977.2 In252h 1963 cop. 2 INDIANA— DEPT. OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- TION HANDBOOK ON INDIANA HISTORY HINDIS HISTOiUCAl SUMBt #^ s# IUIHQIS KftlURKiAi- bllMtt Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2012 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign http://archive.org/details/handbookonindianOOindi a HANDBOOK ON INDIANA HISTORY INDIANA SESQUICENTENNIAL COMMISSION Indianapolis, 1 963 HANDBOOK ON INDIANA HISTORY By DONALD F. CARMONY INDIANA SESQUICENTENNIAL COMMISSION Reprint Edition, Indianapolis, 1963 INDIANA SESQUICENTENNIAL COMMISSION (Members as of October, 1963) Ex-Officio Members: Matthew E. Welsh, Governor Richard O. Ristine, Lieutenant Governor Walter Myers, Jr., Chief Justice of Supreme Court William E. Wilson, Superintendent of Public Instruction Appointed Members: Senator V. Dewey Annakin, Terre Haute John V. Beamer, Wabash (Associate Chairman)* I. George Blake, Franklin Oliver C. Bumb, Muncie* Donald F. Carmony, Bloomington (Chairman)* Representative Leewell H. Carpenter, Wabash Leo C. Craig, Delphi Mrs. John R. Figg, Bloomington Richard H. Gemmecke, Terre Haute* John P. Goodwin, Brookville Hubert H. Hawkins, Indianapolis* Senator Bernard J. Krampe, Ferdinand Mrs. William A. McKinzie, Indianapolis Representative Paul B. Myers, Bloomingdale* Edward D. Pierre, Indianapolis Sister Maria Renata, Notre Dame Charles Rochelle, Evansville Hassil E. Schenck, Lebanon Harry Smith, Connersville Senator Lucius Somers, Hoagland Representative George W. Stocksdale, Huntington John Stover, Lafayette* Mrs. Florence G. Watts, Vincennes John Wilhelm, Hammond Max Wright, Indianapolis Howard S. Wilcox, Indianapolis Advisory Members: Milton B. Hale, Lieutenant Governor's Office Robert McClarren, Director, Indiana State Library Robert Starrett, Department of Conservation Member Executive Committee FOREWORD Knowledge of local history, the past of one's town, county, and state, as well as of our country, gives us roots, as it were, and helps us better to understand and evaluate the present. It makes all about us more interest- ing. The lives of the men and women who preceded us and the institu- tions which they developed are our heritage. The fine and good in our history should inspire us to better lives, while a knowledge of past errors may help us to avoid similar pitfalls. It is interesting to know about the Indians who may have hunted on a nearby creek, the pioneers who cleared neighboring farms, the merchants, lawyers, doctors, industrialists who built our towns. It is a real-life story more thrilling and more intimate and vital to us than any fiction. While we find enjoyment in such knowledge, we also gain from it an apprecia- tion of what has gone before, a fuller understanding of the present and a wiser basis for meeting the future. It seems especially appropriate that the second printing of the Hand- book on Indiana History should be under the auspices of the Indiana Sesquicentennial Commission. As we approach Indiana's 150th birthday of statehood in 1966 there will be a growing interest in the Indiana story. Such a significant anniversary affords a useful opportunity to review where we have been, appraise our present position, and plan our future devel- opment. Hoosiers have enjoyed a century and a half of democratic self- government. Only a small percentage of the world's population can claim as much. With the example of our forebears to inspire us we should begin our second 150 years with the determination to build an even better state with a greater degree of opportunity and freedom for all. William E. Wilson Stale Superintendent of Public Instruction October, 1963. 111 IARY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN PREFACE Soon after Mr. William E. Wilson became Superintendent of Public Instruction, he appointed a committee to offer recommendations which would help make the teaching of Indiana History more effective in the schools of Indiana. The persons listed below have served on this com- mittee, though some were added after it was organized in 1959.* Since Superintendent Wilson had long been a student, teacher, and collector of materials about Indiana History, it was natural that he should take the lead in efforts to make the teaching of Indiana History more effective in Indiana's schools. Although his leadership antedated the organization of the Indiana Sesquicentennial Commission in 1960, the forthcoming 150th anniversary of statehood in 1966 makes his interest more timely. This Handbook on Indiana History is one result of the efforts of the advisory committee appointed by Superintendent Wilson. The Handbook has been prepared especially with the needs of teachers in view— it is not intended for general use by students. It is, however, also prepared for use by adult study groups, either formal or informal, and for use by individuals who wish to study Indiana History in a systematic manner. This Handbook presupposes a general knowledge of American History and at least some acquaintance with Indiana History. Such knowledge and such acquaintance are among the minimum requirements for effective teaching of Indiana History. The organization of the Handbook is simple. Each chapter covers a basic topic in Indiana's history. For each topic GENERAL COMMENTS are offered which give a summary view of the topic with suggestions about how the material can be presented. The POINTS TO EMPHA- SIZE which follow indicate important facts, ideas, events, and develop- ments regarding such topics. A list of texts and references is included for each chapter. The texts included are those adopted by the state for use in grades seven and eight. Reference items were selected on the basis of two principal criteria: (1) usefulness and reliability, and (2) availability. Neverthe- less, the lack of alternative references has resulted in the inclusion of some marginal items; and, frequently, especially desirable items have been included even when not readily available. Perhaps desirable items in wide demand will become more available as librarians have an oppor- tunity to add to their collections on Indiana History. (See Appendix A for suggestions about books recommended for library acquisition.) Doubt- less some desirable items have inadvertently been overlooked in com- piling the references. The approach, however, has been selective rather than exhaustive. iv The listings regarding audio-visual materials should prove helpful to teachers. No attempt, however, has been made to evaluate the items listed. It is hoped that most teachers will develop maps, graphs, tables, black and white pictures, color slides, and even filmstrips of their own, and that such aids will include examples from local as well as state history. Prices listed for rental of films and for purchase of filmstrips are merely estimates. The actual writing of the Handbook has been the work of the chair- man of the committee. He has, however, followed general suggestions made by members of the committee. Moreover, he is particularly indebted to Dr. John D. Barnhart and Mr. Hubert H. Hawkins for considerable aid. Indiana History, properly taught, adds much to one's knowledge and understanding of American as well as Indiana History. Moreover, such study also indicates that Indiana and American History have always been influenced by developments in other countries. The committee recognizes the need for increased study of the history of other countries, but it would emphasize that both children and adults need increased knowledge and understanding of the history of their own state and country. Persons who lack such information and understanding are inadequately informed citizens of their state and country, no matter how informed they may be about other areas of the world. In short, the committee believes that history is one of the most important subjects taught in the schools of Indiana, and it likewise believes that Indiana History merits additional and more effectively study than heretofore. It hopes that this Handbook, which is available free to teachers, will encourage further and more effective study of Indiana History. Donald F. Carmony, Chairman Advisory Committee on Indiana History Indiana University Bloomington, 1961 * The members of the Advisory Committee on Indiana History whose efforts resulted in the Handbook on Indiana History are: John D. Barnhart, Professor of History, Indiana University; Donald F. Carmony, Professor of History and Editor of Indiana Magazine of Histroy, Indiana University; Mrs. Georgia R. Cole, formerly Director of School Libraries and Teaching Material, State Department of Public Instruction; Miss Hallie Conrad, Supervisor Elementary Education, Elkhart Public Schools; Everett W. Ferrill, Professor of Social Science, Ball State Teachers College; Hubert H. Hawkins, Director of Indiana Historical Bureau, Indianapolis; John P. Lunstrum, Coordinator for School Social Studies, Indiana University; Harry M. Smith, History Teacher, Connersville Junior High School; and Carl Zenor, History Teacher, George Washington High School, Indianapolis. PREFACE TO REPRINT EDITION This Handbook on Indiana History was first published in 1961 as Bulletin No. 245 of the Indiana Department of Public Instruction. It is here reprinted with only minor changes. The Indiana Sesquicentennial Commission is grateful to Superintendent William E. Wilson for his approval for the Commission to republish this Handbook on Indiana History. Donald F. Carmony, Chairman Indiana Sesquicentennial Commission Indiana University Bloomington, 1963 VI CONTENTS Chapter Page Foreword iii Preface iv I. The Indians, Early Residents of Indiana 1 II. Indiana as a French Outpost, 1679-1763 7 III. The Old Northwest under English Control, 1763-1783 11 IV. Indiana a Part of the Old Northwest, 1783-1800 16 V. Indiana Territory and Early Statehood, 1800-1825 22 VI. Hoosier Pioneers and Pioneer Life, 1800-1850 29 VII. Rival Political Parties and a New Constitution, 1825-1851 35 VIII. Politics during the Civil War Era, 1850-1877 41 IX. Economic, Social, and Cultural Developments, 1850-1910 47 X. Democrats versus Republicans, 1877-1917 53 XI. Economic, Social, and Cultural Developments, 1910-1960 59 XII. World Wars and Domestic Politics, 1917-1960 65 Appendices 71 CHAPTER I THE INDIANS, EARLY RESIDENTS OF INDIANA General Comment The Indians were the first known inhabitants of the New World. Our knowledge, however, of when and whence they came, how they spread throughout various parts of North and South America, and their early life is quite limited. Possibly the first large movement of people who became known as Indians crossed the Bering Straits from Asia to North America ten to fifteen thousand years ago following the retreat of the last invasion of glaciers toward the Arctic area. Doubtless other groups followed from time to time, perhaps as recently as five to ten thou- sand years ago. Eventually these people, whom we know as Indians, developed ways of life which in some respects were advanced. For instance, in Central America the Mayas created a remarkably accurate calendar, showed skill in mathematics and astronomy, constructed stone cities, and organized civil governments. The Aztecs of Mexico were skillful workers in gold, silver, copper, and stone; accomplished in archi- tecture, painting, and pottery; and they made some progress in astronomy and political organization. The Incas of Peru accumulated wealth, built a system of roads and bridges, and made progress in social, economic, and governmental organization. In general, these early Indians were food gatherers, hunters, and farmers. Their farming, however, was usually on a small scale to meet local and immediate needs. When the Indians first arrived in Indiana is unknown. A number of stone projectile points, probably spear tips, known as Folsom points, have been found here and there within the state. These points probably indicate the presence of Indians before the beginning of the Christian age. Then came other groups of Indians. Our knowledge of all of these Indians is incomplete in many respects. Moreover, there have as yet been no certain links or connections made between these early Indians of Indiana— at times known as the "prehistoric" Indians— and the "his- toric" Indians whom the French and English met when they reached Indiana and the surrounding region. The lack of such known con- nections illustrates the limited nature of our knowledge about Indiana's earliest known inhabitants. There was considerable movement of Indians within the region of which Indiana was a part during the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, how- ever, the three largest and most powerful Indian tribes in what is now Indiana apparently were the Delaware, Potawatomi, and Miami. Other tribes included the Wea or Ouiatenon, Piankashaw, Kickapoo, Munsee, and Shawnee. Various tribes were closely related. Moreover, Indian tribes were perhaps generally less united and less pure than commonly 1 assumed. Nearly all of the Delaware emigrated from Indiana to the West in 1820; all but a small number of the Potawatomi left between the late 1830's and 1850's, and likewise for the Miami in the mid-1840's. Meanwhile, the other tribes had also moved westward. Some individual Indians, however, remained and today perhaps close to one thousand persons of substantial Indian blood are residents of Indiana. These persons live mainly near various tributaries of the upper Wabash River. Points to Emphasize 1. The "Prehistoric" Indians. Archeologists have given various names to groups of persons regarded as Indians, who they think lived within Indiana between about the beginning of the Christian era to possibly the 1600's. These Indians were "prehistoric" in the sense that they were here before the French arrived from Europe. They left no written records and presumably they had no written language. Our limited and uncertain knowledge of them is derived mainly from a study of their remains, especially as found in their mounds and village sites. The "pre- historic" Indians probably got most of their living as fishermen, hunters, and as gatherers of nuts, berries, fruits, etc. Some of them did farming on a small scale, raising such crops as corn, potatoes, squashes, beans, and gourds. The earliest among these Indians seemingly lacked tools made of metal, but they used tools made of stone, bone, or wood. Some of the later "prehistoric" Indians made tools, utensils, and ornaments of pottery, silver, copper, mica, and meteoric iron. The later Indians probably farmed somewhat more than did earlier ones, but farm products doubtlessly were kept almost entirely for local use. Most of these Indians seem to have erected mounds. Until recently scholars had supposed that the "Moundbuilders" were not Indians but a people or peoples who lived here before the Indians. At any rate, the Moundbuilders definitely appear to have been Indians, making them the first known inhabitants of what is now Indiana. Evidences of Indian mounds survive in various parts of the state, notably at Mounds State Park, near Anderson, and at the Angel Mounds, near Evansville. 2. No Known Connections between "Prehistoric" and "Historic" In- dians. The discoveries of archeologists, such as Glenn Black and Eli Lilly, have made clear that Indians lived in Indiana for a very long time before the French, the first Europeans, arrived. The first French fur traders and explorers probably reached Indiana about the 1650's. But, unfortunately, we do not know whether the Indians visited by the French, and later by the English, were or were not related to the "prehis- toric" Indians. It seems logical to suppose that they were at least descendants of such Indians, but such a conclusion is merely conjecture. Possibly subsequent study by scholars will solve this mystery and also add to our extremely limited knowledge of the "prehistoric" Indians. 3. The Miami, Potawatomi, and Delaware Indians. Although the Miami, Potawatomi, and Delaware Indians were perhaps the three most important tribes of "historic" Indians who lived in Indiana, our informa- tion about them is limited and much of it is uncertain. These Indians also lacked a written language prior to their contacts with the French and then the English. Much of our information about these "historic" tribes comes from written records left by early missionaries, traders, and explorers. Such persons did not always have accurate information about these and other tribes. Moreover, they interpreted what information they had from their own points of view. When the Miami first came to Indiana is uncertain, but they were living in northern Indiana during the early 1700's. They lived mainly in northeastern Indiana. The head- waters of the Maumee River, where Fort Wayne is now located, were their principal headquarters. During the eighteenth century the Pota- watomi were also in Indiana, being largely located in the central and western sections of northern Indiana to south of the Wabash River in some places. Both the Miami and Potawatomi had probably lived in Indiana before the 1700's, but apparently they had been pushed westward and northward by pressure from the Iroquois Confederacy during the 1600's. The Delaware, however, came to Indiana from the east, though some of them remained in Ohio. During the last half of the 1700's the Delaware settled principally in east-central Indiana, especially in the upper reaches of the West Fork of White River around Anderson and Muncie. The French in particular dealt with the Miami and Potawa- tomi, while some of the Delaware arrived before the English wrested the Old Northwest from the French in 1763. All three tribes were here during the two decades, 1763-1783, during which time the English held title to the Old Northwest. When Indiana became a territory in 1800, these and other tribes were well established in Indiana. In fact, at that time various tribes of Indians claimed almost all of the land of Indiana. During the half-century, 1800-1850, however, the federal government purchased from the Indians their lands within Indiana. By 1850 almost all of the Indians had left the state. 4. The Fur Trade with the Indians. When the French first met the Indians in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the lower St. Lawrence Valley, they began to trade with them. At first the trade in fish was more important than the trade in furs. Soon, however, the French were very eager to obtain furs— the pelts and hides of beaver, otter, deer, mink, fox, etc.— though the trade in fish also continued. The pursuit of the fur trade was the principal factor in luring the French into the interior of North America, into the region of and around the Great Lakes which was (and in many ways remains) a paradise for the fur trade. The French in the Old Northwest were more interested in this trade than in agricul- ture; hence they scattered themselves thinly over wide areas. By the 1700's the French and the English were rivals over the profitable fur trade with the Indians, and this trade was an important cause of the French and Indian Wars, 1689-1763, which pitted the French against the successful English. Although the Americans won the Old Northwest at the end of the Revolution in 1783, Englishmen continued to trade in the area until at least the early 1800's. The fur trade of central and northern Indiana was a source of economic gain to many of the early American settlers particularly during the first half of the 1800's. The French, the English, and the Americans in turn tried to regulate the fur trade with the Indians. Such regulations were often ignored, and governments could not effectively enforce them since the trade was largely conducted in areas beyond settled communities. The fur trade was a two-way trade. In return for furs, the Indians received a wide variety of items, including knives, guns, powder, lead, needles, cloth, paint, pans, traps, blankets, cups, hoes, rings, tea, thread, spices, pipes, and salt. They also obtained whiskey from the trade, though frequently it was illegal for traders to give or sell whiskey to Indians. 5. Indian Warfare. Only a small number of Frenchmen ever settled in Indiana (as is indicated in the next chapter of this handbook). The French obtained only small amounts of land from the Indians since the fur trade, their principal economic interest, required that the Indians, the forests, and the lakes, be Changed as little as possible. In general, the French and Indians got along together very well. The English held title to the Old Northwest for only two decades, 1763-1783, at a time when it was too early for Englishmen to settle the area. The English were eager to protect and continue the fur trade as long as possible, whereas it was obvious, even to the Indians, that the Americans would soon make permanent settlements unless they were checked. The Indians of the Old Northwest realized that the English were to be preferred to the Americans. Hence, during the American Revolution most of the Indians of the Ohio Valley and Old Northwest either fought with the English against the Americans or else remained neutral. During the 1780's and the early 1790's they continued their fighting against the Americans until Wayne's triumph over them at Fallen Timbers, 1794. By this time various tribes realized that it was futile to attempt to keep the Ohio River as a boundary between them and the Americans. Then, immediately preceding the War of 1812, conflict between the Americans and the Indians flared, resulting in the Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. During the War of 1812 most of the Indians again either supported the British against the Americans or else remained neutral. During this war, however, the Indians were defeated and only a few relatively minor Indian wars occurred in the Old Northwest thereafter. In fact, no Indian wars occurred in Indiana after the War of 1812. Various factors caused this protracted and costly warfare between the Indians and the Americans. The Indians were encouraged and aided in their resistance by the British, of this there is no doubt. On the other hand, the Indians were fighting to protect their way of life, their homes, and their lands from occupation and destruction by the advancing American settlers. The Americans won because they were more numerous and more powerful than the Indians. 6. Removal of the Indians from Indiana. By the end of the War of 1812, the Indians generally were aware that they could only delay American settlement in Indiana and the surrounding area. Some Ameri- can fur traders helped delay the removal of the Indians. Some mis- sionaries, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, were at first also op- posed to removal of the Indians to areas west of the Mississippi. Soon, however, various missionaries supported removal as being in the best interests of the Indians. Some of the Indians, the Delaware in partic- ular, left Indiana during the decade following the War of 1812. The Miami and Potawatomi, partly because they were located mainly in northern Indiana, remained longer than the other tribes, but most Potawatomi left during the late 1830's and the 1840's. The Miami left principally during the mid-1 840's. In general, the early settlers of Indiana believed that they and the Indians had differing ways and concepts of life which could not be satisfactorily resolved. Most pio- neers also believed that the Indians offered an inferior civilization which should not be allowed to prevent the establishment of a superior one to replace it. Under such circumstances and amid such views emi- gration was the only solution which was acceptable to a large majority of the settlers. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts 1. John D. Barnhart, Donald F. Carmony, Opal M. Nichols, and Jack E. Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State (1959), 1-11, 24-27, 32-36, 55-56, 68-78, 82-87. 2. Gale Smith, Indiana History (1959), 8-9, 14-25, 32-33, 44-45, 70-72. References 1. John D. Barnhart and Donald F. Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Commonwealth (2 vols., 1954). ** 2. Glenn D. Black, "A" Is for Axe— A "First Reader" about some Indian Artifacts (Indiana Historical Society, 1958), 1-14. 3. John B. Dillon, A History of Indiana . . . (1859). 4. Jacob Piatt Dunn, Indiana and Indianans (2 vols., 1919), I, Chs. 1-2. * 5. Jacob Piatt Dunn, True Indian Stories (1908). 6. Logan Esarey, A History of Indiana (2 vols., various editions), I, especially parts of Chs. 1-5. ** 7. Joy M. Lacey (ed.), The First People in Indiana (Indiana Historical Bureau), 1-4. 8. Eli Lilly, Prehistoric Antiquities of Indiana (Indiana Historical Society, 1937). 9. Charles Roll, Indiana: One Flundred and Fifty Years of American Devel- opment (2 vols., 1931), I, especially Pt. I, Ch. I; Pt. II, Ch. 6. •10. Gayle Thornbrough and Dorothy Riker (compilers), Readings in Indiana History (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1956), especially Chs. 1, 5, 7. •11. Otho Winger, The Lost Sister Among the Miamis (1936, 1960). •12. Otho Winger, The Potawatomi Indians (1939). Items marked with an asterisk are considered to be useful for students in grades seven and eight; those marked with a double asterisk are for students in grades four and five. Unmarked items are mainly intended for teachers or adults who already have some knowledge of Indiana History, but junior high students with superior reading ability can often read most of these references. On the other hand, junior high students with limited reading ability can often profit from reading items principally intended for pupils in the fourth and fifth grades. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS! Films Aztecs, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. Early American Civilization (Mayan, Aztec, Incan), Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min $3.50, $5.00. Glimpse of the Past, Indiana University A-V Center, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. Great Lakes— How They Were Formed, C. J. Kamen, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Indians of Early America, Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., color, sd, 22 min, $6.50. Learning About the Past, Indiana University A-V Center, b&w, color, sd, 10 min. $2.00, $3.25. Portage, Crawley Films and Canadian Geographic Society, color, sd, 22 min, $6.00. Filmstrips Early Man in North America (North American Indians and Eskimos), SVE, 1951, b&w, si, $3.50. Indian Civilizations: Part I (Latin America— Yesterday and Today Series), McGraw-Hill, 1955, color, si, 45 fr, $6.00. t EXPLANATORY NOTE Motion pictures, filmstrips, and tape recordings which appear to be related to the various chapters of this handbook have been listed at the end of each chapter. Persons interested in using any of these ma- terials should contact the audio-visual library they ordinarily use. If such library does not have the materials desired, it may be able to obtain them. The motion pictures are 16mm. Other characteristics such as sound (sd), silent (si), black and white (b&w), length in minutes (min), and producer are given for each title. The filmstrips, if not available from your local audio-visual library, might be purchased from the producers. The cost of filmstrips is usually nominal, and it is convenient to have on hand those which are used repeatedly. The tape recordings herein listed are available from Kent State University, Kent, Ohio, by sending a blank tape and paying a nominal recording charge. Detailed information concerning tapes and costs is provided in the National Tape Recording Catalog, available from the Department of Audio-Visual Instruction of the National Education Association. Indiana University, Purdue University, Indiana State, and Ball State all have audio-visual libraries. Publications indicating items available and rates charged may be obtained by writing to any of these sources. The address of producers of audio-visual materials are given in Ap- pendix C. Prices listed for rental of films and for purchase of filmstrips are estimates. CHAPTER II INDIANA AS A FRENCH OUTPOST, 1679-1763 General Comments The story of the French on the mainland of North America is a part of the larger story of the occupation of the New World by such countries as Spain, England, France, Portugal, and Holland. Students of Indiana History should be aware that this is true, and they should also understand that the discovery, exploration, and settlement of the New World was of major importance to both Europe and the New World. Nevertheless, in studying Indiana History it is well to place the major emphasis on the role of the French in the exploration and occupation of the St. Lawrence Valley, the region of the Great Lakes, and parts of the Mississippi Valley. Nearly a century and a half passed from Cartier's three trips to the St. Lawrence Valley, 1534-1543, until La Salle's use of the St. Joseph- Kankakee Portage in 1679. Almost from the beginning the fur trade had been the major economic interest of the French, luring them up the St. Lawrence, thence into the region of and about the Great Lakes. French missionaries also entered the interior and established missions. Here and there in the region of the Great Lakes the French established small settlements, only part of which were permanent. French interest and French entrance into what is now Indiana was accidental. First the St. Joseph-Kankakee and then the Maumee-Wabash Portage became useful to the French as they explored the interior and later attempted to develop routes between the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Basin and the Misissippi Valley, especially to the lower part of the valley. At first the French used the St. Joseph-Kankakee route, as il- lustrated by La Salle's use of it in 1679. Soon, however, the Maumee- Wabash route became an especially desirable one for travel between the Quebec and Louisiana areas. It was also useful in increasing French influence against English fur traders who, by the early 1700's, were coming into the Ohio Valley in sufficient number to become a serious threat to continued French control of the region south of the Great Lakes. Although the French established outposts at Miami, Quiatenon, and Vincennes, all three settlements remained small. They included a con- siderable proportion of fur traders, some of whom merely used these places as a base for their trade. Nevertheless, these outposts still had French settlers in 1763, and together they represent the first settlements within Indiana by Europeans. Although the French established Roman Catholic missions at various places in the Old Northwest, none was established in present-day Indiana. Because of conflict in North America and elsewhere, France lost all of the territory she had occupied on the mainland of North America as a result of the Treaty of Paris, 1763. Thus the region out of which were later carved the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- consin, and part of Minnesota passed from the French to the English. This area— which after the American Revolution became known as the Old Northwest— was controlled, first explored, and occupied by the French. Thus the area which became Indiana was an outpost of France before it was controlled by the English. As noted in the previous chapter, how- ever, the Indians rather than the French were the first known inhabitants of the area which became the state of Indiana in 1816. Points to Emphasize 1. Spanish Played Leading Role in Discovery and Early Colonization of the New World. The discovery of the New World by Columbus, sailing under the Spansh flag, in 1492 was an event of great importance. It resulted largely from western Europe's efforts to find new trade routes to China, Japan, and other places in the Far East. The Spanish played the principal role in the discovery, early exploration, and early coloniza- tion of the New World. Though they made their principal contribu- tions in South and Central America, within what is now the United States their influence extended from the Carolinas through Florida, westward along the Gulf of Mexico across Texas to the Pacific Coast, then northward through California. More than a century passed after the discovery of the New World before either the English or the French founded permanent colonies in the New World. England's first perma- nent colony was Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Quebec, on the St. Lawrence, became the first permanent French colony in 1608. 2. French Influence Expanded through the Interior of North America. The St. Lawrence Valley became the principal area of set- tlement for the French— and their gateway into the Great Lakes and surrounding territory. During the years 1534-1543, Cartier had made three trips to the St. Lawrence Valley. During the 1600's, and espe- cially from the 1660's, explorers, fur traders, and missionaries scat- tered widely into the region including and surrounding the Great Lakes. Soon Frenchmen began to cross the portages which connected rivers of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Basin with rivers tributary to the Missis- sippi. For instance, in 1673 Father Marquette and Trader Joliet crossed the Fox-Wisconsin Portage in what is now Wisconsin and descended the Mississippi to approximately the mouth of the Arkansas River. This trip supported the view that the Mississippi emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, not into the Pacific Ocean. 3. French Established Posts in Indiana. The St. Joseph-Kankakee Portage, at South Bend, was the first portage within Indiana used by the French. Doubtless various fur traders had crossed this portage before La Salle used it in December, 1679. In 1682 La Salle descended the Mississippi to its mouth, but he failed in subsequent efforts to establish a French colony at or near the mouth of the Mississippi. Other Frenchmen, however, founded Biloxi (1699) and New Orleans 8 (1718), the latter becoming the leading center for French Louisiana. After 1700 the French made efforts to increase their control of the large region reaching from the St. Lawrence into and surrounding the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi. One result of these efforts was increased use of the Maumee-Wabash route and the establishment of French posts at Miami (Fort Wayne), Ouiatenon (on the Wabash several miles below Lafayette), and Vincennes. These three posts were established between 1700 and 1735. All three were in use during the French period, but Vincennes became the largest. (The Miami-Wabash Portage at Fort Wayne soon became more important to the French than the St. Joseph-Kankakee Portage.) 4. French and Indian Wars, 1689-1763. During the time the French were scattering themselves thinly through the interior of North America, the English were settling the area along the Atlantic Coast east of the Appalachian Mountains. Although there was rivalry and even some conflict between the French and English from the beginning of their colonies, at first there was so much room for both of them that serious conflict was delayed until near the end of the seventeenth century. During the period 1689-1763, the French and English fought a series of four wars known as the French and Indian Wars. These wars were part of a worldwide conflict between the French and English, who fought with allies against each other in Europe, India, and Africa, as well as in the New World. Within the New World the French and Indian Wars were caused by rivalry over the fur trade, rivalry over control and support of the Indians, rivalry over particular areas, and religious bias— the French were Roman Catholic and the English were Protestant. During these wars most of the Indians either fought with the French or else were friendly to them. The French and Indian Wars ended in 1763 with the triumph of the English over the French— in Europe, Africa, and India as well as in North America. At the Peace of Paris, 1763, France surrendered all of her territory on the mainland of North America to the English. Spain gave Florida westward to the Mississippi to the English, but received Louisiana west of this river from the French. In other words, as of 1763 England held Canada and all of the present United States east of the Mississippi, while Spain held Louisiana and other territory west of the Mississippi. Thus France was expelled from the mainland of North America. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts 1. Barnhart, Carraony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 21-36. 2. Smith, Indiana History, 22-31. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Ch. 3. 2. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, part of Ch. 3. 9 3. Dillon, A History of Indiana. 4. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, Ch. 1 and part of Ch. 2. 5. Louise P. Kellogg, The French Regime in Wisconsin and the Northwest (1925). 6. Frances Krauskopf (trans, and ed.), Ouiatanon Documents (Indiana His- torical Society, 1955). * 7. Joy M. Lacey (ed.), The French in Indiana (Indiana Historical Bureau), 1-4. 8. Grace L. Nute, The Voyageur (1931). 9. Francis Parkman, The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Cen- tury (2 vols., various editions). 10. Francis Parkman, La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West (various editions). 11. Howard H. Peckham, Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (1947). 12. Roll, Indiana: One hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. I, Chs. 2-6. *13. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Ch. 2. 14. George M. Wrong, The Rise and Fall of New France (2 vols-, 1928). AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Age of Discovery: English, French and Dutch Explorations, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. Colonial Expansion (North America: 1429-1763) Erpi, Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., b&w, sd, 11 min, $2.00. French Exploration in the New World, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. French Influences in North America, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. Portage, Crawley Films and Canadian Geographic Society, color, sd, 22 min, $6.00. Robert Cavalier, Sieur de la Salle, Emerson Film Corporation and Encyclopaedia Britanica Films, Inc., b&w, sd, 17 min, $4.00. Trappers and Traders, Crawley and Canadian Geographic Society and Interna- tional Film Bureau, Inc., color, sd, 11 min., $3.25. Filmstrips French Colonization, Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., 1956, color, si, 49 fr, $6.00. Northwest Passage— French and Indian War, Pictorial Events, 1940, b&w, si, 144 fr, $3.50. Tape Recordings The White Man Comes (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Tele- phone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 10 CHAPTER III THE OLD NORTHWEST UNDER ENGLISH CONTROL, 1763-1783 General Comment The English period in the Old Northwest was a temporary interlude. Much of its importance arises from the fact that it prepared the way for American title to the region in 1783 at the end of the American Revolution. Hence, the English interlude prepared the way for the Old Northwest to become a part of the United States, for the establishment of English and American practices and ideas about government, and for Protestantism rather than Roman Catholicism as the dominant religion of the area. As noted in the POINTS TO EMPHASIZE, most of the population of the Old Northwest continued to be Indian; however, scattered and small French settlements were located at Detroit, Kaskaskia, Vincennes, Miami, Ouiatenon, and elsewhere. Only a limited number of English colonists moved west of the Appalachians during the two decades, 1763-1783, and almost all of them settled on the southern side of the Ohio River or in western Pennsylvania. No English settlements were made in the Old Northwest in this period, though of course a few individual English- men appeared here and there. The fact that most of the white population was French is an important factor in explaining the terms of the Quebec Act of 1774. It is desirable to understand as carefully as possible the basic prob- lems which the English faced concerning the Old Northwest (see Item 1 below). After 1783 the Americans faced these same problems, though they handled some of them differently. It is interesting to speculate what relations between American colonists and England might have been in the years, 1763-1783, if France had retained Canada and Spain had retained Florida in 1763. Removing France and Spain as near neighbors doubtless caused the colonists to feel less need for the support and protection of the Mother Country. Moreover, if in 1763 the French had been allowed to retain the Old Northwest, it might have been the French rather than the Mother Country who would have been regarded as the principal rival of the advancing English colonists. Since, however, the English held title to the Ohio Valley and Old Northwest in these years, they had to make decisions about Indians, land cessions, fur trade, and the like; and naturally criticisms about such policies were directed at the English. Though it is well to speculate about such matters, it is essential to note that there remains much diversity of opinion among historians regard- ing the role of western factors in producing the American Revolution. 11 Although the role of the West in winning the Revolution is un- certain, there is no doubt that Indians stirred up by the British caused considerable loss of life in the West during and after the American Revolution. In fact, peace with the Indians of the Ohio Valley was delayed until the Treaty of Greenville, 1795. Clark's campaign, 1778- 1779, was important in upsetting British military plans for the West and persons who made the Treaty of Paris, 1783, which gave the United States title to the Old Northwest, knew of his achievements. Points to Emphasize 1. Major Problems Facing the English in the Old Northwest. Eng- lish title to the region now known as the Old Northwest continued for only two short decades, and during this period almost no Englishmen set- tled in the area. The Indians remained the most numerous residents of the region, while the French settlers outnumbered the English. The English immediately faced three major problems regarding the Old Northwest: (1) What policies should they establish regarding the Indians? (2) How should they control and regulate the fur trade? (3) What policies should they establish regarding land speculation and settlement? The English were also concerned about how best to govern this remote area, how it could best be garrisoned and defended, and how they would pay the costs of defense, government, Indian relations, etc. Moreover, the English lacked experience and precedents for deal- ing with these vexing problems 2. Pontiac's War Hastened Proclamation of 1763. The Indian problem at once demanded the attention of the English since an Indian war, known as Pontiac's War, broke out in 1763. During the French and Indian Wars most of the Indians had either been neutral or else allies of the French. It was, therefore, natural that they should oppose the transfer of their territory from the French to the English. In this war the Indians overcame English garrisons at every interior fort where English troops were stationed in the area west of Pittsburgh, except Detroit. Even Detroit was subjected to a long and severe attack by the Indians, but by 1765 the English had restored peace with the red men. Pontiac's War hastened the issuance of the Proclamation of 1763. This proclamation, issued in the name of the king, reserved the vast area between the crest of the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, from the Great Lakes on the north to West Florida on the south, to the Indians. No new settlers were to enter the region, while those already there were requested to leave, although this last request did not apply to Frenchmen already there. Only licensed fur traders were to enter the region; however, licenses were easy to obtain. Hence, the Proclamation of 1763 made the Indians wards of the English govern- ment, attempted to exclude both speculators and settlers from the region west of the Appalachians, and offered encouragement to the fur trade. It also left the scattered French settlers without any recognized civil government. 3. The Proclamation of 1763 Soon Modified. The Proclamation of 1763, however, was soon modified as pressure mounted from land 12 speculators and homeseekers. Even before 1763 hundreds of Englishmen had settled west of the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, notably in western Pennsylvania in valleys tributary to the Ohio River. Repre- sentatives of various companies of land speculators and an increasing number of settlers moved into the upper Ohio Valley in spite of the prohibition against such settlement. During the late 1760's and early 1770's the English made treaties with the Indians which opened large tracts of land for occupation by the advancing frontiersmen. These tracts were principally located in present-day West Virginia and western Penn- sylvania. Settlers increased in these areas, and in 1774 settlers also began arriving in the Kentucky Bluegrass. Prior to 1783 almost all the English colonists who became settlers of the Ohio Valley lived south of the Ohio, very few settling north of this river until after 1783. In 1774 the English Parliament passed the Quebec Act which annexed the Old Northwest to the Canadian province of Quebec. This act provided civil government for the French of the area, protected them in their right to worship as Roman Catholics, and save for the English criminal law, provided that French law should prevail. Though not intended to punish English colonists, many of them considered the Quebec Act as one of the odious Intolerable or Coercive acts, 1774. 4. The American Revolution in the West. The efforts of the English to restrict and restrain western settlement caused objections from persons interested in land speculation; these efforts weakened the charter-grant claims of several colonies, especially Virginia, to land west of the Appalachians; and the Quebec Act added religious bias as a source of controversy. Controversy over policies toward the Old North- west was one of the factors which produced the American Revolution, 1775-1783. Moreover, since the French had been expelled from the mainland of North America in 1763, and the Spanish had exchanged Florida (to the Mississippi) for Louisiana west of the Mississippi, the English colonists, lacking the French and Spanish as near neighbors, felt less need than previously for the protection and support of the Mother Country. The advance of English colonists into western Penn- sylvania, West Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and Kentucky alarmed the Indians of the Ohio Valley, resulting in Dunmore's War, 1774. This advance and this war so alarmed the Indians that various tribes sup- ported the English against the Americans during the Revolution. In fact, most tribes either fought with the English or remained neutral during the Revolution in spite of their previous hostility to the English. Many lives were lost in numerous engagements and raids in the Ohio Valley during the American Revolution. The frontiersmen who sup- ported the Revolution fought against Englishmen, Indians, and even some Americans— the latter often called Tories or renegades. Among those whose lives were spared, some were scalped or taken captive by Indians. 5. George Rogers Clark Contributed to the Success of the American Revolution in the West. An important effort against the English-Indian- Tory combination in the Ohio Valley and Old Northwest was the western campaign of George Rogers Clark, 1778-1779. Clark was an early settler of Kentucky who realized that the French at Kaskaskia and Vincennes 13 could easily be persuaded to change their loyalty from the English to the Americans. Moreover, he hoped to seize Detroit which was a center from which English and Indian attacks were organized. In 1778 Clark's force of about two hundred men, supplied and supported mainly by Virginia, came down the Ohio from Pittsburgh, marched across southern Illinois, and then captured Kaskaskia without loss of life. From there part of his men took Vincennes, which was soon lost to Henry Hamilton, English commander at Detroit. Clark's recapture of Vincennes early in 1779 was the result of considerable daring and much hardship on the part of Clark and his men. Warfare continued intermittently in the Ohio Valley throughout the American Revolution. Although the British and Americans made peace in 1783— and in general ceased fighting after Yorktown in 1781— Indian warfare continued. In fact, some of the most costly warfare in the Ohio Valley occurred after the end of the serious fighting in the region east of the Appalachians. 6. Treaty of Paris, 1783, Added the Old Northwest to the United States. In the Treaty of Paris, 1783, the English recognized the inde- pendence of the Americans. Another provision of great significance was the fact that the huge region between the Appalachians and the Mis- sissippi from the Great Lakes to Florida (which extended westward to the Mississippi) was given to the new United States. In other words, the Old Northwest passed from the English to the Americans in 1783. In addition, the English promised to evacuate Detroit and several other forts located on the American side of the border, and it was agreed that both countries could freely navigate the Mississippi to its mouth. Un- fortunately, however, the British delayed and then refused to evacuate the border posts. The Spanish, who recovered Florida in 1783, contended that since they owned both banks of the mouth of the Mississippi that they held control over boats using the outlet to this important river. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 32-53. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 32-43. References 1. John D. Barnhart, Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the American Revolution (1951). 2. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Chs. 4-5. 3. Temple Bodley, George Rogers Clark, His Life and Public Services (1926). * 4. Thomas Boyd, Simon Girty, the White Savage (1928). 5. Dillon, A History of Indiana. 6. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, part of Ch. 3 and Ch. 4. 7. William H. English, Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of Gen. George Rogers Clark (2 vols., 1896). 8. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, Chs. 2-4. 14 *• 9. George Rogers Clark (Indiana Historical Bureau), 1-6. 10. James A. James, The Life of George Rogers Clark (1928). •11. Edna Kenton, Si mon Kenton (1930). •12. Howard H. Peckham, Captured by Indians: True Stories of Pioneer Sur- vivors (1954). 13. Roll, Indiana: One hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. 1, Ch. 7; Pt. II, Chs. 1-3. •14. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Chs. 3-4. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Daniel Boone, Emerson Film Corporation and Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., b&w, sd, 18 min, $4.00. United States Expansion: The Northwest Territory, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min, $3.50, $5.00. Filmstrips Northwest Territory (Westward Expansion— United States Series), Curriculum Materials, Rev. 1959, color, si, 39 fr, $3.95. Pioneers of the Northwest (Pioneers and Settlers Series), Curriculum Materials, Rev. 1959, color, si, 27 fr, $3.95. Vincennes (Chronicles of America Filmstrip Series), Yale University Press, 1959, b&w, si, 36 fr, $7.00. War in the Middle Colonies and the Northwest (Foundation of Democracy in the United States Series), 1955, color, si, 43 fr, $5.95 15 CHAPTER IV INDIANA A PART OF THE OLD NORTHWEST, 1783-1800 General Comment Developments in the region north of the Ohio— in what became known as the Old Northwest— are of particular importance to an understanding of Indiana History. This is true not only because Indiana was carved from the Old Northwest but also because the basic policies which the United States applied to the Old Northwest as a whole were applied to Indiana, though with some amendments. Thus the period, 1783-1800, is the period of American beginnings in the Old Northwest as well as the years which established important precedents and roots for the de- velopment of Indiana during its pioneer period, 1800-1850. The Old Northwest was— and is— an area of considerable extent and great importance. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and much of Minnesota were carved from it. Each of these states is larger than various countries of Europe, while together they are larger than several major countries of the world. The region is bounded by Penn- sylvania on the east, the Mississippi on the west, the Ohio River on the south, and the Great Lakes on the north. Geographically it is not a unit— the continental divide between the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Basin and the Mississippi Basin cuts across Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Thus, part of the rainfall at Gary and Fort Wayne flows into the Great Lakes and out the St. Lawrence, while part flows into tribu- taries of the Mississippi. (We have already seen how the French used the portages across this continental divide.) Geographically the upper part of the area, that part which drains into the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence area, belongs more to Canada than to the United States. An awareness of this fact helps explain the French use of the Great Lakes ahead of the portages, the continued importance of English fur traders in the Old Northwest after 1783, and the delay in American settlement of the upper part of the Old Northwest. The Americans, however, unlike the French, approached the Old Northwest by way of the Ohio Valley. As already noted, a small number of settlers had crossed the Appalachians into the upper Ohio Valley preceding the Peace of Paris, 1763. Quite a number came into the area during the next two decades, the English interlude. Still more settlers came in 1783-1800, but, as previously, most of them settled south of the Ohio. By 1800 Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796) had both become states, western Pennsylvania had a large population, and many persons lived in the present West Virginia area. Two facts regarding the genesis of settlement west of the Appalachians are worthy of emphasis: (1) Such settlement began in valleys of tributaries in the upper portions of the 16 Ohio Valley; and (2) Prior to 1800 it involved principally the region south of the Ohio. In 1781 the Confederation Congress succeeded the Continental Con- gress, and it continued until the organization of a new Congress under the federal government, 1789. Hence, most of the basic policies of the United States regarding the Old Northwest were first evolved by the Confederation Congress— including the policies set forth in the justly famous and important Ordinance of 1787. It was to this Confederation Congress that most of the states surrendered their claims to the West. The achievements of this Congress regarding the Old Northwest were indeed substantial. The growth of the Ohio Valley raised a fundamental question: What should be the relationship between the areas east and west of the Appalachians? Some persons thought that even the thirteen original states could not establish a permanent Union, hence it was absurd to think of adding states to the Union from the Appalachian hinterland. Yet, even before the Revolution was ended, the Continental Congress promised the states and citizens alike that if the West were ceded to Congress, it would be carved into equal states. The Confederation Con- gress redeemed this pledge. This promise of statehood to western territories (or colonies) was the principal difference between American and English territorial or colonial policies. Without equal statehood for the area west of the Appalachians it is uncertain whether the Union of the states would ever have extended westward to the Pacific— then to Alaska and Hawaii. Points to Emphasize 1. Major Problems Facing Americans in the Old Northwest. Until 1815— the end of the War of 1812— it remained uncertain whether the United States could make good its title to the Old Northwest which was obtained at the Treaty of Paris, 1783. In various ways the odds seemed unfavorable to American success in the 1780's, but the United States gradually increased its control over the area so that by 1815 it had a strong hold on the Old Northwest. During the 1780's Americans faced the same three major problems regarding the Old Northwest which the English had faced during the 1760's: (1) What Indian policies should they establish? (2) How should they control and regulate the fur trade? (3) What policies should they establish regarding land specu- lation and settlement? The Americans were also concerned how they might best govern the area, how it could best be garrisoned and de- fended, and how they could pay the costs of defense, government, Indian relations, etc. Americans lacked experience in dealing with these vexing problems, but they were familiar with English policies for the Old Northwest, 1763-1783. 2. Continued Indian Warfare in the Ohio Valley. As for the English two decades earlier, conflict with the Indians was an urgent and immedi- ate problem. Indian resistance to the Americans continued even after the Peace of Paris (1783), increasing during the late 1780's as various tribes sought to prevent Americans from settling north of the Ohio 17 River. In 1790 Josiah Harmar was defeated by the Indians within the limits of present-day Fort Wayne. Next year Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, was defeated by the red men near the present Ohio-Indiana border southeast of Fort Wayne. Such defeats disturbed President Washington, who placed Anthony Wayne in charge of a larger than usual expedition and charged him to make peace without battle if possible but if necessary to defeat the Indians in conflict. Peace efforts minus conflict failing, Wayne's troops defeated the Indians at Fallen Timbers in the Maumee Valley of northwestern Ohio, 1794. Next year at the Treaty of Greenville the red men ceded to the United States most of Ohio, a slice from what is now the eastern border of Indiana (the Gore), and tracts of land here and there within Indiana. No serious Indian warfare occurred within the Ohio Valley thereafter until 1811 when the Battle of Tippecanoe was fought. 3. Various States Surrender Their Claims to the Old Northwest. Before the United States could establish policies regarding the Indians, the fur trade, and occupation of the land by Americans, the question of the ownership of the land west of the Appalachians had to be settled. Six states claimed this land on the basis of colonial charters, while an- other, New York, claimed land on the basis of an Indian treaty. Six states lacked such claims. Some persons thought the Treaty of Paris, 1783, meant that all western land thereafter belonged to Congress, but other persons argued that this treaty had not superseded the claims of the state. This question of ownership was vigorously discussed during and immediately after the Revolution, but fortunately the states gradu- ally surrendered their claims in favor of the United States. Virginia, whose claim was stronger than that of any other state because she could point to her support of Clark's campaign of 1778-1789 as well as to her charter claim, played an important role in this decision. Various states however, retained "reserves," particularly in Ohio. Moreover, the West Virginia and Kentucky areas remained a part of Virginia until state- hood. Hence Ohio and Indiana became the areas in which the United States established most of its early policies regarding: (1) the survey and sale of land, and (2) how a territory might progress to statehood. 4. Basic Steps by Which Land Passed from Indians to Americans. Though never concisely stated in any single document, during the 1780's the United States, through the Confederation Congress, estab- lished four basic steps by which it was desired that the land of the Indian become the land of American settlers: (1) Sale of land from Indian tribes could be obtained only through treaties between such tribes and the United States; (2) Survey of land so obtained by the United States was the next step; (3) Sale of land to individuals or land companies by the United States was the third step; and (4) Settlement by purchasers of land or by persons who purchased, rented, or leased land from such purchasers was the final step. These basic steps were desired in the order named, but both squatters and speculators often interfered at any stage, at times even before the Indians had surrendered their claims. 5. Land Ordinance of 1785. This was a very important act by the Confederation Congress. It established the congressional township (6 miles square) as the basic unit for surveying land, and it established 18 a section (640 acres) as the minimum amount which would be sold to purchasers. This law set $1 per acre as the minimum price and required cash with purchase. Though first applied to only the Seven Ranges in eastern Ohio next to the Pennsylvania border, the rectangular survey system was later extended to almost all of the public domain in the United States. The terms of sale were of course frequently modified. Not much land was sold by the United States to individuals in the 1780's and 1790's, partly because few could provide $640 in cash and partly because land could be obtained from the "reserves" or in one of the states (including the large area south of the Ohio which re- mained a part of Virginia or North Carolina). Large tracts of land, however, were sold to land companies in this period. The Ohio Com- pany, which bought much land in southeastern Ohio, became the founder of Marietta, Ohio, in the spring of 1788. 6. Regulating the Fur Trade of the Old Northwest. The fur trade with the Indians, which had been the most important factor in luring the French into the Old Northwest and other interior areas, remained important for the Americans as it had for the English. During the 1780's Congress regulated this trade. These regulations provided that all who traded with the Indians must be licensed and that such trade could be conducted only at established posts or other designated places. Traders, however, met the Indians at undesignated places, illegally gave or sold them whiskey, and generally cheated and corrupted them. Englishmen as well as Americans engaged in the fur trade of the Old Northwest in this period, especially since the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes afforded them easy access to the upper part of the Old Northwest where few Americans were as yet to be found. 7. Clarksville, First American Settlement in the Old Northwest. Clarksville, on the Indiana side of the Ohio across from Louisville, became the first authorized American settlement in the Old Northwest. Because of Clark's contribution to the success of the American Revolu- tion, Virginia donated him and his men 150,000 acres of land in what became known as Clark's Grant. This grant was confirmed by Congress when Virginia surrendered her territory in the Old Northwest. In 1784 Clarksville became the principal settlement for Clark's Grant, though it grew slowly. Clark and some of his associates lived in this area prior to the founding of Marietta, Ohio, 1788. Some American settlers arrived at Vincennes before 1800, though the French remained in the majority there. Meanwhile, Ouiatenon had gradually disappeared during the English interlude; and Miami (Fort Wayne) lost population while under English control, but French and English as well as American traders continued to visit this place, some residing there for temporary periods. After Fallen Timbers Wayne proceeded to the headwaters of the Maumee and established Fort Wayne, and soon other Americans joined officers and men stationed at this new fort. Scattered settlers, mainly squatters, lived elsewhere in what is now Indiana, especially along the north shore of the Ohio. Most of those who settled north of the Ohio River, however, settled in the southern part of present-day Ohio. Meanwhile, as during the English period, 1763-1783, settlement 19 in western Pennsylvania, western Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee was much larger than in the area north of the Ohio. 8. The Ordinance of 1787. This ordinance, which established Amer- ican territorial government in the Old Northwest, was one of the most important laws ever passed by an American Congress. With the surrender of state claims to the region and with the time ripe for Americans to settle therein, Congress found it necessary to establish a government for this vast area. The Ordinance of 1787 provided for a first or nonrepresentative stage of territorial government, then for a second or representative stage, and finally for a third stage in which an area made the advance from a territory to a state on an equal rank with older states. It provided a bill of rights, prohibited slavery in the region, provided that the estates of persons dying without wills should be divided equally among their children, and indicated the expectation that 3 to 5 states would be carved from the region. The ordinance re- stricted both voting and office holding to property holders, indicating that it was not a democratic document. (Further terms or details of this ordi- nance are repeated in too many places to warrant repetition here.) 9. The Old Northwest during the First Stage of Territorial Gov- ernment. The Old Northwest entered the first stage of territorial gov- ernment with the arrival of Arthur St. Clair at the capital, Marietta, as governor in 1788. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and much of Minnesota were included in this territory. St. Clair and the three judges adopted laws; the governor created counties, appointed local officials, etc. Under this stage of government not a single terri- torial official was elected by the people— St. Clair and the judges, for example, were appointed first by Congress and then by the president of the United States. This stage continued until 1799 when the first legislative assembly of the territory convened at Cincinnati. The quali- fied voters— all property holders— elected members of the lower house of this assembly, which ushered in the beginning of representative gov- ernment within the territory, though the upper house of the assembly was appointed by the president. Since most of the people in the Old Northwest then lived largely in what is now southern Ohio, Ohio resi- dents received most of the offices and most of the benefits from the representative stage. Thus residents of more remote areas, including those at Vincennes and Clarksville, preferred to be returned to the less costly first stage of government. William Henry Harrison, the first territorial delegate elected by the new assembly, proceeded to Congress and helped secure passage of a law providing for a division of the Northwest Territory. The eastern area remained known as the North- west Territory, while the western part became the Indiana Territory and was returned to the first stage of territorial government. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts • 1, Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 54-60. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 43-52. 20 References 1. John D. Barnhart, The Valley of Democracy: The Ohio Valley, 1775-1820 (1953). 2. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Chs. 6-7. 3. Beverly W. Bond, The Civilization of the Old Northwest: A Study of Political, Social, and Economic Development, 1788-1812 (1934). 4. Jacob Burnet, Notes on the Early Settlement of the North-western Terri- tory (1847). * 5. Chief Little Turtle (Indiana Historical Bureau), 1-6. * 6. Thomas Boyd, Mad Anthony Wayne (1929). 7. Fremont Cleaves, Old Tippecanoe, William Henry Harrison and His Time (1939). 8. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, Ch. 5. 9. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, Chs. 5-6. 10. Dorothy B. Goebel, William Henry Harrison, A Political Biography (Indi- ana Historical Bureau, 1926), especially Ch. 2. 11. Charles Kettelborough (ed.), Constitution Making in Indiana, I (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1916). Includes copy of Ordinance of 1787 and other important documents. 12. Roy M. Robbins, Our Landed Heritage: The Public Domain, 1776-1936 (1942). 13. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. II, Chs. 4-7. 14. Gayle Thornbrough (ed.), Outpost on the Wabash, 1787-1791 (Indiana Historical Society, 1957). *15. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Ch. 5 and parts of Chs. 6-7. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Territorial Expansion of the United States from 1783-1853, International Geo- graphic Pictures, b&w, sd, 23 min, $3.75. Thomas Jefferson, Emerson Film Corporation and Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., b&w, sd, 18 min, $4.00. United States Expansion: The Northwest Territory, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min, $2.50, $3.75. Filmstrips Northwest Territory (Westward Expansion— United States Series), Curriculum Materials, Rev. 1959, color, si, 39 fr, $3.95. Pioneers of the Northwest (Pioneers and Settlers Series), Curriculum Materials, Rev. 1959, color, si, 27 fr, $3.95. Tape Recordings Ordinance of 1787 (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. The Northwest Ordinance (The American Trail), Women's Auxiliary of Veterans of Foreign Wars and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 21 CHAPTER V INDIANA TERRITORY AND EARLY STATEHOOD, 1800-1825 General Comments Indiana Territory was the second territory within the Old North- west, and Indiana was the second state carved from the region. Although most of the Old Northwest was included in the new Indiana Territory in 1800, the territory did not reach its maximum size until the addition of eastern Michigan and the Gore in 1803 when Ohio became a state. When Indiana voters expressed a preference for the second or repre- sentative stage of territorial government late in 1804, residents of the subsequent states of Michigan and Illinois sought separation and con- tinuation of the first stage for their areas. The establishment of Michigan Territory in 1805 meant that Michigan never became a real part of Indiana's second stage, but Illinois, against the wishes of some residents, remained with second-stage Indiana until 1809. During both its first and second stages Indiana territorial government was based on the Ordinance of 1787. According to the act of 1800 establishing the territory, however, Indiana could enter the second stage whenever a majority of her qualified voters so desired. Moreover, once this stage was achieved there was a considerable growth in political democracy. (See Item 4 of the succeeding section.) These changes, the decision against slavery, and land legislation which made it possible for numerous settlers to buy land made pioneer Indiana more democratic than pioneer Ohio and considerably more democratic than Kentucky and Tennessee, her neighbors south of the Ohio River. During the period, 1800-1825, Indiana was a part of the rapidly developing Ohio Valley frontier. The settlement of Indiana was a con- tinuation of the settlement of the Ohio Valley which had been in process, though slowly at first, since about the 1750's. The Ohio River was a superwaterway for travel and transportation up and down the valley. Moreover, it increased contacts between settlements south and north thereof, promoting considerable unity of interests and views among settlers throughout the valley. Most of the early settlers of Indiana came from such states as Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, and New York. Viewing Indiana as a part of the expanding Ohio Valley frontier during the first quarter of the nineteenth century helps explain why the large majority of Indiana pioneers first lived in southern Indiana. Within Indiana the frontier of settlement moved principally from south to north, with the result that northwestern Indiana became "Indiana's last frontier." 22 The revival of conflict with the Indians at Tippecanoe in 1811 and the War of 1812 threatened American occupation of the Old Northwest. Despite severe reverses during 1812 and 1813, however, the Old North- west was more strongly under American control at the end of the war than it had ever been. The British were aware of this increased American hold on the region. Moreover, the War of 1812 ended the long series of Indian wars which had been fought intermittently in the Ohio Valley since about 1750. In 1815 the Indians who had sided with the English generally realized that both they and the British had been successfully repulsed and that the American tide was waxing as the British tide waned. In other words, by 1815 the United States had made good its title to the Old Northwest and was now prepared to expand settlements throughout the Ohio Valley and even into portions of the Old North- west within the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence drainage basin. Indiana's admission as the nineteenth state of the United States was generally favored by its citizens. Although Indiana ceased to be a ter- ritory in 1816, in various ways she remained dependent upon the United States. In 1816 the Indians still held about, two-thirds of the land of the state. The termination of these holdings, their survey and sale, and the removal of the Indians, it will be recalled, was a function performed by the United States. Transportation was inadequate, re- sulting in grants of land and some money from the federal government to build roads and canals as will be noted in Chapter 6. Points to Emphasize 1. Indiana Territory Created, 1800. Congress created the Indiana Territory by dividing the Old Northwest into two territories. The area east of a line from the junction of the Kentucky River with the Ohio, northeast to Fort Recovery, and due north to Canada continued as the Northwest Territory. It included almost all of Ohio, a slice from eastern Indiana known as the Gore, and approximately the eastern half of Michigan. The area west of this line became the Indiana Territory and including' nearly all of present-day Indiana, approximately the western half of Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, and much of Minnesota. When Ohio became a state in 1803, the eastern half of Michigan and the Gore were added to Indiana Territory, making it of immense size; however, its extent was soon decreased by the separation of Michigan Territory (1805) and Illinois Territory (1809). Indiana's present boundaries were established in 1816 when statehood was achieved, save for minor changes. (The boundary changes for the Old Northwest and Indiana territories are illustrated in Buley, Old Northwest, 1815-1840, I, 62-64, and ex- plained in the accompanying text.) 2. Indiana Territory in First Stage, 1800-1805. William Henry Harrison was appointed governor of the new territory. John Gibson, Indian trader and veteran of the American Revolution, was appointed territorial secretary. Three judges were also appointed. They served as the highest court within the territory, while they and the governor adopted laws from various states. During this stage there was no 23 elected territorial official of any kind— thus no representative govern- ment. This nonrepresentative stage was recognized as a temporary expedient. In 1804 a majority of the voters who participated in a referendum voted in favor of a change to the second or representative stage of territorial government. 3. Indiana Territory in Second Stage, 1805-1816. During this stage the governor, secretary, and judges remained; however, the judges and governor lost their power to adopt laws. With the second stage a Gen- eral Assembly (legislature) was added to make laws for the territory. The General Assembly also elected a territorial delegate to be a speaking but non-voting member of Congress. Concerning the General Assembly, at first members of the house were elected by voters who met certain property qualifications, while members of the council were appointed by the president from nominations made by the house. The General Assembly levied taxes, created new counties, established courts and de- fined their functions, etc. (Their approval, then disapproval, of legis- lation regarding indentured servants is noted in Item 5.) In 1813 a law became effective which moved the territorial capital from Vincennes, where it had been since 1800, to Corydon where it remained until 1825, nearly a decade after statehood. Indianapolis became the permanent state capital in 1825. 4. Political Democracy Increased during Second Stage of Territorial Government. Three important changes increased political democracy during the second stage: (1) The election of the territorial delegate was taken from the General Assembly and given to the voters; (2) Members of the council were made subject to popular election rather than ap- pointment by the president; (3) Suffrage was extended to include adult white males who met a property qualification or paid a territorial tax. Since nearly every adult white male met this test, the substance of universal suffrage was achieved for this group. Such democratic gains had not been achieved during the second stage in the Northwest Ter- ritory (1798-1803), and they were advanced for that day. The decision against slavery, in spite of temporary legislation favorable thereto, also helped make Indiana more democratic than states such as Kentucky or Tennessee. 5. Slavery in Indiana Territory. The Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery in the Old Northwest during its territorial period, and it even required that states carved from the region must exclude slavery. Some of the French already living in the area held slaves, and the courts decided that such persons could continue to own them. In 1802 a con- vention of citizens at Vincennes asked Congress to allow the introduction of additional slaves into Indiana, but Congress rejected this request. Next year the governor and judges adopted a law from Virginia which authorized life contracts for indentured servants— under this law r a small number of Negroes were brought into Indiana, and they are more ap- propriately called slaves than indentured servants. Similar legislation was continued by the General Assembly in 1805, but it was repealed in 1810. Indiana's Constitution of 1816 definitely excluded slavery. Though slavery existed in early Indiana, it never became a significant factor among Hoosiers. Indiana doubtless became a free state more because 24 of local opposition to slavery than because of the prohibition against it in the Ordinance of 1787. Within Indiana, numerous Quakers, notably in the Whitewater Valley, opposed slavery during territorial days. 6. Growth of Population in Indiana, 1800-1825. Indiana Territory had a population of about five or six thousand whites in 1800, about half of whom lived in what is- now Indiana. The present Indiana area had a population of almost 25,000 in 1810, 147,000 in 1820, and an estimated 225,000 in 1825. The volume of population growth was slow in these early years. A considerable majority of the early Hoosiers came from such slave states as Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina, but a significant number came from Pennsylvania, Ohio, and a few other northern or free states. Very few came from New England or Europe. Prior to 1825 much the greater portion of the settlers lived in southern Indiana, though some lived in central Indiana, especially in the upper Whitewater Valley. In 1825 only an extremely small number of persons lived north of the line of the National Road— Richmond, Indianapolis, and Terre Haute. The history of Indiana to 1825 is principally the history of southern Indiana. 7. Land Laws, 1800-1820. Congress passed a land law in 1800, the year Indiana became a territory, known as the Harrison Land Law. According to this law, 320 acres (a half section) was the minimum amount which could be purchased; $2 was the minimum price, while the pur- chaser was allowed to make a small down payment to be followed by four yearly payments (plus one additional year if needed). In 1804 Congress reduced the minimum amount to 160 acres (a quarter section). Although the minimum price was higher than in the Land Ordinance of 1785, the availability of smaller tracts and of credit made the new legislation attractive to settlers. Many settlers, however, were too opti- mistic about their ability to make annual payments, and perhaps a majority of them were unable to complete their payments on time. Various laws allowed extensions of time for payments, but delinquencies increased and became such a problem— especially with the beginning of the depression in 1819— that Congress passed a law in 1820 which re- duced the minimum amount which could be purchased to 80 acres (one- eighth of a section) and set the minimum price at $1.25, but payment was thereafter to be strictly cash. It took more than a decade, and various laws, to make adjustments and settlements for persons who had bought land on credit, 1800-1820. Millions of acres of land, located mainly in southern Indiana, were sold under the credit plan. 8. Harrison and Jennings were Rival Political Leaders. William Henry Harrison and Jonathan Jennings were the two most important political leaders in Indiana, 1800-1825. Harrison was from a prominent Virginia family. His father had signed the Declaration of Independence and had served as governor of Virginia. Harrison planned to be a doctor but entered military service, serving with Wayne at Fallen Tim- bers, 1794. He soon became secretary of the Northwest Territory and then its first territorial delegate to Congress. Harrison was the governor of Indiana Territory, 1800-1812, though John Gibson served in his place at various times. In 1812 Harrison resigned because of his partici- pation in the War of 1812, following which he became a resident of Ohio. 25 Elected president in 1840, he died after about one month in office. Jennings was a native of New Jersey who arrived at Vincennes in 1806, but soon moved to Jeffersonville. Almost immediately a rival of Har- rison, Jennings was elected territorial delegate in 1809, when this office was first filled by popular vote, and re-elected at each succeeding election. In 1816 he was president of the Corydon Convention which wrote Indi- ana's first constitution. He was elected governor in 1816 and again in 1819. During the twenties he served several years in the lower House of Congress. Both Harrison and Jennings claimed to be Jeffersonian Republicans, but Jennings and his followers were more democratic than were Harrison and his followers. Jennings' support was stronger in southeastern Indiana, Harrison's in southwestern Indiana. Harrison's strength was greater in the early territorial period, while Jennings reached the zenith of his power during the late territorial and early statehood years. 9. Cessions of Land Obtained from the Indians. Between 1800 and 1809 Governor Harrison and his associates secured millions of acres of land from various Indian tribes for the United States. Within Indiana these cessions were mainly located in southern Indiana, though they included considerable land in central Indiana on its eastern and western borders. An even larger area was secured from the Indians within what is now southern and central Illinois. These cessions disturbed many Indians. The Prophet, a Shawnee, urged the Indians to reduce their con- tacts with the white and return to traditional Indian ways. Tecumseh, half-brother of the Prophet, set about to organize resistance to the settlers. Twice he visited Harrison at Vincennes to indicate his opposi- tion to further cessions of land. In 1811 he went south, presumably to enlist support from southern Indians. While he was away Harrison led about one thousand men up the Wabash from Vincennes toward the Indian area. Fort Harrison was built near present-day Terre Haute, and the army proceeded up the valley to a spot north of present La- fayette. Here it camped for the night, apparently expecting negotia- tions with the Indians the next day. Near daybreak the Indians attacked with heavy losses on both sides, though Harrison and his friends regarded the battle, known as Tippecanoe from the nearby river, as a victory. Its results are uncertain, especially since the conflict with the Indians soon merged into the War of 1812. 10. The War of 1812. This war-fought during 1812, 1813, and 1814— came during the later part of Indiana's territorial era. Several factors helped produce it: (1) conflicting views between the United States and England over the rights of Americans as neutrals in the prolonged warfare between France and England which involved various other countries; (2) English impressment of American seamen into their service, a question made thorny because both England and the United States often claimed the same persons as citizens; (3) American interest in possible territorial changes— some Americans thought war might re- sult in the addition of at least part of Canada or perhaps Florida to the United States; and (4) American resentment at continued English en- couragement to the Indians to delay cessions and retard the advance of the American frontier in the Old Northwest. At first, the War of 26 1812 was disastrous to the Americans in the Old Northwest: Detroit fell to the English; the garrison at Fort Dearborn (Chicago) was massacred as it attempted to withdraw; Forts Wayne and Harrison were attacked; and Indian raids extended even into established settlements as is illustrated by the Pigeon Root Massacre in Clark County. By the end of 1813 the Old Northwest was again largely free from attack by the English and the Indians. No territorial changes resulted from the War of 1812; however, the Indians were thoroughly defeated, and they made peace even ahead of the British. American control over the West was much more solid and secure in 1815 than it had been in the uncertain 1780's. No Indian warfare thereafter occurred in Indiana. Americans had suc- cessfully defended their title to the Old Northwest. This success pro- moted a spirit of nationalism and encouraged the statehood movement which soon made Indiana the nineteenth state. 11. Indiana Becomes a State, 1816. Five successive steps were in- volved as Indiana made the change from a territory to a state. First was the petition to Congress from the General Assembly asking that Congress authorize Indiana to frame a constitution and organize a state government. In 1811, following the Battle of Tippecanoe, the General Assembly had petitioned for statehood, but Congress regarded this peti- tion as premature. A successful petition was made in 1815. Second came an enabling act by Congress, in 1816, approving the calling of a convention to draft a constitution, etc. The third step was the consti- tutional convention at Corydon which drafted a constitution for the new state. The fourth step was the election of various state officials and the actual organization of a state government. These steps were com- pleted December 11, 1816, resulting in the fifth step which was formal admission by Congress. Indiana's new constitution was concise. It pro- vided universal suffrage for white males, excluded slavery, and it set a very high goal for public education. Under this constitution the General Assembly had much power, and it met annually for as long as members thought desirable. At the end of 1816, when Indiana entered the Union, there were only fifteen counties in Indiana. By 1825 the total was near fifty. The county was an extremely important unit of government in pioneer days. (It was far more important than the civil township.) Rivalry over the site for a county seat was at times long and vigorous. (For dates when counties were organized, location of county seats, and changes in boundaries, see George Pence and Nellie C. Arm- strong, Indiana Boundaries: Territory, State, and County [1933].) TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 54-79. * 2. Smith, Indiana Histroy, 69-82. 27 References 1. Barnhart, Valley of Democracy: The Ohio Valley, 1775-1820. 2. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Chs. 8-10. 3. R. Carlyle Buley, The Old Northwest, Pioneer Period, 1815-1840 (2 vols., 1950 and 1951), I, especially Chs. 1-2. 4. Clarence E. Carter (ed.), Territorial Papers of the United States (VII- VIII, 1939). These two volumes concern Indiana Territory, 1800-1816. 5. Cleaves, Old Tippecanoe, William Henry Harrison and His Time. 6. Dillon, A History of Indiana. 7. Jacob Piatt Dunn, Indiana, A Redemption from Slavery (1900). 8. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, Ch. 6 and part of Ch. 7. 9. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, Chs. 7-9. 10. Goebel, William Henry Harrison, especially Chs. 3-4. 41. William Henry Harrison (Indiana Historical Bureau), 1-6. 12. Kettleborough (ed.), Constitution Making in Indiana, I. Includes peti- tions for statehood, Enabling Act of 1816, Constitution of 1816, and other important documents. 43. Harlow Lindley (ed.), Indiana as Seen by Early Travelers . . . (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1916). 14. George Pence and Nellie C. Armstrong, Indiana Boundaries: Territory, State, and County (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1933). 15. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. Ill, Chs. 1-7; Pt. IV, Chs. 1-2. 46. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana Histroy, parts of Chs. 6-7, and Chs. 8-9. 17. William W. Woollen, Biographical and Historical Sketches of Early In- diana (1883). AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Territorial Expansion of the United States from 1783-1853, International Geo- graphic Pictures, b&w, sd, 23 min, $3.75. United States Expansion: The Northwest Territory, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min, $2.50, $3.75. War of 1812, Coronet, b&w. color, sd, 14 min, $3.50, $5.00. Filmstrips How Indiana Got Its Present Constitution, Indiana University A-V Center, 1951, color, si, 56 fr. $2.50. Tape Recordings Ohio's First President (The Ohio Story Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. Ordinance of 1787 (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 28 CHAPTER VI HOOSIER PIONEERS AND PIONEER LIFE, 1800-1850 General Comment The half-century, 1800-1850, was Indiana's pioneer era. It was a period of beginnings— for schools, roads, libraries, churches, mills and shops, government, and politics, as well as for settlements and farms. No exact date can be given for either its beginning or ending, but gen- erally the pioneer era began earlier and lasted longer in southern than in central or northern Indiana. Pioneering was a necessary stage or process which established important foundations for the further and more rapid development of agriculture, manufacturing, transportation, education, and religion. This process was much alike in all parts of Indiana— and in the Ohio Valley generally— but there were many varia- tions in pioneer life from neighborhood to neighborhood, in differing geographical areas (forest, prairie, etc.), among different elements of the population, in villages and towns as well as in thinly settled rural areas. The pioneers of Indiana had much in common in their general back- ground. First of all, they came largely from families which had had much experience as pioneers before they reached Indiana. Most of their families had lived in older sections of the Ohio Valley, in the hills or valleys of the Appalachian Mountains, or in the foothills east of the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to the Carolinas. Some Indiana pioneers came from families which had been pioneers in these areas for several generations. Persons from such background were generally tested and seasoned pioneers— unlike the tenderfoot colonists who settled James- town and Plymouth. Secondly, Indiana's early pioneers came largely from families experienced in farming. Farming had been the main occupation in the areas from which they came, at times since early colonial days or even since before they had come to the New World. Thirdly, most of the pioneers had been accustomed to farming forested areas, often hilly areas as well. Hence they were well prepared to settle the forested and often hilly sections of southern and central Indiana- few settlers spread over the prairies of northwestern Indiana until after 1850. Fourthly, their background had also required them to be part woodsmen and hunters as well as farmers. This background was espe- cially useful in early pioneer days when homes had to be erected, fields had to be cleared, and game had to be obtained from the forest for food. Fifthly, most pioneers brought very little with them to Indiana. They were mainly farmers, not planters. Self-sufficiency and isolation were two basic elements of pioneer life. To be sure, self-sufficiency and isolation were not complete, but they existed to a greater extent than for any subsequent period— and to a greater extent than most persons can now realize. As settlers in new 29 areas, the pioneers had moved beyond established communities— beyond developed roads, farms, mills, etc. Under these conditions much isola- tion was inevitable, though it was greater in early than in late pioneer days— greater in the interior hill counties of southern Indiana than in settlements in counties bordering the Ohio River. Isolation made self- sufficiency essential. Since little could be imported or exported, especially in the beginning, family or neighborhood self-sufficiency was necessary for existence. Hence, the pioneers had to be "jacks-of-all-trades." Thus most furniture, clothing, tools, and implements were "home made." Moreover, schools, libraries, mills, and churches nearly all served local areas. Pioneers, whether they lived in remote rural areas or in villages and towns, usually had vegetable gardens, chickens, and livestock. Such self-sufficiency was an essential part of the pioneer stage. Points to Emphasize 1. Population Growth and Changes, 1825-1850. Population grew in volume and in variety during the last half of the pioneer era, 1825-1850. (See Chapter 5, Item 6, for population developments to 1825.) From an estimated total of about 225,000 in 1825, population reached almost a million in 1850, a gain of over 400 per cent and an increase of about 750,000 in approximately one generation. Immigration from southern states remained important, but during the second quarter of the nine- teenth century the proportion of persons from northern states such as Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York increased. Immigration from Europe became important, bringing thousands of Germans and Irish to Indiana. Until at least 1830 Indiana had no town with as many as 2,500 residents. In 1840 only Madison, New Albany, and Indianapolis exceeded this amount. By 1850 eight towns did, though as yet none had as many as ten thousand inhabitants. Villages and towns existed in these early years, but pioneer Indiana was mainly rural. Many settlers went into central Indiana, 1820-1850, and a lesser number into northern Indiana, but in 1850 southern Indiana had more residents than either central or northern Indiana. Meanwhile, the Negro population of the state gained so that it equaled about 11,300 in 1850. The population included many children and numerous adults in their twenties and thirties, but the number of persons above sixty-five was only a small part of the total. 2. Obtaining Food, Clothing, and Shelter in Pioneer Days. Food, clothing, and shelter were immediate and primary needs which had to have substantial priority among the pioneers. These needs were essen- tial to life itself, hence they could not be postponed. Moreover, because of isolation and self-sufficiency these needs had largely to be provided locally— mainly within the family or neighborhood. Food came prin- cipally from fish and game available in the streams and forests, from vegetable gardens, from corn, wheat, hogs, chickens, etc. Shelter was principally provided by log cabins, though frame houses soon appeared and by 1850 a number of brick residences had been erected. Clothing was made from wool, imported bolts of cotton, flax, and leather. Providing food, shelter, and clothing were constant tasks of pioneer families, requiring almost endless labor from fathers, mothers, grand- 30 parents, aunts, and likewise from boys and girls. Many girls and boys in their teens then worked harder at physical toil than most adults now do in factories or on farms. 3. Agriculture, Principal Occupation in Pioneer Days. New settlers brought some clothing with them and they could exist in crude cabins, but food had quickly to be available, for very little of it was brought with them. Among the most important items which early settlers brought was seed of corn, potatoes, beans, etc. Moreover, some settlers also brought chickens, hogs, and perhaps a cow or horse with them. Clearing the forests and preparing the "new ground" for cultivation was one of the most laborious of all pioneer tasks. (Much the greater portion of Indiana's forests, however, were cleared after 1850 by farmers and lumbermen rather than by the pioneers.) Corn was the principal crop, providing food for man and beast. Hogs were the leading farm animal, and the pioneers ate much meat, including pork, beef, mutton, and wild game. (Corn-hog farming has always been basic in Indiana.) Wheat and oats, however, were important pioneer crops; and rye, barley, buck- wheat, flax, and tobacco were grown. Cattle, sheep, and horses were com- mon, though usually much less numerous than hogs. Sheep were im- portant since most clothing was made from wool. Exports of farm produce— corn, meal, wheat, flour, pork, lard, tobacco, and vegetables- increased, especially during the second quarter of the pioneer era. Most of this produce went down the rivers on flatboats, ultimately descending the Mississippi to New Orleans and elsewhere. Much of it was con- sumed on slave plantations in the Lower South. 4. Pioneer Manufacturing. Although manufacturing as it exists today was unknown among the pioneers, a considerable amount of manu- facturing was done. Manufactured goods came mainly from household processes, from trades or crafts, and from mills. The household processes occurred within families or neighborhoods and ranged from butchering, quilting, spinning, weaving, and furniture-making to the making of farm implements, applebutter, nails, meal, flour, harness, etc., etc. Tradesmen established shops in which they made shoes, hats, guns, leather, and numerous other items. Some tradesmen made items in their homes and traveled from neighborhood to neighborhood selling their products. Black- smiths were common, and they performed many services— doing work of various tradesmen. Grist and lumber mills developed early. The grind- ing of corn into meal and wheat into flour was soon transferred from household processes to millers in most neighborhoods, making milling the first major industry in Indiana to develop in this way. Pioneer manufacturing, as the preceding indicates, was based principally on products from farms and forests. 5. Transportation Facilities Very Inadequate. Perhaps the major reason for the isolation and self-sufficiency of pioneer life was the in- adequacy of transportation facilities. Particularly in the early years, transportation and travel generally followed river routes. Trails or traces through the forests made by Indians and animals usually led from one river or river valley to another river or river valley. Such trails were widened and improved, and new trails— such as Whetzel's Trail from the Whitewater at Brookville to the West Fork of White River 31 at Waverly— were cut and "blazed" through the wilderness. Pioneer roads generally meandered around large trees, mud holes, gullies, and steep hills. Numerous stumps were left standing, though they were supposed to be cut low enough to allow wagons, carts, and stages to pass over them. Bridges were scarce, almost no grading was done, very little gravel was used, poles or limbs were at times thrown across soft places making the so-called corduroy roads. The Michigan Road and the National Road, both extending across Indiana in the 1830's, were the best roads, but transportation over them was often difficult and at times impossible. Hundreds of flatboats yearly descended tributaries of the Ohio with produce for southern markets. Steamboats appeared on the Ohio and the Wabash in increasing numbers soon after the War of 1812. Stage lines spread over the state, starting in the 1820's. A heroic but unsuccessful effort was made to "solve" the transportation problem through the Internal Improvements System of 1836. (See Chapter 7, Item 3.) The Wabash and Erie and the Whitewater canals were results of this effort. Railroad building began in the 1830's, but by 1850 Indiana had only about 225 miles of track. Nevertheless, by this time transportation and travel were improved over early pioneer days. 6. The Beginnings of Schools and Churches. Education had im- portant beginnings during pioneer days. Education— elementary, second- ary, and college— was mainly under church or private control. But whether church, private, or even "public", the religious influence was substantial. The Constitution of 1816 included advanced goals regard- ing the development of public education, but these goals were not real- ized by the pioneers. A number of counties, however, established county or public seminaries (secondary schools). Indiana University began in the 1820's and remained the only "public" college or university in the pioneer era. Private or church colleges established before 1850 which continue today include Vincennes University, Hanover College, DePauw University, Franklin College, Wabash College, and Notre Dame Uni- versity. Attendance at school was optional, at least so far as parents were concerned, and most pioneer children received little or even no schooling. Among the churches the Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Christians (Disciples), and Quakers were the leading groups. The Roman Catholics, who established a church at Vincennes before 1750, also grew in numbers because some immigrants from older states were Catholics, and almost all of the Irish and many of the Germans were members of this faith. Most pioneers were not members of any church, but they were generally sympathetic to some Protestant group. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 80-131. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 53-68, 98-101, 116-127. 32 References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Chs. 11, 13-21, 23, especially Chs. 11, 15-17, 20. Most junior high school students can read Chapter 15, and much material in other chapters as well. 2. Richard G. Boone, A History of Education in Indiana (1892). (Reprint edition, 1941, Indiana Historical Bureau.) 3. Paul G. Brewster (ed.), Ballads and Songs of Indiana (1940). 4. Buley, The Old Nortluuest, Pioneer Period, 1815-1840, I, especially Chs. 4-7; and II, Chs. 13-14. Both volumes include a wealth of interesting material on pioneer life, much of which can be read by junior high school students. 5. Donald F. Carmony, The Pioneer Press in Indiana, in Indiana History Bulletin, XXXI (1954), 187-232. * 6. William M. Cockrum, Pioneer History of Indiana, Including Stories, Inci- dents, and Customs of the Early Settlers (1907). 7. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, Chs. 11-12, 14-18, especially Ch. 18. * 8. Logan Esarey, The Indiana Home (1943 and 1953). 9. Baynard R. Hall, The New Purchase, Or Seven and a Half Years in the Far West (2 vols., 1843). (Also one-volume editions, 1855 and 1916). *10. Oliver Johnson, A Home in the Woods (Indiana Historical Society, 1951). **11. Joy M. Lacey (ed.), Good Times of Young Pioneers (Indiana Historical Bureau), 17-20. **12. Joy M. Lacey (ed.), Pioneer Living in Indiana (Indiana Historical Bu- reau), 9-12. **13. Joy M. Lacey (ed.), Travel in Indiana Long Ago (Indiana Historical Bureau), 13-16. *14. William C. Latta, Outline History of Indiana Agriculture (1938). 15. George B. Lockwood, The New Harmony Movement (1905). 16. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. IV, Chs. 3-4, 6-7; Pt. V, Chs. 1-5, 7-8. *17. Thornbough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Chs. 10- 22. This volume, generally useful, is particularly so regarding pioneer times. 18. Leah J. Wolford, The Play-Party in Indiana (Indiana Historical Society, 1917). (Edited and revised by W. Edson Richmond and William Till- son, 1959.) AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Flatboatmen of the Frontier (Ohio Valley Farmers: 1790-1820), Erpi, Encyclo- paedia Britannica Films, Inc.; b&w, sd, 11 min, $2.00. The Grist Mill, KQED and NET, b&w, sd, 15 min, $3.00. Kentuckie Rifle, Erpi, Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc.; b&w, sd, 11 min, $1.75. Long Journey West: 1820, Indiana University A-V Center, b&w, color, sd, 15 min, $3.75, $5.50. Pioneer Community of the Midwest, Coronet, b&w, sd, 13 min, $2.50. Pioneer Home, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 11 min, $2.00, $3.25. Pioneer Journey Across the Appalachians, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 14 min, $3.50, $5.00. Riverboats and Keelboats, KQED and NET, b&w, sd, 15 min, $3.00. Spinning Wheel, Arthur Barr, b&w, color, sd, 10 min, $1.75, $3.00. 33 Tape Recordings Christmas — Pioneer Style (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Tele- phone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. The First Steamboat (The Ohio Story Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. Frontier Education (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. Pioneers at Play (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Com- pany and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. Pioneers at Work (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. William Holmes McGuffey (The Ohio Story Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Com- pany and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 34 CHAPTER VII RIVAL POLITICAL PARTIES AND A NEW CONSTITUTION, 1825-1851 General Comment During the period 1800-1825 Indiana was so strongly Jeffersonian Republican that many Hoosiers regarded the word Federalist as a term of reproach. This word gained increased disdain in Indiana because of New England's lukewarmness and alleged treasonable activities during the War of 1812 which was staunchly supported in Indiana. The Jeffersonian Republicans controlled almost every territorial, state, and local office in Indiana without ever becoming an organized political party in these early years; however, both personal and sectional rival- ries existed. (See Chapter 5, Item 8.) The presidential election of 1824 was followed by a split among the Jeffersonian Republicans. In this election Jackson, Adams, Clay, and Crawford were the major candidates for the presidency. All claimed to be Jeffersonian Republicans, but both sectional and personal rival- ries were involved in the support for each. Since no candidate obtained a majority of the electoral vote, the election was made by the House of Representatives, resulting in the selection of Adams who made Clay his secretary of state. The Jackson men were furious at this result— they claimed that "Old Hickory" had received more of the popular vote than Adams only to be deprived of victory by a "corrupt bargain" be- tween the forces of Adams and Clay. At any rate, about 1825 the Jeffer- sonian Republicans divided into National Republicans, with Adams and Clay as leaders, and the Democratic Republicans, led by Jackson and his friends. These two political groups became the first organized political parties in Indiana. The emergence of organized political parties was one of the most important developments in Indiana during the quarter-century, 1825- 1850. The Democratic Republicans, often referred to merely as Demo- crats, took the lead in establishing an organization for their party. They were opposed to nominations of candidates by caucuses of party office- holders and leaders. They developed party conventions— local, dis- trict, and state. Local supporters of the party elected delegates to local conventions. Delegates to district and state conventions were frequently appointed by delegates at local conventions, but at times they were elected by party members. These party conventions performed three major functions: (1) They nominated persons to run for office against their opponents; (2) They— especially the state convention— adopted resolutions or policies (the platform) to be supported by the party and its nominees; and (3) They selected various officers and committees to carry forward the work and program of the party. The National Republicans also 35 soon made use of party conventions which became the basic governing body for political parties generally. (Such conventions still perform these three major functions; however, during the twentieth century various nominations have been made by the direct primary rather than in party convention.) As organized, and rival, political parties evolved, 1825-1850, related developments appeared. Since parties needed money to pay for their campaigns, they sought contributions from the party faithful. Thus "party assessments" and "volunteer contributions" were collected with varying degrees of "persuasion." Officeholders, actual and potential, were especially vulnerable to collectors of party revenue. The spread of the spoils or patronage system offered a method of rewarding party contributors with offices. The need to carry the "message" to voters generally encouraged the growth of weekly newspapers which served as "party organs" to praise the platform and record of their party, while "viewing with alarm" "dangerous" planks and ideas of the rival party. With telephone, radio, and television unknown, and transportation facilities, meager, control of weekly newspapers was very important to political parties. Such papers were numerous, 1825-1850, though few of them gained more than three or four hundred subscribers. Political parties have been an important part of government in Indi- ana from pioneer days. Hence an understanding of their beginnings, their role, and their contributions is essential for students who will soon be voters. Political parties are too often operated by individuals who put personal interest above the general good, but unfortunately this is too often also true of organizations in business, labor, agriculture, and education. From pioneer days to the present, government— local and state as well as federal— lias increasingly made decisions and performed functions of consequence and concern to every individual. The faults and weaknesses involved in political parties should frankly be discussed, but it is equally important that their origins, functions, importance, and achievements also be understood. Political history, wisely and interest- ingly presented, is a fascinating subject. Indiana's present state constitution, apart from its amendments, was written at the end of the pioneer era. The Constitution of 1816, Indi- ana's first, was drafted when Indiana became a state. It continued without amendment until replaced by the new one in 1851. The 1816 constitution had reflected Jeffersonian Republican ideas. (See Chapter 5, Item 11.) The Constitution of 1851 reflected Jacksonian Democracy- ideas favored by the Democrats. It was also much influenced by Indiana's costly experience with the public debt during the 1840's. The observa- tions which follow help explain how both Jacksonian Democracy and the unfortunate experience with state debt led to various provisions and to certain restrictions in the Constitution of 1851. Points to Emphasize 1. Indiana Voters Supported Andrew Jackson. Hoosiers gave a majority of their votes to Andrew Jackson in his unsuccessful presi- 36 dential campaign of 1824 and in his successful campaigns of 1828 and 1832. Jackson, then a resident of Tennessee, was popular throughout the West in part because he had fought against the Indians, the English, and the Spanish. He was pictured as a friend of the West, one who would not "sell out" to John Quincy Adams and other New Englanders as Henry Clay was said to have done. He was presented as a democrat, a man friendly to people generally rather than to the aristocrats or chosen few. Jackson's supporters, the Democrats, were heavy on sentiment— they were for the West, for democracy, for the common man, for the Union, etc. They were, however, often vague and divided in their views on internal improvements, a protective tariff, and banking. Oddly enough, however, even while Hoosiers supported Jackson in 1824, 1828, and 1832, they usually elected men to state and local offices within Indiana who were unfriendly or neutral toward him. Parties were then only in their early stage of organization, and party lines were not always clear or sharply drawn. Jackson usually got large majorities in most of the interior, and often hilly, counties of southern Indiana. 2. Indiana Voters Supported William Henry Harrison. The fact that personalities were at times extremely important in obtaining po- litical support in pioneer days is illustrated by Indiana's shifting from support of Jackson to that for Harrison during the 1830's. William Henry Harrison had settled in Ohio, near Cincinnati, after his service in the War of 1812. Though his career in Ohio and national politics was not distinguished, he was widely acclaimed in Ohio, Indiana, and other states by the mid-1 830's. In 1834 the National Republicans had united with anti-Jackson Democrats and other groups to form the Whig party. Harrison was one of various nominees of this new party for president in 1836, and Hoosiers supported their former territorial gov- ernor over Van Buren, whom Jackson had made his heir apparent. Nevertheless, the Democrats elected Van Buren. Four years later Harris- son became the sole nominee of the Whigs against Van Buren for the Democrats. This time Harrison carried both Indiana and the country, but unfortunately he died after about one month as president. The Whigs controlled most of the state and local offices in Indiana, 1834-1843. Although they were more favorable to the protective tariff, the Second United States Bank, and federal aid to internal improvements than were the Democrats, members of both parties were found on both sides of such issues. Moreover, Harrison, like Jackson, had fought against the Indians and the English, and he was regarded as a product and friend of the West. 3. Whigs Blamed for Failure of Internal Improvements System of 1836. A law of 1836 regarding "internal improvements" (transporta- tion) was one of the most important laws ever passed by any General Assembly of Indiana. The pioneers were aware that isolation and self- sufficiency could be reduced by an improvement in transporation fa- cilities. As population and resources increased, the desire for internal improvements increased. Nearly all Hoosiers favored such improvements, and they generally wanted the government, both state and federal, to help finance and build them. In 1825 New York completed the very suc- cessful Erie Canal— one of the small number of profitable canals built 37 during the nineteenth century— and Hoosiers rapidly became eager to join with Ohio, Pennsylvania, and other states in starting a system of internal improvements. After prolonged discussion, much logrolling, and various compromises, the General Assembly adopted the System of 1836. It provided for the beginning, all at once, of various canals, roads, and railroads with money derived from borrowing— tolls and other revenues were expected to repay the loans. The depression of the late thirties and early forties, corruption and inefficiency on the part of politicians, and the efforts to do too much all at once were major factors resulting in failure for most of the proposed system. Whigs and Demo- crats alike favored and voted for the system, but when it fell far short of its objectives, and especially when several years passed during which payments on interest due were not made, the Democrats, with consider- able success, pinned responsibility for its failures on the Whigs who had been in power when the system was adopted, started, and abandoned. Indiana's costly experience with "internal improvements" was a major factor in helping the Democrats to defeat the Whigs in the 1840's. This experience, with its increased taxes, was uppermost in the minds of citizens when the Constitution of 1851 was written— resulting in severe restrictions against state debt in the new constitution. 4. Democrats Gained Control During the 1840's. Although Indiana had three times in succession voted for Jackson, the Democrats never won undisputed control of state government in Indiana until their defeat of the Whigs in 1843. In this election James Whitcomb, after whom James Whitcomb Riley, the Hoosier poet, was named, became governor. Whitcomb won again in 1846, and Joseph A. Wright, another Democrat, was elected in 1849. After 1843 the Democrats reduced the cost of the state government, made a settlement with the creditors for the System of 1836, returned various internal improvement projects to private companies, opposed a protective tariff, and supported the Mexican War. The settlement with creditors and the liquidation of improvement projects had considerable Whig support. In these years there was some agitation regarding both slavery and temperance, but the Democrats for the most part regarded these issues as moral rather than politcial questions. They gave increased support to the movement for common schools, but the Whigs did likewise. By 1850 the Democrats had a wide margin of power over the Whigs, and their prospects for continued con- trol of Indiana seemed to be favorable. 5. Expansion and Slavery Add New Issues. During the 1840's the United States acquired Texas, part of Oregon, and considerable ter- ritory in the southwest, including California, as a result of the Mexican War, 1846-1848. Most Hoosiers favored the acquisition of these areas, some regretted that the United States had divided Oregon with the British, and some regretted that still more territory had not been ob- tained from Mexico. The Democrats were more favorable to these acquisitions than were the Whigs. A number of Indiana Whigs regarded the Mexican War and the addition of territory in the southwest as a scheme to increase the number of slave states. This rapid and large expansion of the United States made slavery a more important issue in both national and state elections than it had been. Texas was already 38 a slave area when annexed, and it naturally entered the Union as a slave state. Slavery was discussed regarding the Oregon Country, but it was soon excluded from that area as it had been for the Old North- west in the Ordinance of 1787. What to do with slavery in the Mexican Cession was a more difficult problem— one soon made urgent by the discovery of gold in California in 1848 and the rush of Forty Niners to that area. The question of slavery in the Mexican Purchase and con- cern about other issues involving slavery resulted in much agitation, threats of disunion, and an increased cleavage between free and slave states (North and South). The Compromise of 1850 was a result of a determined effort to compromise the principal questions concerning slavery. Many persons hoped that the Compromise of 1850 would remove slavery from national politics, leaving this issue to the various states. Indiana Democrats vigorously supported the Compromise of 1850 as essential for preservation of the Union. Many Indiana Whigs also supported it, but often with considerable reluctance and some of them forthrightly opposed it. The wide margin of Democratic success in the national election of 1852 and in many state elections of that year, including Indiana's, suggested that there was a substantial desire throughout the county to preserve the Union and to compromise the issues involving slavery. 6. The Constitution of 1851, Indiana's Second Constitution. The Constitution of 1851 was written during 1850-1851 at approximately the end of the pioneer era. The Constitution of 1816 had been a good one, and there seems to have been but little serious or sustained criticism of it until the 1840's. By this decade, however, the influence of Jacksonian Democracy was an important factor in the writing of new constitutions in a number of states. During the late forties and early fifties new constitutions were written in Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan as well as Indiana. Wisconsin wrote a constitution in 1848 as part of the process of becoming a state— as Indiana had done in 1816. Jacksonian Democracy demanded that as many officials as possible be elected by the people (various state and local officials were usually appointed by the governor or selected by the General Assembly in pioneer days), that most officeholders (other than legislators) be ineligible for re-election after having served one or two terms, that elementary or common schools be supported by the state government, that the General Assembly be required to do its work in shorter time and with fewer sessions, etc. Such provisions were common in the new constitutions of that period. In addition, in various states there was an insistent demand for con- stitutional restrictions against a state debt. Because of Indiana's costly experience with her internal improvements debt during the 1840's, the Constitution of 1851 prohibited state debt thereafter except for certain emergencies. This situation also resulted in a demand for economy in government— supplying an effective argument for biennial rather than annual sessions of the General Assembly. It also resulted in a consti- tutional provision prohibiting the state government from holding stock in or making loans to railroad companies, banks, or business corpora- tions. Thus Indiana's unfortunate experience with internal improve- ments as well as the ideas of Jacksonian Democracy had great influence on the content of the Constitution of 1851. 39 TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 132-149. * 2. Smith, Indiana Histo) y, 83-86. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, I, Chs. 12, 22; and II, Ch. 5. 2. Buley, The Old Northwest, Pioneer Period, 1815-1840, especially II, Chs. 9,11. 3. Cleaves, Old Tippecanoe, William Henry Harrison and His Time. 4. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, Chs. 8-9. 5. Esarey, A History of Indiana, I, especially Chs. 13, 20-21. 6. Goebel, William Henry Harrison, especially Chs. 9-11. 7. Kettleborough (ed.), Constitution Making in Indiana, I. Includes Consti- tution of 1851 and related documents. 8. Report of the Debates and Proceedings of the Convention for the Revision of the Constitution of the State of Indiana (2 vols., 1850; reprinted, 1935). These two volumes include much discussion regarding pioneer politics as well as discussion concerning the framing of the Constitution of 1851. 9. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. IV, Chs. 5 and 8; Pt. V, Ch. 6; and II, Pt. VI, Chs. 3-5; Pt. VII, Ch. 5. 10. Russell M. Seeds (ed.), History of the Republican Party of Indiana (1899). 11. Oliver H. Smith, Early Indiana Trials and Sketches: Reminiscenses by O.H.Smith (1858). 12. John B. Stoll, History of the Indiana Democracy, 1816-1916 (1917). *13. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, especially Chs. 25 and 27. 14. Woollen, Biographical and Historical Sketches of Early Indiana. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Andrew Jackson, Emerson Film Corporation and Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., b&w, sd, 18 min, $4.00. United States Expansion: Texas and the Far Southwest, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 14 min, $3.00, $5.00. United States Expansion: The Oregon Country, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min, $3.50, $5.00. Filmstrips California, Texas and the Mexican War (Pageant of America), Yale University Press, 1954, b&w, si, 40 fr, $7.00. How Indiana Got Its Present Constitution, Indiana University A-V Center, 1951, color, si, 56 fr. $2.50. Mexican Cession and Gadsden Purchase (Westward Expansion— United States Series), Curriculum Materials, Rev. 1959, color, si, 43 fr. $3.95. Tape Recordings Ohio's First President (The Ohio Story Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 40 CHAPTER VIII POLITICS DURING THE CIVIL WAR ERA, 1850-1877 General Comment Slavery, though not the only issue which divided the North and the South, was an important question in the United States during the 1850's and the Civil War. Although the war ended slavery, in its larger context the status of Negroes was a basic issue throughout the period, 1850-1877. Oddly enough the antislavery movement of the 1840's and 1850's, a period in which a minority of Northerners become vigorous in their attacks on slavery, came during a period in which various northern states, including Indiana, wrote exclusion clauses against Negroes into their constitutions. The Indiana Constitution of 1851 not only pro- hibited additional Negroes from coming to the state, it offered induce- ments to those already here to go elsewhere. Moreover, in general, Ne- groes could not vote either in the North or the South and, as illustrated by the Dred Scott decision of 1857, they were usually not regarded as citizens either of the state or of the United States. The Civil War resulted in far more than the granting of freedom to Negroes in the South. It resulted in the improved status for Negroes, North as well as South, regarding suffrage, civil rights, education, and freedom to move from one state to another. Such changes were subject to many setbacks, and progress toward them was at times accompanied by intimidation or violence in the North as well as the South. The changing status of the Negro was an important development in Indiana, 1850-1877. The states' rights issue was another question of basic importance in the Civil War era. The rights and powers of the states versus the rights and powers of the federal government was perhaps the most fundamental constitutional question before the American people from the American Revolution to the Civil War. States' rights and slavery were related issues. The Democrats in Indiana and throughout the United States generally took the position that each state was free to decide for or against slavery— that this was one of the questions beyond the scope of federal authority. Many Whigs and Republicans also regarded this position as correct in the years preceding the Civil War. (Slavery in the federal territories was another matter, for Congress definitely had the power to govern territories.) The secession crisis, 1860-1861, also involved the issue of states' rights. Did a state have a right to withdraw from the Union if it wished? Could the federal government use force against a state to preserve the Union? Such questions evoked major and honest differences among Americans, North as well as South. Hoosiers, Demo- crats as well as Republicans, were generally agreed that the Union must be preserved, but they disagreed widely regarding how it should be 41 maintained. The Democrats insisted that the policies of Governor Morton and President Lincoln exalted the federal government at the expense of rights and powers which belonged to the states. Related disagree- ments included such questions as the aims of the war, desirable terms for the restoration of peace between North and South, the status of civil liberties, the drafting of men into military service, and the role of secret societies alleged to have treasonable goals. Rivalry between Republicans and Democrats was intense and often bitter in Indiana in the Civil War era, but the tradition that most Democrats were dis- loyal to the Union is untrue. In any event, the victory of the North over the South and the addition of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fif- teenth amendments to the federal constitution, along with related de- velopments, strengthened the role and powers of the federal govern- ment at the expense of the rights and powers of the states. Important economic changes also occurred in Indiana during the Civil War era, 1850-1877. In various ways this period served as a bridge for the transition from pioneer self-sufficiency to a new economic order in which railroads, banks, factories, and cities became important. Agri- culture remained the leading occupation, but the increased use of machinery and the rise of agricultural exports stimulated its growth. As farmers produced more for sale their success became more dependent than previously upon railroad rates, interest charges of banks, purchases of farm produce by factories, and the sale of produce to urban residents. These related changes became more pronounced after 1877 than they were in the Civil War era, but they were already developing in the 1850's and the Civil War hastened their development. (See Chapter 9 for a further discussion of economic changes following 1850.) Points to Emphasize 1. Agitation Over Slavery Revived in Spite of Compromise of 1850. Although vigorous efforts were made, both North and South, to make the Compromise of 1850 an acceptable solution to various questions con- cerning slavery, this agitation soon reached a new high. Within Indiana, Democrats generally supported the Compromise and many Whigs did likewise; however, a number of Whigs and some Democrats opposed it. A new, though as yet minor party, the Free Soilers, denounced the Compromise. The Fugitive Slave Law portion of the Compromise was much disliked by many Hoosiers, including Democrats as well as Whigs and Free Soilers. Occasional efforts of Southerners to capture fugitive slaves increased such hostility, especially when efforts were made to return Negroes to slavery who had been residents of Indiana for some time. The publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin during the early 1850's provided a moral indictment of slavery which aroused further opposition to slavery. Indiana Quakers had long been unfriendly to slavery, now the Methodists and other religious groups became more critical than previously. The event which immediately brought the agitation to a new high, however, was the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854. To the antislavery people, the most objectionable feature of this act was 42 that it opened the possibility of slavery in an area which had been declared free by the Missouri Compromise of 1820. 2. Birth of the Republican Party, 1854. The birth of the Republican party in 1854— at first often called the Fusion or Peoples party— was one result of the increasing agitation over slavery. Three issues in particular gave birth to the Republican party in Indiana: (1) the growing concern over slavery, and especially the fear that slavery might spread into Kansas and other territories which had been declared free by the Mis- souri Compromise; (2) an increasing opposition to the growing number of foreigners, largely Germans and Irish, who were settling in Indiana; (3) a temperance movement which reached its peak about 1854 or 1855. These issues— slavery, nativism, and temperance— had gradually gained momentum since the late forties. Mounting concern over slavery was the basic issue. The Whigs were the major element of the new Repub- lican party, but also included were Free Soilers, Democrats who broke with their party because of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the American or Know Nothing element. These groups were all against the Democrats, who controlled Indiana by a lopsided majority during the early fifties, but they shortly found that they had important internal differences. 3. Republicans Drop Some Issues and Add New Issues. The Fusion or Republican party won most of the offices at stake in the state election of 1854; however, its victory was incomplete (and temporary). It was not until 1860 that the Republicans first won control of the state offices and a majority in both houses of the General Assembly. Factionalism within the Democratic party contributed to Republican success in 1854, but, once partly successful, factionalism and disunity among the Republicans proved troublesome. Many ex-Whigs disliked the strong antislavery views of the Free Soil element, the demand of temperance advocates who wanted (and got) a law to prohibit the sale of liquor, and the extreme nativism which made it almost impossible to gain votes from the growing number of persons of German origin. Nativism, temperance, and some of the antislavery views were soon soft-pedaled by the Republicans who then wooed the German vote. Support of congressional legislation to give free land from the public domain to actual settlers strengthened the Republicans among the Germans and other voters who were interested in such land for themselves or their children. In 1860 the Republicans elected their state ticket, a majority of congressmen, and a majority in both houses of the General As- sembly. They also won the state's electoral vote for Lincoln who was elected president. By 1860 Indiana Republicans were committed to the principle that there should be no further spread of slavery and to the support of free land for settlers on the public domain. Temperance and nativism had virtually disappeared as political issues. Meanwhile, an increasing number of Republicans favored federal aid to internal im- provements, national banking legislation, a protective tariff, and federal aid for a transcontinental railroad. 4. Democrats and Republicans Disagreed Regarding How to Pre- serve the Union. When South Carolina and then other southern states seceded, 1860-1861, Hoosiers were much divided regarding how the Union could best be preserved. In general, Democrats were willing to 43 make further compromises with the South to save the Union. The Repub- licans, however, were not inclined toward such compromise, but uncer- tainty and various views existed in both parties. Henry S. Lane became Indiana's first Republican governor early in 1861, but the General Assem- bly immediately elected him to the United States Senate. Oliver P. Morton, who had been elected lieutenant governor, succeeded him. Though Morton started his term as governor in January, Lincoln did not become president until early March. Governor Morton insisted that the Union must be preserved, even if force were required to sustain it. Morton and most Indiana Republicans were willing to accept slavery where it existed, but they opposed any compromise which might extend it. When, however, the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, Indi- ana's response was spontaneous and vigorous in support of the Union. In the early months of the war volunteers exceeded the number which could be accepted, while Democrats and Republicans joined hands to vote appropriations and otherwise support the Union. 5. Indiana Politics Became Homogenized During the Civil War. By the year 1862, however, politics and patriotism had become hope- lessly homogenized in Indiana. Morton and his fellow Republicans frequently cast doubts on the patriotism of most Democrats. A partic- ular effort was made to link Democrats with alleged treasonable activities of various secret societies, an effort which reached its climax in the so-called Treason Trials of 1864. Morton's zeal for the Union was un- questioned, but even some Republicans recognized that he was not always wise or fair in his acts or methods. Democrats in turn attacked Morton for his highhanded actions, curbing of individual freedoms, use of military arrests and courts, etc. Some Democrats contended that defeat of the Republicans was essential to a peaceful restoration of the Union. The Democrats won the election of 1862, then declined to vote needed appropriations in 1863 when the General Assembly met, hoping to force a special session. Morton refused to call such a session, borrowed money, and ran the government despite a barrage of Democratic criticism. In the election of 1864 Morton was elected governor, and the Republicans controlled the state until after the war. 6. Indiana Made Important Contributions to Preserve the Union. Some leaders, North and South, had thought that Indiana might be inclined to support the Confederacy, both because so many Hoosiers came from Southern stock and also because most of Indiana's trade, especially her exports, were largely dependent upon use of the Mississippi River. Indiana was interested in continued use of the Mississippi; how- ever, her growing trade with the East made her also eager to have con- tinued use of trade routes in the North. Preservation of the Union was the best way for Indiana to maintain her various trade routes free of tariff and other barriers. As an inland area with rapidly increasing exports and imports preservation of the Union was of vital importance to Indiana. Hoosier devotion to the Union, however, rested on more than economic considerations. Though often overlooked, the Jacksonian Democrats, especially powerful in the interior counties of southern Indiana, had been among the tried and true friends of the Union. During the Civil War Indiana supplied about 200,000 men for the 44 armed forces, principally the army. Almost 25,000 Hoosiers soldiers were killed or else died of disease, etc., during the war. In no war has Indiana ever suffered such heavy losses. Additional thousands of men lost arms, legs, or suffered other casualties which left them maimed for life. Only about 5 per cent of Indiana's troops were drafted, but some volunteered to avoid being drafted. Nevertheless, it was largely a volunteer war. Southern Indiana counties had an excellent record in regard to the number of troops supplied. Moreover, Governor Morton's zeal and persistent efforts on behalf of the Union represented another important contribution of Indiana to the success of the Union. While a few Conferedate raids were made across the Ohio into Indiana, notably Morgan's invasion in July of 1863, Indiana was fortunately spared most of the ravages of the actual fighting since the conflict mainly occurred in the South. 7. Questions Regarding Reconstruction, 1865-1877. Reconstruction of the Union was the most important single political issue in Indiana in the years immediately following the Civil War. At first, many Hoosiers, Republicans as well as Democrats, were inclined toward moderation. Soon, however, most Hoosiers supported the program of the Radical Republicans, which was bitterly opposed by Democrats. During these years the Indiana Supreme Court declared the Negro Exclusion Clause null and void as inconsistent with amendments to the federal consti- tution which were added as a result of the Civil War. In these years important beginnings were made in regard to suffrage and elementary schooling for Negroes. The Republicans continued to control the state government for several years following their victory in 1864, but during the 1870's the tide usually favored the Democrats. Indiana voters were apparently not as favorable to Radical Reconstruction as were those of various other northern states. Moreover, Indiana voters returned to substantial support of the Democrats in advance of the voters of most northern states. (For comment on social and economic developments in Indiana during Reconstruction see the ensuing chapter.) TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier Slate, 149-167. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 86-87. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, II, Chs. 7-10. 2. Grace Julian Clarke, George W. Julian (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1923). * 3. William M. Cockrum, History of the Underground Railroad (1915). * 4. Levi Coffin, Reminiscences of Levi Coffin (2nd ed., 1880). 5. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, I, Ch. 10; II, Chs. 11-12. 6. Esarey, A History of Indiana, II, Chs. 23, 26-27. 45 7. William D. Foulke, Life of Oliver P. Morton (2 vols. 1899). 8. John W. Holcombe and Hubert M. Skinner, Life and Public Services of Thomas A.Hendricks (1886). 9. Leonard S. Kenworthy, The Tall Sycamore of the Wabash: Daniel W. Voorhees (1936). 10. Richard W. Leopold, Robert Dale Owen, a Biography (1940). 11. J. R. H. Moore and Hattie Lou Winslow, Camp Morton, Indianapolis, 1861-1865 (Indiana Historical Society, 1940). 12. Report of the Adjutant General of the State of Indiana (8 vols., 1865- 1869). (Volume I, which includes much summary information about Hoosiers who served in the Civil War, was reprinted by the Indiana His- torical Bureau, 1960). 13. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, I, Pt. VII, Chs. 1, 6-7; Pt. VIII, Chs. 1-7. 14. Willard H. Smith, Schuyler Colfax, the Changing Fortunes of a Political Idol (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1952). 15. Kenneth M. Stampp, Indiana Politics During the Civil War (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1949). 16. Emma Lou Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana Before 1900: A Study of a Minority (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1957). *17. David Turpie, Sketches of My Own Times (1903). 18. Lew Wallace, Lew Wallace: An Autobiography (2 vols., 1906). *19. Oscar F. Winther (ed.), With Sherman to the Sea: The Civil War Letters, Diaries, and Reminiscences of Theodore F. Upson (1943 and 1958). AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Johnson and Reconstruction, MGM, ed. by TFC, b&w, sd, 36 min, $5.00. You Are There: The Emancipation Proclamation, CBS Television: YAF, McGraw- Hill; b&w, sd, 26 min, $5.25. Indiana and the Civil War, WISH Television (Indianapolis), b&w, sd, 29 min. Filmstrips Indiana in the Civil War: The Soldier in the Field, Indiana Historical Society, b&w, 50 fr, $5.00. Indiana in the Civil War: The Home Front, Indiana Historical Society, b&w, 50 fr., $5.00. Causes of the Civil War (Civil War), Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., 1958, color, si, 50 fr, $6.00. The Country During Civil War Time— History and Reconstruction, 1861-1877, SVE, 1948, b&w. One Nation or Two? (1854-1865) (Development of the American Republic Series), SVE, 1958, color, si, 50 fr, $6.00. Reconstruction and Economic Development (1865-1876), SVE, 1958, color, si, 50 fr, $6.00. Reconstruction Period (Civil War), Encyclopaedia Britannica Films, Inc., 1958, color, si, 50 fr, $6.00. Story of Slavery in the United States, VEC, 1957, b&w, si, 30 fr. $3.50. Tape Recordings Underground Railroad (Once Upon a Time in Ohio Series), Ohio Bell Telephone Company and A-V Center, Kent State University, 15 min. 46 CHAPTER IX ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1850-1910 General Comment Economic, social, and cultural changes of far-reaching consequences occurred in Indiana during the six decades, 1850-1910. Persons born since 1910 are apt to minimize the importance of these changes, especially because their pace and scope have increased much more rapidly since 1910 than in the six preceding decades. Nevertheless, the period between the pioneer era and World War I was marked by significant and rapid changes in various aspects of economic, social, and cultural life. These changes were more significant and more rapid than they had been in the pioneer era, a fact often recognized by pioneers who lived into a considerable part of the new period. Agriculture remained the principal occupation in Indiana, 1850-1910, as it had been in the pioneer era. The value of farm products continued to exceed the value of products from manufacturing or any other occu- pation. Moreover, in this new period more people were engaged in agriculture than in any other occupation. At first, agriculture was far ahead of manufacturing, but by 1910 it and manufacturing were of approximately equal value. (Thereafter, the value of manufacturing output soon exceeded that of agriculture even though the value of farm products also continued to climb.) Prior to 1910 manufacturing was based mainly on the making or processing of goods from farms and forests, but during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the fabrication of steel and the making of metal products became close rivals to industries based on agriculture. The increasing importance of manufacturing was one of the major economic changes of the period, 1850-1910. It contributed much to making life more interdependent and less self-sufficient than previously; to urban in contrast to rural or country living; to an increased flow of trade to and from Indiana; to the growth of railroads; to the emergence and rapid rise of factory wage earners as an important new element in the economy; to increasing wealth and a general, though uneven, rise in living standards etc. At the end of the pioneer era manufacturing had been mainly small scale and largely for local con- sumption; by 1910 it was mainly large scale and largely for sale beyond localities in which it was produced. Meanwhile, large factories, often owned by corporations, had become an important source of manufac- tured products. The rapid growth of agriculture and manufacturing, however, would not have been possible save for significant and rapid improvement in transportation facilities. Such improvement greatly extended markets 47 within Indiana, between Indiana and other states, and also with other countries. Transportation was improved in various ways, but the progress of railroads was the most important single development. Railroads achieved an importance during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries which gave them the dominant role within the transportation system. Schools and libraries made substantial progress in the years, 1850-1910. The general increase in wealth and living standards made available ad- ditional support for them. Moreover, though hours of work remained long, especially when compared to the 1960's, they were shorter than for pioneer days, and machines had replaced men to do much of the hard physical labor. Hence, more time and effort were available for schooling, reading, and the like. A statewide common school system was born in the 1850's, and public education gradually became more important than private or church education at the elementary level. High schools appeared in the 1850's, developed very slowly at first, then ap- peared throughout the state during the last half of the period. Private and church secondary schools remained important. New colleges and universities were founded, both public and non-public, and their enroll- ments increased; however, the principal growth in education was at the elementary level. The growth of public libraries in number and their increased support and use was another important development. Significant changes also occurred in population. Of particular im- portance was close to a threefold increase in number, considerable urbanization, the more rapid growth of northern than southern Indiana, and the addition of new elements as a result of the coming of persons from various countries of southern and eastern Europe, starting about the 1880's. The increased immigration of Negroes from the South made a larger gain in this group than for the population generally, but they were not a new element. In 1910 Indiana's population was much less homogeneous than it had been in 1850. Points to Emphasize 1. Principal Crops and Farm Animals. Corn, wheat, and oats con- tinued to be the principal crops as in pioneer days. Corn remained the leading crop, the yield increasing more than threefold. The percentage of increase for wheat and oats, however, was larger than that for corn. The number of horses and mules increased between two and three times. They were used mainly to pull improved plows, cultivators, reapers, mowers, etc. Hogs, cattle, and sheep also gained in number, but "Mr. Hog" remained the most numerous of all farm animals and he con- sumed an important share of the corn. Production of vegetables and fruits increased. They were grown for sale as well as for home use, espe- cially in the vicinity of larger cities. Tobacco remained a crop of value in various counties of southern Indiana. Tomatoes, used by some in pioneer days though feared by others as a poison, were increasingly grown in gardens, and they became an important crop for the canning or food industry from about the 1880's. Although Indiana agriculture was more 48 diversified, 1850-1910, than for the pioneer era, its main reliance was on corn and hogs. 2. Improvements in Agriculture. Much improvement occurred in farming methods and practices between 1850-1910; however, such im- provement was gradual, and many farmers were slow to discard older methods and practices. New methods and practices which either appeared or became increasingly accepted were: (1) much increase in the use of farm machinery, especially of plows, cultivators, reapers or binders, and mowers pulled by horses or mules; (2) rotation of crops, with more use of clover and timothy than for pioneer days; (3) the use of better seed for crops and of better breeds of farm animals; (4) additional care for and shelter of farm animals, made necessary in part because the newer breeds generally could not withstand neglect and exposure as well as could the pioneer types; (5) drainage of ponds, swamps, and other wet places; (6) scattering of barnyard manures and limited use of fertilizers on fields; (7) more effective plowing and cultivation of the soil than formerly, a development encouraged by the increased use of improved plows and cultivators. 3. Leading Manufacturing Industries. During the period, 1850-1910, milling, meat, lumber, and liquor were the principal manufacturing in- dustries. The milling industry processed wheat and corn into flour and meal; the meat industry produced pork, beef, mutton, and poultry; the lumber industry took logs from the forests and made them into boards, barrel staves, railroad ties, etc.; and the liquor industry made whiskey and beer, especially whiskey. The primacy of these industries illustrates that manufacturing was largely a matter of processing products which came from farms or forests. By the end of this period, however, the fabrication of steel, the making of railroad cars and automobiles, and the output of metal products from foundry and machine shops were rapidly gaining in importance. 4. The Heyday of Steam Railroads. The leading development in transportation was the fast growth of steam railroads. Indiana had only about 225 miles of such roads in 1850— not enough to have reached across the state from north to south— while in 1910 she had about 7,400 miles. In 1850 there was no direct rail connection with any neighboring state, though by 1910 connections were available to all sections of the United States. Steam railroad mileage was approximately as large in 1910 as it ever became— and considerably larger than for 1960. Trans- portation on the Ohio River declined, while that on the Great Lakes and eastward on the Erie Canal or the St. Lawrence River increased. Roads were also improved, many being gravelled, though concrete highways were almost nonexistent as late as 1910. The automobile appeared in the 1890's, but neither it nor trucks or buses were widely used until after 1910. By the 1880's various cities had horse- or mule-drawn street- cars, most of which were succeeded by electric trolleys within two decades. Interurbans evolved from electric trolleys during the 1890's and spread over most sections of the state by 1910, with Indianapolis serving as the hub for the system. 5. Wage Laborers Become Numerous. As manufacturing increased, especially in factories, a wage labor group rapidly gained in number. 49 Although census data may not be too reliable in this instance, according to this source, wage laborers in manufacturing totaled about 15,000 in 1850 and almost 187,000 in 1910. This growth in wage laborers was one of the most important economic developments of these years. Various labor unions, mainly trade or craft, were formed, but some industrial unions, such as that for miners, were also organized. Labor unions de- veloped local federations, and the Indiana State Federation of Labor was organized in 1885. Industrial coniflcts developed between management and labor, resulting in lockouts and strikes and, at times, in violence or threats thereof. From about the 1880's the General Assembly passed laws which limited the hours of work for women and children, established safety and sanitary requirements for mines and factories, required pay- ment of wages at certain intervals, recognized the right of workers to form unions, etc. Such legislation, however, was usually poorly enforced but some improvement resulted. Hours of labor remained long— most workers in manufacturing still labored approximately sixty hours per week as late as 1910. Many workers, especially in the steel mills, worked even longer. 6. The Free School Law, 1852. The Free School Law of 1852 was perhaps the most important law ever enacted in Indiana regarding pub- lic schools. Public schools had existed before that time, but only if local districts or counties were willing to levy local taxes to support them. Moreover, such schools had often charged subscriptions as in private and church schools. The 1852 law carried out the mandate of the Constitution of 1851 which called for a statewide system of jree public schools. This law established a statewide tax to be used solely for the support of common schools. (This tax was in addition to local taxes and also to the money derived from the Common School Fund.) But all public schools were to be jree of tuition or subscription charges, hence the term jree schools. Parents who paid meager taxes could send their children— one or a dozen, or more— without tuition or sub- scription payments, while married couples without children had to pay taxes to support schools just the same as people with children. These two principles: (1) that public schools were a joint responsibility of the state and local areas; and (2) that there must be no tuition or sub- scription charges in them, though now widely accepted and even pro- claimed, were at first vigorously opposed by many. The 1852 law included other important features. It made civil townships rather than congressional townships (as in pioneer days) the local school unit. It also allowed cities and towns to form school units separate from and in addition to the civil township units. In addition, the 1852 law pro- vided a tax for the support of school libraries. It should be noted, however, that attendance at school was optional until 1897, when it was made mandatory for children of school age. 7. Population Becomes More Heterogeneous. In 1850 a very large proportion of Hoosiers were natives of Indiana or of states to the east and south of Indiana. Germans and Irish were increasing in number, but their proportion was not large. After 1850 the immigration of Germans and Irish, especially the Germans, increased in importance. From about the 1880's immigrants from such areas as Poland, Italy, 50 Austria, Russia, Hungary, came in considerable number. Immigration of Negroes from the South resulted in a relative increase for this group. The coming of more Germans, Irish, and Negroes than previously, and the emergence of immigration from new areas in Europe made Indiana's population more heterogeneous in 1910 than it had ever been. Increased urbanization and the fact that many immigrants were Roman Catholics also added to the heterogeneity of the population. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 180-240. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 98-144. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, II, Chs. 1-4, 6, 11-15, 17. 2. Joseph A. Batchelor, An Economic History of the Indiana Oolitic Lime- stone Industry (1944). 3. Boone, History of Education in Indiana. 4. Jacob P. Dunn, Greater Indianapolis: The History, the Industries, the Institutions, and the People of a City of Homes (2 vols., 1910). 5. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, II, Chs. 15-18. 6. Esarey, A History of Indiana, II, Chs. 22, 24-25, 28, 30-31, 33-35, 38. 7. Walter Brookfield Hendrickson, David Dale Owen, Pioneer Geologist of the Middle West (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1943). * 8. Latta, Outline History of Indiana Agriculture. 9. William O. Lynch, A History of Indiana State Teachers College (1946). 10. Powell Moore, The Calumet Region: Indiana's Last Frontier (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1959). 11. Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1916). 12. Roll, .Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of America Development, II, Pt. VII, Chs. 1-3; Pt. VIII, Ch. 6; Pt. IX, Chs. 1-2. 13. George W. Starr, Industrial Development of Indiana (1937). 14. Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana Before 1900. *15. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Chs. 22, 29. 16. Stephen S. Visher, Economic Geography of Indiana (1923). *17. Harvey W. Wiley, An Autobiography (1930). 18. James L. Woodress, Booth Tarkington, Gentleman from Indiana (1955). AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Immigration in America's Growth, Coronet, b&w, sd, 11 min, $2.00 The Labor Movement: Beginnings and Growth in America, Coronet, b&w, color, sd, 13 min, $2.75, $4.00. 51 Life and Times of the Iron Horse, Affiliated Films; McGraw-Hill, b&w, sd, 11 min, $2.50. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part I— The Growing of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part II— The Milling of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part III— The Uses of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Filmstrips Changes in American Life, 1865-1920 (History of the American People Series), SVE, 1948, b&w, si, 53 fr, $3.25. Growth of American Education (Pageant of America Series), Yale University Press, 1955, b&w, si, 40 fr, $7.00. Story of Iron and Steel, Yale University Press, 1956, b&w, 40 fr, $7.00. 52 CHAPTER X DEMOCRATS VERSUS REPUBLICANS, 1877-1917 General Comment For about a decade following the end of the Civil War in 1865 issues arising from the war were dominant in Indiana as in national politics. During the 1870's, however, such issues became much less important as new issues, or at least new aspects of old issues, demanded attention. This transition from old to new issues resulted in no sudden or complete break between the old and the new. For instance, money and tariff questions gained increased prominence during the last three decades of the nineteenth century, but these issues had been apparent in the Civil War era. On the other hand, issues arising from the war and "reconstruction" continued to receive attention, especially through the remaining decades of the nineteenth century. Thus in 1888, when Benjamin Harrison, of Indianapolis, was the Republican nominee for president of the United States, major attention was focused on the protective tariff to stimulate continued growth of the rapidly developing manufacturing industries. Nevertheless, even though the Civil War had ended over three decades previously, General Harrison's war record was exalted in preference to Cleveland's lack of military service. A Republican victory was expected to produce more liberal pensions for Union veterans than a victory of Cleveland and the Democrats. This mingling, however, of old and new issues is very common in politics. Moreover, what are regarded as new issues are often merely older ones with new aspects or in a different context than previously. As an ex- ample, the Progressive era, 1901-1917, was one in which numerous citizens became excited about "new" issues, questions, and problems, yet the important issues, questions, and problems which excited the Progressives had been raised and discussed, though usually with less thoroughness and intensity, during the last third of the nineteenth century— especially by the Populists and other third parties. Various developments and factors gave rise to "new" political issues during the several decades beginning in the 1870's. First of all, voters had become tired of the endless and often bitter conflicts of the Civil War era. By the early seventies an increasing number of northerners felt that the time had come for the federal government to play a de- creased role in southern questions. Second, the economic depression of the 1870's diverted attention from questions regarding reconstruction to those concerning money, regulation of railroads, and the growth of "monopolies." Third, the rapid growth of railroads, manufacturing in- dustries, agricultural output, and gold and silver mined in the West received augmented attention and raised continuing questions about money, tariffs, regulation of railroads, regulations of "Big Business," 53 world markets, and world politics. Fourth, there was considerable con- cern about corruption in government, civil service reform, secret voting, and direct election of United States senators. Fifth, minor parties, re- form groups, and agitation among farmers and wage laborers caused attention to be given to questions ranging from shorter hours for wage earners, the demand for taxes on incomes to relieve tax burdens on property, prohibition, woman suffrage, to restriction of immigration. The rivalry between Republicans and Democrats in Indiana was in- tense during almost all of the period, 1877-1917. This intensity was much influenced by two factors: (1) In both state and national elections —and in most local elections as well— the outcome was generally doubt- ful, often determined by a very small margin; (2) Republicans and Democrats alike considered Indiana's vote important in their efforts to win or retain control of the presidency and Congress. With Indiana a "doubtful" state, the vote of various groups or elements was vigorously sought. No important minority group could safely be ignored, but politicians were often baffled by the fact that issues favored by one ele- ment might be strongly opposed by another group. Because Indiana's vote was worth fighting for, Republicans and Democrats alike sent prominent speakers, campaign literature, party workers, and money from other parts of the country to "help" carry Indiana for their side. This intense rivalry between Republicans and Democrats was often even more intense in local contests— involving county, city, or township offi- cials—than in state and national elections. Points to Emphasize 1. Money Becomes More Important Than in Pioneer Days. Various factors help explain the increased interest in questions regarding money following the Civil War. First, the economic system was rapidly chang- ing from the self-sufficiency of pioneer days to an increasing dependence upon the exchange of goods and services among all economic groups. Pioneer economic life made much use of barter, but the new system required much more use of money than previously. Second, the depression of the 1870's resulted in a sharp reduction in prices— thus deflation fol- lowed the inflation of the Civil War years. This deflation caused distress to many persons, especially debtors. Third, the banking system had recently been changed, adding to the normal confusion and uncertainty about money. Free or general banking had been instituted in Indiana during the 1850's. Any person or group of persons who met certain basic requirements could engage in banking. Then came the Civil War and the addition of national banks by the federal government. In 1865 the federal government imposed a 10 per cent tax on state bank notes, resulting in their being withdrawn from circulation as money since state banks could not afford to pay so high a tax. 2. The Protective Tariff Becomes an Important Political Issue. Tar- iff rates had been substantially increased during the Civil War, in part to help finance the war. After the war many persons expected rates to be decreased, but, though various changes were made, the increased rates of the Civil War years were generally continued. At first, Hoosier 54 voters seemed more concerned about issues regarding money than about the protective tariff, especially during the 1870's. As manufacturing grew, the demand for still higher tariff rates developed. The tariff, then, became a more important issue in the 1880's than previously. It was an issue of major importance in the Harrison campaigns for the presidency in 1888 and 1892. Thereafter, it remained important in Indiana, and tariff rates, despite some decreases, continued to rise. Rates, however, were significantly decreased in 1913 soon after the Democrats came into power under President Wilson. Throughout the period, 1877-1917, Democrats and Republicans generally supported a protective tariff, although most Republicans favored higher rates than did most Demo- crats. Donations from men engaged in manufacturing became an im- portant source of revenue to finance political campaigns in these years, but such donations were larger on behalf of Republicans than in sup- port of Democrats. Revenue from this source was especially important in helping Republicans finance their state and national campaigns in 1888 and 1892. 3. Benjamin Harrison, An Indiana President, 1889-1893. Since In- diana was a "doubtful" state and one having enough votes to be worth working for, both major parties often considered or selected Hoosiers for important positions in the federal government. Thus four Hoosiers were elected vice-president between the Civil War and World War I: Schuyler A. Colfax, Thomas A. Hendricks, Charles W. Fairbanks, and Thomas R. Marshall. Colfax and Fairbanks were Republicans, Hendricks and Marshall, Democrats. William H. English, a Democrat, was the un- successful nominee of the Democrats for the vice-presidency in 1880. Putting a Hoosier on the ticket was thought to make it more likely for Indiana to vote for the party involved. A number of Hoosiers were prominently considered for the presidency, though only one, Benjamin Harrison, was elected to this office. Harrison, a grandson of President William Henry Harrison, Indiana's first territorial governor, was a native of Ohio. Prior to his election as president he had served in the Civil War, practiced law in Indianapolis, been defeated by "Blue Jeans" Williams in the race for governor in 1876, and served six years in the United States Senate. His war record, his reputation for honesty, his general support of Republican views, and the hope that he would carry Indiana for the Republicans were factors in his nomination by the Republicans. Harrison defeated Cleveland in the campaign of 1888, but was in turn defeated by Cleveland in 1892. 4. Increased Interest in World Affairs. The economic and social changes described in the preceding chapter contributed to an increased interest in world affairs. The isolation and self-sufficiency of pioneer days had been shattered by the end of the nineteenth century. Products from Hoosier farms and factories were being sent to various parts of the world as well as to all parts of the United States. For instance, Stude- baker wagons, Oliver plows, and Singer sewing machines, all made at South Bend, were being exported to countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The initial occupation of the vast region west of the Mississippi had been completed by the 1890's, resulting in increased American interest in the countries across the Pacific. Trade was rapidly increasing 55 with countries in Central and South America. A canal across Central America was considered desirable to facilitate trade between eastern and western parts of the United States and to make it possible to move the United States navy more quickly than previously from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast or vice versa. The work and reports of missionaries to Asia and Africa stimulated interest in world affairs, causing many Amer- icans to feel that it was their duty to help civilize "backward peoples." Because of such factors, Hoosiers gave enthusiastic support for the Spanish American War (1898) and for the building of a canal across Central America. Following the Spanish American War, United States Senator Albert J. Beveridge urged the development of American trade with other countries as a proper function of the federal government. In fact, Senator Beveridge was an ardent imperialist in his early years as a senator. 5. The Populist Party, 1890's. The Populist party, though a minor party, raised important political questions. In spite of the general increase in the standard of living, 1877-1917, many farmers and wage earners believed that they were not sharing fairly in this increase. The Granger movement of the 1870's, which vigorously criticized railroads, middlemen, and bankers, had been supported mainly by farmers. Farmers likewise constituted the principal source for the Populist party, but it also drew some support from wage earners. The hard times of the 1870's was fol- lowed by generally difficult times for farmers during the 1880's, result- ing in the birth of the Populist party in 1890— in advance of the Panic of 1893. The Populists wanted ownership of the railroads by the federal government, increased regulation of "Big Business," a graduated income tax, increased money in circulation (especially silver), and a shorter work week for wage earners. They relied largely upon the federal gov- ernment for legislation to achieve their objectives. The Populists also desired popular election of United States senators, legislation to enable individuals to vote secretly as they pleased, and the direct primary to make nominations in place of the convention system. These political objectives were designed to bring government— federal, state, and local- closer to the people and make it more responsive to their control. In this way, the Populists contended, the rule of the people could replace the domination of railroad, banking, and other business "interests." The Populists readied their peak of influence about the mid-1 890's. Various of their objectives were adopted during the Progressive era, 1901-1917. 6. The Progressive Era, 1901-1917. About 1901-the year in which President Theodore Roosevelt succeeded President McKinley— the Pro- gressive movement began to manifest itself. Many people were concerned because huge business corporations had recently grown in number and in overall influence. The leaven of discontent encouraged by the Populists and other groups remained. Journalists and authors (Muck- rakers) examined and criticized injustices in economic life, evils in poli- tics, including government itself, "connections" between "bad" situations in economic life with "bad" politics. Political leaders— from both the Republican and Democratic parties— in cities and in states as well as in the federal government demanded "reform" and asked that govern- ment at all levels be made responsive to the will of the people. There 56 was much talk about the need to rescue government from control by the "interests," usually meaning such persons as wealthy manufacturers, bankers, merchants, and owners of railroads. Though the Progressive movement was less specific about its objectives than the Populists had been, it also wanted to bring government closer to the people than it had been and it also favored increased regulation of economic life. The Progressive movement was bipartisan, though in 1912 the Progressive party was born. Nevertheless, in the state and federal election of 1912 the Democratic and Republican parties as well as the Progressive party reflected the mood and demands of the Progressive movement. Albert J. Beveridge, who represented Indiana in the United States Senate, 1899-1911, was the leading progressive within the Republican party until he joined the new Progressive party in 1912. Among the Democrats John W. Kern, mayor of Indianapolis and successor to Beveridge in the United States Senate, as well as Governors Thomas R. Marshall and Samuel M. Ralston supported several demands of the Progressives. In- creased regulation of various aspects of economic life characterized the administrations of President Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson— especially Wilson. Within Indiana the Railroad Commission (later Public Utilities Commission) was established (1905), the State Board of Accounts was organized (1909), and a direct primary law was enacted (1915). But the full impact of the Progressive era is not to be found in particular legis- lation—it represented an increased recognition that economic and social life had become more interdependent than previously. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 168-178, 241-251. ► 2. Smith, Indiana History, 87-89. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, II, Chs. 16, 18-19. 2. Claude G. Bowers, Beveridge and the Progressive Era (1932). 3. Claude G. Bowers, Life of John Worth Kern (1918). 4. Dunn, Indiana and Indianans, II, especially Ch. 13. 5. Esarey, A History of Indiana, II, Chs. 29, 32, 36. 6. William D. Foulke, Fighting the Spoilsman (1919). 7. William D. Foulke, Lucius B. Swift, A Biography (Indiana Historical Society, 1930). 8. Matilda Gresham, Life of Walter Q. Gresham, 1832-1895 (2 vols., 1919). 9. Hugh McCulloch, Men and Measures of Half a Century; Sketches and Comments (1888). 10. Thomas R. Marshall, Recollections of Thomas R. Marshall . . . (1923). 11. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, II, Pt. IX, Chs. 3-6; Pt. X, Chs. 4-5. 12. Seeds (ed.), History of the Republican Party of Indiana. 57 13. Harry J. Sievers, Benjamin Harrison ... (2 vols., 1955, 1959). 14. Stoll, History of the Indiana Democracy, 1816-1916. 15. Charles M. Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall (1939). *16. Turpie, Sketches of My Own Times. AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIAL Films Teddy the Rough Rider, Warner Brothers, Associated Artists; color, sd, 19 min, $6.25. Filmstrips Age of Reform, Yale University Press, 1954, b&w, si, 40 fr, |7.00. America as a World Power Before 1918 (History of American People Series), SVE, 1948, b&w, si, 74 fr, $3.25. Political and Social Reform, 1870-1916 (History of American People Series), 1948, b&w, si, 77 fr, $3.25. Road to World Power and Responsibility (1876-1900), (Development of the American Republic Series), SVE, 1958, color, si, 50 fr, $6.00. Woodrow Wilson, (2 fs), Pictorial Events, b&w, si, 75 fr, $3.50 each, $7.00 set. 58 CHAPTER XI ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1910-1960 General Comment Economic, social, and cultural changes in the half-century after 1910 were even more rapid than they had been for the period, 1850-1910. The roots of various changes since 1910 are readily apparent in the preceding period. For instance, the triumph of manufacturing over agriculture and the growth of urban population until it outnumbered rural population were results which might have been anticipated by 1910. Other changes, though rooted in developments of previous decades, were not commonly anticipated (or were even unknown) at that time. Such developments include electrical appliances in farm homes; hybrid seed for corn, wheat, oats, etc.; "drive-ins" and outdoor movies; jet propelled airplanes; combines for harvesting grain and mechanical corn pickers; and the emphasis on professional and graduate study. Persons now living who were born about 1910 have indeed lived through a period of unusually rapid transition. The triumph of manufacturing over agriculture was of basic im- portance. After 1910 the value of goods added by manufacturing soared above the value of products from agriculture. Moreover, manufacturing ceased to be based chiefly on products from farms and forests and became largely dependent upon metals, especially iron and steel, as machinery was increasingly used in factories, on farms, in homes, in business offices, and in transportation. Nevertheless, the value of agricultural products continued to rise, averaging roughly one billion dollars yearly during the 1950's'. Transportation facilities became more diversified. Railroad mileage decreased after about 1920, while there was a significant increase in the number and importance of automobiles, trucks, buses, and air- planes. These developments in manufacturing, agriculture, and trans- portation resulted in augmented business for banks, wholesalers, retailers, and service industries. Finally, in spite of the severe depression of the thirties there was a substantial gain in wealth and in living standards. The transition from a rural to an urban majority was perhaps the major change in population after 1910. The federal census of 1920 was the first to show a slight urban majority. By 1960 about two-thirds of the state's population was urban. Such population, however, re- mained decentralized; no city in Indiana exceeded half a million resi- dents even in 1960. By this time, however, with the advent of the automobile, rural electrification, and improved highways, many rural residents were city workers or businessmen rather than farmers. Immi- gration slackened during World War I and federal legislation there- after restricted its volume, especially from southern and eastern Europe. 59 Population growth was larger in the northern than in the southern half of the state. Education gained more in volume and in significance after 1910 than for the preceding period. Public elementary and secondary schools had been established in all parts of the state by 1910; their enrollments thereafter rapidly increased. College and university enrollments also grew, responding to the large growth in the number of high school graduates. By 1910 elementary and secondary education were already very largely under public auspices, though private and church schools continued at both levels, especially those of Roman Catholics and Lutherans. Higher education remained largely under private and church auspices in 1910, but by 1960 the total enrollment in public universi- ties and colleges was somewhat larger than that for the private and church institutions. Meanwhile, libraries, theatrical groups, and musical organizations grew in number and in importance. Points to Emphasize 1. Steel Industry in the Calumet Area. The Calumet area along the southern shore of Lake Michigan, in Lake and Porter counties, is the most important manufacturing center in Indiana. Its development has principally occurred since 1910, and its growth came mainly from the steel industry. The Calumet area offered fabricators and processors of steel excellent transportation facilities. The Great Lakes offered water transportation to bring iron ore from the rich Mesabi mines of Minne- sota, and likewise for imports and exports generally. The southern bend of Lake Michigan offered extensive railroad connections to all parts of the United States. Steel mills, particularly those in Gary and East Chicago, provided steel for automobiles, railroads, airplanes, buildings, bridges, farm equipment, etc. The rise of the Calumet area to the fore- most manufacturing center in Indiana is an excellent illustration of the changing nature of manufacturing in Indiana since 1910. Here iron, not products from farms and forests, is the main raw material for manufacturing. 2. The Automobile Industry in Indiana. During the late nineteenth century, Indiana had numerous blacksmiths and other persons who made wagons, buggies, and bicycles. Such persons also became interested in the making of automobiles starting about the 1890's. One of the earliest automobiles in the United States was made at Kokomo by Elwood Haynes and operated on a nearby county road in 1894. During the late 1890's the Studebaker Manufacturing Company of South Bend began making automobiles— for a while they made electric and steam propelled cars as well as those operated by gasoline engines. As the automobile industry grew, there were dozens of automobile manufac- turers in the state, and some persons thought Indiana rather than Michigan might become the center of the emerging industry. As Detroit became the automotive center the relative role of Hoosiers in the car industry declined; however, Indiana continued to be an important maker of parts and accessories for automobiles. Meanwhile, Studebaker— now 60 known as Studebaker-Packard Manufacturing Company— remained one of the decreasing number of companies which manufactured automobiles. The development of automobiles, trucks, and buses was the most im- portant single improvement in transportation, 1910-1960. This develop- ment was in large part responsible for the decline in railroad mileage and for the disappearance of the.interurbans. 3. A State Highway System Established. Improvement in rural roads preceded the coming of automobiles in large numbers. During the last half of the nineteenth century there was steady progress in graveling and grading rural roads, which were of growing importance to farmers. The bicycle craze of the 1880's and 1890's induced further progress for roads. Nevertheless, the best of such roads prior to World War I were generally either dusty or muddy; dangerous because of loose stones, steep hills, and sharp curves; and in most instances they were local rather than through roads. In 1917 a state highway commission was established. For a while there was much controversy whether emphasis should be on local or through routes. Through highways were rapidly built during the 1920's, being financed almost entirely by federal aid and the proceeds from the state tax on gasoline. Subsequently the system gradually expanded until there was a total of 11,300 miles of state high- ways and 75,000 of county roads in 1950. Meanwhile, various state high- ways were rebuilt and improved. During the late 1950's Indiana began building a network of limited-access interstate highways financed very largely by the federal government. Most of the state highways were constructed of concrete or asphalt. Their importance as through routes can be observed by reference to a map of Indiana's roads, available at nearly any gasoline station. Such a map will also show that the state high- ways generally connect with similar through roads in neighboring states. 4. Fewer Farmers but Increased Farm Output. Although Indiana had fewer farmers who cultivated fewer acres in 1960 than in 1910, the products from Hoosier farms increased in both volume and value during this half-century. Four factors in particular explain the basis for most of. this increased output by fewer farmers on decreased acreage. First, much more use of machinery was made on farms than previously. After 1910 tractors rapidly gained in number, and by 1950 farms had become so mechanized that most farmers no longer used horses in farm- ing. Machines for plowing, cultivating, and mowing were improved, but of major importance was the advent of self-propelled cornpickers and combines for harvesting grain, which became common in the 1930's. Cornpickers eliminated the tedious work of husking or shucking corn by hand. Combines, by cutting and threshing wheat and other grain in one operation, eliminated the slow, laborious, and dirty task of shocking wheat and pitching bundles. Trucks also became common on farms during the twenties and thirties. Second was the widespread use of hybrid seed for corn, wheat, and oats which likewise became common during the thirties. Hybrid seed was much more productive than the older open-pollinated varieties. Third, farmers used increased applica- tions of fertilizer, especially during the forties and fifties, and this re- sulted in increased yields. Fourth was the introduction of the soya bean 61 which became second in value to corn among farm crops by 1950. This crop was not grown in Indiana in 1910. Improved methods and prac- tices in feeding and caring for livestock, in cultivating crops, and in- creased use of grasses and legumes also contributed to the gain in farm output. 5. Wage Earners Employed in Manufacturing Continue to Increase. The number of wage earners employed in manufacturing was about 187,000 in 1910; 315,000 in 1930; and 548,000 in 1947. The growth in number of wage earners in manufacturing resulted from the tremendous growth in the volume of manufacturing. By 1960 the average work week for most workers engaged in manufacturing was somewhat over forty hours per week, considerably less than for 1910 (see Chapter 9, Item 5). Meanwhile, most of these workers had gained the benefit of safety and sanitary measures, wage increases, paid vacations, job security, insur- ance, and retirement allowances. Despite inequalities and injustices, and especially in spite of the tragic unemployment and acute distress of many workers during the depression of the 1930's, the status of workers in manufacturing materially improved in the half-century after 1910. Along with these changes, the output of the average worker increased notwithstanding the decrease in hours. Increased use of machinery in manufacturing industries was a major factor in causing the output per worker to rise. Labor organizations and favorable legislation also con- tributed to the achievement of various benefits and economic gains for workers. Of particular importance, however, was the rapid overall increase in the productivity of the economic system which resulted in a general increase in living standards that benefited wage earners as well as citizens generally. 6. Growth in Size of School Units. From pioneer days until near the end of the nineteenth century because transportation facilities were inadequate, it was necessary that schools, particularly elementary schools, be located within walking distance of pupils. Hence virtually every neighborhood developed at least one school, usually resulting in several schools in each township (congressional townships before and civil town- ships after 1852). Near the end of the nineteenth century, however, both rural and urban transportation had improved so that there was a tendency toward fewer but larger schools. The growth of high schools encouraged this trend since many of the elementary schools did not have enough students to warrant the addition of a high school. In this period horse-drawn school hacks were frequently used to haul students to the larger or "consolidated" schools. The fact, however, that rural and urban areas normally had separate school units (after 1852) was a deterrent to the growth of large units. Moreover, many persons in rural areas continued to prefer that local schools remain under the control of township trustees. Nevertheless, limited progress toward "con- solidation" continued. During the 1940's and 1950's various consolida- tions were made which merged rural and urban school units. In 1959 the General Assembly provided that a school reorganization committee be established in each county to study and make recommendations re- garding desirable school units. This legislation established minimum standards which, if continued, will reduce the number of school units 62 in Indiana. Larger school units pose various problems and some dis- advantages, but improved transportation, increased school costs, and the increase in subjects taught, foster such a development. 7. Rural and Urban Life Become Similar. The growth of factories and of cities and towns during the last half of the nineteenth and the early decades of the twentieth centuries resulted in significant differences between rural and urban life. Urban areas usually made more rapid progress than rural communities in the development of elementary and especially secondary education; urban dwellers usually had electricity, run- ning water, and telephones before these important facilities were available to rural residents; libraries and cultural programs generally were more readily available to urban than to rural inhabitants; and inadequate transportation facilities resulted in limited contacts between such in- habitants. The advent, however, of automobiles, trucks, buses, rural electrification, improved local as well as through roads, radio, and tele- vision reduced the difference between life in the country and life in towns and cities, and such changes naturally greatly increased the con- tacts between urban and rural residents. Differences remain and will doubtless continue, but enlarged associations and growing cooperation between urban and rural residents have been an important trend of recent decades. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 180-240. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 98-144. References 1. R. E. Banta (comp.), Indiana Authors and Their Books, 1816-1916 (1949). 2. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, II, Chs. 22-24, 27-28. 3. Batchelor, An Economic History of the Indiana Oolitic Limestone Industry . 4. I. Harvey Hull, Built of Men, The Story of Indiana Cooperatives (1952). 5. Fred C. Kelley, The Wright Brothers (1943). * 6. Latta, Outline History of Indiana Agriculture. 7. Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, Middletown; A Study in Contem- porary Culture (1929). 8. Robert S. Lynd and Helen M. Lynd, Middletown in Transition; A Study in Cultural Conflicts (1937). 9. Jerry Marlette, Electric Railroads of Indiana (1959). 10. John B. Martin, Indiana, an Interpretation (1947). 11. Moore, The Calumet Region: Indiana's Last Frontier. 12. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, II, Pt. X, Chs. 1-3, 8. 13. Starr, Industrial Development of Indiana. •14. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Chs. 15. Fred Witney, Indiana Labor Relations Law (1960). 63 AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIAL Films Great Lakes— Highway of Commerce, Clifford J. Raman, color, sd, 22 min, $6.00. Immigration in America's Growth, Coronet, b&w, sd, 11 min, $2.00. Indiana Has Almost Everything, H. M. Stoeppelwerth Production, color, sd, 21 min, $5.25. Made in Indiana, Indiana Motor Truck Association, color, sd, 29 min, $1.00. Nation's Building Stone, Indiana Limestone Institute, b&w, sd, 19 min, $1.00. One Hundred Years of Art and Artists in Indiana, Randolph Coats and Indiana University A-V Center, color, sd, 20 min, $5.50. Perfect Memorial, Riley Memorial Association, color, sd, 26 min, free to Indiana users. State Beneath Us, Indiana University A-V Center in Cooperation with Geological Survey, Indiana Department of Conservation, b&w, color, 20 min, $4.00, $6.00. Steel, International Tele-Film; Almanac Films, b&w, sd, 13 min, $2.00. This Land of Ours— Indiana, Dudley, color, sd, 10 min, $3.25. The Town, Overseas Branch of OWI, b&w, sd, 12 min, $1.50. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part I — The Growing of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part II— The Milling of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Wheat, The Staff of Life, Part HI— The Uses of Wheat, Simmel-Meservey, color, sd, 11 min, $3.25. Filmstrips (Those listed below were produced by Ball State College. Some of them are more appropriate to other chapters than to this chapter.) Conservation in Indiana Indiana History Indiana Industry Indiana in General Natural Resources of Indiana On the Farms of Indiana 64 CHAPTER XII WORLD WARS AND DOMESTIC POLITICS, 1917-1960 General Comment American participation in world politics increased during the period, 1917-1960. Such participation had also increased in preceding years, especially in the two decades prior to World War I (see Chapter 10, Item 4). America's increased role in world politics was highlighted by its involvement in World War I, 1914-1918, and World War II, 1939- 1945. The United States, however, did not enter World War I until 1917 and World War II until late in 1941. Nevertheless, in terms of finances and resources expended, these were the two most costly wars in American history. But in terms of lives lost, the American Civil War far exceeded such losses for both world wars. Indiana lost about 3,370 lives as a direct result of World War I, against approximately 10,000 lives for World War II. The United States reluctantly entered World War I. It did so when it appeared that a German victory might result over England, France, Russia, and Italy unless the United States fought in support of such countries. Some Hoosiers, especially many Germans and Irish, were at first opposed to fighting with Britain against Germany. Once war came, however, people generally supported the war and participated in ration- ing, conscription, war loans, and other efforts deemed essential for victory. With victory most Hoosiers apparently supported the refusal of the United States to enter either the League of Nations or the World Court. During the 1920's and 1930's Indiana voters were inclined toward a minimum. of American participation in world politics. The rise of Nazi Germany under Hitler and the outbreak of World War II once more involved the United States in world conflict. This war was far more costly and more global in its scope than World War I. The intense partisanship of the thirties, disagreement over the nature and extent of aid to the powers fighting against Germany and her allies, and the feeling on the part of some that Roosevelt was taking steps leading to war contributed to partisan bickering preceding America's formal entrance into the war. With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, however, Hoosier support of the war was general and sustained. In this war conscription, rationing, war loans, war taxes, and wartime controls exceeded similar measures during World War I. Before this war was concluded the United States joined with dozens of other coun- tries in establishing the United Nations and various related organizations. A majority of Hoosiers were probably in favor of American membership in the United Nations, but perhaps less so than for Americans generally. Since significant participation in world politics is a fairly recent development for the United States, it is not surprising that there were 65 sharp disagreements among Hoosiers, as for Americans as a whole, re- garding American foreign policy. Moreover, the intense rivalry between the United States and Russia after World War II, the advent of the atomic and hydrogen bombs, as well as the development of jet airplanes and missiles made much instability, uncertainty, and danger for peoples throughout the world. Amid such perplexing problems of so complex a nature it is not unusual that divergent views were often expressed re- garding desirable policy toward Russia, disarmament, the United Nations and its related agencies, defense, foreign aid, and other questions. Be- neath such questioning, however, Hoosiers exhibited a patriotism which exceeded partisanship and a willingness to sacrifice in time of war which made Indiana an arsenal of democracy during both World War I and World War II. Perhaps this patriotism and sacrifice reflected an abiding nationalism, which helps explain the caution of many Hoosiers regarding the desirable nature and extent of American participation in world politics. Meanwhile, in domestic politics Hoosiers were usually inclined toward caution and minimum political innovation, 1917-1960. The Progressive era was abruptly ended by World War I, and the trend remained conservative until about 1933. The general prosperity of the twenties— not shared by farmers, however— encouraged a low priority on reform and on governmental regulation concerning social, economic, and political problems. From 1917 to 1933 only Republicans served as governor— James P. Goodrich, Warren T. McCray, Emmett F. Branch, Ed Jackson, and Harry G. Leslie— and this party generally controlled state and local politics. The depression of the thirties, which began with the Panic of 1929, brought significant developments. Such develop- ments came mainly during the administration of Governor Paul V. McNutt, 1933-1937, though some were added under Governor M. Clifford Town- send, 1937-1941. McNutt and Townsend were Democrats, but apparently neither was an ardent New Dealer. In fact, the principal innovations of these years came through federal rather than state legislation, though both Democratic governors and Democratic legislatures participated in various of them. From 1941 until early 1961 the Republicans had the edge, at times by a wide margin, in Indiana politics. In general, the prevailing tone was again toward conservatism. Henry F. Schricker, a con- servative Democrat, served as governor, 1941-1945, and 1949-1953, becom- ing the only governor to serve two terms under the Constitution of 1851, which prohibits a governor from being elected for two successive terms. Ralph F. Gates served as governor, 1945-1949; George N. Craig, 1953- 1957; and Harold W. Handley, 1957-1961. All three were Republicans. In January, 1961, Matthew E. Welsh, a Democrat, became governor. Points to Emphasize 1. World War I, First Major Overseas War for the United States. World War I was the first major war in which the United States became engaged which was fought almost entirely overseas— in western Europe. The Spanish American War of 1898 had included fighting overseas, 66 notably in the Philippines, but it was brief and not a major conflict. During World War I it was first thought that America's principal con- tribution would be to supply the Allied Powers with money, munitions, food, and a limited number of troops. It was, however, soon apparent that the Allied peril was greater than had been realized; hence, a large number of men were quickly trained and sent to Western Europe. All told, approximately 118,000 men and women from Indiana served in the armed forces of the United States during World War I. The loss of life was much less than during the American Civil War, both because medical care had much improved and also because American troops in World War I were better trained and better equipped to defend them- selves. Manpower was indeed important in World War I, but Allied superiority in natural resources, food supplies, manufacturing output, ships, weapons, and military equipment contributed to victory with less loss of life than would otherwise have been required. 2. The Ku Klux Klan as a Political Power in Indiana. Although the Ku Klux Klan existed in all parts of the United States after World War I, it was especially prominent in Indiana during the 1920's. This secret order which used intimidation, corrupt politics, and at times violence to achieve its ends had a membership of tens of thousands of Hoosiers in the mid-twenties. The aims and goals of the white-robed Klansmen varied, but generally they were anti-Roman Catholic, anti-Negro, anti-Jewish, and against things "foreign." The Klan gained considerable support from some Protestant ministers, particularly those who favored "fundamentalism" over "liberalism" in religion. Prior to World War I immigration from southern and eastern Europe and the increased number of Negroes had added to the elements in the population which were attacked by the Klan. After the war, it was possible to substitute hatred of such groups for hatred of Germans. The fact that Indiana became more industrial and urban than agricultural and rural about the time of World War I quite likely encouraged rural and farm folk to think of Roman Catholics, Jews, Negroes, and new immigrants— most of whom were urban residents associated with manufacturing or business— as dangerous rivals. Moreover, the low educational and living standards among various of the groups attacked added real social, economic, and political problems at a time when farmers were hard-pressed, and many laborers felt the pinch of postwar adjustments or competition from the "new" groups, or both. The Klan apparently achieved the peak of its power in Indiana during the administration of Governor Jackson. Most of its members were doubtless Protestants and Republicans, but most Protestants and Republicans refused to joint the Klan. 3. Significant Domestic Achievements During the 1920's. Much prog- ress was made in Indiana in three important areas during the 1920's: state highways, state parks, and education. The progress in building highways was noted in the preceding chapter (Item 3). The 1920's be- came the first decade in which numerous ribbons of concrete and asphalt were laid throughout Indiana to accommodate the rapidly growing number of cars, buses, and trucks. A related development was the growth of state parks, two of which had been established in 1916. By 1933 Indiana had approximately a dozen state parks. A German immigrant, 67 Richard Lieber, had been the principal architect of these parks and the practices which governed them. Under Lieber's able guidance Indiana became recognized as a national leader regarding state parks, and to some extent in the conservation movement as well. The Goodrich administration took important steps favorable to progress for both highways and state parks. State support of education, first established in a systematic way in 1852, was increased in the twenties for college and university education as well as for secondary and elementary schools. 4. The New Deal Brings Significant Changes to Indiana. With the depression of the thirties came rapid and significant social, economic, and political changes as a consequence of the New Deal under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, particularly during the years 1933-1937. The total New Deal program cannot be summarized briefly, but its highlights included: relief for the unemployed, legislation favorable to labor unions, insuring of bank deposits, rural electrification, loans to home owners, payments to farmers to limit production of crops and stock, pensions for the aged, social security, and increased regulation of business. Partly because the New Deal was of Democratic origin, at first most of it was bitterly assailed by the Republican leaders. During the thirties, however, some of the New Deal was abandoned or modified, but much of it remained, and most of that which remained had substantial bi- partisan support during the forties and fifties. For instance, during these two decades there was much support among Indiana Republicans as well as Democrats for social security, insuring of bank deposits, loans to home owners, payments to farmers of one kind or another to improve their purchasing power, and rural electrification. 5. Indiana's Role in National Politics Decreases. Although four Hoosiers were elected vice-president of the United States between the Civil War and World War I, none was so elected after 1917 through 1960. At least two factors decreased Indiana's role in national politics after World War I. First, Indiana became less a "doubtful" state and more a "Republican" state than for earlier decades. From the presi- dential election of 1852 through that of 1916, Indiana voted for the winning presidential nominee every time except in the disputed (and close) election of 1876 and the very close election of 1916. Before 1917 Indiana's margin for the winner was usually modest, and the fact that as Indiana went so went the nation in nearly all instances also made "doubtful" Indiana an important battleground for Republicans and Democrats alike. From 1920 through 1960, however, Indiana voted for Republican nominees for president in nine of eleven elections, often by large majorities. Only twice, in 1932 and 1936, when Franklin Roose- velt won his first and second terms, did Indiana vote for a Democrat for president in these years, yet in four other elections (1940, 1944, 1948, and 1960) Democrats elected the president. With Indiana less doubtful and less frequently in the winning column than formerly, its vote became less sought for than might otherwise have been expected. Second, Indiana's relative rank in population and economic resources among the states decreased from what it was between the Civil War and World War I, making Indiana's vote less essential and Hoosiers less important as a source of party finances than previously. Nevertheless, 68 Hoosiers continued to play an important part in national politics. As an illustration, Wendell Willkie, native Hoosier, won the Republican nomination for president in 1940. Though Willkie was unable to stem the Roosevelt tide, he carried Indiana and received a national popular vote which far exceeded that of any Republican to that time. About this time ex-governor Paul V. McNutt gained national stature as federal security administrator and as high commissioner to the Philippines. McNutt had considerable support for the presidency in 1940 until Roose- velt's renomination for a third term became a certainty. He then had substantial support for the vice-presidency and would probably have been nominated had he not withdrawn his name from the balloting. 6. Two Observations about Indiana Politics, 1917-1960. Two im- portant observations are worthy of note regarding domestic politics in Indiana, 1917-1960. First, the tendency toward caution and minimum political innovation, though possibly in some respects a bit more pro- nounced after 1917, is consistent with Indiana's political experience during most of her history as a state. Second, despite such caution, significant changes were made in the period, 1917-1960, which, perhaps because they were generally moderate, have normally been stable and, at least in the long run, supported by leaders of both the Democratic and Republican parties. TEXTS AND REFERENCES Texts * 1. Barnhart, Carmony, Nichols, and Weicker, Indiana: The Hoosier State, 252-273. * 2. Smith, Indiana History, 87-89, 145-150. References 1. Barnhart and Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Common- wealth, II, Chs. 20-21, 25-26, 28. 2. Cedric C. Cummins, Indiana Public Opinion and the World War, 1914- 1917 (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1945). 3. Here Is Your Indiana Government (State Chamber of Commerce, new ed. yearly). 4. Marshall, Recollections of Thomas R. Marshall. 5. Martin, Indiana, an Interpretation. 6. Moore, The Calumet Region: Indiana's Last Frontier. 7. Howard H. Peckham and Shirley A. Snyder (eds.), Letters From Fighting Hoosiers (1948). 8. Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Development, II, Pt. X, Chs. 6 7. 9. Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall. *10. Thornbrough and Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana History, Chs. 30-31. 11. Lynn Turner and Heber Walker (eds.), Indiana at War: A Directory of Hoosier Civilians Who Held Positions of Responsibility in Official, Vol- untary and Cooperative War-Time Organizations (1954) 12. James E. Watson, As I Knew Them: Memoirs of James E. Watson . . . (1936). 69 AUDIO-VISUAL MATERIALS Films Causes and Immediate Effects of the First World War, International Geographic Pictures, b&w, sd, 22 min, $3.75. Two Decades of History, Paramount News Service, TFC, b&w, sd, 23 min, $3.50. Voting Procedures, Indiana University A-V Center, b&w, sd, 14 min, $3.75. Your Indiana State Parks, Indiana University A-V Center, for Indiana Depart- ment of Conservation, color, sd, $4.75. Filmsfrips First World War, Eye Gate, 1957, color, si, 30 fr, $4.00. How Indiana Got Its Present Constitution, Indiana University A-V Center, 1951, color, si, 56 fr, $2.50. Great Depression and the New Deal (1928-1939), SVE, 1960, b&w, si, 49 fr, $6.00. New Deal Era, 1933-1941, SVE, 1947, b&w, si, 55 fr, $3.25. Peacetime Adjustments in the United States, Eye Gate, 1958, color, si, 40 fr, $4.00. Prosperity and Depression, 1921-1933, SVE, 1947, b&w, si, 52 fr, $3.25. World War II (United States in a Troubled World, 1920-1945 Series), Eye Gate, 1957, color, si, 42 fr, $4.00. World War 11-Homefront, SVE, 1947, b&w, si, 54 fr, $3.25. World War II-Overseas, SVE, 1947, b&w, si, 67 fr, $3.25. 70 Appendix A BOOKS FOR SCHOOL LIBRARIES The books listed below are examples of the kind of books which should be available in school libraries for use in the teaching and study of Indiana History. Moreover, quite a number of such books are also useful in the teaching and study of American History. The books listed are intended for use by teachers as well as by students doing special reports or reference reading. They should be especially helpful to stu- dents with considerable interest and ability in history. Many of the books listed are unfortunately out of print, but often out-of-print volumes can be found at second-hand book stores or secured as donations from friends and parents of students. Quite a number of the items listed are available from the Indiana Historical Bureau or the Indiana Historical Society, as is indicated in the listings. Four two-volume histories of Indiana are listed— those by Dunn, Esarey, Roll, and that by Barnhart and Carmony. Copies of these two-volume histories are difficult to obtain, but a real effort should be made to secure at least two or three of them. The Indiana Historical Bureau (State Library and Historical Build- ing, Indianapolis 4) has various leaflets for use in the fourth and fifth grades. These items are listed at the end of the chapters in this Hand- book, but they are not repeated here. Teachers may obtain copies of them free from the Indiana Historical Bureau. Public libraries of Indiana have collections of books on Indiana History. In fact, some of them have large collections of Indiana items. Teachers should explain to students that many books in libraries are available only for use at the libraries. They should also explain that a considerable number of such volumes are too scarce and valuable for circulation. In fact, special permission is generally required to use scarce and valuable items, and such permission is at times granted only to scholars. Nevertheless, public libraries have various books on Indiana History which circulate, and encouraging students to use these books is desirable for all concerned. Such use gives libraries an excellent opportunity to help develop and guide the reading of parents as well as students. Every school library should seek to acquire books and booklets re- garding the history of its local area. The collection and use of such items affords opportunities to relate local history to both state and national history. Some school systems have prepared books, booklets, scrapbooks, etc., which illustrate relationships between local history and state and national history. School libraries are eligible for membership in the Indiana Historical Society, which is available for $5 yearly. Such membership supplies the 71 monthly Indiana History Bulletin, at least one special publication con- cerning Indiana History, and four issues of the Indiana Magazine of History. These publications contain much information about new books and booklets in Indiana History as they appear. (Memberships are avail- able through the Membership Secretary, Indiana Historical Society, State Library and Historical Building, Indianapolis 4, Indiana.) Recently the Indiana Historical Society completed plans for a five-volume sesqui- centennial history of Indiana, which is expected to be completed during the 1960's. Libraries and persons belonging to the Indiana Historical Society are to receive volumes of this history as they appear, without further charge. 1. R. E. Banta (comp.), Indiana Authors and Their Books, 1816-1916 (1949). 2. John D. Barnhart, Henry Hamilton and George Rogers Clark in the Ameri- can Revolution (1951). 3. John D. Barnhart, The Impact of the Civil War on Indiana (Indiana Civil War Centennial Commission, 1962). Available to teachers free. 4. John D. Barnhart, The Valley of Democracy: The Ohio Valley, 1775-1820 (1953). 5. John D. Barnhart and Donald F. Carmony, Indiana: From Frontier to Industrial Commonwealth (2 vols., 1954). 6. Ray A. Billington, Westward Expansion, a History of the American Fron- tier (2nd ed., 1960). 7. Richard G. Boone, A History of Education in Indiana (1892). (Reprint edition, 1941, Indiana Historical Bureau.) 8. Claude G. Bowers, Beveridge and the Progressive Era (1932). 9. R. Carlyle Buley, The Old Northwest, Pioneer Period, 1815-1840 (2 vols., 1950, 1951, and 1963.) 10. Donald F. Carmony, A Brief History of Indiana (Indiana Historical Bureau, 5th ed., 1961). Available to teachers free. 11. Thomas D. Clark, Frontier America, the Story of the Westward Movement (1959). 12. Fremont Cleaves, Old Tippecanoe, William Henry Harrison and His Time (1939). 13. William M. Cockrum, Pioneer History of Indiana, Including Stories, Inci- dents, and Customs of the Early Settlers (1907). 14. John B. Dillon, A Histroy of Indiana . . . (1859). 15. Jacob Piatt Dunn, Indiana and Indianans (2 vols., 1919). 16. Jacob Piatt Dunn, True Indian Stories (1908). 17. Logan Esarey, A History of Indiana (2 vols., various editions). 18. Logan Esarey, The Indiana Home (1943 and 1953). 19. Dorothy B. Goebel, William Henry Harrison (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1926). 20. Baynard R. Hall, The New Purchase, or Seven and a Half Years in the Far West (2 vols., 1843). (Also one-volume editions, 1855 and 1916.) 21. Hubert H. Hawkins, The Road to Statehood: A Documentary Record (In- diana Sesquicentennial Commission, 1963). 22. Oliver Johnson, A Home in the Woods (Indiana Historical Society, 1951). 23. Charles Kettleborough (ed.), Constitution Making in Indiana, I (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1916). 24. William C. Latta, Outline History of Indiana Agriculture (1938). 25. Eli Lilly, Prehistoric Antiquities of Indiana (Indiana Historical Society, 1937). 72 26. Powell Moore, The Calumet Region: Indiana's Last Frontier (Indiana His- torical Bureau, 1959). 27. Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1916). 28. Wilbur D. Peat, Indiana Houses of the Nineteenth Century (Indiana His- torical Society, 1962). 29. Howard H. Peckham, Pontiac and the Indian Uprising (1947). 30. Howard H. Peckham and Shirley A. Snyder (eds.), Letters from Fighting Hoosiers (1948). 31. George Pence and Nellie C. Armstrong, Indiana Boundaries: Territory, State, and County (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1933). 32. Charles Roll, Indiana: One Hundred and Fifty Years of American Develop- ment (2 vols., 1931). 33. Arthur W. Shumaker, A History of Indiana Literature (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1962). 34. Willard H. Smith, Schuyler Colfax, the Changing Fortunes of a Political Idol (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1952). 35. Kenneth M. Stampp, Indiana Politics During the Civil War (Indiana His- torical Bureau, 1949). 36. George W. Starr, Industrial Development of Indiana (1937). 37. Charles M. Thomas, Thomas Riley Marshall (1939). 38. Gayle Thornbrough and Dorothy Riker (comps.), Readings in Indiana His- tory (Indiana Historical Bureau, 1956). This item, available in quantity at modest cost from the Indiana Historical Bureau, is a particularly useful item. Most school libraries should have multiple copies of it. 39. William W. Woollen, Biographical and Historical Sketches of Early Indiana (1883). 40. Oscar F. Winther (ed.), With Sherman to the Sea; the Civil War Letters, Diaries, and Reminiscences of Theodore F. Upson (1943 and 1958). 73 Appendix B HOOSIER HISTORICAL TOURS GEORGE BLAKE, Franklin College Director, Hoosier Historical Tours As we approach the 150th anniversary of the admission of Indiana into the Union as a state, 1966, there seems to be increasing interest on the part of both teachers and pupils in visiting historic sites in Hoosier- land. And Indiana has a wealth of such places. There is danger that students will mature with a limited knowledge and appreciation of Indiana's historic sites unless parents and teachers familiarize them with the facts about such places. Every student is within reasonable distance of various historic sites. Parents and teachers can arouse and cultivate the interest of youth in their Hoosier heritage by conducting tours to historic sites as a part of their school program. In order to make the most of historical tours, careful plans and certain decisions must be made in advance. First, decide on the age group of the students. Many schools already conduct historical tours with senior high pupils, but in some ways even more can be accomplished with elementary students. Students in grades 5-8 can profit from such tours which can be related to their social studies units on Indiana History. At any rate, those making the trip should be approximately the same age. Second, a precise itinerary should be prepared. Between 300-400 miles round trip should be the maximum for a two-day tour. (Suggested itineraries are given at the conclusion of this article.) When the "who" and "where" have been decided, then explain the proposed tour to the proper school official, usually the superintendent or the principal. If you have a well-defined itinerary and careful plans to present, it should not be difficult to gain his enthusiastic approval. After approval of the tour, a suitable date must be chosen. For a two- day tour, Friday and Saturday are usually the best. This schedule takes students from their regular classes for only one school day. Next decide about chaperones or adult advisors. Teachers should be chosen rather than parents unless their going would too much disrupt the school program. When teachers go along there are fewer discipline problems, and student learn valuable lessons in self-reliance and inde- pendence. There should be about six students per adult, and never more than ten. Boys should be assigned to men counsellors, and the girls to women. Arrangements should be made to pay all or at least a major portion of the advisors' expenses. A general list of rules should be distributed to students and their parents. At least one adult should have knowledge of first aid. Always secure written approval of parents. Send a mimeographed note home for the parent to sign. This note should include a statement absolving the school authorities in case of sickness or accident. Stress the fact that all children cannot be accommo- dated, and that it is an honor for a child to be selected. The selection of students may be difficult. Usually more want to go than can be handled satisfactorily. Ordinarily a chartered bus can carry thirty-six students and six adults. (It is much better not to use school buses.) More than one bus load on the same tour creates prob- lems. Pupils should be selected on the basis of character, cooperation, scholarship, and interest in history. Unfortunately their ability to pay for the trip must also be a consideration. When deserving pupils cannot themselves afford to take the trip, perhaps necessary funds can be available from other sources. Make bus arrangements carefully. Several reliable companies cater to tour groups. Contact local transportation officials for their names and addresses. Give the bus people a copy of your general itinerary and inform them of the number of passengers. Make sure that the bus has facilities for overnight bags. Get an exact statement of the total cost of the bus. Since an historical tour is a non-profit enterprise, it is not subject to the transportation tax, but a school official must sign a tax- exemption statement. Be sure that the bus company has general liability insurance. One of the most difficult aspects of the planning is making advance arrangements for the necessary meal and overnight reservations. If your tour takes you through a large city on Friday noon, the chances are that the group can be accommodated at a school cafeteria. If previ- ous notice is given, a large public restaurant can usually take care of the group. In either case it would be well to arrive just before or after the rush period. Except in a cafeteria, the menu should be uniform to save time and expense. Be sure to have a previous understanding as to the cost of the meal per person. The evening meal could be served by a church or lodge group. Make sure that the children have a sub- stantial breakfast. A modern motel is usually the best overnight ac- commodation. Reduced rates are generally available, but not more than four pupils should be assigned to a room. The motel manager should know exactly how many rooms will be needed for both students and adults. Do not put adults in the children's rooms. Be sure to have a written statement of the total cost. After you know the total cost of the trip— bus, meals, motel, and any admission fees— the total figure should be divided by the number of pupils taking the trip to obtain the cost per student. At least one week before taking the trip all money should be in the hands of the prin- cipal. Parents should not give the students too much spending money, but each child should have a little cash for films, souvenirs, or post cards. Pupils should be urged to take cameras, notebooks, pencils, and over- night items. At least two weeks before the trip contact the key people at the sites to be visited. Be on schedule. Do not be embarrassed by having to make apologies for being late. Soon after returning home write a "thank-you" note to each person who helped you. Give each student a brief syllabus of factual information about vari- ous sites to be visited or observed during the tour. Students should 75 be urged to gather extensive materials about the places on the itinerary in advance of the trip. They should have background information about the places to be visited. Invite parents, school officials, clergy, civic leaders, and a newspaper photographer to be present just before the trip starts. Be sure that the time of departure does not interfere with the normal school schedule. Each parent should have a complete itin- erary of the trip, including the time schedule, and the name and location of the motel. Shortly after the trip, have the pupils give brief reports in class on specific aspects of the trip. Students from other rooms might be invited to a "tour party," or a program could be given before a PTA group. Arrange exhibits of snapshots and souvenirs from the trip. There should be no difficulty in finding places to be included on historical tours. Indiana is a veritable "gold mine" of historical sites, located in the northern, southern, eastern, western, and central parts of the state. Only a few possible tours can be suggested here. First and most important, perhaps, is the Lincoln Country, where Abraham Lincoln spent his formative years. This tour should include Lincoln Citv. Gentryville, and Rockport. Corydon, the site of the first state capital, is also an interesting place. The site of the Pigeon Roost Massacre should be visited. Various places along the route of Morgan's Raid are easily accessible. Other interesting places in southern Indiana are Clarksville, the Angel Mounds at Newburgh, New Harmony, and many historic sites at Vincennes. In eastern Indiana a trip along the Whitewater Canal is most re- warding. Stops should be made at Laurel, Metamora, Brookville, and Harrison's Tomb at North Bend, Ohio. Aurora, Vevay, and Madison also have various historic places along the Ohio River in southeastern Indiana. Central Indiana is not without its historic significance. Indianapolis has many points of interest. Battleground, near Lafayette, is one of the state's shrines. Crawfordsville, Attica, and Covington are famous for their historic significance. The route of the Wabash and Erie Canal could be followed through Delphi, Logansport, and Peru. The northern part of the state also is full of sites connected with the early history of Indiana. La Salle came to what is now South Bend in 1679, and several sites in and around the city are connected with his visit. One could follow his route along the Kankakee into Illinois. The Frances Slocum Trail from Peru to Marion, along the Missis- sinewa is always of interest to students. The story of Gene Stratton Porter is familiar to Hoosiers, and a trip along the Limberlost Trail is fascinating. Fort Wayne has numerous historic sites, especially those connected with General Anthony Wayne and "Johnny Appleseed." 76 Appendix C Addresses of producers of audio-visual materials listed in this hand- book: Curriculum Materials Corporation 1319 Vine Street Philadelphia 7, Pennsylvania Encyclopedia Britannica Films, Inc. 1150 Wilmette Avenue Wilmette, Illinois Eye Gate House, Inc. 146-01 Archer Avenue Jamaica 35, New York Heritage Filmstrips 89-11 63rd Drive Rego Park, New York Audio-Visual Center- Indiana University Bloomington, Indiana Jam Handy Organization 2821 East Grand Boulevard Detroit 11, Michigan McGraw-Hill and Young America McGraw-Hill Book Company Text Film Department 330 West 42nd Street New York 36, New York Museum Extension Service 80 West 40th Street New York 18, New York Pictorial Events 597 Fifth Avenue New York 17, New York SVE- Society for Visual Education, Inc. 1345 Diversey Parkway Chicago 14, Illinois VEC Visual Education Consultants, Inc. 2066 Helena Street Madison 4, Wisconsin Yale University Press Service 386 4th Avenue New York 16, New York While this handbook is in process of preparation, filmstrips on Indiana History are being prepared by Professors R. H. Caldemeyer and Byron Shurtleff of Ball State College, Muncie. Tentative titles for their series are as follows: Indiana Before the Coming of the While Man; The French Period in Indiana History; The English Period in Indiana History; Indiana's Territorial Period; Indiana Becomes a State; Frontier Indiana; The Civil War and Politics, 1850- 1900; A Century of Industrial Growth in Indiana; The Agricultural Revolution in Indiana; The Social, Cultural, and Literary Aspects of Indiana; Twentieth Century Indiana. These filmstrips are to be in color and they are expected to have between 40 to 50 frames each. For information concerning them, write Dr. R. H. Caldemeyer, Ball State College, Muncie, Indiana. 77 mm**"**"?""*