THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 220.93 Piked stone. His outer mantle could easily have been drawn up over his head, and its folds would have made an excellent pillow on the stone head- rest, the hardness of which could be further modified by the covering he usually wore on his head. Genesis ] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 35 49.— MONUMENTAL STONES. XXVIII, 18. Jacob rose \ip early in the morning, and took the stone that he had put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, and poured oil upon the top of it. 1. This stone was set np as a monument of God's wonderful revelation to him, and of his vow. Verse 20. Thirty years later he repeated this solemn act in the same place. Gen. xxxv, 14. Moses likewise built twelve pillars at Sinai as a sign of God's covenant. Exod. xxiv, 4. So Joshua set up a monument of stones in commemoration of the passage of the Jordan. Josh, iv, 3-9. At Shechem also he set up a stone under an oak as a memorial of the covenant between God and his people. Josh, xxiv, 26. In like manner Samuel erected a stone between Mizpeh and Shen to commemorate his victory over the Philistines. 1 Sam. vii, 12. As these stone pillars were all erected as testimonies of some great events, it has been suggested that Paul in 1 Tim. iii, 15 designs to represent the Church as a pillar of testimony for the truth, God having founded and reared the Church as a monument for that purpose. There existed in heathen countries a practice similar to the one referred to in the text. Morier gives a good illustration of our text in a little inci- dent he saw while traveling in Persia. He says: "I remarked that our old guide, every here and there, placed a stone on a conspicuous bit of rock, or two stones one upon the other, at the same time uttering some words, which I learned were a prayer for our safe return." — Second Journey througli Persia, p. 85. He had frequently seen similar stones without knowing their design. 2. The anointing of the stone by Jacob was doubtless designed as a solemn act of consecration of this stone to its monumental purposes; just as subse- quently Moses, by command of God, anointed the tabernacle and its furni- ture. Num. vii, 1. This act of the patriarch is not to be confounded with the idolatrous practice, common among heathens, of pouring oil upon stones and worshiping them. See note on Isa. Ivii, 6. 50.— WELL-STONES. XXIX, 2. Out of that well they watered the flocks : and a great stone was upon the well's mouth. This was to protect the water from impurity, and from shifting sands, which without such protection would soon choke it. Modern travelers make frequent mention of the stone covers to wells and cisterns. Some of these stones are so large and heavy as to require the united strength of several men to remove them. May there not be reference to this custom in Job xxxviii, 30: "The wa'ers are hid as with a stone, and the face of the deep is frozen ? " 36 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 51.— WELLS OPENED. XXIX, 3. Thither were all the flocks gathered : and they rolled the stone from the well's mouth, and watered the sheep, and put the stone again upon the well's mouth in his place. This is not a part of the history; since all tlie flocks were not actually p:athored and the stone removed until Rachel came. Verse 10. The verse is meant to describe the general custom of the country. It was usual to Wiiit until all the flocks were gathered, and then the stone was taken off and the work of watering began. Yerse 8. - Harmer refers to the state- ment of Sir John Chardin, that he had known wells or cisterns locked up in the East, and accepts Chardin's explanation that this msj have been the case in this instance, and tliat Rachel probably had the key, and that for that reason they were all obliged to wait until she came. But we see no reason for supposing au}^ lock and key in the case; no mention is made of them in the narrative. Tiie reason assigned in verse 8 for waiting for Rachel is, not that she had any special means for opening the well, but that it was customary for all the flocks to be gathered before the stone was rolled away. 52.--NAMES FROM ANIMALS. XXIX, 6. Behold Rachel his daughter cometh with the sheep. Burder calls attention to the fact that the name Rachel signifies, in He- brew, a sheep, and says, It was anciently the custom to give names even to families from cattle, botli great and Small." — Oriental Customs^ No. 48. This ancient custom is no more singular than that which is common among us, of naming famihes after all sorts of beasts and birds, wild and tame; for exam- ple, Wolf, Fox, Lion, Bear, Bull, Nightingale, Jay, Hawk, Finch, etc. 53.— MEN KISSING. XXIX, 13. And it came to pass, when Laban heard the tidings of Jacob his sister's son, that he ran to meet him, and em- braced him, and kissed him. This custom of embraces and kisses among men, though strange to us, is common enough in the East. Jacob kissed his father. Gen. xxvii, 27. Esau embraced and kissed Jacob. Gen. xxxiii, 4. Joseph kissed all his brethren. Gen. xlv, 15. Jacob kissed and embraced Joseph's sons. Gen. xlviii, 10. Aaron kissed Moses. Exod. iv, 27. Moses kissed Jethro. Exod. xviii, 7. David and Jonathan kissed each other. 1 Sam. xx, 41. The father of the prodigal is represented as kissing him when he returned home. Luke xv, 20. The elders at Miletus fell on Paul's neck and kissed him. Acts xx, 37. Modern travelers make frequent mention of this custom. Ctenesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 37 54.— WEAK EYES. XXIX, 17. Leah was tender-eyed. That is, she had weak or dull eyes, which, according to the Oriental stand- ard of beauty, is a great blemish. 55.— RELATIVES PREFERRED. \ XXIX, 19. It is better that I give her to thee, than that I should give her to another man. It is still customary among many Easteni tribes to give the preference in marriage to a cousin. It is expected that a man will marry his cousin. He is not compelled to do it, but he has the right, and she is not allowed to marry any other without his consent 56.— BRIDES BOUGHT. XXIX, 20. Jacob served seven years for Rachel. The dowry comes not ivith the bride, but for the bride. In Oiiental mar- riages the bride is given onl}' on receipt of a consideration. In many cases the transaction amounts to actual bargain and sale- this, however, is not necessarily the case. Custom regards the father of the bride as entitled to some compensation for the trouble had in her training, and for the loss of service experienced by her departure from home. If this compensation cannot be rendered in money, jewels, or cattle, it may be given in labor. It was in this wa}^ that Jacob became lierdman to Laban. Moses probably served Jethro in a similar manner, for the sake of having Zipporah. Comp, Exod. ii, 21; iii, 1. Shechem offered to Jacob and his sons any amount of dowry he was pleased to ask for Dinah. Gen. xxxiv, 12. 57.— MARRIAGE FEASf. XXIX, 22. Laban gathered together all the men of the place and. made a feast. The usual duration of a marriage feast was a week. Thus, '^Fulfill her week," in verse 27. means, "Wait until the week's festivities are over." This was the duration of Samson's marriage feast. Judges xiv, 12. 5§.— THE ELDER FIRST. XXIX, 26. Laban said, It must not be so done in our country, to give the younger before the first-born. This ancient custom still exists in India, and is sometimes observed in Egypt. It also prevailed in old imperial Germany. In India it is con- sidered disgraceful in the extreme, and according to the G-entoo law a crime, for a father to permit a younger daughter to get married before the elder, or for a younger son to be married while his elder brother remains single. If the eldest daughter be deformed, or blind, or. deaf, or dumb, then the ;^ 38 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 3-ounger may be married first. If a father have an opportunity to marry one of his younger daughters advantageously, he will first do all he can to get the elder one married, and until this can be done the younger cannot be married. 59.— SIGNIFICANT NAMES. XXIX, 32. She called his name Reuben ; for she said, Surely the Lord hath looked upon my affliction. Reuben, that is, See! a son! This was in joyful acknowledgment of this evidence of God's goodness. Many of the proper names in the Scriptures liave a meaning in some way connected with the persons bearing them. Other people besides the Jews have had this custom : Africans, Arabs, East Indians, and the aborigines of our own land. Thus a certain Abyssinian was named Omazena, because of a wart on his liand; an Arab boy was called Duman, because he was born before the gate Bab-el-Duma at Damascus. Among the Hindoos we find Ani Muttoo, the precious pearl; Ftm Amma^ the golden lady ; Chimiy Tamby^ the little friend. Among the North Amer"can Indians wo have Kosh-kin-ne-kait, the cut-off arm; Wah-ge-kaut^ crooked legs; Wau-zlie- gaw-maish-kum, he that walks along the shore. 60.— TERAPHIM. Rachel had stolen the images that were her father's. 'images" (teraphim) are supposed to have been rude representa- XXXI, 19. These lions of the human form ; perhaps the statuettes of deceased ancestors. Nothing definite is known as to their size. They could not have been very large, or Rachel would not have been able to conceal them under the bag- gage; nor could they have been very small, or they would not have served MichaVs purpose of deception. See 1 Sam. xix, 13, 16. They may have been of different sizes. Their use is very ancient: the Israelites adopted them from the Ara- means. They were household gods which were consulted as oracles. Micah the Ephraimite placed them in his "house of ^ods." Judg. xvii, 5; xv.ii, 14, 17, 18, 20. Some Jewish writers believe that the teraphim were supposed, on consultation, to be able to give any information de- sired, and that Rachel stole them Irom her father for fear he should learn, by con- sultuig them, what route Jacob and his i;)._TrnA' iiiM. family had taken. Whether or not the Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 89 terapliim were actually worshiped is a disputed question. The Hebrews certainly kept up the worship of Jehovah in connection with the use of the teraphira. It was not until the reign of Josiali that this singular custom was abolished. 2 Kings xxiii, 24. We even find traces of it afterward as late as the time of Hosea. Hosea iii, 4. The practice became deeply rooted, and extended over large regions of country. The Lares and Penates of the Romans are supposed to have been used ibr the same purposes as these teraphim. *' The Penates were divinities or household gods, who were be- lieved to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of fortune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community.'' "Every fam- ily worshiped one or more of these, whose images were kept in the inner part of the house." The Lares were "guardian spirits whose place was the chimney-piece, and whose altar was the domestic hearth." Lares and Pen- ates were worshiped " in the form of little figures or images of wax, earth- enware, or terra cotta, and of metal, more especially silver." — Barker's Lares and Penates^ pp. 146, 147. Faber supposes the teraphim to be identical with the cherubim. He thinks that those which belonged to Laban were images resembling the cherubim which were afterward put on the ark. — Origin of Pagan Idolatry^ vol. iii, p. 621. 61.— TABRET AND HARP. XXXI, 27. I might have sent thee away with mirth, and with songs, with tabret, and. with harp. 1. The word topli^ here and in other places rendered "tabret," and in a number of texts translated "timbrel," represents a very ancient musical in- strument of percussion. There are three varieties depicted on the Egyptian monuments: one circular, another square or oblong, and a third consisting of two squares separated by a bar. Over these frames parchment was stretched, and in the rim were small bells or pieces of tinkhng brass. The toph was used on occasions of joy, and was generally played by women, and often accompanied by dancing. It is reproduced in the " tambourine " which is occasionally seen in the streets 'of our large cities in the hands of itinerant musicians as an accompaniment to the barrel-organ. 2. The word kinnor, which frequently occurs in the Old Testament, and is translated " harp," has given rise to considerable discussion. It was ur- doubtedly the earliest musical instrument made, (Gen. iv, 21,) though some suppose that the text referred to is meant to show that Jubal was the in- ventor of stringed instruments generahy, without referring to any par- ticular kind. As» to the shape of this ancient instrument there is no cer- tainty. It has been variously represented hy different writers as shaped :ike the lyre, the Greek letter A, the guitar, and the modern harp. There is 40 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. equal variety of opinion as to the number of strings. Seven, ten, twent}^- four, and forty-seven liave been named. It has also been asserted by some that it was played b}^ means of a plectrum, while others assert that it was played by hand. These conflicting statements may all be harmonized by supposing that the shape varied at different times, or that the word kinnor was the generic term for all instruments of the lyre kind; tliat the number of strings varied at different periods, or with the size of the instrument; that the instruments were of different sizes; and that they were sometimes played with a plectrum and sometimes by liaud. The kinnor was a very popular instrument with the Hebrews, and was used at jubilees and festi- vals. Its use was also practiced by other nations. 62.— CAMELS' FURNITURE. XXXI, 34. Rachel had taken the images, and put them in the camel's furniture, and sat upon them. It is not known whether this " furniture " was simply the cloth whicli covered the camel's back, or a couch which miglit be used at niglit for a bed, or a fixture re- sembling tlie wicker - work chair or cage, covered with a canopy, which is used by the mod- -Camels' Furniture. ^ j. jj Xv 2ih ladies when they ride on camels. Whetlier Rachel made use of any such arrangement or not, the place where the teraphim were concealed was evi- dently in til e article, whatever it was, which took the place of a saddle, and on wliich Rachel sat. It is at this day common for the Arabs to hide stolen property under the padding of their saddles. 63.— COVENANT STONES. XXXT, 48. Laban said, This heap is a witness between me and thee this day. The use of stones in making a covenant is referred to in the Bible on several occasions. Herodotus speaks of a similar custom among the an- cient Arabians. He says: "When two men would swear a friendship, they stand on each side of a third. He, with a sharp stone, makes a cut on the inside of the hand of eacii, near the middle finger, and taking a piece fioin their dress dips it in the blood of each, and moistens tiierewith seven Crenesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. BtODes lying in tlie midst, calling meanwhile on Bacchus and Urania." — Eawlinson's Herodotus, ii, p. 401. Some think that Job refers to this custom when he speaks of "a days- man." See Job ix, 33. 64.— PRESENTS. XXXni, 10. Jacob said, Nay, I pray thee, if now I have found grace in thy sight, then receive my present at my hand. The giving of presents is far more common in the P]ast, and has more sig- nificance, than with us. Hardly any transaction of importance can take place without a gift. The formal visits which friends make to each other are preceded by presents of fowls, sheep, rice, coffee, and other provisions. St Jolm Chardin notices that in Persia every one gives what is most at hand, and has a relation to his profession, and those who have no particular profession give money. A refusal to receive a present is, througliout the East, interpreted as an evidence of enmity. Hence Jacob's anxiety that Esau should accept the gift he offered. See also Gen. xliii, 11 : Judges iii, 18; 1 Sam. ix, 7 ; x, 27 ; 2 Sara, xvii, 27-29; 1 Kings x, 2, 10; xiv, 3; 2 Kings V, 5, 15; viii, 9; 2 Chron. ix, 24; Psa. Ixxii, 10; Ixxvi, 11; Prov. xviii, 16 ; Matt, ii, 11. 65.— KESITAH. XXXIII, 19. He bought a parcel of a field, where he had spread his tent, at the hand of the children of Hamor, Sheehem's father, for a hundred pieces of money. Under the impression that the word kesitah, here rendered " pieces of monej^" means a lamb, many of the ancient commentators supposed that here was an evidence of early coinage ; the " pieces of money " being coins having on them the impress of a lamb. Stanley {Hist. Jewish Church, Lect. Ill,) adopts this theorj^, and some other writers of our time agree with him. Coins have indeed been found with the figure of a lamb upon them, but they were not struck until later than B.C. 450, and, according to the best numismatists, probably belonged to Cyprus. Madden afiflrms that the earliest coined money was in tlie eighth century before Christ, and that " the use of coined money in Palestine cannot have existed tiU after the taking of Samaria by tlie Assyrians (in B.C. l^l.y'-^Jewish Coinage, p. 14. Other interpreters liave supposed the kesitah to be a weight made in the form of a lamb, as ancient weights have been found in the shape of bulls, lions, and other animals. See note on Gen. xxiii, 16. Some of tlie recent philologists, however, deny that kesitah means a lamb. They derive it from a root signifying to weigh, and suppose it to have been a piece of silver of unknown weight or size. The same word is used in Job xlii, 11. 42 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 66.— EAR-RINGS. XXXV, 4. They gave unto Jacob all the strange gods which were in their hand, and all their ear-rings which were in their ears ; and Jacob hid thena under the oak which was by Sheehem. Ear-rings were of various sizes, shapes, and material. At the present day, among the Orientals, they are of gold, silver, brass, ivory, horn, and wood ; they are sometimes plain, and some- times adorned with precious stones- 12. — Egyptian Ear-ring Amulets. ^^ t r-^ ^ i ^^ Some are small, and fit closely to the ear, leaving no intermediate space ; while others are large and heavy, and drop some distance below the ear. Some of these, by their weight, make a dipagreeable-looking hole in the part of the ear whence they hang. MacGregor saw some men near Lake Huleh with ear-rings "not in the lobe of the ear, but in the projecting flesh." — Eoh Boy on the Jordan^ p. 150. It is supposed by some that the use of ear-rings among the Hebrews was confined to the women. If so there must liave been exceptions. See Exod. xxxii, 2. It is evident from this text that it was customary to C(mnect the use of ear-rings with idolatr3^ This is further intimated in Hosea ii, 13, where the wearing of ear-rings is associated with burning incense to Baal. Isa. iii, 20 is also supposed to refer to idolatrous practices. p]ar-rings were doubtless used as amulets. With strange figures and characters engraved upon them they were considered as cliarms Avarding off evil. They are still thus used in the East. Jacob, being commanded to go to Bethel to renew his cove- nant with God, desired to put away every vestige of idolatry from the people, and for this reason buried these ear-ring amulets with the teraphim under the oak. 67.— COAT OF PIECES. XXXVII, 3. Israel loved Joseph: and he made him a coat of many colors. Or, "a coat of pieces." Tlie ordinary Tnnic was a garment worn next to the skin, reaching to the knees, and usually without sleeves. Joseph's coat is snpposed to have had sleeves, and to have reached to the wrists and ankles; a luxurions robe, and a mark of distinction snch as, in later times, Tamar and the other daughters of the king wore. 2 Sam. xiii, 18. The pieces " may have been different pieces of cloth variously colored, and of which the garment was made ; or they may have been various colored threads, stripes, or plaids. In India coats of different colored patchwork are made for favorite children, pieces of crimson, purple, and other colors being sewed together. Jackets are sometimes embroidered with gold and Bilk of various colors. It is believed that a child thus clad will be saved Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 43 from evil spirits, since the attention of the spirits will be diverted from the child by the beauty of the garment. There is no evidence of any such superstition in the case of Jacob. It was merely an instance of parental /avoritisni. 68. — CISTERNS. XXXVII, 24, They took him, and. east him into a pit: and the pit was empty, there was no water in it. There are numerous pits or cisterns still to be found in Palestine. They are often hev^^n out of tlie solid rock, and, being* narrower at tlie mouth than at the bottom, it is not an easy thing to get out unaided, if one should be so unfortunate as to get in. Dr. Tlionison mentions the case of an acquaint- ance who fell into one of these pits, or empty cisterns, and, being unable to extricate himself^ passed two dreadful days and nights before he was dis- ' covered and drawn out, more dead than alive. These cisterns, when dry, were sometimes used as dungeons for prison- ers, and thus Joseph's brethren put him into one. The prophet Jeremiah was also imprisoned in a cistern which had been dug in the court-yard of the prison. See Jer. xxxviii, 6, where the word hor is translated "dun- geon." This is the same word that in the text is rendered "pit," and in some other places " cistern." See also Jer. xiv, 3, Zech. ix, 11, and the note on Jer. ii, 13. 69. — CARAVANS. XXXVII, 25. They sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and balm and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. This was a caravan of Arabian merchants on their way to Egypt with such drugs as the Egyptians used for embalming and for medicinal pur- poses. The Egyptians depended on these itinerant Arab merchants for their supplies of this nature. See note on James iv, 13. The mode of travel- ing in a caravan is peculiar. Pitts describes it as he saw it in the great car- avan which was journeying to Mecca on a religious pilgrimage. It was un- doubtedly longer than this commercial caravan, yet this was probably ar- ranged on a similar plan. "They travel four camels abreast, which are all tied one after the other, like as in teams. The whole bod}^ is called a caravan, which is divided into several cottors, or companies, each of which hath its name, and consists, it may be, of several thousand camels ; and they move, one cottor after another, like distinct troops." — Religion and Man- ners of the Mahometans^ p. 430. He also states that the camels have bells about their necks, which, with the singing of the camel drivers, who travel 44 BIBLE MAX^'EKS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. on footj make pleasant mnsie. Though tliere is great ec^nfusion at the set- ting out of a caravan, its different eonapanies and divisions soon settle down into a condition of order. The caravan is also referred to in Isa. xxi, 13, Luke ii^ 44. TO.— MOURNING. XXXVII, Jacob rent Lis elotbes^ and put saekelotL iipon Lis loins, and moiarned for Lis son many days. 1/ Rending the elotlies as a token of grief is a very aneieut oisfeom^ and is often referred to in the Bible. See Josh. vii,. 6; 1 Sam. iv, 12; 2 Sam. i, .11; iii, 81; xiii, 31; 2 Kings ii^ 12; xviii, 3T; xix, 1; Ezra ix^ 3; Job J, 20. A Jewish writer, quoted by Burder, says that this ceremony was per- formed in the following manner: ^'They take a knife, and holding the blade downward, do give the npper garment a cut on the right side, and then rend it a hand's breadtli. This is done for the five following relations, -drot)ier, sister, son, daughter, or wife; bnt for father or mother the rent is on the left side, and in all t])e garments." — Oriental Cmtoms. No. 05. 2. Sackclotli is also frequently mentioned. It was generally made of the hair of goats or of camels, and was coarse and black. It was wsed for straining liquids, for sacks, and for mourning garments. When used for Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 45 mourning it was sometimes worn next to the skin, which it must linve chafed hy its harshness, and at otlier times it was huug hke a sack over the outer garments, or instead of them. A girdle of similar material confined its loose folds. Ahab, on one occasion, appears to have worn sackcloth next to his skin all night. See 1 Kings xxi, 27. In Rev. vi, 12, in the darkness accompanying an earthquake, the sun is said to have become "as black as sackcloth of hair." 71.— CAPTAIN OF THE GUARD. XXXVII, 86. The Midianites sold hkim into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, and captain of the guard. Literally, " captain of the executioners." He was responsible for the safe- keeping of state prisoners, and for the execution of sentence upon them. In cases of treason he sometimes executed the sentence himself. He was the official guardian of the person of the king— t lie chief of his body-guard. The king of Babylon had a similar officer in his service. See 2 Kings XXV, 8 ; Jer. xxxix, 13 ; Dan. ii, U. In the ruins of tlie hall of judgment ♦ of the palace at Khorsabad, Assyria, there is on the wall a representation of a naked man with liuibs stretched out, and arms and ankles fastened to the floor or table, while a tall, bearded man is in the act of flaying' him alive. This is supposed to be " the chief of the executioners " engaged at his horrid work; and some commentators interpret the expression "cut in pieces," in Dan. iii, 29, to refer to this act of flaying alive. See also Micah iii, 3. 72.— PRISONS, XL, 8. He put them in ward in the house of the captain of the guard, into the prison, the plac© where Joseph was bound. According to the Eastern custom, the state-prison formed a part of the dwelHng-house of the chief of the executioners, or of some other prominent personage. See Jer. xxxvii, 15. Sometimes even the king's palace was fco used. See Jer. xxxii, 2, USE OF WINE. XL, 11. Pharaoh's cup was in my hand : and I took the grapes, and pressed them into Pharaoh's oup, and I gave the oup into Pharaoh's hand. It has been supposed by some that the ancient Egyptians drank no wine, though they did not object to drinking tlie nnfermented juice of the grape, and this text is referred to as an illustration. It was evidently a part of the duty of Pharaoh's butler to press the grapes into the oup that the king miglit drink; but it by no means follows that because of this no fermented wine was used. A passage in Herodotus is usually cited as an evidence that only fresh must was allowed. On the other hand, there is other ancieut 46 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. testimony that establislies the fact that the Egyptians used fei-mented wine. This testimony is corroborated by the old monuments, which have representa- tions of different articles employed in making wine, wine-presses in operation, and drunken men and women. 74.-~BURDENS ON THE HEAD. XL, 16. I also was in my dream, and, behold, I had three white baskets on my head. It is quite common in the East to carry burdens on the liead. Thus the head and neck become so strong that it is not uncommon for a man to carry a weight which requires the united strength of tliree men to lift from tlie ground. Women and children, as well as men, carry loads in this way. In ancient Egypt only men carried burdens on the head. The women carried them on the shoulder. See note on Gen. xxi, 14. T5.— BIRTHDAY FEAST. XL, 20. It came to pass the third day, which was Pharaoh's birthday, that he made a feast lanto all his servants. The Eastern kings celebrated tlieir birthdays by holding feasts and grant- ing pardon to offenders. On the occasion referred to in the text the king availed himself of this custom to pardon tlie chief butler; although, for some reason not stated, he refused to grant the same clemency to the chief baker. See also Matt, xiv, 6; Mark vi, 21. 76.^EGYPTIAN MAGICIANS. XLI, 8. He sent and called for all th© magicians of Egypt. These magicians (ehartummim) were an order of Egyptian priests who understood the sacred hieroglypliic writings. They cultivated a knowledge of art and science, interpreted dreams, practiced soothsaying and divination, and were supposed to possess secret arts. They were men of great influence in Egypt, much esteemed, and higlily honored. They were applied to for direction and assistance on all subjects outside the ordinary range of knowl- edge. Hence Pharaoli sent for them when he desired an interpretation of his strange dreams. Moses in after years met this same class of men. Exod. vii, 11, 22. The same term is applied to the magicians in Babylon. Dan. i, 20; ii, 2, 77.— SHAVING AMONG THE EGYPTIANS. XLI, 14. Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought him hastily out of the dungeon : and he shaved himself. Contrary to the custom of the Hebrews and other Orientals, the Egyptians Bhftved closely, only allowing the beard to grow as a sign of mourning ; thus Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 47 reversing the custom of the Hebrews, who shaved as a token of inourniiig-. Hee note on Isaiah xv, 2. Strange to say, the Egyptians, while so careful to sliave the beard, sometimes fastened false beards to the chin. These were made of plaited hair, and were of difierent shapes and sizes, accord- ing to the rank of the wearer. Joseph, while in prison, allowed his beard to grow; now that he is released he shaves, ac- cording to the Egyptian custom, as it would have been a disgrace for him to appear with a beard in the presence of the king. 14. — Egyptian Barbers. 7'§,— ELEVATION OF SLAVES. XLI, 41. Pharaoh said unto Joseph, See, I have set thee over all the land of Egypt. This elevation of a slave to a position of high office, though uncommon among Western nations, was not so rare in the East. There, change of fortune was so sudden that the beggar of to-day might be the noble of to- morrow. Many of the most prominent characters in Oriental history were once slaves. The history of Joseph has in this respect often been paralleled. A most curious illustration of this is given by Harmer in his account of Ali Bey, who was stolen from his native place in Lesser Asia, near the Black Sea, in 1741, w-hen he was thirteen years old, and was carried into Egypt, where, after varied fortunes, he reached a position next in power to the Pasha. — Observations^ vol. ii, p. 520. 79.— SIGNETS— ROBES— NECKLACES. XLI, 42. Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fin© linen, and put a gold chain about his neek. 1. Great importance was attached to the signet ring, which contained the owner's name, and the impression of which was of the same validity as a written signature is among us. Hence the gift of this royal signet ring was a transfer of royal authority to Joseph, Thus Ahasuerus gave his ring to Haman, and the document which Haman signed with it was considered as coming from the king. Esther iii, 10-12. The same ring was afterward 48 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesia given to Mordecai, who used it in the same way. Esther viii, 2, 8, 10. The value and importance attached to the signet ring are referred to in Jeremiah xxii, 24, and in Haggai ii, 23. Some valuable speci- mens of ancient signet rings have been found by ; ntiquaries. One of the most remarkable of these is now in the Abbott Collection of Egyptian Antiquities, in the Museum of the New York Historical Society. It is in most excellent pres- ervation and of very high antiquity, bearing the hiune of Shoofoo, the Suphis of the Greeks, who reigned before the time of Joseph. It was found i I a tomb at Gizeh, and is of fine gold, weigh- ing nearly tliree sovereigns. For description of other kinds of seals see note on 1 Kings xxi, 8. 2. The fine (or, literally, white) hnen robes were worn by the Egyptian priests, which fact has given some occasion to think that Joseph was received into the caste of priests, which was of the liighest rank in Egj^pt, as it was the one to which the king himself belonged. 3. The gold chain was anotlier mark of dis- tinction, since none but persons of high rank 15.— KiKGs AND Signets. were permitted to wear such ornaments. Tliere is in the Abbott Collection a gold necklace which has on it the name of Menes, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, and who reigned several hundred years before Shoofoo. Tlie necklace has a pair of ear-rings to match. The signet and the necklace are no doubt similar in general appearance to those with which Joseph was invested. See also note on Sol. Song i, 10, §0.—SECOND CHARIOT— CALL FOR PROSTRATION. XLX, 43. He made him to ride in the second chariot which he had ; and they cried before him, Bow the knee. 1. The second chariot" was either the one which followed immediately after the king's in state processions, or it was an extra chariot used by the king as a reserve in case of emergency. See 2 Chron. xxxv, 24. 2. The streets of modern Egyptian cities are so narrow that when an ordinary carriage passes through tliem it is customary to have an usher run before it to warn the people to get out of the way. In tlie case of Joseph, the command was to prostrate themselves, as they would do in the presence of royalty itself. Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 49 §1.— GRANARIES. XLI, 48. He gathered up all the food of the seven years, which were in the land of Egypt, and laid up the food in the cities. Granaries were often very extensive in Egypt, and every facility was made for the housing and subsequent delivery of the grain. The monuments have many illustrations of the different styles of store-houses that were in use, by which we can obtain some idea of the manner in which the ancient Egyptians received and delivered iheir grain. Some of these store-houses 16. — Egyptian GranapwY. were evidently low Hat-roofed buildings, divided into rooms or vaults, into which the grain was poured from bugs. Similar structures were also used in Prilestine, tliough we have no detailed account of the mode in which they were arranged. The Romans sometimes built store-houses for grain on stone pillars. The " barns " mentioned in Luke xii, 18, were evidently above ground, since they were to be pulled down. Subterranean store- houses were also common in the East. See note on Jer. xh, 8. 82.— SACKS, OF TWO KINDS. XLII, 25. Joseph commanded to fill their sacks with corn, and to restore every man's money into his sack. The sacks (keleihem) which were filled with corn, and the sack {salt) which had the money put into it, are supposed to have been of two dif- ferent kinds. The latter is thought to have been a bag for holding ti e provender for the journey; while the former (more properlj^ rendered vessels than sacks) were larger, and were filled with the grain that they were carrying to Canaan. 60 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. §3.— EGYPTIAN DINNERS. XLIII, 16. Bring ttiese men home, and slay, and make ready ; for these men shall dine with me at noon. Tiie ancient Egj^ptians bad the beasts they desired for food slaughtered in the court-yard of the dweUing. While the monuments give represeiitations of poultei ers' shops, they do not show any shops for the sale of butchers' meat, but represent the slaying, in private houses, of quadrupeds intended for food. The cause of this is not positively known. As poultry, fish, and vegetables formed the principal food of the people, it may be that there was not sufficient demand for the flesh of beasts to warrant the establishing of butcher-sliops, such flesh perhaps being reserved for great feasts. The slaughter of animals for the table is a common subject of representa- tion on these monuments. The four legs of the animal were tied together, and it was then thrown to the ground. Here it was held by assistants while tlie butcher cut the throat from ear to ear. The blood was caught in vessels, and set aside for food. The animal was then flayed, and dressed, and cut into pieces, which were carried in trays to the kitchen, where the cook immediately began to get them ready for the table. In this text we find Joseph issuing his orders to " slay and make ready " for the noon- dinner; so that not much time elapsed between the slaughter of the victims and their appearance on the tables ready for eating. See also 1 Sam. xxviii, 24. §4.— FORM OF SALUTATION. XLIII, 29. Is this youir younger brother, of whom ye spake unto me ? And he said, God be gracious unto thee, my son. This is not a benediction, but one of the numerous forms of Oriental salu- tation used in meeting or in taking leave of an acquaintance. 85.— BREAD THE PRINCIPAL FOOD. XLIII, 31. He washed his face, and went out, and refrained himself, and said. Set on bread. Orientals in general are great eaters of bread. It has been computed that tliree persons in four live entirely upon it, or else upon such compositions as are made of barley or wheat flour. No doubt the term " bread " was often used to denote food in general; but this was because bread was more generally used than any other article of diet. When Joseph's brethren had cast him into the pit, "ihey sat down to eat bread." Gen. xxxvii, 25. When Moses was in Midian he was invited to "eat bread." Exod. ii, 20. The witch of En-dor "set a morsel of bread" before Saul and his servants. ] Sam. xxviii. 22-25. Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 51 §6— EGYPTIAN MODE OF DINING. XLIII, 32. They set on for him by himself, and for them by themselves, and for the Egyptians, which did eat with him, by themselves : because the Egyptians might not eat bread with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. 1. The Egyijtian tables were placed alon.ci* the sides of the room, the guests haviiig their faces toward tlie wiill. In this case Joseph probabl}* sat at one end of the hall and his brethren at tlie other end, (they " sat before him," verse 33,) while the Egyptians sat on either side. The ancient Egyptian tal)le v as a round tray fixed on a pillar or lep^, which was often in the form of a man, usually a captive, who was rep- resented as lioldii'g the burden of the ta- ble on his head and shoulders. Theeniire structure was of stone or of some hard wood. These tables were sometimes brought in and removed with tlie dishes upon them. One or two guests sat at each table. 2. The Egyptians c >nsidered all foreign- ers unclean. No Egyp- tian would consent to kiss a Greek, nor to use any cuHnary utensil which belonged to one, nor to eat the flesh of any animal, even though a clean animal, which had been cut up wiih a Grecian knife. Tliis was because foreigners ate animals which the Egyptians re- garded either as unclean or as sacred. The Hebrews, for instance, slaught- ered and ate the cow, which was sacred in the eyes of the Egyptians, and by them, on that account, exempt from slaughter. For this reason the representatives of the two nations could not eat together. Joseph ate by liimself because he belonged to a higher caste than the Egyptians around *jim, and was above them all in social rank. 17. — Modern Egyptians at Dinner. 52 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. §T.— POSITION OF GUESTS AT TABLE. XLIII, 33. They sat before him, the first-born according to his birthright, and the youngest according to his youth. 1. The Egyptians sat at their meals; reclining was a Persian custom brought m at a later age. See note on Matt, xxvi, 7. They used chairs of various kinds, and stools, and sometimes sat on the floor with the left leg drawn under them and tlie right foot planted on the floor, thus elevating the right knee. 2. The guests were placed according to the rank they occupied. This does not imply the use of long tables, since even at the present day there are posts of honor at the round tables of the modern Egyptians. §§.— MODE OF DISTRIBUTING FOOD. XLIII, 34. He took and sent messes unto them from before him: but Benjamin's mess was five times so much as any of theirs. 1. The ancient Egyptian mode of dining seems to have resembled the Persian rather than the Turkish. Different kinds of food were taken from the large dishes on which the cook had placed them, and were put on one smaller dish which was carried by a servant to the guest. In this instance Joseph saw that liis brethren were we 1 supplied from his own table. 2. Special respect was shown to guests of distinction by sending them some choice dainty, or a larger portion of food than was given to the others. Thus Joseph honored Benjamin with a five-fold portion, which must be considered the greater honor when we learn that a double portion was re- garded sufficiently complimentary to a king. In Joseph's estimation his brother Benjamin was worth more than two kings. 89.— THE BOWL. XLIV, 2. Put my cup, the silver cup, in the sack's mouth of the youngest. The gabia, here rendered "cup," was more properly a bowl, and was dis- tinguished from the Jwsoth^ or smaller cups, into which the liquid was poured from the gabia. The distinction is made in Jer. xxxv, 5, where the two words arc used. 90.— THE DIVINING CUP. XLIV, 5. Is not this it in which my lord drinketh, and where- by indeed he divineth ? The question whether Joseph actually practiced divination, or only pre- tended to do so. or merely instructed his steward to ask an ironical question, or whether the original words may not have a different interpretation from Genesis.] BIBLE HANKERS AND CUSTOMS. 53 that which the translators have put upon them, is one which concerns the com- vnentator rather than the archaeologist. It is an admitted fact that divining cups were used among the Egyptians and other nations. These cups bore certain magical inscriptions, and when used were filled with pure water. A.uthorities all agree as far as this, but they dififer as to the use which was IS. — Egyptian Divixing Cup. made of llie cup after the water w«s poured into it. We give the statements of various writers, and it is quite probable that they are all correct, different modes being used- at different times. 1. The divination was performed by means of the figures which were reflected by the rays of liglit which were permitted to fall on the water. 2. Melted wax was poured into the water, and the will of the gods was interpretjtive, or no answer to be given. This may have been so, but there is no proof of it. Trench, acting on the suggestion of Ziilhg, supposes the Urim and Thummim to have been t diamond, kept in the pouch of the breastplate, and having the ineflable 6 86 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. Dame of the Deity inscribed on it. He thinks this is the "white stone" referred to in Rev. ii, 17. See Trench on the Ejnstles to the Seven Churches^ (American Edition,) p. 177. 4. The diadem. This was a plate of pure gold fastened around the miter by blue ribbons, and having engraved on it the words " Holiness to the Lord." (See page 84.) 44 LEVITICUS. 149 —FORBIDDEN OFFERINGS. II, 11. Ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, in any offer- ing of the Lord made by fire. Maimonides assigns as a reason for this law that it was "the practice of the idolaters to offer only leavened bread, and to choose sweet things for their oblations, and to anoint or besmear them with lioney." — Reasons, etc., p. 275. 150 —USE OF SALT. II, 13. Every oblation of thy meat offering shalt thou season with salt ; neither shalt thou suffer the salt of the covenant of thy God to be lacking from thy meat offering : with all thine offerings thou shalt offer salt. The reason for this law, according to Maimonides, was found in the fact that the heathen never offered salt in sacrifices. If this were the case in the time of Moses, their custom must have changed subsequentlyj since there is abrmdant evidence of this use of salt among heathen of a later day. Some suppose that tliey imitated in this the Jewish sacrifices. The partaking of salt by different persons together is regarded among the Arabs as a pledge of friendship. It i^ equivalent to a most solemn covenant. Numerous instances are recorded by travelers illustrative of this. So deeply rooted is tliis sentiment, that intended robbery has been abandoned when the robber has accidentally eaten salt wliile getting his plunder. Travelers have sometimes secured their safety in the midst of wild Bedawm by us'ng Btratagem in getting the Arabs to eat salt with them. Margregor tells how he thus outwitted a sheikh who had made him a prisoner, and whose disposition seemed to be unfrieodly. '-We had now eaten salt to- {^ether, and in his own tent, and so he was bound by the strongest tie, and he knew it." — The Roh Roy on the Jordan, p. 260. By tluis using salt in their sacrifices the peopie were bound to Jehovah in most solemn covenant. Hence we read of the "covenant of salt." Num. xviii, 10- 2 Chrou. xiii, 5. Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 87 151.— THE BURNT-OFFERING. VI, 9. This is the law of the burnt-offering : It is the burnt- offering, because of the burning upon tine altar all night unto the morning, and. the fire of the altar shall be burning in it. The different victims for the burut-offering were bullocks, sheep, goats, turtle doves, and young pigeons. The person making this voluntary offering, when he offered a bullock, put his band on the victim's head, and then slew the animal. The priests took the blood and sprinkled it all around the great altar. In Solomon's Temple there was a red line half way up the sides of the great altar; some of the blood was sprinkled above and some below this line. See Lightfoot, Works, {Ed. Pitman^) ix, 75. After the blood was sprinkled the person offering flayed the animal and cut him in pieces. In after times the priests and Levites sometimes did this. 2 Chron. xxix, 34. The entire offering was then burnt by the priests. If the offering consisted of a goat, a sheep, or fowls, the ceremony was slightly changed. The burnt-offering was the only offering that was entirely burnt. Thus it is sometimes called the "whole" burnt-offering. Deut. xxxiii, 10; Psa. li, 19. The burning was to be so gradual that it should last from morning to evening, or from one daily sacrifice to the next. It was commanded that the fire on the altar should never go out. See Lev. 6 : 13. The burnt-offering is described in detail in Lev. i, vi, 8-13. The design of the burnt-offering is uot clearly stated in the Bible, and learned Jews differ in reference to it ; some affirming that it was for evil thoughts, otliers that it was for a violation of affirmative precepts. Many- Christian divines regard it as a symbol of entire and perpetual consecration to God ; self-dedication, following upon and growing out of pardon and accept- ance with God. See Fairbairn's Typology, vol. ii, p. 316. 152.— THE MEAT-OFFERING. VI, 14. This is the law of the meat-offering. The meat-offering was wholly vegetable in its nature, and was sometimes presented in a raw state and sometimes baked. Specific directions were given concerning the ceremonies to be observed in either case. A portion only was consumed in the fire, and the rest was given to the priest. Neither leaven nor honey was allowed to be mixed with it. It usually accompanied and was subsidiary to the sin and burnt offerings, and the quantity offered was graduated according to the victim presented as a burnt-offering. Num. xv, 4, 5, 6, 9. It is supposed that oil was used to give the meat-offering a grateful relish ; and frankincense to make a sweet odor in the court of the Taber- nacle. Paul alludes to the fragrant meat-offering in Phil, iv, 18. The 88 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. heathen used oil in their sacrifices, not mixed with flour, but poured over the burnt-offerings, to make the burning better. They hkewise made free * use of frankincense in their sacrifices. Full directions concerning the meat- offering are given in Lev. ii, 1-1 6 ; vi, 14-23. 153.— THE SIN-OFFERING. VI, 25. This is the law of the sin-offering. There were two kinds of sin-offering: one for the whole congregation and the other for individuals. For the first kind a young bullock was brought into the outer court of the Tabernacle, where tlie elders laid their hands upon liis head and he was killed. The high priest then took the blood into the Holy Place and sprinkled it seven times before the vail, put- ting some on the horns of the golden altnr of incense. The remainder of the blood was then poured out at the foot of the altar of burnt-offering. Tlie fat of the animal was burnt upon the altar, and the rest of the body was taken without the camp and burnt. Lev. iv, 13-21. Of the second kind of sin-offering there were three varieties. The first ' was for the high priest. The ceremonies only slightly varied from those just described. Lev. iv, 3-12. Tlie second was for any of the rulers of the people. A kid was killed instead of a bullock. The priest did not enter the Holy Place, but merely put some of the blood on the horns of the altar of burnt-offering, and poured the rest out by the foot of the altar. The fat was burned upon the altar. Lev. iv, 22-26. The third was for any of the com- mon people. A female kid or lamb was brought and treated as in the case just described. Lev. iv, 27-35. If povertj^ prevented the procuring of kid or lamb, two turtle doves or two j^oung pigeons could be substituted; and for the very poorest a small offering of fine flour. Lev. v, Y-13. What was left of the sin-offering for one of the mlers or for (er;" (from the root cJidba}% to bind.) This was one who used " a species of magic which was practiced by binding magic knots." — Gesenius. Some think it may have been one who practiced a kind of divi- nation which drew or bound together noxious creatures for purposes of sorcery ; others, that it was one who used a magic ring for divination. 5. A consulter witli familar spirits, " slioel oh.^' This may have reference to a species of divination in which ventriloquism was used. The primary meaning of the word oh is a leathern bottle, which has led some authorities to think that this divination was one which called up departed spirits, and Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 109 tliat the use of the word ob "probably arose from rep^arding tlie conjuror, while possessed by the demon, as a hottle. that is, vessel, case, in which the demon was contained." — Gesenius. Or, the word may have been used because tliese necromancers inflated themselves in thoj act of divination, like a skin bottle stretched to its utmost capacity, (see Job xxxii, 19 ;) as if they were filled with inspiration from supernatural powers. See Wordsworth on Lev. xix, 31. The woman of Eiidor who was consulted by Saul when the Philistines were about to attack him belonged to this class. Saul asked her to divine to him by the oh: ("the familiar spirit.") 1 Sam. xxviii, 7, 8. 6. A wizard, " yiddeoni: " (the knowing one.) This may have indicated any one who was unusually expert in the various magical tricks of divination. 7. A necromancer, " doresh el hammethim : " (one who seeks unto the dead.) The necromancers had various modes of divination by the dead. They some- times made use of a bone or a vein of a dead body ; and sometimes poured warm blood into a corpse, as if to renew life. They pretended to raise ghosts by various incantations and other magical ceremonies. 196.— AXES. XIX, 5. His hand feteheth a stroke with the axe to cut down the tree, and the head slippeth from the helve. There were doubtless different forms of axe in use among the Hebrews, as different words are used to signify the instrument. Garzen, the word used here and in Deut. xx, 19 ; 1 Kings vi, 7 ; and Isa. x, 15, was probably an axe which was used for felling trees and for hewing large timber. Repre- sentations of ancient Assyrian and Egyptian axes have come down to us. Some of these axes are fast- ened to the handle by means of thongs. There is one kind, how- 3ver, which is not so fastened, but which has an opening in it into which the helve is inserted, as with us. It bears a close resemblance to a modern axe. and from the refer- ence in the text to the head slip- ping off seems to have been the garzen here spoken of Egyptian axes were made of bronze, and per- haps of iron also. That some, at 87.— Ancient Axes. least, of the axes of the Hebrews were made of iron is evident from 2 Kings vi, 5, 6. 110 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. LDeuteronomy. 19T.— LANDMARKS. XIX, 14. Thou. Shalt not remove thy neighbor's landmark, which they of old. time have set in thine inheritance. Ill the East the fields of different owners are not marked by fences, as with us, but the boundaries are indicated by heaps of small stones, or by a ridge, or by posts, or by single stones set upright about a rod apart. It is easy for a dishonest man to remove these landmarks, little by little each year, and thus graduall}^ encroach upon his neighbor. This practice is alhided to in Job xxiv, 2, and is forbidden in Prov. xxii, 28 and xxiii, 10, as iu our text. A curse was pronounced upon those wl)o removed landmarks. Deut. xxvii, 17. A figurative allusion is made to this crime in Hosea v, 10. Not only the Jews, but other ancient nations, especially the Romans, had stringent laws against the removal of landmarks. In the British Museum are two or three very curious Babylonian monuments which are supposed to have been landmarks, and to bo covered with curses on those who remove them. One of them is of marble, in shape of a massive fish. On the head is the figure of a serpent, and various other characters ; and on the sides, in arrow-headed letters, are the curses. 198.-^DEDICATI0N OF HOUSES. XX, 5. What man is there that hath built a new house and hath not dedicated it. We are not informed as to the ceremonies accompanying the dedication of a dwelling; they were probably a combination of social and devotional. The title of the thirtieth Psalm is, *'A Psalm or Song at the Dedication of the House of David." The completion of tlie wall of Jerusalem in the time of Nehemiah was celebrated by a dedication, at which there was great rejoicing. Neh. xii, 27. The rabbins say that not only was a newly built house to be dedicated, but a iiouse lately obtained, whether by inheritance, purchase, or gift. Houses that were not suitable for habitation, and that could not be made so, were not dedicated; but houtNCS such as granaries and barns, that could in case of necessity be converted into dwellings, were dedicated. The custom of dedicating dwelUng-houses was common among the ancient Egyptians, and is practiced to this day among the Hindoos. lOO.—THE GATE A PLACE OF JUSTICE. XXI, 19. Then shall his father and his mother lay hold on him, and bring him out unto th© elders of his city, and unto the gate of his place. As the vicinity of the gate was a place of popular resort, (see note on Gen. xix, 1,) it became a convenient place for the administration of justice. Here courts wore held, and disputes were settled. See Dent, xv', IS; Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Ill XXV, (T ; Josh. XX, 4; Ruth iv, 1; Job v, 4; xxxi, 21; Psa. exxvii, 5; Prov. xxii, 22; xxxi, 2.3; Jer. xxxviii, 7; Lam. v, 14; Amos v, 12; Zech. viii, 16. From the fact tliat princes and judges thus sat at the gate in the discharge of their official duties, the word gale became a synonym for power or author- ity. This is illustrated in Matt, xvi, 18, where the expression "gates of hell" means powers of hell. We find it also in the title given to the govern- ment of the Turkish Empire, " the Ottoman Porte " or " the Subhme Porte; " {porta, a gate.) " The G-ate of Judgment " is a term still common among the Arabians to express a court of justice, and was introduced into Spain by the Saracens. Modern Oriental travelers speak of the existence at this day of the custom mentioned in the text. 200.— DISTINCTION IN DRESS. XXII, 5. The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment: for all that do so are abomination unto the Lord, thy God. The distinction between the dress of the sexes being less than with us, there was the greater need of this regulation. There is reason to believe that the law was made not merely to preserve decency, but because iho heathen were in the habit of pursuing a different course as a part of their idolatrous worship. Maimonides saj^s: "In the books of the idolaters it is commanded that when a man presents himself before the Star of Yenus, he shall wear the colored dress of a woman; and whfn a woman adores the Star of Mars, she sliall appear in armor." Pagan idols were frequently represented with the features of one sex and the dress of the other, and their worshipers endeavored to be like them. It is not at all unlikely that this custom was as old as the time of Moses, and was a partial reason for the enacting of this law, 201 .—BATTLEMENTS, XXII, 8. "When thou buildest a new house, then thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon thine house, if any man fall from thence. The roofs of Eastern houses are flat, having a slight declivity from the center. As they are used for a variety of purposes by day, and oflen for sleeping at night, (1 Sam. ix, 26,) it becomes necessary to guard them by means of a wall. Almost every Eastern house has a parapet, the Moslems making theirs very high, to screen their women from observation. The houses of Christians are sometimes built without parapets, and serious accidents occur. Dr. Shaw describes the battlements on the roofs of the houses in Barbary as very low on the side next the street, and also when they make partitions from the roofs of neighbors. He says of this outsido 112 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. wall that it is " frequently so low that one may easily climb over it." — Trav- els^ p. 210. He also states that the inside parapet, next to the court of the house, is always breast high. There is sometimes here only a balustrade or lattice-work. In Syria, however, the higher battlement is next to the street, and the lower one next to the court. 202. — MINGLED SEED. XXII, 9. ThoTJi shalt not sow thy vineyard with divers seeds: lest the fruit of thy seed which thou, hast sown, and the fruit of thy vineyard, be defiled. The Zabians were accustomed to sow barley and dried grapes together, believing that without this union there would not be a good vintage; but that with it the gods would be propitious to them. Bishop Patrick observes, that if the Israelites had done this the fruits of the harvest would have been impure, because associated with idolatry. The first-fruits would not have been accepted by God, and hence the whole crop would have been useless. 203. — MIXED CLOTH. XXII, 11. Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, as of woolen and linen together. This was in opposition to the Zabian priests, who wore robes of woolen and linen, perhaps hoping thereby to have the benefit of some lucky con- junction of planets, which would bring a blessing on their sheep and their flax. It is said that the pious Jews would not sew a garment of woolen with a linen thread, and that if one saw an Israelite wearing a garment of mixed cloth it was lawful for him to fall upon him and tear the forbidden garment to pieces. 204.— DEBTORS PROTECTED. XXIV, 10, 11, When thou dost lend thy brother any thing, thou shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge. Thou shalt stand abroad, and the man to whom thou dost lend shall bring out the pledge abroad unto thee. This was a humane law designed to protect the poor man from the intrusion of the money lender. " The strict laws regulating Oriental inter- course sufficiently guard the harems of all but the very poor. When the money lender goes to any respectable house he never rudely enters, but stands 'abroad' and calls, and the owner comes forth to meet him." — Thomson, The Land and the Book^ vol. i, p. 500. Another advantage of this law was. that it prevented the usurer from selecting his pledge, giving the choice to the poor debtor. He could "bring out*' what he pleased, provided its value was sufficient to meet the claim of the creditor. The latter was compelled to accept it, whether pleased with it or not. Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 118 205.-THE OUTER GARMENT. XXIY, 12, 13. If the man be poor, thou shalt not sleep with his pledge : in any ease thoia shalt deliver him the pledge again when the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in his own raiment. From this it would seem that the most common article of pledge was a part of the clothinp:. The words salmah and simlah, (as it is in tlie parallel passage, Exod. xxii, 26,) were used to denote clothing in general, but especially the large outer garment, or wrapper, which was skillfully wound around the person, aud was as useful at night for a bed covering as during the day for clothing. This is the "raiment" of the text. The Orientals do not change their clothes on re- tiring to rest, and hence this large outer garment becomes very serviceable. To keep such a garment from a poor man over niglit was indeed an act of in- humanity which is justly condemned by the law. The consequences of such cruelty are touching!}^ de- scribed by Job where he speaks of the works of wicked men : *' The}' cause the naked to lodge without clothing, that the}' have no covering in the cold. They are wet with the showers of tiie mountains, and embrace tlie rock for want of a shelter." Job xxiv, T, 8. The ahlfa of the modern Bedawi is supposed to bear a close resemblance to the ancient garment spoken of. It is made of wool and hair, of various degrees of fineness; is sometimes entirely black, and sometimes entirely \rhite; aud is marked Avith two broud stripes. It is altogether shapeless, being like a square sack, with an opening in front, and with slits at the sides to let out the arms. Yery similar to this is the hyJce, which is worn by the Moors of Northern Africa, and used by them for a covering at night and for a cloak by day. Dr. Shaw speaks of several varieties of the hyke, both as to size and qualify. It is a loose but troublesome garment, being frequently 38. — Outer Garment. 114 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. disconcerted and falling to the ground ; so that the person who wears it is every moment obliged to tuck it up and fold it anew about his body." — lYavels, p. 224. It is often U3ed to wrap up burdens that are to be carried, and in this way the Israelites carried their kneading troughs wrapped up in the folds of their outer garments, and borne on their shoulders. Exod. xii, 34. Th9 outer garment is in the New Testament represented by the word Ifiurtov, which in the Septuagint is the word used in this text and in Exod. xxii, 26. It is called a cloak in Matt, v, 40; raiment in Matt, xxvii, 31; vesture in Rev. xix, 13; garment in Matt, xiv, 36. In most of the passages in the New Testament where the word "garment" is used this is the article meant. This outer garment was easily and frequently laid aside. See Matt, xxi, 7, 8 ; xxiv, 18 ; John xiii, 4, 12 ; Acts vii, 58; xxii, 20, 23. 206— OLIVE GATLIERING. XXIV, 20. When thou beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again : it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow. This refers to one of tlie modes of gathering olives still practiced in the East, that is, by beating the branches with sticks. It was mercifully ordered that the Israelites should give the trees but one beating, leaving for the poor gleaners all the fruit that did not by this means drop off. Olives are gathered also by shaking the trees. This is referred to in Isa. xvii, 6, and xxiv, 13. In these passages the mode of gleaning seems to be referred to. 207.— THRESHING BY OXEN. XXV, 4. Thou Shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn. Threshing was sometimes done by instruments, (see note on Isa. xxviii, 27, 28,) and sometimes by having the grain trampled under foot 89.— Ancient Egyptians Threshing. by horses or oxen. This is still a common mode in the East. The cattle are driven over the grain, treading heavily as they go, and in this rude, Deut3ronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 115 wasteful manner the threshing: is accomplished. In general, the patient beasts are allowed to eat of the grain they tread out, though sometimes they are muzzled by parsimonious masters. See also Hosea x, 11. Paul from this law enforces the duty of ministerial support. 1 Cor. ix, 9. 208. ~BAREF00T. XXY, 10. His name shall be called in Israel, The house of him that hath his shoe loosed. To go barefoot was a sign of distress and humiliation. Thus David went up Mount Olivet when lie left Jerusalem at the time of Absalom's rebellion. 2 Sam. XV, 30. The humiliation of tiie Egyptians was represented by the prediction of their walking barefoot. Isa. xx, 2-4. When Ezekiel was direct- ed to cease his mourning he was told to put on his shoes. Ezek. xxiv, 17. Michaelis says, "Barefooted was a term of reproach, and probabl}^ signified a man who had sold everj^thing, a spendthrift and a bankrupt." — Com. Laws Moses, vol. i, p. 435. In this way the man wlio refused to marry his brother's childless widow was considered a worthless fellow. 209. — WEIGHTS. XXY, 13. Thou. Shalt not have in thy bag divers weights, a great and a small. 1. The marginal reading for " divers weights " is " a stone and a stone," which is a literal rendering of tlie Hebrew. See also Prov. xi, 1; xvi, 11. Weights were no doubt orifjinally made of different-sized stones, from which fact eben, a stone, was used to signify a weight, even after other materials were used for weights. We have the word " stone " in our own language to denote a weight of a certain size, and the Germans use the corresponding word stein for a similar purpose. 2. Oriental peddlers still have, as in ancient times, two sets of weiglits, one for buying and the other for selling. Allusion is made to this species of dishonest}^ in Prov. xx, 10, and in Micah vi, 11. 210.— FUNERAL FEASTS. XXVI, 14. I have not eaten thereof in my mourning, neither have I taken away aught thereof for any unclean use, nor given aught thereof for the dead. There is no evidence of any allusion here to idolatrous customs. The reference is probably to the feasts which were given on funeral occasions to the friends assembled. See Hosea ix, 4. The custom still exists in Pales- tine. The phrase "given aught thereof for the dead" may have reference to the practice of sending provisions into a house of mourning; to which 116 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. fustom allusiou is supposed to be made in 2 Sara, iii, 35, where David, on occasion of Abner's death, refused to eat the food which was set before him. Tlie expression " p]at not the bread of men," in Ezek. xxiv, 17, is thought 10 refer to the same custom. See also Jer. xvi, 7, 8. Dr. Thomson, how- ever, furnishes a different explanation to this giving for the dead. He says : Od certain days after the funeral large quantities of corn and other food are cooked in a particular manner, and sent to all the friends, however nu- merous, in the name of the dead. I have had many such presents, but my dishke of the practice, or something else, renders these dishes peculiarly dis- gusting to me." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 150. 211.— plastp:red monuments. XXVII, 2, 3. Thou. Shalt set thee -up great stones, and plaster them with plaster : and. thou shalt write upon them all the words of this law. Michselis supposed that the letters were first cut in the stone and then covered entirely with plaster, so that in the coming ages, when the cement sliould crumble off, the law might be found in all its integrity. In this he has been followed by some commentators. The probability, however, is, that the lime was first spread over the stones, and the words of the law then cut into the plaster or painted on it. Such stones thus prepared, two thou- sand years ago or longer, are still in existence in Palestine. The Egyp- tians are said to have spread a kind of stucco over sandstone, and even over granite, before the paintings were made. Prokesch found in the tombs in the pyramids of Dashoor a stone on which red mortar had first been laid, and then the hieroglyphics and a figure of Apis impressed on the coating. 212.— IDOLATROUS SPOTS. XXXII, 5. They have corrupted themselves, their spot is not the spot of his children. The spot or blot here spoken of is said to be something that does not be- long to the children of God. "Their spot is not of his children." Allusion is supposed to be made here to the marks which idolaters put upon their persons, particularly on their foreheads, in honor of their deities. It is a very ancient practice, and probably existed before Moses' time. Forbes, in his Orientil Memoirs, says that in India different idolatrous sects liave differ- ent marks. These are specially common among tlie two principal sects, the worshipers of Siva and the worshipers of Yishnoo. The marks are horir zontal and perpendicular lines; crescents or circles; or representations of leaves, eyes, and other objects. They are impressed on the forehead by the officiating Brahmin with a composit'on of sandal-wuod dust and oil, or the Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 117 ashes of cow dung and turmeric. The colors are red, black, white, and yellow. lu many cases these marks are renewed daily. Zophar may have referred to a similar custom when he spoke to Job about lifting up his face without spot. Job xi, 15. Eliphaz also spoke of lifting up the face to God. Job xxii, 26. Job himself subsequently denied that any blot was on liis hands. Job xxxi, 1. In the Revelation of St. John there are several references to idolatrous marks on the forehead and hands. See Rev. xiii, 16; xiv, 9; xix, 20; xx, 4. 213.— TREADING OLIVES. XXXIII, 24. Let him be acceptable to his brethren, and let hina dip his foot in oil. This refers to the primitive method of treading the olives in order to ex- press the oil. It is not now practiced, and could only be done when the olives were very soft. There is a similar allusion in Micah vi, 15. See also the note on Job xxix, 6. 214.— THE EVERLASTING ARMS. XXXIII, 2T. The eternal God is thy refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms. By this bold image Moses represents the protecting power of God; thus reversing the idea of the Egyptians, who had pict- ures of the god Horus with inverted head and out- stretched arms over the earth. This was one mode by which they represent- ed the vault of heaven, as is shown in the engrav- ing. The beetle, or scarabseus, is the hieroglyphic for the name of Horus. 8 -Egyptian God Hokits. .118 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Joshua. JOSHUA. 215.— ROOFS USED FOR STORAGE. II, 6. She had brought them up to the roof of the house, and hid them with the stalks of flax, which she had laid in order upon the roof. The flat roofs of Eastern houses, being exposed to sun and air, are well adapted for the reception of grain or fruit, which may be placed there to ripen or to be dried. The flax-stalks, piled upon the roof to dry in the sunv, shine, would afford a very good liiding-place for the spies. 216.— KNIVES. V, 2. At that time the Lord said unto Joshua, Make thee sharp knives. Knives were made of flint, bone, copper, iron, or steel. Specimens of ancient Egyptian and Assyrian knives are to be found in museums, and they probably liave a general resemblance to those used by the Hebrews. They are of various shapes, according to the purpose for wliich they were made. Knives were not much used at meals. Even to this day the Orientals prefer dividing their meat with the fingers. 217.— STONE HEAPS. VII, 26. And they raised over him a great heap of stones. It was customary to heap up stones as rude monuments of important events. See Gen. xxxi, 46 ; Josh, iv, 3, 6. In the case of noted criminals this was done, not merely to mark the spot of their burial, but as a monument of the popular abhorrence of their crimes. This case of Achan is an illustra- tion. Another instance may be found in the case of Absalom. 2 Sam. xviii, 17. When Joshua captured and hanged the king of Ai, he commanded a heap of stones to be raised over his grave. Travelers tell us that it is still customary in Palestine to cast stones upon the graves of criminals, the pass- ers-by adding to the heap for a long time afterward. In the valley of Jehosh- aphat is a monument popularly known by the name of "Absalom's Tomb," and supposed to mark the site of the "pillar" which Absalom set up for himself ''in the king's dale." 2 Sam. xviii, 18. Mohammedans and Jews have for very many years been in the habit of casting stones at it as they pass, in token of their detestation of the crime of tlie rebellious son. 21§.— RENT BOTTLES. IX, 4. Wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up. Bottles made of skins when tliey get old are liable to be torn. The rents - are repaired by sewing the broken edges together, by letting in a piece of Joshua.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 119 leather, by putting in abound piece of wood, or by gathering up the rent place like a purse. For a description of skin bottles, see note on Matt, ix, 1'? . 219.— DEGRADING SERVICE. IX, 21. Let them be hewers of wood and drawers of water. This was a degradation that must have been greatly felt by the Gibeonites, since it compelled them to relinquish the duties of soldiers, and take upon themselves menial services usually performed by women. 220.— ENEMIES TRODDEN ON. X, 24. Come near, put your feet upon the necks of these kings. And they came near, and put their feet upon the necks of them. This is an ancient Oriental mode of treating captured kings, not as an act of cruelty, but as a symbolical repre- sentation of complete subjugation. Compare notes on Gen. xlix, 8, and 1 Cor. XV, 25. Roberts says of the East Indians: *' When people are disputing, should one be a little pressed, and the other begins to triumph, the former will say, 'I will tread upon thy neck, and after that beat thee.' X. low-caste man ins: tilting one who is high, is sure to hear some one say to the ofifended individual, 'Put your feet on his neck.' ^^-Oriental lUustrations, king placing his : p. 135. THE NECK OF AN ENEMY. JUDGES. iJ21.— MUTILATION OF CAPTIVES. I, 6. They pursued after him, and caught him, and cut off his thumbs and his great toes. This was an ancient method of treating captured enemies. It rendered them permanently incapable of performing the duties of a soldier. Accord- ing to his own confession, (verse 7,) Adoni-bezek had practiced the same cruelties on many of the royal captives whom he had taken in battle. Tho 120 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. Assyrian kings were addicted to similar cruelties. One of the ancient mon- uments bears an inscription which was put upon it by order of Assliur-izir- pal, who began his reign B. 0. 883. In this he says, speaking of a captured city, "Their men, young and old, 1 took prisoners. Of some I cut off the feet and hands ; of others I cut off the noses, ears, and lips ; of the young men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads T built a minaret." — Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies^ vol. ii, p. 85, note. 222.— BAALIM— ASHEROTH. Ill, 7. The children of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord, and forgat the Lord their God, and served Baalim and the groves. 1. Baalim is the plural of Baal. Gesenius defines it images of Baal." Against this, however, it has been said that the verbs which are associated in the Bible with the word Baahm are not verbs which are used in con- nection with images, such as " yet up," "cast down," -'adorn," or "break in pieces; " but rather verbs which are used in connection with heathen de- ities, e. "to serve," "worship," "seek to," " go after," "put away." See Fairbairn^s Imp. Bib. Dict^ vol. i, pp. 137, 167. Some of tliese latter terms, however, can be used as properly in reference to images as to deities. Some writers explain the word as indicating or including the various modifications of Baal, such as Baal-Peor, Baal-Berith, Baal-Zebub. This might find illustration in Hosea ii, 17 : "For I will take away the names of Baalim out of her mouth, and they shall no more be remembered by their name." ^ Others suppose Baalim to be what the old grammarians called pluro2is excellentice ; a form of speech designed to describe the god in the w-de extent of his infiuence and the various modes of his manifestation. The word is of frequent occurrence in the Old Testament. See Judges ii, 11; viii, 33; X, 10 ; 1 Sam. vii, 4; xii, 10 ; 2 Chron. xxiv, 7 ; Jer. ii, 23 ; ix, 14; etc. 2. The word here rendered "groves," is often found either in singular or plural form. In most places where it is used, the word " groves " is evidently inappropriate, though in this our English translation is like the Septuagint and the Vulgate. Selden, the eminent lawyer and antiquarian, in his work Be Diis Syris Syntagmata Duo, published in 1617, was the first to suggest that the word must be understood to mean, at least in some places, not groves, but images of Ashtoreth, the companion deity to Baal. This is the view now entertained by some of the best critics. It is cer- tainly more correct to speak of making images than to say that groves were made. If the words " image of Ashtoreth " or " images of Ash- toreth" are substituted for tlie word "grove" or "groves" in the following passages the sense will be much clearer : 1 Kings xvi, 33 ; 2 Kings Judges.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 121 xvii, 16; xxi, 3; 2 Cbron. xxxiii, 3. So in 2 Kings xvii, 10, and in 2 Chron. xxxiii, 19, it is said that asheroth were set up; that is, lliese v^^ooden figures of Ashlore'h, in addition to the graven images also mentioned. In the days of Josiali there was an asherah in God's house. We are told in 2 Kings xxiii, 6, what the good king did with it; "And ho brought out the grove from the house of tlie Lord, without Jerusa- lem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at tlie brook Kidron, and stamped it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the children of the people." All this is much more appropriately said of an image than of a grove. This asherah likewise had over it a canopy or tent, woven by the women. 2 Kings xxiii, 7. It was doubtless the same image which Manasseh had put into the house of the Lord. 2 Kings xxi, '7. From Judges vi, 25-30, and from other passages which speak of the asheroth as cut or burnt, it appears that they were made of wood. Some suppose that the expression " stamped it small to powder," in the text above quoted, indicates that the asherah in that instance was made of metal, since other- wise there would have been no need of stamping it after burning; but the king may have pulverized the burnt wood in order more deeply to express his detestation of the idolatry which had occasioned its erection. The ashei'ah of the Phenicians is thought by some writers to be connected with the " sacred tree " of the Assyrians, an object which appears very fre- quently on the Assyrian monuments. If this conjecture be based on facD we may. find in the representations of the sacred tree which have come down to us a picture of the asherah which the idolatrous Jews worshiped. Another opinion, whioh has found favor in some quarters, is, that Asherah was the name of a goddess worshiped by the Canaanites, either Ashtore h or some other. The word " served " in the text, and in 2 Chron. xxiv, 18, seems at first to sanction this view; but as the passages previouslj^ quoted evi- dently speak of wooden images, it is probable that in these two texts the symbol is put, by metonymy, for the divinity. A learned English writer, some years ago, ad- vanced a very singular idea in reference to the ash- erah. He suggested that it was *'an armillary and astronomical machine or instrument, erected long, very long ago — quite in the primitive ages;" that it was used for purposes of divination in con- nection with idolatrous worship ; that it was probably about the height of a man, and had small balls branching off curvedly from the sustaining rod or axis; and that this axis was made of iron and brass, the bottom being set 42.— Symbolic Trek. 122 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. in a socket of stone, in which it turned as a pivot, requiring oil for hibrica- tion. In proof of this last assertion he refers to the blessing which Moses pronounced on Asher. Deut. xxxiii, 24. 25. He assumes that the word Asher in that text has reference to the asherah; that the shoes of iron and brass refer to the axis of the armillary machine, the foot of which is dipped in oil, that it may revolve more easily I Tiie reasoning of his lengthy dissertation is more curious than conclusive. See Sabcean Researches, by Joiix Landseer, Essay YIII. 223. — LOCKS. Ill, 23. Then Ehud went forth through the porch, and shut the doors of the parlor upon him, and locked them. The early Oriental lock consisted merely of a wooden slide drawn into its place by a string, and fastened there by teeth or catches. The lock com- monly used in Egypt and Palestine is a long hollow piece of wood fixed in the door and sUding back and forth. A hole is made for it in the door post, and when it is pushed into this hole small bolts of iron wire fall into holes which are made for them in the top of the lock. The lock is placed on the inside of the door, and a hole is made in the door near the lock, through which the hand can be passed, and the key inserted. This will explain Solomon's Song v, 4, " My beloved put in his hand by the hole of the door." Some of these locks are very large and heavy. 224. — KEYS. Ill, 25. Behold, he opened not the doors of the. parlor: there- fore they took a key and opened them. The key was usually of wood, though some have been found in Egypt of iron and bronze. The ordinary wood- en key is from six inches to two feet in length, often having a handle of brass or silver, ornamented with filagree work. At the end there are wire pins, which are designed to loosen the fastenings of the lock. Tlie key was anciently borne on the shoulder. See note on Isaiah xxii, 22. 48. — Egyptian wooden Lock and Key. 225.— OX-GOADS. Ill, 81. Shamgar the son of Anath, which slew of the Philis- tines six hundred men with an ox-goad. This must have been a formidable weapon if, as is doubtless the case, the goad of that day was sirnilar to the one now used in Palestine. It is a Judges.] BIBLE MANNEIiS AND CUSTOMS. 123 strong pole about eiglit feet long and two inches in diameter. At one end is a sharp point for pricking the oxen when tlieu' movements become intolerably slow, and at the otlier end is a broad chisel-like blade, whicli is used to clear the plowshare of the roots and thorns which impede it, or of the stiff clay which adheres to it. Tlie pointed end of this instrument is alluded lO in Acts ix, 5; xxvi, 14. 226.— WHITE ASSES. V, 10. Speak, ye that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judg- ment, and walk by the way. There is no reason to interpret, as some writers do. tlie expression "white asses," to mean asses covered with wliite caparisons. Tlie inten- tion is to indicate the wealth and luxury of the riders; and as asses wholly white, or even nearly so, are rare and costly, the men wlio own them must be classed among the rich and influential. Morier says tiiat in Persia the MoUahs, or men of the law, consider it a dignity suited to their character to ride on white asses. 227.— AMBUSH NEAR WATER. V, 11. They that are delivered from the noise of archers in the places of drawing water, there shall they rehearse the righteous acts of the Lord. This refers to the practice of lying in ambush near wells and springs for the purpose of seizing flocks and herds when brought thither for water. Moses defended his future wife and her sisters against those who attacked them at the well. Exod. ii, 17. Dr. Shaw saw, near the coast of the western province of Algiers, a basin of Roman workmanship, which received the water of a beautiful rill, and which was called by the suggestive title of Shrub we kruh, that is. Brink and aiuay. The name was given on ac- count of robbers, who lurked for booty near the drink ng-place. 22§.— WINDOWS. V, 28. The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and eried through the lattice. The walls of Oriental houses present but few windows to the street, and these are high up from the ground. They very seldom have glass in them, but are made of lattice-work, wliich is arranged for coolness, and also to give the inmates an opportunity of seeing without being seen. These windows are sometimes thrown out from the wjdl like our bay-windows, and thus fllford a good opportunity of seeing what is going on in tlie street below. They are not hung hke our ordinary sashes, but open and shut like doors. The window spoken of in the text was evidently on tlie street side of the 30use. So also w;is tlie window from whicli Michal saw David, (2 Sam. 124 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. vi, IG;) the window from which Joash shot the arrows, (2 Kings xiii, 17;) the window spoken of in Prov. vii, 6, and in Sol. Song ii, 9; and probably the windows which Daniel opened when lie prayed. Dan. vi, 10. The win- dow from which Jezebel was Inirled may have opened into the street or into the court, (2 Kings ix, 30-33 ;) so may also Die window from which Euty- chus fell. Acts xx, 9. 229.— EMBROIDERED GARMENTS. V, 80. To Sisera a prey of divers colors, a prey of divers colors of needlework, of divers colors of needlework on both feides. BiJcmah, here rendered "needlework," means work made in different colors, whetlier by means of the needle or the loom. Precisely how this beautiful cloth was made is not now known. The Israelites were doubtless able to make figured cloth either with the needle or by weaving, since there is evidence from the Egj^ptian monuments that both methods were very ancient. The Israelites could therefore have learned the art in Egypt. Elegant and highly ornamented garments have ever been greatly prized by the Orientals. Babylon was anciently specially famous for their manufacture; whence the expression, "Babylonish garments." Josh, vii, 21. In the sack- ing of cities or camps all these variegated cloths were considered highly desirable booty. Thus Deborah, in this fine battle-poem, represents the ladies who attended on the mother of Sisera as suggesting to lier that her son was detained because of the valuable spoil he liad taken. Gold thread was some- times used in the manufacture of beautiful garments. See Psa. xlv, 13, 14. The prophet P]zekiel refers to the fondness of the Assyrians for costly cloth- ing. See Ezek. xxiii, 12, and the note on that passage. 230.— TORCHES. VII, ]6. He divided the three hundred men into three com- panies, and he put a trumpet in every man's hand, with empty pitchers, and lamps within the pitchers. These "lamps" were probably torches, which could be quickly prepared for the use of the three hundred men. Lane says, that in tlie streets of Cairo tlie Agha of the police goes about at night accompanied by an execu- tioner and a torch bearer, the latter of whom carries with him a torch which is called "shealeh." "This torch burns, soon after it is lighted, with- out a flame, excepting when it is waved through the air, when it suddenly blazes forth; it thereibre answers the same purpose as our dark lantern. The burning end is sometimes concealed in a small pot or jar, or covered with something else when not required to give light." — Mannei's and Cixstoms of the Modern Egyptians^ vol. i, p. 178. Judges.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 125 44. — Camels' Oknamknts. 231. — ORNAMENTS. VIII, 21. The ornaments that were on their camels' necks. Saharonim, here translated ornaments, is in Isa. iii, 18, rendered "round tires like the moon." In Judges viii, 26, it is said that there were chains about the camels' necks. It thus appears that these camels had gold chains around their necks on whicli were the saJiaronim, or little moons, probably gold ornaments sliaped like a moon either full or crescent. " Per- haps they were made in honor of the moon-faced Astarte, and intimated that they who bore them were placed under her protection. The taking away of these ornaments would thus be a removal of idolatrous objects.'' — Wordswo7ih. The Arabs of the present day are accustomed to hang orna- ments around the necks of their camels. Some are shaped like crescents, and are made of cowrie shells sewed on a band of leatli-er or cloth. 232. — BAAL-BERITH. VIII, 83. The children of Israel . . . made Baal-berith their god. Baal-herilh, or the covenant Baal, was one of the numerous Baalim that the Israelites worshiped at different times. We have no definite description of this god. A temple was built for him at Shechem, (Judges ix, 46,) but what were the special ceremonies we do not know. The worship is sup- posed to have been an imitation of the worship of Jehovah ; an adulteration of tha-t worship, in which Baal was put in the place of Jehovah. 233.— BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. XIV, 7, 8. He went down, and talked with the woman ; and she pleased Samson well. And after a time he returned to take her. The former part of this passage has reference, doubtless, to the betrothal; the latter part, to the marriage. About a y^ar usually elapsed between betrothal and marriage, though this was not always the case. The expres- sion "after a time," literally, after days, is sometimes equivalent to a year. See also note on Matt, i, 18. 234.— RIDDLES. XIV, 12. Samson said unto them, I will now put forth a rid- dle unto you. The Hebrews, in common with all Oriental people, were very fond of rid- dles, and amused themselves with them, especially at ordinary meals and 126 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. feasts. Even princes sometimes competed in their solution. The queen of Sheba tested Solomon's wisdom with them. See 1 Kings x, 1, wliere the plural of the word wliich is here rendered riddle is translated "hard ques- tions." 2-35.— GRINDING, A PUNISHMENT. XVI, 21. The Philistines . . . bound him with fetters of brass ; and he did grind in the prison house. G-rinding a hand mill was the lowest kind of slave labor. Among the Greeks and Romans slaves were sometimes compelled to do this as a punish- ment. It was doubtless considered equally degrading in the days of Samson, and for this reason the Philistines condemned him to it after they destroyed his sight. Some have endeavored to ilhistrate this scene by a pictorial representation of the Hebrew giant harnessed in leather bands to a huge wooden lever which is connected with, a mill! Nothing of the sort is referred to in the text. The " ass's mill " was probabl}^ the invention of a later age, and even if it existed in Samson's day, how could ho use it when he was " bound with fetters ? " He was simply compelled to do the degrading work of a woman or a slave at the ordinary hand-mill, which is described in the note on Matt, xxiv, 41. Jeremiah laments the same fate which befell the young men of his people. Lam. v, 13. 236.— DAGON. XVI, 23. The lords of the Philistines gathered them together for to offer a great sacrifice unto Dagon their god. Dagon was the national god of the Philistines. The name is derived fi'om dag, a tish. Dagon is the diminutive of dag^ and s'gnities "little fish; " not so much, however, in reference to size, as to the affection entertained for it; so that some would render it, "dear little fish.'' From the description given in 1 Sam. v, 4, the idol is supposed to have been a combination of the human form with that of a fish. "And when they arose early on the morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon his face to the ground before the ark of the Lord ; and the head of Dagon and botli the palms of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; onl}^ the stump of Dagon was left to him." Omitting the words supplied by the translators [" tlie stump of"] and we find that tlie human part, consisting of the head and hands, was cut off, while dagon, or the fish part, remained. This description is corroborated by ancient traditions. The Babylonians believe'd that a being part man and part fish emerged from the Erythraean Sea, and appeared in Babylonia in the Judges.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 127 early days of its history, and "taught the people various arts necessary for their well-being. Representations of this fish-god liave been found among the sculptures of Nineveh. The Philistian Dagon was of a similar character. The deity is supposed to have been intended to represent the vivifying and productive powers of nature. The fish was an appropriate image to be uted for this purpose, by reason of its rapid and enormous multiplication. 237— SPORTS WITNESSED FROM TEIE ROOF. XYI, 27. Now the house was full of men and women ; and all the lords of the Philistines were there ; and there were upon the roof about three thousand men and women, that beheld while Samson made sport. This building must have been of great size to have gathered on its flat roof three thousand people. The bhnd Samson probably "made sport" on one side of the inclosed court-yard, where the spectators on the roof and the crowds within could see him at the same time. In Algiers, on occasions of public festivity, the courtyard of the palace is covered with sand for the accommodation of tlie wrestlers, who are brought there to amuse ihe crowd. Dr. Shaw says, "I have often seen numbers of people diverted in this man- ner upon the roof of the dey's palace at Algiers." — Travels^ p. 217. 238.— THE MIDDLE PILLARS. XVI, 29. Samson took hold of the two middle pillars upon which the house stood, and on which it was borne up. The two "middle pillars" here spoken of constituted tlie key of the entire building : these failing, the house would be destroyed. Pl'ny mentions two large theaters built of wood^ and planned with such ingenuity tiiat each of them depended on one hinge. Dr. Thomson sug-gests, from his observations of the peculiar topography of Gaza, that the building was erected on a side- hill, having a steep decUvity, and in such a position that the removal of the central columns would precipitate the whole edifice down the hill in ruinous confusion. — TJie Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 342. RUTH. 239.— GLEANING. II, 3. She went, and came, and gleaned in the field after the reapers. The Israelites were commanded by their law to be merciful to the poor. The corners of the fields were not to be reaped. Lev. xix, 9; xxiii, 22. If a slieaf should be accidentally left in the field it was to be allowed to 128 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ruth. remain there. Dent, xxiv, 19. This grain in the corners, and these odd sheaves in the field, were for the poor. The story of Rutli is a most beauti- ful illustration of this law. Reference is supposed to be made to this custom in Job xxiv, 10, " They take away the sheaf from the hungry." 240.— MUTUAL SALUTATIONS. II, 4. Behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto the reapers. The Lord be with you. And they answered him, The Lord bless thee. These salutations are heard at this day in the East. The Psalmist prays that the haters of Zion may be like grass upon the house tops, and not hke the grain which is reaped in tlie harvest field amid these mutual benedic- tions of employer and laborer. Psa. cxxix, 6-8. 241.— VINEGAR— PARCHED CORN. II, 14. Boaz said unto her, At meal-time eome thou hither, and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. And she sat beside the reapers : and he reached her parched corn, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left. 1. Chomets — "vinegar " — was a beverage consisting generally of wine or strong drink turned sour. At present it is made in tlie East by pouring water on grape juice and leaving it to ferment. The Nazarites were for- bidden to drink it. Num. vi, 8. It was doubtless excessivelj" sour. Prov. X, 26. It was similar to the posca of the Romans, whicli was a thin sour Vine, unintoxicating, and used only by tlie poor. This is what is referred to imder tlie name of vinegar in the narrative of the crucifixion of our Lord. See Matt, xxvii, 34, 48; Luke xxiii, 36; John xix, 29, 30. In Turkey grape juice is boiled from four to five hours, until it is reduced to one fourth tlie quantity put in. This is called Nardenk. It is of a dark color, has an agreeable sour-sweet taste, is turbid, and not intoxicating. It is sometimes used in the manner in which the chomets is said in the text to be used : the bread is dipped into it. It is thought by some to be the "vinegar'* referred to in this passage. — See Bihtiotheca Sacra^ vol. v, p. 289. 2. The *' parched corn " is prepared from grains of wheat not yet fully ripe. These are sometimes roasted in a pan or on an iron plate ; sometimes the stalks are tied in small bundles, by which the ears are held in a blazing fire until roasted. Grain thus parched may be eaten with bread or without. In Lev. xxiii, 14, it is classed with bread and with green ears. Jesse sent an ephah of it and ten loaves of bread to his sons in the army, by the hand of David. 1 Sam. xvii, 17. Abigail took five measures of it as part of her present to David. 1 S^im. xxv, 18. David also received it with other provision from the hnnds of his friends wlipu he was in want, after having Ruth.] BIBLE xMANXERS AND CUSTOMS. 129 fled from bis rebellious son Absalom. 2 Sam. xvii, 28. In Lev. ii, 14, it is called "green ears of cora dried by the fire." It is a common article of food in Palestine and in Egypt to this day. 242.— RUDE THRESHING. II, 17. So she gleaned in the field until even, and beat out that she had gleaned. This is still done hy the gleaners at the close of their day's work, sticks or stones being used as convenient though rude instruments for threshing the grain they have gathered. 243.— THE TIME FOR WINNOWING. III, 2. Behold, he winnoweth barley to-night in the threshing floor. The evening was selected not onl}^ because it was cooler than the day, but because of the increase of wind which enabled the husbandmen to winnow more thoroughly. For the Oriental mode of winnowing see note on Amos ix, 9, and on Matt, iii, 12. 244.— WATCHING THE GRAIN. Ill, 7. "When Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was merry, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn. The threshing floor being uninclosed, (see note on Gen 1, 10,) and exposed to robbers, it was necessary for the proprietor or some trusty p,ervant to keep up a watch. We therefore find Boaz taking his supper and sleeping a^ the end of the heap of corn. This is still done by the proprietors of thresh- ing floors in Palestine. The grain is carefully watched until it is all threshed, winnowed, and garnered. 245.— SIGN OF MARRIAGE— THE GOEL. Ill, 9. Spread therefore thy skirt over thine handmaid ; for thou art a near kinsman. 1. The expression "spread thy skirt" imports protection, and here signifies protection of a conjugal character. When marriages are solem- nized among the Jews the man throws the skirt of his talith or robe over his wife and covers her head with it. 2. Goel, "kinsman," is, literally, "one who redeems." When a Hebrew was obliged to sell his inheritance on account of poverty, it was the duty of the nearest relative to redeem it for him. Lev. xxv, 25. Hence the word goel came to signify kinsman. The goel also became the recipient of property winch had been unjustly kept from a deceased k'nsman. Num. V, 6-8. It was likewise his duty to avenge the blood of iiis next of kin by seeking the life of the murderer. Gen. ix, 5, 6; Num. xxxv, 19; 2 Sam. xiv, 7. 130 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [RutlL Some have supposed from the association of the goel with marriage, as in this history of Ruth, tliat it was his duty to marry tiie widow of a deceased kinsman: but according to Deut. xxv, 5, this dut}^ was only obhgatory on a brother-in-law, which relation to Ruth was certainly not sustained by Boaz. Nor is there any evidence that it was sustained by the unnamed kinsman spoken of by Boaz in verse 12. Had this nearer goel been a brother-in-law Boaz would not have begun by asking him to redeem the property, (Ruth iv, 4,) but would instantly have demanded that he should marry the widow, on refusing to do which he was liable to judicial disgrace. Deut. xxv, 7-10. But in the case of the goel it was not until he redeemed the property of his relative, dying without a son, that he was under obligation to marry the w dow. As Winer says, " The latter was to him the consequence of the former and not the reverse, as in the case of the levir, [brother-in-law.] Should he refuse to take possession of the property he was under no obhgation to marry the widow. In so refusing he incurred no judicial disgrace, because he did not fail to disci large a duty, but only relinquished a right. The law had expressly imposed the duty of marriage on the levir onl}', and beyond him the obligation did not extend." — Realworterbuch, s. v. Ruth, Boaz had no right to redeem the property until the nearer kinsman refused, and neither he nor the other kinsman was under any obligation to do it; but having once assumed the redemption, the one thus exercising his right was by that act under obligation to marry the widow. i.— THE VAIL. Ill, 15. Also he said, Bring the vail that thoii hast upon thee, and hold it. And when she held it, he meas- ured six measures of barley, and laid it on her. Miipachath, **vail," is called mantle in Isaiah iii, 22, and some lexicographers assert that this is its meaning; that it does not signify what is commonly understood by a vail, but simply a large outer mantle or cloak, in one corner of which Ruth re- ceived the barley. Others, however, and among them Dr. Kitto, insist that a vail is meant; one made of strong cotton cloth and used for out-door wear. The engraving represents a large vail, or mantle, which is worn b}^ Egyptian women ■46.--OUTKE Gaemkst of Women, at the present day. It is called milayeh. SathJ BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 131 247. — THE SIGN OF THE SHOE. IV, 7. Now this was the manner in former time in Israel concerning redeeming and concerning changing, for to con- firm all things ; a man plvieked off his shoe, and gave it to his neighbor: and this was a testimony in Israel. There was no divine law ordaining this; it was simply an ancient custom. It is not to be confounded with the law in reference to levirate marriages in Deut. XXV, 7-10. It probably originated from the fact that the right to tread the soil belonged only to the owner of it, and hence the transfer of a sandal was a very appropriate representation of the transfer of property. Allusion to this custom is doubtless intended in Psa. Ix, 8, " Over Edom will I cast out my shoe ; " that is, I will transfer it to myself. The custom was prevalent among the Indians and ancient Germans, and is said still to exist in the East. I. SAMUEL. 248. — THE SEAT OF JUDGMENT. I, 9. Now Eli the priest sat lapon a seat by a post of the tem- ple of the Lord. In some parts of the East a seat is placed in the court-yard, where the master of the house may sit and give judgment on all domestic affairs. This seat is usually placed in some shady part of the court, against a wall or column. Thus in the text, Eli *' sat upon a seat by a post." So David sat upon a seat by the wall. I Sam. xx, 25. These seats probably had no backs, and were therefore placed near tlie post or wall for support. Thus we are told that Eli fell backward from his seat at the gate and died. I Sam. iv, 18. The Assyrian monuments have nvduy representations of such backless 249.— THE HORN. II, 1. Hannah prayed, and said, My heart rejoiceth in the Lord, mine horn is exalted in the Lord. The horn is an emblem of power and of dignity; the exaltation of the horn therefore expresses elevation of privilege and honor, and its depression represents the opposite. See also 1 Sam. ii, 10 ; Job xvi, 15; Psa. Ixxv, 4, 5; Ixxxix, 17, 24; xcii, 10; cxii, 9. The Druse ladies on Mount Lebanon wear a horn as a part of their head-dress. These horns are made of various materials according to the wealth of the owner: dough, pasteboard, pottery, tin, silver, and gold. They vary in length from six inches to two feet and a half, and are three or four inches in diameter at the base, tapering almost to a point. The vail is thrown over the horn, and from it flows gracefuUy 132 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. down. When ouce put on, the horn is never taken off; it remains on the wearer's head by day and at night, through sickness and health, even down to death. It has been supposed by many writers that the passages above cited all reffer to this article of costume, and it is frequently spoken of as an illustra- tion of them. It should be borne in mind, however, that some of the most judicious critics deny all such reference, there being no evidence that the horn was ever used by the Hebrews. It appears rather to be a fashion of comparatively modern date. As good an interpretation of the above pas- sages can be given by supposing the horn to refer to tlie natural weapon of beasts, and to be used in a figurative sense, as by imagining it to refer to an artificial ornament for human beings. YI, 5. ^A^herefore ye shall make images of your emerods, and images of your mice that mar the land. These were doubtless talismanic figures made according to some occult laws of astrology. Such talismans are very ancient. Tiiey were -supposed to cure diseases and to ward off evils. The learned Gregory thinks that they originated in false views entertained by the Grentiles concerning the brazen serpent. His theory is, that their astrologers, finding that among the Israelites the bite of serpents had been cured by the image of a serpent, concluded that all sorts of evils might be remedied, provided corresponding images were made under proper astrological conditions. "Whether this theory be correct or not, there is abundant evidence of the ancient prevalence of this superstition. It still exists in India. Tahsmaus, generally of silver, are carried to the lieathen temples. These images represent as nearly as may be the diseases or the special troubles under which the ofi'erers suffer. It is a deformed boy, an infant, and an old man. Images of eyes, ears, mouth, nose, and liands are also hung up in the temples. 250.— TALISMANIC IMAGES. supposed that the gods 47. — Talismanic Images. I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 133 Some commentators suppose that "the blind and the lame," mentioned in 2 Sana, v, 6-8, were taUsmanic images set up in the fort by the Jebusites for tlieir protection. 251.— HELMETS— CUIRASSES. XYII, 5. He had a helmet of brass upon his head, and he was armed with a coat of mail. 1. In tlie earliest times helmets were made of osier or rushes, and were ill tlie form of bt'e-hives or skull-caps. The skins of the heads of animals were sometimes used. Various other materials were employed at different times. Ti»e ancient Egyptian helmet was usually made of linen clotli quilted. It was thick and well padded, sometimes coming down to tlie shoulder, and sometimes only a Httle below the ear. The cloth used was colored green, or red, or black. The helmet had no crest, but the summit was ati obtuse point orna- mented with two tassels. The Assyrian he' met was a cap of iron terminating above in a point, and sometimes furnished with flaps, covered with metal scales and protecting the neck. The Philistine hel- met, as represented on ancient monu- m<^nts, was of imione form.* From the head-hnnd there arose curved lines, by which the outline of the helmet was hol- lowed on the sides and rounded on top. Groliath's liehnet was doubtless of this 48.— Ancient Helmets. shape, and, being made of brass, must have presented a beautiful appearance. The form of the [Tebrew helmets is un- known; but they probably did not vary widely trom the Egyptian. As is seen in verse 38 they were sometimes made of brass. The helmet is also mentioned in 2 Chron. xxvi, 14 ; Jer. xlvi, 4 ; Ezek. xxiii, 24; xxvii, 10; xxxviii, 5. 2. For the body, the skins of bea'sts were probably the earliest protection in battle. Felt or quilted linen was also used subsequently. The ancient Egyp- tians had horizontal rows of metal plates well secured by brass pins. The ancient Assyrians had scales -of iron fastened on felt or linen. Iron ring-s 49. — Egyptiam Cuieass. 134 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. closely locked together were likewise used by different nations. Scales made of small pieces of liorn or hoof were also used. Sometimes a very serviceable armor was made of small plates of metal, eacli having a button and a slit, fitting into the corresponding slit and button of tlie plate next to it. It is supposed tliat Aliab had on armor of this sort when he was slain; the "joints of the harness " l)eing the grooves or slits in the metallic plates, or the place between, where they did not overlap. 1 Kings xxii, 34; 2 Chron. xviii. 33. Goliath's " coat of mail " was scale armor, {shiryon kaskassim : *' armor of scales.") This kiud of armor consisted of metallic scales^ rounded at the bottom and squared at the top, and sewed on linen or felt. ' The Philistine corselet covered the chest only. On the bas-relief at Nineveh are seen warriors with coats of scale armor which descend to the knees or ankles. In one of the palaces Mr. Layard discovered a number of the scales used for this armor. Each scale was of iron two to three inches long, rounded at one end and squared at the other, with a raised or embossed line in the center, and some were inlaid with copper. At a later period the Assyrian armor was made of smaller scales, which were pointed and orna- mented with raised figures, and the coat of mail readied no lower than the waist. In several passages shiryon is rendered in our version " habergeon." See 2 Chron. xxvi, U; Neh. iv, 16. The lorica of the Komans and the thorax of the Greeks — rendered "breast- plate " in Eph. vi, 14 and 1 Thess. v, 8 — were scale armor covering breast and back. 252.— GREAVES— JAVELIN. XVII, 6. He liad. greaves of brass upon his legs, and a target of brass between his shoulders. 1. Greaves were coverings for the legs. There are none represented on the Egyptian monuments, but they are seen on the Assyrian sculptures. They were of leather, wood, or, as in the case of Goliath, of brass, and were bound by thongs aroimd the calves and above the ankles. 2. Kidon, here rendered "target," is translated by the word "shield" in verse 45 of this chapter, and in Job xxxix, 23; "spear" in Josh, viii, 18, 26; Job xli, 29; Jer. vi, 23 ; and "lance " in Jer 1, 42. It was probably a light javelin, which could be easily hurled at an enemy. Some suppose it to have been decorated with a flag, like 50.— Greave. the lances of the Polish lancers. It would seem from this verse that when not in actual use it was carried on the back; for this is the meaning of " between the shoulders." It was probably slung across the shoulders by means of a leathern strap. I Samuel,] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 135 253.— SPEAR— LARGE SHIELD. XVII, 7. The staff of his spear was like a weaver's beam ; and his spear's head weighed six hundred shekels of iron : and one bearing a shield went before him. 1. The cha^ith, "spear," was a heavier weapon than the kidon. See pre- ceding note. The word is rendered both "spear," and "javelin." It was tlie chanith with which Saul endeavored to strike David, (1 Sam. xvili, 10, 11 ; xix, 9, 10,) and which at another time he aimed at Jonathan. 1 Sam. xx, 33. This heavy spear had at its lower extremity a point by which it could be stuck into the ground. It was in this way that the position of Saul was marked while he lay sleeping in the camp at Hachilah, his spear being his standard. I Sam. xxvi, 7. This lower point of the spear was almost as formi- dable as the head. The Arab riders of to-day sometimes use it to strike backward at pursuers, and it was with this " hinder end of the spear " that Abner killed Asahel. 2 Sam. ii, 23. The size of Goliath's chanith is ex- pressed by the description of the staff and of the head ; ihe latter being of iron, in contrast to the brass head of his kidon, and to his brazen helmet, cuirass, and greaves. See also note on Jer. xlvi, 4. 2. The tsinnahj "shield," was the largest kind of shield, and was designed to protect the whole body. This shield, as represented on the Egyptian monuments, was about five feet high, with a pointed arch above and square below. The great shield of the Assyrians, as is shown by their sculptures, was taller, and of an oblong shape, and sometimes had at the top an inward curve. The large shields were gen- erally made of wicker work or of light wood cov- ered with hides. They were grasped by a handle of wood or of leather. Goliath had a man to bear his great shield before him. In the Assyrian sculptures there are representations of warriors fighting in this manner, with men before them holding the large shields, with the bottom resting on the ground, 51. — Egyptian Large Shield. 62. — Assyrian Large Shield. 136 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. thus forming movable breastworks. The great shields of the Philistines seem to have been of circular shape. The beauty of the figure used in Psa. v, 12 is heightened by the fact that the tsinnah is the shield there spoken of. The Lord uses the great buckler for the protection of his people. 254.— CHEESE— PLEDGE. XYII, 18. Carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their thousand, and. look, how thy brethren fare, and take their pledge. 1. The cheese used in the East is made up into small cakes, strongly salted, soft when new, but soon becoming dry and hard. It is greatly inferior to either English or Dutch cheese. Burckhardt speaks of a kind of cheese made of coagulated buttermillc, which is dried until it becomes quite hard, and is then ground. The Arabs eat it mixed with butter. 2. By the expression "take their pledge," is probably meant, Bring some token from them that they are yet alive and well. Roberts says that among the Hindoos a person in a distant country sends to those who are interested in his welfare a ring, a lock of hair, or a piece of his nail, as a "pledge " of his health and prosperit3^ 255.— THE SWORD. XVII, 39. David girded his sword upon his armor, and he as- sayed to go. The sword was one of the earliest weapons in use. The Egyptian sword was short and straight, two and a half to three feet long, and double-edged. The handle was plain and hollowed in — | U,,,^,^jr\ the center, the better to afford a firm " grasp. The Hebrew sword probably re- 68.— Egyptian Swords. sembled it. 256.— STAFF— SCRIP— SLING. XVII, 40. He took his staff in his hand, and chose him five smooth stones out of the brook, and put them in a shepherd's bag which he had, even in a scrip ; and his sling was in his hand. 1. The shepherd carries a staff which he holds in the center. It is used not only as a support in chmbing hills, but for the purpose of beating bushes and low brushwood in which the flocks stray, and where snakes and other reptiles abound. It may also be used for correcting the shepherd-dogs, and keeping them in subjection. Thus Gohath says, " Am I a dog, that I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 137 thou eomest to me with staves? " verse 43. This useful accompaniment of shepherd -life is mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 10; Psa. xxiii, 4; Micah vii, 14, and in other passages. 2. The scrip was a bag of leather thrown over tlie shoulder, and used by shepherds and travelers to carry provision. It is still used by Eastern shepherds, and is made of the skin of a kid stripped off whole and tanned. This is the only passage in the Old Testament where it is mentioned, but reference is made to it in several places in tlie New Testament.. Matt, x, 10; Mark vi, 8; Luke ix, 3; x, 4; xxii, 35, 36. 3. The sling was made of leather, or of plaited work of wool, rushes, hair, or sinews. The middle part, where the stone hiy, was called the cup, (caph,) because of its cup-like depression. It was wider than the ends, but the sling gradually narrowed toward the extremities, so that it could be easily handled. In the Egyptian sling, which probably was the same as the Hebrew, there was a loop at one end which was placed over the thumb, in order to retain the weapon when the stone was hurled and the other end became free. Tne sling was used by shepherds to keep the beasts of prey from the flock, and also to keep the sheep fi oni straying. Husbandmen likewise used ic to drive away birds from the fields of corn. In war it was a formidable weapon in skillful ^ 54. — Egyptian M.iN(iKi;. hands. The Egyptian shnger carried a bag of round stones depending fiom his shoulder, as David did Tiie Assyrians, however, according to their sculptures, had lying at their feet a heap of pebbles, which they picked up as they were needed. In using the sling, the stone was put into the broad hollowed part, the ends were grasped together in the hand, and after a few whirls around the head to give impetus, the stone was d'scharged, frequently with force enough 'to penetrate helmet or Bhield. A weapon so peculiar in its formation and so great in its power was appropriately referred to as an illustration of swift and certain destruction. Thus Abigail paid to David, "The souls of thine enemies, them shall he shng out, as out of the middle of a sling." 1 Sam. xxv, 29. Thus the Lord said • to Jeremiah, " I will sling out the inhabitants of the land at this once, and will distress them." Jer. x, 18. The figure in both these passages is drawn, not from the destructive power of the sling, but from the ease and rapidity with which, by a practiced hand, the stone was hurled from it. The Benjamites were so skillful in the use of this weapon that some of 138 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samnel. them " could sling stones at a hair, and not miss." Judges xx, 16*. Tlie youthful David showed great skill, since he hurled the pebble with such aim and force that it smote the giant in the forehead and brought him to the ground. Yerses 49, 50. 257.— PRINCELY ROBES. XVIII, 4. Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was up- on him, and gave it to David, and his garments, even to his sword, and to his bow, and to his girdle. It is considered in the East a special mark of respect to be presented by a prince with some of the garments he has for his own wearing. The gift of a girdle is a token of the greatest confidence and affection, and is very liighly prized. Joab expressed his intense desire for the deatli of Absalom by his willingness to give a girdle to the man who would murder him. *2 Sam. xviii, 11. Morier gives a curious instance of the estimation placed on the possession of garments which had once covered, and of weapons which had once adorned, the person of royalty. He says that when the treaty was ma(Je between Russia and Persia in 1814, the Persian plenipo- tentiary, wlio had been honored by various gifts of weapons and clothing from liis sovereign, designated himself in the preamble of the treaty as "endowed with the special gifts of the Monarch, lord of the dagger set in jewels, of the sword adorned with gems, and of the sliawl-coat already worn." — Second Journey through Persia^ etc., p. 299. It was in this way that the slieplierd-warrior was honored by Jonathan. See also note on Esther vi, 8. 258.— JOY IN VICTORY— SHALISHIM. XVIII, 6. It came to pass as they came, when David was returned from the slaughter of the Philistine, that the women came out of all cities of Israel, singing and dancing, to meet king Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and with instruments of music. 1. It was customary for the women to express their delight in victory by Fongs and music, and dancing in the presence of the conquerors. See Exod. XV, 20 ; Judges xi, 34. 2. Precisely what is meant by shaUshim, which in our version is rendered "instruments of music," is not known. From the construction of the word tliere was evidently a triple arrangement of some sort in the formation of tlie shoUsMm. The margin of our English Bibles has "three-stringed instru- ments." They may have been harps of three strings, or of triangular sliape ; but most authorities now agree in supposing tliem to have been triangles. These instruments of percussion are said to have onginated in Syria, and if so may have been known to the ancient Hebrews. They were well adapted for the ringing music of a military triumph. I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 139 259.— RESPONSIVE SINGING. XVIII, 7. The women answered one another as they played, ^.nd said, Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands. One part of tlie women probably sang, "Saul hath slain his thousands,'* and the others responded, "and David his ten thousands." This responsive chorus-singing is very ancient. Over four hundred ye.'irs before this Miriam had led the women in the responsive chorus of victory on the occasion uf the destruction of Pharaoh's army, the men and women alternating in tlieir song. Ex(jd XV, 21. It is supposed to luve been an Egyptian custom. See also Ezra iii, 11; Isa. vi, 3; Rev. iv, 8-11; v, 9-14. 260. — FLEEING FROM THE DART. XIX, 10. Saul sought to smite David even to the wall with the javelin ; but he slipped away out of Saul's presence^, and he smote the javelin into the wall : and David fled, and escaped that night. According to an ancient Asiatic custom, when a dart was thrown at a freed- man, and he escaped from it by flight, he was thereby absolved from all allegiance to his master. Tluis Saul by his murderous fury gave complete liberty to David, wliose subsequent acts of war against the king could not be considered rebellion. From that hour he was no longer a subject of King Saul. — See Kitto's Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature^ vol. i, p. 225. 261. — USE OF THE TERM NAKED. XIX, 24. He stripped off his clothes also, and prophesied before Samuel iii like manner, and lay down naked all that day and all that night. Tiiis does not mean absolutely witliout any clothing. A person was called naked whose outer garments were liu'own aside, leaving nothing but the .unic and girdle. See note on Jolm xix, 23. Thus Isaiah was naked bj"- simply removmg his sackcloth mantle. E^-a. xx, 2. This is also the meaning of "flee away naked" in Amos ii, 16. The young man who followed Jesus at the time of his arrest was probably "naked" in this sense. Mark xiv, 51, 52. Peter was also '"naked" in the same way at the time he cast himself into the sea to meet the Lord. Jolm xxi, 7. Compare 2 Sam. vi, li, 20. 262.— RELATIVES CURSED. XX, 80. Saul's anger was kindled against Jonathan, and he ttaid unto him, Thou son of the perverse rebellious woman. This is a favorite Oriental mode of abuse. It is supposed that an indignity offered to a man's mother will give him greater pain than one offered to him- self. "Strike said the servant of Mungo Park, "but do not curse my 140 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. motlier." Sir W. Ouseley tells of a man who, seeking for wine, .put to his lips a bottle of some nniiseons medicine, and immediate!}' cursed, not llie man who made the disgusting;- draiiglit, but all the female relatives in whose wel- fare he had the greatest interest; his wives, mother, dangliters, and sisters. — Burder, Oriental Customs^ No. 312. Professor Hackett. having incautiously approached a large flock of sheep for the purpose of getting a better view, was assailed by the three women who were watching them, with "a volley of words almost terrific." They cursed his father, his mother, his grandfather, and all his ancestors. — Illustrations of Scripture, p. 106. 263.— VALUABLES WRAPPED IN CLOTHES. XXI, 9. The priest said, The sword of Goliath the Philistine, •whom thoui slewest in the valley of Elah, behold, it is here wrapped in a cloth behind the ephod. It is customary to wrap in cloths all articles which are esteemed specially valuable or sacred. Sacred books are inclosed in rich cases of brocade silk or costly velvet. Harmer suggests that the simlah, "cloth," in which the sword of Goliath was wrapped, may have been a part of some magnificent dress of David. — Observations, vol. ii, p. 517. Money was sometimes put aside in a similar way. The unfaithful servant laid up his lord's money in a napkin, or handkerchief. See Luke xix, 20. 264 —THE SPEAKER MENTIONED FIRST. XXIV, 12. The Lord judge between me and thee, and the Lord avenge me of thee: but mine hand shall not be upon thee. With us it is a marked want of etiquette for the speaker to mention him- self first, especially when speaking to or of those of superior rank or posi- tion. Cliardin, hoAvever, says that among the Persians it is custo^nary for tlie speaker to name himself first. From this text it seems to have been con- sidered perfectly respectful in the days of David, and we have instances more ancient still. "When Ephron the Hittite was bargaining with Abraham for the sale of the cave of Machpelah he said, "What is that betwixt me and thee?" Gen. xxiii, 15. So also Sarai said to her luisband Abram, ^'The Lord judge between me and thee." Gen. xvi, 5. So Laban said to Jacob, "The Lord watch between me and thee." Gen. xxxi, 49. 265.— HOUSES OF THE DEAD. XXV, 1. Samuel died ; and all the Israelites were gathered together, and lamented him, and buried him in his house at Ilamah. Some commentators assert that Samuel was placed in a tomb erected in the house he occupied during his life, or in its court. Of this, however, there I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 141 IS no evidence. Long before Samuel's time the grave was spoken of as **the house appointed for all living." See Job xxx, 23. So afterward Joab " was buried in his own house in the wilderness." 1 Kings ii, 34. It is much more probable that a tomb for the dead should be called a house than ihat a dwelling-place built for the living should be used as a tomb. An American missionary in Syria says that at Deir el Kamr^ on Mount Lebanoo^ he found a number of small solid stone buildings, having neither doors nor windows. These were the " houses of the dead." It was necessary to open the dead walls every time an interment took place. — Jowett's Researches^ p. 207. In India it is quite common to build a house hi a retired place over the remains of the dead, where also the rest of the family, when they die, are interred. In some of these houses the funeral car, or palanquin in which the body was borne to its burial, is suspended from the ceiling. Great pains are taken to keep these houses of the dead in good repair, and some of them are built in a most magnificent manner. 266.— CHIEFTAIN'S SPEAR— CRUSE. XXYI, 11. Take thou, now the spear that is at his bolster, and the eruse of water, and let las go. 1. The spear here spoken of is the chanith^ already described in the note on chap, xvii, 7. In the Arab encampmenis of the present day the sheikh's tent is always recognized by a tall spear stuck in the ground in front of it ; and the place where the sheikh rechnes to rest when halting on a march is designated in like manner. 2. It is not known what was the precise shape of tiie cruse, (tsapparJiath,) or the material of which it consisted. Some suppose it to have been made of iron plates shaped like a shallow cup or bowl. The vessel at present used in the East for the purposes of a cruse or flask is globular ni shape, and is made of blue porous clay. It is nine inches in diameter, with a neck three inches long. At the lower part is a small handle, and opposite is a straight spout having an orifice about the size of a straw, tlirough which water is sucked. The tsappachaih is spoken of in the Bible as a receptacle for oil, (1 Kings xvii, 12,) and also for water. See text and 1 Kings xix, 6. The "cruse" mentioned in 1 Kings xiv, 3, and the one in 2 Kings ii, 20, are different vessels from the cruse of this text, and the words themselves are different in the original. See notes on those passages. 142 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Samuel. II. SAMUEL. 267.— ARMLETS. I, 10. I took . . . the bracelet that was on his arm. Ftsadah, " bracelet," is, according to Geseniiis, more properly an anklet than a bracelet; yet as it is here spoken of in connection with the arm it doubt- less means an armlet. The word occurs also in Num. xxxi, 50, where it is associated with tsamid, (bracelet,) and is rendered *' chains.*' Saul's armlet is supposed to have been a part of the insignia of his royalty. Egyptian mon- archs are often represented on the monuments wearing armlets and bracelets. The Persian kings often wore them, and they are still com- mon among Oriental sovereigns, many of them being elaborately wrought and richly orna- mented with jewels. From Sol. Songviii, 6, it 55.— Egyptian Armlets. appears that the signet was sometimes placed in the armlet: "As a seal upon thine arm." 268 —RECESS IN GATEWAY. Ill, 27. Joab took him aside in the gate to speak with him quietly. The expression " in the gate," is literally in the midst of the gate, and probably refers to some dark corner in the vaulted gateway where two persons might retire and converse unseen. To some such recess Joab invited Abner, avowedly for conversation, but really to kill him. 269— BEDS FOR BIERS. Ill, 31. Rend your clothes, and gird you with sackcloth, and mourn before Abner. And king David himself followed the bier. Mittah^ "bier," would be better rendered by Persons of distinction were sometimes carried to the grave on their beds. Josephds describes mi- nutely the preparations which were made by Archelaus for the funeral of his father Herod. The body was placed on a gilded bed, which was richly adorned with precious stones. — Antiquities^ book xvii, chapter 8, § 3. 270.— PRISONERS FETTERED. Ill, 84. Thy hands were not bound, nor thy feet put into fetters. Strigelius supposes that David meant, by using this language, to distinguish Abner from those criminals who are carried to execution with their handa n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 143 ried behind tliem ; and from soldiers who are taken captive in war, and have tlieir feet fastened by fc^tters to prevent their running away. For a description of fetters see note on 2 Kings xxv, 7. 271.— STORING AND GRINDING GRAIN. IV, 6. They came thither into the midst of the house, as though they would have fetched wheat. Harraer {^Observations, vol. i, p. 435) suggests that the pretense of these men tliat they went into the house for wheat, was rendered plausible by the fact that it was necessary to obtain the grain in the afternoon in order to have it ready for grinding early the next morning, according to daily custom. All suspicion of their murderous intention was thus avoided. Ishboshetii was taking his usual dailj^ nap after the noon meal, (verse 5.) Thej went towdrd the place where the grain was stored, and thus gained access to the apartment of the sleeping king and murdered him. 272.— THE SISTRUM. VI, 5. David and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all manner of instruments made of fir wood, even on . . . cornets. Tliis is the only place where the word menaanim appears. The instrument it represents bore no resemblance to a cor- net or to any other wind instrument. Gesenius describes it as "a musical instrument or rattle, which gave a tinkling s^und on being shakeny He supposes- it to have been the ancient sistrum. Other authorities agree with this inter- pretation, though some discard it. The sistrum was used in the worship of the ancient Egyptians. It was " generally from eight to sixteen or eighteen inches in length, and en- tirely' of bronze "or brass. It was sometimes inlaid with silvergilt, or otherwise ornamented, and, being held upright, was shaken, the rings moving to and fro upon the brass." — KlTTO. The other instruments named in this verse are described in other places. See Index. 56.— Sistrum. 273.— THE BEARD CUT OFF. X 4. Wherefore Hanun took David's servants, and shaved off the one half of their beards! According to Oriental sentiment a greater indignity could not have been put upon them. Th3 beard is considered a symbol of manhood, and, in some places, of freedom — slaves being compelled to shave their beards in token ( f servitude. By shaving half their beard Hanun not only treated David's 144 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Samuel. embassadors with contempt, but made tliem objects of ridicule. The beard is usually kept with care and neatuess; and thus when David feigned mad- ness in the presence of Achish, king of Gath, he " let his spittle fall down upon his beard," which convinced the beholders that he must be bereft of his senses. 1 Sam. xxi, 13. So disgraceful is it considered to have the beard cut off, that some of the Orientals would prefer death to such a punishment. Niebuhr, in his Description of Arabia, relates that in the year 1764, Kerim Kahn, one of the three rebels who at that time desired to obtain dominion over Persia, sent embassadors to Mir Mahenna, the prince of a little independent territory on the Persian Gulf, to demand a large tribute, and threatened to come to him with his army if he did not conduct himself as an obedient subject. Mahenna, however, treated the embassadors with great contempt, which was especially marked hi cutting off their beards. Upon hearing of this, Kerim Kahn was so indignant that he sent a large army which subdued tlie territorj-. 274.— SPRING, THE SEASON FOR WAR. XI, 1. It came to pass, after the year was expired, at the time when kings go forth. " After the year was expired " is literally "at the return of the year," thaf- is, in ihe spring. This was the time of the year for the commencement oi renewal of military movements, the season for severe storms being over. 275.— PROMENADE ON THE ROOF. XI, 2. It came to pass in an eveningtide, that David arose from off his bed, and walked -upon the roof of the king's house : and from the roof he saw a woman washing herself. 1. After his customary afternoon rest had been taken, David walked on the flcit roof of his palace. In the cool of the evening the roofs of the houses are occupied by family groups who go there for air and exercise. In Dan. iv, 29 we have an account of the walk of another king. Instead of walked in the palace, the marginal reading is, upon the palace. It was on the roof that Nebuchadnezzar walked, and from there he obtained that view of his great city which li^led his heart with pride and made him forget God. 2. The bath in which Batlisheba was washing was in the court-yard, secluded from all ordinary observation, but yet visible from the palace roof. 276.— ANIMALS PETTED. XII, 3. It grew up together with him, and with his children ; it did eat of his own meat, and drank of his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter. There is a beautiful touch of nature about this ; for though uttered in a parable the words are in truthful accordance with Eastern manners. n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 145 Bochart says that anciently not only lambs, but other animals, were by many persons allowed to eat with them at their tables, and to lie with them in their beds. The Arabs of to-day keep pet-lambs as we keep lap-dogs. 277._FASTING FOR BEREAVEMENT. XII, 21. Then said his servants unto him. What thing is this that thou, hast done ? thou didst fast and weep for the child, while it was alive ; but when the child was dead, thou didst rise and eat bread. What astonished the servants of David was, that their master should act so contrary to old-established customs of mourning in time of bereavement. Sir John Chardin says. " The practice of the East is to leave a relation of the deceased person to weep and mourn, till on the third or fourth day at furtliest the relatives and friends go to see him, cause him to eat, lead him to a bath, and cause him to put on new vestments, he having before thrown himself on the ground." — Harmer, Observations^ vol. iv, p. 424. David, on the contrary, changed his apparel and ate food as soon as he learned of the death of the boy. 278. — COVERING THE HEAD. XV, 80. David went up by the ascent of mount Olivet, and wept as he went up, and had his head covered, and he went up barefoot. Covering the head, as well as uncovering the feet, (see note on Deut. xxv, 10,) was a token of great distress. It was probably done by drawing a fold of the outer garment over the head. When Haman mourned over his great discomfiture his head was covered. Esther vi, 12. Jeremiah pathetically represents the plowmen as mourning in this way because of the severe drought. "Because the ground is chapped, for there was no rain in the earth, the plowmen were ashamed, they covered their heads." Jer. xiv. 4. 279. — EARTH ON THE HEAD. XY, 32. Hushai the Archite came to nneet him with his coat rent, and earth upon his head. His rent coat signified mourning, (see note on Gen. xxxvii, 34,) as did also the earth on his head. In the British Museum is a tombstone from Abydos, on which is a representation of a funeral procession, the mourners in which show their grief by tlirowing dust on their heads. There was au ancient tradition among the Egyptians that, in the infancy of their history as a people, their god Nonm had taught their fathers that they were but clay or dust. The praciice of putting dust on their heads is supposed to have been originally designed to be symbolical of their origui from dust, and to convey the idea of their humility in view of tliat fact. We find frequent scriptural reference to the custom. When the Israelites were defeated at Ai, Joshu-i 146 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [n Samuel. and the elders "put dust upon their heads.'' Josh. vU, 6. The Benjamite who brought to Eh the news of the death of his sons came to Shiloh "with earth upon his liead." 1 Sara, iv, 12. The young Amalekite who brought to David the tidings of Saul's death had "earth upon his head." 2 Sam. i, 2. Tamar, dishonored, "put ashes on her head." 2 Sam. xiii, 19. In the great fast which was held in Nehemiah's time in Jerusalem, the children of Israel had "earth upon them." Neh. ix, 1. When Job's three friends mourned with him in liis great troubles, they " sprinkled dust upon their heads to- ward heaven." Job ii, 12. Tiiis shows the great antiquity of the practice. Jeremiah, in lamenting over the desolations of Zion, says that the elders "have cast up dust upon their heads." Lam. ii, 10. Ezekiel, in predicting the destruction of Tyrian commerce, represents the sailors as casting up "dust upon their heads." Ezek. xxvii, 30. See also Rev. xviii, 19. 280.— DUST-THROWING. XVI, 13. As David, and his men went by the way, Shimei went along on the hill's side over against him, and cursed, as he went, and threw stones at him, and east dust. Throwing dust at a person is an Oriental mode of expressing anger and contempt. In addition to the instance here given we lind another in the history of Paul. The mob whom he addressed in Jerusalem became very much excited at his speech and sought to destroy him, declaring tl: at he was not fit to live, and as evidence of their fury they " threw dust into tiie air." Acts xxii, 23. The precise meaning of this symbolic action we do not know. There may, however, be some connection between this custom and tiie prac- tice of persons in trouble putting dust on their own heads in token of grief. See the preceding note. Throwing dust at others may be a symbolic model of wishing them such trouble and grief that they may feel like covering themselves with dust, as an expression of their sorrow. 2§1.— CISTERN IN THE COURT-YARD. XVII, 18, 19. But they went both of them away quickly, and. came to a man's house in Bahurim, which had a well in his court ; whither they went down. And the woman took and spread a covering over the well's mouth, and spread ground corn thereon ; and the thing was not known. The well (heer) here spoken of was not a living fountain, but simply a cis- tern or reservoir dug in the court-yard, as is often tlie case in the East at the present day. Such cisterns sometimes become drj^, and then make ex- cellent hiding-places for fugitives. The mouth being on a level with the ground, could be easily covered by a mat or some other article, and the corn being spread over this, suspicion would be disarmed. For description of the "court," see note on Esther i, 5. n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 147 2§2.— DOUBLE GATES. XVIII, 24. David sat between the two gates : and the watch- man went up to the roof ove» the gate. At the gateways of walled cities special care was taken to increase the strength of the wall and the power of resistance, since the most formidable attacks of the enemy would probably be made there. The ordinary thick- ness of wall not being sufficient it was here widened, or, more properly, doubled. Considerable space was included between the outer and the inner wall, and to each of these walls there was a gate. It was in ihe room thus made that "David sat between the two gates." 2§3.— WATCHMAN— PORTER. XYIII, 26. The watchman saw another man running : and the watchman called unto the porter. 1. Even strong walls and double gates would not of themselves secure a city from the enemy. Men were therefore employed to watch day and night on the top of the walls, and especially by the gates. It was thus that the messengers from the army were seen long before they reached the place where David anxiously sat. In like manner the watchman of Jezreel saw in the distance the compan}^ of Jehu driving furiously. 2 Kings ix, 17-20. So Isaiah in one of his sublime visions saw a watchman standing by his tower day and night. Isa. xxi, 5-12. A figurative use of the watch- man and his work is beautifully made in Isa. Ixii, 6; Ezek. xxxiii, 2, 6, Y ; Hab. ii, 1. 2. It was the business of the porter to open and shut the gates at the proper time. In this case the porter, being in a convenient position below, could receive the intelligence from the watchman above and communi- cate the same to David. In 2 Kings vii, 10 this officer is called "the porter of the city." Porters are spoken of in cormection with tlie rebuilding of the walls by NehemJah. Neh. vii, 1. In Solomon's Temple there were four thou- sand of them, (1 Chron. xxiii, 5,) who were divided into courses, (2 Chron. viii, 14,) and had their posts assigned by lot. 1 Chron. xxvi, 13. 2§4.— THE CHAMBER OVER THE GATE. XVIII, 33. The king was much moved, and went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept. This chamber was a second story, which was built over the room referred to in the note on verse 24, and corresponded to it in size. It communicated with it by a stairway, and David retired there that he might have greater privacy in his grief. It was on the roof above this, which was a higher point of observation than the ordinary height of the wall, that the watchman Stood when he saw the messengers coming. Verse 24. 148 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Samuel. 285.— LAMENTATIONS OVER THE DEAD. XIX, 4. The king covered, his face, and. the king cried with a loud voice, O my son Absalom I p Absalom, my son, my son I Though coucealed from sight in the upper chamber, the lamentations of the bereaved king could be easily heard by his followers, for he " cried with a loud voice." These loud exclamations are alluded to in several other places. At Jacob's funeral iliere was "a great and very sore lamentation." Gen. I, 10. When Jephthah, after his vow, saw his daughter coming, he cried, as if she were already dead, "Alas, my daughter!" Judges xi, 85. When the old prophet of Bethel buried in his own grave the disobedient prophet whom he had deceived to his death, he cried out, " Alas, my brother 1" 1 Kings xiii, 30. It was among the curses heaped on Jehoiakim that he should have "the burial of an ass," and not be consigned to the grave with the usual lamentations. "Therefore thus saith the Lord concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah ; They shall not lament for him, saying, Ah my brother I or, Ah sister! they shall not lament for him, saying, Ah lord! or. Ah his glory!" Jer. xxii, 18. Somewhat similar to these are the cries of the Egyptian mourners at the present time. When the master of a house dies, the wives, children, and servants cry out, "0 my master!" "0 my camel!" "Omyhon!" " 0 camel of the house !" "0 my glory! " " 0 my resource ! " "0 my father ! " "0 ray misfortune !" — Lane's Modern Egyptians^ vol. ii, p. 318. Roberts, in his Oriental Illustrations^ pp. 236-241, gives a number of striking specimens of Hindoo lamentations over the dead. Among them are the expressions of grief uttered by a husband on the loss of his wife : " What, the apple of my eye gone ! my swan, my parrot, my deer, my Lechimy! Her color was like gold; her gait was like the stately swan; her waist was like lightning; her teeth were like pearls; her eyes like the kiyal-fish (oval) ; her eyebrows like the bow ; and her countenance like the full-blown lotus. Yes, she has gone, the mother of my children ! No more welcome, no more smiles in the evening when I return. All the world to me is now as the place of burning. Get ready the wood for my pile. 0 my wife, my wife I listen to the voice of your husband." A father also says over the body of his son, " My son, my son ! art thou gone ? What 1 am I left in my old age ? My lion, my arrow, m}'- blood, my body, my soul, my third eye ! Gone, -gone, gone ! " 286.— FERRY-BOATS. XIX, 18. There went over a ferry-boat to carry over the king's household. This is the only passage where a ferry-boat is named, and some critics think that a mere crossing of a ford is meant. The Hebrews could not have been n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 149 Aguorant of the use of boats, since they were emploj^ed by the Egyptians, as is evident Irom the monuments. The king's servants may have used rafts, or flat-bottomed boats, for conveying his household over the river. See, fur- ther, the note on Isaiah xviii, 2. 2§7.— CHERETHITES AND PELETHITES. XX, 7. There went out after him Joab's men, and the Chere- thites, and the Pelethites, and all the mighty men. Commentators and philologists are divided in the interpretation of these terms. Lakeraacher was tlie first to advance the idea that the Grethi and the Pleihi were Philistine soldiers whom David had enlisted in his arm}-. This opinion was adopted by Ewald, and has since been agreed to by many eminent scholars and tlieologians, and is the view taken by Fuerst in his Hebrew Lexicon. On the other hand, others, equally eminent, contend that David would not have employed foreign soldiers as his body guard, as it is evident the Grethi and the Plethi were. Compare 2 Sam. xx, 23, with xxiii, 23. Some, however, attempt to meet this objection by supposing that they were Israelites who, from a lengthy residence in foreign parts, had attracted to them- selves a foreign name. See Eatrbairn's Imp. Bib. Diet, s. v. Gherethites, Gesenius defines the Gt^ethi to be executioners, and tlie Pleihi runners or cou- riers ; the duty of the former being to administer capital punishment, and of the latter to convey the king's orders wherever he chose to send them. Benaiah, who commanded them, (verse .23,) lield an office similar to that of Potiphar under Pharaoh, (Gen. xxxvii, 86,) and Arioch under Nebuchadnez- zar. Dan. ii, 14. 28§.— TOUCPIING THE BEARD. XX, 9. Joab said to Amasa, Art thou, in health, my brother? And Joab took Amasa by the beard with the right hand to kiss him. To touch the beard of another was an insult, unless done as an act of friendship and a token of respect. Joab therefore showed the base treachery of his heart by coming to Amasa in the manner of a friend, thus entirely conceahng his murderous intent. He inquired after his health, gently touched his beard as if to give a kis-!, and then suddenly grasped it with his right hand and quickly stabbed the unsuspecting Amasa with the imnoticed sword which he held in his left. 289.— CIRCLING NETS. XXII, 6. The sorrows of hell compassed me about ; the snares of death prevented me. The margin has " cords," instead of sorrows, which is a better rendering, because more consistent with the figure employed in the text. The allusion 10 150 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Samuel. is to an ancient mode of hunting, still in use. A certain tract of land, where wild beasts are known to be, is surrounded by a circle of nets, wliich is j^radually contracted as the animals are driven in, until tlipy are all brought !o one common center, when escape is impos-^ible. Similar reference is. made in Psa. xviii, 5 ; cxvi, 3 ; Isa. li, 20. Representations of this mode of hunting are found on the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. I. KINGS. 290. — THE PIPE. 1,40. The people piped with pipes, and rejoiced with great joy. The pipe was one of the most ancient, as it was one of the simplest, of instruments. It was originally merely a reed with holes perforated at certain distances, whence it derived its Hebrew name, chalil : bored through. As its use became more general it was made with greater care, and some- times of other materials, such as brass, box-wood, horn, bone, or ivory. Sometimes a double pipe was used, one part being played with the right hand and the other with the left, and both uniting at the mouth-piece. The pipe was used for seasons of merriment or of joy. See 1 Sam. x, 5 ; Isa. V, 12 ; Luke vii, 32. It also served to enliven the journeys to the great feasts, (Isa. xxx, 29,) as music is now used in the East to entertain great companies of travelers. Sometimes, by reason of its soft wailing tones, it was used at funerals. Jer. xlviii, 36; Matt, ix, 23. 291. — THE ASYLUM. I, 50. Adonijah feared because of Solomon, and arose, and went, and caught hold on the horns of the altar. The right of asylum in sacred places was common to all nations, and though nowhere formal!}^ declared in the Mosaic law, it was clearly recog- nized, as is evident from Exod. xxi, 14, where it is directed to be re- fused under certain extreme circumstances. It would seem from the text, and also from chapter ii, 28. that if an accused person could take iiold of the horns of the altar he was safe unless his crime were of a peculiarly glaring character. The " Cities of Refuge " were appointed for a similar purpose. See Numbers xxxv, 15-32. 292.— RARITY OF BURIAL IN CITIES. II, 10. So David slept with his fathers, and was buried in the city of David. This was a departure from the ordinary custom, as the dead were usually buried outside the cities. It was therefore a mark of high honor to the I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 151 remains of the departed kiau- that he was buried within the city ; the strong- hold of Zion which was called after his name. Here, also, Solomon was afterward buried. 1 Kings xi, 43. Aliaz was likewise buried in the city, though not in the tomb of the kings. 2 Chron. xxviii, 27. Hezekiah, his son, was buried " in the chiefest of the sepulchers of the sons of David." 2 Chron. xxxii, 33. Manasseh, who succeeded him, and Amon, his son, were both buried in Jerusalem, in the garden of Uzza. 2 Kings xxi, 18, 26. The sepulcher of David was known in apostolic times. Acts ii, 29. Its location is pointed out in the present day on the southern hill of Jerusalem, commonly called Mount Zion, under the Mosque of David. It is jealously guarded by Mohammedans from all intrusion. Dr. Barclay thinks that " tiie Tomb of David is several hundred yards east of the traditional locality." — City of the Great King, p. 215. 293.— FODDER. IV, 28. Barley also and straw for the horses and dromedaries. Barley was the usual fodder for cattle. They were also fed with a mixture of chopped straw, barley, beans, and pounded date kernels. 294.— RAFTS. V, 9. I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that thoiA shalt appoint me. See also 2 Chron. ii, 16. These are what we call rafts, consisting of a number of planks fastened together and laimched upon the water. The practice is an ancient on^, and it is said that the earliest boats were nothing more than mere rafts made in this way, though there is another form of raft that Is very ancient. See note on Isa. xviii, 2. * 295.— SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. YI, 2. The house which king Solomon built for the Lord, the length thereof was threescore cubits, and the breadth thereof twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits. The idea of the temple did not originate with Solomon, but with David, who was not permitted to carry out his intention because he had been a man of war. 1 Chron. xxviii, 2, 3. God gave him a plan for the temple, as he had previously given Moses the plan for the tabernacle. This plan David communicated to Solomon, directing him to erect the building. 1 Chron. xxviii, 11-19. It was built on Mount Moriah, on the site of the altar which David erected on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite. 2 Sam. xxiv, 21-25; 2 Chron. iii, 1. It stood on the boundary line of Judah and Benjamin. According to Jewish authorities, the greater space of the courts was in Judah, but the temple and altar were in Benjamin. The hill being uneven. 152 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. the top was leveled, and walls were built on the sloping sides up to a level with the summit, the intervening space being filled partly with vauUs and partly with earth. The temple had the same general arrangements as the tabernacle, being- designed for the same purpose ; the difference between the two structures being mainly such as would be sugo^ested by the fact that the tabernacle was merely temporary and movable, while the temple was permanent and fixed. The dimensions of the temple were double those of the tabernacle. Like that, it faced the east, having the Most Holy Place in the west. Its length (including the porch) was seventy cubits. Of this length the porch had ten cubits, the Holy Place forty, and the Most Holy Place twenty. .1 Kings vi, 3, 17, 20. The width of the building on the groimd was twenty cubits, but to this there was added to the house proper a width of five cubits, for three stories of chambers which were built adjoining all the walls of the temple, excepting the porch. At the height of every five- cu- bits the temple wall receded a cubit until half the height was reached; thus making each storj'- of chambers a cubit wider than the one below it. 1 Kings vi, 5, 6, 10. The chambers on the west side must also have added five cubits to the length. The height of the building varied in different parts. The chambers were fifteen cubits high, the Most Holy Place twenty, the Holy Place thirty, and the porch one himdred and twenty. 1 Kings vi, 3, 20; 2 Chron. iii, 4. It is thought by some critics that this last measurement is an error in the copying of some ancient manuscript. Eighty has been suggested by some as the correct reading, and twenty by others. In the porch were the two celebrated pillars called Jachin and Boaz. These w^e made of brass and highly ornamented. 1 Kings vii, 15-22. It is not definitely stated tliat they were placed in the porch as a support to that part of the building, but this would seem to be probable, though it is denied by some. Crossing the porch, which was ten cubits by twentj^, we find folding doors of fir or cypress, having posts of olive wood. These doors were ornamented with carved cherubim, palm trees, and flowers, all of which were covered with gold. 1 Kings vi, 33-35. Within the doors was the Holy Place, forty cubits long, twenty wide, and thirty high. There were windows in this, probably of lattice work. 1 Kings v-i, 4. These windows must have been in the upper part of the room, since tlie three stories of the chambers reached on the outside half way up the height. The stone walls were completely covered on the inside with wainscoting of cedar. The floor was made of cedar covered with cj^press, which in turn was covered with gold. 1 Kings vi, 15, 30. The ceiling was cypress overlaid with gold. 2 Chron. iii, 5. The sides were elegantly carved with cherubim, palms, and flowers, covered over with gold. 1 Kings vi, 18; 2 Chron. iii, 1. I K'ngs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 153 la the Holy Place there were ten golden candlesticks, five on each side, and ten table;^ of show-bread, arranged in a similar way. 2 Chron. iv, 7, 8. Tt is snpposed by some that only one candlestick and one table were in use at a time. See 2 Chron. xiii, 11 ; xxix, 18 ; where the words are in the singu- lar number. There we e snuflers, tongs, basins, and all other necessary arti- cles, also of gold. 1 Kuigs vii, 50. The altar of incense, which was in this part of the temple, was made of cedar and covered witi. gold. 1 Kings vi, 20. Between the Sanctuary, or Holy Place, and the Oracle, or Most Holy Place, there was a partition, in which were double doors made of olive-wood carved and overlaid with gold. 1 Kings vi, 31. 32. There was also a rich vail of embroidery at this doorway. 2 Cliron. iii, 14. The Oracle, like the Most Holy Place of tlie tabernacle, was a perfect cube. It was twenty cubits in length, breadth, and height. 1 Kings vi, 20. Floor, sides, and ceiling were of wood, with carved cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers, all overlaid with gold. 1 Kings vi, 29, 30. Tliere were no windows here; Jehovah dwells in "thick darkness." 1 Kings viii, 12. Two gigantic cherubim, made of olive-wood and covered with gold, were in the Oracle. Tliey were ten cubits high, and their outstretched wings, touching each other at the tips, reached entirely across the width of the room. 1 Kings vi, 23-28. They were in a standing position, and had their faces turned toward the vail. 2 Chron. iii, 10-13. The ark of tlie covenant, which had been in the tabernacle, was put into the Oracle under the wings of the cherubim after the- temple was tinished. 1 Kings viii, 6. No doubt the original cherubim and the mercy-seat accompanied it, though this is nowhere expressly stated. It may be inferi-ed, however, from the fact that after the temple was built Jehovah is represented, as in the days of the tabernacle, "dwelling between the cherubim." Compare 1 Sam. iv, 4; 2 Sam. vi, 2 ; Psa. Ixxx, 1; xcix, 1, with 2 Kings xix, 15 ; Isa. xxxvii, 16. No definite account is given of the court or courts surrounding the temple. In 1 Kings vi, 36 the "inner court" is spoken of. Tliis was doubtless the .ypace immediately around the sacred edifice. Its dimensions are not given, nor is it certain what is meant by the text just referred to : " He built the inner court with three rows of hewed stone, and a row of cedar beams." Some commentators suppose tliis to mean that tlie inner court was sur- rounded by a wall consisting of three courses of stone capped with cedar beams. Others suppose that the inner court was a raised platform elevated to the height of tliree courses of stone with a coping of cedar, and they refer to Jer. xxxvi, 10, where this is called "the higher court." This court, which was also called the "Court of the priests," (2 Chron. iv, 9,) contained the brazen altar of burnt offering, which was much larger than the one in the court of the tabernacle, being twenty cubits in length and in breadth, and ten in height. There was also here a circular " molten 154 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. sea," ten cubits in diameter and five in height. Tt stood on twelve brazen oxen, three facing each point of the compass. On each side of the altar tiiere were five brazen lavers. 2 Chron. iv, 1-6. Around this court was another and a larger one, called tlie " Great Court," in 2 Chron. iv, 9; tlie " Outer Court," in Ezek. xlvi, 21 ; and the " Court of the Lord's House," in Jer. xix, 14; xxvi, 2. This was the Court of the People, and was surrounded by strong walls, in which were gates of brass. 2 Chron. iv, 9. The foregoing description of Solomon's temple coincides in tlie main with the accounts usually given by commentators. It is proper, however, to notice the ingenious theory advanced by the Rev T. 0. Paine, in his Sol- onion's Temple^ already referred to in the note on Exod. xl, 2. Mr. Paine has evidently studied the subject with much care, and has given the results of his investigations in an interesting monograph. He assumes that the description given by Ezekiel in chapter xl, et seq., is not the description of an ideal temple, but of Solomon's temple as it actually appeared before its destruction ; and that it is designed to be a complement to the account given in the books of Kings and Chronicles, the one narrative detaihng points omitted by the other. He assei'ts that the building, contrary to the usual opinion, was wider at the top than at the bottom, and refers to Ezek. xli, Y for proof ; that the " chambers " mentioned as running around the building were galleries, and that these were supported by columns, the galleries increasing in distance from the temple- wall as they rose. He con- tends that "all pictures of the temple which represent it as widest on the ground and narrower upward are bottom upward." — Solomons Temple, p. 2. (See the engravings on the opposite page.) 296.^THE MONTH ZIF. YI, 37. In the fourth year was the foundation of the house of the Lord laid, in the month Zif. Tliis was the second month of the sacred year of the Hebrews, and cor- responded nearly to our month of May. aOr.^THE MONTH BUL. VI, 38. In the eleventh year, in the month Bui, which is the eighth month, was the house finished. This was the eighth month of the sacred year, and answered nearly to our November, 298.— SAWS. VII, 9. All these were of costly stones, according to the meas- ures of hewed stones, sawed with saws. "When the saw was invented is not known. It is seen on the Egyptian monuments, and also on the Assyrian. The saws referred to in the text 59. — Intekiok. Solomon's Temple acv-^ordlng to Paine. THE LIBRARY OF THE '.U31VERS1TY Of ILLIKOIS I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 157 were doubtless double-lianded, s'nce they were used for sawino: stoues. A striking peculiarity of the Oriental saw is that the teeth usually iuclirie toward the handle instead of from it, as in the saws used among us. 299.— THE MONTH ETHANIM. yill, 2. All the men of Israel assembled themselves unto king Solomon at the feast in the month Ethanim, which is the seventh month. Ellianim was the seventh month of the sacred year, and the first of the civil .year, and corresponded nearly with our month of October. The great day of atonement and the feast of tabernacles took place during this montli. It is to this feast that reference is made in the text. 300.— UPLIFTED HANDS IN PRAYER. VIII, 22. Solomon stood before the altar of the Lord in the presence of all the congregation of Israel, and spread forth his hands toward Ir ;aven. This was an ancient custom in prayer, not only among the Hebrews, but among the heathen. At the present day a favorite praying posture with Mohammedans is standing with iiands upHfted. The allusions to it in classic writers are frequent, and so also are the references in Scripture. See Exod. ix, 29, 33 ; 2 Chron. vi, 12 ; Ezra ix, 5 ; Job xi, 13 ; Psa. xxviii, 2 ; xliv, 20; Ixviii, 31; Ixxxviii, 9; cxxxiv, 2; cxh, 2; cxhii, 6; Isa. i, 15. 301. — LARGE GOLDEN SHIELDS. X, 16. King Solomon made two hundred targets of beaten gold: six hundred shekels of gold went to one target. The "target" here is different from the one spoken of in 1 Sam. xvii, 6, where see tiie note. There it is kidoyi^ a javelin; here it is tsinnah, a large shield, for the description of which see note on 1 Sam. xvii, 1. These great golden shields of Solomon were probably made of wood, and covered with plates of gold instead of leather. See also 2 Chron. ix, 15. 302. — SMALL GOLDEN SHIELDS. X, 17. He made three hundred shields of beaten gold: three pounds of gold went to one shield. These sliields were of a smaller size than those referred to in the sixteenth verse. The Hebrew magen is in some places rendered "buckler," (2 Sam. xxii, 31 ; 2 Chron. xxiii, 9,) and, on the other hand, buckler is sometimes the renderino: of tsinnaJi, See note on 1 Sam. xvii, 7. While, however, the two words are thus interchanged by the translators, there was an essential difference in the size and weight of the two objects represented by them. The isinnah, in verse 16. was for heavy troops, and was large enough to pro- 158 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. n Kings. tect the entire person; wliile the magen^ in this verse, was a shield which only protected a part of the person, could be carried on the arm, and was used by light troops. See al^o 2 Chron. ix, 36. 303.— SOLOMON'S THRONE. X, 18. Moreover, the king made a great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold. The body of the throne was probably of wood, entirely covered with ivory and gold, botli being visible and relieving each other. Judging from the description given of this throne it must have been one of extraordinary magnificence. It had, by the two arms, !]■ ns such as are represented on the monumental pictures of ancient Egyptian and Asa^Tian thrones. Six steps reached to the platform on which it was placed, and on either side of each step was an image of a standing lion. Thus the upward passage to the throne was guarded by twelve lions, six on eitiier side. Oriental monarchs have always been noted for the splendor of their thrones. Gold and precious stones of every kind, and wrought by the most elaborate woi'k- manship into forms of rarest beauty, are described by travelers as dazzling the eye by the brilliancy of their appearance. We are told of thrones that are covered with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls, of almost fabulous size, and fashioned in the semblance of birds, beasts, trees, and vines with leaves and fruit. See also 2 Chron. ix, 17. 304.— ASHTORETH— MILCOM. XI, 5. For Solomon went after Ashtoreth the goddess of the Zidonians, and after Mileom the abomination of the Ammon- ites. 1. Ashtoreth was the companion deity to BaaL See note on Num. xxii, 41. This text, verse of this chapter, and 2 Kings xxiii, 13, are the only places where the word is used in the singular. In all other passages it is Ashtaroth, which is a term probably corresponding to Baalim, the plural of Baal. See note on Judges iii, 7. The two words are in several places coupled together. See Judges x, 6; 1 Sam. vii, 4; xii, 10. Ashtoreth, or Astarte, was a goddess of the Sidonians, and also of the Philistines. 1 Sam. xxxi, 10. Under different names she was worshiped in all the countries and colonies of the Syro- Arabian nations. As Baal is supposed to have represent- ed the sun, so Astarte is thought to have represented the moon ; though some take the two to stand for Jupiter and Yenus. The worship of Astarte is very ancient, and was undoubtedly connected with impure rites, Bnt little is known of t])e form of the goddess or of the mode of worship. She is sometimes seen represented with the head and horns of a cow, and some- times with a woman's head having horns. We read in Gen. xiv, 5, of the city of Ashteroth Karnaim, that is, the horned Ashtaroth. As the city was I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 159 doubtless named because of the worship of Astarte, the word Karnaim (horns) is thought to have reference to the horns of the goddess, either lunar or bovine, or both. If "the queen of heaven" spoken of by Jeremiah was meant for Astarte, as many suppose, we have a little light thrown on the mode of her worship. *'Seest thou not wliat they do in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem? The children gather wood, and the fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead their dough, to make cakes to the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink-offerinocs unto other gods, that they may provoke me to anger." Jer. vii, 17, 18. See also Jer. xliv. 17-19. Here a whole family is represented as engaging in the worship of the god- dess. They present to her meat-offerings and drink-offerings, and burn incense. The worship of Astarte is also referred to in Judges ii, 13 ; 1 Sam. vii, 3 ; xii, 10. See likewise note on Isa. Ixv, 11. 2. Milcom, also called Malcham, (Zeph. i, 5,) is another name for Molech. See note on Lev. xviii, 21. 305— CRACKNELS. XIV, 3. Take with thee ten loaves, and cracknels, and a cruse of honey, and go to him. Cracknels {nilcJcuddim) were some sort of thin hard biscuit carried by the common people on their journeys. Their name (from nakad, to mark with points) may indicate thin punctured biscuits, or those which will easily crumble. 306.-A MONSTROUS IDOL. XV, 13. Also Maaehah his mother, even her he removed from being queen, because she had made an idol in a grove ; and Asa destroyed her idol, and burnt it by the brook Kidron. Miphletseih, here, and in the parallel passage in 2 Chron. xv, 16, rendered "idol," is defined by Fuerst, "horror, terror, monstrosity." Erom the mode of its destruction here noticed this image was evidently of wood. It is sup- posed to have been an obscene figure, the worship of which shows the de- moralizing influence of idolatry. Such figures were often worsliiped among the ancient idolaters, and are still worshiped in India. 307.— STICKS FOR FUEL. XVII, 10. 'When he came to the gate of the city, behold, the widow woman was there gathering of sticks. There seems to have been a scarcity of fuel in Palestine then as now. Twigs, branches, sticks of all kinds, and even thorns, (Psa. Iviii, 9,) are care- fnlly gathered for making fires, and the greatest economy is practiced in their use. See note on Psa. Iviii, 9, and also on Matt, vi, 30, 160 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. 308.— THE MEAL JAR. XVII, 12. She said, As the Lord thy God liveth, I have not a cake, but a handful of meal in a barrel. The had was not what we understand by a barrel, a wooden vessel witli staves and hoops, but a vessel made of clay. The same word is translated "pitcher" iu several other places. It is still common in the East to keep grain iu earthen jars. The same sort of vessel which was used for meal by this widow was afterward used for water on the occasion of Elijah's sacrifice. 1 Kings xviii, 33. 309.~THE HABITS OF A HEATHEN GOD. XVIII, 27. It eanne to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, and said, Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked. Faber maintains the identity of Baal with the Hindoo deity Jagan Nath, the "lord of the universe," who is represented by his followers as sometimes wrapped in profound meditation, sometimes sleeping, and sometimes taking long journeys. He says, "Elijah is not simply ridiculing the worship of the idolatrous priests; he is not taunting them, as it were, at random^; but he is ridiculing their senseless adoration, upon their own acknowledged principles^ — Origin of Pagan Idolatry^ vol. ii, p. 503. 310.— LACERATIONS IN IDOL-WORSHIP. XVIII, 28. They eried aloud, and cut themselves after their manner with knives and lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them. It was customary among the heathen to make lacerations in their flesh, not only as a mark of mourning for the dead, as shown in the note on Lev. xix, 28, but also as an act of idolatrous worship. This custom was not, how- ever, of Egyptian origin, as were many of the customs practiced in Canaan. Wilkinson says that the Egyptians beat themselves at the close of their eacrifices, as is shown by paintings in the tombs. He also says that the custom of cutting was from Syria. The same practice is followed at the present day among idolaters of different nations. They cut their flesh in various ways until they are streaming with blood. They consider that this vohintary blood-shedding is meritorious, and will help to wash away their sins. 311.— HOUR OF EVENING SACRIFICE. XVIII, 86. It came to pass at the time of the offering of the evening saorifiee that Elijah the prophet came near. The precise time at which that sacrifice was offered is a matter of dispute. In Exod, xxix, 39, it is directed to be offered "at even; " literally, between the I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 161 tivo evenings. On the meaning of this expression the controversy turns. Some suppose the first evening to have been at sunset, and the second at the time when the stars became visible. The two evenings must have beeu earher than this in Elijah's time, since the events which took place after his gacrifice on this occasion required a longer period of daylight than can be found so late in the day. See 1 Kings xviii, 40-46. The tradition ampng the Jews is that the first evening was at the time the sun began to decliiio to- ward the west ; that is, shortly after noon. The second evening was the time the sun set. The time of the evening sacrifice would thus be midway be- tween noon and sunset, or from half past two to half past three o'clock. This was about the time of its oftering in the days of Christ. 312.— THE SOUND OF RAIN. XVIII, 41. Elijah said unto Ahab, Get thee up, eat and drink ; for there is a sound of abundance of rain. In India, according to Roberts, it is as common to say, sound of rain, as with us to say, appearance of rain. This expression sometimes refers to the thunder which precedes rain, and sometimes to a blowing noise in the clouds which shows the approach of rain. 313.— THE FACE BETWEEN THE KNEES. XVIII, 42. He east himself down upon the earth, and put his face between liis knees. This is not, as some commentators have tliought, a posture obtained by kneeling on the ground and then bending the face over to the earth. It refers to a common Oriental position for meditation and devotion. The per- son sits with the feet drawn close to the body, thus bringing the knees nearly on a level with the chin. In Egypt there are many statues of men in this position. Specimens of these can be seen in museums of Egyptian antiquities; there are several such in the Abbott Collection in New York, and a number in the British Museum, one of which is made of black basalt. This was undoubtedly the posture of Elijah, who, in addition to sitting in this peculiar manner, inclined his head forward until his face was literally " between his knees." Dr. Shaw found tliis to be an occasional posture of the Turks and Moors in Barbary while engaged in their devotions. Rosen- muUer tells of a Persian poet who was so lost in religious contemplation, with his head upon his knees, that lie failed to hear the voice of a friend who accosted him. — Morgenland^ vol, iii, p. 194, In India this posture is like- wise common for those who are engaged in deep meditation or who are in great sorrow. Roberts gives several illustrations of it; "This morning, as I passed the garden of Chinnan, I saw him on the ground with his face be- tween his knees. I wonder wliat plans he was forming 1 It must have beeu 162 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. something very important to cause him thus to meditate." ^'Kandan is sick or in trouble, for he has got his face between his knees." — Oriental lllusfra- tions, p. 205. 314.— GIRDLE— RUNNING FOOTMEN. XVIII, 46. He girded \xp his loins, and ran before Ahab to tbe entrance of Jezreel. I. The girdle is one of the most useful articles of Eastern costume, and frequently ihe most ornamental of them all. With the long loose dress of the Orientals it becomes a necessity, since it would be difficult to walk or run unless the dress were tightened. Hence Elijah " girded up his loins " as a preparation for running. See also 2 Kings iv, 29 ; ix, I. Thus the Israelites prepared for their exodus. Exod. xii, 11. It is also thought to give strength to the body while engaged in severe bodily labor or exercise, and hence the word is sometimes used figuratively to denote strength. See Job xl, 7 ; Psa. Ixv, 6 ; xciii, 1. Girdles are of various sizes, and are made of different materials, from calico to cashmere. The rich use silk or linen, and sometimes decorate their girdles with gold, silver, and precious stones. The poor have them of coarser materials, leather being very commonly used. Elijah's girdle was of leather, (2 Kings i, 8 ;) so also was that of John the Baptist. Matt, iii, 4. 60. — Running Footmen. (See next page.) Graham thus describes the mode of putting on the girdle. " Tlie girdle ia put on thus: your slave having folded it the riglit breadth, holds it at one I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 163 end, while you take the other and lay it upon your side, and roll yourself round and round, as tight possible, till you arrive at the slave, wiio remains immovable. If you have no slaves, a hook or the branch of a tree will answer the same purpose." — The Jordan and the Rldne^ p. 163. When running, the ends of the outer garment are tucked into the girdle. 2. It is still customary to do honor to a king by running before his cliariot; and the same honor is conferred upon persons of less distinction. When Mohammed Ali came to Jaffa, some j^ears ago, with a large army, to quell the rebellion in Palestine, he had his quarters inside the citj^, while the camp was on the sand-hills to the south. The officers in tiieir passage from camp to headquarters " were preceded by runners, who always kept just aliead of the horses, no matter how furiously the}^ were r'dden ; and in order to run with the greater f ase, they not only girded their loins very tightly, but also tucked up their loose garments under the girdle, lest they should be incommoded by them." — Thomsox, The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 227. Allusion is al^o made to this custom in 1 Sam. viii, II; 2 Sam. xv, 1; 1 Kings i, 5. (See the engraving on the opposite page.) 315.— DAY'S JOURNEY. XIX, 4. But he himself went a day's journey into the wilder- ness. This is a very ancient mode of estimating distances, and is still in use. A day's journey " varies, according to circumstance -i, from eighteen miles to thirty. The ordinary day's journey of Scripture is piobably not far from twen'y miles. See also Gen. xxx, 36; xxxi, 23 : Exod. v, 3; viii, 27; Num. xi, 31 ; Dent, i, 2 ; 2 Kings iii, 9 ; Luke ii, 44. The "Sabbath day's journey" was a less distance. See note on Acts i, 12. 316.— COVERING THE FACE. XIX, 13. It was so, when Elijah heard it, that he wrapped his face in his mantle, and went out, and stood in the enter- ing in of the cave. Covering the face was a sign of reverence in the presence of God. Thus Moses, when the Lord appeared to him in the burnuig bush, "hid his face, for he was afraid to look upon God." Exod. iii, 6. So the seraphim seen by Isaiah in his temple-vision covered their faces with two of their wings. Isa. vi, 2. 317.— PLOWING. XIX 19. So he departed thence, and found Elisha the son of Shaphat, who was plowing with twelve yoke of oxen be- fore him, and he with the twelfth. The Eastern plow is a rude affair, far inferior to the one in use in our country. It does not enter deep into the soil, and is of very light and 164 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. fl Kiags. simple construction, sometimes being made merely of the trunk of a young tree having two branches runnii)g in opposite directions. Tiiere are many plows, however, not quite so primitive in structure as this. See note on Isa. ii, 4. Some of them have one handle and some have two handles, arid they are usually drawn by two oxen. The plowmen often plow in company. Dr. Thomson says he has seen more than a dozen plows at work in the same field, each having its plowman and yoke of oxen, and all moving along in single file. Anderson makes a similar statement. We can thus see how Elijah "was plowing with twelve 3^oke of oxen before him." He had not, as some have imagined, twenty-four oxen yoked to a single plow, but there were twelve plows in a file, each having its own oxen and plowman, and he was "with the twelfth; " that is, he had charge of the last plow in the file. XX, 11. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast hinnself as he that putteth it off. The girdle is used as a convenient place for carrying different weapons. The sword, the dagger, and in modern times the pistol, are placed there. a strong belt, designed to sustain the body, and at the same time to cover such portion of the abdomen as might be unprotected by the cuirass. Some girdles, indeed, seem to have been a constituent part of the cuirass, intended to fasten it more firmly. The importance of the girdle as a piece of armor is seen in the fact that thorough preparation for the fight is called " girding on." Paul says: "Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth." Eph. vi, 14. Mihtary girdles were made of stronger materials than those designed for common purposes. Leather, iron, and bronze were used in their construc- tion, and, where rich ornament was required, silver and gold. 31§.— MILITARY GIRDLES. It was thus that Ehud carried his dagger. Judges iii, 16. We are told in 1 Sam. XXV, 13, that David and his men girded on their swords. Sim- ilar allusions to this use of the girdle ai-e made in Deut. i, 41 ; Psa. xlv, 3 ; Sol. Song iii, 8 ; Isa. viii, 9. 61.— AnCIEXT MiLlTAPwY GiRDLES. The military girdle was not, however, a mere sword-sash, but 1 Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 165 319.— PAVILIONS. XX, 16. But Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the pavilions, he and the kings, the thirty and two kings that helped him. It is not necessary to associate any idea of splendor with these " pavil- ions." They were merely booths, (succoth,) as the word is rendered in Gen. xxxiii, 17; Jobxxvii, 18; Jonah iv, 5. In Isaiah i, 8, the same word is translated " lodge ; " in Amos ix, 11 it is " tabernacle." Such "pavilions" were nothing but temporary structures of bouglis erected to keep off the heat, and even kings were not ashamed to make use of them. It is said that such are still erected for Turkish pashas while on warlike expeditions. 320.— GODS FOR HILLS AND VALLEYS. XX, 28. The Syrians have said, The Lord is God of the hills, but he is not God of the valleys. There seems to be an allusion here to the opinion, prevalent among all heathen nations, that the different parts of the earth had different divinities. They had gods for the woods, for the mountains, for the seas, for the heavens, and for the lower regions. The Syrians seem to have received the impres- sion that Jehovah was specially the God of the mountains; but he mani- fested to them tliat he ruled every-where. 321.— TOKEN OF ABASEMENT. XX, 32. So they girded sackcloth on their loins, and put ropes on their heads, and came to the king of Israel. This was a sign of deep abasement and submission. It was a Persian custom for persons desiring clemency from the sovereign to approacli him with a sword suspended from the neck. The same practice has also been noticed in Egypt. Harmer suggests that these servants of Ben-hadad ap- pear before Ahab with ropes around their necks from which their swords liung. Others suppose that these ropes were halters. 322.— SALE OF PATRIMONY. XXI, 3. Naboth said to Ahab, The Lord forbid it me, that I should give the inheritance of my fathers unto thee. The law of Moses would not permit the sale of one's patrimony, except in cases of extreme destitution. See Lev. xxv, 23, 25: Num. xxxvi, 7. Roberts gives an interesting description of an Eastern garden, and speaks of the high value placed on it by its owner, who lias inherited it from his ancestors, and whose dearest associations in life are connected with it " To part with such a place is, to the people of the East, like parting with life itself." — Oriental liliistrations, p. 208. 166 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. 62. — Egyptian Signet Eings. :J23.— SEALS. XXI, 8. So she wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal. The seal is, in tlie East, of more importance than the signature, and in- deed is often used in place of a signature. No documeut is of any validity without it. The ordinary mode of using it is to cover it with ink, and press it on the paper. The seal is often connected with a ring, and worn on the finger. See note on Gen. xli, 42. Ancient seals have been found of various shapes— cyhnclrical, square, pynimidal, oval, and round. A very common style of seal among the an- cient Egyptians was one made of stone, rounded on one side and flat on the other. The inscription for the seal was on the flat surface, and the convex sur- face was skillfully wrought into the form of a scara- ba&us or beetle. Since the beetle was worshiped by the Egyptians, whose example was followed by the Phenicians, after whose deities Ahab had gone, some have thought that Ahab's seal was of this description. Seals that were not set in rings were perforated with a hole through which a string passed, by means of which the seal was suspended from the neck. It is supposed that Judah's was worn in this way. Gen. xxxviii, 18. Many ancient seals were in shape of a cylinder, and some of tliese were set in a frame which enabled the seal to revolve as the impression was made. Some beautiful specimens of this kind of seal have been found among the ruins in Chaldea and Assyria. The figures engraved on seals were various. Modern Oriental seals have usually the name ot the owner on them, and often a sentence from the Ko- ran. The ancient seals had device^ of S3"mbolical meaning, and letters either hieroglyphic or enneiform. Seals are made of brass, silver, gold, pottery, and stone, either precious or common, set in metal. The art of enjrraving stones is very ancient. See Exod. xxviii, 11, 3G; xxxix, 6. See also note on Neh. vi, 5, and on Job xxxviii, 14. WITH Frame. n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 167 I I. K I N GS. 324.— THE FLY-GOD. I, 2. He sent messengers, and. said unto them, Go, inquire ol Baal-zebub the god of Ekron whether I shall recover of this disease. Baal-zebub is, literall}^, the fly-god; " but whether this name was given in honor or in contempt is not known. It may have been at first a name of con- tempt, which afterward, by general use, lost its original significance. Some suppose this god to have been one of the medical idofs of the Phihstines, receiving its title from its imaginary influence over pestiferous insects which are said to infest Philistia. In Taylor's Calmet there is a curious picture of an an- tique paste representing a head of Jupiter, and having the appearance of a huge fly. Gale says : " The Pheni- cians styled their principal god Baal Sameu, 'the lord of heaven,' (in the Pheni- cian language.) The Jews called him Baal-zebub, ' lord of a fly.' Scaliger supposes that the original name was Baal-zebahim, ' lord of sacri- fices,' contracted, by way of contempt, to Baal-zebub, Mord of flies; ' i. e., he could not keep flies away from his sacrifices." — Court of the ei.-TuE Fly-Uod. Gentiles, book ii, c. vii, p. 80. It is thought that Beelzebul is a contemptuous designation of this Pliilis- tine Baal, he by it being called dung-god. See Matt, x, 25; xii, 24; Mark ill, 22; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19, where, according . to the best authorities, Beel- zebub should read Beelzebul. The Jews, being fond of playing upon words, may have intentionally altered the name of this god. Some, however, define Beelzebul to mean "the lord of the dwelling," and den}^ any connectiom between Beelzebul of the New Testament and Baalzebub of the Old. 11 168 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Kings. 325.— THE DIVAN. I, 4. Thou Shalt not come down from that bed on which thou art gone up, but shalt surely die. The royal bed was probablj^ made, as beds are now in the liouses of wealthy Orientals, on the divan, which is a platform about three to four feet in width, extending somelimes across one end of tlie room and sometimes around three sides. It is used as a sofa by day, and as a sleeping-place at 65. — Modern Syrian House — Interior, showing the Divan. night. It is usually elevated from six inches to a foot from the floor, though Professor Hackett found one instance at least in which the height of the divan was such that it was necessary to mount to it by two or three steps. In the palace of a king it would probably be hi<>her than in ordinary dwell- ings, and thus Ahaziali literally went "up" to his bed. In like manner David speaks of going " up" into his bed. Psa. cxxxii, 3. 326— SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS. II, 8. And the sons of the prophets that were at Bethel eame forth to Elisha. The disciples of the prophets were called sons, as teacliers are sometimes called fathers. 2 Kings ii, 12; vi, 21.. These "sons of the prophets" formed a peculiar order, whose mission seems to have been to assist the projjhets in their duties, and in time to succeed them. Tliey were not a mo- nastic order, as some suppose, nor were they merely theological students, n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 169 though they probably studied the law and the history of God's people, . together with sacred poetry and music. The "scliools of the prophets " in which these "sons" were trained are supposed to have been founded by tlie prophet Samuel, though tlieir origin and history are involved in obscurity. They were located not only in Bethel, as appears from the text, but also in Rama, (1 Sam. xix, 19, 20,) in Jericho, (2 Kings ii, 5,) in Gilgal, (2 Kings iv. 38,) and probably in other places. See 1 Sam. X, 5, 10, and 2 Kings vi, 1. Their members were numerous; a hundred are spoken of in Gilgal, (2 Kings iv, 43,) and at least fifty in Jeri- cho. 2 Kings ii, 7. Some of " the sons of the prophets " were married, and probably lived in houses of their own. 2 Kings iv, 1, 2. Others were unmarried and occupied a building in common, (2 Kings vi, 1, 2,) and ate at a common table. 2 Kings iv, 38. How long tiie "schools of the prophets" lasted is not definitely known. They seem to have flourished most in the time of Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha. Fifty years after Elisha's death Amos prophesied ; and, according to his statement, he had no training in a prophetic school, though it does not follow that none existed in his day. See Amos vii, 14. An extended account of these schools may be found in KeiVs Commentary on 1 Sam. xix, 18-24. 327.— THE CRUSE. II, 20. He said, Bring me a new eruse, and put salt therein. And they brought it to him. TselocMth^ here translated "cruse," is rendered "dish" in 2 Kings xxi, 13; "pan," in 2 Chron. xxxv, 13; and "bosom,*' in Prov. xix, 24; xxvi, 15. It is supposed to have been a flat metal dish. 328.— BALDNESS. IT, 23. There came forth little children out of the city, and mocked him, and said unto him, Go up, thou bald head ; go up, thou bald head. In India the expression " bald-head " has no special reference to a lack of hair, but is often applied to men who have an abundance. It is rather a term of contempt, intended to signify a mean and worthless fellow. The Hebrews valued a good head of hair, and greatly deprecated baldness. See Isa. xv, 2, and note. 399.— WASHING HANDS. III, 11. Here is Elisha the son of Shaphat, which poured water on the hands of Elijah. As no knives or forks are used in the East, it is absolutely necessary to have a plentiful supply of water for the hands at the close of every meal. 170 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Kings. For this a pitcher and basin are provided. The hands are held over the basin while a servant pours water from the pitcher. The basin has a double bottom, the upper part of which is full of holes, through which the water as soon as used passes out of sight into the lower part. From the cen- ter of the bottom there ris'es a small projection which is used as a receptacle for the soap. The expression in the text, " poured water on the hands," is intended to show that Elisha performed the work of a servant for Elijah. He was Elijah's assistant as well as his disciple. 330.— HUMAN SACRIFICES. Ill, 27. Then he took his eldest son, that shoiAld have reigned in his stead, and offered him for a burnt offering upon the wall. The ofifering of human sacrifices is a very ancient custom, and was practiced at different times among many nations. Burder, in an elaborate note, (Oriental Literature^ No. 570,) gives a long list of nations who ofifered human sacrifices. Among these are the Ethiopians, the Phenicians, the Scythians, the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Persians, the Indians, the Gauls, the Goths, the Carthaginians, the Britons, the Arabians, and the Romans. These sacrifices were ofifered in various ways. Some were slaughtered by the knife; some were drowned; some were burned; some were buried alive. In some instances, as in tlie case recorded in the text, parents sacrificed their own offspring. The idolatrous Israelites followed the example of their Phenician neighbors in this respect. See Jer. xix, 5. Allu- sion is made to this custom in Micah vi, *7. A few years since an inscription was discovered in Behistun, which, according to the rendering of Professor Grotefend of Hanover, contained an offer of Nebuchadnezzar to let his son be burned to death in order to ward off' the affliction of Babylon. — Savilk's Truth of the Bible, p. 281. 66.— Mode oii' Washings Hands. n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERSvAND CUSTOMS. 171 331.— RIGHTS OF CREDITORS. IV, 1. The creditor is come to take unto hina nay two sons to be bondmen. The Mosaic law gave the creditor the right to claim the person and children of the debtor who could not pay, that they might serve him until the year of Jubilee, when they again became free. See Lev. xxv, 39-41. Reference is made to this custom in Neh. v, 5, 8 ; Job xxiv, 9 ; Isa. 1, 1. There was a similar, though severer, law among other nations, who are supposed to have derived the idea from the Hebrews. See Matt, xviii, 25. 332.— VESSEL FOR OIL. IV, 2. She said, Thine handmaid hath not any thing in the house, save a pot of oiL Asuh, pot, is supposed to have been an earthen jar, deep and narrow, with a pointed bottom which was inserted into a stand of wood or stone, or stuck into the ground like the Roman and Egyptian amphora. Phillott (Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Pot) thinks that the asuk had no handles, while the amphora had a handle on each side. Amphorae, were used for containing or carrying oil, wine, or water. Though usually of earthenware, they were some- times made of metal. The "pitcher " referred to in Markxiv, 13, and in Luke xxii, 10, is supposed to have been an amphora. 333.— ALIYAH— STOOL. IV, 10. Let us make a little chamber, I pray thee, on the wall; and let us set for him there a bed, and a table, and a stool, and a candlestick. 1. The aliyah, "chamber," is an upper room of an Eastern house, be- ing sometimes built on the roof, and sometimes making a second story to the porch, to which it has access by stairs. It is hence called in 2 Sara, xviii, 33, " the chamber over the gate." See note on that text. In the text it is called a chamber " in the wall," probably because its window, opening to the street, made a break in the dead wall, and was thus about the only evidence to an outside spectator of the existence of rooms in the house. It is usually well furnished, and kept as a room for the entertainment of honored guests. Thus the Shunammite entertained Elisha, as related in the text. It was in such a room that Elijah dwelt in Zarephath at the house of the widow. 1 Kings xvii, 19, 23. In the first of these two verses we have the word "loft" as a translation of the word aliyah, thus conveying te 172 BIBLE MANNEt^S AND CUSTOMS. [n Kings. many minds the idea of a bare, desolate p^arret, wliicli is very far from the fact. Further than this. Dr. I^liornsou states chat the poorer kind of houses have no aliyali^ which leaiis him to liie conchision "that this widow woman was not oiigiuaUy among the very poorest classes, but that her extreme destitution was owing to the di-eadful famine wliich then prevailed." — Tlie Land and the Boolc^ vol. i, p. 235. Such a room makes a desirable place of retirement for the master of the house. Ahaziah was in an aliyah^ in his palace of Samaria, when he fell through the lattice-work of tiie window and injured himself 2 Kings i, 2. Eglon, King of Moab, was in a room of this description when he was assas- sinated by Ehud. Judges iii, 20. Aliyah is in this text rendered "summer parlor ; " the marginal reading is " a parlor of cooling." Doubtless the latticed windows were so arranged as to keep the room as cool and comfortable as possible. It was on the roof of an aliyah in the palace of Ahaz that the kings of Judah had erected altars for idolatrous w^orship. 2 Kings xxiii, 12. It was m an aliyah w^here, in the midst of idolaters, Daniel prayed three times daily to the one true God. Dan. vi, 10. Aliyoth are also referred to in Jer. xxii, 13, 14, and in Psa. civ, 3, 13, where the word is most beautifull}^ used in a figurative sense. In the New Testament the aliyah is referred to under the name of " upper room," (vTvepGJov, which is the Septuagint rendering of aliyah.) It was in such a place that the disciples gathered immediately after the ascension of the Saviour. Acts i, 13. In a room of this kind the corpse of Tabitha or Dorcas was placed Here the widows whom she had helped wept over her, and here Peter restored her to life. Acts ix, 37, 39. In a similar place, in the city of Troas, Paul once preached until midnight. Acts xx, 7, 8. It is also supposed by some commentators that the "upper room" where Jesus ate the passover with his disciples was a room of this description. Mark xiv, 15; Luke xxii, 12. Others, however, deny this, since virepijov is not the word used to denote the room. See note on Mark xiv, 15. 2. "Stool." here, like "loft" in 1 Kings xvii, 19, seems to indicate some- thing very rude; but in reality the original word (kisse) is the very word that is used in some other passages to designate a throne. Tlie seat for the prophet was probably the very best that could be procured. 334— LADIES RIDING. IV, 22. She called unto her hmsband, and said. Send me, I pray thee, one of the young men, and one of the asses, that I nnay run to the man of God, and come again. Ladies of the higher class in the East seldom walk, but almost always ride on asses, which are there more frequently used for riding tlinii with us. The II Kings.] BIBLK MAXNKKS AND CUSTOMS. 173 rider is atiended by a servant wlio runs behind, and, with a whip or stick, drives or goads the animal forward at wliatever pace may be desired. Solo- mon U thought to refer t > this custom in Eccles. x, 5-7. 3.35.— TIMES OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. IV, 23. He said, Wherefore wilt thoia go to him to day? it is neither new nrioon, nor sabbath. The prophets were probably accn-^tomed at the new mnon and on the Sib- bath-day to assemble the people for in triiction and editication. The ques- tion of tlie husband of the ShunammiLe woman appears, tlieref >re, to express his astonishment that she should go to the prophet at a time wliich was neither new moon nor Sabbath. Tiie prophet Amos represents the greedy, sordid men of his day as saying, " When will the new moon be gone, that we ma 7 sell corn ? and the Sabbath, tiiat we may set forth wheat? " Amos viii, 5. They preferred their worldly business to the keeping of sacred days, or listen- ing to the instructions of the men of God. 336. — FORMAL SALUTATION. IV, 26. Run now, I pray thee, to meet her, and say unto her, Is it well with thee? Is it well with thy husband? Is it well with the child? And she answered, It is well. Tiiese are merely the custom' ry formal salutations which are so profusely nsed by Orientals. Dr. Thomson says, "If you ask after a person whom you know to be sick, the replj^ at first will invariably be ivell, thank God, even when the next sentence is to inform you that he is dying." — The Land and the Book. vol. ii. p. 177. The expression is also nsed without any reference to the state of one's health ; as in verse 28, wiien the husband expressed his sur- prise at his wife's going to see the prophet at that time, her only answer was, "Well.'' Tlie salutation is the snme in form as that of "Peace," so often spoken of in the Bible. See note on John xx, 19. 337. — RIMMON— ETIQUETTE. V, 18. When my master goeth into the house of Rimmon to worship there, and he leaneth on my hand. 1. Rimmon is supposed to have been a prominent deity of the Sj-rians. Traces of the name are found in Tabrimon, the father of Benhadad, king of Syria, (I Kings xv, 18,) and perhaps in Iladadrimmon. Zecli. xii, 11. Nothing definite is known of this deity or of the nature of his worship, and the derivation of the word is uncertain. Some suppose it to be the applica- tion to a deity of the word rimmon. a pomegrnnate. Stollberg in his History of Religion, (cited bv R ^senmuUer, Morijmland, vol iii, p. 281,) siiys tliat the Orientals cpiisider apples as symbols of the sun. and on this ac ount certMin 174 BIBLE MANXP:KS and customs. [II Kings. court servants of the king of Persia carried a staff with ji golden apple on the IX)*TiL Others derive the word from rama?n, to be high, or lifted up. This again would poiut to the sun ; and it is highly probable that the worship of Rimmon had some connection with that adoration of the sun so common among the heathen nations of the East. 2. It was probably a part of tlie court etiquette that the king should lean on the arm of one of his chief officers. The king of Israel had tiiis custom as well as the king of Syria. 2 Kings vii, 2, 17. The Jews have a tradition that two young women waited on Esther when she was queen of Persia, one to hold up her train, and the other for her to lean upon. 33§.— THE CAB. YI, 25. The fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver. The cab was a dry measure holding nearly two quarts. 339.— MARKET AT THE GATE. YII, 1. To-morrow about this time shall a measure of fine flour be sold for a shekel, and two measures of barley for a shekel, in the gate of Samaria. The vicinity of the gate was a convenient place for the sale of produce, since what was for sale would be exposed to the view of all passing in or out. Reference is made to this in Neh. xiii, 20, 21. Layard, speaking of the vaulted recesses in the gateways of Assyrian cities, says, " Frequently in the gates of cities, as at Mosul, these recesses are used as shops for the sale of wheat and barley, bread and grocery." — Nineveh and Babylon, p. 57, (note.) 340.— OSTENTATION IN MAKING PRESENTS. YIII, 9. So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present with him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty cam- els* burden, and came and stood before him. There is no reason to suppose, as some commentators have done, that these camels were loaded with all that they could carry " of every good thing of Damascus." It was merely the Oriental desire for display which sent the forty camels. No doubt the royal present was really valuable, but the different articles of which it was composed were probably so distributed that each camel had but a small portion, and thus a caravan was brought into use. Maillet (cited by Harmer, vol. ii, p. 313) says, speaking of bridal presents, " Through ostentation, they never fail to load upon four or five horses what might easily be carried by one; in like manner, as to the jewels, trinkets, and other things of value, they place in fifteen dishes what a single plate would very well hold." n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 175 Probably the present whicli the children of Israel sent to Eglon, kiD(y of Moab, was accompanied with a similar parade. It is said of Ehud that when he had made an end to offer the present, he sent away the people that bare the present." Judges iii, 18. This indicates that a number of persons were called into requisition to convey the gift. It is said to be a custom in Persia, when a present is brought to the king, not to permit any person to carry more than one article, no matter how small it may be. 341.— OIL VESSEL. I IX, 1. Gird up thy loins, and take this box of oil in thine hand, and go to Ranaoth-gilead. "We have no account of the material or shape of the pak^ wliich is here called " box," and in 1 Sam. x, 1, "vial." Geseniiis derives it ^Yompdkah^ "to drop." This would seem to indicate a flask with a narrow mouth, from which oil or perfumery might be dropped. Sucli flasks liave been found among Egyptian and Assj-rian remains. 342.— EYE PAINTING. IX, 80. ^A/'hen Jehu, was eonne to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it ; and she painted her face, and tired her head, and looked out at a window. This is hterally, "put her eyes in paint," and alludes to the very ancient custom, still observed in tlie East, of coloring the eyes with a black powder called kohl. Graham says : " It is probable that stibium or antimony was formerly used for this purpose, and in some places it may be so used slill, especially for painting the edges of the eyelids. Kohl, tlie substance now in general use for blackening tlie eyes and the eyebrows, is produced by burning lihan^ <'i kind of frankincense, and by burning the shells of almonds. This kind is merely ornamental; but the kohl, formed from the powder of the ore of lead, is used as much for its supposed medicinal as its beautifying properties. The arch of the eyebrow is much darkened and elongated, and the edges of the eyelids, both above and below, tinged with the dark hues of the kohl, which is supposed to add to the natural beauty of the counte- nance by the effects of contrast." — The Jordan and the Rhine^ p. 190. In Jer. iv, 30 reference is made to this practice: *' Though thou rentest thy face witli painting." The marginal reading is eyes^ instead of "face," and the allusion is to the effect of the powder on the eye. Being astringent, it contracts the eyelids, and by con- trast of color makes the white of the eye look larger, thus " rending " or widening the eye. Prov^ vi, 25, is also supposed to allude to this custom ; and there is a gg _rp^yQ Styles reference to it in Ezek. xxiii, 40. Some think the Evk Painting. 176 BIBLE Manners and customs. [n Kings. practice was common as far back as tlie days of Job, from the fiict tliat one of his dauglilei'S was called Kereii-liappucli, that is, paint-horn. Job xlii, 14. The powder is kept in glass vessels, and was anciently kept In boxes of wood, stone, or pottery of various shapes ; some of tliem highly ornament- ed, and having from two to five differ- ent compartments. Several of, these curiou'S boxes, brought from Egj^pt, and verj^ ancient, are now in the Abbott Collection, New York. The kohl is applied to the eyehds by a small piece of wood, ivory, or silver, made for the purpose, and in 69.-KOHL Boxes and Implements. gi^ap^ ^ot unlike a bodkin. This is moistened in rose-water and dipped into tlie black powder and then drawn under the eyelids. 343— ENEMIES BEHEADED. X, 8. There eame a messenger, and told him, saying, They have brought the heads of the king's sons. And he said. Lay ye them in two heaps at the entering in of the gate imtil the morning. Beheading enemies is a very ancient custom. Thus David cut off tiie head of Goliath and carried it to Saul. 1 Sam. xvii, 51, 57. So also tlie Philistines cut off the head of Saul. 1 Sam. xxxi, 9. Layard found at Nine- veh representations of scenes which well illustrate the text. Heads of shiin enemies are collected and brought to the king, or to the officer appointed to take account of their number. Morier, in his narrative of his second journey through Persia, states that prisoners have been known to be put to death in cold blood in order to increase the number of heads of the slain which are deposited in heaps at the palace gate. Many such heaps of heads are piled up in Persia. Sir William Ousely, who was in Persia in the early part of this century, saw the remains of some of these heaps on which the skulls seemed to be stuck together in a mass of clay or mortar. Similar accounts are given by later travelers. 344.— PRIESTLY ROBES. X, 22. He said unto him that was over the vestry. Bring forth vestments for all the worshipers of Baal. And he brought them forth vestments. Like the priests of almost all nations, the priests of Baal had their pai ticu- lar sacred robes vvliicli thoy used only while officiating. They were made n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 177 probably of white byssus, and were kept in a particular wardrobe of tho temple under the care of some person appointed for tlie purpose, 345.— STORAGE FOR BEDS. XI, 2. They hid him, even him and his nurse, in the bed- chamber. Literally, in the chamber of beds, which was a room, not for sleeping, but for storing beds, whence they could be brought out when needed for use. Their place of concealment was thus less likely to be discovered than if they had been hidden in a mere sleeping-room. See also 2 Chron. xxii, IL 346.— CORONATION CEREMONIES, XI, 12. He brought forth the king's son, and put the crown upon him, and gave him the testimony ; and they made him king, and anointed him ; and they clapped their hands, and said, God save the king. We have here noted the most important ceremonies connected with the coronation of a Hebrew king. See also 2 Chron. xxiii, 11. 1. The crown was put upon him. We have no definite knowledge of the shape of the crowns which were worn by the Hebrew kings. The original word used here is the same that is used to denote the diadem of the liigh priest, which was a plate of gold tied around tlie head with a ribbon. Exod. xxxix, 30, 31. Doubtless there were other forms of crowns, as other words are used in various passages. 2. They gave him the " testimony." That is, they made to him a formal presentation of a manuscript roll of the Divine law, as an indication tliat this was to be his guide in administering the governs ent. 3. Tliey anointed him. This was not done in every case of coronation, and from the expression "they made him king," which precedes the state- ment of his anointing, it has been inferred that the essential parts of the coronation ceremony were those conn^^cted witli the crown and the "testi- mony ; " the anointing of the founder of a dynasty being considered all that was necessary so long as the succession was unbroken in his family. Saul was thus anointed, (1 Sam. x, 1,) and so also was David. 2 Sam. ii. 4. Solomon was likewise anointed, (1 Kings i, 39,) because there was a proba- bility tliat his riglit to the throne would be disputed ; and Joash, in the text, was anointed for the same reason. Anointing was a ceremony connected with coronation before the Jews ever had a king, as is evident from Judges ix, 8, 15. It was by Divine command that the people of God adopted it. See 1 Sam. ix, 16: x, 1; 1 Kings i, 34, 39. From this circumstance the king was called " the Lord's anointed." See 1 Sam. xii, 3, 5 : 2 Sam. i, 14, 16; Psa. ii, 2; Hab. iii, 13, etc. 178 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. UI Kings, 4. The people then clapped their bands and shouted, *' Live the king." This was their part of the ceremony, and denoted their approbation of tlie newly crowned sovereign. Mr. Harmer (Observations, vol. ii, p. 433) calls attention to the fact that the Hebrew text in this place, and in Psa. xlvii, 1, and Isa. Iv, 12, has hand instead of hands^ as our translators have it. He suggests that a different sort of clapping may have been meant by this than what is ordinarily understood by clapping hands, where one hand is forcibly struck upon another, though that is practiced in the East. He refers to an Oriental custom of striking the fingers of one hand gently and rapidly upon the hps as a token of joy, and supposes that the expression clap the hand., in distinction from clap the hands^ refers to some similar custom observed by the Hebrews. 347.-^THE KING'S PLACE. XI, 14. The king stood by a pillar as the manner was. This "pillar" was some prominent place which the king was in the habit of occupying in the temple. It is also referred to in 2 Kings xxiii, 3. It is said in 2 Chron. xxxiv, 31, that king Josiah "stood in his placed The same v/ord is there used that is here rendered " pillar.'* It is supposed to have been an elevated stand or platform, and some commentators think it identical with the brazen scaffold which Solomon built in the center of the temple court. See 2 Chron. vi. 13; xxiii, 13. 34§.— BOW AND ARROWS. XIII, 15. Elisha said unto him, Take bow and arrows. And he took unto him bow and arrows. 1. The bow is a very ancient weapon, and early mention is made of it in the Bible. Ishraael became an archer. Gen. xxi, 20. Isaac sent Esau to get venison by means of the bow. Gen. xxvii, 3. It also came into early use as a weapon of war. Gen. xlviii, 22. Bows were made of various materials : wood, horn, and even ivory, were used. Sometimes the wood and horn were united in the bow, the wood being backed with horn. Metallic bows were Egyptian Quivers and Bows. n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 179 also used. See Job xx, 24 ; Psa. xviii, 34. Bows were of various shapes. The Egyptian bow — a round piece of wood from five feet to five and a Jialf long — was either nearly straight, with a slight curve at each end, or else showed a deep curve in the center when unstrung. Assyrian bows were sometimes curved and sometimes angular. They were shorter than the Egyptian bows. The strings of ancient bows were of leather thongs, horse hair, hide, or catgut. Yarious modes were adopted for bending the bow, the hand, the knee, or the foot being used. It was probably most usually bent by the aid of the foot, since darak, the word commonly used in speaking of bending the bow, literally means to "tread." 2. The arrows were made of reed or wood and tipped with metal or horn. They were sometimes feathered, though not always. From Psa. xxxviii, 2, we infer that they sometimes had barbed points. 349— MODE OF DECLARING WAR. XIII, 17. He said. Open the window eastward. And he opened it. Then Elisha said. Shoot. And he shot. This was an ancient method of declaring war, and is often referred to in ancient and classical writings. A herald came to the confines of the enemy's territory, and, after observing certain solemnities, cried with a loud voice, " I wage war against you," at the same time assigning the reasons for the war.. He then shot an arrow or threw a spear into the country to be invaded, which was considered sufficient warning of warlike intentions. Thirty days were allowed for peaceable settlement; if no such settlement was reached during that time, hostilities began at the expiration of it. 350.— HEBREW MODE OF BURIAL. XIII, 21. It eame to pass, as they were burying a man, that, behold, they spied a band of men ; and they east the man into the sepuleher of Elisha : and when the man was let down, and touched the bones of Elisha, he revived, and stood up on his feet. To understand this text fullj^, it is necessary to remember that among the Israelites the dead were not buried in coffins as with us. The Egyptians sometimes used coffins, (see note on Gen. 1, 26 ;) but the Israelites, who brought many Egyptian customs with them into Palestine, did not adopt this custom. They wrapped their dead in linen cloths and laid them in the tomb. See note on John xix, 40. Thus the man mentioned in the text was about to be buried when his friends saw the Moabites. Seeing that they could not reach the grave prepared for him without being perceived by the enemy, they quickly rolled away the stone from Elisha's sepulcher, near vhich they were, and put the corpse there. As there was no coffin for either body, the body of the newly dead coull easily touch the boues of the buried prophet. 180 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Kings. 351.— SUCCOTH-BENOTH— HEATHEN GODS. XYII, 30, 31. The men of Babylon made Sueeotli-benoth, and the men of Cuth made Nergal, and the men of Hamath made Ashima. And the Avites made Nibhaz and Tartak, and the Sepharvites burnt their children in fire to Adrammeleeh and Anammeleeh, the gods of Sepharvaim. 1. The precise meaning of Succoth-henoth is not known. Its literal signifi- cation is, *' booths of the daughters ; " and it is supposed to be, not the name of a god, but of places where women abandoned themselves to impure rites con- nected with the worship of Bab^donian deities. Sir H. Rawlinson believes that the word represents the Olialdee goddess Zir-banit, worshiped at Baby- lon and called queen of the place. Gesenius suggests that " perhaps it should read Succoth-bamoth, the booths in high places, consecrated to idols." 2. Nergal was a well-known Assyrian deity. The word signifies "great man" or "hero." He is called by various names on thp monuments: "tlie great brother; " "the storm ruler; " "the god of battles; " " the god of the chase." The last is his, principal title, and he seems to have been the chief patron of hunting, which fact lias led some to believe that he represented the deified hero Nimrod. The name of NergaJ. often appears on Assyrian seals and cylinders, and his symbol was a man-lion, or human-headed lion with eagle's wings. Astronomically, Nergal corresponds to Mars. 3. Ashima was a god of the people of Hamath. The majority of Jew- ish writers assert that this deity was worshiped under the form of a goat without wool; others say under the form of a lamb. The goat is found among sacred animals on Babjdonian monuments. This would make Ashima correspond to the Egyptian Mendes and the Greek Pan. It is also supposed by some writers that Ashima was the same as the Phenician god Esmun, the Phenician Esculapius, to whom were also attributed the charac- teristics of Pan. 4. Nibhaz was a god of the Avites, but nothing is known with certainty of the peculiarities of the deity or the shape of the idol. The Hebrew inter- preters say that the idol was in the form of a man with the head of a dog. The Egyptians worshiped the dog, and, according to some writers, their god Anubis was represented by a man with a dog's head, though Wilkinson asserts that the liead is that of a jackal. The family relation of the two animals is, however, sufficiently near for the purposes of idolatry. 5. Tariak was another Avite deity. Some Jewish writers suppose the idol to have been in the form of an ass; but others assert that this is mere conjecture, and that the name, which they render hero of darkness, has reference to some planet of supposed malign influence, such as Mars or Saturn. 6. Adrarnmelechwas a god of the Sepharvites, and is supposed to be iden- n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 181 tical with Molech, for a description of which deity see note on Lev. xviii, 21. Rawhnson identifies Adrammelech with the Chuldean god San or Sansi. 7. Anamrnelech was also a god of the Sepharvites. No satisfactory etymology of the name has been found. Some suppose this deity to be re- presented by the Arabian consteUalion Ceplieus, containing tlie shepherd and the sheep. Some authorities give the idol the figure of a horde, others that of a pheasant or a quail. Human sacrifices were offered to this god as well as to Adrammelech. 352.— DEPORTATION. XVIII, IL The king of Assyria did carry away Israel unto Assyria, and put them in Halah and in Habor by the river of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes. The practice of carrying into captivity all the inhabitants of a city or of a section of country was in use by the Assyrians from a very early period of their history, and is frequently referred to and illustrated on their monu- ments. " In the most flourishing period of their dominion — the reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon — it prevailed m( st widely, and was car- ried to the greatest extent. Chaldeans were transported into Armenia ; Jews and Israelites into Assyria and Me(ha; Arabians, Babylonians, Lusianians, and Persians into Palestine — the most distant portions of the empire changed inhabitants, and no sooner did a people become troublesome from its patriot- ism and love of independence than it was weakened by dispersion, and its spirit subdued by a severance of all its social associations." — Rawltxson", Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 238. Tiglath Pileser carried a large number of captives to Assyria twenty years before the captivity referred to in the text, ^ee 2 Kings xv, 29. Eight years after this Sennacherib took "the fenced cities of Judah." 2 Kings xviii, 13. An account of this event is given on one of the Assyrian monu- ments. The king claims to have carried away over two nundred thousand of tlie inhabitants. More than a hundred years after this Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, invaded Judea, and by several distinct deportations carried the people into captivity. See 2 Kings xxiv, 14; xxv, II; 2 Chrou. xxxvi, 20; Jer. lii, 28-30. 353.— VARIOUS USES OF THE GRAPE. XVIII, 32. A land of corn and wine, a land of bread and vineyards, a land of oil olive and of honey. An American missionary in Turkey states that in some districts grapes are so plentiful that, with oil and bread, they form the chief nourishment of the people. Thus it was, according to the text, in Palestine and in As- syria in the days of Hezekiah. Each was " a land of bread and vineyards." The same writer, in speaking of the various uses of the grape as a staple food of the people, enumerates fifteen different articles made from that fruit. 182 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Kings. Among them are preserves, jellies, and confectionery, made of the fresh juice; pickles, molasses, and sugar; besides wine and brandy, and other more familiar preparations. See Bihliotheca Sacra, vol. v, pp. 283, 28"?. 354.— CAPTIVE GODS. XVIII, 34 Where are the gods of Hamath, and of Arpad ? where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah? The Assyrian monuments give evidence of a custom which illustrates the haughty language of this text. It was tlie practice of Assyrian conquerors to take the idols which thej^ found in the temples of the people whom they subdued and convey them to Assyria, where they were assigned a place in Assyrian temples as captive gods. Hence Sennacherib spoke to the Jews by his embassador informing them that the Assyrian deity was so powerful that none other could cope with him. The gods of all other people against whom the Assyrians had fought had been captured, and it was in vain for the Jews to expect their god to save them. 355.— NISROCH. XIX, 87. As he was worshiping in the house of JSTisroeh his god. Nisroch was an idol of Nineveh, concerning which there have been vari- ous conjectures. The rabbins affirmed that it was made out of one of the planks of Noah's ark. Others supposed it to be an image of the dove which Noah sent out from the ark. Some have thought the planet Saturn to be represented by it, and some the constellation of the eagle. Others have sup- posed Nisroch to be a representation of Asshur, the deified patriarch and head of the Assyrian pantheon. These various opinions are sufficient to show the obscurity connected with the subject. The etymology of the word, which occurs only here and in Isa. xxxvii, 38, is uncertain. Some philologists think that Nisroch is not a correct reading, while others suppose the word to mean the great eagle. This bird was held in great veneration by the ancient Persians, and was also worshiped by the Arabians before the time of Mohammed. From the fre- quent appearance on the Assyrian sculptures of a human figure with the head of an eagle or a hawk, Layard conjectured that this was the repre- sentation of Nisroch, and this has so often been asserted that many imagine that whenever they see a picture of one of these hawk-headed figures they Bee a picture of Nisroch. Rawlinson, however, asserts the contrary, and eays that tiie hawk-headed figure is more like a subordinate character, an attendant genius, than a god. No name of any god has yet been discovered on the monuments which bears any resemblance to Nisroch. n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 183 356. —SUN-DIALS. XX, 11. Isaiah the prophet cried u.nto the Lord : and he brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had gone down in the dial of Ahaz. Maaloih, *'dial," is the same word that is rendered "deg:rees" in this verse, and " stairs 2 Kings ix, 13. This and the parallel passage in Lsa. xxxviii, 8, are the only places where the word "dial" occurs. Our trans- lators probably judged correctly in supposing from the context that by maaloth in this place some instrument for measuring time is meant; but what was its peculiar shape is left to conjecture. The Babylonians were doubtless the originators of the sun-dial. Herodotus states that the Greeks derived it from them, (Euterpe, chap, cix;) and it is liighly probable that king Ahaz, after whom this dial in the palace court was named, obtained the idea from Babylon. Some think this dial was a hemispherical cavity in a horizontal square stone, with the gnomon in the middle, the shadow of which, falling on different lines cut in the hollow surface, marked the hours of the day. Others imagine a vertical index surrounded by twelve concentric lines. It may have been, as some suppose, a pillar set up in an open elevated place, with encircling steps on which the shadows fell; or stairs so constructed that the shadow of an obehsk or of a gnomon on tiie top platform might indicate the liours. The ''degrees," however, must have marked shorter periods thau hours, since ten forward and ten backward are spoken of as only a part of the whole number of degrees. See Keil, Commentary, in loco. It lias been suggested that the " stairs " from wli'ch Jehu was proclaimed king, as recorded in 2 Kings ix, 13, were the same as the "dial " of Ahaz. As already noted, the same word, maaloth, represents both. The idea is that Jehu was taken up the different steps of the dial until he reached the top platform, where he was placed by the side of the gnomon, when the trumpets were blown and the formal announcement was made, " Jehu is king." See Clarke, Commentary on 2 Kings ix, 13. 35T.— ROYAL TREASURES. XX, 18. Hezekiah hearkened unto them, and showed them all the house of his precious things, the silver, and the gold, and the spices, and the precious ointment, and all the house of his armor, and all that was found in his treasures. It has long been the custom for Eastern princes to amass great quantities of treasure merely for ostentation. Tlie kings of Judah may have had a similar custom. Burder {Oriental Customs^ No. 433) tells of the treasure of an Eastern monarch which was so immense that two unusually large cellars or warehouses were not sufficient t.) liold it. It consisted of precious stones, 12 184 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. m Kings. plates of gold, and gold coin enough to load a liundred mules. It had been collected by tvvelve of his predecessors, and it was said that he had in In's treasur}^ a coffer three spans long and two broad full of precious stones of incalculable value. 35§.— HORSES USED FOR IDOLATROUS PURPOSES. XXIII, 11. He took away the horses that the kings of Judah had given to the sun. Allusion is here made to a peculiar form of sun-worship. Among tlie Persians horses were considered sacred to the sun. The king of Persia when he sacrificed offered a white horse to that luminary. The people, when they wished to sacrifice to the sun, mounted their horses in the early morn- ing and rode toward the rising orb as if to salute it, and tlien offered tlie noble victims to it in sacrifice. See Gale's Court of the Gentiles, book ii, chap, viii, p. 115. The kings of Judah had evidently heard of this custom, and imitated it; though some commentators doubt that they actually slew the animals, sup- posing that they simply went in state in the early morning to see the sun rise and to adore it. Some have even imagined that these horses were not real, but merely statues, made of wood, stone, or metal, which stood at the entrance of the temple. The mention made of the " chariots of the sun " in the latter part of the verse seems, however, to indicate that living animals were intended, and tliat they were harnessed to these chariots. Whether they were really sacrificed or not, they were kept and u-ed for idolatrous purposes, and therefore became proper subjects of confiscation. 359.— GRAVE-STONES. XXni, 17. He said, What title is that that I see ? And the nnen of the city told him, It is the sepuleher of the man of God. This refers to the custom of marking tlie graves of tlie dead by some d's- tinguisiiing sign. The word here reniered "title'' is tlie same that in Ezek. xxxix, 15, is rendered " sign." It means a pillar set up to designate a grave, and served the twofold purpose of a tablet for an epitaph, and also as a sign to warn all passers-by lest they should become ceremonially unclean by touching tlie grave. The absence of an}'- such sign is what is referred to in Luke xi, 44: "Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye are as graves which appear not, and the men that walk over them are not aware of them." Dr. Shaw says of the cemeteries in Barbary: "The gravies are all dis- tinct and separate ; each of them having a stone, placed upright, both at the head and feet, inscribed with the name of the deceased. — Travels^ p. 219. n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 185 360.— PRISONERS BLINDED— FETTERS. XXV, 7. They slew the sons of Zedekiah before his eyes, and put out the eyes of Zedekiah, and bound him with fetters of brass, and carried him to Babylon. See also Jer. xxxix, 7 ; lii, 11. 1. Blinding has long been a common Oriental punishment. See Judg. xvi, 21 ; 1 Sam. xi, 2. In Persia, during the tince of the younger Cyrus, men deprived of their sight for crimes were a common spectacle along the highway. This pen- alty is still inflicted by the Persians on princes who are declared to have forfeit- ed their right to the throne. Chardin states that one mode of blinding was by passing a red-hot copper plate before the eyes. This did not always produce total blindness, and sometimes the point of a dagger or of a spear was thrust into the eye. The Babvlonians and the Assyri- " • . T 71. — Blinding a Prisoner. ans, as well as the Persians, made use of the same cruel punishment. Frequent representations of it are foiuid on the ancient sculptures. The engraving represents part of a scene from a marble slab discovered at Khorsabad. The Assyrian king has several prisoners brought before him to be bhuded. In his left hand he holds the cords at the end of which are hooks inserted in tl:e prisoner's lips. See note on Isa. xxxvii, 29. In his right hand is a spear, which he thrusts into the eyes 2. Fetters were of various shapes and materials. Those which were put on Zedekiah were made of brass or copper ; so also were those with which Smison was fastened. Judges xvi, 21. There is in the British Mu- seum a pair of bronze fetters, brought from Nineveh, wh ch weigh 72.— Bronze Fetters from Ninevmi. e'ght pounds eleven ounces, and measure sixteen and a half inches in length Tnese probably resemble the fetters put on Zedekiah. "The rings which inclose the ankles are thinner than the other part, so that they could be hammered smaller after the feet had been passed through them. One of these rings has been broken, and when whole the fetters may have weighed about nine pounds." — Sharpe s Bible Texts Illustrated. 186 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Chronicles. I. CHRONICLES. 361.— MARRIAGE OF SLAVE TO MASTER'S DAUGHTER. ir, 34, 35. Now Sheshan had no sons, bu.t daughters. And Sheshan had a servant, an Egyptian, whose name was Jarha. And Sheshan gave his daughter to Jarha his servant to wife. According to the Mosaic law, daughters were not to be married out of tlio tribe to which they belonged. This was commanded in order to keep the inheritance of each tribe to itself. See Numbers, chapter xxxvi. In the text, Sheshan, who had no sons, is represented as marrying his daughter to an P]g3^ptian, and th.at Egyptian a servant. Harmer states tliat thougli this may have been contrary to the law of Moses, it was in accordance with a custom frequently practiced in the East. He quotes from one of Maillet's letter-", in which an account is given of one Hassan, who had been a slave to Kamel, the " Kiaia of the Asaphs of Cairo, that is, colonel of four or five thousand men who go under thp.t name." " Kamel," says Maillet, ''accord- ing to the custom of the country, gave him one of his daughters in marriage, and left him at his death one part of the great riches he had amassed to- gether in the course of a long and prosperous life." He also succeeded his master in his office. — Observations^ vol. iv, p. 298. 362.— TIDINGS CARRIED TO IDOLS. X, 9. They took his head, and his armor, and sent into the land of the Philistines round about to carry tidings unto their idols. The Hindoos have a custom corresponding to this. When they gain a victory over their enemies they carry the tidings to their idols with great pomp and ceremony. In the common affairs of life the same practice is resorted to. A man delivered from prison, or from the wicked scheme of his enemies, always goes to his gods to carry the news. Roberts gives the fol- lowing as a specimen of the formal speech used on such occasions : "Ah I Swaray, you know Muttoo wanted to ruin me; he therefore forged a deed in my name, and tried to get my estates. But I resisted him, and it has just been decided before the court that he is guilty. I am therefore come to praise you, 0 Swamy !" — Oriental Jllust rations^ p. 220. 363.— STONE-BOWS. XII, 2. They were armed with bows, and could use both the right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows out of a bow. It will be noticed that the words Imrlinn and shooting have been supplied by tiie translators. Without them the reading would be, "could use both I Chronides.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 187 tlie right hand and the left in stones and arrows out of a bow." T[jis has led some to think tliat there was in use among the Hebrews a kind of bow for shooting stones as well as arrows; an instrument corresponding to the stone-bow in use in the M ddle Ages. These stone-bows of David's men may have suggested ihe invention, two hundred and fifty years later, of the heavier instruments of a similar character to be used in sieges. See note on 2 Chron. xxvi, 15. 364.--AMEN. XVI, 36. All the people said, Amen, and praised the Lord. A7nen literally means firm, from aman, to prop, to support. Its figurative meaning is faithful. Its use is designed as a confirmatory response, and the custom is very ancient. See Num. v, 22 ; Deut. xxvii, 15-26. "The Jewish doctors . give three rules for pronouncing the word: 1. That it be not pronounced too hastily and swiftly, but with a grave and distinct voice. 2. That it be not louder than the tone of him that blessed. 3. It was to be expressed in faith, with a certain persuasion that God would bless tliem and hear their prayer." — Burder, Oriental Customs, No. 438. It is also customary for the Mohammedans, at tlie close of every public prayer, to say, Amen. 365.— THE HORN. XXV, 5. All these were the sons of Heman the king's seer in the words of God, to lift up the horn. Some of the earliest wind instruments were no doubt made of the horns of animals, and w)ien afterward metals were used in their manufacture they retained more or less of the original shape, and continued to be called by the original name. The difierenee betv/een the ZiereTZ, "horn," and the shophar, ''trumpet," "cornet," is supposed to have been principally in the shape, the latter having less of a curved shape than the former. See note on Psa. xcviii, 6, The keren is mentioned as a musical instrument in Josli. vi, 5, and in Dan. iii, 5, 7, 10, 15. In the passage in Daniel it is translated "cornet." II. CHRONICLES. 366.— FORTIFIED CITIES. VIII, 5. Also he built Beth-horon th® upper, and Beth-horon the nether, fenced cities, with walls, gates, and bars. 1. Fortifications are as ancient as cities ; indeed, some writers assert that the difference, anciently, between cities and villages was simply the differ- 188 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Chronicles. ence between walled and un walled towns. The E.oryptian and Ass^Tian sculptures contain representations of " fenced cities " with walls of squared stone or squared timber on the sum- mit of scarped rocks. Some of the fenced cities of Scripture are thought to have been protected by stockades of wood. Sometimes there 78. — Walls and Towees; from Babylonian Coins. ^^^g ^^q^q than one wall to a fortified city. It was thus with Jerusalem. See 2 Kings xxv, 4; 2 Chron. xxxii, 5. Sometimes there was a ditch outside the wall, and a low wall or rampart protecting that. At regular distances on the wall there were towers for the purposes of watching and defense. See 2 Kings ix, IT ; 2 Chron. xxvi, 15. The gates were strongly protected with bolts or bars of brass or iron. Sometimes there was built at some central point within the city a citadel or stronghold wliich might resist attack even after the walls were destroyed. 2. To "build" a city often meant not to give a new town a location, and to erect the houses, but to build walls around a town already inhabited. It was thus that Solomon built the two Beth-horons mentioned in the text. Thus Rehoboam "built" the cities named in 2 Chron. xi, 5-10. So Jero- boam "built" Shechem and Penuel, (1 Kings xii, 25.) and Hiel "built" Jericho, (1 Kings xvi, 34.) a city which had been inhabited long before. Judges i, 16; iii, 13. 36y.-^CREMATI0N. XVI, 14. Laid, him in the bed which was filled with sweet odors and divers kinds of .spices prepared by the apothecaries* art: and they naade a very great burning for hina. There is a division of opinion among commentators concerning the mean- ing of the last clause in this verse. Some of tlie best authorities believe that the *' very great burning " was the burning of tlie odoriferous substances which were brought together. They understand that a large quantity of these substances was collected and placed in the sepulcher of Asa, and tliat after these were burned the body of the dead king was laid upon the per- fumed ashes, as on a bed. This Ir also referred to in the promise which was made to Zedekiah concerning his burial. Jer. xxxiv, 5. It is likewise thought to have been this which was denied to Jehoram, on the occasion of his death, because of his wickedness. 2 Chron. xxi, 19. Od the other hand, it is asserted that burning spioos and perfumes in this n Chronicles.] J3IBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 189 way for the dead does not find a parallel iu the customs of any nation aneient or modern; and thai these various passages refer to the burning of the body together with tlie spices on a funeral pile. Jaiin says, " The ancitnt Hebrews considered burning the body a matter of very great reproach, and rarely did it except when they wished, together with tlie greatest punishment, to inflict the greatest ignominy.*' Gen. xxxviii, 24. He considers the burning of Saul and of his sons (I Sam. xxxi, 12) an exceptional instance, designed hy their friends to prevent any further indignities from the Philistines. Thi^ sentiment in reference to tlie burning of bodies afterward underwent a change. A hundred and forty years after Saul's death the body of Asa was burnt, and the event is spoken of by the historian not as a new thing, but as a custom already established. Over a cen ury later we find the same custom referred to. See Amos vi, 10. In time the revolution of sentiment became so complete that while burning was considered the most distinguished honor, not to be burned was regarded the mosi signal disgrace, as in the case of Jelioram alveady mentioned. Another change of sentiment eventually took place. After the captivity the Jews conceived a great hatred to this rite, and the Talmudists endeavored to explain the passages respecting it as refer- ring to the burning of the aromatic substances alone. See Jahn's Archce- ology, § 210. Roberts takes substantiallj'' the same view, and gives a detailed account of the Hindoo method of cremation. The Hindoos burn the bodies of nearly all their illustrious dead, and it is considered disgraceful not to liave the ceremony performed. They first wash the corpse with water mingled with fragrant oils and scented waters. The body is then placed on a bed, or on a chariot covered with crimson cloth, and is carried on men's shoulders to the place of burning. The funeral pile is seldom more than five feet high, and when prepared for a great man is made of sandal and otiier aromatic woods, to which are added sweet odors and spices. The body is then placed on the pile, and the son or nearest relative has his head shaved. Then tlie son takes a torch and, turning his head away from the pile, sets fire to it, and returns home. Those who remain to see the corpse consumed throw clarified butter and oiis on the fire to hasten the combustion. See Roberts* Oriental Illustrations, p. 234. 368.-^DEATH BY BEING THROWN FROM A ROCK. XXV, 12. Brought them unto the top of the rock, and east them down from the top of the roek, that they all were broken in pieces. This was a very ancient punishment, practiced among different nations. In Greece, according to the Delphian law, those who were guilty of sacrilege were pu-nishod in this manner. The Romans also inflicted the same punish- ment for various offenses. Among tlie Turks and the Persians a similar 190 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [U Chronicles. mode of capital punishment was adopted. Selden has suggested that the mode of Jezebel's deatl) is an ilhistration of this custom. 2 Kings ix, 33. 569.— TOWERS. XXYI, 10. He built towers in the desert. The duties of shepherds ofteu led them into wild distn'-'ts where their lives were in danger from wandering brigands. Hence it became necessary to erect towers into which they miy eunntng men, to be on the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal. The invention of these enghies of war marks an era in warfare, since by their use tlie power of an army was greatly increased whether for attack or defense. They were simply machine bows and slings, which, by tl>e appli- cation of mechanical principles, were made to throw heavier projecferles than the smaller weapons which were held in the hand. We have here doubtless the origin of the halistce and catar)uU(B which afterward became so famous in Roman warfare. The hcdista was used to shoot stones; the cutapulta pro- jected darts. Historians mention three sizes of halistac^ which were graded n Chronicles.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 191 according to the weight of the stones they threw, namely: a half hundred weight, a whole hundred weight, and three hundred weight. Occasionally there were some used which threw stones as light as two pounds. Several balls of limestone, which were found in the excavations in Jerusalem in 1869, are thought to have been used as missiles and hurled from a balisia. Cata- puUce were denominated according to the lengtli of the darts thrown from them. No exact idea can now be had of the forms of these engines. The Homans classified them under the generic title of tormenium, because of the twisting of the hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibers from whicli the elastic string was made which gave impetus to the projectile. See SMirti's JJlct. Class. Aniiq., s. v. Tormentum. These engines were often used from the top of a " mount or inchned plane. See note on Ezek. iv, 2. 371.— CHANGE OF NAME. XXXVI, 4. The king of Egypt made Eliakim his brother king over Judah and Jerusalem, and turned his name to Jehoiakim. It has long been a custom among Eastern people to change their names on tlie occurrence of some great event in life. It was in accordance with the divine command at the time of the renewal of the covenant that the name of Abram was changed to Abraham, (Gen. xvii, 5; Neh ix, 7,) and that of Sarai to Sarah. Gen. xvii, 15. Jacob's name was changed to Israel, in commemoration of his prevaihng prayer. Gen. xxxii, 28; xxxv, 10. The king of Egypt changed the name of Josepli to Zaphnath-paaneah, because of his ability to reveal secrets. Gen. xli, 45. Another king of Egypt sub- sequently changed the name of Eliakim the son of Josiah to Jehoiakim, when he made him king of Judah, as narrated in the text, and also in 2 Kings xxiii, 34. So when the king of Babylon made Matianiah king he changed his name to Zedekiah. 2 Kings xxiv, IT. In like manner the name of Ha- dassah was changed to Esther. Esth. ii, 7. So, also, when Nebuchadnezzar wished to have a few of the young Jewish prisoners taught in the Chaldean language and customs, he changed their names from Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, to Belteshazzar, Shadracb, Meshach, and Abed-nego. Dan. i 6, 7. The custom is further illustrated by Sir John Chardin in his Travels in Persia. He states that King Sefl, the first years of whose reign were unhappy on account of wars and famine in man}" of the Persian provinces, was persuaded by his counselors to change his name as a means of chang' ine: the tide, of fortune, since there must be about the name of Sefi some hidden fatal power of evil. He was, therefore, crowned anew in the y-ear 1666 under the name of Solyman III. All seals, coins, and other public symbols that had on them the name of Sefi. were broken, the same as if the ki:ig had been dead, and his successor had taken his place upon the throne. 192 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezra. EZRA. SY^.—NETHINIM. II, 43. The Nethinim. These were men who assisted the Levites in performing the meanest offices connected with the temple service. Part of them lived in Jerusalem, and part were distributed among the Levitical cities. They are supposed to have been Canaauites reduced to servitude, (Josh, ix, 21-2'7,) and captives taken in war, who were set apart to this service, and therefore called nethinim : the given, the devoted. They were held in low esteem by the Jews, occupying a social position even lower than the mamzer, or illegitimate off- spring. 3T3.-^THE PERSIAN DARIC II, 69. Threescore and one thousand drams of gold. The coin referred to here and in chapter viii, 27, and also in Neh. vii, 71, 72, is the Persian daric. It was a tlrck piece of gold having on one side the figure of a king with bow and javelin, or bow and dagger, and on the other an irregular oblong depression. The weiiJ^ht of the daric was from 124 to 129 grains troy. Its value has been variously estimated; it was probably not far from 75.— Persian Daeic. six dollars, gold. 3T4,^M0NEY TABLETS. III, T. They gave money also unto the masons, and to the carpenters. The particular kind of money which was given to these workmen is not here mentioned. It may liave been gold and silver; perhaps it was clay ; for it is a fact worth mentioning that in Babylonia and in Persia at that very timo there were in use certain clay tablets which are supposed by some writers to have been used for the same purpose that we now me bank-notes 1 Among other curious things which Loftus unearthed at Warka were about forty "small tablets of unbaked clay, covered on both sides with minute characters." They were in length from two inches to four and a half, and in breadih from one inch to three. They had on them the names of various kings, and dates ranging from 626 to 525 B. C. Among these was the name . of Cyrus, the king who directed the work for which the money was given according to the text. Sir Henry Rawlinson, who examined the inscriptions, Bays that the tablets "seemed to be notes issued by the government for Ezra.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 193 the convenience of circulation, representing a certain value, which was always expressed in measures of weight, of gold or silver, and redeemable on presentation at the royal treasury." Loftus adds, "These tablets were, in point of fact, the equivalents of our own bank-notes, and prove that a system of artificial currency prevailed in Babylonia, and also in Persia, at an unprecedented early age — centuries before the introduction of paper or printing." — Travels in Chaldea and Stisiana, p. 222. 375.— THE TEMPLE OF ZERUBBABEL. VI, 8, 4. Let the hoiAse be builded, the place where they of- fered, sacrifices, and let the foundations thereof be strongly laid ; the height thereof threescore cubits, and the breadth thereof threescore cubits ; with three rows of great stones, and a row of new timber. This temple, sometimes called the second temple, and sometimes tlie temple of Zerubbabel, was built on the site of the first, or Solomon's temple. We have not so definite a description given of this as we have of Solomon's temple. The second temple was larger than the first. The *' rows " of stones are supposed to refer to three stories of chambers, such as were attached to Solomon's temple, and on these was placed an additional story of wood. Tlie temple of Zerubbabel, though of greater size than that of Solomon, was inferior to it in magnificence. According to Jewish author- ities its altar of burnt-offering was of stone instead of brass, and it had but one table of sliow-bread and but one candlestick. It is also said that the sanctuary was entirely empty, excepting that in place of the ark of tlie cov- enant a stone was set three fingers high, on which the high priest placed the censer and sprinkled the blood of atonement. Some suppose, however, that a new ark was made and set in the sanctuary. The rabbins reckon five different important features of the first temple which were wanting in the second: I, The Ark of the Covenant. 2, The Sacred Eire. 3. The She- kiuah. 4. The Holy Spirit. 5. The answer by Urim and Thummim. Some of those distinctions are, however, thought by more sober writers to be a httle fanciful, 3T6.-^ADAR, VI, 15. This house was finished on the third day of the month Adar. This was the closing month of the year, and corresponded very nearly to our month of March. 194 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Nehemiah. NEHEMIAH. 3Tr.— CHISLEU. I, 1. It came to pass in the month Chisleu. This corresponded very nearly to our month of December. 37§.^THE ROYAL BUTLER. I, 11. For I was the king's eup- bearer. The office of royal cup-bearer or butler is of high antiquity, and was a place of great honor in the Persian court. The cup-bearer, being in the daily presence of the king, and seeing him at his sea- sons of relaxation from care, had many oppor- tunities of ingratiating himself into the good-will of the monarch, and thus doubtless obtained many favors which were denied others. Cup- bearers were generally eunuchs, and are often found represented on Assyrian monuments. In these representations they hold the cup in the left hand, and in the right hand a fly-flap made of the spht leaves of the palm. A long napkin, richly embroidered and fringed, is tiirown over the left shoulder for the king to wipe his lips with. Among the Medes and Persians the cup- bearer, before serving the king, took the wine into the cup from the vessels, and then poured a little into the palm of his left hand and drank it; so that if the wine were poisoned the king might ascertain it without running any personal risk. Pharaoh had cup-bearers to attend him. Gen. 76. — The IvOyal Cup-beakeb. xl, 2. Solomon also had them. 1 Kings x, 5 ; 2 Ohron. ix, 4. 3T9.^SAFE-C0NDUCT. II, T. Moreover I said unto the king, If it please the king, let letters be given me to the governors beyond the river, that they naay convey me over till I Qome into Judah. It is etill customary in many parts of the East to obtain letters of recom- mendation, or orders for safe conduct, when the traveler desires to visit different districts under one central authority. Without thes-e he could not travel in comfort or safety ; but having them, those to whom he presents them are boimd to protect him. Thus Nehemiah was able to travel safely throughout the Persian empire. Nehemiah-l BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 195 380.— SHAKING THE LAP. V, 13. Also I shook my lap, and. said, So God shake out every man from his house, and from his labor, that perform- eth not this promise, even thus be he shaken out, and emptied. Tlie "lap " was a fold made in the outer garment, near the breast, for the reception of various articles. See note on Luke vi, 38. To shake this was equivalent to a curse, and to empty it was a significant suggestion of utter extermination. Roberts says that the natives of India always carry in their lap a pouch made of the leaf of cocoa or of some other tree, and that they are careful never to have the pouch entirely empty. They have in it money, areca nut, betel leaf, and tobacco. Even when they wish to find any article they never empty the poucli, but rather fumble about for a long time until they get 1 old of ttie object sought. They say if the pouch should become empt}^ it might remain so for a long time. They also shake the lap of the robe when the}^ curse each other. When the Roman embassadors proposed the choice of peace or war to the Carlhaginians tliey made use of a s milar ceremony. " When the Roman embassadors entered the senate of Carthage they had tlieir toga gathered up in their bosom. They said, 'We carry here peace and war; you may liave which you will.' The senate answered, 'You may give which you please.' They then shook their toga, and said, ' We bring you war.' To which all the senate answered, ' We cheerfully accept it.' " — Burder, Oriental Jllw-trations, No. 645. It was in a similar way that Nehemiah significantly suggested to the usurers of his time their utter extermination if they failed to keep the cove- nant of restitution which they had made. See also Acts xviii, 6. 381.— LETTERS. VI, 5. Then sent Sanballat his servant unto me in like man- ner the fifth time with an open letter in his hand, 1. The first mention that is made in Scripture of a letter is of that which David sent to Joab. 2 Sam. xi, 14. We also read of the letters which Jezebel wrote in the name of Ahab. 1 Kings xxi, 8. The king of Syria wrote a letter to the king of Israel. 2 Kings v, 5-7. Jehu also wrote let- ters. 2 Kings X, 1. Later on in the history more frequent mention is made of them. On what substance tliese ancient letters were written it is now impossible to say. They may have been written on skins dressed for the purpose, on palm-leaves, or on papyrus, the use of which is now known to have been very ancient with the Egyptians, and from them neighboring nations may have learned it. 196 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Nehemiah. 2. In Persia, as well as in some other Oriental lands, letters, when sent to persons of distinction, are generally, after being rolled up in a scroll, inclosed in a bag or purse, which is sometimes made of very elegant and costly material. The end of this purse is tied, closed over with clay or wax, and then sealed. See Isa. viii, 16; xxix, II; Dan. xii, 4, 9; Rev. v, 4, 9 ; X, 4; xxii, 10. For the mode of sealing, see note on I Kings xxi, 8. This is considered a mark of respect, and a recognition of the rank or position of the person to whom it is sent. When sent to inferiors, or to persons whom the writer wishes to treat with contempt, the letters are uninclosed. This custom probably existed among the Persians in the time of Nehemiah, since special emphasis is in the text laid upon the fact that the letter was an open letter ; that is, as we understand it, that it was not inclosed in a bag, and therefore indicated the contempt which Sanballat had for Nehemiah. He treated him as a person of inferior position. 3§2.— ELUL. VI, 15. The twenty and. fifth day of the nnonth Elul. This month corresponded very nearly with September of our calendar. 3§3.— TIRSHATHA. VII, 65. And the Tirshatha said unto thenri. This was the title of the Persian governor of Judea. Gesenius de- rives the word from the Persian torsh : "severe," "austere," which would make the meaning equivalent to youi* Severity. He compares it with the German gestrenger Herr, (that is, your "Worship ; " but, literally. Severe Master,) a title which was formerly given to the magistrates of the free and imperial German cities. The English have a corresponding expression: " most dread Sovereign." See also Ezra ii, 63; Neh. vii, 70; viii, 9 ; x, 1. 384.— SENDING PORTIONS. VIII, 10. Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions unto them for whonn nothing is prepared. Tliis has generally been interpreted to mean that the wants of the poor were to be supplied; but Harmer {Observations, vol. ii, p. 107) prefers to refer it to the custom of sending a portion of a feast to those who car not well come to it, especially to the relatives of those who give the feast, and to those in a state of mourning, who in their grief would make no preparation. In Esther ix, 19 it is said that amoug the ceremonies of the fw\8t of Purim there was to be "sending portions one to another." In tlie twenty-second verse of tlie same chapter ilie order of Mordecai is given for Nehemiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197 keeping the feast, and it is directed " that they should make them da3^s of feasting and joy, and of sending portions one to another, and gifts to the poor." From this verse it is evident that sending " gifts to the poor " is not tlie same thing as " sending portions one to another." This latter custom, however, ma}-, in turn, be different from the one referred to in Nehemiah, and may mean that these pious Jews expressed their joy by a mutual exchange of the good things provided for the feast. This custom is alluded to in Rev. xi, 10, where the enemies of the '* two witnesses " are represented as rejoic- ing over their death: "And they that dwell upon the earth shall rejoice over them, and make merry, and send gifts one to another; because these two prophets tormented them that dwelt on the earth." 3§5.— WOOD FOR TFIE SACRIFICES. X, 34. "We east the lots among the priests, the Levites, and the people, for the wood, offering, to bring it into the house of our God, after the houses of our fathers, at times appointed year by year, to burn upon the altar of the Lord our God, as it is written in the law. The work of supplying the wood necessary for the altar fires was a part of the task assigned to the Nethinim. See note on Ezra ii, 43. On the occa- sion of the captivity tliese became scattered, and their organization was broken up, and though some Nethinim returned to Jerusalem, they were probably not so numerous as before. It became necessary, tlierefore, for all classes of the people to attend to this work, and tlie time of their doing it was regulated by lot. This work is what is called the " wood offering " in the text and in chapter xiii, 31. "We have no further mention of it in the Scriptures, but the Jewish writers give additional accounts of the manner in which the work was done. Different families had different times of the year assigned them for their share in the work. This was the origin of a great festival which was known by the name of the feast of wood-carrying, and was celebrated annually on a certain day in Ab, (August.) This was the last day of the year on which wood could be cut for this purpose, and all the people without distinction of tribe or grade brought wood to the temple on that day. The festival was universally and joyously kept ; no fasting or mourning was permitted. 386.— PLUCKING THE HAIR. XIII, 25. I contended with them, and cursed them, and smote certain of them, and plucked off their hair. This is equivalent to what we term " tearing the hair out by the roots." It was sometimes a self-inflicted suffering as a token of mourning, (see Ezra ix, 3 ) somet'mes an act of wanton persecution, (see Isa. 1, 6,) and sometimes 198 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther. punishment, as represented in the text. It is said that the ancient Athenians punished adulterers by tearing the hair from the scalp and then covering the head with hot ashes. ESTHER. 3§7.— THE COURT OF THE HOUSE. I, 5. In the court of the garden of the king's palace. The "court" of an Oriental liouse is the open space around whicli the liouse is built. The outside of the l)uilding sliows to the observer hardly anything but blank walls, the privacy of the people being such that the interior of their dwellings is completely hidden from public gaze. The ordinary houses have but one court, but houses of a better class have two or three, and some of the best liouses in Damascus have seven courts. The palaces of kings had a number of courts. The courts are sometimes laid out in beautiful gardens containing various fruits and flowers; and trees are often planted the olive, the pomegranate. To this the ^3 77. — Gkound-plan op House. there: the palm, the cypress. Psalmist alludes when he says. "I am like a green olive-tree in the liouse of God." Psa. lii, 8. Again, " The righteous shall flourish like the palm- tree: he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon. Those that be planted in the house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of our God." Psa. xcii, 12, 13. Sometimes the court is handsomely paved with marble, (see verse 6,) and has a fountain in the center. Cisterns are also built here. See note on 2 Sam. xvii, 18, 19. The court usually has a covered walk nine or ten feet wide projecting from the house. This walk is generally on the four sides of the court, though sometimes only on one side. If the house is over one story high, the roof of tiiis covered walk forms a gallery, and is protected by a balustrade. This gallery is supported by pillars. Solomon is supposed to refer to this in Prov. ix, 1 : "Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven THE LIBRARY OF THE wmmm of illujois Estlier.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 201 pillars." See also Job ix, 6 ; xxvi, 11 ; Psa. Ixxv, H : Gal. ii, 9 ; I Tim. iii, 15; but on this last text see note on Gen. xxviii, 18. On occasions of leasting, the guests are often assembled in the court, ^is is related in the text. The rooms of the house open into the court. In soaie houses this opening is by means of doors ; but in others the rooms are divided from the court by a low partition only. Where the house is more than one story in height the stairs to the upper apartments are usually, though not always, in one ( orner of the court. The diagram on page 198 represents the ground-plau of an Oriental house. In the left-iiand corner, at the bottom, is the door, which opens directly into the porch or eiitrance-hall. To enter the court it is necessary to cross this hall and go through an adjacent room. It can thus be seen how one might t'uter the porch and yet have no view of the interior arrangements of the house. In the center of the court, at the place marked A in the diagram, IS the fountain or cistern. The small circles around the court mark the po- s tions of the pillars which support the gallery above, and the square and oblong spaces represent various apartments. The engraving on page 199 gives a representation of the court of a house with tesselated marble pave- ment, y,'arden, and fountain. Reference is made to the court in 1 Kings vii, 8, 9, 12; Neb. viii, IG; J^]sth. vi, 4, 5, etc. 388.— CURTAINS— COUCHES. I, 6. Where were white, green, and blue hangings, fast- ened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and pillars of marble : the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble. L In the heat of summer an awning is sometimes stretched across the court from one gallery to another. Reference is thought to be made to this in Psa. civ, 2, and Isa. xlv, 12; and many writers think that the text speaks of an awning of variegated colors thrown over the court-yard of the palace. In the ruins of the palace at Khorsabad a small bronze lion was found of beautiful workmanship and fixed in a flagstone in the pavement of the court. At intervals there were similar flagstones in the pavement, where it is evident that other lions had been placed. From the fact that this lion had a ring rising from his back, resembling the rings in the animal-shaped we'ghts wliieh have been found, (see note on Gen. xxiii, 16,) it is supposed that these bronze images were used in the pavement to fasten the cords of the awning which was spread over the court. Some authorities, however, suppose that the variegated hangings, instead of making an awning, were magnificent curtains suspended between the marble pillars of the court. This is the opinion of Professor Rawlinson, and also of Loftus. The latter excavated among the ruins of the great palace at 13 202 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther Susa, which he believes to have been the very palace referred to in the book of Esther. His investigations satisfied him that " the Great Hall at Susa consisted of several magnificent groups of columns, together having a frontage of three hundred and forty-three feet nine inches, and a depth of two hundred and forty-four feet. These groups were arranged into a central phalanx of thirty-six columns, (six rows of six each,) flanked on the west, north, and east by an equal number, disposed of in double rows of six each and distant from them sixty-four feet two inches." — Travels in Chaldea and Susiana^ p. 367. He thinks that the colored curtains were hung around the central group of marble columns. 2. It is customary to spread mats and carpets on the court pavement for tne accommodation of giiests ; Ahasuerus with kingly magnificence placed costly couches. These couches of ^'gold and silver," on which the guests reclined in the palace court while they feasted, (see note on Matt, xxvi, 7,) may have been covered with cloth in which these materials were inter- woven, (see note on Prov. vii, 16,) or they may have been put on frames which were ornamented with the precious metals. Layard says that chairs and couches adorned with feet of silver and other metals were looked upon as a great object of luxury in Persia." — Nineveh and its Remains^ vol. ii, p. 300. According to Herodotus, the tables, thrones, and couches in the temple of Belus at Babylonia were of solid gold. 389.— DRINKING CUSTOMS. T, 8. The drinking was according to th.e law ; none did eonn- pel: for so the king had appointed to all the officers of his house, that they should do according to every man's pleasure. Kevelers of all nations seem to have had their pecuHar drinking customs which were as binding as laws. Among the Egyptians, wine was offered before dinner commenced, and the guests also drank during the repast. Among the Greeks, each guest was obliged to keep the round or leave the company. "Drink, or be gone," was the proverb. At ihe Roman feasts, a master of the feast was chosen by throwing dice. He prescribed rules to the company which all were obhged to observe. See note on John ii, 8. Bishop Patrick, in his note on this place, suggests that the text means that though it was the custom to compel men to drink whether they would or not, yet the king on this occasion directed that each guest be left to his own discretion, and that none were obliged to drink according to this custom. Leaving out the word i(;a5, which the translators supplied; ren- dering the Hebrew word daih, ''custom," instead of "law," as in our ver- sion; and slightly changing the punctuation, the Bishop translates: "The drinking according to custom, none did compel." Thus no one would incur displeasure who violated the ordinary rule of conviviality. Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 203 390.— FEASTS FOR THE WOMEN. I, 9. Also Vashti the queen made a feast for the women in the royal house which belonged, to king Ahasuerus. The women in the East do not have their feasts in the same room with the men. This separation of the sexes is an ancient custom which, was observed at this time at the court of Persia, thougli Jahn, speaking of the custom, says that *' Babylon and Persia must, liowever, be looked upon as exceptions, where the ladies were not excluded from the festivals of the men, (Dan. v, 2 ;) and if we may beheve the testimony of ancient authors, at Babylon they were not remarkable for their modesty on such occasions." Archceology, § 146. As far as Babylon is concerned the remark is correct, and it serves to illustrate the relaxation of manners which showed itself among the dissolute Babylonians. It is not true, however, in reference to Persia, as is plainly seen by the indignation of Vashti when her drunken husband sent for her to come and display lier beauty before the revelers. Her womanly spirit was aroused and she refused. See verse 12. This error as to the Persian custom probably rests on an oft-quoted story told by Herodotus, who says that seven Persian embassadors, being sent to Amyntas, a Grecian prince, were entertained by him at a feast, and told him when they began to drink that it was customary among their countrymen to introduce their concubines and young wives at their entertainments. Dr. Pusey says of this statement, " If historical, it was a shameless lie, to attain their end." — Lectures on Daniel, p. 461, note. Rawlinson represents the Oriental seclusion of women as carried to an excess among the ancient Persians. See Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 222. 391.— CHAMBERLAINS. I, 10. The seven chamberlains that served in the presence of Ahasuerus the king. Sarisim is variously rendered "chamberlains,'* "officers," and "eunuchs.'* They were emasculated persons who had charge of the harems of Oriental monarchs, and who were also employed by them in various offices about the court. They often became the confidential advisers of the monarch, and were frequently men of great influence, and sometimes had high military office See Jer. xxxix, 3. This was especially the case in Persia, where they acquired great poHtical power, and filled positions of great prominence, and sometimes engaged in conspiracy against the life of the king, an iUuslra- tion of which may be found in chapter ii, verse 21. The Hebrew monarchs had them in their courts. See 1 Sara, viii, 15; 204 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther. 1 Kings xxii, 9; 2 Kings viii, 6; ix, 32; xxiii, 11; xxv, 19; 1 Chron. xxviii, 1 ; Jer. xxix, 2; xxxiv, 19; xxxviii, 7; lii, 25. Though it was the barbarous custom of Eastern sovereigns to mutilate many of their 3'oung prisoners in the manner here indicated, there is no evidence that the Hebrew kings ever did this. The eunuchs employed by them are supposed to have been imported. It is thought that Daniel and his companions were thus maltreated by the king of Babylon in fulfillment of the prediction contained in 2 Kings xx, IT, 18 ; Isa. xxxix, 7. 392,— THE ROYAL HAREM. II, 13. Out of the homse of the women unto the king's house. The place appointed as a residence for the wives and concubines of the king was separated from the rest of the palace by a court. There were in it three sets of apartments : one set for the virgins who had not yet been sent for by the king, one for the concubines, and one for the queen and the other wives. The first is referred to in verse 8 ; it was under the charge of a special chamberlain. The second is mentioned in verse 14, and is spoken of as under the charge of another chamberlain. The third is mentioned in chapter i, 9, and was under the charge of the queen herself: she was not watched over by a chamberlain, but had one subject to her orders. See Esther iv, 5. 393.— TEBETH. II, 16. The tenth month, which is the month Tebeth. This corresponded very nearly to our month of January. 394.— THE PERSIAN QUEEN. II, 17. The king loved. Esther above all the women, and she obtained grace and favor in his sight more than all the vir- gins ; so that he set the royal crown upon her head, and made her queen instead of Vashti. There was one of the wives of the Persian monarchs who occupied a higher position than any of the others, and to her alone the title of "queen " belonged. " The chief wife or queen-consort was privileged to wear on her head a royal tiara or crown. She was the acknowledged head of the female apartments or Gynseceum, and the concubines recognized her dignity by actual prostration. On great occasions, when the king entertained the male part of the court, she feasted all the females in her own part of the palace. She had a largo revenue of her own, assigned her, not so much b}' the will of her husband, as by an established law or custom. Ker dress was splendid, and she was able to indulge freely that love of ornament of which few Oriental women are devoid." — Rawlinson^, Five Ancient Monarchies^ vol. iii, p. 218. This was the elevated position filled by Vashti, and afterward by Esther. Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 205 395.— ETIQUETTE OF THE PERSIAN COURT. lY, 11. Whosoever, whether man or woman, shall come unto the king into the inner court, who is not called, there is one law of his to put him to death, except such to whom the king shall hold out the golden scepter, that he may live. The etiquette of tlie Persian court was very strict. Except tlie " Seven Princes," no one could approach the king unless introduced by a court usher. To come into the king's presence without being summoned was a capital crime; and the severity of the Persian punishments may be seen in the fact that an act like this was followed by the same punishment as mur- der or rebellion. The intruder w^as instantly put to death by the*attendants unless the king, by extending his golden scepter, showed his approval of the act. It was well understood, therefore, that whoever thus appeared before the king deliberately risked life ; and it is an evidence of the influence which Esther had gained over Ahasuerus that, when she appeared, the scepter was extended. See chapter v, 2, and viii, 4. 396.— FEASTING WITH THE KING, y, 12. To-morrow am I invited unto her also with the king. It was a rare privilege for a subject, however high his station, to be per- mitted to banquet with the king. Occasionally, however, this was allowed, and Haman had reason to feel highly honored at tlie invitation hu received from the queen by permission of tlie king. It must be understood, liow- ever, that when subjects were tlius admitted to feast with royalty they were reminded of their inferior position. "The monarch reclined on a couch witli golden feet, and sipped the rich wine of Helbon; the guests drank an inferior beverage, seated upon the floor." — Five Monarchies^ vol. iii, p. 214. On some very special occasions the rigidity of this rule was relaxed. The king presideti openly at a banquet where large numbers of dignitaries were assembled, and royal couches and royal wine were provided for them all. Such a feast is referred to in chapter i, 3. 397.— ROYAL HONORS GIVEN TO A SUBJECT. Vlf 8. Let the royal apparel be brought which tlie king useth to wear, and the horse which the king rideth upon, and the crown royal which is set upon his head. 1. Cliardin says that when the grandees visited Solyman III., to congratulate him on his coronation, the king made every one of them a present of a CalatCy or royal vest. " It is an infalhble mark of the particular esteem whicli the sovereign has fur the person to whom he sends it, and that he lia^ 206 BTBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther. free liberty to approach bis person." — Travels in Persia,, p. ^1. See also note on 1 Sam. xviii, 4. 2. Herodotus states tliat the kings of Persia had horses of remarkable beauty and of a peculiar breed which were brought from Armenia. To ride upon the king's horse was almost as great an honor as to sit upon his throne. 3. Some commentators think that by "the crown royal" is meant merelj an ornament which was a part of the head-trappings of the horse ; though why tlie horse's head-dress should deserve such special mention here it is not easy to tell. It is more likely that the crown of the king is meant, and if so, it is probable, as some authorities suppose, that the crown was put, not on tlie head of Mordecai, but on the head of the horse. It is said to have been a custom among the Persians, as well as some other nations, that the crown of the king was sometimes put on some favorite royal steed when the animal was led in state. 39§.— SIGN OF ROYAL DISPLEASURE. VII, 7. The king arising from the banquet of wine in his wrath went into the palace garden : and Haman stood up to make request for his life to Esther the queen ; for he saw that there was evil determined against him by the king. The rising of the king in this way was an evidence to Haman of his con- demnation to death; it was the roy^l metliodof expressing displeasure and vengeance. An instance is cited by Rosenmiiller, from Olearius, which illus- trates this Persian custom. Schah Sefi once considered himself insulted by an unseemly jest which one of his favorites had permitted himself to relat^e in his presence. The king suddenly arose and left the place, and the favorite saw that his fate was sealed. He went home in dismay, and in a few hours the king sent for his head. — Morgenland, vol. iii, p. 314. 399.— THE FACE COVERED. Vn, 8. As the word went out of the king's mouth, they cov- ered Haman's face. The precise design of thus covering the face of a condemned criminal is not known, though it has been conjectured that it was intended to signify that the person condemned was not worthy again to look on the face of the king. The custom was observed in other nations as well as among the Persians. 400.— SIVAN. Vni, 9. In the third month, that is, the month Sivan. Sivan corresponded nearly to our month of Juno. Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 207 401._THE FEAST OF PURIM. IX, 26. Wherefore they called these days Purim after the name of Pu.r. Pur is a Persian word signifying a part, and thence denoting a lot. AVith the Hebrew phiral termination it becomes purim, "lots." This is the name by which the feast is known which is kept to commemorate tlie deUverance of the Jews from the plot of Harnan. It is called the Feast of Lots because Haman in his superstition resorted to divination for the pur- pose of ascertaining when he could most effectually destroy the Jews. See Esther iii, 7. Some think that the name was given in irony, as denoting the contempt in which the Jews held Haman and his divination. There is a tradition that the introduction of this feast among the Jews met with some opposition, though it afterward became generally observed. The day before the feast is kept as a solemn fast. On the day of the feast the people assemble in the synagogue, where the book of Esther is read amid clapping of hands and stamping of feet, as demonstrations of contempt for Haman and of joy for the dehverance of the Jews. After leaving the synagogue there are great feasts at home, which have been sometimes carried to such excess tliat some writers have called the Feast of Purim the Bacchanalia of tlie Jews. JOB. 402. — PASTORAL WEALTH. I, 3. His substance also was seven thousand sheep, and three thousand camels, and five hundred yoke of oxen, and five hundred she-asses. Among people of pastoral and nomadic habits it is natural to estimaie wealth, not by houses and lands, but by the number of animals owned. Abram was very rich in cattle. G-en. xiii, 2. Lot had flocks and herds. Gen. xiii. 5 See also Gen. xxiv, 35. Job's wealth, on the return of his pros- perity^ was estimated in like manner. See Job xiii, 12. Special mention is made of sl)e-asses because they were more liighly valued than the males on account of their milk, a nourishing drink. To this day the riches of tlie Bedawin are reckoned by tiie number and quality of their cattle. 403. — THE VALUE OF LIFE. II, 4 Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he give fop his life. Many interpretations have been given of this passage, whicli was evidently a familiar proverb in the early times when Job lived. It probably refers to 208 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. some ancient custom of bartering bj means of skins of animals slain in the chase. The hungry hunter trades with the grain grower, parting, for a supply of food, with the skins of the beasts he has slain, and if necessary he v/lll exchange all he has in order to obtain bread. As Kitto says of this text: "It will then express the necessity of submitting to one great evil to avoid incurring a greater, answering to the Turkish proverb, 'We must give our beards to save our heads.' " — Daily Bible Illustrations, vol. v, p. 8?>. 404.~GRAIN AND THORNS. V, 5. ^A^hose harvest the hungry eateth lAp, and taketh it even out of the thorns, and the robber swalloweth up their substance. This may refer either to the thief who takes all the grain, even that which is mixed with thorns, or to a custom which Dr. Thomson mentions as illus- trating this text. He says, "The farmers, after they have threshed out the grain, frequently lay it aside in the chaff in some private place near the floor, and cover it up with thorn-bushes to keep it from being carried away or eaten by animals. Robbers who found and seized this would literally take it from among the thorns." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 53*7. 405.~POISONED ARROWS. YI, 4. For the arrows of the Almighty are within me, the poi- son whereof drinketh up my spirit. An allusion is doubtless made here to the practice, common among bar- barous nations of all times, of dipping the points of arrows into some poisOD- ous substance for the purpose of insuring the death of the persons who might be struck with them. 406.— SHADOWS. VII, 2. As a servant earnestly desireth the shadow, and as a hireling looketh for the reward of his work. The lengthening shadow indicates the close of day and the termination of toil, and is therefore desired by the weary laborer. In India time is meas- ured by the length of one's shadow. If a man is asked for the time of day, he stands erect in the sunshine, observes where his shadow terminates, and then paces the distance, and is able to tell the time with considerable accu- racy. A person wishing to leave his work often exclaims, "How long my shadow is in coming! " — Robp:rts, Oriental Customs, p. 261. 407.— PRIMITIVE MAIL-CARRIERS. IX, 25. My days are swifter than a post: they flee away, they see no good. Swift runners were often employed in ancient times to convey important messages. King-i kept a number of such in their service as a part of the Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 200 royal household. When Hezekiah sent invitations to tlie solemn passover which he designed holding at Jerusalem, it is said that "the posts went with the letters from the king and his p'inees throughout all Israel and Judah." ,2 Chron. xxx, 6. In the time of Jeremiah there seems to have been a regu- lar postal service established, for he says, in prophesying the destruction of Babylon : " One post shall run to meet anotlier, and one messenger to meet another, to show the king of Babylon that his city is taken at one end." Jer. li, 31. The Persians also made use of swift messengers. Tlie order com- manding the murder of all the Jews in the empire was sent by this means. See Esth. hi, 13, 15. The order wiiich neutrahzed the effect of this proc- lamation was sent by "posts that rode upon mules and camels." Estli. viii, 14. While there may have been no systematic communication of this sort in ihe time of Job, yet it is evident from the text that men fleet of foot were employed when occasion required. The patriarch compares the rapid flight of his da3's to a post; literally, a runner, a man liastening with news. This was the swiftest mode of communication with which he was famihar, and his days went swifter still. See further the note on Matt, v, 41. 408.— SUPPOSED VIRTUES OF SNOW WATER. IX, 30. If I wash, myself witln snow water, and. nnake my hands never so clean. Snow water was ancienily supposed to possess peculiar virtues for cleansing the skin. It was thought that the skin was whitened by it, and that it contracted the fibers and prevented perspiration. "In the fable of Lockman, No. 13, tlie black man rubs his body with snow in order to make it white. Therefore Mohammed prays, ' Lord, wash me from my sins wliite with water, snow, and ice.' "- — Umbreit, Version of ihe Book of Job. 409.— ROBBERS. XII, 6. The tabernacles of robbers prosper, and they that pro- voke God are secure. Robbery has from a very early period of history been a common occupa- tion of lawless men, and has also often proved a profitable employnieni. as intimated by the text. Whole tribes, and in some instances entire nations, adopted it as a means of livelihood. The Sabeans stole Job's oxen and asses, and "the Cliaideans made out three bands and fell upon the caineis." Job i, 15, 17. The Shechemites "set hers in wait" (or Abimelech "in the top of the mountains, and they robbed all that came along that way by tliem." Judges ix, 25. The robbery mentioned in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke x, 30) frequently found its counterpart in facts, and at the present day travelers are sometimes robbed by predatory bands. 210 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. 410.— BOSSES. XV, 26. He runneth upon him, even on his neek, upon the thick bosses of his bucklers. The boss was the external convex part of the round shield, its thickest and strongest portion. There were some shields whose shape was wholly convex, the center being an elevated point, as may be seen in the engraving, which represents an Assyrian convex shield. There were also convex ornaments which were placed on tlie outside of shields, adding strength as well as beauty. Layard found at Nimroud circular bronze shields, each liav- ing an iron handle fastened by six nails. The heads of these nails formed bosses on the outside of the shield. In the text Eliphaz expresses the uselessness of the attack which the wicked man makes on God, by representing him as Shield. running upon the most impenetrable part of the shield. 411.— FRAIL HOUSES. XY, 28. He dwelleth in desolate cities, and in houses which no man inhabiteth, which are ready to become heaps. Many of the rude huts in the East are made of small stones or built of mud. The roof is made by covering the beams with brushwood, and tiiis in turn with earth. The rain soaks into the earth, and the weight settling on brush and beams gradually breaks them down unless there is an industrious occupant (see Eccl. x, 18) to keep the roof in proper condition. When the roof is broken down the walls easily fall, and the whole house soon becomes a heap of ruins. But this is true not merely of such rude mud huts, but of 'Jarge edifices, temples and palaces, built of sun-dried brick, as the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh amply testify. 412.— LIGHT AND DARKNESS AS EMBLEMS. XVIII, 5, 6. Yea, the light of the wicked shall be put out, and the spark of his fire shall not shine. The light shall be dark in liis tabernacle, and his candle shall be put out with him. To the susceptible mind of the Oriental, light is an object of desire, and darkness something to be greatly dreaded. The lamp is usually kept burn- ing in the house all night; and its light is used as an emblem of prosperity, and the extinguishment of it as an emVjlem of a great calamity. Thus Job speaks of the days of his prosperity when the candle of the Lord shone upon his head. Job xxix, ,3. David says, "Thou wilt light my candle; the Lord my God will enlighten my darkness.'' Psa. xviii, 28. On the other liand, we find Job saying, as expressive of great affliction : "How oft is the Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 211 Dandle of the wicked put out." Job xxi, 17. Solomon says, "Whoso cursetli his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness." Prov. XX, 20. " The candle of the wicked shall be put out." Prov. xxiv, 20 The Saviour on two occasions refers to this Oriental dread of darkness where he represents the punishment of the wicked under the figure of " outer darkness." See Matt, viii, 12; xxii, 13. Both ideas are blended in Prov. xiii, 9 : The light of the righteous rejoiceth : but the lamp of the wicked shall be put out." See also Jer. xxv, 10. 413.— THE NET IN COMBAT. XIX, 6. Know now that God. hath overthrown me, and hath compassed me with his net. Some commentators tind here an illustration of an ancient mode of com bat practiced among the Persians, Goths, and Romans. Among the Romans one of the combatants had a sword and shield, while the other had a trident and net. The latter endeavored to throw his net over the head of his adver- sary. If he succeeded in this, he immediately drew the net around his neck with a noose which was attached to it, pulled him to the ground aud dis- patched him with the trident. If he failed to throw the net over the head, he in turn ran the risk of being destroyed by his adversary while seeking his net for another throw. If Job knew of this custom in his day, lie repre- sents himself in this text as having engaged in a contest with God, and, be- ing defeated, he now lies entangled in the net and completely at the mercy of his conqueror. 414.— BOOKS— TABLETS— MONUMENTS. XIX, 23, 24. O that my words were now written I O that they were printed in a book ! that they were graven with an iron pen and lead in the rock forever ! See also Jer. xvii, 1. Three different substances for the preservation of records are usuall}^ sup- posed to be referred to here : 1. Books. These were anciently made of linen or cotton cloth, skins, or the leaves of the papyrus. From the last word comes our English word, paper. The inner bark of trees was also sometimes used. The Latin word for bark being lihej\ this word at length came to signify a book ; it is still found in the English word library. When made of cloth or skins t' e book was made up in the form of a roll. See note on Isa. xxxiv, 4. 2. Leaden tablets. These are of high antiquity. In 1699 Montfau9on bought at Rome a very old book entirely made of lead. It v/as about four inches long and three wide, and had a cover and six leaves or sheet«. The hinges and nails were also made of lead. Tlie volume contained Egyptian gnostic figures and inscriptions in Greek and Etruscan characters. 212 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. In a temple in the Carian city of Ciiidus, erected in honor of Hades and Persephone, about the fourth century before Christ, the women were in the habit of depositing thin sheets of lead on whicli were written the names of persons they hated, togetiier with their misdeeds. They also inscribed on the lead tablets imprecations against those wlio had tluis injured them. Many of these tablets were discovered in 1858 when excavations were made in the ruins of the temple. They are now in the British Museum. It is not, however, certain that Job in the text refers to leaden tablets or leaves on which inscriptions were made. He may have alluded to the cus- tom of first cutting letters in stone and then filling them up with molten lead. There are indications that some of the incised letters in Assyrian monuments were filled with metal. M. Botta states that the letters on the pavement slabs of Khorsabad give evidence of having been filled with cop- per. See Layard's Nineveh and its Bemains, vol. ii, p. 188. 3. Stone monuments. The law was originally written on tables of stone "with the finger of God." Exod. xxxi, 18. The second set of tables were written by Moses by Divine command. Exod. xxxiv, 4, 28. Joshua copied the law on the stone altar at Mount Ebal. Josh, viii, 32. This mode of recording important truths or events was very common in ancient times. Job desires that his sentiments should be thus engraved, that generations to come might read the record. The stone records of anciefit Oriental nations, which modern discoveries have brought to light, are all illustrations of the custom which Job evidently had in mind. Many of these bear on Scripture facts and history, confirming and supplementing tlie sacred record. The most remarkable, in some respects, of any of these ancient monuments is the famous Moabite stone, the discovery of which' in the year 1868 created such intense excitement among biblical scholars and antiquarians. This is the very oldest Semitic inscription of importance as yet discovered, and is the only one thus far found which reaches back to the age of tlie Jewish monarchy. It gives the Moabitish account of tije conflict described in the third cliapter of the Second Book of Kings. 415.— HOUSES OF CLAY. XXIV, 16. In the dark they dig through h6uses, which they liad marked for themselves in the daytime. This refers to houses that are built of clay. Of these there are several varieties. Some have a framework of wicker hurdles thickly daubed with mud. In others tlie walls are made of layers of mud placed one over the other, each drying before the next is put on. Others still are made of sun- dried bricks. This style of building is very ancient, and is still common in many parts ^of the East. A ihiof might easily bicak through a wall of tliin Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 213 kind, and modern tliieves are as ready to do it as were the burglars who ived in the days of Job. Houses like these are referred to by Elipbaz in Job iv, 19, where he speaks of " houses of clay, whose foundation is in tlie dust, which are crushed before the moth ; " and also in Ezek. xii, 5, where the prophet is commanded, in a figurative way, to dig through the wall." The Saviour also refers to them when he speaks of thieves breaking through to steal, (Matt, vi, 19,) and of the house which was broken up by the thief Matt, xxiv, 43. Tlie frailty of the walls of such houses is also probably referred to in Psa. Ixii, 3, and Isa. xxx, 13. 416.— WORMS FEEDING ON THE BODY. XXIV, 20. The worm shall feed sweetly on hinri ; he shall be no more remembered. It is an Oriental opinion that worms exist in the skin and in all parts of the body, and that they are among the principal causes of its destruction. Roberts {Oriental Illustrations, p. 271) quotes from an ancient Indian medical work in which eighteen kinds of worms are enumerated by the author in as many different parts of ihe body. In Job xix, 26, the translators have supplied the word worms : " Though after my skin worms destroy this body." Though the word is not in the original, yet the sentiment is in accordance with the text we are now illustrating and with several other passages. See Job vii, 5; xvii, 14; xxi, 26; Isa. xiv, 11. In India it is common for a sick man to sa}-, " Ah, my body is but a nest for worms; they have paths in all parts of my frame!". " Ah, these worms are con- tinually eating my flesh ! " 417.— RAIMENT AS WEALTH. XXVII, 16. Though he heap u.p silver as the du.st, and prepare raiment as the clay. The Eastern people have always reckoned collections of raiment among their choice treasures, and estimate them in the accounts of their wealth along with gold and silver. This is seen in the text, and is also to be found in the injunction of the Saviour in Matt, vi, 19, where, in speaking of the uncertain character of worldly wealth, he refers to the ravages of the moth ?ipon the treasures of raiment. So Paul in his address at Miletus to the elders of Ephesus, says, "I have coveted no man's silver, or gold, or apparel." Acts xx, 33. He also refers to the value of garments in 1 Tim. ii, 9, where he speaks of " costly array." James likewise says in his epistle, chapter v, 2, " Your riches are corrupted and your garments are molh-eaten." See also the note on Gen. xlv, 22. 214 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. 418.— STONE OIL-PRESSES. XXIX, 6. The roek poured me out rivers of oil. Some tliink the reference here is to the fact that the oUve-tree sometimes grows in very rocky soil ; but allusion is more probably made to stone oil- 80. — Ancient Oil-Presses. presses, from which the oil flowed like a river. See also Ezek. xxxii, 14. Moses speaks of oil being sucked "out of the fliuty rock." Deut. xxxii, 13. 419.— EATING ALONE. XXXI, 17. Or have eaten my morsel myself alone, and the fa- therless hath not eaten thereof. It is a part of Oriental etiquette to invite others to partake of food. See note on Gen. xviii, 2, 3. Dr. Shaw says, referring to his travels in Arabia : " No sooner was our food prepared, whether it was potted flesh boiled with rice, a lentil soup, or unleavened cakes served up with oil or honey, than one of the Arabs, (not to eat his morsel alone,) after liaving placed liimself on the liigliest spot of ground in the neighborhood, calls out thrice, with a loud voice, to all his brethren. The sons of the faithful, to come and partake of it; though none of them were in view, or perhaps within a hundred miles of us. This custom, however, they maintain to be a token at least of their great benevolence, as indeed it would have been of their hospitalitj'-, provided they could li^ve had an opportunity to show it." — Travels, Preface, p. xii. 420.— IMPRESSIONS OF SEALS. XXXVIII, 14. It is turned as elay to the seal. The bricks of Egypt, Babylonia, and Assj^ia bear marks which have evidently been made with a seal. Egyptian wine jars and mummy pits were sometimes sealed with clay. Tiiere have been found in Assyria Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 215 public documents made of clay, and having the letters stamped in them, and the marks of official sealing. In the East, doors of granaries or of treasure rooms are to ihis day sometimes sealed with clay, so that it is impossible to enter without first breaking the seal. The sepulcher of Christ was probably sealed in this way. See note on Matt, xxvii, 66. Clay is used in preference to w^x because the former hardens with the heat, while the latter melts. . Tlie engraving repre- sents a lump of clay from Assyria, having sev- eral impressions of seals upon it. For description of seals, see note on 1 Kings „^ _ ^ ' ° 81.— Impressions of Seals. xxi, 8. 421.— CORDS AND RINGS. XLI, 2. Canst thou piat a liook into his nose? or bore his jaw through with a thorn ? 1. Agmon, "hook," is more correctly a rush-cord or rope made of reeds, (Gesenius ;) and the question of the text suggests the wonderful strength of the leviathan by the impossibility of putting a rope around his nose, thus binding his jaws. 2. Ghoach, " thorn," is really a ring ; and the text probably refers to a custom, very ancient and still practiced, of inserting a strong iron ring into the jaw of a tish as soon as caught. A cord is fastened to the ring and the fish is let down into the water, where it remains until the fisherman has an opportunity of selling it. 422.— FISH-SPEARS. XLI, 7. Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons ? or his head, with fish-spears? There is an allusion here to an instrument resembling the bident or two- tongued fish-spear in use by the Egyptians, and frequently depicted on the monuments. This spear was a slender rod- some ten or twelve feet long, doubly feathered at the end, like a modern arrow. It had two sharp points about two feet in length, and on these the fish were impaled. The fisherman pushed along the Nile in a fiat-bottomed boat among the papyrus reeds and lotus plants, and on seeing his finny prey drove the weapon with his right hand, steadying it through a curve in his left. 423.— ADVERSITY A PRISON. XLII, 10. The Lord turned the captivity of Job, when he prayed for his friends: also the Lord gave Job twice as much as ho had before. This, in the figurative languao^e of the East, means that the Lord restored Job to his former prosperity. Roberts says, " A man formerly in great pros- 216 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. perity speaks of his present state as if he were in prison. 'I am now a captive. Yes, I am a slave.' If he be again providentially elevated, it is observed, ' His captivity is changed.' " — Oriental Illustrations^ p. 302. David says, " Bring my soul out of prison, that I may praise thy name." Psa. cxUi, 7. 424.— PRESENTS TO THE AFFLICTED. XLII, 11. Then came there unto him all his brethren, and all his sisters, and. all they that had been of his aequaintanee be- fore, and did eat bread with him in his house. . . . Every man also gave him a piece of money, and every one an ear- ring of gold. 1. It is said to be still a custom in some parts of the East for friends and relatives to visit, at some previously appointed time, a man in trouble, bringing with them presents to supply his wants, and to make up for what- ever losses he may have sustained by his calamity. After partaking of a feast, prepared by the host, the guests leave their gifts, and express their desire for his future prosperity. 2. On the meaning of "a piece of money," (kesitah,) see note on Gen. xxxiii, 19. 425.— POETIC NAMES. XLII, 14. He called the name of the first, Jemima ; and the name of the second, Kezia • and the name of the third, Keren-happuch. Rosenmiiller has the following note on this verse : " A Jewish writer, Solomon Jarchi, correctly remarks that the names of the daugiiters of Job indicate their beauty, as it is said in the fifteenth verse: 'And in all the land were no women found so fair as the daughters of Job.' The first name, Jemima, means resemhling a clear- day, (with the brilliancy of its beauty) — fair as the day. So, according to Hesychius, Hdmera, that is, day, was a surname of Diana. The second name, Kezia, means Cassia, one of tlie most valuable spices of antiquity. The third name, Keren-happuch, means Horn of the Eye-paint, that is, a vessel made of horn, wherein the Oriental women kept the paint which they used for their eyes. Thomas Roe, in his Travels, remarks that the Persians are accustomed to give their women names which mean spices, fragrant ointments, pearls or precious stones, or something otherwise beautiful and delightful." — Morgenland, vol. iii, p. 375. It is proper to say, however, that the etymology above given is disputed by some authorities. Gesenius derives Jemima from an Arabic word sig- nifying dove. Dr. Alexander, editor of Kitto's Cyclopedia, defines Keren- liappuch, Horn of adornment, or Horn of beauty. Tliese interpretations, as much as the others given, represent the names as names of beauty. Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 217 PS ALM S, 426.— IRRIGATION OF GARDENS, I, 8. He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, that bringeth forth his fruit in his season. Several commentators call atiention to the fact that palge-mayim, here rendered rivers of water," literally means divisions of waters ; and refer- ence is supposed to be made to a very fiivorite mode of irrigation in some Eastern countries. Canals are dug iu every direction, and through these the 82.— A Watered Garden. water is carried, to the great improvement of vegetation, Egypt was once covered with tliese canals, and in this wav the waters of the Nile were carried to every part of the valley through which the river ran. Some Eastern gardeus are so arranged that water is conveyed around every plot, and even to every tree. Allusion is probably made to this custom in Ezek. xxxi, B, 4, where **the Assyrian" is spoken of as '*a cedar." *' The waters made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running around about his plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the trees of the field." We do not know that this ancient custom existed so earlv as 14 218 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. the time of Job, but chapter xxxviii, 25, of tlie Book of Job seems to indi- cate it: "Who hath divided a watercourse for the overflowing of waters," etc. Solomon says, "The king's h«art is in the hand of the Lord, as the rivers of water: he turneth it whithersoever he will." Prov. xxi, \. In enumerating the many works of his reign the same king says, " I made me gardens and orchards, and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits. I made me pools of water, to water therewith the wood that bringeth forth trees." Eccles. ii, 5, 6. See note on Deut. xi, 10. See also Isa. i, 30; Iviii, 11; Jer. xvii, 8; xxxi, 12. Several methods are adopted for conveying the water from a river to the canals which run through the gardens. Sometimes large wheels are so set tliat while the bottom enters the water, the top is a little above the level of the bank. The circumference of every wheel has earthen jugs fastened to it. The turning of the wheel, either by the current or by oxen, plunges the jngs under the water and fills them ; when the jugs rise to the top of the bank they empty themselves into a channel prepared for tlie pur- pose, and the water is thus conveyed to the garden. Sometimes the water is raised from the river to the canal on the bank by means of a shadoof, or well-sweep, very similar to the old-fashioned machine for drawing water from wells in our own country — a horizontal pole, himg on a perpendicular one, having a bucket at one end and a balance of stones at the other. 427,— KISSING AN ACT OF HOMAGE. 11, 12. Kiss the Son, lest he be angry and ye perish from the way ; when his wrath is kindled but a little. When Samuel anointed Saul h=^ kissed the newly make king. This act of homage was a recogni ion of his royalty. 1 Sam. x, 1. It is a custom still observed in India and Arab'a. In this way the Psalmist desires all men to recognize the royalty of the Son. Kissing was an act of worship among idolaters. See 1 Kings xix, IS; Job xxxi, 27: Hosea xiii, 2. Instead of worshiping idols, God would have us worship his son Jesus Christ. An interesting incident is given in Irby and Mangle's Travels showing how kissing was used as a token of reconciliation. The circumstance recorded occurred near Petra. "While we were deliberating on this subject, we saw a great cavalcade entering our camp from ihe southward. There were many mounted Arabs witli lances, and we observed that there were some amongst the horsemen who wore richer turbans, and of more gaudy colors, than is usual amongst Bedonins or peasants. As the procession advanced, several of Abon B^ischid's Arabs went out and led tiie horses of the chiefs by the bridles into the camp. The whole procession alighted at the tent of our chief, and Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 219 kissed his turban ; this was the signal of pacification. Peace was immedi- ' atelj proclaimed throughout the camp, and notice was given that men bear- ing arms, who had come from a distance, man}' of whom had joined us tliat very morning, were to return to their respective homes." — Travels in Egypt^ etc., p. 122. 428.— WAITING FOR BOOTY. X, 8. He sittethi in the lurking places of the villages : in the secret places doth he murder the innocent. This is an accurate description of the habit of the Bedawin of the present dav. They watch for booty in villages, or **in the wilderness," (see Jer. iii, 2,) anywhere where they can be hidden from view and where they may hope to find an unwary passer-bj^ They do not hesitate to add murder to robbery if, in their opinion, necessity demands it. See also Psa. Ivi, 6; Prov. i, 11; Jer. v, 26. , 429.— ANOINTING GUESTS. XXIII, 5. Thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth over. Anointing was an ancient custom practiced by the Egyptians, and after- ward by the G-reeks and Romans and other nations. Olive oil was used, (see note on Psa. xcii, 10,) either pure or mixed with fragrant and costly spices, often brought from a long distance. See note on Malt, xxvi, 7. The practice was in use, not only as a part of the ceremony in connection with the coronation of kings, (see note on 2 Kings xi, 12.) and at the installation of the High Priest, (Psa. cxxxiii, 2,) but as an act of courtesy and liospitaUty toward a guest. Thus, the Lord accuses Simon of a want of hospitahty in neglecting to anoint the liead of him whom he had invited to eat with liim. Luke vii, 46. There are pictures on the Egyp- tian monuments representing guests having their heads anointed. Oil was used for other parts of the body as well as for the head, and at home as well as when visiting. The bibli- cal references to the custom are numerous. See Deut. xxviii, 40; Ruth iii, 3 ; P.-a. xcii, 10 ; civ, 15; Eccl. ix, 8; Micah vi, 15; Matt, vi, 17. Tlie neglect of anointing was con- sidered a sign of mourning. See 2 Sam. xiv, 2 ; Dan. X, 3. An anointed face, on the other 83.— Anointing a Guest. hand, was a sign of joy; hence we read of being anointed with the oil of gladness." Psa. xlv, 7 ; Heb. i, 9. Ta vernier states that he found the Arabs always ready to accept a present 220 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. of olive oil. As soon as one received it he lifted his turban and anointed his head, his face, and his beard, at the same time hfting his eyes to heaven and saying, " God be thanked ! " Captain Wilson, an Oriental traveler, speaking of the custom alluded to in ' this passage, says: "I once had this ceremony performed on myself in the liouse of a great and rich Indian, in the presence of a large company. Tiie gentleman of the house poured upon my hands and arms a delightful odor- iferous perfume, put a golden cup into my hands, and poured wine into it until it ran over ; assuring me, at the same time, that it was a great pleasure to htm to receive me, and that I should find k rich supply in liis liouse." — BuRDER, Oriental Customs, No. 539. The Psalmist in the text represents himself as an lionored guest of Jehovah, who prepares a table for him, hospitablj^ anoints him, and puts into his hands a full cup. 430.— CATARACTA. XXIV, 7. Lift up your heads, O ye gates ; and be ye lifted up, ye everlasting doors. Allusion is thought to be made here to the custom of hanging gates so that, instead of opening in the ordinary way, they rise and fall as tliey open and shut. A gate of this description was called catarada, because of the force and noise with which it fell. It was used in the fortification of towns, and corresponded to the portculHs of modern times; and is supposed to have been known in the time of David. See Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. Cataracta. 431.— SYMBOLICAL HAND-WASHING. XXVI, 6. I will wash mine hands in innoeeney: so will I compass thine altar, O Lord. There were several occasions on which the Jews were accustomed to wash their hands in connection with religious rites. The Psalmist may have had one or all of these in mind when he uttered the text. See also Psa. Ixxiii, 13. 1. There was the washing required of the priests in the service of the tabernacle and temple. The brazen laver was made for this purpose. See Exod. xl, 30-32. It is said to have been customary for the priests, when they had bound the sacrifice to the horns of the altar to march around it, after they had washed their hands. Thus David says, " So will I compass tiiine altar, 0 Lord.'' 2. The Jews were also accustomed to wash their hands before engaging in prayer. Paul is thought to refer to this in the expression '-holy hands" in I Tim. ii, 8. Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 221 3. There were certain ceremonies directed to be observed in cases of mur- der where tlie murderer was unknown. The elders of the city nearest to which the body of the murdered man was found were directed to strike off a heifer's head, and then it is commanded that they " shall wash their hands over the heifer that is beheaded in the valley: and they shall answer and say, Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it." Deut. xxi, 6, 7. This was considered a most solemn asseveration on their part of their innocence in the matter. Pilate, tliough a G-entile, had prob- ably lived long enough among the Jews to understand this custom, and is, therefore, supposed to refer to it when, on the demand of the people that Barabbas be freed and Jesus crucified, " he took water, and washed his hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood of this just person : see ye to it." Matt, xxvii, 24. The custom is said to have been Gentile as well as Jewish ; but this is denied. See Bloomfield, Greek Tes- tament; Note on Matt, xxvii, 24. Since David desires in this text to symbolize inward purity by outward washing, any one of these customs may serve for illustration. 432.— THE PSALTERY. XXXIII, 2. Sing unto him with the psaltery, and an instru- nnent of ten strings. These two instruments, the "psaltery" and "the instrument of ten strings," (see also Psa. xcii, 3 ; cxliv, 9,) are supposed to have been the same, the one term being used to explain tlie other. The shape of the nehel^ or psaltery, is un- known. Some suppose it to have been like an inverted Delta, v- Others, from the name, imagine tiiat it was shaped like a leathern bottle, the word nebel having that signification. A skin bottle inverted and an inverted Delta would in general shape be similar, so that both ideas may be cor- rect. Others think that it was shaped some- 84.— Assyrian Tkiangui^ar Lyre. what like a guitar, and that it resembled (Ko^unjik.) that instrument in its general style. Josephus says. " The psaltery had twelve musical notes, and was played upon by the fingers." — Antiquities^ Book vii, chapter 12, § 3, These twelve " notes " are supposed to have been represented by twelve strings, whereas the texts above cited speak of but ten. It may be that the number differed in different varieties of the instrument. If we suppose these varieties to have been designated by the number of their strings, we may find the reason for the explanatory clause of the Psalmist, the kind of psaltery to 222 BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. which he specially refers being the one Kncvn as " the ten-stringed." The strings, whatever their number, were stretched over a wooden frame. 2 Sam. vi, 5 ; 1 Kings x, 12. When the nebel was invented and when it came into use among the Hebrews is unknown. It is first men- tioned in connection with the inaugu- ration of King Saul. When tlie com- pany of young prophets met him, shortlj' after Samuel had anointed him. one of the instruments on which they played was the nebel. 1 Sam. x, 5. It was used in Divine worship. See 2 Sam. vi, 5; 1 Chron. xiii, 8; XV, 16; xvi, 5; xxv, 1; Amos v, 23. It was also used on festive occasions. See Tsa. v, 12; xiv, 11; Amos vi, 5. (In these last passages and in Amos V, 23, nebel IS rendered viol in our En- glish version.) From 1 Chron. xiii, 8 ; XV, 16, and Amos v, 23, it appears that the nebel was used to accompany 85. — Assyrian Lyee with Ten Steings. the voice. (Khorsabad.) 433.-POSTURE OF THE FACE IN PRAYER. XXXV, 13. I humbled my soul with fasting, and my prayer returned into mine own bosom. Reference is thought to be made here to the custom among Orientals of praying with the head inclined forward until the face is almost hidden in the bosom of the garment. 434— THE SERVANT'S EARS. XL, 6. Mine ears hast thou opened. The Psalmist uses this expression to denote the fact tliat he is a servant of God, ready to do his will, as he further declares in the eighth verse. He seems to have in his mind the ceremony by which a Hebrew servant, if unwilling to leave his master, might be bound to liim for life. "Then his master shall bring him unto the judges; he sliall also bring him to the door, or unto the door post; and his master shall bore his ear through with an awl; and he shall serve him for ever." Exod. xxi, 6. See also Deut, XV, 16, 17. This custom was observed, not only by the Jews, but also by many other ancient nations. Fsalms.J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 223 435.— ABUSE OF HOSPITALITY. XLI, 9. Yea, mine own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, which did eat of my bread, hath lifted up his heel against me. It is considered an act of great baseness among- Eastern nations for any one to do an evii deed against those who have shared his hospitaUty. This feehng is very ancient, and is often alluded to by ancient autliors. The Saviour refers to it v^hen he mentions the baseness of Judas, and cites this verj^ passage from the Psalmist. John xiii, 18. See also Obadiah 7. Sim- ilar to this notion of the sacredness of hospitality, though more binding in its nature, was " the covenant of salt." See note on Lev. ii, 13. 436— PERFUMED GARMENTS. XLV, 8. All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and cassia. In many parts of the East the people are excessively fond of perfuming their garments, sometimes making the fragrance so strong that Europeans can scarcely endure it. They sprinkle their clothing with sweet scented oils extracted from spices or sandal wood, and with a great variety of strongly perfumed waters. They fumigate them with powerful incense or by burning scented woods. They make use of camphor, civet wood, sandal wood, aloes, and even sometimes sew chips of perfumed wood into the garments. Reference is made to this custom in Sol. Song iv, 11: *'Tiie smell of thy garments is hke the smell of Lebanon; " and possibly in Hose.t xiv, 6. Most commentators suppose an allusion to this custom to be made also in Gen. xxvii, 27, where Isaac kissed Jacob, and it is said, "he smelled the smell of his raiment, and blessed him and said, See, the smell of my son is as the smell of a field which the Lord hath blessed." This, however, is disputed by some. Kurtz refers to Tuch's view of the passage, and agrees with his interpretation. "We must, therefore, agree with Tuch, that an aromatic smell of the iierbs, flowers, and other produce of the field, must have been felt off the garments of Esau, who was ' a man of the field ; ' a supposition this which involves no difficulty, considering that the country was so rich in aromatic and smeUing herbs." — Histc/ry of the Old Covenant^ vol. i, p. 298. 437.— USE OF HYSSOP. LI, 7. Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean. Hyssop was appointed to be used in ceremonial purification. It was used in connection with the passover, (Exod. xii, 22,) the cleansing of lepers, (Lev. xiv, 4, 6, 49, 51, 52,) and the sacrifice of the red heifer. Xum. xix, 224 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 6, 18. See also Heb. ix, 19. Hyssop was anciently considered a means of actual bodily purification, and was even takeri internally for that purpose. 438— BOTTLED TEARS. LVI, 8. Thovi tellest my wanderings : p\it thou my tears into thy bottle : are they not in thy book ? Referetice is usually thought to be made here to the lachrymatories or tear-bottles which have been found in ancient tombs, and which are sup- posed to have b(^en used for the purpose of receiving the tears of mouiniitjuf relatives and friends at the time of burial. These tear-bottles are made of various materials, such as glass and earthenware, and are of diiferen*: shapes. The most of them are broad at the bottom, with lo?)g slender necks and fun- nel-shaped mouths. Morier says that in Persia, " in some of their fnournfiil assemblies, it is the custom for a priest to go about to each person, at the height of his grief, with a piece of cotton in his hand, with which he care- fully collects the falling tears, and which he then squeezes into a bottle, preserving them with the greatest caution/* " Some Persians believe that, in the agony of death, when all medicines have failed, a drop of tears so collected put into the mouth of a dying man has been known to revive hhn; and it is for such use tliat they are collected '^ — Secmd Jouvney fhrmgh Persia, p. 1T9. Some commentators, however, deny that there is any reference in this te.Yt to the ancient lachrymatories, or that there is any evidence of tlieir use among the Hebrews. Such affirm that tlje allusion here is to the custom of putting into bags, or small leathern bottles, articles of value for safe keeping. See note on L\ike xii, 33. The idea would the-u be, "Treasure up these tears as something of great value.^* 439.— SERPENT CHARMING. LYIII, 4, 5. They are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear ; "Which will not hearken to the voice of eharmers, charming never so wisely. Serpent charming has from remote times been practiced among Oriental nations. Wliile there is doubtless imposture often associated with the exhi- bitions of serpent charmers, yet there are many carefully observing travelers who give it as their opinion, from their own observation, tliat tliere are men who, in some way, can detect the presence of serpents in honse-s and old walls, and can draw them out and keep them from doing mischief by the power of shrill musical notes. Since none of the serpent tribe have any ex- ternal ear, and consequently can only hear very sharp sounds, it is hanlly necessary to explain t])e deafness of the adder as willful, occasioiicd, as "^ome Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 225 Did travelers have gravely asserted, by putting; one ear to the dust and stopping the other with its tail. Some travelers give it as their opinion tlmt all the serpents exliibited by tlie charmers have previously liad their (^T^v iiui " frequently handled it to observe the beauty of the spots, and especially the spectacles on the hood, not doubting but that its venomous fangs had been previously ex- tracted." The next morning his servant informed him, very much to his astonishment, that " while purchasing some fruit in the bazar he had observed the man who had been with me on the preceding evening enter- Laining the countr}^ people with his dancing snakes. They, according to their usual custom, sat on the ground around him, when, either from the mnsio stopping too suddenly, or from some other cause irritating the vicious rep- tile which I had so often handled, it darted at the throat of a young woman, and inflicted a wound of which slie died in about half au hour." — Oriental Memoirs^ vol. i, p. 44. Besides the text, reference is made to serpent charming in several other passages. Solomon refers to it in Eccl. x, 11 : " Surely the serpent will bite without enchantment; and a babbler is no better." In the prophecy of Jeremiah, there is allusion made to the same custom: "For, behold, I will send serpents, cockatrices, among you, which will not be charmed, and they shall bite you, saith the Lord." Jor. viii, H. fangs extracted, while others assert that some of the serpents thus sported with have afterward given unmistakable evi- dence of still possess- ing the death dealing power. Forbes gives a curious illustration of this. He once painted the picture of a cobra de capello, which a Hindoo snake charmer kept dancing on the table for a whole hour, while the artist was at his work. During this time he 86.— [nDIAX SK?aM2NT CllAllMKItS. 226 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 440.— BROKEN TEETH. LVIII, 6. Break their teeth, O God, in their mouth : break out the great teeth of the young lions, O Lord. This is thought by some to be a conlinuation of the figure in the preced- ing verse, and to allude to the custom of snake charmers, who, it is said, often break out the teeth of the serpents they wish to tame, and remove the poisonous gland; though this is not always done, as the preceding note shows. This interpretation, however, supposes a -'mixed figure" in the text: a sudden transition from the serpent's teeth to the teeth of young lions. Other interpreters therefore suppose that the reference to serpent charm- ing closes with the fifth verse, and that in the sixth verse an allusion is mnde to an ancient custom of heathen kings, who were in the habit of knocking out the teeth of their prisoners, or of those wiio had offended them. 441.— THORNS FOR FUEL. LVIII, 9. Before your pots can feel the thorns, he shall take them away as with a whirlwind. There is a great variety of thorny shrubs and plants abounding in Pales- tine. These the people gladly gather and use for fuel. They make a quick, hot fire, which kindles easily and soon expires. The idea conveyed in the text is that of swift destruction. The wicked are to be destroyed quicker than the heat from a fire of thorns could reach the cooking vessels. A similar figure is used in the prophecy of Isaiah: "And tiie people shall be as the burnings of lime : as thorns cut up shall they be burned in the fire." Isa. xxxiii, 12. It has been supposed from this text that thorns may have been used in lime-kilns. Allusion to the use of thorns for fuel is also made in 2 Sam. xxiii, 6, 7 ; Psa. cxviii, 12; Eccl. vii, 6; Isa. ix, 18; x, 17; Nahum i, 10. See note on 1 Kings xvii, 10, and also on Matt, vi, 30, 442.— LEATHER TABLES. LXIX, 22. Let their table become a snare before thenn : and that which should have been for their welfare, let it become a trap. The table of the modern Arabs is usually nothing but a piece of skin or leather, a mat, or a linen cloth spread upon the ground. The ancient He- brews are supposed to have used a table of this sort, and this is thought to be referred to in the text. A table thus spread on the ground migiit easily become a trap by whicli the feet of the unwary would be entangled so that they should full. For a description of the snare " and "trap " referred to here, see note on Psa. xci, 3. PsalmsJ BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 227^ 413.— UNBURIED BODIES. LXXIX, 2. The dead bodies of thy servants have they given to be nneat unto the fowls of the heaven, the flesh of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth. 1. To be deprived of burial was considered by the Jews one of the great- est dishonors that could be inflicted on a human being. In this they but shared the common feeling of civilized man. We find a number of scrip- tural references to this sentiment. The Psalmist, lamenting the desolations he beheld, says, " Our bones are scattered at the grave's mouth, as when one cuttetli and cleavetli wood upon the earth." Psa. cxli, 7. Solomon speaks of it as a great disgrace that a man ''have no burial." Eccl. vi, 3. Tlie Lord said of Jehoiakim, "his dead body shall be cast out in the day to tiie heat, and in the night to the frost." Jer. xxxvi, 30. In the text the bodies are represented not only as unburied, but as further dishonored by being de- voured by birds and beasts. This was one of the curses pronounced by Moses for disobedience to the Divine law. Deut. xxviii, 26. It was a threat mutually exchanged between David and Goliath. 1 Sam. xvii, 44-46. The prophet Jeremiah has several references to this dishonorable treatment of the bodies of the dead. See Jer. vii, 33; xvi, 4; xix, 7; xxxiv, 20. 2. In connection with this subject it may not be amiss to state tlia-t, on the other hand, the ancient Magi exposed the bodies of their dead, to be eaten by birds, as a matter of religious principle; their theory being that any other mode of disposing of a corpse would pollute at least one of the four so-called elements: earth, air, fire, and water. If living beings should de- vour the dead, this pollution would be prevented. At the present day the Guebres, or Fire- worshipers, the descendants of the ancient Persians, follow the same practice, and even have apparatus prepared for the purpose. "Round towers of considerable height, without either door or window, are constructed by the Guebres, having at the top a number of iron bars, which slope inwards. The towers are mounted by moans of ladders, and the bodies are placed crossways upon the bars. The vultures and crows which hover about the towers soon strip the flesh from the bones, and these latter then fall through to the bottom. The Zendavesta contains particular directions for the construction of such tow^ers, which are called dakhmas, or * towers of silence. ' " — Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 350, note 2. 444.— THE ''PIT." LXXXVIII, 4. I am counted with them that go down into tha pit. There are several Hebrew words which are rendered in our version by the tvord " pit." The ordinary method of burial being in a grave dug in the earth, 228 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. or hewn out of the rock, the phrase "go down into the pit" became sy- nonymous with death and the grave. Solomon represents those who are try- ing to entice the innocent youth into ways of wickedness as saying. " Let us swallow them up alive as the grave; and whole, as those that go down into the pit." Prov. i, 12. Hezekiah, in his song of thanksgiving for the recovery of his health, says, "For the grave cannot praise thee, death cannot celebrate thee; tliey that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth." Isa. xxxviii, 18. In these two passages the parallel members of the sentence explain each other. The phrase referred to is of frequent occurrence in Scrip- ture. See, for example, Job xvii, 16; xxxiii, 24; Psa. xxviii, 1; xxx, 3; cxliii, 7 ; Ezek. xxvi, 20; xxviii, 8; xxxi, 14; xxxii, 18. 445.— BIRD-SNARES. XCI, 3. Surely he shall deliver thee from the snare of the fowler. Several different words are used in the Hebrew to denote various snares which were employed in fowling. The word pack, which is used in the text, denoted a spring, or trap-net, in two parts, which, when set, were spread out upon the ground, and slightly fastened with a sticlc, (trap-stick;) so that as Boon as a bird or beast touched the stick, the parts flew up and inclosed the bird in the net, or caught the foot of the animal. Job xviii, 9." — Robinson's Gesenins, The word mokesh is also used to denote a snare of the same sortj 8T.-— Ancient Egyptian Snares. though it is also sometimes used to signify a circle of nets for capturing beasts'. See note on 2 Sara, xxii, 6. Snares which were spread on tlie ground and caught the bird by the feet, or, loosing a spring, encircled it with a net, are often referred to by biblical writers as ilhistrative of the dangers which beset men. See Job xviii, 8-10^ where several varieties seem to be named. The same is true of Psa. cxl, 5, See also Psa. cxxiv, 7 ; cxli, 9 ; cxlii, 3 ; Prov. vii, 23 ; xxii, 5 ; Hos( a ix, 8 ; Amos iii, 5. For another mode of catching birds, see noto on Hosoa vii, 12. Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 229 446.— GREEN OIL. XCII, 10. 1 shall be anointed with fresh oil. Literally, green oil. Some interpret this to mean oil newly made; others an oil made from green or unripe olives, like the beaten oil of the sanctuary. See note on Exod. xxvii, 20. Roberts suggests that it means "cold drawa oil," or that which is pressed from the nut without tlie process of boiUng. He says : " The Orientals prefer this kind to all others for anointing them- selves ; it is considered the most precious, the most pure and efficacious. Nearly all their medicinal oils are thus extracted, and because they cannot gain so much by this method as by the boiling process oils so drawn are very dear. Hence their name for the article thus prepared is patche^ tliat is, 'green oil.' " — Oriental Illustrations^ p. 339. 44T.— TRUMPETS. XCVIII, 6. With trumpets and sou.nd of cornet make a joy- ful noise before the Lord, the King. 1. Chatsotserah, "trumpet," was a long, straight, and slender wind instru- ment, such as Moses was commanded to furnish for the service of the Israel- ites. Num. X, 2. Josephus gives this description of it : " In length it was little less than a cubit. It was composed of a narrow tube, somewhat t licker than a flute, but with so much breadth as was sufficient for admission of the breath of a man's mouth ; it ended in the form of a bell, like common trumpets." — Antiquities^ book iii, chap. 12, § 6. The chatsotserah was used for notifying the people of the different feasts, f ir signaling the change of camp, and for sounding alarms in time of war. See Num. x, 1-10 ; Bosea v, 8. It was at first used in sacrificial rites only on special occasions, but in the time of David and Solomon its use for such purposes was very much extended. 2. It is impossible to give an accurate description of tlie shophar, here and in other passages rendered " cornet," but often translated "trumpet." Our translators render it " trumpet," except when, as in the text, they are com- pelled to make a distinct on between it and chatsotserah^ which they invari- ably render "trumpet." See 1 Chron. xv, 28; 2 Chron. xv, 14; Hosea v, 8. It is translated "trumpet" in Exod. xix, 16; Lev. xxv, 9; Job xxxix, 25; Joel ii, 1 ; Amos ii, 2. Authorities differ as to its shape, some supposing it to have been straight, while others contend that it was more or less bent like a horn. The latter opinion would seem the more probable from the fact that the "horn," (keren,) in Josh, vi, 5, is elsewhere throughout that chapter spoken of as a shophar, or "trumpet." From its name, which means "bright," or "clear," the shophar is thought to have had a clear, shrill sound. It was used for an- nouncing the beginning of the year of jubilee, and for other ceremonial pur- 230 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. iFsalms. poses; for calling the attention of the people to important proclamations; for declaration of war; and for demonstrations of joy. See Lev. xxy, 9; Judges iii, 27; 1 Sam. xiii. 3; 2 Chron. xv, 24; Tsa. xviii, 3. 448.— CALF-WORSHIP. CVI, 19, 20. They made a calf in Horeb, and worshiped the molten image. ThiAS they changed their glory into the simil- itude of an ox that eateth grass. There is thought to be an allusion heve to a custom which was practiced in Egypt in connection with the worship of the sacred calf, Apis. G-odwyn says: " The party that repaired unto him tendered a bottle of hay or grass; which, if he received, then it betokened a good and happy event; if, other- wise, he refused it, ilien it did portend some evil to come." — Moses and Aaron, book iv, chapter 5. 449.— OFFERINGS FOR THE DEAD. CVI, 28. They joined themselves also unto Baal-peor, and ate the sacrifices of the dead. Allusion is supposed to bo made here to those sacrifices which were anciently offered by various nations to, or in honor of, the dead. Egyptian funeral tablets have representations of eome of these feasts. The friends met together to eat the sacrifice or peace-offering, which consist- ed of various articles — meat, bread, vegetables, and liquids. What was left by the mourn- ers w^as eaten by the wild ani- mals ; hence, in the hierogl3^ph- ical inscriptions the jackal is st3ded " the devourer of what is set out for the dead." The ancient Greeks had a similar custom. They met, after the funeral, at the house of the bereaved, and partook of an entertainment composed of a S8.— Egyptian Offerings for the Dead. variety of animal and vegeta- ble substances. The broken morsels which fell from the table were looked on as sacred to the departed souls, and could not be lawfully eaten. " These fragments were carried to the tomb, and there left for the ghost to feast upon ; whence, to denote extreme poverty, it was usual to say that a person stole his meat from the graves.''' — Poiter's Antiquities of Greece, vol. ii, p. 230. psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 231 450.— SHRIVELED BOTTLES. CXIX, 83. I am become like a bottle in the smoke. Bottles made of skin (see note on Matt, ix, 17) are often hung up in Oriental tents. Here the smoke from the tent fire can freeJy act upon them, since there is no chimney to carry it away. Skins of wine were some- times hung in the smoke to give the wine a peculiar flavor. Wlien skin bottles are long exposed to smoke, they become hard, shriveled, and un- sightly. This is the foundation of the striking figure of the text. 451,- WATCHFUL SERVANTS. CXXIII, 2. Behold, as the eyes of servants look unto the hand of their masters, and as the eyes of a maiden -unto the hand of her mistress, so ou.r eyes wait "upon the Lord our God, until that he have mercy upon us. Servants in the East are not always spoken to when orders are given by the master or mistress. The wishes of the latter are made known by signs; lience it becomes necessary for the servants to watch the hand of the master to ascertain when they are wanted and what is required of them. The clapping of the hands may bring them when in an adjacent room, and a silent motion of the hand may express the master's wish. Servants are trained to watch for these signs and to obey them. This custom is doubt- less the one alluded to in the text ; and yet there is force in tlie suggestion of Harmer, tliat, in its special apphcation here, the latter part of the verse must not be forgotten. He paraphrases the passage thus: "As a slave, ordered by a master or mistress to be chastised for a fault, turns his or her imploring eyes to that superior, till that motion of the hand appears which puts an end to the bitterness that is felt, so our eyes are put up to thee, our God, till thy hand shall give the signal for putting an end to our sorrows." — Observations^ vol. ii, p. 430. 452.— GRASS ON HOUSETOPS. CXXIX, 6. Let them be as the grass upon the housetops, which withereth afore it groweth up. From the peculiar structure of the roofs of Eastern houses it can easily be seen how grass ra'ght there spring up and yet not have a flourishing growth. Dr. Robinson, speaking of the houses near Lebanon, says: " The flat roofs of the houses in this region are constructed by laying, first, large beams at in- tervals of several feet; then, rude joists ; on which, again, are arranged small poles.close together, or brush- wood ; and upon this is spread earth or gravel rolled hard. This roUing is o^ten repeated, especially after ram, for these 232 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. roofs are apt to leak. For tliis purpose a roller of stone is kept readj^ for use on the roof of every house. Gra^s is often seen growing on these roofs." — Biblical Researches^ vol. iii, p. 39. The earth on the roof affords a starting place for the grass, but the fre- quent use of the roller and the trampling of feet give it but a poor chance for life. " It withereth afore it groweth up." The same figure is also used in 2 Kings xix, 26, and in Isa. xxxvii, 27. Travelers who have visited Persia tell us of houses the roofs of which are covered with green sod, from which the grass grows kixuriantlj^ Hay is said to be gathered from these roofs, and lambs are turned out on them to pasture. The same is reported of northern Gothic countries. The psalmist however, could not, as some think, have had such roofs in mind, even admit- ting that he ever saw them, since tlie application of the illustration pre-sup- poses grass, not of luxuriant growth, but short-lived. 453.— OIL USED MEDICINALLY. CXLI, 5. Let the righteous smite me; it shall be a kindness: and let him reprove me ; it shall be an excellent oil, which shall not break my head. Oil is used in the East not only for anointing, but also for medicinal pur- poses. There are some complaints in the head which are supposed to be specially relieved by the use of certain oils. Other kinds of oil, however, are said to produce delirium. The " excellent oil " in the text was the kind that cured. Roberts adds to this statement of the medicinal use of oils on the head the fact that in Judea "the crown of the head is the place selected for chastisement. Thus, owners of slaves, or husbands, or sclioolmasters, beat tlie heads of the offenders with their knuckles." The Hindus have figura- tive forms of speech very similar to the text: "Let a holy man smite my head ! and what of that ? it is an excellent oil." " My master has been beat- ing my head, but it has been good oil for me." 454.— CARYATIDES. CXLIV, 12. That our daughters may be as corner-stones, pol- ished after the similitude of a palace. It is thought by some that reference is made here to the Caryatides or columns representing female figures. These were common in Egyptian architecture, and their appearance was doubtless familar to the Hebrews. The psalmist wishes the fair daughters of the land to be like "corner columns finely sculptured," thus combining strength with beanty. He desires that they may be noted, not merely for loveliness, but for usefulness, holding up the social fabric, as pillars sustain a temple. Psalms.] BIBLE MANJ^ERS AND CUSTOMS. 233 455.— ORGANS. CL, 4. Praise him with the timbrel and danee ; praise him with stringed instruments and organs. The ugdb was one of the most ancient instruments, its invention being ascribed to Jubal. Gen. iv, 21. From Job xxi, 12, and xxx, 31, it appears to have been used on festive occasions. In the text it is spoken of as appro- priate for use in the worship of God. Various opinions have been expressed in reference to the character of this instrument. Winer, {Bib. Realw.^) and Leyrer, (in Herzog's Real-EncyUo- pddie,) following some very old authorities, suppose the ugab to have resem- bled the bagpipe. They represent it as consisting of two pipes fastened in a leathern bag, one above and the other below. Through the upper pipe, which had a mouth-piece, the bag was filled with air, while the lower pipe had holes which were played on with the fingers hke a flute, the bag mean- while rising and falling like a bellows, by means of pressure. Most authorities, however, identify the ugab with the syrinx or " Pandean pipes," which is undoubtedly a very ancient instrument, and is generally con- ceded to be the germ of the modern organ. Kitto says that the syrinx waa the instrument which was meant by our translators when tliey used the word "organ; " thus relieving them from the charge of obscurity, that word having changed its m-eaning since their day. The syrinx was used by the Arcadian and other Grecian shepherds, and was supposed by them to have been invented by Pan, their tutelary god, who was sometimes iieard playing on it, as they imagined, on Mount Maenalus. It was made of cane, reed, or hemlock. "In general, seven hollow stems of tliese plants were fitted togetlier by means of wax, having been previously cut to the proper length, and adjusted so as to form an octave; but some- times nine were admitted, giving an equal number of notes. Another refine- ment in the construction of this instrument, which, however, was rarely practiced, was to arrange the pipes in a curve so as to fit the form of the lip, instead of arranging them in a plane." — Smith, Bid. Greek and Roman Ard. This instrument is still used in some parts of the East. The reeds are of unequal length, but of equal thickoess, and vary in number from five to twenty-three. Specimens may be occasionally seen in European and Amer- ican cities in the possession of itinerant street musicians. 450.— CYMBALS. CL, 5. Praise him upon the loud cymbals; praise him upon the high-sounding cymbals. The ancient cymbals resembled those in use in our day, consisting of two circular concave plates of brass, or other metal, and producing a clanging eound by being struck against each other. 15 234 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. Two kinds are supposed to be men bals" are thought to have corresponc 89.— Ettnuch Plating on the Cymbals, (koyunjik.) tioned in the text. The "loud cym- led to the castanets which are used by the Moors and Spaniards as an accompaniment to guitars and dances. Two of these small cym- bals were held in each hand. The "high-sounding cymbals" are thought to have been the larger kind that we are accustomed to see in military bands. They were thus used in ancient times, and were also employed by the Hebrews in Divine worship as an accompani- ment to the chorus of singers. 1 Chron. xv, 16; xxv, 6; 2 Chron. V, 13. Paul refers to this instru- ment in 1 Cor. xiii, 1 : " Though I speak with the tongues of men and angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal." THE PROVERBS. 457.— EXTERNAL APPLICATIONS. Ill, 8. It shall be health to thy navel, and nnarrow to thy bones. Sir Joiin Chardin supposes that allusion is here made to the custom, so prevalent in the East, of making external applications of oils, ointments, plasters, and frictions, especially on the stomach and abdomen. In addition to this the passage may obtain further illustration from a fact mentioned by Roberts. He says that in India " the navel is often spoken of as a criterion of prosperity;" and he gives several proverbial expressions which are fre- quently used to denote good fortune, in which a figure is brought out similar to that in the text. 458.— TALKING BY SIGNS. VI, 13. He speaketh with his feet, he teaeheth with his fingers. Peet and fingers are frequently used in the PJast as a means of commu- Bicating ideas, especially when in the presence of tliose from whom it 13 Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 235 intended to conceal the information imparted, und who might bear if words were uttered. Certain movements of hands and feet are understood to have a definite meaning, so that merchants liave been known to bargain in the presence of others by sitting on the ground with a piece of cloth thrown over the lap, under which they arrange their terms by the movements of their fingers. In a similar way the Brahmins convey religious mysteries to their disciples, their hands being concealed in the folds of their robes. Thus they teach " with their fingers." See also John xiii, 24. Debauchees and dancing girls are in the habit of making gestures and movements with their feet. Some suppose Solomon to refer to tliese when he speaks of tlie "naughty person" as he does in the text. Tlie practice was known among the ancient Romans and is described by classic authors. 459.— COVERINGS OF TAPESTRY. VII, 16. I Jtiave decked my bed with coverings of tapestry, with carved works, with fine linen of Egypt. Fres, " bed," is supposed by some writers to signify bedstead, and they think the text refers to a custom of hanging over the bedstead a canopy of richly woven stuff covering a frame. Others suppose the text to refer to the rich bed clothing which is found in the houses of wealthy Orientals. We are told by travelers of coverlets of green and crimson satin ornamented with gold embroidery, and presenting an appearance of great splendor ; in fact, being more ornamental than useful, especially when it is considered that tiie large cushions which are used as pillows sometimes have embroidery upon tliem so tiiick as seriously to interfere with comfort when the head rests on it. "Coverings of tapestry" are also mentioned in Prov. xxxi, 22. 460.— MIXED WINE. IX, 2. She hath killed her beasts, she hath mingled her wine, she hath also furnished her table. Harmer supposes that by "mixed wine " is meant old wine that is drawn from jars where it becomes turbid and strong by being m'ngled with the lees. *' Mixed wine " would then mean old or strong wine, and the announcement in the text that Wisdom " hath mingled her wine," means that she has opened tlie wine for use, the feast being ready. Bishop Lowth also supposes mixed wine to be strong wine, bnt made so, not in the way suggested by Harmer, but by the admixture of foreign substances ; affirming that, whereas the G-reeks and Latins by mixed wine always understood wine diluted and lowered with water, the Hebrews, on the contrary, generally mean by it wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and more powerful ingredients, such as honey, spices, defrutum, (or wine inspis- 236 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Proverbs. sated by boiling it down to two thirds or one lialf of tlie quantity,) royrrh, mandragora, opiates, and other strong drugs." — Commentary on Isaiah i, 22. Kitto, on the otlier hand, gives it as his opinion that in most, if not all, cases where mixed wine is spoken of, wine mingled with water is meant ; and he quotes Isaiah i, 22, as an illustration : Thy silver is become dross, thy wine mixed with water." But he forgets that the prophet is there speaking, not of wine as ordinarily drank at feasts, but of wine that is deteriorated in quality. Gesenius expresses it, "adulterated, spoiled by mixing water with it." God's people had become debased, they were like wine mixed with water. The other passages which speak of mixed wine most certainly seem to refer to a liquor that is strengthened, rather than weakened, by that wdth which it is mixed. See Psa. Ixxv, 8 ; Prov. xxiii, 30 ; Sol. Song viii, 2; Isa. v, 22. 461. — STRIKING HANDS. XI, 21. Though hand join in hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished. Literally, " hand to hand." Striking hands, or touching hands, is an Orien- tal mode of sealing a bargain, and is sometimes practiced even in this country. "Give us j^our hand on that" is a colloquial expression occasionally heard among an inferior class of traders. In the East the parties making a con- tract touch each other's right hands, and tiien each raises his hand to his lips or forehead. Sometimes tlie hands are simply joined. The text, then, is expressive of a covenant. See also Ezra x, 19; Ezek. xvii, 18. A moro solemn form of expressing faithfulness, amounting, indeed, to an oath, is seen in the uplifted hand. See note on Gen. xiv, 22, and also on Ezek. xxi, 14. Joining hands was frequently practiced as a mode of pledging security, and is thus referred to in Job xvii, 3 ; Prov. vi, 1 ; xvii, 18 ; xxii, 26. For remarks on "giving the hand" as a pledge of submission, see note on Jer. 1, 15. 462. — LOW DOORWAYS. XVII, 19. He that exalteth his gate seeketh destruction. In the open country where the houses are exposed to the depredations of w^andering Arabs the gates are made very low, so as to prevent the maraud- ers from riding through the porch into tlie court. A high gate would be an invitation to enter. Even in cities the gates of houses are often made low and unattractive in appearance, affording no indication of the wealth which may be within, lest the cupidity of wicked rulers should be attracted. Trav^elers speak of house-gates as low as three feet from the ground. In Persia a lofty gate is one ol' the signs of royalty, which some of the subjects, in their vanity, imitate as far as they dare. Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 237 Anderson says : The house in which I dwelt in Jerusalem had an arch, or gate- way, a few yards from the door, which was so low that a person on horseback could not pass under it. It was evidently built for the sake of security." — Bible Light from Bible Lands, p. 329. The meaning of tbe text undoubtedly is. He who has a high gate to his house invites the robber by a show of prosperity and by affording facihty of entrance. He thus "seeketh destruction," 463— THE LOT. XVni, 18. The lot eauseth contentions to cease, and parteth between the mighty. See also chap, xvi, 33. The use of the lot, as a mode of setthng disputed questions, is very an- cient, and was practiced by most ancient nations. It was resorted to in reference to almost all the varied aftairs of hfe. Magistrates and priests were appointed by it, and the land of conquered enemies was distributed by its means. Among the Hebrews we find its use sanctioned by Divine authority. Thus the scape goat was selected by lot. Lev. xvi, 8. The inheritances of the tribes in the Land of Promise were determined in the same way. Num. xxxiv, 13; Josh, xiv, 2. The lot was used on various occasions subse- quently. We cite a few instances. The men who attacked Gibeah were selected by lot. Judges xx, 9. In this manner Jonathan was detected as the violator of Saul's command concerning fasting, in his fight with the Philistines. 1 Sam. xiv, 41, 42. In this way the positions of the porters in the temple wei-e decided. I Ciiron. xxvi, 13. When the storm arose on board the ship where Jonah was, the heathen sailors cast lots to determine who had brought them into trouble. Jonah i, 7, In the New Testament we have allusions to the same practice. The Roman soldiers divided the garments of the Saviour by lot. Matt, xxvii, 35; Mark xv, 24. In this manner Matthias was chosen to fill the place of Judas. Acts i, 26. We have no information given in Scripture concerning the mode by which lots were cast. Among tbe Latins, especially where several parties were concerned, "little counters of wood, or of some other light material, were put into ajar (called sitella) with so narrow a neck that only one could come out at a time. After the jar had been filled with water and the contents shaken, the lots were determined by the order in which the bits of wood, rep- resenting the several parties, came out with the water. In other cases they were put into a wide, open jar and the counters were drawn out by the hand. Sometimes, again, they were cast in the manner of dice." — Fairbairn, Imperial Bible Dictionary^ s, v,, Lot, 238 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Proverbs. Roberts describes the mode by which property is divided by lot in India, as follows: "They draw on the ground tne cardinal points, thus: They then write the names of the parties on separate leaves and mix them all together. A little child is then called, and told to take one leaf and place it on any point of the compass he pleases; this being done, the leaf is opened, \/: J,, and to tlie person whose name is found therein will be given the field or garden which is in that direction." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 231. He further states that the Hindus settle every disputed question by lot. They decide what physician they shall have, and what rem- edies, and even leave the selection of a wife to the same blind chance. 90.— Lot-Compass. 464.— DWELLING ON THE HOUSE-TOP. XXI, 9. It is better to dwell in a oorner of the house-top than "with a brawling woman in a wide house. See also chap, xxv, 24. It is customary to build on the flat roofs of Eastern houses arbors, or booths, (called " tabernacles " in Matt, xvii, 4,) for tlie purpose of resting from the heat of the day during the summer. They are also occupied as sleeping-chambers at night. Some suppose that Saul slept in a place of this sort, though he may have slept on the open roof. See 1 Sam. ix, 25, 26. These temporary structures serve an excellent purpose at the season of the year for which they are specially designed, but as a place in which to "dwell" permanently they are, of course, very undesirable. The rain and cold would soon drive the inhabitants from them. Yet in the estimation of the wise man, a cheerless spot like this is preferable as a place of residence to a large house with plenty of room and all conveniences, provided "a brawling woman " is in it I 465.— BEAUTIFUL WORK IN METAL. XXV, 11. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver. MasJciyoth, "pictures," is supposed by some to convey the idea of carved work, rather than that of painted work, and hence they would refer it in tJiis place to something that is made by the skill of the carver or the engraver, such as a salver of silver with chased work upon it, and having fruit of gold. Others think that silver baskets of filigree work are meant, the fruit con- tained in them being real and of a golden color, or else artificial, and made Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 239 of gold. Either of these interpretations Avould be consistent with Eastern customs. Roberts suggests that, inasmuch as in verses 6 and 1 mention is made of the manner in which one sliould approach a king, Solomon in this verse had before his mind the presents which are sometimes made to Orien- tal monarchs — golden ornaments in the shape of fruit, placed on highly pol- ished silver salvers. 406.— SNOW USED IN SUMMER. XXV, 13. As the cold of snow in the time of harvest, so is a faithful messenger to them that send him : for he refresheth the soul of his masters. It is evident that this cannot refer to the coming of winter weatlier in summer, since the application of the figure supposes something desirable, which certainly could not be said of a fall of snow in harvest time. The custom, so common in the East to-day, of cooling wines with snow or ice, was doubtless practiced in the time of Solomon. Mount Lebanon supplies a large country in its neighborhood from the inexhaustible stores of snow upon its top. Tlie snow is mixed with the wine, thus making the latter more palatable; so a faithful messenger is a source of refreshment to "the soul of his masters." 467.— HINGES. XXVI, 14. As the door turneth upon his hinges, so doth the slothful upon his bed. The hinges of Eastern houses are not like ours, but consist of pivots in- serted into sockets both above and below. In the Hauran there are still standing stone houses with stone slabs for doors, having pivots cut out of the same and turning in sockets prepared for them in the wall of the house. 46§.— THE NUMBER SEVEN. XXVI, 25. When he speaketh fair, believe him not: for there are seven abominations in his heart. The number .seven is used frequently in Scripture, and expresses the idea of completeness or fullness. Thus the text represents the hypocrite as hav- ing a heart filled with abominations. Tliis figurative use of the number seven obtains in some parts of tiie East at the present day. It is frequently employed to signify an indefinite number, but always a large number, and hence conveys the idea of sufficiency. The Scripture passages where the word "seven " is used are too numerous to be quoted here. They are scat- tered all through the Bible, especially in the prophetical books ; the book of Revelation making most frequent symbolical use of tlie word. 240 BIBLE MANXEKS AND CUSTOMS. [Froverls. The interestiog question, Yfhy tlie number seven should be regarded a perfect number? is one the discussion of which does not fall within the scope assigned to this work. Those who desire information on this subject, and also on the general question of the sacred numbers used in the Bible, may consult, in addition to tlie various Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedias, Stuart on the Apocalypse, in his Introduction, § 7, "Numerosity of the Apoca- lypse," vol. i, p. 130; and in Excursus II, "On the Symbolical Use of Num- bers in the Apocalypse," vol. ii, p. 409. Dr. Whedon also has a very valua- ble and characteristic note on the same subject in his Commeniary on the Gospels, vol. ii, p. 77. 469.— LEAKY ROOFS. XXVII, 15. A continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman are alike. See also chap, xix, 13. Reference is undoubtedly made here to the frequent leaks to which the flat roofs of Eastern houses are subject. Having merely a coveriug of earth, rolled smooth and hard, (see note on Psa. cxxix, 6,) a heavy rain will soon succeed in finding its way through, when the drops will fall into the room below, thus making it uncomfortable, if not actuallj^ uninhabitable. Trav- elers are frequently disturbed in this manner during violent storms, some- times being obliged to change their quarters in the middle of the night. 470.— MORTARS. XXVII, 22. Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart from him. Mortars, for cracking grain by pounding with a pestle, are often used in the East They are made of metal, earthenware, wood, or stone, the last being the most common material. The pestle is usually about five feet long. Some- times two pestles are used at the same time for one mortar, the two persons holding them striking alternate blows, like blacksmiths at an anvil. The ancient Israehtes used the mortar for beating their manna. Num. xi, 8. There is no evidence that the Hebrews ever administered punishment literally in the way indicated in the text, but it has been done among other nations. Beating to death in a •ji.— E(ivi'TiAx Mortar. mortar is a State punishment which ia some- times inflicted in Tiu'key and in India. Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 241 471.— BUTTER-MAKING. XXX, 33. Surely the ehiArning of milk bringeth forth butter, and the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood : so the forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife. There is but little in the Eastern mode of preparing butter that is similar to our churning. The milk is put into a bag or bottle, made of the skin of a goat or of a buffalo, and is agitated in various ways until the butter, such as it is, comes. See note on Gen. xviii, 8. Sometimes the skin containing the milk is shaken to and fro, or beaten with sticks. Some- limes it is placed on the ground and trodden upon. Thus Job says, " I washed my steps with butter." Job xxix, 6. Again, it is pressed or squeezed with the hands, so that the contents bet^omo agitated and gradually coagu- late. This last method is probably referred to in the text. There is a beauty in the original which does not appear in our English version. The word mits is thrice repeated, but is translated by three different terms : "churning," "wringing," "forcing." It literally means "pressing" or "squeezing," just as the skin bag is pressed or squeezed for the production of butter. The nose treated hi a similar manner will bleed, and wrath which is thus " pressed " will result in strife. ECCLESIASTES. 472.~WHITE GARMENTS. IX, 8. Let thy garments be always white. In the warm countries of the East white clothing is more frequently and generally worn than with us. This allusion to white garments is a beauti- ful figurative exhortation to perpetual purity of character, and one that would be readily appreciated by the Oriental mind. " May God blacken his face " is a common imprecation in the East. Mohammed is often called " He of the white face." In the Bible there are a number of references to white garments as typical of purity. In Dan. vii, 9, the Deity is represented as clad in a "garment white as snow." When Jesus was transfigured " his raiment was white as the light." Matt, xvii, 2. The angels appeared in white robes when the disciples visited the tomb of their risen Lord, (Matt, xxviii, 3; Mark xvi, 5; Luke xxiv, 4; John xx, 12,) and also when he as- cended into heaven. Acts i, 10. The redeemed are to be clothed in white. Rev. vii, 13 ; xix, 14. 242 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ecclesiastes. 4'y3._BREAD ON THE WATERS. XI, 1. Cast thy bread upon the waters: for thou shalt find it after many days. Many interpreters are of the opinion that there is here an allusion to the manner of sowing rice in Egypt, that is, by scattering it broadcast in the mud, or upon the overflowing waters of the Nile. Others, however, dispute this, claiming that there is no evidence of the cultivation of rice having been introduced into Egypt as early as the days of Solomon. These com- mentators consider tlie expression merely figurative without being based on any actual custom. THE SONG OF. SOLOMON. 474.— TENTS. I, 5. I am black, but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, as the tents of Kedar, as the curtains of Solomon. Tents were among the early habitations of man, though not the earliest, since they were not introduced until the time of Jabal, who was in the seventh generation from Adam. See G-en. iv, 20. The first tents were doubtless made of skins, though afterward when the process of weaving became known they were made, as they are at this day, of cloth of camels' hair, or of goats' hair, spun by the women. The latter is tlie material most commonly used by the Arabs, and since the goats are usually black, or a very dark brown, the tents exhibit the same appearance. It was tlnis in the days of Solomon with the tents made by the descendants of tiie Ishmaelitish Kedar. These tents individually are not very beautiful objects, but when arranged in the form of a circular encampment, with the cattle inclosed by the circle of tents, and the sheikh's teut in the center, they present a picturesque appearance. Balaam was impressed with the beauty of such a scene when he beheld the vast encampment of the Israelites, and exclaimed, '-How goodly are thy tents, 0 Jacob, and thy tabernacles, 0 Israeli" Num. xxiv, 5. The Arab tents are of various sizes, according to the number of the family or the wealth of the proprietor. The number of poles to a tent varies from one to nine. Some tents are circular in shape, some square, and others oblong. The covering is spread over the poles, which are fastened in the ground. The edges of the cover have leather loops, to which are attached the cords of the tent, which are sometimes stretched out tight and fastened 92.— Tents. OF iHE Solomon^s Song.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 245 to the ground by means of iron or wooden pins, or else are fastened to upright posts, on which a curtain is hung around the tent, forming the walls, which can be removed at pleasure without disturbing the rest of the tent. Other cords reach from the top of the tent to the ground, wliere thej' are fastened with pins, tluis steadying the whole structure. It was one of these pins which Jael drove into the head of Sisera. Judges iv, 21. The tent erected, and its cords stretched out, are often figuratively alluded to in the Bible. Thus Isaiah represents God as the one "that stretcheth out the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in." Isa. xl, 22. He also says, in speaking of the glorious prosperity of the Cluirch and the need of enlargement, " Enlarge the place of thy tent, and let them stretch forth the curtains of thine habitations : spare not, lengthen thy cords, and strengthen thy stakes." Isa. Hv, 2. See also Isa. xxxiii, 20. . It is a work of some effort to pitch a tent properly, especially a large one, requiring the united efforts of willing hands. Hence the pathetic language of Jeremiah in^mourning over the desolations of God's people: " My taber- nacle is spoiled, and all my cords are broken : my children are gone forth of me, and they are not: tliere is none to stretch fortli my tent any more, and to set up my curtains." Jer. x, 20. The large tents have nine poles, placed in three rows, covering sometimes a space twenty to twenty-five feet long, ten feet wide, and eight to ten feet high in the middle, with the sides sloping. Such tents often have a curtain hung on the middle row of poles, dividing the tent into two parts, one foi the men, and tlie other for tlie women. See notes on Gen. xviii, 10; xxiv, 6*7. Tlie poles which thus uphold the tent and divide it into sections are further made useful by having hooks driven into them from which are suspended clothes, baskets, saddles, weapons, and various other articles of daily use. These tents are rapidly struck and removed from place to place, so that the eye wliich to-day rests on a large encampment active with life may to- morrow behold nothing but a wilderness. Thus Isaiah says, "Mine ago is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent." Isa. xxxvni, 12. The facility with which tents are taken down, and the frailty of their material, are beautifully alluded to by Paul in 2 Cor. v, 1. See also 2 Peter i, 13, 14. Tents of cotton, linen, or silk are used for traveling or for hohday pur- poses, are of all colors, and are sometimes very magnificent. Stories which would be incredible if not from good authorities, are told of the splendor of state tents which have been reared by Oriental monarehs. Silver, gold, precious stones, silk, velvet, camels' hair cloth, and brocades, have combined to make these structures at onoe costly and splendid. The state tents of Tamerlane are said to have had poles of silver inlaid with gold, curtains of velvet, and ropes of silk. Nadir Shah had a stUe tent the outside of which 246 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Solomon's Song. was of fine scarlet broadcloth, and the lining of violet-colored satin. On this Ihiing were embroideries in pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, and other precious stones, representing birds, beasts, trees, and flowers. No description is given us of Solomon's state tents; indeed, some suppose that the " curtains " mentioned in the text refer to some of the splendid hangings of his palace. The unity of the passage, however, suggests the idea of tents, and it is not at all improbable that Solomon, the luxurious monarch who spared no expense to gratify his taste, had. tents of magnifi- cence commensurate with his royal grandeur. The King of Babylon had a royal pavilion though no description is given of it. Jer. xliii, 10. 475.— SHEPHERDS' NOONING. I, 7. Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feed- est, where thou makest thy flock to rest at noon. During the heat of the day the shepherds are in the habit of leading their flocks to some cool and shady spot, where they recline and rest until the shadows lengtlien. The sheep sleep, or chew the cud, while the shepherds pass the time in some light employment, such as plaiting mats, or in musing or story telling. JEWELS— -NECKLACES. I, 10. Thy cheeks are comely with rows of jewels, thy neck with chains of gold. 1. Eastern women sometimes have a cord of gold around their head at the forehead, on which arc strung precious stones of various sorts, which hang down over the cheeks of tiie fair wearers. Thus their "cheeks are comely with rows of jewels." 98.— ASBTRIAN AND EGYPTIAN NeCK ChAINS. Solomon's Song,] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 247 2. ^eck chains were made of gold or other metal, or else consisted of strings of pearls, corals, and precious stones. They were sometimes made of gold-pieces shaped like a half-moon. Such are referred to in Isa. iii, 18: '•round tires like the moon.'* See also note on Judges viii, 21. These neck- laces hung low down upon the breast, and were worn both by men and women. See Prov. i, 9 ; iii, 3. This was the custom among the Egyptians as well as the Hebrews ; Joseph had a gold chain put around his neck by Pharaoh. Gen. xU, 42. The Medes, Persians, Babylonians, and other an- cient nations, followed the same custom. See Dan. v, 7, 16, 29. Xeck chains are also referred to in Sol. Song iv, 9; Ezek. xvi, 11. 477.— USE OF RAISINS. II, 5. Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples. Ashishoth, "flagons," is conceded by the best authorities to mean, not drinking vessels, but cakes of pressed raisins, such as are often used in the East, by travelers, for refreshment. The word also occurs in 2 Sam. vi, 19; 1 Chron. xvi, 3 ; and Hosea iii, 1. In the last passage anabim^ which is ren- dered " wine," should be translated " grapes," as it is in the margin. Instead uf "flagons of wine," we should then read "cakes of grapes." Some think there is a reference in that passage to the custom of offering such cakes in sacrifice to heathen deities. 47§.— THE ROYAL LITTER. III, 9, 10. King Solomon made himself a chariot of the wood of Lebanon. He made the pillars thereof of silver, the bottom thereof of gold, the covering of it of purple. Appiryon, "chariot," is a litter, or palanquin, a vehicle of very ancient use, and still common in the East. The same conveyance is referred to in the word tsab in Num. vii, 3, and Isa. Ixvi, 20. In the former passage it is translated "wag- on," iu the latter "lit- ter." The palanquin is made of a light frame- work of wood, and is covered with cloth, hav- ing a lattice door or window at each side. Two strong poles are fastened to it, which in India are borne on the 94.— Ancient Egyptian Litter or PALANori^r. 248 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [SolomonVSDng. shoulders of men, but in Western Asia are harnessed to mules, horses, or camels, one of the animals being at each end. Occasio!ially four beasts are employed, two at each end, and sometimes a litter is so contrived as to be fastened to the back of a single camel. Engraving number 11, p. 40, has a representation of a camel litter. Litters are often of great magnificence, especially if they belong to royalty. The woodwork is richly carved, and ornamented with gold, and silver, and precious stones. The canopy is of silk, satin, or brocade, and ornamented with jewels. These conveyances are ordinarily shaped like a couch, and are so made that the traveler can lie down at full length if desired. 4T9.— CITY WATCHMEN. V, 7. The watchmen that went about the city found me, they smote me, they wounded me ; the keepers of the walls took away my vail from me. There were not only watclimen stationed on the walls to g^uard against the approach of enemies, (see note on 2 Sam. xviii, 26,)bnt there were others whose duty it was to patrol the streets of the city and preserve o'-der. See Psa.cxxvii, 1 ; Sol. Song iii, 3. There are such in Oriental cities to-day, and they challenge all persons found abroad after certain hours of the night, arresting those that are not able to give a good account of themselves, and sometimes subjecting them to rough treatment. ISAIAH. 480.— TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. I, 6. They have not been closed, neither bound up, neither mollified with ointment. The Hebrews had but little knowledge of surgery, less than the Egyptians. They seldom used inward remedies, but trusted mainly to outward applica- tions. See note on Prov. iii, 8. The text illustrates the treatment of wounds; they were "closed," that is, the lips of the wound were pressed together and bound, that coliesion of the parts might be effected. ''There was, and is, no sewing up of wounds in the East; and hence the edges, healing without being perfectly united, make the scar of a woimd more con- spicuous and disfiguring than with u>s. The only attempt to produce cohe- sion is by 'binding up ' the wound, after the edges have been as far as possi- ble 'closed' by simple pressure.' —Kitto, Daity Bible Illus., vol. vi, p. 25. Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 249 481._L0DGE IN A GARDEN. I, 8. The daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as e lodge in a garden of cucumbers. As the fields were not always provided with fences it became necessary to have persons to watch them, especially while the fruit was ripening, in order to keep off all depredators, whether man, beast, or bird. These *' keepers of a field" are referred to in Jer. iv, 17, and they are still to be seen in the East. During the ripening season they watch day and night and through all sorts of weather, and hence need some protection from ex- cessive heat, dew, or storm. This protection is found in temporary huts, which are made of closely twined branches and leaves, or of pieces of mat- ting thrown over a rude framework of poles. There is an allusion to such a frail structure in Job xxvii, 18, and also in Isa. xxiv, 20. When the crop is gathered and tlie field forsaken the deserted lodge soon leans and falls, and the whole scene is one of utier loneliness. It was such a picture of deso- lation to which the prophet compares "the daughter of Zion.'* 482.— PLOWSHARES. II, 4. They shall beat their swords into plowshares. See also Joel iil, 10, and Micah iv, 3. In the passage in Joel the expression is reversed: "Beat your plowshares into swords." Commentators are divided as to the meaning of ittim^ va- riously rendering it ''plowshares," "spades," "hoes," "mattocks." The word refers to instruments for stirring up the soil in some way, and, so far as concerns capability of conversion to swords, these may as well have been plowshares as any thing else. The plowshare was a small piece of iron, which somewhat resembled a short sword, and might easily have been beaten into one, and with equal facility a sword could have been changed into a plowshare. 483.— DANCING-GIRLS— ANKLETS. III, 16. Because the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk with stretched- forth necks and wanton eyes, walking and mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet. 1. Roberts finds in this and in the following verses an accurate description of the Hindoo dancing-girls who are trained for service in idolatrous temples. " When these females dance they stretch forth their necks, and hold thera awry, as if their heads were about to fall off their shoulders." "As the votaries glide along they roll their eyes, (which are painted,) and cast wan- ton glances on those around." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 386. 250 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. risaiah. 2. Some suppose the "mincing" refers to a tripping step in the dance; others think that the reference is to slender golden chains reaching from one ankle to another, and compelling them to take sliort and rapid steps. See note on verse 20. 3. The ''tinkhng with their feet" may have been made simply by the striking of anklets one upon another, or by bells or other small ornaments attached to the an- klets. These anklets were of gold, silver, or iron, according to the taste or means of the wearer, and are still worn by Oriental wom- en. They are sometimes quite heavy, and special pains are taken to strike them to- gether, in order to make a jingle. When they are hollow, as is often the case, the sharp sound is increased. In Egypt and in India some of the anklets have small round bells attached to them, and these bells some- times have little pebbles in them, whicli strike like tiny clappers. Leyrer (in Herzog's Real Ency., vol. vii, p. 731) suggests that it may have been in some such way that the wife of Jeroboam announced her presence, " when Abijah heard the sound of her feet, as she came in at the door." 1 Kinoes xiv, 6. ■Ancient Egyptian Anklets. 4§4.— CAULS— TIRES. Ill, 18. Their eauls and their round tires like the moon. I. What is meant by shebisim, " cauls," is not certain. The marginal reading is "net- works," and many writers suppose that nets for the hair are meant. These were ancient- ly worn, as is evident from the Egyptian and Assj'rian monuments, and from speci- mens which have found their way to museums. Others think that reference is made / liere to the mode of dressing 96.— Assyrian Nets for the Hair. the hair, arranging it into tresses, and attaching to it golden ornaments and small coins, or so braiding it as to resemble checker-work. A German au- thor (Schroeder) conjectures that sheMsim were small metallic ornaments re- sembling the sun, and he would associate them with the moon-ornam mentioned in the same verse. This interpretation is a 3cepted by Fuerst others, but rejected by authorities equally good. Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 251 2. Saharonim^ "round tires like the moon," were metallic moon-shaped ornaments hung around the neck. Similar ornaments were sometimes hung ubout the necks of camels. See note on Judges viii, 21. 485._jEWELRY AND VAILS. Ill, 19. The chains and the bracelets and. the miAfflers. 1. Netiphoth, "chains," were properly pendents, or ear-drops. See note on Gen. xxxv, 4. 2. Sheroth^ "bracelets," were probably bracelets made of gold wire, and wreatlied or woven. 3. Realotli, " mufflers," were thin vails. The Hebrew name was given to ihein because of their tremulous or fluttering motion. 4S6.— SUNDRY ARTICLES, USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL. Ill, 20. The bonnets, and the ornaments of the legs, and the headbands, and the tablets, and the ear-rings. 1. The " bonnets " of the Oriental women, it is hardly necessary to say, bear no resemblance to the articles known by that name among us. They resemble the turbaned head-dresses of the men, but are less bulky and of finer materials. A cap is put on the head around which are wound rich handkerchiefs or shawls, folded high and flat. Gold and silver ornaments and jewels are added according to the taste of the wearer. The original word peer conveys the idea of ornament, and is rendered "beauty" in Isa. Ixi, 3; "ornaments" in Isa. Ixi, 10; and "tire" m Ezek. xxiv, 17, 23. Saalschutz supposes the peer to have been a metallic crown of fihgree work, fastened around the cap. 2. "The ornaments of the legs" (iseadoth) were probably step-chains, that is, " short chains which Oriental females wore attached to the ankle- band of each foot, so as to compel them to take short and mincing steps, to walk mineingly." — G-esenius. 3. Kisliskurim^ " headband-," are supposed bj^ some critics to denote fillets for the hair. Others, however, interpret them to mean girdles. The same word is rendered "attire" in Jer. ii, 32. 4. Battey-hanjiephesk^ " tablets," is literally " houses of breath." The margin has, " houses of the soul." There is thought by some to be a refer- ence here to boxes or bottles which were filled with perfume, and fastened to the necklace or the girdle. Chardin mentions having seen the women in Persia with small golden boxes of fihgree worlc, which were filled with a black mixture of musk and amber. Roberts, however, disputes this iaterpretatioa, and thinks tliese houses of the soul" find their counterpart in certain ornaments which are worn by 16 252 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [ Isaiah. Hindu women, and made of silver or gold, and richly adorned wiih precious stones. He says : " The dancing-girls, tlie wives of the pandarams, and 97.— Houses of the Soxtl. Worn by Hindu Women. many other women, wear an ornament resembling a house, and sometimes a temple, which contains an image corresponding with the 4?aX?Log of the Greeks and the Priapus of the Romans."' — Oriental Illustrations^ p. 388. 5. Lediashim, " ear-rings," are thought to have been charms or amulets made of gold, silver, or precious stones, perhaps in the shape of serpents, or with serpents engraven on them. They may have been used as ear-rings also. See note on Gen. xxxv, 4. 4§7.— APPAREL. Ill, 22. The changeable suits of apparel, and the mantles, and. the wimples, and the crisping pins. 1. Machelatsoth, "changeable suits of apparel," were costly garments of any kind which were used only on festival occasions, and put off when at home. The same word is rendered ''change of raiment" in Zech. iii, 4. 2. Maataphoth, "mantles," are supposed by some to have been cloaks or mantles of ample folds, which were worn outside of the other garments; while otliers think that they were a fashionable sort of upper tunic. 3. Mitpachoth^ ''wimples," were wide upper garments, the distinction between which and maataphoth is not clear, unless the latter explanation above given is correct. The word is rendered " vail " in Ruth iii, 15, where see the note. 4. Chariiim^ "crisping-pins," are now thought by the best authorities to have had nothing to do with the hair, as our translators supposed, but to Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 253 have been richly ornamented purses of gold or embroidered work, long and round in form, perhaps like an inverted cone, and suspended from the girdle. "We have the idea more correctly expressed in 2 Kings v, 23, where the same word is translated " bags." !§§.— VARIOUS ARTICLES OF ATTIRE. Ill, 23. The glasses, and the fine linen, and. the hoods, and the vails. 1. Gilyonim, "glasses," are probably the small metallic mirrors where- with Oriental women adorn their persons. See note on.Exod. xxxviii, 8. The Septuagint, however, and a number of eminent commentators, under- stand the word to mean "transparent garments," referring to the garments of thin gauze or other material so delicately made as to reveal the form of the wearer. Such were the celebrated Coan garments of classic writers, and dresses of this sort are still used in the East, often richly ornamented with gold spangles. 2. Sedinim, "fine linen," is mentioned in Judges xiv, 12, 13, as a part of the gift which Samson offered to any who would guess his riddle. In our version the word is there rendered " sheets." It also occurs in Prov. xxxi, 24, in Solomon's description of " a virtuous woman." The sedinim were inner garments or tunics. 3. Tseniphoth, " hoods," were coverings for the head, the difference between which and the^ee2^m, or ''bonnets," of verse 20 it is not easy now to determine. The etymology of the two words would suggest that the tseniphoth were simply the turbaned wrappers which were wound around the heads, while the peerim were the same, with rich ornaments attached. Some writers, however, suppose the tseniphoth to have been merely ribbons for binding the hair or fasten- ing the tiara. The word in the singular is rendered " diadem " in Job xxix, 14, and Isa. Ixii, 3. 4. Bedidim, " vails," differed somewhat from the reahth, " mufflers," of verse 19. Kitto supposes the " radid to have been a kind of head vail which ladies wear at home, and which, not being intended for concealment of tiie features, rests upon the head and falls down over the back. It is of very Hght tex- ture, being usually a long strip of musHn em- broidered with threads of colored silk and gold, forming altogether one of the most 9S. -Head-dress. 254 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. graceful articles in the female attire of the East." — Daily Bible Illustrations^ vol. vi, p. 53. 489.— HAIR-DRESSING-GIRDLE. Ill, 24. Instead of well-set hair, baldness, and instead of a stomacher, a girding of saekeloth. 1. The women of the East have always paid special attention to dressing the hair. Folds, braids, and tresses in every variety are a so^ rce of pride. See note on 1 Peter iii, 3. On the other hand, baldness is considered a great calamity and is made an occasion for contempt. See note on 2 Kings ii, 23. Thus the change from " well- set hf^ir '■' to " baldness " would be regarded a.-; a serious misfortune. 2. Pethigil^ ''stomacher," is supposed by some to have been a girdle, made of beautiful and costly materials and richly embroidered. Others, from the etymology of the word, and fi om the contrast between the " stomacher " and the "girding of sackcloth," suppose it to liave been a wide loose flowing mantle char- acteristic of luxury and wantonness. 99.— Ancient Egyptian Modh of Weaiung the Hair. 490.— SITTING ON THE GROUND. Ill, 26. Her gates shall lament and mourn ; and she being desolate shall sit upon the ground. Sitting on the ground was a posture which denoted deep distress. When Job's friends came to sympathize with him, "they sat down with him upon the ground seven days and seven nights, and none spake a word unto him : for they saw that his grief was very great." Job ii, 13. When the Jews were in captivity, it is said, " By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion." Psa. cxxxvii, 1. Jeremiah also alludes to the same custom in Lam. ii, 10; iii, 28. The same idea is rep- resented in a more intensified form in the expressions, " wallow thyself in ashes," Jer. vi, 26, and " roll thyself in the dust." Micah i, 10. Most of the Roman coins which were struck in commemoration of the capture of Jerusalem have on one side the figure of a woman sitting on the ground, usually, thougli not in every instance, under the shade of a palm tree. The figure is generally represented with one hand to the head, which rests upon it inclining forward, and the otlier hanging over the knee, thus presenting a picture of great grief In one instance, however, the hands are Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 255 tied behind the back. These coins were issued during the reigns of Ves- pasian, Titus, and Domitian, some of them being struck in Judca, and some in Rome. They are of gold, silver, and brass, and give an apt illustration of the custom referred to in tlie text. Representations and descriptions of all tliese coins may be found in Madden 's History of Jewish Coinage^ etc., chap. viii. 491.— ATTENTION CALLED. ^ V, 26. He will lift up an ensign to the nations from far, and will hiss unto thenn from the end of the earth: and, behold, they shall come with speed swiftly. Some commentators have supposed an ahusion liere, and in chap, vii, 18, to the custom of calling bees from their hives to the fields and back again by means of a hiss or whistle. Others, however, deny that any such custom existed, and claim that the alhision is to another custom prevalent in the East: that of calling the attention of any one in tlie street by a significant liiss. In the prophecy of Zechariah, the Lord says concerning the children of Epiiraim, "I will hiss for them, and gather them." Zech. x, 8. Here there is doubtless a reference to tlie same custom of calling attention by a hiss. /192.— BUTTER AND HONEY. VII, 15. Butter and honey shall he eat ; that he may know to refuse the evil, and to choose the good. See also verse 22. Honey is frequently mixed with various forms of milk-preparations and used upon bread. The Arabs in travehng often take leathern bottles full of honey for this purpose. It is considered very palat- able, especially the children. The context shows that the reference in the text is made particularly to the days of childhood. The fourteenth verse refers to the birth of a son, and the sixteenth to his early infancy. It is of this child that it is said, "Butter and honey shall he eat." There may be in the mixture of these two substances a propriety founded on physiological facts. Wood, in speaking of the Musquaw, or American Black Bear, after giving an account of its method of obtaining the wild honey which is found in hollow trees, adds : " The hunters, who are equally fond of honey, find that if it is eaten in too great plenty it produces very unpleas- ant symptoms, whicli may be counteracted by mixing it with the oil which they extract from the fat of the bear." — Illustrated Natural History^ vol. i, p. 397. We find in Prov. xxv, 16, 27, allusion to the disagreeable conse- quences of eating too much honey, and it is possible that experience had proved the oily nature of the butter a corrective of the honey. Butter is mentioned in connection with honey in 2 Sam. xvii, 29 ; Job XX, 17 ; Sol. Song iv, IL Honey and oil are named together in Deut. xxxii, 13. 256 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 493.— THE MATTOCK. VII, 25. On all hills that shall be digged with the mattock. This instrument was probably similar to our grub-ax, and was made of either wood or iron. It was used in mountainous places, where a plow could not be easily handled, for turning up the soil. This fact is referred to in the text. 494.— BALDNESS A SIGN OF MOURNING. XV, 2. On all their heads shall be baldness, and every beard cut off. To make the head bald, or to shave or pluck tlie beard, was a sign of mourning among the Hebrews and many other nations. See also Ezra ix, 3; Job i, 20; Isa. xxii, 12; Jer. vii, 29; xvi, 6; xh, 5; xlvii, 5; xlviii, 31; Micah i, 16. 495.— SINGING AT WORK. XVI, 10. Gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful field ; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither shall there be shouting ; the treaders shall tread out no wine in their presses ; I have made their vintage shouting to cease. It was a common custom among the Egyptians to sing at their work. The Hebrews did the same, and were especially jubilant at the time of grape gathering. They plucked off the grapes with acclamations of joy, and car- ried them to tlie wine-press. There they alleviated the labor of treading the grapes by singing, accompanied with musical instruments and joyous shouts. Some authorities interpret hedad, •'shouting," as an exclamation used by the grape treaders as tliey jumped up and down. Allusions are made to the joyful character of the work of vintage in Judges ix, 27; Jer. xxv, 30; xlviii, 33. 496.— PAPYRUS-BOATS. XVIII, 2, That sendeth embassadors by the sea, even in vessels of bulrushes upon the waters. The papyrus was used on the Nile for making boats. Sometimes bundles of the plant were rudely bound together in the form of a raft or boat; at other times the leaves were plaited, basket-fashion, and coated with bitumen and tar. See note on Exod. ii, 3. Similar boats are used on the Euphrates and Tigris. They are circular in sliape, and are sometimes covered with leatlier instead of bitumen. Another style of vessel is also used on the Nile. The leaves olT the papy- rus or the palm are placed as a floor upon rafts made of earthen jars wliich are tied logetlier by the haudlep. These jar^ are made in TT])per Egypt, and Isaiah.] * BIIJLE MANNEHS AND CUSTOMS. 257 are thus floated dowD stream by the potters, who sell their ware and walk back to their homes. On the Euplirates and Tigris the floats are made of jnflated. skins covered vvith a flooring of leaves and branches made into wicker work, and having a 100. — Assyrian Skin-boat. raised bulwark of the same. These singular vessels are called ktlltks^ and are of various sizes, from the little family boat resting on three or four skins, to the great raft, forty feet or more hi length, and of proportionate width. The latter sort float on several hundred skins, and bear an assorted cargo of merchandise besides passengers. When the cargo has reached its destina- tion the woodwork is sold for fuel, and the skins are taken back by land to be re-formed into another vessel. Boats of this description have been used from early historic times, and are referred to by Herodotus and otlier an- cient authors. 497.— EGYPTIAN FISHING. XIX, 8. The fishers also shall mourn, and all they that east an- gle into the brooks shall lament, and they that spread nets upon the waters shall languish. Reference is made in this "burden of Egjpt" (see verse 1) to the Egyp- tian fisheries. The Egyptians consumed enormous quant ties of fish, which they obtained from the teemuig waters of the Nile, and of the canals whicli irrigated the land. So important was the traffic in fish that at one time the royal profits from Lake Moeris alone amounted to a talent of silver a day, or about $350,000 a ye^r. Large quantities offish were salted; and sometimes the fish were simply dried in the sun. Two methods of Egyptian fishing are mentioned in the text. 1. Chakkah^ "angle," is rendered "hook" in Job xli, 1. Angling was a favorite pastime with all ranks of the Egyptians. Their hooks were of 258 BIBLE MANNKHS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. bmijze, and were bailed with g-round bait. Sometimes a short pole was ustd, a"d somethpps tlie fisherman lield the line in liis hand. 2. Mihnoreth, -'nei*." was a drag-net, and is so rendered in Hab. i, 15, 16. It was of a lengthened form, having floats along one edge and weights along the othe^-, Avith a rope at each end. It corresponded to onr seine, and was sometimes cast by hand, tlie men wading out with it and dragging it back to llie shore, bringing the fish with it. At other times a boat was used, the net being cast overboard as the boat was rowed along. The monuments give a number of illustrations of fishing by nets, as well as with the hook, tliough it is said that net-fishing is now unknown in Egypt. 49§.— SHIELDS OILED. XXI, 5. Prepare tlie table, wateh in the wateli-tower, eat, drink; arise, ye princes, and anoint the shield. Shields were made of bull-hide, of two or more thicknesses, stretched over a frame of wood, and sometimes strengthened with metallic rims, and orna- mented in various places by pieces of metal. An occasional rubbing with oil was necessary to prevent the leather from becoming dry and cracked, and to keep the metallic portions from rust. This was especiall}^ necessary on getting ready for battle, and hence to " anoint the shield " was equivalent to a preparation for war. 499— ON THE ROOFS. XXIT, 1. "What aileth thee now, that thou, art wholly gone up to the house-tops? This, as Alexaiider observes, {com. in loco,) is "a lively description of an Oriental city in commotion." The flat roofs were used not only for prom- enading, (see note on 2 Sam. xi, 2,) but also as places of general gathering in tin)es of excitement, just as we gather in the streets. Erom the roofs the inhabitants were accustomed to look down into the streets or afar off" on the roads. This they could not do from the windows, as these seldom opened on the street. The prophet represents the entire people assembled on the tops of their houses. The precise object of tlieir gathering he does not state, nor is it here necessary to discuss. Whether for mere curiosity, or to assail the invaders, or to indulge in idolatrous worship, these gatherings on the liousetops give a striking illustration of Oriental customs. 500.— QUIVERS— SHIELD-CASES. XXII, 6. Elam bare the quiver with chariots of men and horse- men, and Kir uncovered the shield. I. The quivers were commonly carried by the archers on their backs, the top being near the right shoulder, so that the arrows could be conveniently drawn. The qiiivoi" usually had two rings, one near the top and the other THE umm OF iilE ilMIVERSITr iif ilLi: 101.— Corinthian Tomb at Petra. 102.— Plan of the Tombs of the Kings, at Jeuusalkm. Isaiah.] VAm.K MANXKRS AND CUSTOMS. 2(U 1 ear the bottom, to which was fiisteued a stnip which the arclier slipped over his left arm and his head. Occasionally the quiver was thrust through one of the cross belts or attached to the body by a girdle-strap. In chariots ihe quivers were attached to the sides of the vehicle. Quivers were prob- ably made of wood or of leather, and were often very highly ornamented. Representations of quivers may be found in cut No. 70, p. 178. 2. Shields, when not in use, were kept in cases, or covers, probably made of leather, to preserve them from dust. To " uncover the shield " would be equivalent to a preparation for battle, and is an expression having the same meaning as "anoint the shield '' in ch.apter xxi, 5. See also note on Hab. iii, 9. 501 ROCK-SEPULCHERS. XXII, 16. What hast thou, here, and whom hast thoiA here, that thou hast hewed thee out a sepuleher here, as he that heweth him out a sepuleher on high, and that graveth a habitation for himself in a rock. Sepulchers in the East were often hewn out of the solid rock, sometimes below the level of the ground, and frequently above ground and on the sides of mountains. Chambers were excavated in the rock, and on eitlier side of these chambers were narrow cells in which the bodies of the dead were placed, each in its own receptacle. Sometimes the long side of the cell was cut at a right angle to the passage, so that the body of the dead was hiserted lengthwise ; at other times it was cut parallel to the passage, so that the body was inserted sidewise. In this latter mode our Lord seems to have been buried, since when Mary looked into the sepuleher she saw "two angels in white, sitting the one at the head, and tlie other at the feet, where the body of Jesus had lain." John xx, 12. Sometimes these rooms were without cells, and then the bodies rested on the floor. In the larger sepulchers were passage-ways leading to other chambers. Many of these ancient sepulchers are still to be seen. The rock-tombs of Petra are among the most celebrated. A picture of the famous " Corinthian Tomb " is appended. Such sepulcliers are also to be found in different parts of Palestine, but especially in the neighborhood of Jerusalem. Tlie rocks south of the valley of Hinnom are full of them, and the valley of the Kidron contains a large number. The most celebrated of these sepulchers are those known by the names of " the Tombs of the Judges," at the head of the Val- ley of Jehoshaphat, containing sixty niches for bodies; " the Tombs of the Prophets, or Apostles," on the western declivit}' of tlie Mount of Olives, in which thirty cells have been discovered, though doubtless more are con- cealed by rubbish ; and "the Tombs of the Kings," a half-mile north of the Damascus gate. There is no evidence that tliese tombs are rightly named, but ihey have all been at some time burial-places of great importance. 262 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. The last-named is especially rich in the ornamentation of its entrance, which is adorned with sculptures of fruit and flowers ; and as an account of its internal arrangements will convey s^ome idea of the plan of the best style of these rock-tombs, we give an abstract of Dr. Barclay's description of tho so-called Tombs of the Kings." They are situated on the west side of a sunken court, about ninety feet square and upward of twenty feet deep. These finely-constructed catacombs are entered through a splendid, but now much decayed and defaced, portico, or portal and hall, on its western side, thir- teen and a half feet high and twenty-eight and a half wide. Near its south- western corner is a door beneath the level of the floor, two and a half feet broad and less than three feet high, opening into an anteroom about nineteen feet square. In the western side of this room is a door leading into another room, thirteen and a half f^et square, having in it about a dozen receptacles for the dead, and a passage leading by a stairway into a room ten feet by twelve, situated a story lower. There are two rooms entered from the south side of the anteroom or hall, each having half a dozen loculi; and from the north side of the westernmost one is a flight of steps conducting to another room in the lower story, ten feet square."' — City of the Great King ^ p. 191. When Maundrell visited these tombs in 1697 he found that "in every one of these rooms, except the first, were coffins of stone placed in niches in the sides of the chambers. They had been at first covered with handsome lids, and carved with garlands ; but now most of them were broke to pieces b}-^ sacrilegious hands." — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem^ under date of March 28. None of these sarcophagi are now remaining, though there are still richly carved fragments strewn about the rooms and the court. Frag- ments of elegantly paneled stone doors also lie scattered around. One of these was still hanging in its place at the time of Maundrell's visit. It was a slab of stone six inches in thickness, and in length and breadth about the size of an ordinary door. It turned on two hinges or pivots of stone, which were let into sockets cut out o*f the rock. These doors were for the interior rooms. The outer dooi--w;iy was closed hj a circular stone, for account of which see note on Matt, xxvi*, 60. 502.— KEYS, HOW CARRIED. XXII, 22. The key of the house of David will I lay upon his shoulder; so he shall open, and none shall shut; and he shall shut, and none shall open. Oriental keys being usually large, (see note on Judges iii, 25,) it is often a matter of convenience to carry them on the shoulder. As the possession of a key may be taken as evidence of property or of trust, the key became an emblem of wealth or authority. Eastern mercliants are often seen carrying Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 263 keys on the slioulder. In the text, Shebna, the treasurer of Hezekiah, is warned tliat Eliakiin sliall carry "the keys of the house of David; " that is, that he should become treasurer in Shebna's phice. This is a figurative way of expressing what is said in the twenty-first verse : " I will commit thy government into liis hand," wliich expression is itself partly figurative, the hand being the emblem of power. The idea con- tained in both these passages is expressed in Isa. ix, 6, where it is said of the Messiah, " the government siiall be upon his shoulder." Tlie word keys is used figuratively to denote authority in Matt, xvi, 19, where Christ says to Peter: "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven ; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." See also Rev. i, 18 ; iii, 7 ; ix, 1 ; xx, 1. 103 — Keys Carried os the Shoulder. 503.— WOODEN PEGS. XXll, 23. I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place, and. he shall be for a glorious throne to his father's house. The reference here is not to the tent-pins which are driven into the ground for the purpose of fastening the tent-cords, but to wooden pins or pegs which are put into the wall for the purpose of holding? clothing and various household utensils. This is evident from the two following verses. When these pins are driven into the plastering of a house they are very insecure, and in a majority of instances fall out. To fasten them " in a sure place " they must be built into the wall as the house is built. They are then firm, and, being large, help to strengthen the walls and at the same time afford a useful support for the articles named. A beautiful reference to these house-pegs is made in Ezra ix, 8, where Ezra speaks of God's grace which had given the people "a nail in his holy place." 504 —GRAPE-GLEANING. XXIV, 18. As the gleaning grapes when the vintage is done. The Hebrews were directed not to p'ck their grapes closely, but to leave a few for the poor. See Lev. xix, 10; Deut. xxiv, 21. This merciful pro- vision is referred to by Gideon when he represents " the gleaning of the grapes of Ephraim " as be ter than the vintage of Abi-ezer." Judg. viii, 2. 264 BIBLE Manners and customs. [Isaiah. 505.— RESERVED FOR TRIUMPH. XXIY, 22. They shall be gathered together, as prisoners are gathered in the pit, and shall be shut up in the prison, and after many days shall they be visited. Lowth (W.) suggests that tliere is a reference here "to the custom of kings, who used to confine the chief commanders of their enemies whom they take prisoners and reserve them for some extraordinary day of triumph, and tlien bring them out to pubhc punishment." — Commentary in loco. 500.— FILTERED WINE. XXV, 6. A feast of wines on the lees, of fat things full of mar- row, of wines on the lees well refined. This refers to wines that are kept long with the dregs mixed with them, and therefore old and strong. They are refined or filtered by being strained through a cloth sieve, thus separating the hquor from the lees. The wine in the East is said to be usually turbid, and requires straining before it is fit for use. 50T.— FUEL GATHERED BY WOMEN. XXVII, 11. ^A^hen the boughs thereof are withered, they shall be broken off : the women come, and set them on fire. In the East it is the business of women and children to gather fuel. This is the reason the statement is so explicitly made here that "the women" sliall come and set them on fire. It has an odd sound to us, for the question naturally arises why women rather than men are mentioned; but to the people of Isaiah's time the expression was perfectly natural, as it is to the people of tlie P]ast to-day. 508.— THRESHING. XXVIII, 27, 28. The fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart wheel turned about upon the cummin ; but the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the cummin with a rod. Bread corn is bruised ; because he will not ever be threshing it, nor break it with the wheel of his cart, nor bruise it with his horsemen. Four different modes of threshing are here referred to : 1. Witli a rod or flail. This was for the small delicate seeds, such as fitches and cummin. It was also used for grain when only a small quantity was to be threshed, or when it was necessary to conceal the operation from an enemy. It was doubtless in this manner that Ruth, when she was in the fiold ofBoaz, "boat out" at evening what she had gleaned during the day Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 265 See Ruth ii, 11. It was probably in the same way that Gideon " threshed wheat by the wine-press to hide it from the Midianites." Judges vi, 1 1. With a stick he could beat out a little at a time, and conceal it in the tub of the wine-press from the hostile Midianites. 2. With the charuis, " threshing instrument." This was a machine in some respects resembling the ordinary stone-sledge of American farmers. Pro- fessor Hackett describes one he saw at Beirut: "The frame was composed of thick pieces of plank, turned up in front like our stone-sledge, and per- forated with lioles underneath for holding the teeth. The teeth consisted of pieces of sharp basaltic rock about three inches long, and hardly less firm than iron itself. This machine is drawn over the grain by horses or oxen, and serves, together with the trampling of the feet of the animals, to beat out the kernels and cut up the straw preparatory to winnowing." — Illustra- tions of Scripture, p 161. The teeth were sometimes of iron. See Amos i, 3. The tribulum of the Romans resembled this instrument. 3. Agalah, *' cart-wheel," is supposed to have been the same as the morag, "threshing instrument," mentioned in 2 Sam. xxiv, 22; 1 Chron. xxi, 23; and Isa. xli, 15, though some make the morag and the charuts the same. This instrument is ^ _ still known in Egypt by the name of rnow- rej. It consists of three or four heavy rollers of wood, iron, or stone, roughly made and joined to- gether in a square frame, which is in the form of a sledge or drag. The rollers are said to be like the barrels of an organ with their pro- jections. The cylinders are parallel to each other, and are stuck full of spikes having sharp square points. It is used in the same way as the charuts. The driver sits on the machine, and with his weight helps to keep it down. This instrument is probably referred to in Prov. xx, 26, where it is said, " A wise king scattereth the wicked and bringeth the wiieel over them." (It is proper to say that authorities are not agreed as to the difference between the charuts, the agalah, and the morag. In the above account we have endeavored, as far as possible, to harmonize the conflicting opinions of various expositors.) 4. The last mode of threshing referred to in the text is that of treading out the grain, for an explanation of which see note on Deut. xxv, 4. 104.- -MoDERN Mode of Threshing in Egypt with THE MOWREJ. 266 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 509.— SPIRIT-VOICES. XXIX, 4. Thy voice shall be, as of one that hath a familiar spirit, out of the ground, and thy speech shall whisper out of the dust. This is probably an allusion to the notion which was common to the ancient heathen, as well as to the Hebrews, that the souls of the dead had a weak, stridulous sound, entirely different from the voices of living men. The necromancers, who were chiefly women, spoke in a shrill, feigned voice, and may have practiced ventriloquism ; in which case the voice would seem to come from the ground, where it was popiilarly supposed the disembodied spirits were. See also Isa. viii, 19. 510.— SOWING. XXXII, 20. Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, that send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass. There are two diflerent opinions in reference to what customs are alluded to in this verse. Some think reference is made to tlie fields which are irri- gated by artificial means, (see note on Psa. i, 3,) and to the practice of covering the seeds by plowing instead of by harrowing. The seed is sown in the irrigated fields, and the ox and the ass are used to draw the plow through the soil. Though oxen and asses were used for plowing, (see Tsa. xxx, 20,) it was forbidden to plow with them together. See Deut. xxii, 10. Others suppose reference to be made to the method of planting rice. Chardin says: "They sow it upon the water; and before sowing it, and while the earth is covered with water, they cause the ground to be trodden by oxen, horses, and asses, who go mid-leg deep, and this is the way of preparing the ground for sowing." — Harmer's Observations, vol. i, p. 477. 511.— PARCHMENT ROLLS. XXXIV, 4. All the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the heavens shall be rolled together as a scroll. Parchment books were rolled around a stick or cylinder, and, if very long, around two cylinders, from the two extremities. There is in the pubHc library at Cambridge, England, an ancient manuscript roll of the Pentateuch. It is made of goats' skins dyed red, and measures fortj^-eight feet in length by about twenty-two inches in breadth. As the book of Leviticus and a part of Deuteronomy are wanting, it is calculated that the original length could not have been far from ninety feet. It consists of thirty-seven differ- ent skins, and contains one hundred and seventeen different columns of writing. These columns correspond to the pages of our books, are each Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 267 about four inches wide, and contain from forty to fifty lines apiece. Th s manuscript is undoubtedly very ancient, though its date cannot now bo ascertaiued. It was obtained by the Rev. Dr. Buchanan from the black Jews in Malabar. The celebrated Samaritan Pentateuch is the oldest manuscript of which we have any knowledge. It consists of twentj^-one skins of unequal size, most of which contain six, but some only five, columns. The columns are thirteen inches deep and seven and a half wide. Each contains from seventy to seventy-two lines, and the entire roll has one hundred and ten columns. Ancient rolls were sometimes encased in a cover, which was more or less ornamented, and on which the title was sometimes written. This case corresponded to the envelopes in which their letters were put. See note on Nell, vi, 5. Some commentators think that this outside cover, with i's title, is what is referred to in Psa. xl, 1 : "In the volume of the book it is written of me." Others suppose that reference is made in tliat text to a small strip of parchment which was attached to each roll, and contained the title, so that the nature of the contents could be ascertained without the trouble of unroUing. When the manuscript was used the reader unrolled it until he found the place, and when he had finished reading he rolled it up again. This is what is meant by opening and closing the book in Luke iv, 17, 20. This style of book is often referred to in the Bible. See Ezra vi, 1, 2 ; Jer. xxxvi, 2, 23, 29; Ezek. ii, 9; iii, 1, 2; Zech. v, 1, 2 ; 2 Tim. iv, 13, and probably Rev. v, 1, etc., though some commentators th-nk that a book of leaves is there meant. 512.— PRISONERS BRIDLED. XXXVII, 29. Because thy rage against me, and thy tunnult, is come up into mine ea^s, therefore will I put my hook in thy nose, and. my bridle in thy lips. Allusion is here made to the custom of inserting a ring in the nose of a refractory animal for the purpose of subduing and leading him. The meta- phor is a favorite one with the Arabian poets. The language used here, however, is not altogether metaphorical in its reference to human beings. In the sculptures taken from Khorsabad there are representations of prisoners brought before the king, each prisoner having an iron ring thrust through 268 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. his lower lip. To these rings cords are attached, wliicli the king holds in his left hand, while in his right be holds a sre r, which he thrnst into the 106.— Mex Bridled. eyes of the poor prisoners. See no^e on 2 Kings xxv, 7. See also 2 Kings xix, 28 ; Ezek. xxix, 4 ; xxxviii, 4. 513.— PREPARING THE WAY OF THE KING. XL, 3, 4. The voice of him that erieth in the wilderness, Pre- pare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a highway for our God. Kvery valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill shall be made low : and the crook- ed shall be made straight, and the rough places plain. Roads of some kind must have existed in former times in Palestine, though nothing worthy of the name is to be found there to-day. The use of chariots, and the opening and preservation of the way to the Cities of Refuge, and such expressions as are found in this text, seem to imply a knowledge and a use of artificial roads. It has been the custx)m from ancient times for Oriental monarchs, when wishing to travel through their dominions, to send men before them to pre- pare their way, by removing stones, (see Isa. Ixii, 10,) leveling rough places, filling up hollows, and making the road pleasant and easy for the distin- guished travelers. Semiramis, on one of her journeys, coming to a rough, mountainous region, ordered the hills leveled and the hollows filled, which was done at an enormous cost. Her object was not only to shorten the way, but to leave to posterity a lasting monument of herself. There have been modern instances of a similar character, though not involving so much labor and expense. In Matt, iii, .3, Mark i, 3, Luke iii, 4, John i, 23, this passage is applied to John the Baptist, who, as a herald, (see note on 1 Cor. ix, 27.) preceded the Messiah to announce his coming and to have the way prepared. Is3iiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 269 514._LAMP-WICKS. XLII, 3. A bruised reed shall h.e not break, and the smoking flax shall he not quench. Lamp- wicks were made of linen, and the allusion is to a wick that is burning with feeble flame from absence of oil, and just ready to expire. The readiness with which the ligiit of such a wick can be put out is referred to in Isa. xliii, 17, "They are quenched as tow; " where pishtah, "tow," is the same word that is rendered "flax" in the text. 515.— A BATH BY POURING. XLIV, 3. I will pour water upon him that is thirsty, and floods upon the dry ground. Roberts thinks there is an allusion here to one mode of bathing practiced by Orientals, which is to have water poured on the body by an attendant. The Egyptian monuments give evidence that this mode was practiced in Egypt. 510.— HOW IDOLS WERE MADE. XLIV, 10. ^A^ho hath formed a god, or molten a graven image that is profitable for nothing ? 1. The term "molten" does not necessarily mean that the image was cast of solid metal. Such may sometimes have been made, especially of small size ; but the metahic part of idols was usually a thin plating of metal on a wooden image. See note on Exod. xxxii, 4. Thus the carpenter and the goldsmith worked together. See Isa. xl, 19, 20 ; xli, 7 ; Jer. x, 3, 4. 2. The work of the carpenter was to take the rude log and fashion it into an image ready to receive the metallic plates. This is aptly described in the thirteenth verse of this chapter: "The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; he marketli it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, and he marketh it out with the compass, and maketh it after the figure of a man, according to the beauty of a man; that it may remain in the house." The figure was first marked on the log with a chalk line, and then cut and carved with the proper tools until it assumed the shape and size required. Denon, in Iris IVavels in Egy.pt^ (cited by Burder, Oriental OasLoms, No-. 720,) speaks of an idol which he found "on one of the columns of the portico of Tentyra ; it was covered with stucco and painted. The stucco being partly scaled off, gave me the opportunity of discovering lines traced as if with red chalk. Curiosity prompted me to take away the whole of the stucco, and I found the form of the figure sketched, with corrections of the outline ; a division into twenty-two parts: the separation of the thighs being in the middle of the whole height of the figure, and the head comprising rather less than a Beventh part." 17 270 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. It was after some such plan, probably, that idols were made iu the time of Isaiah. The wooden image, once made, could be worsliiped as it was, or it could be covered with plaster or with metal. On the other hand, the metallic outside might not always have had an interior of wood, but may sometimes have been filled with clay, as idols in India are at this day. 51T.— EYES SEALED. XLIY, 18. He hath shut their eyes that they cannot see, and their hearts that they cannot understand. The margin has "daubed" instead of shut, and thus comes nearer to the original, tacli^ from tuacli^ which Gesenius detines " to spread over, to daub, to besmear, to plaster." The words convey ilie idea of something smeared over the eyes to close them. Harmer suggests, as nn explanation of the expression, a reference to a custom followed in the East Indies. The Great Mogul once sealed up his son's eyes for three years as a punishment, and at the expiration of thnt time removed the seal. Tliis is given on the au- thority of Sir Thomas Roe's chaplain, who does not tell us, however, what was put upon the eyes to produce this result. Dr. Russell tells of a Jewish wedding in Aleppo, where the eyelids of the bride were fastened together with gum, and only the bridegroom was to open them. It is possible that in Isaiah's day there was some mode of causing temporary blindness by smearing the eyes, and that this is referred to in the text. 518.— NEBO. XLVI, 1. Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth. Nt-bo was the last in order of the planetary gods of the Chaldeans, arid was also worshiped by the Babylonians and the Assyrians, and by the Snbi »us in Arabia. He is supposed to have been of Babylonian origin. He corresponds to tlie Latin Mercury, the Greek Hermes, and the Egyptian Thoth. The name is supposed to be derived from nabah, to prophesy, and the office of this deity was that of interpreter for the gods. His symbol waB a smiple wedge or arrow-head. The same word (Tir) among the ancient Persians signified both "arrow-head" and the name of the planet nearest the sun, Mercurj^ Ti e popularity of this god is seen in the com- bination of his name with tlie names of ancient kings: for example, Ndm- chadnezzar, TVe&Mzaradan, JV^^^whasliban, A^atonedus, iVaftonassar, iN^a&Mrianus, A^a/'ouabus, iVa&opolassar. Ill the British Museum are statues of Nebo which were taken from Nim- rud. Th"y are partially covered with cuneiform inscriptions. There is also in the same Museum a block of black basalt, which was found at Hillah in 1862. It has on it an inscription of six hundred and twe^^ty lines, divided Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 271 .nlo tea columns. In this inscription reference is made by Nebuchadnezzar, its author, to tlie god Nebo, in which, among otlier tiling-^, he says: " Nebo, the guardian of the hosts of heaven and earth, lias committed to me the scepter of justice to govern men," The expressions, ''boweth down" and "stoopetli," evidently refer to the downfall of these idols, and of the system of idolatry of which they were the symbols. According to the prophecy this v/as to be accom- plished by the Persian power. It is, therefore, proper to remark here, that though tlie Persians worshiped tiie sun, the moon, the earth, etc., images of gods were entirely unknown among them. Herodotus says of them, "They have no images of the gods, no tem- ples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly." — Book i, chap. 131. Thus it was in perfect accordance with their own customs that the Persians should destroy the graven images of other nations. To Cyrus the Persian monarch, is assigned, in chapter xlv, 1, this worii of destruction. So utterly helpless are Nebo and Bel, tliat they cannot deliver themselves from captivity, and so worthless that they are counted only as "a burden to ihe weary beast." An account of Bel is given in tlie note on Jer. 1, 2. lOT. — Neuo. Fko.m Statu K in British Museum. 519.— MODE OF CARRYING IDOLS. XLYI, 7. They bear him upon the shoulder, they carry him, and set him in his place, and he standeth. It is precisely in this way that the Hindoos of the present day, according to Ward, carry their idols in procession and set them in the temples. There is an Aj- Syrian marble which lias on it, in bas-relief, a representation of a proces^on, in which four idols are carried on the shoulders of men. 520.— ASTROLOGERS. XLVII, 13. Let now the astrologers, the star-gazers, the monthly prognostieators, stand up, and save thee from these things that shall come upon thee. Efforts to foretell future events by watching the motions of the heavenly bodies are very ancient. The ancient Babylonians and Chaldeans were especially celebrated for their attempts in this direction. See Dan. ii, 2. In Chaldea the astrologers formed a particular caste, in which the knowledge acquired was transmitted from father to son. They taught that the universe 272 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. was eternal, that a divine providence ruled over it, and tVat tlie movements ('f the heavenly bodies were directed according to the council of the gods. Tlieir long observation had made tliem more competent than other men to calculate the movements and influence of the stars. From the rising and setting of the planets, their orbits and color, thej^ predicted storms, heat, rain, comets, echpses, and earthquakes; and from tiie varied appearances of the heavens tiiey foretold events that not only affected lands and nations, but also brought happiness or unhappiness to kings and common people. To assist them in making calculations from the stars the astrologers divided the heavens, visible and invisible, into twelve equal parts, six above the horizon and six below. Tiiese they called "houses," and the various subjects which affect the happiness of mankind, such as fortune, marriage, life, death, religion, etc., were distributed among them. From the position of the stars in these "houses " the calculations were made. The two words rendered "astrologers" in the text literally signify "dividers of the heavens." 521.— PICTURES ON THE HANDS. XLIX, 16. Behold, I have graven thee upon the palms of my hands ; thy walls are continually before me. This is a figurative way of expressing* that Jehovah will never forget Zion. The city is represented as graven on his hands, so that its walls are per- petually in his sight, and thus the people of God, who are figured by the city, are kept in everlasting remembrance. Roberts says that a similar form of speech is frequently used in India to express one's destiny. It is common to say, in reference to men or things, "They are written on tlie palms of his hands." Remembrance of an absent one is expressed by a figure similar to the one used in the latter part of the text : "Ah, my friend, you have long since forgotten me I " ^'Forgotten you! Never I for your walls are ever before me." Many writers, however, suppose that there is in the text something more than an allusion to a mere figure of speech ; that an actual custom is re- ferred to. It is thought that the Jews of that day were in the liabit of tattoo- ing on their hands or arms representations of the city or temple in order to keep before them something to remind them of the sacred places. This is Bisliop Lowth's view, and it is accepted by many commentators. We have an illustration of it in modern limes. Mauudrell tells us that it was custom- ary in his day for pilgrims to Jerusalem to have figures of various kinds marked on their arms as memorials of their visit. These representations were called "ensigns of Jerusalem." He des ribes the process as follows: "The artists who luidertake t*oe operation do it in this manner: they have stamps in wood of any figure that you desire, which they first print off Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 273 upon your arm witli powder and charcoal ; tlien taking two very fine needles tied close togetlier, and dipping them often, like a pen, in certam ink, com- ponnded, as I was informed, of gunpowder and ox-gall, they make w^ith them small punctures all along the lines of the figure they have printed; and then, washing the part in wine, conclude the work. These punctures they make with great quickness and dexterity, and with scarce any smart, seldom piercing so deep as to draw blood." — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem^ under date of March 27. See also notes on Lev. xix, 28, and Gal. vi, 17. 522.— MODES OF CARRYING CHILDREN. XLIX, 22. They shall bring thy sons in their arms, and thy daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders. Two modes of carrying children are here aUuded to, though there is no reason to suppose that either was exclusively for one sex. In Dent, xxxiii, 12, Benjamin is represented as occupying tlie position here assigned to the daughters. 1. "In their arms" may also be rendered in their bosom, as it is in tlie margin. The large lap or pocket made by the folds of the outer garment (see note on Luke vi, 38) was a convenient and comfortable place for carry- ing a child. In Num. xi, 12, it is intimated that it was customary for fathers to carry their infants in this manner when going on a journey. 2. Another Oriental mode of carrying children is on the shoulders. This is sometimes done by placing tliem astride the neck. Thus, it is said of Benjamin, "he shall dwell between his shoulders." Deut. xxxiii, 12. At other times the child is placed astride one shoulder, usually the left, with one leg banging down on the back and the other on the breast. In either case the child steadies itself by putting its arms around the parent's head, and by chnging with its feet. In Egypt women are often seen carryino: a child on one shoulder and a jar of water on the other. For still another mode of carrying children see note on Isa. Ix, 4. 523.-^DUST SHAKEN OFF. LII, 2. Shake thyself from the dust ; arise, and sit down, O Jerusalem. .Towett, in his Christian Researches^ refers to the custom of Orientals sit- ting on the ground with their feet drawn under them, gradually gathering Carrying Children. 274 BIBLE MANNERS ^ND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. dust on their garments, and rising occasionally to shake it off, and then resuming tlieir seats. This, however, is only a partial explanation of the allusions of the text. The "dust" referred to may be either that in which Jerusalem had been sitting, or that which she had put upon her head. In either case the idea of mourning would be represented. The mourner is ex- horted to arise from the dust and take a higher position; not to sit down again in the dust. The language seems to embrace the idea of a throne, a high seat. Alexander agrees with some of the best expositors who adopt the interpretation of the Targum, Sit upon thy throne. From this Jerusalem is supposed to have been previously cast down. The ground was to be left, the dust shaken off, and the throne occupied. The mourning was to be changed for rejoicing. 524.— PREPARING FOR WAR. LIT, 10. The Lord hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of all the nations. To " make bare the arm " is a metaphorical expression denoting preparation for active work, especially for war. The beauty of the figure is seen, not only in the fact that the arm is an appropriate emblem of power, but also in the additional fact that the Oriental costume permits the arm to be bared in an instant. Jowett says : " The loose sleeve of the Arab shirt, as well as of the outer garment, leaves the arm so completely free, that in an instant tlie left hand, passing up the right arm, makes it bare ; and tiiis is done when a person, a sol- dier, for example, about to strike with his sword, intends to give the arm full play." — Christian Researches^ etc., p. 208. Reference is also made to tins baring of the arm in Isa, liii, 1, and also in E/.ok. iv, t. Classic writers likewise make frequent allu- sion to it. Isaiah. J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 275 525.— SPRINKLING. LII, 15. So shall he sprinkle many nations. Most commeutators suppose the figure of sprinkling to be taken from ;lie ceremonial sprinklings of the Mosaic law. It was custom- ary to sprinkle blood in connection with different sacrifices. See notes on Exod. xxiii, 15 ; Lev. vi, 9 ; vi, 25 ; vii, 1 ; vii, 11 ; xvi, 34. In allusion to this custom the prophet, in the text, represents the Messiah as making atonement for the nations. Some writers think there is an allusion to the custom of sprink- ling guests at feasts witli perfumed waters from a silver vessel ( f vase-like shdpe and with a perforated top, througli which the fluid is thrown on the faces of the guests. This sprinkling is sometimes so copious as to cause embarrassment. Bruce, after descril)ing an interview he once iiad witli a certain dignitary, says: " Our coffee being done, I rose to take my leave, and was presently wet to the skin by deluges of orange-flower water." Niebuhr relates a similar instance: Tiie first time we were received with all the Eastern ceremonies, (it was at Rosetto, at a Greek merchant's house,) there was one of om- company who was excessively surprised when a domestic placed himself before him and threw water over him, as well on his face as over his clothes." See Taylor's Calmet; Frag- ments. No. XIV. Ti e engraving represents a perfume-?prinkler of beautiful form, such as is used in some parts of India. 526.-^INVITATI0N TO BUY. LY, 1. Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters, and he that hath no money ; come ye, buy, and. eat ; yea, come, buy wine and milk without money and without price. A beautiful illustration of the customary mode of addressing purchasers in the East is given by Miss Rogers, who thus describes her walk through one of the streets of Jerusalem: "The shopkeepers were crying to the passers-by, 'Ho, every one that hath money, let him come and buy ! Ho, guch a one, come and buy ! ' But some of them seemed to be more dis- mte rested, and one of the fruiterers, offering me preserves and fruit, said, •0 lady, take of oui* fruit without money and without price; it is yours, take all that you will,' and he would gladly have laden our kawas with the e^ood tilings of his store and then have claimed double their value." — Do- mesHc Life in Palestine ^ p. 49. There is more sincerity in the G-ospel iuvita- tations than in those of the traders. 276 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 527.— STONE-WORSHIP. LVII, 6. Among the smootJ:i stones of the stream is thy por- tion ; they, they are thy lot: even to them hast tho\A poured a drink-offering, thoia hast offered a meat-offering. The worsliip of stone pillars is a prac-iee of very o-reat antiquity, •And one to which many nations were formerly devoted. Some liave strangely eon- founded tlie anointing of the stone at Betliel by Jacob witli this snper- stitions practice; but we think the patriarch can be freed fi-om ihe charge of idolatry on that occasion. See note on Gen. xxviii, 18. The worsii p of stones is referred to in Dent, vii, 5; xii, 3, and in many passages where tho word "images" is used. It is very probable also that tl^e allusion to tJie "rock" of the heathen in Dent, xxxi'', 31, 37, is a reference to the f-ame species of idolatry. " The image which fell down from Jupiter," and which was worshiped by the P^phesians, may furnish another illustmtion. See note on Acts xix, 35. The old custom was to anoint the stones which were worshiped, and to present offerings to them, Clemens Alexandrinus speak^ of a superstitious man as "a worshiper of every shining stone." Arnobius, who lived in the fifth century, said, after his conversion to Christianity, that when he was a heathen he never saw an oiled stone without addres.sing it and praying to it- There are many monuments of this ancient idolatry still in existence ; thf-y are especially abundant on the western extremity of Europe, in Cornwall, and in the islands and promontories from the Land^s End to Caithness and tho Orkneys. • In fact, evidences of this worship have come down to such recent times that it may well be doubted whether this species of idolatry has evem yet ceased to exist in Europe. In the latter part of the seventeenth century it was practiced in Lapland, one of the deities of Scandinavian mythology being represented by a stone. In the early part of the following cent ury there were pillar-stones held in great veneration among the inhabitants of the "Western Islands of Scotland. One of these stones was swathed in flannel. Another, about eight feet high and two broad, was called the bowing stone^" because the people bowed before it in reverence and said the Lord^s prayer. Within twenty years of the present time the same superstition has been known to exist in Ireland, and very probably is to be found tliere stitl. The Earl of Roden, in hi-j Progress of the Reformation in Ireland^ states that in the Island of Inniskea, off the coast of Mayo, the people worship a stone which is wrapped in flannel. Its power is believed to he inimense. The people pray to it in time of sickness, and invoke it to l aise a storm and send some hapless vessel a wreck on their barren coast that ihey may profit by the disaster! See an article in Notes and Queries for February 7, 1852, from th© ppn of Sir J. Emerson Tennent. Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 277 528.— THE ARM AN EMBLEM OF POWER. LIX, 1. Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened, that it can- not save. As the arm is an emblem of power, so shortness of arm signifies dimin- ished power, and length of arm an increase. Thus it is said that Artax- erxes Longimanus, that is, the Long- handed, was so called, not because of any peculiarity of body, but because of the vast extent of his power. There is an ancient Egyptian sculpture in which the same bold figure is employed as the one used by the prophet in the text. It represents Thannyras, the son of Inarus, whom Artaxerxes had made Satrap of Egypt, worshiping the sun as his god. In this he disregarded llie re- ligion of his own people, and adopted that of their conquerors. The sun is represented as sending his rays down on the earth, and at the end of every ray is a hand. . . ^ 111. — Egyptian Satkai» Wousiiiping See also Num. xi, 23, and Isa. 1, 2. g^x 529.— MODE OF CARRYING CHILDREN. LX, 4. Thy sons shall come from far, and thy daughters shall be nursed at thy side. In the East, cliildren are not only carried on the bosom and on the shoulders, (see note on Isa. xlix, 22,) but also on the hip, and reference is thought to be made to this custom in this text and in Isa, Ixvi, 12. Chardin saw the mothers carrying their nursing children astride upon the hip with the arm around the body. Other travelers have noticed the same custom. 530.— PIGEON HOUSES. LX, 8. Wh.o are these that fly as a eloud, and as the doves to their windows. Doves have always been favorite birds in the East. In Egypt, Syria, and Persia there are cotes built for their special accommodation, In the text the prophet represents the success of Christianity by the countless Gentiles who will seek admission into the Church. So numerous will these Gentiles be that they will appear like a cloud, just as the doves appear when they fly to the entrances to their habitations. The figure is very animated and beautiful. 278 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. Some of the dove houses are quite peculiar in tlieir construction. Shaw represents them as a prominent feature in Egyptian villages. They are round, tall, and narrow, six or eight being grouped together. See Travels^ plate facing p. 291. Morier gives an interesting account of the pigeon houses of Persia, which are erec-ted at intervals in the open country for the purpose of collect- ing the dung for manure. " They are large round towers, rather broader at the bottom than the top, and crowned by conical spiracles through which the pigeons descend. Their interior resem- bles a honeycomb pierced with a thou- sand holes, each of which forms a snug retreat for a nest. More care appears to have been bestowed upon the outside than upon that of the gen- erali ty of the dwelling- houses, for they are painted and ornament- ed. The extraordina- ry flights of pigeons which I have seen alight upon one of these brildingg afford perhaps a good illustration for the passage in Isa. Ix, 8. . . . Their great numbers and tlie compactness of their mass literally look like a cloud at a distance, and ob- scure the sun in their passage," — -Second Journey^ etc., p. 140. 531.^THE OPEN GATES, LX, 11. Therefore thy gates shall be open continually ; they shall not be shut day nor night. The gates of walled towns are shut at sundown, or shortly after. Trav- elers often hasten in their journey when they see the sun declining and the shadows lengthen, lest the day expire before they reach the city gates. It not uncommonly happens that, with all Iheir exertions, they are too late ; they are then compelled to spend the night outside, exposed to storms and robbers. The prophet represents the Church of Christ with her gates "open continually," in marked contrast to the custom with which Oriental people are familiar, A similar illustration is given by John in his beautiful description of the New Jerusalem : " And the gates of it shaU not be shut at all by day : for there shall be no niglit there." Bev. xxi, 25. 112.— Pigeon Towers in Persia. Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 279 532.— A DIADEM FOR ASHES. LXI, 8. To appoint unto them that mourn in Zion, to give unto them beauty for ashes, the oil of joy for mourning, the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness. Pee7\ " beauty," is the same word that is rendered bonnet " in Isa. iii, 20, VN^here see the note. The prophet wishes to show the contrast between the time of mourning and that of rejoicing. The mourner sits with ashes on tlie head. See note on 2 Sam. xv, .32. When the mourning ceases and the joy comes the ashes are taken from the head, and, in tlie true spirit of rejoicing, a beautiful diadem is placed thereon instead. 533.— WEDDING JEWELRY. LXI, 10. As a bridegroom deeketh himself with ornaments, and as a bride adorneth herself with her jewels. At Oriental weddings both bride and bridegroom are adorned with a profusion of jewelr}'' of every kuid. If too poor to purchase they borrow from neighbors and friends, that a splendid show may be made. See also Rev. xxi, 2. 534.-^REPETITION. LXII, 10. Go through, go through the gates ; prepare ye the way of the people ; east up, east up the highway. We have here an illustration of the Oriental style of repetition in language, of which there are several other instances in this book. Thus, in chapter xxiv, 19, 20, we read in our version, "The earth is utterly broken down, the earth is clean dissolved, the earth is moved exceedingly. The earth sliall reel to and fro hke a drunkard." This is more literally rendered by Alexan- der, "Broken, broken is the earth; shattered, shattered is the earth ; shaken, shaken is the earth. The earth reels, reels like a drunken man." So also in chapter xxvi, 3, we have, "Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace." The margin gives the literal translation, " Peace, peace." See also Jer. xxii, 29; Ezek. xxi, 27. This is not exclusively a flebrew idiom. Chardin quotes from a Persian letter the words, "To whom I wish that all the world may pay homage," and says that the language is literally, " that all souls may serve hia name, his name.'* 535.^ID0LATR0US FEASTS. LXV, IL But ye are they that forsake the Lord, that forget my holy mountain, that prepare a table for that troop, and that furnish the drink-offering unto that number. For "troop " and "that number " the margin substitutes the original words gad and meni. The precise meaning of these two terms is a matter of 280 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. diversified opinion. Gesenius defines gad to be the god Fortune, the same as Baal or Bel, that is, the planet Jupiter, which was regarded throughout the East as the giver of good fortune. There was a city called Baal-Gad in the valley of Lebanon under Mount Hermon. Gesenius gives to meni the defi- nition of fate^ fortune, destiny^ and thinks the planet Yenus was intended. Yenus was identical with Astarte, and was regarded by the ancient Semitic nations as the source of good fortune, and as such was coupled with the planet Jupiter; Jupiter being the "Greater Good Fortune," and Yenus the "Lesser Good Fortune." Fuerstis undecided whether gad refers to Jupiter or Yenus ; he supposes meni to refer to the moon, and that both were deities who were supposed to control fate. Many interpreters have refused to render the two words as names of idols, and have "referred the whole clause either lo convivial assemblies, perhaps connected with idolatrous worship, or to the troop of planets and the multitude of stars, as objects of such worship." — Alexander, Commen- tary in loco. All, however, are agreed on one point, that the whole passage has refer- ence to idolatrous worship of some sort; the "table" and the "drink-offer- ing" give evidence of that. The kind of offering referred to is supposed to be identical with the ledisternia of the Romans. These were feasts spread for the consumption of the gods on occasions of extraordinary solemnities. Images of the gods reclined on couches, while before them were placed tables filled with viands, as if the gods were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice. The custom is thought to have been of Egyptian origin, and from the Egyptians the Hebrews probably learned it. Jerome states that in every city in Egypt, and especially in Alexandria, they were in the habit, on the last day of each year, of covering a table with dishes of various kinds, and with a cup filled with a liquor made of water, wine, and honey, either in acknowledgement of the fertility of the past year, or to implore fruitful ness for the year to come. See also notes on Num. xxii, 41, and 1 Kings xi, 5. JEREMIAH. 536.— CISTERNS. II, 13. They have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water. The dryness of the summer months in Palestine, and the absence of large rivers, together with the scarcity of springs in many places, make it neces- J3r3inia'j..] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 281 >-ary to collect into cisterns the rains which fall, and tlie waters which fill ihe small streams in the rain}'- season. This has been the custom in that laud from very early times. These cisterns are either dug in the earth or cut out of the soft hmestone rock, and are of several kinds. Sometimes a shaft is sunk like a well, and the bottom widened into the shape of a jug. Excavations of this sort combine the characters of cisterns and wells, since they not only receive the rain which is conducted into them, but the water which percolates through the hmestone. Another kind consists of chambers excavated out of the rock, with a hole in the roof. Again, an excavation is made perpendicularly, and the roof arched with masonry. Some are lined with wood or cement, while others are left in their natural state. They are sometimes entirely open at the top, and are then entered by steps, or, in the case of large Ones, (and some are vtry large,) by flights of stairs. Where they are roofed, a circular opening with a curb is at the top, and a wheel, with a rope and bu ^ket, is provided. This is referred to in Eccl. xii, 6, *'The wheel broken at the cistern." Jerusalem is abundantly supplied with water by means of cisterns, and during all its long and terrible sieilded. Special pains are taken to ornament tiie ceilings. Taste- ful interlaced patterns are used, often painted in brilliant colors ; red, blue, gold, and green, being the favorites. The prophet represents here the general luxuriance . of the people, and the dishonesty which some limes accompanied it. See verse 13. In another prophecy we read: " Is it time for you, 0 ye, to dwell in your ceiled houses, and this house lie waste ? " Hag- gai i, 4. 116.— Ceiling of Palace at Konieh. 549.— SMITING THE THIGH. XXXI, 19. Surely after that I was turned, I repented ; and after that I was instructed, I smote upon my thigh. This was one method by which the Jews expressed deep sorrow in time of mourning. Ezekiel was commanded to act in a similar manner as a sig- nificant mode of expressing the sorrow that was to come on rebellious Isi-ael. See Ezek. xxi, 12. The Greeks and Persians had a similar custom, and it is practiced in some parts of the East at the present day. 550.— EVIDENCES OF PURCHASE. XXXII, 14. Take these evidences, this evidence of the purchase, both which is sealed, and this evidence which is open; and put them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue many days. It is supposed that one of these documents was a duplicate of the other; and it may have been customary to carefully seal one copy and deposit it in a safe place, perhaps to bury it on a part of the land described in it, while the other was left unsealed in some public place designated for the purpose, 288 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiali. where all persons interested might have access to it whenever they desired. Inasmuch, however, as the citj was to be destroyed, the prophet was directed to have both copies put into an earthen vessel for preservation. In Taylor's Calmet it is suggested that the earthen vessel containing these documents was to be buried in one corner of the land purchased, as a sort of hidden landmark of the property; and as a possible illustration the fol- lowing passage is cited from the Gentoo laws of 'boundaries and limits: " Dust, or bonds, or aeboos, (bran,) or cinders, or scraps of earthenware, or the hairs of a cow's tail, or the s-eed of the cotton-plant: all these things above-mentioned, being put into an earthen jar filled to the brim, a man must privately bury upon the confines of his own boiuidary ; and there preserve stones also, or bricks, or sea- sand: either of ihese three things may be buried by way of Landmark of tlie limits; for all these things, upon remaining a long time in the ground, are not liable to rot, or to become putrid; any other thing, also, which will remain a long time in the ground without becoming rotten or putrid, may be buried for the same purpose. Those persons who. by any of these methods, can sliow the line of their boundaries, shall acquaint their sons with tiie respective Landmarks of those boundaries ; and, in the same manner, those sons shall explain the signs of the limits to their children." — Fragments, No. LXXX, Taylor's Colmet, vol. iii, p. 138. 551.--CUTTING THE COVENANT. XXXIV, 18. When they cut the ealf in twain, and passed be tween the parts thereof. This was a very ancient method of making a covenant. The two con- tracting parties slaughtered a victim, cut the body in two, and passed between the severed parts. Some writers hold that the design was to ex- press a wish that, if the covenant should be broken, the same fate might befall the party violating it which had befallen the slain beast. Others think that it was intended to represent, that as the two' divided parts belonged to one animal, so the two parties making the covenant were of one mind so far as the subject of the covenant was concerned. It is thought probable that the latter was the original design of the custom, and that tlie former notion was added to the meaning subsequently, or substi- tuted for it when the original intention was forgotten. This old custom is referred -to in the very expression which was used by the Hebrews to represent the making of a covenant. The phrase " make a covenant," which is so often used in the Old Testament, is literally, to cut a covenant,'* {karatJi her ill i.) This ceremony was used when Jehovah made a covenant with Abram. See Gen. xv, 10, 17. ''Ephraem Syrus observes, that God condescended to Jeremiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 289 follow the custom of the Chaldeans, that he might in the most solemn man- ner confirm his oath to Abram the Chaldean." — Keil and Delitzsch, Com. on Gen. xv, 7-11. The custom was widespread among ancient nations, and is often referred to by classical writers. There are traces of it even in modern times. Pitts, after narrating some of the superstitious customs of the Algerine pirates when a storm overtakes them at sea, continues: "If they find no succor from their before-mentioned rites and superstitions, but that the danger rather increases, then they go to sacrificing of a slieep, (or two or three upon occasion, as they think needful,) which is done after this man- ner: having cut off the head with a knife, they immediately take out the entrails, and throw them and the head overboard ; and then with all the speed they can (without skinning) they cut the body into two parts by the middle, and throw one part over the riglit side of the ship and the other over the left, into the sea, as a kind of propitiation.^ — Religion and Manners of the Mahometans^ chap. ii. 552.— INK. XXXVI, 18. He pronounced all these words lanto me with his nnouth, and I wrote them with ink in the book. 1. The ink of the ancients was usually composed of lampblack, soot, or pulverized charcoa\ prepared with gum and water. It was sold in small par- ticles or grains. When needed for use some of the grains were put into the inkhorn, (see note on P]zek. ix, 2,) and mixed with water until the mixture became of the consistence of our modern printers ink. It was of an intense glossy black, retaining its color for ages, yet easily obliterated with sponge and water. This is thought to be referred to in Num. v, 23, and Col. ii, 14. The ink still used in the East is mostly of this character. Ink is also mentioned in 2 Cor. iii, 3 ; 2 John 12, and 3 John 13. 2. For a description of books, see note on Job xix, 23, 24. 553.— THE HEARTH. XXXYI, 22. The king sat in the winter house in th3 ninth month, and there was a fire on the hearth burning b3fore him. -Ac/i, hearth,'' is a portable furnace or stove. The rooms of Oriental houses are sometimes warmed at the present day by means of such pots or furnaces. "They have the form of a large pitcher, and are placed in a cavity sunk in the middle of the apartment. When the fire has burnt down, a frame like a table is placed over the pot, and the whole is then covered with a carpet; and those who wish to warm themselves sit upon the floor and thrust their feet and leg.-:, and even the lower part of their bodies, under the carpet." — Robtxson's Gescnius. 290 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah 554.— BURIED TREASURES. XLI, 8. We have treasures in the field, of wheat, and of barley, and of oil, and of honey. 1. It is a very ancient custom in many parts of the East to store grain in large pits or cisterns, dug in the ground for the purpose. In Syria these cisterns are sealed at the top with plaster, and covered with a deep bed of eartli to keep out vermin. They are cool and dry and light. Among the Moors the custom is to have a thick layer of straw on the bottom and a hning of straw on the sides. They cover the mouth with a stone, and some- limes build over it a small pyramid of earth to shed the rain. Yery often, however, after closing the mouth, they cover the place with sod so skillfully that none but the initiated can tell where the pit is. Shaw says that in Barbary tliere are sometimes two or three hundred of these grain-pits to- gether, the smallest of them holding four hundred bushels. Burder (Oriental Literature, No. 621) gives a quotation from Chenier, a French traveler, who says that among the Moors the fathers of wealthy families fill a granary of this kind at the birth of every child, and empty it when the child becomes an adult and is married. He knew of corn which had been kept in such pirs for twenty-five years and was still fit for use, though it had lost its whiteness. These are doubtles > he kind of places referred to in the text, where the treasures of wlieat were kept. David also had "storehouses in the field." 1 Chron. xxvii, 25. Besides these subterranean granaries there were al«o barns. See note on Gen. xli, 48. 2. In hke manner oil is sometimes kept in jars buried in the ground ; and jars of honey might easily be kept in a similar manner. The ten men re- ferred to in the text who sought to purchase their lives of Tshmael, had con- cealed their treasures in the field so that no one should rob them. Some suppose that tlie " cellars of oil " belonging to David were iperely places where oil jars were buried. See 1 Chron. xxvii, 28. Other treasures besides those mentioned in the text are frequently buried in the East. See note on Matt, xiii, 44. 555.— SPEARS— SCALE ARMOR. XLVI, 4. Furbish the spears and put on the brigandines. 1. Romach \?\> rendered "spear" in Judges v, 8, and in several other texts; "javelin," in Xum. xxv, 7; "buckler," in 1 Chron. xii, 8; (in the plural) "lancets," in 1 Kings xviii, 28. It is thought to have been a spear used by heavy-armed troops. Colonel Smith, in Kittd's Cyclopcedia. (s. v. " Arms.") .says, "Probably the shepherd Hebrews, like nations similarly situated i:i /eremiali.] KIBUE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 291 northern Africa, anciently made use of tlie horn o'" an orj'x, or a lencoryx, above three feet long, straightened in water, and sheathed upon a thorn- wood staff. When sharpened, this instrument would penetrate the hide of a bull, and, according to Strabo, even of an elepiiant ; it was light, very difficult to break, resisted the blow of a battle-ax, and the animals which furuislied it were abundant in Arabia and in the desert east of Palestine. At a later period the head was of brass, and afterward of iron." These liorn spears were probably the original type from which the various kinds of spears were subsequently produced. Precisely how the romach diff'ered from tlie other heavy spe;u', tlie chaaith, (see note on 1 Sam. xvii, 7,) we cannot say. 2. Siryon (" brigandine in the text, and in Jer. li, 3) was a coat of scale armor; the same as sMryGn^ which is rendered "coat of mail " in 1 Sam. xvii, 5, where see the note. 556. -HEAVY AXES. XLVI, 22. They shall march with an army and. come against her with axes as hewers of wood. Kardom was a name given to an axe which seems to have been used especially for cutting down trees, and is thought to have had a heavier head than other axes. It is mentioned in Judges ix, 48; 1 Sam. xiii, 20, and Psa. Ixxiv, 5. 557.— THE GOD AMMON. XLVI, 25. Behold, I will punish the multitude of No, and Pharaoh, and Egypt, with their gods, and their kings. The most of commentators now agree tliat amon, here rendered " multi- tude," should be taken as a proper name, and left luitranslated. The original is amon minno^ " Amon of No." By No is undoubtedly meant the celebrated P]gyptian city of Thebes, which was situated on both sides of the Nile, and was noted for its hundred gates of brass, its numerous and splendid temples, obelisks, and statues. Amon was the name of an Kgyptiar. deitv, and probably of a Libyan ^nd Ethiopian god, whose worship had its seat in Thebes, where was an oracle of the deity; for which reason the name of the city was joined to that of the god. This is to be noticed not only in this text, but also in Nahum iii, 8, where for the "populous No" of our version the original has No Amon. Tlie Greeks likened this god to Zeus, and tlie Romans called him Jupiter Aramon or Hammon. He appears to have been a personification of the sun, and is thought to have corresponded to Baal of the Phenicians. The ancient Egyptian name is said to have been Amen. On the monuments it is written Amn or Amn-Re, Amon the Sun. It was formerly supposed, and is still commonly asserted, that this god 292 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah. was represented uiiclfr tlie figure of a liuman form with a ram's head. TliiS; however, has of late been denied. Fairbairn says : " It was the ^od Neph^ sometimes written Kneph, and by the Greeks OhnouMs, who was so represented, and the proper seat of whose worship was not Thebes, but Meroe, and who also had a famous oracle in the Lybian desert. The Amon of Thebes, ' king of gods ' as he was called, always had the form simply of a man assigned him, and in one of the characters under whicii he was worshiped appears to have been virtually identified with the sun, and in another with the Egyptian Pan." — ImpeyHal Bible Diction- arij. Wilkinson says, " The figure of Amnn was that of a man, with a head-dress sur- mounted by two long featliers; the color of his body was light blue, like tlie Indian Yishnoo, as if to indicate his peculiarly exalted and heavenly nature : but he was not figured with the head or under the form of a ram, as the Greeks and Romans supposed." — Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iv, p. 246. 558.— POURING WINE. XLVIII, 11. Moab hath been at ease from his youth, and he hath settled on his lees, and hath not been emptied from vessel to vessel, neither hath he gone into captivity : there- fore his taste remaineth in him, and his seent is not changed. It is customarj' to pour wine from one vessel to another to improve its quality. Chardin saj's: "They frequently pour wine from vessel to vessel in the East; for when they begin one, they are obliged immediately to empty it into smaller vessels, or into bottles, or it would grow sour." — Habmeii's Observations, vol. ii, p. 155. Dr. Clarke, in a note on the same page, adds: "From the jars (says Dr. Russell, MS. note) in which the wine ferments it is drawn off into demyans, which contain peihaps twenty quart bottles, and from those into bottles for use; but as tl ese bottles are generally not well washed, the wine is often sour. The more careful use pint bottles, or half- pint bottles, and cover the surface with a little sweet oil." A similar allusion to the pouring of wine from the lees is made in Isa. XXV, 6, where see the note. See also Zeph. i, 12, where, as in this text, being "on the lees" is figuratively used to express a sinful rest. Jeremiah carries the figure of the text into the following verse, where, instead of Jeremiah.] lUULE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 298 *' wanderers," many commentators render tsaim by the word " tllters." "J will send imto him tilters^ who shall tilt Mm up^ The act of pouring the wine ofif the lees from one vessel to anotlier is thus represented. 559— BEL. L, 2. Babylon is taken, Bel is confounded, Merodaeh is broken in pieces; her idols are eonfoiAnded, her iniages are broken in pieces. 1. Bel was the principal god of the Babylonians, and the third in rank among the Assyrians. The name is generally supposed to be the Chaldaic form of Baal, though this is disputed by some. For an account of Baal- worship see note on Num. xxii, 41. In addition to what is there stated, we may remark that the sacrifices offered to Bel consisted of adult cattle and their sucklings, together with incense. The horned cap, so frequently observed in Assyrian monuments, is supposed to have been the symbol of this god. Bel is also mentioned in Isa. xlvi, 1, and Jer. li, 44. 2. The origin and meaning of the name Merodaeh are doubtful. Instead of being a separate deity from Bel, he is supposed to be identical ; the name being originally a descriptive epithet of Bel, which gradually became recognized as one of the names of that deity. On the monuments lie is known as Bel Merodaeh. "Nebuchadnezzar calls him 'the king of the heavens and the earth,' 'the great lord,' 'the senior of the gods,' 'the most ancient,' 'the supporter of sovereignty,' 'the layer up of treasures,' etc., and ascribes to him all his glory and successes." — Rawlinson's Five Great Monarchies^ vol. i, p. 135. 560.— SIGN OF SUBMISSION. L, 15. She hath given her hand, her foundations are fallen, her walls are thrown down. This is a beautiful Orientalism denoting submission, and probably has some relation to the custom of giving the hand in pledge of a covenant. See note on Prov. xi, 2l. There are several texts where the expression is used: " We have given the hand to the Egyptians, and to the Assyrians to be satis- fied with bread." Lam. v, 6. Wlien Hezekiah sent throughout all Israel and Judah his proclamation for a passover, he said to the people, among other things, "yield yourselves to the Lord." 2 Chron. xxx, 8. This is literally, "give the hand to Jehovali," At the beginning of Solomon's reign it is said : " And all the princes, and the mighty men, and all the sons likewise of king David, submitted themselves unto Solomon the king." 1 Chron. xxix, 24. This is literally, "gave the hand under Solomon." This identical form is said by Roberts to be used in India at the present lime. When two have quarreled, and one makes acknowledgment, he is 294 f BIBLE MANNKHS AXI) CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah. said to " put his hand under.*' The same is said vvlien a rebelHous pon submits to his father. The expression is not altogether figurative. When 118. — Submission. one submits to a superior he stoops, and moves iiis hands to the ground, saying, " I submit, my lord." Hence the appropriateness of the language used. 561.— BATTLE-AXES. LI, 20. Thou art my battle-ax and weapons of war : for with thee will I break in pieces the nations, and with thee will I destroy kingdoms. Mappets, "battle-ax," is defined by Gesenius to be '-a mallet, a maul, a war-chib ; " and lie makes it identical with mephits, which in Prov. xxv, 18, is rendered " mauL" Others, however, think that a heavy bladed instrument is meant. The Egyptian battle-ax was from two to two and a half feet in length, with a single blade, whicli was secured to the handle by bronze pins, while the handle in th.*it part was bound with thongs to keep the wood from splitting. The soldier on a march either lield it in his hand, or hung it on liis back with the blade down.ward. The f-hape of the blade was the segment of a circle, divided at the back into two smaller segments whose points were fast- ened by the pins already named. The -Egyptian Jeremiah.! BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 295 blade was made either of bronze or of steel. Another kind of battle-ax was about three feet in length, and had a large metal ball at the end, to which the blade was fixed. Either of these weapons was terrible, from the com- bination of weight with sharpness. "While the Persians often used the battle-ax it was rarely used by the Assyrians, though it is sometimes represented on the monuments. Tiiese weapons seem to have had short handles and large heads, and to have been wielded with one hand. Some of them had two heads, like the hij^enms of the Romans and the labra of the Lydians and Carians. The Chaldeans and Babylonians also made use of battle-axes. One belonging to the former is represented on an ancient clay tablet as having the blade of the ax balanced by three heavy spikes on the opposite side of the handle. LAMENTATIONS. 562— HANGING BY THE HAND. V, 12. Prinees are hanged up by their hand. By whose hand the princes were hung up has been a matter of discussion among commentators. Some suppose that the text means they hung them- selves ; others that they were hung by the hand of their enemies ; others still that they were suspended by tlie hand, and in this helpless condiiion left to perish. In support of this last interpretation we give a statement by Roberts: "No punishment is more common than this in the East, especially for slaves and refractory children. Has a master an obstinate slave ? has he committed some great ofifense with his hands ? several men are called, who tie the ofifender's hands and hoist him to the roof, till he beg for forgive- ness. School-boys who are in the habit of playing truant are also thus punished. To tell a man that you will hang him by the hands is extremely provoking." — Oriental Customs^ p. 142. If this custom was practiced in the time of Jeremiah we» can see how great an indignity was put upon the princes when they were punished aftor the manner of slaves. EZEKIEL. 563.— WRITING ON BOTH SIDES. II, 10. He spread it before me ; and it was written within and without: and there was written therein lamentations, and mourning, and woe. Tiie manuscript rolls were usually w^ritten only on one side, though some- times botli sides were used. This was the case with the roll which Ezekiel 296 BIBLE MAXXEHS AND CUSTOMS. [Eze'-iiel saw. So numerous were the troubles wliich were to come upon the children of Israel that the roll which contained an account of thera was completely filled, it being necessary to write on both sides. Something like this is n thought to be meant in Rev. v, 1. See note on Tsa. xxxiv, 4. 564.— RECORDS ON POTTERY. IV, 1. Thou also, son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it be- fore thee, and portray upon it the city, even Jerusalem. Assyrian and Babylonian records were kept, not only on sculptured slabs of stone, but also on pottery. There were " cylinders," as they are called, some barrel-shaped, and some hexagonal or octagonal. These were made of very fine, thin, and strong terra-cotta, and were hollow. They were from a foot and a half to three feet in height, and were closely covered with cunei- form writing, which was often in such small characters as to require the aid of a magnifying glass to decipher it. These cylinders were placed at the corners of the temples, where many of them have been discovered- They were written hi columns, and contain histories of the monarchs who reigned when the temples were built. 120. — Assyrian Clay Tablets. In addition to these, clay tablets of various sizes were used, from nine inclies by six and a half to one inch by one and a half. These were sometimes entirely covered v/ith writing and pictorial representations. Ii Ezekiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 297 was on such a tile that Ezekiel was directed to make a represention of Jerusalem. When the clay was in a soft, moist state, in its mold or frame the charac- ters were put upon it, perhaps in some instances by a stamp, but usually by means of a sharp edged bronze style about a foot long, by means of which each character was traced separately by hand, just as we use a pen. After the completion of the writing or pictures the clay was baked, and such was the perfection of the manufacture that many of these articles have been pre- served from decay for three thousand years. They vary in color, owing, as some suppose, to the varying length of time they were in the kiln, while others think that some coloring matter must have been mixed with the clay. They are bright brown, pale yellow, pink, red, and a very dark tint nearly black. Usually the cylinders found are of a pale yellow, and the tablets a light red or pink. Some of them are un- glazed, and others are coated with a hard white enamel. 565.— MOUNTS— FORTS— RAMS. lY, 2. And. lay siege against it, and build a fort against it, and east a mound against it; set the camp also against it, and. set battering-rams against it round about. Several important operations in ancient sieges are here noticed : 1. The mount " was an inchned plane which the besiegers of a castle or a walled town built up to the walls so that they could bring their engines of war closer, and work them to greater advantage. The mount was made* of all sorts of materials, earth, timber, boughs, and stones, the sides being walled up with brick or stone, and the inclined top made of layers of brick or stone, forming a paved road up which the war engines might be drawn. Some of these engines are de- scribed in the note on 2 Chranicles xxvi, 15; another is mentioned below. Moinits were used by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Jews, and Greeks, and are often referred to ic the Old Testament un- der the name of " banks " 121.— Assault on a City — Artificial Mount. 298 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [EzekieU or " bulwarks," as well as " mounts." See, among other passages, Deut. XX, 20; 2 Sam. xx, 15; 2 Kings xix, 32; Isa. xxxvii, 33; Jer. vi, 6 ; xxxiii, 4; Ezek. xvii, 17. 2. Dayelc^ "fort," was a watch-tower. Numbers of these towers were set lip before a besieged city, for the purpose of watching and harassing the inhabitants. See also 2 Kings xxv, 1; Jer. hi, 4; Ezek. xvii, 17; xxi, 22; xxvi, 8. 3. The battering-ram is supposed to have been first used by the Phenicians. It consisted of a heavy beam of wood strengthened with iron plates, and terminating in an iron head made like that of a ram. Suspended from a wooden frame^work by ropes or chains, the beam was swung to and fro by the attacking party, and was struck against the wall with repeated blows until a breach was effected. The Assyrian armies were abundantly suppHed v^rith similar engines of war, though they were made after different patterns. It is to these that Ezekiel refers in the text. " Some had a head shaped like 122.— Batterixg-rams. the point of a spear ; others, one more resembling the end of a blunderbuss. All of them were covered with a frame- work, which was of ozier, wood, felt, or skins, for the better protection of those who worked the implement ; but some appear to have been stationary, having their frame resting on tlio ground itself; while others were movable, being provided with wheels." — Rawltnson, Five Great Monarchies^ vol. i, p. 470. To oppose the ram various inflammable substances, such as tow, were thrown upon the liglit frame-work, setting it on fire. To extinguish this, those who worked the ram carried a supply of water. Again, a chain was let down by the besieged, and the end of the ram was cauglit in it, and tiie force of the blow neutralized by drawing the ram upward. To counteract this some of the besieging party were stationed below the ram, and provided with strong hooks which they caught in the descending chains, hanging on them with all their weight. Battering-rams were frequently used against walls from the ground, at Ezekiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 299 the foot, but sometimes were drawn to the top of mounds such as have been just described. They are referred to, in addition to the text, in Ezek. xxi, 22, and probably in Ezek. xxvi, 9, under the name " engines of war. ' There may also be a reference to them in 2 Sam. xx, 15. 566.— CHAMBERS OF IMAGERY, YIII, 10. So I went in and saw ; and behold every form of ereepin^g things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of the house of Israel, portrayed upon the wall round about. The vivid description of what the prophet saw in his vision, as recorded in this remarkable chapter, is doubtless an ideal representation. The im- agery employed, however, is taken from scenes in actual life, and could find its realization in the temples of ancient Egypt, w^here the Israelites learned many of their idolatrous practices. The tombs of Egjpt, which are now ex- posed to the view of the traveler, have painted on them, in colors that are still bright, representations of various animals, and also of the gods. Whether or not these tombs w^ere ever used as places of worship is a disputed point. Their painted walls, however, cannot but suggest the chambers of imagery" mentioned by the prophet. See verse 12. The walls of their temples were in a similar way adorned with pictorial represen- tations of the animals and gods which they worshiped. In like manner were the temples of other ancient nations ornamented. In the temple of Belus were sculptured representations of men with two wings, and others with four ; some having two faces, others the legs and horns of goats, or the hoofs of horses. There were bulls also with the heads of men, and horses with the heads of dogs. It was doubtless similar monstrosities, and other figures too revolting for description, which Ezekiel saw. 567.— TAMMUZ. VIII, 14. He brought me to the door of the gate of the Lord^s house which was toward the north ; and, behold, there sat women weeping for Tammuz. Notwithstanding the numerous and ingenious conjectures of various critics, nothing is posiiively known concerning the origin and meaning of this word. The opinion commonly received by commentators is that Tammuz was the Syrian name of Adonis, under which title the Plienicians worshiped the sun. Adonis is the Phenician, or old Hebrew, for " Lord," or "ray Lord," and is the same in meaning as Baal. The worship of Adonis, which spread through many lands, was Phenician in origin, and was celebrated chiefly in Bj^blus, and in the temples of Aphrodite. According to the legend, Adonis was killed by a boar and afterward rose from the dead. This is supposed to re- present the sun's decline in winter and his returning strength in summer. 300 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. The ceremonies consisted in mourning over his death and searching for the idol which represented his body, after which there were festivities accom- panied with gross debaucher3^ Others, however, recognizing the S.rticle in the original making it the Tam- muz, have supposed the word to designate an idol set up for worship. An old Rabbinical commentator says that the image was made of metal, and was hollow. In the eye socket there was lead, which, on a fire being kindled within the hollow image, melted and ran down like tears. Another represents the Tammuz as a hollow image with holes through which water flowed. Those who adopt the idea that the image wept, whether from fire or water, render the text, " there sat women causing Tammuz to weep." Another ancient tradition makes Tammuz the name of an old idolatrous prophet, who was put to death by a king whom he endeavored to persuade to worship the stars. On the night of his death all the images gathered from the ends of the earth to the temple of Babel, wliere was the golden image of the sun. This image, suspended between heaven and eartli, fell down in tlie midst of the temple, and all the other images fell around it, and wept all night because of the death of the prophet. After this there was an annual mourning on account of his death. Whether Tammuz was a myth, an idol, or a man, the women spoken of in the text were undoubtedly engaged in some acts of idolatrous worship which are called " abominations." 568.— POSTURE IN WORSHIP. VIII, 16. Five and twenty men, witli their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their faces toward the east ; and they worshiped the sun toward the east. This shows their connection with the fire-worshipers. All nations who worshiped the sun prayed with their faces turned to the East. The oldest temples of the fire-worshipers were built in such a manner that the entrance was on the west side, so that the worshipers faced the East on entering. The temple of Jehovah was built with the entrance in the East and the Oracle in the West, so that the worshipers turned their backs on the place of the rising sun. The perverted priests mentioned in the text disrespectfully turned their backs on the Oracle, and faced the East like the fire- worshipers. 569. — TWIGS USED IN HEATHEN WORSHIP. VIII, 17. They put the branch to their nose. According to Strabo and others, when the fire-worshipers prayed before the sacred fire, they held in the left liand a little bunch of twigs called harsom^ and applied it to their mouth when uttering prayer. Hengstenberg Bays: '*The nose is derisively mentioned in place of the mouth, according to D CUSTOMS. 301 ppears so often in the. prophets ititious folly." — Commentary on custom of divhiiiig by rods. See X "H ro ^ :horn. ^ S ^ ^ clothed with linen, with a c? rn ♦ ^ j 3: >0 ito the girdle the case containing Q ^ ^ ^ )arts, a receptacle for the pens, O OD ^ ^Jid a box for the ^ ¥ ink. It is some- C X CO ^ 0 3> tini^s made of eb- ^5 X pB |j ony or some other m B it ^ .-^ liard wood, but gen- re erally of metal- ^ brass, copper, or P" H4 ^ silver — often high- ^ C ^ about nine or ten inches "^h^ ^ N Slid h^^lf an inch deep. The ^ a penknife, and has a lid. To g ^ soldered if of metal. This is a ^ ^ a Hd wliich moves on hinges, and ^ W ^ 3 heavy as the sliaft. The pro- rdle, wliile the shaft is concealed CD I cn • I NTSECRATION. n >o ^ O of the men that sigh ^ ^ s that be done in the midst HO O ^ [ ones for their protection when iwed that they belonged to God. In Egypt a runaway slave was 2. tn mple and gave himself up to the joil to denote his consecration to rk put on him for his protection, 3 life notwithstanding his wicked- ; have some sort of mark upon to their gods. Several passages of Revelation represent the saints as having a mark on their 19 3: X 300 BIBLE MAF The ceremonies consisted in m idol which represented his boc panied with gross debaucherj'-. Others, however, recognizing 1 muz, have supposed the word i old Rabbinical commentator sa;; hollow. In. the eye socket the: within the hollow image, melted the Tammuz as a hollow imaj Those who adopt the idea that render the text, " there sat wor Another ancient tradition m. prophet, who was put to death to worship the stars. On the from the ends of the earth to image of the sun. This image down in the midst of the tempi wept all night because of the ( an annual mourning on account "Whether Tammuz was a myt in the text were undoubtedly < which are called " abominations 568.— POS' VIII, 16. Five and twenty temple of the Lord, and th worshiped the sun towar This shows tlieir connection worshiped the sun prayed with temples of the fire-worshipers w was on the west side, so that 1 The temple of Jehovah was bii Oracle in the West, so that the of the rising sun. The perverte( turned their backs on the Oracle 569. — TWIGS USI VIII, 17. They put the bra According to Strabo and oth< the sacred fire, they held in th barsom, and applied it to their m ....^ says: '*The nose is derisively mentioned in place of the mouth, according to O BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 301 the leaning to irony and sarcasm, which appears so often in the. prophets wlien they oppose and chastise superstitious folly." — Commerdary on Eztkiel. Some think the reference here is to the custom of divining by rods. See note on Hosea iv, 12. 570.— THE INKHORN. IX, 2. One man anaong them was clothed with linen, with a writer's inkhorn by his side. It is still custoraarj' in the East to put into the girdle the case containing writmg implements. It consists of two parts, a receptacle for the pens, and a box for the ink. It is some- tim^^s made of eb- ony or some other liard wood, butgen- erallj^ of metal — silver — often high- ly polished and of exquisite workmanship. It is about nine or ten inches long, one and a half or two inches wide, and half an inch deep. The hollow shaft contains pens of reed and a jDenknife, and has a lid. To the upper end of this case the inkstand is soldered if of metal. This is a small box, square, round, or polygonal; lias a lid wliich moves on hinges, and fastens with a clasp. It is usually, twice as heavy as the shaft. The pro- jection of the inkstand is seen outside the girdle, wliile tlie shafc is concealed by its folds, 571.— MARKS OF CONSECRATION. IX, 4. Set a mark upon the foreheads of the men that sigh and that cry for all the abominations that be done in the midst thereof. This mark was to be put on these faithful ones for their protection when the faithless were to be destroyed. It showed that they belonged to God. The allusion is to a very ancient custom. In Egypt a runaway slave was freed from his master if he went to the temple and gave himself up to the god, receiving certain marks upon his person to denote his consecration to the deity there worshiped. Cain had a mark put on him for his protection, as an evidence of God's promise to spare his hfe notwithstanding his wicked- ness. Gen. iv, 15. To this day all Hindiis have some sort of mark upon their forehead signifying their consecration to their gods. Several passages u the book of Revelation represent the saints as having a mark on their 19 802 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel foreheads. See Rev. vii, 3; ix, 4 xiv, 1; xxii, 4. The followers of the "beast" are also said to be marked in tiie forehead or in the hands. See Rev. xiii, 16, 17 ; xiv, 9 ; xx, 4. The Romans marked their soldiers in tlie hand and their slaves in the forehead. The woman in scarlet, whom John saw, had a name written on her forehead. Rev. xvii, 5. See also note on Gal. vi, 17. 572.— UNSTABLE WALLS. XIII, 10. One built \xp a wall, and, lo, others daubed it with untennpered nnortar. See also Ezek. xxii, 28. Kitto is of the opinion that reference is here made to "cob-walls; " that is, w^alls which are made of beaten earth rammed into molds or boxes, to give shape and consistence, and then emptied from the molds, layer by layer, on the wall, where it dries as the work goes on. Such walls cannot stand the effects of the weather, and houses built on this principle soon crumble and decay. See note on Job xv, 28. To protect them from the weather a very fine mortar is sometimes made, which is laid thickly on the outside of the walls. When this mortar is properly mixed with lime it answers tiie purpose designed ; but where the lime is left out, as is often the case, the *' untempered. mortar " is no protection. For mode of making mortar, see note on Lev. xiv, 42. Some commentators, however, translate taphel, which in our version is rendered " untempered mortar," by the word ''whitewash." They represent the idea of the text to be the figure of a wall of unendurable material, and coated, not with cement which might protect it, but with a mere thin covering of lime, which gives the wall a finished durable appearance, wliich its real cliaracter does not warrant. Thus Paul calls the liigh priest, ''thou whited wall." Acts xxiii, 3. See note on " whited sepulchers," un- der Matt, xxiii, 27. 5T3.— PILLOWS— KERCHIEFS. XIII, 18. Woe to the women that sew pillows to all arnnholes, and make kervihiefs upon the head of every stature to hunt eouls. It is not by any means certain that tiie customs alluded to in this text can, at this late day, be explained. 1. The pillows sewed to the armholes, or to the " elbows," as the margin has it, are usually supposed to mean the soft cushions which are placed on Oriental divans. Among the poorer classes the skins of sheep or of goats were formerly used for pillows, being stuffed with chaff or wool for this pur- pose. The pillows of the wealthy were, of course, more luxurious in style and in finish. They were stuffed with some soff; substance, and covered with E23M31.] BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 303 rich and costly materials. Tliese, placed on the bed on the divan, (see notes on 2 Kings i, 4, and on Amos iii, 12,) made a luxurious resting-place for the arms. Other interpretations, however, have been given of the passage. Instead of "armlioles" or "elbows" some authorities have, as a more literal interpreta tion," joints of the hands." See G-esenius, Lexicon^ and Fairbairn, Commen- t 'ry. Others render atstsile y a dai, "joints of m?/ hands." See Hengstenberg and AVordsworth, and the autliorities cited by the latter. These commen- tators suppose the meaning to be that, v^hen God stretched forth his hands to punish sin, the false prophets covered them by their heterodox teaching, so that his hands would not seem to be able to grasp the rebellious offenders. It has also been suggested by an old writer that the false prophetesses referred to in the text practiced divination, and that the pillows were amu- lets, which v ere fitted to their sleeves to aid them in their work. We have not been able, however, to find any evidence of the existence of such a cus- tom. Yerse 20 of this chapter seems to intimate that the pillows were not merely made for the arms, but fastened io the arms : " I will tear them from your arras." We have no evidence, however, that it refers to divination. 2. MispacJioth, "kerchiefs," has been variousl}'" rendered "cushions," "quilts," "coverings for the head," and "long, flowing robes or mantles." The word is generally thought to signify large and costly coverings for the head. Some suppose these to have been designed to add to the luxury and attractiveness of the wicked prophetesses who wore them. Kitto connects the practice with tiie worship of Astarte. in whose figures there is. always something remarkable about the head-dress. Others, however, who suppose the pillows to have been cushions covering the hand of Jehovah, as alreadj'' noted, place these head-dresses on the heads of the ungodly people who merit Divine retribution, and regard the figure as further carrying out the idea that the wicked prophetesses endeavored to neutralize the blow of Jehovah's judgment, not only b}' covering his hands, but also by covering tiie heads of the guilty. Another interpretation, however, makes these mispacJioth similar to the mitpachoth of Isa. iii, 22, " wimples " in our version. See the note on that text. Dr. Alexander, editor of Kittd's Cyclopedia, calls attention to the affinity between the two words, and also notices tlie fact that, in verse 21, the mispacJioth are shown to be articles that can be torn. He therefore adopts the opinion of Kimchi, who says that the mispacJioth were long loose robes such as the goddesses are represented as wearing, and in which the women referred to in the text wrapped themselves from head to foot. For " ker- chiefs upon the head of every stature," Dr. Alexander would read, "robes of every length on the head ; " that is, these luxurious women made use of elegant and well-fitiing robes. 304 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. 574.— BABES SALTED. XVI, 4. Thou, wast not salted at all. In ancient times new-born babes were rubbed with salt in order to harden their skin, as this operation was supposed to make it dry, tight, and firm. Giden mentions the practice, and it is also referred to by Jerome in his com- mentary on this passage. The salt may also have been applied as an emblem of purity and incorruption. 575. — PITFALLS. XIX, 4. Ttie nations also heard, of him, he was taken in their pit. There is thought to be an allusion here to the custom of assembling for the capture of a lion or other wild beast when the news of its depredations goes forth. All who hear of it are expected to aid in the capture. The special mode of capture referred to in this text is by means of the pitfall. A hole is dug in the ground, and covered over with the branches of trees and with sod. The animal treading on this slight covering is pre- cipitated into the pit, where it is either taken out alive or killed by the hunters on their arrival. Figurative allusion is made to the pitfall in Psa. vii, 15; ix, 15 j XXXV, 7; xciv, 13; Prov. xxvi, 27; Isa. xxxviii, 17. 576. — SCEPTERS. XIX, 11. She had strong rods for the scepters of them that bare rule. Scepters were originally nothing but simple rods cut from the branches of trees, and more or less ornamented. They were in later times more elabo- rately made, and sometimes, instead of wood, the material was go^ld. Esther V, 2. The opinion that the scepter originated v^ith the shepherd's staff, be- cause tlie first kings were mostly nomad princes, though entertained by some eminent authorities, is rejected by others equally eminent. The scep- ter of the ancient Egyptian kings is said, by Diodorus Siculus, to have re- sembled, not a shepherd's crook, but a plow. The scepter may have been originally used by kings and leaders simply because it was the most natural support and weapon ; while subsequent c'rcumstances changed its form and significance. 577.— SMITING THE HANDS. XXI, 14. Thou, therefore, son of man, prophesy, and smite thine hands together. Several different emotions seem to have been represented at different times by Ihe action of smiting the hands, all of which we group in one note. Ez3kiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. S05 1. It was sometimes a sign of contempt. Of the wicked rich man Jcb says, Men shall clap tiieir hands at him, and shall hiss him out of his place." Job xxvii, 23. Jeremiah represents Jerusalem as so desolate that all the passers-by clap their hands at her. See Lam. ii, 15. 2. It was sometimes a sign of anger. When Balaam blessed Israel, in- stead of cursing them, "Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he smote his hands together." Num. xxiv, 10. So wlien the Lord beheld the wickedness of the house of Israel, the representation of his kindled wrath is expressed in these words: "Behold, therefore I have smitten mine hand at thy dishonest gain which thou hast made, and at thy blood which hath been in the midst of thee." Ezek. xxii, 13. 3. It was sometimes a sign of sorrow. In sorrow, for the idolatry of Israel, the Lord commanded Ezekiel to smite with his liand. See Ezek. vi, 11. 4. It was sometimes a sign of triumph. In this manner the Ammonites rejoiced over fallen Israel. God says, "Thou hast clapped thine hands, and stamped with the feet, and rejoiced in heart with all thy despite against the land of Israel." Ezek. xxv, 6. It is to be noticed that in this text, and in the one last quoted, clapping the hand is connected with stamping the foot. 5. It was sometimes the sign of a pledge or an oath. The hand was used for this purpose by uplifting. See note on Gen. xiv, 22. A similar purpose was accomplished by two persons striking hands. See note on Prov. xi, 21. In addition to this, the striking of one hand upon another belonging to the same man was also considered as a pledge of earnestness and of truth Thus Ezekiel is told in the text to smite his hands together, and in verse 17 the Lord promises to smite his hands together. In both instances there is a pledge to the performance of what is stated. Smiting the hands together has the signification of an oath in some parts of the East to this day. 57§.-^THREE MODES OF DIVINATION. XXI, 21. For the king of Babylon stood at the parting of the way, at the head of the two ways, to use divination : he made his arrows bright, he eonsulted with inaages, he looked in the liver. Three modes of divination are here mentioned as having been practiced by the king of Babylon when he came to the junction of two ways and waa unable to decide which to take. 1. Belomancy, or divination by arrows. Kilkal bachitsim, " he made his arrows bright," is literally, "he shook the arrows," alluding to the mode of using the arrows for the purpose of divination. According to J^rorae, iu th^ BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel case referred to in the text, each arrow to be used bad on it the name of some town to be attacked. The arrows so marked were put into a quiver and shaken together, after which they were drawn one by one. The cities were to be attacked in (he order in which the arrows were drawn. As " Jeru- salem " was on the arrow first drawn, thither the king proceeded. Another old writer says that the arrows were thrown up to see which way they would fall, and in this manner tlie course to be taken was indicated. Some of the sculpUired slabs at Nimroud are supposed to represent divi- nation of this sort, the king being seen with arrows in his hand. This superstition was much practiced by the Arabs, notwithstanding it is proliibited in the Koran: "It is likewise unlawful for you to make division by casting lots with arrows. This is an impiety." — Koran^ chap, v, (Sale's translation. See also Mr. Sale's Preliminary Discourse, § 5.) The Arabs wercj in the habit of consulting their arrows before any thing of importance was undertaken. These arrows were parti-colored, were with- out heads or feathers, and were kept in some sacred plnce. Seven of them were kept in the temple at Mecca. In divination the Arabs generally used but three, though sometimes they used four. On one of the arrows was written, in Arabic, " My Lord hath bidden me ; " on the second, " My Lord hath forbidden me; " the third was blank. If the first was drawn, the pro- posed enterprise was carried out ; if tlie second was drawn, the project was abandoned; if the third was brought out, the arrows had to be again mixed and drawn until a decided answer was obtained. 2. Consultation of the tempMm, " He consulted with images." The Hebrew word is ieropJmn. Fairbairn says: "This is the only place where the use of teraphim is expressly ascribed to a heathen, though in 1 Sam. XV, 23, it is stigmatized as of an essentially heathen and, consequently, ob- noxious character : ' Stubbornness is as iniquity and teraphim.' " — Commentary in loco. The Hebrews were very much addicted to this form of divina- tion. See note on Gen. xxxi, 19. 3. Hepaioscopy, or inspection of the liver. This is a branch of splanchno- mancy, or divination by inspection of the viscera, and is often referred to by classic writers. It is said that among the Lusitani the livers were obtained, not only from animals offered in 'sacrifice, but also from prisoners taken in war! The Orientals considered the liver to be the most valuable of the viscera because they thought it most concerned in the formation of the blood, and they believed that in the blood is the life. The ancient Jews, Greeks, and Romans, and some otiier nations, supposed the liver to be the seat of the passions. In like manner the Arabs of the present day regard the liver as the seat of courage ; and among the Malay peoples the liver is considered the geat of all moral impressions and feelings. One names another caressingly, Ezekiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 807 " M}^ liver! " ''M}^ liver is sick" is, in other words, "1 am ang-iy." "My iiver is anxious," "my liver wislies," is absolutely equivalent, in other words, to " my heart," "my soul'' — See Delttzscii's System of Biblical Psychology^ p. 316. This widely-diffused idea of antiquity, traces of which are still to be found, may account for the fact that the liver was considered the most important of the viscera for divining: purposes. The lower part of the liver was the portion which was used in divination, and tliere were certain signs which were considered to be of good or bad omen. If the liver was of good size, sound, and without spot or blemish, prosperity and success were expected. If it was too dry, and had blisters, pustules, or any corrupt humors ; if it was parched, thin, hard, or of an ugly black color, disappointment and adverse fate were looked for. This revolting mode of divination was practiced not only by the Baby- lonians, as indicated in the text, but by the Greeks and Romans also. There is no evidence, however, of its existence among the Jews. 5"y9.— ASSYRIAN GARMENTS. XXIII, 12. She doted upon the Assyrians her neighbors, cap- tains and rulers clothed most gorgeously, horsemen riding upon horses, all of them desirable young men. The Assyrians were famous for their rich and costly apparel. The ex- pression "Assyrian garments" be- came synonymous with elegant and expensive clothing. Bonomi says: " The robes of the Assyrians were generally ample and flowing, but differed in form from those of the Egyptians and the Persians. They consisted of tunics or robes varying in length, in mantles of diverse shapes, of long-fringed scarfs, and of embroidered girdles. Ornaments were scattered with profusion over these dresses, some of which appear to have been emblematic of cer- tain dignities or employments." — Nineveh and its Palaces, p. 43 1 . The figures sculptured on the Assyrian marbles attest to the truth- fulness of the description given in the text. Bonomi gives an interest- ing extract from Mr. Smirk's re- 124.— Assykian Fiiim:;: ) s. 808 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. view of the Assyrian sculptures, wliicli may serve to illustrate tlie subject: "The apparel of tlie Assyrians appears by these sculptures to have been almost always richly fring-ed, with wide borders ornamented with figures of men, animals, and foliage. The caparison of their horses is most gorgeous; every strap of their head and body-housings is enriched; to the chariot* horses is usually seen attached, apparently either to the extremity of the pole or to the trappings of tlie neck,, and to the front of t]>e chariot itself, a long fish-shaped piece of drapery fringed and embroidered. Layard is at a loss to designate this object. Perhaps Hhe precious clothes for chnriots.' alluded to by Ezekiel (see Ezek. xxvii, 20) as being obtained by the people of Tyre from Dedan, may have reference to this singular piece of horse- furniture." — Nineveh and its Palaces, p. 43 580.— MURAL SCULPTURES. XXIII, 14. She saw raen portrayed lapon the wall, the images of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion. Here is a manifest reference to those wonderful mural sculptures which, after being buried for centuries amid the ruins of the palaces and temples whose walls they once adorned, have been brought to light by the per- severance and skill of modern explorers. It is not at all improbable that Ezekiel himself once saw the very marbles that the eyes of this generation are pernntted to behold. The Assyrian and Chaldean sculptures were colored. Traces of red, blue, and black still remain on the beard and hair, and on some of the head-coverings. The Assyrian red was more brilliant than the Egyptian. It is almost vermilion in the sculptures of Khorsabad, and a brilliant crimson or lake-tint in those of Nimroud. Bonomi and some others suppose that there were originally other colors used on the sculptures, but that, being- more destructible than those which remain, they have disappeared in the laps^ of time. There is no positive evidence of this, though it is higlily probable. 581.— MUTILATIONS. XXIII, 25. I will set my jealousy against thee, and they shall deal furiously with thee : they shall take away thy nose and thine ears. These mutilations were common among the Chaldeans and Persians. Among the former adulterers were punished in this manner, w^hich f\\ct is doubtless the basis of the reference in the text. 582.— WEAPONS BURIED. XXXII, 27. Which are gone down to hell with their weapons of war : and they have laid their swords under their heads. This 13 an allusion to an ancient custom of burying the weapons of war with the warrior. Chardin says that " in Mingrelia they all sleep with their Ez3jdel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 309 swords under their beads and their other arms by tlieir sides; and they bury them in the same manner, their arms being placed in the same posi- tion." — Harmer's Observations^ vol. iii, p. 55. 583._WRITING ON RODS. XXXVII, 20. The sticks whereon thou writest shall be in thine hand before their eyes. We find tlie practice of writing on rods alluded to as early as the time of Moses. See Num. xvii, 2. A similar practice was known among the Greeks. The laws of Solon, which were preserved at Athens, were written on billets of wood called axones. These were of a square or pyramidal form, and made to turn on an axis. The northern naions and the ancient Britons also wrote on sticks. Some of these were square and some three sided, and each side contained one line. These sticks were sometimes set in a frame- work which was called PeitJnjnen, or the Elucidator. At one end of each stick was a knob projecting beyond the frame. By means of these knobs the sticks could be turned and the successive lines read. "Stick almanacs" were used in England almost to the fourteenth century. Some were large, and hung up on one side of tiie mantel-piece ; while others were small enough to be carried in the pocket. 584. — THE BATH. XLY, to. Ye shall have just balances, and a just ephah, and a just bath. The bath was a measure of liquids, such as wine and oil, and was of the same capacity as the ephah in dry measure. See note on I^^xod. xvi, 36. It is supposed to have contained nearly nine gallons. It is referred to also in Isa. V, 10. The " measures " mentioned in Luke xvi, 6, are baths. See also note on John ii, 6. 585. — THE MANEH. XLV, 12. Twenty shekels, five-and-twenty shekels, fifteen shekels, shall be your maneh. Maneh is supposed by some to be the origin of the Latin moneia and the English money; though others give to the word a different etymology. It was the standard pound among Hebrew weights, and tlie word is rendered "pound" in several passages. See 1 Kings x, U ; Ezra ii, 69; Neh. vii, 71, 72. In this text it is untranslated. The word often occurs on the Assvr- ian inscriptions also. The ordinary maneh in use among the Hebrews is supposed to have weighed a hundred shekels, or about one pound fourteen ounces avoirdupois. 310 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. In this text, however, another maneh seems to be mentioned. The pas- sage is confessed!}^ obscure, and various interpretations have been given of it. Some think that three distinct manehs are referred to : one of twenty, one of twenty-five, and one of fifteen shekels. Hengstenberg suggests tliat the maneh was of foreign origin, and that tlie three different vahies here attached are the estimates put upon it in the different C( untries where it was used. Others suppose that the text refers to but a single mnneli of sixty shekels divided into three parts, 20+25+15. Chardin found this a customary mode of reckoning in the East; and tliough it seems strange to us, yet if tlie cus- tom was practiced in Ezekiel's time, it was but natural that the maneh should be described in this way. 586.— THE COR. XLV, 14. Th.e Cor, which is a homer of ten baths. Tlie cor, or homer, was used for eitlier dry or liquid measure. The liquid cor is supposed to have contained seventy-five gallons. The dry cor is sup- posed to have contained eight bushels and a pint. It is mentioned in 1 Kings iv, 22, and Luke xvi, t, in both of which places it is rendered " measures." DANIEL. 5§T.-^TEMPLE TREASURES. 1, 2. He brought the vessels into the treasure-house of his God. It is customar}^ in every heathen temple to have a particular place for Ktoring the sacred jewels and other valuables wliich are supposed to be the special property of the idol there worshiped. Nebuchadnezzar having brought from Jerusalem, as trophies of war, the sacred vessels of the temple, placed them in the temple of Bel us at Babylon side by side witli the costly orna- ments and utensils which were appropriated to idolatrous worship. There were also in the temple at Jerusalem rooms specially set apart for the reception of tithes, and for the storing of valuable articles belonging to the gacred edifice. See 1 Chron. ix, 26 ; 2 Chron. xxxi, 11 ; Neh. x, 38. 5§§.'-BABYLONIAN MODE OF LIVING. I, 5. The king appointed thenn a daily provision of the king's meat, and of the wine whioh he drank. This would liave been a very luxurious mode of living for these Hebrew lads, quite in contrast to what they had been accustomed to, and to the Daniel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 311 extremel}^ plain diet which Daniel requested for himself and his companions. The Babylonian kings and nobles were noted for their high living. Their ta- bles were loaded with wheaten bread, meats in great variety, luscious fruit?, fish, and game. Tiie usual beverage was wine of the best varieties, and they were fond of drinking to excess. The ancient Persian kings followed the custom of the Babylonian monarch, and fed tlieir attendants from their own tables. 5§9.— PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. II, 5. Ye shall be cut in pieces, and. your houses shall be made a dunghill. See also chap, iil, 29. 1. Cutting into pieces was a punishment common to many ancient nations. It was known to the Hebrews, and was inflicted by Samuel upon Agag. See 1 Sam. xv, 33. Some think that dichotomy, or sawing asunder, is the punishmert here referred to. See note on Heb. xi, 37. 2. According to Babylonian customs the house in which the criminal lived was sometimes destroyed, and the very land on which his dwelling stood considered cursed forever. Tlie custom was also known among the Persians. See the decree of Darius in Ezra vi, 11. It was likewise practiced ac Athens. There were many spots in the midst of that populous city which were kept perpetually vacant by reason of a decree similar to that referred to in the text. 590— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Ill, 5. The sound of the cornet, flute, harp, saekbut, psaltery, dulelmer. See verses 7, 10, and 15. 1. Keren, "cornet," is described in the note on 1 Chron. xxv, 5. 2. Mashrokitha^ "flute," was an instrument supposed by some to have been like the chalil, "pipe." See note on 1 Kings i, 40, Others think it con- sisted of a number of pipes similar to the ugab^ " organ." See note on Psa. cl, 4. 3. Kathros^ " harp," is thought by Rawlinson to Repre- sent the Babylonian harp, which, he says, " would seem to have resembled the later harp of the Assyrians, but it had fewer strings, if we may judge from a representation upon a cylinder. Like the Assyrian, it was carried tuidei- one arm and was played by both iiands, one on (niher side of the strings."— i^^Ve Ancient Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 20. It is thought by some to have less resembled the hai-p tl an the cithern or cittern, which was an instrument of Greek origin, and in use among the Chaldeans. It was of the guitar species, and is still used in many eastern countries. It has strings varying in number from three to tweiity.four. 312 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Daniel, 4. Sdbheca, ''sackbiit," is thought to have resembled the samluca the Romans. Rawh'nson supposes it to liave been a large harp, resting on the ground like the harps of the Egyptians. Wright (in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible) states that the samhuca was triangular in shape, having four or more strings ; it was playei by the fingers, and gave forth a shrill sound. 5. Pesanterin, "psalterj^," was a species of harp, thought to be the same as the nebel See note on Psa. xxxiii, 2. Rawlinson suggests that it may have resembled the modern santour, and if so, he supposes that he has found a representation of it on an As- syrian monument. It was a sort of dulcimer, which was sus- pended from the neck of the musician, and projected horizon- tally from his waist. It con- sisted (apparently) of a number of strings, containing not fewer than ten, stretched over a hollow case or sounding-board. The musician seems to have struck the strings with a small bar or hammer held in his right hand, while, at the same time, he made some use of his left hand in pressing them so as to produce the right note." — Five Ancient Monarcliies, vol. i, pp. 537, 538. 6. Sumponyah^ " dulcimer," is variously thought to have been a lute, a crooked trumpet, a long drum, an organ, and a bagpipe. Gesenius, and others with him, suppose the last-named instru- ment to be meant. The bagpipe is, at the present day, called in Italy sampogna, and in Asia Minor sambony. It may be noted, as a cui-ious illustration of the wide difiference of opinion in respect to many of the ancient musical instruments, that some authorities consider the bagpipe to be intended by the word tigah. See note on Psa. cl, 4. The monuments amplj?- testify to the fondness of the Babylonians for music. They had numerous instruments, and organized large bands. Anna- rus, a BaVjylonian noble, entertained his guests at a banquet with music, vo- cal and instrumental, performed by a band of one hundred and fifty women. 126. — Musician I Daniel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 313 591.— HOUR— BURNING ALIVE. Ill, 6. And whoso falleth not down and worshipeth shall the same hour be east into the midst of a burning fiery furnace. 1. This is the first indication we have in sacred history of so short a divis- ion of time as an hour. Shaah, hour," is supposed to be a vague expres- sion for a short time, whose duration is not distinctly defined, rather than for the definite time which we understand by the word hour. Indeed, we ourselves use the word occasionally in an indefinite sense. The word is, however, worthy of notice here, because it is claimed that the Babylonians were the first to make a regular division of the day into hours. The Greeks learned it from them, (see Herodotus, ii, 109;) and probably the Jews did the same, since there is no alkision to hours among them before the time of tlie captivity, while afterward the use of this division of time is frequently noticed. See further note on John xi, 9. 2. Burning alive was a very ancient punishment among the Babylonians, and possibly among other nations. Jeremiah mentions two false prophets who were to be put to death in this manner. See Jer. xxix, 22. The cus- tom has come down to modern times in Persia. Chardin says that, in 1668, he saw ovens in Ispahan heated by royal command to terrify certain bakers who were disposed to put a heavy charge on their bread in time of scarcity. He speaks of the punishment of burning as recognized at that time, refractory cooks being spitted and roasted, and bakers thrown into an oven. It is sup- posed by some that there is a reference to burning as a capital punishment in Psa. xxi, 9: "Thou shalt make them as a fiery oven in the time of thine anger: the Lord shall swallow them up in his wrath, and the tire shall de- vour them." 592.— "MIGHTY MEN." Ill, 20. He commanded the most mighty men that were in his army to bind Shadraeh, Meshaeh, and Abed-nego, and to east them into the burning fiery furnace. On the monuments discovered at Khorsabad there are representations of gigantic and muscular men, like the " mighty men " of the text, who seem to have been always in attendance on the king, waiting to execute his orders. Such men were selected from the army on account of their size and strength, just as it is customary in the present day in Europe, as well as in the East, to select men of unusual stature as porters or guards in the palaces of kings. The monuments represent these men as clad in a peculiar costume, beautiful in style, and rich in ornament. It was probably men of this description who, at the king's command, took the unfortunate captives and tossed them into the fiery furnace. 3U BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Daniel. 593.— VARIOUS GARMENTS. Ill, 21. Then these men were bound in their coats, their hosen, and their hats, and their other garments. It is not easy to tell the precise articles of costume intended by the original words which our translators have rendered as above, though the improved sources of exposition in our day add to the knowledge which they possessed. Bevan, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. i, p. 457, renders as follows : 1. Sarbalin, "coats," (marg., "mantles,") were drawers, which made the distinctive feature in the Persian as compared with the Hebrew dress. 2. PatisJi, " hosen," was an inner tunic. 3. Carbala, "hat," {marg., "turban,") was an upper tunic. 4. Lebush, "garments," was a cloak which was worn over all. 594.— THE USE OF METAL. V, 4. The gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron. The working of metal into various artic'es of ornament or of use is an art as old as tiie days of Tubal-Cain. See Gen iv, 22. The different nietals re- ferred to in this text are frequently spoken of in the Bible. There is no question as to their identity, except in the case of nechash, which is the Chaldee form nedioslieth^ and in the text is rendered "brass." The facti- tious metal known by this name, and which is compounded of copper and zinc, is said to be of a later date than the early historic times of the Bible. It certainly cannot be intended by the word nechosheth in such passages as Deut. viii, 9, and Job xxviii, 2. Copper is probably tlie metal there referred to as being dug out of the earth. The same word is rendered "steel" in 2 Sam. xxii, 35; Job xx, 24; Psa. xviii, 34, and Jer. xv, 12. Inasmuch as copper is better worked when alloyed, and as tin was known at a very early day, (see Num. xxxi, 22,) it is supposed that a combination of these two metals — that is, bronze — was used in the manufacture of different articles. Tools, utensils, and ornaments of bronze are found among the Egyptian and Assyrian remains. The vessels of the Tabernacle, which are represented in our version as made of "brass," (nechosheth,) were probably either copper or bronze. See Exod. xxxviii, 2-6, 8. 595.— PRAYER. VI, 10. His windows being open in his chamber toward Jeru- salem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did aforetime. 1. For the position of this chamber, see note on 2 Kings iv, 10. 2. He did not look toward the sun, as the fire-worsliipers did, (see note ran- el-] BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 315 on Ezek. viii, 16.) but toward Jerusalem, where the temple of Jeliovah stood, and where the sacred Presence was in the Oracle. This seems to have been a custom among the Jews when they were away from the Holy City. Pee 1 Kings viii, 44,48; 2 Cliron. vi, 34; Psa. v, 7; xxviii, 2; cxxxviii, 2; Jonah ii, 4. See also rote on Matt, iv, 23. 3. There was no legal prescription in the Jewish ritual of any hours for seasons of prayer. The hours of morning and evening sacrifice would naturally be suggested to the mind of a pious Jew as suitable times for prayer. To this might easily be added a time midway. This appears to have been the case with David, who says: " Evening, and morning, and at noon, will I pra}^, and cry aloud: and he shall hear my voice.'' Psa. Iv, 17. The order in which these three seasons of prayer are named by the psalmist seems to indicate the origin of the custom as just suggested. In tlie text Daniel is said to have prayed " three times a day." From Dan. ix, 21, it appears that one of these seasons of prayer was at the time of evening sacrifice ; the two others were probably the same as those mentioned by David. In later limes the precise hour is more clearly indicated. Compare Acts ii, 15 ; x, 9 ; ii, 1. 596.— COURT ETIQUETTE— IRREVERSIBLE EDICTS. YI, 15. Know, O king, that the law of the Medes and Persians is. That no decree nor statute which the king establisheth may- be changed. See also verses 8 and 12. 1. Lowth (W.) calls attention to an illustration of court etiquette con- tained in this text as compared with Esther i, 19. Here the expression *' Medes and Persians " is used, the Medes being named first because Darius was a Mede. In the other instance, in the book of Esther, the expression is "Persians and Medes,"' lersians being named first out of compliment to Ahasuerus, who was a Persian. 2. The strict etiquette of the Persian court obliged the king never to re- voke an order once given, however much he might regret it, because in so doing he would contradict himself, and, according to Persian notions, the law could not contradict itself. A curious instance of the unchangeable character of the Medo-Persian law is here seen in the fact tiiat, after Ahasuerus had issued the order directing the cruel slaughter of the Jews, (Esther iii, 13.) lie would not reverse it, even at the urgent request of his queen, (Esther viii, 5;) but h3 issued another edict in which he gran ed the Jews permis- sion "to gather themselves together, and to stand for their life." Esther viii, 11. Thus the first irreversible edict was completely neutralized by another just as irreversible as itself ; and the king continued to act his part as a character but little short of divinity: infallible, immutable, and wholly free from the weakness of repentance I 316 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Hosea. ROSEA. 597.— DIVINATION BY RODS. IV, 12. My people ask counsel at their stocks, and tlieir staff declareth. unto them. Some commentators suppose that two distinct classes of divination are liere referred to, represented by tlie words *' stocks " and " staff." If this be so, the former would probably allude to the consultation of teraphim. See note on Gen. xxxi, 19. If but one mode of divination be intended, it is more definitely indicated by the latter word "staff," and doubtless refers to rliabdon^ancy, or divination by rods. According to Cyril of Alexandria, this custom had its origin among the Chaldeans. It was also practiced by the Scythians, Persians, Assyrians, and Arabians. In more recent times it has been found among the Chinese, the Africans, and the New Zealanders. Henderson, in his Commentary on Rosea, suggests that the Runic wands of the Scandinavian nations, on which were inscribed mysterious characters, and which were used for magical purposes, originated in tiiis custom. Traces of it may also be found in England and in America in the occa- sional use of v/illow rods for discovering hidden treasure, or for finding mines of gold or silver, or wells of petroleum. There were various methods of using the rods in divination, the mode differing in different countries. Herodotus states that, among the Scythians, the soothsayer brought a large bundle of rods and laid it on the ground. Then, while muttering over his prophecy, he untied the bnndle and placed each wnnd in a position by itself, after which he gathered the rods togetlier and tied them up again into a bundle. A divine power was supposed to rest in the rods, and to communicate wisdom to the magician. TJie Scyth- ians used willow sticks, tiie Persian Magi used tamarisk, and carried the magical bundle with them on all occasions of ceremon3^ The rods were of different length, and varied in number, three, five, seven, or nine, an odd number m ever}^ instance. Another mode of using the rods was for the magician to hold one of them in his hand while asking his questions, and then to stoop toward the ground as if to get an answer from some invisible source. This answer was always inaudible, and was supposed to be made known to the magician in spirit. Sometimes he leaned on the staff wliile making his consultations. At other times the person consulting measured the rod by spans, or by the length of his finger, saying as he measured, "I will go," or *'! will not go;" or else, "I will do," or ''I will not do; " varying tlie pl^rase to suit the circumstances. In tlie way that the last span indicated, so he decided. fiooea.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 317 Some used this metliod of divinatiou by taking a rod which was peeled on one side and throwing it at a distance. As tlie one or the other side fell uppermost, so the decision was made. In the Abbott Collection of Egyptian Antiquities are seven pieces of wood, which were found in a tomb at Sak- karah. Each stick is peeled in tlie manner above stated. Mr. Abbott sup- posed tliem to have been used by children in some ancient game, similar to one now played by the young Egyptians. The sticks are tossed in the air, jind according to the way in which they fall the game is won or lost. These ancient slicks may, however, have been used for divination, and the modern game may thus have had its origin. Lane describes a game very common among the lower classes of Egyptians in which sticks are thrown, one side white and the other black. The game is called " tab." — See Mod&t-n Egyp- tians, vol. ii, pp. 59, 63. 59§.— SNARES FOR BIRDS. VII, 12. When they shall go, I will spread my net upon them ; I will bring them down as the fowls of the heaven. Eesheth, " net," in this passage refers evidently to a net which was used to catch birds in the air. How it differed from other nets we are unable to say, and in what manner it was employed we can onty surmise. From the way in which the word is used in Ezek. xii, 13; xvii, 20; xix, 8; xxxii, 3, the resheth is supposed to have been used to throw over animals walking on the earth, as well as to catch the inhabitants of the air. Jennings (in KiTTO"'s Cyclopedia, article '•'Fowling intimates that the only use of this net was that represented in the texts quoted; but from other passages it is clear that the reslieth was used also as a snare for the feet. See Job xviii, 8; Psa. ix, 15 ; xxxi, 4 ; Ivii, 6 ; cxl, 5. For other modes of snaring birds, see note on Psa. xci, 3. 599.— TFIE YOKE. XI, 4. I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love : and I was to them as they that take off the yoke on their jaws, and I laid meat unto them. This is an agricultural simile, and refers to the custom of raising the yoke from the ueek and cheeks of the oxen so that they can more readily eat their food. Henderson says: The ol, yoke, not only included the piece of wood on the neck by which the animal was fastened to the pole, but also tho whole of the harness about the head which was connected with it The yokes used in the East are very heavy, and press so muck upon the animals that they are unable to bend their necks." — Commentary in loco. Compare this statement with what Jesus says about his j'oke in Matthew 3d, 2^-30. 20 318 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Hos3a. 000.— THE CHIMNEY. XIII, 8. As the smoke oixt of the ehimney. This rendering conveys a wrong impression, since chimneys are compar- atively a modern invention, and were entirely unknown to the Hebrews. In an Oriental dwelling the openings wliich let in the light are the same that kt out the smoke: tliough it is said that in some houses there are, in addi- tion to the lattice windows, holes near the ceiling spec'ally designed for the escape of smoke. The fire being made on the hearth " in the middle of the floor, (see the note on Jer. xxxvi, 22,) the smoke makes its way upward through the room and gets out through such apertures as it can find, usually the windows. Arubhah^ here rendered " chimney," is in other places translated ^' window." It would be much more correct to read this text, " as the smoke out of the window," remembering meanwhile that the window is different from the kind we are accustomed to see. See note on Judges v, 28. AMOS. 601.— WORTHLESSNESS. II, 6. They sold, the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of shoes. See also chap, vlii, 6. Naol may be rendered either " shoe " or ^'sandal." From the form of ex- pression here used the meanest, cheapest kind of sandal is evidently meart* the poor debtor was sold into slavery because he could not pay for so small a matter as a pair of sandals. A similar mode of speech is noticed in India at the present day. "When a person wishes to insult another in reference to tlie price of any article he says, ' I will give you ruy sandals for it.' 'That fellow is not worth the value of my sandals.'" — Roberts, Oriental lllustratiom, p. 504. See further note on Matt, iii, 11 ; and for a description of sandals, see note on Acts xii, 8. 602.— IDOLATROUS CUSTOMS. II, 8. They lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge by every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned in the house of their god. Henderson's translation gives tiie sense of the passage more clearly than the authorized version. He renders it: "They stretch themselves upon pledged garments close to every altar, and drink the wine of the Amos.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 319 amerced in the house of their gods." The text refers to tlie unjust habits aud to the idolatrous practices of the backsUddea Israelites, especially of those .n authority. They took money which they had exacted by the imposition of fines, which were in all probability fixed at an amount higher than justice demanded, and with it purchased wine, which is therefore called " the wine of the amerced." This wine they drank in heathen temples. In addition to this they took from the poor as a pledge for debts tlieir outer garments, which were their covering through the night as well as during the day. Instead of returning these at sun-down, as the law required, (Deut. xxiv, 12 ; see also the note on that text,) they kept them all night, and stretched thf m- selves upon them in the heathen temples. This stretching may refer either to the reclining at the idolatrous feasts, or to the custom, sometimes practiced among the heathen, of sleeping near the altars of their gods, that they might obtain communications in dreams. Keil translates the verse : *' And they stretch themselves upon pawned clothes by every altar, and they drink the wine of the punished in the house of their God." He does not believe that the prophet refers to feasts in idola- trous temples, but in drinking carousals which were held in the house of God. He says that " Amos had in his mind the sacred places in Bethel and Dan, in which the Israelites worshiped Jehovah as their God under the symbol of an ox, (caZ/.") — Commentary in loco, 603.— DAMASK COVERING. Ill, 12. So shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell in Samaria in the eornep of a bed, and in Damascus in a couch. Instead of "Damascus," some commentators read "damask," making the word refer to the rich silk-woven stuff with raised figures of flowers and other patterns, and not to the place where it was made, and whence it derived its name. Thus the text would read, "a damask couch," or "a couch of damask." The allusion here is to the luxurious couches w^hich are on the divan in Eastern houses, for a description of which see note on 2 Kings i, 4. The corner of the divan is the most convenient place for repose, and is con- sidered the place of honor. Hackett says : " A divan, which I saw in the palace of the late Mohammed All at Alexandria, furnishes an apt commen- tary on this verse. It was arranged, after the Oriental fashion, along the entire side of the room. It was capable of seating a great number of per- sons. A covering of the richest damask silk was spread over it, and hung in folds over the outward edge; while the magnificent cushions, adorned with threads of gold at the corners, distinguished those places above the others as the seats of special honor." — Scripture Illustrations^ p. 61. 320 BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. [Amos. 604. — PALACES. Ill, 15. And I will smite the winter-house with the summer- house ; and the houses of ivory shall perish. I. The expressions " winter-house " and " summer-house " do not of ne- cessity imply two separate houses, but may mean separate suites of apart- ments in the same house. Thomson says: " Such language is easily under- stood by an Oriental. In common parlance, the lower apartments are simply elheit — the house; the upper is the ^alliy eh, which is the summer-house. Every respectable dwelling has both, and they are familiarly called beit sheiaiuy and beit seify — wmter and summer house. If these are on the same story, then the external and airy apartment is the summer-house^ and that for winter is the interior and more sheltered room. It is rare to meet a family that has an entirely separate dwelling for summer." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 478. It may have been in the interior apartment that Jehoiakim sat when Jehudi read the roll in his presence. See Jer. xxxvi, 22. 2. By " houses of ivory " we are not to understand houses built of that material, but houses richly ornamented with it. The ancients decorated the ceilings, doors, and panels of their rooms with ivory. It was in this way that Ahab is said to have built an " ivory house." 1 Kings xxii, 39. Such houses are the " ivory palaces " mentioned in Psa. xlv, 8. 605. — CHIUN. V, 26. Ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloch and Chiun your images, the star of your god, which ye made to yourselves. 1. For a description of Moloch, see note on Lev. xviii, 21. 2. The majority of those interpreters wlio suppose Chiun to be a proper name take it to mean the planet Saturn. The Septuagint has 'Pai^dv, which afterward became corrupted to 'Peiz^czi^, and is so used by Stephen in Acts vii, 43. Some have assumed that TaL-tree ecjoying its shade, and engaged probably in pious meditation, when Philip found him and brought him to Jesus. Jo!in i, 48. N A H U M. 614.— NINEVITE CONVIVIALITY. I, 10. ^A^hile they are drunken as drunkards. Henderson's translation is more graphic: " thoroughly soaked with tlieir wine." The prophet here has reference to the drinking habiis of the Nine- 1 27 . — A s s ^ I u A N D r i n k i x o - s c p: \ k . 324 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Nahum. vites, of wliich the monuments give abundant illustration. Rawliuson says : "In the banquet-scenes of the sculptures it ;s drinking, and not eating, that is represented. Attendants dip the wine-cups into a huge bowl or vase, which stands on the ground and reaches as high as a man's chest, and carry them full of liquor to the guests, who straightway fall to a carouse. . . . Every guest holds in his right hand a wine-cup of a most elegant siiapc, the lower part modeled into the form of a lion's head, from which the cup itself rises in a graceful curve. They all raise their cups to a level with their heads, and look as if they were either pledging each other or else one and all drinking the same toast." — Five Great Monarchies^ vol. i, pp. 519, 580. 615.— ASSYRIAN WARRIORS. II, 3. The shield of his mighty men is made red, the valiant men are in scarlet : the chariots shall be with flaming torches in the day of his preparation, and the fir-trees shall be terribly shaken. This is a vivid description of ancient Assyrian warriors and their equip- ments. 1. The shields may have been reddened with paint, or with the copper Willi wliich they were overlaid. 2. Tlie fighting costume of ancient warriors was of a blood-red color. It 12S.— Assyrian War-chariot of thb Early Period. (JSimkud.) is said that one object of this was to conceal from the enemy the blood of their wounds, the sight of which might inspire them with new courage and liope. 3. By the "flaming torches" of the chariots, Michaelis, Ewald, Gesenius, and others, suppose to be meant the falces or scythes which were fastened Nahum.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 325 to the axle, and turned repeatedly witli every revolution of the whe el. Hen- dei'son accorduigly renders esh-peladoth, *' fiery scythes." Tlie fire of these scythes would be coruscations produced by their excessive brightness and the rapidity of their motion. Keil, however, (in his Gommentary^) objects to this interpretation on the ground that " scythe-cliariots were first introduced by Cyrus, and were unknown before his time to the Medes, the Assyrians, the Arabians, and also to the ancient Egyptians." He supposes 7>eMo^/i to refer to the steel coverings of the Assyrian vi^ar-chariots, and appends the following interesting note from Strauss: " The chariots of the Assyrians, as we see them on the monuments, glare with shining things made either of iron or steel, battle-axes, bows, arrows, and sliields, and all kinds of weapons ; the horses are also ornamented with crowns and red fringes, and even the poles of the carriages are made resplendent with shining suns and moons; add to these the soldiers in armor riding in their chariots, and it could not but be the case that, when illumined by the rays of the sun above them, they would have all the appearance of flames as they flew hitiier and thither with great celerity." (See verse 4, I. c.) 4. By the "fir-trees," which were to be " terribly shaken," are probably meant the spears, darts, and lances, which had handles made of the wood of the cypress. 616.— TEMPERING CLAY. Ill, 14. Go into elay, and tread the mortar. This is an allusion to the ancient method of tempering the clay for mak- ing bricks. It was done by the feet of the laborer, and was very severe and fatiguing labor. Tii^ "clay," may also be rendered "mire;" and chomer^ " mortar,"' is not to be understood here in the sense of a cement for bricks, but rather of clay. Henderson accordingly translates the passage, "Enter the mire, and tread the clay." Keil has, -'Tread in the mire, and stamp the clay." Potter s clay was tempered in a similar way. " He shall come upon princes as upon mortar, and as the potter treadeth clay." Isa. xli, 25. HABAKKUK. 617.— WORSHIP OF WEAPONS. 1,16. They sacrifice unto their net, and burn incense unto their drag. These fishing implements are used figuratively to represent the weapons of war by means of which the Chaldeans designed to take the Jews. It 326 BIBLE Manners and customs. [Habakkuk. wns customary among- some ancient nations to offer sacrifices to their weap- ons. The Scythians offered sacrifices to a sword which was set np as a sym- bol of Mars. Herodotus says: "Yearly sacrifices of cattle and of* horses are made to it, and more victims are offered thus than to all the rest of their gods." — Book iv, chap. Ixii. Grote, in speaking of the same people, says: " The Sword, in the hteral sense of the word, was their chief god — an iron scimitar solemnly elevated upon a wide and lofty platform, which was sup ported on masses of faggots piled underneath — to whom sheep, horses, and a portion of their prisoners taken in war, were offered up in sacrifice." — History of Greece^ part ii, chap. xvii. The Hindus, to this day, make ofierings to their fishing tackle, to their weapons, and to their tools of various kinds. 61§.— THE USE OF WOOD IN WALLS. II, 11. For the stone shall ery ou.t of the wall, and the beam out of the timber shall answer it. Kaphis, " beam," is supposed by some to be a cross-beam for binding to- gether the walls of a building, Jerome says it is " the beam which is placed in the middle of any building to hold the walls together, and is gener- ally called IfjLdvTuaLc by the Greeks." Henderson, iiowever, objects to tiiis rendering. He says : " That it was not tiie wood itself is evident from the following: from, or out of the wood^ He prefers the interpretation given by the Mishna, and followed by some Jewish writers. According to these kaphis signifies a half brick. Rashi, the celebrated commentator and Talmudist, explains it to be " half a brick, which is usually laid between two layers of wood." There are numerous evidences to show that ancient architects used wood to unite and bind walls, and it may have been some such custom to which the prophet refers in the text. 619.— SILENCE. II, 20. But the Lord is in his holy temple : let all the earth keep silence before him. There may be a reference here to the profound and impressive silence which prevails in Oriental courts among the guards and officers who attend upon royal personages. 620.— THE NAKED BOW. III, 9. Thy bow was made quite naked. The bow was often kept in a case made of leather or of cloth. To make it "naked " meant to take it out of its case in order to use it. The expres- sion signifies a preparation for war, and is of the same meaning as *' uncov- ering the sliield." See note on Isa. xxii, 6. Zephaniah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 327 ZEPHANIAH. 621.— THE CHEMARIM. I, 4. I will cut jtf the remnant of Baal from this place, and ihe name of the Chemarim with the priests. The word chemarim^ liere untranslated, occurs also in 2 Kings xxiii, 5, wliere it is rendered "idolatrous priests;" and in Hosea x, 5, wliere it is rendered "priests." Tt signifies the priests of idolatrous worship. Keil does not include in the term the priests of Baal, but limits its application to *' the priests appointed by the Kings of Judah for the worship of the high places and the idolatrous worsliip of Jehovah " — Commentary in loco. Gese- nius thinks it is derived from kamar^ to be burned, to be sad, and that it refers to the black garments worn by priests. Some, however, think this idea too modern for adoption. Keil says that this derivation " is decidedly opposed by the fact, that neither the priests of the idols nor of the high places were ascetics or monks, and in ancient times the priests from India to Gaul wore robes of a white, and if possible of a brilhant white, color. Compare Bahr's Symbol.^ ii, p. 87, f, and the works there quoted." — Commentary on 2 Kings xxiii, 5. ZECHARIAH. 622.— THE MONTH SEBAT. I, 7. The eleventh month, which is the month Sebat. Sebat corresponds very neai'ly to our month of February. 623.— HEAVY STONES. XII, 8. And. in that day will I make Jerusalem a burdensome stone for all people : all that burden themselves with it shall be cut in pieces. Jerome supposes an allusion here to a custom common in Judea in his day, and which he thinks was known in the time of Zeehariah. The young men were in the habit of lifting heavy stones for exercise, and for a display of strength. They lifted them to various heiglits, according to the weight of tlie stones and their own strength: to the knees, the breast, the top of the head, and even above the head, at arms' length. Jerusalem is declared by the prophets to be such a "burdensome si one " that whosoever should under- take to lift it would be destroyed by its weight. Most commentators have followed Jerome's interpretation, though some prefer to think ihat the reference is made merely to a heavy stone used in building 828 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Zechariah. 624.— SEPARATION OF THE SEXES. XII, 12. And the land shall mourn, every family apart ; the family of the house of David aioart, and their wives apart. According to the Jewish custom, not ouly did tlie men and women dwell in separate apartments, but they also worshiped separately. In this text, the trouble that is to come upon the land is so great that every family shall be in mourning, the men mourning by themselves, and the women in like man- ner lamenting together. 625.— BELLS FOR HORSES. XIY, 20. In that day shall there be upon the bells of the horses, Holiness unto the Lord. It was quite common among ancient nations to have bells hung around the necks of horses, both by way of ornament and to accustom the war-horses to noise. At the present time bells are used in caravans for horses and 129.— Head of a Chariot-horse, showing Collar with Bells attached. (Koyunjik.) camels ; sometimes being strung around the legs, as well as suspended from the neck. They are designed, not only for ornament, but also to encourage the animals by their sound, to frighten beasts of prey, and to keep the caravan together. Some suppose that metsilloth, *• bells," were small pieces of metal resem- bling cymbals, which made a tinkling noise by collision as the horses moved. Malachi.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 329 MALACHI. 626.— FULLING. Ill, 2. He is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' soap. The precise character of all the articles used by the ancient fullers is unknown. Tliey had mineral alkali in niter, to which reference is made in Prov. xxv, 20,- and Jer. ii, 22. They obtained vegetable al- kali, as the Arabs do at the present time, from the ashes of some plants and from . the juices of others. 130— Ancient Egyptian Fullers at Work. They hkewise used, for cleansing their cloth, urine and chalk, and bean- meal mixed with water. The cloths are thought to have been first trodden by the feet. They were also rubbed with the knuckles. A subsequent operation probably consisted in rubbing the clotli on an inclined plane, after the manner still followed in the East, and one which was common among the ancient Egyptians. 627.— THE BOOK OF REMEMBRANCE. Ill, 16. A book of remembrance was written before hiim for them that feared the Lord, and that thought upon his name. The metaphor is supposed to be taken from the ancient Persian custom of keeping a record of the names and deeds of any who had rendered special service to the king. It was in this way that the faithfulness of Mordecai in revealing to Ahasuerus the plot against his life was recorded and filed among the records of the court. See Esther vi, 1, 2. 628.— TREATMENT OF ENEMIES. lY, 3. And ye shall tread down the wicked ; for they shall be ashes under the soles of your feet. Chardin supposes that allusion is here made to the mode of making mor- tar in the East. One kind is made of a mixture of sand, ashes, and lime, which ingredients are mixed by being trodden. See note on Lev. xiv, 42, and also on Nahum iii, 14. There is also reference to the custom of putting the feet on conquered enemies, for an account of which see note on 1 Cor. XV, 25. 330 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. MATTHEW. 629— ESPOUSALS. I, 18. Mary was espoiased. to Joseph. Espousal among the Hebrews was something more than what a mere marriage engagement is with ns. It was considered the beginning of mar- riage, was as legally binding as marriage itself, and could not be broken off save bv a bill of divorce. Hence we find tliat Joseph is called the " hus- band " of Mary, (verse 19.) Tlie betrothal was usually determined by the parents or brothers of the parties, and the engagement was made between a friend or legal representative of the bridegroom and the father of the bride. The espousals were made very early in life, though marriage did not take place before the bride was twelve years old. Even when the age was suit- able, the marriage was not consummated for some time after the betrothal. See Judges xiv, 8. At least a year, or sometimes more, elapsed between the betrothal and the marriage of a maiden, to give time for preparing her outfit. In case of a widow marriage might take place thirty days after espousal. The betrothal was usually accompanied hy a feast in the house of the bride. The engagement, to be binding, must be either by written contract, or by the reception of presents by the bride from the bridegroom. Wlien Abra- ham's servant received the consent of Rebekah's father and brother to make her the wife of his master's son, he presented 1o the maiden vahiable gifts. See Gen. xxiv, 53. The reception of these made the contract binding. Tne bride remained at her father's house until the tim^ of marriage, when the bridegroom cime after her. This custom is referred to in Deut xx, 7. Meanwhile commi nicatiou between her and the bridegroom was kept up by means of the " friend of the bridegroom," See note on John iii, 29. 650.— THE MAGL II, 1. Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men from the East to Jerusalem. These " wise men," or, more properly, magi, (udyoi^) belonged to a numerous and influential order of men. The origin of Magism is involved in obscurity. It is thought to have had its beginning among either the Chaldeans or the Assyrians ; more probably among the former. Starting in Chaldea, it would naturally make its way to Assyria, Media, and the adjoin- ing countries. From Media it was brought into Persia, wliere it exerted a powerful influence in modifying the ancient religious faith of the people. Some profess to trace the Magian doctrines to Abraham, who, it is said, if he Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 331 did not originate them, at least purified them from the errors of Zabaism See note on Deut. iv, 19. After Abraham's time they became corrupted md were again purified by Zoroaster, who is supposed to have been a descendant of the prophet Daniel. We find in the Old Testament several ref- erences to the Magi. In Jer. xxxix, 3, 13, Ner- gal-sharezer is said to have been the Rah-mag, tliat is, the chief of the Magi. His name is sup- posed to be recorded in the Babylonian inscrip- tions, where mention is made of Nergal-shar-uzur^ who is styled Rahu-emga or Rob mag. The chak- amim, or " wise men," referred to in Jer. 1, 35, were probably Magi. In Daniel's time the Magi were very prominent in Babylon. In Dan. ii, 2, " magicians," " astrolo- gers," " sorcerers," and " Chaldeans " are men- tioned ; while in the twenty-seventh verse of the same chapter soothsayers " are named. These are represented by five different words in the original, and some writers think that five dis- tinct classes of Magi are here referred to. 131. — Chaldean Divinkr. It is difficult, however, at this late day to specify the difference between them, though the atteaipt has sometimes been made. It has been supposed from Dan. v, 11, compared with ii, 48, and iv, 9, that Daniel himself was made a member of the Magian order, and its cliief ; but the expressions there used may only mean that the king regarded liim as superior to all the magicians in his dominion, and as having authority over them. In any case, we cannot believe that Daniel embraced any theological notions of the Magi which were in opposition to Hebrew orthodoxy. An account of the worship practiced by the Magi of Media will give us some idea of the peculiarities of the order. Rawliuson says: " Magism was essenlially the worship of the elements, the recognition of fire, air, earth, and water as the only proper objects of human reverence. The Magi held no personal gods, and, therefore, naturally rejected temples, shrines, and images, as tending to encourage the notion that gods existed of a like nature with man; that is, possessing personaHty — living and intelligent beings. Theirs was a nature worship, but a nature worship of a very pecuhar kind. They did not place gods over the different parts of nature, like the Greeks ; they, did not even personify the powers of nature, like the Hindoos ; they paid their devotion to the actual material things themselves. Fire, as the 332 BIBLE MAN^sERS AVD CUSTOMS. [Matthew. most subtle and ethereal principle, and again as the most powerful agent, attracted their highest regards ; and on their fire-altars the sacred flame, generally said to have been kindled from heaven, was kept burning uninter- rupted from year to j^ear and from age to age by bands of priests, whose special duty it was to see that the sacred spark was never extinguished." — Five Ancient Monarchies^ vol. ii, p. 346. The Magians were a priestly caste, and the office is supposed to have been hereditar}^ They uttered prophecies, explained omens, interpreted dreams, and practiced rhabdomancy or divination by rods. See note on Hosea iv, 12. Their notion of the peculiar sanctity of the so-called elements led to a singular mode of disposing of the bodies of the dead. See note on Psa. Ixxix, 2. In Persia they became a powerful body under the guide of Zoroaster, and were divided into three classes: Herheds^ or disciples; Moheds, or masters; and Desiur-mobeds, or perfect masters. After a time the term Magi became more extended in its meaning. As the Magi were men of learning, devoting special attention to astronomy and the natural sciences, it happened that, after the lapse of years, men who became celebrated for learning were called Magi, whether belonging to the priestly order or not. So, as the Magi joined to the pursuits of science the arts of the soothsayer, in process of time mere conjurors who had no scientific knowledge were called Magi. Simon Magus (Acts viii, 9) and Bar-Jesus or Elymas (Acts xiii, 6, 8) were men of this sort. The Magi who came io visit the infant Saviour were no doubt of the better class. The idea, however, that they were kings and three in number is mere imaginaiion, and unsusceptible of proof. They were evidently skilled in astronomical knowledge, and were earnest seekers after the new- born king. Where they came from is a disputed question. Various writers have suggested that they were Babylonians, Arabians, Persians, Bactrians, Parthian s, or even Brahmins from India. Matthew says they were from "the East," which was a geographical term of very elastic meaning. One of the best dissertations on this subject is a monograph by Dr. Upham,* who claims a Persian nationality for these Magi. His opinion is indorsed by some of the best recent biblical critics. 631.~THE STAR OF THE KING. II, 2. ^A^here is he that is born King of the Jews? for we have seen his star in the eafet, and are come to worship him. When the preparations were malting for the coronation of Solyman III. as king of Persia in 1666, the astrologers had very important duties assigned them, according to the custom of their country. Sir John Chardin, who was * The Wise Men : Who they Were ; and How they Came to Jerusalem. By Francis W. tJpham, LL.D. New York, 1873. Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 833 present, says that these astrologers were appointed to observe the lucky hour, according to the position of the stars, for the performance of this weiglity ceremony." — Coronation of Solyman III., p. 36. The wise men mentioned in the text may have supposed, from what they liad seen of the star, that it was a favorable time for the coronation of the new-born King, and hence they came to worsh^'p him. 632.— ROUGH GARMENTS— LOCUST FOOD. Iir, 4. The same John had. his raiment of camel's hair, and a leathern girdle about his loins ; and his meat was locusts and wild honey. See also Mark i, 6. 1. The "raiment of camel's hair" was a coarse, rough outer garment, such as is still worn by the Arabs. It is made of the thin coarse hair of the camel. Some think, because Elijah is called " a hairy man" in 2 Kings i, 8, that he wore a garment of this sort. A rough garment seems to have been characteristic of a prophet. See Zech. xiii, 4. 2. For a description of the girdle, see note on 1 Kings xviii, 46. 3. With many of the Bedawin on the frontiers locusts are still an article of food, though none but the poorest eat them. They are considered a very inferior sort of food. They are salted and dried, and eaten with butter or with wild honey. The fact that John ate this kind of food illustrates the ex- treme povert}^ of the forerunner of Christ, and shows the destitution he suffered by living in the wilderness far away from tlie haunts of men. 633 —CARRYING SANDALS. Ill, 11. He that cometh after me is mightier than I, whose shoes I am not worthy to bear. To carry tiie maNter's sandals was considered the most menial duty that could be performed. On entering a house the sandals are taken off by a servant, who takes care of them, and brings them again when needed. In India it is customary for a servant to accompany his master when he walks out. If the master desires to walk barefoot on the soft grass or the smooth ground the servant removes the sandals and carries them in his hand. John felt himself unworthy to do for Christ even the meanest Work of a servant. See also note on John i, 27. 631.— WINNOWING GRAIN. Ill, 12. Whose fan is in his hand, and he Will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner ; but he will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire. See also Luke iii, 17. The grain in the East is threshed in the open air, (see note on Gen. 1. 10.) by being trampled under the feet of oxen or horses, (see note om Duur. 21 834 BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. XXV, 4,) or by means of instruments, as described in tbe note on Tsa. xxviii, 27, 28. By these processes the straw becomes very much broken ; and, to separate the grain from the hulls and straw the mingled mass is thrown against the wind by means of a wooden shovel, or else a wooden fork, having sometimes two prongs and sometimes three, and a handle three or four feet long. This is the fan " alluded to in a number of Scripture passages. It is usually employed in the evening. See note on Ruth iii, 2. The wind carries the chaff away, while the grain fails to the ground. The grain is sometimes sifted after the winnowing. See note on Amos ix, 9. The chaff is burned and the grain is stored, either in subterranean granaries (see note on Jer. xli, 8) or in barns. See note on Gen. xli, 48. The fan is referred to in Isa. xxx, 24, where it is mentioned in connec- tion with the " shovel." The precise difference between the two instruments there indicated is not now known. See also Jer. iv, 11 ; xv, 7; li, 2. The scattering of the chaff by the wind after fanning is frequently alluded to figuratively. See Job xxi, 18; Psa. i, 4; Isa. xxix, 5; xli, 16; Dan. ii, 35; Hos. xiii, 3. 635.— THE PINNACLE OF THE TEMPLE. lY, 5. Then the devil taketh him up into the holy city, and setteth him on a pinnacle of the temple. See also Luke iv, 9. This is commonly supposed to have been the summit of the royal gallery built by Herod within tiie area of the temple buildings on the edge of tlie Kedron valley. Josephus says of it: " This cloister deserves to be mentioned better than any other under the sun ; for, while the valley was very deep, and its bottom could not be seen if you looked from above into the depth, this farther vastly high elevation of the cloister stood upon that height, inso- much tiiatif any one looked down from the top of the battlements, or down both those altitudes, he would be giddy, while his sight could not reach to such an immense depth." — Antiquities, Book XY, chap, xi, § 5. The extreme distance from the top of tlie battlement to the bottom of the valley is sup- posed to have been about seven hundred feet. See also note on Matt, xxiv, 1. 036.— THE SYNAGOGUE. IV, 23. Teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gos- pel of the kingdom. See also Mark i, 39; Luke iv, 44. Jewish writers claim for the synagogue a very remote antiquity, but its origin probably dates during the captivity. There were no fixed proportions in the bu'lding* as there were in the tabernacle and in the temple. When a synagogue was to be built the higliest ground that could be found in the vicinity was selected for the si'e. and. if possible, the lop was erected above Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 835 tlie roofs of surrounding buildings. Where this could not be done a tall ^ole was placed on the summit in order to make the building conspicuous. Synagogues were often built without roofs. They were also so constructed that the worshipers, as they entered and prayed, faced Jerusalem. See note on Dan. vi, 10. At the JcM Usalem end was the chest or ark wliich contamed ihe book of the law. Toward the middle of the building was a raised plat- form, and in the center of tiie platform was a pulpit. A low partition five or six feet high divided the men from the women. The leading object of the synagogue was not worship, but instruction. The temple was *' the house of prayer." Matt, xxi, 13, The synagogue was never called by that name. Reading and expounding the law was the great business of the synagogue : and, though a liturgical service was connected with these, it was subordinate to them. The priests had no official standing or privileges in the synagogue, though they were always honored when present. They were the hereditary officials of tlie temple, but tiie officers of the synagogue were elected either by the congregation or by the council. The leader of tiie congregation miglit ask any suitable person to address the assembly. Persons wlio were known as learned men, or as ihe expound- ers of religious faith, were allowed to speak. Hence in the text and in the parallel passages we find Christ publicly speaking in tlie synagogue. See also Matt, xiii, 54; Mark vi, 2; Luke iv, 15; iv, 16-22; John xviii, 20. So also the apostles on their missionary jotirney addressed the people in these places of public gathering. See Acts xiii, 5, 15; xiv, 1 ; xvii, 10,11; xvii, 17 ; xviii, 1 9. est.— SAVORLESS SALT. V, 13. If the salt have lost his savor, wherewith shall it be salted ? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be east out, and to be trodden under foot of men. See also Luke xiv, 34, 35. Salt produced by the evaporation of sea- water in hot countries is said some- times to lose its saline properties. The same result is also sometimes seen in impure rock-salt that has long been exposed to the air. When such is the case there can nothing be done with it but to throw it out into the highway, where men and beasts trample it down. Dr. Thomscn tells of some salt which was brought from the marshes of Cyprus by a merchant of Sidon, and stored in small houses with earthen floors. " The salt next the ground in a few years entirely spoiled. I saw large quantities of it literally thrown into the street, to be trodden under foot of men and beasts. It was good for nothing." — The Land and the Book^ vol. ii, p. 48. Scliottgen supposes reference is here made to tlie bituminous salt from the Dead Sea, which, he sa}'^, was strewn over the sacrilicjs in the tem[le to 886 BIBLS MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. neutralize the smell of the burning flesh, and when it became spoiled b)'' exposure it was cast out upon the walks to prevent slipping in wet weather, and was thus literally trodden under foot of men." 638.— LAMP— BUSHEL— LAMP-STAND. Y, 15. Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a bushel, but on a candlestick. See also Mark iv, 21 ; Luke viii, 16; xi, 33. 1. " Lamp " would be a better word here than " candle," since oil is what was used for illuminating purposes in Palestine. Though frequent reference is made in Scripture to the lamp, no de- scription of it is given. Many ancient lamps of various shapes and material have been preserved to the pres- ent time, and doubt- less give some idea of the sort of lamp used in our Saviour's time. The Egyptian monu- ments have also repre- sentations of still ear- lier lamps, such as were probably used by the Hebrews. The common lamps among the Greeks and Romans were made of clay, the more costly ones of bronze, and even sometimes of gold. Some of these were very beautiful. Most of the lamps were oval in shape and flat on top, on which there- were often figures in relief A wick floated in the oil or passed through holes in the lamp. Tlie lamps received different names according to the number of holes which they had for the wicks. See Job xviii, 6; Prov. xxxi, 18; Jer. xxv, 10; Zeph. i, 12; I.iike XV, 8. See further note on Matt, xxv, 3. 2. Kodiog, " bushel," represents the chief Roman dry-meas- ure, the modius. Its capacity is reckoned at nearly one peck, Knglish measure. 3. The candlestick or lamp-stand was as varied in shape and quality as the lamp. The rudest sort was to be found some- tunes in houses with mud walls, wliere, in building up ihe i33_ancient wall, a purtion of the clay was suflfered to bulge out into the j.ami'-m a 132. — Ancient Lamp. Mitthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 337 room at a suitable Iieiglit. It was then hollowed; and, when the house was finished, the hollow was filled with oil, and a wick was made to float in it. This contrivance combined lamp and lamp-stand in one utensil. The ordi- nary lamp-stands were made of wood ; the better kinds, of bronze. They were of various heights, and some of them of very beautiful form and work- manship. The lamp-stand is also referred to in Rev. ii. 5. 639.— JOT AND TITTLE. Y, 18. One jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. See also Luke xvi, IT. There may be allusion here to the great care taken by the copyists of the law to secure accuracy even to the smallest letters, or curves or points of letters. 'Icjra, "jot," refers to the yodh^ the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet; Kepaia^ "tittle," is an apex or little horn, and refers to the horn-like points which are seen on Hebrew letters, for example, ^, n? n» I* ^^"^ worthy of remark that the yodh has one of these points, aud the meaning of the text may be, " Not even a ijodh^ nor the point of a yodhy The text under consideration is sometimes cited to prove that, in the time of Christ, copies of tlie law were written in the " square character." Sometimes curved extensions resembling horns are attached to the lett^^rs by the copyists for ornamentation. Prof Hackett found in one of the syna- gogues at Safet a scribe engaged in making a copy of the law. He says: *' A more elegant Hebrew manuscript, a more perfect specimen of the calli- graphic art, I never saw than that executed by this Jewish amanuensis. No printed page could surpass it in the beauty, symmetry, and distinctness with which tlie cliaracters were drawn. One peculiarity that struck me at once, as I cast my eye over the parchment, was the horn-like appearance attached to some of the letters. I had seen the same mark before this in Hebrew manuscripts, but never where it was so prominent as here. The sign in question, as connected with the Hebrew letter Lamedh [y in par- ticular, had ahnost the appearance of an intentional imitation of a ram's head." — Illustrations of Scripture^ p. 225. Dr. Ginsburg, in Kitto's Gydopedia. (s. v., Jot and Tittle,) expresses the opinion that the " tittle " refers to certain small ornaments which the Talmudists were accustomed to place upon the tops of letters. They attached great importance to these ornaments, though they formed no special part of tiie letters. 640.— AGREEING WITH AN ADVERSARY. V, 25, Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in the way with him ; lest at any time th@ adversary deliver thee to the judge. See also Luke xii, 58. According to the Roman law, if a person had a quarrel which he could not settle privately he had the right to order his ad\^ersary io accompany him to 338 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. the prastor. If he refused, the prosecutor took some one present to wit- ness by saying, "May I take you to witness?" If the person consented he offered tlie tip of his ear, whicli the prosecutor touched; a form, whch w-as observed toward witnesses in some other legal ceremonies among the Romans. Then the plaintiff might drag the defendant to court by force in any way, even by the neck, (see Matt, xviii, 28 ;) but worthless persons, such as thieves and robbers, might be dragged before a judge without the formal- ity of calling a witness. If on the way to the judge the difficulty was set- tled, no furtlier legal steps were taken. See Adam's Roman Antiquities, 12th Ed., p. 98. To this custom our Saviour refers in the text. When the accused is thus legally seized by the accuser, he is urged to make up his quarrel wiiile on the way to the judge, so that no further legal process be had. 641.— PROFANITY. Y, 84. I say unto you, Swear not at all. The Pharisees taught that there were two kinds of oaths — the violation of one being perjury, and that of the other an innocent matter, or at most but a sliglit offense. If the name of God was in the oath it was binding; this the Saviour refers to in verse 33. If the name of God was not in the oath it need not be kept. Jcsu=;, on the other hand, objects to this distinction ; and further teaches that it is wrong to indulge in profanity. The Orientals were verj' profuse in their swearing; and examples are found in classic writers of the different sorts of oaths referred to in verses 34-36. The habit has continued to the present day, as various travelers have testified. Among others, Dr. Thomson says : *• This people are fearfully profane. Every body curses and swears when in a passion. No people that I have ever known can compare witii these Orientals for profaneness in the use of the names and attributes of God. The evil habit seems inveterate and universal. . . . The people now use the same sorts of oaths that are mentioned and condemned by our Lord. They swear by the head, by their life, by heaven, and by the temple, or, what is in its place, the Church. The forms of curs- ing and swearing, however, are almost infinite, and fall on the pained ear all day long." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 284. 64^,^C0MPULS0RY HELP. V, 41. Whosoever ^hall oompel thee to go a nnile, go with him twain. There is reference here to an ancient Persian custom, which was adopted by the Persian government. The Persians introduced tlie use of regular couriers to carry letters or news. See note on Job ix, 25. The king's courier had absolute command of all help tliat was necessary in the performance of his Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 339 task. He could press lio.'ses into his service, and compel the pu ners to ac- '^ompany him if he desired. To refuse compliance with his demands wais an impardonable ofifense agdinst the king. C43.— ALMS-GIVING. VI, 2. When thou doest thine alms, do not sound a trum.pet before thee, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, that they may have glory of men. 1. Some have thought froui these vv^ords that it was customary, literally, to sound a trumpet before an alms-giver. However this might have been in the streets, it certainly could not be permitted "in the synagogues," as it would disturb the services there. There is no evidence whatever tliat any such custom was ever practiced by alm's-givers. The words are therefore to be understood in a figurative sense, wliich is based on the custom of heralds making public announceaients ; or there may be an allusion to tlie trumpet which was sounded before aclors and gladiators when they were brought into the theater; or to the trumpet which was sounded six times from the roof of the synagogue to usher in the Sabbatli. We have corresponding phrases in modern languages. "In G-erman, ausposaunen and an die grosse Glocke schlagen ; in Englisli, ' to sound one's own trumpet,' 'to trumpet forth,' * every man his own trumpet ; ' in French, /aire qaelque chose tamhour hattant^ trompetfer ; in Italian, trompetar^ bucinar.^' — Tholuck, Sermon on the Jfount, p. 298. The idea of the text is simply that alms-giving should be unaccom- panied by ostentation. 2. It was customary among the Jews to give alms to the poor wlio were assembled before the entrance to 'he temple or synagogue. This is referred to in Acts iii, 3, where the lame man asked alms of Peter and John as they were going into the temple. Chrysostom makes reference to the custom as afterward practiced in front of the early Christian churches. See Bing- ham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, Book XIII., chap, viii, § 14. It may be that in the text the word "streets" refers to the space in front of tlie synagogue. In the synagogues there was a regular form of giving alms, tlie offerings being deposited in the alms-boxes before tlie prayers began. Thus the Saviour speaks first of alms-giving, and next of prayer. Sometimes, on special occasions, the congregation handed their alms to the proper officer. 644.— THE TWO HANDS. VI, 3. When thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth. This is a proverbial expression, found also in classic and Rabbinical authors. We know of no custom alluded to in this proverb save the general habit of 340 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. giving with the right hand, as it is more conveniently used than the other ; but Mr. Jowett speaks of a custom he noticed in Palestine, which, if it ex« isted in our Lord's time, might have suggested tfie saying of the text. In giving an account of liis visit to Nablous, Mr. Jowett says: "The manner in which the Samaritan priest desired me, on parting, to express our mutual ofood-will, was by an action, than which there is not one more common in all tlie Levant. He put the forefinger of his right hand parallel to that of his left, and then rapidly rubbed them together, while I was expected to do the same, repeating the words, ' right, right ; ' or, in common acceptation, ' together, together.' It is in this manner tliat persons express their consent on all occasions: on concluding a bargain, on engaging to bear one another company, and on every kind of friendly agreement or good understanding." — Christian Researches, etc., p. 209. The idea of the text may be, that alms-giving is not to be a matter where the hands are put together in token of an understanding with some one else, but it is to be done privately. 645 —REPETITIONS IN PRAYER. YI, 7. Wlien ye pray, lase not vain repetitions, as tlie heathen do : for they think that they shall he heard ibr their much speaking. Some of the rabbis in our Lord's time had taught that oft- repeated prayers were of certain efficacy, tluis falling into an imitation of the heathen, wlio have ever been noted for unmeaning repetitions. When Elijah challenged the worshipers of Baal, they called on their god '^from morning even unto noon, saying, 0 Baal, hear us." 1 Kings xviii, 26. When Paul excited the rage of Demetrius, wl)o in turn aroused the mob at Ephesus, the angry crowd " all with one voice about the space of two hours cried out, Great is Biana of the Ephesians." Acts xix, 34. It would seem as if the further men became removed from true spiritual worship the greater estimate tliey put on oft-repeated forms. The Mohammedans equal the heathen in this respect. After the storming of Seringapatam, the body of Tippoo Sahib was found among the slain, and in his pocket was a book of devotion with various forms of prayer, and among them the following: ^^O God, O God, O God, 0 God! 0 Lord, 0 Lord, O Lord, 0 Lord I 0 Living, 0 Immortal I O Living, 0 Immortal I 0 Living, 0 Immortal I O Living, 0 Immortal ! O Creator of the heavens and the earih I 0 thou who art endowed with majesty and authority I 0 wonderful," etc. — Burder, Oriental Customs^ Xo. 1>;U. The Hindus consider the repetition of the name of a gx)d an act of wor- ship. They say the name of God is like fire, through which all sins aro consumed ; hence the repetition of the names of their deities is a coujmon practice. According to Ward, they even have rosaries, the beads of which Matthew.] BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 341 thej count off in order to facilitate these repetitions. Tliey imagine that by this easy process they can obtain any thing they desire. 646,— GRASS FOR FUEL. VI, 30. The grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow is east into the oven. See also Luke xii, 28. So great is the scarcity of fuel that even dried grass and withered fiowera are used for making a fire. They are carefully gathered and carried in bun- dles, sometimes in the arms, and sometimes loaded on donkeys. See also note on 1 Kings xvii, 10; and on Psa. Iviii, 9. 647.— BREAD RESEMBLING STONES. VII, 9. ^A/^hat man is there of you, whom, if his son ask bread, will he give him a stone ? See also Luke xi, 11. The point of this question will be more apparent when it is remembered that the loaves of bread bore some resemblance in general appearance to round, flat stones. A similar allusion may be noticed in the narrative of our Lord's temptation, where the devil suggests tliat Jesus change the stones into bread. See Matt, iv, 4; Luke iv, 4. Some of the bread used in the East at the present time resembles stones in other respects than in mere appearance. Palmer represents the bread, which is daily doled out to the Arabs by the monks of St. Catharine's on Mount Sinai, as of decidedly stony character. He playfully says: '*One of tiiese loaves I brought back with me; an eminent geologist, to whom I sub- mitted it, pronounced it 'a piece of metamorphic rock, containing fragments of quartz embedded in an amorphous paste.' No decently brought-up ostrich could swallow one without endangering his digestion for the terra of his natural life." — The Desert of the Exodus, p. 61. 648.— THE SCRIBES. VII, 29. He taught them as one having authority, and not as the scribes. See also Mark i, 22. Anciently the scribes were merely officers whose duties included writing of various kinds; but, on the return of the Jews from the Babylonish cap- tivity, the sopherim,, as the scribes were called, were organized by Ezra into a distinct body, and they became interpreters of God's law as well as copy- ists. Among other duties, they copied the Pentateuch, tlie Phylacteries, (see note on Matt, xxiii, 5,) and the Mezuzoth. See note on Deut. vi, 9. So great was their care in copying that they counted and compared all the let- ters, to be sure that none were left out that belonged to the text, or none admitted improperly. On stated occasions they read the law in the syna- 342 BIBLE MANNERS AND CLSTOMS. [Matthew gogiies. They also lectured to their disciples, and commented on the law. The lawyers (see Matt, xxii, 35; Luke vii, 30; xi, 45; xiv, 3) and the doctors of the law (see Luke ii, 46 ; v, It; Acts v, 34) were substantially the same as the scribes. Efforts have been made to show that different classes of duties were assigned to lawyers, doctors, and scribes, but without Bny very definite results. It- may be, as some suppose, that the doctors were a higher grade than the ordinary scribes. The scribes were all care- fully educated for their work from early life, aud at an appropriate time — some say at the age of thirty — they were admitted to ofhce with special forms of solemn 'ty. The scribes were not only copyists of the law, but they were also the keepers of the oral traditionary comments and additions to the law. Gradu- ally accumulating with the progress of time these were numerous, and were regarded by many as of equal value with the law itself. To this Jesus alludes in Mark vii, 5-13. Paul represents himself as having been, before his con- version, "exceedingly zealous of the traditions" of his fathers. GTal. i, 14. The scribes also adopted forced interpretations of the law, endeavoring to find a special meaning in every word, syllable, and letter. Thus the Saviour charges them: "Woe unto you, lawyers! for ye have taken away the key of knowledge : ye entered not in yourselves, and them that were entering in ye hindered/' Luke xi, 52, At tiie time of Christ the people were increasingl}^ dependent on the scribes for a knowledge of their Scriptures. The language of the Jews was passing into the Aramaic dialect, and the mass of the people, being unable to under- stand their own. sacred books, were obliged to accept the interpretation which the scribes put upon them. Hence their astonishment, as indicated in the text, at the peculiar style of teaching adopted by Jesus, and especially illus- trated in his Sermon on the Mount. The scribes repeated traditions; Jesus spake with authority : " I say unto you." Tliey had but little sympath)^ with the masses; he went about mingling with the people, and explaining to them in a simple practical way the duties of religion. 649.— THE BED. IX, 6. Arise, take up thy bed, and. go unto thine house. See also Mark il, 9-^12. The bed " was simply a mat or blanket which could be carried in the hands. The poor sometimes had no other bed than the outer garment. See note on Deut. xxiv, 12. 13. The wealthier people in the East have quilts or mattresses filled with cotton, which are spread on the floor or on the divan. Bee note on 2 Kings i, 4. In the text the paralytic, being healed, was told to take up his bed and go homo. All he had to do was to roll up his hlankot Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 843 134 — EoLLiNG UP A Bed, and depart. A similar incident took place at the pool of Betliesda. See John V, 8, 9, 11, 12. On snch simple '-beds" the sick were easily carried. This is referred to in Matt, ix, 2; Murk ii, 3, 4; Luke v, 18 ; Acts v, 15. 650.— USE OF THE TERM CHILDREN. IX, 15. Jesus said unto them, Can the children of the bride- channber nnourn, as long as the bridegroom is with them ? See also Mark ii, 19 ; Luke v, 84. The "children of the bride-chamber" were the friends and acquaintances who participated in the marriage festivities. The expression " child " or "children," like that of "father," (see note on Gen, iv, 20, 21,) is an Orien- tal form of speech, and is designed to show some relation between the per- son to whom it is applied and certain qualities existing in that person, or certain circumstances connected with him; these qualities or circum- stances being tlie result of that relation. Thus people who are brought to* gether on occasion of a marriage-feast are called the " children of tlie bride* chamber." So when any passion or influence, good or bad, gets control of men, they are said to be the children of that passion or influence, Tims we have "children of wickedness," 2 Sam. vii, 10; children of pride," Job xli, 34 ; "children of the kingdom," and " children of the wicked c ^e," Matt, xiii, 38; "children of this world," and "children of liglit," Luke xvi, 8; "children of disobedience," Eph. ii, 2; Col. iii, 6; "chldren of wrath," Eph. il, 3. 844 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. We find a similar idiom in the use of the word "son" and *' daugliter." We have " sons of Belial " in Judges xix, 22, and in several other passages ; "sons of the mighty," Psa. Ixxxix, 6; "sons of thunder," Mark iii, 17; "son of consolation," Acts iv, 36; "son of perdition," 2 Thess. ii, 3. We have also "daughter of Behal," 1 Sam. i, 16; "daughters of music," Eccl. xii, 4; "daugliter of troops," Micah v, 1. 651.— SKIN-BOTTLES. TX, 17. Neither do men put new wine into old bottles : else the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles perish: but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are preserved. See also Mark 11, 22; Luke v, 37. The use of bottles made from the skins of animals is very ancient, and is still practiced in the East. The skins of ^oats and kids are commonly taken for this purpose, and are usually so fashioned as to retain the figure of the animal. In preparing the bottle, the head and feet are cut off*, and the skin stripped whole from the body. The neck of tlie animal sometimes makes the neck of the bottle; in other cases one of the fore-legs is used as an aperture through which the liquid may be poured out. The tliighs serve as handles ; by attaching straps to them the bottle can be fastened to the saddle, or slung over the shoulder of the traveler. The Arabs 135.— Ancient Skin-Bottles. tan the skins with Acacia bark and leave the hairy side out. For a large party, and for long journeys across the desert, the skins of camels or of oxen are used. Two of these, when filled with water, make a good load for a camel They are smeared with grease to prevent leak- age and evaporation. These water-skins, large and small, are much better than earthen jars or bottles for the rough ex- periences of Oriental traveling. Earthen bottles are, however, sometimes em- ployed in domestic use. See note on Jer. xix, 1. The "bottle" which Hagar carried into the wilderness, and from which she gave Ishmael drink, was probably a kid- ISC— Woman GIVING Drink to a Child from a Skin-Bottle. Bkin, See Gen. xxi, U. A similar scene is represented in ilie engmving, Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 345 from an ancient Assyrian sculptUi'e. Skin-bottles were also used for milk (Jndges iv, 19) and for wine (1 Sam. xvi, 20.) In the text and its parallels allusion is made to this use of skins. When the skin is green, it stretches by fermentation of the hquor and retains its integrity; but when it becomes old and dry, the fermentation of the new wine soon causes it to burst. Eor the mode of repairing skin-bottles when broken, see note on Josh, ix, 4. 652.— FRINGES. IX, 20. Came behind him, and touched the hem of his gar- ment. See also Luke viii, 44. According to the Mosaic law every Jew was obliged to wear a fringe or tassel at each of the four corners of the outer garment, one thread of each tassel to be deep blue. These tassels were to be to them a perpetual re- minder of the law of God, and of their duty to keep it. See Num. xv, 38, 39; Deut. xxii, 12. This was the ''hem" which the poor woman touched, sup- posing there was some peculiar virtue in it. So the people of Gennesaret brought their sick to Christ for a similar purpose. See Mark vi, 56, where the same word in the original, Kpaaixedov. is rendered " border." The Phari- sees prided themselves greatly on these tassels, considering them as marks of special sanctity in the wearers, and therefore sought to enlarge their size. See Matt, xxiii, 5. 653— THE PURSE. X, 9. Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses. See also Mark vi, 8 ; Luke x, 4. " In your purses," is literally "in your girdles^^^ {(^6vag.) It is quite com- mon to use the folds of the girdle as a pouch, or pocket, for the reception of iii()ne3\ Money is also sometimes carried in a bag, which is put into the gir- dle. Tliis is referred to in the parallel passage in Luke, where the word rendered "purse" {/3a?MVTLov) signifies a bag. 654.— SHOES. X, 10. Neither shoes. See also Luke x, 4. From the fact that, in the parallel passage in Mark vi, 9, the disciples are commanded to be "shod with sandal^:," it has been inferred that our Lord designed to mark a distinction between shoes and sandals, though some commentators treat the idea as absurd. It is certain, hovvever, that in our Lord's time there were, besides sandals, other coverings for the feet more nearly approaching our idea of a shoe. Some of these covered the entire Too', while in otliers tlie toes were left bare, as represented in the engraving. U6 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 187. — Ancient Shoe3. The use of shoes may have been forbidden to the disciples because of their hixury, vvliile san- dals were allowed as articles of necessity. Thus the statement in Matthew and in Luke, and that in Mark, may be reconciled. The shoe was forbidden, tlie sandal permitted. When the prodigal came back to his fa- ther's iioiise shoes were put on his feet. Luke XV, 22. For a description of sandals, see note on Acts xii, 8. 655.— HEATHEN DUST. X, 14. When ye depart out of that house or city, shake off the dust of your feet. See also Mark vi, 11 ; Luke ix, 5. The scliools of the scribes taught that the dust of heathen lands was de- filing. They therefore objected even to bringing plants or herbs from heathen countries, lest some of the dust sljould come with them. Some of the rab- bins permitted this, provided no dust was brought with the plants. Tiiey give this gloss to th'e rule : " They take care lest, together with the herbs, something of the dust of the heathen land be brought, which defiles in the tent, and defiles the puritj^ of the land of Israel." See Ligiitfoot, Horce Hebraicce. The Saviour, doubtless, alluded to this rabbinical rule, and, by using the expression of the text, conveyed the idea to his disciples that every place which should reject them was to be considered heathen, impure, profane. "When Paul and Barnabas were driven from Antioch, in Pisidia, they shook off the dust of their feet." See Acts xiii, 51. 656 —COUNCILS— DISCIPLINE OF THE SYNAGOGUE. X, 17. They will deliver you up to the councils, and they will scourge you in their synagogues. See also Mark xiii, 9. 1. In addition to the Great Sanhedrim or Council (tor a description of which see note on Matt, xxvi, 59) there were councils of an inferior degree. There is some obscurity in connection with their history and construction. Tliev are supposed to have been originated by Moses. See Deut. xvi, 18. In lator times there were two of them in Jerusalem, and one in each town in Palestine. The rabbins say there were twenty-three judges to each of these councils in every place where the population was a hundred and twenty, and three judges where tlie population was less. Josepluis, how- ever, says that there were seven judges to each council, and that each judge liad two Levites to assist him. Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 347 These councils liad power not only to judge civil cases, l)ut also such crim- inal cases as did not come within tlie jurisdiction of ihe Supreme Court, or Sanhedrim. In the provinces they at first met in the market-place, but afterward in a room adjoining the s-ynagogue. Some writers suppose that these local provincial councils are identical with the " elders " and " rulers of the synagogue," so often mentioned in the New Testament. See article " Synagogue," in Kitto's Cyclopedia, vol. iii, p. 902 l. See, further, note on Acts xiii, 15. The connection in the text between councils and scourging seems to indicate this, unless it can be shown, as some have asserted, that the ''rulers of the synagogue" formed a council apart from the smaller Sanhedrim. 2. The discipline of the synagogue was severe. Besides excommunica- tion, (see note on John ix, 22,) scourging was sometimes practiced. The number of the stripes was limited by law to forty. Deut. xxv, 3. To pre- vent the possibility of excess, by mistake in counting, the legal number was reduced by one. Paul was thus beaten five distinct times. 2 Cor. xi, 24. It is said, however, that in iiggravated cases the stripes were laid on with greater severity than usual. The rabbins reckon a hundred and sixty-eight faults to be .punished by scourging ; in fact, all punishable faults to which the law has not annexed the penalty of death. " The offender was stripped from his shoulders to his middle, and tied by his arms to a pretty low pillar, that he might lean for- ward, and the executioner might more easily come at his back. ... It is said that, after the stripping of the criminal, the executioner mounted upon a stone, to have more power over him, and then scourged him both on the back and breasts with thongs made of an ox's hide, in open court, before the face of the judges." — Burder, Oriental Customs^ No. 949. Scourging in the synagogues is also referred to in Matt, xxiii, 34. Paul admits that in his days of wickedness he had in this manner maltreated Christians. Acts xxii, 19. For an account of Roman scourging, see note on Matt, xxvii, 26. 657.— PUBLIC PROCLAMATIONS. X, 27. "What ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house- tops. See also Luke xii, 3. Public proclamations are still made from the housetops by the governors of country districts in Palestine. Thomson says: "Their proclamations are generally made in the evening, after the people have returned from their labors in the field. The public crier ascends the highest roof at hand, and lifts up his voice in a long-drawn call upon all faithful subjects to give ear and obey. He then proceeds to announce, in a set form, the will of their master, and demand obedience thereto." — Hie Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 51. 348 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSIOMS. [Matthew. In the contrast expressed between hearing privately and proclaiming pub- licly, there may also be reference to the mode of instruction in the schools of the rabbis. Dghtfoot expresses this opinion, and says : " The doctor wliispered, out of the chair, into the ear of the interpreter, and he, with a loud voice, repeated to the whole school that which was spoken in the ear.'' — Horce Ethraicce. He also suggests that the reference to the house-tops may be an allusion to the custom of sounding the synagogue trumpet from the roof to usher in the Sabbath. See note on Matt, vi, 2. 65§.— THE ASSARIUS. X, 29. Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing ? ^kooupLov is one of the two words rendered " farthing " in our version. It was the Roman as or assarius^ a copper coin, equal in value to a tenth of a denarius^ (see note on Matt, xx, 2,) or three farthings EngUsh, or one cent and a half American. In Luke xii, 6. two assaria are spoken of. It is thought that a single coin is there intended of the value of two assaria. The Yul- 138.— AssAKioN. o^^® ^^^s dipondius. Madden says : " It is very clear from the fact of the word dupondius, or dipondius, which was equal to two asses, and was a coin of itself, being substituted for the two assaria of the Greek text, that a single coin is intended by tliis latter expression. This idea is fully borne out by the coins of Chios. The Greek autonomous copper coins of this place have inscribed upon them the words ACCAPION, ACCAPIA ATi2 or ATO and ACCAPIA TF I A.' '—Btstorij of Jeivish Coinage, p. 243. 659.— GAMES OF CHILDREN. XI, 16, 17. It is like unto children sitting in the markets, and calling unto their fellows, and saying, We have piped unto you, and ye have not danced ; we have mourned unto you, and ye have not lamented. See also Luke vii, 31, 32. There is ahusion here to the habits of children, who, in the East as else- where, imitate in sport what they see performed in sober earnest by adults. The public processions and rejoicings on Oriental wedding occasions, and the great lamentations at funerals, make such an impression on the young mind that children introduce imitations of tliem into their plays. Some of tiiem play on imaginary pipes, wliile ethers dance, as at weddings. Again, some of them set up an imitation of a mournful wail, to which others re- spoijd in doleful lamentntions, as at funerals. Tht n at times there will bo Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 349 found some stubborn little ones, of perverse spirit, wlio will not coDsent to take part in any play that may be proposed. They will not dance wliile others pipe, neither will they lament when others mourn. They are deter- mined not to be pleased in any way; they will play neither wedding nor funeral. Thus it was that the people would receive neither Jesus nor John; but, like perverse children, tliey refused to be satisfied with any proposition made to them. Travelers have noticed that children in Palestine, at the present day, keep up this ancient custom of playing weddings and funerals. 660. — FREE CORN FOR THE HUNGRY. XII, 1. His disciples were an h.u.ngered, and began to pluck the ears of corn, and to eat. See also Mark ii, 23 ; Luke vi, 1. It was perfectly lawful for persons when hungry to help themselves to as much of their neighbor's growing grain as they wished for food. They were not allowed to cut any, but must simpl}^ gather what was needed with the hand. ''When thou comest into the standing corn of thy neighbor, then thou mayest pluck the ears with thine hand: but thou shalt not move a sickle unto thy neighbor's standing corn." Dent, xxiii, 25. The Pharisees did not complain that the corn was plucked, but that it was gathered on the Sabbath. This ancient freedom of a handful of grain for a hungry traveler is still in existence in Palestine. 661. — TESTIMONY GIVEN STANDING. XII, 41. The men of Nineveh shall rise in judgment with this generation, and shail condemn it. See also Luke xi, 32. The Saviour may have alluded to a custom among the Jews and Romans, whereby die witnesses rose in their seats when they made accusation or bore testimony. The "Qoieenof the South" is in like manner represented as rising in judgment. See verse 42, and Luke xi, 31. The dying Stephen saw the Son of man standing on the right hand of God." Acts vii, 56. May he not have risen to bear testimony against Stephen's persecutors ? The same custom is aRuded to in Luke xxiii, 10. 662.— FISHING-BOATS. XIII, 2. He went into a ship, and saL See also Mark iv, 1. We have no special description of the ships which were used on the Sea of G-alilee. The most of them were probably small boats used for fishin^^ purposes, and propelled by oars, while some had masts and sails. There were doubtless others which were used for pleasure or for passage ; and Josephus tells us of some in his day that were vessels of war. Frequent CQention is m£ide by the ev^angelists of the ships on the Sea of Galilee. 22 850 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 663.— GOING FORTH TO SOW. XIII, 3. Behold, a sower went forth to sow. See also Mark iv, 3; Luke viii, 5. According to Dr. Thomson, this statement is more literally true than would appear to a hasty reader. The farmers in Palestine go forth to sow their seed, the fields being at a considerable distance from their homes, sometimes six or eight miles. See The Land and the Book, vol. i, pp. 115-118. 664.— THE WAY-SIDE. XIII, 4. When he sowed, some seeds fell by the way-side. See also Mark iv, 4 ; Luke viii, 5. The ordinary roads or paths often lead by the side of uninclosed fields ; hence it must often happen that the seed tlirown by the hand of the sower will be scattered beyond the plowed field, and fall on the beaten patli. 665.— WICKEDNESS AT NIGHT. XIII, 25. But while men slept, his enemy eame and sowed tares among the wheat, and went his way. Roberts states that tlie exact counterpart of tliis nocturnal villainy may be found in India at the present da}". A man wishing to do his enemy an injury, watches for the time when he sljall have finisiied plowing his field, and in the night he goes into the field and scatters pandinellu, or "pig- paddy." " This being of rapid growth springs up before the good seed, and scatters itself before the other can be reaped, so that the poor owner of the field will be some years before he can rid the soil of the troublesome weed. But th^re is another noisome plant whicli tliese wretches cast i.ato the ground of tliose whom they hate: it is called pe? um-pirandi, and is more destructive to vegetation than any other plant. Has a man purchased a field which another intended to buy, the disappointed person declares, 'I will l)hmt tha perum-pirandi in his grounds.'" — Oriental lilitst rations, p. 530. 666.— LEAVEN. XIII, 33. The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven. See also Luke xiii, 21. The usual leaven among the Jews consisted of dough in a high state of fermentation, though the lees of wine were sometimes employed. 667.— HIDDEN TREASURE. XIII, 44. The kingdom of heaven is like unto treasure hid in a field. The possession of wealth often becomes, in the P^ast, a source of great perplexity because of its insecurity. Every man being his own banker, Matthew.] BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 851 'ngenuity is taxed to devise some plan of concealment, or to find some place where money, jewels, and other valuables may remain free from molestation or suspicion. Sometimes these treasures are hidden in secret closets in the house, or in vaults under the house ; sometimes tliey are buried in the field, in a spot unknown to all save the owner. It not unfrequently happens that the owner goes away and dies before the time of his intended return, his secret dying with him. Times of war and pestilence carry off great num- bers, who leave treasures concealed, no one knows where. There are, no doubt, deposits of immense value thus buried in different parts of the East. The people are always ready to notice any indication of subterranean wealth, and to dig for it when they get the opportunity. The archaeological explorations of travelers are often seriously retarded by the suspicions aroused that they have some secret means of ascertaining the location of hidden treasures, and that the great object of all their exploring is to get money and jewels. These facts ilhistrate the text. A man who discovers the place where treasure is hid keeps the discovery to himself, buys the field, and the treas- ure is his own. Other references of a similar character are made in differ- ent parts of the Bible, sliowing how ancient and how widespread is the cus- tom of concealing treasures. It was thus that Achan hid the spoils of war in the earth in the midst of his tent. Josh, vii, 21. Job represents men who are weary of life, longing for death with the eagerness of treasure-seekers. They "dig for it more than for hid treasures." They "rejoice exceedingly, and are glad, when they can find the grave." Job iii, 21, 22. Solomon, per- haps, alludes to this custom when he speaks of those who search after wis- dom " as for hid treasures," (Prov. ii, 4,) though the reference may be, as some think, to mining operations. He may also refer to it when he says that "the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep." Eccl. v, 12. The more treasure one has the more care he must take to conceal it, and the fear of discovery would naturally create sleeplessness. God's promise to Cyrus is a further illustration: "I will give thee the treasures of dark- ness, and hidden riches of secret places." Isa. xlv, 3. In the parable of the talents, the servant who had but one talent buried it in the earth. Matt. XXV, 18. Wheat, oil, and other products of the soil, were also buried. See note on Jer. xh, 8. 66§.— FISHING NETS. XIII, 47. The kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was east into the sea, and gathered of every kind.. The precise form of the fishing nets used by the Hebrews is not known ; nor do we know the exact difference between the meanings to be attached 352 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. to the several words which are translated '*net." A kind of net very com- monly used resembled the modern seine. It is a net of this sort that is re- ferred to here. Some suppose that in John xxi, 6, there is also an allusion to this kind of net, but others think that a net for deep-sea fishing is there meant ; a net so arranged as to inclose the fish in deep water. Such a net seems to be intended in Luke v, 4, where the command is given, " Launch out into the deep, and let down your nets for a draught." In the Old Testament, fishing nets are referred to in Hab. i, 15, 16. 669.— EXTRAVAGANT PROMISES. Xiy, 7. He promised with an oath to give her whatsoever she would ask. See also Mark vi, 23. It is common for public dancers at festivals in great houses to ask for re- wards from the company. An instance is recorded by Thevenot, in his Travels in Persia, which reminds us of this extravagant promise of Herod. Shah Abbas was on one occasion so pleased with the performances of a dancing-woman that he gave her the fairest khan in all Ispahan, one which yielded large revenues to the royal treasury. Ho was drunk at the time, and, when he became sober, repented of his rash generosity, and com- pelled the girl to accept, instead, a sum of money very far below the value of the khan. 670.— THANKS AT MEALS. XIV, 19. He took the five loaves, and the two fishes, and look- ing up to heaven, he blessed, and brake. See also Mark vi, 41 ; Luke ix, 16; John vi, 11. It was customary among the Jews to give thanks to God at the commence- ment of every meah The usual form was, " Blessed be thou, 0 Lord our God. the king of the world, who produced bread out of the earth." They also had a form of blessing for the wine: "Blessed art thou, 0 Lord, the king of the world, who created the fruit of the vine." These, or similar forms, were used at the celebration of the passover. See note on Matt, xxvi, 20. Paul, in allusion to this custom, calls the wine used in the Lord's supper "the cup of blessing.' 1 Cor. x, 16. The expression "bless the sacrifice " in 1 Sam. ix, 13, is also an allusion to the custom of asking a blessing before eating, the reference being to those parts of the peace-offer- ing which were to be eaten by the offerer and his friends. See note on Lev. vii, 11. In comphance with the ancient Jewisli custom, the Saviour, before feed- ing the five thousand; blessed God for the gift bestowed. At another time, when four thousand were fed, "he took tlie seven loaves and .the fishes, and gave tiianks, and brake ihem." Matt, xv, 36. See also Mark viii, 6, 7. Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS ANT) CUSTOMS. 353 671.— BASKETS. XIV, 20. They took up of the fragments that remained twelve baskets full. See also Mark vi, 43 ; Luke ix, 17 ; John vi, 13. The baskets now used in the East resemble very much those which are represented on the monuments of Egypt. They are often hke our own in shape, material, and workmanship. The baskets here referred to {k66lvol) were probably the ordinary traveling baskets which the Jews took with them when on a journey. They carried tlieir provisions in them, so that they might not be poUuted by eating the food of the Gentiles; and it is also said that they sometimes carried hay in them, on which they slept at night. Thus they kept aloof from the Gentiles in food and lodging. This wiU account for the contemptuous description which Juvenal gives of the Jews, when he represents that their household goods consisted of a basket and hay! In the corresponding miracle, where four thousand were fed, a different kind of basket was employed. See Matt, xv, 37; Mark viii, 8; and es- pecially Matt, xvi, 9, 10; Mark viii, 19, 20; where, in the original, two dif- ferent terms are used. It is impossible, however, now to tell the precise difference between the two sorts of baskets mentioned. 672.— TRADITION. XV, 3. ^A/■hy do ye also transgress the commandment of God by your tradition ? See also Mark vii, 9. Lightfoot {Rorce Hebraicce^ on verse 2) gives a number of curious illustra- tions from the old Talmudical writers, showing the value which they set on traditions: ''The words of the scribes are lovely, above the words of the law; for the words of the law are weighty and hght, but the words of the scribes are all weighty." " The words of the elders are weightier than the words of the prophets." ''A prophet and an elder, to what are they likened ? To a king sending two of his servants into a province. Of one he writes thus: Unless he shows you my seal, believe him not: of the other thus : Although he shows you not my seal, yet believe him. Thus it is written of ihe prophet. lie shall show thee a sign or a miracle ; but the elders thus : According to the law which they shall teach thee." 673.— BINDING AND LOOSING. XVI, 19. Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be Dound in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven. Lightfoot gives a large number of citations from rabbinical authorities to «Iiow the common usage in the Jewish scliools of the words "bind" and 354 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matliiew. ''loose," and also the meaning of these figurative terms. To "bind" is to forbid; to " loose " is to allow. Rosen miiller says : " Binding and loosing — that is, prohibiting and permitting — were, in the Aramaic language, which Jesus used, a customary expression to denote the higliest authority. So in tlie Syriac Chronicle of Gregory Bar-Hebraeus, or Abnl-faraj, it is said (p. 593 :) *The Jewwho yesterday was tlie higliest ruler, could hind and loose, and wore royal garments, to-day wore a smock-frock. His hands were no longer blackened with writing, but with painting. He was a beggar, and no more lord.' " — Morgenland, vol. v, p. 67. 674.— THE TEMPLE-TAX. XVn, 24. They that received tribiAte- money came to Peter, and said, Doth not your Master pay tribute ? Literally, Doth not your master pay the didrachm^ or double drachma f This was not the tax for the support of the civil government, but the half- shekel tax for the support of the temple-service, v/bich every Jew was ex- pected to pay. It was founded by Moses, in connection with the tabernacle service. See Exod. xxx, 13. It is also referred to in 2 Kings xii, 4; 2 Chron. xxiv, 6, 9. Its value was about thirty cents. 675.— THE STATER. XVII, 27. 'When thou hast opened his mouth, thou shalt find a piece of money : that take, and give unto them for me and thee. This "piece of money" was a stater, which term was applied to coins of gold, of silver, and of an alloy of the two precious metals of the color of amber, and therefore called electrum. The stater, which was miraculously provided for tribute-money, is supposed to have been one of the tetradrachms of the cities of Syria. It was a silver coin, having tlie same weight as the shekel, and its value was about sixty cents of our money. This one coin was thus of sufficient value to pay the temple-tax of both Jesus and Peter. 6T6.— MILLSTONE —DROWNING. XVni, 6. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the sea. See also Mark ix, 42 ; Luke xvii, 2. L The ordinary upper-stone of the Ea&oern liand-mill is from eighteen inches to two feet across, and might easily be hung around the neck of a person to be drowned. Some commentators, however, are of the opinion that, by the "ass-millstone," as the original in both Matthew and Mark may be rendered, is meant a stone larger than that used in the ordinary miUs — one so large as to require brute-power to turn it. Such a stone would sink a body in the deptljs of tlie sea beyond the possibility of recovery. Matthew.] BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 355 2. Tliere is no evidence to show that the mode of piiiiisliment named in the text was ever practiced by the Jews. It was in use, however, by the ancient Syrians, the Romans, the Macedonians, and the Greeks. It was in- flicted on the worst class of criminals, especially on parricides, and on those guilty of sacrilege. 677.— NINETY AND NINE." XVIII, 12. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone astray ? See also Luke xv, 4, 7. This mode of expression was very common with the Jews. Lightfoot cites from the Talmud a passage iUnstrative of it: " When a man is dividing nuts among the poor, though ninety-nine call upon him to divide them, and one call on him to scatter them, to him they must hearken. With grapes and dates it is not so. Though ninety-nine call on him to scatter them, and one to divide them, to him they must hearken." 678.— "TWO OR THREE." XVI II, 20. Where two or three are gathered together in my name. This is a common Oriental form of speech to express an indefinite number. There are other instances of it in the Bible. See 1 Kings xvii, 12 ; Isa. vii, 21; xvii, 6; Jer. iii, 14; Hos. vi, 2. Some commentators, however, suppose tl)e passage in Hosea to refer to the resurrection of Christ; but it is by no means certain. 679.— TORMENTORS. XYIII, 34. His lord was wroth, and delivered him to the tor- . mentors, till he should pay all that was due unto him. The "tormentors" are the jailers, who were allowed to scourge and tor- ture the poor debtors in their care in order to get money from them for the grasping creditors, or else to excite the compassion of friends, and obtain tlie amount of the debt from them. " In early times of Rome there were certain legal tortures, in the shape, at least, of a chain weighing fifteen pounds, and a pittance of food barely sufficient to sustain life, (see Arnold's History of Rome^ vol. i, p. 136,) which the creditor was allowed to apply to the debtor for the purpose of bringing him to terms; and no doubt they often did not stop here." — Trench, Notes on the Parables^ (Am. ed.,) p. 133. 6§0.— BENEDICTIONS ON CHILDREN. XIX, 13. Then were there brought unto him little children, that he should put his hands on them, and pray. See also Mark x, 13; Luke xviii, 15. It was common among the Jews to bring their children to men noted for piety, to have their blessing and their p-ayers. On the first anniversary of BIBLE MANMEKS AND CUSTOMS. [Mdtthew. the blrtli of a child, it was usual to take it to the synagogue to be blessed b}^ the rabbi. The laying-on of hands when in prayer was also a customary form when invoking the Divine blessing. Thus Israel, when his eyes were dim with age, laid his hands on the heads of Ephraim and Manasseh, and blessed them and prayed for them, (Gen. xlviii, 14:) and thus Jesus took these cliil- dren "up in his arms, put his hands upon them, and blessed them." Mark X, 16. 681.— THE "NEEDLE'S EYE." XIX, 24. It is easier for a eamel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God. See also Mark x, 25 ; Luke xviii, 25. There is supposed to be here a reference to a proverbial form of expres- sion common in the Jewish schools, when one desired to express the idea of great difficulty or of impossibility. Lightfoot gives several quotations from the rabbis, wliere the difficulty is represented by the image of an elephant going through the eye of a needle. Some writers, however, think that there is allusion in the text, not only to a proverbial form of speech, but also to a fact. They refer to tiie low, narrow entrances to Oriental houses, and to the difficulty a camel would ex- perience in entering, though even a camel might enter if he would take ofif his load and kneel down ; wh^'ch may be considered a hint to rich men who would enter the kingdom of heaven. A recent English writer says : " In Oriental cities there are in the large gates small and very low apertures, called, metaphorically, 'needle^*'- eyes.' just as we talk of certain windows as ' buUs'-eyes.' Tliese entrances are too narrow for a camel to pass through them in the ordinary manner, or even if loaded. "When a laden camel has to pass through one of these en- trances it kneels down, its load is removed, and then it shuffles through on its knees. * Yesterday,' writes Lady Duff Gordon from Cairo, 'I saw a cume] go tlirough the eye of a needle, namely, the low-arched door of an iuclosure. He must kneel, and bow his head to creep through ; and thus the rich man must humble himself.' " — Bible Animals^ by the Eev. J. G-. Wood, p. 243. 682.— HIRING LABORERS. XX, 1. W^ent out early in the morning to hire laborers into his vineyard. Lightfoot (JIor(B Hthraicct) gives several citations from Jewish writers to show that the customary time of working was "from sun-rising to the ap- pearing of tlie stars, and not from break of day." The laborers, however, may liave been hired before sunrise. Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 357 683.— THE DENARIUS. XX, 2. ^A/'hlen lie had agreed with the laborers for a penny a day, he sent them into his vineyard. The denarius (penny) was the principal silver coin of the Romans. It was originally ten times the value of the as^ (see note on Matt, x, 29,) from which was ?evenpence half-penny, or fifteen cents. This was the ordinary price of a day's labor. Under the Republic the denarius had on one side the head of Hercules. Apollo, Mars, Janus, or Jupiter; but under the Empire it bore tlie title and effigies of the reigning Cesar. See Matt, xxii, 19-21 ; Mark xii, 15-17. The " ten pieces of silver " mentioned in Luke xv, 8, are supposed to have been denarii; and so are the " fifty thousand pieces of silver" mentioned in Acts xix, 19. though authorities vary in opinion. XX, 3. He went out about the third hour, and saw others standing idle in the market-plaee. The place for trading was often at the gates of walled cities. See note on 2 Kings vii, 1. Here, also, laborers went to seek employment, and em- ployers w^ent to seek laborers. Sometimes, in Oriental cities, a large public square is used for similar purposes. Morier says : The most conspicuous building in Hamadan is the Mesjid Jumah, a large mosque now falling into decay, and before it a maidan or square, which serves as a market-place. Here we observed every morning, before the sun rose, that a numerous body of peasants were collected with spades in their hands, waiting, as they in- formed us, to be hired for the day to work in the surrounding fields." — Second Journey through Persia, p. 265. XX, 8. So when even was come, the lord of the vineyard saith unto his steward, Call the laborers, and give them their hire. This was according to the Mosaic law, wliicli sought tlius to protect the •poor laborer from any employer who might wish to keep back liis hire. 139. — Denakius of Tiberius Cesar. circumstance it derived its name. When, afterward, the weight of the as was reduced, the denarius was made equal to the weiglit of sixteen asses. The value of the earlier denarius was a little over eightpence half-penny, or about seventeen cents; that of the later 6§4.— THE MARKET-PLACE. 6§5.— DAILY PAYMENT OF LABORERS. 358 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. *'The wages of him that is hired shall not abide with tliee all night until the morning." Lev. xix, 13. ''Thou shalt .not oppress a liired servant that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren, or of thy strangers that are in thy land within thy gates: at his day thou shalt give him iiis hire, neither shall the sun go down upon it; for he is poor, and sefctetli his heart upon it." Deut. xxiv, 14, 15. 686.— POST OF HONOR. XX, 21. Grant that these my two sons may sit, the one on thy right hand, and the other on the left, in thy kingdom. See also Mark x, 3T. It was evidently the intention of this ambitious mother to have positions of the greatest honor for her two sons. Tlie right hand is usually considered the post of the highest honor. See 1 Kings ii, 19; Psa. xlv, 9; Jxxx, 17. For this reason Jesus is said to be at the riglit hand of God. See Psa. cx, 1 ; Mark xiv, 62 ; xvi, 19 ; Luke xx, 42 ; xxii. 69 ; Acts ii, 34 ; vii, 55, 56 ; Rom. viii, 34; Eph. i, 20; Col. iii, 1; Heb. i, 3, 13; vi i, 1; x, 12; xii, 2; 1 Pet. iii, 22. As an apparent exception to this usage. Sir John Chardin states that among the Persians tlie left hand of the king is esteemed the most honorable. See Coronation of Solyman III., p. 42. In the East generally, although the riglit hand may be esteemed more lionorable than the left, yet a position on either hand near the king is considered a post of great lienor. Josephus represents Saul at supper with Jonathan his son on his right hand, and Abner the captain of his host on his left. Antiquities, book vi, chap, ii, § 9. The same fact is intimated, though not expressed, in 1 Sam. xx, 25. In the Sanhedrim the vice-president sat on the right hand of the president, and the referee, who was the officer next in rank, sat on the left. See note on Matt, xxvi, 59. 6§7.— GARMENTS AND BRANCHES STREWN. XXI, 8. A very great multitude spread their garments in the way ; others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way. See also Mark xi, 8; Luke xix, 36; John xii, 13. 1. The "garments" were the large outer mantles. See note on Dent, xxiv, 12, 13. 2. It was usual to strew flowers and branches, and to spread carpets and garments in the way of conquerors and groat princes, and of otliers to whom it was intended to show particular honor and respect. In a similar way Jehu was recognized as king : "Tlien they hasted, and took every man his garment, and put it under him on the top of the stairs, and blew with trum- pets, saying, Jehu is king." 2 Kings ix, 13. When Xerxes crossed the Hellespont his way was strewed with myrtle branches. When Cato left his army and returned to Rome garments were strewn in his way. Matthew.] 15IBI.E MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 359 The cus'om is still sometimes seen in the East. Roberts was surprised, shortly after his arrival in India, to find, on paying a visit to a native gentle- man, that the path through the garden was covered witii white garments on which he was expected to walk. They were spread as a token of respect for him. Dr. Robinson relates that shortly after a rebelli )n whicii had taken place among the people of Bethlehem, " when some of the inhabitants were already imprisoned, and all were in deep distress, Mr. Farran, tiien English consul at Damascus, was on a visit to Jerusalem, and had rode out with Mr. Nicolayson to Solomon's pools. On their return, as they rose the ascent to enter Bethlehem, hundreds of the people, male and female, met them, im- ploring the consul to interfere in their behalf, and afford them his protec- tion ; and all at once, by a sort of simultaneous movement, '■they spread their garments in the way' before the horses." — Biblical Researches, vol. i, p. 473. 688.— THE TEMPLE MARKET. XXI, 12. Jesus went into the temple of* God, and east out all them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the money-changers, and the seats of them that sold doves. See also Mark xi, 15 ; Luke xix, 45. In John ii, 14, is an account of a similar occurrence which took place during the first year of Christ's ministry. This temple market is supposed to iiavebeen establislied after the captivity, when many came from foreign lands to Jerusalem. Lighttbot says: " There was always a constant market in the temple in that place, which was called 'the shops; ' where, every day, was sold wine, salt, oil, and other requisites to sacrifices; as also oxen and sheep in the spacious Court of the Gentiles." — Horai HehraiccB. The money-changers made a business of accommodating those who had not the Jewish half-shekel for the annual temple tax. See note on Matt, xvii, 24. Every one, rich and poor, was expected to pay the half-shekel for himself during the month of Adar. It thus became necessary sometimes to change a shekel into two halves, or to ex- change foreign money for the Jewish half-shekel. The men wiio followed this business made their living by charging a percentage for the exchange, and carried on their traffic within the temple area. Loftus found a curious resemblance to this practice in the court of the nrosque of Meshed Ali at Nedjef : " A constant fair is carried on at stalls, 140. — Half-shekel. Ascribed to Simon Maccabeus. 860 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. which are supplied with every article likely as offerings to attract the eye of the rich or pious — among these, white doves are particularly conspicuous.'' — Travels in Ghaldea and Susiana^ p. 53. 689.— THE CHILDREN'S SONG. XXI, 15. The children crying in the temple, and saying, Hosanna to the son of David. The Jewish children, when very young, were taught to wave the branches of palm and boughs of myrtle and willow bound together, which were used at the Feast of Tabernacles ; and also, while shaking them, to join in the chorus of Hosanna. It is a fact worth noticing, we think, that these children shouted Hosanna, not simply in childish imitation of the multitude, (verse 8,) but in recollection of what they had been taught to do; and although this ^vas not the Feast of Tabernacles, yet when they heard tlie shout of Hosanna they were ready to respond. The point which the text illustrates is, the custom of early training the Jewish children in the worship of God. Lightfoot {Horoe Hehraicoi) quotes on this subject from the Gemara : " The rabbis teach that so soon as a little child can be taught to manage a bundle, he is bound to carry one; so soon as he is known how to vail himself, he must put on the borders ; as soon as he knows how to keep his fatlior's phylacteries, he must put on his own." 690 —VINEYARDS— FENCES— WINE-PRESSES— TOWERS. XXI, 33. There was a certain householder, which planted a vineyard, and hedged it round about, and digged a wine- press in it, and built a tower. See also Mark xii, 1 ; Luke xx, 9. 1. There appear to have been several ways of planting vineyards in Pal- estine. Sometimes the vines were planted in rows and trained on stakes. Dr. Robinson describes the celebrated vineyards near Hebron as arranged in this manner: The vines "are planted in rows eight or ten feet apart in each direction. The stock is suffered to grow up large to the height of six or eight feet, and is there fastened in a sloping position to a strong stake, and the shoots suffered to grow and extend from one plant to another, form- ing a line of festoons. Sometimes two rows are made to slant toward each other, and thus (briu b}^ their shpots a sort of arch. These shoots are pruned away in autumn." — Biblical Researches, vol. ii. pp. 80, 81. The vines are sometimes planted on the side of a terraced hill, the old branches being permitted to trail along the ground, wdiile the fruit-bearing Bhoots are propped with forked sticks. An ancient mode of planting vineyards was by training the vines over heaps of stones. Palmer discovered large numbers of these stone-heaps wiiile traveling tlirough the Negeb, or south country of Palestine. Near Hatthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 361 the ruins of El-'Aujeh he found some. " The black, flint-covered hill-slopes which surrounded the fort are covered with long, regular rows of stones, which have been carefully swe^^t together and piled into numberless little black heaps. Thete at first considerably puzzled us, as they were evidently artificially made, and intended lor some agricultural purpose ; but we could not conceive what plants had been grown on such dry and barren ground. Here again Arab tradition came to our aid, and the name teleilat-d-anah, * grape-mounds,' solved the difficulty. These sunny slopes, if well tended, with such supplies of water and agricultural appliances as the inhabitants of El-'Aujeh must have possessed, would have been admirably adapted to the growth of grapes, and the black flinty surl'ace would radiate the solar heat, while these litile mounds would allow the vines to trail along them, and would still keep the clusters off* the ground." — Desert of the Exodus^ p. 367. In another place (p. 352) he represents these " grape-mounds " as forming one of the most striking characteristics of the Negeb, the hill-sides and the valleys being covered with them for miles. 2. The vineyards were sometimes fenced with walls of stone, (see Num. xxii, 24; Prov. xxiv, 31,) and sometimes with a hedge of thorny plants, (see Psa. Ixxx, 12,) and again with stone-walls and hedge combined. The last method is probably referred to in Isa. v, 5, where hedge and wall are both spoken of. Maundrell mentions another sort of wall which he saw surround- ing the gardens near Damascus. ''The garden-walls are of a very singular structure. They are built of great pieces of earth made in the fashion of brick, and hardened in the sun. In their dimensions they are two yards lung each and somewhat more than one broad, and a yard thick. Two rows of these, placed edgeways, one upon anotlier, make a cheap, expeditious, and, in this dry country, a durable wall" — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem^ under date of April 27. 3. The wine-press consisted of two parts — the receptacle for the grapes, and the vat for the liquor. Either part, by itself, is sometimes called the press. Some very primitive wine-presses are spoken of by travelers, con- sisting of a single excavation in the rock, lower at one end than at the other, so that the wine when pressed out might find a place to settle. In some instances a trench is dug in the ground in a similar way, and lined with stone" or cement. Usually, however, the receptacle for the grapes and the vat for the wine are distinct. The place where the grapes are put may be of stone, or of wood. Near the bottom on one side, or else in the bottom, is a closely-grated hole, through which the wine flows into the vat beneath. Dr. Robinson found a very ancient wine-press at Nableh, not far from Kefr Saba, the Antipatris of Paul's time. Advantage had been taken of a ledge of rock ; on the upper side, towards the south, a shallow vat had been dug out, eight feet square and fifteen inches deep, its bottom declining 362 BIBLE MANNERS ANi: CUSTOMS. [Matthew. slightly towards tlie north. The thickness of rock left on tlie nortli was one foot; and two feet lower down on that side aiiotlier smaller vat was ex- cavated, four feet square by three feet deep. Tlie grapes were trodden in the sliallow upper vat, and the juice drawn off by a hole at the bottom (still remaining) into the lower vat. . . . Such is its state of preservation that, were there still grapes in the vicinity, it might at once be brought into use without repair." — Biblical Researches, vol. iii, p. ISt. The grapes were put into the upper part of the wine-press, and trodden by the feet of men. Reference is made to this in Judges ix, 27 ; Neh. xiii, 15; Amos ix, 13. At least two trod together, and often seven or more. 141.— Wine-press. From an ancient Egyptian painting, Thebes. To tread "ihe wine-press alone" was an expression indicative of desolation. Isa. Ixiii, 3. The treaders usually supported themselves hy ropes which hung from a cross-beam over their heads. Some think a reference to this custom is made in Isa. Ixiii, 5, where it is said, " my fury, it upheld me ; the idea being that there were no ropes on which f 'is lonely treader could hang, but that he was sustained solely by the strength of his passion. The pressure of the grapes by the feet naturally spattered the red juice over the upper garments. Thus we read of Judah in the prophecy of the dying Jacob: " He washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes." Gen. xlix, 11. Thus also the question is asked in Isaiah: " Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like him that treadeth in the winefat?" Isa. Ixiii, 2. The grape-treadevs accompanied thiiir labors with songs and shouts. See note on Isa. xvi, 10. 4. The tower was designed as a place of temporary dwelling for the guard, who watched over the vineyard while the fruit was ripening, to keep off thieves and wild beasts. It was also sometimes used as a temporary Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 363 abode by the owner during the season of vintage. Though many of tlie towers were frail edifices, scarcely lasting longer than one season, others were more durable, being built of stone. They were either circular or square in shape, and varied in height from fifteen feet to fifty. In a garden near Beirut Maundrell saw an unfinished tower, which had been built to the height of about sixty feet, and was twelve feet thick. These lofty towers oould be used not only as guard-houses for the vineyards, but also as watch- towers, to detect the coming of an enemy in the distance. Similar towers were built in the open country for the protection of the shepherds. See note on 2 Cliron. xxvi, 10. The vineyard, the hedge, the wine-press, and the tower, are also referred to in Isa. v, 1, 2. 691.— DOUBLE INVITATIONS. XXII, 3. Sent forth his servants to call them that were bidden to the wedding. This double invitation was customary among the wealthy in giving enter- tainments, and is still observed in some parts of the East. The invitation IS given some little time in advance, as with us, and when the feast is ready a servant comes again with the announcement of the fact. Esther invited Ahasuerus and Haman to a feast, and when it was ready the king's cham- berlains were sent to notify Haman. Compare PJsther v, 8 ; vi, 14. The cus- tom also finds illustration in the parable of the G-reat Supper narrated by Luke, which some expositors consider identical with this, though others treat the two accounts as belonging to separate parables. The narrative in Luke says : " A certain man made a great supper, and bade many : and sent his servant at supper-time, to say to them that were bidden, Come, for all things are now ready." Luke xiv, 16, 17. Here the two invitations are distinctly marked. Additional interest is given to this parable by the fact that the second invitation was given only to those who had accepted the first. 692.— HOST AND GUESTS. XXII, 11. ^A/'hen the king eame in to see the guests, he saw there a man which had not on a wedding-garment. 1. It was customary for monarchs and others who gave magnificent ban- quets to come in to see the guests after they were assembled. Allusion is doubtless made to this custom in the text, and also in Luke xiv, 10: "When he that bade thee cometh." The context plainly intimates that ilie guests had assembled and occupied their places before the host made his appearance. 2. The surprise manifested by the king at finding one of the guests with- out a suitable garment, when it could not be expected that people who had thus been suddenly called, and from the poorer classes too, would furnish 364 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUST0M3. [Matthew. themselves with festive apparel, is an indication that the bounty of the king had provided a supply for the guests from his own wardrobe. The beauty of the parable, as well as its deep spiritual significance, is more clearly seen in the fact that beggars are represented as clothed in the garments of royalty I Although there is no direct evidence to show that it was customary thus to furnish wedding-guests with robes, the intimation is clearly made in the parable, and there are, in profane history, accounts of kingly generosity of a character somewhat similar. Extensive wardrobes were a part of Eastern wealth. See note on Job xxvii, 16. Garments were often given as pres- ents ; it was a special mark of honor to receive one which had been used by the giver, and kings sometimes showed their munificence by presenting them. See notes on Gen. xlv, 22; 1 Sam. xviii. 4; Esther vi, 8. 093.— THE PHARISEES. XXII, 15. Then went the Pharisees, and took eouinsel how they might entangle him in his talk. The Pharisees were a politico-rehgious party among the Jews. Their ori- gin is involved in obscurity, but it is commonly supposed that the beginning of the party dates from a time shortly after the Babylonish Captivity. A Pharisee is, literallj^, one wlio is separated ; and it is thouglit that the name was given because these people separated themselves from all Levitical im- purity. They were doubtless a pure people in the beginning, their design being to preserve the law from violation, and the Jewish people from con- tamination. As their influence increased, and political power came into their hands, they lost much of their original simplicity. In the time of Christ they were very numerous and influential, and occupied the chief offices among the Jews. They were divided into two schools : the School of Hillel, and the School of Shammai. The Pharisees were especially distinguished for belief in an Oral Law of Moses, as well as a Written Law. This Oral Law was supposed to be sup- plementary to the Written Law, and, with various comments added from time lo time, had been handed down by tradition. The Pharisees had great ven- eration for this traditionary code, and for the traditionary interpretations. They placed them in authority on a level with the Written Law, and even above it. See note on Matt, xv, 3. As a body, they were not chargeable with immorality in life; on the contrary, there were many zealous and con- scientious men among them, and many things wliich they taught were worthy of being observed, as Jesus himself admitted. See Matt, xxiii, 3. These teachings were from the law ; it was when they attempted to make their traditions valid that Jesus denounced them. Tiie great error of the most of tliem consisted in substituting human tradition for divine law, and in observing mere external forms, many of them of a most wearisome as Matthew.) BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 365 TV-ell as puerile character, instead of seeking for inward purity of lieart, wliich would liave been accompanied by corresponding blamelessness in life. It was but natural that sucli teachers should be bitterly opposed to Christ, and that he should veliemently denounce them and warn the people against them. They endeavored in various ways to entangle him in his talk," (hterally, to ensnare or entrap him,) and in every possible manner they ex- hibited their hatred. His stinging rebukes tingled in their ears and rankled ia their hearts, and made them threaten his life. 694. — THE HERODIANS, XXII, 16. They sent out unto hinn their disciples, with the Herodians. These Herodians were rather a political than a religious party. They were Jews who attached themselves to the political fortunes cf the Herodian family, hoping thereby to promote the interests of the. Jewish people. They were not very strict in observing the requirements of the Jewish ritual ; and, although in this respect they were the opposite of the Pharisees, they easily luiited with that powerful body in efforts to ruin Jesus, as appears from this vei-se in connection with the fifteenth. See also Mark iii, 6 ; xii, 13. Some suppose, from comparing Matt, xvi, 6, with Mark viii, 15, hat the Herodians were ail Sadducees; that they belonged to what is known the Boethusian branch of that body. 695. — THE SADDUCEES. XXII, 23, The sanrie day came to him the Sadducees, which say that there is no resurrection. The time when the Sadducees appeared as a pan 3^ among the Jews is un- known. It is generally supposed that they had their origin about the same time as the Pharisees. The derivation of the name is a matter of dispute. Some derive it from the Hebrew tsedek,, " righteousness," and suppose that the name was given because of their piety. Others say that the Sadducees were organized by Zadoc, a scholar of Antigonus Socho, president of the Sanhe- drim, and a disciple of Simon the Just. This Zadoc died B. C. 263, and from him the ruime Sadducee is thought to be derived. Others seek a derivation from Zadok the priest, who Uved in the time of David. See 1 Kings i, 32. The vital point of difference between the Pharisees and the Sadducees was in their opinion of the Law. The Sadducees rejected the traditionary interpretations of the lawj to which the Pharisees attached so much impor- tance. They did not beheve in any Oral Law as a supplement to the \Yrit- ten Law, but they took the Hebrew Scriptures, wiih the authoritative ex- planations which were developed in the course of time, as the only rule ^aith and practice. They accepted thos<^ traditional explanations of the law 23 366 BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew which could be deduced from the Scriptures, but rejected all which the Pharisees, without authority, had added. In some respects they were raoi e rigid interpreters of the law than tlie Pharisees. A number of illustrations of this are given by Dr. G-insburg, in his article on "Sadducees," in Kitto's Cyclopedia. The Sadducees denied the doctrine of the resurrection because tliey con- sidered tliere was no proof of it in the Hebrew Scriptures. Whether they also denied the soul's immortality, as is commonly represented, is a point on which critics are not agreed. The statement in Acts xxiii, 8, is sometimes ad- duced as proof of this denial: "For the Sadducees say that there is no res- urrection, neither angel, nor spirit : but tlie Pharisees confess both." It is claimed, however, that this does not show that the Sadducees did not believe in angelic or spiritual existence, but tliat they did not believe in any manifes- tntion of the angels or spirits to human beings in their own day. Reuss, in Herzog's Real-Encyklojpadie^ s. v. Saddiicder, suggests that the ninth verse gives a ke}^ to the interpretatiou of the eightl). The Pharisaic scribes there admit the possibility of a spirit or an angel having spoken to Paul. The Sadducees might easily deny the realit}^ of such appearances in their day without denying the actual existence of such beings, or the accounts of their appearances which are given in the Old Testament. Tliis opinion is adopted by Twistleton in Smith's DicUona.ry of the Bible, and also by Dr. Milhgan in Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary. The Sadducees were not so numerous as the Pharisees, nor were their doctrines so acceptable to the people. They were an ancient priestly aris- tocrac}', having considerable wealth and great political power. From Acts V, 17, compared with iv, 6, it has been inferred that many of the kindred of the high priest at that time, as well as himself, were of the Sadducean party, and that probably the priestly families in general belonged to them. They were too cold and austere in their manners to make many converts, and disappeared from history about the close of the First Centuiy of the Cliris- lian era. 696.— SUMMARY OF THE LAW. XXII, 40. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets. 1. It was customary among the Jews to hang a copy of their laws in a public place, and some commentators suppose an allusion to this custom to be made here. ?.. Jewish teachers have at various times attempted to make compen- dinms of the law. Tholuck gives a very interesting accoimt of one of the m( st remarkable of these made by Kabbi Samlai, and contained in the Qemara. Tlie following is a condensed statement of Saralai's compendium Matthew.] BIBLE MANNEBS AND CUSTOMS. 367 of the law: Moses gave six hundred and thirteen commandments on Mount Sinai. David reduced these commandments to eleven, which may be found in the fifteenth Psalm, in answer to the question, "Lord, who shall abide in thy tabernacle?" Afterward Isaiah came and reduced the eleven to six, as may be seen in Isa. xxxiii, 15. Then came Micah and reduced the six to three. See Micah vi, 8. Once more Isaiah brought down the three to two. Isa. Ivi, 1. Lastly came Habakkuk, and reduced them all to one: "The just shall live by faiih." Hab. ii, 4. See Tholuck's Commentary on the Ser- mon on the Mbuntj (Am. Ed.,) p. 139. 697.— PHYLACTERIES. XXIII, 5. They make broad their phylacteries. Whether the commands in Exod. xiii, 9, 16; Deut. vi, 8; and xi, 18, con- ct ruing the duty of binding the word upon the hand and head, were de- signed to be interpreted figuratively or literally, is a disputed point among commentators. The Jews have for ages attached to them a literal meaning, though some writers claim that this was not done until after the captivity. Whatever the original design of the injunction may have been, in the time of the Saviour it was supposed by all the Jews (excepting the Karaites, who gave to tlie passages above cited a figurative meaning) to be a duty to wear upon their persons certain portions of the law. The passages selected were Exod. xiii, 1-10; Exod. xiii, 11-16; Deut. vi, . 4-9; and Deut. xi, 13-21. These four sections were written in Hebrew on strips of parchment with ink prepared especially for the purpose. There were two sorts of phylacteries — one for the arm, and one for the head. That fur the arm consisted of one strip of parchment on which tlie above texts were writ- It n. This was inclosed in a small square case of parchment or black calf- skin, and fastened with a long, narrow leather strap 142.-Phylacterie3 for the Head and Arm. to the inside of the arm, between the bend of the elbow and the shoulder, that when the arm touched the body the law might be near the heart. The strap was carefully wound around the arm and the fingers until the ends came out by the tip of the middle finger. The Sadducees, however, wore the phy- lacteries in the palm of the left hand instead of on the arm. The case for tlie forehead consisted of four cells, and had four strips of parchment on u iiicli the before-mentioned texts were written. It was fastened by leather 3H8 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. straps on the forehead, between the eyes, and near the roots of the hair; or, as the rabbins saj^, " where ilie pulse of an infant'.^ brain is." Tlie phylacteries were worn by the men only. The common people wore tliem only during prayers, but the Pharisees wore tiiem continually; and as they souglit by inclosing the parchment strips in larger boxes than ordi- nary to attract the attention of the people, the Saviour denounces them for making "broad their phylacteries." He does not condemn the wearing them, but the ostentation connection with it. They became badges of vanity and hypocrisy ; and, not unlikely, were used as amulets, though some writers deii\' this. Modern Jews continue the use of tlie phylacteries, which they call tephillin; tliat is, ;pr ay er -fillets^ because they use them in time of prayer. 698.— PLACES OF HONOR. XXIII, 6. The chief seats in the synagogue. See also Mark xii, 39; Luke xi, 43 ; xx, 46. Tliese "chief seats" were seats of honor which were prepared for the elders of the synagogue and for the doctors. of the law, and lience called, in the second verse of this chapter, " Moses' seat." They were placed in front of the, ark, which contained the law, in the uppermost part of the synagogue, at the "Jerusalem end." See note on Matt, iv, 23. Luke calls them "up- permost seats." Those who occupied them sat with their faces to the people. These seats were considered positions of great lionor, and were eagerly sought by the ambitious scribes and Pharisees. It is probable that James refers to this custom of honor in the Jewish synagogue when he speaks of "a good place," where the rich man is invited lo sit in the Chris- tian "assembly," or synagogue^ as it is in the original. See James ii, 2, 3. 699.— RABBI. XXIII, 7. To be called of men, Rabbi, Rabbi. This was a title of distinction given to teachers, and literally means Mas- ter, or Teacher. It is supposed to have been introduced during our Lord's ministry. Lightfoot says: "We do not too liicely examine the precise time when this title began ; be sure it did not commence before the schism arose l)etween the scliools of Shammai and Hillel ; and from that schism, perhaps, it had its beginning." — Iloroi Ilebraicce. Gamaliel I., who was patriarch in Palestine from A. D. 30-50, was the first who was honored with this title. It will thus be seen that Jesus was assailing a new fashion which had come into use in his own time. There were three forms of the title used: Rab, Rabbi, Rabbon; respect- ive'y meaning, Muster, My Master, Our Master. The i-recise difTcrcnce Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 869 between these terms, in their practical application, Ik not, liow^ver, very clear Ginsburg, in Kitto's Cyclopedia, s. v. Rahhi^ quotes from two ancient Bnbylo- nian Jews to the effect that the title Rab is Babj'lonian, and was given to those Babylonian sages wlio ret eived the laying-on of hands in their col- leges ; wliile Rabbi is the title given to the Palestinian sages, wlio re- ceived it with the laying-on of Viands of the Sanhedrim. They also state that Rab is the lowest title, Rabbi next higher, and Rabbon highest of all, and given only to the presidents. There is, however, a different explanation of these titles given in the Aruch, or Talmudical lexicon. According to this, a Rabbi is one wlio has disciples, and whose disciples again have disciples. When he is so old that his disciples belong to a past generation, and are thus forgotten, he is called Rabbon ; and when the disciples of his disciples are forgotten he is simply called by his own name. These distinctions probably belong to a later age than Christ's ministr3\ The terms Rabbi and Rabbon seem to have been used with the same general meaning. Jesus was called both. See John i, 38; xx, 16. Witsius states that the title was generally conferred with a great deal of ceremony. Besides the imposition of hands by the delegates of the Sanhe- drim, the candidate was first placed in a chair a little raised above the company; there were delivered to him a key and a table-book: the key as a symbol of the power and authority conferred upon him to teacli oNiers, and the table-book as a symbol of his diligence in his stud'es. The key he afterward wore as a badge of honor, and when he died it was buried witli him. — Burder's Oriental Literature, No. 1,220. 700.— HYPOCRISY. XXIII, 14. VsT'oe unto you, soribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! for ye devour widows' houses, and for a pretense make long prayer. See also Mark xii, 40 ; Luke xx, 4T. 1, The scribes and Pharisees had peculiar facilities for obtaining pi'operty under false pretensesa. The scribes, on account of their knowledge of law, were often consulted on property questions; and the Pharisees, by reason of their supposed piety, exorcised great influence over the people. Those who were inexperienced in business intrusted their property to these men for safe keeping, and many lost by it, 2. Some of the Pharisees prayed an hour, besides meditating an hour be- fore and an haur after prayer. This, repeated three times a day, made nine hours spent in pretentious devotion. One of the rabbis says : Since, there- fore, they spent nine hours every day about their prayers, how did they per- form the rest of the law ? and how did they take care of their worldly affairs? Why, herein— in being religious, both the law was performed and 370 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. their own business well provided for:" And again : " Long prayers make a long life." — LiGHTFOOT, Horce Hebraicce. TOl.— WINE-STRAINING. XXIII, 24. Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swal- low a camel. This would be more correctly rendered by "strain out a gnat." The at is supposed to have been originally a typographical error, which has since been universally copied. Alford, however, doubts this, and supposes that it " was a deliberate alteration, meaning, ' strain [out the wine] at [the occurrence of] a gnat.' " In either case the meaning is the same. The reference here is to an old proverb, which, in turn, refers to an old custom. The Jews, in common with other Oriental people, strained their wine before drinking it, not only to keep the lees from the cup, but also to get rid of the insects, which, in a hot climate, collected around the fluid. Wincklemann describes an instrument, evidently intended for a wine-strain- er, and which was found in the ruins of Herculaneum. It is made of white metal, of elegant workmanship, and consists of two round and deep plates, about four inches in diameter, with flat handles. Plates and handles fit into each other so exactly that wiien put together they seem to make but one vessel. The upper plate is perforated, and the wine, passing through the holes, fell into the deeper vessel below, whence it was drawn into drinking- cups. The dregs and insects remained on the upper plate. 702.— WHITEWASHED TOMBS. XXIII, 2T. Ye are like unto whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's bones, and of all uneleanness. The tombs were whitened with lime, so that they could be easily distin- guished, and thus prevent the Jews from being ceremonially defiled by ap- proaching them. See Num. xix, 18. This whitewash became soiled and washed off by the rains, and it was therefore necessary to renew it at in- tervals. This was usually done in the middle of the month Adar, when the streets and sewers were mended. It is still customary in Palestine to whitewash the tombs, Mohamme- dans, as well as Jews, are very particular about this. See engraving on th© opposite page. TOS.'-DECORATED TOMBS. XXIII, 29. Ye build the tombs of the prophets, and garnish the sepulchres of the righteous. The Jews not only whitewashed the tombs, but, in common with other peoples, they ornamented them in various waj s. This is still customary iii Matthew.] BIBLE MANNKRS AND CUSTOMS. 371 the East. The graves of the most eminent Mohammedan saints are ca;*]i covered with a stone or brick edifice called wdee. It has a dome or cupok 143, — SiiBiiv's Tt)MB. ?ver it, varying in height from eigiit to ten feet. With"n lamps are olieii .nnng, and the grave proper is cov^erod with carpet and strings of beadd. Sometimes more costly ornamentafion is used, 704.-^HEROD'S TEMPLE XXIV, 1. Jesus went out, and departed, fron^ the temple : and his diseiples eame to him for to show him the buildings of the temple. See also Mark xiii, 1 ; Luke xxi, 5. This is what is commonly known as Herod's temple, and was a restoration or reconstruction of the temple of Zerubbabel ; that structure being taken down piecemeal, and this gradually substituted for it. It was, however, larger and more splendid than the temple of Zerubbabel; its courts •oc- cupied more ground than those which surrounded that old temple, and far exceeded tiiem in magnificence According to the Talmud ihe entire temple area was five hundred cubits square. Around the edge of this square, and against the massive stone wall wiiich inclosed it, cloisters were built, (1, 2, 3, 4,*) their cedar roofs being supported by rows of Corinthian columns of solid marble. The cloister.s on ♦ The figures refer to the corresponding- flg'ures on the diagram. See next page. 872 BIBLE MANNKKS AN1> CUSTOMS. nSCatl^ew, 144. — Gro.und-plan of HerOvD'^s. Temflk. 1. North Cloister. 2. West CU>isteiv i). Solomon's Porch^ 4. Kinij's Porch, 5. Court of the Gentiles. 6. Wall of SeiKiratioD. 7. Platform. 8. Beatitifftl Gate. 9. Court of the Womei*. 10., Court of the Israelites^ H. Cowt of the Pi'iests. 12. Great Altar of Barnt-Ofiferings. 13. Poreh &f the TempJe. 14. Holy Plaee. 15. Most Holy Place-. the north, west^ and east skies (1, 2,. were alike m lieight arid wvdth, the cohimns which upheld the rcK)f beiiig twenty -five cubits high^ ands the lialls themselves thirty cubits wide. The eoloimade on tl^se ea&t (3) was calle(J Solomon's Porch^ ai>d is mentioned in- Jolm x, 23i: Acts ?ii^ 11 ; 12. The cloisters on tho south (4) formed an imniense building- known as the- Stoa Basilica, or King's Poreh. It was miich wider than the cioisters on the other sides, and consisted of a nave and two aisles. TMs immense building^ with its high nave, its broad aisles, and its marble eokimns, presented a grand appearance. Josephus says : '^Its finoness^to sueh as had not seen it^ was incredible ; and to such as l:iad seen it was greatly aniazing.'^ Tho soutli- eastern corner of this building is supposed to have been the '-'pinnacJe of the temple," where the devil took Jesus in the Temptation. See note on Matt* iv, 5. In these cloisters the Levites resided. Here the doctors of the law Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 373 met to hear and answer questions. See Luke ii, 46. Tliey wore favorite ^©laces of resort for religionists of different sorts to discuss various points of doctrine. Jesus often spoke here to tlie people ; and after liis death his fol- lowers met here. See Acts ii, 46. North of the center of the large area inclosed by tliese cloisters stood tlie sacred inclosure of the temple, its boundaries extending nearer to the cloisters on the west than to Solomon's Porch on the east. The space surrounding this inclosure was the Court of the Gentiles (5), and was open to all comers. It was paved with stones of various colors. It was liere that the cattle-dealers and money-changers desecrated the house of God. See note on Matt, xxi, 12. This court was also called the Outer Court, the Lower Court, and, by the rabbins usually, the ''Mountain of the Lord's house." The inclosure of the temple proper was on a terrace about six cubits higher than the Conrt of the Gentiles. It was approached by steps, and was surrounded by a wall tlire© cubits high (6). This wall was designed to shut off the Gentiles, and there were pillars erected in the wall at cer- tain distances with inscriptions in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, warning all Gentiles to come no further under penalty of death. The Jews, on one oc- casion, accused Paul of having brought ''Greeks" up the steps, and into the sacred inclosure, in violation of the standing order. See Acts xxi. 28. To this wall of separation Paul is thought to refer: "For he is our peace, who hath made both one, and hath broken down the middle wall of partition between us." Kph. ii, 14. At the top of the terrace, and going entirely around it, was a platform (7) ten cubits wide extending to another wall. In the eastern side of the latter wall was a gate (8) of elegant workman- ship, forty cubits wide, and supposed to have been the "Gate Beautiful," mentioned in Acts iii, 2, 10. It was sometimes called the "Gaie Susan," because it had a representation of the town of Snsa sculptured in relief on it. Though there were gates on the north and south sides, this was the grand entrance to the Court of the Women (9), which was the general place of public worship at the time of the sacrifices. It received its name, not be- cause it was exclusively appropriated to the women, but because the women were not allowed to go beyond it, Thei^ were smaller courts in the four corners of this ; and on the north, east, and west sides were galleries supported by columns. In front of these columns were distributed the eleven treasure chests of the temple, in addition to the two at the gate Susan, for the half- shekel tax. It was into one of these that the poor widow threw her two mites. Mark xii, 41, 42 ; Luke xxi, 1, 2. It was near these treasure chests that the incidents recorded in the eighth chapter of John took place. Sea John viii, 20. West of the Court of the Women, separated from it by a wall, and on ^ terrace higher still, was the Court of the Israelites (10), This was a narrow 374 BIBLE MJlNNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. hall completely surronndini^ the Court of the Priests, and had cloisters on all sides supported by beautiful columns. The rooms of these cloisters were devoted to various purposes connected with the service of the temple. This court was entered from the Court of the Women by a flight of semi- circular steps and through tlie Gate of Nicanor. The session room of the Sanhedrim was in the souih-east corner of the Court of the Israelites. On a terrace fifteen steps higher gtill, and separated from the Court of the Israelites by a low stone balustrade, was the Court of the Priests (1 1). In tlie eastern part of this was the groat altar of burnt-offering (12), directly west of which arose the Great Temple itself. The building was of white marble, and some of the foundation-stones were of immense size. It was divided into two parts, forming the Holy Place (14) and the Most Holy Place (15), the two being separated by a vail. See note on Matt, xxvii, 51. The internal arrangements of these two sacred places were probably like those of the temple of Zerubbabel. See note on Ezra vi, 3, 4. Above these were rooms used for various purposes, and on tlie sides were three stories of chambers. In the front part of the building was the porch (13), which pro- jected a short distance beyond the building, north and south, giving it this form : -^ A striking feature in the general appearance of the temple and its various courts is the series of terraces ; the different courts rising one above the other, uniilthe temple itself was reached on a platform highest of all. The structure — the paved courts, the beautiful columns, the white marble clois- ters, the gate-ways, which in themselves were high and massive buildings, and, crowning all, the white temple standing high above the rest, its front walls ornamented with thick plates of gold^produced an effect which was magniilcent beyond description. See, further, note on Luke xxi, 5, 'y05.-^GETTING DOWN FROM THE HOUSE-TOP. * XXIV, IT. Let h.im which is on the housetop not come down to take any thing out of his house. See also Mark xiii, 15; Luke jcvii, 31. Some commentators have endeavored to show how those who were on the fiat tops of the houses might escape without coming down, by going over the roofs of the other houses until they reached tlie city wall. But a Gom^ parison with the narrative as given by Mark and Luke shows that the di- rection was intended as a caution against stoppmg in any of the rooms of the house on their way down in order to collect their valuables. Mark's ac- count says: "Let him that is on the housetop not go down into the house, neither enter therein, to take any thing out of his house." Luke has, ''In tliat day, he which shall be upon the housetop, and liis stuff in the house, let hira not come down to take it away," They are not told that they arc not to llatthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 375 come down in order to escape, but they are -not to come down for the purpose of entering the house. According to our method of building it would be impossible to come down from the roof without entering. the house; but in the Oriental houses there are stairs on tlie outside of the house landing iii the court, from which one could escape into the street through the porcli. Occasionally, thougii not often, we are told of stairs which come directly from tlie roof on the street iside of the liouse into the street below. Somo travelers deny the existence of such external stairs, while others positively affirm it. Anderson, for instance, says: ''The house in which I lodged in Jerusalem had an outer as well as an inner stair, by which, without de- scending into the court, I could at any time go out into the street." — Bible Light from Bible Lands, p. 183. 708.— THE MILL. XXIV, 4L Two wonnen be grinding at th© mill. See also Luke xvii, 85. The ordinary hand-mill of the East consists of two circular stoue^^ from eighteen inches to two feet in diameter and about six inclies deep. The lower, or '^nether," is sometimes, though not always, of heavier and harder stone than the upper. See Job xli, 24. The upper, or " rider," is slightly concave, and covers like the lid of a vessel the lower, which is con^ vex. From the center of the lower stone i45.-Section of Eastern hIT; there rises a pivot, on which the upper stone Mill. revolves. Near the edge of the upper stone is the perpendicular stick or handle by which it is turned, and at the center is a hole for the pivot, and also for the grain to fall through upon the stone below. The lower stone has a projection on a part of the edge two or three inches long, slanting downward, and hollowed so as to carry off the meal. The work of grinding meal is usually performed by the women, and is very laborious. Sometimes one works alone, but usually two work together, sitting on the ground with the millstones between them, and both taking liold of the handle and moving it entirely around, to and from them. The usual time for grinding is at early dawn, or else at the evening in preparation for the following day. The stones, as they crush the grain, send forth a jg^rat- ing sound, which, though not very musical in itself, is melodious enough to a hungry traveler. Reference is made to this noise in Eccl, xii, 4; Jer. xxv, 10 ; Kev. xviii, 22, In addition to this, the women often sins: while grinding, The women who ground were, among the families of wealth, either slav^es or the lowest servants. Thus, in Exod. xi, 5, we read of " the maid-servant that is behind the mill" In this passage the expression behind the raiU" cau 376 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. be readily understood by what is said above of tlie position of the servants when grinding. The prophet Isaiah represents tlie "virgin danghter of Babylon" as compelled to sit on the ground like a servant to grind meal. See Isa. xlvii, I, 2. We also have more vividly brought before us the indignity which the Philis- tines put on Samson when they compelled him to "grind in the prison-house." See note on Judges xvi, 21. The millstones were considered so im- portant and necessary a part of household furniture that the Mosaic law would not allow them to be pawned. " No man shall take the nether or the upper mill- stone to pledge : for he taketh a man's life to pledge." Deut. xxiv, 6. 707.-- MARRIAGE PROCESSION. .XXY, 1. Ten virgins, which took their lamps, and went forth to meet the bridegroom. On the occasion of a marriage tlie bridegroom, attended by his friends, went to the house of his bride, and brought her with her friends in joyful procession to his own house. The virgins mentioned in the text were prob- ably some of the friends of the bride, who were to meet and join the proces- sion at some convenient place. "yO§.-^TORCHES. XXY, 3, 4. They that were foolish took their lamps, and took no oil with them ; but the wise took oil in their vessels with their lamps. It is difficult to tell whether lamps proper or torches are here meant. The rabbins speak of a staff used on such occasions, on top of which was a brazen dish containing rags, oil, and pitch. Chardin says that, in many places of the East, instead of torches they carry a pot of oil in one hand and a lamp full of oily rags in the other. The account given by Forbes is similar. He says: "The massaul or torch in India is composed of coarse rags rolled up to the size of an English flambeau, eighteen or twenty inches long, fixed in a brass handle. This is carried in the left hand; in the right the massaulchee (or torch-bearer) holds a brass vessel containing the oil, with wliieli he feeds the flame as occasion requires." — Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii, p, 417. Whether these virgins carried torches, or merely lamps, as some com- mentators snppose, they needed a supply of oil to replenislj their light, and 146.^WoMEN Grinding Corn witu THE Hand-mill of modkrn Syria, 148.— TOECHES OF ifl£ Mattli3wJ BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 379 hence weie obliged to carry "vessels" to coutain the supplies of oil. Great efforts are made to have an abundance of light at Oriental weddings, which always take place at night. Eeference is made to this custom of night-wed- dings, not only in these two verses, but also in the first verse, and in the filth and sixth verses. Lamps, torches, and lanterns are freely used in the marriage procession, and also at the house of tiie bridegroom, where the ceremony is performed. Only vegetable oil, chiefly olive, is used for illum- inating purposes. 709.— THE CLOSED DOOR. XXY, 10. The bridegroom came ; and they that were ready- went in with him to the marriage : and the door was shut. At all formal banquets the invited guests pre sen ed their tablets or cards to a servant stationed at the entrance-door for the purpose, care being taken to keep out uninvited spectators. When the company were assembled the "master of the house" shut the door, and after that the servant was not allowed to admit any one, no matter how great the importunity. This illus- t'-ates not onl}^ the text, but also Luke xiii, 24, 25. TIO— SHEEP AND GOATS. XXV, 32. He shall separate them one from another, as a shep- herd divideth his sheep from the goats. Sheep and goats are allowed to mingle during the day while at pasturage, but at night are separated. Thus the Saviour seeks to illustrate the truth that though righteous and wicked are now together, there will come a time of separation. 711.— THE ACQUITTED AND THE CONVICTED. XXV, 33. He shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. Some think there is a reference here to a custom in the Sanhedrim of putung the acquitted prisoners on the right of the president, and those who V ere convicted on his left. If so, the illustration of the text is derived from two customs; the separation of the two classes being taken from the shep- herds, and \j\\e\v iiosition from the Sanhedrim. 712.— ALABASTRA— OINTMENTS— RECLINING AT MEALS. XXVI, 7. There came unto him a woman having an alabaster box of very precious ointment, and poured it on his head as he sat at meat. See also Mark xiv, 3 ; John xii, 3. A similar incident, though occurring at auo;her time and place, is recorded in Luke vii, 36-38. 1. In Alabastron, in Egypt, vessels were anciently made of a peculiar stone, a kind of soft, white marble, which was found in that vicinity, and which was supposed to be specially adapted to preserve the odor of perfumed 880 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. ointment?. The Greeks named the vessels from the town wliere they were made. The stone afterward was called by the same name, and at length all perfnme vessels, of whatever form or substance, were called alahastra. They have been found made of gold, glass, ivory, bone, and shells. Specimens of these ancient perfume-boxes, or vases, made of alabaster and of other mate- rials, some of them richly ornamented, are in the British Museum, and also in the Abbott Collection, New York. The alahastra were of various shapes and sizes, though they were com- monly long and slender at the top, and round and full at the bottom, like a Florentine oil-tiask. Ac- cording to Epiphanius, the alabastron ordinarily used for fragrant oint- ments contained about half a pint. 2. The Eastern people not only make a free use of simple oil for the purpose of anointing, (see note on Psa. xxiii, 5,) but they prepare fragrant ointments, some of wliich are very costly. The custom is very old, and prevails among various nations. Even among the rude Parthians the kings had a ''royal ointment," which Rawlinson describes as " composed of cinnamon, spike- nard, myrrh, cassia, gum styrax, saffron, cardamom, wine, honey, and sixteen otiier ingredients." He does not, however, give them the credit of inventing this odoriferous compound, but suspects that they adopted it from the more refined Persians, whose " monarch applied to his own person an ointment composed of the fat of Hons, palm-wine, saffron, and the herb helianihus, which was considered to increase the beauty of the complexion. He carried with him, even when he went to the wars, a case of choice unguents, and such a treasure fell into the hands of Alexander, with the rest of Darius's camp-equipage, at Arbela." — Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 212. The holy ointment of consecration among the Jews, though it was not permitted to be used for ordinary purposes, gives us an idea of the variety of ingredients used in compounding ointments. This ''holy anointing oil" was composed of myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia, and olive oil. See Exod. xxx, 23, 24. In later times greater attention seems to have been paid to the perfume of the ointments which were used for hospitality or for personal purposes. 'J'he fragrance of some ointments is said to have remained in the alahastra for Imndrods of years. The ointment mentioned in the text is called by Mark TEE UERARy OF m Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 883 'ointment ol' spikenard," probably because that costly aromatic plant was one of the principal ingredients. From Job xli, 31, it appears that the different ing-redieiits of which oint- ments were anciently compounded were boiled together. Tlie h gh estima- mation in which the nioi e costly ointments weie held is manifested not only in the expression *'very precious" in the text, and in the remarks of the disciples as indicated in the eighth and ninth verges, but in several other passages. See 2 Kings xx, 13; Psa. cxxxiii, 2; Eccl. vii, 1. That such oint- ments were sometimes very exp'^nsive is evident from a comparison of John xii, 3, 5, where we find that a pound cost three hundred pence. Reckoning the penny at fifteen cents, (see note on Matt, xx, 2,) and the pound at twelve ounces avoirdupois, (see note on John xii, 3,) this would make the value three dollars and seventy-five cents an ounce. The fragrant character of ointment is also referied lo in Sol. Song i, 3 ; iv, 10; Isa. Ivii, 9; Rev. xviii, 13. 3. The expressi(;n "sat" at meat would be more correctly rendered by '"rechned," since the guests were lying on a bed, according to the fashion of the times. When or by whom the custom of having dinner-beds was intro- duced is not known; the Persians usually have the credit of it. The Jews, no doubt, learned it from them, as did also the Greeks. The Romans, who likewise practiced it, aie f-aid to have derived it from the Carthagenians. We find reference to the custom in E-ther i, 6; vii, 8; and in Ezek. xxiii, 41. Among the Romans three beds were generally used in the dining-room, and thus combined were called the triclinium : they were arranged around the sides of a square in the center of the dining-room, which was itself sometimes called triclinium. The tables were in front of them, and within easy reach of the guests, and the left side w^as op^fi, to allow the servants to pass in and out. The triclinia varied in style at different periods. The Irames on which the couches were placed were sometimes made of costly wood and highly ornamented. The beds themselves were stuffed with vari- ous substances: straw, hay, leaves, woolly plants, sea- weed, wool, and, among the wealthy and luxurious, with feathers and swan's-down. Cushions or pillows were placed on the bids, j-o that the guests might rest the left arm, on the elbow of which they usually leaned, the right hand being left free to reach the food. See nc^te on John xiii, 23. Some authorities, however, state that when the guests began eating tiiey lay flat upon the breast, and afterward, when hunger was satisfied, they turned upon the left side, lean- ing on the elbow. The Romans allowed three guests to each bed, making nine in all. It was the rule of Yarro that *' the number of guests ought not to be less than that of the Graces, nor to exceed that of the Muses." Sometimes, however, as many as four lay on each couch. The Greeks went beyond this number, and so did the Jews. 384 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. The front of the bed was somewhat higher than the table, and as the triclinium was on an incUued plane, the feet of the guests lay toward tlie floor. In the incident recorded by Luke tiie woman anointed the feet of Jesus. This she could easily do by passing between the rear of the triclinium and the wall of the room. In the account given in the text and its parallels, Matthew and Mark speak of the woman's anointing the head of Jesus, while John speaks of anointmg his feet. By comparing the two accounts it thus seems that she anointed both head and feet. She probably first entered the passage where the servants waited by the table. Here she could reach the head of the Saviour, and then going behind the iricUnium she could easily find access to his feet, as did the other woman in the house of the other Simon mentioned by Luke. Reclining on the dinner-bed is also referred to in Matt, ix, 10 ; xxvi, 20 ; Mark xiv, 18; xvi, 14; John xii, 2. In all these passages the expression " sitting at meat " has the meaning above given. The "tables" mentioned in Mark vii, 4, are dinner-beds. 713 —PIECES OF SILVER. XXVI, 15. They covenanted with him for thirty pieces of silver. It is difficult to ascertain what coins are here meant. Mr. Poole, of the British Museum, one of the best authorities on numismatics, suggests (see Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Piece of Silver) that the thirty arguria, menticmed here and in Matt, xxvii, 3, 5, 6, 9, were not denarii, as many commentators suppose, but shekels, and that shekels must also be under- stood in the parallel passage of Zech. xi, 12, 13. Thirty shekels of silver was the price of blood when a slave was accidentally killed. See Exod. xxi, 32. As there were probably no current sliekels during our Lord's time, Mr. Poole supi)oses that the tetradrachms of the Greek cities of Syria were the coins which composed the thirty pieces of silver paid to Judas. These tetradrachms have the same weight as the shekels of Simon Maccabasus; and the staler found by Peter in the fish was a specimen of them. See note on Matt, xvii, 27. This would make the sum wliich Judas received equivalent to about eighteen dollars, United States coin, or a little over three pounds ten shillings, English. 714.— PASSOVER GUESTS. XXYI, 17. Where wilt thou that we prepare for thee to eat the j:)assover ? Sec also Mark xiv, 12 ; Luke xxii, 9. The Israelites who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover were received by the inhabitants as brothers, and apartments were gratuitously furnished them where they might cat the feast. In return, the guests gave tiicir hosts the skins of the paschal lambs and the vessels ihey lud used in Matthew.] BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 385 the ceremonies. According to this custom the disciples, wishing to make arriingemeuts for the Passover, inquired of the Lord if he had any special house in view where he desired to go. 715.— PREPARING FOR THE PASSOVER. XXVI, 19. The disciples did as Jesus had appointed them- and they made ready the passover. See also Mark xiv, 16; Luke xxiL, 13. The two disciple?', Peter and Jolm, who represented the company who, with Jesus, were to celebrate the Passover together, went, as was customary, to the temple with the paschal lamb. There, taking their turn with others who thronged the temple on the same errand, they killed the lamb, the nearest priest catching the blood in a gold or silver bowl, and passing it to the next in the row of priests until it reached the priest nearest the altar, who instantly sprinkled it toward the altar's base. The lamb was then flayed and the entrails removed, to be burnt with incense on the altar. All this was done in the afternoon. As soon as it was dark the lamb was roasted with great care. Thus the two made ready the Passover." They likewise provided unleavened 'bread, wine, bitter herbs, and sauce. See also note on Exod. xxiii, 15. 716.— PASSOVER CEREMONIES IN CHRIST'S TIME. XXVL, 20. Now when the even was come, he sat down with the twelve. See also Mai-k xiv, 17 ; Luke xxiL, 14. The ceremonies of the Passover supper in the time of Christ were as follows : 1. A eup of wine was filled for every one of the company, over which he who presided at the feast pronounced a blessing, after which the wine was dnink. 2. Tlie bitter herbs, the unleavened bread, the charosetK and the fiesh of th-e clmgigah^ were then brought in. The charoseth was composed of vinegar and water, according to some authorities ; others say that it was a mixture of vinegar, figs, ahiionds, dates, raisins, and spice, beaten to the consistence of mortar or ht into watches is noticed in the note on Exod. xiv, 24. After the Jews became subject to the Roman power they adopted the Roman method of dividing the watches. Tliese watches were (bur: the first being from sunset to three hours later; the second from this time to midnight ; the third from midnight to three hours before sunrise ; lud the fourth from this time to sunrise. These four watches are all alluded 25 BTBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. LMarli tc in text, the first being called "even," the second " mirlnight," the fchird "cockcrowing," and tlie fourth "morning;" the names indicating, the time wheB. the watch terminated. This mode of dividing the night is also referred to in Matt, xiv, 2.5 ; xxiv, 43 ; Mark ri, 48 ; Liiks xii, 38. 744.— AN EXCEPTIONAL CUSTOM— PITCHER. XIV, 13. There shall meet yom a man bearing « pitcher oi water. See also Luke xxii, 10. 1. Water is usually carried by women. See note on Gen. xiiv, 15 Therefore the sight of a man carrying water would more readily attract attention. Hackett says: "I recollect but two instances in which J saw 's /nan bearing a pitcher of water: ' and I think that the manner in w.iich thf^ Savioar refers to such a circumstance (he mentions it as a sign) implies that it was not c<^mmon.'* — Illustrations of Scripttre, p. 89. 2. The "pitcher" is supposed to have been an amphora. Se^ i*/)temi i Kings iv, 2. 745.— THE "UPPER ROOM." XIV, 14, 15. Where is the guest-ehamber, where 1 shall eat the passover with my disciples? And. he will show you a large npper room furnished and prepared : there make ready for us. See also Luke xxii, 11, 12. Some suppose this "guest chamber " and " upper room " to be the aliya or room above the porch or on the roof. See note on 2 Kings iv, 10. Others, however, think the words refer to a large open room fronting the court, on the side opposite to the entrai ce from the porch, and elevated above the level of the court. See note on Matt, xxvi, 69. This is a very important apartment in an Eastern house, and is often elegantly fitted up. Here the owner receives his friends, or those who come to him on business. It is the first room that meets the eye of a visitor on entering the court, and frequently presents a splendid appearance. Sometimes a fountain in the court directly in front of this apartment cools the air, while adding beauty to the ai^''3arance. 746.— MODE OF EATING. XIV, 20. One of the twelve, that dippeth with me in the dish. See also Matt, xxvi, 23. The Orientals at their meals make no use of knives, forks, or spoons. The animal food is so thoroughly cooked as to be easily separated hy the fingers, and with the fingers the fcodof all kinds is maiuly taken from the dish. When, however, the food is in a semi-fluid state, or so soft that the Mark.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 403 fingers cannot conveniently hold it, a piece of bread is dipped into the dish and made the vehicle by which soft food is conveyed to the mouth. This bread formed the "sop " mentioned in John xhi, 26, v^here see the note. 747.— COUNSELOR. XV, 43. Josepln of Arimathea, an honorable counselor. See also Luke xxiii, 50. The expression *' counselor" means that Joseph was a member of the Jewish Sanhedrim or Great Council. Luke makes this clear by adding, " The same had not consented to tlie counsel and deed of them." Luke xxiii, 51. "Them " undoubtedly refers to the Jewish authorities who had condemned Jesus. It is supposed by some that the expression " honorable " was a title of distinction applied to every ''counselor " or member of the Sanhedrim. For a description of this Council, see note on Matt, xxvi, 59. LUKE. T48.— WIVES OF PRIESTS. 1, 5. There was ... a certain priest named. Zaeharias, of the course of Abia : and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron. Great care was taken in the selection of wives for the Jewish priests, so that the line of priests might be kept in every respect unsullied. "It was lawful for a priest to marry a Levitess, or, indeed, a daughter of Israel; but it was most commendable of all to marry one of the priests' line." — Light- foot, Horce Hebraicce. Zaeharias was specially honored in having for his wife one of the descendants of Aaron. 749.— NAMING THE CHILD. 1,59. It came to pass, that on the eighth day they canrie to cir- cumcise the child ; and they called him Zaeharias, after the name of his father. It was customary among the Jews to give names to cliildren at the time of tlieir circumcision. The rabbins say that this was because God changed the names of Abram and Sarai at the same time that lie instituted circum- cision. It was very rarely tliat the son received the name of the father; there was, doubtless, some special reason in this case why the fi iends wished the babe to be called Zaeharias. The custom of naming the child at the time of circumcision is also illustrated in the case of Jesus. See Luke ii, 21. Other nations, as weU as the Jews, gave names to their children on special days. Godwyn says: "The Romans gave names to their male children ou 404 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. the ninth day, to the female on the eighth. The Athenians gave names on the tenth. Others on the seventh. These days Tertulhan calieth Nomiualia. Tlie Grecians, besides the tenth day on which they named the child, observed also the fifth, on which day the midwives took the child, and ran about a fire made for that purpose, using that ceremony as a purification of themselves and the child." — Moses and Aaron, book vi, chap. 1. Morier gives an interesting account connected witli the naming of children in Persia. He says: "The Persians have no ceremony tliat corresponds entirely to our christening, because their children become Mohammedans as soon as the Kelemeh Islam has been whispered into tlieir ear; but they have one called the Slieb be Khair, or 'Be the niglit propitious,' whicli is for the purpose of giving the child a name. If the father of the child be in good circumstances, he collects his friends together and makes a feast. He also requires the attendance of several Mollahs; and when the mejlisov assembly is complete, sweetmeats are brought in and eaten. The infant is also brought into the mejlis, and placed near one of the Mollahs. The father of the child then gives out certain names, five in number, each of which is written separately on separate shps of paper. These slips of paper are placed either within the Koran, or under the edge of the nummud, or carpet. The Fatheh. which is the first surai or chapter of the Koran, is read. One of the slips of paper is then taken out at random by the hand of the father, and the child is called after the name which is there inscribed. A Mollah takes up the babe, pronounces the name in its ear, and places the paper on its swaddling- clothes. The relations of the child then each give it money and other pres- ents, and tliis custom they call the Boo-memah, or Showing the face.'''' — Second Journey,' etc., p. 108. T50.— WRITING-TABLETS. I, 63. He asked for a writing-table, and. wrote, saying. His nanne is John. Writing-tablets w^ere in use among various ancient nations. They are referred to in Isa. xxx, 8, and in Hab. ii, 2, and metaphorically in Prov. iii, 3 ; Jer. xvii, 1, and 2 Cor. iii, 3. They are yet to be seen in modern "Greece. Among the Romans they were occasionally made of ivory or of citron-wood, but generall}^ of beach, fir, or some other common wood. They were covered with a thin coating of wax, in which the letters were formed by a stylus, an instrument corresponding to the modern pen. It was made of gold, silver, brass, iron, copper, ivory, or bone. One end was pointed for writing, while the other was smooth, flat, and circular, for erasing, and for Bmoothing the waxed surface so that it might be used again for writing. The outside part of the tablet, which was held in the hand, was not coated with wax, and around the edge of the inside there was a thin, narrow ledge, so Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 405 tliat when two tablets came together the waxed surfaces would not touch each other and become marred. A book was often made of several of these tablets combined, some- times as many as five or six being fastened together at the backs by means of wires, which also served as hinges. Tablets were used for almost every species of writing, wliere the document was not of great length. Letters, or even wills, were written upon them. For the purpose of sealing these, and other documents which might require it, lioles were made in the outer edge, through which a triple thread was passed and fastened with a seal. 153. — Writing Tablets. 751.— SWADDLING-CLOTHES— MANGER— INN. II, 7. She brought forth her first-born son, and wrapped him in swaddling-elothes, and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn. 1. The " swaddling-clothes " were bandages which were tightly wrapped around a new-born child. Tlie rank of ihe child was indicated hy the splendor and costliness of these bands. A fine white shawl, tied with a golden band, was sometimes used for the purpose; at other times a small purple scarf, fastened with a brooch. The poor used broad fillets of common cloth. The practice is still followed in the East. Miss Rogers, an Enghsh lady, who had opportunities far beyond ordinary travelers for observing the domestic life of the E ^st'^rn people, describes the appearance of an infant thus bandaged : *' The infant I held in my arms was so bound in swaddling-clothes that it was perfectly firm and solid, and looked lil'ce a mummy. It had a band under it-^ chin and across its foreliead and a little, quilted silken cap on its head with tiny coins of gold sewed to it. The outer covering of this little figure was of crimson and wliiie striped silk; no sign of arms or legs, hands or feet, could be seen." — Domestic Life in Paledine^ p. 28. Tin's was in Jaffa. Another infant which she saw in Bethlehem is thus described: "I took tlie little creature in my arms. His body was stiff" and unyielding, so tightly was it swathed with white and purple linen. His hands and feet were quite confined, and his head was bound with a small, soft red sliawl. wliicli passed under his chin and across his forehead in small folds." — P. 62. This custom is referred to in Job xxxviii, 9 ; Lam. ii, 22 ; Ezek. xvi, 4; Luke ii, 12. 2. There is a dispute as to the precise meaning of tlie word (jxlrvij, here 406 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. and in verses 12 and 16 rendered "manger," and in Luke xiii, 15. rendered *' stall." Some aulliorities give it the one meaning, and some the other; while others, as our translators, attach both meanings to the word. It is the Septuagint rendering for the Hebrew ebus in Job xx'xix, 9, and in Isa. i, 3; a word wliich, in our version, is translated *'crib." The location of the manger or the stall is also a point of discussion ; whether it was connected with the stable belonging to the inn, or with some other stable in the neigh- borhood, as, for instance, in some cave near by. Caves, we know, were used for dwellings, (see note on Gen. xix, 30,) and are so used at this day, and also for stables. The discussion is interesting, but is not pertinent to the object of this book. It is proper, however, to remark, that in many rude houses horses and cattle are stabled in the court, while the family are provided for in apart- ments raised on a platform of stone some two feet from the level of the court. The food of the animals is placed on this platform, and sometimes there are hollow places in the stone which serve the purpose of mangers. See further in tlie description of the inn in the next paragraph. 3. The P]astern "inn," or caravanserai, bears no resemblance to the inns with which we are acquainted. There are various kinds of these Oriental inns, some being merel}^ small, rude resting-places, such as are mentioned in the note on Jer. ix, 2, while others are capacious and comparatively com- fortable. Such an inn presents, at a distance, the appearance of a fortress, being a quadrangular building about a hundred yards long on each side of the square, having its wall about twenty feet high. An arclied gate-way, sur- mounted by a tower, opens into a large open court, surrounded by a plat- form, on the level of which are the travelers' rooms. These rooms are not furnished, each traveler being expected to provide for himself every thing but actual shelter. He must carry his own bedding, provisions, and cooking utensils. In case of sickness the porter in attendance may minister to his wants. See Luke x, 34, 35. The horses, camels, and baggage are placed in the extensive court, in tlie center of which is a fountain. Sometimes, how- ever, there are stables formed of covered avenues, extending between the rear w dl of the lodging-rooms and tiie external wall of the caravanserai, the entrance being at the coiners of the quadrangle. These stables are on a level with the court, and thus below the level of tlie platform on which are the cloth which contain their food. Dr. Kitto thinks that it was in such a stable ns this that our Lord was horn. See Daily Bible Readings^ vol. vii, p. 68. travelers' apartments. This plat- form, however, projects into the stable, thus forming a ledge or bench above the stable floor. On 154. — Diagram of Caravanserai. this ledge the cattle can, if they wisli, rest the nose-bags of hair- TEE vm^'i OF (HE Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 409 752.— "THE CONSOLATION." II, 25. The same man was just and devout, waiting for the consolation of Israel. The Consolation was a term used by tlie Jews of that period, and long after, to designate tlie Messiah. LightfooL says tliat they were accustomed lo swear by "tlie Consolation." When we are told in the texi that Simeon was waiting for "tlie Consolation of Israel," we are to understand that lie was waiting for the Messiah. See also Acts xv, 31. 753.— THE FIRST DAY'S JOURNEY. 11,44,45. But they, supposing him to have been in the company, went a day's journey ; and they sought him among their kinsfolk and acquaintance. And when they found him not, they turned back again to Jerusalem, seeking him. This does not mean that they traveled an entire day before they missed the lad. An ordinary "day's journey" varied from eighteen to thirty miles. See note on 1 Kings xix, 4. But when a party started on a journe}- the first day's travel was invariably shorter than the usual distance. This is a very ancient custom, and is still practiced. When every thing is ready for the caravan to move they slowly march on, but halt for the first night at a distance of from three to eight miles from the place of starting. The reason assigned for this usage is, that if any thing has been left behind through mistake or forgetfulness, some one may with,but little trouble return and get it in time to join the caravan the next day. In the case before us tlicy made the short journey of the first day, and then halted for the night; so that, instead of traveling all day witiiout miss- ing Jesus, they only traveled a few hours. The first stopping-place of nearly all traveling parties who now leave Jerusalem for the north is el-Eireh, supposed to be the ancient Beer, or Beerotli. It is only eight or ten miles from the city, and is considered a three hours' journey. There is a tradition that this is the very place where the caravan, of which the family of Jesus was a part, made their first halt; and it certainly has greater probability in its favor than many other traditions connected with Palestine. Halting here, or not far from it, when the family gathered together they noticed the absence of Jesus, and immediately went back to the city to find him. 754.— DOCTORS AND DISCIPLES. II, 46. They. found him in the temple, sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing them, and asking them questions. There were several places within the Temple area where doctors of the law met their disciples. One of these places was in the cloisters described in 410 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. the note on Matt, xxiv, 1. Another was in the synagogue which was in tlie Temple inclosiire. After service the doctors admitted any who wished to converse with them on matters pertaining to the law. There were also other places resorted to for a similar purpose ; and Lightfoot declares that it was not impossible for Jesus to have been in the great Sanhedrim itself. There is no reason to suppose that in the conversation which Jesus held with these learned men there was any thing like controversy. He simply followed the custom of the time, which allowed any one who cliose to ques- tion the doctors on any points on which they desired information. 755.~PUBLIC SCRIPTURE-READING. IV, 16. He went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day, and stood tip for to read. When the law and the propiiets were read in the synagogue those who read were expected to stand. See note on Acts xiii, 15. Not onl}^ priests and Levites but common Israelites were allowed to read tiie Scriptures pub- licly. Every Sabbath seven persons read : a priest, a Levite, and five ordinary Israelites. 756.— BOOKS OF PROPHECY. IV, IT. There was delivered unto him the book of the prophet Esaias. And when he had opened the book, he found the place where it was written, etc. 1. For a description^ of books, and tlie mode of opening and closing, (referred to in this verse and in verse twenty,) see notes on Job xix, 23, 24 ; and on Isa. xxxiv, 4. 2. Each of the prophetical books is supposed to have been in a separate volume, with the exception of tlie prophecies of the twelve minor prophets, which were perliaps bound together. "757.— THE CHAZAN— POSTURE OF TEACHERS. TV, 20. He closed the book, and he gave it again to the minis- ter, and sat down. I. The position of tlie "minister" in the synagogue bore no resemblance to tliat of the minister in the Christian Church. He was called chazan, and, in the time of Christ and for several centuries afterward, was the lowest servant in the synagogue, his duties resembling those of the sexton in one of our churches. He liad charge of the furniture, and kept tlie building in good order, preparing it for service, and summoning the people at the ap- pointed hour. It was also his duty to call out the names of those whom the ruler of the synagogue selected to read the lesson of the day, and to hand to them the sacred roll, receiving it from them when the reading was Luke] BTBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 411 finislied. It was the chazan who " dehvered " Isaiah's prophecy to Jesus, as recorded in verse seventeen, and to liim Jesus gave tlie book wlieu he liad done reading, as noted in the twentietli verse. 2. Sitting was the customary posture of a teacher when iustructing liis disciples. Hence, when Jesus rolled up the manuscript and returned it to the hands of tlie chazan, he sat down on the platform instead of going back to his seat, because he wished to address the people. This custom is also referred to in Matt, v, 1 ; xxiii, 2 ; xxvi, 55 ; John viii, 2. See, further, note on Acts xxii, ?>. T5§.— NIGHT-FISHING. V, 5. We have toiled all the night, and. have taken nothing. Night- fishing is very common in the East. Roberts says that in India the fishermen prefer the night to the day. They carry lighted torches to allure tlie fish. Dr. Tliomson gives a lively description of night-fishing in Palestine : " It is a beautiful sight. With blazing torch the boat glides over the flashing sea, and the men stand gazing keenly into it until their prey is siglited, when, quick as lightning, they fling their net or fly their spear; and often you see the tired fishermen come sullenly into harbor in the morning, having toiled all night in vain." — The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 80. Night-fishing is also referred to in John xxi, 3. 759.— TAX-GAT H E R I NG. V, 27. He went forth, and saw a publican, named Levi, sitting at the receipt of custom. See also Matt, ix, 9; Mark ii, 14. 1. The publicans were the Roman tax-gatherers, of whom there were several classes. The Roman senate farmed the taxes to rich capitahsts, who agreed to pay a certain sum into the public treasury, and reimburse them- selves with the taxes they collected. These capitalists were cviWed publicani, and often formed themselves into a joint-stock company, appointing one of their number as general manager. He usually resided at Rome, and was called magister. The publicani were an influential section of the Roman knights, an an- cient order who occupied a kind of middle rank between the senators and the people. These, however, are not mentioned in the New Testament. The "publicans " so frequently referred to there were the portitores, or men who were employed by the imUicani to collect the taxes in the provinces. They were the actual custom-house officers, and were commonly natives of the provinces where they were stationed. They were supervised by the suh-magistri, who made the returns to the w.agister at Rome. Zaccheus was a suh-magister, or "chief of the publicans." Luke xix, 2. Levi, or Matthew, was one of the 'portitores, or tax-gatherers. 412 BIBLE Manners and customs. [Luke. The publicans, of whatever class, were looked upon with disfavor by tlie masses of tlie people. The complimentary reference of Cicero to tlie puUi- cani, which has sometimes been cited as an evidence of their hip^li respect- ability, is thought to have been merely the flattery of an orator wlio souo^ht to accomplish! political purposes thereby. The poiiitores^ however, were especially detested. Their duty, if honestly discharged, would liave made them unpopular enough ; but when, as was often the case, they went beyond their legal rights and levied exorbitant taxes, using all the machinery of the law to help them, their unpopularity greatly increased. Many of them were Jews, and were regarded by their Jewish brethren as no better tlian the heathen, with wliom pubhcans were often classed. See Matt, xviii, IT. It is said that tlie Jews would not associate with them, nor allow them in the temple or in the synagogue ; nor would they permit them to give testi- mony in Jewish courts. Even the presents which they brought to the temple are said to have been rejected. They were completely excluded from their fellows. These statements serve to illustrate the reference made to the publicans in the G-ospel narratives. They were classed with sinners. See Matt, ix, 10, 11; xi, 19; Mark ii, 15, 16; Luke vii, 34; xv, 1. They were men- tioned with harlots. See Matt, xxi, 31, 32. They were alluded to as oc- cupying the lowest position in morals, the vilest of the vile : " even the publicans." Matt, v, 46. 47. 2. Sitting at the receipt of custom accurately expresses the posture which is occupied in the East by all who transact business. The merchant sits when he sells, and even carpenters and washerwomen sit at their work No one stands when at work unless it is entirely unavoidable. 3. There were houses or booths built at the foot of bridges, at the gates of cities, at the mouths of rivers, and by the sea-side, where the tax-gath- erers transacted their business. Such a place was the reXuviov^ or " receipt of custom." 760.— THE "BOSOM." VI, 3S. Good measure, pressed down, and shaken together, and running over, shall men give into your bosom. The term "bosom" frequently refers, in Oriental usage, to the folds of the garment as they extend bej'ond and droop over the girdle. This part of the dress is also called the " lap." See 2 Kings iv, 39 ; and see also note on Neh. V, 13. It is used as a receptacle for various articles, as pockets are used with us; though some things are deposited there which we would not put into our pockets. Fathers sometimes carried their children here. See Num. xi, 12, and note on Isa. xlix, 22. Here also the shepherd carried the lambs. S?e 2 Sam xii, 3; I.sa. xl, 11. To this custom of making a recep- Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 413 iacle of the folds of the dress there are frequent allusions. See Job xxxi, 33; Psa. Ixxix, 12; Ixxxix, 50; cxxix, 7; Prov. vi, 2t ; xvii, 23; xxi, 14; Isa, Ixv, 6. This is tiie custom referred to in the text; thongli we are not autliorized to infer, as some have strangely done, that grain and otlier articles that are measured in the way suggested in the text were literally carried in the bosom. The figure is double, and tlie design is to express the reflex benefits of good deeds ; they will come back in full measure to bless the giver. 761 .—FOUNDATIONS. VI, 48. He is like a man which built a house, and digged deep, and laid the foundation on a rock. See also Matt, vii, 24. In building the better class of houses it is usual to dig down until the solid rock is reached, in order to have a sure foundation for the edifice. Dr. Robinson says of a new house he visited in Nazareth, by invitation of its owner, "In order to lay the foundations he liad dug down to the solid rock, as is usual throughout the country; here to the depth of thirty feet; and then built u)) arches." — Biblical Researches, vol. ii, p. 338. It was of such a liouse that the Saviour spoke in the text: tlie builder "digged deep." T62.— SYNAGOGUE BUILDING. VII, 5. Fop he loveth our nation, and he hath built us a synagogue. It was no unusual thing for one man to build a synagogue at his own ex- pense. If, as in this case, a Gentile built the sacred edifice, the Jews had no scruples in receiving the gift, even if he did not become a proselyte, as some suppose this centurion to have been. They held that the holiness of the place consisted, not so much in the building, as in its being set apart and dedicated to holy uses. 763.— CUSTOMS AT FUNERALS. VII, 12. Now when he came nigh to the gate of the eity, be- hold, there was a dead man carried out, the only son of his mother, and she was a widow : and much people of the city was with her. 1. It was customary, and still is, to bury the dead outside the limits of the city. Heathen nations as well as Jewish observed this usage. Rare ex- ceptions were sometimes made in the case of royal personages. See note on 1 Kings ii, 10. Thus it was that Jesus saw the dead man carried out of the gate. 2. It was usual for all who knew the deceased to accompany the body to 414 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. the grave. There were several relays ot men to take turns in carrying the bier. This was considered a privilege. Thns we are told that "much people of the city was with " the bereaved mother. 764.— THE BIER. VII, 14. He came and touched the bier : and they that bare him stood still. The bier is a wooden frame, partly resembling a coffin and partly a hand- barrow. The deceased is arrayed in grave-clothes, the ankles are bound, the hands are laid on the breast, and a shawl is thrown across the face. Miss Rogers says of a bier she saw: *'It was a painted wooden stand, about seven feet by two, raised slightly on four legs, with a low gallery round it, formed of uprights far apart and two cross-bars. Two strong poles pro- jected at each end from the corners. Above it a canopy was raised, made of freshly-gathered elastic palm-branches. They were bent like half-hoops, and then interlaced and secured lengthways with straight fronds." — Domestic Life in Palestine^ p. 1 62. The bier was lifted by four men who bore it aloft, the poles resting on their shoulders. 705.— KISSING THE FEET. VII, 38. Stood at his feet behind him . . . and kissed his feet. This was no unusual practice among the Jews, and was also customary among the Greeks and Romans. It was a mark of affection and of reverence. It was also the practice of supplicants, nnd of those who had an important request to present. Kissing the feet of princes was a token of subjection and obedience. See also verse 45. 766.— GUIDING THE PLOW. IX, 62. No man, having piAt his hand to the plow, and looking back, is fit for the kingdom of God. The Eastern plow is of very rude and simple workmanship. See note on 1 Kings xix, 19. It is evident from the text that in our Lord's time the plow usually had but one handle, ond many such plows are still seen. One hand guides the plow, while the other holds the long goad (sec note on Judges iii, 31) by which the oxen are spurred on to their work. The plow being light, it is necessary for the plowman to lean forward with all his weight on the handle to keep the share in the ground. Many commentators suggest that by looking back the laborer would be unabie to make straight furrows. This is true; but it is also true that he could not make any furrow at all, and this fact must not be overlooked in considering the figure used by our Lord in the text. Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 415 767.— FORMAL SALUTATIONS. X, 4. Salute no man by the way. This was not designed to forbid them from exercising the usual courtesies of life, in giving a mere salaam to those they might ineet, as is evident from the very next verse, and also from Matt, x, 12, 13. They were, donbtless, allowed to give the usual salutation of "Peace!" See note on John xx, 19. But the text is designed to remind them of the importance of their mission, and of the necessity of diligence in its execution. Hence, they were not to observe the tedious and oft-repeated salutations with which the Orientals love to greet each other. Tliese ceremonies of salutation are numerous and slowly performed. When two friends meet each inquires of the other, again and again, concerning his health and the health of his family; and repeats over and over again the best wishes for bis prosperity and peace, thanking God that he is permitted once more to behold his face. These formalities are accompanied by numerous bowings and posturings of the body, and are sometimes repeated as often as ten times, consuming much time and making great delay. Those whom our Lord sent forth were forbic'.den to do this. A similar injunction was given by EUsha when he sent his servant Gehazi to the Shunamite's house: "If thou meet any man, salute him not; and if anj" salute thee, answer him not again." 2 Kings iv, 29. 768.— FORMAL VISITING. X, 7. In the same house remain, . . . Go not from, house to house. The exhortation to diligence in tlieir work, alluded to in the last note, is repeated in a different form in this text. As salutations are tedious and fre- quent, so Oriental etiquette requires much visiting from house to house. Tliis consumes time and takes attention from business; hence our Lord com- mands his disciples not to do it. 769.— NEIGHBORS. X, 29. He, willing to justify himself, said, unto Jesus, And who is my neighbor? The Jews gave a very narrow definition of the word " neighbor." The rabbins interpreted it to mean only tliose who were of the Jewish people. Tlie Gentiles were not considered neighbors. 770.— USE OF OIL AND WINE. X, 34. Went to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring in oil and wine. This was a favorite apphcation for wounds in ancient surgery. It was considered a sovereign remedy, especially for wounds produced by violence; 416 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. wool, lint, or pounded olive being first laid upon the wound. The uine wns supposed to cleanse, aud the oil to soothe and heal. The two were some- times made into a compound. 771.— NIGHT-TRAVELING. XI, 5, 6. Which of yoiA shall have a friend, and shall go unto him at nnidnight, and say unto him. Friend, lend me three loaves ; for a friend of mine in his journey is come to me. It would, indeed, be a rare circumstance among us to have a friend come at midnight to borrow bread; but in the East, where, on account of the heat,, the traveling is often done at night, it might easily occur To an Oriental audience the allusion in the parable would be perfectly natural. 772.— FAMILY BEDROOM. XI, 7. Trouble me not : the door is now shut, and my children are with me in bed. It is common for a whole family, parents, children, and servants, to sleep, in the same room, different beds being made for them on different parts of the divan. See note on 2 Kings i, 4, and on Matt, ix, 6. " FA^ rrjv k.olt7)v [in hed] may best be rendered by our a-hed^ for ai-hed. Mer' kfiov [with me] does not necessarily imply in the same bed; rather, according to the simplicity of ancient manners, in the same roomy — Bloomfield. 773.— NEGLECTED TOMBS. XI, 44. Ye are as graves which appear not, and the men that walk over them are not aware of them. There is an allusion here to the custom spoken of in the note on Matt, xxiii, 27, though the reference in this text is to the neglect of the custom rather than to its observance. When the customary whitewashing of a flat tontb was neglected its presence was easily concealed from view, and the passer-by might walk upon it and thus become ceremonially defiled. 774.— MONEY-BAGS. XII, 33. Provide yourselves bags which wax not old, a treasure in the heavens that faileth not. Money was kept in the royal treasuries in bags, the value of the contents being first ascertained and marked upon each bag, which was then sealed. Thenceforth, as long as the seal remained unbroken, the bag was estimated at its marked value, without re-counting. This was customary in ancient Egypt, and is still the usage in Persia and in other parts of the East. It is not con- fined to royal treasuries ; but private bankers pursue a similar plan, so that in some parts of the Levant a "purse" is the word used for a particular sum of money. These bags are made of cotton-cloth, and are of different sizes, Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CTTSTOMS. 417 as they are used for carrying gold, silver, or copper pieces. A similar custom eeems to be referred to in 2 Kings xii, 10. Money-bags are alluded to in 2 Kings v, 23, and Job xiv, 17. The "bag" which Judas carried (John xii, 6; xiii, 29) was probably a small box or chest. A different word is used in the original, in John, from the one rendered "bag" in the text in Luke. It originally signified a box carried by musi- cians for the purpose of holding the mouth-pieces of their instruments. 775._TREES IN VINEYARDS. XIII, 6. A certain man had. a fig-tree planted in his vine- yard. Vineyards were not devoted exclusively to vines. Fruit-trees of various kinds were planted within their limits, so that it is perfectly correct to speak of a fig-tree being planted in a vineyard. The ancient Egyptians planted their vines and fruit-trees in the same inclosure. yte.— SABBATH-FEASTING. XIV, 1. He went into the house of one of the chief Pharisees to eat bread on the Sabbath day. The strictness with which the Jewish Sabbath was kept did not prevent the Pharisees, as well as other Jews, from having a better provision of food on that day than on ordinary days. They did this as a reli^nous duty iu honor of the day. Lightfoot gives several curious instances of this custom from the rabbins, of which this is one: " 'Rabba Bar Rabh Houna went to the house of Rabba Bar Rabli Nachman. He set before him three measures of rich cake; to whom he. How did you know of my coming ? The other answered, Is there any thing more valuable to us than the Sabbath ? ' The Gloss is : ' We do by no means prefer thee before the Sabbath ; we got these things read}^ in honor of the Sabbath, not knowing any thing of thy coming.' " — Horoe HehraiccB, PLACE OF HONOR AT FEASTS. XIV, 7. He marked how they chose oxxt the chief rooms. "Room" is old English for "place," and indeed is still sometimes used ia that sense, as when we sa}^, " Make room." The Orientals have nlways been punctilious in reference to positions of honor at formal feasts. The chief roonfis or places at feasts differed among different nations. Among the Greeks and Romans the middle place in each clinium of the triclinium^ or dinner-bed, was the coveted position of honor. See note on Matt, xxvi, 7. This was the place which the Pharisees eagerly desired: "They chose out the chief rooms." For this they received a merited rebuke from Jesus. See also Matt. :^xiii, 6; Mark xii, 39 ; Luke xx, 46. 418 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 778.— ARRANGEMENT OF GUESTS. XIV, 9, 10. Give this man place ; . . . Friend, go up higher. The host did not hesitate to regulate the position of his guests after they had settled it for themselves. He gave the highest in rank the chief place, sending the men up or down as circumstances required. Even in modern times there are instances of this. Schulz was at a wedding-feast at St. Jean d'Acre wliere two persons who had seated themselves at the top were compelled by the master of ceremonies to go down. Morier was at an en- tertainment in Persia where the governor of Kashan entered and took the lowest place. The host, on discovering him, pointed with his hand to an upper seat, which the governor took, the other guests making way for him. See Burder, Oriental Illustrations^ No. 1304. 779. -DIVISION OF PROPERTY. XV, 12. The younger of them said to his father, Father, give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And he divided unto them his living. Neither Jewish nor Roman law permitted the father to have the arbitrary disposal of all his estate. The property was entailed on the sons at the father's death, the daughters not being allowed to inherit unless there were no sons. See Gen. xxxi, 14; Num. xxvii, 8. The general application to this law is seen in the fact that, when Job gave an inheritance to his daugh- ters as well as to his sons, special mention is made of the act as though it were a remarkable occurrence. See Job xlii, 15. The first-born son re- ceived a double share. See Deut. xxi, 1*7. Some commentators, in illustrating this text, suppose that the sons had a right to demand a division of the property during the father's life-time, and that the father could not refuse such a demand. The text, however, does not necessarily imply this. For all that here appears, it m.ay have been merely a request urged by the son and granted by the father. There is nothing to show that the father was compelled to comply. He did comply, it is true but whether by compulsion or of his own volition is not stated. Mr. Burder {Oriental Customs^ 1086) gives an extract from Halhed's Code of Gentoo Laius, in which it is stated that under certain circumstances the sons had a right to demand of their father a division of his property during his life- time. There is no evidence, however, that either Jews or Eomans had any Buch law, though they may have been acquainted with it as existing in India. The verisimilitude of the parable is sufficiently observed, without any ref- ence to a law of compulsion, by supposing it customary sometimes for fa- thers of their own volition to divide their estate among their sons. This is gaid to have been sometimes done among the Romans, and . that it may have Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 419 been an occasional custom amoag the Jews is evident from the example of Abraham, who ''gave all that he had" to bis son Isanc. See Gen. xxiv, 36; XXV, 5. 780.— FEEDING THE SWINE. XV, 15. He sent him into his fields to feed, swine. Tliis was considered one of the most degrading employments, not only by the Jews, but by other nations. Among the Egyptians, for example, the swineherd was completely shut off from society. The Saviour makes use of this antipathy to illustrate the depth of misery to which the dissipation of the young prodigal had brought him, 781.— THE STEWARD. XVI, 1. There was a certain rich man which had a steward. The steward had general charge of the business of the house, and especial care of the heir. This is referred to in Gal. iv, 2, where the word else- where rendered "stewards" is translated ''governors.'' The office is a very ancient one. Abraham had a steward, Ehezer. See Gen. xv, 2, and note on Gen. xxiv, 2. The steward was generally an old faithful slave, though some- times free men were so employed. The honorable position of the steward is seen in the fact that he was considered to be ruler over the household. See Luke xii, 42. His duties are also referred to in the parable of the la- borers. See Matt, xx, 8. 7§2.— DISPOSITION OF CRUMBS. XVI, 21. Desiring to be fed with the erunnbs which fell from the rich man's table : moreover the dogs came and licked his sores. Some suppose tliat by these "crumbs-'' are meant the pieces of bread wherewith it was customary at table to wipe the fingers, an act rendered •iiecessary by the practice of conveying the food to the mouth by means of the hand. AVhen the fingers were thus wiped, the fragments of bread which had been used for the purpose were thrown to the ground, where the dogs were allowed to get them. This will lielp to illustrate the witty turn of the Syrophenician woman, who, when the Saviour said to her, "It is not meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to dogs^^' quickly replied, " Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their masters' table." Matt, xv, 26, 27. See also Mark vii, 28. We also see by this the connection with the closing part of the text: " moreover the dogs came and licked his sores." With the dogs he had his food of the discarded fragments of the table, and the compassionate beasts not only permitted him to partake of their food, but also nursed him in his .sickness. 26 420 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke* 783.— SEMI-WEEKLY FASTS. XYIII, 12. I fast twice in the week. It is said tliat these semi-weekly fasts were observed by the Jews because continuous fasting might be injurious. Tiie days selected were the second and fifth. The reason assigned for the selection of tliese days is because it was supposed to be on the second day of the week that Moses went up into Mount Sinai to receive the two tables of the law, and it was on the fifth day of the week tliat he came down on account of the idolatry concerning the golden calf These days were chosen, not only when pubhc fasts were to be observed, but also when individuals fisted privately. The only fast commanded in the Mosaic law was in connection with the celebration of the Great Day of Atonement. See note on Lev. xvi, 34. Other fasts were observed, however, in later periods of Jewish history until, in our Lord's time, the Pharisees carried the practice to an extreme. They fasted often, (Matt, ix, 14,) and disfigured their faces. Matt, vi, 16. In the text the Pharisee is represented as regarding this frequent fasting as an evidence of liis piety. 784.— SMITING THE BREAST. XVIIT, 13. The publican standing afar off, would not lift up so much as his eyes unto heaven, but smote upon his breast. This is one mode of expressing great grief among the Orientals, especially in mourning for the dead; and its insertion in the parable is very expressive of the deep sorrow of the penitent publican. His grief on account of his sins was like the grief of those who mourned for their dead. Morier gives an interesting account of the ceremonies observed annually in Persia in commemoration of the death of Hossein, the grandson of Mohammed, who was slain. One part of the ceremonies consists in beat- ing the breast as a token of grief. Morier says: " In front of the palace a circle of the kmg's own tribe were standing barefooted, and beating their breasts in cadence to the chanting of one who stood in the center, and with whom they now and then joined their voices in chorus. Smiting the breast is a universal act throughout the mourning; and the breast is made bare for tiiat purpose by unbuttoning the top of the shirt." — Second Journey^ etc., pp. 178, 179. »y§5._THE "POUND." XIX, 18. He called his ten servants, and delivered them ten pounds. The mina^ or " pound," was not a coin, but a sum of silver reckoned by weight, and was worth £3 155. M. sterling, or about $19. Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 421 7§6.— ORNAMENTS OF THE TEMPLE. XXI, 5. Some spake of the temple, how it was adorned with goodly stones and gifts. The temple of Herod was built of stones so exceeding white that Josephus says the building from a distance looked like a mountain of snow. It was also gilded in many places, so that the reflection from the sun's rays was sometimes painful to the eye of the beholder. It was likewise adorned with barbaric spoils taken in war, and with the voluntary offerings of those who desired in this way to express gratitude to God for past favors, or to mani- fest a hope for future benefits. According to Josephus there were among these costly gifts golden vines from which hung clusters of grapes as tall as a man. See Wars of the Jeivs, book v, chap, v, §§ 4 and 6. This custom was very common among the heathen. Their idol temples were richly ornamented with valuable articles, such as shields, chaplets, golden chains, and candlesticks, and the spoils of battle. The treasures of many pagan temples to-day are beyond computation. For a more complete description of Herod's temple, see note on Matt, xxiv, 1. 7§7.— TEMPLE CAPTAINS. XXII, 4. He went his way, and communed with the chief priests and captains, how he might betray him unto them. These " captains " were not Roman mihtary officers, but the Levitical officers who had charge of the temple watch. The " captain of the temple" mentioned in Acts iv, 1 ; v, 26, was probably the chief officer of the whole guard of the temple. T8§.— GAME OF BLINDFOLDING. XXII, 64. When they had blindfolded him, they struck him on the face, and asked him, saying, Prophesy, who is it that smote thee ? See also Matt, xxvi, 67, 68 ; Mark xiv, 65. Reference is thought to be made her ; to a sport very common in ancient times, resembling what is known among us as " bhnd-maa's-buff." One person was bhndfolded and the others struck him in turn, and then asked him to guess the name of the one who smote him. He was not released until he gave the name correctly. In this way the persecutors of Jesus mocked him, challenging him, if he were a prophet, to teU the names of his tormenters. 7§9.— DIVISION OF JEWISH SCRIPTURES. XXIV, 44. In the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms. This is the ordinary Jewish division of the Scriptures. The Jews have, first^ the Law, which includes the Pentateuch; secondly, the Prophets, in which 422 BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. LLuke. are included Joshua, Judge=5, tlie two books of Samuel, the two books of Kings, and all the prophets except Dauiol ; and thirdly, the Ilagiographa, or Sacred Writings, in which are comprised, in the order here named, Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Solomon's Song, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and the two books of Chronicles. This third divis- ion was called "the Psalms," because that book was the first in the dh'ision. In the text it is so called by our Lord. 790.— PRIESTLY BENEDICTION. XXIV, 50. He led them out as far as to Bethany, and he lifted up his hands, and blessed them. The priests in blessing the people hfted up their hands. Maimonides states that the ordinary priests raised their liands above their heads; but the liigh-priest raised his hands to a level with the plate of gold on his fore- head, but not above it. JOHN. 791— THE SHOE-LATCHET. I, 2T. Vi/hose shoe's latchet I am not worthy to unloose. The latchet was a leathern thong by which the sandal was fastened to the shoe. It was the work of a servant to loosen this, and thus John expressed his deep humility and consciousness of insignificance when contrasted with bis master. See also Mark i, 7; Luke iii, 16; Acts xiii, 25. The shoe- latchet is likewise referred to in Isa. v, 27. See also note on Matt, iii, 11. 792.— THE FIRKIN. II, 6. Six waterpots of stone, . . . containing two or three fir- kins apiece. The metreteSy "firkin," was the principal Greek liquid measure, and con- tained a little more than eight gallons and seven eighths. It corresponded to tho Hebrew hath. See note on Ezek. xlv, 10. 793.— THE "GOVERNOR OF THE FEAST." II, 8. He saith unto them, Draw out now, and bear unto the governor of the feast. Among the Greeks, at all formal feasts, there was a " symposiarch." who was one of the guests, and was selected to take charge of the feast. It was his duty to preserve order, to maintain liveliness among tlie guests, to John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 423 Assign each one his proper place, to decide what proportion of water sliould be mingled with the wine, and how much each of the company was to drink. Among the Romans wes a corresponding officer who was called rex convivii, or arbiter hibendi. It is thought by many that the upxLrplKlivor^ or " governor of the feast ^* mentioned in the text, was an officer of the same kind. This, however, is denied by other authorities, who assert that the ufyxf-'ptKlivog was not a guest, but a servant hired for the purpose, whose business it was to take charge of the other servants and see that they prop- erly performed their work. He had some duties in common with the sym- posiarch, among which was that of tasting the wine before it was offered to the guests. Thus when Jesus had miraculously changed the water into wine, he directed the servants to take some of it to the governor of tiie feast." 794.— THE "FRIEND OF THE BRIDEGROOM." III, 29. The friend of the bridegroom, which standeth and heareth him, rejoieeth greatly because of the bridegroom's voice. " The friend of the bridegroom " was the person selected by the bride- groom to conduct the marriage negotiations on his part. It was he who carried messages between the bridegroom and the bride during the time of the betrothal. See note on Matt, i, 18. When, on the occasion of tlie mar- riage, they were brought to see each other in a private room or under a canopy provided for the purpose, the " friend of the bridegroom " stood without, eager to catch the first words of delight which came from the bridegroom's lips, expressive of the satisfaction he experienced on convers- ing with his betrothed. This position John the Baptist claims for himself figuratively. He is not the Christ, but bears a relation to him similar to that borne by the 'para- nymph to the bridegroom. He makes the arrangements for bringing Christ, the bridegroom, to the Church, his bride. He waits with reverence and respect to hear words of joy coming from the lips of Christ because he has found a waiting and a willing Church. As the services of tlie paramjmph onlj^ occupied a short time, so the Baptist's mission would soon be over : "He must increase, but I must decrease." Verse 30, 795.— DRAWING WATER. IV, 11. The woman saith unto him, Sir, Thoui hast nothing to draw with, and the well is deep. The wells in Palestine are usually deep. The depth of Jacob's well has been variously estimated by travelers from sixty-five feet to over a hundred, riie best authorities give from seventj^-five to eiglity feet. To get water from such a depth a rope is fastened to the leathern bucket or earthen jar, 424 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. which is let down into the well, sometimes by means of a pulley, and some- times by merely sliding the i-ope over the stone curb of the well. It is no 156,— Women Ukawjng Water. uncommon thing to find well-curbs with deep furrows in them, worn by the friction of the ropes which have for many years passed over them. •796.— CONTEMPT FOR WOMEN. IV, 2T. Upon this came hi$ disciples, and naarveled that he talked with the woman. Their astonishment was not only because of the non-intercourse of the Jews and the Samaritans, but also because it was unusual for a Jewish teacher to converse with women in a public place. The rabbins expressed their contempt for women by teacliing that they were not to be saluted or gpoken to in the street, and they were not to be instructed in the law. •yO^.-^SEALING. VI, 2T. Him hath God the Father sealed, 'B nrder (Or ieyital Customs^ No, 1120) suggests that there may be an allu. sion here to the sacrificial death of Christ, and cites from Herodotus an account of the ceremonies accompanying tlje selection of a victim for sacri- fice among tlie ancient Egyptians. If, after careful search, tlie animal vvas found without blemish, the priest bound a label to his horns, applied wax to the label, aud sealed it with hia ring, This set it apart for sacrifice, and no John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 425 animal could be offered unless thus sealed. We have no knowledge of any such ceremony among tlie Jews, though they were careful in selecting their victims ; but the sacrificial customs of other nations w^ere doubtless known to them. The meaning of the text may, therefore, be, that Jesus had been set apart or sealed" as a sacrifice in order that he might obtain eternal life for those who believe on him. On the other hand, Lightfoot interprets the passage to mean that God had confirmed Jesus by his seal to be "the great Ruler botli of liis king- dom and family;" and he refers for illustration to a rabbinical form of in- struction which declares the seal of Grod to be Trutli, one of the names which Jesus applies to himself. See John xiv, 6. Compare also John iii, 33. References to the sealing or setting apart of the people of God are made in 2 Cor. i, 22; Epl). i, 13; iv, 30; Rev. vii, 2. For a description of seals and sealing in a literal sense, see notes on 1 Kings xxi, 8, and Job xxxviii, 14. T98.— CEREMONIES AT THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES. VII, 37. In the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood and cried, saying, If any m.an thirst, let him eome unto me and drink. In addition to the ceremonies originally prescribed at the institution of the Feast of Tabernacles, (see note on Exod. xxiii, 16,) were several others of a later date. Among tiiese was the daily drawing of water from the pool of Siloam. Every morning of the seven days of tlie feast proper, at day-break, a priest went to the pool of Siloam and filled with water a golden pitcher, containing about two pints and a half He was accompanied by a proces- sion of the people and a band of music. On returning to tlie temple he was welcomed with three blasts from a trumpet, and going to the west side of the great altar he poured the water from the golden pitcher into a silver basin, which had holes in the bottom through which the water was carried off. This ceremony was accompanied with songs and shouts from the people and with the sound of trumpets. It is supposed to have been de- signed to represent th^ee distinct things : 1. A memorial of the water pro- vided for their fathers in the desert. 2. A symbol of the forthcoming "latter rain.'' 3. A representation of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at the coming of the Messiah. To the last reference is made in verses 38, 39, and to the pouring out of the water Jesus no doubt refers in the text. Nearly all the authorities agree in saying that on the eighth day this cere- mony was dispensed with. There is great diversity of opinion, however, as to the meaning of " the last day. that great day of the feast; " some suppos- ing it to be the seventh, and others the eighth. It is urged that the eighth 426 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. day was not properly a part of the feast, but a special day of "holy con- vocation," the peculiar ceremonies of the feast having ceased at the close ot the day previous, altliongh tlie ritual provided special offerings for the eighth day. On the other hand, it is affirmed that the Jews held the eighth day in higher esteem tha» any of the seven others because they thought the solemnities of the day were designed especially for them, whereas on tlie other days all tlie nations of the world were included in tlie supplica- tions that were offered. It is sufficient for our present purpose to say that, if the seventh day be intended by the last," the Saviour probably uttered the words of the text at the time when the water was poured out by the officiating priest. If the eighth day be meant, then it is probable, as Alford suggests, that the words were used after the singing of the Hallel, just at the time when, on previous days, the water had been poured out. It is thought by some that tliis custom of drawing water from Siloam and pouring it out by the side of the great altar was introduced before the Babylonish captivity, and that Isaiah refers to it when he says, "With joy shall ye draw water out of the weUs of salvation." 3sa. xii^ 3. 799._FREEDOM BY THE SON. VIII, SO. If the Son therefore shall make yom free, ye shall be free indeed. It was a custom among some of the Grecian cities to permit t)>e son and heir to adopt brothers, and thereby give them a share in the rights and privileges enjoyed by himself. To this some think reference is made in the text. Others think the reference is to a Eoman custom by which the son, after his father^s death, might, if he chose, give freedom to the slaves that were born in the house during his fatlier's time. 800.~-JEWISH HATRED OF SAMARITANS. VIII. 48. Say we not well that thou, art a Samaritan and hast a devil ? Tlie contempt and hatred which the Jews entertained toward the Samar- itans was manifested, not only in their refusal to have any dealings with them beyond what was demanded by necessity, (see cltap. iv, 9,) but also in the fact that the Jews made tlie name of Samaritan a synonym for every- thing that was vile and contemptible. As Lightfoot remarks, they could not in this instance have mistaken Jesus for a Samaritan literally, because, according to verse 20, he was in the treasury of the temple, a place where no Samaritan was permitted to come. T}>ey used the term lignratively as a reproach. Rosenmiiller says: "There was a notorious and deadly hatred between the Jews and Samaritans on account of religion. For this reason the Jews, in the language of common life, applied the epithet 'Samaritan,* John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 427 not only to one who belonged to Samaria, but to every one whom they sup- posed had the mode of thinking and the principles of a Samaritan; and the}', therefore, often designated by this name a sworn enemy of the Jew- ish people and the Jewish religion, and a morally bad man. So, in onr own language, a man who has a propensity to cruelty and despotism we call a Turk, and a covetous rich man a Jew." — Morgenland^ vol. v, p. 241. §01.— PERIOD OF MATURITY. VIII, 57. Thou art not yet fifty years old, and hast thou seen Abraham ? The Jews considered fifty years "as a period of maturity in human life. The expression in the text is therefore not to be considered, as some have strangely done, to imply that Jesus was nearlj^ fifty years old at this time, but simply that, still being a young man, it was impossible that he could have seen Abraham. 802.— EXCOMMUNICATION. IX, 22. The Jews had agreed already, that if any man did con- fess that he was Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue. According to tlie Talmud and the rabbins there were two, and perhaps three, grades of excommunication among the Jews. The first was called niddtn, and those on whom it was pronounced were not permitted for thirty days to have any communication with any person save at a distance of four cubits. They were not prohibited from attending public worship, though they could not during the thirty days enter the temple by the ordinary gate. They were not allowed during that time to shave, and were required to wear garments of mourning. The second was called cherem, and was pronounced on those who remained contumacious under the first. It was of greater severity than the other, and required the prssence of at least ten members of the congregation to make it valid. The offender was formally cursed, was excluded from all intercourse with other people, and was prohibited from entering the temple or a synagogue. The third was called sliammatha, and was infiicted on those who persisted in their contumacy. By this they were cut off from all connection with the Jewish people, and were consigned to utter perdition. It is not clear, however, that tliere was any real distinction between the second and third grades here noted. Lightfoot suggests (in Ilora H'-hraicce^ on 1 Cor. v, 5) that the penalty of excommunication was probably inflicted for those faults for which neitlier the law nor tradition made any certain provision. The Talmud assigns as the two general causes of excommunication, money and epicurism. Tlie first refers to those who refused to pay the moneys which the court directed them to pay; and the second refers to those who despised the word of God or of the scribes. Some rabbinical writers enumerate twenty-four different 428 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. offenses for which exeommimication was inflicted, some of them being frivo- lous in the extreme. Excommunication is alhided to in Matt, xviii, 11 ; John ix, 34; xii, 42 ; and xvi, 2. Some think our Lord, in Luke vi, 22, refers to the several grades above noticed: "Blessed are ye, when men shall hate you, and when they shall Feparate you from their company, and shall reproach you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of man's sake." §05.— THE SHEEP-FOLD. X, 1. He that entereth. not by the door into the sheep-fold, but clinnbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber. In this beautiful figure reference is made to the place of -shelter for the sheep where they might repose at night, and be safe from the attacks of wild 15T.— SlIREP-FOLD. beasts. The modern sheep-folds of Syria, which uo doubt resemble those of ancient times, are low, flat buildings opening into a court, which is sur- rounded by a stone wall, protected on the top by a layer of thorns, A door- way carefully guarded forms the entrance. Sheep-folds are referred to in a pumber of passages. See Num, xxxii, 16, 24, 36; I Sam, xxiv, 3; 2 Chron. xxxii, 28; Psa, Ixxviii, 70. §04.— SHEPHERD AND SHEEP. X, 3-5. He oalleth hi« own sheep by name, and leadeth them out. And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth before them, and th@ sheep follow him ; for they know his voice. And a stranger will they not foUow, but will flee from bim ; for th^y know not the voice of strgingers. 1. The Eastern sliepherds give names to their sheep, as wo do to dogs and horses. Every sheep recognizes his own name, nnd comes when called. John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 429 2 Travelers have noticed the wonderful readiness with which the sheep of a large flock will recognize the shepherd's voice. Tliough several flocks aro mingled they speedily separate at the command of the shepherd, while the word of a stranger would have no effect on them. Porter thus describes a scene he witnessed among the hills of Bashan: "The shepherds led their flocks forth from the gates of the city. They were in full view, and we watched them and listened to them with no little^ interest. Thousands of sheep and goats were there, grouped in dense, confused masses. Tlie shep- lierds stood together until all came out. Then they separated, each shepherd taking a different path, and uttering as he advanced a shrill, peculiar call. The sheep heard them. At first the masses 8wa3'ed and moved as if shaken by some internal convulsion ; then points struck out in the direction taken by the shepherds; these became longer and longer until tiie confused masses were resolved into long, living streams, flowing after their leaders." — Giant Cities of Bashan^ p. 45, 805,— THE FEAST OF DEDICATION X, 22. It was at Jerusalem the feast of the dediQation, and it was winter. This was a feast instituted in honor of the restoration of divine worship in the temple, and its formal rededication to sacred uses after it had been defiled by the heathen under Antiochus Epiphanes, Tiiis dedication took place B. C. 164, and an account of it is given in the apocryphal book of 1 Maccabees iv, 52-59. Tlie feast lasted two days, and could be celebrated not only in Jerusalem but elsewhere. In later times it was known by the name of th.e " Feast of Lamps," or the Feast of Lights," because of the custom of illuminating the houses while celebrating it. The rabbins have a tradition that, when the Jews under Judas Maccabeus drove the heathen out of the temple and cleansed it from its pollution, they found a solitary bottle of sacred oil which had escaped the profane search of the heathen, This was all they had for lighting the sacred lamps ; but by a miracle this was made to last for eight days, which period was therefore the time for the duration of the feast, §06.— THE HOURS OF THE DAY. XI, 9. Are there not twelve hours in the day ? The Jewish day was reckoned from evening to evening. See note on 1 Cor. XV, 4. The word "day" was, however, used in another sense also, as with us, to denote that portion of the tvventy.four hours during which the sun shone. While the night was divided into watches, (see note on Mark xiii, 35,) the day was divided into hours; each of these hours being one twelfth of the time between sunrjse and sunset, Thus the hours varied 430 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. in length according to the time of year, tlie summer hours being longer than those of winter. In the latitude of Palestine the longest day has, according to our reckoning, fourteen hours and twelve minutes, and the shortest nine hours and forty-e'ght minutes. This makes a difference of four hours and twenty-four minutes between the longest day and shortest. If we divide the day into twelve hours, there will be found a diffbrence of twenty-two minutes between the longest hour and the shortest, the length of the hour varying from forty-nine minutes to seventy-one. The first hour began at sunrise, the sixth ended at noon, and the twelfth ended at sunset. Tlie third hour divided the period between sunrise and noon, and the ninth between noon and sunset. The first at its close cor- responded nearly to seven ( '^^ock A. M. of our time, and the twelfth hour to six o'clock P. M. The ''third hour" is mentioned in Matt, xx, 3; Mark xv, 25; Acts ii, 15. It may be roughly reckoned at nine o'clock A. M. of our time. The " sixth hour " is named in Matt, xx, 5 ; xxvii, 45 ; Mark xv, 33 ; Luke xxiii, 44 ; John iv, 6; xix, 14; Acts x, 9. It corresponded exactly to twelve o'clock noon of our time. The ''seventh hour" is mentioned in John iv, 52. It was about one o'clock P. M. The *' ninth hour" is spoken of in Matt. XX, 5; xxvii, 45, 46; Mark xv, 33, 34; Luke xxiii, 44; Acts iii, 1; x, 3. It was about three o'clock P. M. The ''tenth hour" is named in John i, 39. It was about four o'clock P. M. Some commentators, however, contend that John, writing this Gospel in tlie later j^ears of his life, referred to Roman time and not to Jewish, thus making the hour ten o'clock A. M. This could hardly be, unless all his other estimates of time were reckoned in the same way, which, from a consideration of various texts, is highly improbable ; be- sides, as Liicke (cited by Alford) remarks, even among the Romans the division of the day into twelve equal hours was, tliough not the civil, tlie popular way of computing tiaie. The ''eleventh hour " is mentioned in Matt. XX, 6, 9, and corresponds nearly to five o'clock P. M. There also seems to have been a popular mode of reckoning the hours of the night in a similar way, as well as by watches, "Midnight" is men- tioned as a particular "hour," Compare Acts xvi, 25, with xvi, 33. "The third hour of the night" is named in Acts xxiii, 23. This was about nine o'clock P. M. 807.— DOUBLE NAMES. XI, 16. Thomas, which is called Didymus, Both these names have the same signification, a twin ; Thomas being Aramaic, and Didymus, Greek. It is said to have been customary for the Jews when traveling into foreign countries, or familiarly conversing with the Greeks or Romans, to assume a Greek or Latin name of similar meaning to their own. John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 481 80§.— RABBINICAL NOTIONS OF SOUL AND BODY. XI, 17. Then when Jesus eame, he found that he had lain in the grave four days already. The three days after death were called "days of weeping," which were followed by four "days of lamentation," thus making up the seven " days of mourning." See note on Gen. xxvii, 41. According to the rabbinical notion the spirit wanders about the sepulchcr for three days seeking an op- portunity to return into the body ; but when the aspect of the body changes it hovers no more, but leaves the body to itself. The friends of the deceased were in the habit of visiting the sepulclier for three days after death and burial, (see note on Acts v, 6,) probably because they supposed they would thus be nearer to the departed soul. When the fourth day came and decomposition took place, and the soul, as they supposed, went away from the sepulcher, they beat their breast and made loud lamentations. This explains the al- lusion to the " four days " in this text and in verse 39. To say thatone had been in the grave four days was equivalent to saying that bodily corruption had begun. 809 —THE FURLONG. XI, 18. Bethany was nigh unto Jerusalem about fifteen fur- longs off. The stadium, or "furlong," mentioned here and in Luke xxiv, 13; John vi, 19; Rev. xiv, 20; xxi, 16, was not so long as our Enghsh furlong, being six hundred and six feet and nine inches in length. 810.— FORMAL CONDOLENCE. XI, 19. Many of the Jews came to Martha and Mary to com- fort them concerning their brother. The formal visitation of condolence from friends took place immediately after burial, and lasted several days. As soon as they returned from the grave the mourners stood in a row, and their friends passed by, each speak- ing a word of comfort while passing. There were afterward visits of sym- pathy at the house, those on the third day being specially marked. It was thus that a large company assembled at the house of the sorrowing s-isters. 811.— WEEPING AT THE GRAVE. XI, 8L She goeth unto the grave to weep there. It is very common for the friends of deceased persons — especially for the women — to make formal visits to the grave for the purpose of audibly expressing their grief. Prof. Hackett, on visiting a Syrian town, was com- pelled by the quarantine ofiBcers to pitch his tent in a grave-yard, where he 432 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. observed a grent number of women who surrounded the graves of their friends, and shrieked and wept for a long time. See Illustrations of Scrip- ture, p. 111. Porter noticed a similar custom in the Druse country, where he found a long procession of women near a clump of newly-made graves. "As they marched with stately steps around the tombs they sung a wild chant, that now echoed through the whole glen and now sunk into the mournful cadence of a death-wail." — Giant Cities of Bashan, etc., p. 39. "VVlien the Jews saw Mary hastily arise and leave the house they supposed she was going to the grave according to custom. It was thus the two Marys visited the sepulcher of tlio Lord. See Matt, xxvii, 61; xxviii, 1. §12.— THE POUND. XII, 3. Then Mary took a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly. The TiLTpa, " pound," varied in weight in different countries. The Roman libra, which is supposed to be the weight mentioned in the text, was equal to nearly twelve ounces avoirdupois. 813.— NEED OF FEET-WASHING. XIII, 10. He that is washed needeth not save to wash his feet. The meaning of the passage will be more readily perceived if, for washed^ we read bathed, which is the idea conveyed by the original word. Allusion is probably made to the fact that one who has been to the bath need only, on returning to his house, wash the dust of the j-oad from his sandaled feet. Thus he that has bathed need " not save to wash his feet." 814.— POSITION AT TABLE. XIII, 23. Now there was leaning on Jesus' bosom one of his disciples, whom Jesus loved. Reclining on the triclinium, or dinner-bed, the guest lay usually upon his left side, leaving his right hand free to reach the food. See note on Matt, xxvi, 7. His head would thus easily come into contact with the breast of the person on his left. It was in this way that John leaned on the bosom of Jesus while at supper. This is also mentioned in John xiii, 25 ; xxi, 20. A figurative use of the custom referred to is made in Luke xvi, 22, 23; John i, 18.. 815.— THE "SOP." XIII, 26. Jesus answered. He 't is, to whom I shall give a sop, when I have dipped it. And when he had dipped the sop, he gave it to Judas Iseariot, the son of Simon. Jt was customary for the host to give to such of his guests as he chose a " sop," or thin piece of bread dipped into the food in the dish, and saturated 158. — Women Mourning at the Gkave. OF ili£ John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 435 with its fluid part. See note on Mark xiv, 20. Jowett, in speaking of an entertainment at which he was a guest^ says : "When the master of the house found in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out with his fingers and apphed it to my mouth." — Researches^ etc, p. 210. This verse is of interest, since, taken in connection with the twenty-third verse, (see note preceding,) it indicates the position of Judas at the feast. He must have been very near to Jesus since he was within reach of his hand. He was very probably next to him; and since John lay to the right of the Saviour, Judas in aU probability was at his left. If so, the Saviour must at times have laid his head on the traitor's breast ; and thus the base treachery of Judas is seen in a most revolting aspect. While the Master was pillowing his head upon him he was meditating on the chances of securing the blood-money for which he had contracted to betray his Lord I 816.— PLACE FOR GARDENS. XVIII, 1. He went forth with his disciples over the brook Cedron, where was a garden. Gardens were made outside of the cities. The rabbins assign as a reason for tliis the foul smells which arose from the w^eeds and from tlie manure which was necessary for fertilizing. " Upon this account there were no gardens in the city, (some few gardens of roses excepted, which had been so from the days of the prophets,) but all were without the walls, especially at the foot of Ohvet." — Lightfoot, Eoroi Hebraiccej Matt, xxvii, 60. 817.— LANTERNS. XYIII, 3. Judas then, having received a band of men and officers from the chief priests and Pharisees, cometh thithep with lanterns and torches and weapons. There are several varieties of lanterns in use in Palestine at the present day. One of these commonly used is made of waxed hnen, or even of paper, stretched over rings of wire, and having a top and bottom of tinned copper. When folded the candle projects above the top of the folds, so that the lantern may, in the house, serve the purpose of a candle- stick. This style of lantern is of ancient use. Transparent horn lanterns were also used ; and bladder was sometimes substituted for horn. The lanterns used by the officers on the occasion of the arrest of Jesus were doubtless of some strong serviceable material, perhaps of horn. The dark lantern was sometimes nsed by civil and military officers. It was square, with a 159.— Lantkek. 436 BIBL-E MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. white skin on one side and black skins on the three other sides. See Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, s. v. Laterna. 818.— FEMALE DOOR-KEEPERS. XYIII, 17. The damsel that kept the door. Women were often employed by the ancients as porters. Classical writers make frequent allusion to the custom. It is mentioned also in the account of Peter's deliverance from prison, wherein it is stated that the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, had a female porter. See Acts xii, 13. 819.-^CHARC0AL. XYIII, 18. Made a fire of coals, for it was cold ; and they warmed themselves. Charcoal is of ancient origin, and is still used for fuel in Palestine, thougli not so commonly employed for that purpose as sticks and other articles. See notes on 1 Kings xvii, 10; Psa. Iviii, 9; and Matt, vi, 30. It was doubtless the material used for the fire spoken of in the text, and was prob- ably burning in a pan or brazier made of metal or earthenware. Charcoal is also referred to in Pro v. xxvi, 21, (where the distinction is finely made between dead and burning coals ;) Isa. xliv, 12; Uv, 16; and John xxi, 9. 820.— BEARING THE CROSS. XIX, 17. And he bearing his cross went forth. A cross sufiSciently large and strong to hold the body of a man, and long enough to allow a suitable portion to rest in the ground, would be too lieav3^ for sluj ordinary man to carry. Some have, therefore, supposed that the cross which the condemned bore, according to the Roman law, was merely a miniature representation of the cross on which he was to suffer death ; and that he was compelled to carry it to the place of execution to indicate to the spectators in the streets through which lie passed the kind of death he was about to suffer. It would thus be a public badge of his shame. Lipsius, however, says that only a part of the cross was borne by the condemned, and that this part was the horizontal beam, which was the lighter of the two pieces of which the cross was composed. The heavier part, the perpendicular, was either planted in the earth before the arrival of tlie procession, or was ready to be set up as soon as the condemned man arrived with the transverse beam. 821.— THE TUNIC. XIX 23. The coat was without seam, woven from the top throughout. XtTc)v was a tunic or inner garment which was worn next to the skin. It usually had sleeves, and generally reached to the knees, though sometimes John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 437 \X) the nnkles. Tt is mentioned in Matt, v, 40 ; Luke vi, 29 ; Acts ix, 39. Sometimes, for luxury, two timics were worn at the same time. This our Lord forbade his disciples. See Matt, x, 10; Mark vi, 9; Luke iii, 11; Ix, 3. When a person iiad on no garment but this he was said to be " naked." See note on 1 Sam. xix, 24. These tunics were sometimes woven in one piece. Braun, a German theologian of the seventeenth century, wrote a quarto volume in Latin de- scriptive of the dress of the Jewish priests. In this he describes at length liie manner in which seamless coats were woven, and gives pictorial illus- trations. He had one of them made for himself by a weaver, according to directions wliich he gave, and on a loom made for the purpose. Seamless coats are. still found in India and in other parts of the East. 822,— PREPARATION FOR BURIAL. XIX, 40. Then took they the body of Jesus, and wound it in linen clothes with the spices, as the manner of the Jews is to bury. This was not embaUning!-, according to the Egyptian method, as described in the note on Gen. 1, 2, 3. The Jews simply anointed the body, and wrapped it in fine linen, putting spices and ointments in the folds. In our Saviour's case the operation was not completed, owing to the coming of the Sabbath. As soon as the Sabbath was over the pious women came to com- plete the work. See Mark xvi, 1. The use of ointment in burial is re 'erred to in Matt xxvi, 12; Mark xiv, 8 ; John xii, 7. John and Luke are the only evangelists who speak of the ointment and spices at the burial of Christ. See text, and Luke xxiii, 56. All four of them, liowever, mention the linen clothes. See Matt, xxvii, 59; Mark XV, 46: Luke xxiii, 53; text; and John xx, 5-*7. These are also named in connection with the burial of Lazarus. See John xi, 44. It is there said that he was bound hand and foot with grave-clothes," and skeptics have made themselves merry with tiie absurdity of tlie story that a man having both feet bound together should be able to "come forth." That the feet were bound logetlier is, however, a gratuitous assumption. If each leg and each arm were separately swathed in linen bandages the assertion of the evangelist would still be strictly true, for Lazarus would then have been bound hand and foot," while at the same time able, at the command of Christ, to move, though not to walk easily. A " napkin " is also mentioned in connection with the burial of Lazarus. It was bound about his face. See John xi, 44. One was also used at tlie burial of Jesns. See John xx, "7. This was a handkerchief which was em- ployed to tie up the chin of a corpse. lieferfncfi to the use of linen bandages in bui-ial is also seen in the account 27 ■ i38 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. of the burial of Ananias, wherein it is said that "they wound liim up." See Acts v, 6. 823.— SALUTATION. XX, 19. Came Jesus and stood in the midst, and saith unto them. Peace be unto you. This was tlie most common form of salutation among the Hebrews, and is often referred to in the Scriptures. In the history of Joseph it is said that "when his brethren saw that their father loved him more than all his brethren, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably unto him." Gen. xxxvii, 4. That is, they refused to give him the ordinary salutation of the day, "Peace be unto you." See also Judges xix, 20 ; 1 Sam. xxv, 6; Matt. X, 12, 13. These salutations of peace were often merely ceremonial, having in them no real hearty meaning; but Jesus informed his disciples that when he uttered the word "Peace," it was something more than a mere conform- ity to a worldly custom : " Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, give I unto you." John xiv, 27. THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 824.— A SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY. I, 12. Then returned they unto Jerusalem from the mount called Olivet, whieh is from Jerusalem a Sabbath day's journey. This was the distance beyond which it was considered unlawful for a Jew to travel on the Sabbath day. Its limitation is supposed to have originated in the rabbinical comment on Exod. xvi, 29, where every man is commanded to abide in his place on the Sabbath. Our Lord is thought to have in mind the customary limit of a Sabbath day's journey when he directs his disciples to pray that their flight be not on the Sabbath day. See Matt, xxiv, 20. The distance to be understood by this limited Sabbath travel is various!}'' estimated at three quarters of a mile, one miie, one mile and three quarters, and two miles. The best authorities represent it as three quarters of a mile. 825.— TIME FOR EATING. IT, 15. For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is but the third hour of the day. It was not usual to eat or drink on any day before the third hour, at which time the morning sacrifice was performed. Lightfoot, on authority TIsE LIBRARY OF m 55'J!VER£!TY Of ILLINOIS 100. — House-top. Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 441 of Baronius, says : " And on these solemn festival-days tliey used not to eat or drink any thing till high-noon." — Horc2 IMraicce. This custom fur- nished a ready answer from Peter to the charge of drunkenness. §26 —TIME FOR BURIAL. V, 6. The young men arose, wound him up, and carried him out, and buried him. It was usual in Palestine to bury a corpse on the day of death. The heat of the climate, doubtless, had much to do with this custom ; besides which, so far as the Jews were concerned, their law made any one unclean for seven days who touched a dead body, or who was even in a house wliere a dead body lay. See Num. xix, 11, 14. Lazarus was probably buried on the day of his deatli. See John xi, 17, 39. Sapphira, tlie wife of Ananias, was, like her husband, buried immediately after death. See Acts v, 10. §27.— READING ALOUD. VIII, 28. Sitting in his chariot read Esaias the prophet. From verse thirty it is evident that the eunuch was reading aloud. It is still a common custom of the " Orientals generally to read aloud, even when they do it for their own instruction only, and without any intention of being heard by others. They swing the head, and even the entire upper part of the body, from one side to the other as they perform the act, and utter the words with a tone which comes nearer to singing or cantillation than to our unimpassioned mode of reading." — Hackett's Illustrations of Scripture, p. 224. 828.— COMPLIMENTARY NAMES. IX, 36. There was at Joppa a certain disciple named Tabitha, which by interpretation is called Dorcas. Dorcas means antelope^ or gazelle. This beautiful animal is much admired in the East, and it is a common compliment to tell a woman that she has the eyes of an antelope. It is also no uncommon thing among Eastern nations to name their girls after various animals noted for beauty. 829.— PRAYER ON THE HOUSETOP. X, 9. Peter went up upon the housetop to pray about the sixth hour. The housetop was used, not only as a place of idolatrous worship, (see note on Lev. xxvi, 30,) but also for the worship of tlie true God. To us this would seem to be a singular place for prayer, unless one wished to in- dulge in Pharisaic ostentation ; but the battlement around tlie flat roof of an Oriental dwelling (see note on Dent, xxii, 8) might readily be used as 442 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. a screen from public observation. It may be tliat one reason why tlie Jews praj^ed upon the housetop was that they might more readily look in the direction of the temple in Jerusalem. See note on Dan. vi, 10. §30.— THE MILITARY NIGHT-WATCH. XII, 4. When lie had apprehended him, he put him in prison, and delivered him to four quaternions of soldiers to keep him. The usual number of a Roman military night-watch was four, and the watch was changed every three hours. Thus during the twelve hours of night there would be four of these watches or "quaternions." Of these two were in the prison, (see verse 6,) and two were sentinels before the door. See verse 10, and the latter, part of verse 6. 8;il.— PRISONERS CHAINED. XII, 6. Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound with two chains. Among the Romans the prisoner was bound to the soldier who had charge of him by means of a chain, which joined tlie prisoner's riglit wrist to the left wrist of the soldier. Sometimes, for greater security, the pris- oner was chained to two soldiers, one on each side of him. This was the case with Peter. Paul was at one time bound in a similar way. See Acts xxi, 33. At another time he was fastened to a single soldier. See Acts xxviii, 16, 20. 832.— SANDALS. XII, 8. The angel said unto him, Gird thyself, and bind on thy sandals. The sandal consists of a wooden or leatliern sole, which is fastened to the foot by thongs or latchets. The Bedawin of Mount Sinai wear sandals made of " fish-skin," or rather of the hide of a species of Dugong obtained from the Red Sea, near Slierm. See Palmer's Desert of the Exodus, p. 81. The leathern thongs which are used to keep the sandals on the feet are re- ferred to in Mark i, 7, and in Luke 161.— Saudal. jij^ §33.— KNOCKER— STREET-DOOR. XII, 18. As Peter knocked at the door of the gate, a damsel came to hearken, named Rhoda. 1. The door of an Eastern house usually has an iron knocker, consisting of a thick riiig. Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 443 2. " Tlie door of the gate " is tlie outer or street door ; the door of the porch, or entrance way to the house. This outer door or gate sometimes has a smaller door cut into it, which can be more readily opeiied, and is more frequently used than the large door of which it forms a part. Some writers think that a door of this description is referred to in the text. 834.— THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS— RULERS OF THE SYNAGOGUE. XIII, 15. After the reading of the law and the prophets, the rulers of the synagogue sent unto them. 1. The custom of reading the law publicly was very ancient. The "prophets" are said to have been added in a singular way. "When Anti- ochus Epiphanes burnt the book of the law, and forbade the reading of it, the Jews, in the room of it, selected some passages out of the prophets which they thought came nearest in words and sense to the sections of the law, and read them in their stead ; but when the law was restored again they still continued the reading of the prophetic sections." — Stehe- un's Traditions of the Jews, cited by Burdbr, Oriental Customs, No. 1160. Hence the expression "the law and the prophets" was used to denote the portion of Scripture that was read in the synagogue, and, by synecdoche, the whole of the Jewish Scriptures. See Matt, v, 17 ; Luke xvi, 29. As a matter of fact, however, the Hagiographa, or " Holy Writings," which com- posed the third part of the Jewish Scriptures, (see note on Luke xxiv, 44,) was not read in the synagogue. 2. The "ruler of the synagogue" occupied a very important position. In the temple synagogue he was the third officer in rank; the first officer being the high priest, and the second the chief of the priests. In provincial synagogues the "ruler" was supreme. No one was ehgible to tiiis office until he had a certificate from the Great Sanhedrim that he possessed the requisite qualifications. His election, however, was by the members of the synagogue. It was his duty to supervise all matters connected witli worship. Sometimes this office is mentioned in the singular number, as if there were but one ruler to the synagogue. See Mark v, 35, 36, 38; Luke viii, 49 ; xiii, 14. At other times the plural form is used, as in the text. See Mark v, 22. The idea of plurality is also implied in the expression, " a ruler of the synagogue," (Luke viii, 41,) and in the words "chief ruler." Acts xviii, 8, 17. Neander suggests that " we must make the limitation, that in smaller places an individual, as in larger towns a plurality, stood at the head of the synagogue. It is most probable that, although all presbyters w^ere called upxi(yvvd'yG)yoL, yet one who acted as president was distinguished by the title of upxtovvdyoyog ; as privitts inter jpares^ — Planting and Ti'aining^ (Kdiiion, Bohn,) vol. i, p. 36, note. Thus tlie "rulers" would beMie same as 444 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. tlie '-elders" mentioned in Luke vii, 8, an«i elsewhere. Some suppose them to be identical with the local Sanhedrim. See note on Matt, x, 17. 835.— GODS IN HUMAN FORM. XIV, 11. The gods are come down to us in the likeness of men. It was a common opinion among the ancient heathen that the gods were accustomed to visit men in human form. Frequent reference is made to this opinion by classical writers. There was a tradition among this verj'- people that Jupiter and Mercury had once appeared in Plirygia to an aged couple, Piiilemon and Baucis. In this visit the two gods were entertained by Lycaon, whence the name of the province, Lycaoiiia. §36.— JUPITER AND MERCURY. XIV, 12. They called Barnabas, Jupiter ; and Paul, Mereurius, because he was the chief speaker. Jupiter, called T^evq by the Greeks, was the supreme head of all the heathen divinities. He had a temple at Lystra. Mercury, called 'EpfiT^g by the Greeks, was a son of Jupiter, and the herald or messenger of all the gods. Hence he was the god of eloquence. These two deities were sup- posed to travel together. Thus tlie people, having decided that Paul, by reason of his eloquence, must be Mercury, inferred that his traveling com- panion was Jupiter. Tiiis renders unnecessary the suggestion of Chrysos- tom, that Barnabas was probably of more majestic mien than Paul, and therefore was thought to be Jupiter. §37.— IDOLATROUS GARLANDS. XIV, 13. Then the priest of Jupiter, which was before their city, brought oxen and garlands unto the gates, and would have done sacrifice with the people. It was customary to build temples to the tutelar deities in the suburbs of the cities, and to set up their images before tlie city at the gates. These images, and the victims which were sacrificed to them, were crowned with garlands of cypress, pine, or other leaves, or of flowers. The garlands were sometimes placed upon the altars, and then again upon the priests. In India, flowers are used in idolatrous worship on gods, priests, and worshipers, and are presented to friends as a mark of respect. Roberts says: In the latter part of 1832 I visited the celebrated pagoda of Rami-seram, the temple of Ramar. As soon as I arrived within a short distance of the gates, a number of d incing-girls, priests, and others came to meet us with garlands. They first did me the lionor of putting one around my neck, and they presented others for Mr-^. Roberts and the children." — Oriental TUustro- lio/is, p. r>G7. Ac's.l kihlp: manxehs and customs. 445 §*j§._PLACES OF PRAYER. XVI, 13. We went out of the city by a river side, where prayer was wont to be nnade. Mail}' writers suppose that there is reference here to the Jewish custom of liaving proseuchce^ or places of prayer, distinct from synagogues, and in locations where there were no synagogues. Tliouo^h some commentators deny the reference to tlie custom in this passage, yet the existence of the custom itself is undeniable. The proseucJice were places for prayer outside of those towns where the Jews were too poor to have synagogues, or were not permitted to have them. They v/ere generally located near the water for ihe convenience of ablution. Some:imes a large building was erected; but frequently the proseucha was simply a retired place in the open air or in a grove. Rivers seem to have been favorite places of resort for God's people. In captivity they assembled "by the rivers of Babylon." Psa. cxxxvii, 1. Ezekiel speaks of being among them " by the river of Chebar." Ezek. i, 1. Daniel was "bj^ the river of Ulai" when he beheld one of his visions, (Dan. viii, 2:) and he saw another when he was "by the side of the great river, which is Hiddekel." Dan. x, 4. Dr. Pusey quotes from a decree of the Halicarnassians, which gave leave " that those of the Jews wlio willed, men and women, should keep the Sabbaths, and perform their rites according to the Jewish laws, and make oratories by the sea according to tlieir country's wont." — PuSEY on Daniel, pp. 110, 111. XVI, 24. Who, having received such a charge, thrust them into the inner prison, and made their 'feet fast in the stocks. Some would understand by ^vAov, "stocks," simply a bar of wood to whicli the feet of the prisoner were chained. Others suppose the instru- ancient stocks in which were five holes for Hastening feet, hands, and head. In Ceylon, at the present day, an instrument similar to this is used, only the head is allowed to be free. The use of the stocks is very ancient. See Job xiii, 27. 839.- STOCKS. 162. — In the Stocks. ment to have cor- responded to the modern stocks, consisting of a frame of wood in which the two fee% separated far apart, were placed. There were some 416 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. §40.— RESPONSIBILITY OF JAILERS. XVI, 27. He drew out his sword, and would have killed him- self, supposing that the prisoners had been fled. According to the Roman law, if a prisoner escaped, the jailer who had liim in charge was compelled to suffer the penalty which was to have been in- flicted on the prisoner. This accounts for the despair of tlie jailer in this case. He preferred death by his own hands to the death by torture, which probably awaited some of the condemned prisoners whom he supposed to have escaped. 841.— ROMAN CITIZENS NOT TO BE BEATEN. XVI, 37. They have beaten us openly uneondemned, being Romans, and have east us into prison. The treatment of these prisoners, being Roman citizens, was illegal in three different ways: 1. In binding them in the stocks. 2. In beating them. 3. In faihng to give them a trial. The Valerian Uw forbade the bind- ing of a Roman citizen. The Porcian law forbade his being beaten. Cicero, in his celebrated Oration against Verves^ asserts that " it is a transgression of the law to bind a Roman citizen ; it is wickedness to scourge him. Unheard, no man can be condemned." This will account for the fear expressed by tlie magistrates when they lieard that the prisoners were Romans. See verse 38. Paul had a similar experience afterward in Jerusalem : " As tliey bound him with thongs, Paul said unto the centurion that stood by, Is it lawful for you to scourge a man that is a Roman, and uneondemned," Acts xxii, 25. 842.— DEBATES IN THE MARKET PLACE. XVII, 17. Therefore disputed he ... in the market daily with them that met with him. The market was not only a place for buying and selling, for hiring and being hired, (see note on Matt, xx, 3,) but it was also a public resort for all who wished to inquire the news or to hold disputations. For this reason the Pharisees loved to go there, because, amid the crowds assembled, they would receive the ceremonious salutations in which they delighted. Seo Matt, xxiii, 7 ; Mark xii, 38 ; Luke xi, 43 ; xx, 46. The Athenian market, or Agora^ must not be imagined to be " like the bare spaces in many modern towns, where little attention has been paid to artistic decoration, but is rather to be compared to the beautiful squares of «uch Italian cities as Verona and Florence, where historical buildings have closed in the space within narrow limits, and sculpture has peopled it with impressive figures." — Conybeare and Howson, Life of St. Paul, vol. i, p. 354. ilcts] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 447 843.— EPICUREANS— STOICS. XVII, 18. Then certain philgsophers of the Epicureans, and of «he Stoics, encountered him. 1. Epicurus, the founder of the sect wliicli bore bis name, was born at Samos about 340 B. C. He early adopted the atomic tlieory of Democritiis, and taught philosophy in Athens for nearly forty j^ears, his place of in- struction being a beautiful garden in the heart of the city. According to the Epicureans the universe consists of matter and space. Matter is un- created and indestructible. It is composed of minute atoms, infinite in number and imperceptible to the senses. These atoms may change in mutual relation and in combination, but they cannot be annihilated. They are perpetually moving in space, and are constantly undergoing transpo- sitions of form, but are regulated by no law save that of bhnd chance. Epi- curus believed in the existence of th.e gods, but this belief was practically no better than atheism, since he denied that the gods had any part in the operations of nature. There was in his system no room for conscience, no place for moral obligation. Pleasure was the chief object of life. Thougli it is claimed that the ideal of Epicurus was not pleasure of a degrading nature, and that he taught a strict morality, yet the system inevitably tend- ed to sensuality, and had natural attractions for those who were fond of debasing pleasures. It made no provision for a future life, for it knew of no other life than this. Its creed may be briefly summed up in this: "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." 2. The Stoics were founded by Zeno of Citium in the fourth century be- fore Christ. Their place of meeting was in the "Painted Porch," or Stoa^ of Athens, whence they derived their name. Tiie)^ believed in two fundamen- tal principles, the active and the passive. The passive was matter, the active was God. They were pantheists, denying the independent existence of the soul, and affirming that ail souls were emanations of Deity. They also taught that God and man were both alike inexorably subject to Fate. In opposition to the Epicureans they held that men ought to have no re- gard to pleasure, but to act only for the right. They were not agreed in their views of a future life. Some beheved that all souls were absorbed into Deity at death ; others that they maintained their separate existence until a general conflagration of the universe took place; others still, that only the good thus maintained a separate existence. 844.— TRADES LEARNED. XVni, 3. Because he was of the same eraft, he abode with thenn, and wrought: for by their occupation they were tent- makers. Among the Jews t^^Q boys were all compelled to learn trades. It wag ^^onsidored disreputable not to be acquainted with some branch of handi- 448 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. c aft, a practical knowledge of a trade being regarded as a requisite to per- sonal independence. Tliis cistom has been found, not only among the Jews, but among some other nations. One of the Sultans of Turkey was taught to make wooden spoons ! 845. — EPHESIAN LETTERS. XIX, 19. Many of them also whieln used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all men. Ephei=5us was the great center of magic in the time of Paul. Tiie " books " here mentioned were probably made up of directions for producing magical results, and were reckoned of great value to all who practiced sorcerj^ One of the curious arts " consisted in the use of the Ephesian letters," celebrated in ancient times. These are supposed to have been copies of certain characters which were engraved on the crown, the girdle, and the feet of the statne of tlie goddess Diana. See note on verse 35. They were written on strips of parchment, and worn as amulets. The "books " may have taught how to use these to the best advantage. Hesycliius (cited by BuRDER, Oriental Literature^ No. 1429) says: "Tlie Ephesian letters, or characters, were formerly six, but certain deceivers added others afterward; and tlieir names, according to report, w^ere these: askion, kataskion, lix, tetrax, damnameneus, and aision. It is evident that askion means darkness; kataskion, light; lix, the eaith; tetrax, the year; damnameneus, the sun; and aision, truth : these are holj^ and sacred things." 846. — SHRINES OF DIANA. XIX, 24. A certain man named Demetrius, a silversmith, which made silver shrines for Diana, brought no small gain unto the craftsmen. These shrines were miniature representations of the most sacred portion of the heathen temple; that part of it where the statue of the goddess was situated. The}^ were made of wood or precious metal, and were worn as charms. A little door on one side concealed the image of the goddess with- in. Roberts found a similar practice in India, where shrines of idols are often made in the shape of a temple and suspended from the neck of the wearer. For a description of the temple represented by the shrines mentioned in the text, see tlie next note. §47.— THE TEMPLE OF DIANA. XIX, 27. That the temple of the great goddess Diana should be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed^ whom all Asia and the world worshipeth. This was the largest of the Greek temples, and the most magnificent of the ancient world. It is said to have been burned and rebuilt no less than Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 449 seven times, tlie temple referred to in the text being the eightli of the series. 'I'his and the two vvliicli immediately preceded it were built on the fame foundation, which was laid by Theodorus about B. C. 500. The first temple of the three built on this foundation was burned about B. C. 400. The sec- ond was burned on the same night tiiat Alexander the Great was born, B. C. 356. Great efforts and vsacrifices were made to replace this by a building which should far excel all the others in magnificence, and it was this splen- did edifice on which the eyes of the Apostle Paul gazed. It is said to have been two hundred and twenty years in building, though some writers claim that this period is intended by the ancient historians to include the time from the foundation by Theodorus to the completion of the great temple. It was four hundred and twenty-five feet long, and two hundred and twenty feet wide. In the interior was a chapel containing the image of the goddess. See note on verse 35. The roof of this chapel was of cedar. The rest of the vast building was open to the sky, and consisted of colonnades, the col- umns of which were sixty feet high and seven feet and a half in diameter. It is commonly said that there were one hundred and twenty-seven of these columns, each the gift of a king, and Plin}' is referred to as tlie authority for this statement. There are late commentators, however, who, by punctua- tion, give a different translation to the statement of Pliny, making it read: " The columns were one hundred and twenty, seven of them the gifts of kings.'' Leake suggests the probability of an error in transcribing: "It is very possible tiiat the early copiers of Pliny made the common oversight of omitting an unit, writing cxxvii instead of cxxviii." — Ihur in Asia Jlinor, p. 347. Either of these interpretations makes the number of columns even. Thirty-six of the columns were richly carved, and ornamented with precious metals and stones. Some suppose that Paul makes reference to this great temple in 1 Cor. iii, 9-11, and in Eph. ii, 19-22. 818.— THE THEATER AT EPHESUS. XIX, 29. They rushed with one accord into the theater. This was an immense semicircular structure, the largest of which any account has come down to us from ancient times. It was open to the sky, with ascending seats, tier above tier, and is said to have been capable of holding thirty thousand persons. Its ruins are yet to be seen. Amou;^ the Greeks, (though rarely among the Romans,) theaters were used, not only for spectacular entertainments, but also for assemblages for political or business purposes. Hence it was perfectly i atural for the excited multi- tude to rush into the theater on this occasion. It was in a theater that Herod Agrippa I. gave audience to the Tyrian deputies, and was smitten with disease and death. See Josephus, Antiqui- ti>is, book xi\', chap. 8, § 2. See also Acts xii, 20-23. 450 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. .Acts. 849.— THE ASIARCH^. XIX, 31. Certain of the chief of Asia, which were his friends, sent unto him, desiring him that he would not adventure him- self into the theater. The AsiarchcB were officers wlio were chosen to superintend the public games which were held in honor of the gods and of the Roman emperors. Their duties being semi-religions, ih^j are by some authorities called priests, and tiieir office is cahed a priesthood. Every year ten of tlie most prominent citizens of the chief cities of proconsular Asia were chosen to the office of Asiarch for the term of one year, though eligible to reappointment. They were of necessity men of great wealth, since the games at wliich they offi- ciated were very costly, and the Asiarchce were themselves obliged to meet the entire expense. When officiating they were clad in purple and crowned with garlands. Whetlier the entire number superintended the games, or only one was selected from the ten to preside while the others assisted, is a point of controversy not yet settled. §50.— TOWN-CLERK— DIANA OF EPHESUS. XIX, 35. When the town-clerk had appeased the people, he said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshiper of the great goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter? 1. The grammateus, scribe, or ''town-clerk," as the word is here rendered, seems to have been charged with duties of a higher order than those of the ordinary scribes among the Greeks. It is supposed that, under the Roman rule in Asia Minor, the work of tlie scribes was not limited to recording the laws and reading them in public. They presided over popular assemblies, and sometimes legally assumed the functions of magistrates. The title is preserved on ancient coins and marbles, and the scribes were evidently regarded as governors of cities or districts. 2. While tlie Diana of the Romans corresponded to the Artemis of the Greeks, this Kphesian Diana or Artemis was a totally distinct divinity of Asiatic origin. Her worship was found by the Greeks in Ionia when tliey settled there, and to her they gave the name of Artemis. There was in many respects a resemblance between the Ephesian Artemis and the Syrian Astarte. See note on 1 Kings xi, 5. Her worship extended over a vast region, and cities vied witii each other for the honor of being called neokoron, sweeper, or keeper, of the temple; ''worshiper" in the text. The original Ephesian image was said to have fallen from heaven, as was also asserted of images of other deities in otlier cities. This has given rise to the opinion that tliis and similar imnges were airolites, and were worshiped according to Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 451 the ancient superstition wliicli gave sanctity and divinity to certain stones. See note on Isa. Ivii, 6. Ancient authorities, however, assert that the Ephe- sian Artemis was of wood, some say of ebony, others of vine-wood. Wliatever the material, the figure was very coarse and rude. The later image of the Ephesian goddess was elaborately made, and was covered with carefully-wrought symbols and mystic figures. See note on verse 19. The following is the description given of this statue by Mr. Falkener {Ephesus, pp. 290, '91) : " The circle round her head denotes the nimbus of her glor}^ the griffins iuside of which express its brill- iancy. In her breast are the twelve signs of the zodiac, of which those seen in front are the ram, bull, twins, crab, and lion; they are divided by the hours. Her necklace is composed of acorns, the primeval food of man. Lions are on her arms to denote her power, and her hands are stretched out to show that she is ready to receive all who come to her. Her body is covered with various beasts and monsters, as sirens, sphinxes, and griffins, to show she is the source of nature, the mother of ah things. i63.-DianaofEpiiesus,from Her head, hands, and feet are of bronze, while the an Antique Statue in the rest of the statue is of alabaster, to denote the ever- Naples Museum. varying light and shade of the moon's figure. . . . Like Rhea, she was crowned with turrets, to denote her dominion over terrestrial objects." — Fairbairn, ImpeiHal Bible Dictionary. 85 1 VO WS— NAZ ARITES. XXI, 23, 24. We have four men whieli have a vow on them ; them take, and purify thyself with them, and be at charges with them, that they may shave their heads. 1. The custom of making vows to God is very ancieut. We read of it as far back as the days of Job. EUphaz refers to it in Job xxii, 2^. Jacob practiced it. Gen. xxviii, 20-22 ; xxxi, 13. We read in later times of the vows of Jephthah, (Judges xi, 30, 31 ;) Hannah, (1 Sam. i, 11 ;) and Absalom, (2 Sam. XV, 8, 9;) though the last-mentioned probably pretended to vow for the purpose of furthering his rebellion. Heathens vowed as well as Jews. See Jer. xliv, 25 ; Jonah i, 16. Vows usually involved free-will offerings to be given to God as a recogni- tion of his goodness, either subsequent to the reception of blessings desired, 452 BIBLE MANNEi^S AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. or in anticipation of them. There was no law compelling any one to make vows, but, when once made, tliey came within the limit of the law, and their fulfillment became obligatory. See Num. xxx, 2; Deut. xxiii, 21, 22; Judges xi, 35 ; Prov. xx, 25 ; EccL v, 4, 5. The offerings to be devoted to the service of God in the fulfillment of vows were houses or land; animals for sacrifice; or the person of the one making the vow, his ciiild, or his slave. These personal offerings could be redeemed, (see Lev. xxvii, 1-7 ;) so also could houses and land. Lev. xxvii, 14-25. Animals f )r sacrifice were not redeemable. Lev. xxvii, 9, 10, 33. Besides the texts above mentioned, vows are referred to in Psa. xxii, 25 , 1, 14; Ivi, 12; Ixvi, 13; cxvi, 14, 18; Isa. xix, 21; Nahum i, 15. 2. The vow specially alluded to in the text is supposed by most commen- tators to be the vow of the Nazarite. The origin of this peculiar vow is un- known, and even the etymology of the word is disputed, though most authori- ties derive it from nazar^ to " consecrate," to "separate." The law regulating- it is found in the sixth chapter of the book of Numbers, where the subject is treated, not as a novelty, but as a well-established custom. The Nazarite vow was a consecration to the Lord. There were a few instances in which this consecration was for life. Persons thus set apart were called " Nazarites of perpetuity." Samson was one of these. See Judges xiii, 4, 5. So was Samuel. See 1 Sam. i, 11. John Baptist is also thought to have been a Nazarite for life. See Luke i, 15. The Nazarites generally were, however, Hmited in the duration of the obligation imposed by their vow. These w^ere called "Nazarites of days." The ordinary time was thirty days, but sometimes it extended to sixty, or even to a hundred, days. During the time the obligation lasted the Nazarite was to be separate in three particulars: 1. He was not to partake of wine or strong drink in any form. 2. He was not to allow his hair to be cut. 3. He was not to come in contact with a dead body. At the close of his term of separation the Nazarite was to perform certain ceremonies, which are detailed in Num. vi, 13-21. Among other things, he was to cut off his hair and put it into the fire of tlie peace-offering. After the wave-offering was presented he might drink wine. In addition to the usual offerings required by the law, it was customary for those who were able to give something to help the poorer Nazarites procure their regular offerings. Paul is supposed to have complied with tliis custom, thus "being at charges witii them," and enabling them to finish the term of their vows by shaving their heads. This will explain, not only the text, but also verse 26. In this way the apostle was able to show to his sensitive Jewish brethren that he did not mean to " forsake Moses." Paul's vow, which is spoken of in Acts xviii, 18, is also thought by many commentators to have been a Nazarite vow, though some dispute this view. Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS ANI> CUSTOMS. 453 Various theories have been devised in explanation of this singular custom of the Nazarite. Perhaps none is more satisfactory than that which repre- sents it to be the "typical representation of a holy hfe." Fairbairn says: " It set s forth in a striking and beautiful manner the leading features of a life devoted to God. It originates in a so'emn resolve of the free-will, and is in this respect an interesting emblem of a godly life, which is the spontaneous outgoing of a heart renewed by the Spirit of God." — Im,perial Bible Dictionary^ s. V. Nazarite. See also Fairbairn's Typology, vol. ii, p. 846. A resemblance to at least one of the practices of the Nazarites may be found in the customs of other ancient nations besides the Jews. (The authorities are given in Winer, BiUisches Bealwdrterbuch, s. v. Nasiraer.) Among the Egyptians, Syrians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, it was customary in times of impending peril to consecrate the hair and beard to the gods. Morier gives a singular illustration of a similar practice among the modern Persians. Speaking of customs concerning young children, he says: "It fre- quently happens after the birth of a son that if the parent be in distress, or the child be sick, or that there be any other cause of grief, the mother makes a vow that no razor shall come upon the child's head for a certain period of time, and sometimes for all his life. If the child recovers and the cause of grief be removed, and if the vow be but for a time, so that the mother's vow be fulfilled, then she shaves his head at the end of the time prescribed, niaives a small entertainment, collects money and other things from her relations and friends, which are sent as Nezers (offerings) to the mosque at Kerbelah, and are there consecrated." — Second Journey, etc., p. 108. §52.— POSITION OF TEACHER AND SCHOLAR. XXII, 3. Brought up in this eity at the feet of Gamaliel, and taught according to the perfect manner of the law of the fathers. In Jewish schools the master sat on a high chair, the elder pupils on a lower bench, and the youngest on the ground. The general custom at pres- ent in the East is for the teacher and pupils to sit upon the ground, and, according to Maimonides, this was once the ancient practice. The custom probably varied at difterent periods, but in either case the pupils were liter- ally "at the feet" of their instructor. This is referred to in Luke x, 39, where we are told that Mary " sat at Jesus' feet, and heard his word." §53.— APPEAL— ROMAN COUNCILORS. XXV, 11, 12. I appeal unto Cesar. Then Festus, when he had conferred with the council, answered. Hast thou appealed unto Cesar? unto Cesar shalt thou go. 1. The Roman governors exercised supreme jurisdiction over the prov- inces; but all Roman citizens had the inalienable right of appeal. This 454 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. right Paul saw fit to use, and thereby took the case out of the lands of Festus and removed it to a higher court. 2. The assessores, or councilors, were men learned in the law, whose business it was to sit in judgment with the governor, and advise with him on points of law. Festus turned to them to ascertain whether the appeal of Paul was admissible. §54 —THE HAND STRETCHED FORTH. XXVI, 1. Then Paul stretched forth the hand, and answered for himself. This was a customary form of dignified oratory, designed to show the earnestness of the speaker. The orator stretched forth the right liand, hav- ing the two lowest fingers shut iu on the palm of the hand, while the other fingers were extended. It is said that Demostlienes often used this gesture. This is not to be confounded with the " beckoning " mentioned in Acta xiii, 16. That was simply a motion of the hand for the purpose of gaining attention. See also Acts xii, 17. §55.— THE SKIFF. XXVII, 16. We had much work to come by the boat. Tiie skiff, or small boat, which accompanied the ancient sailing vessel was not taken on board, as with us, but was usually allowed to follow in the wake. In this instance, by reason of the storm, it was thought advisable to take it on board, but the task was one of great difficulty. 856.—" UNDERGIRDING." XXVII, 17. Which when they had taken up, they used helps, undergirding the ship. Every ship carried large cables, wliicli were used in case of necessity for passing around the hull, thus " undergirding " it, and saving it from the strahi which resulted from the working of the mast in a storm. 857.— ANCHORS, HOW USED. XXVII, 29. They cast four anchors out of the stern. 1. Ancient vessels had not so heavy anchors as ours, and therefore car- ried a greater number of them. 2. It was customary to anchor ancient ships by the stern, though they were sometimes anchored at the bow. The anchors were carried in the skiff to a suitable distance from the vessel and there dropped. In modern times ships-of-war in action have sometimes been anchored from the stern. Lord Nelson pursued this plan at the battle of the Nile, and at the battle of Copeuhagf^n. See the account in Alison, Uistory of Eur(ypey (p]dition, Harper,) vol. i, p. 513 ; vol. ii, p. 154. Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 455 858.— DOUBLE RUDDERS. XXYII, 40. They comraitted themselves unto the sea, and loosed the rudder bands. More correctly, the bands of the rudders; the word in the original beinor plural. Each ship had two rudders, or paddles, for steering, one on each quarter. The hinged rudder at the stern is comparatively a modern contrivance. 859.— SHIPS NAMED. XXVIII, 11. A ship of Alexandria, which had wintered in the isle, whose sign was Castor and Pollux. Ancient ships had the name on each side of the bow, as with us, and represented by a sculptured figure. The vessel in which Paul now sailed was the Castor and Pollux," named after twin deities who were regarded as the special patrons of sailors. ROMANS. 860.— CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. VII, 24. O wretched man that I am I who shall deliver me from the body of this death ? It is thought by some commentators, though the opinion is controverted by others, that there is an ahusion here to a horrible mode of punishment mentioned by ancient writers, by which tlie criminal condemned to death was fastened by chains to a dead body and left to die by inches in the loathsome companionship of a putrefying corpse. 861.— ADOPTION. VIII, 15. Ye have received the Spirit of adoption, whereby we cry, Abba, Father. Among the Greeks and Romans, when a man had no son he was permitted to adopt one even though not related. He might, if he chose, adopt one of his slaves as a son. The adopted son took the name of the father, and was in every respect regarded and treated as a son. Among the Romans there were two parts to the act of adoption : one a private arrangement between the parties, and the other a formal public declaration of the fact. It is thought by some that the former is referred to in this verse, and the latter in verse 23, where the apostle speaks of " waitins: for the adoption." The 28 '56 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Bomans. servant has been adopted privatciy, but he is " waiting " for a formal public declaration of the fact. Afrer adoption, the son, no longer a slave, had the privilege of addressing his foro er master by the title of " father." This he had no right to do while a servant. See also Gal. iv, 5, 6. 862.— THE KISS. XYI, 16. Salute one another with a holy kiss. The kiss was not onlj^ used among men as a token of friendship, (see note on Gen. xxix, 13,) and of homage to a superior, (see not^ on Psa. ii, 12.) but as one of the ceremonies connected with divine worship, and intended to express mutual love and equality. As such it is supposed to have been used in the synagogues, and tlience transmitted to the Christian Church. There is nothing said in the New Testamenc in reference to the part of the service where the kiss was introduced, but early Ciiristian writers state that in the apostolic age it was given afier prayers and before the communion service. The minister first said, "Peace be unto j^ou," and the people re- sponded. Tlien ''a deacon goes on to proclaim solemnly that they should salute one another with a hol}^ kiss ; and so the clergy salute the bishop, and laymen their fellow-laymen, and women one another." — Bingham, An- tiquities^ book xv, chap. 3, § 3. See also 1 Cor. xvi, 20; 2 Cor. xiii, 12 ; 1 Thess. v, 26; 1 Pet. v, 14. In the last passage it is called "a kiss of love." I. CORINTHIANS. §63.— SET FORTH LAST. IV, 9. For I think that God hath set forth us the apostles last, as it were appointed to death : for we are made a spectacle unto the world, and to angels, and to men. The apostle may have had in his mind the public exhibition of the hestiarii and gladiators; the former were men who fought with beasts, and the latter men who fought with each other. Some thus fought for pay, while others were criminals who were compelled to contend with beasts or with armed men as an expiation of their crimes, and as a source of amusement to the spectators. In the early part of the day of such an exhibition the prisonera were given arms wherewith to de fend themselves, but at tiie close of the ex- hibition, at noon, the poor wretches liad nothing to protect them, and soon fell easy and certain victims to the destroyer. Thus the apostles were set forth last I Corinthians.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 457 864— TEMPERANCE— CHAPLETS. IX, 25. Every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things. Now they do it to obtain a corruptible crown ; but we an incorruptible. Among the four sacred games of the ancient Greeks the Olympic and the Isthmian were the most celebrated, the former taking the precedence. To these familiar games the apostle makes many allusions in his writings. (See further, note on Heb. xii, 1.) There are two of such in this text. 1. Every competitor in these games was obliged to undergo a severe and [►retracted training, sometimes lasting nearly a year, during which time he carefully avoided excesses of every kind. A passage from Epictetus so beau- tifully illustrates this text that it is cited by most commentators : " Would you be a victor in the Olympic games? so in good truth would I, for it is a glorions thing ; but pray consider what must go before, and what may fol- low, and so proceed to the attempt. You must then live by rule, eat what will be disagreeable, refrain from deUcicies ; you must oblige yourself to con- stant exercises at the appointed hour, in heat and cold; you must abstain from wine and cold liquors; in a word, jou. must be as submissive to all the directions of your master as to those of a physician." — Enchiridion, chap. XXXV. Tims Paul says in the text: "Every man that striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things." 2. The victor was rewarded with a crown or chaplet of leaves. The Olym- pic crown was made of the leaves of the wild olive, the Isthmian was made of pine or ivy. From the earliest periods of history chaplets of leaves were bestowed upon heroes who had conquered on the field of battle. Thus the Psalmist says of the triumphant Messiah: "Upon himself shall his crown flourish." Psa. cxxxii, 18. The idea of a crown flourishing is very expressive when spoken of a leafy chaplet ; though some commentators render the word shine. This is the sort of crown to w^hich- Paul refers in the text as " corruptible." The crown of thorns which was placed on the Saviour's head was a mockerj^ of these wreaths Of triumph, as well as of the golden crowns of kings. See Matt, xxvii, 29; Mark xv, 17 ; John xix, 2, 5. The leafy crown given to the victor in these ancient games doubtless furnishes the metaphor which is used in 2 Tim. ii, 5; iv, 8; James i, 12; 1 Pet. V, 4; Rev. ii, 10; iii, 11. 865.— BOXING. IX, 26. So fight I, not as one that beateth the air. The allusion here is to boxing. It was customary for the boxers while training to strike out at an imaginary adversary merely for exercise. This was "beating the air." The text may refer to this, or to the efforts which, 458 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Corinthians. when the real contest took place, each made to avoid the blows of his adversary, so that those blows should fall upon the air. The apostle struck real blows at a real adversarj-. The "beating'' was done by means of leather bands which were fastened around the arms and wrists, and were sometimes studded with nails and loaded with lead or iron. This made the blow heavy, and frequently dan- gorous. Fighting in this way was " resisting unto blood ; " this is the ground of the image in Heb. xii, 4. 866.— THE HERALD. IX, 27. Lest that by any means, when I have preached, to others, I myself should be a castaway. In the word "preached" we have reference to the office of a herald. Such an office was employed, not only by kings to announce their decrees, (see Dan. iii, 4,) and to proclaim their coming, (see Mai. iii, 1, and note on Isa. xl, 3,) but also by those who had charge of the ancient games, to which reference has been made in the preceding verses. The herald pro- claimed at the opening of the games the name and country of each candidate, and the rules of the contest. Most commentators suppose the apostle here to represent himself as sucli a herald. He has announced the opening of the contest, and the laws which regulate it; he is now to be careful lest after all he himself should not succeed, for, unlike the herald in the games, he is also a competitor. Bloomfield, however, thinks that there is here, at best, only an " under-allusion to the office of herald. See his note in loco. 867.— GLASS. XIII, 12. For now we see through a glass, darkly ; but then face to face. Critics differ as to the meaning of the word rendered " glass " in this verse. Many suppose it means a metallic mirror, as it evidently does in James i, 23. (For an account of ancient mirrors, see note on Exod. xxxviii, 8.) Such a mirror, covered with a thin vail, as was often done to protect from dust and dampness, would present a dim, shadowy reflection, causing the beholder to see " darkly," or more literally, enigmatically. Others think that the " glass " in this text was the layis specularis^ a kind of talc of which the ancients sometimes made their windows. Through this the indistinct out- lines of an object could be seen, but the beholder was left to guess what the object might be. He was looking at an enigma; he saw " darkly." We have thus a beautiful illustration of the difference in clearness of vision between the present life and the future. The vail will be taken from the mirror, so that the reflection will be clear; or, the serai-transparent win- dow will be removed, so that notliing shall obstruct the sight. I Corinthians.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 459 868 —MODE OF RECKONING TIME. XV, 4. That he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the Scriptures. Among the Jews the day was reckoned from evening to evening, (see Lev. xxiii, 32,) thougli this reckoning was sometimes varied. In popular language a part of a day was reckoned for the w^iole. The Saviour was buried at the close of the day, just before the Sabbath began. He remained in the tomb during the vvliole of the Sabbatli, which ended the following evening. Another day then began, and when the niglit of this day passed and its morning came he rose from the dead. Tliough but a short time of the first day was spent in tlie grave, it is still reckoned according to Jewish usage as the first day of his burial, the Sabbath being the second, and the next day the third. See also Matt, xvi, 21 ; xvii, 23 ; xx, 19 ; Markix, 31 ; x, 34 ; Luke ix, 22 ; xiii, 32 ; xviii, 33 ; xxiv, 7, 21, 46. 869.— ENEMIES UNDER THE FEET. XV, 25. For he must reign, till he hath put all enemies under his feet. There is a similar passage in Joshua x, 24, on which see the note. The monuments of ancient Egypt, As- syria, and Persia give numerous illus- trations of the custom of conquerors trampling on the vanquished. In the cave at Beit el Walley in Nubia is a hieroglyphic description of Rameses II. trampling on his ene- mies. It reads: "Kol, the strange land, is beneath thy sandals." At the foot of a wooden mummy case in the British Museum are painted the soles of two shoes, and on each is the figure of a man with his arms and hands tied behind him, and his feet tied at tlie ankles. In this help- less state lie is supposed to be tram- pled on b}^ the wearer of the shoes. It was a very expressive illustration of mingled trinmph and contempt. These cu?=toms strikingly illustrate W.—EimMras Trampi^ep ok. 460 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [ I Corinthians. the text, and numerous parallel passages. See Psa. viii, 6; cx, 1 ; cxix, 118; Tsa.xiv,19; xxv,10; xxviii,3,18 : Ixiii, 6 ; Lam.i,15; iii, 34 ; Dan. viii, 13; Micali vii, 10; Mai. iv, 3: Luke xxi, 24; Rom. xvi, 20; Heb. x, 29. IL CORINTHIANS. §70.— ROMAN MILITARY TRIUMPHS. II, 14. Now thanks be unto God, which always eauseth us to triumph in Christ, and. maketh manifest the savor of his itnowledge by us in every place. A Roman military triumphal procession was one of the grandest spectacles of ancient times. It was granted to a conqueror only when certain con- ditions had been fully comphed with. Among these it was required that the victory be complete and decisive; that it should be over a foreign foe; that at least five thousand of the enemy should be slain in a single battle; that the conquest should extend the territory of the state, and put an end to the war. When the senate decided that all the required conditions had been met a day was appointed, and every necessary arrangement was made for a splendid pageant. When the day arrived the people crowded the streets, and filled every .place from which a good view of the procession could be obtained. The temples wore all open and decorated with flowers, while in- cense smoked from everj^ altar. Fragrant odors from burning spices were profusely scattered through the temples and along the streets, loading the air with their perfume. In the procession were the senate and chief citizens of the state, w^io thus by their presence honored the conqueror. The rich- est spoils of war, such as gold, silver, weapons of every description, stand- ards, rare and costly works of art, and every thing that was deemed most valuable by either conqueror or vanquished, were carried in open view of the crowded city. The prisoners of war were also compelled to march in the procession. The general, in whose honor the triumph was decreed, rode in a chariot which was of peculiar form and drawn by four horses. His roVje was embroidered with gold, and his tunic with flowers. In his right hand was a laurel bough, and in his left a scepter; while on his brow there was a wreath of Delphic laurel. Amid the shouts of the soldiers and the applause of the populace the conqueror was carried through the streets to the temple of Jupiter, where sacrifices were offered, after which there was a public feast in tlie temple. (For a more detailed account, see Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities^ s, v. Triumphus.) To the splendors of such a scene the aposile doubtless alludes in this text, and also in Col ii, 15: *' And having spoiled principalities and powers, n Corinthians ] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 461 lie made a show of tliem openly, triumphing over them in it." Here Christ is referred to as the Great Conqueior, making public exhibition of ihe spoils of war. In the text at the head of this note it is also Christ who is tlie con- queror, Paul being merely an instrument used by him for the accorapHsli- raent of his work. Thus, wherever he preached Clirist triumphed ; and as in the Roman triumphs odors were profusely scattered around, so th'- knowl- edge of Christ was everj-where proclaimed by the apostles: " Maketh man- ifest the savor of his knowledge by us in every place." In the Roman triumph the fragrance which filled the air was inhaled alike by the cnpt ives of war doomed to death, and by the people who by means of the victory were saved from a similar fate. Thus the Gospel is preached to all, but with different results: to the believer, salvation; to him who rejects, eternal death. So Paul says in the fifteenth and sixteenth verses : "For we are unto God a sweet savor of Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish: To tlie one we are the savor of death unto death; and to the other the savor of life unto life." §71.--WALL-WIND0W-~BASKET. XI, 83. Through, a window in a basket was I let down by Iho wall. See also Acts ix, 25. 1. The wall of a house is sometimes also a portion of the city wall, and thus windows may be placed in the wall through which access may be had to the region outside of the city. The floor of an upper story sometimes extends beyond the wall, giving an opportunity for a bay window projecting outside the wall. Either of these methods would afford a chance to e.^cape from the city without passing through the gates. Tiius the spies escaped from Jericho. See Josh, ii, 15. David seems to have escaped in a similar manner by the help of Michal. See 1 Sam. xix, 12. 2. The basket by which Paul was let down probably resembled the large round shallow baskets which are still used in Damascus and in other parts of the East for various purposes. When Prof. Hackett was in Damascus he saw a couple of men come to the top of the wall with a basket full of rubbish, which they emptied over the wall. A friend said to him: ^'Such a basket the people use here for almost every sort of thing. If they are di<;'- ging a well and wish to send a man down into it, they put him into such a basket; and that those who aided Paul's escape should have used a basket for the purpose was entirely natural, according to the present customs of the country. Judging from what is done now, it is the only sort of vehicle of which men would be apt to think under such circumstances." — llkistra- Hons of Scripture^ p. 69. 462 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [6alatian& GALATIANS. 872.— THE PEDAGOGUE. Ill, 24. The law was our sehoolmaster to bring rts unto Christ. The TraiSaycjyog, " schoolmaster/' was not an instructor, but a trustworthy slave, to whom was committed the care of his master's sons from the time they were six or seven years of age until puberty. "His duty was rather to guard them from evil, both physical and moral, than to communicate in- struction, to cultivate their minds, or to impart accomplishments. He went with them to and from the school or the gymnasium; he accompanied them out of doors on all occasions ; he was responsible for their personal safety, and for their avoidance of bad company." — QmTR^s Dictionary of Antiquities, 6. V. P^DAGOGUS. 873— THE MARK. YI, IT. I bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus. Slaves were branded with a peculiar mark to designate their masters. So Paul had in his body marks, received in persecution for Christ's sake, which showed to wliom he belonged. Some think there is an allusion here to his " thorn in the flesh," which was a perpetual mark put upon him by his lord and master. See also notes on Lev. xix, 28 ; Isa. xlix, 16; Ezek. ix, 4. EPHESIANS. 874 —MILITARY SANDALS. 15, Your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace. . Q'he military sandals of the Roman private soldiers and centurions were made of very strong leather, and the soles were tliickly studded with hob- nails in order to give a sure footing. Thus the Christian soldier, having the Gospel as a sure footing, can stand firmly against the attacks of his spirit- ual foes. 875.— FIERY DARTS. VI, 16. The shield of faith, wherewith ye shall be able to queneh all the fiery darts of the wicked. Some have thought that the alhision here is to poisoned arrows. See note on Job vi, 4. There were darts, however, sometimes used in ancient war- fare that were literally "fiery." They were hollow reeds filled with naph- tha or some other combustible material, and, being set on fire, were shot Ephesians.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 463 from slack bows. Whatever the arrows struck, the flames consumed. Water served to increase their violence; they could only be extinguished hy being covered with earth. Large shields were used by the soldiers against whom these " fiery darts " were thrown, and thus their persons were protected PHILIPPIANS. §76.— REGISTER OF CITIZENS' NAMES. IV, 8. "With other my fellow-laborers, whose naraes are in the book of life. It was customary to have registers of citizenship, in which were entered the names of citizens, both natural and adopted. Heaven is represented as a city, and its inhabitants are registered. Some, who have not yet reached the heavenly city, are regarded as citizens on their way home. Their names are registered with the others. Such were the " fellow-laborers " to whom Paul refers in the text. See also Isa. iv, 3; Dan. xii, 1; Luke x, 20; Rev. xiii, 8; xvii, 8; xx, 15; xxi, 27. When one was deprived of citizenship his name was erased Irom the roll of citizens. Reference may be found to this in Exod. xxxii, 32 ; Irsa. Lxix, 28; and Rev. iii, 5. II. TIMOTHY. §77.— ROMAN MILITARY DISCIPLINE. II, 8. Thou, therefore endure hardness, as a good soldier of Jesus Christ. The discipline of the Roman army was very severe. Every soldier was compelled to "endure hardness." The weapons were heavy, and in addi- tion to them the ordinary foot soldier was compelled to carry a saw, a basket, a plck-ax, an ax, a thong of leather, and a hook, together with three days' rations. He was treated more like a beast of burden than a man. See JoSEPHUS, Wars of the Jews, book iii, chap. v. 8T§.— SINGLENESS OF AIM. II, 4. No man that warreth entangleth himself with the affairs of this life ; that he may please him who hath chosen him to be a soldier. The Roman soldier was expected to keep one thing in view, and only one : \he service of his connnandcM'. He was not allowed to marry, nor could ho 464 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Timothy. engage in agriculture, trade, or manufactures. He was a soldiei% and could not be any thing else. The figure is very suggestive of the singleness of aim which characterizes the true minister of Jesus Christ. He is not allowed to engage in any em- I)loyment wliicli will, by its entanglements, interfere witli his usefulness. This is what Paul, in die text, designs to intimate to Timothy. §79.— OBLIGATIONS OF LAW. II, 5. And if a man also strive for masteries, yet is he not crowned, except he strive lawfully. No man could hope to obtain the reward in the ancient games of running, leaping, boxing, or wrestling, unless he complied with the regulations w^hich were prescribed ; first, in the necessary previous training, (see note on 1 Cor. ix, 25,) and then in the conduct of the games. He must "strive law- fully." Thus the apostle says in 1 Cor. ix, 24: " So run, that ye may ob- tain." That is, keep all the rules if jow wish to succeed. It is thought by some that Paul algo refers to these rules of the games when he says, in 1 Cor. ix, 26: ''I therefore so run, not as uncertainly." That is, I have a knowledge of all the rules which regulate the race, and I know what I am engaged in, §80.-'MURAL INSCRIPTIONS. II, 19. Nevertheless the foundation of God standeth sure, hav- ing this seal, The Lord knoweth them that are his. And, Let every one that nameth the name of Christ depart from in- iquity. The word ''seal" is here used in the sense of inscription. Ancient seals frequently had inscriptions on them; though the allusion here is to inscrip- tions that were placed on buildings. Besides writing on doors, (see note ou Deut. vi, 9,) it was customary to inscribe on some of the foundation- stones of large buildings words indicating the purpose for which the build- ing was erected, or containing some striking apothegm. Allusion to this custom is also made in Rev. xxi, 14: '^The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and in them the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb." §81.— THE CLOAK, IV, 18. The oloak that I loft at Troas with Carpus, when thou comest, bring with thee. The (pe/i6v7/g was a thick upper garment corresponding to the Roman pr/nula, and was used in traveling instead of the toga as a protection Against the weather. It was sometimes worn by the women as well as by the men. It was usually made of wool, though occasionally of leather, and was a long sleev( less garment, made like a sack, with an opening for the head. Hebrews,] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 465 HEBREWS. §82.— THE GOLDEN CENSER. IX, 8, 4. After the second, vail, the tabernacle which is called Che holiest of all; which had the golden censer. Commentators are perplexed as to the meaning of dufiLarypiov, rendered "censer" iu this text. Some suppose the golden altar of incense is meant; but it is diflBcult to reconcile this opinion with the fact that this altar was not in the Most Holy Place. Others refer it to the censer which the high- priest used on the G-reat Day of Atonement, This utensil, however, is not said to have been made of gold. On the contrary, Exod. xxvii, 3, 19, indi- cate that it was made of brass. Reference seems to be made to a special vessel of gold which remained perpetually in the Most Holy Place of the Mosaic Tabernacle. It is not alluded to in any other part of the Bible. Meyer, in his Bibeldeutungen^ has an essay discussing this subject, in which he advances tlie opinion that there were two kinds of incense used in the Tabernacle; the first described in Exod. xxx, 7, 8, and the second in Exod. XXX, 34-36. *'The first or holy incense was used daily for burning on the coals; but the other, or most holy incense, tliat which was hallowed, was used cold, like our smeUing-salts, and was set in the Most Holy Place before the Ark of the Covenant, diffusing a perpetual Iragrance. In order that the mixture might, accomplish the end designed it was pulverized, and possibly some other chemical process was added, (verse 35.) That it might remain before the Te.stiraony, the place where it was positively ordered to be, it was proper that there should be a vessel, a thumiaterion, an open perfume dish or cup ; this vessel was undoubtedly of gold, as were the other vessels of the Most Holy Wdde.^^-^Bibeldeutungen, pp. 7, 8, Meyer, thinks he has thus discovered the meaning of the word censer " in the text. His explanation is certainly plausible, and not liable to the dif- ficulties which beset the others, §§3.-^SAWING ASUNDER. XI, 3T.--They were sawn asunder. This tenible mode of punishment is said to have originated either with the Persians or the Chaldeans, and was occasionally practiced by other ancient nations. Ii is supposed by some to be mentioned in 2 Sam. xii, 31, and I Chron. xx, 3, though commentators are by no means agreed on this point. There is a very old tradition that Isaiah suffered death by this means. The Saviour is thought to refer to it in Matt, xxiv, 51, and Luke xii, 46. Dr. Shaw gays that the Western Moors practiced this barbarous punishment during 466 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Hebrews. his travels among them. "They prepare two boards of a proper length and breadth, and having tied the criminal betwixt them, they proceed to the execution by beginning at the head." — Travets, p. 254. §§4.^THE RACE. XII, 1. ^A^l:lerefore, seeing we also are compassed about with so great a cloud, of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight, and the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run with pa- tience the race that is set before us. Running was one of the most popular of the Olympic games. The place prepared for the race w^as called the stadium because of its length, which was a stadium, or six hundred Greek feet. This was equal to six hundred and twenty-five Roman feet, or six hundred and six and three quarters feet English. See note on John xi, 18. The word appears in the original of 1 Cor. ix, 24, where it is translated "race" in our version. The stadium was an oblong area, with a straight wall across one end, where were the entrances, the other end being rounded and entirely closed. Tiers of seats were on either side for the spectators or " witnesses." The starting- place was at -the entrance end, and was marked by a square pillar. At the opposite end was the goal, where sat the judge holding in his hand the prize. The eyes of the competitors were fixed on him: "Looking unto Jesus." Heb. xii, 2. The goal, as well as the starting-place, was marked by a square pillar, and a third was placed midway between the two. The goal is the 165. — Ancient Foot-race. "mark" referred to in Phil, iii, 14. The competitors, througli severe train- ing, had no superfluous flesh, and all unnecessary clothing was put off. Flesh and clothing alike were laid aside as a "weight" which might hinder in the race. The distances run were various. The most common was the space between the starting-point and the goal. Sometimes this was doubled, the race terminating wliere it began. Sometimes the terms of the race required Hebrews.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 467 A Still longer distance to be run. Seven, twelve, twenty, and even twenty- hur times the length of the stadium were occasionally run. This required severe effort, and was a great tax on the strength. The runners might well be exhorted to "run with patience." There are other passages where allusions are made to the game of running. In 1 Tim. vi, 12, Paul says, as rendered in our version, *' Fight the good fight of faith;" and in 2 Tim. iv, 7, "I have fought a good fight." Some com- mentators understand that, in both these passages, running rather than fight- ing is designed by the original terms. The idea is one of contest for superiority. The kind of contest seems to be indicated in 2 Tim. iv, 7, where Paul says, ''I have finished ray course;" that is, "My race is run." The "course'' is also mentioned in Acts xx, 24, and 2 Thess. iii, 1. Phil, iii, 13, 14, also refers to the race: "Brethren, I count not myself to have apprehended: but this one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth unto those things which are belbre, I press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus." Here the course is not yet finished; he has not yet "apprehended" or seized the prize. Not looking behind, he reaches forth, just as the runners Inclined their bodies forward the better to get over the ground. He presses toward the mark or goal, just as they eagerly put forth their utmost endeavor to get the prize. He is in earnest, and determined to succeed. JAMES. §85,— TRAVELING MERCHANTS. IV, 13. Go to now, ye that say, To-day or to-morrow we will go into sueln a city, and. continue there a year, and buy and sell, and get gain. It is not usual among us for merchants to get rich by going from one city to anotlier. A steady pursuit of trade in one place is deemed essential to success. In the East, however, it is different. There the merchants are itinerant. Professor Hackett says: "Many of those who display their ^oods in the Eastern bazars are traveling merchants. They come from other cities, and after having disposed of their stock in trade, either for money or other commodities, proceed to another city, where they set up in business again. They supply themselves in every instance with the merchandise best suited to a particular market, and thus, after repeated peregrinations, if suc- cessful in their adventures, they acquire a competence and return home to enjoy the fruits of it. The process, therefore, agrees precisely with the 468 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [James. apostle's representation. The way to become rich was to go into this or that city and sojourn for awhile and trade, and then depart to another city." — Jllnstrations of Scripture^ p. 63. The men to whom the brethren of Joseph sold him were traders of this sort. See note on* Gen. xxxvii, 25. I PETER. 8§6.— ADORNMENTS OF THE HEAD. Ill, 8. Whose adorning, let it not be that outward adorning of plaiting the hair, and of wearing of gold, or of putting on of apparel. 1. Tlje Oriental ladies are exceedingly fond of golden ornaments and of cosily array. See notes on Gen. xxiv, 22, 53 ; and also oh Isa. iii, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23, 24, where a variety of these adornments are described. 2. Especial attention is paid to the hair. Long hair is greatly prized. See 1 Cor. xi, 15. Great care is taken in dressing the hair. Costly ointments are used. See note on Matt, xxvi, T. The tresses are carefully braided. Lady Montague counted a hundred and ten of these tresses on the head of a Turkish lady, and all of natural hair. The custom of plaiting the hair is very ancient. The Egyptians practiced it, and some specimens of old jjlaited hair are yet to be seen in museums on the heads of mummies. The women of other nations were not behind them. "In the daily use of cos-* nietics they bestowed the most astonishing pains in arranging their long hair; sometimes twisting it round on the crown of the head, where, and at the temples, by the aid of gum, which they knew as well as the modern belles, they wrought it into a variety of elegant and fanciful devices — figures of coronets, harps, wreaths, diadems, emblems of pubHc temples and conquered cities, being formed by the mimic skill of the ancient friseur; or else, plait- ing it into an incredible number of tresses, which hung down the back, and which, when necessary, were lengthened by ribbons so as to reach to the ground, and were kept at full stretch b}' the weight of various wreaths of pearls and gold fastened at intervals down to the extremity. From some Syrian coins in his possession, Hartmann {Die Hebraerin am Tutztishe) has given this description of the style of the Hebrew coiffure ; and many ancient busts and portraits which have been discovered exhibit so close a resemblance to those of Eastern ladies in the present day, as to show that the sume elaborate and gorgerus disposition of their hair has been the pride of Oriental females in every age." — Kitto's Cyclcypedia, s. v. Hair. I Peter.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 469 Among the interesting specimens of antique pottery dipcovered by Mr. Barker in Cilicia in 1845 are two terra cotta heads of women witli the hair plaited and dressed as shown in these engrav- ings. See Barker's Lares and Penates, pp. 1 58, 1 68. In tlie valuable antiqui- ties from the island of Cyprus in the Cesnola collection (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) there is a stone head which bears a close resemblance to one of these terra cotta heads 16T.- from Cilicia. See engrav- ing No. 167. The Apostle Paul also makes reference to braiding the hair in 1 Tim. ii, 9. 166.— Head Dress of Eoman Empress. —Plaited Hair op Roman Ladies. 8§7._THE CHIEF SHEPHERD, y, 4. When the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye shall receive a crown of glory that fadeth not away. In Heb. xiii, 20, Jesus is called that great Shepherd of the sheep." This corresponds to tiie "chief Shepherd" in the text. Where the flocks were numerous and a large number of shepherds were necessary, one was placed in charge of all the others. This was true of the herdmen also. Pharaoh told Joseph to take the most active of his kinsmen and make them " rulers • over his cattle. Gen. xlvii, 6. Doeg was the "chiefest of the herdmen" of Saul. I Sam. xxi, T. Burder gives an interesting quotation from the Gentlemen^ s Magazine for May, 1764, wherein there is a description of the sheep-walks of Spain: '* Ten thousand compose a flock, which is divided into ten tribes. One man has the conduct of all. He must be the owner of four or five hundred sheep, strong, active, vigi'aut, intelligent in pasture, in the weather, and in the diseases of sheep. He has absolute dominion over fifty shepherds and fifty dogs, five of each to a tribe. He chooses them, chastises them or dis- charges them at will. He is the jj'i^cepositiis, or the chief shepherd, of the whole flock." — Oriental Customs, No. 1310. Thus we have an illustration of the text. Christian ministers are pastors or shepherds ; but there is one over them all. Jesus is tiie " chief Shepherd." He superintends them, cares for them, assigns them their several positions, and rewards or punishes them. 470 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS [IH John III. JOHN. §8§.— INK— PENS. 13. I had many things to write, but I will not with ink and pen write u.nto thee. 1. For a description of the ink used in the East, see note on Jer. xxxvi, 18. 2. There were two sorts of pens. One was of iron, for use on metaUie or waxed plates. See Jer. xvii, 1, and notes on Job xix, 23, 24, and on Luke i, 63. The other was a reed pointed in the same manner as the quill pens of modern times, though not usually sht. This was used with the ink for writing on parchment, or on papyrus. * JUDE. 8§9.— LOVE--FEASTS. 12. These are spots in your feasts of charity, when they feast with you, feeding themselves without fear. The agapce or love-feasts, here called feasts of charity," were feasts which were celebrated in connection with the sacrament of the Lord's Sup- per ; whether before or after is a disputed question. Possibly the precedence varied at different periods of Church history. BiFifyham gives this account of it from Chrysostom: "Tiie first Christians had all things in common, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles ; and when that ceased, as it did in the apostles' time, this came in its room, as an efflux or imitation of it. For though the rich did not make all their substance common, yet, upon certain days appointed, they made a common table ; and when their service was ended, and they had all communicated in the holy mysteries, they all met at a common feast: the rich bringing provisions, and the poor and those who had nothing being invited, they ail feasted in common together." The same authority also quotes from Tertullian, who represents the order of service of the agapce. " Our supper, which you accuse of luxury, shows its reason in its very name — for it is called ayuTry, which signifies love among the Greeks. Whatever charge we are at, it is gain to be at ex- pense upon the account of piety. For we therewith relieve and refresh the poor. There is nothing vile or immodest committed in it. For we do not sit down before we have first offered up prayer to G-od; we eat only to sat- isfy hunger, and drink only so much as becomes modest persons. We fill ourselves in such manner as that we remember still that we are to worship Jude.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. . 471 God by ] light. We discourse as in the presence of God, knowing that he hears us. Then; after water to wash our hands, and hghts brought in, every one is moved to sing some hymn to God, either out of Scripture, or, as he is able, of his own composing; and by this we judge whether he has observed the rules of temperance in drinking. Prayer again concludes our feast; and thence we depart, not to figiit and quarrel, not to run about and abuse all we meet, not to give ourselves up to lascivious pastime; but to pursue the same care of modesty and chastity, as men that have fed at a supper of philosophy and discipline, rather tlian a corporeal feast." See Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Churchy book xv, chap. 7, 6-9. Most commentators suppose an allusion in 1 Cor. xi, 21, to the feasts of love, which were used in connection with the eu':^liarist. Dr. Lightfoot, however, while conceding that there were such feasis, denies that they are the agcrpce mentioned by Paul and by Jude. He supposes that both Paul and Jude refer to entertainments which were provided for traveling brethren at the cost of the Church, in imitation of the custom of the Jews in their synagogues. His entire comment is curious and interesting. See his Wo7ks, (Edition, Pitman,) vol. xii, p. 522. REVELATION. §90.— THE CHCENIX. VI, 6. A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley for a penny. The choenix ^ *' measure," was an Attic dry measure, and was nearly equivalent to one quart English. Its measurement was the usual daily allowance for a soldier or a slave. §91.^PALM-BRANCHES. VII, 9. Clothed with white robes, and palms in their hands. Palm-branches were used on occasions of festivity. See Lev. xxiii, 40; Keh. viii, 15. They were regarded as tokens of joy and of triumplx, Kings and conque ors were welcomed by having palm-branches strewn before them, and waved in the air, wiih shouts and acclamations of joj^ Tluis they were waved before ihe Messiah on the occasion of his entry into Jeru- salem. See John xii, 13. Conquerors in the Grecian games returned to their homes triumphantly waving palm-branches in their liands. Thus in the New Jerusalem John sees the triumphant followers of the Messiah with ^ palms i'^ ti eir hands." 29 472 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Revelation. §92.— TEMPLE-WATCHMEN. . XVI, 15. Behold, I eome as a thief. Blessed is he that wateh- eth, and keepeth his gaFments, lest he walk naked, and they see his shame. Lightfoot supposes that there is a reference here to the duties of a certain officer of the temple, called " The Rnler of the Mountain of the House." He went about the temple at everj watch with lighted torches, to see v/hether or not the guards were at their posts. If he found one of them sleeping "he struck him with a stick; and il was warrantable for )iim to burn the garments of such an one. And when it was said by others, What is that noise in the court ? the answer was made, It is the noise of a Levite under correction, and whose garments are burning, for that he slept upon the watch. R. Eliezer Ben Jacob said, They once found my mother^s son asleep, and they burnt his clothes.'^ — Hebrew and Talmudical Exercitations on Luke xxii, 4. 893.— MANY CROWNS. XIX, 12. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and on his head were many crowns. Monarehs who claimed authority over more than one country wore more than one crown. The kings of Egypt were erowned with the pshmi, or united crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. When Ptolemy Philometer entered Antioch as a conqueror he wore a triple crown, two for Egypt, and the third for Asia. John saw him who was " King of kings and Lord of lords," and " on his head were many crowns." Thus, in a beautiful figure, the universal dominion of our blessed Lord is set forth. 4 INDEXES. [The figures on the right hand refer to the numbers of the notes.] I. ANALYTICAL INDEX. L RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS. 1. Sacred Places. 1. Jewish tabernacle, 141. Altar of burnt-offering, 145. Altar of incense, 144. Ark of covenant, 142. Brazen laver, 146. Golden candlestick, 143. Golaen censer, 882. Table of show-bread, 143. 2. Temples : — First temple — Solomon's, 295. Second temple — Zerubbabel's, 375. Third temple — Herod's, 704. Doves sold in it, 688. Gifts to it, 786. Pinnacle, 635. Solomon's porch, 721. Yail, 733. 3. The synagogue, 636, 762. 2. Sacred Persons. 1. Chief priests, 717. 2. Dress of priests, 148. 3. Levites, 178. 4. Levitical captains, 787 5. Minister of the synagogue, 757. 6. Priestly investiture, 182. 7. Prophet's mantle, 182. 8. Ruler of the synagogue, 834. 9. The ''Consolation," 752. 10. Wives of priests, 748. 3. Sacred Offerings. 1. Burnt-offering, 151. 2. Drink-offering, 169. 3. Hands laid on victim, 160. 4. Meat-offering, 152. 5. Peace-offering, 156. 6. Sacrifice of the red heifer, 181. 7. Sin-offering, 153. 8. Time of evening sacrifice, 311. 9. Trespass-offering, 154. 10. Use of hyssop, 437. 11. Use of salt, 150. 12. Wood-offering, 385. 4. Sacred Seasons. 1. Agapse, 889. 2. Feast of dedication, 805. 3. Feast of harvest or pentecost, 131. 4. Feast of tabernacles, 131, 798. 5. Feast of trumpets, 170. 6. Great da}^ of atonement, 161. 7. New moon and sabbath, 335. 8. Passover, 130, 714, 715, 716. 9. Preparation for the festivals, 129. 10. Sabbatical year, 171. 11. Visitors during festivals, 132. 12. Year of jubilee, 172. 5. Various Cerkmonies connected WITH Worship. 1. Clothes washed before worship, 126. 474 BIBLE HANKERS AND CUSTOMS. 2. "Cutting the covenant," 551. 3. Prayer : — By the river side, 838. Long prayers, 700. On the house top, 829. Posture, 300, 433, 568, 595, 74L Repetitions, 645. Stated times, 595. 4. Priestly benediction, 790. 5. Reading the Scriptures in the syn- agogue, 755, 756, 834. 6. Singing the "Hallel," 716. n. The "holy kiss," 862. 8. Use of "Amen," 364. 9. Use of pliylacteries, 697. 6. Idolatry. 1. Ceremonies : — Calf-worsliip, 138, 448. Cuttings in the flesh, 310. Pace turned toward the east, 568. Feasts, 535, 602. Gods called on in trouble, 610. Human sacrifices, 330. Idols carried on shoulders, 519. Sacrifices of the dead, 449. Tidings carried to idols, 362. Use of garlands, 837. 2. Deities : — Adrammelech, 351. Anamelech, 351. Ashima, 351. •Ashtoreth, 304. Baal, 184. Baal-berith, 232. Baalim, 222. Baal-peor, 185. Baal-zebub, 324. Bel, 559. Chemosh, 183. Chiun, 605. Dagon, 236. Diana, 846, 850. Gad, 535. Jupiter, 836. Meni, 535. Mercury, 836. M*erodach, 559. Milcom or Malcham, 304. Molech or Moloch, 163, Nebo, 518. Nergal, 351. Nibhaz, 351. Nisroch, 355. Rimmon, 337. Tammuz, 567. Tartak, 351. 3. Notions concerning the gods :' — A god for the hills, 320. Gods like men, 309. Gods visiting men, 835. 4. Places of worship. High places, 174. Idol treasure-house, 587. Temple of Diana, 847. 5. Practices specially forbidden : — Eating blood, 192. Planting groveS, 1 94. Seething of kids, 133. Tattooing, 166. Trimming hair and beard, 165. Use of honey and leaven in sac- rifices, 149. Use of mixed seeds, 202. Wearing garments belonging to the opposite sex, 200. Wearing mixed cloth, 203. 6. Priests : — Chemarim, 621. Vestments of the priests of Baal, 344. 7. Visible objects of worship : — Asheroth, 222. Goats, 162. Golden calf, 137. Graven images, 516. Hosts of heaven, 189. Implements, 617. Maachah's idol, 306. Molten images, 137, 516. Stone images, 173. Stones, 527. Sun, 358. Sun images, 174. Talismanic images, 250. Teraphim, 60. 7. Divination and Magic. 1. Various kinds of diviners Astrologers, 520, 631. Charmer, 195. Consultcr with familiar spifita, 195. Enchanter, 195. ANALYTICAL INDEX. 475 Magicians, 76. Necromancer, 195. Observer of times, 195. Wizards and witches, 195. 2. Various kinds of divination : — By arrows, 578. By divining cups, 90. By the liver, 578. By rods, 597. By teraphim, 60, 578. 3. Books of magic, 845. 8. Ecclesiastical Courts. 1. Discipline of the synagogue, 656, 802. 2. The great sanhedrim, 718, 747. 3. The lesser sanhedrim, 656. 9. Miscellaneous. 1. Corban, 740. 2. Cursing, 115, 262. 3. Dancing, 123. 4. Fasting, 783. 5. Lots, 463. 6. Pharisees, 672, 693, 700, 739. 7. Sacred numbers, 468. 8. Sadducees, 695. 9. Swearing by the uplifted hand, 5. 1 0. The burning lamp, 6. 11. Vows, 851. 12. Washing the hands, 431. II. CIVIL AND POLITICAL CUSTOMS. 1. Official. 1. Kings and queens : — Coronation, 346. Crowns, 893. King's pillar, 347. King, how approached, 395. Persian queen, 394. Pharaoh, the name, 3. Roads made ready for monarchs, 513. Scepters, 576. Silence in presence of royalty,619. Solomon's throne, 303. 2. Other officers : — • Asiarchae, 849. Captain of the guard, 71. Chamberlains, 391. Cup-bearer, 378. Herald, 513. Tirshatha, 383. Town clerk, 850. 2. Legislative. 1. Concerning persons : — Personal liberty : — Adoption, 861, Compulsory help, 642. Freedom by a javelin, 260. Freedom given by the son, 799, Opening a servant's ears, 434, Rights of a Roman citizen, 841, Responsibility of jailers, 840. 2. Concerning property : — Ass fallen under burden, 128. Ooel, 245. Landmarks, 197, 550. Law of inheritance, 779. Patrimony not to be sold, 322. Payment of tribute, 674. Tax-gathering, 759. Transfer of property, 27. 3. Unalterable laws, 596. 3. Judicial. 1. Courts: — Accused standing before the judge, 722. . Agreeing with adversary, 640. Appeal to Cesar, 853. Condemnation to death, 398. Debtor arrested by creditor, 640. Roman council, 853. Testimony given standing, 661. 2. Punishments: — Capital punishments : — Burning alive, 591. Chaining to a corpse, 860. Crucifixion, 727, 729, 730, 820. Cutting in pieces, 589. Drowning, 676. Face of the condemned cov- ered, 399. Guard at executions, 731. Hands bound, 270. 476 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Place of execution, 728. Throwing from a rock, 368. Sawing asunder, 883. Tablet of the condemned, 732. Punishments not capital : — Bhnding, 360, 517. Fetters, 360. Grinding, 235. Hanging by the band, 562. Houses destroyed, 589. Men bridled, 512. Mutilation, 581. Plucking the hair, 386. Scourging, 656, 724. Selling for debt, 381. Stocks, 839. Tormentors, 679. Prisons and prisoners, 72, 831. 4. Miscellaneous. 1. Book of life, 876. 2. Book of remembrance, 627. 3. Herodians, 694. 4. Kissing, an act of homage, 427. 5. Places of honor, 686. 6. Right of asylum, 291. 7. Safe-conduct, 379. III. MILITARY CUSTOMS. 1. Arms. 1. Arrows, 348, 405. 2. Batttle axes, 561. 3. Bows, 348. 4. Darts, 875. 5. Javelins, 252, 253. 6. Lances, 252. 7. Nets, 413. 8. Quivers, 500. 9. Spears, 252, 253, 266, 555. 10. Swords, 255. 2. Armor. 1. Breastplate, 251. 2. Brigandine, 555. 3. Buckler, 202, 253, 410. 4. Cuirass, 251. 5. Greaves, 252. 6. Helmet, 251. 7. Shields, 252, 253, 302. 498, 500,615. 8. Target, 301. 3. Clothing-. 1. Garments of soldiers, 615. 2. Girdle, 318. 3. Sandals, 874. 4. Scarlet robe, 726. 4. EIngines. 1. BaUstae, 370. 2. Battering-rams, 565. 3. Catapult*, 370. 4. Stone-bows, 363. 5. Engineering. 1. Banks, 565. 2. Bulwarks. 565. 3. Cataracta, 430. 4. Fort, 565. 5. Fortifications, 366. 6. Treatment of Captured Enemies. 1. Beheading, 343. 2. Deportation, 352. 3. Mutilation, 221. 4. Placed in processions of triumph, 505, 870. 5. Trodden under foot, 220, 628, 869. 7. War. 1. Declaration of war, 349. 2. Readiness for war, 498, 500, 524, 620. 3. Time for war, 274. 8. Miscellaneous. 1. Captain's chariot, 120. 2. Cavalry, 122. 3. Chariots of war, 119, 615. 4. Cohort, 725. 5. Ensigns, 177. 6. Labor degrading to warriors, 219. 7. Quaternion, 830. 8. Roman military discipline, 877, 878. 9. Roman military triumphs, 870. 10. Songs of victory, 258, 259. 11. Standards, 177, ANALYTICAL INDEX. 477 IV. SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC CUSTOMS. 1. Personal and Family. Children: — Birthright, 41, Brought to be blessed, 680, Feast at weaning- time, 19, In the temple, 689. Modes of carrying, 522, 529, Names: — Change of, 371. Derived from animals, 52, 828, Double, 807. Given at circumcision, 749. Religion of, 7, Significance of, 59, 425 Nurse, 37. Rejoicings over birth of son, 547. Salt applied to infants, 574, Sleeping with parents, 77 2. Swaddhng-clothes, 751. The pedagogue, 872. 2, Death:— Arrangements for burial: — Closing the eyes, 94, Coffins, 102. Embalming, 98, 822, Bier, 269, 764, Corpses devoured by birds, 443, Funeral processions, 100, 763. Interment: — In caves, 28. In houses," 265. In the city — rare, 292. On day of death, 826. Outside of cities, 7 63. Warriors, arms of buried, 582, Without coffin, 350, Sepulchers : — Door of, 7i^4, Garnished, 703, Marked by stones, 359. Sealed, 735. Stones heaped over, 217, Unseen, 773. Whited, 772. Sorrow for the dead : — Burnings, 367. Ceremonial mourning, 23, 47, 98. Condolence, 810. Feasts of sorrow, 210. Hired mourners, 541. Signs of raourniag : — Baldness, 494. Beard cut off, 494. Cuttings in the flesh, 166. Covering the upper lip, 612. Earth on the head, 279. Fasting, 277. Hands on the head, 537. Head covered, 278. Loud lamentations, 285. Plucking the hair, 386. Rending the clothes, 70. Sackcloth, 70. Sitting on the ground, 490. Smiting the breast, 784. Smiting the thigh, 549, Visits to the grave, 811, 3. Dress: — Garments : — Assyrian, 579, At feasts, 692, Bonnets, 486. ''Bosom," 760. CamePs hair, 632. Cauls, 484. Cliangeable suits, 487, Cloak, 881. Coats, 67, 593, 821. Costly and elegant, 36. Fine linen, 488. Gifts of clothing, 93, 257, 397. Girdle, 314. Hoods, 488. Kerchiefs, 573. Mantles, 487. Mufflers. 485. Outer, 205, 246, Pawned, 204. Perfumed, 436. Persian, 593. Sandals, 832. Scrip, 256. Shoe-latchet, 791. Shoes, 107, 208, 247, 633, 654. . Stomacher, 489. Tires, 231. 478 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Transparent, 488. Tunic, 821. Yails, 39, 246, 485, 488. White, 472. Wimples, 487. Ornaments : — Amulets, 66, 486. Anklets, 483. Armlets, 267. Bra