. I. The changes that have gradually come over all things during the years that have passed since the Great Exhibition of 1851 have ren- dered men far more inclined to regard and consider the . . . . Requirements signs of the times than they were wont to do during the of _ the times, first half of the present nineteenth century, and any one who will do this earnestly and searchingly cannot but come to the- conclusion that the field of a man’s knowledge must be far wider, his education far more general, his self-reliance far stronger, and his power to help himself far greater than was either thought to be necessary or found to be useful some fifty years ago or even less. 1 2 Household Carpentry and Joinery < 2. Although there are many causes which have helped indirectly to produce this result, the reason for it is mainly to be found in the fact Competition ttiat though the world does not grow larger its inhabitants more keen. are i ncrea sing more rapidly year by year, and that, in proportion to the increase in number, competition in the fight for life becomes more keen, and the struggle to make both ends meet more difficult and laborious. 3. The ranks of society on which the burden of competition has fallen most heavily, and which have been most seriously affected by Those most t ^ Le ^ eat t ^ ie hand-to-hand battle for existence in which affected, tfiey have found themselves involved, are those which combine to form its great middle class, and include the bulk of the clergy, officers in the ai^ny and navy, professional men of all denomi- nations, wholesale merchants, and retail tradesmen who buy and sell to get gain, and clerks of every description. 4. The outward noticeable signs of the struggle are shown most clearly in the appearance of retail shops of most kinds in the present day. Some fifty years ago every trade confined itself to Noticeable J J J , signs of the the sale of its own peculiar wares, and the heterogeneous struggle. contents 0 f t j ie g enera i shop in the village, or that of the small tradesman in a country town, who sold drapery, perhaps, on one side of his useful premises, and groceries on the other, was often a matter of somewhat derisive comment. But now this is the rule and by no means the exception in “ establishments ” of far higher pre- tensions and greater extent. The grocer trenches on the province of the wine-merchant and the publican, and sells wines and spirits ; and the licensed victuallers and innkeepers in just retaliation sell tea to any who will buy it of them. The draper will set out his window with articles that properly belong to the fancy goods warehouse and the toyshop. The oilman and provision-dealer sometimes dabbles in carpets, hearth- rugs, and ironmongery, and so the confusion in trades becomes more confounded from year to year, until at last intending buyers will find a difficulty in determining to what shop they had better go in order to get the wares they want. 5. These are some of the results of competition as shown in retail shops. Undue competition, too, has led to adulteration and other frauds in trade, so that the tolerably general practice that Adulteration . . and other has prevailed of charging excessive prices for really good ’ and genuine articles, and selling at moderate prices things which are not what they seem or pretend to be, has driven the upper strata of the middle classes to find relief in co-operation and co-opera- The Artisan his own Tax-Master. 3 live societies, very much to the detriment of the fair-dealing tradesman, which is to be sincerely regretted, although the fault lies not in the t:o-operators, but to those who have driven them to such protective measures in defence of purse and pocket. 6. But there are other ways in which middle-class people, whose income is obtained by other ways than that of buying and selling, have suffered of late years, as, for example, the advanced prices of many things which have not been met by corresponding advances in their incomes. And how have these advances in prices Advance in been caused ? Mainly by the action of the lower classes, prices— how who by repeated strikes to obtain increased wages, have contributed greatly to force up the prices of food, clothing, and house rent, and thereby impoverish the middle classes without gaining any solid benefit for themselves. House rent has been increased notably of late years by the strikes in all branches of the building trade, for when labour and materials rise in price the cost of building a house must both increase pari passu ; and the builder or owner must of necessity demand and obtain a higher rent in order to get sufficient remuneration for the money he has sunk in bricks and mortar. And as house rent increases, so do rates and taxes increase, and the weight of the burden falls on the back of the middle classes, who are the chief contributors to the revenues of the country — national and local. 7. I say this advisedly. It has been pretty clearly shown of late years that the artisan is his own tax-master, and may regulate his contribu- tions to the national income by swallowing more or less beer and spirits, and by smoking more or less tobacco, as inclination may lead him. In 1870 about ^89,000,000 was expended in spirits alone in the United Kingdom, of which ^58,000,000, or nearly two- Theartisan thirds, came out of the pockets of the lower classes. Now his own as men are obliged neither to drink nor to smoke, the taxation paid in this respect is altogether voluntary ; and the artisan may, if he choose, reduce his fiscal burdens to a minimum, as he pays no income tax, although frequently earning more than the clerk who does ; while the duty still remaining on tea, etc., is inconsiderable. Nor are his payments in the shape of local rates and taxes by any means burdensome, for they are indirect ; that is to say, included in the rent that he pays — weekly in most cases — to his landlord, and therefore not felt in any oppressive degree. The middle-class man, on the contrary, if he be a householder, is compelled nolens volens to pay poor rates, watch, or police rates, and other local taxes, and house ■duty and income tax to the national taxes ; and as all taxation of this 4 Household Carpentry and Joinery. nature is direct, and paid in lump sums, the burden is all the more hard to meet and all the more oppressive. Surely, as far as contribu- tion to national and local rates and taxes is concerned, the artisan is far better off than the middle-class householder, as the former has the power of paying as much or as little as he pleases within certain limits,, while the latter has not. 8. All strikes, as it has been remarked, have a tendency to thrust up prices, and when prices once go up it is very hard to say when they st ikes come down again, for the high prices are frequently raise maintained when there is no reasonable excuse to justify prices. their maintenance. Strikes tend, moreover, in some cases to send trade out of the country, and by causing an increase in the poor-rate they too frequently increase the burden of the actual ratepayer, who at the best of times is heavily taxed. 9. The incomes of the clergy, professional men, clerks, and others who do not derive the money on which they live from actual trading,. are, generally speaking, either fixed or very inelastic. Oc- Incomes of clergy, etc., casionally a professional man may make his fortune, but inelastic. with most men in the grades of life that have been men- tioned the annual income fluctuates but slightly, and if it tends to increase, as in the case of clerks in banks and in the civil service, the: annual increment is but very small, and a maximum is at length reached, beyond which the income he enjoys is not likely to advance. 10. Now the question that we have to consider, and that most earnestly, is, How can me 7 i in such a case best help themselves f And Self help t0 onl 7 answer worth having that can possibly be possible and given is, By learning to use their hands as well as their desirable. 9 y f , head! By determining, in fact, to do at home many things. which they have hitherto been accustomed to hand over to an artisan,, and for which — to use a phrase far more expressive than elegant — they have had to pay through the nose. In short, let all who have the will to help themselves (and if the will to do is good the doing is well- nigh sure to be attended with success) determine to become — Every Man his own Mechanic. Yes, reader, mend your broken chairs and crippled furniture ; put fresh panes of glass into your broken windows ; do your own repairs, as far as it is practicable, indoors and out of doors ; look after your own locks and fastenings ; make your own garden plant and appli- ances ; put up your own sheds, greenhouses, and garden buildings, and I will answer for it that if you check what you save on each job, Broken Window — How to Mend it. you shall find yourself in pocket at the end of the year merely through resorting to self-help. 1 1. Let us take a simple case of common occurrence, as for example, •a broken window, and see, by comparing the cost of repairs when executed by a glazier on the one hand, and done by the A case householder himself on the other, how much may be saved 111 P° mt * by means of a little practical knowledge and self-help. 12. We will first look into the cost of the work when the house- holder is his own mechanic. The man who lays himself out to do odd jobs of this kind will of course have at hand the tools Broken win* necessary for carrying out the work, namely, a hammer, dow— how . . . to mend it. a suitable knife for hacking out or cutting away the hardened putty and fragments of glass still remaining in the window frame, and a putty knife. The first thing to be done is to clear the rebate in the sash-frame for the reception of the new pane of glass. The next step is to measure accurately the length and breadth of the aperture, including the rebate, and procure a piece of glass of the required size from any painter and glazier or oilman who cuts glass for those who may require it. A little putty must also be procured. Now supposing, for the sake of argument, that the glass measures 18 in. by 12 in., or, in other words, contains one and a half super- Cost of ficial feet, the cost of the glass will be 4^d., as the price lnaterials * of common Belgian glass for ordinary glazing purposes is 3d. per foot super. The cost of the putty may be reckoned at j£d., putty generally speaking being 2d. per pound, though it may be frequently purchased at the oilman's for ij£d. per pound. The expense, then, of putting things as they were before to the householder who can use his hands is no more than 5d. 13. But suppose, on the other hand, that a painter and glazier is desired to send a workman to mend the broken window. In the first place he may not have a man on the premises to send, and the householder must wait and his family suffer inconvenience, or patch up the hole with brown paper or a piece of pasteboard as best they can, until the job can be attended to. The mode of procedure will then be something as follows : — The workman will first come up and look at the window, and take the measurement for the What the new pane. He will then return to the shop, cut the neces- workman will do. •sary piece of glass, and come back to the house with the ; glass, some putty, and the tools that he requires, and put in the pane. * Possibly the glazier's shop is a mile away from the house at which the repairs are to be done, and what with going and returning twice over 6 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the ground and putting in the pane, at least two hours will be taken up ; for, it must be said, the workman as a rule never hurries himself, and his master has but little power to compel him to do so. All he can do if he finds that a journeyman is persistently long over his jobs is to discharge him, a remedy that may be as bad, if not worse, than the disease, as he may get another in his place who may be even more dilatory. Let us now look into the cost. For the materials used, the master will charge, for ordinary window glass, about 9d., or nearly double the prime cost to the householder if he does the work himself; Professional an< ^ as a §^ az ^ er 1S P a ^ at present time 9 d. per hour charges. f or fr ls time, is. 6d. must be added to the cost of the glass and putty, and, as the master always charges for his men’s time at a somewhat higher rate than that at which they are paid, the house- holder will find when his bill is sent in that the job is charged at 2s. 6d., and he has got to pay just six times as much as he would have done if he had bought the materials and done the work himself. 14. It must be understood that we are by no means finding fault with the charges made by the master, nor with the amount paid per hour to the workman, for “the labourer is worthy of Labour \ J must be his hire.” Labour must be paid for, and should at all paid for. . ... times be remunerative to him who performs it ; and the master is entitled to interest on money paid out for materials and labour. The only thing to which objection can be taken in the case under consideration is that pretty nearly twice as much time was expended in doing the job as was necessary. If the workman had taken some glass and all his tools with him on his first visit to the house, just half the time taken up in walking backwards and forwards from shop to house and from house to shop might have been saved — for, as we have said, in this part of his work the British workman never hurries himself, for it is manifestly not to his interest to do so — and the householder need not have been charged more than is. 6d., or at the utmost is. 9d., for the labour expended and the materials used. 15. It is to be hoped that the above example has made it suf- ficiently clear that it is the cost of labour which makes all build- . ing operations and repairs, be they what they may, so Building ope- rations— why expensive to those who have to pay for them ; and that, if expensive. a man has sufficient energy and determination to do such work himself as far as it is practicable, he will not only save a con- siderable sum in this respect, but also in the cost of materials, which, as it has been broadly shown, can be purchased at a far cheaper rate than that at which they are supplied by the master. Wages now Paid to Workmen. 7 1 6. It will be well to pause awhile here and look at the wages which are paid in the present day to artisans and mechanics in the building trades. The prices given are those which are paid in the metropolis and its vicinity, where they are invariably the highest. In Artisans’ the country, prices rule somewhat lower, and they will wages, even differ slightly in different parts of the country. It is safe, how- ever, in calculating the cost of a job according to the number of hours that may probably be employed in it, to take London prices as given below for the basis of calculation. Again, when the cost of a job per time is under consideration, it will be as well to increase Cost of j ob the estimate arrived at by half as much again, or even per ttrne< to multiply it by 2, as in course of carrying it out it will be found that many contingencies will happen to prolong the time employed in it that it were almost impossible to anticipate. 17. The following is a full list of workmen employed in the building trades, and the rates of wages charged by builders per Scale of hour at the present time, compiled from the best autho- wages. rities. The prime cost of wages per hour, that is to say, the wages paid by builders, ranges from 6d. for labourers to 8}£d. for painters, 9d. for masons, bricklayers, carpenters, plasterers, and slaters, and iod. for plumbers. s. d. Excavator . .. o 8 Bricklayer o 10J Labourer o 7 Fire-bricklayer 1 o Labourer o 7 Scaffolder o 8 Mason o io£ Carver 1 1 Labourer o 7§ Pavjor o 10" Labourer e 7 Slater and Tiler ... o 10J Labourer o 7 Slate Mason s. d. 1 0 Wire-worker . s. .. 0 d. 9^ Labourer 0 8£ Labourer 6 Plasterer 0 io£ Plumber 11 Modeller 1 2 Labourer 7$ Labourer 0 7 Gas-fitter .... 10I Carpenter & Joiner 0 10$ Labourer Labourer 0 7I Painter Smith 0 11 Grainer 3 Labourer 0 Decorator 6 Zinc Worker 0 10$ Gilder 10 Labourer 0 7 Glazier 10J Bell-hanger 0 ioi Labourer 7 Labourer 0 7 Paper-hanger . .. 0 9^ 18. It must be understood that the decorator, on account of his artistic skill, is paid at a higher rate than the ordinary house-painter, while such work as graining in imitation of various kinds p ecora t Gr » 3 of wood, painting in imitation of marble, and writing wages, letters of all kinds, also commands higher rates of payment, writing being paid for at per letter, according to size and manner of execution, and graining and marbling generally by the job. 19. The prices charged by builders and contractors for work of all kinds are framed according to the prices of the materials used and the labour employed, and will naturally vary in different Prices charged parts of the country. Those who desire a more intimate b y builders ' acquaintance with the minutiae of such matters than can be gained 8 Household Carpentry and Joinery . from or given in the following pages, are referred to such works as Laxfon’s and Bevis’s “Price Books for Architects, Builders, 3?ric& books Engineers,” etc., and Spon’s “ Architects’, Builders’, and Contractors’ Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda,” in which every detail is given in a most complete and exhaustive manner. 20. It may be argued that a man who aspires to be his own mechanic cannot possibly gain a sufficient knowledge of all or any of Every man the various building trades to enable him to do the h necessary r necessary work of construction or repairs in a work- w°rk. manlike manner, and that even if he could do so he would never be able to find time enough to do all that may be wanted in house and garden from year’s end to year’s end. Now, as far as time is concerned, it may be pointed out at once that the most hard- worked man has his Saturday half-holiday and the Bank-holidays, to say nothing of the summer evenings when there is light enough for handicraft work even after 9 o’clock ; and if these be not enough, he must — as people are often told to do who object that they can find no time for this, that, and the other — MAKE time. The genial Irish lyric poet, Tom Moore, has told us that “ The best of all ways to lengthen our days Is to steal a few hours from night ; ” and if the man who wants to make time would make it in this manner, stealing the hours from the right end of the night — that is to say, even at the risk of being put down as Hibernior Hibernicis , from the early morning — he would find the practice beneficial to health as well as pocket, and by steady continuance therein would not only lengthen his days but his years too. To burn the midnight oil in pursuit of book-knowledge seems to be a mistake ; it is so, without any doubt whatever, in following up any handicraft or handiwork. F or these, the time and sunlight of the early summer morning are eminently the most suitable. 21. But how, it may be further urged, is a man to obtain, first the knowledge, and next the practice necessary to do any handicraft-work Knowledge even in a decent and respectable manner. An artisan bowto obtain has in most cases to spend a long apprenticeship before them. can comman d full wages. This is true, but it is equally true that many an apprentice, when he has once learnt to handle his tools, does a day’s work as fully deserving of a man’s wages as the work that is turned out by an old hand. The chief thing to be done is to learn the uses of the different tools used in the trade, be it Technical Education. 9 what it may, and how to handle them and keep them fit for use. Next to this, it is useful to watch any artisan when he is doing work on the premises, t6 see what he does and ascertain his reasons for doing it. It is wonderful how much useful trade-knowledge may be acquired in this way. Lastly, the theory and general modus operand i may be learnt from books, such as this-; not that theoretical knowledge will make a man a good workman, but that it will assist him when he endeavours by practice to turn to account the lessons he has learnt from observation, and the practical teaching necessary to enable him to use his tools with effect. 22. It is good policy, then, for every man who seeks to do a little as a handicraftsman, to lay out a guinea or two in obtaining the services of any moderately skilled artisan, who, for such a sum, Knowledge would willingly show the aspirant how to use his tools, must be and how to keep them in working order. Thus, for paid f ° r ‘ example, if a man desired to follow up carpentry, it will be beneficial to him in the highest degree to enlist the services of a joiner who will show him how to use his saw and his plane, and how to keep his saw fit for use by sharpening it with a file, and his plane and other cutting tools in proper condition by means of the grindstone and oilstone. If, again, he wished to be able to build a brick wall, he should get a bricklayer to show him how to prepare his foundations with spade and level, and how to put in the footings of his wall, and to raise it, course after course, so that its faces within and without, may be truly perpen- dicular, inclining neither to the one side or the other. Having once learnt how to do a thing, a fairly intelligent man will not require so very much practice to enable him to do such work as inclination or necessity may suggest, in a tolerably workmanlike manner. 23. Practical instruction in handicraft trades, or, in other words, technical education, is far too much neglected in English schools ; indeed, there is great room to doubt if it be even Technical attempted, much less carried out, in any in the manner educatlon - in which it ought to be. Among the Jews, we know from St. Paul’s own sketch of his life-history in the New Testament, it was the rule that every boy, whether gentle or simple, should learn some handicraft trade. The great Apostle of the Gentiles had accordingly learned tent- making in his youth, and his practical knowledge stood him in good stead in after life, when in his missionary work he frequently gained his daily bread by the labour of his hands, refusing to be burdensome to any of those, to win whom for Christ he had gladly, like his and our great Master and Example, become poor. In Germany the pupils io Household Carpentry and Joinery. in large well-to-do middle-class schools have an opportunity, if, indeed, it is not compulsory on each, of devoting part of his time out of school hours to the acquirement of some handicraft trade ; and the Prince Consort, following the praiseworthy fashion of his country, made this an especial feature in the education of the Heir to the British Throne and the junior members of the Royal Family. At present, far more time than , , is either necessary or healthful is spent in the school- Workshops r attached room, which should be used as a lecture-room and a to schools. place for imparting instruction to the pupils, rather than as a place in which a certain number of hours are spent daily, partly in getting portions of certain text-books by rcte, and partly in hearing the tasks thus committed, parrot-like, to memory, to be forgotten again some short time after. It is a pity that to every school of importance a range of workshops are not attached, in which every boy in the school may gain an elementary knowledge of one or more handi- crafts. The practical hand-work would give more zest for the theo- retical head-work of the school-room. To those who emigrate — and Practical who can tell nowadays where he may pass his prime of ^whom 0 ’ life or end his days ? — the value of a knowledge of car- useful. pentry, smith’s work, painting, gardening, thus practically gained at school, would be inestimable ; while to those whose lot it is to remain in the mother country, it would be equally desirable, as affording them the means of helping themselves by doing such handi- craft work as they might be able to compass in house and garden, as they find daily wants and expenses continually increasing, while the income, out of which they must be provided as far as it is possible, remains entirely or very nearly at a fixed point. 24. If it be asked what branch of handicraft trade, or, to bring mat- ters within a narrower compass, what branch of the building trade is _« . . most suitable and most useful for amateurs generally, and handicraft householders especially, it must be answered that a know- trade. t ledge of carpentry and joinery will be found by far the most desirable. Next to this, it is necessary to know something about Carpentry P a i nt * n & and glazing, which comes fairly within the pro- d most^ vince of the amateur. Collaterally with these useful arts paperhanging may be mentioned. It is unlikely that a man will do much smith’s work, but even in this it is possible for an amateur to do something, and a slight acquaintance with the arts of of brazing, soldering, and working in metals will enable a man to make propagating cases that shall do him good service, and apparatus for neating a small greenhouse, if he have one, at little expense, even if Handicraft Trades for Amateurs. ii and masonry. he still leaves it to the peripatetic knife-grinder and tinman to stop up holes in leaking coffee-pots and saucepans, and to renew the damaged bottoms of colanders and gravy-strainers. Wire-working, wire- again, is a useful, and by no means unattractive pursuit, workin s- inasmuch as, with some slight knowledge of the methods employed, it is possible to make a birdcage or a fire-guard, or to construct a strong but fine wire trellis-work for climbers, or to make defences against the ravages of birds for peas and other growing seeds. 25. Bricklaying and masonry are trades that possibly an amateur will not meddle much with ; but some slight acquaintance with the principles of each, and the materials employed, is desir- Bricklaying able, even if it be for no other or better purpose than that of giving an eye to any workman who may be employed in this way on the premises, in order to see that he is doing his work in a workmanlike manner, that he is using proper materials, and that he is not wasting his time — a thing which no workman who has any self- respect will do. It is, however, quite as well to be able to know oneself how to set a stone or step that has become loose by one setting stone cause or another, in cement, and how to prepare the or step * cement for the work ; and know in what proportions sand and cement should be mingled for the purpose of making a suitable composition for fixing the step once again, so that it may remain immovable in its proper position. Lastly, a knowledge of excavating in all Excavating. its branches is attended with advantage. In the term “ excavating ” a far greater variety of work is comprised than appears upon the face of it at first sight. It means far more than digging or hollowing out a pit, as for a well or a trench, or for the foundation of a wall. It embraces these, it is true, but it also implies a knowledge of the manufacture — if we may use the word — of concrete, and the purposes to which it is put, of making garden walks and paths and of levelling, so far as it may be applied to the construction of drains for carrying off the surplus water from the soil of the garden, or even from a stable or pigsty, and the laying of drain-pipes for this purpose. It also gathers within its wide embrace a knowledge of the method of making tar paving and burning clay into ballast — processes which will often be found extremely useful in the garden. 26. Carpentry and joinery, twin branches of a single art as they may be called, embrace together a far wider field than any of the subjects that have just been mentioned ; and an explanation of all carpentry that can be done in them, and the different tools and and j° iner y‘ machines that may be used in their various processes, demands as much 12 Household Carpentry and Joinery . space as a description of all the other arts pertaining to the building iarts put together. We must therefore confine ourselves at the present time to a consideration of carpentry and joinery only, reserving for another occasion an inquiry into the processes involved in excavating, bricklaying, masonry, painting, glazing, paperhanging, and other branches of the building trade — taking occasion, in the third and con- eluding part of this work, to dwell on the practice of these allied arts as exemplified in the construction of many things that the householder finds useful every day, either within doors or out of doors. 27. Of all the constructive and manipulative arts that are grouped together under the wide and comprehensive name of the Building Trade, carpentry in all its varied branches — we are now ° lI why tr7 ’ using the word carpentry in its general and not in its re- ^a^ateurs! 0 stl 'icted sense, which will be explained presently — is the one that presents the most attractions to amateurs. The reason is that it is a clean trade, and the one that is found to be most generally useful. When a servant has to sweep up a room after a car- penter has been at work in it, either fixing something or doing some necessary repairs, she seldom makes a trouble of her task, but in nine case out of ten speaks of the debris and shavings that are littered about on the floor as “ clean dirt ” — that is to say, stuff which imparts no soil or stain to boards or carpets, and requires nothing but the ac- tion of the sweeping-broom or carpet-brush to remove it. An amateur carpenter, in fact, may go to his little workshop, either within or without the house, as the case may be, and after working as long as he will in his ordinary everyday clothes, require nothing more than a wash and brush up to render himself presentable in the parlour or drawing- room. 28, Far otherwise is it with other branches of the building trade, as, for example, smith’s work, soldering, and brazing, which involves the use of heat in one form or another, and contact with the soot and dirt engendered by combustion and the materials that are used in the forge and furnace. The clothes of the amateur, unless a special Amateur’s A wrkmg dress is kept for the workshop, should be protected at least by a loose “ slop,” or jacket of canvas, and a canvas apron ; it need scarcely be said that a leather apron covering the chest and legs will afford far more protection from sparks, soot, and grease than one of a textile material. When engaged in painting or glazing, the amateur should \Vear a canvas jacket and apron ; and for excavat- ing, and all work which involves digging, as well as for bricklaying, masonry, mixing and handling concrete, and all dirty work of this kind, Artisan , Artificer , Artist. 13 it is desirable to wear a canvas slop, trousers of stout fustian, and stout lace-up boots, which will be all the more serviceable if the soles are studded with broad flat-headed nails. 29 . It maybe useful to pause a moment and inquire into the mean- ing and general application of the terms “ working man,” “ workman / 7 “ artisan ,’ 7 and “ mechanic . 77 It is the custom to apply the , . 7 . Working expression “ working man 77 to workmen exclusively — that ma_n -^mean- is to say, to men who work with their hands at handi- application of term. craft trades. When used in this restricted sense, and as the rightful designation of the artisan or labouring classes, the word is altogether misapplied. The man who works with head and brain is as much a working man as the man who works with his hands ; and when properly employed, this term includes all workers, whether they be head-workers or hand-workers. The premier, the man of letters, the merchant, the clerk, and the trader are as much working men as the artisan or labourer. To the last-named classes the term “working man 77 will never be applied in these pages, for the reason that they have no exclusive right to it. Men and women who are engaged in handi- craft trades and manual labour are workmen and workwomen. Long ago the term “ artisan 77 was applied to any one who professed and practised some liberal art : the word, in fact, was synonymous with artist. In the present day, the word “'artisan 77 means one who is trained to manual dexterity in some mechanic art, mystery, or trade — a handicraftsman. It has been justly remarked that “a portrait painter is an artist ; a sign painter is an artisan . The occupation of the former requires a fine taste and delicate manipulation ; that of the latter demands only an ordinary degree of contrivance and Artisan, imitative power. The word artificer neither suggests the arti ^gj. and idea of vulgarity which attaches to the term artisan , nor the ideas of refinement or peculiar skill which belong to the term artist” A “ mechanic / 7 again, is “ one who works with machines or implements, a workman or labourer other than agricultural : mora specifically, one who practises any mechanic art — one skilled or em- ployed in shaping and uniting materials, as wood, metal, etc., into any kind of structure, machine, or other object requiring the use of tools or instruments . 77 Those who do work of any kind, whether with head or hands, are entitled to be called and regarded as working me7i> but the special names which pertain to those who work at handicrafts are workjnan , artisan , and 7nechanic. The appropriation of the terms “ working classes 77 and “ working men 77 to these exclusively has given colour to an idea that is unfortunately very prevalent among mechanics,. i4 Household Carpentry and Joinery. operatives, and labourers, that they are the only people in the world who actually do work, and that bread-and-butter drops into the mouths of all who happen to be above them in social rank without any trouble. Social Nevertheless, social distinctions are nothing. God re- distinctions spects no man’s person, and regards no man’s social nothing. r status ; every man or woman has real work to do in this world in that state of life to which he or she has been called by God as a state of probation and trial ; and we must all look rather to how we are doing the work that has been entrusted to us, than to what the work may be, and how it may be regarded in the estimation of the world. 30. When carpentry and joinery are spoken of together, it is possible that the two words may not convey a distinctive meaning to every one who hears or reads them, and it may be serviceable to point penter and out here in what the difference really consists. A carpenter, his woik. S p ea kj n g generally, is an artificer who works in timber, a framer and builder of houses and ships, as far as wood may be employed in their construction. “The carpenter ,” says Tomlinson, “frames and puts together roofs, partitions, floors, and other essential parts of the building. The joiner only commences when the carpenter leaves off, by supplying and fitting stairs, cupboards, furniture The joiner and his and other parts necessary, but not essential to, the build- work. ing.” The chief tools of the carpenter, properly so called, are the saw, the axe or hatchet, the adze, the hammer, and the chisel ; the joiner, in addition to these, requires planes of various kinds to impart a smooth surface and relief, by mouldings of various kinds, to his work. Carpentry, then, means the art of cutting, framing, and putting together timber in the construction of buildings, or an assemblage of pieces of timber connected by being framed together, as the pieces of a roof, partition, floor, etc. Joinery, on the other hand, is the art or work of a joiner ; and a joiner is a mechanic who does the woodwork in the covering and finishing of buildings, or whose occupation it is to construct things such as tables, chairs, boxes, etc., by joining pieces of wood together. The artisan who makes furniture of a more elaborate description is usually called a cabinet-maker, the term “cabinet” being applied to apiece of furniture consisting of a case or box furnished with doors and drawers. 31. The words carpentry, carpenter, joinery, and joiner have come to Derivation us from the Latin through the French. Thus, the English terms. term carpenter is derived directly from the French char- penticr , a slight alteration of the old French carpe 7 itier y which is Carpentry, how Divisible . i5 closely akin to the Latin carpentarius , a wheelwright, or maker of waggons, from carpe)itum , a car, or waggon. The Italian term for a wheelwright or any worker in timber is carpentiere . The English term “joiner” comes from the French jomdre , to join ; which, in its turn, is derived from the Latin jungere , to join or yoke together, as horses are yoked to a car. The word “cabinet” is a diminutive of “cabin,” which finds its origin in the Welsh caban, or French cabane, a booth, or hut, akin to the French gaban, and English gabardine , a cloak, or outer gar- ment ; all the words implying shelter or covering of some kind. Thus, the term “cabinet” implied a close place where anything of value might be deposited for safe keeping ; and as the construction of such chests and boxes implied a considerable degree of skill in the artificer, the appella- tion cabinet-maker was in time extended to all who were employed in making household furniture of the better kind. 32. It will be convenient for the purposes of this work to consider carpentry and joinery as separating naturally into two divisions, which may be described as (1) Simple Carpentry aiid Joinery, Carpe ntry, (2) Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery : the first com- kow divisible, prising all operations necessary for preparing pieces of wood and framing and joining them together, which may be performed by the ordinary tools of the carpenter ; the second, decorative work, and all such working in wood as may require the aid of special machinery of some kind or other to produce it. We shall leave the consideration of all branches of ornamental carpentry to another section of “ Every Man his own Mechanic,” confining ourselves in this section to a review of the materials and tools used in simple carpentry, and the various processes by which separate pieces of timber may be securely put together. CHAPTER II, THE VARIOUS WOODS USED IN CARPENTRY, ETC.— SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBER. Things that the amateur must know — Working drawings — Classification of woods — Deal most frequently used — Alder Wood — Ash : its uses — Hungarian Ash — Beech : its uses — Beech : its varieties, etc. — Boxwood — Spanish box— Chestnut — “Tunbridge ware” — Deal, or Pinewood — Larch — Ebony : its varieties and uses — Black Ebony— Elm : its uses — Holly Wood— White Holly — To clean Holly Wood— Lime, or Linden Tree — Uses of Lime Wood— Mahogany — Oak — Pollard Oak — Medullary rays in Oak — Poplar Wood — Rosewood and its uses — Sycamore — Walnut Wood — Black Walnut — White Walnut, or Butternut — Willow and its uses — Collection of various woods useful and desirable — Woods used in the arts, etc. — Acacia, or Locust Tree — Almond Wood — Aloes Wood, etc.— Amboyna Wood — Kiabooca wood — Apple Wood — Beam Tree — Bird’s- eye Maple — Botany Bay Wood — Cam Wood— Camphor Wood — Canary Wood — Cedar : its varieties — Cedar Wood— Cherry Wood— Cocabola Wood—Cocus Wood — Coral wood — Coromandel Wood — Dogwood — Elder — Fusci — Green- heart— Gumwood — Hawthorn — Hickory — Hornbeam — Iron wood — Kingwood — Laburnum — Lancewood — Lignum Vitae — Logwood — Nettle Tree, or Lote— Olive Wood — Partridge Wood — Pear Wood — Plum Wood — Pomegranate Wood— Red Satinwood — Rosetta Wood — Sandalwood — Satinwood — Service Tree — Teak Wood — Violet Wood — Tulip Wood — Whitewood — Yew, and its uses — Knowledge of all woods used in carpentry desirable— Best timbers for various uses — Weight of wood per cubic foot — Table of weights of woods — Cubic feet of various woods to ton — Weights given approximately only — Specific gravity — To determine specific gravity — To determine weight of a cubic foot — Buoyancy of woods — Strength and breaking strain — Theory of carpentry — Strength of wood — Strength increased in proportion to width and depth — Why joists are deep — Power of resistance : how modified — Instantaneous breaking weight — Breaking weight : how found — Breaking weight in centre of beam — Formula for breaking weight — Tables of breaking weight for foot length — Deduction of breaking weight for other lengths — Rule in calculating strength of timber — Intimate acquaintance with theory of carpentry not necessary for amateurs. 33. Before entering on a description of the different tools and processes employed in carpentry, it will be well to consider the various kinds of wood that are used, and the purposes for which t™amateur each is specially adapted. Experience will show that must know. w00( j w hi c h j s admirably fitted for one kind of work is by no means suitable for another. The prices, too, of different sorts of wood differ as much as their qualities, and it is desirable that the amateur artisan should become acquainted with these to some extent* Classification of Woods. i 7 that he may know what he is about when he is making purchases of his timber merchant. A knowledge of the prices of the different kinds of wood used in building and furniture making will also be useful to him in other ways. For example, if he intends to put up even so un- ambitious a structure as a weather-boarded shed, he can, after making his plans and working drawings, calculate to a nicety the quantity of wood that will be wanted, and its cost at the timber yard ; and if he finds that the job will run into more money than he expected, he can modify his plans and the mode of structure to suit his pocket. 34. Instruction will be given in a future chapter with regard to the preparation of working drawings, but we cannot refrain here from urging strongly on the amateur artisan the necessity of Worldng preparing careful plans and working drawings to scale of any piece of work that he is about to take in hand, whether large or small, before he attempts to put it in hand. It is an old but true saying, that “ Well begun is half done,” and the worker in wood or stone or any other building material will be led to appreciate its truth and wisdom when he finds how helpful the making of correct and careful plans and drawings will be to him in the actual performance of the work in question. The whole mode of procedure— what he has to do and how he must do it — will be clearly fixed in his mind before he even touches the material which he is about to work up into the desired form or object, and he will always find the execution of the work to be quicker or slower, according to the extent to which he has previously worked out his plans in his mind, and committed them to paper. 35. It will be convenient to treat of all kinds of wood used in orna- mental as well as in ordinary carpentry in this section of “ Every Man His own Mechanic,” and to divide the various descrip- C i &ssifica ti 0 n tions of wood into two classes or groups, including in the of woods - first group all kinds which the amateur mechanic must of necessity employ in his work, and many others that are used every day by cabinet- makers and turners, but which the amateur, like the house carpenter and joiner, may very seldom, if ever, be called on to handle, unless he proceeds to the higher and more ornamental branches of the art. In the second group will be given other kinds of wood not commonly used in this country, unless in furniture making, etc. ; but which are especially valuable for this purpose, or otherwise possess a commercial value in connection with one or other of the industrial arts. 36. Of all the different kinds of wood that are comprised in the first group, deal, or pine, is that with which the amateur will be most fre- 2 18 Household Carpentry and Joinery . quently employed, and of which it is most necessary that he should _ , know the prices and sizes at and in which it can be Deal most r ^used* 17 P rocurec ^ at ^ m ^ er yard. These will be fully entered into presently. At present it is only sought to convey some idea of the nature of each kind of wood, and the purposes for which it is or may be used. Various Kinds of Woods most generally used in Ordinary and Ornamental Carpentry. 37. The Alder Tree is found in all parts of Europe, Asia, and North America, and ranges in height from twenty to forty feet. It is a hardy deciduous tree, and is found chiefly near the ' banks of rivers, and in moist situations. The wood is fine and close-grained, and of a reddish-yellow colour ; the knots are frequently lined in a beautiful manner. It works very smoothly, and is much used by turners and pattern-makers. For pattern-making, curves of too small a radius to be made of ash, and bent to shape, are cut out of Alder. 38. The Ash is a hardy deciduous tree, found generally in northern latitudes. In colour the wood is greenish white when Ash: its uses. , , . . , _ _ _ . _ young, but the grain of timber cut from old trees is often dark and beautifully marked. When in this condition it is frequently used by the cabinet-maker. Its toughness, elasticity, and close- ness of grain render the wood useful for making the frames of carriages, agricultural imple- ments, felloes of wheels, etc. Hammer-handles and billiard- cues are frequently made of Ash, as well as the handles of croquet- mallets, and it is much used by coopers. It admits of being bent almost double without snapping, and on that account it is well adapted to be used for curved work, if the sweep be not too small. 39. There is a variety known as Hungarian Ash, which is valuable Hungarian anc * suitable as a groundwork for marquetry. The value Asiu of the wood varies in accordance with its markings, some Beech : Its Uses. *9 specimens being so beautifully veined and streaked as to be worth double the price at which ordinary pieces can be procured. The grain is not very close, but disposed in various lines, soft in some spots and hard in others. It is a difficult wood to cut, and is better adapted for backgrounds than for sawing as fret-work. The most convenient way of using it is veneered on other woods, similarly to bird’s-eye maple. 40. The Beech is a hardy deciduous tree, also found in northern latitudes. It abounds in Buckinghamshire — a county which was so called from the Beech trees which covered, and, indeed, Beech . itg still cover, the sides of its hills. The colour varies ; it is uses * mostly light or whitish brown in tint, but is found in all shades of Fig. 2.— beech tree. brown, deepening at times to black. This difference in colour is as- cribed by Tredgold to the influence of the soil. The wood is fine and straight-grained, somewhat brittle, and easily worked. The grain re- sembles that of mahogany, and it is often stained to represent it. It is used in the manufacture of furniture, tables, beds, and chairs being made of it ; indeed, the manufacture of beechen frames for cane- seated chairs forms one of the principal industries of Buckinghamshire. It may be stained to imitate ebony and rosewood as well as mahogany. 20 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. -BIRCH TREE. The framework of machinery, planes, chucks ; the handles of tools, and wooden cogwheels are generally made of Beech. 41. The Birch is a forest tree of graceful appearance, found in cold and temperate regions, and on elevated situations, such as the sides of moun- Birch ■ its ta ^ ns * n warmer countries varieties, etc. The WO od is white, firm, and tough, and is used especially in northern countries for making wheels, casks, tubs, and turnery. In North America the wood of the Black Birch is considered valuable for cabinet- making and household furniture, and in the United Kingdom it is often used for bedsteads, small tables, etc. 42. The variety of Box that is best known in this country is the short shrubby plant frequently used as border-edging. Box trees which range in height from eight to thirty feet are rarely met with in Britain. It flourishes in Turkey, whence the finest boxwood is pro- cured. It is exceedingly useful on account of its solidity and hardness, and the closeness of the grain. It is much used for lathe chucks, and in common turnery ; the amateur artisan, indeed, will chiefly require this wood for boxes, draughtsmen, chessmen, and other fancy articles that he may wish to make. It may be stained black to imitate ebony, and will take a high polish. The closeness of the grain also makes it particularly suitable for the purposes of the en- graver on wood and the mathe- Fig. 4.— box tree. matical instrument - maker. Spanish Box is similar in colour and closeness of texture to Turkish Spanish box. Box, and works well. It is used by turners, and by musica instrument makers for making flutes, clarionets, flageolets, etc. Boxwood. Chestnut, Tunbridge Ware, and Deal . 21 * 43. The wood known as Chestnut is derived from two widely different kinds of trees — the Horse Chestnut and the Span- ish or Sweet Chestnut, of which the former belongs to the natural order of Sapindacece, or Soapworts, and the latter to that of the Corylaceae, or Marshworts, to which the beech also belongs. The similarity of name must not lead the reader to imagine that these trees are in any way allied. The white brittle wood of the Horse Chestnut is used by turners in making the fancy goods usually known as “Tunbridge ware.” The „ Tunbridg0 wood of the ware.” Sweet, or Eating Chest- Fig. 5.— horse chestnut tree. nut, which is sometimes planted in Devonshire, is hard and durable, and beautifully grained and variegated. Furniture is sometimes made of it, and it is used with effect for decorative purposes in building. 44. The general name of Deal, or Pinewood, is given to the timber that is yielded by a great variety of cone-bearing trees, al- though the deal or pinewood cut from different trees varies con- siderably in quality Deal or Pine- and general utility. wood. Deal may be broadly distinguished as Red or Yellow Deal — for the names are indifferently used — and White Deal. In one kind, the ground colour of the wood is yellow, diversified with markings of pale red ; in the other kind, the Pig. 6.— fine tree. wood is of a whitish colour, whence its name. W hite Deal is obtained from the Spruce Fir, and Red or Yellow Deal from the Scotch Fir and Pitch Pine. The difference 22 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in the two kinds of wood is this : the grain of the Yellow Deal is gene- e rally very straight and free from knots, and is very durable, though it is soft and easily worked. This renders it peculiarly appropriate for all building purposes, whether in the construction of houses or ships. The great height and straightness of the pine renders it well suited for the masts of ships ; and when stained and varnished the timber presents a handsome appearance for joiners’ work in houses. White Deal is •harder and not so straight-giained as Yellow Deal, and it is generally full of knots. The variety known as Silver Fir is used for flooring, and also in the manufacture of house- hold furniture. The Larch fur- nishes a durable Larch. w00 d for outdoor purposes, especially on farms and homesteads. Varieties of Deal are generally distinguished by the names of the countries from which they are imported. The best kinds come from Sweden and Norway, Russia, and America. In purchasing tim- ber the amateur must be careful to specify the kind of Deal that he requires, whether White or Fia 7 -— LARCH tree. Yellow. To be acquainted with the difference in the appearance of the two kinds will prove of advantage to him in making the selection . 45. Ebony is a fine, heavy, and compact-grained wood, which can be worked without difficulty. It is much used by turners and mathe- matical instrument-makers, for mosiac and cabinet work. Ebony: its ; varieties and and in the manufacture of musical intruments ; for ex- uses. ample, the black notes in the keyboard of a piano are of Ebony. Ebony is distinguished as Green and Black. Green Ebony comes from the West Indies, and is so called from the colour of the heartwood, which is brownish green. It is frequently used in marquetry. Black Ebony is brought from Africa, the East Indies, and the Mauritius. African Ebony is a serviceable wood, and stands well, but the colour is indifferent, and the wood porous. The Ebony from the Mauritius is very hard, of fine close grain, and of a deep black colour, and being the best of the three is the most expensive. For ordinary work the East Indian Ebony is good enough, though it is inferior to that of the Mauritius in hardness and depth of colour. Black Ebony — Elm : Its Uses. 23 46. The Black Ebony of the Mauritius and the East Indies affords the best and most direct contrast to white holly in marquetry. Sawing- Ebony is a somewhat dirty business, as the dust soils and blackens everything on which it falls, and especially that aCk Ebony * on which it is rubbed. This material cuts clear and fine as horn, and therefore for marquetry its use is highly essential. It will not warp readily, but is apt to split under changes of temperature ; its want of elasticity renders it inclined rather to break than bend ; but its fine close grain admits of a magnificent polish, or even oiling. As it is seldom more than six inches wide, only small articles can be made of it in one piece, though, to compensate for that, it is the best wood of all for trinkets, small crosses, chains, bracelets, etc. It can be made smooth with a tool known as the cabinet scraper, but the quickest and least laborious mode of shaving it down is by submitting it to the action of a planing machine. 47. Elm is the wood of a lofty and handsome forest tree, well- known in Great Britain, which thrives best and attains its greatest height and growth in moist situations. In- deed, it is said that when the Elm flou- rishes in ] any par- ticular spot, it is a sure indication that the locality is too damp to be desirable as a situation for a dwelling-house. Elm- wood will stand the wet for almost any length of time with- out decaying : it is therefore useful for all purposes in which immersion under water or exposure to moisture is necessary. It is very tough, cross- grained, and difficult to work, and it takes much labour and force to split it, which renders it suitable for the naves of wheels, etc. It is Elm : its uses. Fig. 8.— elm tree. 24 Household Carpentry and Joinery. reddish-brown in colour, the heartwood being considerably darker in tint than the sapwood. Elm planks are used for the cheaper kinds of coffins, and in the western counties the trunks of small Elms, when bored, are used as pipes for conveying water from a spring or running stream into such places as back kitchens. 48. The wood of the Holly cannot be obtained of any great size in the United Kingdom, as those who are acquainted with the Holly Tree can readily understand. It is beautifully white, hard, Holly Wood. c i ose _g ra j ne d ? anc j durable. For these reasons it is very useful for turning, carving in wood, and inlaying. The Holly attains considerable height and growth in America, and broad planks or sheets of wood, suitable for fret-cutting and marquetry, can be sawn from American holly trees. It should be said that the Holly of America is a different species to that of Europe, the former being the Ilex opaca of botanists, and the latter the Ilex aquifolium . The wood obtained from the American holly is known as White Holly , being White Holly. r , pure white — more so than the generality of ivory — and quite tough. The whiteness is due to a particular mode of seasoning, and subsequent exposure gives it a mellow creamy tint. The grain is very fine and close, and does not readily absorb foreign matter. It may be protected by a coating of bleached shel- lac, but the general effect of this material is injured, if not entirely spoilt, by any preparation that tends to impart to it a shiny appearance. The wood is apt to split and warp unless seasoned with care and kept in a dry place. It is hard and difficult to work, and smoothness of surface is best obtained by planing it with a pla- ning machine. When White Holly gets very dingy it may be easily To clean cleane d with Hollywood. a bit of cha- mois leather dipped into clean dry Paris white ; and as the wood is of Lime , Mahogany , ,4wd CU/ or form a dense screen between a dwelling-house and the Lind en Tree, roadway, the trees being set tolerably close together and the principal branches interlaced or brought into close proximity. The wood, though of a close grain, is soft and easily worked. It is very free from knots, and is used in turning and carving in wood, for xjsesofLime making musical instruments, and for various ornamental Wood, purposes. One of the most famous thoroughfares in Berlin, Unter den Linden , , takes its name from these trees. The wood of the American Lime or Linden Tree is generally known as Bass Wood. 50. The wood called Mahogany, which is now so much used in making every description of household furniture, and in the joinery of the better class of houses, shop fronts, etc., although Mahogany. known in England, was not considered valuable for the purposes to which it is now applied until after the year 1720. There ai e several sorts of this ornamental and useful wood, which is brought mostly from the West Indies and Central America. Another kind is brought from Gambia, in Western Africa. West Indian Mahogany is generally distinguished as Spanish and Honduras. Spanish Maho- gany is brought from Cuba and St. Domingo, and other West Indian islands. It is darker in colour and of a closer grain than Honduras Mahogany, which is cut on the mainland of Central America. Spanish Mahogany is imported in logs about ten feet long and from twenty- four to twenty-six inches square. Honduras Mahogany is generall> sawn into planks of considerable thickness, and the trees are so large that these planks have been known to measure six or seven feet in width. It takes a capital polish. The better sorts are used by the joiner, the cabinet-maker, and the ornamental turner. The inferior kinds are in demand with the pattern-maker, for particular patterns, in consequence of its not being affected by damp or heat. It holds glue the best of all woods. 51. OAK. The best Oak timber in the world is grown in Great Britain, from whose forests, until iron came so much into use for ship building, all the Oak was derived for the splendid fleets which oak; secured for this country the sovereignty of the seas. Al- PoUard 0ak * though the grain is somewhat open — too open, indeed, for the purposes of the turner — the wood is extremely hard and durable, but difficult to 26 Household Carpentry and Joinery. work, and apt to take the edge pretty quickly off the workman’s tools. The wood is dark in colour and susceptible of a high polish. It is much used in house- building, for houses of the better class, for floors, staircases, doors, the panelling of rooms, etc., and for tables, chairs, sideboards, and ether pieces of house- hold furniture. Pollard Oak, which presents a beautiful variegated sur- face, is valuable for decorative furniture. The spokes of wheels are usually made of Oak; and much, if not Fig. io— oak tree. all 0 f carV ed work in cathedrals and churches and many ancient dwelling-houses are wrought in this material, which is in consequence most valuable to the carver in wood. The broad lustrous, stripes that give such marked variety to the surface of an oaken panel is owing to the exposure of a greater or less space of the medullary rays which radiate something after the manner of the spokes of a wheel from the girth or centre of Medullary the heartwood to the bark, as shown in rays in Oak. n . . . , _ fig. ii, which represents the section of an oak tree. The red lines in deal are due to the lines of demarcation between the concentric circles, which are supposed to denote each a year’s growth of the trunk. These concentric circles are shown in fig. 12. They will readily be recognised on looking at the end of a deal plank. When planks used for flooring are cut close to the centre of the tree, the layer of wood in the middle of the plank, which is very thin, is apt to wear up and split off, often causing injury to the hands of servants and charwomen, to whom the duty of scrubbing the floors may fall, through the splinters that are left projecting from the ragged surface of the board. Some- times such a layer may be stripped up for the distance of some feet, like a ribbon. Fig. ii. sec- tion of Oak. Fig. 12. sec- tion of Fir. Poplar, Rosewood, and Sycamore. 27 Poplar Wood. 52. Poplar. These thrive best in a deep moist, loamy soil, but though they do well in damp situations, or near running water, proxi- mity to stagnant water does not suit them. The wood . is white, soft, and brittle, and chiefly used in the manufacture of chil- dren’s toys. The soft- ness of thewood causes glass grinders and lapi- daries to use horizontal sections as polishing wheels. The wood of the poplar is not liable to shrink, warp, or swell. The fret-sawyer will find it useful for backgrounds, linings* F IG . 13.— poplar tree. and veneered work. 53. The best ROSEWOOD is brought from Rio Janeiro, in Brazil ; inferior qualities are imported from the East Indies and the Canary Islands. It derives its name from its colour, in which Rosewoo(i an( j lighter and darker tints of rose-red are commingled. It its uses * is hard and difficult to work, but when brought to a good surface and well polished, it looks extremely well. It is used by the cabinet- maker for ornamental furniture, and by the turner. It is also useful for inlaying and veneering. The knots that occur in it tend to diver- sify the surface, and can be turned to good account by a skilful work- man. The wood contains much resinous gum, and on this account it is difficult to saw when used for fret-work. This hindrance, however, may be overcome by slightly oiling the saw blade now and then in order to lessen the friction. There is an African variety beautifully marked, and bearing a strong resemblance to black walnut, which is free from the resinous gum that is so abundant in ordinary Rosewood. 54. The Sycamore is indigenous to the British Isles, and bears some resemblance to the plane tree in its manner of Sycamore growth and broad leaves. The wood is very soft, and easily worked, and is useful for inlaying and any other purpose in which whiteness is a desideratum 28 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 55. The wood of the Walnut is extremely useful and valuable, and is used in the arts for many purposes, of which not the least im- w , „ T „ portant is that of the manufacture of ornamental furniture. Walnut Wood. r In olden times it was as much used for this purpose as in the present day, but after the introduction of mahogany and rosewood, walnut went out of fashion, and for some time was only used for making gun-stocks, etc. During the last thirty or forty years, how- ever, it has again come into favour, and is now greatly in demand for dining and drawing-room suites, tables, chairs, couches, and every description of ornamental household furniture, for which it is well adapted by the fineness of the grain, its capability of taking a high polish, and the extreme beauty of the wood, which is of a greyish brown, richly diversified with streaks and veins of black running in all directions. Its only drawback is in its want of density, which renders it liable to injury from blows and rough usage. It is as useful to the turner as to the cabinet-maker, and works well in the lathe. It is de- sirable to get walnut wood from old well-grown trees, for the older the tree the more beautiful and diversified are the markings of the wood. 56. For fret-sawing, and all kind^ of cabinet work, the wood known as Black Walnut is the most suitable. Unless well seasoned by Black kiln-drying, or some similar process, it is apt to warp and Walnut, split. It will take a beautiful polish, and is susceptible of more variations in that respect than any other, and still look well. Plain oiling seems to harden the fibre, and a dead polish will often show better in the work than though it shone like a mirror. This wood ought never to be var- nished, for it gives a common look to the article, and never fails to bring out the grain. 57. The White Walnut, known in the United States as the butternut , is a pretty wood, but soft. It cuts White Walnut, or clean, and is Butternut. adapted for many kinds of work, which, however? must not be delicate in design. It has the same grain as Black Walnut, stains well, and shows oiling to advantage. 58. WiLLOWi The Willow Tree flourishes on the banks of rivers and Fig. 14.— willow tree. Woods for Ornamental Carpentry. 29 in moist situations. The wood is white, or yellowish white, and tough. In this country it is chiefly known as the wood of which wlll0W> and cricket-bats are made. When split into strips, it makes lts uses - strong and serviceable hoops for small casks and tubs of every de- scription. 59. Such are the various kinds of wood that are most commonly used in building and the constructive arts, and although the amateur artisan may have occasion to use but a very limited number of collection of them, it is as well that he should know their qualities va usefni % and dS and uses. Indeed, if it be possible, it is desirable for the deslrable ' amateur to make a collection of as many kinds of wood as he possibly can, exhibiting their appearance, when sawn only, when worked to smoothness by means of the plane, and when stained and varnished, or polished. It would give him a valuable insight into the texture and capabilities of different kinds of wood, and would help him to experience, if he should ever take to inlaying, or the manufacture of par- quetry, marquetry, etc. 60. In addition to the woods already enumerated, there are several other kinds that are used in the arts, and even in the manufacture Woodsnsedin of ornamental furniture. A brief catalogue of these, and tlie arts> etc - the purposes to which they are turned, may be desirable, if not so useful as the list already given, and for this reason it is inserted here. Various kinds of Woods occasionally used in the Arts and in Ornamental Carpentry. 61. The wood of the Acacia, or Locust Tree, is a dark-coloured wood, bearing some resemblance to mahogany. It is Acacia or brought from India, the West Indies, and the tropical LocustTree ' regions of Africa. 62. Almond Wood is a very hard, dense wood, something like 3o Household Carpentry and Joinery. Apple Wood. lignum vitae. It grows in the north of Africa, and parts of Asia and Aimo-nd Europe bordering on the Mediterranean. It is used for Wood. teet j 1 anc [ bearings of wooded cog-wheels. 63. Aloes Wood, Calembeg, or Green Sandalwood, is a Aloes Wood w0 °d of a greenish colour, resembling Sandalwood in etc * texture, and growing in tropical countries. It exhales a slight perfume, especially when cut or bruised. 64. Amboyna Wood is a beautiful and valuable wood of diversified Amboyna appearance, brought from the Eastern Archipelago, and Wood. deriving its name from Amboyna, one of the Moluccas or Spice Islands. It is used in inlaying, and maybe made serviceable Kaibooca for veneering. It is sometimes called Kaibooca wood. It Wood. i ias t he appearance of being the excrescence or burr of some large tree, being only obtainable in slabs from three inches square, to twenty by twelve inches. It is tolerably hard, and full of small curls and knots. The colour varies from orange to chestnut brown, and sometimes reddish brown. 65. The wood of the Apple is close and hard in texture, and of a rich reddish-brown tint. It is useful in turning, and cuts well for wooden screws. Large letters for printers’ posters may be cut from this wood, and rulers for ordinary use are frequently made of it. 66. The Beam Tree is a tree akin to the apple and pear, whose wood is useful for naves and axletrees of wheels, small cog- wheels, and similar parts of machinery. It grows in the United Kingdom, and is usually called the White Beam Tree. 67. Bird’s-eye Maple is a fine variety of Maple, brought chiefly from Prince Edward’s Island in North America. It is yellowish in Bird’s-eye c °l°ur, diversified with red streaks and dark spots, with a Maple. lighter ring round them, from which it takes its name. It is chiefly used for making picture-frames, and is susceptible of a high polish. When used for picture-frames it is of course veneered on some other wood, and this tends to keep it from warping and split- ting, which it is otherwise very apt to do. Being a close-grained, gritty wood, it is difficult to work with a handsaw, and requires careful skill, even with a treadle-machine, when cutting fret-work from it, as the small knots drag on the saw, causing it to run unevenly. 68. Botany-Bay Wood, which is also called Beef Wood and African Botany Bay Black Wood, is a dense, hard, heavy wood, intensely Wood. black in colour. It is chiefly useful for ornamental turn- ing, its extreme hardness rendering it capable of being ornamented Beam Tree. Camphor Wood , Cedar , etc. 3i with any pattern, however fine and intricate. It is brought chiefly from Botany Bay, whence its name, and from the Mauritius. 69. Cam Wood is an excellent wood for ornamental turning. It is brought from Southern Africa. Like Botany Bay Wood, it is extremely hard, and of a close, fine texture. Its colour, CamWoobl6 of weights wood is given in italics, the weight per cubic foot has been of wood. ^ er j ve( ^ f rom other sources. The average number of cubic feet of each material that go to make up a ton in weight is calculated from the weight per cubic foot, 2,240 lbs. avoirdupois being one ton, as every reader knows. The specific gravities have been taken, when possible, from recognised authorities, but in some cases they are derived from calculation. Those that have been calculated to complete the table are distinguished thus (*). Table Showing the Average Weight per Cubic Foot in Pounds, the. Average Number of Cubic Feet per Ton, and the Specific Gravity OF THE BEST KNOWN AND MOST USED KINDS OF TIMBER. Name of Wood. Specific Gravity. Weight per cu- bic foot in lbs. No. of cubic feet per ton. Name of Wood. Specific j Gravity. Weight per cu- bic foot in lbs. No. of cubic feet per ton. Apple ♦ •786 49 45*7 Fir Common •772 3i 72*2 Ash ... •760 52 43° ,, Memel *601 37 60*5 Beech •696 53 42*2 Hazel * '641 40 56*0 Birch •7x1 42 53'3 Hornbeam * •770 48 46*6 Box * •914 57 39*3 Larch * *505 - 33 67*9 Cedar of Lebanon * ’561 35 64*0 Lignum Vitee 1*122 70 32*0 ,, Spanish ... * •481 30 74*6 Mahogany Spanish* 10*59 66 33*9 Cherry * ■673 42 53*3 Maple * ‘754 47 47*6 Chestnut * *593 37 60*5 Oak, American ...* •720 45 50*8 Cork * *240 15 149*3 „ English *829 53 42*2 Ebony ♦ 1*010 63 35*5 Pine, Yellow •508 26 86*i Elder * ‘<573 42 53*3 „ Fed *576 40 56*0 Elm *579 42 53*3 „ Pitch •740 45 50*8 Poplar ... ... * *385 24 93*3 Walnut * ‘659 4 1 54*6 Sycamore * *609 38 58’9 Willow * •481 3° 74*6 Teak •729 47 47*6 Yew * *802 47 47*6 1 13. It maybe noted here in reference to the above table that in Cubic feet of Laxton’s “ Price Book for Architects, Builders, etc.,” it is various woods, stated that the following quantities of the materials named* will, upon the average, weigh one ton. Specific Gravity. 39 66 feet cubic of deali 64 ,, ,, fir timber 57 » » elm do. 51 ,1 ,1 beech 29 feet cubic of ebony 59 » „ hme 45 » » ash 39 >» »> oak 34 feet cubic of mahogany 53 » „ walnut 48 ,, ,, maple 60 „ ,, pin#* 1 14. It will be noticed on comparison of the results exhibited in each table, that while in some cases, and notably that of mahogany, the difference is inappreciable, in others, as in beech, there .. ’ . , r / - Weights given is a great discrepancy. This is accounted for by the approximately only. fact that considerable variation is to be found in the specific gravity and weight per cubic foot of different specimens of the same kind of timber. The reader must therefore bear in mind that the statements advanced in the above tables are not established facts which admit of no alteration, but are merely approximate values, which are only useful in general calculations, but which cannot be con - sidered as absolutely accurate in individual cases. 1 1 5. Specific gravity may be defined as the ratio of the weight of a body to the weight of an equal volume or bulk of some other body taken as the standard or unit. The standard is usually Specifio distilled water for solids and liquids, and air for gases, gravity. Thus, when the specific gravity of gold is said to be 19*225, it is meant that when equal volumes or bulks of gold and water are taken, the gold is 19*225 times heavier than the water — that is to say, a cubic inch or a cubic foot of gold weighs respectively 19*225 times as much as a cubic inch or a cubic foot of water, or the water contained in a hollow vessel measuring an inch or a foot, as the case may be, in every direction. The specific gravity of gold is therefore intelligibly expressed in figures by 19*225. In other words, the weight of a piece of gold is equal to the weight of water 19*225 times its size or bulk. 1 16. To show how many of the specific gravities given in the above table have been arrived at, it is as well to explain that the weight of a cubic foot of water is 62 lbs. 224 grains, or 62*32 lbs. To determine avoirdupois. When the specific gravity of a body or specific gravity. any material is known, its weight per cubic foot in pounds avoirdupois may be readily determined ; and conversely, when its weight per cubic foot in lbs. avoirdupois is known, its specific gravity may be easily deduced. Thus, to express the specific gravity of any solid or liquid : Divide the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of the body , whatever it may be, by 62*32, the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of distilled water , and the quotient obtained will be the specific gravity of the body . 1 17. Conversely, to determine the weight of a cubic weight ot foot of any solid or liquid in pounds avoirdupois : Multi - a eublc foot * 40 Household Carpentry and Joinery. ply the specific gravity of the body by 62.32, the weight in pounds avoirdupois of a cubic foot of distilled water , and the resiclt obtained will be the weight of a cubic foot of the body in pounds avoirdupois . 1 1 8. The buoyancy of woods that will float in water is according to their respective specific gravities* There are a few kinds of wood so Buoyancy dense and heavy that they will not float in water, or will of woods. s i n k so low in it as to be nearly submerged. Ebony and Spanish mahogany are very dense, heavy woods/ and as they are heavier than water, bulk for bulk, they will not float in it. Oak, beech, and ash will sink deep in water, while fir, larch, and cedar displace but a small quantity, and therefore do not penetrate far below the surface. The lightest material obtained from the vegetable kingdom is cork, the bark of a species of oak which abounds in Spain. The weight of a cubic foot of cork is 15 pounds, and its specific gravity no more than *240, or somewhat less than }(Vo. avoirdupois ; or, in other words, equal bulks of cork and water being taken, the cork is somewhat less than one-fourth the weight of the water. This is why cork is so extremely buoyant in the water and is useful as a material for making lifebuoys, belts, etc., and floats for fishermen’s nets. 1 1 9. It will now be necessary to explain what is meant by the strength and breaking strain or breaking weight of timber, and the amount of pressure or strain which can be safely laid Strength and . . , . , breaking upon it according to its form, thickness, position, etc. This belongs to the theory , and not to the practice of carpentry ; and although a thorough knowledge of the principles that are involved, and which are based on and belong to the branch of mathematical science known as mechanics, is most necessary to the civil engineer, the architect, and the builder, it is by no means so important to the amateur carpenter. Whatever, therefore, is said on this point will be said as briefly as possible, so that it may not become wearisome to the reader. 120. The principles involved in the theory of carpentry are chiefly brought under consideration in the construction of roofs. It is Theory of by no means likely that the amateur will ever put up a carpentry, k u qdi n g requiring a roof of any great size or space, for his efforts in this direction will not probably extend beyond the simple lean-to roof of a shed built up against a wall, or even unattached to any other kind of building, or the span roof of a greenhouse, or any other structure of an ordinary kind. This will be sufficient to explain why the theory of carpentry need not be entered into in this work further than may be necessary to elucidate the reason why a particular Strength of Wood. 4i Fig. 18.— beam supported at ends. mode of procedure should be adopted in carrying out any work in practice. 12 1. First, with regard to the strength of wood. It is by the trans- verse strength that is inherent in it that a simple beam or piece of wood, be it what it may as regards its form, can resist strength of the action of the weight that is brought to bear upon it. wood ’ Suppose a beam of timber to be broken by extreme pressure exerted on its centre, the ends being sustained by supports of some kind. On examining the broken part of the beam, it is manifest that the fracture is produced by the extension of the lower fibres and the compression of the upper ones ; the former being strained till they are dragged apart, and the latter weakened till resistance is no longer possible by being squeezed together till the fibres are crushed. A rough idea of the effect which it has been attempted to describe may be gained from the accompanying diagram, in which the effect of the weight in upturning the fibres, by dragging them asunder below and crushing them together above, is shown in an exaggerated manner. In fig. 18 is shown a beam or piece of wood of uniform thickness, supported Fig. 19.— effect of weight on beam. at the extremities. In the centre, in a downward direction, shown by the vertical line C D, a weight, w, is attached sufficiently great to over- come the elasticity and cohesive attraction of the fibres of the beam. The effect is shown in fig. 19, in which, by the downward pressure of w, the fibres that were previously united at D, and just above it, have been broken and pulled apart, while those at c have been pressed to- gether to the extent shown by the small triangles c x z, C y z, which in each portion of the beam have been forced back into the particles next to them, until the corners, as shown by the triangles just named, have disappeared. It must be remembered, that in the illustration the effect is exaggerated, as it has been already said ; but a careful study of the diagram will have shown the amateur the necessity of conbining a little of the theory of carpentry with his practice, so that in framing timbers together he may guard even against deflection, to say nothing of fracture, which would altogether spoil the appearance of his work and detract greatly from its stability. 122. It has been ascertained by actual experiments that the strength 42 Household Carpentry and Joinery. of a beam or girder of timber, and hence of any piece of timber, whether large or small, increases directly as the width. Strength In- creased in and as the square of the depth. Thus, if a piece of width and wood measuring three inches in breadth and three inches depth. in depth — that is to say, three inches square m section — will bear a certain weight, a beam six inches broad and three inehes deep will bear twice the weight ; but a beam three inches broad and six inches deep will bear fotir times the weight. The strength is also inversely as the length. That is to say, if two beams of equal breadth and depth be taken, but one of them be twice as long as the other, the longer beam will only bear half the breaking -weight that the shorter one will sustain, or, in other words, will be only half as strong. 123. It will now be clear why, in laying joists to sustain a floor, the Why joists timbers are so placed as to have considerable depth are deep. f rom top to bottom, while the breadth is comparatively very narrow. 124. It must be pointed out that the power of resistance in any beam is considerably modified by the manner in which the load is applied to it : thus, if, instead of being collected at the Power of re- eistance, how centre, the weight were divided into equal portions and modified. . distributed at equal distances along the beam, it would be capable of carrying twice as much. And if the ends of the beam were fixed, as in opposite walls, it would be able in this position to sustain nearly twice as much as it would if the ends had not been fixed. A continued strain tends to weaken the power of resistance in a beam, and the power will be lessened still more when the weight is variable, or a rolling weight instead of a dead weight. The nature of the wood must also be taken into account : thus, some in which the fibre is long and the grain straight will bend to a very great degree, while others in which the grain is short and close, will scarcely bend at all, but break suddenly. In framing timber, then, as the carpenter is called upon to do, all these points must be taken into considera- tion. 125. The instantaneous breaking weight of any kind of wood is the weight under which it will give way and break when loaded with this „ weight in the centre. It has been said that the load with Instantaneous breaking which a beam may be weighted with safety, should never weight. exceed more than one-third of the breaking weight ; but it is better and safer never to let the load exceed one-fourth of the breaking weight. Indeed, it is argued that timber is permanently injured if more than this is applied to it. Tredgold, one of the best Breaking Weight: How Found. 43 thorities on carpentry, says that a load cannot be looked on as safe it exceeds one-fifth part of the breaking weight. 126. It is by no means a difficult thing to find the breaking weight of every piece of timber, and. this being known, the . . ... 5 Breaking load that it will sustain without injury, which, as it has weight: how just been shown, is estimated by different authorities at from one-fifth to one-third of the breaking weight. The following is a general rule for finding the breaking weight in the middle for girders of wood supported at both ends. Rule. — Multiply the breadth hi inches by the square of the depth in inches , and divide by the length oj bearing in feet. The result obtahied, when multiplied by a certain constant or invariable quantity , for the kind of timber under con- sideration, gives the breaking weight in the centre in hundredweights. This constant or invariable quantity which has been practically determined by a series of experiments, is stated by Barlow to be For English Ash „ English Oak 6 I For Dantzic Oak 4^ I For Red Pine 4 5 I „ Pitch Pine 5 J „ Riga Fir 3 127. Now, to test this rule, or, in other words, to afford an example of it : To find the breaking weight in the centre of a Breaking beam of red pine four inches broad, ten inches and ten weight in A centre of beam, feet bearing 4 (The breadth in inches) X io 2 (square of depth in inches) 4 x 100 =3 = 40. 10 (Length of bearing in feet) 10 Then 40 (result obtained) X 4 (constant for red pine) = 160 (breaking weight is cwts.) For a permanently distributed load — that is to say, a load divided into several parts and placed at equal distances along the beam — the break- ing weight of such a beam of red pine as we have been considering will be double the breaking weight in the middle, or 320 hundred- weights. But, according to Tredgold, the safe load should not exceed one-fifth the breaking weight, and as the breaking weight permanently distributed is 320 cwts., the safe load permanently distributed is 32o-f~5, or 64 cwts. 128. Now from this a formula can be deduced, from which the strength or breaking weight of any of the woods whose constants are given above can be determined when the breadth and depth of the beam in inches, and its length in feet are known. This Fornmla for formula may be expressed as w = b X d^X c * n breaMng w represents breaking weight, b breadth in inches, d depth in inches, I the length in feet, and c the constant. For constants for other kinds of timber the reader must refer to theoretical works on carpentry, and 44 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the papers of the Royal Engineers, in which full tables of constants are given. 129. In some books, tables are given from which, by an easy ope- ration, the strength of a piece of timber may be ascer- breaMng f teined. The following is part of a long and elaborate weight for e cn V en in Laxton’s “ Price Book ” : “ The weights in this table are, one-eighth of the breaking weight of red pine uniformly loaded, or one-fourth of the same when suspended in the middle. Rule. — To ascertain the strength of a piece of timber, divide the second column by the length of the timber, and the weight in cwts. will be obtained.” The first column, it will be noticed, gives the depth and thickness in inches, the second column the safe load or weight of a piece of timber of the depth and thickness specified, one foot in length. Now, as it has been said, the strength of a piece of timber is inversely as its length, or that, when a piece of timber of a certain length, breadth, and depth will break under a certain weight, a piece of the same breadth and depth, but of twice the length, will break in the centre under half that weight, a piece three times as long under one-third the weight, and so on, — it is clear that to obtain the safe load or weight we have only to divide the weight given in the second column by the length of the beam. It will be noticed that the safe load in this table is taken at one-fourth the breaking weight when suspended in the middle, while Tredgold places it at one-fifth. The difference between the two is just one-twentieth ; so, in order to reduce any result in the tables to Tredgold’s estimate, the reader has only to divide the result by twenty, and subtract the quotient from it, or, in other words, to reduce the result by one-twentieth. Depth Thick- in ness in inches, inches. by 4 1 h 4 4 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 foot long, cwt. Depth in inches. Thick- ness in inches. 1 foot long, cwt. Depth in inches. Thick- ness in inches. 1 foot long, cwt. Depth in inches. Thick- ness in inches. 2*25 2 by 4 6*oo 3 by 2 18*00 4 by 2 2‘8i 2 »> i| 7*oo 3 tt 20*25 4 ,, 2 f 3*37 2 tt 2 8*oo 3 tt 2 I 22*50 4 3*93 2 ,, 2| 9*00 3 tt 2§ 2 4*75 4 tt 3, 4' 50 2 » 2! 10*00 3 „ 3 27*00 4 3 h 675 2 a 3 12*00 3 »> 3i 3 t *5° 4 4, 9’oo 2 i) 4 16*00 3 tt 4 36*00 4 Ah 11*25 2 >» 5 20*00 3 tt 5 45*00 4 5 i3’5o 2 ,, 6 24*00 3 it 6 54*00 4 6 15*75 2 it 7 28*00 3 ,, 7 63*00 4 7 1 8 '00 2 it 8 32*00 3 a 8 72*00 4 „ 8 20*25 2 ,, 9 36*00 3 „ 9 81*00 4 9 22*50 2 »> 10 40*00 3 „ 10 90*00 4 10 24*75 2 it 11 44*00 3 a 11 99*00 4 „ 11 27*00 2 tt 12 48*00 3 a 12 1 08 ’00 4 ,, 12 1 foot long, cwt. 32*04 36 40 48 56 64 72 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 130. In these tables the strength, or safe load’ of timber of the length cf 1 foot, is given up to a depth of 14 inches, and a thickness of 15 o 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 .8 8 Deductions of Breaking Weights . 45 inches, with a result of 2,940 cwts., but from the portion given above it is easy to deduce the quantities in cwts. for other Deductlon of dimensions exceeding those that have been given, re- w ^g^ n f ° r membering always the fundamental rule that if the breadth other lengths, of a beam be doubled it will bear twice the weight, and that if the depth be doubled it will bear four times the weight; or, to speak more generally, that the increase in strength is directly as the breadth, or as the square of the depth. Now, suppose we had only the second series in this table for pieces of wood of various thicknesses or breadth from i}i to 12 inches, but of a uniform depth of 2 inches : we know from this that the safe load of a piece 2 in. X 2in. X 1 foot is 8 cwt. We wish, however, to know the safe load of a piece 4 in. X 4 in. X 1 foot. It is clear that as the piece of wood is twice the width and twice the strength — its length will be 8 X 2 X 2 2 , or 8 X 2 X 4 = 64 cwt., as given in the table. Again, if we wish to know the strength of a piece of timber 8 in. X 8 in. X 1 foot, it is clearly 64 X 2 (the breadth being doubled) X 2 2 (the depth being doubled and the proportionate increase squared) = 64X2X4 = 512 cwt. Again, even at the risk of being tedious, the safe load of a piece of wood (that is to say, red pine, for that is the kind of wood under consideration in all these examples), 3 in. X 3 in. X 1 foot is, from the table, 27 cwt., then the safe load of a piece of wood 9 in. X 9 in. X 1 foot, will be 27 X 3 X 3 2 , or 27 X 3 X 9 = 729 cwts., the increase in breadth or thickness being taken directly, and the increase in depth being squared as before. Indeed, having the rule that has been given, and knowing that the unit of the strength of red pine is that the safe load of a piece of timber 1 in. (depth) X 1 in. (breadth) X 1 foot (length) = 1 cwt., we may, by calculation, deduce from this unit of measurement of the strength of red pine, as we may call it, the strength of similar timber of any dimensions. For, suppose, as before, the breadth and depth to be increased to 9 inches, then the safe load =1x9 (direct increase in breadth) X 9 2 (the square of the measure in depth) = 1x9X81= 729* cwt., as shown above. 13 1. “In calculating the strength of timber,” says Laxton, “only so much of the wood should be measured as is continued,, _ . Rule in calcu- through the entire stick. For instance, a tie beam, latin s strength 0 ’ 9 ol timber, measuring 8 by 10 inches, having an inch and a half rod passing through it, should be considered as measuring but six and a half inches thick ; and if the ends of struts or anything of the kind be cut down into and across the top 01 the beam two inches, it would then measure but eight inches deep.” For example, in fig. 20, let A 46 Household Carpentry and Joinery . represent a beam that is eight inches broad and ten inches deep* then if the tie-beam, B, being one and a half inches thick, is passed through a hole of the same diameter, bored to allow its passage, the strength of the beam is weakened to an extent equiva- Fig. 20. tie beam with rod & strut, lent to the reduction of its thickness one and a half inches throughout its length ; and if the strut C were cut into and across the beam to the depth of two inches, the strength of the beam would be weakened to an extent equivalent to the reduction of its depth two inches throughout its length. In short, if a beam of the dimensions given were treated in this way by the insertion of a tie- rod, and strut to the extent described, its actual strength when thus cut and pierced would be no more than that of a beam six and a half inches broad and eight inches deep. The amateur artisan will now see how the strength of timber is weakened by boring holes through it and cutting mortices and notches into it. It is, however, only when the timber thus cut has to sustain any great load or downward pres- sure, as in the construction of roofs and floors, that this need be taken materially into consideration. 132. The remarks that have been advanced on the theory of carpen- intimate tr y> an d the method of calculating the strength of timber ^^?heory C of w i^ sufficient, generally speaking, for the purposes of n^ce^ary for ^ ie amateur mechanic, should he be disposed to enter on amateurs. j ts study j n an elementary manner. It will be necessary to allude to this part of the subject when speaking of the construction of roofs, but it will be endeavoured to touch on it but briefly, and in a manner calculated to redeem it from becoming in any way obtrusive or wearisome. CHAPTER III. FELLING AND SEASONING OF TIMBER. DESIGNATIONS AND MARKS OF TIMBER. TIMBER AS SUPPLIED BY TIMBER MERCHANTS. ITS PRICES. Qualities, etc., of timber — Notes on strength and density of timber — Seasoning of timber — How to guard against shrinkage — Full-grown timber strongest — Season for felling timber — Artificial modes of seasoning timber— Well-seasoned wood more durable — Selection of timber — Wet rot and dry rot — Names of timbers of various sizes — Planks — Deals — Battens — Difference in these timbers — Boards — Feather- edged boards — Scantling — Additional sizes of timber — Quartering — Petersburg Standard, etc. — Facts useful to amateurs — Square of boards or timber — Whence building timber is brought — Selection of timber — Marks on timber — Place from whence timber comes shown by the marks — Properties and value of timber from different places — “Red” and “Yellow” Deal — Prices of timber — Prime cost price of timber per load— To find value of timber per cubic foot from price per load — Prices of wood sold by foot super — Timber merchant’s prices — Match-boarding — Prices of Oak, etc. — Prices as charged by builders — Oak in Scantlings, etc. — Timber merchant’s prices : why different from builder’s prices — Prices as charged by timber merchant — Prices of deals, boards, match-lining, etc. — Venetian laths and trellis-work— Blind-laths, dimensions and prices — Trellis- work, dimensions and prices — Wood-fencing — Egg-boxes for fencing — Prices of posts in Oak, etc., and rails — Arris-rails — Arris-gutters — Park-paling — Oak rails, pales, capping, and gravel-boards — Scaffold poles — Slating laths — Small pales — Authorities for prices — Prices of Scantlings per foot cube — Cost of boards, etc., per foot super. — Foot cube and equivalents — Value of timber per foot cube, how to determine — Knowledge of prices necessary for amateur — Planing-up timber — Help from jobbing carpenter— Scantling, application of term — Cost of Scantlings at 3s. per foot cube — Cost of Scantlings at 3s. 6d. per foot cube — Prices of woods used in ornamental carpentry — Prices of woods for fret-cutting — Prices, why moderate — Plain fret-work, thicknesses suitable for — Hardwood and blackwood — Veneers — Pear-wood, apple-wood, etc. — Timber merchants in various parts — Timber Trades’ Journal — Swedish joinery, doors, sashes, etc. — Mouldings : their uses and prices— Directions respecting use of mouldings — Articles in wrought timber — Architraves — Skirtings — Jamb-linings — Door frames — Floor-boards and Match-boards — Sashes and frames — Outside front-doors — Bolection mouldings, meaning of term — Inside-doors — Sash-doors — Fencing and trellis- work. 133. The present chapter must be regarded as a continuation of or sequel to that which has immediately preceded it. It will be sought in it to make some remarks on the quality of the wood Q Ua iities, etc., found in different parts of the tree, the felling and season- of timber * mg of timber ; the names by which different sizes of timber are distin- guished, and the distinctive marks of timber from abroad ; and the 48 Household Carpentry and Joinery. different kinds of timber that are procurable from the timber merchant, whether sawn only, or sawn and planed, and their prices. Something also will be said with regard to manufactured articles that can be pro- cured from the timber merchant, such as doors, window sashes and rails, trellis-work, posts and rails, mouldings, etc. 134. In accordance, then, with the course that has just been marked Notes on out, a few notes on the strength and density of timber Bt densityo^ d ma y not be out P lace here. These may be stated as timber. follows (1) The longer the time that a tree is growing, provided always that it has not passed maturity and begun to decay, the heavier and denser its wood becomes. (2) Generally speaking, the heavier the wood the stronger it is. (3) The strongest timber is always found in the lower part of a tree. (4) The straighter the grain of the timber the stronger the wood. (5) The bark is the weakest part of the tree, the sap-wood within the bark and the heart-wood is not so strong as that which lays between the sap-wood and the heart, or in other words the strongest timber lies between the heart and the sap-wood. 135. All timber should be well seasoned before it is used by the carpenter, for whatever purpose it may be intended ; that is to say,. Seasoning of a ^ ter ^ h as keen felled and sawn a sufficient time should timber. a n owe d for it to dry, and thus become entirely free from sap and other moisture. To get dry whole timber is a thing impossible, unless you can keep it in store long enough for yourself. To obtain it from a timber-merchant is out of the question, as in the rapid course of business he cannot keep any part of his stock long enough to admit of thorough seasoning. 136. As it is so difficult to get well-seasoned timber, the only thing to be done when designing a building, is to arrange the How to guard ... , , ... , „ . against timber in such a manner that any shrinkage shall m no way affect the stability of the structure. When the term “best timber” is used, as by an architect in his specifications, it is always taken to imply timber that is exceptionally straight in the grain and free from knots and defects. The strongest timber obtainable foi building purposes is that which is sawn out of battiks , which are the squared trunks of very large trees — we are now speaking of pines an^ trees of the fir tribe that have reached maturity — and ^timber^H whose wood is consequently the most dense, and has strongest. t k ere f ore a f-f a i ne d the greatest strength. Planks, deals, and battens (terms used in the timber trade to designate pieces of Season for Felling Timber. 49 timber of various widths, and which will be explained presently) are cut out of smaller and younger trees, and will not bear so great a load as full-grown timber. 137. Timber should not be felled until it is of mature age. The best seasons for felling are in the height of summer when the sap is up and ripening in the leaves, or in' the depth of winter when / . , . . T , Season for the sap has withdrawn to the roots. In either case the felling trunk of the tree is less full of sap than at other times. When felled and stripped of its bark, the tree should be squared or sawn into logs, and placed in running water, or where it is fully ex- posed to the influence of sun and air. When removed from the water wood should not be allowed to dry too rapidly. In seasoning, timber will lose from one-fourth to one-half its weight when felled, owing to the evaporation of moisture that it contains. The more porous or less dense the wood, the more sap or moisture it contains, and thus it is that a heavy wood loses less than a light wood in weight when season- ing, or why oak loses less in drying than fir. 138. There are artificial means of seasoning timber, consisting chiefly in exposing it to the action of steam or boiling water, but wood thus heated, although it is not so liable to shrink as timber dried Artificial by exposure to the weather, has not the elasticity and ^asfoning toughness of the latter. Sawn timber of whatever size it timber, may be — that is to say, whether in the form of planks, deals, battens, or boards — during the process of seasoning is generally stacked in such a manner as to admit of the free passage of air throughout the pile. In the pile the timber is of course in a horizontal position. The pieces will dry better when placed upright, or when stacked or ranged against a long cross-bar supported on uprights, one at either end. 139. The better seasoned the wood, the better and more durable will be the articles that are made from it. It is true that seasoned wood is harder and not so easy to work as unseasoned _ „ Well-seasoned wood, which contains a considerable amount of moisture wood more durable. while the former is tough and dry. It does not follow that the wetter wood is the easier it is to work, as any one may prove for himself by trying to put the saw through a piece that is thoroughly soaked with water. Good wood, or the “best timber,” as already explained, is that which is straightest in the grain and freest from knots. In selecting timber for joinery, care should be selection of taken to avoid any piece that has a knot at the edge, as timber, the knot will be loosened in working and often fall out, causing much disfigurement. 4 50 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 140. Timber is liable to destruction from two causes, called respec- tively wet rot and dry rot . The former is the result of a chemical Wet rot and decomposition which takes place in timber when it is so dry rot. enc i 0 sed that no air can get to it ; the latter is due to the formation and growth of certain fungi. “ Experiments,” says Laxton, u have proved that impregnating the woody fibres of timber with mineral solutions will impede the decomposition by wet rot, and prevent the growth of those fungi which cause the dry rot, and at the same time render the timber less inflammable. One method of preserving timber, which has been successfully employed, is to dry it and apply a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, or of nitric acid and water, and then paint it with white lead and oil. When the timber has to be fixed near the ground, or in any damp situation, it may be coated with a thin solution of coal tar and fish oil mixed with very finely powdered clinkers from the forge. It is imperative that all timber be properly seasoned before using any preservative application whatever.” 141. In the timber trade and in building, the terms planks , deals , battens , boards , scantling and quartering , are used in speaking of Names of pi eces °f timber of various sizes ; it is necessary that the timbers of amateur artisan should get a clear idea of what is meant various sizes. & by these expressions, and the term Petersburg Standard, 142. Planks are pieces of wood n inches in width and 2 \ or 3 Planks. inches thick, generally sold in lengths of 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, and 21 feet. 143. Deals are pieces of wood 9 inches in width and 2 \ or 3 inches Deals. thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks. 144. Battens are pieces of wood 7 inches in width and 2 \ or 3 Battens, inches thick, generally sold in the same lengths as planks or deals. 145. The difference then in timbers of these designations lies in theit Differences width , a fact that can be easily noted and remembered ; timbers? the batten is 7 inches wide , the deal 9 inches wide , and the plank 1 1 inches wide . 146. Boards are pieces of wood that are of less thickness than planks, deals, or battens. Floor boards are, or ought to be, an inch in thickness. Boards are generally distinguished by their thickness as “ half - inch board,” three - quarter board,” “ seven - eights board,” etc. Feather - edged boards are boards cut in the manner shown in %. 21, which is in section, so that Boards. FlG. 21. — FEATHER-EDGED BOARDS. Scantling, Quartering, etc. 5i Scantling. one side of the plank is thick and the other thin. Boards of this de- scription are used in weather boarding, the thin side being uppermost when the boards are nailed to the framing in a horizontal Feather- position. Weather boarding is commenced from the edged boards * bottom and carried upward, so that the thick edge of each board overlaps the thin edge of the board that is immediately below it. 147. Scantling is defined as a piece of timber cut or sawn to a small size as for rails, etc., but the term is also generally applied to the dimensions of a piece of timber with regard to its breadth and depth. Thus a scantling may be of any dimensions as regards depth and thickness, and not of regulation sizes as planks, deals, and battens. 148. Laxton says : “ Although battens, deals, and planks, formerly comprised almost the entire varieties of goods imported into this country, yet of late years immense additions to these sizes have been introduced, until at the present time almost any scantling re- quired is to be found in the docks, including also, occa- Additional sionally, Dantzic plank and scantling. The advantage slzes of tunber * thus afforded in the saving upon sawing, cartage, and waste is very considerable.” 149. Quartering is a term applied to pieces of timber almost square in section, cut from deals or planks, which in fact are quartered or divided into four. Thus, without making allowance for . Quartering. the saw cut, a plank of 1 1 inches wide and 2 \ inches thick, can be sawn into quartering measuring 2 \ in. X 2J in. ; and a deal of 9 inches in width and 2 \ inches thick can be sawn into quartering measuring 2 \ in. X 2 \ in. Quartering is the stuff that the amateur artisan will most frequently use in framing sheds and garden structures, as it is strong enough for all general purposes in putting up buildings, etc., of this description. 150. The Petersburg Standard consists of 120 pieces of timber, 12 feet long, 1 1 inches wide, and 1 J inches thick, equal in solid contents to 165 cubic feet. The number of running feet of various Petersburg scantling required to make a Petersburg Standard may standard> etc * be gathered from the annexed table : — Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet. 4 X 12 495 4X9 660 3 x it 720 3x9 880 3X7 1,13*4 x 11 864 2| x 9 1,056 24 X 7 1,357 24 x 64 1,462 2 X II 1,080 2X9 1,320 2x6 *>697 i4 x 11 1,440 i| x 9 1,760 14 x 7 2,262 1 x 11 2,160 1x9 2,640 1x7 3,394 x 9 3,520 ri x 7 4,525 There is another standard in use among timber merchants known 53 Household Carpentry and Joinery . as the London Standard, which consists of 120 pieces of timber 12 feet long, 9 inches wide, and 3 inches thick, equal to 270 cubic feet. 1 5 1. The facts stated in the following table may prove useful to Facts useful the amateur in calculating quantities of timber required to amateurs. r for any purpose. One hundred of deals = 120 One load of timber =50 cub .ft. Do. 600 feet of inch boards. Do. 17 deals 21 ft. x 3 in. x 9m. Do. 18 ,, 20 „ ,, Do. 23 „ 16 „ „ Do. 26 „ 14 „ „ Do. 30 „ 12 „ _ „ Do. 14 planks 21 ft. x 3m. x 11 Do. 15 „ 20 „ „ Do. 18 „ 16 „ „ Do. 21 „ 14 „ „ Do. 25 „ 12 „ „ One load of timber is 200 ft. c*f fir 6 in. x 6 in. Do. 400 „ „ 12 „ Do. 300 ,, „ 12 „ 2 Do. 250 „ „ 12 „ Do. 200 „ „ u „ 3 Do. 175 „ „ 12 „ 3 i Do. 150 „ „ 12 „ 4 Do. 100 ,, ,, 12 ,, 6 One square is 100 feet super. One square of rough flooring contains : — 12J boards of 12 feet. Or 12.^ boards of 12 feet with, edges shot. One square of flooring con- tains : — 13J boards of 12 feet wrought and laid folding. Or 14 boards of 12 feet ploughed and tongued. Or i6§ battens of 12 feet for wrought folding floors. Or 7 yellow battens of 12 feet for straight joint floor. 152. Further, 180 feet run of 7 inch boards or 190 feet run of 6J inch boards is reckoned a square ; but this is somewhat over the actual quantity. As a square of boards or timber is 100 feet super., to find Square of the number of feet run of boards of any width, all that boards or J 7 timber. is necessary is to divide 1,200 by the width of the board- ing in inches which will give the result desired : thus, if the boards be 6 inches in width, 1,200 — 6 = 200 is the number of feet run required to make a square. 153. The timber used in building is for the most part pine or fir brought from the northern countries of Europe or North America. whence The wood best adapted for carpenter’s work, that is, for building timber 1 77 is brought, the timbers required in the framework of a building, comes from the Prussian ports of Dantzic and Memel, the port of Riga in Russia, and from Sweden. The best timber for joiners’ work for the interior of buildings conies from the Norwegian ports of Christiania and Drammen ; excellent timber for the purposes of the joiner is also sent from Gothenburg, Gefle, Soderham, and other Swedish ports, and from Onega in Russia. 154. The following advice is given in Laxton’s “ Builders’ Price Book” for the guidance of purchasers of timber : “ In selecting timber Selection of the most convenient sizes are 12 inches square. Choose timber. j n co lour, where the strong red grain appears to rise to the surface ; avoid spongy hearts, porous grain, and dead knots.” It has been said that timber cut from baulks is the best and strongest for building purposes, but the quality used should be the “second” or “best middling.” The “first” or “crown” quality is selected for its straightness of grain and freedom from knots only. Unfortunately, it is often very sappy and shaky at the heart, on which account a great part of the baulk will often cut up badly. Marks on Timber. 53 155. Timber coming from different ports is distinguished by the special mark or brand that it bears. Generally speaking, timbers from Swedish ports are marked on the ends with red letters or Markgon brands ; those from Norwegian ports being marked with timber. blue letters. Canadian timber is marked on the ends with black and white letters, while the marks which designate its quality are in red on the edges of the timber near the ends. Russian timber is hammer branded or dry stamped on the ends, that is to say, they are marked with letters about an inch long, dented into the timber by means of a punch and hammer. Sometimes timber is scored with large Arabic numerals, but these figures are merely private marks set on the wood by the exporter to note the yard from which it has been sent. 156. The indications given above, by which the country from which timber has .been sent may be recognised, will be sufficent for the .general purposes of the amateur artisan ; and they are mentioned rather for the purpose of showing what such coloured place whence or indented letters on timber may mean, than with the Bbo^by^he idea that he may benefit much in any way from the infor- marks, mation given. To describe all the marks and letterings by which various qualities of timber from various ports are distinguished would be tedious, and to the amateur practically useless. Timber from Swedish and Norwegian ports is mostly of four qualties, distinguished by different brand marks. Russian timber, and timber from Memel and Dantzic, is also distinguished as “ crown,” “ first quality,” “ second quality,” and “ third quality.” The following are the “scribe marks” indicating the quality of Memel and Dantzic timber I First. MEMEL. 11 in Second . Third . f First. DANTZIC. Second. Third. The various letterings used would occupy at least two or three pages of this book, even when closely arranged, and to become able to recognise and remember them must be a work of time and patient study. 157. With regard to the properties and value of timber from different ports, that from Riga, although it is small, being generally under 13 inches square, is the best in quality, and may ^ always be depended on. It is the dearest timber that is and^vaiue of sold ; but, like many other articles that are comparatively different high in price, it is the cheapest in the end. Memel timber places * is convenient in size, being generally about 13^ or 14 inches square. 54 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Dantzic timber is both tolerably large and very strong, being about 18 or 19 inches square. When the slab deals or outsides have been cut away, the log that remains of this timber is generally from 14 to 15 inches square. Swedish timber is very tough and cheap, but, as the trees from which it is cut taper greatly, it is apt to run to waste, on account of its irregularity in size. Red pine is especially noteworthy for strength and durability, and may be used anywhere. 158. The red pine deals that the timber merchant speaks of as “ red ” deals are called “ yellow ” deals by the builder, and this may occasion some little confusion to the amateur. They are “ yellow ” deal, rightly called yellow on account of their general colour, but it is equally correct to call them red, on account of the bright red tint of the graining with which they are marked. Yellow deals are dear, but they are strong and durable. For the carpenter’s purposes they are excellent. “ For framing/ says Laxton, “ the best deals to be depended on are the Norway, particularly the Christiania battens, and for panelling the Christiania white. The best for floors are the Drammen and Christiania white ; for ground floors, Stockholm and Gefle yellow ; for warehouses and staircases, Arch- angel and Onega planks ; and for best floors, Petersburg, Onega, and Christiania battens. Swedish deals are not to be depended on for framing ; if framed square at night they will be crooked in the morning.” The white fir from Christiania, usually known in the English market as white deal, is useful for furniture, as it unites firmly with glue, takes stain well, and is susceptible of a high polish. 159. It is now necessary to pass on to the prices of timber, of which different kinds are sold in different ways. Thus any kind of pine or fir timber may be bought wholesale by the Petersburg ”tSiber. 0f standard ; but this kind of timber is also sold by the load, as is oak, elm, ash, birch, and teak. Rosewood, again, is sold by the ton, but mahogany, cedar, walnut, maple, and satinwood, by the foot super. Wainscot is sold per ]S feet cube, oak staves, per mille of pipe, and lathwood per cubic fathom. It is impossible to give the prices of all kinds of timber as mentioned and described in Chapter II., and it will therefore be sought to name the prices of those which the amateur is most likely to use or require. For the price of any kind of wood not mentioned application should be made, in the case of any English wood, to a local timber merchant, carpenter, or wheelwright ; and for any foreign or rare wood, to London dealers, whose addresses will be found in the Timber Traded Journal, pub- lished by Messrs. J. and W. Rider, Bartholomew Close, London, E.C* Prime Cost Prices of Timber per Load . 55 It must be borne in mind that, like all other things that aie bought and sold, the prices of timber are variable and fluctuate considerably at times. The prices given in our lists must therefore be considered approximate only, and as subject to slight increase or decrease, as the case may be, according to the fluctuations of the market. Those who may be led to take an interest in this branch of British commerce will find all the information they can desire or require on the subject in the weekly organ of the timber trades mentioned above. 160. We will begin with the prime cost price of various kinds of timber per load, as given in Spon’s “ Architects’, Builders’, prime cost and Contractors’ Pocket Book,” which has been already pr per load? er quoted as a valuable authority in these pages. From. To. l From. To. Timbers. d. d. Timbers. r d. £ d. jC s. jC s. s. Riga Fir 3 10 0 4 5 0 Dantzic & Stettin Brack Dantzic and Memel Crown 4 0 0 5 10 0 and unsquared 5 0 0 6 0 0 ,, Best Middling .... 3 5 0 4 10 0 American large yellow ,, Good ditto and and 3 0 0 3 15 0 Pine 5 0 0 5 10 0 ,, Ditto undersized .. 2 10 0 3 0 0 „ Waney board... 4 0 0 5 0 0 ,, Ditto small, short ,, Small 3 15 0 4 0 0 and irregular 2 6 0 2 10 0 „ Oak 6 10 0 7 0 0 Stettin 2 t e 0 0 10 0 Pitch Pine 3 5 0 3 10 0 Swedish 2 J j Q 0 2 I e Q Rock Elm 4 5 0 5 0 0 Small 2 e Q 1 j t cr Ash 4 5 0 5 0 0 Swedish and Norway a 1 Quebec large Birch 4 0 0 4 10 0 Baulks I 16 0 2 5 0 New Brunswick and Memel Crown Oak 5 10 0 8 0 0 Prince Edward’s Isle ,, Brack 0 Birch 3 0 0 3 10 0 1 lantzic and Stettin Crown 5 a Ditto small averages ... 2 10 0 2 15 0 Oak 5 10 0 8 0 0 Indian Teak 11 0 0 13 0 0 161. When the prime cost of timber per load is known, the rule for general use for finding its value per foot cube is as to find value of timber per lOllOWS : cubic foot from Rule. — Add to the price at the yard £i per load for price per load ' sawing and carting , and multiply 6}i by the number of pounds. This will give the per foot cube , including 20 per cent, for profit and waste. Thus, if the prime cost of American large yellow pine at the yard be £$ per load, add £1 for sawing and carting, which makes £6. Then multiply 6 j 4 d. by 6 which gives 3s. 3d. as the value per foot cube, allowing for profit and w-aste. If the prime cost have any odd shillings take the proportion of 6]/ 2 d. for the same, thus if the cost of the pine be £5 jos., as 10s. is the half of ^i-add one half of 6}4d., i.e., 3X 5k 3 X 9 „ Deals „ 4 4 5 3 » 4 , 2§ X 7 ,, Battens ,, 4 3 3* 2 „ n By multiplying any of the above prices by 12 the prices of planks, deals, and battens per piece of 12 feet in length can be immediately ascertained. Prices of Battens, etc., Match-boarding. 57 165. Prices of Battens, Planks, and Deals for Ordinary Purposes per 120. Size and Description. Size and Description. a x 7 Yellow Battens per 120 as 12 feet £ s. 10 IO £ s. 13 10 2 x 10 Yellow Plank per 120 as 12 feet £ s. 16 10 £ S. 20 IO 2 i x ,, >» ,» ••• 9 10 12 0 4X9 Yellow Deals as 3 in.... 21 0 24 O 2§ x 7 ,, „ „ ... X 6§ White Battens 12 10 14 10 3 x 9 »> >> »» ••• 18 0 22 IO 9 0 12 0 2X9 „ „ „ 14 10 18 O *2 x 7 >» » » ••• 12 10 15 0 3 x 8 18 0 21 O 2X7 „ ,, „ ... 10 10 14 0 2x8 ,, „ ,, 13 10 16 IO 3 x 11 Yellow Plank ,, ... 24 0 30 0 3x8 White Deals „ 18 0 21 O 2 x II ,, ,, „ ... 19 10 22 10 2X9 ,, ,, ,, 13 10 IS 10 1 66. Prices of Dry Pine and Spruce in Lengths of 12 Feet. Dry Pine. Spruce. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Best Plank 3 by 11 x 12 feet Best Seconds „ Seconds ,, Good Thirds ,, Thirds ,, s. d. 10 6 s. d. 11 0 7 6 6 6 5 6 4 6 Spruce Planks 3X11 x 12 feet ,, Deals ,, Battens s. d. 6 6 4 6 3 6 s. d. 5 6 3 9 3 3 s. d. 4 6 3 3 3 0 1 67. Prices of Flooring Boards and Yellow Match-boarding per Square. It will, perhaps, be almost unnecessary to remind our readers that the square is reckoned at 10 feet each way, or as comprising 100 feet super. The prices are calculated as including the builder’s profit ; they are not the timber merchant’s prices. ' Description. Price. Description. Price. i£ in. Yellow Flooring ... s. d.js. d. s. d. 16 6, 18 6 21 0 s. d. 22 6 in. White Matching ... s. d. is. d.js. d. 17 6,18 6 20 0 s. d. * „ „ „ 14 0 15 6 17 6 18 6 1 »t tt tt ••• 14 015 6 16 6 17 6 I » » »> 13 6114 6 15 6 16 6 5 >* tt tt 13 6 14 6 15 6 ^ »> >• «» g ,, Yellow Matching ... 12 6j 13 6 14 6 — 3 . 12 6 13 6 14 6 — 15 6'i7 6 18 6 — 1 >> ” *>l 15 617 6 18 6 — 3 4r 19 91 11 ••• 13 6 15 016 6 — 4 ; tf ft ft ••• 13 614 6 15 6 — 8 >» »» »» ••• 12 6 13 6 14 6 i5 6 5 8 ft tt tt 12 6 13 6 14 6 — h „ „ 10 6 11 6 12 6 — 2 >> it tt 10 611 6 12 6 — 168. Match-boarding is much used for lining walls, etc., and in London warehouses and buildings for trade purposes takes the place of plastering. One edge of the board as at A is tongued Match- or rebated on both sides so as to leave a narrow slip as boardin S- shown in the annexed diagram. The other edge of the board is ploughed, ( __p ^ ^ the groove B being of the exact depth and thickness of the tongue. Where FlG ' 22 ‘ ^tch-board.ng. a number of boards are placed edge to edge the tongue of one fits into the groove of the board next to it, and so on. A bead, as at c, is run along the edge just above the tongue so as to break the joint ; 58 Household Carpentry and Joinery . or, in other words, to render the line of demarcation between board and board less conspicuous. The amateur artisan will find match- boarding of the greatest use to him for lining any workshop or shed that he may have put up. 169. Prices of Oak, Wainscot, and Honduras Mahogany at per Foot Super., in Different Thicknesses. Description. £in. £in. i in. i^in i^in sin. 2pn Oak— s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Rough 0 10 — I 2^ 1 6 1 10 Edges shot ... — — 0 11 — I 32 ,'i 7 |i 11 Framed — — 1 3 — I 8^ 2 2 2 10 Wrought on one side f add.) _ — 0 2 — — — Ploughed and tongued „ ’ — — 0 i£ — — — — W ainscot and Hond liras Mahogany — Rough (including waste) 0 10 1 0 1 1 7 1 11 2 7 — Wrought on one side (add.) ... O 2i| 0 2 | 0 4 O 2t O 0 3 i — ,, „ both sides ,, Ploughed and tongued ,, 0 44 i o 4 i 0 52 0 5 -h 0 5* 0 5 i — — 1 O I 0 I O Ij O I 0 I£ — Framed O S' O s O 52 0 6 0 7 — 170. The prices given in the above table are, it must be remem- bered, prices at which such materials are supplied by the builder, and _ . the rates at which the labour expended on them is charged. Puces as charged by They must not be regarded as the absolute and fixed builders. # prices charged by all builders, but as general average prices for materials, or materials and labour combined, supplied by builders. The table itself may require a little explanation. Suppose the amateur wants some oak boarding one inch thick. For this he will have to pay iod. per foot in the rough, but if he wishes to have the edges shot or planed down before the wood is sent home, he will have to pay nd. per foot super. ; and if he desires to have the board wrought or planed on one side, 2d. per foot super, must be added, and the board will stand him in is. id. per foot super., or in is. 2 j 4 d. per foot super., if in addition to this he requires the wood to be ploughed and tongued. 17 1. In addition to the above prices it may be stated that oak may be procured sawn in scantlings at about 6s. per cubic foot, and in plates , sleepers , and bonds for about 6s. 9d. per cubic foot ; u&k m scantnngs, but this, as will be seen presently, is a high average. Fir may be had sawn in scantlmgs at about 2s. iod. per foot cube, and at 3s. 3d. for plates, lintels , bonds, etc. Planing on sawn fir is generally charged from J^d. to id. per foot super. 172. As it will be useful for the amateur to contrast these prices as above given with the prices at which goods of a similar kind are supplied from the timber merchant’s yard, we will proceed to give the Timber Merchant's Prices. 59 actual prices as taken from a timber merchant’s price list. All work, however, it must be remembered, must bear its profit, and Timber it is utterly unreasonable to suppose that materials of a ^fce£ a why similar kind and quality can be obtained from the builder at the same price at which it can be procured from the prices ' timber merchant. And the reason for the difference is mainly this. All the work done in the timber merchant’s yard, whether sawing, planing, grooving, tonguing, moulding, or any other kind of work, being done on a large scale is effected by means of machinery, while the work done in the builder’s yard is mostly wrought by hand. Work done by machinery can be produced much cheaper than work done by hand ; and even if the builder buys machine-wrought flooring and mouldings and sawn timber to sell again without doing anything to it, he must of necessity sell at an advanced price to get remuneration for, or interest on, his original outlay — just as the retail grocer sells tea, sugar, etc., for more than he pays the wholesale dealer for them to gain compensation for his trouble in acting as middle man between the producer and importer or wholesale merchant, on the one hand, and the consumer, on the other. This has been said in order to show that no one who buys of the builder ought to grumble because the builder charges more for timber, etc., than the timber merchant. 173. The amateur artisan may obtain the times’ price of any special wood he may require by making application to Mr. R. T. Perry, Twiber Merchant , 8, Pe 7 iton Street , Pentonville , London , Prices ag N. y whose stock includes a great variety of foreign and ch timber by English hard woods, in addition to the fir timber of all merchants, kinds usually found in the timber merchant’s yard. The following items are taken from his ordinary price list : Dry pine plank, from 3s. 6d. per plank, mea- suring 12 ft. x 3 in. x n in. Dry pine plank, 12, 14, and 16 cuts, 5s. 6d., cutting included. Yellow deals, 4d. per ft. White deals, 3d. per ft. Spruce deals, 2s. gd. per deal, measuring 12 ft. x 3 in. x 9 in. Battens, i|d. per ft. Pitch pine, sd. per ft. Flooring boards, 10s. per square ; that is, per 100 square ft. super. Match linings, 8s. per 100 ft. super. Venetian blind laths, 7s. per 100 ft. super. Best pine squares, iA in., 15s. per 120. A large quantity usually in stock and ready for use. Mahogany, 6d. per ft. in the inch ; that is to say, per 1 in. in thickness. Birch, 3d. per ft. in the inch. Beech, 2^d. per ft. in the inch. Ash, 3d. per ft. in the inch. Oak stave, 3s. 6d. per length of 6 ft. x 3 in. X 6 in. 174, These prices may be taken as representing fair average charges for such kinds of timber as the amateur will most fre- prices of quently stand in need of. Mr. Perry also supplies other ^tchiining! cheap but serviceable goods, useful for general purposes, etc * and especially for framing and the construction of sheds, outhouses, 6o Household Carpentry and Joinery . etc. The following are the prices at which some of these goods are supplied. The quotations will be useful to amateurs generally, in determining the average outlay absolutely necessary for any kind of work, especially out-door work, that they may be contemplating. Petersburg yellow deals, 2nd quality, mea- suring 12 ft. X3 in. x 9 in., at 3|d. per ft. run or 3s. 6d. per deal. Yellow boards, 9 in. broad and 1 in. thick, at id. per ft. run. Yellow boards, 6 in. broad and i£ in. thick, at 2s. 6d., as 12 ft. x 3 in. x 9 in. ; that is to say, at about -jd. per board of 12 ft. Flooring boards, very good. Yellow, f in. thick, 10s. per square ; § in. thick, 11s. 6d. per square ; 1 in. thick, 13s. per square White , § in. thick, per square. Match lining or match boarding, as it is in- differently called, £ in. thick, 8s. per square ; § in. thick, 10s. 6d. per square ; and | in. thick, 12s. per square. 175. Mr. Perry also has specialities in Venetian blind laths and trellis-work, which demand special notice. Venetian blinds are ex- pensive to buy ; but if the amateur can get the laths Venetian laths , , *. , , , and trellis planed ready for use, they are by no means difficult to make. There are few amateurs, again, who do not re- quire trellis-work at some time or other for their gardens, and as considerable time and labour is involved in its preparation, it is an incalculable saving, both in time and trouble, to purchase it ready- made, especially at so low a rate. The trellis-work is sent out closed up, in pieces of the dimensions given in the table below. The further it is opened out or extended the more it diminishes in height, like the tobacco tongs of the Marquis of Worcester, described in his “ Century of Inventions ; ” or the child’s toy of cross bars pinned together, with the points of the pins projecting upwards, on which figures of soldiers, horses, etc., are placed, and made to alter their relative distances from each other at pleasure by bringing the extremities of the frame work, which are held in the hands, closer together or moving them further apart. 176. The following is the scale of prices charged for blind laths. Blind laths shorter than the lengths specified can be had any length in inches. Per 100 ft. super. s. d. Up to 3 ft. o in. in length 8 o ,, 4 ft. 6 in. ,, 8 6 „ 6 ft. o in. ,, y 9 o „ 7 ft. 6 in. ,, 9 6 Best long lengths ic o Per 100 ft. super. s. d Best long lengths, planed and rounded 12 6 Seconds 8 6 Ditto, planed and rounded 11 6 Best selected 11 o Ditto, hand prepared 14 6 1 77. The following are the dimensions and prices of prepared trellis work, a good idea of which may be obtained from fig. 23. The laths which are used in this trellis-work are iin. wide and %m. thick ; it is therefore strong enough for all purposes for which trellis work is ordi- narily used, and all that the amateur has to do is to prepare the framing, and fix it in position. It should be said that the laths are all planed, Timber Merchant's Prices. 6i and will take paint readily. The average price is rather over yd. per foot super., closed. No. Closed. Open. Price, per piece. No. Closed. Open. Price, per piece. No. Closed. Open. Price, per piece. Feet. Feet. s. d. Feet. Feet. s. d. Feet. Feet. s. d. 1 2^XI§ 12 XI 2 3 6 2^x42 12X3J 7 0 11 2^X8 12 x 6 12 0 2 „ X2 „xil 3 0 7 >> x 52 » x 4 8 0 12 „ x 8 h „ x6£ 13 0 3 s> x 3 „ X 2 4 4 8 „x6 >> x 4^ 9 0 13 „xg »x 7 14 0 4 „ X 3 h >> X 2rj 5 2 9 „x6i » x 5 10 0 5 x 4 „X 3 6 0 10 >» x 7 „X5i 11 2 Fig. 23. TRELLIS WORK. 178. It may be that the amateur artisan will require to put up some wood fencing for himself, or desire to have it done for him ; in either case it will be desirable to know the cost of materials. Fencing consists of posts and rails only, or of posts and ^° oc * fencin g. rails with boards or pales nailed vertically to the rails. Posts and rails may be made of ash, oak, or fir ; the pales are generally of cleft oak, or pales of fir cut in width of 3m. Sometimes pale boards are used. For rough and ready fencing egg-box boards may be used. These maybe obtained at cheap rates from Messrs. Nur- Egg boxes for din and Peacock, Egg Importers , Oxford Street , Lon - fencing. don , W.C., who will furnish prices on application. The following are the prices of posts, etc., near London ; in the country prices rule lower. 179. The rails, of which the prices are given on next page, are square in section as will be noticed. Arris rails, however, are nearly as strong and as useful, and they possess the advantage of being cheaper. An arris is a section of a V form. Thus a square rail of any dimensions will cut into a pair of arris rails, by sawing it across dia- gonally, from edge to edge, throughout its length, as shown in section in arris rail, arris gutter, fig. 24. Again, the gutter some times used to catch the drips from a roof, and shown in fig. 25, is Fig. 24. Fig. 25. Arris rails. Arris gutters. 6 2 Household Carpentry and Joinery . called an arris gutter. It is formed by nailing one narrow slip of board along the edge of a somewhat narrower slip as shown in the illustration. When well tarred inside, this kind of gutter, though not ornamental, may be made useful in emergencies, or to serve as a make- shift in out-of-the-way places for something more costly. iSo. Prices of Posts in Oak, Fir, and Ash, and Rails. Posts. Oak. Fir. Ash. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. I n. In. 5X4 5x5 6x4 6x5 6x6 5x4 6x4 6x5 5x4 6x4 6x5 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Leng th, 5 ft. 6 in. . .. each 2 3 3 8 5 0 2 0 2 6 4 0 2 2 3 3 4 7 » 6 ft. o in. t> 2 5 4 0 3 n S 7 6 6 2 2 2 9 4 4 2 5 3 7 5 1 >> 6 ft. 6 in. n 2 7 4 3 6 1 2 4 3 0 4 7 2 8 3 11 5 8 »> 7 ft. o in. tt 2 10 4 6 4 6 6 7 7 6 2 7 3 3 4 11 3 0 4 3 6 2 M 7 ft. 6 in. „ 3 1 4 9 7 1 3 0 3 6 5 2 3 4 4 8 6 9 »» 8 ft. o in. tt 3 6 5 *’8 5 1 7 7 8 *6 3 4 3 10 5 6 3 8 5 0 7 5 „ 8 ft. 6 in. „ 4 3 5 6 8 2 3 9 4 2 9 9 4 0 5 4 8 2 tt 9 ft. o in. tt 4 11 6 ”8 6 3 8 10 9 8 4 4 4 6 6 2 4 6 5 5 9 0 9 ft. 6 in. ,, 5 9 7 0 9 8 5 0 5 3 6 9 5 0 5 10 9 9 >» io ft. o in. •i 6 6 8 0 11 0 5 2 6 0 7 10 5 6 6 6 10 6 In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. In. Rails. 3x3 4x4 5x5 3x3 4x4 5x5 3x3 4x4 5X5 s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Length, 8 ft. o in. . .. each 1 9 * 3 2 11 1 6 2 0 2 5 1 7 2 0 2 10 ,, 8 ft. 6 in. tt 2 0 2 6 3 2 1 9 2 3 2 £ 1 10 2 3 3 3 n 9 ft. o in. tt 2 3 2 9 3 6 2 0 2 6 2 11 2 2 2 6 3 6 „ 9 ft. 6 in. tt 2 8 3 2 4 2 2 4 2 9 3 3 2 6 2 10 3 11 tt io ft. o in. tt 3 0 3 9 4 10 2 8 3 0 3 t 10 3 6 4 6 Park paling. 1 8 1. As it has been said, pales, cleft pales, or pale boards may be used to complete the fencing. When park paling of cleft pales is made, it is usual to place a board technically called a gravel board at the bottom from post to post. In fig. 26, which shows a piece of park paling, A is the post, B B, B B arris rails, C C the gravel board, D D cleft-pales nailed to the arris rails, and E the capping. Oak rails, Oak arris rails 9 feet long P and C ^avei g ’ cost 5s. 6d, and io feet boards, long, 6s. 6d. per pair , or thereabouts. Cleft pales cost, accord- ing to length, 6s. 3d. per score if 4 feet long ; 7s. 3d., 5 feet long ; and 9s., 6 feet long. Pale boards are also priced according to length, each being as follows : 3ft. 6in., 5^d. ; 4ft. oin., 6|d. ; 4ft. 6in., 8d.; 5ft. oin., 9d.; 5ft. 6in., iod. ; 6ft. oin., is. Oak capping costs about 2s. 9d. per dozen feet, and gravel boards according to thickness, rough ijin. board costing, when of Dantzic fir, about 6Jd. per foot super., and of oak, is. per foot super. 182. Of miscellaneous articles, poles , such as are used for scaffolding, Fig. 26. park paling. Scaffold Poles, Slating Laths, Poles, etc. 63 Slating laths. Small pales. and which the amateur may sometimes require, as, for instance, when he wishes to put up a flag staff, cost from 3d. to 3^d. per Bcaffola foot new, but poies of 22 feet in length may be bought poles, for 3s. each. Slating laths cost from 3s. 6d, to 4s. per bundle of each 12 feet long, pantile laths of the same length and the same number in the bundle, at from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per bundle. Trellis laths, 12 in a bundle, and 12 feet long, cost 2s. 6d. per bundle. It is better, however, to buy trellis ready made, it is sup plied at the rate of yd. per super., when closed up in heights vary- ing from 1 J feet to 8 feet, with a width of 2\ feet opening out to 12 feet in width. Pales which are useful for many purposes, especially in making small enclosures and fences, fowl- houses, etc., measuring 3 inches in width and f inch in thickness, are sold for 13s. per hundred, or rather 120, when 4 feet high, and for 14s, per 120 when 4 feet 6 inches high. 183. It has been said that the preceding prices have been given on the authority of Laxton’s “ Price Book,” and Spon’s “ Pocket Book of Prices and Memoranda.” The following prices of timber Authorities in scantlings per foot cube, and for boards and planks per for prices, foot super., for wood good enough for the general purposes of joiners work, are taken from the former. It may happen that some slight discrepancy may be found here and there in prices as stated for the same article, but it must be remembered that all prices are, and can only be, given approximately , and that difference in quality will often cause apparent discrepancy in price. 184. Prices of Timber in Scantlings per foot cube s. d. | 5. d.i s. d. Dantzic, Riga, Memel, or ; Elm or Beech 4 01 10X10 5 9 Red Pine, per foot !Ash 4 4' 12X12 6 o ^ube 2 10 Quebec Oak 4 o Old ship oak, upwards Ditto Second quality 2 6;English Oak, not ex- j from 4 o Yellow Pine 2 71 ceeding 6in. x6in.... .. 5 o; African Teak 5 o Quebec do. for boards ... 3 o; In Scantlingsnot exceed- jlndianTeak 7 3 Swedish, Drammen, and ing 10 ft. x 8in. x 8in. 5 3' Mahogany, upwards Norwegian 2 61 8x8 5 6i from xo 6 185. Cost of Boards and Planks per foot super., including Sawing and Delivery. Thick- ness. Elm or Beech. Oak. African Mahogany. Wainscot and Honduras. Cuba. Spanish Mahogany. Thick- ness. Elm or Beech. Oak. African Mahogany. Wainscot and Honduras Cuba. Spanish Mahogany. |in. 4 *» I „ s. d. O 2§ 0 32 0 45 O 52 s. d. 0 8 ° 92 s. d. 0 9 0 IX s. d. 0 7 0 10 1 0 1 3 s. d. 0 0 1 12 1 6 1 10^ s. d. 1 0 1 6 2 0 2 6 in. 2 >> 3 >1 s. d. 0 7 0 8£ 0 0 1 0 s. d. 0 11J! 1 2 ! 1 7 1 10 1 s. d. 1 2^ 1 6 1 10 2 1 s. d. js. d.Js. d. 1 6 J2 33 0 2 0 '3 0 4 0 293 95 0 3 04 6 6 0 64 Household Carpentry and Joinery . 1 86. The foot cubic, being 12 inches every way and containing 1728 cubic inches, is equivalent to a board 12 feet long, 12 inches broad, and Foot cube i inch thick; or to'a scantling 12 feet long, 4 inches broad, an ientsl Va and 3 inches thick. Mention of this is made to show how easy it is to reduce timber of any dimensions to cubic feet for the purpose of ascertaining its cost at per cubic foot. The rule for ascertain- Vaiue of tim- ' m S the value of timber per foot cubic, when the prime cost cubic^howto ls known, has been already given (See Section 161). The determine, following is a rule, modified from that given by Laxton, for ascertaining the price per foot super . for deal, to include 20 per cent, profit, when the prime cost, per 120 delivered, is given. Rule. — For the price per foot super . 1 inch in thickness , recko7i Jd« for every £5 of the cost of the deals per 120. To the result obtained , , for any other thickness add or deduct id. per foot for every J inch varia- tion up to and including 1 J inches , and above inches fd. for every j inch variation. Example. — Thus if deals be ^35 per 120, deal 1 inch thick will be 3^d. per foot super. ; and if £40, 4d. per foot super. And if 1 inch deal be 4d. per foot super., J inch will be 2d. ; J inch, 3d. ; 1 J inch, 5d. ; ii inch, 6d. ; if inches, 6fd. ; 2 inch, 7^d. ; 2f inch, 8fd. ; 2\ inch, 9d. ; and 3 inch, io^d. 187. To the prices already given for timber at prime cost, and from the timber merchant, there is little to be added that can be of actual impor- tance to the amateur artisan. When he knows the approxi- ^5°price| e mate prices of timber at per load and in small quantities, the neC for aiy cost °f sawing into scantlings, which is done in the timber amateur, merchant’s yard, the cost of planks, deals, and battens, and various kinds of wrought timber (prepared by machinery for the most part, if not entirely) which is also supplied by the timber mer- chant, he knows all that is really necessary for any kind of work that he may contemplate. If he have time to plane up Planing up J r timber. his timber for himself, being possessed of sufficient skill and having had sufficient practice to do so, he will not require any assistance in sawing and rough planing beyond that which is done in the timber-yard. Many, however, will want help in planing up wood ; and we can say from experience that it is an easy matter, wherever a man may be living, to find a jobbing carpenter who will ^obMng 31 readily do work of this kind for a comparatively trifling carpenter. remunera tion — who will, in fact, take the wood that has been cut up by the amateur mechanic in the necessary lengths and return it to him nicely planed for further operations. Such a course Scantling : Application of Term , etc . 65 cannot fail to be serviceable alike to the skilled amateur, who is debarred by lack of time from doing as much in this way as he other- wise might, and to the unskilful beginner who, whether he have time enough for the work or not, is actually unable through want of know- ing how, or by not having had sufficient practice,. to do that in which he seeks the aid of the jobbing carpenter. The cost of such assistance may be estimated at from Jd. to id. per foot super., according to the quantity of work done, but if the amateur pay even twice as much, especially for small jobs, he will find it well worth his while. It does not take very long, it is true, to plane up a piece of wood, but then again it must be remembered that most amateurs have but a limited amount of time to spend in work of this kind, and the preparation of the timber to be used tends to postpone the time of completion — the time which all amateurs so earnestly desire to reach, when engaged 4 on any job, be it what it may — very considerably, and thereby tries the worker’s patience. This will be more perceptible in large jobs than in small ones, as a matter of course, as may be readily seen by any amateur artisan who will take the trouble to measure any set of book shelves of ordinary make that he may happen to have in his possession, and reckon up how many feet super, have to be planed up — both in the shelves themselves and in the sides or supports by which the shelves are sustained. Those who have plenty of time at their disposal need not recur to the aid of the jobbing carpenter as often as those who have not, but should endeavour to carry out the work honestly themselves from the commencement to the finish. Indeed all amateurs should be able to plane up a board nicely, although they may not often find time to do their own planing. 188. It will be remembered that the term scantling is applied to timbers of all varieties of dimensions as regards depth and thickness. The tables in pp. 66, 67, will be found useful in facilitating the reckoning of the cost of lengths of different scantlings, application according to the price of timber, at 3s. and 3s. 6d. per foot °* term * cube. These prices are taken because they approximate closely to the general prices of timbers per foot cube, and they are, moreover, the rates at which these calculations are made in Spon : s and Laxton’s price books. To find the cost of any scantling of any dimensions given in the tables, first find the price per foot run in either table, and multiply this by the number of feet in the scantling. For example, it appears from Table II. that the cost of a scantling, 4 inches broad and 4 inches deep, per foot run is 4|d. If then the length of the scantling be 12 feet, its cost will be 4^d. X 12 = 4s. 9d. 5 189. Cost of Scantlings of Various Dimensions at 3s. per Foot Cube. (Table I.) 66 Household Carpentry and Joinery. i9o. Cost of Scantlings of Various Dimensions at 3s. 6d. per foot cube. (Table II.) Cost of Scantlings at 3s . 6d. per Foot Cube. 67 68 Household Carpentry and Joinery. i 91. Let us now pass on to a review of the prices charged for certain kinds -of wood used in ornamental carpentry — that is to say, Prices of turning, fret-sawing, and carving, and the thin sheets of in ornamental wood used in veneering. First, in order, we will take the Carpentry. rare anc [ f anC y woods, especially intended for fret cut- ting, and supplied to the amateur artisan by Messrs. Charles Churchill and Co., 28, Wilson-street , Finsbury , London , E.C., or by R. Melhuish, 85 and 87, Fetter Lane, Holborn, E.C. These woods, which are the very best of the kind which can be procured, are all planed to the thicknesses designated in the table ; and, being *ell seasoned, are perfectly fit and ready for use. 192. Table of Prices of Rare and Fancy Woods for Fret-Cutting. Name of Wood. Thickness. Name of Wood. Thickness. h in. &in. 1 in. i in. \ in. h in- &in. £ in. 1 in. \ in. Price per Foot Super. Prices per Foot Super. Black Walnut Plain White Maple White Ash Butternut Cherry Oak s. d. 0 5 0 5 0 7 0 7 0 7 0 7 s. d.Js. d 0 60 8 0 60 8 0 80 9 0 80 9 0 80 10 0 80 10 1 s. d. 0 9 0 9 0 10 0 10 1 0 1 0 s. d. 0 10 0 10 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 White Holly . Red Cedar Spanish Cedar Rosewood Curled Maple Bird’s Eye Maple s. d. 0 7 0 8 0 8 1 4 1 0 1 0 s. d. 0 8 0 10 0 10 1 8 1 2 1 3 s. d. 0 10 1 0 1 0 2 0 * 4 1 4 s. d.Js. d. 1 1 01 2 1 2! 1 4 1 2 1 4 2 63 4 1 61 8 1 6ji 8 193. At first sight the prices of some of the woods as given above may appear high, but it must be remembered that in fret sawing a Prices, why wood will go a long way, and that the amateur has moderate, th e advantage of obtaining his material ready for use, and of a uniform gauge as regards thickness. Some of the woods are by no means easy to work, or smooth with the plane, and this fact alone will go far to convince the amateur that he is really getting his material at a most reasonable rate at the prices charged ; especially when it is further taken into account that the wood is, in every case, sound and good and well seasoned. 194. The thinner sheets, as they may be called, of the woods mentioned in the above table, are suitable for plain fretwork sawing Plain fret- after the manner of the front of a cottage piano, in which ness^suitabie perforated wood work is placed before a piece of coloured for * silk, fluted or plain, and secured to a suitable framing. By plain fretwork is meant fretwork which is not afterwards touched with the carving tools, and in which the edges of the perforations are Hard Wood , Black Wood , Veneers , etc. 69 sharp, and at right angles to the surface. The woods of § inch and ± inch in thickness, being more substantial, are suitable for wood carving in combination with fretwork sawing. 195. All such articles, as ornamental rails for chairs, and other pieces of furniture, pillars for small tables, legs for tables of all kinds, couches, etc., may be turned in deal, beech, birch, mahogany, or Hardwood anv kind of wood ordinarily used in furniture making ; and J Blackwood but for turning small articles, such as boxes, chessmen, thimble cases, etc., any hard black wood, such as ebony or Botany Bay wood, also called blackwood and beef- wood (see sec. 68)— or any hard white wood, such as box or holly — may be used, according to the colour required. The wood is comparatively costly ; but as the amateur will not want much of it, he will find it better to buy what he wants of some turner, whose address he will find in the London Directory, than to go to the wholesale dealers. 196. The amateur can obtain any veneers that he may require of Mr. John Wright, Knife Vetieer Cutter a 7 id Merchant , Arlington Wharf Arlington Street , New North Road , London, N., Pearwood who will supply any veneer in small quantities to suit the Appiewood, • • 6tc« amateur’s requirements. The price of veneer will of course vary, as the price of the timber from which it is cut varies ; but the following may be taken as approximate rates, per 100 feet super . : Maple (Bird’s eye), thin, 3s., thick, 12s. ; Rosewood, thin, 5s., thick, 14s. ; Walnut, thin, 5s. ; Mahogany, figured or knife cut, 14s., plain, 4s. to 6s. ; Birch, figured or knife cut, 12s., plain, 4s. 197. Pearwood, appiewood, sycamore, lime, etc., may be obtained, generally speaking, from any timber merchant, but the buyer must be content to pay the timber merchant’s own price, as quotations for these timbers are not given in the organs of the timber and building trades. As pearwood and appiewood are useful for purposes in which a close grain is required in the timber used, and the heart- wood of the plum is heavy, comparatively speaking, and useful in turning ; it is desirable for the amateur to buy a log or two when he may happen to have the opportunity, and stow it away in some corner of his work- shop. He will find in this, as well as in regard to many other things, that “ store is no sore.” 198. As the addresses of various timber merchants resident in the metropolis have been given, it maybe useful to our readers, Timber especially such as may live in the north of England and merchants In the midland and western counties, to have the addresses various partfc of others in these parts of the country, to whom they may apply for 7 o Household Carpentry and Joinery. any kind of wood that cannot be obtained of any local timber merchant in their immediate neighbourhood. Mr. Robert Dawson, English Timber Merchant^ Stocktoii-on-Tees, has always on sale the following timber, either in the tree or plank : — holly, lime-tree, sycamore, horn- beam, pear-tree, apple-tree, chestnut, walnut, yew-tree, thorn, cherry, willow, beech, larch, ash, alder, birch, poplar, and every other descrip- tion of English timber. Messrs. Joseph Smith and Sons, English and Foreign Timber Merchants , Sheffield , are buyers of, dealers in, and converters of every description of English and foreign timber ; also of fancy woods, as mahogany, rosewood, ebony, cedar, walnut, maple, satinwood, etc. Messrs. John Ford and Sons, Ryeford Saw Mills , Stonehonse , Gloucestershire , who are buyers and converters of all kinds of English timber, have saw mills in Dorsetshire and Devonshire as well as in Gloucestershire, and would give any informa- tion that might be required respecting any kind of timber that would come within their operations. 199. In addition to these addresses others in various localities can be obtained as it has been already stated, from the advertising pages of the Timber Trades' Journal. It may be thought that we Trades’ have exceeded the mark rather than otherwise in pointing out timber merchants from whom the less common kinds of timber may be procured. Those, however, who have found the diffi- culty of procuring perhaps even a piece of apple or pear wood from local timber merchants, will approve of the special information thus afforded. 200. Of late years the high rate of wages paid to mechanics, and the excessive charges in consequence of this for English-made joinery, have led to the introduction of doors, sashes, and other joinery, doors, kinds of joiner’s work from Sweden. These articles, sashes, etc. are we q wor th the attention of the amateur, and which will save him much labour, to say nothing of disappointments arising through failing to turn out the work in sufficiently good style, are supplied by Messrs. H. Atkinson and Co., Swedish Joinery Warehouses , 32, Wharf Road , City Road , London, N., who also keep an infinite variety of mouldings, useful for joinery generally speaking, and a number of ornamental purposes which will readily suggest them- selves. Messrs. Atkinson and Co. also supply useful ready-made fencing and trellis work, architraves, skirtings, jamb-linings, door frames, single rebated and beaded, and floor and match-boarding of several dimensions. 201. An immense variety of MOULDINGS of different kinds are used in the building trade, far greater, indeed, than any one might imagine. Mouldings : Their Uses and Prices. 7 * They are used for all sorts of purposes, as, for example, within the panels of doors, at the top of skirting boards when the boards are not finished with either moulding or beading, round the frames of doors 72 Household Carpentry and Joinery. and windows, as sash bars for the reception of glass, beading, and in window frames to keep the sashes in place when being moved up and down. In the preceding page (fig. 27) patterns in Mouldings : their uses and section of mouldings supplied by Messrs. Atkinson and prices. are given, the numbers attached to them being those by which they are distinguished in their list. The prices of those which are figured are as follows, per 100 feet. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. s. d. No. S. d. No. s. d. 4 •• • 9 0 12 -3 4 17 ... - 4 9 29 .. • 5 4|54 •• . 8 7I103 .. . 2 11I128 .. . 6 7 214 .. • 5 8 5 •• . 6 10 13 •• • 3 7 26 ... , 12 7 43 •• . 8 7 7 i •• . 13 5 108 .. • 5 4 | 2 IO .. . 6 7 218 .. . 1 9 9 •• . 1 9 14 .. • 3 11 27 ... . TO 5 45 •• • 4 1 76 .. . 2 n'126 .. • 3 IO| 2 1 1 .. • 4 1 221 .. . 2 4 11 .. • 4 1 15 •• . 2 5 28 ... • 7 2 47 •• • 3 IO IOI . .. 5 4I127.. • 9 1 12 12 .. • 5 8 222 .. . 2 9 202. All the large mouldings may be used for nailing to the inner face of window frames, and the outer and inner faces of door frames. Nos. 17, 29, and 108 would be large and bold enough for Directions re- _ , , spectinguse this purpose for amateurs: the smaller moulds, such as of mouldings. ^ an( j are su itable for edging the framing of panels of doors formed by the styles and rails. Nos. 210, 21 1, 212, and 214, are rebated or rabetted for the reception of glass, and may be used as sash bars or for the bars of window frames. Nos. 221 and 222 are bold headings, suitable for the capping of match-boarding, carried part way up a wall from the flooring, etc., and No. 218 may be used as a beading or as the slip placed on either side of a window frame, to confine the sashes to their proper place. 203. Messrs. Atkinson supply many other articles in wrought timber, that is to say, ready for immediate use, which the amateur will find to be most useful to him, because he is saved the time and wrought labour involved in their preparation if he makes them timbei. hi mse if. it will be as well to mention them seriatim, giving as far as possible, in each case, the limits of dimensions from the smallest size sold to the largest, and the prices in accordance therewith. The amateur can then easily arrive approximately at the price of any intermediate size he may require, or he will be supplied with it on application to the makers. 204. Architraves from 3m. broad and Jin. thick to 6^-in. broad and ijin. thick, at from 7s. 8d. to 26s. id. The prices here given, except where otherwise stated, or for articles which cannot be sold thus, are stated at per 100ft. run. 205. Skirtings from 4Jin. broad and |in. thick to 14m. broad and iin. thick at from 8s. nd. to 24s. 6d. 206. Jamb-linings, double and single rebated, beaded Architraves. Skirtings. Jamb-linings. and square edges, from 4jin. broad and iin. thick, to 6 Jin. broad and ijin. thick, at from 10s. 6d. to 26s. Doors of all Kinds: Bolection Mouldings . 73 20 7. Door FRAMES, single rebated and beaded, 5 : |in. by 3 Jin., at 38s. 6d., and 4^in. by 3m. at 26s. 5d. Door Frames. 208. Floor boards and Match boards of various dimensions, according to thickness. Prices of these have and match , . , . , . . . boards, been mentioned approximately in previous sections. 209. Sashes and Frames for windows can be had of any size and description made to order at from 8d. to iod. per foot SasheS and super. Frames. 210. Doors are of various prices according to description and make. OUTSIDE FRONT DOORS — Six panels — with bolection mould- ing one side, 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. ioin. broad, and 2in. thick, 0utside front at from 19s. 3d. to 21s. 9d. ; and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and doors. 2in. thick, at from 20s. 4d. to 22s. iod. If finished with large bolection, add is. to is. 6d. to price of doors. Four panels , with bolection moulding one side, 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. ioin. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 17s. 7d. to 20s., and 7ft. high, 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 1 8s. 6d. to 20s. 1 id. From 9d. to is. must be added to the price of the doors for large bolection moulding. 21 1. The term bolection will perhaps require explanation. In figs. D c c 28 and 29 A represents the frame of a door on one side of a panel, and B the panel. If the moulding does not project beyond the face C C of the frame, moulding, as D in fig. 28, it is simply de- me t grmf °* scribed as a moulding ; but if it projects beyond the face of the framing, making a narrow projecting framing between the frame of the door and the curved part of the moulding, it is described as a bolection moulding. The origin of the word is uncertain, but it is apparently to be traced to the root from which comes bole , the rounded stem of a tree, and the word belly j and this is the more likely when it is considered that the moulding thus designated is one that bulges out and projects forward beyond the face of the work. 212. Inside doors. — Four panels, square , that is to say, when the edge of the framing projects at right angles from the face of the panel, from 6ft. Sin. to 7ft. high, 2ft. Sin. to 3ft. broad, and . . , r Inside doors. 2m. thick, at from ns. 6d. to 12s. 7d. ; from 6ft. 6m. to 6ft. ioin. high, 2ft. '6in. to 2ft. ioin. broad, and i^in. thick, at from 8s. 3d. to 9s. 4d. ; and from 6ft. 4m. to 6ft. 7m. high, 2ft. 4m. to 2ft. 7in. broad, and i|in. thick, at from 6s. 7d. to 7s. ud. If moulded on Fig. 29. BOLECTION MOULDING. 74 Household Carpentry and Joinery. one side, add from iod. to is. 3d., and if on both sides, from is. 8d. to 2s. 6d. to the price of the doors. Four panels, bead and butt , and bead and flush , that is to say, when one side of the panel is flush with the framing, the vertical edges of the panel being broken by a bead, from 6ft. 8in. to 7ft. high, 2ft. 8in. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 17s. to 19s. 6d. ; from 6ft. 6in. to 6ft. Sin. high, 2ft. 4m. to 2ft. Sin. broad, and 1 -gin. thick, from 10s. 5d. to us. iod. If moulded, add from is. to is. 3d. to the price of the doors. 213. Sash DOORS, that is to say, doors with glass in the upper part. Without shutters, from 6ft. 9m. to 7ft. high, 2ft. 9m. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 14s. 4d. to 16s. 3d. ; from 2ft. 6in. Sash doors. . to 6ft. loin, high, 2ft. 6in. to 2ft. loin, broad, and i^in. thick, from 11. 6d. to 13s. 9d. With shutters, from 6ft. 9m. to 7ft. high, 2ft. 9in. to 3ft. broad, and 2in. thick, at from 19s. 3d. to 20s. 4d. ; from 6ft. 8in. to 6ft. loin, high, 2ft. Sin. to 2ft. ioin. broad, and i^in. thick, from 17s. 4d. to 18s. 8d. 214. Fencing in lengths of 9ft., with one foot included if 4ft. in height, 13s. 6d. per length, and if 3ft. 6in. high, us. per length. Extra Fencing and foot, to complete length, according to height of fence # trellis work. Q ates f or ^hi s kind of fencing can be supplied at moderate rates in accordance with any design that may be furnished. Trellis work, which, as it has been said, is most useful to the amateur when sold in lengths ready for fixing, can be had in heights varying from 3ft. 6in. to 9ft. at the rate of 7d. per foot super, when closed up. CHAPTER IV. THE TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY : THEIR CLASSIFI- CATION ACCORDING TO THEIR USES. Tools used in Carpentry and Joinery — Wood-working Machinery — Costly and almost useless to Amateur — Cheap Planing-machine desirable— Classification of Tools — Hammers— Joiner's Hammers — Claw Hammer — American Adze-eye Hammer — Prices of Hammers — Uses of Hammers — Mallets — Beetle and Wedges — Adze and its uses — Axe or Hatchet — English Hatchet — American Axe — Tools should be kept under lock and key — Rasping Tools — Saws : their nature and operation — Circular Saws — Cross-cut Saws — Saws required by Amateur — Hand Saw — Combination Saw — Tenon Saw— Dovetail Saw and Sash Saw — Keyhole Saw — Bow or Frame Saw —Rasps for Wood — Files for Metal — Varidus forms of Files — Paring Tools, or Edge Tools — Planes necessary to Amateur — Jack Plane, its construction and action — Smoothing Plane— Trying Plane — Difficulty to Amateurs in using Plane — Bailey’s Patent Adjustable Bench Planes — Stanley's Patent Adjustable Planes — Moulding Planes, etc., not re- quired by Amateur — Rabbet or Rebate Plane — Old Woman’s Tooth — Fillisters of various kinds — Spokeshave — Drawing-knife — American Iron Spokeshaves — Chisels and Gouges — Chisels, how distinguished — Firmer Chisels — Mortise Chisels — Turning Chisels — Gouges — Cold Chisels — Prices of Chisels and Gouges — Chisels and Gouges required by Amateur— Boring Tools — Bradawls : their varieties — Gimlets : their varieties — Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets — Augers : their varieties — Prices of Augers — Bits, Braces, and Drills — Patent Breast Drill — Bit- brace, or Stock and Bit — Modem Iron Brace — Barber’s Patent Bit Brace — Augular Bit Stock— Bits for Brace — Prices of Bits — Clarke’s Patent Expansive Bit — Douglass’ Cast Steel Bits— Holding or Grasping Tools —Pincers and Pliers — Flat Pliers— Cutting Nippers— Round-nosed Pliers— Spring Pliers, for Fly making, etc.— Utilisation of Packing Cases, etc.— Causes of damage to Tools — Victor Nail Puller — Wrench, or Spanner — Vices necessary to Amateurs — Ordinary Hand-vice— Bench Vice— Patent Vices — Improved Hand-vice — Tools of Guidance and Direction — The Li/ie and Reel — How to use the Line- Carpenter’s Rule — Square and Bevel — Hardened Try Square and Flush T Bevel— Ames’ Patent Universal Square — Marking Gauge— Mortise Gauge — Levels : their principle— Spirit Level — Method of applying Level to Long Lengths — Requirements for accurate Levelling— Level positively accurate for own length only— Use of Straight-edge in levelling— Plumb Level — Plumb Bob — Use of Plumb Level in fixing Posts, etc. — The A Level, or Bricklayer’s Level — American Spirit Levels— Stanley Levels — Adjustable Plumb and Level — Prices of Common Levels— Mitre Box— Constmction, etc., of Mitre Box or Block— Improved American Mitre Box— Compasses and Callipers— Compasses with Arc — Callipers — Calliper Rules and Squares — Stanley’s Ivory Calliper Rules — Miscellaneous tools used in Carpentry— The Screwdriver — Round- bladed Screwdrivers— American Cast Steel Screwdriver— Nail Punch, or Brad Punch— Reamer, or Rymer— Cramp, or Clamp— Joiner’s Cramp— Hammer’s 76 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Adjustable Clamp — Simple Clamp, that can be made by Amateur — Carpent tr’s Pencil — Pencil often mislaid — Glue-pot — Construction of Glue-pot — Recipe for making Glue— Brush for applying Glue — Oil-can — Forms of Oil-can — “Good- enough” oiler— Sandpaper, or Glasspaper — Tools in combination — Boardman's Combination Wrench — Pads, or Patent Tool-handles with Tools — Handles for various tools — Tack-hammer, Setter, and Puller — Articles for fastening pieces of Wood together — Wooden Pegs and Treenails — Pegging Mortise and Tenon — Wedges in Tenon — Nails : their varieties — Brads — Joiner’s Cut Brads — Floor Brads — Cut Nails — Clasp Nails — Rose Nails — Clout Nails — Iron Nails unfit for nailing Zinc — Lath Nails — Iron Tacks and Tench Tacks and Nails — Prices of Nails— Screws : their forms — Principle of the Screw — Prices of Screws— Round- headed Screws — Brass Screws — Holes for reception of Screws — Greasing Screws before driving — Bolts and Nuts — Female Screw — Where to get Good Nails, etc. — Tool-boxes for Amateurs. 215. After considering the various kinds of wood that are commonly used in Carpentry and Joinery, the prices at which these woods are sold by the timber merchant and the builder, and the various articles that may be had partly wrought or entirely finished from the timber merchant, we pass naturally enough to a review of the tools Tools used in carpentry that are used in the various operations that are performed and joinery. by the carpenter or joiner by hand. There is a large variety of wood-working machines used in the preparation of wood for the carpenter’s or joiner’s purpose ; but little need be said about these, as, with very few exceptions, they are beyond the province of the amateur. Machinery facilitates production in large quantities, and this the amateur artisan does not need or expect to do. At the utmost he will do but little, comparatively speaking, and that little he should do well and in a workman-like manner. 216. Wood-working machinery comprises circular and band saws of considerable size, driven by great power, for cutting baulks of timber into planks, deals, battens, and scantlings of various Wood- working dimensions, and for cutting planks, etc., into boards and machinery. q Uarter j n g > There are also planing-machines,for taking off the rough surface from sawn wood ; machines for making mouldings ; dove-tailing machines ; tenoning and trenching machines ; mortising machines, and others for boring and making slots in timber. These Costly and are C0S ^A anc ^ w ith few exceptions, would be actually almost useless useless to the amateur artisan. What is very much to amateurs. required is a compact and tolerably cheap planing- machine, available for such purposes as come within the ordinary work of an amateur ; the cheaper, as far as is compatible Cheap planmg- machinede- w ith goodness, the better. It is also desirable that he sirable. * should have such an arrangement of his ordinary bench as may be calculated to render it available for the use of cir- Classification of Tools. 77 cular saws with teeth of various sizes, from one sufficiently coarse to cut a three-inch plank into quartering or laths, to a fine plate furnished with teeth small enough to cut tenons and dove-tailing. With such helps to sawing and planing in connection with his car- penter’s bench, the amateur would find much work that he now does with difficulty comparatively easy. Of the circular saw adaptation mention will be further made when speaking of the bench. The amateur’s cheap planing-machine has yet to be made. Descriptions of such have been given occasionally, and hints for the construction of these machines ; but the instructions have proved either unintelligible or impracticable. 217. The able author of “ The Amateur Carpenter,” the late Mr. Ellis A. Davidson, who during his life rendered by his technical works considerable and valuable aid to the amateur and the regular artisan, describes the tools used in carpentry in groups as follows, namely, “ Striking tools, saws, cutting tools, planes, boring classification tools, pincers, guides, and auxiliary appliances.” It oftools * seems possible however to render the classification even more com- plete by the following arrangement : — I. Striking Tools. 1. Tools that are used for striking only , as Hammers and Mallets . 2. Tools that are used for striking and cutting , as Hatchets , Axes , Adzes , etc. II. Rasping Tools, or Tools that act by abrasion. 1. Saws of all kinds, for cutting wood asunder. 2. Rasps and Files, for smoothing, shaping , netting, etc., etc. III. Paring Tools of all kinds. 1. Planes of various kinds, for smoothing, moulding, etc. 2. Spokeshaves and Drawing-knives . 3. Chisels aiid Gouges. IV. Boring Tools. 1 . Bradawls, Gimlets, and A ugers. 2. The Braces and Bit, sometimes called Stock and Bit. V. Holding or Grasping Tools. 1. Pincers and Pliers, Nippers, Spanners, and Wrenches. 2. The Vice, including Hand-vice, Bench Vice, etc. VI. Tools of Guidance and Direction. 1. The Carpenter s Rule and Chalk Line . 2. The Square, Bevel, Gauge, Mortising Gauge, Mitre Box. 78 Household Carpentry and Joinery . 3. Spirit Level, Straight Edge , Plumb and Level. 4. Compasses and Callipers . VII. Miscellaneous Tools not subject to Classification. 1 . Screwdriver , Nail-punch , Scriber , Rymer or Reamer , etc . VIII. Tools in Combination and Useful Aids to House- hold Carpentry. 218. Taking the tools necessary to the amateur artisan in the order above given, we will commence with Hammers . Of these the amateur should possess three — namely, an ordinary joiner’s ham- Hammers. mer for heavy work, a lighter one of the same form for medium work, and a light hammer with a small face, usually known as a “ ladies’ hammer,” for driving brads and small fine nails into small light work. If he determines to do any veneering there is a special kind of hammer used for this purpose which must be obtained. 219. In the accompanying illustration fig. 30 shows the form of the head of the ordinary joiner’s hammer. For Joiner’s such work as the amateur artisan ^ hammer. w jp one 0 f weighing from lib. to i%\bs. and another from jA\h. to J^lb. will be sufficient. The weight, however, that may be preferable can best be determined by the amateur himself when making his selection. The handle of the joiner’s hammer passes through the head, and is secured in its position ^^ammer. 1 ^ by a wedge driven into a saw-cut made in the end of the handle. The light hammer necessary for fine work is shown in fig. 31. The face (a in fig. 30) of the joiner’s hammer should be from ^in. to iin. for the larger hammer, and from ^in. 10 3 ^in. for the smaller one. The handle, which should be of ash, swells towards the lower end to afford a firm grasp for the hand. The face (b in fig. 31) of the ladies’ ham- mer for light work is from ^in. to J^in. in diameter. The opposite end is slightly curved and forked so as to form a claw for raising nails. It is fastened to the handle by shanks which proceed from either side of the head. The veneering hammer, which is useless for any other purpose but that of veneering, will be described when this branch of ornamental joinery comes under consideration. 220. Many other kinds of hammers are used for various kinds of work, but those described above will be sufficient for the amateur’s __ , purpose. The ordinary English claw hammer or Kent Claw hammer. claw hammer, as it is sometimes called, is more useful for gardening purposes than for carpentering. The presence of the claw Fig. 30. joiner’s HAMMER. Hammers and Mallets : Their Uses. 79 renders the amateur inclined to turn the hammer into a wrench and lever .for withdrawing nails from wood, etc., and it sometimes hap- pens that this weakens the hold of the handle in the American hammer-head and spoils the hammer. The best form of adze-eye hammer. claw hammer is the American adze-eye hammer, sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., as shown just below in fig. 32. 221. The prices of ordinary joiner’s hammers range from is. to 3s., according to size and weight : light hammers for fine work from is. to 2s.,and claw hammers from 8d. to is. qd. The American p r j ce s of adze-eye hammers range in price, according to weight, hammers * from is. 4d. to 2s. 4d. each. The manner in which the handle is set in the head renders them stronger and far better adapted for lifting nails than the ordinary claw hammer, whose head is usually fastened to the handle by shanks. 222. It may seem somewhat superfluous to remark that hammers are meant for driving nails, striking punches, etc., and not for hitting wood ; but it unfortunately happens that the amateur, and uses of the artisan too sometimes, is given to use the hammer for hammers - striking the handle of his chisel when mortising, or the screwdriver in getting out obstinate nails, much to the detriment of the handle, which is bruised and split by the blows of the hammer and thereby rendered unfit to-be held in the hand for cutting, in the case of the chisel, or for inserting or withdrawing screws in the case of the screwdriver. Wood must in all cases be struck by wood, when it is to be struck at all ; and when it is necessary to strike the handle of a chisel in mortising, or the handle of a screwdriver, it should be done with the tool proper for the purpose, which is the wooden Mallet . 223. The most convenient form for the mallet is that which is shown in fig. 33, an illustration of the square American mallet sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. A convenient size, the head being 6in. long and the face 2^in. X by 3>£in., is sold in hickory Mallets. 8o Household Carpentry and Joinery. mortised for gd., and in lignum vitae for is. 6d. Round mallets 5m. long and 3m. in diameter may be had in hickory for yd., and in 'lignum vitae for is. i%d. each, the handles being mortised into the heads. The or- dinary beech mallet used by English joiners has a square head, but the edges Fig. 33. square American mallet. are not bevelled as in the illustration, and the handle is square, with the edges taken off all round in the middle to allow it to be conveniently grasped by the hand. The handle is consequently somewhat larger where the third and little finger closes over it, and less liable to slip from the grasp. A con- venient size of this mallet is long with a face 2^in. X 3^in., costing is. Prices of English beech mallets vary, according to size, from 6d. to is. 9d. The amateur must remember that tools of a medium size are always likely to be most useful to him. 224. When the roots of old trees can be purchased the amateur will find splitting them into logs with the beetle and wedges a capital Beetle and employment for odd time in winter. He will want three wedges. or f our j ron s t ee l_tipped wedges, which may be procured from most ironmongers at about 4d. per pound, these articles being sold according to weight ; and a beetle, or heavy mallet, with a handle of ash, the head being round and encircled at either end with an iron ring to prevent splitting. The head may be of elm or oak. The exercise is invigorating and exhilarating, and the amateur who can indulge in this kind of rough work will soon find pleasure in whirling the heavy beetle over his head, bringing it down with a crash on the head of the wedge, and hearing the creaking, groaning, and splitting of the wood as it slowly yields to the force that is brought to bear on it in rending it asunder. 225. The tools that are used for cutting as well as striking, whose blow severs or splits as well as drives forward, are the adze and axe, or Adze, and hatchet. The adze is not likely to be required by the its uses. ama teur ; it is used chiefly by shipwrights in ship build- ing, and sometimes by the carpenter. It is also used in dressing logs of wood or trunks of trees into a rough square shape or taking off protuberances at the butt of the trunk of a tree, so that it may lie con- veniently on the cross pieces over a saw-pit for cutting into planks, The Adze: the Axe or Hatchet. 8i etc., with a cross-cut saw. Fig. 34 shows a common form of the adze, and from this it may be seen that the cutting edge is at right angles to the handle, and that it is used some- thing after the manner of a hoe, the operator standing on the wood and chipping away the surface, bringing the edge of the blade towards his foot at every blow he makes. Shipwrights often inflict severe wounds on their feet ^ IG * 34 * THE adze. with this tool, whose edge to be of any use at all must be well-nigh as keen as a razor. 226. It is with the axe or hatchet that the amateur artisan is more immediately con- cerned, and this is a tool that he cannot do without, for it may be made useful in a variety of ways. In framing timber together it can be used as a hammer, instead of the heavy car- penter’s hammer, which the amateur need not place among his tools ; and for Axe or sharpening stakes or cutting hatcliet « down timber to the size required in the rough, or for splitting pieces of wood, it is invaluable. It should be kept well sharpened, for a blunt axe is useless for any purpose, as far as cut- ting is concerned, except splitting firewood. 227. The form of hatchet in common use among English carpenters and joiners is that Fig. 35. English which is shown in fig. 35, the Englisll hatchet. American hatchet being repre- Ratchet, sented in fig. 36. The blade of this hatchet is somewhat longer than that of the English hatchet, and the projecting hammer-head at the back is longer, which is an ad- vantage. With regard to prices, carpenters’ adzes range from 3s. 3d. to 3s. 9d., according to size, and the best Kent axes from 2s. 6d. to 4s. Good axe heads may be bought by weight, at is. id. per pound, and ashen handles from 4^d. each. The Fig. 36. American hatchet. common axes, which are sold at prices from is. to 2s. each, are for 6 82 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the most part useless, except for cutting up fire-wood. The American American axes have a cast head and steel blades are sold at axe * 2s., i Jibs, in weight ; and 2s. 4d., ijlbs. in weight, by Messrs. Churchill and Co. The smaller size will be found most gene- rally useful by amateurs. The axe usually called a tomahawk by iron- mongers is of little use for cutting or chipping wood, although its peculiar wedge shaped form renders it well adapted for splitting wood ; it is sometimes called the Canada wedge axe. There are many varieties of axes in use, but those which have been described are most commonly used in carpentering. For felling trees the blade of the axe is longer and narrower in proportion, and partakes more of the form of the wedge than the ordinary hatchet. 228. It cannot be too strongly insisted on that the amateur should never use any tool or allow it to be used for any other purpose than Tools should that for which it is primarily intended. For example, undertook a hatchet will often be taken, if it can be got at readily, and key. f or c i eav i n g firewood or chopping boxes, and the con- sequence is that the edge is utterly spoiled for carpentering, until the tool has been sharpened and put in order. Screwdrivers, and even chisels, are sometimes taken to prise up the nails with which carpets have been nailed down. In short, to prevent these and similar misap- propriations of his tools, which he should be chary of lending, if he wish to keep them in good order, the amateur should Have a door to his workshop secured with lock and key , and be careful always to keep the door locked and the key in his pocket . 229. We must now proceed to Rasping Tools , or tools which act by abrasion or rubbing away the material to which they are applied. Rasping This will be readily understood when it is considered that tools. t h e separation of a piece of wood by sawing is effected by the disintegration or continual wearing away into small fragments, technically called sawdust, of a layer of wood, equal in thickness to the extreme width between the teeth of the saw from outside to out- side, against which the teeth of the saw are constantly acting until the division has been effected. Rasps and files are also tools which come under this category. 230. The saws with which logs and timber of all shapes and sizes Saws : their is sawn into scantlings, boards, etc., are broad blades of operation, steel with large coarse teeth, such as circular saws and the broad pit saws — with a handle fixed at one end, and a movable handle wedged to the saw blade at the other end — with which timber is cut into planks or any desired scantling by sawyers in Cross-cut Saws: Circular Saws. 83 a sawpit. Cross-cut saws are saws with a socket at either end in which a handle is placed, when in use, by means of which the saw is drawn backward and forward across the trunk of a tree until it is cut asunder. 231. Circular saws are chiefly used in sawmills, but it is possible to fit a small light circular saw to the carpenter’s bench, by means of which much work may be speedily done, though it must Circular of necessity be light work, as the saw itself must be saws, worked by hand or foot, by turning a handle or by pressure on a treadle. We shall have more to say about circular saw action in con- nection with the bench when touching specially on this part of our subject. A small cross-cut saw the amateur may oc- cross-cut casionally find useful, especially if he be in the habit of saws ' buying timber to cut into logs for firing ; a saw of this kind 4 feet in length costs about 15s. new, but one sufficiently good for ordinary purposes may be occasionally picked up second-hand for half the money. Small circular saws, ranging in diameter from 4 inches to 12 inches, may be bought at from 4s. to 13s., according to size ; larger ones from 1 foot to 3 feet at from 13s. to 96s. A saw more than 12 inches in diameter would be useless to the amateur, as it would require at least horse-power to drive it with any effect. Fig. 37 shows Fig. 38. cross-cut saw. Fig. 37. circular saw. the shape of the circular saw, and fig. 38 that of the cross-cut saw. For heavy work, excellent saws of these descriptions are made by Messrs. Taylor Brothers, Adelaide Works , Sheffield, \ who supply a cross-cut saw 4 feet long for 12s., in German steel, and 13s. in cast steel ; and circular saws from 4 inches to 12 inches, at from 4s. 6d. to 1 6s. A speciality in Messrs. Taylor’s saws is that they are perforated above the notches, which serves to guide the file in sharpening, keep the teeth uniform, avoid fracture, and prevent expansion. Regulleting is saved by the perforations, and there is only half the labour that is involved in sharpening a solid blade. Another excellent feature in Messrs. Taylor’s saws of all kinds is, that they are ground thinner towards the back, thus saving much friction in sawing. 8 4 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 232. There are many kinds of saws in addition to those that have just been mentioned ; but those which the amateur artisan will most re- saws required °l u i re are Hand Saw, Tenon Saw, Dovetail Saw, Key - by amateurs. j l0 i e Saw, and Frame Saw . These are sufficient for all ordinary work. To these, in order to save wear and tear of the hand saw, a saw called a rip, or ripping saw may be added. This saw has large triangular teeth, and is used for sawing along the grain. It is therefore useful for sawing planks, deals, battens, and boards, the way of the grain ; the work being done more expeditiously with a rip saw than a hand saw. 233. The Hand Saw is generally useful, and will, as it has been said. serve the purpose of a rip saw or panel saw, a finer kind of saw used by joiners. Two kinds of hand saws are repi'esented in Hand saw. ... the annexed illustration. Fig. 39 is the ordinary hand saw which has been in use for years. Fig. 40 represents what is Combination ca ^ e( i a “ combination saw,” as, in this one tool, three saw. or f our t 00 i s hitherto perfectly distinct and separate are united. It will be noticed that the edge a b of the handle, is at right angles to the edge a c of the blade ; thus fitting the saw to act as a square. The edge a c will also serve as a measuring rule, being graduated in inches and parts of inches, and measuring 24 inches in length from a to c, and, being perfectly straight, it may further be made useful as a straight-edge. These saws may be had of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 1 os. 8d. each, or with plumb and level attachment for 12s. 8d. Ordinary hand saws with blades 26 inches long, may be had at prices varying from 2s. 6d. to 6s. About 4s. will always purchase a good and serviceable hand saw. Tenon Saw : the Keyhole Saw. 85 234. The Tenon Saw , shown in fig. 41, is used more especially for cut- ting across the grain of the wood, and leaves the surface of the wood that is divided by it as smooth as is possible when the nature ■of the operation is considered. The blade is of necessity thin and fine, and in order to keep it straight when in use, it is inserted into a back of iron or brass. It is worked by means of a handle dif- fering in form from that of the hand saw as may be seen by comparing the illustrations. A tenon saw to be really useful, should be from Tenon saw. Fig. 41. TENON saw (disston’s make). 14 inches to 18 inches in length. Saws of this length as supplied by Messrs. Churchill, with beech handles, range in price from 4s. 8d. to ■6s., and with apple handles, Disston’s make, from 7s. to 9s. These prices may appear high to the amateur, but it is always better to get good tools and give a fair price for them ; it is far cheaper in the end, and better work can be done with them. 235. The Dovetail Saw and the Sash Saw are nothing more than tenon saws of small size, being identical with these in shape and make. They range from 8 to 12 inches in length. The medium Dovetail saw size, 10 inches long, will be found most useful : the price and sasl1 saw * of a saw of this size varies from 3s. 4d. with beech handle, to 5s. with apple handles, Disston’s make. 236. The Keyhole Saw consists of a long narrow movable blade as shown in fig. 42. A is a pad or handle of hard wood, mounted with a brass end or cap B. The handle is pierced throughout with a narrow slit sufficiently large to allow of the easy passage of the saw. The brass cap is pierced in the same way, and Keyhole saw. B | l: — i Fig. 42. KEYHOLE SAW AND HANDLE. within it is an iron plate which is pressed against the saw blade when in use, by screwing up the two screws at C. When not in use the screws are relaxed, and the blade thrust back into the pad ; the top projecting about as far as the dotted line D ; and the other end, which 86 Household Carpentry and Joinery. is sharp and pointed, projecting beyond the end of the pad as at E. When in use care should be taken to tighten the screws as much as possible, lest the saw should slip back and an ugly wound be inflicted by the pointed end on the palm of the hand. Pads in beech, with saw complete, cost from is. 3d. to is. 6d. each, in ebony or hard wood from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. each ; pad saws cost from 4d. to 6d. each, and the amateur should always have an extra one or two by him to replace the one in use if he break it or bend it past straightening again, as he may do occasionally. The keyhole saw is useful for cutting out curved work, and rough coarse fretwork may be done with it and perforated work generally for rough carving. 237. The Bow or Frame Saw is a narrow, slender, finely notched blade fixed in a frame of wood as shown in fig. 43. The ends of the Bow or frame blade are fixed in tw0 saw. handles at the lower part of the frame, and it is tightly stretched so as to render it per- fectly rigid by twisting a piece of catgut or thong looped over the FlG ' 43 - bow or frame saw. upper ends. When the upper extremities are thus drawn together, the lower ends are of necessity forced apart and the blade is tightened. A bow saw and frame costs from 3s. to 4s., the blades being from 3d. to 6d. each. In fig. 44 an American modification of the frame saw is shown, called the arch frame wood saw. The frame and blade, 30 inches long, is supplied complete by Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 4s., the frame without the blade for is. 8d. The frame saw shown in fig. 44 is of course much larger than that shown in fig. 43 : it is commonly used on the Continent instead of the hand saw, as far as the frame will permit. An amateur handling it for the first time would find it difficult and awkward to use, but it is said that those who are accustomed to it prefer it to the hand saw. 238. Rasps , generally speaking, are used in carpentry for cutting away or smoothing wood, or for wearing away the sharp edge left in Hasps for a c i rcu ^ ar hole that has been cut out with the keyhole saw,, wood. so as t0 i m p ar t a bevel to it sloping from above to the under part. A rasp is flat on one side and slightly convex on the other. Rasps and Files : Paring Tools. 87 and covered with fine projecting points beaten up by a mallet and punch. They are of different degrees of roughness, and cost from 4d. to is. 6d. each according to length, etc. 239. Files are used for cutting metal and sharpening saws. The Fig. 45. the rasp (for wood). surface of the file is ridged with fine lines cut into the metal. Fig. 45 Fig. 46. the file (for iron). Fig. 47. section of files. shows the general form of the rasp. Fig. 46 that of the Files for triangular file, and fig. 47 the transverse sections of files met ai. most generally used : A being the triangular file, with three faces tapering to a point ; B the round or “ rat-tailed ” file, for cutting or enlarging round holes in metal ; and C the flat or warding VariolIS forms file, useful in filing the wards of a key, etc., or cutting a of files, deeper head to a screw. Files are also used in finishing fret-work and wood carving, and may be had for this purpose at 3d. each or assorted in sizes at 2s. 6d. per dozen, assorted. Files for work- ing in metal cost about 3d. or 4d. each, saw- files for sharpening saws from 3d. to 6d. each, according to the size of the teeth of the saw on which they are intended to operate, the larger and deeper teeth taking the more expensive files. 240. Paring tools , or tools which are used for cleaning away the rough, ragged surface left by the teeth of the saw and rendering wood smooth and even, or otherwise for cutting wood into various Paring toolSj forms and shapes, are frequently called edge tools, as or edge tools - they present a sharp, keen edge. Indeed, if they are blunt in the least degree they are not fit for use. Watch an artisan at his work, and you will see him frequently rub his plane-iron or chisel on the oil- stone in order to sharpen it. An amateur, especially a beginner, in nine cases out of ten, either does not think of doing so, or altogether forgets that there is any necessity for it, and this is one of the chief reasons why amateur’s work is often so badly done. We have insisted on the need that there is for the amateur to buy none but good tools, and to take care to keep them under lock and key : he must further sup- plement this by keeping them perfectly clean and free from rust, and learning to whet the edge of each and all cutting tools of this class 88 Household Carpentry and Joinery. when they show signs of dulness. Special mention of sharpening tools, and the mode of, and appliances for, doing this will be made further on. 241. The tools that are comprised in the first group of paring tools are Planes. Now of these there are an infinite variety, as formerly, before moulding was made by machinery, every different Pianos necessary to pattern required a different plane or plane-iron. The amateurs. pj anes are absolutely necessary to an amateur are a jack-plane and a smoothing-plane. To these a trying-plane may be added, as it is most useful for long joints and fine first-class work, match planes for grooving and tongueing, a rebate-plane, and two or three beading-planes for cutting beads of different sizes on the square edge of a board to break joint, and the grooving-plane, familiarly called the “ old woman’s tooth.” 242. It will be as well first to take into consideration the Jack-plane Fig. 48. THE JACK-PLANE. and the smoothing-plane, which, as it had been said, are the two planes Jack-plane : most necessary to the amateur. The jack-plane shown in lt t£maSd°" %• 48 is from 15 to 18 inches long, and 2 1 / 2 inches broad, action. and about the same in depth. Near one end is a handle projecting upwards called a “toat,” and near the other a hole for the reception of the plane-iron, which is held in its place by a wedge. Planes of this description, and smoothing- planes also, are usually made with double irons; that is to say, of two irons held together by a short screw, as shown in fig. 49. In this, A is the iron with a sharpened edge which takes off the outer surface of the wood in shavings, and B Fig. 49. double plane-iron. t j ie i ron w hi c h [ s attached to it by the screw C. The edge of the iron B, which is slightly bent, is placed at a very short space from the edge of A : it serves to support and The Smoothing-plane and the Jack-plane . 89 strengthen the cutting blade, and turn off the shaving in an upward direction through the hole that is cut in the wood for the reception of the iron as shown at D. 243. The Smoothing-plane is different to the jack-plane in shape ; being about 8 inches long and 2 X inches to 3 inches broad, in the widest part where the iron issues from the wood, tapering smoothing- to a width of about 2 inches in front and 1 ^ inches behind, plane * so that it may be more easily held in the hand. This kind of plane is shown in fig. 50. The jack-plane is used for taking the rough sur- face from the sawn timber, and when this has been removed the smoothing-plane is used to make the surface of the wood perfectly smooth and even. These planes are generally made in beech, and cost — the smoothing-plane from 3s. 6d. to 5s., and the jack-plane Fig. 50. smoothing-plane. from 4s. to 5s. The amateur artisan will do well to have a smoothing- plane that is filled with an iron sole or plate extending over the bottom of the plane, but when made in this way the plane of course will cost more. 244. Trying-planes and Jointer-planes differ from the jack-plane in being longer and set with a finer cut. The former is generally from 22 inches to 24 inches long, and costs from 6s. 6d. to 7s. 6d. or 8s. ; the latter is from 28 inches to 30 inches long, and costs from 8s. to 9s. The handles of these planes differ in shape from that of the jack-plane, as may be seen from an inspection of fig. 51, in which A represents the toat or horn which forms the handle of the jack-plane, and B the looped handle of the trying or jointer-planes. 245. The great difficulty which is found by most amateurs in working with the plane is to adjust the iron accurately, so that the plane may cut properly and take off shavings of uni- , A . . . Difficulty to form thickness throughout. Again, it is necessary amateurs in using plane. that the iron should project beyond the sole rather more for working some kinds of wood and rather less for others, although the actual difference may be scarcely appreciable. All this occasions much trouble to the amateur artisan, and facility in adjusting and using the plane can only be obtained by a little tuition from a skilled Trying-plane. Fig. 51. TOATS OF PLANES. go Household Carpentry and Joinery. mechanic, followed by plenty of practice, if the ordinary planes are used. Of late years, however, some beautiful planes have been brought into use in America, of which the amateur artisan is re- commended to avail himself. The great merit of these planes is that they are self adjusting , which obviates most of the difficulty to the amateur of which we have been speaking with regard to adjustment. We give six illustrations of serviceable adjustable bench planes suit- able for the requirements of the amateur, which are kept in stock and sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., and which are well worthy the attention even of skilled mechanics. 246. Figs. 52 and 53 are illustrations of Bailey’s Patent Adjustable Bench Planes. In these the plane-iron is secured in its posi- tion by means of the iron lever f with a cam and thumb-latch at its upper end. A screw passing down into the iron bed-piece below serves as Fjg ^ BAILEY . S ADJUSTABLE a fulcrum on which the lever smoothing-plane. acts in clamping down the plane-iron. The lever may be put in position or removed at pleasure without the use of any tool, it being properly Bailey’s Patent Adjustable Bench Planes. slotted for this purpose ; and the pressure required for the best work- ing of the plane can be obtained at any time by driving or slacking the central screw upon which the lever operates. The thumb- screw, located under the iron bed-piece, and just in front of the handle of the plane, works a simple device by means of which the plane-iron can be easily set forward or withdrawn while it is still clamped down to the bed-piece ; and without removing the hands from the plane or the plane from the work, any desired thickness of shaving can be obtained with perfect accuracy. For beauty and style of finish these planes are unequalled* and the great convenience in working renders Patent A just able Planes. 9i them the cheapest planes in use. Each part, being made inter- changeable, can be replaced at a trifling expense. The plane is held by the handle behind with the right hand, and steadied with the left hand, which is placed on the knob in front. Fig. 52 shows the smooth- ing-plane, and fig. 53 the jack-plane. The prices vary according to length of plane and width of cutter, as follows : — Smoothing Planes. No. jC s. d. 1. 5jin. long, ijin. cutter 096 2. 7 ,, i| ,, o 11 6 3- 8 „ if 12 6 4- 9 » 2 „ o 14 o Jack, Fore, and Jointer Planes. No. s. d. 5. 14m. long, 2in. cutter o 16 o 6. 18 „ 2 § „ 100 7- 22 „ 2! 140 8. 24 „ 2§ „ 180 It should be said that No. 5 in the above list is the jack-plane ; No. 6 the fore or trying plane ; and Nos. 7 an d 8 jointer planes. The American planes, it will be noticed, are not so long as the English planes which bear the same names. 247. In figs. 54 and 55 are shown two of Stanley’s Patent Adjust- able Planes, which differ somewhat in construction from Stanley’s Bailey’s planes, which have just been described, although Adjustable the general principle is the same. The peculiarity of Planes * these planes is that they have a wrought steel stock. Being adjusted by the use of a com- pound lever, they are equally well adapted to coarse or fine work ; and, in addition to this, they commend themselves to anjateur artisans for their lightness of weight and the Fig. 54. Stanley’s adjustable ease with which they can be smoothing-plane. worked. The smoothing-plane, 9m. long, with a 2 Jin. cutter, costs 12s., Fig. 55. STANLEY’S ADJUSTABLE JACK-PLANE. and the jack-plane, 14m. long, with a cutter of the same width, costs 14s. The Stanley planes just described have steel stocks, and the Bailey planes iron stocks ; but there are also Stanley planes with wood stocks. 92 Household Carpentry and Joinery. which may be bought at cheaper rates. Fig. 56 shows a wood smooth- ing-plane 8in. long, with a i^in. cutter, which costs 6s. 6d. A larger plane, i oin. long, with a 2 >£in. cutter and a handle like the jack-plane in fig. 57, costs 8s. 6d. The jack-plane (fig* 39)? I5in. long, with a 2>£in. cutter, costs 8s. 6d. ; the fore, or try- ing plane, 2oin. long, with a 2j4in. cutter, 9s. 6d. ; and thejointer plane, FlG. 56. STANLEY’S WOOD SMOOTHING-PLANE. 26m. long, with a 2%m. cutter, ns. 248. It has been said that the smoothing-plane and the jack-plane are the two tools of this description that are most necessary to the Moulding amateur artisan. He need not go to the expense of a notTequIred t r yi n g-pl ane ? because he is not likely to be doing such by amateur, joiner’s work as will require such a true and accurate edge to the work as when two panels are to be fitted edge to edge, as Fig. 57. STANLEY’S WOOD JACK-PLANE. in large panels, for example. He will buy all his match-boarding ready wrought for use, and all his grooved and tongued timber, so he need not have any match planes unless he has a particular fancy that way. He will not require moulding planes, but he will find it useful to include in his stock a good rebate plane, some beads, an old woman’s tooth, and a plough plane, with a set of irons for various widths. 249. The rabbet or rebate plane is shown in the accompanying illus- tration. The iron, it will be noticed, Rabbet or comes out at the side rebate plane. as well as the bottom of the plane, and so the edge of a board can be cut away by it so as to leave an indentation all along its length like a step, so that it may fit over and into another similar Fig. 58. REBATE PLANE, The Spokeshave and the Drawing-knife. 93 indentation cut in the edge of another board. The recess in a sash bar, into which a piece of glass is laid, is a rabbet or rebate. The cost of ordinary rebate planes in beech, as shown in fig. 58, with skew cutters, varying from i^in. to i^in., ranges from 2s. 6d. to 3s. The “ old woman’s tooth,” so called from its narrow projecting cutter, is used for cutting grooves, and may be bought for is. 9d. 01d woman , a or 2s. Planes for cutting beads may be had for 2s. 6d. tooth, each. They range in sizes upwards from >6 in., increasing by ^in. The most useful sizes are in., %m., and but larger sizes may be had if required. A plough plane, with screw top and eight irons, may be had for from 18s. to 20s. Besides these there are many planes of different forms used for different purposes, as fillisters, sash fillisters, dado planes, compass planes, fluting planes, etc., Fillisters of but the description of them would take up too much varlous space. They are, moreover, expensive, and to purchase them would require a far greater outlay than most amateurs would either be able, or indeed care, to make. 250. The spokeshave and the drawing-knife are the tools that are comprised in the second division of paring tools. The drawing-knife is useful for reducing the size of any piece of wood that it , . . Spokeshave. may be inconvenient to cut down in any other way. The spokeshave, as its name implies, may be used for imparting a smooth surface to the spokes of wheels, but it is also useful for smooth- ing down any surface that is not required to be perfectly flat. Thus, a bevelled edge may be given to a round hole of any large size cut in a piece of wood. The drawing-knife is always worked towards the operator, but the spokeshave may be used in a direction either towards or from the person who is using it. 251. The drawing knife is shown in fig. 59. It is simply a long and rather thick blade, perfectly rigid, but having a keen knife-like edge. On either side is a projecting spike, which is p rawing turned at right angles to the back of the blade, and in- serted into a wooden handle. It is an instrument that does its work quickly and effectually when some degree of force is applied to it. Prices range, according to size, from 2s. to 3s. 6d. The spokeshave has a thick and slightly curved blade with a keen edge, and projecting Fig. 60. spokeshave. Fig. 59. DRAWING-KNIFE. 94 Household Carpentry and Joinery. arms on either side which are bent at right angles to the flat of the blade, and inserted into a beech-wood handle, or rather a double- handled piece of beech wood, as shown in fig . 60. The part that is shown in the drawing is placed against the wood, and the shavings pass under the blade, between it and the wood, and come out through the hollow shown in the upper part of the illustration. The stocks, or handles, are usually made of beech. Prices are according to length of edge of blade, namely, 2^in., is. 6d. ; 3m., is. 8d. ; 3^in., 2s. ; and 4m., 2s. 4d. They may be purchased for less money, but in buy- ing tools it is always better to give a good price for them, for inferior articles are well-nigh useless, and cause disappointment, often giving the amateur a distaste for the work that he has taken in hand. 252. Some excellent iron spokeshaves have been introduced from America, and may be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co. The American iron cutters are made of the best English cast steel, tempered spokeshave. an( j g roim d by an improved method, and are in perfect working order when sent from the factory. Fig. 61 shows a Double the length adopted for all cutters in carpenter’s spokeshaves made in America), and raised handles. The price of this tool is is. 3d., and for the same money a similar spokeshave may be had with straight handles. Spokeshaves, with adjustable mouth and either raised or straight handles, may be had for is. 7d. each. The Model Double Iron Spokeshave with hollow face costs is. 3d. There is another kind with two cutters 1 J 4 in. wide, one hollow or curved, and the other straight, which costs is. id. ; but as neither cutter can be in the middle of the stock, where it ought to be, the tool must be some- what one-sided to work. Fig. 62 shows the Reversible Spokeshave, which can be worked to and from the person using it without changing position. This useful tool, which has raised handles and is furnished with two straight cutters 2 }iin. long, costs 2S. 2d. 253. The third and last division of paring tools comprises chisels Iron Straight Face Spokeshave, 16 in. long, with a cutter of 2>^in. (which is Fig. 61. DOUBLE IRON straight-face spokeshave. Fig. 62 . REVERSIBLE SPOKESHAVE. Chisels and Gouges. 95 and gouges. In reality the plane in its simplest form, as seen in the jack-plane and smoothing-plane, is nothing more than a CMfiels and chisel of considerable width set in a block of wood, Gouges. which serves as a guide, and by means of which the operator is enabled to work the tool with greater ease and accuracy. Moulding and fluting planes, as well as beads, grooving planes, ploughs, etc., may with equal propriety be looked upon as modifications of the gouge. A chisel is a flat and thick piece of steel, of which the cutting end is ground to a bevel, in order to obtain a keen edge, while the other is fashioned into a tang, with a projecting shoulder, which fits close against the wooden handle into which the tang is inserted. The gouge differs from the chisel in being hollow instead of flat. Chisels are distinguished as firmer chisels, paring chisels, mortis- chisels how ing chisels, and turning chisels. It must be said, how- distinguished. ever, that the last-named variety differs from the other kinds of chisels, in being ground to a bevel on both sides instead of one side only. Gouges are distinguished as firmer gouges and ^ ° 0 G-ouges, how turning gouges. The main point of difference between distinguished, them is that the former are sharpened on the outside on the bevel, and the latter on the inside. 254. In the annexed illustrations are shown the various forms of chisels used in Carpentry and Joinery, and that of the gouge. In fig. 63 is shown the Fir?ner Chisel, or ordinary carpenter's 0 J r Firmer chisel, turned in such a way as to show the width of the chisels. blade and the bevel. In fig. 64 a representation of the same kind of chisel is shown turned so as to show the side or thickness of the blade, and the angle of the bevel by which the cutting edge is formed. The only difference between firmer chisels and paring chisels are that the former are shorter and thicker in the blade, while the latter are shorter and thinner. Firmer chisels vary in width from to 2in., and paring chisels from }^in. to 2in. The latter are chiefly used by pattern makers for fine and more Fig. 67. Fig. 66. Fig. 65. Fig. 64. Fig. 63. delicate work, while the former are G0UGE * M0RTISK CH1SELS * FIRMER CHISEL * better adapted for the rougher work of the carpenter and joiner. 96 Household Carpentry and Joinery . 255. It will be noticed that while these chisels are contracted in width between the broad flat blade and the shoulder, the mortise chisel, Mortise shown in fig. 65 so as to show the side, is broadest at the chisels. shoulder, and narrows gradually until the bevel is reached. This is done in order to impart extra strength to the tool to bear the heavy blows of the mallet in mortising. Chisels of this de- scription are made varying in width from y£in. to iin. Some mortise chisels are made with a socket, as in fig. 66, into which a short beech handle is fitted. Chisels thus made and handled are used for heavy work. 256. The peculiar forms of the turning chisel will be shown in the chapter on Turning. They are of various widths, and longer than even Turning the P ar i n g chisels, generally speaking. For turning soft chisels. W ood the edge of the turning chisel is bevelled on both sides, as it has been said ; but for turning hard wood a much shorter chisel is used with a bevel on one side only, like that of the ordinary chisel, but with not so great a slant. The double bevel edge has the effect of throwing off a clean shaving from the wood when revolving in the lathe, while the blunter single bevel edge acts more like a scraper, and does not take off clean shavings. 257. In fig. 67 the shape of the gouge is shown, which resembles a chisel bent into a curved form, so that the section of the blade would resemble a crescent. Gouges are made in sizes varying from X in- f° r turning gouges, and —in. for firmer gouges, to 2in. for both kinds. Turning gouges are longer than firmer gouges, and are used by turners for roughing down their work in the lathe. 258. It may be mentioned that the tool called a cold chisel is a long piece of steel, levelled on both sides at one end to a blunt Cold chisel, e( jg e ^ usec j by carpenters and others to knock out a hole in a wall of stone or brick for the insertion of a wedge, the end of a piece of timber, etc. 259. About half-a-dozen chisels and the same number of gouges will be the utmost number that the amateur will require ; and, for Chisels and both chisels and gouges, the widths to be selected may Squired by* be P laced at Hin., %in., iin., and lyiin. amateur. Th e ordinary carpenter’s or firmer chisels should be pur- chased first of all. A few paring chisels can be added to the stock at any time if required. Sets of chisels assorted may be purchased at from 5s. to 7s. 6d., and sets of gouges from 6s. 6d. to 8s. For ordinary mortising the firmer chisel will be sufficient ; but one or two socket Chisels , Gouges , Bradawls , Gimlets , £rc. 97 chisels will be found useful, and, for any very narrow work, one or two mortise chisels or sash mortise chisels of the narrowest widths will be necessary. 260. The following are the sizes and prices of chisels and gouges taken from the price list of Mr. A. S. Lunt, Tool and Prices of Cutlery Warehouse , 297, Hackney Road , London , E . : — chisels and gouges. Width in inches. Firmer Chisels. | Paring Chisels. | Turning Chisels. | Mortise Chisels. | Sash Mortise Ch. | Socket Chisels. j Firmer Gouges, j | Turning Gouges. 1 Width in inches, j j Firmer Chisels. | Paring Chisels. | Turning Chisels. | Mortise Chisels. | Sash Mortise Ch. | Socket Chisels. | Firmer Gouges. Turning Gouges. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 's. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 's. d. s. d. 1 — 0 7 i 0 6 — 1 6 — — 0 8 X 0 8 |i 2 xxi 3 7 i — i 4 0 9* x 4 A 0 4 i — — 1 2 1 6 — 0 si — i| 0 10 1 4 1 1 — 1 6 xxi 1 6 £ O 5 0 8 0 x 3 x 7 1 0 0 6 09 il 0 11 x 7 x 3 — — 1 8 1 1 1 8 X 3 0 si — — x 4 x 9 — 0 6$ — xf 1 0 x 9 x 5 — — 1 9 1 2 2 0 0 si 0 8 £ O 7 i 1 6 1 10 1 0 0 6i 0 10 4 1 1 1 11 x 7 — — 1 10 X 4 2 3 ra — — — 1 8 2 0 — — — 1 * x 3 2 1 x 9 — — — 1 6 2 6 0 6 0 9I 0 8 1 10 2 2 1 1 0 7 0 11 if 1 4 2 3 1 11 — — — 1 8 2 8 1 0 6J 0 11 0 9 2 2 — 1 2 0 8 1 0 A 2 6 1 0 7} 1 0 0 10 2 11 i 3 0 9 1 2 2 1 8 2 10 23 2 0 3 3 If with round ash handles and brass ferules, 2s. per dozen extra, or with box octagon handles, 5s. per dozen extra. 261. The tools comprised in the first division of boring tools are bradawls, gimlets, and augers. These tools are, for the most part, extremely simple in construction, the bradawl being a Boring tools. piece of steel sharpened at the end and fixed for con- venience of use in a wooden handle ; and the gimlet a piece of steel so fashioned at one end that it may take hold of, and cut its way into, timber, and having a small piece of wood attached crosswise at the other end, which serves as a lever to turn the steel shank of the tool, and press it into the wood. The auger is only a gimlet on a large scale, the cross handle being turned by the operator with both hands which are transferred from end to end of the handle at every half- turn of the tool. The gimlet is held and turned by the right hand only. The mode and method of holding and working these and other tools will be described fully in the next chapter. 262. The bradawl and the gimlet are represented in the accompany- ing illustration, the shape of the former when handled being shown in figs. 68 and 69. The bradawl varies in size or diameter Bradawls : of the steel shaft from T Vin. to >^in. or T S gin. Smaller tlieir varieties, sizes are made, but these are generally called sprig tools ; the term bradawl being more strictly applied to the longer sizes only. Whether it be large or small, the bradawl is a round piece of steel fitted with a 7 98 Household Carpentry and Joinery. shoulder and tang at one end, which is inserted into a handle generally of beech or ash, and of the form shown in the illustration. The shoulder abuts against the handle, as in the case of the chisel and gouge ; and, to keep the handle from split- ting when the tang is driven into it, it is furnished with a narrow brass ring or ferule. The end of the steel shaft thus handled is ground down on either side so as to form a \ shape, as shown in fig. 68. Either side of the shaft when ground presents the appearance shown in fig. 69. The legiti- mate purpose of the bradawl is to bore Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. Fig. 71. holes in wood so as to ensure the passage bradawls. gimlets. 0 f a na q or screw j n the right direction, and also to render its entrance into the wood more easy ; but occasionally for driving in or withdrawing small screws, especially those by which handles of doors are secured to the spindle, a large bradawl may be used conveniently as a screwdriver. 263. Gimlets are of two kinds, plain and twisted. The form of the twisted gimlet is shown in fig. 70. In this kind a deep spiral groove Gimlets : runs upward from the screw point about half-way up the their varieties. s h an k. It possesses two advantages over the plain gimlet shown in fig. 71, and these are : — that it can be worked with more ease, the wood that is cut away being forced up the groove as the tool penetrates deeper and deeper into the wood ; and that it makes a cleaner hole. The screw-point in this and the plain gimlet is to give the tool a firm holding in the wood at entrance, and to ensure its regular progress in penetrating the timber. The plain gimlet is a steel shank with a small screw-point and a straight groove running more than half way up its length. This kind of gimlet is more apt to break or twist in hard wood than the spiral or twisted gimlet ; and when it is necessary to bore a deep hole, the friction arising from the wood that is cut away becoming tightly packed within the straight groove renders the tool somewhat difficult to work, as any one may prove to his own satisfaction by boring a hole in a piece of oak with a plain gimlet. The head of the gimlet consists of a piece of boxwood usually turned in the form shown in the illustration. The steel is squared at the upper end, and tapers away to a fine point. The squared part keys, as it were, into the handle, and the thin end is rivetted over a small disc of copper. Thus the cutting or boring part of the tool is securely fixed to the handle, and any chance of the Cost of Bradawls and Gimlets: Augers . 99 handle slipping round, as it would have done, had not the steel shaft been squared at the top, is prevented. 264. Twisted gimlets may be bought at 3s. per dozen, or at from 2d. to 6d. each, according to size, and the plain or shell gimlets at 2s. 9d. per dozen, or at from 2d. to 4d. or 5d. each, according to Cost/ of size. Bradawl blades, without handles, cost about 8d. per bradawls . 1 ^ 1 -i . . , and gimlets, •dozen assorted, or is. 6d. a dozen with handles. Sepa- rately the blades are sold from id. to i^d. each without handles, or from ij£d. to 3d. each with handles, according to size. Large flooring bradawls, handled, cost from 3^d. to 4d. each. The amateur artisan •will find three or four gimlets of various sizes, and the same number of bradawls, as many as he will require, and to these should be added a flooring awl, which will also serve the purpose of a small screwdriver. The cheapness of these tools, however, will enable any amateur carpenter to furnish himself with a complete set assorted, if he wishes to do so. 265. The auger, as it has been said, is a gimlet on a large scale. There are two kinds of augers, distinguished as shell augers and screw augers. The shell auger corresponds with the plain or Augers: shell gimlet, and the screw auger with the twisted gimlet. t3ieir vaneti « s - The tools are useful for boring large and deep holes, especially for the passage of a screw-bolt and nut ; but the shell auger may be made useful in mortising, especially if the amateur has not a bit brace or stock and bit at his disposal. In the accompanying illustration, fig. 73 shows the end of the shell auger, and fig. 72 that of the screw auger. Sometimes the auger is secured, like the gimlet, to a cross-handle of wood ; but it is also squared at the p^es of end so as to key into a handle, as shown augers, in fig. 75, or formed into a loop through which a handle may be passed, as in fig. 74. It is useful to have four augers calculated to cut holes YAn., 3^ in., 1 in., i^in. in diameter. A kind of auger called a hollow auger is made, but this tool is used more especially by coach-builders and chair-makers, and is comparatively useless to amateurs. There is also a form of auger known as the ladder or taper auger, which will bore a hole like a funnel — large at the top and small at the bottom ; but this the amateur is not likely to require. The following are the prices of augers according to the diameter of hole .they will bore: — Fig. 72. Fig. 73. SCREW SHELL AUGER. AUGER. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. CONTRIVANCES FOR HANDLING AUGERS. ioo Household Carpentry and Joinery. Description. fin. fin. |in. fin. sin. iin. i|in. i£in. i|in- ifin. 2 in. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. Shell Augers ... Bright Screw Augers with 0 8 0 8 0 10 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 1 10 2 4 2 10 Eyes Patent American Augers 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 3 2 6 2 9 3 2 3 8 4 2 5 0 5 10 with Eyes — 2 9 3 0 3 6 4 0 4 6 5 0 5 6 6 6 — ■ Bit-braces and drill. 266. The bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, is the principal tool in the second division of boring tools, and, indeed, the only tool of this kind with which the amateur artisan need concern himself.. There are breast-drills, fitted with a plate to hold against the breast, steadied with a handle held in the left hand, and having a chuck at the further extremity in which the drill is placed and caused? to revolve at a rapid rate by a large toothed-wheel working in a smaller wheel, the former being turned by a handle held in the right hand. These are, however, more suitable for working in iron, but they are used for working in wood, especially by carriage builders. An ex* Patent cellent drill of this description, called the Patent Breast Breast Drill. XDrill, is sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 12s. The best kind of tool for use in this drill is the Morse Bit Stock Drill,, of which there are many sizes, varying in diameter from T V to ^in. by regular increase of i-32nd of an inch, and ranging in price from yd* to 3s. 4d. each. 267. To return however to the bit-brace, or stock-and-bit, this was once one of the most expensive tools that were made, and its price j5it-brace or P revente< ^ m any an amateur possessed of but slender stock-and-bit. means from purchasing one. Now it can be obtained so- cheaply that no amateur has any reasonable excuse for being without one. The general principle of the machine may be best explained by c B aid of fig. 76, in which A represents a> piece of iron bent into the form of a crank. Now it is Fig ** plain that if the end B of the crank be fitted by principle of brace, means of a collar into the flat disc D, so that it may revolve freely within it without escaping from it, and a sharp- cutting ' ool be attached to the end of c, so as to be practically immov- able "./id merely an extension of the extremity C, — the operator, by holding the disc D against his breast and turning the crank with his right hand, applied to it at A, may, by the force given to the cutting tool by the pressure of his body against the disc and the rotatory motion imparted to it by turning the crank rapidly, cause the tool to penetrate deeply and quickly into any kind of wood to which it may be applied. This is the principle on which the bit-brace acts, and a Stock-and-Bit : Modern Iron Brace. ioi knowledge of this will help the operator wonderfully in the use of the tool. The pressure is transmitted directly in the dotted line shown in the diagram, and must be sufficient to overcome any want of steadi- ness that might otherwise be caused by the rotatory motion of the crank. 268. As the old and often beautifully made and finished wooden brace is now almost entirely superseded by the plainer but equally serviceable iron brace, there is no necessity for giving a Modem representation of it in these pages. The wood-work was 1x011 brace - merely an expensive substitute for the iron crank that is now used, •and its costliness arose chiefly from the unnecessary time and care that was expended on its construction. One end, as shown in the above diagram, worked freely in a knob ; the other was fitted with a box, in which the squared end of the bit was thrust. A notch was also cut across one side of the square end, into which a catch dropped when the bit was pushed into the box, securing it from slipping out imtil the catch which acted by a spring was raised by pressing a pro- jecting button on the outside of the cap, thus enabling the operator to withdraw the bit. The wooden brace ranges in price from 9s. to 25s., or thereabouts, according to the kind of wood of which it is made and the fittings. The bits ■are extra, and are sold at about 5d. each, or about 12s. ■6d. for a full set of thirty -six. Fig. 77 in the accompanying illustration of iron braces shows the FlG * 77- common socket iron brace. common socket brace, with a thumbscrew for retaining the bit in the socket. An Sin. brace of this description may be, or ought to be, purchased for is. 4d., and a ioin. one for is. 8d., of any ironmonger who keeps this class of goods. 269. These are excellent braces for the money, and if the amateur cannot afford a better one, he should get one of these rather than be without one ; but it will be readily seen that the thumbscrew action for the retention of the tool in the socket is liable to get strained and put out of order by the very nature of the work which is done by the brace and bit. The brace which is recommended for the Barber’s , . . ... _ . .... Patent Bit- amateurs use, being alike cheap and serviceable, is Brace. u Barber’s Patent Bit-Brace” (fig. 78), which is fitted with an expanding 102 Household Carpentry and Joinery . chuck that can be opened and secured at pleasure by a simple con- trivance ; and from this peculiarity in its construction will hold shanks of bits, reamers, counter-sinkers, etc., of all shapes and sizes, and hold them true without fitting. The convenience of this will be manifest when it is remembered that the old-fashioned brace will receive only such shanks of bits as are made to fit the box, while the chuck of the Patent Bit-Brace will receive and hold fast any kind of bit, be it what Fig. 78. barber's patent bit-brace. it may. Thus when the amateur artisan possesses a Patent Bit-Brace, he may purchase any kind of bit, whether new or second-hand, know- ing that he will be able to use it ; whereas in the old wooden brace pretty much filing and fitting might be necessary to reduce the shank to the size of the box or socket if it were too large, while if it were too* small, and so fitted loosely, the bit would be useless. The prices of these braces are as follows, the ball that is mentioned being the piece of wood that is fitted over the middle part of the bend of the crank for convenience in grasping it with the hand in order to turn the brace. Description. 8in. gin. loin. 12 m.. Lignum vitae Head and Rosewood Ball Hardwood Black Head and Ball Hardwood Head and Ball Brace fitted with Ratchet s. d. 6 3 3 9 3 2 9 0 s. d. 3 6 s. d. 7 0 4 3 3 10 10 0 s. d. 8 0 For all ordinary purposes the 9m. brace, with hardwood head and ball, will be found to be cheap, useful, and serviceable. 270. The common brace bores a hole in a direction perpendicular Angular t0 t ^ ie breast of the operator, or in a straightforward bit stock, direction. There is, however, what is termed an angular bit-stock, represented in fig. 79, which can be used in any brace, at any Angular Bit Stock : Forms of Bits. 103 degree of angle for boring in a corner, which it will do as readily as a common brace bores straight, the angular borer turning clear around without stopping to ratchet. It is in reality a contrivance for effecting a change in the direction of the pressure exerted. The pressure, as was shown in the diagram in section 267, acts in a straight line running from the centre of the head and the centre axis of the bit. In the angular bit stock the square shank shown, in the upper part of the engraving,is thrust into the shank, and motion imparted to the bit, which is placed in the chuck at the other end, by the ball or handle between the key and the ball-joint, at which the change in the direction of the power takes place. The degree of angle is regulated by the metal plate and arc on the right of the ball-joint, the requisite angle being maintained by tightening the thumb-screw, which must be again relaxed when any alteration of direc- tion is desired. 271. The bits used in the brace are many in number and adapted for Bitg for widely different purposes. Some brace, of the forms assumed by the bit are shown in the accompanying illustration, in which it has been sought to give the general character of bits Fig rather than a representation ab- solutely correct in its proportions as to length and breadth. Fig. 80 shows the most common form of bit, often called a centre bit, pro- bably on account of the prolonga- tion of its axis or central line into a long sharp point. Bits of this form are made of all sizes, to cut holes from to i) 4 \n. in dia- meter. The point is thrust into the ^ ^ ~ wood in the centre of the piece various forms of bits. Fig. 79. ANGULAR BIT-STOCK. Fig. 84 Fig. 85 io4 Household Carpentry and Joinery • that is to be taken out and the tool caused to revolve rapidly by turning' the crank of the brace ; the sharp edge A cuts away the wood as the tool enters, and the edge B, which extends from the central spike to the outer part of the bit, scoops it out, so that if its continuity could be pre- served without fracture, it would come away in the form of a long spiral ribbon. Fig. 81 is the form of bit used for boring a taper hole similar to the funnel-shaped hole made by the taper augur. Fig. 82 shows a shell bit something like a plain gimlet, with a broad scoop-like edge at the end, instead of a screw for cutting long deep holes. Fig. 83 is a bit of solid form, used as a drill or counter-sinker for metal. Figs. 84 and 85 are counter-sinkers for wood, used when it is desired to let in the head of a screw flush with or below the surface of the wood. Fig. 85 is technically called a rose-bit: it consists of a conical head of steel deeply grooved with ridges running from the edge of the broadest part to the point, and may be used for cutting metal as well as wood, in such operations as deepening the holes in a hinge for the reception of the heads of the screws, and anything similar to this. It has been Prices of sa ^ that bits cost about 5 d. each, or about 12s. 6d. bits. the set 0 f thirty-six bits. This may be taken as the general average price ; but the smaller ones, if bought separately, may cost somewhat less and the larger ones somewhat more. Black bits are rather cheaper than bright bits, and as they are not so liable to rust as the bright bits, they are perhaps preferable for the amateur. 272. The bits that have just been brought under the reader’s con- sideration are what may be termed, for distinction’s sake, simple or Clarke’s single bits. There is, however, another bit, which may be Expansive ma< ^ e to do t ^ ie wor k of a dozen simple bits, especially Bit - of the form shown in fig. 80 in the foregoing illustration. This is Clarke’s Patent Expansive Bit, an American invention. shown in fig. 86. One of these bits, by shifting the position of the trans verse edge by which the wood is hollowed out, may be made to cut holes of any diameter, from ^in. to 1 J and in various sizes, ranging from 4m. pliers. t0 I2 j n> in length. These are sold at different prices, according to size and quality. Common pincers may be bought at prices ranging from 7d. to is. ; but ^ the best kind that are made are sold LA at the rate of 3d. per inch, or from is. to 2s. 6d. each. The amateur o 1 artisan should provide himself with a k I small and large pair of pincers of the / A \ best kind. The most convenient / \\ sizes are 5m. and 8in. Common pin- If \ cers are apt to get indented along the margin of the jaws, by which their U grasping power is greatly impaired. \ In fig. 89 a pair of flat _ „ 0 Plat pliers. r , Fig. 89. pliers, of the ordinary pinc kind, is represented. The construction of these and the pincers is so apparent from the illustration, that any detailed description is unneces- sary. When it is desired to use either, the handles are drawn apart which causes the jaws to extend as well, but in a less degree, because the length of the jaws from the pivot on which the two parts of the tool work is less than the length of the extremities of the shanks or handles Cutting fr° m t ^ ie same pivot. In fig. 90 is shown the head of a pair nippers. 0 f cu tting nippers. In these the holding or flat part of the jaws extends about half-way down from the extremities, where they are cut away on either side so as to form a sharp wedge-shaped blade with which, from its peculiar construction, wire may be cut in two without injury to the edges of the blades. These are useful at all Bound-nosed t* 11165 * ^ ut more especially in wire-working. Fig. 91 repre- piiers. sents the head of what are termed round-nosed pliers. The jaws of these instead of being flattened for gripping small nails, wire, etc., are rounded from base to tip, so as to present the appear- ance of small cones with the tops taken off. These are used for turn- ing the end of a piece of wire so as to form a loop by which it can be attached to a larger wire, etc., if necessary. By making the noses in the form of cones, that is, tapering from base to top, loops of various Fig. 91. Fig. 88. AND PLIERS. Pincers and Pliers: “Victor” Nail Puller. 107 sizes can be r.aore conveniently formed. Good cutting nippers cost from is. 6d. to 4s. ; but they may be bought of an inferior quality at from 8d. upwards. Pliers, both flat and round-nosed, range from 6d. to is. 3d. per pair, inferior quality ; or from is. to 3s. 6d. per pair, best quality, according to size. There is a smaller kind Spring pliers, of pliers, useful to artificial fly makers or in splicing, for fly the jaws of which extend by pressing the handles to- gether. When released the handles resume their original position by means of a spring, and the jaws close, retaining in their grasp any fine substance such as the end of a bit of silk, or wire, or the extremity of a cock’s hackle. These are of no use in carpentry except in splicing or in coiling thin wire round a core of wood or metal, but they are mentioned to show that pliers are made which open by bringing the handles closer together, as well as those whose jaws are extended by drawing the handles apart. 276. Many an amateur artisan will, for cheapness’ sake, utilise packing-cases, egg-boxes, tinned-meat and lobster cases, and other boxes, which may be purchased at very low rates from . . , , Utilisation fancy goods warehousemen, drapers, grocers, and oilmen, of packing- Much wood that can be made available for a variety of purposes and bought at a merely nominal price, can be got out of such goods as these ; but the operator in nine cases out of ten will spoil half the boards in taking the box or case to pieces. Naturally enougu he will set to work with hammer and screwdriver, wrenching and forcing bottom from sides, and sides from ends, and when the work is accomplished he will find that half the boards are spoilt, or broken, or cracked part way down their length, and therefore far less useful than they were before he commenced opera- damage to tions. And he has spoilt the handle of his screwdriver, too, by striking it with the hammer, forgetting that wooden handles should be struck with a mallet instead of a hammer, and that a cold chisel would have been far more suitable than a screwdriver. 277. There is, however, a capital implement by which the box may be taken to pieces without injury to either nails or wood. This useful tool, shown in fig. 92, is called the “Victor” Nail Puller. « victor” nail The following directions are given for using it : “ Grasp Pullers, the instrument in the manner represented in the cut, taking care to have the left hand as low down as convenient. Place the jaws astride the nail in the wood, with the foot-lever parallel with the grain, of the wood, drawing the top of the tool towards you, till they come close up beside the nail ; lift the rammer with the right hand, plunging io 8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. it down suddenly. This operation embeds the jaws beside the nail, then pull horizontally, which brings the nail out.” The price of the “Victor” Nail Puller is ios.; but the amateur who uses up plenty of packing-cases in his work for rough fencing, sheds, fowl- houses, etc., will soon save the cost in the boards that are not split and damaged past using, as when hammer and screw- driver are used, and in the nails which are not deprived of their heads and can be used again. The nails with which these cases are nailed together are for the most part wire nails, generally known as French nails. They are very tenacious, and well The rapidity Fig. 92. "victor" nail puller. suited for most of the work that the amateur will do. with which nails can be withdrawn by means of this nail puller is wonderful. When once the jaws are set about the nail one blow of the rammer sends them into the wood, and one pull of the instru- ment towards the operator brings out the nail. A slight indentation in the wood, where the head of the nail was, is the only injury that the wood receives, and this is so trifling as to be inappreciable. The ends of the board are not split, and can therefore be worked up again in any way that the operator may desire. 278. The wrench or spanner is chiefly useful for turning the nut on or off the screw end of an iron bolt. The annexed illustration, fig. 93, represents the common Wrench or wrench or spanner in which the handle spanner. f orms the screw for moving the jaws apart. In this kind of spanner the upper jaw, or jaw furthest from the handle, is movable, and is propelled upwards or drawn downwards, as may be desired, by turning the handle round one way or the other. They are made in lengths ranging from 6in. to I2in., and the best vary in price from 2s. 9d. to 4s. iod., according to size. The American screw wrench, shown in fig. 94, differs from the ordinary wrench in having the lower jaw movable ,Fig * 93 - J . COMMON WRENCH* instead of the upper, and in having the upper jaw & ^5 ~p Excelsior Pocket Wrench : Hand Vice. 109 rigidly connected with the wooden handle in which it is set. The lower jaw is moved by means of a screw turned by a small thumb wheel. The prices of these wrenches are as follows : 6in., 3s. ; 8in., 3s. Fig. 94. screw wrench. 4d. ; ioin., 4s.; I2in., 4s. 8d.; 15m., 8s. They can be procured from Messrs. Churchill and Co., who also sell a useful little tool for the amateur called the “ Excelsior” Pocket Wrench — fig. 95 — whose jaws will open to the extent of ^Sin., and whose weight is only 40Z. The prices of these little spanners are is. 8d., bright finish, and 2s. nickel plated. Of course they cannot be used for any rough kind of work, or for nuts larger than %in. square. 279. A vice is indispensable to the amateur, and he should provide himself with both a hand vice which, as its name implies, can be held in one hand, while the file, etc., is applied by y ices the other hand to the object that is necessary to amateurs. held within its jaws, and a bench vice, which can be attached to a carpenter’s bench and removed at pleasure. The bench vice will of course hold larger objects and pieces of material than the hand vice, and, as it is fastened to the bench itself, and need not be held in any way, or even steadied by the operator, both hands can be used in filing pocket wrench, or in performing any other process to which the bench vice is auxiliary. 280. The ordinary form of hand vice is a couple of strong jaws connected at one end by a pivot or rivet, on which they work, and terminating at the other in a broad end, as shown in fig. 96. If the screw ordinary were removed, the shanks would be ex- hand vice - tended and kept apart by the spring which is attached to one of them, and works against the other. The jaws are relaxed or brought together by the screw, which works through the shanks by means of a bar, which works loosely in the head of the screw. Hand vices cost from is. to 2s. 6d. each, ac- .. . ^ ... Bench vice, cording to size. Bench vices are similar hand vices in the general principle of their construction ; but to the no Household Carpentry and Joinery. shank furthest removed from the head of the screw two arms are attached at right angles, or nearly so, to the shank, one of which — the upper one — terminates in a broad, flat plate, which rests on the upper surface of the bench, while through the lower one works a thumb- screw, also capped by a disc, which is screwed up hard and fast against the lower surface of the bench-board, when it is sought to make use of the vice. A common bench vice may be bought for about 2s. ; a better kind of vice, with square thread and steel jaws, cost from 4s. to iis., according to size ; while the best black staple vices are sold, according to weight, at 7d. per lb. 281. The patent vices, of which there are various kinds, are very expensive, and are not required by the amateur. It may, however, be Patent mentioned that a useful saw-grinder’s vice, for holding a vices ‘ saw when being set or sharpened, with jaws 9m. long, and jointed near the bench, so that the jaws may be thrown backwards or forwards at pleasure, may be purchased for 6s. The amateur, however, may for a few pence construct a simple contrivance which improved answer all the purpose of the saw-filer’s vice. For hand vice. ^ an «« Improved. Hand Vice” may be bought, which is much more handy and convenient to hold than the old- fashioned one. This vice is of metal throughout, the jaws being of forged steel, and the handle of case-hardened malleable iron. The jaws work on pivots passing through the oval, or nearly oval, disc Fig. 97. improved hand vice. shown in the illustration, and are opened or closed by means of the bevelled top of the handle, which works on a screw attached to the disc. The jaws are relaxed by turning the handle downwards, and closed by turning it upwards. A hole is made through the handle and screw for holding wire, as shown in fig. 97. 282. In good carpentry everything depends on accuracy of measure- ment of parts, and fitting the parts together at right angles, or at the required angle or bevel. For the attainment of these Tools of ^ & . . r _ jf . guidance and most necessary requisites tools of guida 7 ice and directi 07 i of various kinds are used, without which it were impos- sible even for a skilled carpenter or joiner to do his work, and fit the Tools of Guidance x and Direction. hi various pieces together with the nicety that is essential in all operations of this nature. Thus, for setting out a long, straight line in ripping a slip of wood from a board, a line and reel is required ; and for measurement of any length into parts, or of any required length, breadth, and thickness, the carpenter's rule is needful. For cutting off the end of a board at right angles to the edge, or for mortising, etc., the square is a sine qua non , and for cutting wood at any given angle to the edge, the proper line of direction for the saw must be marked by aid of the bevel. For cutting notches in wood, or for cutting or planing down pieces of wood to the same thickness, the necessary guide lines must be marked by a marking gauge , while in mortising the mortise gauge is used. For joining pieces of wood at right angles, as in making a picture-frame, recourse must be had to the mitre box j and for subdividing any given space into smaller spaces, or marking out circles and sweeps of various diameters, the co?npasses must be used. In turning, to make sure of having the diameter of various parts of the work in harmony with the pattern, these diameters must one and all be tried and regulated by the callipers as the work goes on. In bringing horizontal bars, shelves, etc., to a true level, the spirit level must be used ; and in fixing a post in the ground, or a piece of quartering to the wall, the upright level with cord and plumb bob. A straight-edge is useful for testing the nicety and accuracy with which wood has been planed up, and for other purposes, in bricklaying and fixing stonework of considerable length the A level is used. It is requisite to gain some idea of these various appliances, and the manner in which they are used. The mode of handling and using saws, edge tools, and other tools of different descriptions, will be considered in a subsequent chapter. 283. First of all the line and reel. This appliance costs but a few pence ; it is not generally named in price lists. Any large-sized reel will do, provided that it be deep enough to carry some The line ^ few yards of line or cord, which must be of a non-elastic reel * Fig. 98. line And reel, square, and bevel. character in order to do its work effectually. To give an example of its use, suppose that A B c D, in fig. 98, is a long rectangular piece of A ii2 Household Carpentry and Joinery. board that it is desired to saw into two equal pieces. Having ascer- How to use tained by the rule that the ends A D, B c, are really equal the line. * n i en g t h ? an d that the board is of the same gauge or measure across throughout, divide each end into two equal parts in the points E, F. Make a knot and loop in the line, and through the loop pass a fine bradawl, pushing it deeply into the wood precisely at the point E. Do the same at F with another bradawl, and strain the line tightly from one to the other, securing it to the bradawl at f with a knot and loop. Before straining the line, it should have been whitened with chalk, or blackened with charcoal. If the strained line be now lifted as far off the board as possible with the finger and thumb of the right hand, and then, released suddenly, it will strike the board smartly along its length from bradawl to bradawl, leaving a straight white or black mark on the surface from E to F, which will serve as a guide for the saw in cutting it in half. In using the saw amateurs are apt to throw too much pressure either to one side or the other, which causes the saw-cut to go out of the straight line. In sawing planks and boards lengthwise it is as well to repeat the operation with the chalk or charcoal line on the other side, the bradawls being allowed to remain in their places to ensure accuracy of register, and then to look at the under part of the board from time to time to see that the saw-cut is being accurately carried in the right direction. 284. The carpenter’s rule is a well-known instrument consisting of two pieces of boxwood joined at one end by a flat brass joint, and Carpenter’s tipped with brass at the other extremity. They are divided rule * into inches, which are again subdivided into 8ths and sometimes I2ths of inches. In the ordinary rule the two slips of boxwood are each ift. in length, so that the rule is 2ft. long when ex- tended. This is the best kind of rule for an amateur to have. They Fig. 99. FOURFOLD NARROW RULE. may be had at all prices from 6d. to is. 6d. ; or, if with brass slide rules, from is. iod. each to 2s. 6d. Brass, iron, and steel rules may be had at equally low prices. Messrs. Churchill and Co. supply a handy ift. fourfold narrow rule for the pocket (fig. 99), graduated in 8ths and i6ths of inches, and % in. wide. These rules, if with round Tn'IU'i'i.TI i 1 §| 1 • al ' si * The Square and the Bevel. II3 joint middle plates, are sold at 6d. each ; if with square joint middle plates, at 7d. ; and with arch joint middle plates, as in the accompany- ing illustration, at 8d. 2 ft. fourfold rules, lin. wide, are sold at 8d., iod., and is. each, according to the character of the middle plate ; and the broad 2ft. rules at is. 2d., is. 6d., and 2s. each. These are i^in. wide, and are graduated in 8ths, ioths, and i6ths of inches, and are furnished with draughting scales. A useful 2ft. twofold rule with aich joint, bitted, furnished with Gunter’s slide, graduated in 8ths, ioths, and i6ths of inches, iooths of a foot, and with drafting and octagonal scales, i'/ 2 [n. wide, may be had for 2s. 4d. The slide renders this a useful rule to amateurs. 285. The square and the bevel are shown in the accompanying illustrations, which will indicate the general character of these useful tools, which „ ’ Square and are absolutely indis- bevel - pensable to the amateur, and which will be continally wanted, as he will soon find by experience. The square (fig. 100) is meant, as its name implies, for drawing straight lines at right angles to the edge of any piece of wood or board ; but the bevel (fig. ioi), is intended for drawing straight lines at any angle to the edge of a piece of wood ; therefore the blade of the square is fixed immovably in the stock or handle, while that of the bevel is movable. The mode of using the square and bevel is shown in the illustration of the manner of using the line and reel in fig. 98, the square being represented on the left of the figure, and the bevel on the right. The stock in either case is applied to the edge of the board, so that the blade rests flatly upon it, having the outer or inner edge just touching the point at which the line is to be drawn on the upper surface of the board. Good ordinary squares in rosewood, with a blade 6 inches long, cost from is. 9d. to 2s. 6d. ; and bevels of the same quality, with blade 7 >2 inches long, about the same price. The length of the olade of the square ranges Fig. ioi. the bevel. from 3 inches to 12 inches in length, and the blades of the bevels from 7/4 inches to 10 inches. In price, squares range from is. 4d. to 4s. 3d. according to size and the wood of which the stock is made ; the bevels from is. 9d. to 5s. The Patent Hardened Try Square and Flush T 8 Fig. ioo. THE SQUARE. 1 14 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Bevel supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co. are of superior descrip- Hardened tion. The square has an iron stock, nicely finished ; *aLi fluTh the blade is of hardened cast steel with parallel edges. T bevel. £ ver y an gi e is accurate, and it is a perfect tool, though somewhat expensive, costing according to length of blades : 3 inch, 6s. 9d. ; 4 y 2 inch, 8s.; 6 inch, 9s.; and 8 inch, ns. each. The handle of the bevel is also made of iron, and the blade of fine steel spring tempered, with perfectly parallel edges. The blade is held in any position desired, by moving the lever which slightly projects at the bottom. They cost according to length of blade : 8 inch, 5s. 6d. ; and 10 inch, 6s. 3d. each. 286. In speaking of squares, a brief mention and description of Ames’s Patent Universal Square may not be uninteresting to amateurs Ames’s who are desirous °f knowing something about adapta- Universal t* 0115 °f t ^ ie leading principles of ordinary tools, as well as Square, about these tools themselves. Fig. 102 gives an accurate representation of this square, and explains its application as a centre Fig. 102. Fig. 103. square, as which alone it is invaluable to every mechanic. Put the instrument over the circle ; as, for example, the end of a bolt or shaft with the arms B A, E A, resting against the circumference, in which posi- tion one edge of the rule, A D, will cross the centre. Mark a straight line in this position ; apply the instrument again to another part of the circum- ference and mark another line crossing the first. The point where the two lines cross each other is the centre of the circle. The whole is the work of a moment. The tongue, D A, fastened, as it is, into the tri- angular frame B A E, cannot be moved or knocked from its place — in this respect constituting a great improvement over the carpenter’s try square, T square, and mitre in common use. The instruments aie made of the best material, neatly finished, and The Marking Gauge and the Mortise Gauge. 115 perfectly true. Fig. 103 explains the application of the instrument as a carpenter’s try square as at N, and as an outside square as at L. In fig. 104 its use is shown as a substitute for the mitre, while in fig. 105 it is shown as a T square and graduated rule; and in figs. 106 and 107 as an outside square for drawing, and a T square for machinists. The square combines, in short, in the most convenient form, five different instru- ments : namely, try square, T square, mitre, graduated rule, and — what is entirely new — the centre square, for finding the centre of a circle. It may be fairly said, indeed, that no mechanic’s or amateur’s list of tools can well be complete without a universal square. The prices are according to length of blade : 4 inch, ns. 3d. ; 6 inch, 13s. 6d. : 8 inch, 18s. ; 10 inch, 25s. ; and 12 inch, 31s. 6d. It is the gradua- tion, doubtless, of the steel blade or rule of the Patent Universal Square that renders this useful instrument so costly — for costly it is, Fig. 108. marking gauge, and beyond dispute out of the reach of many amateurs for this very reason. The clearness, however, of the illustrations of the various purposes to which the square may be put, combined with the description given above, will enable many to •construct a rough instrument of the kind for their own use which, in all probability, will do the work that is wanted quite as well, although it may lack the good appearance and nicety of finish of the genuine article. 287. The next kind of tool that demands our attention is the gauge in its two varieties, known as the gauge pure and simple, or marking gauge, as it is generally called, and Fig - io 9 - mortise gauge. the mortise gauge. Fig. 108 represents the marking gauge. This consists of a beech wood bar with a block or head of the same n 6 Household Carpentry and Joinery . material, which slides up and down the bar, and is retained in any Marking desired position by the thumbscrew. A steel point is gauge. inserted close to the upper end, and when it is desired to mark a line on a piece of wood parallel to the edge, the head is moved down the bar until the requisite distance between the steel point and the upper surface of the head is obtained. The head is then held against the edge of the wood, with the steel point pressing on the wood ; and when the gauge is moved up and down a line is marked on the wood by the steel point. Ordinary marking gauges may be bought from 7d. to is. The marking gauge figured in the illustration has the advantage of being graduated down- one side of the bar in inches. Gauges of this description are sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., at prices ranging from 3d. to 8d. each. Mortise The mort ^ se gauge, shown in fig. 109 is similar in general gauge. principle to the marking gauge ; but it has in addition a slide working in a groove in the bottom side of the bar, by which means two lines parallel to each other and to the edge of the wood can be marked at one operation, the steel point in the groove and the head of the gauge being set at the required distances from the fixed steel point. English made mortise gauges of the better kind range from 2S. 6d. to 7s. 6d., according to the material of which they are made, and the degree of finish bestowed on them. The American mortise gauges range in price from 2s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. An excellent double gauge, unpolished beech wood, marking and mortise combined, may be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co., for is. 4d., and one of a superior quality for 3s. These combination gauges are commended to the attention of amateur artisans. 288. A level, as the name implies, is an instrument for ascertaining if one cross piece of wood from one post to another is fairly and Levels : their actually horizontal, and inclines neither to one side or the principle. ot h er . or th e joists of a floor are in a perfectly hori- zontal position, so that when the flooring boards are nailed to them the floor of the room may be perfectly level. It is also used for ascertaining that stones or courses of brickwork are properly laid ; and that posts, framing, and all work which consists of uprights or vertical pieces of any kind are fixed perpendicularly — that is to say, at right angles to the plane of the horizon. Conversely, a true hori- zontal line is at right angles to a line that is truly vertical or perpen- dicular. To determine whether or not carpenters’ and bricklayers’ work is level or upright, different kinds of levels are used, and these must now be described. The Level and the Method of Applying it. 117 289. Fig. no will explain the general principles of the sph'it level , an instrument of great utility which every amateur artisan should possess. The engraving represents the section of an spirit ordinary spirit level taken lengthwise. The body of the level * level is generally made of some hard wood, as oak, walnut, rosewood, etc., and it need scarcely c 1 C 3: T be said that the heavier the wood the better it is for the » 8 a 1 s j B ^ r 1 — i purpose. In the upper part of i the wood a groove, A B, is cut, Fig. iio. the spirit level. just deep enough and long enough to receive a round tube of glass, nearly filled with spirit, and hermetically sealed at both ends to prevent the escape of the fluid that is thus imprisoned within it. When the tube has been properly placed in the groove cut for its reception, the upper surface should be just flush with the upper surface of the wood. A thin brass plate with a long narrow hole in the centre is then placed over the glass and wood as at C D E F, in which D E represents the slit in section. To protect the bottom of the level, plates of brass are sometimes attached to it at the ends, as shown at G and H. It has been said that the tube is nearly filled with spirit. The remaining space is occupied by air, and this air, which appears in the tube in the form of a bubble, being lighter than the spirit will always rise to that part of the tube which happens to be highest. When the tube is in a horizontal position as there is not sufficient air to extend along its entire length, the air takes the form of an elongated bubble, which shifts from end to end as each is raised and lowered in turn. When the level is in a perfectly horizontal position the bubble is precisely in the centre of the tube as at K ; when the end H of the level is raised it will run upwards towards E ; and when G is raised it will run in a contrary direction towards D In practice, therefore, if, when the Method of level is laid on a shelf or any other piece of wood that is leveft^fong placed in a horizontal position, the bubble is found to be len s tlls - in the middle of the tube, the shelf is exactly in the position it ought to be, and truly level ; but if it be a little too high at either end the shifting of the bubble towards that end will show that the end in question requires lowering a little, or that the other end must be raised, as may be most convenient, until the bubble by taking up its position in the middle of the tube, indicates that the wood is now perfectly level. 290. It may happen, however, that the wood itself is level, but that it does not appear to be so, from the indications given by the bubble n8 Household Carpentry and Joinery. in the spirit level. The reader will naturally ask, How can this be ? and to his query we must reply that for the level to do its Requirements ^ J for accurate duty with accuracy, it is necessary that the surface of the wood itself be perfectly level ; that is to say, accurately and truly planed up . Suppose, for example, that the surface of the wood was not level but irregular, going first down and then up, as in the line abcde in fig. hi. The diagram is exaggerated it is true, as it appears here, but let the reader imagine such depressions to occur in a length of 6 feet, instead of a length of 3% inches, and the notion of exaggeration which is conveyed by the diagram will dis- appear. The piece of wood, whose upper surface is represented by Fig. hi. use of the straight-edge. the irregular line abcdef, is actually in a truly horizontal or level position ; but if the level be laid on the part B c, the bubble will shift towards C, and the amateur following the dictate of the level will drop the end F until the bubble goes to the centre, and thus throw his work out of the level instead of bringing it level as he thinks he is doing. Again, if the level had been laid on A B, the bubble would have gone towards A, and he would then have lowered the end A. Or suppose that after lowering the end F he had laid the level on AB, he would have found the level telling him to raise the end F, while a moment before it had been directing him to lower it, and being puzzled by the discrepancy he would begin to lose faith altogether in the accuracy and utility of his level. 291. Now all this is simply because the spirit-level is, comparatively speaking, short, being seldom more than 10 inches in length, and Level posi- generally less than this, and it will only indicate the true tiV forown ate level with accuracy for its own length , unless the wood length only. j ias b een pi anec l U p S o that its surface is smooth and level from end to end ; or if the wood be unplaned and rough from the saw, if it be level from end to end. To get over any difficulty of the kind that has been set forth above, the amateur must Use of ’ straight-edge provide himself with a straight-edge ; or — as this term is in levelling. r & generally applied to a piece of wood or metal, of which one side only is perfectly true and straight, to test the accuracy of the surface of a joint that the carpenter is making, as in a panel, or the The Straight-edge : The Plumb Level. 119 surface of metal that a smith is filing — with what we may call a double straight-edge ; that is to say, a piece of wood about five or six feet in length, four inches wide, and 7 /& inch or one inch thick, such as is shown above the irregular surface A B c D E F in fig. hi. In this double straight-edge, which must be made for the amateur by a good joiner, the sides G H, K L, must be perfectly true, level, and parallel to each other, and, that this desirable end may be completely attained, must be shot by a trying or joiner plane. When such a piece of wood as this is laid along such a surface as A B C D E F, and the spirit level is placed about its centre, as at M, a level about five or six feet in length, according as the length of the piece of wood may be, is formed, which shows that the points A, C, F, of the surface of the wood below it are in a horizontal line, and that the wood itself is in a horizontal position, although its surface is by no means level. The utility of the straight-edge, in testing the accuracy with which the planing up of any surface has been performed, must now be obvious to all and nothing more need be said about it. 292. The piece of wood that has just been described as a double straight-edge may be further utilised in another way, namely as an upright level, or, to speak more correctly, as a plumb level. piumb First of all it must be stated that, by the force of gravity level, which tends to draw everything in a direction towards the earth’s centre, if a weight be attached to one end of a string and the other be held in the hand or fastened round a nail driven into a wall, the string, when the weight at the lower end has ceased to oscillate and is at rest, will be vertical, or per- pendicular. Now, if a hole, shaped something like a pear when cut in half longitudinally, be made near one end of the straight-edge as at A, and three nicks be made with a saw at the other end as at B in fig. 112, the wood will serve the purpose of a plumb level. It is requisite that the middle nick be cut in a straight line running exactly midway down the board from end to end, and that the pear-shaped hole be symmetrically cut on either side of this central straight line. The next thing to be done is to take a piece of string or cord, not too thick, and thread one end of it through a hole made for the purpose in a leaden or brass plummet, commonly called a plumb- bob. A leaden plum-bob will cost from riKj - IIZ * Plumb-bob. plumb level. 5^ j- 0 Is# according to size and weight, and e. brass one from 2s. upwards. The other end of the string must be B HI i2o Household Carpentry and Joinery. twisted into the saw cuts at B, care being taken that it is first put through the central cut so that the line may hang fairly down the centre of the board. The string must also be adjusted in such a manner that the plumb-bob may hang freely just within the central hole at A, the top of the plumb-bob being from >£in. to %'m. below the upper end of the Use of hole. Now suppose the amateur artisan is fixing a post ^infixing 61 * n eart h as at c > or an upright against a wall, post, etc. when the plumb level is applied to the post, as shown in the illustration, the plumb-bob, when at rest, is in such a position that the string covers the centre line marked down the board from top to bottom, the post or upright is perpendicular. If, however, it inclines too much to the right or the left the weight of the plumb-bob will carry the string out of the central line in the direction to which the post inclines, and it must be slightly shifted until the cord and plumb- bob assume the proper position. In the case of a post let into the earth, it is necessary to try it with the level on two contiguous faces to ensure accuracy of position with regard to its being perpendicular. 293. The A level, as it is called from its resemblance to the letter A is merely an adaptation of the plumb level for determining the accuracy with which level courses of bricks are laid, or The A level, J or Brick- stonework of any kind, as stone paving, etc. In the layer’s level. centre of the long straight-edge, A B in fig 113, which is generally from five feet to eight feet in length, a plumb level, C D, is set perpendicular or at right angles to the straight edge A B. Strength and rigidity is given to the whole struc- ture by means of braces, E, F, which impart to the level the appearance from which it derives its name. When the straight edge A B is placed on the top of the last course of bricks that has been added to a brick wall in course of building, the bricklayer can judge of the correctness of his work by the position of the plumb line, which acts jn the same manner as it does in the simple plumb level. In a similar manner the mason can judge whether or not the stones he has placed in position, or the pavement that he has laid, is level ; or the car- penter of the joists that he has laid from wall to wall, or any wall plate that he is about to fix, whether or not all is true and square and level. Fig. i 13. the A level. The Davis and Stanley Spirit Level. 121 294. Some cheap and beautifully finished spirit levels are imported from America and sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. Of American these the cheapest are the Davis Iron Pocket Level. 8pMt levels * These are of various sizes, according to which the price also varys. The smallest, 3m. long, costs iod. ; and the others, 5m., and 8in. are is. 3d. and 3s. Cd. respectively. In fig. 114 is represented one of these iron pocket levels, with an attachment at the side furnished with Fig. 1 14. DAVIS IRON POCKET LEVEL. a screw with round head and milled edges, by which the level can be attached to a square or straight-edge. The Stanley levels are all good of their kind. A handy pocket level, six inches long, Stanley with a bulk of three inches, made of iron and surmounted levels * by a brass cap, is sold for 2s. Other more elaborate levels, made in wood and furnished with two spirit glasses — one to indicate the true level, and another to show the true perpendicular — are more costly than those which have just been described. The cheapest level of of this kind, not adjustable, costs from 3s. 4d. to 4s., according to length, which ranges from 24m. to 30m. The average price Ad j Ustable of the adjustable plumb and level in mahogany is 5s. pll ^ e f nd These range from 26m. to 30m. in length, as do the better kinds of the adjustable level, which, when furnished with side views and brass-bound corners, cost from 6s. to 9s. each, taking the average price which is lessened slightly or increased according to the length of the level. In the adjustable plumb and level, the spirit glass or bubble tube in the level is set in a metallic case, which is attached to the brass top plate above it — at one end by a substantial hinge, and at the opposite end by an adjusting screw which passes down through a flange on the metallic case. Between this flange and the top plate above is inserted a stiff spiral spring, and by driving or slacking the adjusting screw, should occasion require, the spirit glass can be instantly adjusted to a position parallel with the base of the level. The spirit glass in the plumb is likewise set in a metallic case attached to the brass top plate at its outer end. By the use of the adjusting screw the plumb glass can be as readily adjusted to a right angle with 122 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the base of the level if occasion requires, and by the same method as adopted for the level glass. The principle of the plumb level is shown in fig. 1 1 5. A hole with funnel-shaped sides is made through the level as at A. Then at B a vertical hole is made in which a tube filled with spirit is inserted. Part of this tube, where it breaks the circumference of the round hole made through the level, is shown at C. When the spirit level is standing on a perfectly hori- zontal surface and the eye is directed towards any post or upright through the hole A, if the edge of the plumb level is coincident with the edge of the post or other object, the post is vertical or upright. English made spirit levels are sold at various prices from Prices of common 8d. to ios. They vary in length from 4m. to 14m. The l6Y6lSi following may be taken as being fair average prices for common levels according to length : Fig. 115. PRINCIPLE OF PLUMB LEVEL. Walnut with brass top plate ditto with brass top plate and tipped bottom 4 in. 6in. 8in. loin. 12m. i4in a /8 1/- i /4 1/8 2/- 2/3 — 1/8 1/10 2/3 2/10 3 /- Mitre box. 295. If the amateur artisan is inclined to turn his attention to the manufacture of picture frames, it is necessary that he should provide himself with a mitre box . He will also find this box useful for cutting mouldings or any piece of wood which it is necessary to cut across at an exact angle of 45 degrees. 296. The price of a mitre box, or mitre block as it is often called, ranges from 2s. 6d. to 5s., but any joiner will make one that will serve the amateur’s purpose quite as well as one that is purchased Construction, x r etc. of mitre from the tool maker. The annexed illustration will show box or block. the principle on which the mitre box is made. In fig. 116 the block itself is shown in perspective. A piece of wood rectangular in form, from i8in. to 22m. long, and measuring about 4m. by 5m. in sec- tion, is rebated so as to form a couple of steps y Fig. 1 16. mitre box. as shown in the diagram. The rebate may be taken out to the extent of half the width and half the thickness. Saw cuts, H G, K L, are then made through the upper part, or upper step, of the block, and to the distance of Xin. into the lower block, and these cuts are made so as to be exactly at an angle of 45 0 to the edges CD,EF, of the block ; the angles GHC Improved American Mitre Box. 123 and K L D being each an angle of 45 0 . This may be seen more clearly in fig. 1 1 7, which represents a plan of the block, or the appearance it would present to the eye of a beholder when looking directly down upon it. The letters in fig. 116 are repeated in fig. 1 1 7. Now if a piece of wood or moulding be laid on the lower step, aefb, and held tightly against the vertical part A M N B, the extremity may be cut off by passing a saw into the guide line G H, or L k, as may be necessary, and sawing through the moulding. The saw cuts should be wide enough to admit a tenon saw with ease. The extremities of each of the four pieces that form a picture frame must be cut at opposite angles of 45 0 by aid of the mitre box, that they may join at right angles at the four corners. 297. The Americans have brought into use an improved mitre box (fig. 1 18), which is sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. It is somewhat expensive, costing 28s. by itself, or 40s. when a 2oin. Improved Disston’s back-saw is supplied with it. The length of American r 1 & mitre box. this mitre box — which is better calculated forpicture-frame makers and others, who would use it much more than amateurs, e. * FlG. 1 17. PLAN OF MITRE BOX. who would but seldom use it — is 20 inches. The frame is made of a single casting, and is subject to no change of position ; being finished accurately at first, it must always remain true. The slot in the back of the frame through which the saw passes is only inch wide, thereby avoiding any liability to push short pieces of work through the slot when the saw is in motion. This mitre box can be used with a back or tenon saw, or a panel saw equally well. If a back saw is used, both links which connect the rollers or guides are left in the upper grooves, and the back of the saw is passed through the under links. i24 Household Carpentry and Joinery. If a panel saw or small hand saw is used, the link which connects the rollers on the back spindle is changed to the lower groove, and then the blade of the saw will be stiffly supported by both sets of rollers and may be made to serve as well as a back saw. By slightly raising or lowering the spindles, when necessary, the leaden rolls at the bottom may be adjusted to stop the saw at the proper depth ; and by the aid of a set screw the spindles on which the guides revolve may be turned sufficiently to make the rollers bear firmly on the sides of a saw-blade of any thickness. 298. From the mitre box we must pass on to compasses and cal- lipers which, as it has been already said; are used, the one for dividing out spaces and marking out circular-work ; and the other for Compasses _ _ , _ - and the comparison of the gauge or diameter of parts of a Callipers. pj ece 0 f WO rk that is being turned on the lathe with the pattern or working drawing. 299. The compasses used by carpenters and joiners are made of iron, the legs being strong and solid, and the points somewhat blunt The larger compasses are sometimes filled Compasses w j t ] 1 an arc w hich is fastened to one leg, with arc. 9 ° 9 as at A, and passes through a slot in the other leg at B. A thumb-screw passes through the side of the leg at B, and when it is desired to retain the distance between the points of the legs for any purpose, the thumbscrew is screwed tightly against the arc. It is difficult, if not impossible, to alter the position of the ^ ^ legs until the pressure exacted by the thumbscrew is compasses. relaxed. The compasses, with arc, are shown in fig. 119, while in fig. 120 a pair of callipers is represented. These are nothing more than bow-legged compasses ; the legs being bowed, or bent, so that the points may be more readily applied to the diameter of any work in the lathe. Like the compasses, they are made in different sizes. Compasses range in price from 6d. to ios., and callipers from is. to 18s., according to make, size, and quality. A useful pair of rule-joint com- passes may be bought for 8d., and a pair of wing-compasses, or com- passes fitted with arc, from is. 6d. A serviceable pair of spring- callipers may be bought for is. 6d., and a pair of good wing-callipers for 2s. 300. Among the many useful inventions bearing on carpentry, joinery, and engineering, that have been introduced of late years by Callipers. Calliper Rules and Square. 125 Americans, are calliper rules and squares. They are, however, too costly for general use. A steel calliper rule, 3 inches long, with a slide that can be drawn out 2)4 inches, gradu- Kuies P and ated to I2ths, 24ths, 48ths, 8ths, I4ths, and 28ths of an S( i uaies - inch on one side ; and i6ths, 32nds, 64ths, 2oths, 5oths, and iooths on the other ; and on the slide to 32nds and 64ths of an inch, remark- able for accuracy and durability, may be had of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 1 8s. The same firm supplies calliper squares with or without adjusting screw. These are graduated according to English measure- ment in inches and parts of inches on one side, and in accordance with the metric system on the other. These squares, without adjust- ing screw, cost, if 2 inches long, 16s., and if 4 inches long, 21s.; with adjusting screw, if 2 inches long, 19s., and if 4 inches, 25s. Stanley’s Stanley’s Ivory Calliper Rules are handy pocket com- ivory Calliper panions. The twofold 6 inch rule, with square joint in German silver, % inch wide, and graduated in 8ths, loths, and j6ths of an inch is useful and in- expensive, costing 3s. 2d. The calliper rule repre- sented in fig. 1 2 1, will show the character of these rules, and how they are used — the diameter, or gauge of ! any work being measured between the inside of the Fig. 121. graduated calliper rule. foot of the slide and the end of the rule, and indicated by the gradua- tions on the slide. This rule, which is made of boxwood, with arch- joint and edge-plates in brass, is fourfold; it is 12 inches long, and 1 inch wide, and graduated in 8ths, ioths, I2ths, and i6ths of an inch. The price is only 2s. 301. There are many miscellaneous tools and appliances used in Carpentry and Joinery which are not subject to any classification as those are which have been already described. Among these we may include the screwdriver, the nail-punch, Tools used in the reamer or rymer, the scriber, the cramp, the glue- Caipentiy * pot, and the oil-can. Sand-paper, on paper or cloth, with finely- powdered glass or emery-powder on one side of it, must also be noticed. There is another appliance called the bench holdfast, which is used to hold wood firmly down on the carpenter’s bench when necessary ; but as it will be more convenient to speak of this in immediate connection with the carpenter’s bench, no further mention of it will be made here. 126 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 125. forms of screwdrivers. 302. The screwdriver bears some slight resemblance to the chisel, ■although it is used for a very different purpose. It is an iron blade The Screw- set in a wooclen handle, with the end ground so as to driver. form a fong bevel on either side. The edge is blunt, but should be fine enough to enter the nick across the head of a screw with ease. In the annexed illustration, fig. 22 shows the ordinary form of the screwdriver, and fig. 123 the manner in which the blade is let into the handle, the ferule being nicked, or slotted about inch in depth. The heel of the blade just above the tang is tightly fixed in the slot, and additional firmness is thus imparted to the tool, and the blade is prevented from turning in the handle, as bradawls will often turn, much to the vexation of the operator. Screw- drivers vary in length from 3m. to I2in., and may be bought at prices ranging according to size, from 6d. to 3s. The size of the tool used must always be suited to the work in hand, that is to say, to the size of the screw to be driven or withdrawn. The larger the screw the greater the friction and resistance of the wood that must be overcome in driving the screw in or taking it out. The amateur artisan is therefore recom- mended to provide himself with three screwdrivers — one small, one of medium size, and the other large, say 3 inch, 6 inch, and 10 inch in length of blade. These may be bought for 8d., is., and 2s., respectively, of sufficiently good quality for all ordinary purposes. Fig 124 shows the round-bladed screwdrivers, a form which is more generally used Bouna-biaded the engineer and smith. Round-bladed screwdrivers Screwdriver. are d earer than the ordinary sort, but three useful ones of the sizes above named may be bought for iod., is. 3d., and 2s. 3d. v respectively. Fig. 125 shows the American Cast Steel American Cast steel Screwdriver, an excellent tool of this description supplied Screwdriver by Messrs. Churchill and Co. The blades are made from the best quality of cast steel, and are tempered with great care. They are ground down to a correct temper, and pointed at the end by special machinery, thus procuring perfect uniformity in size, form, and strength, while the peculiar shape of the point gives it unequalled firmness in the screw-head when in use. The shanks of the blades are properly slotted to receive a patent metallic fastening, which secures them permanently in the handles. The handles are of the nost approved pattern, the brass ferules being of the thimble form, Nail Punches , Reamers , ^iVD Clamps . 127 extra heavy and closely fitted. The prices and sizes in which this useful kind of screwdriver is made are : — I % inches, 4d. ; 2 inches, 6d. ; 3 inches, 8d. ; 4 inches, iod. ; 5 inches, is.; 6 inches, is. 2d. ; 7 inches, is. 4d. : 8 inches, is. 7d. ; and 10 inches, 2s. 303. The nail-punch , or brad-punch , is a short piece of steel or case- hardened iron, blunt at one end, and tapering to a square or round point at the other end, according as the punch itself is square or , 11 1 , , . n Nail-p-unch round. Brad-punches are sold at 2d. each, the larger floor- or „ , _ , . . . . , Brad-punch, ing punches at 3d. each. Tney are used to drive the head of a brad or nail below the surface of the wood, when the hole that is left above the head can be filled up with putty, and all traces of the nail be hidden. When a nail is to be punched in, it should not be struck directly with the hammer after the head is about of an inch above the surface of the wood, lest the wood be bruised and dented with the blow of the hammer. In nailing down flooring the floor-brad is driven below the surface, because, when the boards begin to wear, the head, which is harder and will not wear away at the same rate, projects above the floor, and is inconvenient, if not absolutely dangerous. 304. The reamer , or rymer as it is sometimes called, though the former is the proper mode of spelling the word, is a steel tool set in a handle and used for the purpose of enlarging a hole in a Beamer or piece of metal ; as, for example, in a hinge whose screw- Rymer * holes are not quite large enough to admit the screws. It is made in different forms, but most commonly in the shape of a long, stiletto-like, four-sided blade, thick at the haft, and tapering to a fine point, which is useful for marking lines on wood, leather, zinc, or any other material. A good reamer may be bought at from 6d. to is. The tool just described is often called a scriber because its point is useful for scribing (Latin scribo , I write) or marking lines on wood, etc. A small rat-tail file may be used by the amateur as a reamer. 305. The cramp , or clamp , is a contrivance that is used for bringing boards close together and retaining them in position until they are fixed in their place by pegs or nails. It is also used Cramp or by cabinet-makers for bringing glued work together and Clamp, keeping the parts or pieces in close juxtaposition until the glue has set. The principle on which the cramp works may be seen from fig. 126. A is a long bar, along which works a movable head B, which may be fixed in position at any part of the bar by screws, as shown in the engraving, one of which works into a groove in the side facing the beholder ; another screw, which does not appear, working in a similar groove on the other side. The head c is also movable, but only to 128 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the extent permitted by the screw D that is attached to it. When the head B has been fixed so as to allow the work to slip in easily between it and the head C, the latter is brought tightly against it by the action of the screw D, and remains fast fixed between the jaws till the screw is relaxed. The amateur artisan will find a clamp indispensable in chair-mending and other similar operations. The prices of the American clamps sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co., of which the improved kind with malleable iron head and jaws and wrought screw is shown in the above illustration, are as follows : — Clamps with Wooden Heads. s. d. 2ft. inside jaws 3 9 3 ^. „ ,,42 s. d. 4ft. inside jaws 4 7 5ft. 5 o Clamps with Iron Heads. s. d. 2ft. inside jaws 8 4 3ft. 8 8 s. d. 4ft. inside jaws 9 o 5ft. 9 4 The iron-heads, jaws, and screw, may be had without the wooden bar for 6s. 9d. 306. The joiner’s cramp differs from the above in construction, although the general principle Joiner’s precisely the same. The bar is Cramp. 0 f j ron ^ an j the heads are so con- structed as to be slipped over the bar and work freely along it ; the bar is pierced at regular distances with holes, into which an iron peg is inserted to fix the head that is nearest the end over which the heads are passed. At the other end of the bar is an iron ring, through which works a deep-threaded screw, turned by a bar through the head in the same manner as a vice- screw. When the other head has been fixed by the peg that is inserted behind it, the boards, or any other pieces of wood that may have been placed between the heads can be brought tightly together by the action of the screw, as in the cabinet-maker’s clamp. Joiners’ cramps range in length from 3 feet to 6 feet, and cost from 25s. to 37s. 6d., according to size. Fig. 126. THE clamp. Clamp for Wedging up Glued Boards. 129 307. In fig. 127 is shown Hammer’s Adjustable Clamp, a handy article for amateurs for small work, made of malleable iron, and of great strength. By turning the bolt one quarter to the Hammer , s left it can be moved its full length out or in ; when turn- Adjustable 1 • . 1 tt j Clamp, ing to the right it operates like any other screw. Hand- screws are also useful for clamping. These consist of two parallel jaws or blocks of wood, which are brought to- gether or apart, as may be desired, by two wooden screws, running trans- versely through the bars and working in opposite directions. These useful articles are sold by _ J Fig. 127. HAMMERS ADJUSTABLE CLAMP. Messrs. Churchill and Co., at the following prices, according to diameter and length of screws, and length and size of jaws, which are also given : Diam. of screws. Length of screws. Length . jaws. Size .of jaws. Each. Diam. of screws. Length of screws. Length of jaws. Size . jaws. Each. In. In. In. In. s. d. In. In. In. In. s. d. h 10 8 i£ x 0 9 X 18 16 2I x 2 f 2 6 i 10 8* il x if 0 10 20 18 x 2 f 2 10 1 12 10 X if z 1 il 24 20 2 1 x 2 f 3 6 7 e 16 14 2X2 1 7 308. For bringing the glued edges of boards tightly together, a simple cramp may be quickly improvised in the following manner. Suppose that A, B, c, in fig. 128, represent portions of these simple cramp boards, glued lengthwise along their edges : D E is a long ^ade by ° piece of wood, on each end of which is screwed a block amateurs * of wood, bevelled inside, as shown at F and G ; the boards when glued are laid in the hollow between the project- ing cheeks E, F, and 1 wedge-shaped pieces of wood H, K, are driven in be- FlG. 128. SIMPLE CLAMP. tween the cheeks and the outer edges of the board. Of course the further the wedges are 9 A B A c 130 Household Carpentry and Joiner i. driven in, the closer will the edges of the boards be brought together, and the more firmly united will they be. 309. Mention must be made of the carpenter's pencil , which the amateur artisan will be constantly wanting to mark lines on wood, in Carpenter’s acc °rdance with the guidance given him by rule, square, pencil. and bevel. Marks should be made on wood with a pencil in preference to a scriber, as the latter must of necessity scratch the surface of the wood while the pencil does not. Pencils for carpenters and joiners, etc., are square, round, and oval in form, and of these three shapes the oval is certainly the best. They are sold at id. each ; but as pencil often P enc hs, like rnost small tools and sometimes large ones, mislaid. are often mislaid, or rather, hastily laid down (and so hastily, very frequently, that the workman cannot remember where he has placed them), it will be as well for the amateur to provide himself with a dozen, which maybe bought for 8d. or io^d., according to quality. It is almost needless to say that the best are the cheapest. The disappearance of a pencil or tool when mislaid, and the time and trouble that are involved in looking for it, often suggest the idea that these things have an unpleasant knack of hiding themselves. 310. Th z glue-pot is an essential in every house, whether the house- holder or occupier turns his attention to household carpentry or not. So many little odd jobs can be done by its aid, that if Glue-pot. 7 J J ’ nothing more than a hammer and screw-driver be kept, a glue-pot should be purchased to form a trio. For example, a piece of veneer may come off a looking-glass frame, or any piece of furniture, and may be mislaid or lost before a carpenter hap- pens to be at work in the house, putting these and similar little matters in order. Now, if the piece of veneer is lost it will be made a costly business — that is to say, costly in proportion to the actual damage — to replace it, and if the missing piece is not re- placed the appearance of the piece of furniture is spoiled, and its value considerably deteriorated. Fig. 129. glue-pot. a gi ue _p 0 t is at hand, the damage may be instantly repaired/and if the mending is carefully done, as it ought to be, the piece of furniture is little the worse for the mishap. 31 1. The glue-pot is shown in section, or, as it were, cut in half, in fig. 129. It is a pot within a pot, the outer and larger one being of Construction iron, and the smaller one of copper or iron, as the case of glue pot. ma y b e . The glue is broken up small, and placed in the smaller pot, which fits into the larger pot, the rim of the former resting How to make Good Glue . 131 on the rim of the latter. Water is placed in the larger pot, sufficient to nearly fill it when the smaller pot is put in. The pot is placed on or close to the fire, and as soon as the water boils the glue begins to melt, until it is reduced to a semi-fluid condition. 312. The following is a good recipe for making, or rather melting, glue. It is taken from Spon’s “ Workshop Receipts : ” “ Break the glue into small pieces, and soak from twelve to twenty- Becipe for four hours in cold water ; put the glue in the glue-pot, fill making glue - the outer vessel with water, and apply heat. For ordinary purposes it should run freely, and be of the consistency of thin treacle. The hotter glue is, the more force it will exert in keeping the two parts glued together ; in all large and long joints the glue should be applied immediately after boiling. Glue loses much of its strength by being often melted ; that glue, therefore, which is newly made is much preferable to that which has been used. When done with, add some of the boiling water from the outer vessel to the glue, so as to make it too thin for immediate use. Put it away till wanted again, and by the titne the water in the outer vessel is boiled the glue in the inner is ready melted and the proper thickness for use. Powdered chalk, brickdust, or saw-dust added to glue, will make it hold with more than ordinary firmness.” 313. In the above recipe everything is said that an amateur need know about glue, and how it should be used. A small brush used by painters, and usually called a sash tool, should be used Brush for for applying the glue. It is better not to keep it in the applying glue, glue in the pot ; but when it has been used, to soak it in boiling water, and then put it away in some safe place until it is again wanted for use. A serviceable glue-pot may be bought at from is. to 2s. 6d. ; good glue is from 9d. to is. per pound, and a glue-brush from 2^d. to 3d. 314. The amateur artisan will require an oil-can as well as a glue- pot, for he will often have occasion to use oil for one purpose or another. It is indispensable to him when he is sharpen- ing any edge-tool on the hone or oil-stone, and it is useful 0il ‘ can ' for oiling locks, and other similar purposes. In former days a phial bottle half filled with oil, with the quill end of a fine feather passed through the cork, so that the feather end may always be kept in the oil, and having a loop of string round its neck so that it may be hung up in the artisan’s shop ready for use, was the simple appliance by means of which the carpenter oiled his whetstone for sharpening his tools, and made locks, bolts, etc., work noiselessly and easily ; but this has been of late years superseded by the oil-can. 13 ^ Household Carpentry and Joinery. 315. The oil-can in its usual form very much resembles a funnel turned upside down, but instead of being open at the broad end it is Forms of furnished with a flexible bottom, which can be pressed oilcan. inwards. When pressed, the diminution of the space inside — the bulk of air that may be within the can remaining the same — causes a drop of oil to escape from the nozzle, after which the bottom returns outward with a short, sharp click. The nozzle is of brass, and is perforated length- wise, the hole being just large enough to admit of Fig. 130. goodenough oil-can. the passage of a bristle, or very fine wire. It screws into a brass cap, which forms part of the body of the can, and through which oil is poured when it is necessary to fill it. The price of an ordinary oil-can ranges from 6d. to is., according to size. A better form of the oil-can “Good- t0 found in the improved “Goodenough” Oiler, enough” oiler. so m by Messrs. Churchill and Co. This can is represented in fig. 130. It is compact, strong, and tight, and from its shape is suitable for carrying in the pocket. The body, or reservoir, is made of fine block-tin, flat like a watch, with flexible sides, which give it a double spring. The spout is of heavy brass to insure strength : it has a tight joint, and is tinned inside to prevent corrosion of oil. The brass cap is packed with hard leather, which presses against the outlet of the spout as the cap is screwed down, and effectually prevents leakage. Among other good points that this oil-can possesses, not the least is that, even if laid down with the nut off, it will not leak, unless pressed or jarred. The price of this handy and useful little oiler is d. 316. Although it does not come within the category of tools, yet as a useful aid to carpentry and joinery, especially to the latter, and to Sand paper or cabinet-making, sand-paper must be mentioned here. It glass-paper. j s c hi e fly used for imparting a smooth surface to wood cut against the grain, as in circular work, or in rubbing down the surface of joinery and cabinet work, and giving to it smoothness and softness. It is also used for other purposes, such as rubbing down coatings of paint, etc. For giving smoothness to wood, especially to rounded work, the keen edge of a piece of broken glass will be found useful. Sand-paper — or glass-paper as it is indifferently, but more correctly, called, as it is made of powdered glass strewn on the surface of coarse paper, which has been washed over with thin glue, or some other sub- Tools in Combination. *33 seance to which the powdered glass will adhere — is made in three different qualities, distinguishable by different numbers or letters according to the makers ; but which may be described here as fine, medium, and coarse. It is sold at } 4 d. per sheet, or iod. per quire of twenty-four sheets ; but glass-paper of the best quality, for cabinet work, costs is. per quire. 317. We must now turn our attention to tools in cojnbination , that is to say, to tools which are so contrived as to answer more purposes than one, like the general run of ordinary tools. The Toolg in chief of these is the combination saw, which has been Combination, described in section 233, and which may be used as a measure, a rule,, or a straight-edge, and a square as well as a saw. Such tools as these, are more suitable for amateurs’ use than for carpenters and joiners, inasmuch as they save the purchase of the tools whose work they do as well as their own special duty. Our counsel to the amateur, how- ever, is to avail himself of these tools, if he have a fancy for them, but on no account to refrain from purchasing the single and separate tools which are combined in the tool of many uses. Many of these tools have been produced of late years ; but we merely intend to speak of such of them here as may be more than usually useful to the amateur house-carpenter. Those which most commend themselves to notice are Boci7'dman y s Co7nbuiatio7i Wre7ich and the Pad or Pate7it Tool Ha7idle a7id Tools. To these may be added a useful little article for indoor use, called the Tack~ha77i77ier , Setter , and Puller combined. All these articles are supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co. 318. Boardman’s Combination Wrench is represented in fig. 131, in which part of the handle is removed to show the internal arrange- ments. This combination, indeed, comprises six useful tools, neatly and compactly arranged in a convenient Combination form for practical use. These tools are — a screw wrench Wrench ' or nut wrench (a), pipe wrench (b), hammer (c), nail claw (d), screw- driver (e), and bit handle or socket wrench (f). The sizes in which 134 Household Carpentry and Joinery. this instrument is made find its prices, according to size, are as follows : Nickel Length. Brights Plated, 4 % inches 3s. 2d 4s. 2d. 6 „ 4s. 2d. • 5s. 3d. Nickel Length. Bright. Plated. 8 inches 6s. 2d 7s. 6d. 10 ,, 8s. 4d 10s. od. 319. The pads or patent tool-handles with tools contained within, and varying in number from 12 to 20, are very useful. In fig. 132 is shown a strong and serviceable iron handle, and the kind Pads or patent tool-handles of tools that are stored within it, to be fitted, each and with tools. .... any as may be required, in the opening made for their reception at the end of the handle. The tools include bradawls and gimlets of various sizes, a scriber, countersinker or drill, screw-driver, and reamer. Sometimes the rose or round-headed countersinker is Fig. 132. PAD, OR PATENT TOOL HANDLE. added. The price of the iron handle with 12 tools is 2s. ; of one slightly larger with 20 tools, or of an apple-tree handle with the same number of tools, 3s. The price of a Turkey boxwood handle with 20 tools is 4s. ; and that of a handle also of boxwood, but fitted with an adjustable chuck, and containing 20 steel tools, 5s. These combina- tion tools are very handy for odd jobs about the house, and save looking up the ordinary tools, for which they are excellent substitutes. 320. While speaking of tool-handles , it may be well to say that if the amateur has the misfortune to break or otherwise injure his saw Handles for or P^ ane handle — we are supposing that he uses an various tools, ordinary wooden plane, — saw handles in beech can be bought of Messrs. Churchill and Co. for $d. and 6d. each, and in cherry for 7d. Jack-plane handles in beech cost 2d. each, and handles for trying or jointer planes, 3d. each. Tool handles for bradawls, with steel screw and nut with iron wrench, into which a new bradawl or awl of different size can be introduced at pleasure, cost 4d. each. Polished apple handles for firmer chisels are 2d. each, Dr 2s. per dozen ; larger handles assorted, 2s. 6d. per dozen. Tack Hammer , Setter, and Puller. *35 321. To return from this digression to the last combination tool that it is intended to mention here — the tack-hammer, setter, and puller combined (fig. 133). The following are the direc- tions for the use of the tool which costs but iod. : for mer, setter” setting tacks when putting down carpets, when it is too and puller * close to the wall or skirting-board to hold the tack with the fingers, with one hand spring the jaw open, and with the other hand place in the tack as represented in the cut, and with one good blow, stick, or partly drive the tack. This operation requires a very little practice, care being taken to take the hammer off quickly, as the force of the blow throws the jaw open, to release the tack, and if taken off with the rebound it will not have time to grasp it again. F or driving, use in the same FlG> x 33- TACK hammer. way as any hammer. To draw a tack, place the jaws astride the tack with the foot lever just touching the floor, with the handle of the tool straight up. Press down sufficiently to get a good hold of the tack, and then pull horizontally. This operation brings out the tack perfectly straight. It must be remembered that this tool is meant for pulling out tacks only, and not for pulling out nails. 322. The various tools that are used in cutting and fashioning wood into different forms, or at least such of them as are really necessary to the amateur, in the ordinary operations of Carpentry and Artloles f Joinery have now been described; but before quitting this part of our subject, it will be necessary to speak together, briefly of the articles used for fastening pieces of wood together other than glue. These articles are nails of different kinds, screws of different sizes, and pegs of wood. 323. Let us take the pegs first. It is possible that most men know that the planks that form the outer skin or covering of wooden ships are fastened to the oaken ribs by bolts of copper or tree- . . , , . „ Wooden pegs nails, which, as the name implies, are long pieces of ana tree- wood, roughly rounded and driven with an iron bound mallet into holes which have been bored through planks and into ribs by an auger. The use of tree-nails on a smaller scale is desirable in fastening the component pieces of all framed work, such as 136 Household Carpentry and Joinery . f 0 c r 1 3 © / 3 IT A 1 Fig. 134. MORTISE & TENON. doors, windows, etc., and uprights and horizontal pieces mortised and tenoned into one another. Nails and screws must never be used in sashes and doors, though mortise and tenon work in tise and rough framing may be secured by nails, which are generally driven in aslant. This mode of driving in nails is termed “skew-nailing.” In fig. 134, in which the end of the upright A is mortised into the horizontal piece B, the fastening is e F made by means of pegs, holes being first made at C and D, through the horizontal timber B, and the tenon of the upright A, into which pegs are driven. The pegs should be made of red deal. It is obvious that if it be required to make any alteration in consequence of the work not being perfectly square, or if it is desired to take it to pieces at any time, the pegs can be bored out with a gimlet or bit and brace, and the tenon drawn out of the mortise without injury. When there is no likelihood of this, and it is desired to make the work as firm Wedges in anc * secure as possible, the end of the tenon is split cross- tenon. w j se w j t j 1 a chisel as at E and F, and two small wedges are driven in. This has the effect of pressing the ends of the tenon so tightly against the mortise-hole in which the tenon is placed, that it is a matter of the greatest difficulty to withdraw it, if it can be done at all. The rails of doors and horizontal pieces of sash frames are tightly fixed in the uprights in this manner. Wherever it is prac- ticable in carpentry and joinery, the amateur artisan is recommended to put his work together with wooden pegs. 324. There are many kinds of nails in general use, distinguished by various names and by variety of form. The sorts to which the Nails : their attention of the amateur must be directed, as these will varieties. ^ e na ii s which he will chiefly use at various times, are : brads, cut nails, clasp nails, rose nails, clout nails, lath nails, tacks, and French nails. There are others, but as it is doubtful if he will ever require them, it is next to useless to mention them. It must be remembered that we are now speaking of nails used in carpentry and joinery. Fancy nails and studs used in ornamental work and upholstery, such as nailing a slip of leather or leather cloth to the edge of a book-shelf, or a piece of fringe to a mantel-board, will be mentioned in connection with work of this kind. 325. Brads are, for the most part, long thin nails, tapering slightly from the head to the point, which is blunt, and having a slight projec- tion on one side of the head only. The general form is shown at A Brads and Cut Nails. i37 Brads Floor brads. in fig. 135, and the amateur must bear in mind that in these illus- trations of nails it is only intended to show him the different types, as it were, of these nails, and to help him to dis- tinguish them one from the other when he sees them before him. Of brads there are many different kinds : there is the joiners' cut brad) used in joinery and ordinary cabinet making, vary- joiners’ ing in size from y* inch to 2 inches ; and the flooring cut brads * brad)?L coarse heavy brad about inches long, used in nailing down flooring to the joists on which it rests. These brads are made in various weights per thousand, and are distinguished by the number of pounds that a thousand weigh : thus there are iolbs., I2lbs., I4lbs.. floor brads, and so on. The brad used in fine cabinet making is somewhat lighter and slighter than the joiners’ cut brad, but in other ^ respects they are similar. There is another kind of brad without any head, sometimes used by gla- ziers to fix panes of glass before the putty is ap- plied ; and a third variety used by pattern makers, etc., in which the head projects slightly beyond Big *35- NAILS 0F various kinds. the body of the nail on all sides. Being light, thin, and slightly tapering, brads do not split the wood into which they are driven. 326. The cut nail is a coarsely made common kind of nail, with a rough head projecting slightly on two opposite sides, as shown at B, It may be bought in lengths varying from % inch to 6 inches in length, and even more, at 2d. per lb., though 2^d. or 3d. , s Cut nails, is sometimes charged by the retail dealer, especially for the smaller sizes. The writer has been asked as much as 5d. per pound for cut nails, and in consequence has left the shop without buying, a course which his readers are recommended to follow, as there is no difficulty whatever in finding men who are content with a legitimate profit, instead of coveting at least 100 per cent, more than they are entitled to. The cut nail is useful for all kinds of ordinary work in which the nail is to be driven straight into the wood, but it must be remembered that they will not clench, or, in other words, that the end or point cannot be turned by the hammer and driven into the wood so as to prevent withdrawal. 138 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 327. It is different, however, with the clasp nail figured at C, which, being a wrought nail and made of malleable iron, can be turned and clenched. There are strong clasp nails and fine clasp Clasp nails. 1 r nails ; the latter, which weigh from 2lbs. to 61bs. per thousand, being used in joinery, while the heavier and longer kinds are more suitable for carpentry. The nail is so called because through the peculiar barb-like form of the head it clasps the fibre of the wood into which it is driven as soon as it meets it, and carries it down in its grasp leaving a somewhat large and ragged hole. This kind of nail can be easily driven down level with the surface without the aid of a punch by reason of the conical form of its head, but if it is desired to bury the head the punch must be used. 328. The rose ?iail is a wrought nail with a round head, projecting upwards in the centre, in the form shown at D. The body of the nail is broad, and less in depth or thickness than in width. Rose nails. Sometimes they are made with broad flat points, and sometimes with sharp points ; these nails maybe clenched. They are made in two varieties, namely, fine rose and strong rose. The best nails of this description appear to be those made by J. J. Cordes and Co., of Dos Works , Newport , Monmouthshire . The flat-pointed fine rose nails made by this firm range from iin.to 3>£in. in length, the strong rose, also flat pointed, from to 4m. The best rose with sharp points range in length from 1 ^in. to 3m., as do the best Canada and fine clasp, both sharp-pointed varieties, made by this firm. These nails are sometimes called “ Ewbank’s nails,” from the late Mr. Ewbank, formerly a member of the firm who introduced them into Australia about 1838, where they are still much used and highly valued. 329. The clout 7 iail is shown at E. It has a broad flat head, and a round shank or body terminating in a sharp point. Like most of the nails already described, they are distinguished as fine clouts Clout nails. and strong clouts. Their peculiar form renders them well adapted for nailing iron-work or sheet iron to wood, as the broad head keeps the metal in close proximity to the wood, and cannot break through it as a nail with a smaller head would. Iron nails Iron nails, un- ... , , fit for nailing must on no account be used for nailing zinc to wood-work, as the galvanic action set up by the contact of the two metals, especially when wetted by rain, dew, etc., will soon destroy the zinc all round the head of the nail. 330. At F the form of the lath nail is shown, used for nailing laths to quartering for partitions of lath and plaster. The thin shank easily French Tacks and Nails: Screws. i39 Lath nails. penetrates the lath, and if the lath splits when the nail is driven through it, the two parts are held down to the quartering by the pro- jecting head of the naiL It is not likely that the amateur will do much, if anything, with lath nails ; but as it is possible, though far from probable, that he may wish to try his hand at repairing a damaged partition or ceiling, the proper nails to be used are pointed out here. 331. At G and H are shown the difference between the ordinary iron 01 tinned tack (h) and the French tack (g), which is merely a small variety of French nail. The common tack is coarse and clumsy in Iron tackSi make, and is never used in carpentry, except to nail some a ta ^ r ®^ h textile fabric such as canvas, hessian, or the material — nails * a fine kind of canvas — used for the sides of meat-safes, etc., to a frame- work of wood. The distinguishing qualities of the French tack and the French nail, which is shown at K, are a round head, flat at the top or upper surface and conical below, until the body of the nail is reached. The body or shank is of uniform thickness throughout, except at the extremity, where it is fashioned into a point. Just below the head the body of the nail is ridged or grooved transversely on all sides, thus giving the nail additional power of holding to the wood. French nails are generally round, but there is a square variety, sometimes seen in wooden cases and boxes from abroad. They vary in length from J^in. to 4m., and are sold at prices ranging from 6d. per pound for the smallest sorts to 2j£d. per pound for the largest, the price being less per pound in proportion as the nails get larger and consequently fewer to the pound. 332. The amateur will readily understand that it is far more profit- able for him to buy nails and screws in large quantities, if he uses a great many in the course of the year. The following is a prices of resumd of the prices of nails per pound per thousand, or per dozen, as specified : nails. Fine Wire Brads.. per. lb. from 6id. to 8d. Rose Head Wroght. per. lb. from ad. to IS. Joiners’ Fne Ct. do. »» 1000 ,, 1 id. „ 8d. Clout Fine Wroght. 99 9 9 99 6d. » iod. Floor Brads „ lb. „ 2d. ,, — Lath Nails, Best Cut 9 9 99 99 2|d. „ — » >» „ cwt. „ 11/6 „ — Tacks, Cut Common ,, IOOO rid. »» 5 d. Clasp Nails Fne Ct. „ lb. ,, 2d. „ — French Tacks „ lb. 99 5 d. » 8d. » >> ••• ... „ cwt. „ 12/0 „ — ,, Wire Nails V doz. 99 2id. »» 6d. Rese Head Cut ... >> lb* , , 2d. „ — Fancy Brass-hd. Nls. 99 2d. ft 6d. 333. The form of the screw is well-known. The principle on which it is constructed is exhibited in the annexed illustration, and it will be sufficient to give a drawing of one screw only, as the Screws . the ir differences in varieties of the screw from the original type forms ' can be easily described. At A in fig. 136 the screw is shown before 140 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 136. screw. it is cut, when it is in the form of a conical-headed, blunt-pointed nail with a shaft of very nearly the same width from top to bottom, but tapering slightly as it approaches the extremity. At B the screw is shown after a spiral thread has been cut in it from the extremity to about two-thirds of its length in an upward direction. A nick is then sawn or filed across the top to receive the end of the screwdriver and the screw is ready for use. 334. The principle of the screw, as it has been said, is precisely the same in all. In the wooden Principle Of screw a dee P V shaped groove the screw, taken out instead of a broad flat groove which leaves merely a spiral thread winding up the shaft of the screw ; and this form is adopted for the smith’s screw used in fastening to- gether the plates and pieces of a stove or kitchen range. This form is shown in fig. 137. Screws are made in all sizes from l /%\r\. to 9m. long, and each size is made in Fig. 137. var i° us thicknesses to suit different kinds of work and dif- TH screw? f ferent purposes. Considering, then, the range in length and number of thicknesses in each size it is manifest that there are several Prices of score °f different sizes from which the purchaser must screws. ma ke his selection according to circumstances. Screws vary in prices from y£d. per dozen ^in. in length, to is. 9d. per dozen 9in. in length, or by the gross from 3^2 d. to 19s. 335. Round-headed screws are made for fastening the plates of bolts and rim locks to doors. The under part of the head in these has the „ „ , „ ^ form of a square shoulder which, when the screw is driven screws. home, fits flat against the bolt plate or lock, as the case may be. The head rises from the flat shoulder in a semicircular form, and a deep nick is cut into the rounded head to receive the screw- driver. As there is little bearing for the screwdriver, these screws should be turned in with a strong bradawl or very narrow screwdriver, for when a wide one is used the nick of the screw is apt to get damaged Brass and broken away. Brass screws are made for fastening screws. brass plates to metal. The screws used for fastening Handles of doors to the bar, or spindle by which the catch of the lock is turned, are headless, the nick being cut into the blunt end or top of the screw. Sometimes, when the screw is very long and thin, it tapers much more from head to point than in fig. 136. How to drive Screws: Bolts and Nuts. 141 336. When using screws care should be taken to bore a hole with a bradawl, if the wood be soft enough, for the entrance of the screw, and to guide its passage into the wood. The diameter of Holes for the bradawl used should be somewhat less than the reception of diameter of the screw. A larger bradawl may be used to enlarge the hole at the entrance so as to diminish the friction of the wood against the screw, and vice versa. That a screw may be easily withdrawn, if requisite, the amateur artisan should keep a small tin box filled with grease or tallow by him, into which ^ Greasing the end and part of the shank should be plunged before screws before driving. the screw is inserted. Carpenters and joiners have a very bad trick of putting screws into their mouth, or between the lips, and keeping them there while they are screwing them in one by one. This makes the screw rusty, and difficult to withdraw. Therefore, 1. Never , on a?iy account whatever , put a screw that is about to be used into the mouth. 2. Always grease the e 7 id of a screw before it is put into the wood , etc . It may be observed that in driving a screw into wood the screwdriver is always turned inwards towards the left, while in drawing it out it is turned outwards towards the right. 337. Bolts and nuts are of various forms and sizes ; they are dis- tinguished by the form of the head and neck. The principle on which they are made is the same in all cases, being an Bolts and iron cylinder, of uniform diameter from top to bottom, nuts * having a head either flat or rounded, rising from a flat shoulder or surface, placed transversely to the axis of the bolt, and touching the wood or other material against which it is brought to bear at every point. At the end remote from the head a V shaped or bevelled thread is cut, the angle at which the thread is inclined being very small. The screw end enters a nut or square block of metal, with a hole in the centre, also threaded to re- ceive the screw of the bolt. This kind of screw, when cut round the sides of a circular orifice, is technically called a “ female screw.” In Fig. 138 fig* T 3 S a very common form of bolt is represented, bolt and nut. with a round neck, and a rounded or semi-circular head. The same kind of head is sometimes fitted to a square neck, and sometimes the head is square or hexagonal, or in the form of a circular disc as thick at the edges as in the middle. It is almost unnecessary to add that the nut must be turned or worked up the screw with a small wrench or spanner.. Female screw. 142 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 338. Excellent nails, screws, bolts, etc., of the best quality in all sizes, and at moderate prices, as the writer can testify from experience, can always be obtained from Mr. Melhuish, Tool Manu- Where to 0et good nails, factiirer and Builders' Ironmonger , 85 and 87, Fetter Lane , Lo 7 idon , E.C. Mr. Melhuish also supplies tools of all kinds, hinges, and every description of ironmongery for house- hold purposes that may be needed by the amateur, and American locks, brackets, etc., etc., imported direct from the best American manufacturers of this class of goods. 339. The prices of tools separately have been given under each head ; but as many amateur artisans may desire to buy their tools in Tool-boxes for a tool-box fitted to receive them, the following amateurs. \\ s t 0 f tool-chests, with their contents, calculated to suit the requirements and pockets of all, from the man of very limited means to him who can afford to spend as much as he may choose on any particular hobby, will be found useful. In every case the tools are of the best quality, and selected with care, and with a view to the peculiar wants of the amateur. Any tool may be omitted or ex- changed for another, when a corresponding reduction will be made in price, when necessary. The chests are made of good and well- seasoned pine or oak, French polished, strongly dove-tailed together, and fitted with brass lock, knobs, and handles of the best quality. The size in each case is exclusive of lids and mouldings. Oak chests are supplied to order by Mr. Melhuish at prices as under, the price for a pine chest in each case being somewhat lower. No. 1. 16 inches , £ 1 4J. 6d. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet Rule Pincers 2 Gimlets l 2 Bradawls Chisel Gouge 3 Files Oil-stone Marking Awls Punch Turnscrew Spokeshave I Square Claw Wrench j Furniture, etc. No. 2. 17 inches , £1 12 s. 6d. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet and Rule Pincers 3 Gimlets 3 Bradawls 2 Chisels 1 Gouge 3 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl Punch Turnscrew Spokeshave Square I Claw Wrench Pliers 1 Compasses ! Furniture, etc. No. 3. 18 inches , £2 2 s. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet Rule 1 Pincers 1 Marking Awl Punch 2 Turnscrews Spokeshave ; Square Claw Wrench 3 Gimlets 3 Bradawls 1 3 Chisels j 2 Gouges 3 Files Oil-stone Pliers Compasses Lock-saw Plane Furniture, etc. No. 4. . 19 inches , £2 12s. 6d. Hand-saw Hatchet Hammer Mallet Rule Pincers 4 Gimlets 4 Bradawls 4 Chisels 2 Gouges 3 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl Punch 2 Turnscrews | Spokeshave Square Claw Wrench Pliers Compasses Lock-saw Plane Marking Gauge Glue-pot & brush Furniture, etc. Tool Chests of Various Kinds. i43 No. 5. 20 inches , £3 5*. Hand-saw 5 Gimlets Marking Awl Pliers Axe 5 Bradawls Punch Compasses Hammer 5 Chisels 2 Turnscrews Lock-saw Mallet 3 Gouges Spokeshave Plane Rule 4 Files Square Marking Gauge Pincers Oil-stone Claw Wrench Glue-pot & brush Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper Bevel Furniture, etc. No. 6. 21 inches , £ 4 . 2 Saws Axe 2 Hammers Mallet Rule Pincers 6 Gimlets 6 Bradawls 6 Chisels 4 Gouges Lock-saw Smoothing-plane Jack-plane Marking Gauge Glue-pot & brush 4 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl 2 Punches 3 Turnscrews 2 Spokeshaves Square Claw Wrench Pliers Compasses Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper Bevel Furniture, etc. No. 7. 22 inches , £4 14 s. 6d. 3 Saws Axe 2 Hammers Mallet and Rule 4 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl i 2 Punches 3 Turnscrews Hand-vice 2 Spokeshaves Square | Claw Wrench j Pliers : Compasses Pincers 6 Gimlets | 6 Bradawls 6 Chisels 4 Gouges Lock Saw Smoothing-lpane Jack do. 2 Gauges Glue-pot & brush Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper Bevel Furniture, etc. No. 8. 23 inches , £$ 10 s. 3 Saws and Axe 2 Hammers Mallet and Rule Pincers 6 Gimlets 6 Bradawls 1 6 Chisels 4 Gouges 4 Files Oil-stone Marking Awl 3 Punches 3 Turnscrews Bed Key Hand-vice 2 Spokeshaves Square Claw Wrench 2 Pliers Compasses Lock-saw Smoothing-plane Jack do. 3 Gauges Glue-pot & brush Drawing-knife Cutting Punch Scraper & Bevel Chalk Line Reel Furniture, etc. iVb. 9. 24 inches , ^6 12J. 6^., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 1 File I 2 Mortise Chisels j x Coach Wrench Many of the tools in this and the following sizes are, of course, larger and of better quality than similar tools in the smaller boxes. No. 10. 25 inches , £8, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 1 Hammer 1 2 Chisels I 2 Files . I 1 Coach Wrench I 1 Brace j 12 Bits for Brace | 2 Mortise Chisels | Cutting Nippers | No. 11. 1 Hammer 3 Gimlets 26 inches , j£io, contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — [ 3 Bradawls I 3 Chisels j Saw Set I 2 Files i Coach Wrench I Spring Dividers 1 Brace 18 Bits for Brace Bench-vice I 2 Mortise Chisels Cutting Nippers No. 12. 27 inches , £\2. ioj., contains in addition to the tools named in No. 8 — 2 Hammers 2 Gouges 1 Brace Nipper Pliers { 1 Mallet 5 Files 24 Bits for Brace Hand Shears 6 Gimlets 1 Turnscrew Anvil& Beck'Iron Spring Dividers 6 Bradawls Square Saw Set Coach Wrench 6 Chisels Compasses Cutting Nippers Chipping Chisels | Spring Oil-can 3 Socket Chisels 3 Mortise Chisels Bench-vice T urng. -ss.w&frm. CHAPTER V. SHARPENING TOOLS : THE WAYS AND MEANS EMPLOYED. Cutting Tools must be Sharp — Modes of Sharpening Tools — Itinerant Saw-setter — Amateur should learn to Sharpen Tools — Form of Teeth of Saw — Saws should be kept Greased — How to open Teeth of Saw — The Saw'-set : its Action — Hart’s “ Patent Saw-set ” — Useful contrivance for Saw-setting — Vice for holding Saw — Edge-tools should not be trusted to knife-grinders — Grindstones — Useful Grind- stones for Amateurs — Directions for grinding Edge Tools — Gouges — Planes and Chisels — Remarks on the Bevel — Grinding Adze or Axe — The Oil-stone : how to use it — Size desirable for Oil-stones — Turkey Stones — Washita Stones — Prices of Oil-stones — Lubricants for Oil-stone — Position of Tool — Guides : why un- desirable — Position of arm, hand, etc. — Sharpening Tools by immersion in Acids — Remarks on this process — Artificial Grindstones — To remove Rust from Tools — To extract Rust from Steel — Preventives against Rust — To prevent Tools from Rusting — Varnish to prevent Rust. 340. To do any kind of work in Carpentry and Joinery with blunted tools in a creditable and workman-like manner is simply impossible, „ 1U , _ and it is because in nine cases out of ten that the amateur Cutting tools must be neglects to sharpen his saws and edge tools when they Bharp. require it, that his work is so often done with difficulty, and presents anything but a satisfactory appearance when done. The professional carpenter and joiner will frequently stop in his work to put his plane-iron and chisel on the oil-stone — for he is well aware of the importance of having a keen edge to all cutting tools of this description — and he will take care to keep his saws sharpened and fit for use. It is necessary that the amateur artisan should imitate the regular mechanic in this essential duty of keeping his tools in a fit condition to do the work that is required of them ; and while he is learning how to manage various operations in carpentry and joinery and how to use his tools, he must also learn how to sharpen them when necessary. 341. Of course all cutting tools must be provided with a keen edge, and this is obtained by grinding them to a proper bevel on the grind- Modes of stone an ^ afterwards rubbing them on the oil-stone. Among sharpening striking tools the adze and hatchet will require sharpening on the grindstone, and, if necessary, a keener edge may be given by finishing off by rubbing the edge with a slip or small piece Saw-setting : Form of Teeth of Saw. U5 of oil-stone. Among rasping tools , all kinds of saws will require sharpening at times, and this must be effected principally by means of the saw-file. If the cutting edge of a bradawl be injured in any way it may be repaired and rendered sharp and even by filing. 342. Let us first inquire into the method of sharpening a saw. It is possible for an amateur to get this done for him by some jobbing carpenter when his saws grow dull, or by any itinerant Itinerart saw-setter, who goes his regular round at intervals with Saw-setcer his bench and files, and whose chief customers are the butchers. It is better, however, that he should learn to do the work himself than trust to another. It is far better to be independent of Amateur another’s aid in all operations of this kind, for when a B to°simrpen U man can do these things for himself the necessary work tools ’ can be done at any time, whereas when the services of another must be invoked, the helped must await the convenience and coming of the helper, often to his serious detriment. 343. A saw seems a very simple thing, but it is surprising how few can sharpen and “set” a saw when it is a little out of order. If the amateur will look along the teeth of any saw used for Form of cutting wood, that happens to be in good order, he will teeth of saw * see that they do not lie straight, but that each tooth is bent outwards a little, either to the right or to the left, and that every other tooth is bent in the same direction ; in short, the line of teeth will present an appearance similar to the annexed figure (fig. 139), which is rather exaggerated, for the sake of clearer from, and b the part nearest, the handle. If a line be drawn from point to point on each side of the diagram, it will be seen that they enclose a space of some width, wider, in fact, than the sheet of metal of which the saw is made. By frequent use these points get dulled and worn away, and the space is consequently diminished, and the operator finds it a difficult matter to get the saw through the wood in consequence of the increased friction between the wood and the saw-blade. To work pleasantly the blade of the saw should be thinner towards the back than it is at the edge, that is to say, in all kind of saws but tenon saws, whose back is strengthened by a bar of iron or brass to impart the necessary stiffness to the blade. The blade should also be kept well Saws should be kept greased that it may not contract rust, which is detn- greased mental to its working, as the amateur may find from experience, 10 illustration. In this figure, a is the point of the saw or part farthest FlG. I39. TEETH OF SAW. 146 Household Carpentry and Joinery . 344. Now in sharpening a saw, the first thing to be done is to recover the original width between the points by bending the teeth How to open outwards, alternate teeth being bent in contrary directions, teeth of saw. ^ saw-setter will set the teeth with a peculiar kind of hammer, striking every other tooth with unerring aim and surprising celerity, and then turning the saw over and repeating the operation on the remaining teeth. Great practice is of course necessary to do it with certainty, and the amateur is not recommended to attempt it. If he try his hand at it he will, without doubt, knock out several teeth, which will not at all improve the rasping or cutting power of the saw. 345. What, then, is the amateur to do ? He must have recourse to what is called a saw-set , an instrument of the shape shown in fig. 140* The saw-set : which consists of a round shaft formed like a turnscrew its actions. at one en( ^ an( j terminating in a broad thick blade at the other, on either side of which are cut three or more deep nicks of different widths. Now if the saw be placed in a saw- vice — or between _ two boards, so constructed that the j — __ 3 - 1 ^ a saw can be held lightly between them, with the teeth uppermost — the teeth can be bent to the right or "Lull Fig. 140. saw set. left, as may be requisite, with the saw-set ; each tooth being held in turn in the nick whose width will admit it most accommodatingly, and then bent by a slight pressure of the hand on the shaft of the saw-set. The difficulty here is in regulating the depth to which the tooth is buried _ , in the nick, and the pres- FlG. 141. HARTS PATENT SAW SET. _ . _ . sure which is applied. Occasionally the strain will be too great, and the amateur will have to experience the disappointment of snapping off a tooth. This may Hart’s be obviated by the use of Hart’s “ Patent Saw-set,” sold Saw-set.” Messrs. Churchill and Co., which is shown in fig. 141. This powerful but simple saw-set is made of the best malleable iron, except the set-lever, which is of the best cast-steel, properly tempered. To use it, the operator must first adjust the brass gauge to the tooth to be set, and then adjust the top till the gauge rests solidly on the saw-blade. It will oe readily seen that more or less set can be given to the saw by turning the set screw on top Contrivance for Saw-setting. *47 up or down. The ordinary saw-set costs from 9d. to is. 3d.; the patent saw-set is more expensive, the 7% inch set with sirgle lever costing 2s. 8d. If fitted with a compound lever, a set of the same length cost 3s. 6d. ; and a larger 10 inch set, also with compound lever, costs 6s. 8d. 346. The following contrivance for the purpose of setting saws, which was invented by a practical workman, and used by himself and others to whom he showed it, has been found to answer its pur- _ , „ _ _ _ _ . Useful con- pose perfectly well. In fig. 142, A shows the front View trivancefor , , . , _ . . _ , _ , . saw-setting, and B the side view of this useful apparatus. It has the merit of being exceedingly simple — so simple, indeed, and easy of construction that the amateur may easily make one for himself. The part marked A is made of wood, B is a steel punch working in a slide. This punch is cut down to half the thickness and chamfered down , as will be seen by referring to C and D, which are enlarged views of this punch. A cubical block of steel shown at e fits into a hole made for its recep- tion in the part A. The edges of the block are chamfered or bevelled off to correspond with the chamfer of the punch, . . . , „ , — § ! E ! / \ j and each edge has a ? A 1 ; f 1 W different chamfer to suit different saws. The action of this apparatus is as fol- Fig 142. contrivance for saw setting. lows : — Supposing the amateur wanted to set his hand-saw — put the coarsest bevel of the steel block under the punch, lay the saw flat upon the block with one tooth under the punch. Give the punch a slight tap with a hammer. Serve every other tooth the same ; turn the saw over, and repeat the operation. It is obvious that the teeth will take the same inclination outwards, as the bevel of the block and punch. After setting a saw it must be sharpened. For this end hold it in the vice with the teeth upwards, and with a saw yice for hold- file, give the teeth, if a handsaw, a shape like that shown in s saw * at F ; if a compass saw, a shape similar to G ; and if a tenon-saw, the shape shown at H, taking care to file the teeth a little angular, as in %• 1 39 ) showing the set of the teeth of a saw in page 145, and not straight across. 347. With regard to the vice in which the saw must be held while L ; “■*' E F G H 148 Household Carpentry and Joinery. being filed, one of convenient construction is shown in fig. 143. This saw-filer’s vice may be obtained from Messrs. Churchill and Co. for 6s. Its jaws are 9m. long, and it is jointed near the bench, by means of which the jaws can be thrown back- ward or forward at plea- sure. The amateur, who cannot afford such ap- pliances, may manage to hold his saw for the pro- cess of filing by means of his bench screw, which will be described in con- nection with the carpen- ter’s bench. All that he has to do is to place a piece of }4in. board some- what less in width than the saw near the handle, on each side of the saw, and then screw wood and saw tightly against the side of the bench with the bench screw. The piece of wood on the inside will keep the handle from touching the bench, if the saw be placed within the bench screw so that the handle is towards the right hand of the operator as he tightens the screw. Different saw files should be used for different kinds of saws. A tenon-saw file costs 3d., a file for a panel saw 3}£d., for a hand-saw 4d., and for a rip saw 6d. 348. For sharpening or rather for grinding edge tools such as plane irons and chisels, the amateur must provide himself with a good grind- _ „ A , stone. And here the opportunity must be taken to caution Edge tools rr J should not him against trusting his tools to itinerant knife-grinders be trusted 00 to knife- and tinmen, who will in all probability spoil plane-iron or grinders. chisel, and render it utterly unfit for use. The reason, for the most part,* is that they do not understand the work as regards tools of this description, and so make a mess of it. The edge of the plane-iron or chisel when ground and rubbed on the oil-stone should be a straight line as true and even between its extreme points as it is possible to make it. It stands to reason that if a plane-iron be in any Fig. 143. SAW FILER'S VICE. Useful Grindstone for Amateurs . 149 other condition than this as regards its edge, it will not touch the surface of a piece of wood alike at all parts of its edge, and the result will be that the surface will be taken off somewhat deeper in some parts than others, if it be possible to work at all with a tool in such a condition. The writer has had a plane-iron returned to him by an itinerant knife-grinder in a state that might be described in heraldic language as wavy , and chisels finished off with a slight bevel on either side after the fashion of a turnscrew. 349. Grindstones can be purchased in many different sizes, and fitted up in many various ways. It is not desirable to have too small a grind- stone for grinding plane iron, chisels, etc. ; the best size for Grindstones< the amateur is from 12 inches to 18 inches in diameter, and from 2% inches to 3 inches in width. The commonest form of fitting up is to rest each end of the axle of the grindstone on two parallel and horizontal bars supported on legs. The axle is prevented from jumping out of the grooves in which it is laid by iron loops or staples, and at one end it is square so as to receive the loop of a winch-handle, or handle shaped like the letter L, by which it is turned by one person while another applies the iron to be ground to the stone. It is most likely, however, that the amateur will be alone when at work, and it will therefore be desirable for him to have a grindstone so placed that it can be turned by grindstone the foot of the operator, by means of a crank and treadle, amateurs. It is a good plan to have one end of the axle made into a crank for the treadle, and the other end squared to take an ordinary winch handle, as he can then avail himself of the aid of another in turning the stone, when opportunity offers. Useful stones are made with an iron frame and trough to hold water, and of such a size that they may be placed on the carpenter’s bench. These are fitted with a telescope treadle, in some cases that they may be worked by the foot. Sometimes the grindstone is fitted with multiplying wheels; so that a considerable speed may be attained, as in the multiplying reel used by the fly-fisherman In fig. 144 is shown a grindstone placed on an ordinary bench, and with a crank and treadle. A is a trough in which water is kept during the operation, but as soon as the work is done the water should be poured away, as a stone should never be left to soak in water. The ends of the trough are raised so as to furnish a rest on which to steady the tool while grinding, as shown at B. It is better, however, to have a strong metal rest attached to the trough or framework by which the grindstone is sustained, in such a manner that the part on which the tool rests can be brought nearer 150 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the stone, as at C. In some frames the trough is hinged at one end so that it can be raised or lowered at pleasure, so that when the trough is lowered the stone does not touch the water. Care must be taken that the stone is mounted in such a manner as to run truly, other- wise it is absolutely useless, and no tools can be properly ground on it. Grindstones, with and without frames, may be had at all prices from 6d. to 25s., though in some cases the nature of the frame on which the stone is mounted renders the price Fig 144. grindstone and trough, higher than the limit here given. The grinding surface of the stone must be kept level, otherwise it will be impossible to impart a straight edge to any plane iron or chisel. 350. The author of “The Amateur Mechanic’s Workshop” gives the following directions for grinding edge tools, which the amateur will do well to follow implicitly, as it is given by a Directions . _ , r ^ . TT & / £ r for grinding practical workman of great experience. He says : “ In plane irons. g r j nc p n g p] ane i r0 ns, chisels, and similar tools, the stone should turn towards the operator , and the tool should be held very firmly and quite squarely upon the stone, at a point sufficiently near its upper part to allow the tool to be in a nearly horizontal position, while its bevel lies flat upon it. If it is held too low, so that its handle points downwards, the water from the stone will run down the hands and arms, which is decidedly disagreeable, especially in winter. In addition the tool cannot be so firmly held nor the work so readily seen. Gouges Gouges may be ground in a similar position, or (which is more easy and less likely to damage the stone) at right angles to it, z.e., in the same direction as the axle ; they must be rolled backwards and forwards as the operation proceeds. Keep the edges of the stone in use by constantly travelling the tool across its face, and never try to hurry the work by grinding to a more obtuse bevel than that made by the manufacturer. This is, indeed, generally rather more obtuse than it ought to be, and carpenters reduce this angle, and then the second bevel, formed by the oil-stone, restores it Planes and correc ^y* In grinding planes and chisels, especially the Chisels. first, it i s as we ll f or th e amateur to make use of a square to test the correctness of the edge, otherwise the latter may not be truly at right angles to the side of the tool.” Grinding Chisels, etc.: The Oil-stone. 151 F 1 s E m B J1 D | S D nr / C Fig. 145. 351. A little explanation with regard to the bevel maybe useful. In 1, in fig. 145, is shown the manufacturer’s bevel, that is to say, the slope at which the plane-iron or chisel is bevelled when Remarks on ground by the manufacturer. The angle A B c is a very the bevel, obtuse angle, and the angle B A D is a very acute one. In 2, c BA remains the same as far as the point A ; but the bevel is rendered less obtuse by making the part from A to F slope at a different inclination by rubbing the iron on the oil-stone. This, of course, has the effect of making the angle A F D less acute than the angle B A D in 1. In 3 is shown the effects of bad grinding ; during the process the tool has not been held firmly and flatly against the grindstone, and the slope from the thickest part of the iron to the point has assumed a slightly rounded form. Lastly, in 4 is shown, in an exaggerated form, the proper effect that should be produced when the tool is held firmly against the grindstone through- out the whole length of the bevel. As may be supposed, the surface produced is slightly concave, or somewhat hollow, corresponding to the convexity of the grindstone at any part of its circumference. Of course the larger the grindstone the less will be this convexity. When the tool has been rubbed on the oil-stone a part of the hollow from A to F is taken away, while that from A to B remains. Practically speaking, the effect produced is the same as that shown in 2. 352. In grinding an axe or an adze, the edge of the tool is traversed across the face of the grindstone until the notches have been taken out, and the edge is clean and clear from one point to Grinding adza another. If it be desired to make the tool very keen in or axe. edge, recourse must be had to a slip of stone with which the edge must be rubbed until the tool is sharpened to the satisfaction of the operator. 353. The oil-stone is constantly needed during all operations in Carpentry and Joinery in which the plane and the chisel is called into use. It is, indeed, wanted far more frequently than the The oil-stone ■ grindstone, for this is only brought into use when the bow to us© it. edge of the tool is altogether too dull to be sharpened by the oil-stone. There are two things to be taken into consideration here, namely, the nature of the oil-stone and the manner of using it, or rather, of applying the iron to it. Oil-stones are generally sold in a box, that is to say, the stone is set in a piece of wood that its sur- 152 Household Carpentry and Joinery. face is perfectly level, and over it a loose cover is fitted, made of tht same kind of wood, which preserves it from dust and injury when out of use. The oil-stone, as set in wood and provided with a cover is shown in fig. 146. 354. The most serviceable sized oil-stone for the amateur is one about 2in. wide and Sin. or 9m. long, and if one can be pro- size desirable cure d that is a little wider it should be taken in preference for oil-stones. t0 a narrower one. A stone should be neither too hard nor too soft, as a soft stone will soon wear, while a hard stone grinds slowly, and through the iron not biting fairly on its surface, some time is taken in putting a good edge to it, that is to say, an edge of the necessary fineness, smoothness, and keen- Fig. 146. oil-stone in box. ness. Sometimes, too, a stone is met with which has a hard spot in it, over which the tool slips, and as the rest of the stone wears away the hard spot forms a rounded protuberance, rising slightly above the level of the other part. On such a stone as this it is impossible to sharpen a tool properly. Turkey Turkey stones are considered to be the best, and they are stones. so undoubtedly when they are really good, and next to these in quality are the Arkansas stones. Washita stones, another Washita variety of American oil-stones, are also very good. And stones. 0 f stones of this description procured at home, the Charley Forest (properly Charnley Forest) oil-stone is as good if not superior to any others. Good oil-stones, whether from Turkey of the United Prices of oil- States are generally sold by the pound, the price per stones. pound ranging from is. 6d. to 2s. Messrs. Churchill and Co. sell Washita stones in different sizes at 2s. per pound, and gouge slips (for gouges cannot have an edge given to them on the flat oil-stone) at 4s. per pound. Again, stones mounted in oak are sold by this firm at the following prices, according to the sizes given, namely, with stone 4m. X J^in., 6d. ; 6in. X 2s. 8d. ; 8in. X 2Xin., 4s.; 9m. X 2Xin., 4s. 6d. By other dealers Ar- kansas oil-stones are sold from 6s. to 8s. 6d. each, and slips of the same from is. 6d. ; Turkey oil-stones from 4s. each, and slips from is. 4d. ; Washita oil-stones from is. 9d. to 3s. 6d., slips from iod. to is. 3d. ; and Charnley Forest stones from is. to 2s. each, and slips 6d. each. These stones are without mountings, for which an addition is made to the prices above given. How TO USE THE OlL-STONE. 153 355. In using the oil-stone a few drops of olive oil should be squirted on it from the oiler as soon as the surface has been wiped perfectly clean. Paraffin is sometimes recommended instead of ^ . Lubricants olive oil, but the latter is quite as good as a lubricant for for ...... oil-stone. the stone, and is free from the offensive smell which is given out by paraffin. The great difficulty that the amateur will experience in setting a tool on the oil-stone lies in keeping the bevel at the same angle with the stone throughout the operation. As he moves the tool backwards and forwards along the stone, he is apt to give it a different inclination when close to him than when at a greater distance from him, the angle at which the tool is inclined to the stone being greater when in the former position and less when in the latter. The writer from whom we have already quoted with regard to the proper method to be adopted in grinding plane -irons, etc., says, with reference to the manner in which the tool should be held while rubbing it on the oil-stone : — 356. “It is evident that the tendency to be aimed at is the raising of the handle slightly as the tool moves further from the person, instead of allowing it to take the positions shown (thal position of is, different angles of inclination to the stone during its tool ‘ passage backwards and forwards). All guides are to be discarded both for the grinding and setting (the rest on which the tool is sustained when held on the grindstone being excepted). auides : why They are as bad as corks and bladders in teaching a undesirable - person to swim, for it becomes exceedingly difficult to do without them ; and it is evident from the daily practice of carpenters that how- ever difficult the right method may be to acquire, it is by no means impossible, and is, moreover, of absolute necessity. Square the elbows, let hand and arms have freedom, grasp the tool above with the right hand so as to bring the fingers underneath it, . . Position of and let the fingers of the left lie together, and straight hand, arm, upon the upper side, their ends tolerably near the edge of the tool, the thumb being underneath. The tool will be thus held firmly, and also under control. Holtzappfel gives a different way, the reverse of this. He says the first finger only of the right hand should be held above, and the thumb and rest of the fingers below, the left hand grasping the right, with the finger above the tool and the thumb below. It is probably in a great measure a question of habit.” 357. It is said that edge tools may be sharpened by plunging them in a bath of muriatic acid, diluted to a considerable extent with water, and leaving them exposed to the action of the acid for a short time. 154 Household Carpentry and Joinery. The acid will act on every part of the blade with which it comes in contact, and will eat away a thin coating of metal, thus fining down Sharpening the point or edge of any tool, which must now be rubbed ini°me S rsk>n on the oil-stone in order to impart a polish to the bevel in acids. anc j keenness t 0 the edge. It must be remembered, how- ever, that if the edge of the tool that is subjected to the action of the acid be not perfectly even and uniform, no eating away of the surface of the metal by this means will make it even : to take out notches, etc. > by immersing a tool in a bath of muriatic acid and water is simply impossible, for the action of the acid is alike and equal on all parts of the surface exposed to it. It is better to learn to sharpen tools by the aid of the grindstone and oil-stone than to trust to any chemical action to produce the desired results. 358. The following remarks relative to the above process appeared in “ Design and Work ” some time ago, and are here reproduced for Remarks on information of those who may wish to try it. “ It has this process. i on g been known that the simplest method of sharpening a razor is to put it for half an hour in water, to which has been added I -20th of its weight of muriatic or sulphuric acid ; then lightly wipe it off, and after a few hours set it on a hone. The acid here supplies the place of a whetstone, by corroding the whole surface uniformly, so that nothing further than a good polish is necessary. The process never injures good blades, while badly hardened ones are frequently improved by it, although the cause of such improvement remains un- explained.” Again, it is said that as it is with razors so it is with scythes and sickles, and, as a natural consequence, so it must be with all other kinds of edge tools. With regard to scythes and reaping- hooks, “ the time lost in the harvest field in the early morning would be spared by laying the blades for half an hour in a bath prepared as above described. As soon as they are taken out of the bath they should be wiped, and a soft sandstone hone passed along would leave a good and uniform edge behind it.” 359. Grindstones for razors and the finer kinds of edge tools in which the keenest possible edge is a desideratum, may be made by Artificial artificial means. Silicious sand of great fineness, or emery grindstones. p 0w d er? and shell lac are taken in the proportion of three parts of the former to one of the latter. The sand must be well washed and the shell lac melted, after which the sand must be stirred into the melted lac and will incorporate with it while it is warm. The composition is placed in a circular mould with a space in the centre to form a hole, square in shape, for the axle, and then left to harden. Removal and Prevention of Rust. i55 To remove rust from tools. 360. It is to be feared that the amateur’s tools will sometimes be allowed to get rusty by being left for a short time in the rain when working out of doors, or by the dampness of the shed or workshop in which he carries on his operations. This is a very fruitful source of rust in tools, and even if the shed be perfectly water-tight the dampness in the air itself during prolonged rain and wet seasons will frequently do much mischief. The following is a simple method of removing rust from steel which will be found useful : — Recipe. — To remove rust from steel. — “ Cover the metal with sweet-oil well rubbed in and allow to stand for forty-eight hours, smeared with oil applied freely with a feather or piece of cotton wool, after rubbing the steel. Then rub with unslacked lime reduced to as fine a powder as possible.” 361. Another method is given by Spon in his “Workshop Receipts,” a most valuable book, replete with information on a wide variety of subjects which may be recommended to the notice of the amateur as a candidate for a place on his bookshelves. It is as follows : — Recipe. — To exfract rust front steel. — “ Immerse the article to be cleaned for a few minutes until all dirt and rust is taken off in a strong solution of cyanide of potassium, say about half an ounce Toextract in a wineglassful of water ; take out and clean it with a rU g? e g r 1 om tooth-brush with some paste composed of cyanide of potassium, Castile soap, whitening, and water ; these last are mixed in a paste about the consistence of thick cream.” 362. Prevention, however, will be deemed by many far better than the cure, as given above ; and when tools have to be left in a shed or workshop without any means of warming it throughout preventives the winter months, when they are seldom used, it may be agamst rust * profitable to subject them to some such treatment as the following, which is also borrowed from Spon’s “Workshop Receipts” already quoted above : — Recipe. — To prevent tools , etc., from rusting. — “1. Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools from rusting, if it is allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will prevent them from rusting . r 0 To prevent for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently tools from rusting. applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. Woollen materials are the best for wrappers for metals. 2. Iron and steel goods of all descriptions are kept free from rust by the following : — Dissolve j 4 oz. of camphor in ilb. of hog’s lard, take off the scum and mix as much black lead as will give the mixture an iron colour. Iron and steel and machinery of all kinds rubbed over with this mixture 156 Household Carpentry and Joinery. and left with it on for twenty-four hours, and then rubbed with a linen cloth, will keep clean for months.” Recipe. — Varnish to prevent rust . — “ Rosin, 120 parts ; sandarac, 180 ; gum lac, 60; .essence of turpentine, 120. Take the first three Varnish to ingredients in a pounded condition, and digest them by a prevent rust. re g U j ar heat till melted ; then add the turpentine very gradually, stirring all the while. The mixture should be digested until dissolution, then add rectified alcohol, 180 parts. Filter through fine cloth or thick bibulous paper (blotting paper), and preserve in well stopped bottles or cases.” CHAPTER VI, HOW TO HOLD AND HANDLE TOOLS, AND HOW TO USE THEM. How to learn to use Tools — Reference to order in which Tools will be taken — Striking Tools — The Hammer : how to use it — How to strike Nails — Hole for reception of Nail, etc. — The Mallet : how to use it — How to use the Axe or Hatchet — The Adze and its uses — Adze a dangerous Tool — Rasping Tools — Right mode of holding Saw — Position of first Finger and Elbow — How to steady Wood — How to keep Wood steady— Inclination of Saw — Head of Operator: how held — Process of Sawing — Cautions in Sawing — Mistakes made by Ama- teur — Marking Guide-line in Sawing — Wrong way of making line— Instruction to be derived from remarks — Carpenter’s method of marking line — Cutting down long Board — To prevent Saw from “hanging” — Ripping down Planks — Cutting Tenons — Things to be remembered when Sawing — How to use Rasps — Filing Metal — Frame Saw : its uses — Cutting out a Keyhole — Paring Tools— Planing and Sawing chief Operations in Carpentry — Jack-plane : why so called — Cutting iron of Jack-plane — Construction of Plane-iron — How to hold the Jack-plane — American Iron Planes — Smoothing-plane : its construction — How to hold Smoothing-plane — Planing Boards and Scantlings — Planing in direction of grain — No fixed Rule — Removal of Plane-iron — Adjustment of Iron — Sole of Plane : its use — Difficulty in Planing : how caused — Proper positions of Brake-iron and Cutters — Mode of looking at Adjustment — Planes for Rebating, etc. — Rebating : what it is — Cutting Rebate — Side Fillister — Bull-nosed Rabbet-plane — “Stanley ” Iron Plane — Mode of holding Rebate-plane, etc. — Attachment to Rebate-plane — Match-planes — Why so called— Plough for cutting Grooves — Old Woman’s Tooth — American Combination Planes— Bits supplied with Plane — These Tools seldom required by Amateurs— Tran t’s Adjustable Dado, Filletster, and Plough — Drawingknife and Spokeshave : how to handle them — Modes of using Chisels and Gouges — Chisels: their varieties — Mortise and Tenon — Meaning of “ Tenon ” — Meaning of “ Mortise ” — Chisel in cutting Mortise — How it should be held — Paring Chisels, etc. : how to hold them — The Gouge : how to hold it — Use of boring Tools, etc. — Boring with Bradawl and Gimlet — How to hold Bradawl — The Gimlet : how to hold it — The Auger : how to hold it — Position when using Brace and Bit — Boring holes with Brace and Bit — Use of marking Gauge— Mortise Gauge — The Nail Punch : how to hold it. 363. Having provided himself with the necessary tools described in a preceding chapter, or such a selection from the whole as may best meet his requirements, the next thing to be done is to How to learn learn how to use them. It is next to impossible to do tousetools - this from printed instructions ; and on the principle that a little showing is better than a great deal of telling, the best advice that can be given to the amateur on this head is that on which some stress has i 5 « Household Carpentry and Joinery. been already laid, namely, that he should arrange with some skilled artisan to give him a few practical lessons in the method of holding, using, managing, and sharpening his tools, and the everyday operations in Carpentry and Joinery, such as sawing, planing, scarfing timbers, cutting rebates, mortises and tenons, dove-tailing, mitring, etc., etc. 364. We will take the tools seriatim in the same order Re or r der C fn t0 which they have been described in Chapter IV”., and wmbe^aken. t0 prevent useless repetition the reader is referred for this order to page 77, in which he will find it duly set forth. 365. In accordance with this order the first set of tools that we have striking to dea l are striking toots, which comprise hammer t00ls - and mallet in one division, and adze and hatchet or axe in the other. 366. The handle of the hammer should be grasped at a short dis- tance above the end of the handle, that is to say, in such a way that The hammer : end handle projects about an inch or more how to use it. beyond the side of the hand, in the manner shown at a in fig. 147. The hand and the eye act so well together in concert, that after a little practice the amateur will find no difficulty in hitting How to Strike the nail direct on the head when- naiis. ever | ie strikes it. If the nail be struck by the centre of the hammer head, as it should be as at B, it will soon be sent straight to its destination ; but if it be hit by any part of the face near or on the edge, as at c, the force of the blow will be partly lost, and the nail will be bent side- ways, or otherwise moved out of posi- p IG> I47 . HO w to hold tion. The face of the hammer should be THE HAMMER * perfectly flat ; when used overmuch it is apt to get rounded, especially if it be of inferior quality, and then it must be got rid of, and its place supplied with a better. A hole with the bradawl or gimlet reception of should be made for the reception of every nail that is hammered in and every screw that is driven into wood. The nail will go in all the straighter for it. Sometimes a knot or any hard substance within the wood will cause the nail to swerve from the right direction and even to curl up, thrusting the point through the wood at no very great distance from the hole at which it has entered, “ coming out,” in workman’s parlance, “ to have a look at the fool that is driving it.” A contretemps of this kind may often be saved by pre- paring a way for the nail by the bradawl or gimlet. HOW TO USE THE HATCHET: RASPING TOOLS. 159 367. The mallet is held in the same way as the hammer, but rather higher up the handle, as the head is larger and heavier. In striking any tool with the mallet care should be taken to deliver The mallefc ; the blow so that the end of the handle of the tool is hit how to use with the centre of the face of the mallet. 368. The axe must be grasped with the right hand, at a distance of about one-third from the end of the handle ; but the position of the hand will be regulated in a great measure by the material „ b J How to use with which the edge is brought into contact, or the extent tho axo or b , hatchet, or weight of the blow that it is desired to strike. Thus, to deliver a heavy blow, the handle must be grasped close to its end, but to give a light blow the hand must be moved upwards along the handle until it has nearly reached the head. When turned, the flat part of the head may be used in place of a heavy hammer or mallet in driving the timbers of any piece of framing into place, but on no account must it be used for driving nails. If at any time the amateur finds it necessary to drive nails,' he should provide himself with a heavy hammer of the kind used by carpenters for rough heavy work. In chopping a piece of wood with the hatchet — as for example in sharpening the end of a stake to be driven into the ground — the end to be sharpened should be placed on a trestle — a description of harrow stool — and held by the left hand, which should be kept well out of range of the hatchet. A carpenter will use the axe for shaping a wedge out of a short piece or block of wood, but the amateur is recom- mended to do this with the paring chisel, lest by an unlucky blow he injure his hand with the sharp edge of the hatchet. The mode to be adopted in holding axe and wood is shown in fig. 148. 369. The adze is used for chipping away the surface of wood placed in a horizontal position so as to produce a level surface, or one that is nearly so. The operator stands on the wood and uses The adze anti the tool after the manner of a hoe. The projection on lts uses ' the head of the adze is called its pole, and may be used, if needs be, as a hammer. The adze is one of the most dangerous of Adze a dan _ all tools to use, but it is far from likely that any amateur ge r o ust ° o1 * artisan will ever be obliged to call it into requisition. 370. Next in order to the striking tools come the rasping tools , under which head are included every variety of saw, and rasps and Fig. 148. now to hold THE HATCHET. 160 Household Carpentry and Joinery. files. The purposes to which these tools have been put have been Hasping already pointed out, and it only remains to point out tools. here t h e wa y j n w hi c h each is to be used, so as to effect the desired purpose. 371. It is difficult to show the position of the hand when holding the saw in a single drawing, as both sides of the saw-handle cannot be seen at once ; recourse must therefore be had to two, as in of holding the annexed illustration, in which each side of the hand is exhibited, after the manner of the obverse and reverse of a coin. In taking hold of the handle of a saw all the fingers except the first finger are passed through the loop of the hand-saw, or round the handle of the tenon saw ; the handle of this kind of saw being somewhat differently formed. The position of the thumb and the second, third, and fourth fingers are shown at A in fig. 149, the first Position of fitl 2 er is laid al0n 2 the Side 0f first finger the handle as at B. The posi- Fig. 149. and elbow. tion of the first finger tends to H0W TO H0LD A SAW * assist the operator in a wonderful degree in steadying and directing the saw, and keeping it upright. The elbow of the right arm should be kept How to well i nt0 right side so as to strengthen the forearm, or steady work. rat her to keep it as straight as possible, and in a direction corresponding to that of the wood that is being sawn. 372. The wood should be steadied with the left hand, or if it be a short piece, held firmly by it. In sawing down a plank on one or two How to keep trestles, as the case may be, the right knee and foot should wood steady. ^ pi acec j on the board, partly to keep the board steady and partly to keep the body of the operator steady. In ripping down a plank or in cutting a piece of wood across the grain, the hand-saw — and any saw of this shape, as the rip saw, half rip, and panel saw — should be held at an angle of 45 0 to the horizon, or very nearly so. inclination This will serve as a general guide, for the inclination of of saw. t . ... the saw must be suited in a great measure to the position of the wood and the nature of the work to be done. For example, in cutting a tenon, either with the hand-saw or tenon saw, the edge of the saw must be kept parallel to the surface of the wood that is Head of being cut, or very nearly so. The head of the operator operator : should be held directly over the saw, so that the eyes may how held. \ J J look down on both sides of the saw. In beginning to make an incision with the saw, the up-and-down motion should be Hints and Cautions in Sawing. 161 started very gently with very short strokes, and no force should be applied to the saw until it has entered for about an inch into the board. 373. As the saw cut lengthens more force may be gradually applied, but whatever force may be used it must only be applied in the down- ward stroke, for it is in this motion only that the saw cuts ; process of in the upward motion it should be merely drawn up. The sawin g- saw should be held upright, or in other words, the blade should always be at right angles to the surface of the board through which it is cutting, above and below, for if it incline to the right or left to the slightest degree, it is manifest that the friction between the saw cut and the sides of the saw will be increased, by reason of the cut being out of the proper direction in relation to the plane of the surface of the board. Care should be taken to avoid short jerky cautions in strokes, but in the upward stroke the saw should be drawn sawm s* up to within an inch or two of the point, and in the downward stroke pressed with force against the wood that is being sawn asunder, until the wood is within an inch or two of the bottom of the blade or very near the saw handle. By this means the whole length of the blade, or very nearly so, is brought into play. In drawing the saw upwards, on no account draw it through and out of the wood, for in the delivery of the downstroke, which follows immediately, before the operator is con- scious of what has happened, the point may be driven with force against the wood, if not into it, and bent in one direction or another, thus seriously jarring and injuring the saw. 374. The mistakes usually made by the amateur when sawing are three in number : Firstly , he is apt to put all four of his fingers through the looped handle of the saw, instead of laying x 7 J 0 Mistakes the first finger along the side of the handle that is out- made by amateur. wards or furthest from him. Secondly , he forgets to keep his eyes directly over the saw-blade, so that he may see both sides of the blade, as he may prove to himself by shutting first one eye and then the other, looking downwards on the blade as he does so, or what is much the same, a long narrow line of steel formed by the line of the back and the points of the teeth projecting slightly beyond it on either side. It is manifestly impossible to saw straight if the back of the saw and the saw cut already made and the line of guidance for the saw cut, if it were possible to see it as well as the back of the blade and the saw cut, be not so placed in relation to one another so as to form a narrow straight line from one end to the other of the board that is being cut. Thirdly : Instead of allowing the arm free play and motion, and permitting it to form a connecting link 11 i6z Household Carpentry and Joinery. between the saw and the body — as the arms in rowing form a link between the body and the oar, transmitting the weight of the body as the power which acts on the boat through the oar as a lever — it is held stifly, and far more force applied than that which is necessary to send it through the downward stroke. This has the consequence of bend- ing the saw too much to the left for the most part, and making the work difficult through the amount of friction that is caused by the blade and the saw cut being at an angle to the plane of the surface of the board instead of perpendicular to it. When these points have been corrected by the amateur artisan, he will have advanced some steps in the way of being a fairly good workman. 375. A few hints and cautions yet remain to be given with regard to the operation of sawing. It is better in ripping down a plank, or in making any saw-cut of considerable length, to mark guide-line in the guide-line on its surface with the line and reel (see sawmg. page hi), by means of which the line connecting any point in one end with any point in the other is struck perfectly straight and true. If the board be not longer than any straight-edge that the amateur may have, the line from point to point may be ruled in pencil with its aid. Sometimes the ama- teur will trace a line — G t H K hr Fig. 150. FAULTY METHOD OF TRACING LINE FOR SAW-CUT. for a saw-cut, by measuring the length between the edge of the board and the point in its end, and then taking off-sets from the edge along the whole, at distances corresponding pretty nearly to the length of the ruler or straight-edge with which he is going to rule the lines, that together will form the whole line from end to end, as in fig. 150. Now the ends A B and C D of the board A B D C being equal, and being, Tf making 7 for the sake of argument, six inches long, if A B and C D Une ‘ had been bisected or divided into two equal parts in the points E and F by aid of the chalk line and reel, a perfectly straight line could be struck from E to F, as in the dotted line E F. Bat sup- pose off-sets equal to B E or F D, that is to say, of three inches, had been set off along the board from the edge B D, at the points GHKto the points L M N, then when the whole line E F has been ruled in short lengths, E L, L M, M N, and N F, a line from E to F is obtained which is anything but straight, and to cut which undue pressure will be laid on the saw to carry it along the various turnings and twistings, and after a few of such essays the saw will be found to be considerably Carpenter’s Method of Drawing a Line. 163 Fig. 151. HOW THE CARPENTER DRAWS A LINE. strained and perhaps crippled. The mischief has been caused by the edge B G H K D being anything but straight, and the in- struction to be derived from all this, and carefully laid to to n be r deriYed heart withal, is — unless the edge of your board has been from remarks ‘ properly planed up, and is perfectly straight — to make the line to guide your saw-cut with the line and reel, or a straight-edge long enough for the purpose. When the edge has been properly planed up, a line parallel to it may be drawn by very simple means. Thus a carpenter will often hold a rule in one hand, letting just ^^hodof S so many inches, etc., as may be requisite project over the majking Un0 ' board and lay upon it, and pressing the point of a pencil, held in the other, against the end of the ruler, and on the surface of the wood draw a straight line parallel to the edge by moving the hand that holds the ruler along the edge of the board, and carrying the pencil along with the other closely pressed against the ruler and on the board throughout the entire length of the line that it is desired to make. The method of doing this, as described, may be better understood by a glance at fig. 151. 376. In cutting down a long board, the board will be rendered more rigid and the progress of the saw facilitated by inserting a wedge of wood into the commencement of the cut. If it be found cutting down desirable, the wedge may be moved down the saw-cut as long board - the sawing proceeds. If the saw “ hangs ” at all, or, in other words, if the friction between the wood and the sides of the saw be greater than it ought to be, owing to the blade being sawf/om* rusty, or the teeth worn and in want of sharpening, a little grease or tallow should be rubbed on the teeth and blade of the saw. 377. For ripping down planks, that is to say, for cutting with the grain of the wood, the rip-saw or half rip-saw is used. This saw, however, is by no means necessary to the amateur, as the Bipping down work of ripping down can be done as well, though per- planks, haps not so quickly, with the hand-saw, which will cut as well across the grain as with it. Tenons of large size can be cut with cutting the hand-saw or tenon-saw ; but all dove-tailing should tenons, be done with the sash or small tenon-saw. Whatever may be the nature of the work, or whether the cut be with the grain or across the grain, the amateur artisan must bear in mind that : No saw 164 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Filing metal. cut should be made without first marki?ig the wood with a chalk or pencil line , as a guide-line . And in addition to this, for Things to be remembered safety’s sake, as long as he is a novice in the art, when when sawing, ma kj n g a i on g saw _ cu t ^ j s better to mark a line on both sides of the wood, so that during the operation the board may be turned over now and then , that it may be seen whether or not the cut is being carried exactly in the right direction . 378. In using large rasps or files, whether for wood or iron, the work should be held in the vice or otherwise firmly fixed so that it cannot How to use move > unless it can be conveniently steadied with one rasps. hand during the operation. It is desirable, however, to use both hands when possible, the handle of the tool being grasped by one hand, while the other is pressed, but not too heavily, on the end of the blade, or near the end, so as to lend weight to the tool and additional effect to its powers of abrasion. The flat side of the rasp may be used for any kind of work, but the rounded side will be found more handy for rasping down the edge of a round hole, so as to give it a bevelled as well as rounded surface. Small files for cutting metal may be worked backwards and forwards ; but in using these, as well as saw-files, a forward cut continually repeated is better. 379. Little or nothing need be said here about the use of the frame saw or the keyhole-saw. The frame-saw in its larger variety is not an Frame saw : eas Y tool to use unt ^ the operator has become pretty well its uses, accustomed to it, and then it is said to be easier to work than the ordinary saw. The small frame-saw is used in fret-cutting, which will be mentioned elsewhere. The keyhole-saw, being very narrow in the blade, is used for cutting small holes, such as keyholes, as the name implies. 380. To cut out a keyhole, two holes are generally turned through the wood by the aid of the brace and bit, and the piece that separates Cutting out them is then taken out with the keyhole-saw, as shown in a keyhole, 152. The keyhole-saw is also used for cutting curved lines, as the circumference of a circle in a piece of wood. An opening is made with a gimlet or brace and bit, through which the narrow saw blade can be passed, after which the blade will work its way round in either direction, as may Fig. 152. be required. The compass-saw is also used for circular keyhole, work. This kind of saw consists of a blade about iin. or i>£in. at the handle, and tapering away to a point, set in a handle resembling that of a tenon-saw. Paring Tools : Jack-plane — Why so called. 165 381. The chief of the three groups of tools included under the general head of paring tools , comprises planes of all kinds. The other two groups are formed, the one by the drawingknife and spokeshave, the other by the chisels and gouges. Parmgtools - We will take the planes first of all, and consider, firstly, the mode in which the long planes are used — such as the jack-plane, the trying- plane, and the jointer-plane ; secondly, the smoothing-plane, and the smaller varieties of this class ; and, thirdly, the planes that are used in grooving and tonguing — as match-planes, rebate-planes ? Planing and ploughs, and others of a similar kind. It will be en- B o^ al j 0 ^ ief deavoured to restrict our consideration of this large and m carpentry, important class of tools to its narrowest limits, consistent with the fact that planing is one of the two great operations in carpentry and joinery, sawing being the other, that require the closest attention and practice on the part of the amateur. 382. It may not be uninteresting to some to pause a moment, and inquire why a jack-plane should be so called. It is used for rough, and coarse work, mainly for taking off the rough and j ac k-piane : ragged surface of sawn timber and leaving it in a better why 80 called * condition for the action of the smoothing-plane, by which the inequali* ties left by the jack-plane are removed, and the whole surface rendered smooth, level, and perfectly even. Wedgewood in his “ Dictionary of English Etymology,” when treating of the origin of the term “jack” as applied to various contrivances, tells us that “the Jewish Jacobus was corrupted through Jaquemes to Jaques in France and James in England, and Jaques being the commonest Christian name in the former country was used as a contemptuous expression for a common man. The introduction of the word in the same sense into England seems to have led to the use of Jack as the familiar synonym of John, which happened to be here the commonest name, as Jaques in F ranee. 4 Since every Jack became a gentleman, There’s many a gentle person made a Jack.’ — Richard III. The term was then applied to any mechanical contrivance for replacing the personal service of an attendant, or to an implement subjected to rough and familiar usage. A roasting-jack is a con- trivance for turning a spit, by means of a heavy weight, and so super- seding the service of the old turnspit. A jack , a screw for raising heavy weights. A boot-jack (German, stiefel-k?iecht , literally, ‘ boot- boy ’), an implement for taking off boots. A jack-towel , a coarse towel, hanging on a roller for the use of the household ; jack-boots , heavy 166 Household Carpentry and Joinery. boots for rough service ; black-jack , a leathern jug for household service ; jack-plane , a large plane for heavy work.” 383. From this digression let us turn to the manner of holding the jack-plane and how to use it. Some jack-planes are made with a Cutting iron single iron only, but it is better for the amateur to have of jack-plane. one j s w ith a double iron. A section of the plane-iron is figured in page 88, in which the object and use of each Construction i ron is shown ; the lower iron being the cutter by which of plane-iron. t j. e s h av i n g j s cut f rom t h e wood, and the one on the top of it, whose bevel is turned in the opposite direction, being the break-iron by which the shaving is turned in its upward course, so as to pass more readily through the aperture cut in the stock of the plane, as the wooden block is called in which the iron is set. It will be noticed that the break-iron, or back iron, as it is often called, is held to the cutter by means of a broad-headed screw that enters a nut on the upper side of the break-iron, and that there is a long slot in the cutter so that the break-iron may be moved nearer to or farther from the edge of the cutter at pleasure. Now the chief use of the break-iron is to adapt the cutter for use in different kinds of work, and the break- iron must be regulated according to the nature of the work to be done with the plane. Thus when the jack-plane is required for heavy work, that is to say, for hacking down a rough and uneven surface, the edge of the break-iron should be about % inch from the edge of the cutter, but for finer work it should not be more than inch from the latter ; and in the smoothing-plane the distance between the edges of the two irons should be less than this — indeed so slight as to be perceptible, but nothing more. The higher the break-iron, the easier the plane will be found to work, and the lower it is the heavier the plane will work, but the cut will be cleaner, 384. To hold the jack-plane when in use, the handle must be grasped firmly with the right hand, the forefinger being extended and placed against or by the side of the wooden wedge How to hold . the by which the iron is held in the stock ; the left hand jack-plane. is placed over and on top of the stock, in front of the iron, as shown in fig. 153, the thumb being on the side of the plane nearest the operator. Heavy pressure of the left hand in this position is necessary, in order to keep the fore-part of the plane well down, so that the iron may take firm hold of the surface of the wood. At this time, namely, during the first part of the cut, the pressure with the right hand on the back part of the plane should be somewhat relaxed and lessened ; but when the cut is approaching How Planes Should be Held . 167 completion the mode of procedure should be reversed as far as pressure is concerned, and pressure of the right hand should be increased, and that of the left hand lessened. The amateur, unless he has a trying- plane, will use his jack-plane for shooting the edges of boards. In performing this operation the plane is held in a different manner. The handle is grasped by the right hand as before, but the left hand is Fig 153. how to hold jack- Fig. 154. how to hold jack-plane PLANE IN * ‘ FACING UP.'' IN SHOOTING EDGE OF BOARD. placed by the side of the plane nearest the operator, the thumb being on the upper surface, the first and second fingers along the side, and the third and fourth on the sole or under part, forming a sort of gauge or stop to regulate the passage of the plane along the wood. The manner of holding either the jack-plane or trying-plane in shooting the edges of boards is shown in fig. 154. The method shown in fig. 153 is that adopted in planing the surface of a board, or, in technical language “ facing up.” 385. It must be understood that although wooden planes are figured in the illustrations the general method to be followed in holding the American iron planes is the same, some slight modifica- American tions being rendered necessary on account of the differ- 12:011 planes - e*;ice of construction. But by following the general instructions above given, the operator cannot fail to handle an American plane as readily and as easily as the old-fashioned wooden one. 386. The smoothing-plane, as it has been already said, is used for cleaning off or reducing to smoothness and a perfect level, the surface from Smoothing- which the rough exterior has been plane : its , , , , . . , , construction, already taken by the jack-plane. The distance between the edges of the cutter and the break-iron has been mentioned, but it may be as well to repeat here that it must not exceed ^ inch, and may be even less with advantage. The plane has no handle, and must be held as shown in fig. 155, the right 0 b How to hold hand being placed over the stock of the tool, grasping it smoothing- firmly, just behind the iron and wedge, and the left hand by the fore p^*t of the side next the operator, the fingers being turned Fig. 155. how to HOLD SMOOTHING-PLANE. 168 Household Carpentry and Joinery. over the front, and the thumb on the top, the fore part of the plane being completely covered by the hand of the operator. The strokes or cuts that are made with the smoothing-plane are short and quick, and sometimes a motion that may be described as curvilinear, or like a slight circular sweep, is given to the plane. 387. There are other points, in addition to the method of holding the plane, that require attention ; and these are the direction in which boards and scantlings are to be planed, and the manner boards and in which the plane iron is to be taken out of the stock scantimgs. replaced, when necessary, for sharpening ; or the regulation of its projection beyond the sole or under surface of the stock effected. 388. And. first, with regard to the wood that is to be planed. This must be laid flat on the bench, with one end abutting on the wood! stop, that is fixed in the bench in such a manner that it Planing in direction of can be raised or lowered at pleasure, according to the grain. thickness of the wood to be planed. All planing must be done in the direction of the grain of the wood, in order to obtain a perfectly smooth surface. This may be rendered more intelligible by the aid of fig. 156, in which a piece of wood is represented in section. In this the fibre or grain of the wood lies in one direction from A to B, and in the other from A to C. Now in planing the surface B C of such a piece of wood, the plane must be first worked over it from A to B, and then from A to C, in the directions indicated by the arrows. If it were attempted to plane the wood right along from C to B, or from B to c, during the first part of the operation in either direction, the cutting edge of the plane would strike against the projecting edge of each successive layer of fibres ; and if the wood were soft as in fir, and the edge of the cutter were not too keen, it would bend them back, and here and there the smooth surface would be broken by a rough ridge. This must be obviated by planing the wood first in one direc- No fixed tion an d ^ en ' m the other, to suit the grain. No fixed rule * rule can be laid down, but the operator will very soon find tom the behaviour of the tool he is using, in which direction it ought to be worked. In the illustration the space between E and F may be worked either way. In planing wood rough from the saw, the plane should be worked for the most part in the direction of the saw cut, the rough particles being bent in one direction by the action of the teeth and sides of the saw. Fig. 156. GRAIN OF WOOD. Removal and ADyusrMENT of Plane Irons . 169 389. To remove the plane-iron and the wedge by which it is held in place, the amateur artisan, unless he has been instructed in the proper mode. of performing this operation, will, in all Removalof probability, try to accomplish it by knocking wedge and plane-iron, iron first on one side and then on the other with a hammer. Such a course will spoil the plane. To loosen a plane-iron in order to remove it for sharpening, etc., hold the stock of the plane in the left hand, which should be placed over the upper surface in front of the wedge, and with a hammer or mallet held in the right hand, strike the stock lightly and quickly on its heel or back. This will loosen the iron sufficiently to admit of its removal with the thumb and finger. In like manner, when it is desired to lighten the wedge that holds the iron, or to make the edge of the cutter project a little more beyond the surface of the sole of the plane, all that is necessary is to strike the stock on the front in a manner precisely similar to that adopted for loosening the iron by striking the heel of the plane. Neither the wedge nor the plane-iron should, as a rule, be struck on the top, though occasionally the slightest possible tap may be given to the wedge in order to drive it in a little further, or the iron may be tapped as lightly as possible in order to secure its proper adjust- Ad j Ustment ment in bringing the edge parallel with the surface of the of iron, sole. The sole of the plane, if the stock be without an iron plate or shoe, should be greased or oiled occasionally. This has s oleofplane . the effect of preserving the stock and causing it to move its use * more easily over the surface of the wood that is being planed. 390. The following remarks on the use of the plane are made in “ The Amateur Mechanic’s Workshop,” and they are quoted here because if an amateur will carefully attend to them, he will be enabled to overcome most of the hindrances he D pianing ; in has hitherto experienced to performing the operation of h ° w caused * planing with ease and facility. “ Much of the difficulty,” says the writer, “ which amateurs experience in using the plane arises from the latter being badly set for work . If either corner projects beyond the general level of the sole of the plane, this will necessarily score grooves or channels. Hence the extreme angle should be slightly rounded off in sharpening the tool. The same deleterious effect will be produced if the plane-iron is not ground truly square, and hence the caution already given on that point. The smaller, or break-iron, proper whose office is to bend up the shaving somewhat sharply ^r S eak-?ron f so as to ensure the cutting of the other iron, and to andcutter - prevent its splitting off the surface of the work, should be placed so 170 Household Carpentry and Joinery. as to come within one-eighth of an inch of the extreme edge of the cutter for rough work, and within one-twentieth for finer or finishing work. The two should then he placed in position so that the edge project the smallest possible degree below the sole. The position can Mode of on ty determined by looking carefully along the bottom looking at 0 f the plane, with the front of the same next to the eye, as adjustment. J 7 in fig. 157. The edge will, if correctly formed and placed, appear quite parallel with the sole. It is then ready for use. The same rule applies to the small as to the large planes, except that in the jack-plane the iron projects rather more, as it is used for roughing down a surface. The trying-plane, which is longer, and intended for edging Fig. 157. adjustment of plane iron. boards which are to be joined lengthwise, is always very finely set, and the mouth is narrow. The break-iron is also set very close down to the cutting edge. The longer the plane the more accurately level and true will be the work done by it. As it will be useless for the amateur to attempt the construction of any work, except of the roughest character, until he can plane a piece of board accurately on all sides, keeping the edges square and sharp, the greatest attention should be given to the use,o£ this tool.” 391. It has been said that the planes which the amateur artisan Planes for most requires are the jack-plane and the smoothing- rebating, etc. pj ane> with these he can do all ordinary work, but for re- bating, grooving and tonguing, ploughing grooves, and other operations of a similar character, he requires planes of a different construction, such as the rebate-plane, match-plane, and plough. The principle and general construction of these planes have already been described* It is with the mode of using them that we are concerned. 392. For rebating, or cutting a rebate, or rabbet, along the edge of a board, that is to say, to take away a portion of the upper edge, rectan- Rebating : gular in section, so that the lower edge projects beyond wbat it is. ^ U pp er p art 0 f t h e board, like one step below another, a rebate-plane is required. Indeed it is necessary to have two of Cutting these planes, one having the iron set across the sole at right rebate. angles to the length of the plane, for cutting a rebate parallel to, or with the grain, and the other with the iron set obliquely across the sole for cutting a rebate at the end of a board across the Side Fillister and Bull-nosed Rabbet Plane. 171 Side fillister. grain. To work such planes as these with anything approaching accuracy — or, in other words, to make a rebate parallel to the edge of the board — is a difficulty that is experienced by regular artisans, as well as amateurs, and for this reason — in operations of this kind a plane called the side fillister, or filletster, is used. This plane has a shifting fence at the bottom, secured by two screws which work in slots in the fence, so that the position of the fence may be regulated in accordance with the width of the rabbet, or rebate, to be made. A screw-stop is also placed on the side of the plane farthest from the operator, by means of which the distance to which the plane-iron may enter the wood and clear it away is regulated ; and in front of the grooving-iron there is an iron which projects in front of the cutter and slightly below it. This cuts down the vertical side of the rabbet, while the plane-iron carries away the wood horizontally, rendering it impossible with this combination of cutters for any wood to be left in the angle of the rebate. 393. The “ bull-nosed rabbet plane,” as shown in fig. 158, is a useful kind of plane for rebating. It is sold, with other planes, illustrations or which are given below, by Messrs. Churchill and Co. Bull-nosed This plane is adjustable, is 4 inches long, and has a rabbet plane. cutter iX inches wide. The price is 5s. 6d. Extra cutters are supplied with the plane at is. each. In speak- ing of this useful plane the opportunity may be taken to call the atten- tion of the amateur to some useful little planes with which good work can be done, although, as far as size is concerned, they are scarcely beyond the cate- gory of toy planes. Figs. 159 and 160 represent two different FIG. 158. BULL-NOSED RABBET PLANE. Fig. 159. THE STANLEY SMOOTHING- PLANE. Fig. 160. THE STANLEY BULL- NOSED PLANE. forms of these planes, which are known as the “ Stanley” Iron Planes. Fig 159 is a smoothing-plane, and so is fig. 160, but this, from the 172 Household Carpentry and Joinery . rounded shape of the front is distinguished from the other as a bull- nosed plane. Both kinds are japanned, y/z inches long, and have “Stanley” 1 inch cutters. They cost no more than is. each, and iron planes. extra cu tters may be purchased at the rate of 4^d. each. 394. The rebate plane and the side fillister is generally held with the right hand on the top of the frame behind the iron, and the Mode of left hand on the front. The side fillister plane is by rebate d p?ane, no means an expensive tool, as it can be bought at 2s. 6d. etc * or 3s. ; but if an amateur has a rebate plane he can easily furnish it with an attachment which will render it to the full as useful as any side fillister that he might purchase. The addition is thus described by Mr. Ellis A. Davidson in “ The Amateur House Carpenter,” in speaking of the rebate plane. " In using this,” he says, “ the chief difficulty experienced by the amateur is in making the plane travel in a true parallel to the edge of the board ; and there are planes made with guides to accomplish this, but these are very much more expensive, and the following means will answer the pur- to rebate pose quite as well.” Supposing x to represent the plane plane. looking at the fore end, or a transverse section of the plane, “ let A be a board in the edge of which it is required to cut a rebate J 4 'm. wide and }(\n. deep ; a strip of these dimensions has literally to be planed away, and the plane must therefore be prevented travelling horizontally farther on the surface of the board than in. and vertically it must not be allowed to sink deeper than These R planes are made from ^in. to 2in. wide. We will . I assume that the one with which the work is to be r ~" 1 ^ done is ij 4 in. wide. Plane up a strip of wood B, fig. 161, to the width of one inch (the thickness will not be any consideration), and screw it at right angles to another piece, C, thus forming a letter [_• This will form a case which will, when planed and fastened to the side of the plane by a couple of screws, shut off A 1 in. of the width of the sole, allowing it to encroach Fig. 161. upon the surface of the board to the extent of Xin. ATTACHMENT TO r rabbet plane only ; a mere strip, D, screwed on the other side at Xin. from the sole, will prevent the plane sinking deeper than is required. On no account should the guide be screwed to the sole of the plane, which should always be kept perfectly smooth, the surface uninjured by screw holes. Nor is it necessary to damage the .sides of the plane by more than two small screw holes, for the same side-piece C may be permanently used, the width of the Match Planes : Plough for Cutting Grooves. 173 Match planes. strip B being altered according to circumstances’; and the width of D can also be regulated, either by planing .a portion off below the screws if the rebate is to be deeper, or moving the screws lower down in the the strip if it is to be shallower, taking care that the holes correspond with those in the side of the plane, and that the strips do not cover the apertures through which the shavings should escape.” 395. Match planes are bought in pairs, one of the two being so made that the iron cuts a groove or trench lengthwise in the edge of a board ; and the other so that the iron cuts away the edge on both sides, after the manner of a double rebate, leaving a projecting rib or tongue, as it is commonly called, in the centre, which fits accurately into the groove that has been cut by the other plane, .when the boards are brought together edge to edge. ^ gQ Match planes are so called because the width of the projec- called, tion left by one plane matches , or tallies exactly with, the width of the groove cut by the other. But, as it has been already said, as the amateur can always buy match-boarding ready to his hand, he can do very well without match planes. 396. The plough which is used for cutting grooves in wood at any distance from the edge that may be required, so that it be not beyond the length of the strips, or bars of wood, that are attached to the fence (by which it is guided along the edge of the cutting wood so that the groove cut by the iron may be parallel grooves * to it) and pass through the stock of the plane as well as at right angles to it, is held, as shown in fig. 162, by putting the right hand over the top of the plane behind the iron, the first finger along the top by the side of the iron, and the second, third, and fourth fingers round the arm. The left hand is placed by the fence at the side, the thumb on the top of the arm, the first finger extending along the fence, and the remaining fingers closed. The plough is necessary in such work as making drawers, in which the bottom is let into a groove made all round the inner surface of the sides at a little distance from the lower edge. It is fitted with eight irons varying in width from y$ inch to H mch, f° r making grooves of various sizes. The depth old woman’s to which the iron should go is regulated by a top screw at- t00wl1, tached to a plane. The plough or grooving plane, called the old woman’s Fig. 162. How to hold the plough. i74 Household Carpentry and Joinery. tooth, will cut a groove across a board and at any distance from the edge, a desideratum in making pigeon holes in which the vertical par- titions are slipped into opposite and corresponding grooves formed one in the lower surface of the horizontal board above, and the other the upper surface of the horizontal board below, of which one forms in the top and the other the bottom of the pigeon hole. 39 7- There are some useful combination planes made in America, in which the functions performed by the different planes that we have been describing are united. Theseplanes are sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. That which is re- presented in fig. 163 is Miller’s Com- bined Plough, Fil- lister, and Match- ing-plane, embrac- ing, as it does, in a most ingenious and American success ^ combination, the common carpenter’s plough, C °5 l an ation an a< ^j usta ^ e fillister, and a perfect matching-plane. The entire assortment can be kept in smaller space, or made more portable than the ordinary carpenter’s plough. Fig. 163. COMBINED PLOUGH, FILLISTER, AND MATCHING-PLANE. 398. With each plough eight bits -5%, and #in.) are furnished, also a tonguing tool {j£\n.) y and by the use of the Bits supplied latter, together with the Jfin. plough-bit for grooving, a with plane, perfect matching-plane is made. A metallic bed-piece with i^in. cutter in it can be attached to the stock of the tool by means of two screws passing through the slots in the base piece of the stock. Over this bed-piece the gauge, or fence, will move back- ward or forward, and when secured to the bars by the thumbscrew will constitute an adjustable filletster of any width required by the owner. The upright gauge on the back of the stock is adjusted by a thumbscrew likewise, and regulates the depth for the use of the filletster, as for all the other tools embraced in the combination. The price of this useful plane with all its various fittings is 36s. 399. It may be objected that an amateur will never require and never purchase such a tool as this, and that it is therefore but of little use to mention it here, and the objection, to a certain extent, is a good one ; but, on the other hand, amateurs are found who attain Adjustable Dado , Filletster, and Plough. 175 high excellence in the art they have adopted for their amusement, or who have ample means to acquire possession of tools of this kind which may fairly be called tools de luxe ; and as this book is written for the information of amateurs of all kinds Th f?e tools seldom re* and classes, rich and poor, inexpert and highly skilled, it quired by amateurs. would be hardly fair to pass them by without mention. We make no further apology, therefore, for mentioning another of these Combination planes — Trant’s Adjustable Dado, Filletster, and Plough’ which, with some of its fittings, is figured in the accompanying wood- cut. The tool here represented in fig. 164 consists of two sections : — a main stock with two bars or arms, and a sliding section, having its bottom or face level with that of the main stock. It can be used as a dado of any required width by inserting ^ustabie the bit into the main stock and bringing the sliding sec- ^sfer.and*" tion up to the edge of the bit. The two spurs, one on plou s h * each section of the plane, will thus be brought exactly in front of the edges of the bit. The gauge on the sliding section will regulate the depth to which the tool will cut. By attaching the guard-plate (a) to the sliding section, the tool may be readily con- verted into a plough, a fillet- ster, or a matching-plane, as explained in the printed instruc- tions which accompany each plane, but which are too long to be given here. The tool is fur- ther accompanied by eight bits (tVj X> X? %> X? an d iXi n *)> a filletster cutter (b), and a tonguing tool (c). All these bits are secured in the Q main stock on a skew. The fig. 164. trant’s adjustable dado, price of this handy and useful filletster, and plough. combination plane, consisting of an iron stock and fence, and including 176 Household Carpentry and Joinery. guard -plate, plough bits, and tonguing and grooving tools, as enumerated above, is 32s. 400. We have now done with the planes, and must pass on to the drawing-knife and spokeshave, the use of which will be easily under- stood by referring to figs. 59 and 60. The drawing-knife Drawing-knife t , ,, , and spoke- is held with both hands, one grasping one handle, and S to handle 7 the other the other, but in such a way that the bevel ot them. t k e bi ac [ e i s upwards and the opposite surface resting on the wood to be cut. The spokeshave is handled in the same way, the flat part of the iron shown in the engraving being next to the wood. The bevel of the blade is inwards and cannot be seen. The distance between the wooden handle or stock and the blade of the spoke- shave may be increased or diminished by tapping the points of the turned ends of the blade, which pass through the stock. The cutting edge of each of these tools may be sharpened by rubbing them with a slip. 401. It is obvious that the modes of using chisels and gouges of the ordinary form cannot be many. In the case of the chisel they are Modes of restr i cte d to paring and cutting mortises; the gouge is using chisels chiefly used for making grooves, scooping out hollows, as the hold of a model ship, or in cutting mortises, when the tenon is rounded, instead of being perfectly square. 402. It has been said that the chisels used in ordinary carpentry and joinery are of three kinds — the firmer chisel, the paring chisel, Chisels: their anc * t ^ ie mortising chisel. Of these the mortising chisel varieties. can on iy b e use d for cutting mortises, and the paring chisel for cutting or paring wood, as the name implies. The firmer chisel, on the contrary, which is shorter and stiffer than the paring chisel and broader than the mortising chisel, can be used equally well for either purpose, although its shortness renders it somewhat less convenient than the longer paring chisel. The firmer chisel, then, is the tool that will be of most service to the amateur, who cannot afford to provide himself with chisels of each description. 403. I], may now be convenient to describe the mortise and tenon, and to show what these terms mean. A mortise is a notch or cavity Mortise and cut i nt0 a pi ece of timber, or any other material, to re- tenon. ceive the end of another piece, called a tenon, which is made to fit it. Thus, in fig. 165, the end of the upright A has two rectangular pieces of equal size cut away, one on one side and one on the other, as at B and C, the blocks or pieces that are cut off being shown by dotted lines. The piece D, that is left in the middle when Mortise and Tenon: How to cut a Mortise. 177 the blocks are removed, is called the tenon. The object in view is to attach the upright A to the horizontal piece of wood E by means of the tenon, and to effect this a cavity is cut, as shown at F, of the exact size of the tenon in order to receive it. The tenon is then knocked into the mortise — it should fit tightly, and there- fore requires force applied by a striking tool to bring it into its place ; and the upright stands immovable, being prevented from leaning or from being forced to one side or the other by the shoulders that are formed on either side of the tenon when the side pieces are cut away. The meaning of the word tenon is obvious ; it is, i/13 Fig. 165. MORTISE AND TENON. Meaning of ‘ that by “tenon.” which something holds,” and the word itself is derived from the French tenir, to hold, which in its turn is obtained from the Latin teneOj I hold. The meaning of the word mortise is not so Meaning of plain. The French equivalent is mortaise , and as the “ mor tise.” mortise bites or grips the tenon in its open mouth or jaws, so to speak, it is to be traced to the Latin morsus , bite, or the hole or place in which the tongue of a buckle, or point of a javelin, knife, or sword enters and sticks fast, from mordeo , I bite. Thus Virgil uses the ex- pression morsus roboris, the cleft of an oak, to indicate a rift in the tree in which a javelin, thrown by the Trojan hero ^Eneas, had lodged and stuck fast. The width of the tenon is made to correspond to that of the mortise, and vice versa , by the use of the mortising gauge. We shall return presently to the construction of mortises and tenons in the next chapter, at present we have to consider more especially the mode of using our tools. 404. In cutting a mortise, the chisel is grasped firmly by the left hand, and held in a nearly upright position, as in fig. 166. The wood is in all cases cut by the chisel across the grain, and the operator must take care Chisel in to remember that the flat part of the cutting mortise: how chisel must always be turned towards the it should be end of the mortise, and the bevel towards the middle. Thus in cuting a mortise, the position of the chisel in the hand must be continually changed, the bevel being towards or turned from the operator, according to circumstances. The chisel is of course struck by a mallet held in the right hand. In cutting a mortise there is no necessity to make any cut with the chisel in the direction of the grain, all that need be done is to keep Fig. 1 66. CUTTING A MORTISE. 12 178 Household Carpentry and Joinery. working by cuts at a short distance from each other, across the grain, beginning in the centre of the wood to be removed, and proceeding both ways from the centre to either end. It will be found that the wood will come clean out of the cavity without any cutting along the sides of the mortise. 405. In paring, when the end of a piece of wood is being cut per- pendicularly, or very nearly so, across the grain, the paring chisel or firmer chisel, which- Paring chisels, , . , . etc. : how to ever the operator may have, should be grasped firmly in the right hand, as shown in fig. 167, the piece of wood that is being cut being held down firmly by the left hand, which must of necessity be placed behind the chisel and should be kept well back out of the way, to prevent injury from any slipping of the tool. When paring in the direction of the grain, as in cutting a point to a piece of wood, or in fashioning a wooden pin or H0L mn'g paring wedge, for example, the chisel should be held in the chisel. right hand, and the wood in the left hand, in the position and manner shown in fig. 168. 406. The gouge may be held in the manner indicated in figs. 167 The gouge: an d 1 68, according to the nature of the work that is being howto hold it d one> Thus in cutting a groove across the grain in the end of a piece of wood, it should be held as in fig. 167 ; but in cutting a groove or channel in the direction of the grain, or in scooping out the hold of a model or toy boat, it should beheld as in fig. 168. In all cases, however, where the gouge has to be struck with the mallet, it must be held like the mortising chisel, as shown in fig. 166. In this way the Fig. 168. gouge is sometimes used to prepare HOLDING THE PARING CHISEL. . . . , . an indentation or shallow cavity for the entrance of a shell auger or shell bit, when used in the brace. 407. There is little to be said about the rest of the tools, for the very nature of each will suggest the manner in which it is to be used ; Use of boring ^ ut a ^ ew remar ks may be useful on the mode of using the tools, etc. various kinds of boring tools, and in addition to these something may be said about the manipulation and method of using the marking and mortising gauges, and the nail punch. Boring with Bradawl } Gimlet , Auger , etc. 179 408. In boring holes with the bradawl and gimlet, the chief thing is to take care that the blade enters the wood at right angles to itj surface, unless it be necessary to pierce a hole in it at an Boring witli angle to the surface, as in skew nailing ; but for driving brad ^ and in a nail in the usual way, that is at right angles or per- pendicularly to the surface of the piece of wood that is being nailed down, the blade of the bradawl or gimlet must enter the wood perpen- dicularly. Practice alone will make the amateur perfect in doing this. He will often fail at first, very much to his annoyance. 409. In holding the bradawl the thick end of the handle is lodged against the palm of the hand and the ball of the thumb, being retained in that position by the second and third fingers ; the first How to hold finger is extended along the blade, and the extremity of bradawl, the thumb rests on the upper end of the handle or on the brass ferule which is fitted over it. 410. In using the gimlet the cross-piece or crutch handle, into which the blade is inserted, is grasped in the right hand, and held against the palm, the blade of the tool projecting between The gimlet . the first and second fingers, at the first joint of each, how tg hoid itm reckoning from the knuckles upward toward the tips of the fingeis. It is driven into the wood by a series of half turns of the hand from right to left, the handle being released and grasped again at every half turn. 41 1. The ends of the crutch handle of an auger are held, one in the. right hand and the other in the left, and the tool is turned from righ j to left, the hands being taken off and replaced on each, The au{ , ei . . end of the handle in succession at every half turn of the bow to hold it. tool. The hands will, of course, be held in opposite directions, the palms facing inwards and the fingers and thumbs grasping the ends of the handle, as when holding the chisel in mortising. As in the case of bradawls and gimlets, great care must be taken that the blade of the auger enters the wood perpendicularly to the surface ; and it assists the entrance of the tool to cut out a small depression, or cavity, for the reception of the end of the auger, especially if it be a shell auger. 412. The principles of the brace and bit have been fully explained. It may be held in any position, and a skilled workman will do so, and manage to bore a hole truly perpendicular to the p OS iti 0 n surface with the greatest facility. The amateur, however, ^ a c e u I 2 a should stand upright, or as nearly so as possible, when bit. using the brace and bit, having the part of the wood in which the hole is to be bored just about the height of his chest. The brace and bit may often be used with advantage in cutting a mortise, and a shell i 8 o Household Carpentry and Joinery. auger may also be used for the same purpose. A bit or auger of the width of the mortise should be used, and the work of the chisel is then 'confined to cutting out the corners and the projections between the holes. 413. In boring a hole with the bit and brace the round flattish knob is generally placed against the chest, and held tightly against it by the left hand, which grasps the tool directly in front of the _ . knob, the fingers Boring holes ? 0 with brace resting on the part and bit. # c which is upper- most. The handle attached to the crank is grasped by the right hand, as shown in fig. 1 69, and the crank is turned and FlG * i6 9 - boring with brace & bit. the bit caused to revolve from right to left. It requires a good deal of practice to use this serviceable tool with ease and readiness ; but when the amateur has once overcome the first difficulty of managing it, he will find it to be of the greatest assistance to him in carrying out many operations in carpentry and joinery. 414. In using the marking gauge for single lines, and the mortising gauge for double lines, straight in both cases and parallel to the edge of the wood on the upper surface of which the marks are made, — the object is to preserve the distance to which the points are set from the head of the gauge, and marking, perhaps, many pieces of wood in the same manner, as, for example, in cutting mortises and tenons. Gauges can be regulated to mark single or double parallel lines, as the case maybe, according to the nature of the gauge, whether marking gauge or mortising gauge, at any distance from the edge of the wood less than the length of the handle. 415. The gauge will be brought under notice again in considering the method of cutting mortises and tenons in detail. When the points Mortise ^ ave ^ een accurately adjusted to the desired distance gauge* between themselves and the head, if a mortising gauge be used, the bar or stock of the tool should be grasped with the right hand, as shown in fig. 170, in such a manner that the thumb is pressed against that part of the head nearest the operator, and the forefinger laid over its top and the FlG * I 7 °* opposite side. The points should be just long enough to make a Use of mortise gauge. The Nail Punch : How to hold it. 181 slight incision or scratch along the surface of the wood ; if they are too long they drag in the wood, and prevent the operator from doing the work quickly and easily. 416. The nail punch is a short bar of iron, thick at one end and tapering to a point at the other. It must be held, as a matter of course, in the left hand. The nail The thick end must be grasped by the punch : how thumb and forefinger, as in fig. 171, and steadied in the manner shown by the second and third fingers passed under it, and the little finger over it. This enables the operator to hold, the point of the Fig. 171. holding nail tool firmly against the nail that is to be driven below punch. the surface of the wood, and prevents it from slipping off. The blows of the hammer should be delivered quickly and smartly. CHAPTER VII. VARIOUS METHODS EMPLOYED IN JOINING TIMBER. Joining pieces of Timber — Operation of Planing — Supposed case — Carpenter's Bench — PlacingTimber on Bench — Planing must be in direction of Grain — Adjust- ment of Planing-iron, if required — Planing to proper thickness — Squaring planed wood — Smoothing with Glass-paper — Cutting Mortise and Tenon — Dimensions of proposed work — Marking out Tenon — Setting Gauge — Cutting with Tenon Saw — Marking out Mortise — Mode of cutting Mortise — Mortise to be cut from both sides — Trying in Tenon — Finishing and Securing — Only one way of making Mortise — Double Tenons — Use of Auger, etc, in making Mortise — Halving and Notching — Method of performing operation — Joint of this kind: why weak — Grating for Bath-room, etc. — Joining Quartering and Scantlings— Junction of timber lengthways — Fishing : how performed — Halving : how done — Securing Joint with Bolts and Plates — Proper length of halved Joint — Scarfing: meaning of term — How performed — Lateral Joints — Four methods used — Rebating : how it is done — Tonguing and Grooving — Hand tightness — Grooving and Slip- feathering — Planing Slip-feathers and Laths— Joining edges of Boards — Dove-tail feather — Dowellmg — How performed — Gluing Joints — Difficulty in getting glued joints to hold — Glue should be spread thinly — Joining boards at right angles — Nailing Boards end to end — Making small Frame — Keying : how performed — Corner piecing — Dove-tail joining — Common Dove-tail Joint — Dimensions of Pin and Socket — Method of Marking out — Diagram to be drawn larger for practice — Cutting parts of joint — Compound Dove-tail — Mode of making it — Dove-tailing for Drawer Fronts— Description of this kind of Dove-tailing — Completion of the work — The Mitre Dove-tail — How to make the Mitre Dove-tail — Illustrations helpful in making these joints. 417. Having provided himself with tools, and having learnt in some measure how to handle them and how to use them, the next thing to _ . . which the amateur artisan must turn his attention to is Joining pieces of the consideration of the various methods employed in timber. joining timbers and pieces of wood together. But before attempting any of these operations, though they may be said to be operations that are performed every day in Carpentry and Joinery, it is absolutely necessary to be able to saw and plane wood in a tolerably efficient manner — to saw truly and straightly in accordance with the guide lines made by the operator to enable him to make the saw-cut, be it of what kind it may, in the proper direction, and to plane up the surface of a piece of wood and its edges in a workmanlike manner. 418. The operation of planing has been already dwelt on to some Operation of Planing. 183 extent, but at the risk even of being wearisome the operation may be described again. One of the first, and perhaps the most operation frequent of wood-working operations, is that of planing a of Planing, piece of rough wood down to a certain size and thickness. Indeed, whatever joint the amateur wishes to make, he must first plane the different pieces to the right thickness and shape. Nothing but opera- tions in carpentry, such as framing pieces of timber together, can be done without the aid of this useful tool; in joinery nothing whatever can be done without it. 419. For the sake of clearer and easier explanation, let us suppose that a piece of wood is wanted which is square in shape ; that is to say, with sides of twelve inches every way, and one inch in Suppose a thickness. The piece of wood which is to be worked case< into the following dimensions must be rather larger every way, and should be sawn off from the most convenient piece in the amateur’s possession. 420. Allusion has been made once or twice to the carpenter’s bench, a sine qua non to every amateur ; but this will be described in the following chapter, and instructions given for making this, Carpent er’a and the stools or trestles that are so necessary when sawing bench, timber or mortising. The uses of the parts of the bench, of which mention must necessarily be made in the following description of planing, will be readily understood. Having sawn off the piece of timber, lay it on the bench just as it is, in the rough, with _ . J J 9 Placing one side bearing against the bench stop — a piece of wood timber on # bench. fitted tightly to a square hole in the bench, and which can be depressed till it is level with the surface, or raised by a few blows from a hammer until it stands above it at a height sufficient for the purpose required. In this case it maybe about X' m - above the surface of the bench, and rather more than X below the upper surface of the wood that is about to be planed. If it project in the least degree above the surface of the w^ood to be planed, it w r ill inflict very serious damage on the cutter of the plane. The projection can be adjusted to any height by tapping it with the hammer on the top if too high, and below if not high enough. 421. Whenever possible — and it is in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred — tne wood must be planed in the direction of the grain; it is not only much easier, but a much better surface is ob- planing tainable. The bulk of what has to come off must be taken Erection of off with the jack-plane. Take hold of the handle with the grain * right hand, put the left on and over the plane, just in front of the 184 Household Carpentry and Joinery. clearance hole, lay the plane flat on the wood, and push it foi wards ; bring it back, and again send it forward by firm even strokes, taking especial care to keep the plane always parallel to the surface of the wood, and not let the ends drop at the commencement and termination of the stroke. This is a very common fault with beginners, but, unless overcome, the surface will never be flat, or, as mechanics call it, “ true.” The necessity of guarding against this cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the amateur, because it is much easier to do it properly at the commencement, than to get out of the habit when once acquired. 422. If when the plane is passed over the wood no shaving comes off, take the hammer and tap the planing iron very gently. Tap it in Adjustment t ^ ie m iddle, or one corner will be driven out further than ° f iron n i? g " t ^ ie ot ^ er - Try a g a i n - Ah ! you have tapped too hard required. and driven the cutter out so far that by exerting all your strength you cannot move the plane across the wood at all, or, if you move it at all, it only goes an inch or two and runs in deeper than before. That is what carpenters call “ too rough.” To remedy this, tap the plane smartly behind ; one or two blows will not only bring out the planing-iron, but the wedge also. Put both back and readjust. Whenever it is required to take out the cutter, strike the plane behind , and whenever it is required to bring the iron down, tap the iron very gently, as it has been said, or knock the plane gently in front . When properly adjusted, the amateur will be able, without any violent exertions, to pass the plane smoothly over the wood, bringing off at each forward stroke clean shavings of even thickness, and the planed surface will be smooth and level. 423. When one side of the wood is planed, take the gauge, set it at 1 inch ; put the head against the planed surface, and strike a line along each of the four edges of the board ; lay it again P1 proper° on the bench, with the planed side downwards, and plane thickness. near iy d own to the line just struck. Smooth off both sides with the smoothing-plane. It is now the right thickness. 424. To square the wood put it in the vice — a flat piece or cheek of wood that may be moved farther from or nearer to the side of the Squaring bench by one or two screws — and tighten the screw or planed wood. screws ^ ^ not too tight, lest the pressure injure the finished surface of the board above and below. Plane, or “ true up,” one side, and, with a square, mark off two lines, twelve inches apart, and at right angles to the side already planed. If the board is very much out of square, cut off most of the superfluous wood with the Cutting Mortise and Tenon. 185 tenon saw and finish with the plane as before. In planing the sides in which the end of the grain appears plane down to the line at one corner first, then plane down the other corner, and the middle. If this precaution is not taken the corners will “ spawl ” off, and through the amateur’s carelessness will present a very ragged and unseemly appearance. If the work is required very smooth, the different surfaces must be well rubbed with a sheet of S ^ith^ S glass-paper or cloth, which, for convenience, is generally 8laSS paper wrapped round a small piece of wood. Such a piece of wood may be two or three inches broad, four or five inches long, and an inch thick, so that it may be easily grasped and held in the hand. 425. If the amateur artisan can get through the work above described in a creditable manner, he will be able to do anything that is required in 4.1 r 1 Cutting the way of plan- mortise and , tenon, mg, and we may now turn our attention to other operations. And first, as this is a mode of connect- ing timbers, without which it is next to impossible to frame Fl the 2 ’ t ^ iem together in a proper tenon, manner, before proceeding to other methods of joining timber, let us consider the mode of cutting a mortise V r and tenon, or making a mor- tise and tenon joint, the nature of which has already been explained in the last chapter. 426. In the annexed en- graving, fig. 172 represents an upright with the lower Fig. 173. THE MORTISE. end cut into the form of a tenon; and fig. 173, a piece of wood cut in such a manner that the tenon may fit into the cavity, which is called a mortise. Suppose that the of proposed width of each piece of wood is 3m. and the depth 4m. ; W ° lk ' that is to say, in fig. 172, 3m. from A to B, and 4m. from A to c, and in I 73> 3i n - from x to Y, and 4*0* from Y to z. It is determined in this case not to cut the mortise right through the wood, but to make 186 Household Carpentry and Joinery. the tenon 3m. in length, in which case it will not show itself in the lower surface or bottom of the piece of wood, represented in fig. 173. 427. It is further determined to make the width of the tenon, and therefore, that of the mortise also, iin., and we must suppose that the Marking out wood has been planed up and true on all sides. First of tenon. a distance of 3m., the depth decided on for the mortise, is measured from the end of the upright, say from F, G up- wards to D, E. This distance is marked with the pencil, and by the aid of the square, the straight lines BA, A c, C L, and L B are marked, one on each side or surface presented by the upright. As the width ©f each piece of wood is 3m., and the tenon is to be in the direction Setting of its depth, that is to say, from A to C or from B to L, gaaige. an d as * t * s usua i to ma k e the tenon just one-third the width, the mortising gauge must be set so that the first point is distant exactly iin. from the head, and the second, which is the point nearest the end, 2in. from the head. The head of the mortise must be brought first along the edge B o, where the points will mark out the lines EG, df; then against L P, where the lines K N, H M will be marked ; and lastly, against the edge O P, where the lines G N, F M will be marked. The upright, if it be a short one, may be held perpendicularly in the bench-jaw or vice, when the planes hmfd, knge will be cut through with the tenon Cutting with saw - The timber is then laid on the bench, and the tenon saw. tenon saw is passed through the planes c H D A, bekl, when the rectangular blocks on either side of the tenon will be separated from it, and the tenon be left in a fit condition to be inserted in the mortise when made. 428. A distance of 4m. having been measured off with the rule along the line xx' in fig. 173, at the place where it is determined to Marking out cut the mortise, the square is applied to the edge x x', mortise. anc i lines w' ww' at right angles to the edge are duly marked off. Then the head of the mortising gauge is applied to the edge YY' or x x' — either will do provided that the timbers are of the same width, which they should be if they have been planed up to gauge — and the lines K s, T U, marked on the upper surface, represented by X x' y' Y. The parallelogram, trsu, the length of which is with the grain of the wood — a mortise being in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred cut with its length parallel to the grain — shows Mode of _ . _ ... ... cutting the place where the mortise is to be cut, and its size, mortise. w ] 1 j c ] 1 corresponds exactly with that of the tenon. The wood is then laid on the carpenter’s bench, or, if long enough, on a Trying in Tenon: Finishing and Securing. 187 pair of stools or trestles, and the operator proceeds to cut out the mortise with a mortising chisel or firmer chisel, of the breadth of the mortise — namely, iin., sinking it gradually to the depth of 3m., or a trifle more, that the shoulders of the tenon may rest on, and fit closely to the upper surface of the wood in which the mortise has been cut ; that is to say, the surfaces CHDA, lkeb in fig. 172, on the surfaces v T u w, v'r s w' respectively in fig. 173. If the wood is long enough to be laid on trestles, the operator sits astride it, and proceeds to cut the mortise, but whether on the bench or on trestles the mode of operation is the same; a notch is first taken out in the middle of the mortise, and the cutting is carried gradually to the end, first in one direction and then in the other, till a depth of about or >£in. has been taken out over the whole of the mortise. When the mortise is to be cut right through the wood, lines should be marked with „ . , 0 & Mortise to be the square round three sides or faces of the wood (or all cut from both sides. four, if preferred), as v'v, v v", v"a' and w'w, w w" and W"b' and the lines t'u', r's', marked on the under part of the wood. When half the depth of the mortise, or nearly so, has been cut from the parallelogram TRSU, the wood should be turned upside down and the rest of the mortise taken out from the parallelogram t'r's'u'. By this means the mortise will be carried through in such a manner from side to side of the wood that the upright cannot fail to be per- pendicular to it. Had the operator gone on cutting in one direction throughout the whole operation, he might have leant a little to one side or the other, and the other side of the hole would not have been true to gauge. This would have had the effect of throwing the upright piece out of the perpendicular. Whenever an amateur, therefore, is going to cut a mortise right through a piece of wood, he must remember that it will be safer for him to sink the hole from both sides. 429. When the mortise is cut try in the tenon, and if too tight to go down to the shoulder without using considerable force, rub some red lead about it and again try it in. The lead will show Trying in where the joint binds. Carefully pare off those places thus tenon * marked until the mortise is large enough to admit the tenon. When it is brought home to the shoulders, a hole is to be bored „ . , . through both mortise and tenon with a bit or gimlet, and an< * 07 securing. a wooden pin driven into it. When the mortise and tenon is but small, the joint may be secured by gluing the end of the tenon before it is fitted into the mortise. 430. The method of making a mortise is the same in all cases, i 88 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 174. DOUBLE TENON. whatever may be its length and width, and but little more remains to be said about this kind of joint. When the wood to be joined is Only one very wide, instead of having making one tenon one-third of the mortise. ^idth, it is usual to have two tenons, as shown in fig. 174, in the annexed drawing, and consequently two mortise holes. In this case the thick- ness of each tenon is one- fifth the width of the wood. If three tenons are necessary, the thick- ness of each should be one-seventh of the wood. It is not likely, however, that the amateur will ever find it necessary to proceed beyond a double tenon. The form of tenon shown in fig. 175, Double tenons. FlG. 175. DOUBLE TENON. is also very useful ; it does not weaken the wood so much as the When a very wide tenon is required, this shape It will readily be understood by other methods. may be used with advantage, referring to the illustration. 431. It has been said that assistance may be obtained in making mortises from the auger and brace and bit. The manner is shown in Use of anger, fig- in which let A B c D represent a mortise iin. wide making an d 2>£in. long. If two holes be taken out with an inch mortise. as at E anc [ j s c j ear that all that remains to be done with the chisel is *to clear away the corners at A, B, c, D, and the intervening space between E and F, in which case it will be necessary to cut the sides A B, c D of the mor- FlG. 176. USE OF AUGER IN . ... . _ . making mortise. tise, which is never requisite when the whole of the wood to be removed is taken out with the chisel in the ordinary way. 432. There is a method of connecting timbers by halving and notching which may be described, as it may possibly be of use to the Halving and amateur in some cases, especially if he be not very far notching, advanced in the art of carpentry, and not sufficiently skilful to make a mortise and tenon joint. It is a joint that materially weakens the wood, reducing its strength just one-half. 433. Fig. 177 will suffice to show the manner in which timbers may be halved and notched into each other. Suppose that the timbers A and B are two pieces of quartering 2in. square, after being planed Halving and Notching. 189 up. The marking gauge is set to iin. and applied to the timbers, tracing out the lines C D on A, and E F on B, and similar lines on the sides opposite to these, which are hidden from view. , Method of Spaces of 2in. are then set off, where the pieces are to performing ..... . operation, be notched into each other, and guide lines drawn with the square round the three sides in which is contained the piece to be notched out, as at G H K. L M N in B. These lines serve to direct the tenon saw, which is passed through the lines H K, M N, till it meets the transverse lines traced by the gauge. A broad chisel and mal- let is then called into requisition to remove the notch, the edge of the chisel being in the guide lines traced by the marking gauge, and the handle struck lightly so as to impel the chisel gently into the wood. After Fig. 177. HALVING AND NOTCHING. this has been done once or twice, first on one side and then on the other, the piece will come away, leaving a hollow as shown in the drawing. Any inequality of surface that may be caused by projection of fibres at the bottom of the notch may be pared away with the chisel. A notch precisely similar to that which has been made in B is made in A ; the mode of operation in each case being exactly alike. The two pieces are then fitted one into the other, the notch in each receiving the part that is left in the other after the notch has been made, and the piece which was previously contained in it removed. When fitted together the wood presents the appearance shown at x. A couple of holes should then be made with a large gimlet, and the two pieces be fastened together by wooden pegs. It is better to put one peg in on one side and the other on the side opposite to it, instead of driving in both on one side. 434. It has been said that this is a weak kind of joint, and so it is, on account of the great reduction that is made in the thickness of the wood in both pieces. It is useful, however, in joining r ’ J & Joint of this cross-pieces, for the pressure of the shoulders of the kind, why weak. notches on the surfaces on which they rest gives great rigidity to the joint, so that it is impossible, if the pieces have been accurately cut and let into one another, to move the arms of the cross thus formed in any direction. It is bad when the end of one piece of wood is halved into another piece, as in the case of an upright into a horizontal piece, or vice versa , and it is infinitely worse when the xqo Household Carpentry and Joinery. ends of two pieces of wood are halved for the purpose of joining the pieces themselves at right angles. The case in which halving and Grating fcr notc ^ n £ comes into operation with the best effect is in ^th e ro°m f making a grating, on which to stand in a bath-room or on a stone floor. In this a number of pieces, all lying in one direction, are halved into a number of others at right angles to them, as in fig. 178, the ends on all sides being let into a frame a little thicker and wider than the _ Bi . ^ bars themselves. The bars, when fitted into one another should be fastened with wooden pegs, and the plane passed over the surface to remove any inequalities that may remain after the heads have been cut off with the saw or chisel. Inch square Fig. 178. GRATING, bars make a substantial and useful grating of this kind, the notches being made at a distance varying from iin. to 1 j^in. apart. 435. We have now considered the methods of joining such pieces of wood as quartering and scantling, and smaller pieces that assume Joining, the form of bars, at right angles to each other. It is now qUar and ng> necessary to see how such pieces of wood may be joined scantlings, longitudinally or lengthwise, end to end, so that each piece is in direct continuation of the other, in one and the same straight line ; and then to consider the methods that are adopted for joining boards on pieces of wood laterally or side by side, so as to present a uniform and level surface, and at an angle , most commonly a right angle, as in the case of a drawer or box. 436. The modes of joining timbers longitudinally, or end to end, are three in number, and may be described as fishings halvings and scarfing — beginning with the most simple manner of Junction of rr . . timber effecting a joint in this direction, namely that of length , lengthways. an( j p roceec [j n g onwards to the most difficult. 437. Fishing is a mode much used at sea for strengthening a mast, yard, or spar, that has been sprung or cracked but not broken in half. It is an operation very similar to that performed by the Fishing : how J performed, fly-fisherman when a joint of his fishing-rod is cracked in the manner shown in the annexed engraving, fig. 179 ; and he repairs it by winding a piece of waxed silk over the fracture, as shown in fig. 180. An exemplification of this fish-joint or fish-plating is to be seen on any railway, for this is the manner in which the ends of the rails are connected, as shown in fig. 181. When the sailor fishes a spar, instead of using rope only, as is done with silk or fine cord in splicing the broken joint of a fishing-rod or a walking stick, he lays some short Fishing, Halving, and Scarfing. igx Fig. 179. timber “sprung.” Fig. i 3 o. mode of fishing. I C) v - \ : •- r -Winf [0] jo] [<□ □□ a pieces of timber lengthwise along the spar, and binds the rope over them, the longitudinal timbers helping to support and keep in place the ends of the fracture, and preventing increased injury from any additional strain that may be made at any time on the upper or riven part of the spar. The timbers act in fact in a man- ner similar to the plates at the junction of the ends of two rails on a railway as in fig. 1S1. The amateur may connect timbers in this way by abutting the ends one against the other, and laying iron plates one on each side of the joint, bolting the whole together with bolts and nuts, as shown in fig. 182. 438. Halving is the simplest mode of performing the operation to which the general term “ scarfing ” is applied; but instead of including it under this com- FlG. 181. JUNCTION OF RAILS ON RAILWAY. Fig. 182. JOINING TIMBERS WITH PLATES AND BOLTS. 1 — ^ ^ ... JT°. J H /- 1 c r*=l h ; A 0 L n B .--3 ^ J Fig. 183. HALVING. m r- Lc \ !; 1 J \ Halving : mon name, it is howdone * better to apply it to that mode of juncture in which the tim- bers are cut so as to overlap each other in a direction paral- lel to the surface of the wood, Fig. 184. scarfing. or, m ore correctly, parallel to two of its sides, and vertical to the other two ; retaining the term scarfing for those joints in which the timbers are cut so as to overlap each other, in a direction at an angle to two of its oppo- site sides. The annexed illustrations shows clearly the Securing joint manner in which halving is performed. The joint may with bolts and plates. be made so that the plates may be at top and bottom, as in fig. 183, or at the sides; but the overlapping of the timbers from A to B must always be parallel to the plates, and never covered by them, for reasons which are so clear that they need no explanation. The illustrations are shown in section, in order to present the course of the bolts in one and the screws in the other. 439. In halving timbers in this way, the length to which each end should be rebated should be five or six times its depth ; that is to say, if the depth or thickness of the wood from c to D be 3m., the length of the rebate from A to B should be from 15 in. to i8in. When the 192 Household Carpentry and Joinery. depth of the timbers to be halved together does not exceed 3m., plat may be dispensed with, and screws only used as shown in fig. 184, It is a good plan to cut each overlapping end at an angle, Proper length of halved as at A B C, B C D, as the end is then held down and pre- Jomt ‘ vented from springing outwards by the projecting tongue with which each extremity is fitted. In all cases of making a halved joint of this kind, it is better that the line of juncture (a b in fig. 183, and B c in fig. 184) should show at the upper and lower surface of the timbers when joined, unless there be a bearing in the centre of the joint, or the distance between bearings on either side be but short. 440. The term “ scarf” comes to us from the German scharben , to notch or indent, or from the Swedish s/carf, a seam or joint, and skarfva , Scarfing- *° J°* n t0 S et ^ er - The ordinary modes of scarfing are meaning of shown in the annexed illustration, in which fig. 185 shows term. the simplest kind of scarf joint that can be made. This scarf is used for joining a fishing-rod or walking-stick when either has been broken in half instead of being merely cracked or sprung. The ends of the pieces are carefully pared down at a long slope until they How per- can fitted together as in fig. 185, the end of one piece formed, laying upon and along the end of the other. The splice is completed by binding waxed silk or thin strong cord over and beyond the lapping ends on either side, from c to D. But to return to the scarfing of timbers, the line of connection from A to B is at an angle to the sides of the connected timbers. In fig. 185 the line of junc- tion A B forms a straight line from A to B. In figs. 186 and 187 it does not, the extremi- ties of the timbers being cut in the form of a step — the tipper timber in fig. 187, or that which appears to be uppermost in the section presented to the eye of the observer, being in the line A C D B, and the lower in the line befa. In fig. 186 a groove is cut in the face of each timber as at C D, and into this groove a taper wedge is driven which has the effect of locking the shoulders A B into the angles cut for their reception. In fig. 187 this wedge (which must taper slightly in either case) bears against the surfaces CD and E F, and draws the ends of the pieces thus connected well together, forcing, as in fig. 186, the extremities a and B into the angles cut to receive them. Fig. 185. Modes of Scarfing Timbers. Rebating: Tonguing and Grooving. i93 441. We must now proceed to the method of forming lateral joints, which are used in connecting the edges of boards together. We have hitherto been dealing chiefly with the ends of timbers, Lateral showing how to fit end to end, or the end of a vertical joints * timber into a horizontal timber or vice versa. The modes that are ordinarily adopted for this juncture of pieces of wood are four in number, and are known respectively as rebating , tonguing and groov~ ing, grooving and slip-feathering, and dove-taii grooving Pou , method3 ■and feathering. These methods of joining boards edge ased - to edge must be resorted to, when a surface of wood is required, larger than can be conveniently obtained in one piece. Each method has particular application, and no one method will be found to answer for all objects. The purpose for which the work is required, and the material of which it is composed, must be taken into consideration, and the amateur must decide for himself which method may be most advantageously used. 442. The simplest method of joining the edges of boards is by rebat- ing, as shown in fig. 188. The means by which this is done has already been explained in describing planes and the various ways Rebating : how in which they are used. In making a rebate-joint all that u is done * it is now necessary to say is that the edges of both boards must be planed true, and half of both pieces cut away in such a manner and to such an extent as to overlap each other and join with nicety ; the step or half cut from one being filled up by the half or projecting part left in the other. An exemplification of a convenient use of the rebate- joint in carpentry is found in the joining of floor boards, when it is desired to put them down in such a way that no heads of nails are visible. The lower board A is laid first on the joists, and fastened down to them by floor-brads driven in at an angle as at B, the heads being buried in the wood by aid of the brad-punch. The board c is then laid down so that the rebate in it fits over the rebate in A, and the overlap is then fastened down by wooden pegs driven into and through both laps along each joint, as shown at D. 443. The next method of joining edges of boards, which presents no very great difficulty if the amateur possess a tonguing and grooving plane, or a pair of match planes, is shown in fig. 189. It Tongu i ng and is called tonguing and grooving. After the edges of the g^ov^g- boards to be joined have been planed true, a groove one-third of their 13 C b A Fig. 188. REBATING. 194 Household Carpentry and Joinery. thickness, and sometimes a little less, is cut in one piece by means of the grooving iron, while by the aid of the tonguing iron a corresponding tongue is cut in the other. This tongue should fit the groove some- Hand-tight- what tightly, indeed, in the manner called by joiners y / single dove-tail joint. the socket of a single dove-tail. Very few workmen follow any arbitrary rule as to the proportions and shape of the different parts ; they go by their judgment and their eye, and if they have had any experience they are seldom wrong. To the amateur, who cannot be expected to have had much if any practice, the following hints will be of material assistance. If he goes according to rule when he commences, practice will soon make him familiar with the propor- tions, and render any measurement or rule unnecessary. This does not of course do away with the necessity that exists for marking the depth of the pin and socket with the marking-gauge. This must be done even by the best of workmen. Hard and tough wood will admit of an acuter angle than soft wood, or wood that is subject to split or chip. 455. Let us take the pin and socket shown in the above illustration as an example. It is, as it has been said, the pin and socket of a single dove-tail, but the same rule is followed in the con- . Dimensions struction of all. Having determined the depth of the of pin and . socket, pin, which will be governed by the thickness of the board in which the socket is to be cut, into which the pin is to be fitted, set the head of the marking-gauge to the required distance from the point; and, holding it against the end of the wood, mark on its four sides in succession the lines EC,CK (fig. 1 96), and the lines opposite to them from E and K on the sides that are not shown in the drawing. Method of Next divide E c into three equal parts in the points D and mar ' king out B, D B being the central third, that is, the root or bottom of the pin. Draw two lines, B A and D F, at an angle of 70° or 8o° to c B and E D, respectively. Draw two other straight lines, A h,fg, at right angles to FA. Perform the same operation on the side of the wood that is hidden from view ; that is to say, trisect the line from K to the corner formed by the meeting of the lines K and E, and join the points on either side of the central third, to G and H respectively, one of these being H 1, which 200 Household Carpentry and Joinery. is shown in the diagram. The reader will find it good practice to copy Diagram to be ^ ^^ a S ram on a larger scale, completing the parts cut drawn larger away on each side of the pin with dotted lines. This will for practice. materially assist him when he is putting the directions given into practice on wood. The operator, supposing that these lines have been marked on a piece of wood, must now lay the tenon-saw upon the line C K, and cut across the grain till it comes to B I. Lay the saw next upon A H, and saw in a direction very nearly correspond- ing to that of the grain until B I has been reached, as before, and a junction is effected with the saw-cut first made through C K. Remove the piece of wood thus detached, and proceed in the same manner on the other side. If a smooth cut be made, nothing further is required to be done to the pin ; but if roughly sawn, or the two saw cuts do not meet, and the piece nearly cut off is torn away, the projections that still require to be removed must be cut away with a broad chisel. Having finished the pin, it now remains to cut the socket for its re- Cutting parts ception. First lay the pin upon the e 7 id of the piece of joints, intended for the socket, that is to say, on the end shown uppermost in fig. 197, and with a sharp pencil mark on the end the shape of the pin. The lines thus marked would be those shown as A B and CD in fig. 197, the part between A and C receiving the narrow part or throat of the pin, and that between D and B the wide end, namely, the parts lettered D B and A F in fig. 196. Saw down to the required depth, shown by the line E F. This depth is equal to the thickness of the wood from C to K in fig. 196, and straight lines all round the wood should have been previously marked at this depth with the square. When the saw cuts have been made through A B and C D to the necessary depth, the central piece must be removed with a chisel. The piece removed, if it could be taken away without breaking it, should be exactly the shape of, and slightly smaller than, the pin, because the Fig. 198/smGLE P in lias t0 re P lace and it is necessary that the dove-tail complete. pj n should fit fairly tight into the opening cut for its reception. When glued together, the pin and socket present an appearance similar to that in fig. 198, in which the single dove-tail is represented in a finished state. 456. The compound dove-tail is represented in the annexed diagrams, Compound anc ^ ^ ie on ty difference between this and the single dove- dove-taii. tail is, that the first has but one pin and this has three, and may have more if it be necessary. Compound Dove-tail Joint. 201 =3 3 W i> 457. When the wood has been planed to the proper size, and the sides or edges squared, a line should be struck by means of the marking- gauge along the pin part on both sides from A to B, as in Mode of fig. 199. The distance of this line from the edge should marking it. be rather more than the thickness of the socket part as shown in fig. 200, which, with fig. 199, represents, the for- mer the elevation of end of the socket piece, and the latter the elevation of side of pin piece. The pins are cut out as in the single dove-tail, the parts at c y d, being removed by aid of a chisel, while those at a , b , may be cut out with a tenon-saw or chisel as may be preferred. Lines are then marked on the flat side of the socket part, as shown at c in fig. 200, the thickness of the pin being their distance from the edge of the board. The shape and position of the sockets can easily be found by laying the pins upon the Fig - 2 °°- Fig - * 99 - \ SOCKET PIECE. PIN PIECE. edge of the socket and marking them off compound dove-tail joint. with a sharp pencil. The sockets are cut out in the same manner as in a single dove-tail. If the spaces to be removed are at all large, a few steady blows should be given with a mallet upon the chisel handle. The chisel should not be urged to take out the whole of the space at one cut, but a part should be taken at a time, and when the wood is nearly removed the chisel should be held rather out of the perpendicular, so as to cut in under, which will insure a tight and neat joint when put together. The appearance of the ; pins of the compound dove-tail represented in isometrical per- spective after completion are shown in fig. 201, and the sockets in a similar manner in fig. 202. When put together the dove-tail joint appears as shown in fig. 203. of the end grain of its neighbour. Fig. 202. SOCKET PIECE. FlG. 201. PIN PIECE. COMPOUND DOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE. In this joint each side shows portions For drawers and such-like articles 202 Household Carpentry and Joinery. this, however well done, would look very unsightly ; it is therefore sel- dom used for those purposes, unless the out- sides are veneered, or covered with a thin sheet of some ornamental wood. Should it at any time be used for a drawer, the part marked C must be the front. The reason readily appears from an examination of the shape of the parts composing the dove-tail. Supposing, for the sake of explanation, that the joint was not glued, and that it did not fit very tightly. If the part marked A were used as the front, it would be possible to pull the pins a, fr, c , out of their sockets, as there is nothing to prevent their coming out ; but if ever so much force were used to draw c away from A, it could not be done, because the broad parts of the pins d , e , could not possibly be pulled out through the narrow openings f g. 458. There is a method of making the dove-tail joint for drawer fronts by which the end grain of the side is kept concealed from view, and this does away with any necessity for veneering in for drawer order to hide the joint. This mode of making the joints fronts. between sides and front is adopted for drawers that are to be painted or stained and varnished, and may be used with advantage in drawers that are to be veneered with mahogany, rose- wood, or any fancy wood. 459. The elevation of the end of the front and surface of the side in this kind of dove-tail joint for drawer fronts is shown in figs. 204 and 205 in the annexed illustrations, and the appearance of the Description . . . . . ... of this kina pieces when cut in readiness for joining together is shown of dove -tailing. 2Q £ an d 2Q ^ an( j ^at of the pieces after they have been joined in fig. 208. The part used for the front is marked F in all the illustrations. It will be seen by referring to the complete joint in fig. 208 that the end grain of the side does not come through, and con- sequently is not seen. This joint is rather more difficult to make than the one that was last described, but the difficulty of construction is confined entirely to the front part, the side being cut in a manner exactly similar to the ordinary dove-tail joint. When the amateur artisan has occasion to make this joint, he should (after the several parts are trued up and sized with the plane) first cut out the side, as in Fig. 203. compound DOVE-TAIL COMPLETE. Dove-tail Joint for Drawer Fronts. 203 tig. 204. The thickness of the side-piece should be rather less than the thickness of the front. When the side is completed it should be laid in position on the end of the front and the shape of completion of the pins marked with a sharp pencil. The sockets which the- work, are shaded in fig. 205 must then be carefully cut away with a mallet END OF FRONT. SIDE. ELEVATION OF HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL. HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE. parts of all other joints made in wood; but, as in this case, a great deal of strain is thrown on the joints of the drawer in pulling it out, unless they are well fitted together the front will soon become very shaky. The method of making this kind of dove-tail joint is shown clearly in the illustrations, and any further explanation will be needless, as the diagrams speak, as it were, for themselves. 460. The last joint of this description that has to be considered is the mitre dove-tail, which is a combination of keying and dove- tailing. It is a very neat and The mitre moderately strong dove - tail ; dove_tail - there are no end grains showing, and if done well the joint itself cannot be noticed. It is used, in short, when both strength and neat- ness are required, which, with the amateur, is frequently the case. Fig. 208. HIDDEN DOVE-TAIL COMPLETE. 204 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 461. The first thing to be done in making this joint is to cut the mitre or bevel. For the sake of making the explanation a little clearer, let us suppose that the pieces of wood to be united are of equal thick- _ . , ness, and let fig. 209 re- the mitre present a horizontal sec- c dove-tail. A tion of the front, and fig. 2 10 a horizontal section of the side ; or, what is the same thing, let the figures A c A e b in each case represent the upper edge Fig. 209. Fig. 210. SECTION OF FRONT. SECTION OF SIDE. of the boards. Each board must be mitre dove-tail. cut so that the edges marked A in each must meet. In each take the distance A B equal to A C, the thickness of the board, and with the square draw the straight line B H, and join the diagonal A H. Along A c and A B measure equal lines, A K, A E, and through E draw the line E D F with the square, and through K the line K D G parallel to the edge A B or C H. Let this be done on the lower edge of the board as well, and with square or marking-gauge trace a line from F, along the inner surface, along the whole depth of the side, from upper edge to lower edge. Lay the tenon-saw along this line, if it is not too long, in which case it must be cut with the chisel, and cut into the wood until D is reached. Then with a sharp chisel cut away the wood along the part ad of the diagonal A H, removing entirely the shaded part in each board, namely, adfc. The sockets will now have to be cut in the part GDF H, in fig. 209, and the pins in the part similarly lettered in fig. 210. The great thing in making this joint is to make the bevelled part, A D E, in each precisely similar. If the side is of less thickness than the front, the bevel A D must be cut in the same manner, and of similar dimensions in each. As far as the rest is concerned, the length of D G or H F, in fig. 209, must always be exactly equal to the length of F D or H G, in fig. 210. The elevation of Fig. 21 i. END OF FRONT. Fig. 212. END OF SIDE. the ends of the two boards to be joined elevation of mitre dove- are shown in figs. 21 1 and 212, fig. 21 1 tail joint. representing the end of the front, and fig. 212 the end of the side. In figs. 213 and 214, the bevels or mitres at A, A, and the pins in one and the sockets in the other are drawn in Mitre Dove-tail Joint. 205 isometrical perspective. It is not possible, for obvious reasons, to give an illustration of this joint when fitted together and complete, nor indeed would it be needful even if it were possible. Fig. 213. front. Fig. 214. side. MITRE DOVE-TAIL IN ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE. 462. By the aid of the illustra- tions no amateur can fail in mak- ing this joint, if he Illustrations understand the mode maMnfth^e of making the single jomts * dove-tail and of keying two pieces of wood together at an angle. He will find it a difficult piece of business no doubt, but patience and perseverance will enable him to overcome this and all other difficulties that may pre- sent themselves in the various operations that have to be per- formed in Carpentry and Joinery. Of course he will readily under- stand that it is in cabinet-making, rather than in carpentry and joinery proper, that such a joint as the mitre dove-tail joint is For all opera- nicety, is requisite, the simpler more quickly made, will be found every respect. chiefly required. tions in which strength, rather than kinds of joints, which are easily and to be both suitable and sufficient in CHAPTER VIII. THE CARPENTER’S BENCH AND ITS VARIOUS FITTINGS. THE SAWING STOOL AND TRESTLES. T Jie Carpenter’s Bench — Ordinary small-sized Bench— Utilisation of Space under Bench — Bench may be Fixed or Movable — Better Fixed for Amateur — How to Manage Fixing — Convenient Dimensions for Bench — Bench for Temporary Service— Preliminary Operations — Construction of End or Trestle — Front of Trestle — Connection of the Trestles — Diagonal Braces : their positions for back — To keep Trestles from Displacement — Construction of Front — Planing- board in front, etc. — Completion of Frame— Making and putting on top — Fittings for Bench — Substitutes for Bench-stop — Substitute for Bench-vice — Construction of contrivance — Another simple substitute — Merits of this kind of Bench — Amateur will make better Bench — Ordinary Carpenter’s Bench — General principles of Construction — Convenient Dimensions — Preparation of different parts— Joining pieces together — Double Tenon desirable — Construction of Bench continued — Tenons of uppermost bars — Completion of Frame — Uprights for Bench — Centre rail in front of Bench — Provision in front for screw of Bench-vice — Well in Bench for Tools — Another mode of making Well — Front of Bench — Bench-vice : its construction — The Bench-screw — Cost of Bench- screws — Uses of the Bench-screw — Additional supports for Boards — Construction of top of Bench — Covering for Well — The Bench-stop : its construction — An additional hand— Iron hold-fast for Bench— Its construction and operation- improved Hold-fast — Hold-fasts as substitute for Bench-screw — Hold-fast useful to amateur — Improved or Patent Bench-stop — The Shooting-board— Its con- struction and principle — Utility of Shooting-board limited — Universal Shooting- board — Its construction and principle — Evil of ordinary Bench-screw — Regulation of Parallelism between Bench and Bench-vice — Croix de St. Pierre — Its con- struction and action — Broad cheek : why preferred — Mode of preserving Parallelism— The Runner — Adaptation of Runner to Screw — Laws’ Bench — Its dimensions and construction — The “Composite” Bench — Its dimensions and construction — Wheel and Treadle — Suitable for fixture against wall — Objections to ordinary Bench-vice — Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice — Its construction and action — Advantages of Grip-vice — Its adaptability to various requirements — Syer’s Improved Portable Cabinet Bench — Its construction and advantages — Ent- wistle and Kenyon’s Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice — Principle of construction — Adjuncts to Carpenter’s Bench — Trestle or Sawing-stool — Its dimensions and construction — Notch in end of Trestle — Clamps : their uses — Assistance rendered by machinery — Motive power for Amateurs — Mode of fitting and working a Cir- cular Saw — Multiplication of velocity — Guide slip for regulating width to be cut. 463. One of the most indispensable essentials to the performance of operations in Carpentry and Joinery is the carpenter’s bench. Nothing can be fairly done without it — except sawing, for which the stool is wanted ; or mortising, which may also be done on a couple of stools or Position of Carpenter’s Bench. 207 trestles, although small mortises may be cut on the bench. Planing must be done entirely on the bench, for, as it has been J The said, in planing the surface of a board it must be laid carpenter’s flat on the top of the bench and butted against the bench-stop ; while in planing the edges, the board must be laid along the side of the bench, being supported on pegs (for the reception of which holes are made along the side itself) in the middle, and at one end nearest the operator, while it is gripped and held tightly against the side by the benchrjaw or vice at the other end. 464. An ordinary carpenter’s bench of small size, with a bench- vice and bench-stop, may be bought or made by a carpenter, ready for the amateur’s use, at about 25s., but a tolerably good 0rdinary second-hand bench may often be picked up at the wood smaii-sized J r bench, yard for 10s. or 15s. An excellent bench may be had for 50s., but when fitted with various appliances and turned out in the best manner, they will range upwards in price from this amount to £ 10 . 465. A bench of this description, however, is too often a bench and nothing more. Unlike a table, below the bed of which there must be nothing in order that the legs of the persons that are 1 • , , . . Utilisation sitting round it may be thrust beneath it, the space under of space under bench. the carpenters bench may be utilised, and almost every square inch of the space between the four legs turned to good account. So having knocked together a rough-and-ready article that may serve the purpose until the bench can be made, it will be good practice for the amateur to make one for himself, which he may contrive in such a manner as may best suit his own convenience. 466. A cai'penter’s bench may be either fixed or movable, and with regard to position it may be against a wall of the workshop or shed or it may stand in the middle of it, so that there may be „ J 7 J Bench may free passage all round it. In nine cases out ©f ten the be fixed or movable. amateur will find it convenient to have it against the wall of his shed, and immediately under the window that lights it, if possible. A large bench need not be fixed, as its own weight will keep it in position ; but a small one, such as an amateur artisan will generally have, will be all the better for being secured to the side of the shed or to the ground, if possible. For the amateur, Better fixed then, there can be little doubt that the bench should be i0x amateui * against a wall and fixed ; but of course there are cases in which this would be impossible, and in determining position, etc., every one must be guided by the necessities of situation, light, etc., and settle these points as may best suit his own convenience. 208 Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 215. fixing BENCH WITH BRACKETS 467. The fixing is easily managed. Four iron brackets, having two arms at right angles to each other, and pierced and countersunk for How to screws, will be all that is necessary. Suppose in fig. 215 manage fixing. t ^ at one i e g 0 f the end of a bench is represented, the bench being placed against a wall, perhaps of boards. If a bracket be screwed to the bench and the boards, as at A, at this end, and one at the other, the bench cannot be pulled away from the wall; and if others be placed against the front legs , in the manner shown at B, the bench cannot be raised from the ground. In the illustration, for convenience’ sake, the bracket is shown fixed to the back leg ; but this is of no importance, as it is only the manner of using these brackets that it is sought to explain. When the bench stands against a wall, a wooden rail must first be fixed to the wall in a horizontal position, to which the bracket may be screwed. As tor the floor, if this be of stone, concrete, or even earth, it is always desirable that the bench should stand on a very low platform, and it will be better for the wall behind the bench, if it be of brick or stone, to be match-boarded. The utility of this will appear presently. 468. First, as to the dimensions of a bench ; these must depend very much upon space, for the bench must be made according to the room at command, very much in the same way that a coat must Convenient dimensions be cut according to one’s cloth. The following will be found convenient dimensions : length , from 5ft. to 7ft. ; breadth , from ift. 6in. to 2ft. 6in. ; height , from 2ft. 6in. to 3ft. The height must be regulated by the height of him who has to use it. A tall man will require a higher bench than a short man, for it is de- sirable not to stoop over the bench more than is absolutely necessary in planing, etc. A nice size for ordinary work done by the amateur is, length , 6ft. ; breadth , 2ft. ; height , 3ft. 469. Next let us glance at the way in which a bench for temporary service may be put together, as it is often convenient to knock up a rough bench of this kind for use when making any struc- Benchfor r , , temporary ture out of doors at too great a distance from the work- service, shop to allow of constant walking backwards and forwards for planing and other operations that must be done at the bench. 470. First get out four pieces of quartering, about 3in.X2^in., and some strips of board, about 3m. wide, or a little more, and iin. thick; a board of white deal, uin. wide, maybe ripped down in three lengths Formation of Trestle or End of Bench. 209 for this purpose. Three pieces of the same kind of board 6ft. long must also be provided, and some 2in. and 2^in. screws ; about three dozen of each will suffice. In putting together a tern- Pre i iminar y porary bench of this description, or any kind of work operations, that is to be taken to pieces again, use screws instead of nails, as by screws less injury is done to the wood, and it may be utilised when it has served its first purpose for something else. And more than this, no nails or fragments of nails will be left in the wood to hurt teeth of saw or edge of plane-iron. 471. Having got the wood all ready, take two pieces of quartering, and lay them down on a flat surface parallel to each other, and two feet apart, from outside edge to outside edge, that is to Construction say, from A to B, in fig. 216, and from C to D ; cut a piece of end or trestle. of wood E from the wood that you have ripped down, taking care that the ends are square with the top and bottom, and screw it to the quartering with some of the larger screws — not less than four being used. ' Then screw on another piece, F, diagonally from A to D, tak- ing care that the pieces of quartering are still exactly two feet apart along the line in- cluded between c and D. T urn over the pieces of wood thus screwed together, and screw on the pieces G, H, in a pre- FlG - 2l6 - trestle or end of bench. cisely similar way on the other side. When raised from the ground the trestle that has thus been made will be found to be as strong as a castle. Complete the work by screwing on a piece of wood, K, on the outside face of one of the legs, reaching from the ground to a line just ten inches from the top of the leg. This, it must be borne in mind, will be the front of the trestle. The reason why this piece is to be screwed on will be ap- parent presently. As soon as this is done make another trestle similar to this with the remaining two pieces of quartering, and some more of the wood that was ripped down at the commencement of the work, when getting out the wood all ready for it. 472. It is now necessary to connect the trestles in such a way as to offer a solid framing for the reception of the boards that are to form the top of the bench. The back and front will be connected in a -4 Front of trestle. 2io Household Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 217. ELEVATION OF BACK OF BENCH. YT 1 r C' •I totally different manner, and to make this perfectly clear, the elevation of the back is given in fig. 2 17, the elevation of the front in fig. 218, and Connection of t ^ ie P lan tiie t0 P * n 2 *9* trest ^ es have been made the trestles, precisely alike, so that when they are placed upright the diagonal brace F, in the illustration of the trestle, will be outside in that which stands to the left hand, and inside in that which stands to the right ; and con- versely the brace H will be inside in that which stands to the left hand, and outside in that which stands to the right. Care must be taken to preserve this arrange- ment with the braces of the trestles, or Other- Diagonal wise some braces: their difficulty positions for J back. will foe oc- casioned in fixing the diagonal braces at the back. Having cut two slips of wood, one 5ft. 6in. long and the other 5ft. 8in. long, place the trestles so that the front of each rests on the ground, and the back is uppermost. Screw the shorter piece to the trestles, as shown in A in fig. 217, and the longer piece as shown in B. The object in having the upper piece iin. longer on either side than the lower piece is, that its ends may abut against and cover the slip marked E in diagram of trestle, on one side, and the slip marked G on the other. Then screw on the diagonal brace C on the outside, and the brace D, also placed diagonally, on the in- side. In fig. 217, E shows the end of diagonal brace A on one side, and F, end of diagonal brace H on the other side, in the diagram of the trestle. Of course these ends are not in the same but in different trestles respectively. Fig. 218. ELEVATION OF FRONT OF BENCH. —f "TA! 0 0 .J |o 0 0 i°j 0 i K ! : K 1 ° 0 0 \oi 0 e|o 0 G 0 E joj 0 G- io 0 0 lot c s L i i l !o 0 0 0 "of" 0 0 L 0 " ~ 0 x r Fig. 219. PLAN OF TOP OF BENCH. Construction of Front of Bench. 211 B 473. To keep the trestles from displacement during this operation, it will be found useful to nail two slips of wood across to the face or front of the trestles before placing the front on the ground, taking care that the trestles are kept the correct dis- trestles from tances apart, which is 5ft. 6in., the length assumed as daSplacenient - convenient for the length of the slip A in fig. 217. Before turning the frame over to put on the front, screw to the inside of the front legs the slip shown at A in fig. 218. In this figure, B shows the grain end of the diagonal brace F, in the diagram of the trestle. As soon as the slip A in fig. 218 has been screwed on, the frame must be turned over so that the front is uppermost and the back on the ground. It may be asked why the slip A (fig. 218) is not screwed on to the outside of the ^ front instead of the inside. The amateur who is making the bench may screw it to the outside if he likes ; but by reason of the slips that were screwed to the face of the front leg of each trestle (see K in diagram of Construction trestle), it would project beyond the face of of front. the board in front of the bench, and be in the way. If he must put it on the outside it should be done as in fig. Fig. 220. . & slip in 220, and in the following manner : the board C and the slip A must first be firmly fixed in their places, and then a piece D screwed on below A, and another piece B between A and c, so that all the pieces which thus combine to form the front of the bench are flush with one another wherever they meet and join. It is preferable, however, to keep the slip A, as in fig. 218, behind, and to have the slips K, K, in one single piece. 474. The board C, as well as the pieces intended to form the top of the bench, was cut exactly 6ft. in length. Before putting these in their places it may be as well to rub them over with a plane, as Planing board the carpenter says ; but this need not be done especially, m front > etc * as the bench is merely intended to serve a temporary purpose. The board C is nin. wide, and the top of each slip marked K is just ioin. from the top of the trestle, so two notches an inch deep must be cut in the lower edge of the board, so that it may fit over the top of each slip, the upper edge being on a level with the upper edge of the trestles on either side. As the length, from outside edge to outside edge of the legs of the trestles front and back, is 5ft. 6in., and the board C is 6ft. long, a c and d d will be just 3m., and the length of the notches a b and d b' will be exactly the width of K, which is the width of the nar- rowest part of the quartering, namely, 2%‘m. Cut the notches so that they may fit tightly over the tops of the slips K, K ; and when the board 2 i2 Household Carpentry and Joinery. is fairly placed in position, as shown in fig. 218, screw it firmly to the trestles, taking care to bury the head of every screw well in the wood,, to do which with ease a depression for its reception maybe made with a bit for countersinking. Every screw must be greased before being driven into its place, as then it can be withdrawn easily whenever the bench is taken to pieces. 475. The frame is now nearly complete, but something more yet remains to be done before putting on the top, and that is to cut two Completion notc ^ es — one at x Y in B in fig. 217, and the other at x' Y f of frame. j n c j n fig. 2 i8 — about 4m. long and iin. deep, in order to receive a bearer, crossing the frame from the slip B to the board c, which will help to support the boards that form the top. This bearer is shown in the plan of the top in fig. 219 by the dotted lines XX'y y'. When this has been secured with screws the frame is ready to receive the top, which will be 2ft. 2in. from outside to outside. M pu^fng nd The board K K must therefore be placed on the top, so on top. t hat j ts outer edge is flush with the slip B, in fig. 217 ; and the board L L, so that its outer edge is flush with the surface of the board C, in fig. 218. They must then be screwed down, as indicated in the figures, to the slip B, the board c, the cross-pieces E, G, of each trestle, and the bearer XX' Y y', whose positions are shown by the transverse dotted lines in fig. 219, the horizontal dotted lines showing the edges of the slip B and the board C. The dotted lines in figs. 217 and 218 show the position of the boards kk,ll, when placed on the top of the frame. A space of 4m. now remains between these boards ; this may be left as it is, but to save the annoyance of small tools, etc.* tumbling through when thrown on the bench, it is better to cut a slip to fit tightly into the opening, and close it up altogether. 476. The bench is now complete as far as it goes, and is strong enough for any practical purpose, though not very good-looking. Fittings for There are, however, certain adjuncts required, which bench. m ust now be described, and these are fittings which will serve as substitutes for the bench-vice and the bench-stop. If the amateur is content with a bench of this sort until he can find time to make a better one, he may as well put in a bench-stop at once, as described further on ; but in the bench under consideration it is sought to injure the wood as little as possible, and a Substitutes . for substitute for a bench-stop may be found in the mser- Dench stop. t - Qn ^ two thick, stiff screws close together, for planing the surfaces of pieces of quartering, etc., and further apart for planing the surface of a board. Indeed, supposing the end of a rough bench Substitutes for Bench-stop and Bench-vice. 213 to be represented in fig. 221, A being the board nearest the operator, a line B c, at right angles to the edge D E, may be drawn with the square, and two screws inserted about iin. or i^in. apart, as at F G, and a third about 3m. or 4m. from G, as at H. These screws can be raised or lowered at pleasure to suit the thickness of the wood that is being planed. The screws should be thick, as it has been said, and have a large deeply-cut ^ . Fig. 221. SUBSTITUTE thread. The same object may be attained in for bench-stop. another manner, namely, by nailing or screwing down a slip of wood to the top of the bench, as at K ; But as no piece of wood that is less than, or equal to, the slip in thickness can be planed with such a contrivance as this, as the plane would not pass over it, it seems that the screws afford a more serviceable arrangement. 477. A contrivance for holding a board against the front of the bench while its edges are being planed must now be sought out, and this may be effected in the manner shown in fig. 222. At the distance of from 9in. to I2in. from the end of the board which forms the front of the bench and along its entire length, with this exception, a slip of wood, A, is screwed, about 1 %'m. thick and i^in. deep- This slip may be Substltute for fixed in this position, and bench-vice. remain so until the bench is taken to pieces ; its upper edge should be about 4in. from the lower edge of the front B of the bench. As there is now a space of 8in. between the upper edge of this slip and _ , G r Construction the surface of the board c, which forms the top of the of , . . r . . . _ , contrivance, bench in front, it is manifest that any board whether 9in. or nin. wide may be planed along its uppermost edge, while the lower edge rests on the slip, as shown in the diagram by D. If the wood whose edges are to be planed be very narrow, another tempo- rary slip must be screwed on to the bench front higher up, as a rest .0 receive the lower edge of the board, so that the upper edge may be raised above the top of the bench. A stout piece of wood, say 2^in. thick, 6in. wide, and 8in. long, that will not readily split, should then be cut in the shape shown at E, in fig. 222, above, and in longitudinal section in fig. 223. Let cle, in fig. 223 be 3>^in., then, through c make a vertical saw-cut to a , just half the depth of d e. Set off bf equal to Fig. 222. SUBSTITUTE FOR BENCH-VICE. 2 i4 Household Carpentry and Joinery. a quarter the depth of d e , and then join a b , and cut through the wood from b to a ; the part that is severed from the block by the saw-cut, ca and b a will come away, leaving a slant- ing face a b about sin. long or very nearly so. The block is then screwed to the front of the bench, as shown at E in fig. 223 ; but stitute for bench-vice, care should be taken to bring the line H K, (fig. 222) through which the screws pass, exactly opposite the central line down the front of the front-leg of the trestle that stands to the left, so that additional strength may be obtained by the entry of the screws into the leg of the bench. Substantial Strews, at least sin. -in length, should be employed for this purpose, and the heads should be deeply buried in the block, provision being made for this with a countersinker. When the board has been placed in position, abutting against the sur- face a c of the block, two wedges, F and G, flat on the side next the board and bevelled on the other side to correspond with the slanting surface of the block a b , must be driven in with two or three sharp blows. These wedges will hold the board as firmly as the ordinary bench-vice. There are other means of making a stop, or quasi-x ice, to hold the end of the board, but they need not be described. One or two methods will doubtless suggest themselves to every intelligent amateur mechanic. 478. Another plan for securing the board, whose edges are to be planed, to the front board of the bench, is to make some buttons of the shape shown in the annexed figure in simple section, and screw them to the front board, substitute. sq as tQ (j own the lower edge of the board, and the end furthest from the operator. The space, or rebate, in the button at A may be made iin. in depth, so as to button tightly over an inch board. If the board be less in thickness, a slip of wood equal to the difference between the space at A and the thickness of the board must be inserted, so as to keep the board whose edges are to be planed from moving. 479. The. merits of the bench that has just been described are, that it is easily made, even by an amateur who can do little more than make . a straight saw-cut, and that there is nothing that presents kind any difficulty that cannot be overcome in the way of pro- of bench. # J . viding substitutes for the bench-stop and bench-vice. The amateur, however, will never rest content with such a bench as this, however well it may serve his purpose for temporary work out of Fig. 224. BUTTON FOR HOLDING BOARD. Ordinary Carpenter's Bench. 215 doors, or as a makeshift even in the workshop itself ; and one of his first serious undertakings in carpentry, when he is able to manage his tools tolerably well— provided always that he ^1 has not purchased a bench, either new or secondhand, bench, or had one made by a carpenter— will be to make a bench for himself. 480. This bench will either be an ordinary carpenter’s bench, made very much on the lines that we have already laid down for the tem- porary bench, or one replete with shelves, drawers, recesses, , . ’ . r , • j , r Ordinary and various fittings of one kind or another suited for carpenter’s his peculiar requirements. Let us first consider the chief points in a plain bench, made in the usual manner, and then see what mode of construction may be adopted for utilising the open space that there is between the four legs of the principles of frame and the top of the bench and the ground on which constructlon * the bench stands. Supposing the bench were 3ft. high, 2ft. wide, and 6ft. long, outside measurement every way, roughly speaking there would be about 36 cubic feet of empty space below the table, which is too much to be wasted in a small workshop, especially when it may be turned to account with but little trouble, as we shall see presently. 481. For the ordinary carpenter’s bench that we are about to describe, let us take the above dimensions, namely, height 3ft., width 2ft., and length 6ft., as these will be found convenient for the ma- convenient jority of amateurs, and let us see how it may be provided dimensions, with bench-stop, bench-holdfast, and ordinary bench-vice with wooden screw. We will next consider varieties in the form of bench-vices and bench-stops, and after describing the shooting-board, a useful adjunct or accompaniment to the bench, used for squaring-up the edges of pieces, proceed to what we may term, for want of a better name, the " composite” bench. 482. The first step to be taken is to provide some quartering of different dimensions, that is to say, about 12ft. of 3in.X2j£in. for the uprights or legs, about 36ft. of 2^in.X2Xin. for the hori- zontal pieces of the frame, 4ft. of board 9m. wide and of^fferent 1 1 J 4 in. thick, and 24ft. of board 9m. wide and i^in. parts ' thick. If the bench is to be 3ft. in height from the ground to the top of it, cut off 4 lengths of 2ft. nin. from the wood provided for the up- rights, and plane them up. Next cut 5 lengths of the smaller quar- tering 6ft. long, and 2 lengths 2ft. long, and plane these up also ; lastly, cut 2 pieces of the 1 }£in. board 2oin. in length, and plane up these as well, bringing the sides to a smooth surface, and making the edges true and square. 216 Household Carpentry and Joinery. 1C J C ?! ih si ? A 5 II D ]! Fig. 225. END OF CARPENTER’S BENCH. 483. When this has been done, the necessary steps may be taken for putting all these pieces together, which will be done with mortise Jointing pieces anc * tenon joints. Let us frame together the ends first of together. a q ? and j et 225 serve as an illustration of the method to be adopted in doing this. In this representation of either end of the bench, let the broad side or width of the uprights be supposed to face the reader, as shown in A and B. The piece C has already been cut 2oin. long ; cut D to the same length, and then proceed to cut the ends of each into tenons iin. in length. Cut the tenons at either end of D to one-third the thickness of the wood ; but let the ends of C be cut in the manner indicated by the dotted lines in fig. 225, and on a larger Double tenon sca ^ e ' m fig* 226. The wood is i) 4 in. thick, therefore desirable. a rebate must be cut in it iin. wide and ^in. deep, and the rebate thus made, as shown in transverse section at A, must be cut as shown in B, in which there is a tenon all the way down, for the width of J^in., the remainder being cut away so as to leave two projecting pieces of about 2Xin. long, the re- maining 4Xi n * being equally distributed in lengths of ij4in. over the three notches at a , b , and c. This is an adaptation of the form of tenon shown in page 188, at fig. 175. Cut mortises in A and B to receive the tenons that have been cut at the ends of C and D, and fit the pieces together. The tenons should fit tightly into the mortises, 'but not so tightly that they cannot be withdrawn without great force. The opposite end must be made in precisely the same way. 484. The narrow faces of the uprights were to be 2}4in. wide, and it will be useful to suppose that these are the actual dimensions after the wood has been planed up. The bench is to be 6ft. long, of bench from end to end, and the length of the horizontal pieces of continued. f ram i n g j from shoulder to shoulder of the tenons at the ends, must be exactly 5ft. 7m. We are supposing that the boards com- posing the top and front are to be 6ft. long, and that their ends are to be flush with the ends of the bench ; but such a frame as is now being described will allow of the use of boards 6ft. 6in. long, so that they will overlap 3m. at the ends on either side. To return to the hori- zontal pieces of the framing, the tenons at the ends of these must be 2j4\n. long and one-third of the width of the stuff. The tenons at the Construction of Carpenter's Bench. 217 \h iUb ends of the uppermost horizontal bars should be cut as in fig. 227, and the mortises as shown by the shaded parts in fig. 225 ; three in the front legs, and two — one at top and one at bottom — in the uprights behind. A uppemost „ third bar may be added in the back part bars * Fig. 227. tenon J r of upper bar. as well as in the front, and it will be as well to do this, for it will give additional strength and firmness to the bench. The reason is now clear why the tenons of the pieces C and D, in fig. 225, are not made longer than they are, for being no more than iin. in length they do not interfere with the tenons of the horizontal pieces being carried right through the uprights, so as to show the end grain of the former. When the whole of the framing has been completion put together, the front will present the appearance repre- of £rame * sented in fig. 228, and the back will look like this too, if a third rail has been put in between the two others at top and bottom ; and, if not it will look like fig. 228, k d n D N with the middle rail A re- moved. When it has been ascertained that all the tenons fit fairly tight into the mortises, and the shoulders of the tenons fit closely to and squarely against the parts on which they butt, they must be glued and put into place for the last time, and the whole frame pinned together with wooden pegs, driven through each mortise and the tenon that is thrust into it. The frame is now complete, and ready for the top and front. 485. In making a bench it is usual to have the uprights intended for the front legs or uprights i}£\tu wider than the back uprights, so that Uprights for the face may be cut as shown in fig. bench. 229 for the reception of the fronts. In this figure, A shows the side, and B the front of a piece thus cut. The piece C is taken right away, so that the board that Fig. 229. uprights forms the front of the bench may be dropped into the IN FRONT OF BENCH. ^55 ^ ^ ^ Qf ^ fe cut a slanting direction from the inside to the outside of the upright, and the board notched accordingly, to fit over the angle. The simple notch shown in the trestle of the temporary bench does equally as well, although it Fig. 228. front of carpenter’s bench. B 218 Household Carpentry and Joinery . weakens the board more and there is more chance of the end or corner beyond the leg splitting off or being knocked off. As no provision of this kind has been made for letting the front board into the upright, all that is required to be done is to screw a piece of wood on to the face of the upright of the same thickness as the board, in order that the latter may appear flush with the face of the projecting part thus added to the upright. The top should be cut of the shape shown in fig. 229, and the board notched accordingly. 486. With regard to the centre rail A in fig. 228, it may be added to the framing or dispensed with altogether, at the pleasure of the maker of the bench. When introduced it gives additional stability in front'of to the structure, if we may apply such a word to a simple framing of uprights and rails ; and although its presence is more important in the front than in the back of the bench, it is, we are inclined to think, better to have it in the back also, for reasons which will appear presently. It is also desirable to put a board at the back of the bench similar to that which is fixed in front, faces being screwed on to the legs below to bring them flush with its surface, or a rebate being made for its reception as already described. The boards at front and back are not to be screwed on until the interior of the bench is completed, which we will now proceed to describe. 487. At the end of the bench to the left hand the wooden screw of the bench-vice will enter, and work backwards and forwards, and Provision in P rov i s i° n must be made for its reception. The space front for between the boards in front and behind must be left open bench-vice. so that nothing may hinder the progress of the screw, and no attempt must be made to enclose the bench by boarding up the space within which the screw works, as this would prevent us from making proper use of the old-fashioned bench-stop and bench-holdfast, if these be used in putting the bench together and fitting it up. The end to the right hand, however, may be boarded at the bottom so as to form a well for the reception of saws and large toels, which it Well in , . . . beiach for may be convenient to stow away in such a depository. 00 ‘ Returning, then, to fig. 228, and taking this to be a fair example of the framing requisite in front and rear of the bench, the central rail A being introduced in both parts of the frame, insert a , cross-piece of wood from front to back as shown at C D, Another mode A °f making cutting grooves for its reception to the depth of ^in. in the rails A and B, and letting the end showing the grain project between the rails on either side and come flush with the outer surface of the rails, as at E. Screw a slip of wood, or cleat , as it is Formation of Wells in Carpenter’s Bench. 219 technically termed, to this cross-piece at F, and another to the end rail at G, and then lay pieces of board as shown at H from rail to rail, the ends being flush with the outer surface of the rails on either side. A shallow well about 6 inches deep will thus be formed for the purpose indicated to the right of the bench. e» - r If the central rails have been dis- f pensed with and it is still desired < to make a well, a convenient method of doing this is shown in fig. 230. ^ 0 0 Fig. 230. METHOD OF MAKING WELL In this let A represent the inner in bench. surface of the board at the back of the bench. To this, at a dis- tance of two-thirds the length of the bench from the right-hand end, screw the perpendicular slip B, and the horizontal slip c, the latter being fixed flush with the edge of the board if it be wished to make the well as deep as possible, or higher up if a shallow one be desired. Let the end D abut against the slip B. Screw slips similar to these to the inside surface of the front board, and when the framing has been completed by fixing these boards in the proper position, lay boards as at E, E, E, along the horizontal slips on either side, the slips forming support for the ends of the boards. Let the side of the first board touch the slip B. Then, at the distance of J^in. or iin. from B, screw on another slip F, which forms with B a groove on either side, into which a board J{in. or iin. thick, according to width of groove, may be dropped, forming one end of the well, the end rail of the framing, as before, constituting the other end. Provision for the well must in all cases be made before the frame is put together, especially when a centre rail is used in the framing at front and back, as shown in fig. 228 at A. 488. When the front board is screwed on to the framing, if it be allowed to project a little beyond the up- rights, say to the ex- tent of Frontof two or bench, three inches, the ap- pearance or elevation of the front of the bench will be like that shown in fig. 231 ; but the bench is yet incomplete, for the bench-stop and bench-vice have to be added, and the top has to be put on. Of the bench-vice we can speak Fig. 231. front of bench when complete. 220 Household Carpentry and Joinery. at once, but as the old-fashioned bench-stop has to pass through the top, mention of this had better be left until the top comes under con- sideration. 489. The bench-vice — it must be remembered that we are now speaking of the wooden adjunct to the bench, and not the iron holding- tool also called a “ bench-vice,” because it is often attached enC its V1CG ’ to one end of the bench to hold a piece of metal for filing construction. . . r , , . . , , . . . — consists of a broad, solid cheek, a wooden screw, and a nut or female screw attached to the framing or front board in which the screw works. In fig. 232 the construction of the bench-screw is The bench- s ^ own i* 1 section, with the exception of the screw, the screw. thread of which is drawn entire, to show its purpose the better. The screw A B has a solid head A, perforated, as at C, for the reception of a wooden peg or bar d, which works easily in the hole c, and is furnished with a knob at each end to prevent it from slip- ping out while the screw is being turned, or when it is at rest, if this bar happen to be vertical. The neck of the screw passes through a solid piece of wood E, about i8in. long, 9m. wide, and 2in. thick, and the shoulder of the screw-head A abuts against this board and forces it against the front of the bench when the screw is turned in, or against anything that may be placed between this solid cheek and the face of the bench holding it firmly. The thread of the screw is deeply cut, and the screw itself, after passing through a hole F cut for it in the front board of the bench, works in a large nut or block of wood in which a female screw is cut, and which may be fixed between the rails of the bench H H, as at G, or bedded against and screwed to these rails, as shown by the space K K. If there be no rails — for sometimes even the top rail is dispensed with, much to the detriment of the bench — the block in which the screw works must be attached to the front board. The position of the bench-vice is shown in fig. 231 at A, and that of the block in which the screw works at K in fig. 228. This, it must be said, is the most ordinary form of bench-vice or bench-screw that is used. Cost of The screws may be purchased at from is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. bench-screws, each, according to size, at any shop where carpenters’ tools are sold. The cheek is not included in the screw. Bench-screws of iron are more expensive, costing from 3s. 6d. each to 9s. or. 10s. Excellent iron and wood bench-screws are supplied by Messrs. Construction of Top of Carpenter's Bench. 221 Churchill and Co. The prices of the wooden bench-screws are : — 2in. in diameter, is. 6d. ; 2 X m -> Is * 7 ^- ; 2>£in., is. 8d. The wrought iron bench-screws, cut with double thread and fitted with wood handles and movable collars are : — iin. in diameter, is. 6d. ; i>£in., is. iod. ; iXin.,2s. 3d. ; iXi n -> 3 s - These bench-screws are remarkably cheap, and are strong, well made, and serviceable. 490. For cutting a tenon at the end of a rail or upright, the wood may be placed in the bench-screw and screwed tightly against the bench ; but when it is necessary to plane the edges of a Use g of th0 board, it is requisite to provide some support for it along bencll -screw. the front of the bench. In the temporary bench this was managed by screwing slips horizontally to the piece of wood that formed the front ; but in the permanent bench the same end is secured by a r Additional making two or three rows of holes in the front board, as supports for boards. shown in fig. 231, into which pegs are inserted, on which the lower edge of the board rests, the end furthest from the operator being held tightly in the bench-screw. 491. Let us now proceed to the construction of the top of the bench, which is shown in plan in fig. 233. Of this it may be first said that if there be no well in the bench, all that is to be done is Construction to screw the two gin. boards, that were originally pro- of top of bench. vided to form part of the top, on to the rails and boards at the front and back of the bench, and then to fill up the space of 6 inches that remains between these boards with another board cut to fit ; but if there is to be a well, cut a strip i x / 2 \n. wide off each board, reducing them to a width of 7}4in., leaving a space of 9in. between them when put in the posi- tion they are to oc- cupy. The solid lines in the figure represent the edges of the boards as they appear to view when the top is complete. The dotted lines from A to B and from C to D represent the edges of the boards forming the front and back of the bench ; and the dotted lines from A to c and from B to D the edges of the end rails of the bench. Those from E to F represent the upper edge of the board let into grooves formed by slips, as shown in fig. 230, to form one end of the well, the end rail of the bench to the right being the other. Two bearers are notched into the boards at front a e e K B J L • L J i s.. 0 P *11 ! w M Y N t x i I jlz R P i ; r 1 C ’ F H L D Fig. 233. PLAN OF TOP OF BENCH. 222 Household Carpentry and Joinery. and back, and fixed in position as shown by the dotted lines from G to H and from K to L. Before the boards forming the top are put on, the rectangular space s T u v is entirely open, forming the well. The boards on either side may now be laid on the top of the bench and marked, so that two slips, M and N, may be screwed to their under surface, forming, with the bearers G H and K L (or such of these as may project beyond the boards w, x, whose edges rest on them), a rest- Covering ' m 8 place for the board Y, which forms the cover for the for well. we jp a rebate might have been cut in the board on each side of the well at M and N to receive the cover, which must also be rebated, to fit into the rebates of the others, and the slips dispensed whh ; but the amateur will often find it useful to form a rebate in this manner instead of cutting one, and this mode of doing so may as well be adopted here. Moreover, it suits the width of the boards employed, which are 9m. wide ; and if a rebate of j£in. had been cut on either side it would have been necessary, in order to save waste, to form the rebate in the well cover by bradding on slips J^in. square, so that it is as broad as it is long anyway, to use an old saying. Next, a board 9m. wide and 6ft. 6in. long must be taken, and cut into three parts, corresponding to the parts marked w, Y, and x in the figure. The pieces w and x may be joined to the boards on either side by a groove and slip-feather, or by a dove-tail groove (see p. 195) ; the whole being glued up, but the amateur will find it easier to dowel them together with pegs. When dry the top may be screwed on to the bench, or nailed on — it does not matter which ; but in either qase the heads of the screws or nails, as the case may be, should be deeply buried in the wood. When the top has been screwed on, the opening O P Q R is left for the admission of tools into the well, and into this opening the piece of board Y will drop nicely. It will perhaps occur to the reader that the opening to the well has been made as large as possible first to facilitate the putting in and taking out of such a tool as the hand-saw, and to leave as little space as possible covered between the ends and sides of the well, so that the hand may be passed with ease to any corner of it in search of any small tool that may have been put in or dropped in. The amateur, however, is cautioned against keeping any small tools in such a depository as the bench well, which is best calculated for saws, planes, squares, hammers, and any large and heavy tools of this kind. 492. The next thing to be considered is the bench-stop, against which aboard maybe fixed during the process of planing its sides. In its simplest form it is a rectangular block of wood, about 2 inches square The Bench-stop and Bench-holdfast. 223 Fig. 234. BENCH-STOP. and 8 inches or 9 inches long. The shaded square marked z in fig. 233 is a good place for it, because, as shown in fig. 234, in . The bench. - which A is the bench-stop in section, one side lies closely stop: its against the end rail B on the left of the bench, while against the other side a stop can be abutted as at C ; and, indeed, additional stops may be placed on the other sides, so that the depth of the socket in which the bench-stop w r orks may be increased as much as possible. A hole is cut in the top of the bench for the bench-stop to pass through, and the top of the stop is furnished with a piece of iron, D, cut so that its edge presents four or five points which enter the edge of any piece of wood pressed against it as at E, and prevents it from moving sideways. The stop is moved up and down by knocking it at the bottom or at the top as may be requisite, and when it is down its top should be flush with, or slightly below, the surface of the top of the bench, a groove being cut for the reception of the projecting teeth. With this addition the carpenter’s bench, in its most simple and ordinary form, may be considered complete. 493. There was an old Indian officer of artillery, long since gone to his rest, who was an adept in sketching and drawing in pen and ink and painting in oil colours. He was also very fond of smoking, and finding some little difficulty in managing his pipe or hookah, when he had his palette in one hand and his brush in the other, was prone at times to wish for a third hand as supplementary to the other two, which he could put on pipe duty when the other two were otherwise engaged. Possibly many a car- penter in olden times has wished for a third hand to hold down a piece of wood tight to the bench while he was cutting a mortise in it, holding his mallet in his right hand and a chisel in his left hand ; and the wish, in process of time, was the parent of the bench-holdfast, in a certain sense. 494. Anything more unpromising, at first sight, for the purpose for which it is used than the bench-holdfast can scarcely be found. Its shape, and the mode of using it, is shown in fig. 235. Ironholdfast The holdfast is a simple hook of iron, one side of which for bench - is short and terminates in a broad flat plate, while the other side is much longer. When it is desired to make use of it in order to hold a piece of wood A, shown in section, tightly to the top of the bench B, the shank c is passed through a hole D, cut in the top of the bench, and larger than the diameter of the shank, and the wood is placed An additional Band. 224 Household Carpentry and Joinery. under the flat disc E, and a blow or two given to the holdfast on the its construe t0 P ^ ie ^ enc ^ F to ^ tightly. To prevent any injury tion and to the surface of the piece of wood A from the disc of the operation. A bench hook, a piece of wood may be slipped in between A and the iron, which will prevent it from sustaining any damage. To make the hole at D a little deeper a collar, G G, may be attached to the under part of the bench in continuation of the hole. When it is desired to release the wood the hook must be hit lightly with the hammer at H, which will produce the desired effect. From the shape of the holdfast, whose arms diverge and become wider apart the farther they are from the bend F, it is manifest that a blow at F will cause the sides of the long shank or arm C to press tightly against the hole through which it passes at the points K and L, and it remains in this position because there is but little, if any, force in an upward direction B to lift it out of its place. For this reason a blow at the back of the hook is necessary to loosen it and bring it up. 495. In the improved holdfast shown in fig. 236, the principle of construction is the same, but Improved the tightening of the hook and its holdfast, loosening are effected by the action of a screw A, which passes through the end of the short arm B, opposite the disc C, and acts ^ on the long shank at D, just above the part improved holdfast. where it is bent to form an arm into which the short limb is fastened, as at E. 496. A pair of holdfasts afford a useful substitute for a bench-screw in holding a piece of wood to the front of the bench so that its edges Holdfasts as ma y be planed. The method adopted for using it for such for^bench- a purpose as this is shown in fig. 23 7, in which A is the screw. top 0 f t ] ie | 3enc ] 1) B the front, and C the wood whose edges are to be planed, all shown in section. A row of holes is made a little above the lower edge of the bench front, as at D, through two of which the long shanks of a pair of holdfasts are passed, as shown in the illustration. The ordinary holdfast costs but little, being merely a bent iron bar, and such as may be quickly made by any smith should Fig. 235. BENCH-HOLDFAST. Patent Bench-stop : Shooting-board. 225 Fig. 237. HOLDFAST AS BENCH-SCREW. difficulty be experienced in procuring one. The improved holdfasts with screw are more expensive, ranging in price from 6s. to 9s. 6d., according to size and quality. 497. The amateur artisan will find it useful to add a simple holdfast to his tools, and to cut a hole in his bench through which 1 1 ! 11 , Holdfast to put the long shank; but he useful to should trust to it merely for hold- ing down work on the bench, and not as a substitute for the bench-screw. And when making a bench permanently for his own use, it will be better for him to provide himself with the improved bench- stop instead of fitting his bench with an old-fashioned one. 498. The improved or patent bench-stop is shown in fig. 238. At A it is closed, at B it is raised ready for use. In appearance it looks some- thing like a hinge, and indeed is made on that principle. Improved or A hole is sunk in the top of the bench for the reception patent bench- of the stop, which is let into the wood until its top is level Bt ° P ' with the surface of the bench. On raising the screw E, the part D, which is attached to the lower part or bed C by a hinge joint, rises, and presents above the surface of the bench, as shown at B, a Q -f? g row of teeth, f, against which the edge of the board to be planed is pressed. Thus, with this patent bench-stop, the inconvenience of knocking the old-fashioned stop up and down to the desired height is obviated, the same effect being gained by a few turns of the screw. The price of this kind of stop ranges from is. 2d. to 2s. 3d., according to size. 499. The shooting-board has been mentioned in a previous page, and a description has been promised of it which it may be as well to give here. It is very simple, being merely two boards of The shooting . different widths screwed together, so as to form a rebate board. in which any piece of wood whose edges are to be planed and squared up may be rested. It is used on the bench. It will be of great assist- ance to the amateur to possess one of these boards, which he may get made for him by any carpenter if he is not skilful enough to do the work for himself. 500. The construction and principle of the shooting-board may be 15 Fig. 238. improved bench-stop. 226 Household Carpentry and Joinery . best explained by the aid of a diagram in section, as in fig. 239. In this A represents the top of the bench, and b the front, C Its construe- . tion and being the shooting-board. This is composed of two pieces principle. of wood,, one a wide piece and the other a narrow piece, the narrow piece being laid on the wide piece as E lies on F. The boards are screwed together, and it is necessary that the edges G and H of both boards should be per- * -i c l ^ C 13 FlG. 239. SECTION OF SHOOTING- BOARD. fectly straight and even, and that the edge H should be parallel to the edge G. The boards thus con- structed and put together form a broad rebate, in which any board K whose edge is to be squared up is laid. To do this, the shooting- board is laid on the bench as shown in the diagram, and abutted against the bench-stop. A stop is also screwed across the end furthest from the operator, to prevent the board K from moving out of its place while its edge is being shot. The shooting-board may be held firmly down to the bench by the aid of a pair of holdfasts. When all is ready, a jack-plane or trying-plane L — either will do — is taken and laid on its side on the bench, so that the cutting-iron is turned towards and touches the edge of the board to be squared up. The plane is then moved along the bench, which can be done easily enough, and the operation of planing the edge is performed with the plane in this position, the side being slid along the bench, which acts as a guide for it. In the same manner, the edge G of the lower of the boards that compose the shooting-board acts as a guide to the sole of the plane. 501. It will occur to the reader, without doubt, that a shooting- board thus made can only be used for planing boards of a certain utility of width, the width in any case corresponding to that of the rebate formed by the two boards. It is dangerous to attempt to shift the upper and narrower board, lest by any mischance the edges G and H should be rendered not parallel to one another. Here, however, is a hint for a Universal Universal Shooting- Shooting-board, to suit all widths up to nin. Let the hoard. j ower board A in fig. 240 be 13m. in width, and let the upper board B be 2in., so that the differ- ence in their width is just 1 1 in., the width of the widest board usually obtainable in deal. Across the width of A, two, three, or more grooves, c, are cut, according to shooting- hoard limited. Fig. 240. UNIVERSAL SHOOTING- BOARD (SECTION). Universal Shooting-board. 227 the length of the board, in each of which travels backwards and forwards the square head of a bolt, which is kept in place by two plates or flanges of metal laid over the opening of the groove, at a width apart just sufficient to allow the shank of the bolt to work up and down with ease. The upper surface of each metal plate is graduated in inches and parts of inches. A nut that can be turned with the thumb and fingers passes over the screw-end of the bolt, which passes in its turn through the central line, longitudinally, of the narrow board B. Now it is plain on looking at fig. 241, that the board Its con- B, by relaxing the nut or thumbscrew at the upper end of stmction and principle. each bolt, can be moved to any distance from the edge C C up to nin., and secured in that position by tightening the thumb- screws. The metal plates at C, C, being graduated, it must follow that if the board B be correctly set its edges must be parallel with the edge CC, and either side of the board A can be used with pleasure for shooting the edges of other boards. To hold in position the board whose edges are to be planed, a stop may be provided, attached with screws at either end of the board, and so transferable at pleasure. 502. Before proceeding to what, for want of a better and more appropriate name, we have called the “ composite ” bench, it is neces- sary to return for a brief time to the bench-screw. The great evil of the ordinary bench-screw is, that it is apt to get strained, and fails to grip fairly any thick piece of wood, as a piece of quartering, Evil ^ placed between the cheek and the front of the bench, ordinary bench-screw. The head of the screw is in the centre and bears directly against the centre of the cheek, and it is not difficult to see that when a piece of wood is put in on one side and the check screwed tightly up against it, there will be a tendency on that side of the check which bears against the wood to project a little further than the other side, which is pressed inward by the screw-head, but meets with no piece of wood within it to counteract this force and keep the inner side of the cheek parallel in all parts of its surface to the face of the bench front. To overcome this tendency many contrivances have been sug- gested and brought into use, some of which are well worth our con- sideration, and which it may be useful to describe here. 503. The most simple means of preserving parallelism between the faces of the bench-front and the cheek of the bench-vice is to be found, perhaps, in the use of a second and smaller screw attached to the bench- Fig. 241. UNIVERSAL SHOOTING-BOARD. (PLAN.) 228 Household Carpentry and Joinery. cheek, and passing through the bench -leg opposite to which the Regulation chee ^ 1S pl ace d, as shown in fig. 242. In this illustra- 0f betweIn Sm tion ’ A re P resents the bench-top, B the bench-front, C the bench and bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E bench-vice. r the bench-screw, and F the block which is attached to the back of the bench-leg, and through which the screw works. The smaller screw G, by which the parallelism between the bench and bench-vice is preserved, is fastened im- movably to the bench-vice at its head H, and passes freely through a hole bored through the bench-leg at K. The nuts L and M work up and down the screw at the pleasure of the operator. When it is re- quired to move the vice inwards or out- wards, it is clear that the nuts must be turned till one reaches the head H and the other the end G of the screw, and that when the cheek of the bench-vice D has been brought inward or outwards to the extent required, the nuts must be again turned in the contrary direction until they are brought against the bench-leg. This > necessarily involves a great deal of trouble, and causes a great waste of nime. Moreover, a hole must be sunk in the face of the bench-leg large enough to receive the nut M ; for if this were not done the face of the bench-cheek could never be brought into close proximity to the bench-leg. 504. Having now some idea of the broad principle of the method by which parallelism between the bench-vice and besich-leg may be -Th© Croix de obtained and preserved as long as may be needed, let us st. Pierre. t urn t0 ano ther method by which the same end may be attained without the least trouble and loss of time. This ingenious con- trivance for keeping the inner surface of the cheek of the bench-vice parallel to the outer surface of the board that forms the front of the bench is the “ Croix de St. Pierre,” or, “ St. Peter’s Cross,” as it is called on the continent, where it is very generally adopted and used by all carpenters and joiners. 505. In fig. 243 the Croix de St. Pierre, its manner of action, and the mode of fixing it, is shown in a section of the bench and etruction bench-vice, which affords the most convenient method of and action, g^^iting these points clearly and intelligibly. In this figure, as in fig. 242, A represents the bench-top, B the bench-front, FIG. 242. REGULATION OF PARALLELISM BETWEEN BENCH AND BENCH - VICE. The Croix de St. Pierre. 229 C the bench-leg, opposite to which the bench-vice D is placed, E the bench-screw, and F the block at the back of the bench-leg, perforated by a female screw, in which the bench-screw E works. It will be noticed that in this and the last figure, the cheek of the bench-vice, instead of being about the depth of the board which forms the bench-front or a little deeper, as in the ordinary carpenter’s bench, is long and comparatively narrow, extending downwards nearly to the ground. It is, moreover, placed ex- actly opposite the leg of the bench, so that the bars which form the cross may be conveniently attached to both bench and bench- vice, and work in a suitable manner. The Croix de St. Pierre is nothing more than two flat bars of iron of equal length connected at the centre of each by a pin, G, about which they turn freely. For the reception of the bars, two deep grooves, H and K, are cut in the bench-leg and cheek of the bench-vice, exactly opposite to each other, and of the width of the two bars placed together or just a trifle more. The ends L and M of the bars are fastened by pins running through the bench-leg and bench-cheek respectively. The other ends N and O are left free, and work up and down the bottom of the grooves, which may be lined, if desired, with a piece of iron-plate cut to fit them exactly. Now, as the bars are secured at the upper end of each and fastened together in the centre, it is manifest that they will act in the same manner as a pair of scissors, and that when the ends L and M are pushed apart or drawn together the ends N and O will be pushed apart or drawn together in like manner. When the bench-cheek is close to and touching the bench-front and leg, the ends N and o of the bars will touch the ends of the grooves ; but as the screw is turned so as to bring the cheek outwards, the ends L and M are drawn apart, and the ends N and O follow the course of the dotted lines, exerting an outward thrust, the one on the bench-leg and the other on the bench-cheek, and preserving 230 Household Carpentry and Joinery. perfect parallelism between the faces of the two. When the screw is turned in the opposite effect is produced, but it may be necessary to assist the return of the bench-cheek by a little gentle pressure at the bottom, which might be applied with the foot. This would be rendered unnecessary if the free ends of the bars were con- trived so as to work in a groove similar to that employed for the rack of a window-blind, and as shown in section at P. This, however, would tend to make the contrivance very costly. I am not aware that the Croix de St. Pierre is made and sold in England. On the continent it costs about 5s., but any blacksmith would make the cross and the irons to line the grooves for less money. 506. Many amateurs will doubtless prefer the broad cheek that extends for about i8in. along the bench-front, and for this reason — Broad ^at ** P resents a mor e convenient shape for holding in a cheek : why vertical position any piece of wood, especially quartering, preferred, . . at whose ends it is desired to cut tenons. The St. Peter’s Cross, however, can be easily adapted to a cheek of this description, and the parallelism can be perfectly preserved by the help of two screws, which can be easily worked at one and the same time by a very simple arrange- ment. In fig. 244 let A B c D re- present the outer face of the cheek, and E, F, the heads of two iron screws cut square, so that the square openings in the arms G, H» may be fitted over them. At the other end of each arm are square projections K, L, over which openings in another plate, M, may be fitted, in the centre of which is a handle, N. Now it is evident that the screws may be turned in or withdrawn at the same time by turning the handle N to the right or to the left as may be necessary, and that by the double screw action the parallelism of the cheek and bench-front will be serving* preserved. To give greater steadiness to the cheek a parallelism. ^ Peter > s Cross may be introduced between the cheek and the bench-front in the position shown by the double-dotted line from O to P. It is not, however, a sine qua non , as the double screw action will be perfectly effectual in keeping the cheek parallel to the bench-front in all parts. 507. There are many other contrivances, but none will be found to beat the double screw turned simultaneously in the manner described. A 1 B t c ll M ! H V (®Tk v a l ,§> D N %/, i j' C p Fig. 244. double screw for BENCH CHEEK. Use and Construction of the Runner. 231 The principle involved in the double screw is made use of to a cer- tain extent in the runner, which, in order to render the de- scription of the carpenter’s bench as complete as possible, e J cmmer * may as well be noticed here. The object of the runner is to preserve the parallelism of the cheek and bench-front. In fig. 245 A shows the runner and the way in which it is attached to the cheek B. This u 1 rum runner works in a case, formed by the boards C, C, which extend from front to back of the bench and enclose the runner on both sides, keeping it in position. The screw D may also work in a* case, whose sides E, E, should just touch the threads of the screw as lightly as possible. An adaptation of the -E lilt pi BE E C US 3 f a c Adaptation of runner to screw. FlG. 245. THE RUNNER, runner to the screw, extending the whole length of the bench-leg or nearly so, is shown in figs. 246 and 247, of which the former shows the end elevation of screw, cheek, runner, and bench, and the latter the front elevation of the bench-vice. The position of the screw in this arrangement is a good one, because more space is given between the upper part of the screw and the top of the bench for holding short boards. The ^ reader must now be so familiar with the component parts of the bench as to render un- necessary any reference i n detail to these parts as shown in the figures. mi _£L o FlG. 246. RUNNER- ELEVATION. Fig. 247. RUNNER — FRONT ELEVATION. The runner A is a piece of board let into the lower end of the cheek and passed through a hole cut in the leg for its reception. A series of holes are bored in the runner, and when the vice is screwed up a pin of wood or iron is inserted in the hole that happens to be nearest the leg, to prevent further progress of the runner inwards. It may be 232 Household Carpentry and Joinery. of use to say that all runners should work tightly, but with ease, in the cases made, or holes cut, for their reception, and this effect is best produced by keeping the runners greased. The runner should be made of hard, close-grained wood. 508. A simple but useful kind of bench has been suggested in w Design and Work” for ordinary purposes, which is possessed of much merit, and is evidently the work of a practical man. It is, furthermore, one step towards the construction of the composite bench, with a description of which it is proposed to conclude our remarks on carpenters’ benches. The bench now under consider- ation was the invention of Mr. Joseph M. Laws, of Bridgeton, who estimates its cost at about 5s . or 6s . — a sum which places it within the power of the poorest amateur to possess a carpenter’s bench. The plan of this bench, as viewed from the top, and the end elevation are shown in fig. 248. The height of the top from the ground Its dimen- sions and is 2ft. 6in., and the breadth across the top is exactly the construction. _ . , . same. The length is not stated, but it may range from 5ft. to 7ft., according to the space at the amateur’s command in his workshop. A and A are working boards which form the top of the Fig. 248 . laws’ bench. (i) plan looking up. ( 2 ) end elevation. bench on either side, and on which all planing, mortising, etc., is done. These boards are 9m. wide and lyi'in. thick. The space B between the working boards is fitted in with a board I2in. wide, and |^in. thick, so that a shallow trench, as it were, ^in. deep is formed between the working planks, offering a convenient place for laying down tools which cannot possibly fall or be knocked off the bench. F and F are two slips of wood, 1 J2 in. broad and thick, attached to B, and used for resting planes on so that the edge of the plane-iron may not come in contact with the board B below it. H, H, are bench-steps, which Laws' Bench: The “ Composite ” Bench . 233 are placed at opposite ends of the working boards, thus rendering the bench reversible, or making it possible for the owner to plane boards, etc., on either side, as he may find most convenient. The legs of the bench, which are 4m. wide and 2in. thick, are shown at C, C, C, C. These legs are connected near the bottom by cross-pieces (g in end elevation) screwed to, or let into, the outside faces, 4m. wide and ^in. thick, and forming a rack on which pieces of board may be laid. The upper ends of each pair of legs are tenoned into a cross-piece, D, 4m. wide and 2in. thick, the end of which is fitted with a piece of wood, E, 5in. thick, and cut so that its inner surface forms an angle with the bench-front. A wedge, W, 14m. long and thick, is used for jamming a piece of wood against the bench-front when it is necessary to plane its edges, the wedge being driven into the opening at D, between the wedge grip E, and the surface of the board to be planed. The bench-stops H, H, are of the old-fashioned kind, and should be 9m. long, and 1 yi in. square. Each side of the bench is covered in with a board ^in. thick. In this board holes should be drilled for pegs to support boards, whose edges require planing up. The bottom of the bench may be boarded up entirely, or as far as the inner faces of the legs, and if only thus far, boarding should be nailed against these inside faces parallel with the ends of the bench, so as to form cup- boards, on either side marked L, for the reception of tools, etc. The door, L, of the cupboard may be hinged to M, and open outwards, thus forming a kind of shelf in front of the cupboard when let down. This cheap and ingenious bench is recommended to the notice of amateurs who cannot afford to spend much in appliances of this kind. 509. We now come to what we have chosen to term the “composite” bench — a bench in which an attempt is made to turn to account every portion of the space that the bench covers, between the ground below and the inner surface of the bench-top. The arrange- The „ com _ ment of this bench was also suggested by a writer in P° sit ©” bench. “Design and Work.” Its general construction will be readily under- stood after all that has been said on the subject, but a few remarks by way of explanation will perhaps be desirable. 510. This bench (fig. 249) is 6ft. long, ift. 6in. wide, and 2ft. 9m. high, and therefore occupies as little space as it is possible for a bench to take up. Six legs are required, 3m. by 3m., which _ . A j 7 its a imen . are framed together with rails half the thickness at top sions and construction. and bottom, as shown by dotted lines across the top, at A, B, and C. The bench is fitted in the usual way with a bench-stop at D, and a bench-vice with screw at E, and runner at F, both of which work 234 Household Carpentry and Joinery. through the front leg of the trestle A. The top is formed by two boards 9m. wide, the working board being i^in. thick, and the board at back iin. thick, but nothing is gained by this difference in thickness, so the boards may as well, both of them, be i^in. thick, and joined by a groove and feather slip or dove-tail feather. The side- board G is 9in. wide, and iin. thick and the faces of the legs in front should be flush with the face of this board. The back of the bench should be boarded up, unless it be fixed, as it may be very con- veniently, against the wall of a workshop or shed, just under the window. The end H between the trestle A and the end of the bench to the left is converted into a shallow cupboard, which may be fitted with shelves so long as they do not interfere with the screw and runner ; but this they need not do, as the screw and runner work in the front leg of the trestle, and can be securely cased in by boards nailed on either side of the trestle. The space K between the legs and trestles, A and B, below the bench-front, is fitted with four drawers, and that between the legs, B and c, at L, is converted into a cupboard with a door hinged at the bottom to let down on the ground. The space between the trestles, A and B and B and c, between the bench-front and the back, by cutting the back board on top, and attaching it to the back of the bench by hinges, may be converted into a well, which will be useful for stowing away planes and other large and heavy tools. The space Wheel and t0 right between the trestle C and the right-hand end treadle. 0 f t i ie bench may be fitted up with a wheel and treadle, which might be turned to good account in working a small lathe, placed on the bench, or in turning a grindstone or circular-saw of small size, motion being imparted to the lathe, grindstone, or saw above, by a strap or cord passing round the wheel M, and through holes cut for its Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice. 235 passage in the top boards of the bench. For the accumulation of power, any contrivance that is worked in this way should be fitted with a fly wheel, which, when the wheel M was put in action, could work over, and parallel with, the right-hand end of the bench. 5 1 1. The bench that has just been described is best suited for one that is fixed against a wall, which is the position which in all proba- bility will be most convenient for the amateur artisan, and Suitable for one which he would prefer to any other. There are, of fixture against wall. course, many other ways by which the interior of a bench may be turned to good account, but want of space forbids us to dwell upon them here. Every amateur will doubtless think of some little modification which will render his bench better suited for his own peculiar wants, and when he is engaged in making a bench for himself it will be well for him to exercise his ingenuity in this respect. 512. The chief objections to the ordinary bench-vice in its simplest form are, that it takes up a great deal of time to adjust and screw up and unscrew the cheek, and that the pressure exerted by Objections to the cheek on the board, or whatever else may be placed ordinary bench-vice. within its hold, is not uniform at every point of its surface owing to a want of perfect parallelism with the bench-front. The con- trivances that have been introduced at one time or other to procure the desideratum of perfect parallelism have been described ; but after all there is not one of these that tends to save time by its adoption and use ; but rather, on the contrary, some of them cause a still greater loss of time in looking to their adjustment. What is most to be de- sired, both for working carpenters and joiners and amateurs, is a bench-vice in which the action shall be speedy, the parallelism perfect, and the grip certain, and these requisites are to found combined in the " Standard Instantaneous Grip ¥100,” a most ingenious in- Standard vention patented by Messrs. Smith, Marks, and Co., and instantaneous sold by Mr. Thomas J. Syer, Cabinet Manufacturer , the Grip Vlce ‘ sole agent for London, at whose office and workshops, 1, Finsbury Street , Chiswell Street , E.C. , it can be seen in use. An illustration of this vice is given in fig. 250. The workman has simply to raise the lever or handle A to a perpendicular position with the left , , Its construc- nand, and draw out or close, as may be necessary, the tion and r . . action. front jaw B the necessary distance. He must then place the piece of wood, or other material on which he is about to operate, between the jaws B and c, after which he must- press the front jaw B nearly close to the wood, then press down the lever, when the wood will be held firm in the vice. To remove the piece of wood he must 236 Household Carpentry and Joinery. raise the lever as described above. The grip is caused in the follow- ing manner. On the under side of the plate, on which the word “patent” is marked in the illustration, and in the straight line that lies be- tween the let- ters D, E, is a plate indented inclined at a to describe it as accurately as possible, a longitudinal strip cut out of a female screw. At the end G of the bar F G, which is held in position, and travels in and out between two curved flanges projecting from the under side of the plate, is a short cylinder which is grooved along part of its surface after the manner of the threads of a screw, the remainder being left plain, and carrying a stop or stud which is shown in the engraving, and which prevents the progress of the screw beyond a cer- tain point so as not to cause injury to any substance placed within the powerful bite of the jaws. When the piece of wood, or any other material, as the case may be, has been placed within the jaws, and the front jaw pushed nearly close to it, the downward turn of the lever or handle brings the threads of the male screw within the threads of the female screw, and draws the front jaw against the wood so tightly, and with so firm a grip, that it is utterly impossible to remove the material without injuring it until the lever is raised and the pressure relaxed. It is the drawing action of the screw that gives value to the “ Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice,” by causing the pressure of the jaws to be brought gradually , though swiftly, to the point that is required to hold the material immovable within their grasp. 513. The principal advantages of this bench-vice are: (1) that it grips and relaxes its hold instantly in any distance up to I3^in. ; (2) Advantages that the action and working of it are so complete that a of grip-vice. pj ece 0 f ordinary writing-paper can be secured and held as firmly as a piece of timber ; (3) that it effects a saving of about 75 per cent, of the time employed in working the ordinary bench-vice by its easy action and certainty of its grip ; (4) if wood facings are fitted to the faces of the iron jaws all possibility of indentation of the article placed in it is removed ; and (5) that it can be fitted to any discription Syer’s Improved Portable Cabinet Bench . 237 of bench, new or old. The price of the vice is 18s., or if supplied with wood facings fitted to the jaws, 20s. As the jaws are of iron it is evi- dent that the vice will serve the purpose of an iron bench- j ts adapta- vice for holding pieces of metal, as well as that of an various ordinary bench-vice for holding wood, and that the ama- re< i ulreinen ts. teur who possesses one of these has no occasion to go to the expense of purchasing an iron bench hand-vice. By placing within the jaws two pieces of wood of sufficient length to hold a saw, this vice may be further utilised as a saw-vice. Mr. Syer also supplies a most useful article for workmen and amateurs in his “ Improved Port- syer’s im- able Cabinet Bench,” one end of which is shown in fig. 251, abi^Cabniet from which its general character and construction can be Bench, seen. The bench consists of a wooden top fitted with the “ Standard Instantaneous Grip Vice,” and fastened with screw bolts . . Its construe- to metal standards, which give extra firmness to the bench, tion and 7 advantages. a matter of great importance to the workman. The price of this bench is ^3 5s., but if fitted with a screw-rising stop, 2s. extra is charged. As the top and supports are fastened to- gether with screw bolts, the bench can be taken to pieces at pleasure, and thus is rendered more convenient and handy for packing and re- moval. Boards can be laid from end to end having their ends supported on the ledges shown at A and B, to serve as places of depository for tools when out of use. The bench is of the ordinary height, the top being 6ft. long, ift. ioin. wide, and 3m. thick, and formed of two boards or planks firmly bolted together by three bolts and screws. The great thickness is owing to the necessity of bringing the top of the jaws of the vice level with the upper surface of the bench. If, then, it is desired to fit the vice to an old bench, care must be taken to attach to the under surface of the top of the bench, at the part where the vice is to be fitted, a piece of wood Fig. 251. syer’s improved portable cabinet bench. 238 Household Carpentry and Joinery . that will bring the thickness of the top at that part up to 3m. Thus, if the top of the bench be 1%'m. in thickness, a piece of equal thickness must be added, and so on. 514. There is another vice similar to the above in general appear- ance, but differing from it in internal arrangement and construction, which affords perfect parallelism and sudden grasp com- Entwistle and r L # . Kenyon’s bined with rapidity of action. This is Entwistle and Instantaneous Grip Parallel Kenyon’s “ Instantaneous Grip Parallel Vice” (Riley’s Vice. patent), sold in London and the surrounding districts by Messrs. C. S. Mallet and Co., 9, London Street , Fenchurch Street , E.C.j sole wholesale agents for these parts. They are made in various sizes for engineers with jaws from 3m. to 1 2in., opening from 3m. to 8^in. The joiner’s vice, with which we have more to do at present, and which is well adapted for cabinet-makers, carpenters, amateurs, Principles of an< ^ th° se engaged in all kinds of constructive trades, is construction. f urn ished with 9m. jaws to open I 2 in., and is sold at 16s. The front jaw is a loose sliding jaw which may be moved inwards and outwards at pleasure ; the inner jaw is immovable, and to the bottom of it a steel rack is fastened. Another short steel rack, with the upper surface indented so as to fit into the indentations of the rack fastened to the fixed jaw, is fixed to the innermost end of the sliding jaw. The short rack is thrown into gear with the long rack, at any part of it, when the jaws have been adjusted to the material placed between them, by half a revolution forward of the handle, and this short, quick movement puts the grip on the work. The racks, it should be said, are thrown into gear by means of a scrolled cam attached to the inner- most end of the shaft to which the handle is fixed. Half a revolution backwards of the handle brings the short rack out of gear with the long rack, and quite clear of it, leaving the loose sliding jaw at liberty to be moved in or out at pleasure. 515. There are two things that yet require mention in this chapter, as, if not forming part of the carpenter’s bench, they have a claim to be considered in connection with it. Of these two articles, Adjuncts to . . _ _ - carpenter’s one is the trestle, or sawing-stool, and the other a means of fitting up and working a small circular-saw, for cut- ting tenons, and making small saw-cuts generally of this description. 516. Firstly, let us take the trestle, or sawing-stool. Every amateur artisan should make two of these for himself, as he will often require a Trestle or P air on w ^ich to set a long piece of quartering, sawing-stool. e tc., w hen cutting mortises in it, or a long board that ne is engaged in ripping down with a rip-saw or hand-saw. The Trestle, or Sawing-stool. 239 517. In fig. 252, a tfestle, or sawing-stool, is represented in section or in elevation at either end, being the mode of representation best adapted for showing its construc- tion. . . f , . Its dimen- A IS a piece of wood about Bions and „ .... . . , , construction. 2ft. or 2ft. 6m. long, 4m. wide, and 3in. thick ; and B and C are two pieces of wood about 2/^ in. by 2in., or a little stouter if it be thought necessary. A notch is cut in the upper end of each leg, as at D E F, so that when Fig. 252. the Ie S s are P laced in the P 0ski0n Notch In end sawing-stool, (end.) shown in the drawing, the sides of trestle. and bottom of the piece A may rest in the notch thus formed, the sides of the notch being at right angles with each other. The notch may be made deeper, as at G H F, to afford a better bed or resting-place for the block A, or the sides of the block may be slightly grooved so that the part G H E D of the leg may be let into the body of block. When four legs of this description have been cut out, and the block grooved, if it be thought better to do so, for the reception of part of the notched ends as described, they must be nailed firmly to the block, two at either end, opposite to one another. M >Q Fig. 253. sawing- STOOL. (SIDE.) To give stability to the trestle, a piece of inch board of the shape KLMN is nailed to the legs on the outside, and two strips lengthwise from leg to leg, as shown at N and O. The appearance of one of the legs at the side is shown in fig. 253, in which A is the block that forms the top as before, C the leg, N M the end show- ing grain of the piece of wood KLMN, and O the slip nailed from leg to leg on the same side. A stool or trestle thus made is very strong, and will bear plenty of heavy blows and hard usage without being damaged beyond the injury that such knocking about may inflict on the surface. The end of A is often cut as at D E F in fig. 254, the angle D E F being a right angle, or an angle a little less than a right angle. A notch of this kind forms a convenient rest- ing-place against which to rest a piece of quartering for cutting a tenon at the end. Fig. 254 also shows a plan of the top of the trestle Fig 255 at one end ; A being the block, and B and C the upper ends clamp. of the legs thus lettered in fig. 252, which are let into shallow grooves in A, Fig. 254. end OF SAWING-STOOL. 240 Household Carpentry and Joinery. as already described. The amateur artisan will find it useful to provide Clamps - their ^i mse ^ with a couple of clamps of the kind shown in fig. uses. 255, for holding down to the stool A any piece of wood that may require mortising, as w. In fact, a couple of small clamps of this kind will be found useful in many an operation in household carpentry and joinery. 518. Machinery of any kind is a powerful aid to progress in handi- craft work of every description, provided always that it be suitable to the nature of the work in hand. All tools are machines, rendered by so far that they are co 7 itrivances by which certain opera- machinery. t j ons can k e more effectually performed, though not in the sense in which the word is generally used in the present day, namely, in reference to some complex structure of many various parts. In carpentry, man himself is the motive power of the tools that he employs, and if he be tolerably expert he will be able to get through all work of an ordinary character. He will most crave for the assistance of machinery in sawing and planing ; but the attachments necessary for circular-saws are so costly that the tool manufacturer, or rather tool seller, never keeps them in stock ; and as for planing machines, they are, as it has been said, out of the reach of the amateur altogether, for they are not only very expensive but require steam power to work them. 519. For motive power, then, the best thing the amateur can do is to trust to his hands and arms, and back and legs, resting content __ .. with the ordinary run of tools. It is somewhat hard, how- Motive power J ’ for amateurs, ever, to be without a circular-saw, considering the amount of work that may be got through with one of these in a very short space ot time ; and the thing now to be considered is how the amateur may manage to fit up a saw that will do light work, and even rip down a piece of board under an inch in thickness. 520. Suppose that A B in fig. 255 represents the width of a small bench, showing its transverse section from side to side ; or, what is Mode of equally to the purpose, let us suppose it to represent the working 1 ^ transverse section of a board forming the top of a narrow circuiar-saw. bench or platform in which the saw is to work. As near to the under surface of the bench as is possible, let there be an iron axle H K, bent at G so as to be turned by the rod N attached to a treadle worked by the foot ; and let this axle work at either end in Sockets, L and M, fastened to the underside of the plank A, or fitted into the boards in front and at the back of the bench, if the saw be fitted to a carpenter’s bench. A small but heavy fly-wheel should be Method of Working Small Circular-saw . 241 attached to the end H of the axle. Slots must be cut in the board A B — one at C, through which the saw D E may work ; and another at F, through which the crank G may work, during its passage through the upper semicircle of its revolu- tion. When the treadle is set in motion with the foot the saw will revolve, increasing in rapidity by the action and weight of the fly-wheel, and requir- ing less and less pressure from the foot of the operator on the treadle. There would be from one- fifth to one-fourth of the diameter of the saw above the surface of the bench ; that is to say, if the saw were 5in. in diameter there might be from iin. to iXin. of its diameter above the surface. It would not be possible to use a saw of any size on account of the power required to drive it, owing to the resistance offered by the wood when it is brought against it, and the friction arising from the passage of the saw through the wood. This is the simplest method of working a small circular-saw. If. the operator had some one to help him by turning a handle, r J & Multiplica- it would be possible to impart far greater velocity to the tion of. wheel than could ever be attained by the use of the treadle, veloclt by means of a series of wheels attached to the side of the bench at B, and acting on a toothed-wheel keyed on to the axle at K, the handle being fixed at some point near the cir- cumference of the largest and last of the wheels comprised in the series, reckon- ing from the wheel at K as the first. Supposing that there were such an arrangement of three wheels, as shown in fig. 257, in which A is a wheel with ten teeth keyed on to the end of the axle at K, B an intermediate wheel with/ twenty teeth, and C a third wheel with forty teeth, in the circumference of which a handle D is placed. Now, it is manifest as the number of teeth in c are double those in B, that for every single revolution of C: the wheel B will go round twice ; and as B has twice as many teeth as. A, the wheel A will go round twice for every revolution of B. The wheel A will therefore be turned round four times for every single revolution of C, and the saw, which is keyed on to the axle, like the 16 FlG. 257. MULTIPLICATION OF SPEED. FlG. 256. METHOD OF WORKING SMALL CIRCULAR-SAW. 242 Household Carpentry and Joinery , wheel A, will also revolve four times. It will be seen that the speed of the saw will depend on the relative number of teeth in the wheels. It is only the principle that it is sought to explain here. The amateur will now be able to work out any combination of wheels for himself. 521. On looking at fig. 256, it is clear that if a slip be screwed lengthwise to the top of the bench, as at O, in which such a slip is Guide slip for s ^ own in section, and the operator hold a board against wflth 1 to be slip, as shown by the dotted line at P, also in cut - section, it will be ripped down lengthwise by the saw, and the width of the slip to be cut from the board may be regulated by moving the guide slip to a distance from the plane in which the saw revolves, equal to the width required to be cut. Too much care cannot be taken in making use of a circular-saw. The operator must keep his hands well out of the way, and when the board is nearly cut through, use another piece of board instead of his hands to keep it going in an onward course until the saw has completed its work. For cutting tenons, an arrangement might be made by which the axle of the saw would be above instead of under the bench, but this would be useless for ripping down a long piece of board ; and in cutting a tenon it must be remembered that the saw can only penetrate to a depth somewhat less than half its diameter, if the axle be above the bench, for as a matter of course the progress of the wood would be stopped by its coming in contact with the axle. PART II. ©rnamental ant Constructional Carpentry ant 3loinerp. CHAPTER I, INTRODUCTORY — ORNAMENTAL CARPENTRY AND ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES. Grammar of Carpentry — Principles of Construction — Branches of Ornamental Car- pentry— Cabinet-making— Turning— Derivation of the Term— General Principle of the Lathe — Various parts of Lathe — Derivation of word *' Lathe” — Articles made in Lathe— Fret-sawing or Fret-cutting— Familiar Example— Articles] to which Fret-cutting may be applied — Decoration of Flat Surfaces — Ornamentation of Box — Importance of the Work — Effect of Bold Patterns — Meanings of Term 11 Fret-work M — Wood-carving— Kenilworth Sideboard— Requisites for Success- Carving : what it is — Meaning of Term. 522. WHEN a man knows how to use the different tools employed in Carpentry and Joinery, and has learnt to perform the ordinary opera- tions by means of which pieces of wood are framed Grammar0 f together, he may be considered to have become ac- carpentry, quainted with what may be termed the grammar of carpentry ; and, as the simpler processes that come within the province of the house carpenter and joiner are now tolerably familiar to him, he may turn his attention to ornamental carpentry, which involves greater delicacy of manipulation and more careful use of the tools employed, and apply himself to the task of learning the principles of construe- p rinc ipi es 0 f tion comprised in articles of every-day use that he sees construction, about him ; and, having learnt how they may be made so as to be as strong and efficient as it is possible to render them, to proceed to the repairing and the making of the articles themselves. 523. There are various branches of ornamental carpentry or working in wood which present more than ordinary attractions Branches of . . ... ornamental to the amateur artisan, and for whose execution special carpentry. kinds of tools and implements, and even special machinery, are required. These branches are — 244 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. i . Turning j 2. Fret-cutting or fret-sawing j 3. Wood-carving j and in one or the other of these, if not in all three, the amateur artisan should endeavour to attain proficiency. He cannot always be exer- cising his ingenuity as a carpenter in putting up outhouses, sheds, summer-houses, and in making such buildings and other plant that may be required for his various operations in this line out of doors ; nor will he continually be able to find scope for his constructive powers as a joiner in making pieces of furniture such as tables, chairs, bookshelves, and book-cases for his house and home, or in repairing damage done to its interior woodwork, and its blinds, locks, and other Cabinet- fittings. In cabinet-making, however, that is to say, in making. higher branches of the joiner’s art, and in the three kinds of ornamental working in wood specified above, there is always something to be done, either in adding to the furniture already gathered together, or in improving plain pieces of work, or the wood- work of the house, by ornamental additions. 524. Turning may be defined as the act of forming solid substances, as pieces of wood, ivory, bone, etc., into different forms by means of a lathe, or of imparting a smoothness and entirely sym- Turning. metr j ca j f orm a m etal casting by the same means. Turnery may be taken to mean the art of working, as just described, by means of a lathe, or the things or forms which are made by a turner or in the lathe : thus we can speak of a man as being well skilled in the art of turnery, or of the wooden soap bowls, and other articles of a similar kind, sold with brushes, etc., for household use, as turnery. 525. The term finds its origin in the word iornos, a turner’s chisel ; whence was formed the Greek verb torneuein , to work with a lathe Derivation of an< ^ c hi se l i thence through the Latin tormts, a lathe, and the term. tornare , to work in a lathe, or to round off ; through the French tourner , and the Anglo-Saxon tyrnan , we obtain our English word " turn,” which is used in other senses than that of working in a lathe, the primary meaning having suggested and brought into use others akin to it in import. 526. The broad principle of the lathe, or turning-lathe, as it is in- differently called, may be described here, the details of its construction and its manifold uses being reserved for the following General prin- cipie of the chapter. From a strong frame called the lathe-bed rises a lathe. couple of uprights called heads or poppets. Of these, the one on the left hand is fitted with a mandril and pulley ; while the other on the right, generally called the back poppet, is pierced by a long-pointed screw, which can be turned by a bar passing through its General Principle of the Turning Lathe. 245 head like an ordinary bench-screw, or by a wheel with a handle inserted at any point of its circumference, which answers precisely the same purpose as the handle attached to the iron axle of a grindstone, the handle being bent so as to form two arms at right angles to another. 527. Thus in fig. 258, A B is the strong frame that forms the top of the lathe-bed, formed, as shown in fig. 259, of two stout pieces of wood, a b, cd , bolted together and kept apart by the ends of various parts the uprights C, D, so as to form a long narrow opening or of latlie - slot in which one or both of the heads may be moved backwards or forwards as may be necessary. In the head E is the mandril F, over which passes a pulley G. In the back poppet H is the screw K, turned by the bar L, which passes t m through its head. The inner end of the mandril is fitted with a screw so as to receive different kinds of fittings, such as a piece of metal fitted with three points to enter into the end of such a piece of wood as M, into the other end of which the extremity of the screw K is forced, the wood being thus held inposi- yr Fig. 258. ELEVATION OF LATHE. Fig. 259. PLAN OF BED OF LATHE. tion. On one side of the lathe-bed and beneath the frame that supports the heads is a wheel N, the axle of which is bent at O, to receive a crank hook P, connected with the treadle Q. A cord passes over the cir- cumference of the wheel N, and the compound pulley E, and by work- ing the treadle Q, motion is imparted to the wheel and pulley, which is communicated to the wood M, which revolves with great rapidity. A tool rest, R, works backwards and forwards along the front of the frame which forms the top of the lathe-bed, and on this, as the name implies, the tool is rested which is used to cut the wood as it revolves. It must be remembered that the foregoing is not so much the descrip- tion of a lathe as the description of the general principle of its con- struction, how it is set in motion, and how it acts. It is inserted here to give the amateur mechanic some idea of one of the most useful and important pieces of machinery which is used every day in cabinet- making and ornamental csrpentry and joinery. 528. The word “ lathe n is supposed to be derived from the German lade — a frame, or that which holds or encloses something else ; thus, 246 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. bettlade is a bedstead, or the frame on which a bed is supported. It Derivation of ^ as ^ een suggested that it is akin to the word “ ladder,’ 1 word “ lathe.” w hi c h j n itself is a framework of bars, each bar having each end inserted into longitudinal spars which form the sides. 529. From the general description which has been given of the broad principle of the lathe, its uses will at once be made manifest : Articles made ^ ars ? P^ ars > whether long or short ; the legs of chairs — that in lathe. j s to sa y ? jf they are straight ; knobs for handles of drawers and doors, pedestals for lamps, and an infinite variety of articles which it would be long and tedious to enumerate, can be easily and quickly made. The manufacture of such articles as these involves the use of both mandril head and back poppet,* as it is necessary to support both ends of the wood to be operated upon ; but in turning such an article as a bowl, the wood is fastened on one side only to a suitable chuck, which in its turn is screwed on to the mandril. It will be noted that the wood to be turned revolves with the mandril and pulley, becoming, as it were, merely a prolongation of the mandril : the screw that passes through the back poppet is immovable, and the wood into which it is forced revolves freely about its point. It will also be noticed that the axis of the mandril and that of the screw of the back poppet must of necessity be in one and the same straight line. 530. We will now pass on to a consideration of the second kind of ornamental carpentry, namely, fret- sawing or fret-cutting, in which an amateur may attain excellence with a far less expenditure Fret-sawing . , . . _ , or . of time than is necessary to excel in turning, and by means fret cutting. ^ w h; c h h e ma y \ en & to many articles of furniture or household fittings that are plain in themselves, a highly ornamental Familiar appearance and character. A familiar exemplification of example, fret-cutting may be found in the perforated woodwork lined with coloured silk that forms the front of that part of a cottage or upright piano, which is immediately above the key-board, and against which the cover of the key-board rests when it is raised in order to play on the instrument. As in the case of turning, the description of the tools and manipulation required will be reserved for another chapter. Our purpose in mentioning these branches of ornamental carpentry here is to point out to the amateur how he may make this Articles to handicraft peculiarly useful in a decorative point of view whmhfret- jf h e c h ooses to adopt it and follow it up. Fret-work in be applied, itself is strictly ornamental in character, and can only be applied to decorative purposes. Brackets, paper-cases, book-stands, and n variety of small pieces of ornamental furniture of this kind can be Decoration of Flat Surfaces by Fret-work . 247 adorned most effectively by fret-cutting ; and the raised rim that usually surrounds three out of the four sides of each shelf of the whatnot or wagonette ; and the thin boards by which the Canterbury or receptacle for music is usually divided into narrow compartments may be enriched by this kind of decorative work. 531. There is, however, another purpose to which fret- work may be applied which seems to have escaped notice, though it is specially adapted to the requirements and powers of amateurs. Decoration of This is the decoration of flat or plane surfaces by raised flat surfaces, work. It is, in fact, what is usually called diaper carving, but done by means of the fret-saw instead of in the ordinary way with V chisels, gouges, etc., and any pattern, however elaborate, may be executed thus with this advantage, that the ground-work on which the pattern appears in relief will be smooth instead of rough, as it must be when the wood that has filled up the parts between the pattern is removed by cutting with a sharp instrument. Let us, for instance, suppose that it is desired to impart an ornamental character even to so simple an article as an ordinary rectangular box. The sides of the Crnamen t a - box having been stained, pieces of thin wood of the size tion of box * of the ends, front, and top should be taken — and for the back, too, if it be considered necessary to extend the ornamentation to this side of the box — a suitable pattern marked out on them, and the pattern produced by cutting out the interstices by the aid of a fret-saw. As piece after piece is finished it must be attached to the box by means of glue and brads, and the whole of the work, when the attachment of the fret-work is complete, stained, sized, and varnished. There is no absolute need tp stain the sides of the box before the fret-work is applied, but by doing so the colouring of the entire surface below is insured, and if any part of the fret-work is accidentally broken off, the injury is not so conspicuous when the surface has been previously coloured as it would be if no staining had been applied until the fret- work was secured in position. The importance of this kind Impor ta nce of decorative work — and, as far as we are aware, this is the of tbe work * first time that the adaptation of fret-work to this species of orna- mentation has been described — will be readily seen and acknowledged when it is considered what a wide field is opened up for the adornment of such pieces of furniture as chests of drawers, the flat sides of book- cases, book-shelves, etc., which up to this time may have Effect of been regarded as incapable of decoration in an effective bold patterns, and suitable manner. The effect of a bold pattern of flowers and foliage conventionally treated on a skirting-board or any narrow pro- 248 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. jecting surface, and the enrichment of panels deeply set in the sur- rounding framework with diaper extending over the entire surface, or a border next to the framework, with a monogram or some other figure in the centre, may be readily conceived. 532. Fret-work in the Arts has two different meanings : it is applied, on the one hand, to work that is produced by cutting or wearing away as by the action of a saw ; and, on the other, to raised or Meanings of term embossed work such as is obtained in embroidery by “ fret-work.” _ „ T . . , . , , means of a needle. It is in this sense that the poet Spenser speaks of one “ Whose skirt with gold was fretted all about.” In this sense the word fret is to be traced to the Anglo-Saxon fratu , “ ornament,” or fratvjan to adorn ; but in the sense in which it is used in the term fret-cutting it is akin to the Anglo-Saxon fretan , to eat or gnaw away, and the French f rotter y to rub, which is derived in its turn from the Latin word fricare , to rub. In Architecture a fret is an ornament consisting of fillets intersecting each other at right angles, while in Heraldry it is a bearing of bars crossed and interlaced. 533. The highest branch of the entire art of working in wood is undoubtedly that of wood carving, for in order to arrive at any Wood eminence in this noble decorative work it is necessary carving. that a man b e a genuine artist and not a mere artisan. Of course we are not speaking of the ordinary carved work that is exhibited on the bowed legs of chairs and other parts of household furniture, as the curved and boldly projecting legs or leg of a console table, the claws of a round or oval table that is supported on a central pillar, or the hideous scroll-work in distant imitation of foliage that often disfigures the frame of a pier glass ; but of the fine copies of still life that were produced by the chisel of Grinling Gibbons ; the elaborate panels and decorations of the Kenilworth Kenilworth sideboard, one of the most notable features of the Great sideboard. Exhibition of 1851 ; the thrones of the bishops in many of our cathedrals, and the carven screens that adorn many of our village churches. To excel in such work requires time, patience, and Requisites abundant practice, and, as it has been said, the spirit and for success, feeling of a true artist. Much, however, may be done in a humbler, less ambitious way, and the amateur need not despair of turning out work sufficiently good and appropriate for the adornment of his home. It is a pleasant pursuit, anyway, and perseverance in the prosecution of any art never yet failed to bring its own reward. Carving : What it is. 249 534. Carving is the art or act of cutting wood or stone in a decora- tive manner, and a carver is one who cuts wood or stone in such a manner. Our English word “ carve ” is closely allied to Carving; the Dutch kerven , and the German kerben. It differs but what u is * very slightly from the Danish karve , and owes its parentage imme- diately to the Anglo-Saxon ceorfan. Its meaning is “ to Meaning of make or shape by cutting.” He who carves in stone, if he term - have attained eminence in his art, is usually termed a sculptor, but the man who simply chisels a stone into any given shape is called a carver. There is no distinctive name for the artistic carver in wood, he is only known as such, be his work ever so beautiful and true to nature. CHAPTER II. THE TURNING LATHE, AND HOW TO USE IT. Definition of Turning — What a Lathe is — The Turning Lathe — Purport of instruc- tion here given — Description of simple form of Lathe desirable — Pole Lathe, the simplest form — Construction of Pole Lathe — Manner of working Pole Lathe — Disadvantages of Pole Lathe — “ Dead-centre ” Lathe — Construction oi Dead-centre Lathe — Left-hand Poppet— Right-hand Poppet — Communication of Motion — Tool Rest — Capabilities of Lathes described — The Foot Lathe — Driving power — Working of Lathe not difficult — How to understand description — Standards or Supports — Cranked Shaft — Treadle Shaft and Board — Cone Pulley— Bed of Foot Lathe— Cone Poppet and Fittings— Screw Poppet and Fittings — The Rest Plate — How held in any position — Communication of Motion to Mandril — Cone on Cranked Shaft — Revolutions per minute — Variation in speed : how effected — Best speed for Lathe — Communication of motion to work by Chucks — Horned Chuck — Spiked Chuck — Taper Screw Chuck — Dis- advantages of these Chucks — Split Chuck — Face Plate — Turner's Cement — How to use Turner’s Cement — Another means of Turning without Holes— Chucks described sufficient for ordinary purposes — Home-made Chucks — Tools used by Ornamental Turner — The Gouge — The Flat Chisel — The Diamond Point — Cranked Tool — Management of Tool Rest — Turning down to certain size — Bow or Half-moon Callipers— Hole and Socket Callipers— Oil-stone indispensable — Finishing with Glass Paper, etc. —First efforts in Turning — Tool Handles — Higher Branches of Turning— Spinning Top— Steam Cylinder— Leg of Table — Top of Table — Prices of Lathes, etc. — Second-hand Lathes — Price of good Working Lathe — Prices of Buck’s Lathes— Melhuish’s Lathes — Turning Tools —Special Lathes for Amateurs— Improved Eureka Lathe — Attachments for Eureka Lathe — Amateur Chuck — Prices of Eureka Lathe — Why well adapted for Amateur — American Hollow Spindle Lathe— Extra Pieces supplied with Lathe— Prices of Lathe and Extras — Ordinary T Rest — Principle of Slide Rest. 535. TURNING may be defined as the art of giving a circular shape and form to articles of various kinds required for different purposes. Def nition of This is done in a machine called a lathe, so called, as it has turning, been said, either from the German lade, which means “a frame which holds or encloses something else or from its being a con- struction of bars and rods in the sense of the word “ ladder,” an article What a every-day use, consisting of two long poles or spars lathe is. connected at intervals by spokes placed transversely to the poles. A lathe may be taken to mean a contrivance whereby a cir- cular shape is imparted to any article, in which sense the potter’s wheel Simplest Forms of the Turning Lathe. 251 is a description of lathe by aid of which, by the action of centrifugal force or plastic clay, a round form is imparted to cups, bowls, etc. 536. There are a great number of lathes distinguished by different names, but the one with which we are more particularly concerned is the “ turning lathe,” which is especially adapted for turning The turning wood. The turning lathe may be described as a machine lathe, for giving a piece of wood swift circular or rotatory motion about a fixed axis, various cutting tools being applied to the surface of the article while it is iri motion in order to bring it to the required form. We shall first of all describe two of the most simple varieties of the lathe, namely the pole lathe and the foot lathe , with their constituent parts ; and then proceed to notice the appliances and tools used in turning and the mode of using them, concluding the chapter with mention of some of the most handy forms of the lathes that have recently been introduced for amateurs’ use. 5 37. It must be remembered that in this work no attempt is made to lead the amateur to the higher branches of the art of ornamental carpentry. It is sought only to tell him what machinery and tools to buy, and how to use them, and having brought induction him to the threshold, as it were, of this most pleasing here given * method of working in wood, to leave him to make his way onward and upward in a branch of constructive art on which volumes have been written without exhausting the subject or even wearing out its freshness. 538. The description of the simple forms of the lathe in the most minute particulars will be of advantage for several reasons. In the first place, the expense involved in purchasing a lathe of Description of the better kind may deter many from getting one at all, simp 1 1 | t ^ m ol unless they know that it is possible for them to avail desirable, themselves of a cheaper contrivance ; secondly, some amateurs may already be possessed of one, but may not know how to use it ; and, thirdly, some may desire to make their own, but perhaps have not sufficient mechanical skill to construct any but the simplest. In either of these cases the description will be of service, while to those who are able to buy or perhaps construct a more efficient lathe, it may be useful in bringing under their notice some point or other in connection with the lathe which had escaped their attention. 539. The pole lathe and the " dead-ce 7 itre” lathe are, as it has been said, the most simple forms of this useful contrivance, „ , , ^ — 1 5 Pole lathe, the but of these two the pole lathe is certainly the more simplest form, simple in its construction, and the less convenient and effective in 253 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. its action. A description of this lathe shall therefore be first placed before the reader. 540. The pole lathe, which is represented in fig. 260, consists of a table or bench of substantial construction, having a slot cut in it from side Construction to s ^e> as s ^ own in t ^ ie drawing. This slot is intended for of pole lathe. the reception of two upright pieces of wood, one of which, A, is placed at the left-hand end of the slot, while the other, B, can be moved backwards and forwards as may be necessary, and fixed in the position required by a screw underneath the table or bench which clamps it to the under-surface of the table-top. Each of these pieces of wood, or “ poppets,” as they are technically termed, has a piece of iron, pointing inwards, fastened to it, as shown at c and D, these irons being pointed at the extremi- ties, and between these points or centres the wood to be turned is placed, as E. There is a treadle, F, underneath the bench through which the end of a piece of cord or thick catgut is passed and se- cured. The cord is then twisted several times round one end of the work as at G, and the other end fastened to an elastic beam or lath (whence, perhaps, the Fig. 260. the pole lathe. name lathe) fixed in a convenient position above the bench as at H. It will be noticed that the poppets are made in such a way as to present shoulders or ledges as at K and L, which project over the surface of the bench towards the operator. On these ledges or notches a long straight piece of iron is laid, which serves as a rest for the cutting tool during the progress of the work. 541. The manner of working the pole lathe is as follows : — Depress the treadle with the foot : it will be found that this movement draws down the cord, and causes the work to revolve. Then, Manner of . working pole while in the act of depressing the treadle, apply the tool, lathe. which will be either a chisel or a gouge, to the work. When the treadle is at its lowest remove the weight of the foot, and the elasticity of the lath or bow overhead will cause the treadle to return to its original position, ready to be again depressed. It will be noticed that the driving cord is wound round the piece of wood to be “Dead-centre” Lathe : its Construction, Etc. 253 turned. The piece of wood that is to be operated upon must therefore of necessity be much longer than the article that is to be turned, which will be cut out of the wood within the points D and G. The utmost care must be taken to keep the cutting tool clear of the cord. It will also be noted that when the treadle is depressed the wood will revolve in a direction towards the operator, meeting the edge of the cutting tool, and it is only while the wood is rotating in this direction that the cutting tool can be applied to its surface. When the pressure of the foot is withdrawn and the treadle is ascending, the wood will revolve in the contrary direction ; and until the pressure of the foot is again applied to the treadle, the cutting tool must be removed or slightly drawn back from the wood. 542. The necessity that there is for removing the tool from the wood during every back stroke or counter-revolution of the wood is of course a great inconvenience, and some sorts of work cannot possibly be turned in the pole lathe. Another detriment tages of pole • i a th q lies in the fact that the upward and downward strain of the cord has a tendency to pull the wood out of the centres, or to break it in two if it has been found necessary by reason of the pattern to cut very deeply into it. The extreme simplicity of this form of lathe is its greatest recommendation. It is said to be much used by the London alder turners, but very seldom by amateurs, although even this lathe is much better than none at alL 543. The amateur artisan will find the “dead-centre 55 lathe much more convenient and in every way better suited for his purpose than the lathe which has just been described. The advantages «D e ad-centre” that the “ dead-centre 55 lathe possesses over the pole lathe lathe, are, that no gut or string is required to be wrapped around the work, thus the whole surface of the wood to be turned can be operated upon without the hindrance or inconvenience that the use of the cord entails, the rest on which the cutting stool is supported can be more advantageously placed, and the tool can better be brought to bear upon the work. 544. The “dead-centre 55 lathe, which is shown in fig. 261, consists of a bed A, formed of two pieces set lengthwise and bolted together so as to leave a space between them. Upon the bed are the two poppets B and F. The poppet B to the left hand is °of ^dead- 011 immovable, and can be made use of as a means of pre- centre lathe - serving the necessary space between the two pieces of wood that form the bed of the lathe, the bolt M passing through the neck or shank of the poppet as well as these timbers. At the other end, beyond the 254 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. part that is represented as broken off in the engraving, a piece of Left-hand wo °d the thickness of the neck of the poppet B must be in- poppet. serted. The timbers placed lengthwise, the poppet B, and the piece of wood introduced between the timbers at the other end, form together a solid framework, with a long narrow slot in the middle, up and down which the poppet F can be moved, and fixed at any required place along the bed to suit the lengths of different pieces of work. To the inner face of the poppet B a piece of iron D is fastened, by means of screws passing through the disc or collar N. The extremity of this iron is pointed, as shown at D in the illustration, and over it passes a small round pulley C, furnished with an iron pin E. The pulley C when set in motion will revolve freely round the iron D, which serves as a spindle for this purpose. 545. The poppet f, to the right hand, is also made of wood, and through it passes an iron screw G, with its ends pointed in the same Right-hand manner as ^ ie i ron D * The wood to be turned is put poppet, between the centres D and o, the extremities of the iron D, and the screw G, the right-hand poppet F is fixed at a convenient distance from the left-hand poppet B, according to the length of the work ; the screw G is then screwed up by means of a handle passing through its head P, so as to force the sharp points or centres, D and G, into the ends of the wood, the end of the iron peg E entering into a hole bored for its reception in the end of the wood next to the pulley c. If, however, the end of the peg e does not project beyond the point D, but is shorter than the spindle on which the pulley C turns, a nail, or something of the sort, must be driven into the wood in such a place and of such a length as will catch the iron pin E of the pulley. _ a Motion is communicated from any convenient motive Communl- J cation of power to the pulley by means of a belt. The most con- motion. venient will be found to be a wheel under the bed of the lathe, and immediately under the pulley C, set in motion by a crank- axle and treadle. The tool-rest is in two parts, the holder H, and the The Tool-rest: the Foot Lathe. 255 rest or support K, both of which are made of iron. The holder h can be moved anywhere along the work, or farther from, or nearer to, the work, and can be fixed firmly in any 00 ‘ rest ’ required place by the screw Q below it, in the same way as the poppet F is fixed by the action of the screw R. The rest K fits in a socket of the holder, and can be raised or lowered, or set at any angle that the shape of the work renders desirable or necessary, being held firmly in the position required by tightening the screw l. 546. It is not possible in either of the lathes that have been described to turn any article unless it be supported at both centres ; thus, for example, it is possible to turn a pillar or a ball, but any Capabilitieg hollow object, such as a bowl, cannot be turned in lathes lathes J described, made on the principle of the pole lathe and “ dead-centre ” lathe. Now the amateur may often require to turn flat objects, such, for example, as a bread-platter, or the top of a small table, where it is inconvenient to support it between the centres. For anything of this sort neither of these lathes would be of the slightest use ; there is, indeed, a modification of the first that admits of such things being done, but at such an expenditure of time and trouble as to render it a hopeless task for the amateur to perform. 547. This is a very serious drawback, but the attention of the ama- teur artisan is now invited to a lathe which has not this fault, and which is, in fact, a better lathe in every respect. Figs. 262 foot and 263 represent the front and side elevation, and fig. 264 lathe, the plan of this lathe, which is called the “ foot lathe,” partly because it is driven by the foot, and partly to distinguish it from others. It is almost unnecessary to remark that where steam or other power can be obtained it is far preferable to the treadle, and can be Easily applied so as to work the lathe without the operator having to exert himself in the slightest degree. Few amateurs, however, will be Driving able to apply any driving power to the lathe, other than power ' that which can be obtained from using the legs. Having to tread is, at the best of times, somewhat of a nuisance, and the amateur will at first have some difficulty in preventing the treading motion of his leg from influencing his whole body ; that, however, will be soon got over by practice, but if the article to be turned is large it is rather hard work to turn and tread also. 548. Treading is capital exercise for the legs, and it is not a whit more difficult to work a lathe in this manner than a bicycle, and of the two the latter is likely to prove the more fatiguing. When one leg is tired, the operator should make the other take its turn at treading 256 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. work ; and if the article be very delicate it is advisable that some other person should tread while the amateur turns. The foot lathe not lathe being one of the best forms of lathes for turning wood, difficult. ^ Ascription will be entered into more minutely than that of those previously mentioned. In the various representations of this lathe from different points of view in figs. 262, 263, and 264, which are respectively the front view, top view, and side view, the same letter _ is used to denote the same part ; should the reader, there- understand fore, not exactly understand any particular part, he may look at the part indicated by the same letter in each of the three illustrations, by doing which, any possibility of not compre- hending what is said, will, in all probability, be entirely obviated. Fig. 262. THE FOOT LATHE (FRONT VIEW). 549. To commence at the foundation, the standards or supports A are generally made of cast iron : sometimes they are made of wood, Standards or but ^ ^ ie ^ atter material they must be made much supports, stronger and stouter than represented. These standards carry the bed B, to which they are firmly bolted, and between them Cranked also carry the cranked shaft C, and the treadle shaft shaft. D The cr anked shaft C is made of wrought iron ; it works in collar necks and bearings. The treadle shaft D is also made The Foot Lathe : its Construction. 25 7 of iron, and is capable of being moved freely in holes made in the stan- dards. Fastened to this shaft is the treadle-board E; this Treadle shaft is furnished with a wrought-iron pin or stud F, to which and board - the connecting rod G is attached, passing at the other end over the Fig. 263. THE FOOT LATHE (TOP VIEW). crank in the cranked shaft, and enabling any one, by pressing one foot on the treadle-board E, to set the cranked shaft in motion. Immov- ably keyed upon the cranked, shaft is a heavy wooden cone ^ J Cone pulley. pulley H. Although the steps or speeds of the cone pulleys are generally flat and driven by a flat leathern belt, it is found that for light lathes a V grooved pulley driven by a round cord is preferable, and is often used. 550. The bed B is generally of cast iron, but it can be made either wholly of wood, or partly of wood and partly of iron, by — in the latter case — fastening a flat strip of iron on the top of the wooden slabs. Of whatever material it is composed it is essen- tial that the top surface should be perfectly straight and level, and be scrupulously kept so. 551. Bolted firmly to the bed is the cone poppet 1, which should be made of cast iron. The cone j may be made of wood, iron, or brass. Although brass looks the best, it is generally agreed that wood answers 17 Bed of foot lathe. FlG. 264. THE FOOT LATHE (SIDE VIEW). 258 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. the best : it is not of course so durable, but it is lighter and conse- Cone poppet quently does not take so much power to drive it ; the cord and fittings. a j so g r }p s fi rmer to wood than to metal. The speeds and grooves are made to correspond to those of the cone pulley H. The cone J is immovably fastened to the mandril K, which is made of either iron or steel, and is turned to run in a bearing in front of the cone poppet. Behind it is furnished with a conical indent or female centre, which runs on a steel-pointed centre screw L. The other end of the mandril has a screw-thread cut upon it, and is terminated by a sharp point or centre. The centre screw L is made of iron or steel, and has a point or centre at one end, and a round ball or nut at the other ; it screws through the cone poppet, and is kept from either screwing or unscrewing by tightening the lock-nut M. 552. The screw-poppet or right-hand poppet N is also made of cast iron, and can be moved anywhere along the bed B, and fastened firmly Screw-poppet w ^ en anc * where required by tightening the screw O. and fittings. Through this poppet there is a hole fitted with an internal or female screw made of wrought iron or steel, cut with a thread capable of receiving the screw P, which passes through it, and has at one extremity a sharp front or centre, and at the other an iron hand- wheel Q. By turning this wheel forward the centre or sharp point of the screw p approaches nearer the other poppet, and by turning it the contrary way it recedes from it. 553. The rest-plate R, which is made of iron, can be moved up and down anywhere on the bed between the two poppets. The little piece The rest- s rest-holder : it is made of iron, and has a V groove piate. cut a i on g j|; S bottom ; it can be moved in or out, nearer to, or farther from, the work. Both the rest-holder and plate can be How held in firmly held, where for convenience it is required, by tight- any position. en i n g the headed screw T. This screw is made of iron, and is in two parts ; one part has a head the same shape as the groove in the rest-holder, and also has a thread cut upon it to fit into an internal thread cut in the lower part or nut of the screw. The tool-rest U is made of iron, either wrought or cast, but generally the former ; it has a round shank which fits into a socket in the holder. The rest can be raised or lowered in the socket, and set at any convenient angle ; it is firmly fixed at the required position and height by tightening 7 Fig. 265. FRONT VIEW. THE REST. Fig. 266. SIDE VIEW. Motion and Speed of Lati-ie . 259 the screw V. Enlarged views of the rest as it appears when looked at from the front and side, are given in fig. 265 and 266 respectively. 554. It now remains to show how motion is given to the mandril K, and consequently to the work. The operator stands in front of the lathe, generally with his right foot on the treadle board E. Communica- The board must be depressed, and directly it comes to tion of motion to mandril. the bottom the weight of the foot must be removed from the board. The “ fly,” or momentum of the pulley H, will carry the crank over the “ dead centre,” and will raise the treadle to be again depressed with greater force until the cranked shaft comes up to speed. The circular motion of the cranked shaft is communicated to the man- dril by a cord or gut passing over both pulleys. 555. The cone on the cranked shaft is generally of a larger diameter than the mandril cone, the former often being five or six times as large as the latter. This is done to increase the speed : thus, Cone on supposing the large cone to be five times the size, or to cranked shaft, have a circumference equal to five times the circumference of the man- dril cone, then every one hundred revolutions of the cranked shaft will make five hundred revolutions of the mandril. It is generally allowed that one can conveniently, and without great exertion, tread about eighty or one hundred times per minute, now the cones Revolutions are made in steps, so as to alter the speed of the mandril per mmute - whilst the crank-speed remains constant ; thus, when we wish to in- crease the speed, or drive at the highest speed, the gut or cord is put on the largest speed of the cranked-shaft pulley and the Variation in smallest speed of the mandril pulley ; and when it is wished speed : how to decrease the speed to a minimum, the cord should be on the smallest step of the cranked-shaft pulley, and the largest of the mandril pulley ; and the intermediate speeds the same, the cone pulleys being made of such a size that the relative proportions of the cones can be altered without tightening the belt. 556. Wood differs so very much in density, grain, etc., that it is im- possible to give the speed at which it should be turned without seeing it, but the amateur turner need be under very little appre- Best spee d hension of running his lathe too fast. As a general rule, for lat3ie * however, it may be observed, that the best speed is the fastest at which it can be turned without blunting the tools too much. When a lathe is driven from a shaft by steam or other power, there is more chance of overdoing it with regard to speed, because it is quite possible to drive even so soft a substance as wood fast enough to cut or rub the steel tool instead of the tool cutting the wood. The speed should 6 o Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. seldom exceed 500 circumferential feet per minute — that is, supposing the article to be ift. in circumference, it should revolve five hundred times in a minute. This must not, however, be considered an arbitrary rule. The amateur artisan, by the exercise of a little observation and judgment, will very soon be able to tell the proper speed for any kind of work ; indeed, an experienced workman can tell at a glance, before touching it with the tools, whether it is at the right speed or not. 557. We now know how to obtain the circular motion with the lathe, Communica- kut rema i ns t0 communicate this motion to the work. U to workby 11 There are several methods of doing this, but it will be chucks. sufficient to show some of the best and most frequently used of them. It is done by means of different sorts of instruments called “ chucks ” which are screwed to the mandril. 558. The horned chuck, shown in fig. 267, is used for long and small things ; it is screwed into the screwed end of the mandril K of the foot Horned lathe. One end of the wood is placed against the chuck, chucK. t jie rigfojhand poppet is then drawn up against the other end of the wood and firmly fastened to the bed ; the hand-wheel is then turned forward so as to force the jaws of the chuck into one extremity of the wood, and the centre into the other. It is es- sential that both the chuck and the centre should be in about the middle of the wood, otherwise it will necessitate the turning off of so much more of the wood from one side than from the other before it will be round ; and, if the rough wood is not a great deal larger than the finished article is required, it will not hold up to size. 559. The spiked chuck, of which the disc is shown in fig. 269, and the side view with the spikes projecting from the disk in fig. 268, is useful Spiked for turning a rather large flat piece of wood, or a large and long piece. In the former case the chuck is screwed on the mandril end, and the wood placed against it and gently tapped until the spikes are embedded in the wood, and the face of the wood is close against the Fig. 267. HORNED CHUCK. Fig. 268. SPIKED CHUCK. - chuck. Fig. 269. SPIKED CHUCK. Fig. 270. taper-screw chuck. fl at par t 0 f the chuck. It is advisable that one surface of the wood, that which is to bear against the chuck, should be planed true, or nearly so, before it is put on in Various Kinds of Chucks. 261 place. The centre is not now required. In the latter case one ex- tremity of the wood is forced on to the spikes, and the right-hand poppet brought up and the centre forced into the wood in the same manner as before described. 560. The taper-screw chuck, shown in fig. 270, is a very useful chuck ; it is used entirely for short work. The chuck is screwed on the man- dril end ; a hole is made in the centre of the wood of the Taper-screw same size as the smallest part of the screw, and rather chuck * deeper than its length ; the hole is applied to the point of the screw and held there whilst the lathe is pulled round slowly with the left hand. The wood will then be screwed up against the flat surface of the chuck, and will remain there firm enough to be turned. If it is wished to screw the work on the opposite side, so as to be able to manipulate the unturned portion, a hole similar to the one already made must be cut out in this side whilst the work revolves. The wood can be then unscrewed and put on the other side. If this hole be cut or turned out true, that portion of the article which has already been turned will run true when so changed sides with. 561. The fault in both the spiked chuck and the taper-screw chuck is that the spikes in the one, and the screw in the other, disfigure and injure the face of the work. For most things, or for pat- . Disadvantages terns, this is of very little consequence, because the holes oi these chucks. thus made can be stopped with putty ; but for some orna- mental articles these marks or disfigurations would be exceedingly objectionable, because they could not be putty-stopped well enough to prevent their being noticed. Therefore, when the amateur artisan has occasion to turn anything of that sort, if small, he should use the split chuck, shown in fig. 271. The article can generally be partly Fig. 271. split chuck, turned more conveniently in one of the other chucks, and such portions in them as cannot be done without injury turned in this one. The split chuck can, however, be used for many other purposes. 562. If the article is large, the face-plate shown in fig. 272 is screwed on to the mandril end, and the article stuck to the plate with Turner’s Cement. Recipe for Turner's Cement . — Take of resin four parts and of pitch one part ; set these ingredients by the fire to melt in an Turner . s old pan or earthen pipkin, and when the mixture is liquid cement, stir in sufficient finely powdered brick-dust to make it a stiff paste. Split chuck. Face-plate. 262 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery . 563. The cement must be placed hot against the face-plate, and the work pressed against it. When cold it will hold the wood to the plate sufficiently firm for the article to be carefully turned ; and, Turner’s when finished, a gentle blow will detach the work from the cement. plate. The cement should be taken care of, because it can be used almost any number of times ; but it must be warmed each time before it is used. When using the cement, the amateur artisan must take great care to lay it evenly on the face-plate, and not put it on thicker at one place than at another. The obvious effect of his not taking this precaution is that his article will be of unequal thickness, Another an< ^ consequently spoiled. Should this cement not be at T4^ing f handwhen wanted, the same object— namely, turning the without holes, article without holes, or indentations of any description — can be attained by fastening a common piece of wood to the spiked or screw chuck, and in this wood turning out a recess or cavity of such a size that the orna- mental wood will fit it tightly. This is a method very often resorted to by turners, and is a very ready one. This plan is also often brought into requisition when turning articles of such a shape as will not admit of their being held by any of the chucks in the ope- Fig. 272. face-plate, rator’s possession. A recess the shape of and rather smaller than the article is turned in the wood on the face-plate, and into this the ornamental object is forced, and when practicable the centre is brought up so as to keep it in place. When this cannot be done, and when the article is so smooth that it runs round in the cavity when the tool is applied, a little soft chalk should be rubbed both about the chuck or recess and that portion of the object that fits into it. 564. Although the turner uses other chucks for special work, those which have been already described will alone be mentioned for two reasons : — Firstly , because the a?nateur artisan will find described that, with proper management, those already described BU mdinary° r will as yet answer his every purpose and, indeed, wish. purposes. s econ( Uy> the other more complicated chucks are used chiefiy in iron and brass turning , which chucks, nevertheless , also answer well for ornamental wood turning. 565. It is only necessary to add that although the different chucks are generally made of iron or brass, which, indeed, are the best ma- terials. the amateur mechanic, if he would like to make them himself Chisels and Gouges used by the Turner. 263 can make them of hard wood. For some reasons wooden chucks are better than iron ones, but they are not so durable. If in „ Home-made curning the tool comes in contact with a metal chuck, chucks, the cutting instrument gets the worst of it ; but if the same thing occurs with a wooden chuck, the chuck itself will be much damaged. 566. The tools used by the ornamental turner are very numerous ; but different sizes of the gouge, flat chisel, diamond point, and cranked tool will do for a great variety of work. In ornamental 7 fact, the amateur artisan is strongly advised to commence turner - with these only, and not to get others until he finds that he really requires them. 567. The gouge is shown at figs. 273 and 274, the former showing its appearance at the back and the latter at the side. It is used for “ roughing down,” or taking off the bulk of the superfluous wood, and for turning The gouge * out hollows and curves that cannot be conveniently done with a flat or other chisel ; and when the user of this tool has had a little experience, it may be used for | squaring down the end of the article. For the first two purposes it is laid on the rest with the round side downwards, and it must be held front 3 * F siDE 74 * with t ^ ie cut ting P art rather above the centre of the view. view, work, as shown in fig. 275, in which A is the article to be turned, shown in section, and B the gouge. For the third purpose it must be held on its side and pointed directly to the centre. 568. The flat chisel, shown in figs. 276 and 277, is used for smoothing the work, or taking off the remaining wood that was left by the gouge. Inexperienced The flat or thoughtless turners generally hold this chisel, tool with the cutting edge parallel to the surface of the wood. In this position it acts as a scrape, and causes a roughness on the work which is a sure sign of a slovenly workman. The proper position for holding Fig. 276. ? this tool is with its cutting edge obliquely to the sur- Fig. 277. face, as shown in fig. 278, where A is the rest, B the flat *view^ view, chisel, and c the surface of the article that is being flat chisel, turned. When held in the manner indicated m the illustration a much smoother surface is obtainable, and the tool does not require sharpening so often as it does when held wrongly. Fig. 275. manner OF USING THE GOUGE. GOUGE. 264 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. Fig. 27S. MANNER OF USING THE FLAT CHISEL. 569. The diamond point, shown in front view in fig. 279, and in side view in fig. 280, is used for roughing very small and delicate work that The diamond wiU not bear the gouge ^ point. being applied to it, or ^ heavy cuts being taken off ; for fin- { ishing sharp angular corners ; and for internal work, such as large holes or cavities, into which the other tools cannot be got conve- niently. The point only is used for the first purpose, and the point and sides for the second and third. The point should seldom or never be held above the centre. Cranked or internal tools, one of which is shown in fig. 281, are used for Cranked tool. turning recesses in a piece of wood, or for turning holes when any portion of the interior is either not straight or larger than the orifice. The cutting point is held level with the centre. 570. The tool-rest must be altered to suit the work. It will generally be required rather above the centre, but the height of the operator must Management S 0vern this to a certain extent. The nearer the of tool-rest. Fig. 280. rest is to the work the greater is the FlG - 2 ? 9 - ® # FRONT VIEW. SIDE VIEW. command that the amateur artisan diamond point. has over his tools. To get it sufficiently close it will sometimes be necessary to place the rest at the same angle as the work ; but in whatever position the rest is placed, care should be taken that it is firmly fixed. To the experienced turner it is a matter of very little consequence whether the rest is an inch or two from the work or quite close to it : but until the amateur knows his tools, and begins to work with some degree of confidence or certainty, he should not, if he can avoid it, have his rest more than an inch from that portion of the work on which he is operating. If kept at a greater distance than that he will be very liable, or indeed he will be almost certain, to catch in his tool which, flying up, will strike him in the eye or mouth. 571. When turning anything down to a certain size, we cannot do it Bow Callipers : Hole and Socket Callipers. 265 near enough by the eye, but must use instruments called callipers ; and although these have already been mentioned in a previous _ . r . . , . Turning down chapter, it will be useful to refer to them again here, as it to certain is in turning that they are found especially useful. The S12e ’ callipers must be set to the proper size, that is, to the diameter to which the work is to be turned down, and occasionally applied to the work until it has been made small enough. 572. The ordinary forms of callipers are represented in figs. 282,283, Fig. 283. bow or half-moon CALLIPERS. Fig. 284. HOLE AND SOCKET CALLIPERS. and 284. That shown in figs. 282 and 283 is called the bow or half- moon callipers. It is represented in two positions, viz., for ^ half external work in fig. 282, and for internal work in fig. 283. moon _ 0 . . J callipers. Fig. 284 is a representation of the hole and socket callipers, which will be found very useful in turning boxes and covers. When one end is set to the size of the hole the size at the other end will be that of the cover of the box, or the socket that fits into the hole. Hole and socket callipers. 573. No amateur should be without an oil-stone. His tools, not only those used for turning, but his joiner’s tools, will con- oil-stone tinually get dull and blunt ; he must, therefore, have some ^dispensable, means of sharpening them. The subject, however, of oil-stones has 266 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. been fully discussed, and is only alluded to here as a reminder to the amateur, who is generally far more careless than he ought to be with regard to sharpening tools. 574. After the required size and shape has been given to the article, unless it has been very well done and with exceedingly sharp tools, Finishing a s ^ eet ^ ass paper should be held against the work as with glass it rapidly revolves. This will smooth it and take out paper, etc. any little asperity or tool mark that may have been left there. If the article is a pattern for a casting in metal, so far as the lathe is concerned, it is finished ; if it is a handle, a little oil is often poured upon some fine shavings, and these are applied to the surface ; this will greatly improve its appearance. Articles which it is intended to French polish can be done much better in the lathe than by hand. 575. Before the amateur turner tries his hand on work that must be done tolerably well, he should put some rough First efforts wood in the in turning. lathe and commence operations Tool handles. Fig. 285. HANDLE FOR CHISEL, ETC. upon that. He should next turn his attention to those things which, although they are better done well, are not spoiled if done in an in- different manner. Now he will require several handles, some of the shape of fig. 285 — these are used mostly to hold turning tools — and some of the shape shown in fig. 286. These will be wanted to hold tools for several kinds of work. The first sort should be about 10 inches or 12 inches long and about 1 inch and a quarter in diameter at the largest part ; the ferrule F should be about three-quarters of an inch, internal diameter. The other sort should be of several sizes, from 3 inches to 4 inches in length, with a ferrule ranging from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The rough wood is put into the lathe, and the end nearest the centre turned down to such a size that the iron or brass ferrule can be hammered on tightly. The remaining portion can then be finished. 576. It may be useful to give a few other examples for turning of a tolerably simple character on which the amateur turner may try his hand. If he can manage to turn out any one of these in Higher 0 J branches of a tolerably workman-like manner, he may rest assured turning. that he is sufficiently advanced in the art of turning to carry out anything he may be called on to do in the way of ornamental FlG. 286. HANDLE FOR BRADAWL, ETC. Top: Steam Cylinder: Table Leg. 267 It is the chief object Fig. 287, SPINNING TOP IN POSITION FOR TURNING. Spinning-top. carpentry and joinery for the house and garden, of this book to help the ama- teur to do really useful work ; the higher branches of turn- ing will require far more prac- tice than most amateurs are inclined to give, and those who can do so will find detailed in- structions for every kind of turned work in Bergeron’s work, or in any of the less pretentious treatises that have been written on this subject. 5 77. In fig. 287 a spinning-top is represented in the position in which it should be turned. “ Boxers,” as they are called from the material of which they are made, are considere4 to be the best, but any other sort of wood besides box can be used. A hole for the spill should first be bored up the centre, and this hole should act as the centre hole for the steel point of the lathe. 578. Fig. 288 represents the position in which the pattern for a steam cylinder should be placed to be turned. A rough piece of wood should be selected rather larger than the required shape. steam This piece must be sawn in half, the cut surfaces planed c y lmder - up, and a coat of glue given to each ; a piece of thin paper should then be put between the pieces, which should be brought together and held tightly in this posi- tion until the glue is dry. The piece can now be put into the lathe and turned, line passes through the joint. Fig. 288. STEAM CYLINDER IN POSITION FOR TURNING. Care must be taken that the centre After being turned it can be easily knocked into two parts, and the plain portions put on in place. 579. In fig. 289 the leg of a table is shown in position for turning. It should be made of some fancy wood, such as walnut or mahogany. This cannot be done too well. The shape need not be ex- actly like that Fig. 28 9 - TABLE LEG IN position for turning. shown in the engraving, but the turner can vary the form to suit his taste or fancy. In fig. 290 is represented a Leg ° f tabl6 ‘ piece of wood for a table-top, stuck to the face plate with Turner’s 268 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. cement. The tool-rest is also shown in the proper position at A. When one part of the top is turned it may be knocked off the plate. A piece of wood should now be fastened to the plate, and in this wood a re- „ „ A , cess turned out of such a size that Top of table. the turned portion of the table-top will lightly fit it ; the remaining portion can then be turned to shape. If the table is turned in this manner there will be no holes or marks to disfigure it, as will necessarily be the case if it be done in either of the chucks. 580. We must now consider briefly the prices of lathes and tools used in turning, and this may be best done by bringing under the Prices of reader’s notice two or three of the lathes, etc. b est 0 f sma n lathe suited for the amateur’s purpose. The price of a lathe depends entirely upon its size and fittings, and if the amateur desires to become the possessor ~ _ _ AT , T „ r t IG. 290. TABLE-TOP IN of a large and powerful lathe, big enough to position for turning. turn a post for a four-post bedstead — or, in other words, a lathe with a 6ft. bed — the best and cheapest way of going to work is tc buy the different parts and make the lathe, or have it made by a Second-hand j°i ner « Occasionally an excellent lathe may be picked up lathes. second-hand, or two or three old lathes may be bought for next to nothing, from the component parts of which a new and serviceable lathe may easily be constructed. The various parts and fittings of a lathe are always to be bought separately, and the descrip- tion and engravings of an ordinary foot lathe already given are sufficient to show their respective uses, and how they are to be put together. 581. A good working lathe, with strong wooden standards and wooden 3ft. bed, or even a 4ft. bed, which is large enough for any Price of P ur P ose as *" ar as the amateur is concerned, may be made good working for about £5, supposing that new poppets, cone mandril, lathe. grooved wheel, cranked axle, treadle, etc., are bought expressly for it ; but by going to work in the manner above described a lathe may be built for half this sum, or even less. 582. Turning to lathes supplied by the manufacturers, these vary in price according to size of centre and bed, and additional fittings in the shape of chucks, slide-rests, etc., from about £7 10s. to ^50. The Prices of Different Kinds of Lathes . 269 following are selected from the list issued by Joseph Buck, 56, Hoi - born Viaduct , and 164, Waterloo Road, London— a maker p r i ceso f whose lathes and tools, be they what they may, are always Buck ’ s lathes, good and to be depended upon. The lathes are classified according to size : 3J111. Lathe, with 3ft. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks „ „ „ 6 chucks, and slide-rest „ 2ft. bed, with legs to fasten! to bench, 4 chucks, but with- out standards, driving-wheel, or treadle 4 in. best lathe, with 3ft. bed, iron standards, 5 chucks, pulley divided, index point, etc 4§in. lathe, with 3ft. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks ,, best lathe, with 3^ft. bed, 5 chucks, and divided pulley „ back-geared lathe, with 3ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest... 5 in. lathe, with 3 Jft. bed, iron standards, and 2 chucks „ best lathe, with 4ft. bed, and 5 chucks „ back-geared lathe, with 4ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest „ self-acting and screw-cutting, with 6ft. bed, compound slide-rest, and change wheels for foot or driving power 6 in. back-geared lathe, with 5ft. bed, 3 chucks, and compound slide-rest „ self-acting and screw-cutting, with 6ft. bed, compound slide-rest, and change wheels for foot or driving power £ s. d. 7 15 o 15 o o 5 10 o 15 o o 10 o o 17 10 o 17 10 o 12 O O 19 5 o 20 o O 34 10 o 25 o o 48 o o Slide-rests of an ordinary description cost from £4 to £6 each. A circular-saw table to fit the T rest of a lathe may be purchased from 12s. to 30s. ; and it may be mentioned here while speaking of circular saws, that a circular saw bench to work with treadle, complete with a 7m. saw, may be bought for £7 15s. 583. Lathes consisting of iron frame with bed planed true, wood tool board, iron cone mandril, cylinder poppet head, rest and two tees, turned grooved wheel, crank and treadle complete, MelllU i sll > 3 with 3 chucks, are supplied at the following rates by Mr. lathes. Melhuish, of 85 and 87, Fetter Lane , Holborn , , E.C. £ s. d. 3^in. centre, and 3ft. bed 10 10 o 4iin. „ 3ft. „ 12 o o 5in. j, 4^- » x 4 10 o 6in. „ 5ft. „ 17 o o 6in. double-gear lathe for metal turning 25 o o 6in. „ „ with slide-rest and face-plate 30 o o 584. Turning tools may be bought at from 8s. per dozen, or 8d. each upwards. A useful set of 6 chisels, handled, for soft woods, may be had for 8s., and the same number of gouges for 9s. Turning Tools for hard wood, including chisel end, round end, tools * parting tools, side tools, point tools, bead tools, quarter round, bevel end, square, etc., may be had assorted at 15s. per dozen. Turning squares with steel sliding blades range from 5s. to 9s. ; callipers, from is. to 7s. 6d. ; arm-rest, handled, for 2s. 6d. ; lathe carriers from 270 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery . 2s. 3d.; and slide-rest tool holders from 10s. to 21s. each. The number of tools that an amateur really requires on commencing has been already mentioned. 585. Let us now turn to a class of lathes more especially suited for amateurs, with re- spect to capability, size, and price. Of these we shall de- scribe and give representations „ . , of three, namely, Special J 1 iath.es for the Improved amateurs. Eureka Lathe, the American Hollow Spindle Fig. 291. improved eureka lathe. Lathe, and the Acme Lathe. These, which are all modifi- cations in one form or an- other of the foot lathe already described, are all sold by Messrs. Churchill and Co. 586. The Improved Eureka Lathe is a complete and per- fect lathe capable of turning a piece of wood 14m. long and 6in. in diameter. The bed is of iron, with planed ways. The spindles and centres are made of cast steel, and the spindle is arranged with Fig. 292. eureka fret-saw attachment. The Improved Eureka Lathe. 271 patent bearings, so that all wear may be taken up and the spindle kept true. The lathe may be run at a high rate of speed without showing perceptible wear. The parts are interchangeable, and any single part can be replaced in case of breakage. The Improyed lathe is suitable for amateurs or any one requiring a small’ convenient lathe. The lathe in all its parts, with the driving-wheel, is represented in fig. 291, and the fret-saw attachment in fig. 292. This saw attachment can be connected in a mo- ment to the face-plate of the lathe, and will do all fret -sawing of an ordinary kind. It may also be attached to any lathe. The saw -table is 8in. in diameter, and will swing 1 1 in. under the arm. 587. Other attach- Fig. 293. eureka slide-rest. ments are supplied with the Eureka lathe, which greatly add to its general utility, and these are the slide-rests, circular-saw Attachments attachment, and amateur chuck. The slide-rest shown for Eureka lathe. in fig. 293 has a longitudinal motion of 3^in., and a transverse motion of i^in. It can be used for turning straight or taper work, boring straight or taper holes, or, in short, for any purpose for which a slide-rest is intended. It can be raised or lowered to suit any lathe from 2in. to 3m. centres. Each slide-rest is fur- nished with four tools. The circular-saw attachment repre- sented in fig. 294 consists of an iron table, measuring I2in. in length and 9^in. in width. It has a steel spindle which runs on the lathe centres. An iron brace is connected to the frame, having one end hinged to the table and the other moved through a slot, and held at any required angle by the tightening of a thumbscrew, thus enabling the operator to do rabbet- ing, and all kinds of sawing necessary in making picture frames, puzzles, etc. Fig. 294. eureka circular-saw attachment. 27 2 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. 588. The amateur chuck, of which the 2in. size is represented in r Amateur 29 5 > ls especially designed for foot lathes, and for all chuck. purposes where a chuck is used. It is made to attach to the lathe by a taper-plug or face-plate. It can be used in a drill-chuck. The 2in. size will hold pieces 2 j 4 in. in diameter with No. 1 jaws, and with No. 2 jaws will hold drills from T Ein. to fin. Screws to fasten the face-plate are sent with each chuck. 589. The prices of the Eureka lathe in various sizes Prices of Eureka lathe. and its numerous attachments are as follow : — Lathe with 24111. bed without foot-power, weight 24lbs ,, with 24m. bed, and 14m. foot-power, weight solbs ,, „ „ 19m. „ ,, weight 62lbs With 36m. bed, extra Slide-rest with four tools, weight 4lbs Extra tools, each Circular-saw attachment, with sin. saw and spindle, weight 9lbs. Extra saws, each Fret-saw attachment, weight 7lbs 2in. amateur chuck, with 1 set of jaws and face-plate fitted »» »j >t tt 2 sets „ „ „ tt ,, 1 set ,, „ „ tt tt tt »> 2 sets ,, tt ,, £ s. d. ..,200 ...300 ... 3 10 o ...080 ... I 10 o ... o o 10 ...150 ...046 ... o 16 o ... I 10 o ... I 16 o ... I 14 o ...2 2 0 590. This lathe will commend itself to the amateur from the fact that any part that is accidentally injured can be easily repaired, and that the different attachments can be bought one by one as they may be required, or dispensed with „„ „ altogether. The form Why well adapted for of the lathe, which amateur. is specially recom- mended to the notice of the ama- teur, is that with a 36m. bed and 19m. foot -power, which can be purchased for £3 18s. It is next to useless to buy a lathe without foot-power, as this must be fur- nished in one way or another ; but if the amateur has a driving-wheel that he can connect with the lathe, the Eureka with a 36m. bed will only cost him £ 2 8s. 591. The American Hollow Spindle Lathe, with back-geared head, is a new and useful lathe for amateurs. Its form and construction is shown in fig. 296, in which the back-geared head is clearly defined. This head enables the operator to work at .a very slow speed, at the same time having greater power. Much heavier work, especially of American Hollow Spindle Lathe. 273 metals, may thus be executed on this lathe, which is of a superior finish throughout. The spindle of steel runs in conical bearings of iron, with arrangements for taking up all wear. f There is a hole, X in * ' m diameter, running through the Latlie * spindle, which allows small rods to be passed through and held in a Fig. 296. AMERICAN HOLLOW SPINDLE LATHE. chuck, a valuable addition when small screws or other small articles are to be made from rods. The tail-block has a sliding spindle, worked by the screw and wheel. The head has a pulley with three speeds, which, 18 274 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. combined with the back-gear, gives great variety. It has 3m. centres, and the bed is 30m. long, so that work i8in. in length may be turned in this lathe, which can be used with equal facility for turning, drilling, polishing, sawing, etc. 592. The following pieces are supplied with the lathe : two T rests, one face-plate, two plain centres, one spur-centre for wood, one plain drill-chuck, one drill-pad, and one centre left blank to turn Extra pieces supplied down as a fitting for a universal chuck. The Eureka ■witii lathe. s p d e _ res t ? circular-saw attachment, and fret-saw are fitted for this lathe, for which the drill-chucks are supplied properly fitted. It may be said that in every respect this lathe is suitable for all pur- poses for which such an instrument is usually required by amateurs. The table is neat and strong, and the fly-wheel is 19m. in diameter and weighs 3olbs. The following are the prices at which this useful lathe and its fittings are supplied : £ s. d. Lathe, as in illustration, with back-gears and table, complete, weight io 81 bs. 700 „ without back-gears, but with table, weight io4lbs 5 8 • „ with back-gears, but without table, weight silbs 4 12 o „ without back-gear or table, weight 27lbs 3 o o Foot-power, 19m. wheel, standard, and treadle, weight 39lbs 1 10 o „ 14m. „ ,, „ weight asibs 100 593. As this is certainly the best, cheapest, and most complete lathe that the amateur can obtain, and one which can be rendered adaptable for all purposes by fittings which are constructed so as to be used with it, and which have been already named, it may be useful to complete our notice by appending the prices at which these fittings are supplied. It must be remembered that they are extras, and are not Prices of lathe and included in the ordinary pieces that accompany the lathe at the prices above named. A slide-rest with a set of four tools may be bought for £i ios. ; a circular-saw attachment with spindle and 5m. saw for £i 5s. ; a fret-saw attachment for 16s. ; a2in. amateur chuck with one set of jaws and face-plate fitted £1 ios., or with two sets of jaws, £ 1 16s. ; a 4m. amateur chuck, with one set of jaws, etc., £1 14s., or with two sets, £2 2s. 594. There are many other lathes, all agreeing in general principle, but differing in some points in construction, which space will not Ordinary a ^ ow us to notice here. All that is now requisite is a few T rest. remarks on the nature of the slide-rest, which has been mentioned two or three times in the last few pages. The ordinary T rest, described with the foot lathe, fits into the holder by means of a round spill, and can be fixed in a position parallel to the bed of the lathe, or t any angle to it that may be requisite. The tool, however. Principle op the Slide-rest. 275 remains entirely under the control of the operator, that is to say, he must give it such motion when on the rest as may be necessary to make the cuts that he requires. He must push it forwards or pull it backwards, or move it from one end of the rest to the other as may be necessary. 595. With the slide-rest, however, it is very different. The principle of this useful addition to the lathe is nothing more nor less than that of two slides working at right angles to one another, the upper one Principle of carrying the tool which is clamped to it. This will be seen slide-rest, on looking closely at the engraving of the Eureka slide-rest (fig. 293). The entire attachment is fixed to the bed of the machine, and the tool in use is shown in position at the top secured by the clamp. By moving the wheel to the right by the handle which is attached to its circum- ference, the screw to whose head the wheel is attached will be turned, causing the upper part to travel along the lower part in a direction parallel to the screw, or, in other words, up and down the length of the screw, according to the direction in which the handle is turned. The wheel to the left is attached to the head of another screw, which works at right angles to the first screw, and by which the tool is withdrawn from or propelled towards the work. The main or lower slide is contrived to work on a central pivot, thus imparting a third movement to the slide. Thus, by the combination of these three movements, the operator can, by merely turning the wheels or altering the position of the rest with respect to the lathe bed, give any direction whatever to the cutting edge of the tool, which is of the greatest importance, and indeed indispensable in turning tapered work, and cutting screws and spirals. The spiral columns sometimes seen in furniture are turned by the aid of the slide-rest. CHAPTER III. VENEERING AND CURVED WORK. Veneering : what it is — Laying Veneer not difficult — Laying Veneer on Flat Surface — Veneering Hammer — Preparation of Ground — Preparation of Veneer — Re- moval of Creases — Relaying Veneer — Cutting Veneers — Proceedings after work is dry — Veneering with Caul — The Caul : its construction — Locking Caul by Handscrews — Warping of Woods— How to remedy Warping — Prevention of Warping — How to make a Drawing Board — Clamping Ends of Board — Warping of Rings of Wood — Curved work in Wood — Steaming and Bending Wood — Making Curved Rail — Adjustable Circular Plane — Rounded Wook for Framing — Rounded Corner of Passage, etc. — Curved Work in thin Wood — Description of Process — Strengthening Curved Work thus made — Curved Work thus made not true — Curved Work for Castings, etc. — Acute Curves — Construction of Thick Curved Shapes — Building up Curved Work — Curved Work in Pattern-making — Patterns, pattern-making, etc. — Patterns necessary for Castings — Amateur should make his own Patterns — Flange : meaning of term — Flanged Casting — Method of making Flange in Pattern — Sharp edges to be avoided — Sides to Pattern to Taper slightly — Holes in Castings— Cylinder pierced with Hole — Globe or Sphere with Hole — Patterns better made in Parts — Sudden change in size of parts of Pattern undesirable. 596. Whilst explaining the first method of dove-tailing (see section 457) it was remarked that it was seldom used for outside joints unless Veneering : t ^ ie outs ^ e was t0 be afterwards veneered. By veneering wbat it is. i s m eant the laying a thin sheet of valuable wood upon a common and cheap wood. This is sometimes done to cover and hide joints, but more frequently to give the less valuable wood the appear- ance of the ornamental wood of which the veneer is made. If done well it will be very durable, and is a cheap way of getting a handsome effect. Of course the larger the article the greater will be the saving : indeed, for very small objects the extra labour will out-balance the saving in material, and therefore such articles are seldom veneered, but made of the solid, valuable wood. Veneers, as it has been already said (see chapter ii.), are generally cut from mahogany, rosewood, bird’s eye maple, or walnut, but veneers of almost any other sort of wood can be obtained of the cabinet-maker. 597. The operation of laying a veneer is not very difficult or trouble- Preparation of Ground and Veneer. fl some. The amateur artisan should be careful to get well-seasoned veneers, and to use the strongest and best glue : upon Layin g veneer these his success mainly depend. Bird’s eye maple is not difficult, laid with least trouble and difficulty ; rosewood is the most troublesome to lay. 598. When veneers are laid upon flat surfaces the operation is simple enough, and must be effected by the ope- ration to be described presently ; but when they aie L a ym g v eneer laid upon onfla t surface. I curved surfaces, an _ _ J instrument the shape Fig. 297. side view. Fig. 298. front view. veneering hammer. of the curve, and called a “caul,” is generally used. The amateur artisan, however, will find that the veneering hammer, of which the side view is shown in fig. 297, and the front view in fig. 298, will enable him to lay veneering his veneer quite as well as, and sometimes better than, hammer, can be done with a caul. 599. Supposing the hammer is to be used, the ground, that is to say, the surface upon which the veneer is to be laid, should be planed or otherwise cut into the required shape, and roughened by p repa ration rubbing it with a coarse file or rasp, and then warmed, of either by holding it to the fire or by passing a hot iron over it. The outside of a veneer should be held over a basin of boiling water, the steam arising from which will slightly damp it ; or, if this p repara tion cannot be done, it may be damped with a cloth dipped in of veneer, hot water. A thin and even coat of glue must then be given to the inside of the veneer, after which it should, with all possible speed, be laid on its place, and the thin broad edge of the veneering hammer passed over it in all directions, beginning at the centre and working towards the edges, so as to expel the unnecessary glue and air from between the surfaces. 600. Should it happen that the glue dries before the whole of the air is got rid of, or that any creases are left in the veneer, or indeed any- thing occur that will render it necessary to remove the p emoval of veneer after it has been once laid, the amateur artisan creases, must be very careful in raising it, or he will damage the thin sheet of veneer. When once laid it is rather a difficult job to remove it. The proper way is to thoroughly clean off any glue or dirt that may be stick- 278 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. ing to the outside — some warm water and a cloth will generally do this Relaying — dry ^ by ^ re > anc ^ whilst hot rub into the surface veneer. some linseed oil. Then hold the veneer to the fire until the oil has disappeared, and as soon as this is the case remove it and rub in some more oil. Two or three warmings and oilings will generally moisten and dissolve the glue. The veneer must then be very gently removed, and the old glue entirely cleaned off, after which it is ready to be again laid, and this time, perhaps, with success. 601. The veneer should always be cut a little larger than the surface it is intended to cover, as it slips a little when laying. When laid and Cutting dry the projecting edges can be removed with a sharp veneeis. pj ane or chisel. The surface of the veneer should be gone over several times with the hammer, working the broad edge over it in every way until the two surfaces have com- Proceedings after work pletely adhered in every part. A slight blow here and is dry# * 9 there with the back or rounded part of the hammer will indicate this by the sound. As soon as the process is complete some weights should be placed on the veneered wood, and the whole allowed to remain in a warm room or near the fire to dry. 602. The process that has just been described is that of veneering with the hammer ; it is now necessary to describe the method of Veneering veneering with the caul. Although the hammer is all with caul, that j s required for veneering broad surfaces, such as the front of a drawer or broad curved surfaces of great extent in which the curves are shallow, or even mouldings into which the edge of the hammer is useful for forcing the veneer when the hollows are deep, the caul is desirable and convenient in veneering long narrow lengths of wood, such as are used for picture frames. These may be purchased ready veneered for use at the picture-frame makers in long lengths, but when the amateur is inclined to try his hand at work of this kind, he will find it more convenient to prepare his framing in short lengths. 603. The caul is the exact converse of the surface to be veneered ; thus in fig. 299, if A is the wood to be ve- The caul : its neered, represented in section construction. B * s s h a p e 0 f the caul that is to be laid upon it. In fact the surface of the caul should fit with the greatest ac- curacy on the surface to be veneered, any hollow or depression in the latter having a corresponding protuberance in the former, and vice versa , . The caul should be made of dry and well-seasoned pine wood. most patterns having some curved in pattern- work about them ; a pattern with all straight edges has a very ugly appearance, therefore, when practicable, curved lines are introduced. 622. The words “ patterns,” “ pattern-making,” and “ pattern- makers ” have been made use of several times in the last few pages. Some readers may not know the mean- ing of the words in their present application, but the first being explained, the others will explain themselves. 623. When any shape is required in cast metal of any sort, such as iron, brass, gun-metal, lead, etc., it is first necessary to construct a _ xx model, or ‘pattern, in wood of the same shape as the article Patterns ’ x ’ r necessary required in metal. One pattern will do for a great number for castings. of castings, but every different shape, or different size of the same shape, must have a pattern made before a casting can be obtained. Pattern-making, therefore, is rather an important branch of the wood- working art. It is a trade by itself, and, indeed, in large engineering establishments a number of men are always employed in Patterns, pattern- making, etc. Pattern for Flanged Casting. 287 making patterns in wood to be afterwards used to obtain metal castings. 624. If it is the intention of the amateur to go further than the mere application of the wood-working art to ornamental purposes, and all others for which a knowledge of ordinary carpentry and Amateur joinery is sufficient, and to become practically acquainted sh hi?o^ ake with the manner of working metals in the construction of P attern s. models of machinery, etc., then he should be able to make his own patterns. To do so most of the joints and other operations already described will be called into requisition ; in fact, to make most patterns very little more knowledge is required than the reader has already acquired. It will, however, be useful to take a pattern, and, with the amateur, in imagination, go through the process of making it. 625. Suppose fig. 313 to be the drawing of a pattern or model we wish to make in order to have an iron casting from it, and suppose, also, that it is required to be 6in. high and 3in. wide at the • i t ° J Flange : widest part, the frame to be %\n. thick, and the flange to meaning _ r . „ , & of term, be %\n, wide. Before going further it may be as well to explain the meaning of the term “flan ge,” and its use. In small models of machinery it is often the case that the weight of the model 288 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. is hardly sufficient to keep it firm on its legs or supports, and some- times the maker wishes to polish the whole of the surface of the casting ; in either of these cases the pattern, and consequently the casting, must be made solid with flat surfaces, and the same thickness throughout the width ; but whenever lightness is required, the frame of the pattern is made about one-third the thickness, and is strength- ened laterally by means of thin strips about two or three times as wide as the thickness of the frame. These strips or flanges are nailed or otherwise fastened to the edges of the frame. In the casting the frame and flange are in one piece without joint or seam, and the casting is nearly as strong as, and much lighter than, the same shape would be if Flanged cast so ^d. A flanged casting has a much more mechani- castmg. ca i appearance than a solid one, but the pattern is more difficult to make, and for this reason that description of pattern has been chosen for our imaginary construction. 626. The flange will be better understood by an inspection of fig. 314. It will be seen by the illustration that the flange is of the same depth on both sides of the frame. It is generally in that Method of Making Flange in Pattern. 289 position, but sometimes the flange is made all on one side of the frame, and the other side left flat. The plan of this style ^ of pattern is shown in fig. 315 - But t0 return t0 the description. Cut out a piece of deal large enough to contain the frame of the pattern ; plane it down till it is l 4 'm. in thickness. Upon this piece of wood mark the outlines of the pattern. Saw off the 1 'I u r -n- 1 1 ! ; i!!t I FlG. 315. PATTERN FOR MAKING FLANGE ON ONE SIDE OF THE FRAME. bulk of the wood outside thelines with a tenon-saw : it will then be something the shape of the space enclosed by the dotted lines in fig. 313. With the brace and centre-bit bore some holes inside the space marked A ; take a watch-spring cross-cut saw, and cut out the space A to the proper shape, just leaving the lines ; with the same Fig. 316. PATTERN FOR OUTSIDE FLANGE. Fig. 317. PATTERN FOR MAKING INSIDE FLANGES. saw cut the out- side to the shape required, leav- ing the lines as before. The edges can then be finished with either a sharp penknife or a chisel. The frame is now ready to receive the flanges, which in this pattern are all curved. The small foot-pieces at the bottom are straight, but they can hardly be called flanges. The sweeps of the three outside flanges are not very small, and as for this size pattern they should not be more than y%m. thick, they can be made of ash, of a section similar to that shown in fig. 316, and bent to the shape of the sides by one of the methods described before. Each flange can then be bradded in its place. The inside curves are too small to admit of the flanges being made straight, and afterwards bent. They must therefore be cut out of the solid, either in one piece or divided into parts, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 317, and bradded separately into their places. The pattern must then be well rubbed with glass-paper ; all the holes, cracks, and irregularities of any kind must be stopped with putty ; and the whole pattern varnished with shell-lac varnish, or well rubbed with black lead. 627. Sharp edges should be avoided as much as possible, because 19 2Q0 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. Holes in castings. these edges in the mould are very liable to be knocked off when the molten metal is poured in. Should glue have been used in making Sharp edges an y P attern > or grease in any way rubbed about it, care to be avoided. mus t be taken to clean it off thoroughly before the pattern is used, otherwise in moulding the sand will adhere to the pattern at those places covered with greasy or sticky substance, and a bad casting will necessarily result. The sides of a pattern should terif to °taper not be exactly square, but they should be all slightly slightly. ta p ere d off, to allow the pattern to be removed from the sand without spoiling the mould. 628. Castings are often required with holes through them. When that is the case the pattern is generally made solid, and two pieces of wood called “prints,” the size and shape of the required hole, are affixed to it, one piece being affixed to each side of the pattern on the place where it is desired to have a hole. This plan when adopted saves a deal of trouble, but it cannot always be followed, and sometimes it is more trouble to cut out two prints than to make the hole or opening in the pattern, as in the hole or space A in figs. 313 and 314. Should prints have been used, if the amateur makes his own casting, he will know when holes are meant ; but if the pattern is sent to a foundry, the word “ print” must be written on those pieces intended to be used as such, otherwise, un- less the founder knows the purpose of the casting, the prints will be cast solid as projections. 629. We will suppose that a cylinder is wanted in metal of some sort, and with a square hole the same size through o.ut through it, then figs. 318 and 319 would represent the different views of the pat- Of course if the casting has Fig. 319. Fig. 318. PATTERNS FOR CASTING A CYLINDER WITH A SQUARE HOLE IN CENTRE. Fig. Fig. 320. PATTERN FOR A HOLLOW CASTING. tern with prints a and ci attached to it. 321. PATTERN FOR A GLOBE. Pattern of Hollov/ Globe or Sphere. 291 to be turned in the lathe it must be made large enough to be the proper size when that operation is finished. When it is wished to have a hollow casting, or a casting with holes in it pSSfyJith larger inside than at their orifices, the pattern must have hole ' prints affixed to it the size of the ori- fices. In fig. 320 is represented a globe or sphere, with cen- . . . , _ . Globe or tral and circular holes sphere with through it ; and hollow, h ° lQ ‘ with a thickness of metal, as shown by the inner dotted line. For such a casting the pattern would be like fig. 321 ; and a “ core-box ” must be made in two parts, each of which has an opening cut in it of the shape and size of half the internal size of the casting and half the print, as shown at figs. 322 and 323. The use of this core - box, which must be sent to the foundry, is to enable the iron founder to mould the core as shown in fig. 324. 630. It will be sometimes neces- sary to make a pattern in several FlG * 3 2 3 - core-box. parts, so that one piece can be removed from the mould at a time, and in some cases the pattern cannot be removed from the mould without burning it better made out. This, however, sel- m parts ' Fig. 324. core. dom occurs, but when it does, it will of course necessitate the making of a fresh pattern for every casting. 631. A sudden and great change of size of the component parts of the pattern should always be avoided in pattern making. This caution should be particularly attended to. In wheel patterns with heavy rims and bosses, the arms should be propor- change in size tionately large, or they should be slightly curved, otherwise °paUern° f when the metal is poured into the mould the small parts undesirable - will get cold and contract much faster than the large, and in con- tracting will break away from those parts which from their size are still hot, and consequently have not contracted to the same extent. CHAPTER IV, ORNAMENTAL WORK IN CARPENTRY: FRET-SAWING AND CARVING IN WOOD. Decorative art in Wood Working — Divisions of the Subject — Carving — Fret-work — Woods used in Fret-sawing — Friction in Fret-sawing — Saw-blade — Sizes of Saw-blade — Colour of well-tempered Blades — To tell Blades that will cut well — Action of Blade depends on Tension — Other Tools required in Fret-sawing — Files : their Shapes and Prices — Archimedean Drill-stock — Cutting Board — Chisels and Gouges — Tools used in Carving — Chisels— Gouges — Skew-chisel and Spoon-bit — Parting Tool and Veining Tool — Frame-saw that Amateur may make— How to make Frame-saw — Balance for Saw-frame — Handle for Frame- saw — Clamp to hold Saw-blade — Small American Fret-saw — Home-made Treadle Machine — How to make Treadle Machine — Patterns and Castings — Fitting Castings together — Arms of Saw-frame — Platform on Table— Hangers — Pulley — Treadle and Driving Wheel — Screw Press for Glued Work — How to make Sc-rew Press — Designs for Fret-sawing — Williams's Ornamental Designs — Tracing Design from Original — Multiplication of Copies — Fixing Design on Wood — Method of Performing simple Fret-work Sawing — Putting the Work together — How to make good Glue — Sand-papering Fret-work — Holder for Sand- paper — Finishing Touches — Polishing Wood — How to make French Polish — How to apply the Polish — Judgment necessary in Finishing Work— The Rogers Fret-saw — Description of Machine — Fret-sawing, a Study of Outlines — Suc- cess must be bought with patience — How to Learn to use Tools — Carved Letter Rack — Preliminary proceedings — Application of Carving Tools — The Leaves — Depressions in Leaves — Ribs marked by Veining Tool — Treatment of Stems — Manipulation of Centre — Sand-paper — Fastening down Work — Guidance of Cutting Tool — General Directions for Amateurs — Outline or Contour — Direction of Cutting — Carver must have command of Tools — Mezzotint Scraper — Carving Tools and their prices — Star and Chequering Punches, and Riffler — General Mode of Procedure — Holding and Management of the Saw-frame— Saw- gates, or Entrances for Saw — Interior of Work to be cut first— Manipulation of Saw in Cutting — Grain of Wood — Care necessary in Cutting Design — Feeding Material to Saw — Putting parts of article together^Bevelling or Mitring — Determining Angles of Bevels — Method to be Employed — Inlaying — Marquetry and Buhl Work — Mode of Procedure in Cutting Marquetry —Overlaying — Application of this Process — Production of Overlay — Chief Point to be Remem- bered — Contrasts in Colour— Excellent Decorative Work for House — Carved Work at Trifling Cost— Carving in the Solid — Examples of Carving in Relief — Boss in High Relief— Mode of Procedure in Carving Boss — Carving from Solid on all sides —Examples of Finial — Conclusion of the subject. 632. We must now pass on to that portion of our subject which be- longs to decorative art in wood working, by means of which articles Decorative that are otherwise plain in appearance may be made woVa highly ornamental, and other things of a strictly orna- working. men tal character, but serving some purpose of utility, may be fashioned piece by piece and put together. Fret-sawing and Carving. 293 Carving. Fret-work. 633. Decorative wood working may be roughly considered as being divided into two parts, namely, Fret-sawing and Carving. Either of these may be carried out independently of the other, and Divisions of indeed are so, generally speaking; but carving is often tlie subject, combined with fret-sawing to give relief to a surface that would other- wise be plain. It can hardly be said that the reverse takes place, namely, that fret-sawing is used to heighten the effect of carving, although the effect is gained in the elaborate open tracery of the old oak screens still to be seen in many of our old parish churches. Fret-work is of necessity light and open, whether it be finished with carving or not ; but carving is for the most part massive and solid, and that this is true may be seen from the fact that fret-work consists chiefly in cutting out an open and elaborate design in thin wood, while carving is cutting and hewing a massive, or at all events thick and substantial, piece of wood into the semblance of some natural object or some conventionalised or purely imaginary form. 634. Everything necessary with respect to the different kinds of wood used in fret-sawing has been said in Chapter II. of Part I., and the prices of thin woods ready seasoned, sawn, and w „ r J > > Woods used planed for the fret sawyer’s use have also been stated. in fret- sawiug. Other materials, however, may be used besides wood. Gold, silver, copper, iron, and, in fact, any metal which is not as hard as the saw-blade itself, can easily be cut, as also ivory, and bone, and such-like materials. 635. It is with fret-sawing in wood that we have to deal with especially here, but with regard to fret-sawing in other substances it may be useful to point out this much. If you take a bit Friction in of metal and examine it through a magnifying glass, you * ret * sawln 6- will find that the fibre is much finer and closer than that of wood. This peculiarity denotes a greater degree of friction when brought under the action of the saw-blade, therefore a different speed must be given to the saw, and the operator must remember to equalise that friction by a lower rate of speed than that required for wood, since all extra velocity increases the friction which it is desirable to overcome. 636. First, it will be as well to consider the saw-blades used in fret- sawing, and then to glance for a moment at the other tools that are necessary. From this we can pass on to the mode of r • . Saw-blade, manufacturing a simple saw-frame and treadle machine, and other appliances useful in the prosecution of the art at home, which will be appreciated by those who like to save money by helping them- 294 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. selves ; and, lastly, consider one or two fret-sawing machines which have the merit of simplicity and cheapness, and are not much more costly than a machine which an amateur may make for himself. 637. The ten sizes of saw-blades that are used in fret-sawi-ng are represented in fig. 325. They are numbered from 00 to 8, all the sizes Sizes of being of the best Swiss and German manufacture, except saw-blades. n os> ^ an d g^ which are the best American hand-made. We are now speaking of saws supplied by Messrs. Churchill and Co., 8 7 * 5 4 3 2 1 0 00 who also supply any of the other tools that are mentioned in this chap- ter. The prices of these saws, which are all 5 inches long, are, for Nos. 00 to 4, 3d. per dozen ; Nos. 5 and 6, 4d. per dozen ; and Nos. 7 and 8, is. 6d. per dozen. Fret-saws are always variable, and whenever they can be procured of good quality it is always more satisfactory and cheaper Fig. 325. saw-blades for FKET-s awing, in the end to purchase half a gross at once, if they are fully up to the standard. The blades should be sharp and Colour of true? fairl y tem pered, of good blue steel, and elastic. If well- tempered too highly tempered they will snap and fly about in the blades. most unpleasant manner. Some saws in a bunch will be cut better than others, and it is a good plan to assort them. With a little practice by passing the toothed edge over your thumb nail you , will quickly learn the difference. The saws belonging to that will each number may be sorted into three grades — the first, cut well. . comprising those that are admirably sharp and therefore suitable for soft woods, walnut, mahogany, etc. ; the second, those that are less sharp and adapted for ivory, bone, metal, or hard gritty woods, in the cutting of which hardly the best saw will hold a sharp tooth; and the third, those that are available for hacking purposes only. 638. Upon the proper tensiori of the saw-blade depends its action. For this purpose a number of frames in various styles have been Action of invented. Some of these are exceedingly simple in con- depends on struction, while others are combined with machinery and tension. 0 p era ted upon by foot-power. A useful bracket fret-saw is shown in fig. 326, which explains the construction of the frame and the way in which the saw is held in it. The price of these frames are, in birch, 2s. 9d. ; in rosewood, 3s. 6d. ; in steel, from 5s. to 6s. The wood frames are 12‘m. long; the steel frames from ioin. to 14m. Archimedean Drill Stock: Cutting Board. 295 Fig. 326. BRACKET FRET-SAW. 639. In addition to a number of saws of various numbers and a frame for holding them, a fine awl is needed, or, what is better, a small drill-stock, called the Archimedean ^ , Other tools drill -Stock, with four or required in fret- sawing. five drills of different sizes, and to these must be added three or four files, round, half-round, square, and triangular, fine cut, and from 4in. to 6in. long, and, if a hand- saw be used, like the saw figured above, a cutting board with an iron clamp to fasten it to a table. If carving is combined with fret-sawing some carving tools will be necessary. 640. The files are made in six shapes, as shown in fig. 32 7. and are mmmm u s 0 a © Fig. 327. SHAPES OF files used in fret-cutting. used for clearing out corners and removing any excres- Files : cences that may have been left in taking out the perfora- their shapes tions with a saw. Their prices are: 3^in. long, 2s.; an prices * 4j^in., 2s. 6d. ; and 5J^in., 3s. per dozen. 641. The Archimedean drill-stock, which is represented in fig. 328, consists of a stock like the broad boss of a brace, into which a drill ... Archimedean is inserted drill-stock, and turned by means of a bow and string passing over the knob of wood in the centre of the drill. It costs, with the drills, about 4s. or 5s. 642. The cutting board is a piece of walnut or hard wood about ioin. wide and i8in. long, of the shape shown in Cutang fig. 329. The board, board has a clamp attached to its under side, by which it is fastened to a bench or table. The V shaped opening is needed so that the saw can be kept working at B, while the work finds a support at A, A, A, and is saved from breaking. Neat, careful handwork ought to need no filing, except when it is further wrought by carving. 643. There are various kinds of chisels and gouges used in carving, Fig. 328. ARCHIMEDEAN DRILL-STOCK. 296 Ornamental Carpentry and Joiner 1 but all that is absolutely necessary are the three shown in fig. 330, of Chisels ana which A a chisel, B a gouge, and c a parting-tool. The gouges. price of a set of these three tools is 4s. 6d. By carving many fret-work designs after they have been sawed, their beauty can be enhanced, and their value and desirability as household ornaments wonderfully in- creased. With but very little practice and the use of good tools, any one can learn to carve a simple design and make it very rich and taste- Fig. 330. carving tools. ful. Natural objects like leaves, tendrils, flowers, insects, architectural ornaments, etc., may be easily worked in the wood. 644. As we are now speaking of chisels, etc., it may be as well to complete our notice of them here, instead of recurring to them when we Tools used are s P ea ki n g more especially of wood carving. The tools in carving, used in carving are the chisel, the gouge, the skew- chisel, and the parting-tool, but each of these have their variations, whose peculiar shape adapts them for use in confined spaces, where the shanks of the other tools could not be carried back far enough to make a clean cut, the relief of the carving being in the way. 645. The chisel is made in various widths from J^in. to iin., has a straight edge, and is used for plain surfaces which are square, re- Chiseis mov mg superfluous wood and grounding. It is the most necessary tool of the set. Its only direct variation is the spoon-bit, or entering-chisel. 646. The gouge has a curved edge of various sweeps, according to the depth to be cut. It ranges from almost flat to the exact half circle, in about eight different sweeps. The variations of the gouge are the spoon-bit or entering-gouge, the back bent entering-gouge, the fluting-gouge, and the double bent fluting- gouge. These take their names from peculiarities of construction, oir from the particular purpose they are made to serve. 647. The skew-chisel , although generally considered as a distinct Skew-chisel t00 ^ * s a modification of the chisel, the edge being ground md spoon-bit. back from either corner, the tool being right or left hand* It is useful for working out the inside corners of angles where the edge of the ordinary square chisel would be too wide. Its variation is the skew spoon-bit or entering-chisel. How to Make a Frame-saw. 297 648. The ; parting-tool is a sort of gouge or grooving tool, with an angular edge. Its cut is V shaped, and it is absolutely _ . . Parting-tool essential for various purposes of cutting angular grooves, and veining- The parting-tool is straight or bent, and, like the other carving tools, it has its spoon-bit variation. The veining-tool is a part- ing-tool on a small scale, being narrow, and used to engrave the veins of leaves and similar work. 649. By means of the sawing board described in section 642 and a simple frame-saw an amateur who is possessed of patience and perseverance may do much work of a highly orna- that amateur . may make, mental character. He may wish to make a frame for himself, and he may do this without much trouble, if he will read and act upon the following directions. Any one, in fact, who has come to be handy in the use of carpenter’s tools can make it at small cost. 650. First get two strips of well-seasoned straight-grained maple or beech, about 2ft. long, and about iin. wide, and iin. thick. Plane them tapering and perfectly true, so that they shall be How to makQ each y z in. square at the end A where the saw-blade is to frame-saw. be fastened. At the point where the brace B is joined to the two arms, the full dimensions of the wood (iin.) should be allowed, as the greatest strain will be there. From B to the tail of the frame at C each arm should again taper to y 2 in. Neatly round off the edges, leaving the under side of each arm flat for a couple of inches at B, so that the brace may be closely fitted. The two arms must next be connected with the brace, for which a piece of maple or beech must be taken, 9m. long and iin. square, and worked to the shape shown at B in fig. 331, cutting a perfectly true flat tenon iin. long and ^sin. thick at each end, and hollowing or chamfering the edges of the brace for the sake of neatness. About 5m. from the tail end of each arm cut a neat and perfectly true mortise for the tenons of the brace, and fit them in tightly with glue and wooden or iron pegs, being careful that the tips of the arms are exactly perpendicular, otherwise the saw will cut crookedly. 651. Now if we fasten a saw-blade to this frame at A the leverage will be too great upon B without a compensating balance at the other end, very much on the principle of a see-saw plank which requires 298 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. a boy at each end. The most inexpensive way to achieve this Balance for balance f° r saw-frame is by means of a piece of saw-frame, twisted cord or catgut, the ends of which should be tied strongly together, making it into a loop just large enough to go over the ends ol the frame at C, about %'m. Prepare a stout flat piece of wood, 6in. long, X' in - thick, and iin. wide ; place it between the two strands of the cord, and begin to twist it round, enough to make it just tight, and let the stick, which is technically called a key , protrude far enough to rest against the brace, and prevent the cord from un- twisting. There will only be a slight strain upon the arms. A neat Handle for handle should now be shown of the shape represented in frame-saw. die figure. To make this, the amateur must take a piece of hard tough wood, 6in. long and about square, and at one end bore a hole, rather more than ^in. in diameter. Work down the remainder of the wood to make a neat handle, as shown in the draw- ing. Pass one end of the frame through the hole, and when it fits snugly fasten the handle with a small screw, taking care that it is perpendicular to the arm of the frame to which it is attached, and hangs straight downwards. If it is desired to make a very neat job, and add to the strength of the frame, let the end of the handle through which the hole is bored be made round, and narrow metal bands or ferrules driven on, one on each side of the hole, thus rendering the wood less liable to split. 652. The next step will be to provide some appliance as a clamp to hold the saws, and if it is not possible to obtain such an article as that . . . . which is shown in the illustration, an ingenious smith can saw-blade. n0 doubt be found who will make a pair' for a sum that may be set down as ranging from is. to 2s. The shank of this clamp, as in fig. 332, should be about 2in. long, cut for about five-eighths of a the length with a screw-thread at one end and havi a saw _ Fig. 332. clamp FOR saw-blade. slit at the other wide enough to admit any fret-saw, and pierced with a female screw transversely to the saw-cut, into which a small thumb -screw, similar to those used in mathematical instruments but rather larger and stouter, is inserted for the purpose of bringing the parts of the clamp on either side of the saw-slit closer together in a firm grip on the ends of the saw. Having procured a pair of these clamps, drill a straight hole lengthwise in the end of each arm at A exactly in the centre ; and having fitted on each arm a brass ou iron ferrule, to pre- vent the wood from splitting, screw in the clamps firmly, greasing the Home-made Treadle Machine. 299 FlG. 333. AMERICAN FRET-SAW. screw-thread before inserting the clamps into the holes bored to receive them, that they may be screwed in the more easily. 653. In the fret-saw frame that has been described, the depth from the blade to the brace is about i8in., giving room for cutting out a large piece of work. It must be remembered that the size of the work depends altogether upon the sweep of the American frame. For this reason the Swiss frames, although use- fret saw ' ful for small work, are not convenient for fret-sawing, because their sweep is not more than 2in. or 3m., and on this account the toy saw that is sold in the streets and in many shops, at prices varying from id. to 6d., is compara- tively useless. This little tool, called the American fret-saw, shown in fig. 333, has another disadvantage in the set of the blade, which, instead of being in the same plane as the handle, as it ought to be, is in a plane inclined at a slight angle to that of the handle, which will cause the operator to make a crooked cut when he thinks he is proceeding in a straight line. 654. From the home-made fret-saw let us proceed to the considera- tion of a home-made treadle machine, the leading principles of which are taken, by permission, from Williams’s “ Fret-sawing for Pleasure and Profit,” and from which indeed the de- H °treaSe d9 scription of the home-made fret-saw, with certain modifi- macidlie - cations, has been taken. It is satisfactory to an earnest, persevering workman to make his own tools and appliances, and for this reason the methods of making and putting together a fret-saw frame and treadle machine have been inserted. 655. As a beginning, two pieces of maple or beech should be pro- cured, as for the hand frame, and worked up for arms. A few cast- ings must next be obtained from the iron-founder’s, and for these it will be necessary to make some patterns, not H ° treadle^ 0 so elaborate as those described in the last chapter, but on macMne - the same principle. From a piece of deal cut out a pattern of the shape shown at A in fig. 334. This must be Sin. long, 2in. ^ . Jr clttGITLS Billu at the widest part, and J / 2 \n. thick. To this fit, at 3m. castings, from one end, at right angles to it and perfectly square, a piece of the shape shown at B, of the same thickness, and fasten A and B together, as shown at C, securely with brads, making the entire pattern as shown in the side view at C. This we will call pattern No. 1. Now make another pattern of the shape shown at D, sin. long, -£dn. thick, J^in. wide at the ends, and 2in. across the centre. Where the dotted 300 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. line is seen a small V shaped ridge must be fastened on, %\n. wid$ and }iin. thick, as shown in section at E. This we will call pattern No. 2. From these patterns, which must be square and true, castings must be made, one being re- quired of No. J i and two of No. 2. It would (A V ~v~ fc F H G Lj 1 1 Fig. 334. PATTERNS OF CASTINGS FOR TREADLE MACHINE, be well to mark a rough groove across each end of No. 1 to serve as a guide in filing up the centre. The castings, which will cost from 4d. to 6d. per pound, will be handed to you in a rough state by the iron-founder, and it is necessary to finish them off with a file. 656. With a triangular file trim up the grooves across the ends of No. 1, taking care to keep them perfectly true, often testing the cut Fitting a tr y~ sc l uare * Then also file the ridges of No. 2 , to castings make the best possible fit to the grooves of No. 1, as together. r _ _ ’ . shown at E, F, G ; E and G representing pattern No. 2 m section, and f pattern No. 1 also in section. In the step H three holes must be drilled as shown at B, for by it the casting will be held to the table with screws. Similar holes also must be bored at the ends of E and G, as shown in the plan at D, by which they can be fastened to the inside of the arms ; and it would be well to have these holes in E and G rather oval than round, that the arms may be more truly adjusted, as the screws that fasten the castings to the arms will hold firmly enough. All the holes should be counter-sunk. Having fitted the castings and fastened them, procure if possible a second-hand sewing-machine table with drive-wheel and treadle ; but if this cannot be done, a bench with wheel and treadle can easily be made. A second-hand sewing- machine table may at times be purchased at a low rate from a dealer in second-hand goods, and such a table as this is the best fitted for the purpose, as it can be adapted to the requirement in view without much trouble. The casting No. 1 must first be neatly but firmly screwed by the step H to the back of the table, at about the centre. Arms of The arms should then be attached in the following manner, saw-frame. p rocure two pieces of stout wire io^in. long and about -j^in. thick, and if you cannot do it yourself, get a locksmith to cut a screw-thread in one end of each piece for about 1 Have a small Platform on Table : Treadle and Wheel. 301 Hangers. thumb-nut fitted to each screw end, and rivet a small iron washer to the opposite end. Next, cut two holes in each of the arms as large as the thickness of the wire, somewhat conical in shape, and pass the wires through them with the screw ends at the top, fastening them with the thumb-nuts. The structure will then present the appearance shown in fig. 335. The conical holes which are shown in the repre- sentation of the arms in this figure are so shaped to give free play to the tension rods. 657. All that now remains is a small wooden platform of the shape shown at A in fig. 335, which should be screwed to the front platform of the table, so that the saw-blade when clamped, which on table ' can be done by the same means described for the hand-frame, will freely move through the small hole a in the exact centre of the platform. It is also neces- sary to have a couple of castings of the shape re- presented at B. Technically such a fixture as this is called a hanger. Fig. 335. table fitted with frame. It should be ^in. thick, and measure 6in. in the direction of the dotted line, and about 4m. from b to b , at which points holes should be drilled for screws to fasten each of these hangers to the under side of the table. At C a hole must be drilled, very true, for these are to serve as bearings for a small shaft about j^in. in diameter. At one end of the shaft is to be fitted a small pulley, and at the other end an eccentric of about 2in. in diameter, 1 in. from the centre of which is fastened a short, flat bit of hard wood by means of a set-screw through one end, while the other end is fastened to the lower arm of the saw-frame by a screw, upon which the short connecting strip will move rather loosely. Attach a round leather belt to the driving-wheel and the small pulley, # # o.r68»U.l6 3,11 d and the gearing will then be shown as in fig. 336. The driving- wheel. machine having been carefully oiled is now ready for work. When fitting the connecting piece to the lower arm, the proper Pulley. 302 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. length may be determined by moving the saw-frame down, so that the end of the upper shall be within #in. from the table, and the set screw in the eccentric shall be downwards. Cut the connecting piece just long enough to measure between the lower arm and the set-screw of the eccentric, allowing room so that the lower arm may not strike against the under side of the table. 658. As it is desirable that the amateur may have it in his power to make as „ many convenient aids and Screw-press for glued appliances as possible to ^ work. ^ ^ Fig. 336. help him in his work, we gearing for treadle machine. are tempted to give a description of another handy thing which is easily cut out and put together. It is a sort of screw-press, in which glued work can be adjusted and left to dry, while it may be adapted to many other uses which will make this simple apparatus worth far more than it costs. 659. Get four strips of well-seasoned hardwood iin. wide, from to ^in. thick, and 2oin. long. In each piece, about i^in. from the How to make end, screw-press. ^ ^ ^ a notch iin. long and ^in. deep, into which fit cross-pieces of wood about 4m. or 5in. long, forming two frames, as shown in fig. 337 at A and B. Next procure two strips of hard wood 2ft. Fig. 337. screw-press. long or more, and at least iin. thick, and exactly as wide as the space between the strips that form the uprights. A joiner’s clamp must then be bought which will furnish the screw and nut, which Designs for Fret-sawing. 303 latter will be merely one of the jaws of the clamp. Bore a hole through one of the long strips, exactly in the centre, a trifle larger than the diameter of the screw, and fasten the jaw of the clamp directly under it. Then by slipping the frames over the ends of the long strips the press will stand as shown in fig. 337. A few square wooden blocks and a couple of square pieces of plank will be found convenient to use with it. It will be readily seen that, as the various parts of which this press is composed are movable, it is equally well adapted for large or small articles which are to be glued. A 6in. strip fastened transversely at the bottom of each standard will serve as a foot to keep it upright and steady. Of course the proportions stated can be varied to suit the taste and the requirements of the amateur. 660. The amateur will find no difficulty in obtaining patterns or designs for this work, but it may be as well to point out Designs for here that the best and most suitable that he can pro- fiet sawin S' cure for any and every purpose are Williams’s “ Ornamental Designs,” 1 a new and valuable series of books, containing mechanical Williams , g designs of full size for immediate use, which are supplied Ornamental by Messrs. Churchill and Co. 661. The design to be worked in wood should be traced from the original by the following process. Lay the design to be Tracing copied flat and smooth upon a table or wide board and design from original. cover it with a piece of tissue paper or very thin tracing 1 The following are the designs included in each book and its price, which varies according to the number of designs that are contained in it : — Part 1, price 3s., contains designs of picture-frames, small brackets, wall-pockets, book-racks, fancy letters, and figures. All designs in this and other parts are of full size. Part 2, price 4s., is devoted exclusively to brackets of medium to large size. Over one hundred patterns of brackets are figured in this book. Part 3, price 4s. , is devoted to fancy work, baskets, ladies’ workboxes, easels, pen-racks, watch-holders, watch-pockets, match-boxes, paper-cutters, calendar- frames, thermometer-stands, fruit-baskets, table-platters, etc. Nearly one hundred designs. Part 4, price 2s., contains many patterns of various articles entirely new and of special elegance. Part 5, price 2s. 6d. , contains over one hundred designs of silhouettes and fancy scroll sawing and inlaid work, containing patterns.of animals, birds, children, horses, dogs, crosses, scenes of poetry and sentiment, women, soldiers, deer, flowers, mot- toes and fancy ornaments, all ready to saw out, and most beautiful for inlaid work. Part 6, price is. 3d., contains twenty-nine patterns of picture-frames, easels, visiting card-case, bracket, doll’s carriage, mirror-frame, fancy match-box, etc. Part 7, price 2s. 6d., contains sixty-two patterns of easels, work-baskets, wall- pockets, motto “Welcome,” photograph-frames, wheelbarrows, crosses, match-box glove-box, savings’ bank, standard match-safis, etc. Many of the designs given in this and the other parts can be handsomely carved. 304 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. paper, fastening both down to the board with some drawing-pins. Let Multiplication it be free from wrinkles. Trace the pattern through with a of copies. g OOC j ] ea d pencil. If desirable a sheet of prepared carbon or impression paper placed between pieces of tissue paper may be also laid beneath the design, thereby producing two or more copies. 662. The tissue tracing paper can be easily fixed upon the wood if a little care and patience are exercised. Let the paste —made of wheat Fixing design dour — be rather thicker than usual, and brush it over the on wood. ent j re sur f aC e of the wood. It is difficult to describe in print how thick the paste should be, but it must be just wet enough to barely moisten the paper. The paste must be applied to the wood only, as the least stroke of the brush upon the thin paper would spoil it. The design being correctly drawn, apply one edge of the tissue paper to the pasted surface, carefully sweeping it on with a gentle motion of the hand, avoiding all wrinkles. When drying, the paper will shrink a little, which will render it quite smooth. This plan of attaching the paper to the wood is both easy and convenient, as the paper can subsequently be removed with great facility by damping it with a moist sponge, and a few rubs with sand-paper entirely obliterates all traces of the paste. On no account should the design be traced directly upon the wood, as the least deviation of a line would disfigure light woods, and on dark woods the impression could hardly be seen. 663. In simple fret-work sawing the modus operandi is easily under- stood. The piece of wood, prepared with the design that is to be cut Method of out anc ^ P as ted on its surface, must be pierced in every simple fret- P art tiiat * s to cut awa Y with a h°l e sufficiently large work sawing. to admit the saw. It must then be laid on the cutting- board, if a frame-saw be used, and on the platform, if a fret-cutting treadle machine be used, and every opening or interstice carefully cut out with the saw, taking care to keep as closely as possible in the lines of the design, so that as little filing and trimming as possible may be necessary. Putting the 664. The various pieces of which the work is composed together must now he joined together, and this must be done by the aid of fine tacks and good glue. 665. The easiest and best way to melt glue is to break it into pieces sufficiently small, put them into an earthenware vessel, just cover How to make them with warm water, and set them aside until the glue good glue. * s thoroughly soaked and forms a stiff jelly. Then pour oft all the surplus water, put the jelly into a double glue-pot, and place it on a stove or by the side of the fire to melt. The outside receptacle Sand-papering and Finishing Fret-work. 305 of the glue-pot must be filled with hot water, for it is very easy to spoil the glue by roasting it. It should only be melted at a temperature not higher than boiling water, and not in any excess of supply at one time, as frequent melting diminishes its strength. When applied to any work it should be quite hot, and of such a consistency that it will just drop from the brush. The pieces to be joined should be warmed, so that the glue may not chill suddenly, and only a thin coat of glue should be applied. If the shape of the work will allow, it must be immediately fastened in the press, which has been described, confined with clamps or tied around with string, and left until the glue is perfectly dry. Instead of using brads wherever the thickness of the wood will allow it, small holes should be drilled not quite through the wood, and wooden pegs of the same colour driven in carefully, which will afford an additional hold. 666. A few words may be necessary on sand-papering fret-work, which should be done immediately after the removal of sand-papering the paper from the wood, and before the various pieces of which the article is composed are glued together. 667. Sand-paper should be very carefully applied with a very light pressure, lest it wear away the surface unequally. A convenient holder for sand-paper can be made with two oblong Holder for pieces of hard wood ^in. thick, and of any convenient sa ^ d '2 a P e -- size. In the piece of wood intended for the bottom, fix a i }4 in. screw exactly in the middle, sinking the head a little below the surface. At each end of the other piece fasten three small steel pins, with points, filed sharp, and let them protrude about 3-l6ths of an inch ; bore a hole in the centre the size of the screw. Place the top piece over the lower one, fitting a small wooden knob to the screw, which w T iil serve to keep the two pieces from coming asunder w T hile in use, and also for a handle to hold them by. A piece of sand-paper can be placed upon the bottom piece just long enough to lap over and be held by the sharp points. The bottom piece should be curved upwards slightly toivards each end, so that a sharp edge may not injure any part of the work. 668. The work must be finished by polishing, oiling, or varnishing- All work which is to be oiled, polished, or varnished must first be rubbed as smooth as possible with very fine sand-paper, otherwise every little imperfection in the grain of the torches, wood will exhibit itself to critical eyes. When the work is too delicate to bear any strain or pressure, it is best to partly polish the wood before cutting out the design, and give it a finish subsequently. The polished surface must present an even appearance, as nothing 20 306 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery, looks so unworkmanlike as blotches and streaks, and when there are any such they must be well rubbed down with an oiled cloth. Only enough oil is needed throughout the operation to cause the rubber to glide along easily without adhering to the surface, which would pro- duce unsightly daubs. 669. Polishing is easy work after a little practice and attentive Polishing not i ce °f the effect. French polish is made in the foliow- w°°d. ing manner: — Recipe. — Take 2oz. picked shell lac, ioz. gum arabic, ioz. gum copal, and 1 pints of spirits of wine. Dissolve the gums thoroughly How to i n the spirits, and strain all through a bit of fine muslin. make French It should be about the consistency of treacle in hot polish. b J weather ; if necessary it can be made thinner by the addition of some more spirits. If the gums are pure and good this will give a light-coloured polish. If a darker colour is desired, sub- stitute ioz. of gum benzoin for the gum arabic and copal, and use only 1 pint of spirits of wine. If it is required to further colour the polishes it may be done by adding to the mixture a little dragon’s blood. 670. French polishing is done with a pad of cotton-wool or with a rubber consisting of a few folds of cloth. The cloth is moistened with .How to apply the polish, and a thin piece of linen rag placed over it, the polios. w hich are poured a few drops of linseed oil, and the •whole is applied evenly on the surface of the work with a circular motion. This polish dries quickly, and when dried out more of it must be applied to the rubber as before. Porous wood will take up a great deal of it, and if economy is any object, a thin coat of size may be put on to fill the pores previous to French polishing. Two or more applications of the polish, thinly applied, will show more finely than one thick coat. 671. The artisan will find it expedient to use judgment in the finish of his work, and not use polish, oil, or varnish indiscriminately. Some Judgment work looks better with the plain wood, while a true idea ne finishdng m °f art would dictate further manipulation only when some work. more beautiful effect can be produced, exhibiting more clearly the grain or the colour of the material. Raw linseed oil may be frequently used to good purpose. It should be applied in limited quantity, so that the surface shall not present a greasy appearance. The pores of the wood having become filled, scarcely any further application is necessary. A mere shiny appearance should be strictly shunned in every case. French polishing cannot be well performed The Rogers Fret-saw. 307 with a brush, as the process depends altogether upon patient and con- tinued rubbing. 672. The fret-saw attachment to the Eureka lathe has already been noticed, and it now only remains to speak of the Rogers Fret-saw, which is the best cheap machine in the market, and one The Rogers with which the amateur would do well to provide himself, Fret - saw - as he could scarcely make himself one at less than the price which Messrs. Churchill and Co. ask for it, which is only 17s. 6d. 673. If the reader has carefully perused the description that has been given of a home-made fret-saw treadle machine, he will readily recognise the various parts shown Description in fig. 338 ofmachine - and their uses. The machine is provided with a drilling attachment and iron table, adjustable for inlaying. All the work- ing parts are of iron and steel, and its weight, wkh box, is not more than 4olbs. It should be said that the iron and steel parts are polished or japanned, and the wood- work that enters into its construction is painted a dark colour. The height of the table above the floor is 32m. The larger belt-wheel is I2in. in diameter, and the smaller balance - wheel 5in. in diameter. The arms, which are i8in. in the clear, are furnished with the latest improved clamps for holding the saw. The driving belts, extra drills, and a wrench are supplied with each macnme. 674. Fret-sawing, as the reader will ha.ve observed, and as we have Fig. 338. THE ROGERS FRET-SAW. 308 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery . already taken occasion to remark, is a iC study of outlines ” — the diver- Fret-sawing sl ^ C3 -^ on °f a flat surface with perforations, the whole Outlines* ^eing bounded by a certain outline, but flat and without relief, exhibiting a perfectly level surface throughout. For relief in the ornamentation of the surface in any material such as wood and stone, but more especially wood, we must resort to carving, success in which can only be attained by the aid of sharp tools, natural tact, a steady hand, and patient love for the art. 675. Indeed, “ patient love for the art” is the only price that can be paid for success — the only coin, so to speak, by which it can be Success must purchased. There is no speedier way to achieve it. Every b w^ U Jai. t bttle chip must be cut for a purpose, either to mar or to tience. beautify the work, and he who is unwilling to tax his time and patience over each tiny line of depression had best avoid carving. Capacity itself cannot be purchased ; it is a result of industry, energy, and will. 676. The tools have already been described, and an endeavour must now be made to tell the reader how best to use them ; but, as it has How to been said with respect to the tools used in ordinary car- lear toois USe P entl T an< ^ j° iner y> a little showing is worth any amount of telling, and an hour spent in watching a carver at work will do more towards helping a would-be carver to a proper- notion of how to handle his tools than any number of pages of careful and elaborate description. 677. Let us suppose that the object in view is a carved letter-rack, for which a suitable design is given in fig. 339. The rack consists of Carved b ye pi eces — the back, solid in the centre, and surrounded letter-rack, a frame and scroll work of leaves, and four pieces perforated, as shown in the design, and fixed to the back one above another at a very small angle. Such an article would look well carved in white holly wood, with the background within the frame formed of a piece of black walnut wood let into the white frame, or the white wood depressed within the cross bars that compose the framing, and covered with a piece of ruby, green, blue, or black velvet. The pieces in front of the rack and fastened to it for the purpose of holding cards, letters, etc., are also made of white holly, if this be the material used for the back of the rack. 678. Now it is manifest that the first thing to be done is to make Preliminary a t rac i n g of the design and fasten it with paste to the proceedings. pj eccs 0 f wood that have been selected, and next to cut out the outline and perforations in each piece with the saw. The appear- Carved Letter-rack . 309 ance presented by the pieces of wood will then be that exhibited in the lower part of the illustration, which presents an appearance of solidity and substance that is common to fret-work pure and simple without any extra embellishment by aid of the carving tools. The reason of this is, that the whole of the flat upper surface meets the eye, but as soon as the edges of the various parts are taken off and the leaves are chiselled out and sloped from the veining in the centre to the edge, as shown in the upper part of the illustration, roundness is given to the various parts, the harsh squareness of the outline is removed, and some parts are brought into light, and other parts thrown into shadow, giving an agreeable relief to the surface which before was to a certain extent monotonous. 3io Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery, FlG. 340. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF LEAF. 679. Assuming, then, that the requisite attention has been paid to sharp edges, and that the rough outlines of the design here given have . been cut out carefully with the saw, let us see how the ° f ™ g carving tools may be applied so as to bring out the best effect. And, first, let us study the leaves. At the extreme points they have a slight curvature upwards, which, however, is not The leaves an ^ higher t ^ ian thicker portion, or that which is apparently the thicker portion. This, perhaps, may be more intelligible on an inspection of fig. 340, in which abcd represents the section of a leaf through the middle vein or rib. Now it will be obvious that the greatest reduction of surface exists between the points E and F and the points F, G, and D. The solid line egd represents the course of the middle vein from the stem G D, this being the line of greatest depression in the middle of the leaf. From this the surface of the leaf rises, as shown in fig. Fig. 341. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF LEAF. 341, until F, represented by a dotted line in fig. 340, is reached when the surface falls until the greatest depression is reached at H, whence it rises slightly to the edge of the Depressions * ea f E * Wherever a depression exists in a leaf we must in leaves, begin by hollowing it out with the chisel, but only very gradually, for we must bear in mind that the surface of the leaf again slopes down from the edges, and it is far easier to cut away too little material, for more can always be taken away, while it is impossible to add any when more than is necessary has been scooped out. Expert carvers would use a gouge with a somewhat flat edge for such work, but less practised hands would find the skew-chisel a more convenient tool. The cutting should be done both ways from E and F towards H, the centre of the depression, following the grain of the wood as much as possible. With such work it is not necessary to observe a mathe- matical exactness in the outline ; a little irregularity adds to the effect and prevents stiffness of appearance. This irregularity will be more requisite in carving such a design as that represented in fig. 340, because, while the outer edges of the leaves are somewhat rounded, the edges which join the frame will be almost angular, in order to throw them more into relief. 680. The veining-tool must be used for marking the ribs, the larger one being made by cutting a double line from the stem, and then Management of Work in Carving. 3ii gradually merging the two lines into one as you work towards the end, and then the lateral or side ribs are to be formed of , , ’ Kids marked a single line joining the centre or mid-rib. An attempt by ™jning- has been made to show this in fig. 342, in which a leaf, as shown in fig. 340, is represented on a large scale. These veins or ribs should not be cut deep, but distinct enough to show a clear, sharp line. The surface of the leaf can be neatly smoothed with the mez- zotint scraper — a tool which resembles a double-edged eraser — used in scratching out ink marks on paper, and which will be found more Treatment convenient for this of stems - purpose than sand-paper. The stems should be rounded but left rough, in order to preserve natural appearance, and the frame should be worked up in Fig. 342. LEAF ON LARGE SCALE. Sand-paper the same way ; but as it is intended to be rustic, a series of fine lines should be cut upon its surface, as in fig. 343, in order to give it more Manipilla tio ? roughness. The centre, if it be not covered with velvet, of centre * should be worked with cross hatching to match the rustic sides. Sand paper should not be used at all for such work as this, and for the few occasions on which it may be absolutely necessary to use it, the carver will find it very convenient to cut out slips of rough wood, somewhat in the shape of files, to which strips of sand-paper may be glued. A clear clean cut with the tools will, in general, be quite sufficient. Whenever practicable, the work to be carved should be fastened firmly to a table, for both hands Fastening will be needed in using the tools. To accomplish this downwork - clamps of various sorts are used where the shape of the work will admit. A simple method of fastening down work to the surface of a table or cutting-board is shown in fig. 344, in which A is the table £ in section, B the work to be carved, and C a flat bar of wood, having holes at each end through which round-headed bolts D and E are passed. These bolts go through holes in the table corresponding with holes in FlG. 344. CLAMP FOR FASTENING DOWN WORK. 3 i 2 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. the bar. and the bar is brought down tightly on the wood so as to hold it securely by screwing up the nuts f, G. It is an essential point to have the work immovable, except at the will of the carver. The tool f Guidance of w ^ en i n use, should be guided by the fingers of the left cutting tool. h an d w hile it is pressed forward by the palm of the right hand, which should rest on the top of the tool handle. Thus steadiness will be given to the tool, and if the steel is good and the edge sharp, the cut will exhibit a corresponding smoothness. 68 1. Carving is a slow process, though so beautiful in its results. The rules are few, and the art difficult to explain ; practice illustrating it vastly better than precept. But however true this is, General direc- tions for some plain and general directions may be given for the amateurs. r . . guidance of the amateur carver, leaving it to his judgment and intelligence to make such variations and applications as mechani- cal tact may indicate as being necessary. 682. First with regard to outline , or contour . This should always be devoid of stiffness, and a graceful, natural appearance preserved. Outline or Intersections of stems should be neatly worked out, by cut- contour. ting awa y a portion of the wood on each side of the under stem where the upper one crosses it. The depression must not be too abrupt, lest it seem like a dent made purposely, but the line of slope should be begun far enough back from the point of junction to allow a harmonious blending, and show a distinction between each stem. 6S3. With regard to the direction of the cutting , or, in other words, the direction given to the tool, this should be invariably down and not Direction of up — away from and not towards the higher surfaces, cutting. This will be governed by the grain of the wood. The material, as it has been said, is always strongest in the direction of the fibre, and wherever a good strong purchase can be maintained it is best to render it available. Care should be taken not to splinter the surface. No more force must be used than is just sufficient to separate the chip without detaching any adjacent fibre ; in other words, the work is to be done altogether by cutting, and never by rending. 684. The carver must have complete command of his tools. He will sometimes find it expedient to use his chisel with the bevelled end Carver must upwards, which will cut away only a thin shaving as the h mand°of' direction of the edge is thus changed and it is not able tools * to enter the wood to so great a depth, and the chip is rather like a fine shaving made by a plane. By this simple plan a great deal of carved work can be wrought more easily with a chisel than with a gouge. Carving Tools, and their Prices. 3i3 685. The mezzotint scraper, of which mention has been already made, and the shape of the head or scraping part of which is shown in fig. 345, will be found useful in accord- ance with its name for making Mezzotint _ smooth such surfaces as re- scra P er * Fig. 345. MEZZOTINT SCRAPER. quire its action, its shape adapting it to a variety of modes of applying it. It is not in the quantity of tools that true skill consists. A clever workman will often do better work with one simple tool than others will with twenty. 686. Carving tools, because of their shape and the necessity of having them well tempered, are more expensive than similar tools of their class ; or perhaps it should be said, that it is better Carving toolg for the amateur carver to buy good carving tools, and but and their a few of them, and give a good price for them, than to provide himself with a great many at a cheap rate. Such tools may be had at all prices, but it is always more economical in this case, as in many others, to buy the best, as these will prove the cheapest in the end. The following are the average prices of good and reliable car- ving-tools, and they may be purchased at these rates of most dealers tn this class of goods : s. d. One dozen Files in leather case, assorted * 1 6 Carving Chisels, Gouges, etc., of all kinds, from 6d. each to 1 6 Best Stone Slips for sharpening carving tools, from is. to 1 6 Chequering Punches, Star Punches, etc., each o 6 Small Table Cramps for securing work to table, each from 1 6 Small brass Hinges, with screws, for folding brackets, etc., per pair o 2 Wood Varnish, per bottle is., or twice the quantity in stone bottle 2 o Japanned Tin Case for pocket, containing six Carving Tools, Oil-stone Riffler, Star and Chequering Punch 14 o Casec ontaining Saw-frame, Brace and Bit, six dozen Saws in Leather Case, one dozen Files assorted, one dozen Gouges and Chisels for solid carving, Bottle of Varnish, Star Punch, Chequering Punch, Oil-stone and Spring-vice 60 o Mezzotint Scrapers, each o 6 RifHers, each about 1 6 687. No mention has been made of the star and chequering punches and the riffler, and the purposes to which these tools are put may need some little explanation. The riffler is in point of fact star and a variation of the file, each end being bent and ridged as p^ch^sTand in fig. 346. The end of the tool being curved can be in- riffler ' troduced into corners and crevices into which the ordinary file cannot penetrate. The punches are intended for imparting a rough appearance to the ground-work on which is a raised pat- . , , Fig. 346. RIFFLER. tern of diaper or other work, the interstices between the pattern having been cut away, leaving the pattern in relief on the ground that is thus worked with the punch. 314 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. 688. A few more remarks on the general mode of procedure to be adopted in cutting out work, and bevelling edges, and putting work General to g et ^ er > bring our necessarily brief notice of fret- mode of pro- sawing and wood-carving to an end ; and with some cedure. ° observations on inlaying and overlaying as branches of fret-sawing, and on curving solid objects in wood, we must bring to an end our remarks on the theory and practice of Ornamental Car- pentry and Joinery. 689. The method of holding and managing the hand saw-frame, and where to begin in cutting out a design in fret-sawing, first require Holding and our attention. The hand saw-frame requires all the steadi- ^of^he^w^ ness obtainable. The tail of the frame should rest along frame * the fore-arm, and against the shoulder if the frame be a long one, or under the shoulder if it be short. This will prevent the frame from swinging round and bending the saw-blade, and so causing it to cut crooked. The saw will actually dip or describe the arc of a circle as it passes through the wood, and this dip is reduced to the minimum by making short strokes instead of long ones. Thus will plainly appear the great superiority of treadle machines, which possess this steadiness in a greater degree, being fixed at those points where the support of the workman’s arm and shoulder would be otherwise necessary, leaving both hands free to guide the work. 690. Saw-gates, or holes for the entrance of the saw, should in all cases be bored as near to an angle as possible. All the interior should be cut first, if possible, so that the surplus wood, round the Saw-gates, or r r entrances outside, may serve as long as may be for a continuous support to the frailer portions. In cutting a circular or oval frame, for example, surrounded with scroll-work, it is generally , . ^ best to begin at the top of the design, boring the saw- Intenor of 0 . work to be cut g a te near an angle, and cutting in the direction of the nrstt line until the angle is reached at the junction of the two curves. Now run the saw back a little more than its breadth, turn it half-way round, and run it close down to the angle again. A very slight twist of the saw will now cause its cutting edge Manipulation , . , of saw in to catch upon the wood fibre as a cut is commenced upon cutting. anot ] ier ij ne> Having reached the points at the top of the line, a slight sudden twist of the saw will cause its teeth to catch and follow yet another line. Backing the saw would be useless in such a case, as the angle is not acute enough to allow it to turn round. 691. In looking carefully at the wood when a design has been placed on it, it will be noticed that some of the lines run according to Cutting Design and Fitting Parts Together. 315 the grain of the wood. Such parts gain all the advantage of support from the grain at every point where the fibre of the wood Grain of is not severed or cut away, and wood is many times wood ‘ stronger on the line of its fibre than in any other direction. It will be further noticed that other lines of the work run across the grain, espe- cially the little projections or horns on the outside edge of the frame. These being the weaker points, all the adjacent support which they depend upon for most of their strength must not be removed too soon. If the weaker portions are cut away first, whenever practicable, the support will be decreased gradually, and the danger of c ^ q neces breaking will be diminished. The outer edge of the design sary in cut- ting design. obtains an abundant support from the waste wood of the margin which, at the same time, contributes somewhat to the strength of the interior portions, therefore this waste wood should be cut away the very last of all. 692. It must be remembered that the saw-blade is frail and easily snapped, and that the material should not be fed to it any faster than the teeth will cut. When the saw-blade is in action the Feeding mate- simple pressure of the fingers is all that is required for rial saw « holding the work to the table, and moving every part of the line to be cut in due succession against the cutting edge of the saw. The eye should be fixed upon the point where the saw-blade is operating, and follow the line, so that there shall be no deviation, for the mazy outlines will distract and puzzle the vision that wanders all over the design. 693. Many a good fret-sawyer, who can cut out work in the best manner possible, finds great difficulty in putting together the various t parts of which it is com- , ... . Putting parts posed, especially when of article they slope at an angle to ^ one another. It is frequently requisite to join portions of work together when the appearance of the joint is objec- tionable. To avoid this as much as possible a knowledge of the relation of angles to each other must be acquired. By the accompanying plan of a hexa- gonal basket, shown in fig. 347, it w&J Fig. 347. plan OF hexagonal be observed that if the sides were set basket. U p j ust as they are, they would meet each other only on the inside edge, while on the outside quite a 316 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. separation would appear ; therefore a proper angle must be made by Bevelling, or si°pi n g the inside edges sufficiently to make a close fit, mitring. anc [ p r0 cess, which has been explained in section 461, is technically called bevelling, or mitring. 694. The method of determining the degrees of different angles is very simple. In the case of such a basket as that which is indicated in fig. 347, measure the distance between the outside edges ■Determining •_ , , . . angles of from the point A to the point B, as shown on a larger scale bevels. ^ 343^ while the sides are held together in proper posi- tion. This will show the exact amount of bevelling the pieces will re- quire, but you must divide it equally between two sides of the basket, so that each may have an equal share. A small pair of compasses will be found convenient for determining the measurement, and then, calculating the exact half, mark it off from the inside edges of each piece, when the surplus material c'an be cut off with a saw or shaved down with a sharp chisel. Now this, although it will answer well enough for very thin pieces of wood, is not an exact method, for reasons which will be obvious at once to any one who understands geometry ; for from an inspec- edg‘b G s of tion of fig. 348 it will be seen at once that A B, or half the distance between A and C, is less than the distance from D to F, at which the line marking the limit of the bevel or mitre should be „ „ _ . _ marked on the inner surface. Let the pieces be put in the Method to be x 1 employed, position they are to occupy, as F D A, c D E, and trace the plan on paper with a fine-pointed pencil. Then divide the angle ADC into two equal parts, which is easily done by producing the lines indicating the outer surfaces of the boards in the direction A G and C G, and drawing a straight line D G through the point D, where the inner surfaces touch, and the point G, the point of intersection of the outer surfaces produced. Then, if lines be drawn through A and C, namely A F and c E, parallel to D G, these lines will indicate on the plan the extent to which the edges F D A, E D C, must be cut away in order that the sides may be joined together closely and accurately ; or, what is the same thing, distances D F and D E, equal to A G or G C, may be measured from D along the inner surface of each board, thus indicating the extent of the bevel. 695. Inlaying is the art of cutting out pieces in one piece of wood, which may be termed the ground, and filling them up Inlaying. pi eces 0 f WO od of a different colour, or with pieces of ivory, tortoise-shell, or metal. When wood is used the work is called 1 f Marquetry , Buhl-work , ^ivz) Overlaying. 3x7 marquetry, and when metal, etc., is used it is termed buhl- work. Both kinds of work are used in the ornamentation of furniture, desks, workboxes, cabinets, etc., and fall within the pro- M ^na etry vince of the fancy cabinet-maker. 696. The extreme nicety required in performing the operation of cutting out marquetry will deter most amateurs from attempting it; but supposing that he is determined to do so, he must procure Mode of two pieces of veneer of different colours, and after pasting pro c c ^ t ^g 121 a piece of stout paper on the inlay part, to fasten the two marquetry, pieces of wood together with very short and very fine wire tacks, to prevent them slipping one from the other. It is necessary to make the cut through both pieces of wood slightly on the bevel, and for this purpose a bevelling attachment is added to some treadle machines, so as to keep the table on which the work is cut at a suitable angle. The inlay, in consequence, will be somewhat wedge-shaped, and a trifle longer than the hole which is cut to receive it, the sides of which wifi also be on the bevel. A hole must be made for the entrance of the saw, sloped in such a way as to pass through the waste wood, both in the ground and the inlay; and when the saw has been introduced, the pattern must be steadily followed until the whole of the cut, however intricate it may be, has been made. A slight blow with a wooden mallet will suffice to drive the inlay into the ground ; but before doing this, the inlay should be touched at the edges with a little thin glue. The work is finished by scraping the surface with a cabinet scraper — a small square plate of steel with a sharp edge — to bring it exactly level, and then rubbing it over with very fine sand-paper, and polishing it if necessary. 697. The reverse of inlaying is overlaying, a process much more simple, yet quite as amenable to the principles of symmetry and taste. The design will stand in relief or raised from the ground, and is often susceptible of further embellishment by means of the carving tools. 698. This kind of work has been already spoken of in the first chapter as a useful and easy means of decorating flat surfaces, such as the facias of window cornices, the styles, rails, and panels Application o1 of doors, the doors and framework of cupboards, and the t]xLs P r °cess. sides of book-cases. A variety of figures can be cut out from thin board, which being firmly glued and bradded or pegged to some flat surface may be wrought with the carving tools, and appear to as good advan- tage as if carved from a solid piece. It would be far less labour than to reduce the surface from around the ornament. Overlaying. 318 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery , 51S1S Fig. 349. key PATTERN. 699. The surface to be decorated having been carefully prepared and planed true, the design must be cut out by the fret-work saw, and Production of attac ^ e( i to the surface destined to re- overlay. ceiveit. For a cornice over a window the Greek key pattern (fig. 349), as it is called, or the “guilloche” ornament (fig. 350), would be ap- propriate, or a pattern of leaves and tendrils running from end to end : for a panel four corner-pieces, similar in shape with an ornament in the centre. The good taste of the amateur, taking into account the purpose to Fig. 350. guilloche. the article thus adorned is to be put, will sug- gest to him many effective modes of decorating surfaces in this manner. The chief point to be remembered is that the grain of orna- Ct be f r^m^m-° ment and ground-work should run in the same direction. bered. p ret ty effects may be obtained by contrast of colour — a pattern in white holly being placed on a ground of walnut wood, or Contrasts in v * ce vers< *' If the surface is covered with diaper work or colour. with a thin board pierced with small quatrefoils, trefoils, etc., forming a regular pattern all over it, and the colour of the depressions and the parts in relief is to be the same, it will be better (supposing that the board to be decorated and the decorative work are both of some light wood, such as pine or silver fir, which is to be stained), to stain the ground-work before the ornamental part is attached to it. When this has been done, the whole must be touched over with staining, and finally sized and varnished. An ample field Excellent f°r decorative work in every part of a dwelling-house is d work t for 0 °P ene d up by this branch of fret-sawing, and we are sure bouse. that man y 0 f our readers will not be slow to take advan- tage of it. An hour or two spent now and then in the preparation of the ornamental overlay, and a spare half-holiday or two devoted to fixing it in its place, and the necessary work of staining, sizing at trifling and varnishing, or even painting if it be preferred, will COBt ' transform many an ugly door or piece of furniture into an elaborate specimen of richly-carved work at trifling cost. 700. There is but one thing more to be touched on in connection with wood-carving, and that is carving in the solid. Now carving in the solid will divide itself into carving in high relief, or even low relief, which in either case has a grounding of the same material, from which the carved work rises ; and carving an object out of a solid piece of wood, every part of which is wrought over by the carving tools. A wreath of flowers hanging between two Carving in the solid. Mode of Carving Boss. 3i9 sustaining points, or a dead bird or animal suspended to a nail or ring, may be taken as a good example of carving in re- lief ; and the finial to the upright end of an open seat or E car^g In* bench in a church, commonly called a poppy head, may relief - serve as a fitting illustration of the other. 701. Suppose, for the sake of illustration, that it is desired to carve a boss in high relief similar to that figured at A in fig. 351. If it were but a single boss on a square piece of wood, the easiest mode Boss in h] ^ of procedure would be to fix the wood to a chuck, and turn relief, the surface in the lathe to the shape represented at B, which is the appearance the wood would have if cut in half vertically or horizontally — in fact, a representation of the wood in section after it has been turned ; but if this cannot be done, the depth of the block must be marked by a line round the sides of the piece of wood, as from K to L in B, and the circle that the base of the boss will occupy marked on the top of the wood. Saw-cuts may then be procedure in made in the lines a b, c d, ef g h, in A, nearly, but not carvmg boss ’ quite, down to the marks along the sides, and the corners may then be removed by horizontal saw- cuts. Four more pieces may then be removed on the four sides of the piece of wood, as indicated by the dotted lines parallel to a h , b c, d e, f g, when the boss will be roughed out in the form of an a a * a & FlG. 351. MODE OF CARVING BOSS. octagon, which must be further reduced at the edges on all sides and round the top till it has been brought to a shape approxi- mating to the semicircular section shown at B. This work must be carefully done with the chisel, and care must be taken to leave the hemisphere from which the boss is to be carved a little larger in every way than the boss itself will be when finished. The four leaves that enfold the central part of the boss with their edges slightly turned over, and the mid-rib running up each, must be drawn in pencil on the surface of the hemisphere, after which the work of carving will com- mence. The first thing to be done will be to hollow out the circular depressions at the points where the leaves join, and chisel out the interior of the boss, which is to be cut in chequers as represented. Next, each leaf should be so cut away on the outer surface so as to exhibit clearly the end turned over, and the mid-rib, after which the carving and bringing into proper form of the whole surface must be 320 Ornamental Carpentry and Joinery. proceeded with gradually until the boss is perfectly developed in every part. 702. In carving from the solid on every side, as in the finial, or poppy head, r^piesented in fig. 352, the first thing to be done is to trace on the outer and inner face of the wood the exact shape that Carving from . . solid on all the finial would present in section if cut down the middle vertically, as shown by the outline figured in A. Lines must then be drawn on the sides between the faces as in B, and by the aid of these and the outlines on the faces the superfluous wood at a, b , c , d y e,fn lay Examples Of be cut awa y leaving the flmai. ornament roughed out. The sides of the finial represented will be merely plain surfaces with the edges chamfered or cut away sufficiently to give the necessary roundness to either face, which must then be marked in pencil to show the parts that are to be cut away and the parts that are to stand out in relief. The whole must then be finished with gouge and chisel in the same manner as the boss above described. 703. And here our remarks on operations in Ornamental Carpentry must be brought to a close. The use of the various tools and machines Conclusion of employed in its various branches and the method of going the subject. tQ wor ], w them have been described and illustrated. In the following chapters it will be sought to turn to good account much that has been advanced with reference both to simple and orna- mental carpentry in describing and illustrating various pieces of work which may be grouped together under the broad and comprehensive title of Constructional Carpentry. CHAPTER V. SIMPLE AND EASY CARPENTRY : FIXTURES, TEMPORARY AND OTHERWISE, WITHIN DOORS. Constructional Carpentry — What is comprehended under Term — Blind-roller and Curtain-pole — Bracket and Cornice — Simple Articles for Practice — Flower-sticks — Thickness of Board — Compound Flower-sticks — Hat-rails, Clothes-rails, etc. — How to Fix Them — Mode of Making Rail— Wooden Pegs — Iron Hooks, Pegs, etc. — Nailing Rail against Wall — How to remove Rails without Damage to Wall — Objections Answered — Blinds and Blind-rollers — Where to Buy Blind- rollers — How to Make Them — Putting on Ends- Pins in ends of Roller — Supports of Blind-roller — Wooden and Iron Brackets — Hanging within Window Frame — Attaching Blind to Roller — Rack and Pulley — Completion of Fixing Blind — Patent Appliances for Blinds— Prices of Fitting — Venetian Blinds — Prices of Venetian Blinds — How to Make Venetian Blinds — Principles of Construction — How Raised and Lowered — Description of Contrivance — How to Secure Blind when raised — Cutting down old Blinds — Painting — External Sunshades — Principles of Construction — Method of Fixing — Curtain-poles — Diameter of Curtain - poles — How to Make Them— Attachment of Ends — Brackets for Carriage of Pole — Putting on Rings — Fixing Pole in Position — How to finish Curtain-poles — Cornices for Curtains — How to make Cornices — Rail within for Curtains — Cornice for Bay-window — Moulded Cornice — How to make it — Arrangements for support of Curtains — Iron Bars or Hooks — Brass Grooving and Button — Easy Mode of Drawing Curtains — Brackets and Shelves — What a Bracket is — Corbels — Principles of Construction of Brackets — Simplest form of Bracket — Angle Iron — Flanged Bracket —Bracket with Strut — Ornamental Brackets — Cast-iron Brackets — Wooden Brackets — Principles of Construction — Proper Union of Parts — How to Cut Strut — Fastening Mortise — Fixing Strut- bracket — Ordinary Bracket for Shelf — Connection of Bracket and Shelf — Plugging in Walls — Brackets for Garden Walls — Ledges or Shelves on Brackets — Ornamental Brackets —Shelf in Recess or Corner — How to Prepare and Fix Shelf — Cutting Shelf to fit against Wall— Operation of “ Scribing ” — Shelf wider than Recess — Brackets in Recess — Fixing right-angled Brackets — Brackets Handy in all parts of House — The Bracket-table or Shelf — Several parts of Table — How to make and put them together — The Shelf— The Rail — The Bracket — Rest or support for Bracket — Fixture of Flap, etc. — Brackets to let down agy.inst Wall — Passing the Bottle — Mantel-shelf — Gilt Nails for Mantel-shelf. 704. The term “ constructional ” implies putting various pieces together, joining the bits of wood of which any article is composed by the aid of nails or screws only, or by means of the joints Construc . that are used in Carpentry. The methods of making these Coventry joints— by scarfing and halving pieces of wood together, or by mortise and tenon, or by dove-tailing— have been explained in 21 322 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. Chap. VII. of Part I. of this work ; and the amateur, having learnt to saw and plane wood with tolerable skill and how to make these joints, has to apply the knowledge that he has acquired to practical work, adapting in all cases the mode of procedure to the nature of the work. 705. If only two pieces of wood are joined together, no matter in what way, the work, in the strict sense of the phrase, belongs to Con- x, structional Carpentry, and there is really very little that prehended ma y not be brought under this term. For example, there under term. 17 is no construction, no putting together of parts in making a rolling-pin, which may be fashioned in a lathe, or by the aid of a plane alone, when the wood has been sawn out ready for planing down from a rectangular to a rounded or circular shape. Even a Blind roller s * m P^ e blind-roller is a piece of Constructional Carpentry, and and so is a curtain-pole, for both have to be fitted with Curtain-pole. suitable ends — those of the roller for use and those of the curtain-pole for ornament ; but these may or may not be formed of pieces of wood of various shapes jointed together. 706. Again, a bracket to be movable must be joined together, and being of two pieces, at the least, comes under the denomination of Con- Bracket and structional Carpentry. So will a cornice, which may be cornice. use d instead of a curtain-pole in some positions with good effect. It will be useful in this chapter to consider how to make articles of the kind that have just been mentioned ; and to begin with the simplest thing possible, we will, in the first place, glance briefly at flower-sticks and hat-rails, easy to make to be sure, but very useful, and then proceed to blind-rollers and curtain-poles, then to cornices, finishing up with brackets and shelves of all kinds. 707. Flower-sticks and rails, wherein or whereon to fix pegs of wood or metal for hanging coats and hats, are the simplest things to which the amateur can turn his attention, because nothing else Simple 7 # 0 articles for but the saw and plane need be used in making them, as practice. far as cutting-tools are concerned. The manufacture of either or both of these articles will afford good practice for the amateur in elementary work. 708. Flower-sticks may be square or round, according to the fancy of the maker. A round stick looks lighter than a square stick, but Flower- the latter is the stronger of the two, provided that the sticks. diameter of the one is equal to the width of the sides of the other, because there is more wood in it. In making flower-sticks the first thing to be done is to choose a piece of board, and plane it up nicely on both sides, after having cut it to the length required. Flower-sticks and Hat-rails . 323 Suppose some sticks are required for carnations, 2ft. in length, Take a piece of wood of this length and ^in. full in thickness and plane it up ; then with the compasses divide each end of one side of the board into spaces also ^sin. full in width, or even T 7 gin., so as to allow for saw-cuts, and, by the aid of a straight-edge, draw lines along the length of the board from one end to the other through the points of division. Saw the board into strips with a fine nand-saw, and plane up the rough sides of the rectangular slips thus obtained. Cut the top with a paring-chisel into a pyramidal form, and sharpen the end of each stick. This should be done in the winter months, and the sticks painted and put away for use in the summer. In making flower-sticks always use board of Thickness oi the thickness required for the width of the side of the board * square stick or the diameter of the round stick. Thus, if you want sticks 1 in. square or iin. in diameter use iin. board, and if you want to make i) 4 in. espaliers or stakes for fruit trees use board, always dividing the wood in spaces equal to the thickness of the board. 709. For flowers that require more support than can be afforded by a single stick, a compound stick may compound be made, as shown in fig. 353, consist- flower - stlcks * ing of two uprights, so to speak, connected by trans- verse bars. The sides should be closer at the bottom than at the top ; they should be formed of pieces of wood twice as wide as they are thick, and holes must be bored in them to receive the pointed ends of the bars. Compound sticks of this de- scription look better and lighter when made of wire. 710. Rails with pegs attached for hats, clothes, etc., are always wanted in a house ; and when the tenant or owner thereof, as the case may be, Fig. 353. Com- pound FLOWER- STICK. can use his tools, any special want of this kind may be JtLat-raiis, speedily provided for. Rails may be fixed to walls by ciothes-raiis, ' etc. means of nails or to woodwork by screws ; and they may be suspended by means of brass rings, somewhat stronger than those used for pictures. A rail should never be fixed across the how to fix inside of the door of a room, nor should nails be driven into them ’ the styles of any door, or hooks screwed on to them, for hanging clothes ; for the weight of the clothes has a tendency to drag the door out of place, and prevent it from shutting closely against the stops as it should do. Let it be a fixed rule with every one never to fix rails, or drive nails into, cr screw hooks to, doors. 324 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. in section. Wooden pegs. 71 1. A rail for the purposes above mentioned is simply a piece of wood from >£in. to in . thick, and from 3m. to wide, and as Mode of l° n g as may be necessary. The face or front, sides and making rail. endSj must be n i ce i y planed up, and the arris , or sharp edge formed by the meeting of the front with the sides and ends, must be chamfered or taken off with the plane, as shown at A, fig. 354, or rounded with a beading plane, as shown at B. Both these figures are At C is also shown the old - fashioned way of making the peg in wood, p IG> ^4. hooks, pegs, etc., for and fixing it to the rail by letting rails. one end into a hole made by a stock-and-bit for its reception. Pegs of this description should be turned in a lathe, by which means the knob at the end and the shoulder which butts against the rail can be more easily formed. At D is shown the double metal-hook for hat and coat. There are a great variety of these, single and double, made in iron, brass, and bronze, or metal coloured to imitate bronze. Brass hooks are often furnished with porcelain knobs, but the bronze hooks are neater, cheaper, and more serviceable. The old-fashioned iron hooks, straight iron peg, bent at an angle to the heart-shaped pegs, etc. pi a t e? in which are holes for the passage of screws to fix it to the wood, is shown at E and F, the former representing the side view, and the latter the plate when viewed from the front. Japanned iron hooks of this kind may be bought at id. and 2d., according to size. At G is shown a useful kind of single hook for hanging clothes, costing about id. or 1 j 4 d. ; and at H, a small double hook — the hooks turning from the face in opposite directions — which cost about gd. per dozen. Bronze hooks of the description shown at G, or similar in shape and purpose, cost about double the price of the iron or japanned hooks ; and excellent double hooks, as shown at D, in different patterns, may be bought at prices ranging from 3d. to 6d. Every description of hooks, and all kinds of ironmongery required as fittings in houses, locks, etc., of English and American make, may be obtained, both good and cheap, of Mr. Melhuish. 712. A rail may be nailed against the wall with two or more brass- headed nails, as shown at L, or it may be hung to a couple of these Nailing rail nails by means of brass rings, as at K, screwed into the against wall. U pp er ec jg e 0 f the rail. The nails should slant upwards when driven into the wall, so that the rings may not be drawn up to Removal of Rails : Blinds and Blind Rollers. 325 and against the head of the nails by the weight of the clothes, etc., that may be hung to the hooks. The benefit in using rings lies in the fact that the rail may be easily and quickly moved from its place when- ever it may be found desirable to do so. A rail is certainly more firm and stable when nailed to the wall, but much damage is frequently done both to the wall and the rail when the latter is taken down, as, for example, when moving from one house to another. All # . How to re- rails or strips of wood nailed to walls must of necessity be move rails without removed by the aid of a screwdriver used as a lever, and damage to any injury either to rail or wall may be prevented by pushing the steel blade of a carpenter’s square between the board and the wall to afford a resting-place for the end of the screwdriver — a ful- crum, in fact — while the process of lifting or prising the rail from the wall is going on. If the wall furnished the fulcrum, the point of the screwdriver would sink deeply into the soft plaster and do much dam- age ; but when it is rested against the broad blade of the square, the pressure is distributed over the whole breadth of the square, and so prevented from doing any injury to the wall. 713. Possibly some of our readers may say, “ This is not carpentry! ” It is not so as far as actual working in wood is concerned ; but, as the object of this work is to give practical assistance to every objections man who is seeking to become his own mechanic, no answexed - apology is necessary for going into these points of detail, which, if they are not mentioned, may altogether escape the notice of the amateur, or be learnt only through the long experience of many years. 714. Nothing is more comfortless than a room without a blind, and one would think that, instead of leaving it to the last, as five people out of six certainly do, the first thing thought of and done on Blinds and entering a new house, if only for the sake of privacy, would blind " roller °* be to put up the blinds. Let us see how to make a blind-roller, and how to attach to the roller itself and the frame of the window the necessary fittings to support the blind, and to raise or lower it at pleasure. 715. Blind-rollers can be bought, generally speaking, of the oil and colour man, with the fittings for the ends, at prices varying from6d. to is., according to length ; the amateur, however, can make 7 7 Where to one as easily and as quickly as he can a flower-stick. A buy biind- rollers. straight-grained, clean piece of deal having been selected, about 1 in. or i in thickness — it must not be thicker — a piece just as wide as the wood is thick must be sawn off of the necessary length. 326 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. The transverse section of this piece of wood will be a square, and How to make the four arrises or sharp edges must then be planed off, them. as s h own at A? j n 255, so as to make the wood octagonal or eight-sided instead of square ; before doing this, however, the sides of the wood should be planed up. There is no necessity whatever to make the roller round, but the amateur can do this if he prefers a round bar to an octagonal one. Each end of the roller must then be keyed , as shown in plan at B, and in elevation at C, in order to fit into square holes cut for their reception in two pieces of hard wood, one of which is thin and the other grooved like a pulley. The plain end is shown in plan at E, and in elevation at F, and the grooved end at G, Putting on in the drawing of the roller when complete. The object ends. ^ k e yi n g i s to prevent any chance of the grooved end being turned round by the blind cord without carrying the roller round with it. The plain end should be attached to the left-hand end of the roller, and the grooved end to the right. Brads may be driven through the ends to fasten them more securely to the roller, but if the keying has been properly done this will be unnecessary. Two pieces of Pins in eads strong iron wire must then be driven in, one at each end of roller. Q f roller, as pins on which the roller may revolve. Care should be taken to drive these precisely into the centre of each end, and in such a manner that the two pins may be exactly in one and the same straight line. If they are not so the roller will not revolve easily, but have what is termed in engineering an excent?'ic motion. 716. We must next consider how the blind-roller is to be put in the position it is to occupy. It is usually supported on a couple Oi Supports of brackets, but it depends very much upon circumstances blind-roller. h ow an j w ] iere these brackets are to be fixed, and what kind or form of bracket it will be most convenient to use. Supposing that the window is an ordinary window, that is to say, a frame finished on the outside edge of the inner face with a moulding as shown at L, the proper places for the brackets will be just within the mouldings, in the positions M and N. To insure accuracy in ascertaining the length Brackets for Blind Rollers, etc. 327 of the roller, it will be better for the amateur to screw up his brackets first, and then measure off the extreme length between them, allowing when cutting the roller not less than and not more than ^in., so that the roller may work freely when suspended by means of the wires at either end on the brackets. The brackets are, when made of wood, usually of the shape shown at O, and when of iron, as at P. In these illustrations the brackets are shown in which the wooden and pulley end of the roller is placed, a slit being made in the 1x011 biackets - wooden bracket and a hook in the iron one, into which the wire is dropped. In the brackets for the other end a small hole is made for the reception of the wire, and in putting up- the roller the wire at the plain or left-hand end is first put into the hole in the left-hand bracket, and then the wire at the other end is lifted over the right-hand bracket until it is high enough to drop into the slit or hook. When put in its place the roller should be turned quickly with the hand to ascertain if it works easily. The brackets are fixed with screws, as denoted in the illustrations. 717. Sometimes it is necessary to hang the blind within the window- frame, that is, in the position shown by the dotted line R S ; when this is done the wires of the roller are supported on small brass Hanging projections semi-globular in shape, screwed on to flat yJiiaSw- pieces of wood, as at Q, just wide enough to fit the groove frame * between the outer board of the frame and the parting slip, within which the lower sash-frame works up and down. 718. When the brackets are fixed and the roller works easily and truly on them and within them, the next thing is to nail the blind itself to the roller. Before doing this slip the upper end of the . . & ^ Attaching fabric over the roller, moving it one way or the other as blind to may be necessary until the blind hangs straight down from the roller, inclining neither to one side or to the other. Unless this precaution be taken the chances are that the blind will be crooked, and not roll up and down fairly within the plate or disc on the left- hand end and the pulley on the other end. The rack and R ac k an a pulley, T, to carry the blind-cord must now be screwed on puUey ' to the window-frame, and the cord itself passed through the lower part of the pulley, cut to the proper length, and sewn. There is some little art even in sewing the ends of a piece of blind-cord together. The ends should be lapped one over the other as shown at U, and sewn through and through in the manner indicated by the serpentine line. When firmly connected in this way the overlapping ends should be tightly overlaid or bound over with thread all along the joint, which 328 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. when made in this way will be found to be a strong one, and one that Completion of will work easily over the pulley of the roller and the pulley fixing bimd. q £ ra ck. To complete the fixing of the blind all that is now necessary is to lift the pulley end of the roller out of its place, slip the cord over it, re-insert the wire in the bracket, and then slip the catch and pulley down the rack, taking care not to strain the cord too much, but merely to tighten it sufficiently to work the blind up and down. 719. The method above described is the ordinary mode of making and fixing house-blinds. There are patent appliances, spring rollers, etc., by which a blind may be run up in a moment ; but, Patent ap- pliances for as a general rule, these can only be properly fixed by an experienced hand. The amateur will find much difficulty in fitting them and making them work, in the first place ; and in put- ting them to rights if they get out of order. Ends for rollers, whether Prices of wo °d or iron, may be bought at the rate of 2d. or 3d. fittings. p er p a i r? an( j j ron brackets, galvanised, at the same rate. Wooden brackets the amateur may make for himself out of ^in. mahogany. Blind racks of an ordinary kind cost from 6d. to is. or is. 6d. It must be remembered that, simple as it all seems, con- siderable care and skill are required to hang a blind in a satisfactory manner, and the amateur must not be discouraged if his first efforts in this direction are not crowned with success. 720. The prettiest kind of blinds for houses, undoubtedly, are Venetian blinds. They present a nice appearance outside the house, Venetian an d mo< dify the light within the room in which they are blinds. fixed far better than the common blind ; for the degree of light to be admitted can be regulated at pleasure, by bringing the laths of which these blinds are composed closer together or further apart by means of a cord attached to the topmost lath for this purpose. 721. Venetian blind making may be said to be a trade in itself, or at all events a special branch of carpentry, as in all parts of London men are to be found who seldom do any other kind of Prices of Venetian work but this. The lowest price charged for making Venetian blinds is 7d. per superficial foot, which includes all the fittings ; but in general the carpenter who gives his attention chiefly to making blinds of this description will charge from 9d. to is. The amateur will be disappointed if he expects to get a narrow Vene- tian blind made for 7d. or even 13. per foot. It is manifestly out of reason to expect a carpenter to make a blind 6ft. long and ift. wide for 3s. 6d., for the labour and trouble involved are very nearly as much How to Make Venetian Blinds. 329 How to make It together again, Venetian , blinds, into working order. as are required to make a blind four times the superficial area, that is to say, 6ft. long by 4ft. wide. The amateur will do well to order his Venetian blinds of such a maker as Messrs. J. Avery and Co., 81, Great Portland Street , W., and then, when he has got them home, to fix them himself, which is easy enough. 722. If, however, he is determined to do this kind of work for himself, the best thing he can do is first to buy an old Venetian blind of a dealer in second-hand goods, and study its construction thoroughly ; taking it to pieces, putting and repairing it and getting it Secondly, unless he have plenty of time on his hands, and can devote enough of it to accomplishing the task of sawing his own laths, he had better, when about to make a new blind, purchase his laths already sawn. He has then nothing more to do than to cut them into pieces of the necessary length and plane them up. 723. Roughly described, the Venetian blind may be said to consist of a number of laths placed in two or more ladder-like cradles, each formed of two broad tapes with transverse tapes between p rincipleg of them, like the spokes of a ladder, to sustain the laths. The construction, ends of these tapes are secured at top and bottom to two thicker laths, and by means of a cord, the ends of which are nailed to the topmost L 1 1 ZZ £ 1 1 za r 1 G D| c H 1 /' K 1 B ^7 Fig. 356. VENETIAN BLIND. thick lath, the laths may be opened or closed at pleasure. Fig. 356 will serve to show the prin- ciple of the construction of the Venetian blind ; A and B are the thick laths at top and bottom to which the tapes c, D, E, F, are fastened. The laths G, H, K, rest on transverse tapes, whose direction is shown by the dotted lines, and which are attached to the broad, vertical tapes. The transverse tapes are narrow, and are sewn to the vertical tapes alternately, one being brought to one edge, and the next in order to the other. The laths G, H, K, as it has been said, are free to a certain extent, and rest on these tapes. The cord L M is attached to the topmost lath, A, one end to one side, and the other to the other side. Now it is manifest than when the side L is pulled downwards, the front edge of A is depressed, and the back edge raised ; and the motion being communicated to the tapes, and thence to the intermediate laths, G, H, K, and the bottom lath B, every one of these will assume the position taken by A. Similarly, if M be pulled down the front edge of A will be raised, and the back edge lowered, and this will be the case with all the other laths. According to the 330 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. extent to which the cord L M is pulled, the position of the laths may be altered from a level or horizontal position to one that is almost vertical, and the openings between the laths increased or diminished so as to admit or exclude the light at pleasure. 724. This, however, does not explain the means by which the Vener tian blind can be raised or lowered : it only describes the construction How raised itself, and the manner in which the laths are and lowered, sustained and put together ; the means of raising and lowering the blind are altogether independent of this, and will be better understood by the aid of another diagram. Fig. 357 represents in plan a piece of wood the length of the laths of the blind, and about 0 ™ B O C I . r — ,1 -rq' O LE 21 1 Fig. 357- lath to which Venetian blind is hung. iin. in thickness. Holes are cut in the laths, just midway between the space covered by the vertical tapes, and a cord is passed through these Description of holes, the lower end being attached to the bottom lath ; the contrivance. CO mmon mode of doing this being to make a hole through the lath, pass the cord through it, and make a knot at the end so that it may not be withdrawn. When there are only two tapes, arranged vertically, or, to speak more strictly, two pairs of tapes, two cords are used ; but if the blind be wide, and three pairs of tapes be used, three cords will be required for strength’s sake. The cords are passed up through the holes in the laths, the tapes falling alternately, one on one side of the cord, and the next on the other side. In the thick board shown in fig. 357, two slots, corresponding to the position of the tapes and cords, have been cut at A and B, and in these slots small pulleys are fixed. A third slot is also cut at C, wide enough to receive two pulleys, or even three, if necessary. The blind is attached to this board by means of short tapes or bands, just long enough to allow the top- most thick lath to be turned either way without coming in contact with the lower face of the board ; the cords are then passed over the pulleys A and B, and, after running along the top of the board in the directions shown by the dotted lines, are brought out over the pulleys inserted at C, and knotted together. Of course it will be readily seen that when the blind is down, by pulling these cords it can How to secure blind when be raised ; and, vice versa , by slackening the cords it can be lowered. The board is attached to the upper part of the window-frame by screws, but care must be taken not to turn the screws in too tightly lest the cords be pinched between the board and the Sunshades : Principles of Construction. 331 Painting. framing of the window, and prevented from working properly. When the blind is raised the cord is secured by passing it round two hooks turned in contrary directions, and screwed to the wood-work of the window in some convenient position. This is the whole art and mystery of making Venetian blinds. It may answer the amateur’s purpose to cut down old blinds to fit smaller windows, or to re-arrange Cutting down the laths ; but, unless he has a great deal of time at his old blinds, disposal, it will hardly pay, as the phrase goes, to make new ones. Of course, before the blind is put together and fixed in the position it is to occupy, the laths and board must be painted emerald green, pale blue, or some other colour, according to the maker’s fancy, or they may be simply stained and varnished. The stained laths, however, are not so pleasing in appearance, either within or without the house, as those that are painted. 725. External sunshades for windows are made in some measure in accordance with the mode adopted for raising and lowering Venetian blinds. First of all, a screen of thin wood, ABC, which External serves as a protection for the blind when drawn up, is sunshades * fixed within the reveals of the windows. Two rods are then made, either of wood or iron, and fixed one on either side of principles of the window. A piece of iron bent so as to form three constructlon * sides of a rectangle, as shown at F, is fitted with rings, so as to work up and down on the rods D and E. Some strong material, usually striped, is then made up in the shape indicated by the figure, having a straight piece in front and triangular sides. Small brass rings are then sewn to the front piece, in the centre and at the sides, as indi- cated by the dotted lines G, H, K, and larger rings are sewn to the straight sides of the tri- angular pieces that they may attach the blind to the rods and work up and down at pleasure. Strings are then fastened to the Method of iron F, and passed up through the fixmg ' rings in the direction of the dotted lines G, H, K. These cords pass over pulleys in a board fitted within the reveal of the window at the top, in the same manner as in the Venetian blind, and by these cords the blind can be raised or lowered at pleasure. When the cords are pulled the iron frame F is first raised into an upright position, and then is pulled up— frame, blind, and all — within the boarding ABC. Fig. 359 will make it perfectly clear to the reader how the frame- 332 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery . work is attached to the rings that work up and down the rods by the side of the window. A stout pin, A, is attached to the \b A ring B, and a hole is made in the end of the frame c. The pin is passed through this hole, and the head is Fig. 359. beaten flat in the form of a rivet. Thus the frame works on the pins of the rings with an upward and downward motion. 726. Curtain-poles may be purchased at a very cheap rate. A slight pole, suitable for an ordinary window about 3ft. in width, with Curtain- t ^ ie rec l l ^ s i te rings and ornaments at the ends, costs p° le s. about 3s. The amateur, however, may make excellent curtain-poles out of good red deal, and furnish them with ends that he can turn himself if he has a lathe. If he has not got one, he must purchase ends of wood ready turned to his hand, or metal ends of the ironmonger, of whom he may also procure curtain rings to suit the pole. 727. It is not desirable to have a curtain-pole too large in diameter, Diameter of for if s0 it i s heavy, and when long is apt to bend slightly curtam-poies. j n ^ ^ddle by reason of its weight. Having selected a nice piece of red deal, from ij^in. to 2Xin. square, plane it down How to till it is perfectly round. The wood should be about 3m. make them. j on g er at eac h e nd — that is to say, 6in. altogether — than the extreme width of the window. When the pole is finished, ends Attachment turned in AO r>i m 1 2 ^ A r c !IHI| ts ■|i§ "r Fig. 361. J Fic. 360. Fig. 362. ofends - wood, as shown at A in fig. 360, must be affixed to it. The attachment of the end to the pole is usu- ally effected by means of a double screw, as shown in fig. 361 ; or a peg may be made the curtain pole and brackets. either at the end of the pole, as shown in fig. 362, or projecting from the ornament that forms the end — the peg in the first case being thrust into a hole in the end ; or, in the second, into a hole in , A ^ the pole. Brackets, usually of brass, are then screwed to Brackets for r J 1 carriage of the exterior member of the moulding surrounding the pole. window, as shown in elevation in fig. 360 and m section m fig. 363. The form of the brackets and how they are fastened to the moulding are clearly shown in the illustrations. One end is removed and the rings are put on the pole, after which the end is put on again. Curtain Poles and Cornices. 333 The pole is then lifted on to the brackets, care being taken to put one ring, B, on either side outside the bracket, to keep the putting on outer edge of each curtain in its place when they are drawn rmgs * together. The pole is then prevented from being moved out of its place by means of the rose C, which is screwed through Fixing pole a hole in the front of the bracket, the end of the screw m posltlon - being forced against, and sometimes into, the pole. It need not, however, be screwed in so tightly as to do any marked damage. 728. Whether made of deal or beech, curtain-poles should be stained and French polished ; they should not be varnished, because a varnished surface is more liable to injury from the _ J ; How to backward and forward movement of the rings than a finish curtain- poles. French-polished surface. The instructions here given apply entirely to straight curtain-poles. When curtain-poles are required for bay-windows, unless a straight pole of considerable length is used, stretching across the whole width of the bay, they must be moulded; that is to say, composed of three pieces, joined at an angle corresponding to the angle formed by the inclination of the side windows to the front window. This is a very nice piece of work, and unless the amateur is a skilled and practised joiner he had better leave it to the professional cabinet-maker. There is not so much difficulty, however, in making a cornice for a bay-window. 729. Cornices may be straight or moulded. When perfectly straight, as for a window E X--X D1 r i!OCll F C xjd Q Fig. 364. A THE CORNICE, in the side of cornices for curtains. a room in the ordinary way, they must be returned, that is to say, turned at each end, as shown at A in fig. 364, so as to form with the front piece, B, a sort of box. 730. To make a straight cornice, a rectangular piece of wood is first taken, which forms the top and the means of supporting the entire fabric. To this piece of board another piece to Howtomake form the front, as at B, and two others to form the sides cornices - or ends, as at A, must be attached. The ends may be dove-tailed to the front, and indeed ought to be, if neat and strong work is desired. By the aid of a centre-bit and keyhole-saw, the lower edge of the cornice may be ornamented as shown in the illustration. Round the top a moulding, c, should be nailed, and this should be neatly mitred together at the corners. To support the cornice nothing more is 334 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. necessary than to screw two iron brackets to the moulding of the window-frame, as shown by the dotted lines at def. The projecting arm of the bracket must, of course, be screwed to the board round which the cornice is nailed, to prevent any chance of its being accidentally dislodged. To take the curtains, two hooks, such as large, strong dresser hooks, may be screwed into the sides of the Rail within cornice, and a slender iron bar supported on them by for curtains. j 10 | es j n t h e en( js. One of the hooks, and the mode of inserting it in the side of the cornice, is shown at F in fig. 364, and the bar at G. 731. For making a cornice to fit a bay-window, pretty much the same mode of procedure must be adopted. As the various joints used Comice for in carpentry have been fully described and explained in hay-window. p art w jp seldom be necessary for the future to do more than indicate the nature of the joint to be made. In all simple joinery of this description the ordinary dove-tail joint is all that is requisite. 732. When the amateur is about to make a moulded cornice, the first thing to be done is to get an accurate model of the angles of the Moulded hay, by means of screwing three slips of wood together, cornice. an ^ f rom t ^ ls mo del the piece of board can be made that is to form the top of the cornice. It will be enough for all practical Fig. 365. TOP OF CORNICE FOR BAY. purposes to show merely one side and Angle of the cornice, as in fig. 365. For convenience’ sake, and to render the whole operation more intelligible to the amateur, the figure has been drawn in accordance with the form of the window as it appears to the beholder when he stands look- ing at it. In reality, the surface abcdef that is shown repre- sents the upper part of the board that is next to the ceiling ; but it will help us very much if we take the board as transparent, allowing us to see what is underneath, rather than turn it upside down and put the piece BCDEin the opposite direction. Along the outer edges of the board A B, B C, c D, pieces of wood must be attached at right angles Arrangements for Support of Curtains . 335 to it, and jointed together at the angles B and C. The lower edge of the united boards may be ornamented after the manner of a how to crest board, as shown in fig. 364, and a piece of moulding make nailed round the top as a finish, as shown in the same figure. The chief difficulty in the joinery will be the connection of the several pieces of wood at the angles B and C, and at the corresponding angles on the other side, which are not shown in the diagram. With these exceptions the method of making the moulded cornice is the same as that which must be followed in making the straight cornice : it is with the arrangement of the iron rods within that we have most to do here ; that is to say, to show how the curtains may be drawn together, and the rings passed easily over the angle along the dotted line from B to E. 733. This may be done in various ways, two of which are shown in fig. 365. One of these consists of a bar of iron, G H K, with holes at G and K, which fit on to hooks screwed into the top board . . . Arrangements of the cornice. This bar sustains one curtain, and another for support of bar, the end of which is shown at L, supports the other a * ns ’ curtain. The rings will pass easily over the bent arc at H. The diameter of the rings used should be at least twice or three times the diameter of the bar, so that they may run easily along it Iron b from end to end. The close junction of the edges of the on hooks. curtains is effected by the overlapping of the bars at G and L, which admits of the passing of the edge of one curtain over the other. Another plan is to obtain a piece of brass grooving similar ^ to that shown in plan by M N O, and in section at P. grooving and button. This grooving is furnished with flanges or projecting pieces, by which it may be screwed to the top board of the cornice. A sort of button, as shown at Q, is slipped into the groove. This button will slip easily along the groove from one end to the other. About a dozen are necessary for each curtain. A shank projects from the bottom of the button, which is pierced for the reception of the curtain hook. This brass grooving may be had in one single piece, but if it is desired that the curtains should lap one over the other when drawn close, it will be better to have it in two pieces. 734. Curtains, whether of light or heavy materials, are drawn together more readily by cords than by the hand. A great deal of pulling and dragging is often required to bring curtains Easy mode together, and this, if the curtains be closed as a regular of drawing 1 • • , , \ curtains. thing every evening, tends to damage and soil them. By a very simple arrangement of cords and pulleys curtains may be drawn and withdrawn at pleasure. The cords by which this is effected 336 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery . will hang behind one of the curtains at one side of the window, after the manner of the cords of a Venetian blind. It will be understood that this arrangement can be carried out far more easily for curtains hanging from a straight cornice than from one of the kind shown in fig- 365 * 735. We must now take brackets and shelves into consideration, and consider what they are, how they may be made, and how they Brackets and ma y fi xe d* The shelf being generally of some length shelves. j s m0 stly fixed to the wall, and constitutes what is termed a fixture. Brackets, which are short, small shelves, may also be fixed to the wall, but as they are not intended to carry or support any great weight they may be made and hung so as to be movable from place to place. 736. It has been said above that a bracket is a short, small shelf. Strictly speaking, however, the bracket is the piece of wood, or iron, or What a even stone, that is used to afford support to the shelf, which bracket xs. a pj ece 0 f WO od, or some other material, laid upon the bracket in a horizontal position. But because the ledge on which any article is to be placed cannot be supported or fixed to the wall without the bracket, the combination of ledge and bracket has now come to be spoken of under the simple term bracket. In architec- Corbels. ture brackets, or corbels, as they are sometimes called, are often taken advantage of to enrich the building to which they belong by ornamenting them with carving or sculptured work. 737. In considering any kind of constructional work — that is to say, work which consists of two or more pieces framed together, or other- wise connected — it is always useful to examine the Principles of construction principles on which such work is made, and to trace of bracket. r . . them to their simplest forms. Let us do this in the case of the bracket, taking the bracket, first of all, in its original acceptation as being a means of support for a superincumbent ledge. 738. The simplest form of bracket is manifestly a piece of iron bent in such a manner that the two arms of which it is formed are at right Simplest form angles to each other. When bent in this way, as shown of bracket. j n ^ 366^ the bracket is often called an angle iron, and used for affording support and strength to articles made of wood in which one piece is attached to, or supported on, another piece at right angles to it. Brackets of this description, when the arms Angle iron. 0 c 1 range in length from 4m. to 6in., are often used to support narrow shelves in greenhouses, shops, etc. For this purpose they are made in the simplest and roughest form of plain iron, pierced with Brackets of Different Kinds . 337 holes for screws, so that one arm, A B, may be screwed to the wood- work, whatever it may be, at the back, and the other arm, A c. to the ledge or shelf. A better kind of bracket of this Flanged description is made of iron with a projecting rib on either side, as at X, so that the head of the screw sinks into the groove between the ribs ; these are either galvanised or japanned. Now this kind of bracket being made in so cohesive a material as iron will support a con- siderable weight without giving way, but it is clear that the longer the arm A C is made the COMMON BRACKET, bracket with strut, ornamental bracket. less will be its sustaining power. This may be best explained by supposing two brackets of this form, in one of which the arm A C is 6in. long, and in the other I2in. long. If a 561b. weight were hung at the end of the projecting arm of each bracket, it would be found that the extent to which the longer arm would be bent downwards would be much greater in proportion than the deflection of the shorter arm. 739. This being the case, means must be devised to impart rigidity or inflexibility to the bracket, and this is accomplished by attaching an iron strut to the interior of the bracket, as shown by D E in fig. 367. This strut is strongly riveted to the arms A B and AC. If a heavy weight be now suspended from the end C of the arm A C, there is no chance of the arm bending and giving way under the downward pressure, for a considerable part of the weight is transmitted down the strut D E in the direction of D E, and is received and resisted by the wall or wood-work at B, which presses outward, so to speak, against the weight to exactly the same extent as it is pressed against by the weight. A much heavier load may now be placed on A c than before the strut was attached to the bracket, for the wall now helps to support the weight, while before it was the arm A c alone that offered any resistance to the downward pressure. The next step in the formation of iron brackets or metal brackets of any kind is ornamental shown in fig. 368, in which the ornamental scroll-work D E brackets - answers the same purpose as the simple strut in fig. 367. In this kind of bracket the arms are made much wider than in the ordinary metal bracket, as shown at Y, so that holes for screws may be made in the flanges that project on either side of the ornamental work. Simple iron brackets maybe bought from id. to 3d. or 4d. each, according Bracket witii strut. 22 338 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. to size. Ornamental brackets range, according to size, from 3d. to is. nast-iron or Is * 3d. Capital cast-iron brackets for greenhouses may orackets. be bought for 5d. or 6d. a piece. Iron brackets are now sent to this country in great quantities from America. These are slighter and more elegant in appearance than the English brackets, and are japanned and finished with greater care. Brackets of this sort in every size and shape may be obtained of Mr. Melhuish. 740. Being now acquainted with the principles on which iron Wooden brackets are constructed so as to combine strength and brackets. rigidity with an ornamental appearance, we may proceed to see how far these principles enter into the construction of wooden brackets for the support of shelves, etc. 741. Looking back on fig. 366, we can see at once that it is utterly impossible to construct a wooden bracket in this manner. The wood Principles of l ac ks the cohesion of the iron, or, in other words, the fibres construction. 0 f t h e WO od do not lie together so closely, and hang to- gether so tightly as the atoms or molecules of which the iron is com- posed. You can cut off a shaving of wood with a knife, but it takes far more trouble to detach a particle of iron from the mass of which it has formed a part, and to do this with a knife is not possible. If, how- ever, we look at fig. 367, we see at once that a wooden bracket can be made on this principle, though not precisely in the same manner, for it will be necessary to adapt the method of connecting the pieces of which the bracket is composed to the material that we are working with. The chief points at which we have to look are these ; namely, Proper union hovv the separate pieces can of parts. best be framed together, and how, when the bracket is made, it can be attached most securely to the wall. Now a man who knew little or nothing about carpentry would, in all probability, take a piece of wood, such as is shown from A to B in fig. 369, as an upright, and another piece, as from C to D, and a third piece with the ends cut on the bevel, as at E and F, and nail the three pieces together, putting one nail through the end r> of C D, into the end A of A B, and two more through E and F, so as to nail E F to the pieces A B and CD. A very little consideration will bracket. serve to show that in such a piece of work as this there can be no strength whatever, and that to obtain a proper union of parts that shall give strength and security to the bracket, very different means must Method of Making Wooden Bracket . 339 be used. In the first place, a piece of wood longer than A b must be taken, such as is shown by G B. To this upright the horizontal piece c D must be connected by a tenon let into a mortise just half the width of the pieces B G, C D, which of course must be of the same width and thickness. Lastly, the ends E, F, of the strut E F must be cut, as shown in the figure, and let into notches cut for their reception, one in the upright B G, and the other in the horizontal C D. These notches need not be more than deep in the deepest part. The best way to cut a strut is first to make the notches in the upright and How to horizontal, and then, having connected these two pieces cut strut * by the mortise and tenon joint made for this purpose, to lay them on the piece of wood intended for the strut, placed, of course, exactly in the position it is intended to occupy, and then mark off the angles at which the ends of the strut are to be cut, with a scribe or lead pencil. A wooden peg should be used to fasten the mortise and Fastening tenon joint, but the ends of the strut may be secured in mortise, their places by screws. A bracket thus made will be found strong enough to sustain any weight in reason. No attempt is made to give dimensions : as long as the principle involved in the construction of any article is made clear, it is all that is absolutely necessary. Each amateur who is making brackets on this plan can settle the dimensions according to his requirements. 742. The next thing to be considered is how such a bracket as the one just described is to be fixed. If it is to be fixed against woodwork, three or four screws of sufficient length, passed through Fixing strut the upright B G — one at the top, another at the bottom, and bracket, one or two in the middle — will be sufficient ; but if it is to be fixed against a brick wall, the wall must be plugged by driving pieces of wood into the wall between the bricks in the most convenient positions, to afford holding for the nails which must be driven through B G, and which would not hold in the brickwork. 743. From the bracket whose construction has just been explained the transition is easy to the bracket of ordinary shape shown in fig. 370, which is the form most commonly used bra^ffor for the support of shelves, wherever a single shelf is shelf * required. The dotted line A B shows the direction in which a weight placed on the shelf just above A is transmitted through the bracket to the wall or support to which the bracket is fixed. The rounded part adc serves no useful purpose whatever : as far as the strength of the bracket is concerned, it might as well be removed as not, but if it were cut off, the appearance of the bracket would not be so pleasing to the 340 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. eye. The part CEF, projecting beyond the part C B of the line A B, is both useful as well as ornamental, for a screw can be better inserted at B, if the lower part of the bracket takes this shape, than if it had been triangular in form, as indicated by the dotted line acb. Still the amateur must remember that it is only this triangular part A B G of the bracket that is instrumental in sup- Connection of bracket porting the shelf, and any weight that may Whether and shelf. be placed upon it. Whether the bracket be used singly for the support of a short piece of wood, or with another for the support of a long shelf, it is bet- ter to connect it with the superincumbent shelf by mor- tises and tenons, as shown at G and H. When fixed to woodwork, the edge G B of the bracket and the edge of the shelf may be skew-nailed to the support behind ; when fixed to a brick wall, the Plugging wa ^ must k e plugged to take the nails. If the shelf is in wails. n ot too large anc [ heavy, small slips of metal may 7 at- tached to the back of the shelf with a hole in the upper part, so that the metal may be screwed to the woodwork behind, as at L. 744. In making brackets for attachment to garden walls to hold pots, a broad piece of wood, say 4m. in width at least, should be fixed to the Brackets for b ac k °f tf ie bracket and shelf above it, and two holes garden wails. mac i e i n it by which it can be suspended on nails driven into the wall. There is no necessity for attaching the lower part of the bracket proper to the wall ; it will be held against the wall by the weight of the pot and the earth it contains, and serve to transmit the pressure of the weight above to the wall, which is its chief use. 745. The amateur will not expect anything to be said about making the ledges or shelves that are laid on the brackets. He will take care to cut his wood of the necessary length and breadth, and Ledges or shelves on to plane up the top surface and the edges of the board brackets. in front and at the ends. If the shelf is high and the under part is visible, that should also be planed. If it be found incon- venient to connect shelf and supports by mortise and tenon, the shelf can be fastened down to the brackets by screws. 746. Ornamental brackets have been sufficiently treated in the chapter on fret-cutting and fret-sawing, and there will be no necessity Ornamental ^ or s P ea king further on the subject here. The principles brackets, involved in their construction are precisely the same, but to add to their appearance perforated work is generally added above How to Prepare and Fix Shelf. 34i Shelf in recess or corner. the shelf and below also ; and they are often constructed, by the aid of hinges, so as to fold together. This is useful for packing and con- venience of carriage. 747. The amateur may often find it desirable to fix a shelf in a recess or in the corner of a room or passage. We will give one or two examples of the method of doing this, and then proceed to explain the construction of a larger kind of shelf or bracket-table for a small hall or passage. 748. Suppose that ABCDEin fig. 371 represents the plan of a recess in a room on one side of a fire-place, ABC being the corner of the chimney breast. The first thing to be done is to determine How to the height of the shelf, for which 3ft. or a little more prepare and will be found convenient. Let us take the height of the top surface of the shelf to be 3ft. The shelf will be in all probability an inch thick, or very nearly so, when planed up, so that if its surface is to be 3ft. above floor level, marks must be made on the wall just 2ft. 1 1 in. above the surface of the floor. The amateur will find that it is not always desirable to work Fig. 371. by the flooring, because this is not shelf in recess. always level ; so as soon as the marks have been made, a straight-edge must be applied to them, and the correctness, or otherwise, of the marks tested by means of a spirit-level. When the marks have been accu- rately adjusted by the aid of the level, ledges, as shown at F, G, and H, must be nailed to the wall. On these ledges the shelf may be dropped, and fastened down with screws or nails. Ledges for the support of shelves of this kind should be iin. thick and 2in. wide ; the outer edges of the ledges F and H should be sloped off towards the floor, from the topmost edge ; or, in other words, their corners should be cut off. Sometimes the ledges are made of two slips of wood, especially where very neat work is required ; in this case the inner piece is nailed to the wall, and the outer piece screwed on to it. The heads of the screws may then be concealed with putty, or a hole may be made into which the screw may be sunk flush with the bottom, the opening being filled up with a piece of turned wood in the form of a disc or button. 749. The shelf should be cut to fit exactly into the recess, and scribed round so as to fit closely and accurately against the wall. Fig. 372 will show what is meant by this. In this figure let A B c D repre- Cutting shelf to fit against wall. M 342 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. sent the recess. The wall at the back having been badly plastered is irregular in form, having such an outline as is shown by the line befgc. Let the shelf be a little deeper than is absolutely necessary, and when all is ready for fixing, push the shelf against the back of the recess, until the straight inner Operation of ec ^ e B F c touches it where it will. Measure the breadth “ scribing.” 0 f the space between the shelf and the wall, where it is widest — in this case from E to K — with a pair of iron compasses. If „ " * r c the means of doing so are attached to the compasses, set the legs that they may not shift their position, Fig. 372. scribing shelf. and then, keeping the point of one leg against the wall along the line befgc, press the point of the other leg on the surface of the shelf. As the points of the compasses pre- serve their relative distance throughout, a line H K L M N, similar in every respect to B E F G C, is traced on the upper surface of the shelf, and when the corners bhk and C N M, and the hollow K L M, have been cut away with keyhole-saw or chisel, it will be found that the shelf may be pushed home to the wall, and will fit tightly against it. 750. Returning to fig. 371, the shelf must be made wider than the recess, so that the outer edge, shown by the straight line K L, may pro- Sheif wider J* ect ^ or lm ' or 1 V^ n - beyond the face of the chimney than recess, breast, and lap over the chimney breast A B, as shown at K. If preferred, the outer edge of the shelf may be kept level with the chimney breast, as shown by the straight line B M, and a piece of wood may then be screwed on to the edge, as shown by the space be- tween the straight lines bm,kl, deep enough to conceal the ends of the ledges. If the shelf be brought out, in the first place, to the line K L, the ledges may be concealed by a piece of neat moulding nailed or screwed to the lower surface of the shelf, or by a slip of wood let into a groove made to receive it in the under part of the shelf. 751. Brackets in the form of a quadrant or fourth part of a circle are out of place in a recess if used singly, but a pair of them may be Brackets in P^ acec ^ opposite corners of the same recess, or in recess. similar corners of two recesses — that is to say, in the corners nearest to, or farthest removed from, the chimney breast. Otherwise when used singly they can only be placed with propriety in the angle formed by two walls of a room. A bracket of this descrip- tion is very useful just outside the door of a bedroom, when the door is close to an angle of the passage without the room, as a shelf whereon to rest a jug, candlestick, lamp, etc., when necessary. Bracket Shelf or Table. 343 752. The mode of putting up one of these right-angled brackets, with a circular sweep in front, is shown in fig. 371, at the right-hand corner. The ledges D M, D N, are nailed to the contiguous . Fixing right- faces of the wall ; and, if the bracket be a large one, another angled rail may be attached to them, as shown by the double dotted lines from N to M. Notches should be made in the ledges D M, D N, at M and N, through half their thickness, and the end»s of the rail M N cut accordingly, and dropped into the notches and fastened down by skew-nailing. The triangle thus formed will afford a firm support for the shelf, which must be cut as shown by the curved dotted line o P. 753. It is almost impossible to have too many resting-places of this kind in the corners of rooms and the passages of a Brackets house. They are always handy for petroleum lamps, if ^^artsof U there be no gas in the house ; and if there be, they can house, always be made available for jars and vases and other ornaments, which will be suggested by the circumstances of position and the good taste or peculiar fancies of those who live in the house. 754. The bracket-table, with a flap to move up or down at pleasure, suitable for a small hall or passage, or even as a temporary table at a window, or as an occasional sideboard in a small room, is ThQ bracket a little more difficult to make than the fixed bracket ; but table or sheLf - the difficulties are such as may be easily overcome. We shall proceed as before to deal with the general mode and principles of construction, leaving it to each amateur who may be inclined to make one to settle its dimensions for him- self. All that need be said here on this point is that 24m. or 30m. by 1 Sin. will be found a convenient size. 755. The several parts of the bracket-shelf or table are exhibited in figs. 373 and Several parta 374. The of table, first thing to be done is to make the n , r How to make nap or shelf and put them , together, to be at- tached to a rail that must be fixed to the wall, the attachment being ox- FlG. 373* PLAN of rail of BRACKET SHEL'A Fig. 374. ELEVATION OF RAIL AND BRACKET OF BRACKET SHELF. 344 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. made by means of hinges. The shelf should be made about less than the width desired for the table, the entire width The shelf. being made up by the rail shown in plan in the under part by A B in fig. 373, and in elevation in fig. 374. The rail may be from 2in. to 2^in. wide, but its width must depend very much The rSiil. on the thickness of the skirting-board below, shown at C D, for reasons that will be apparent presently. When all the separate parts are finished the rail must be fastened to the wall behind, and rendered immovable. Next a bracket must be made, similar in con- struction to that shown in fig. 369. This bracket is shown at E in fig. 374. The ends of the upright F G must be cut as shown in the form of circular pegs, projecting for about % in. beyond the ends of the upright to fit into holes made — one in the rail as shown at x in fig. 373, and F in fig. 374 ; and the other as shown at G in fig. 374, and Y in fig. 375. Fig. 375 is the plan of a piece of Rest or sup- port for wood, shown in elevation at H K in fig. 374. This piece of wood, when the pegs at the ends of F G are inserted in the holes cut to receive them, is screwed firmly to the skirting. It is plain in order to keep F G upright that the distance from the inner edge of the rail to the hole X (fig. 3 73) must be the same as the thickness of the skirting-board plus the distance of the hole Y, from the inner or straight part of the support shown at H K in fig. 375. The pegs F and G must, when all the parts are ready, be slipped into their places, and the rail and the support at the bottom screwed or fastened — the one to the wall, and the other to the skirting-board. It will then be impossible to pull the bracket E out of its place, the only motion it can have being from side to side as it turns on its pegs or pivots F and G. When the flap, Fixture of which is attached to the rail by hinges, as shown at L and flap, etc. M j n 273 and 374, is let down, the bracket E folds away completely under the rail A B ; but when the flap is raised, the bracket must be pulled out until it is at right angles to the wall behind. The posi- tion of the bracket and the flap when the latter is let down are shown in fig. 374, the outline of the flap being indicated by the dotted line apqb. The table, flap, and fittings may be made of mahogany or of nicely grained red deal, stained as the fancy of the maker may dictate, and French polished. The edge of the flap should be neatly moulded, and the moulding should be carried on to the rail on either side for the sal$e of uniformity. For small houses and small rooms few things will be found more convenient than these bracket-tables. 756. Similar to these table flaps in construction and general purpose are brackets made to let down, the bracket folding back against the Brackets against Wall : Mantel-shelf. 345 wall, and the flap falling down over it. These are seldom seen in modern houses, though they frequently fonrfed part of the equipment of old houses in the country. They afford a B iet C down° useful support for a lamp, a candle, a wine-glass, a tumbler, agamsfc waU * a cup and saucer, a small workbox, or any of the numerous things one may require when sitting snugly by the fire on a cold winter afternoon or evening. 757. Sometimes the mantel-shelf above was converted into a sort of tram-road on which, by the aid of a couple of cords, a couple seated one on one side, and the other on the other side, of the PaBsing the fire-place might pull a bottle of port backwards and for- bottle, wards between them, and so pass the bottle without the trouble of moving from their chairs. In such a case, the folding bracket mentioned above formed a convenient resting-place for the wine- glass. 758. Here our notice of shelves and brackets must be brought to an end. It will be understood that in a work of this description it is impos- sible to speak of everything that partakes of the nature of a shelf. For example, there is no necessity to speak par- Mantel ‘ shelf * ticularly of an ornamental shelf covered with cloth or velvet, to be placed on a narrow or old-fashioned mantel-piece ; for with the instruc- tions already given the amateur will be at no loss how to prepare the board, how to mould it in sweeping curves in front to suit his fancy, how to cover it with such material as may be deemed most suitable, to surround it with fringe of silk or worsted attached to the edge of the board in front and at the sides by gilt-headed nails made for the purpose, and, finally, to fix it to the wall by means of small metal plates with holes in them to admit of the passage of brass-headed nails by which they are held to the wall. The little plates are of course screwed to the back of the shelf, and the holes appear above it. 759. The gilt nails to which allusion is made above are sold at the ironmongers’, and are also used for fastening strips of leather to the edges of bookshelves. The simplest and cheapest nails Qilt nailg for of this description are the small round-headed chair nails, mantel-shelf, which are sold at the rate of 3s. 9d. per 1,000. The larger and more ornamental nails, which are of ormolu, gilt, and washable, vary, accord- ing to size and pattern, from i>£d. to 5d. per dozen. A nail consisting of a white head, something like a conical bullet, but much smaller, attached to an iron spike, is also sold for this purpose, at the rate of 2d. per dozen. CHAPTER VI, TABLES, STOOLS, CHAIRS, AND COUCHES : GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION, MAKING, AND MENDING. Furniture Mended rather than Made by Amateur — Desirable to know Principles of Construction of Furniture — Word “Table” variously applied — Ordinary Rec- tangular Table — Telescope Tables — Kitchen Table : how to make it — Table height — Supports or Legs — Rails connecting Legs — Parts to be glued and pegged — The Top of the Table — How to fasten Top to Rails — Blocking Table — Meaning of “ Principles of Construction” — Modifications or Extentions of Principles — Support for Round Table — How Wide Base is obtained — Construction of Round Table — Area of Support — Mobility of Desk or Top — Rim to Round Table- Catch or Latch — Gipsy Table — Construction of Gipsy Table — Parts to be well adjusted before glued — Coffee or Chess Table — Principles of Construction- How the Table is made — May be called “ Bracket Table ” — Modifications of Brackets for Table — Writing Table, or Occasional Table — The Supports — Slips or Ledges — Mode of Construction — Top of Table — How to Fasten it Securely — Modifications in Shape easily introduced — Construction of Chairs — The Ordinary Type of Chair — Chief parts of Structure — How to make the Back — Preparation of Front of Chair — Framework of Seat— Connection of Parts — Windsor or Kitchen Chair — Same Principles of Construction to be traced in all Chairs— Old-fashioned Arm-chair — Chair height — Plow to make a comfortable Arm-chair — Cutting out the Timbers — Fitting the Parts together — Seat of Chair : how formed — Stuffing of Chair — Over-all of Chintz — Mending Chairs — Sources of Injury to Light Chairs — Effects of Heat of Fire — Nails not to be used in Repairing — Fracture of Chair-rail, etc. — How to Mend it — Fracture of Rail of Seat — How to Repair it — Fractures in Windsor Chairs — Mode of Mending Fracture — Stools : why taken after Chairs — Structure of Windsor Chair and Stool similar — Principles of Construction of Three-Legged Stool — Fixing Legs — Wedging up Rails — Stools that Amateur will make — Fender Stool: its Construction — Stuffing the Top — Kneeling Stool — Ottoman or Box Stool — Construction of Ottoman — Good way of making Top or Lid — No limit to what Amateur may do — Sofa or Couch — Useful Couch for Invalids — Construc- tion of Frame — The Panels : how to make them — Hinges to Connect Panels — Panels useful in Spine Complaint — Webbing or Iron Laths — Cushions for Couch — Conversion of Couch into Bed — Old-fashioned Sofa — Simple Bedstead — An X Bed always comfortable— Construction of X Bedstead— Connection of the Legs — Sacking and Head-piece. 760. It is not to be supposed that the amateur mechanic will often take in hand the making of a piece of furniture, such as a table, stool, chair, couch, or bed. He will, however, often be called on to try his hand at mending either one or the other during a long course of Ordinary Rectangular Table. 347 married life, if it please God to spare him to his wife and family, and permit him to see his children’s children ; and it is there- Furnitur0 fore desirable that he should know the general prin- mended rather than ciples of their construction. This knowledge, moreover, made by 1 . amateur, is absolutely necessary to him, if he find it necessary, or to his advantage, to make a writing-table, or occasional table for house or garden, an invalid couch, or even a simple bed for a child. 761. It will be useful, therefore, to glance at the principles of con- struction involved in the manufacture of 1. Tables . 2. Chairs . 3. Stools. 4. Couches. 5. Beds. It cannot be expected that we can enter into the construction of all the different varieties that belong to each individual heading. . x>esiraDi0 It is only possible to deal with such single articles as to know J 1 _ principles of may be considered to be fair types of each group. Thus, construction of furniture. in speaking of tables, all that can be done is to describe the method of making a square table and a round table, and to show variations from these general principles in modes of constructing writing-tables or occasional tables, gipsy-tables, and garden-tables ; and to do the same as briefly but yet as clearly as possible for the other articles of furniture that have been enumerated. 762. The word “ table” is very variously applied ; there are at least thirteen or fourteen different applications of this word, as the reader may ascertain for himself on referring to any large word “ Dictionary of the English Language,” which enters variously fully into and deals exhaustively with the subject. In a PP Ued - Carpentry, however, a table is taken to be “ a flat slab, board, or the like, having a smooth surface placed horizontally and supported by legs, which is used as an article of furniture for a variety of purposes, as to eat, work, or write upon.” This is Webster’s definition of the piece of furniture called a table. 763. The ordinary kitchen table is a good type of the square table, and if the amateur can make a table of this description, he will be able to make any kind of square table, or, speaking 0rdinary more correctly, any kind of rectangular table. It will reo ^^ lla,? be understood that tables that can be lengthened or shortened at pleasure, such as telescope dining-tables, do not come within the compass of our plan ; their construction being too compli- cated, and requiring too much space and too much illustra- Telesoope . tion for description here. A telescope-table must be tables, studied in all its parts and movements before any attempt can be made to mend or make one. 348 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. 0 • « 1 e s Fig. 378. END OF RAIL. Fig. 376. ELEVATION OF KITCHEN TABLE. Fig. 377. PLAN OF FRAMING OF KITCHEN TABLE. 764. In making a kitchen table we have to consider, first, the supports or legs ; secondly, the rails by which the legs are connected ; Kitchen anc *> slab or board which is laid on the frame table: howto formed by the legs and rails, and which completes the table. In fig. 376 the elevation of one side of a kitchen table is shown; and in fig. 377, the plan of the framing made by the I — ^ s legs and connecting rails, or rather a part of it, as it is unnecessary to give the whole, for by the aid of the diagram the amateur will be able to make a complete plan for himself according to scale. The figures here given are not drawn to scale, for reasons that have been already stated. The legs should be made out of pieces of good red deal at least 3m. square when planed up. “ Table height ” is reckoned to Table t> e 3 m - or 4^ n -> reckoning from the floor to the height. surface of the table ; the former is the more convenient height for general purposes, but as much work is done on a kitchen table in a standing posture, it is better to have a table of this kind an inch or two higher. Supposing that the slab or board which forms the top of the table is i^in. thick, the length of the legs will be 2ft. 2 Supports or su PP os i n & the table to be 2ft. 4m. in height. It will be legs. noticed in fig. 376 that the legs are bevelled or sloped slightly on the two inner sides to give a lighter appearance to the table when finished. The rails may vary in depth from 4^in. to 6in., Kails according to the length of the table ; for the amateur will connecting remember that the longer the joist or rail, the deeper it must be in order to prevent deflection under any super- incumbent weight. The legs are to be kept square as far as the depth of the rails, but from the bottom of the rails or a little distance below it the legs may be bevelled as drawn. The rails are cut at each end in double tenons as shown in fig. 378. These tenons fit into mortises cut in the interior faces of the tops of the legs, as shown in fig. 377, the shorter part of the tenon going only as far as the lines drawn across the tenons in the diagram, and the longer part entering the leg to the full depth. When the legs and rails have been accurately fitted to- Making Top of Table: Blocking Table. 349 Parts to be glued and pegged. The top of the table. gether, the tenons are glued and driven home into the mortises, and se- cured with wooden pegs. The amateur is cautioned never to put a nail through a mortise and tenon joint, especially in making furniture, for a wooden pin can be easily bored out with a gimlet or stock-and-bit, while the extraction of a nail will tend more or less to the injury and consequent disfigurement of the wood. The value of this advice will be acknowledged when the amateur finds it necessary to put a new rail into a table. 765. The framing being all ready, the top may be placed on it. The top must be made of boards securely jointed together by one or other of the various modes adopted for this purpose, and which have been fully described in sections 443-446, in Part I., and clamped at the ends (see section 608 and figs. 302, 30 3), in order to prevent warping. The top or upper surface must be planed smooth ; the under part may be left rough if preferred, but the plane should be passed over the edges and the under surface where it overlaps the sides, which it should do for about 3m. The top may be fastened to the framing by means of screws ; notches should be cut in the inner „ . . . ' ’ How to fasten side of the rails and the screws driven upwards in a to rails * slanting direction as shown at A in fig. 379. This can only be done when the rail is a substantial one. In slighter tables the top is usually nailed down to the frame, but in larger tables of this kind it is useful to be able to remove the top at pleasure. Sometimes a deep groove is ploughed in the inner part of the rail, as shown at B B, and a button with a short projecting flange, as shown at C, is screwed to the under surface of the top of the table, as at D. The button turns on the screw, and the flange may be turned in or out of the groove at pleasure. There should be a button at least at every foot all round the table. When the top of any table of this kind is a fixture, it is generally “ blocked that is to say, rectangular blocks of wood, as Block } nc , at E, are glued at short intervals into the angle formed by tables, the meeting of the under surface of the top and the inner surface of the rail, to give additional strength and stability to the structure. 766. The term “ principles of construction” has been frequently used in these pages, and from the foregoing description of the mode of making a kitchen table, its meaning may be fairly gathered. It has been shown that the component parts of the table are the legs, the rails Fig. 379. FASTENING TOP OF TABLE TO RAIL. 350 Constructional Carpentry and Joinery. at sides and ends, and the top, and it has been further shown how these various parts are to be put together. The parte Meaning of m “principles of and the putting of them together set forth the principles construction.” . . . of construction. These principles enter into and govern the making of any kind of table, or support used after the manner of a table ; as, for example, a washstand or dressing-table. The back of either of these, the sides connected with the back, the frame and sub- table of the washstand on which the ewer may be placed when removed from the basin, the drawers that are sometimes appended, and other additions are merely modifications or extensions Modifications . ' or extensions ot the same principles, which the amateur will be able to of principles. , , , . . . reduce to practice and carry out after an inspection of any article of furniture of this kind that he may wish to make or repair and a due consideration of the relation of its various parts. 767. A square or rectangular table is for the most part supported by four legs, one at each corner ; a round or circular table and an oval Support for ta kle are usually supported by one leg or pillar in its round table, centre. To each general rule there are exceptions ; for example, a folding square card-table is sometimes supported on a pillar, while a round or oval table is sometimes sustained on a frame-work having three or four legs. If a disc or circular piece of wood be sustained by a central pillar only, it must of necessity be unstable and devoid of strength. In making a round table we must therefore con- sider what means may be used to prevent it from tipping over when a comparatively small weight or force is applied at the cir- How wide .... , , _ base is cumference of the disc, and to give necessary stability and firmness to the top. These means manifestly lie in the extension of the base of the support, which stands on the ground, and the superficial area of the top on which the disc is laid. 768. All this will become clear on an inspection of the accompanying diagrams, of which fig. 380 represents the elevation of the table ; fig. 381 the arrangement by which stability and support is Construction . of round given to the top; and fig. 382 the means by which the foot or base of the table is extended to prevent it from being easily turned over. Suppose that in fig. 380 the only two members of the table were the top A b and the pillar c D, it is manifest that the only part at which the top can touch its support is the small circle at the top of the pillar at c, shown in plan in fig. 381 at C, and the extent to which the pillar rests on the ground is the slightly larger circle at the bottom of the pillar at D, also shown in plan at D in fig. 382. It is equally clear that a very little pressure at A or B, or any other point of Principles of Construction of Round Table. 351 A B I n U ' E 0