C. X. Tfose^croi-ns 
 
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AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF THE 
 EXPLOSIONS OF GASEOUS 
 MIXTURES 
 
 BY 
 
 CRANDALL ZACHARIAH ROSECRANS 
 B. S. University of Illinois 
 1919 
 
 THESIS 
 
 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 
 
 Degree of 
 
 MASTER OF SCIENCE 
 
 IN 
 
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 
 
 IN 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 1921 
 

 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 \^'l\ 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 May 24, ](^1^ 
 
 
 I HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY 
 SUPERVISION BY CP..TTI.,LL .:;,CHARIAH RQgECTANS , 
 
 ENTITLED F.XrTRI T-TMT- aX-^CII 
 
 OF GASEOUS MIXTURES « 
 
 BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 THE DEGREE OF 
 
 Recommendation concurred in* 
 
 Committee 
 
 on 
 
 Final F^xamination* 
 
 
 Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2015 
 
 https://archive.org/details/experimentalstudOOrose 
 
CONTEUTS 
 
 I. Introduction 1 
 
 II. Review of Previous Researches ... 5 
 
 III. Description of Apparatus . . . . 27 
 
 IV. Procedure in Making an Explosion . • 68 
 
 V. Results 65 
 
 VI. Conclusions 108 
 
 Appendix 119 
 

 
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 Bairstow & Alex&nder .... 
 
 
 
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 Bairs tow & Alexander .... 
 
 
 
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 Bairstow 8c Alexander .... 
 
 
 
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 Hopkinson^s Explosion Vessel 
 
 
 
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 9 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 
 
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 10 
 
 Hopkinson 
 
 
 
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 11 
 
 David 
 
 
 
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 12 
 
 David 
 
 
 
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 David 
 
 
 
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 14a 
 
 Cylindrical Vessel 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 14b 
 
 Conical Vessel 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 14c 
 
 Hemispherical Vessel 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 14d 
 
 L-head Vessel ....... 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 15 
 
 Original Indicator 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 16 
 
 ManoTueter and Connections 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 17 
 
 Drawing of Apparatus .... 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 18 
 
 Photograph of New Indicator 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 19 
 
 Calibration Curve for Indicator 
 
 
 
 52 
 
 £0 
 
 Photograph of Remodeled Apparatus 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 21 
 
 Photograph of Remodeled Apparatus 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 Gas and Air Piping 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 23 
 
 Ignition Wiring Diagram 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 24 
 
 Facsimile of Explosion Card 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 25 
 
 Series 1 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 26 
 
 Series 2 
 
 
 
 68 
 
 27 
 
 Series 3 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 Series 2 and 3 
 
 
 
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 Series 
 
 2, 8, 10, and 14 
 
 9 9 
 
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 95 
 
 48 
 
 Ef f e c t 
 
 of Ratio of Surface 
 
 to Volume 
 
 
 9 
 
 97 
 
 49 
 
 Cooling Crrves 
 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 60 
 
 Curves 
 
 of Tenperature Prop 
 
 • 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 99 
 
 51 
 
 Explosions of Hydrogen and 
 
 Air 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 104 
 
 52 
 
 Explosions of Hydrogen and 
 
 Air 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 105 
 
 53 
 
 Explosions of Hydrogen and 
 
 Air 
 
 9 
 
 
 9 
 
 106 
 
 54 
 
 Curves of Energy and Et^ui librium 
 Equations 
 
 
 
 
 124 
 
AN EXi?ERIF£ENTAL STUDY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 EXPLOSIONS or GASEOUS MIXTURES 
 I, Introduction , 
 
 Purp 0 se and Scope of Investigation . 
 
 The purpose of this investigation is the study of 
 some of the physica,! phenomena involved in the explosions of 
 gaseous mixtures in a closed vessel. The problems connected 
 with the chemical changes involved, or any of the other in- 
 cidental problems arising, have not been considered within the 
 scope of this investigation. 
 
 It is the purpose of this discussion to point out 
 various comparisons existing between explosions taking place 
 in different shaped vessels. These vessels were designed to 
 simulate the various forms of combustion spaces actually in 
 use in modern gas engines, 
 
 Acknowledgiiients . 
 
 The T/riter is indebted to A.P.Kratz, Research 
 Assistant Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineer- 
 ing, for much of the apparatus employed in this investigation 
 

 
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 es well as for his supervision of the present investigation. 
 
 Tfxe apparatus was designed and built by Professor Kratz dur- 
 ing the years 1915-1916, and some of the preliminaiy results 
 v/ere obtained by him. These results are embodied in this 
 discussion, as hereinafter noted. The apparatus was then 
 remodeled, and additional results obtained by the writer. 
 General Consideration of Explosions in a Closed Vessel . 
 
 Consider a homogeneous mixture of <^ny inflammable 
 gas and air enclosed in a vessel v/ith heavy metallic walls. 
 
 The gas is assumed to be at atmospheric tenperature , as is 
 also the vessel. If an igniting agent, such as an electric 
 spark, be communicated to the gas mixture, inflammation will 
 take place, more or less rapidly, according to the nature of 
 the mixture. The heat developed by the combusticn will raise 
 the tenperature of the gases, and hence the pressure in the 
 vessel. At the same time the gas is losing heat to the cold 
 wall of the vessel. This loss of heat reduces the heat 
 available for raising the pressure of the gas. At an instant 
 when the loss of heat to the walls exactly balances the heat 
 developed from the combustion^ the pressure ceases to rise. 
 
 This point on the pressure curve may be knov/n as the ’’maximum 
 pressure". The gas then cools slowly, by losing heat to the 
 Walls of the vessel, which, owing to its large mass in com- 
 parison vdth the mass of the gas, does not become appreciably 
 heated. The pressure of the gas decreases as this cooling 
 process goes on, and finally attains the original pressure 
 
r, 
 
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of the gas mixtiire.as charged into the vessel, bat with uny 
 slight difference which might he caused hy the contraction 
 or esi^ansicn of the gases due to the chemical combination , 
 The time elapsing from the instant of ignition 
 (that is, of the passing of the spark) to the instant of at- 
 taining maximum pressure will he designated as the "time of 
 explosion'*. The ratio of air to gas, hy volume, as origi- 
 nally charged into the vessel, v,lll he known as the "air-gas 
 ratio", or "R”. 
 
 It is the purpose of 
 maximum pressures developed and 
 different mixtures, exploded in 
 An estimate will dso 
 lost to the walls of the vessel 
 
 this discussion to carp a re the 
 the times of explosion for 
 different shaped vessels, 
 he made of the amount of heat 
 during the time of explosion. 
 
4 
 
 } 
 
 11 . REVIEW OF PREVIOUS RESE.'JcCHES 
 
 There has been a considerable amount of experi- 
 menting done on the physical phenomena involved in the ex- 
 plosions of gaseous mixtures. The x^urk of some of the 
 experimenters in this field nlll be discusseci in the fol- 
 lowing paragraphs. 
 
 Uugald Clerk ^ 
 
 In 1884 Clerk exploded mixtures of Gambridg-e coal 
 gas and air at various initial pressures oJid temperatures. 
 
 His exp-losion vessel was cylindrical in form and 
 had a volume of 517 cubic inches. The pressure developed in 
 the cylinder was measured by means of a Richards indicator, 
 and the pressure diagrams were traced on revolving drum. 
 
 Jump spark ignition was used, ?:ith the spark occurring at the 
 bottom of the cylinder. Explosions of hydrogen and air were 
 also made in the same apparcttus. 
 
 In a later series of experiments a cylinder 7” long 
 and 7" in dianeter WciS used. The Richards indicator was re- 
 tained, but a slide, moving longitudinally, was substituted 
 for the dium. The recordirg paper was fastened to the slide, 
 
 ^ Dugald Cle rk-- The Gas , Petrol , and Oil Engine , p. 1E6. 
 
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 timing fork (having a frequency of 200 vibrations per second) 
 which traced a curve on the recording paper. 
 
 Clerk's curves, showing the relation between maxi- 
 mum pressure end air-gas ratio-, and time and air-gas ratio 
 are typical of all e^q^eriments in the field, and are repro- 
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 shovm in Pig. 2. 
 
 Clerk’s results are the best of those obtained from 
 the early experimenters on gas explosions, but they are in 
 error on account of the inability of the indicator to follow 
 the rapid changes of pressure. 
 
 Massachusetts Ineti tute of Techno logy^ 
 
 Experiments similar to Clerk’s were conducted at the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1898. The apparatus 
 employed was similar to that used by Clerk, except t3:at a ro- 
 tating disc was used as the recording device. The pressures 
 were therefore plotted on polar, instead of rectangular, co- 
 ordi nates. 
 
 The resuL ts closely approximate those obtained by 
 Clerk and confirm all of his conclusions. 
 
 Experiments were also made with this apparatus on 
 mixtures of gasoline vapor and air. 
 
 Clerk — The Gas , Petro 1 , aid Oil Engl ne , p. 148. 
 
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8 
 
 SroTer ^ 
 
 In 1695 P. Grover made some experiments on the ex- 
 plosions of mixtures of coal gas and air in an ^paratus mnch 
 the same as Clerk's. The e^q^losion vessel had a volume of 
 one cjutic foot. It was 8" in diameter and 34" long. A 
 Crosby indicator was used to determine the pressure developed, 
 and a tuning fork to record the time. The mixture was in- 
 troduced by filling the cylinder with water, and allowirg- the 
 gas and air to enter as the water flowed out. 
 
 The results of Gixi ver ' s work, when explosion (or max- 
 imum) pressure was plotted against the air-gas ratio, gave 
 curves falling much below those obtained by Clerk and at the 
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology, althou^ the calorific 
 Talue of the gases was practically the same in all cases. 
 
 Grover accounts for this difference by the fact that the heat 
 taken to evaporate the water adhering to the cylinder walls 
 after drawing in the gas charge reduced the heat available for 
 raising the pressuie . It is probable, however, that his 
 method of introducing the mixture was not as conducive to 
 thorough mixing as the method used in Clerk's researches. It 
 is a well kno7/n fact that a lean mixture vl 11 ignite much more 
 rapidly if a small amount of relatively strong mixture is 
 situated in the immediate vicinity of the ignition point. The 
 time of explosion was shorter in Grover's wrk than in the 
 
 ^ Cle rk-- The Gas , Petro 1 , an d Oil hngL ne , p, i53. 
 
I 
 
9 
 
 previously described experiments, inalncst every case, and 
 this fact seems to indicate that the lower pressures developed 
 in Grover's experiiaents were due to faulty mixing of the 
 charge. 
 
 Grover also nade explosions w ith mixtures consisting 
 of coal gas, air, and exhaust gas left from the preceding 
 explosion. His results indicated that the presence of from 
 5% to 20^ of exhaust gas in the initial gaseous mixture 
 actually raised the pressure as much as 19 lb. per sq. in. 
 above that observed fora mixture containing the sane per- 
 centage of fresh coal gas. This apparent increase of maxi- 
 mum pressure became less as the strength of the mixture in- 
 creased, and with a 12 to 1 mixture the effect became negli- 
 gible. With a 7 to 1 mixture the maximum pressure was 
 decreased by the presence of exhaust gas. This fact, to- 
 gether wi th an analysis of the exhaust gas, proved conclu- 
 sively that the ire reuse of pressure with the weaier mixtures 
 was due to the fact that the exhaust gases contained as high 
 as 20^ of inflammable gases reiraining^ from the previous in- 
 coEDplete combustion. The obvious conclusion is that the 
 products of combustion, unless they contain unburned gases, 
 cannot raise the explosion pressure when us ed as a diluent. 
 
 Grover later (1898) made explosions of acetylene X 
 and air mixtui'es, using the same experimental apparatus. The 
 gas, however, was measured in from a gas holder, and the 
 error due to the water left in the cylinder was thereby 
 

 
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 eliminated. Low tension make and break ignition was i3sed, 
 the spark occurriiqg at the center of the cylinder. 
 
 The mixtures were exploded at 1, 2, and 3 atmos- 
 pheres initial pressure. (Mixtures of coal gas and air were 
 also exploded at the same initial pressureei. The resiilts, 
 however, still show evidence that a perfectly homogeneous 
 mixture was not obtained, as the coal gas explosion pressures 
 are again low as compared with Clerk's. 
 
 Curves of explosion pressure plotted against initial 
 pressure are given in Fig. 3. From these curves it is evident 
 that Ihe explosion pressure increases almost directly as the 
 initial pressure. The deviation from a straight line law may 
 be explained by the poor mixing cf the charge evident in all 
 Grover's work, since the straight line lav; was confirmed by 
 later experimenters. 
 
 Curves of pressure and time of explosion for dif- 
 ferent mixtures of acel^lene and air, and coal gas and air are 
 given in Fig. 4, 
 
 Petavel^ 
 
 Petavel's experiments (1902) on the explosion of 
 gaseous mixtures are of great interest, as thqy are the only 
 ones carried out at very high initial pressures. A spherical 
 steel bomb having an internal diameter of 4" and a volume of 
 0.0195 cu, ft. was used. 
 
 ^ Memoirs of Manche ster Lit , and Phil . Soc . v. 46, 
 part 2 , p. 1. 
 

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 a hollow column was used as Ihe spring, aid the motion was 
 greatly magnified by a system of levers and a mirror. The in- 
 strunent was practically free from all inertia effects, and 
 seemed to be able to follov/ the rapid pressure variations 
 without appreciable lag. 
 
 Bairs to w and Alexander ^ 
 
 Lxplosion experiments were made in 1905 by Messrs. 
 Bairstow and Alexander, using mixtures of coal gas and air. 
 Their apparatus was exceedingly conplete, and provisions were 
 made for the most accurate measurenents possible. The in- 
 dicator, a Sinplex, of the ordinary steam engine type, was, 
 as usnal, the weakest part of the apparatus. The explosion 
 vessel was 18” Icng and 10” in diameter, and had a volume of 
 0.8£1 cu. ft. The gas used the the city illuminating gas, 
 and it averaged 6E8 Btu, per cu. ft. in heating value, 
 
 Bairstow and Alexander found the same difficulty in 
 getting a perfectly honogeneous mixture that Grover did. 
 Mixtures were allcwed to stand as long as 17 hours without 
 diffusing enough to be ignited. A mixing plate, operated by 
 hand, was therefore added. Ignition was accomplished by 
 means of a jump spark, through a "firing tube". This tube 
 extended some distance down into the interior of the vessel. 
 
 Proc. Eoy « Soc . , Series A, v. 76, p. 345. 
 
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 and was pierced with small holes at intervals. The electri- 
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 holes in the tube were plugged except one located at the de- 
 sired distance fmm the top of the cylinder, and the electric 
 ignition spark was passed. The mixture in the tube exploded, 
 throwing a jet of flame into the main part of the explosion 
 vessel through the hole in the firing tube, and igniting the 
 whole mixture. The position of the open inle in the tube was 
 changed to give ignition at any desired point cf the vessel. 
 
 Ignition accomplished by this means was not con- 
 stant in igniting power, as the greater amount of gas exploded 
 in the firing tube when the lower hole was open projected a 
 jet of flame farther into the main vessel than it did when 
 the upper holes were open. This caused some variation in 
 the maximum pressures and tii'ies of explosion of the mixtures 
 in the vessel, due to the change in igrd. ting power of the 
 firing tube. With electric ignition, the spark gap being 
 placed at the desired point in the vessel, this effect is 
 eli minated. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows the time of explosion and the maximum 
 pressure as affected by the position of the ignition point, 
 a 7 to 1 mixture being used in all the experiments. The 
 initial pressure was 35 lb. per sq. in. absolute. Similar 
 experiments were made with a weaker mixture, in which case it 
 was found that the position of the ignition point for most 
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16 
 
 the vessel. This can be accounted for ly the fact that the 
 ccnvection currents in the weaker mixture are sufficiently 
 rapid to be comparable with the rate of inflammation. The 
 position of the ignition point in the lower part of the vessel 
 assists the convection currents. 
 
 In all the fbllowing e3?)erinBnts made by Bairstow 
 and Alexander, four sparks in series, passing thrcugh the 
 axis of the cylinder were used. Two complete series of tests 
 were made, with varying mixtures, one series at 55 lb. per 
 sq. in. absolute initial pressure, aid the other at 34.5 lb. 
 per sq. in. absolute. The results are plotted in Fig. 6. 
 
 It is questionable whether the results of the ex- 
 peilments on ignition at different points of the vessel are 
 very accurate or significant, since the variation in the ig- 
 niting power of the firing tube, as pointed out above, might 
 cause a wi de variation in the maximum pressure and the time 
 of explosion. 
 
 The results of the pressure e^q) ariment s as shown in 
 Pig. 7 indicate clearly that the maximum pressure is directly 
 proportional to the initial pressure (absolute). Further data 
 on the cooling of various mixtures after explosion were given 
 by these experimenters. These data will be discussed later. 
 Fenn ^ 
 
 In 1900 Eobert H. Fenn, working at the Clarkson 
 
 1 
 
 Engineering News , v. 44, p. 366. 
 
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 School of Technology, exploded mixtures of acetylene and air, 
 and gasoline vapor and air in a cylinder with a nDveable 
 piston. His results merely confirm those heretofore given, 
 especially in regard to the relation of maxi mum pre ssure to 
 initial pressure. 
 
 Bairstow and Horsely ^ 
 
 During the year 1902 Bairstow and Horsely ran a 
 series of e^^ losi ons at two different initial pressures. The 
 results seem to indicate that the explosion pressures are not 
 exactly proportional to the initial pressures for the same 
 mixture, but that the ratio of explosion pressure to initial 
 pressure increases slightly with the increase cf initial 
 pressure. These explosions were made in the same apparatus 
 which was used by Bairstow and Alexander. 
 
 Hopkinson ^ 
 
 Perhaps the most in^portant and ccn elusive researches 
 in the field were made by the late Professor Hopkinson, of 
 Cambridge. His researches were made with Cambridge coal gas, 
 in a comparatively large cylinder (6.2 cu ft. in volume). 
 Experimoits were made with 9 to 1 and 12 to 1 mixtures, using 
 gases saturated with water vspor in all cases. 
 
 Hopkinson’s original optical indicator was used in 
 all this work, andwas the first instrument to be employed 
 
 ^ Engineering , v. 74, p. 723. 
 
 2 
 
 Cle rk 7 - The Gas , P etro 1 , and Oil LngL ne , p. 185. 
 

 20 
 
 which was without doubt capable of follcwing the r^id var- 
 iations of pressure during the explosions. For a detailed 
 description of this indicator, reference may be made to the 
 Proceedings of the Institu te cf Civl 1 Engineers . vol. 145. 
 
 Hopkinson also measured the teoperature of the 
 burning gases by means of platinum resistance thermometers 
 inserted at different parts of the vessel, as shown in Pig. 8. 
 The time lag of the thermometers was determined by separate 
 experiments and eo rrections w ere t^plied to t he results. The 
 thermometers consisted of short coils of platinum wire 0.001" 
 in diameter, connected in a galvanometer circuit in such a 
 way that the change in resistance due to- the change in tem- 
 perature caused a variation in the current in the galvanometer, 
 and therefore caused the galvanometer mirror to deflect. 
 
 Records of temperature and pressure were taken on a photo- 
 graphic film, fastened on a revolving drum. The thermometers 
 were placed as follows:- one at 30 cm. from the ignition point; 
 and one very near the wall of the vessel. The center coil 
 was almost invariably melted when the charge was fired, in- 
 dicating that the tenperature near the ignition point was at 
 least as hi^ as the melting point of platinum (1765 deg. C). 
 Pig. 9 shows the curves of tenperature at the center of the 
 vessel, and pressure, plotted against time. It may be noted 
 that the platiniim wire melted about 0.025 sec. before the 
 attainrae nt of maximum pressure. The tenperature at the start 
 of inflammation rose rapidly. This indicated that the 
 

 
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22 
 
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 than two or three pounds (as shown by the indicator). 
 
 ' The flame then spread through the mixture with a 
 
 velocity of approximately 150 cm. per second, and con^letely 
 filled the vessel about 0.02 sec. before the attainment of the 
 maximum pressure. This was shown by the fact that the tem- 
 perature as recorded by the thermometer placed 1 cm. from the 
 walls attained a maximum about 0.05 sec. before the pressure. 
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 temperature considerably above the melting point of platinum, 
 probably about 1900 deg. C. 
 
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 distribution was approximately as follows:- 
 
 Mean (calculated from pressure ). .1600 deg. C. 
 
 Center, near spark 1900 " " 
 
 10 cm. within wall ....... 1700 " " 
 
 1 cm from wall at end 1200 ” " 
 
 1 cm from wall at side 850 " ” 
 
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 grees of conpression existing at the different points of the 
 mixture . 
 
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 maximum pressure, the mean tenperature of the gas, calculated 
 from the pressure, was about 1100 deg. C. The mean 
 
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23 
 
 temperature (exclusive of a layer 1 cm. tMck at the walls) 
 was determined hy a long platinum wire stretched entirely 
 across the vessel. This temperature was found to he 1160 
 deg. C., a value reasonably close to the calculated mean value. 
 
 In the explosion of a weaker mixture (12 to 1), con- 
 vection became more important due to the fact that the flame 
 was propagated more slowly. The temperature imiriediately below 
 
 the spark at first rose, then decreased as the cold unburned 
 gased moved upwc^rd fo 11 ovd rig the ascending flame. One second 
 after ignition the pressure was still less than 10 lb. per sq. 
 in., and the upper half of the vessel was filled with burned 
 gas which was losing heat to the walls. The last portions 
 of gas to be ignited were those immediately below the spark. 
 
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 greater strength. 
 
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 which was lined with wood. The wood was overlaid with a con- 
 tinuous grid of strip copper, v/ide and 0.04” thick, which 
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24 
 
 record the change in resistance of the strip as it was heated 
 hy the explosion. The record of the cljanges in resistance 
 was photographed on a film, together with the pressure curve 
 from the Hopkinson optical indicator. The results of cal- 
 culations based on the data obtained are shown in Fig. 10. 
 Hopkinson says, "The heat loss begins about 0.05 sec. after 
 ignition, v^hen the flame first comes in contact with the copper. 
 At first the loss goes on at a very great rate, and by the time 
 the maximum pressure is reached, about 1700 calories, or 12^ 
 of the gross heating value of the gas, has passed to the walls. 
 The rate of heat loss at this point is about 10 calories per 
 sq. cm. per sec., and the mean gas tanperature is 1760 deg. 
 
 C. At 0.2 sec. from ignition the rate of heat loss is about 
 3,5 calories per sq. cm. per sec., and the mean gas temperature 
 
 is 1300 deg. C. The mean temperature is reduced in the ratio 
 74 
 
 between these two points, but the rate of heat loss at 
 0.2 sec. is only one-third of what it was at maximum pressure," 
 
 Hopkinson's results from these experiments obviously 
 include some of the radiation loss with the conduction losses, 
 although Clerk states that only ccnduction losses are included, 
 Nagel ^ 
 
 In 1908 A. JJagel ran an elaborate series of e:q)eri- 
 ments to determine the velocity of inflammation of various 
 gases. His explosions were made in a spherical steel bomb 
 
 1 
 
 Mitteilungen uber Forechungearbei ten , v. 54, 1908 
 
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 40 cm, in diameter, A diaphiagm in communication with the 
 bomb, and connected mechanically to a concave mirror, indi- 
 cated the pressure developed by the explosion. Ignition was 
 accomplished by means of a single ;)ump spark occurring at the 
 center of the bomb. All explosions were made v;ith gases 
 saturated v.lth water vapor, No maximum pressures were given 
 in the report of the results, as the experimenter was merely 
 interested in obtaining the velocity of inflammation. 
 
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 inflammation velocity increased directly as the hydrogen 
 content, ^ith a constant mixture, the velocity increased 
 with the pressure, the increase being greater as the mixture 
 became richer. For illuminating gas and producer gas the 
 velocity of inflammation also increased vdth the gas content. 
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 be a tendency for the velocity to decrease v/ith an increase 
 of initial pressure. This effect was more marked with weak 
 mixtures than with stronger. The effect of initial temper- 
 ature is not sufficiently marked to justi:^ any definite 
 ccn elusions . 
 
 An elaborate mathematical analyst s of the flame 
 propagation in a spherical vessel is also given. 
 
 From the resiits of Hopkinson*s experiments as 
 quoted above it would seem that Nagel * s conclusions are some- 
 what in error, Hopkinson clearly sh®v;ed that inflammation 
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 took the time from ignition (passing of the spark) to the at- 
 tainment of maximum pressure as the time of inflammation. His 
 results iind conclusions as to the velocity of flame propa- 
 gation are therefore probably somewhat in error. 
 
 Bone and others . 
 
 In 1915 W. A. Bone, assisted by several other ex- 
 perimenters, made explosions of various hydrocarbons with 
 oxygen and air. Two explosion vessels were used;- 
 
 1) a cylindrical vessel 1” in diameter and 8” long. 
 
 2) a spherical vessel 2” in diameter. 
 
 A Petavel indicator was used to indicate the pressures de- 
 veloped. 
 
 The experiments were conducted primarily to bring 
 out facts relating to the chemical transformations involved 
 in the explosion process, but the results also confirm the 
 work done up to date in regard to the effect of varying the 
 gas mixture and the initial pressure. 
 
 David . 
 
 Major W. 1’. David has conducted several series of 
 researches on the explosions of gaseous mixtures, with special 
 reference to the cooling phenomena during explosion and during 
 the total cooling period. These will be discussed under 
 their separate headings. 
 
 Radia tion . These experiments were made with a 
 cylindrical explosion vessel 20 cm. in diameter and 20 cm. 
 long, and a Hopkinson indicator was used to record the 
 

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 explosion pressures. A platinum bolometer, connected in a 
 gal vanomenter circuit, was placed in front of a diathermanous 
 fluorite window at one end of the vessel. The change in re- 
 sistance of the bolometer as indicated by the galvanometer in 
 dicated the amount of radiant heat falling on the platinum 
 surface. The interior of the vessel was painted with a dull 
 black paint, which absorbed practically all the radiant heat 
 falling on it, or was silver plated and polished. 
 
 Pour series of experiments were conducted with mix- 
 tures of Cambridge coal gas and air, namely:- 9. 8^0 and 15^ in 
 the black walled vessel, and 13^o and 15^ in the vessel vd. th 
 polished walls. The general conclusions obtained fran the 
 experiments in the black walled vessel were as follows 
 
 1) The total amount of heat lost to the walls 
 of the vessel by radiation up to the time of maximum 
 pressure is approximately proportional to the third 
 power of the maximum absolute temperature, multiplied 
 by the time of the explosion. 
 
 2) The total raclant heat lost to the walls 
 during the explosion and the subsequent cooling is 
 about 26^ of the heat of combustion of the gas. 
 
 S) The emission of radiation at all times var- 
 ies with the temperature and with the time from ig- 
 nition . 
 
 4) In weak mixtures (and probably also in 
 stronger mixtures) the rate at which radiation is 
 
29 
 
 emitted is a maxiratun some time before the attainment 
 of maximiim pressure, and probably occurs at the time 
 when the flame fills the vessel. 
 
 5) V/eak mixtures radiate much more power fu.lly in 
 the initial stages of cboling than do strong mixtures 
 when they have cooled to the same temperature as the 
 weaker • 
 
 6) Carbon dioxide emits radiation about twice 
 as strongly as does an equal volume of water vapor 
 at the same tenperature. 
 
 7) The total heat lost by radiation ip to the 
 time of maximum pressure decreases as the initial 
 pressure of the mixture is increased. 
 
 8) Denser mixtures radiate heat much mere strongly 
 than thinner mixtures, especially at the instant: of 
 maximum pressure and in the initial stages of cooling. 
 
 The emission varies approximately as the square root 
 
 of the density. 
 
 One of David's sets of curves, showing pressure, 
 temperature,, total radiation, and radiation per sq. cm* of 
 cylinder area is shown in Fig. 11. The relation of radiation 
 less in calories per sq. cm. per sec. to the size of the 
 vessel and the initial pressure is shown in Fig. 12. This 
 radiation loss, after correcting for absorption, varies with 
 the temperature nearly in accordance with Planck's formula 
 for a single wave of length 5.6 u. At high tenperatures 
 

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 (1800 to 2400 deg. C.) the Planck formula reduces approxi- 
 mately to a variation with the square of the absolute tem- 
 perature . 
 
 In a later article David discussed the calculation 
 of the results from observed data, and derives the formulas 
 on which the curves given above are based. In another arti- 
 cle he discusses the radiation from a mass of burning gas 
 from a theoretical standpoint, and draws various conclusions 
 in regard to the wave length of the radiation emitted, etc. 
 
 Effect of cop on the Mixture . Experiments were 
 made in the same apparatus when the mixture was diluted with 
 carbon dioxide instead of the nitrogen of the air. Lower 
 explosion pressures were developed in each case than in the 
 former experiments. David attributes this difference to 
 
 1) the greater specific heat of COg at high 
 terroe natures. 
 
 2) dissociation phenomena, leaving a considerable 
 amount of gas unburned at the time of the maximum 
 pressure. 
 
 The theoretical analysis of Appendix I of this discussion 
 confirms these hypotheses. 
 
 Conduction . David has recently made experiments 
 to determine the loss of heat to the walls of the explosion 
 vessel by conduction. His original explosion apparatus was 
 used, with the addition of a polished silver grid which was 
 mounted on a piece of linoleum, and placed on the end wall of 
 
25 
 
 the vessel. This grid was connected in a galvanometer 
 circuit in such a way that the deflections of the galvanometer 
 indicated the temperature of the grid, and consequently the 
 conduction loss to the area covered by the grid. The total 
 loss by conduction was taken as the amount of heat used in 
 heating the grid (as indicated by the galvanometer) plus the 
 amount passing through the grid to the linoleum backing. This 
 last amount was calculated from a power series formula v/ith 
 empirical coefficients. 
 
 over different parts of the vessel, and therefore a position 
 was selected for the grid which gave a mean loss over the 
 entire vessel. 
 
 by conduction, in percent of the heat of combustion of the 
 gas mixture used, is given in the fo Hewing table 
 
 The greater time of e^splosion for the weaker mixtures over- 
 balances the effect of the hi^ temperatures attained in the 
 strong mixtures, and increases the heat loss over that ob- 
 served for the strong mixtures. 
 
 At 0,5 sec, after ignition the 15^ mixture has lost 
 by conduction about 38% of its heat of combustion. The 1£.4% 
 mixtu.re has at the same time lost about 34% and the 9.7% mix- 
 
 It was found that the loss by conduction varied 
 
 The loss of heat 15 ) to the time of maximum pressure 
 
 Percent gas 
 
 Percent loss 
 
 15.0 
 IB. 4 
 9.7 
 

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34 
 
 ture about 28% of their respective heats of combustion. The 
 curves in Fig. 13 shov; the rate at which heat loss by con- 
 duction is proceeding w hi le cooling is going on. The weaker 
 mixtures in the initial stages of cooling lose heat nnre 
 rapidly than the stronger mixtures when they have cooled to 
 the same temperature. This is probably due to coavection 
 currents, which are more vigorous in the early stages of 
 cooling than in the latter. 
 
 No mention is made in David's report of any cor- 
 rection for radiant heat absorbed having been applied to the 
 values obtained from the silver grid eij^eriment s. Polished 
 silver absorbs about 4% of the radiant heat falling on it} 
 even when highly polished. It is probable that the silver 
 grid actually in use absorbed more liian this amount, owing to 
 the deposition of soot on the grid. It therefore appears 
 that David's results should be corrected for this discrepancy. 
 T^scellaneous . 
 
 The experimenters mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graphs have produced the most trustwor thy results, so far as 
 the measurements of the physical phenomena involved in the 
 explosions of gaseous mixtures are concerned. A considerable 
 amount of literature has been devoted to the chemical and 
 mathematical sides of the problem, however, and many interesting 
 
 1 
 
 Lanclolt & Borns tein — Physikalisch - Chemische Tabellen , 
 p. 961. 
 

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36 
 
 and important results have been obtained. 
 
 A number of other experimental researches along the 
 same lines as those mentioned above are available, among 7; hie h 
 are those of Pier, Langen, Falk, and Dixon, but their work, fo 
 the most -part, is merely a confi rmat ion cf the results pre- 
 viously discussed. 
 
I 
 
 III. DESCRIPTIOII OP .’^PARyllUS 
 
 The original apparatus was designed and built by 
 Prof. A. P. Zratz during the year 1916. After being used for 
 a nurnber of experiments (1 to 171) work was suspended on the 
 problem until September, 1919, at which time the writer was 
 assigned to the problem. 
 
 The apparatus was then reconstructed. Tests 172 
 to 201 incDusive were made with the apparatus reconstructed 
 substantially as originally built. 
 
 The original apparatus consisted of a cast steel 
 base plate with four removable vessels or heads, designed to 
 be bolted to the base plate. The heads v;ere respectively 
 cylindrical, conical, hemispherical, and ”L-head’’ shaped, 
 (patterned after the common L-head gasoline engine cylinder). 
 The actual dimensions and prxjportions of the heads are shown 
 in Fig. 14. The head selected for use was placed on the 
 base plate, with a thin paper gasket around the rim, and 
 fastened in place by eight 1^” cap screws. The heads were 
 very heavily built, being designed to withstand safely an 
 explosion pressure of 2500 pounds per square inch. A 4" 
 two blade d fan, driven by a shaft through the center of the 
 base plate, afforded a means of stirring up the mixture 
 

 
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42 
 
 before and during explosion. A hole for the ignition plug 
 and holes for intake and exhaust piping, as well as for the 
 indicator, were provided in each head, as shown in Pig. 14. 
 
 The indicator, screwed into the side of the head in 
 use, is perhaps the most important part of the apparatus. An 
 optical instrument was adopted as being the only type suitable 
 for use in such an investigation . A drawing of the original 
 indicator is shown in Pig. 15. The diaphragm indicator was 
 adopted as being most accurate and convenient. 
 
 The indicator diaphragm, (D) 2/64” thick, and having 
 a semicircular corrugation concentric with the outside circum- 
 ference of the disc, was cut from a bar of chrome -vanadium 
 steel. The corrugation was introduced in order to insure a 
 strai^t line calibration for the indicator, to give the dia- 
 phragm greater flexibility, and to prevent slippage of the 
 parts when heavily loaded. A small threaded pro;jection at 
 the center of the diaphragm gave a means of connecting the 
 mirror system. A thin steel spring (S) , bent at right angles 
 and supported by a small standard (Ri screwed to the base bar 
 (B) was joined rigidly to the diaphragm by two small clamp 
 nuts on the threaded projection fP) . A small piece (approxi- 
 mately l/l6” in diameter) of concave mirror (M) was cemented 
 to the spring (S) at such a distance from the support as was 
 found by trial to give a proper deflection. A anall enclosed 
 arc lamp projected a beam of light on the mirror, whence it 
 was reflected to the photographic paper, held on a longitudi- 
 
44 
 
 nally moving slide. The arc lamp and slide were plened at 
 proper distances from the mirror to give a clear-cnt image of 
 the crater of the arc on the photographic paper, which gave a 
 narrow black line for the record. The mirror used was a small 
 piece cut from a concave galvanometer mirror of 1 meter radius 
 of curvature. 
 
 This indicator gave very satisfactory results when 
 adjusted, but was very inconvenient to adjust, as the mirror 
 could not be moved to give the proper position of the spot of 
 light on the photographic paper. The indicator was also af- 
 fected by any vibrations occurring in the heavy base bar (B). 
 The vibration of heavy machinery in the building made these 
 vibrations very noticeable in the base and e^qjlosion lines. 
 
 The indicator was therefore remodeled as will be described 
 la ter • 
 
 The explosion vessels had two connections diametri- 
 cally opposite for the admission and exhaustion of the air 
 and gas. Heavy steel needle valves, made from solid bars, 
 were used to open or close the ports for admission or ex- 
 haustion. 
 
 Gas an d Air Mea surement 
 
 The gas used in all the experiments, except some 
 few tests with hydrogen, was illuminating gas, taken directly 
 from the city mains. A storage tank of 10 cu. ft. edacity 
 was filled with the gas, and several complete series of ex- 
 plosions made with the same tankful. In this way a constant 
 
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45 
 
 gas con?) osition was insured, except as the unavoidable de- 
 terioration of the gas occurred. The gas was stored over 
 water, and hence was saturated in all experiments. 
 
 The scheme originally employed to secure the de- 
 sired mixture of gas and air and to introduce the mixture into 
 the vessel was that of measuring the partial pressures of the 
 gas and air. a mercury manometer (Fig. 16) fitted with a 
 special electrical contact device, and reading to 0.01”, ims 
 connected to the gas and air piping system for measuring 
 these partial pressures. The accuracy of measurement attained 
 with the electrical contact on the mono ter insured a maxi- 
 mum error of 0.05^ in the air gas ratio. 
 
 Ignition . 
 
 Ignition was acconplished by means of a induction 
 coil supplied with current from a 6 volt storage battery. For 
 some few explosions ignition was effected by an Atwater -Kent 
 Unisparker, driven slowly by the <^paratus controllj.ng the 
 motion of the slide for the photographic paper. The Unisparker, 
 however, proved rather unsatisfactory at these low speeds, as 
 it often failed to fire the charge, and was therefore discarded, 
 and the induction coil again used. A contact fixed on the 
 slide carrying the paper closed the induction coil circuit 
 at a time to give ignition at the desired point on the photo- 
 graphic record. A mica insulated spark plug with a 0.03” 
 gap, communicated the spark to the charge. A small spark 
 gap, in series v/ith the plug, v;as placed close to the photo- 
 
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47 
 
 graphic paper on the moving slide. The passage of the spark 
 across this gap, and at the same instant across the plug in the 
 vessel, gave a dot on the photographic paper. By measuring 
 the horizontal distance from this dot to the perpendicular 
 erected from the "base line through the position of the spot of 
 light from the indicator when at rest, and laying off this dis- 
 tance on each explosion card, the exact time at which the spark 
 passed, with reference to the beginning of the rise of pres- 
 sure, could be determined. Usi:ially from 6 to 10 separate dis- 
 charges occurred while the slide contact remained closed. These 
 discharges occupied a tiiiie of about 0.1 sec. 
 
 Paper Mo ti on . 
 
 The photographic paper was mounted on a slide (S) 
 which moved longitu dinally in a frame bolted to the base bar (B) 
 (Fig. 17). The slide was given its motion by a '’constant 
 speed" device, similar to that used on vertical blue printing 
 machines. The speed of this device was not constant, and hence 
 the time scale of the diagram was somewhat distorted. As the 
 slide, having considerable inertia, required an appreciable 
 time to attain the speed set by the constant speed device. This 
 defect was remedied when the apparatus was remodeled. 
 
 Time Record . 
 
 A record of time was obtained from an electrically 
 driven tuning fork mounted close to the indicator. A small 
 concave mirror cemented to one leg of the fork received a beam 
 of light from the arc lamp, and reflected it to the photo- 
 

 
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49 
 
 graphic paper, tracing a wave ’\lth a freg_uency of 100 vibra- 
 tions per second on the paper when the fork was in vibration. 
 
 Tl:^ method of calculating the time of explosion from 
 this record will be illustrated later. 
 
 Recording Paper . 
 
 The photographic paper originally used was Eastman 
 P. M. C. bromide paper, cut into strips 2” x 11". Later it 
 was found advisable to use a special Eastman recording paper 
 (knov/n as "Eastnan Recording Paper No. 1"). This paper was 
 coated vd th an emulsion very nearly as fast as the standard 
 Kodak film emulsion, and good results were obtained. 
 
 The photographic records v/ere developed immediately 
 after taking them in the standard MQ developer recommended by 
 the Eastman Kodak company. 
 
 New Appa ra tus . 
 
 The apparatis as originally built was remodeled in 
 1919-19E0 and some new features added. The principal eliange 
 effected was in the design of the indicator. The heavy base 
 bar (B) was removed entirely, and the spring carrying the 
 mirror was clamped directly to the indicator body. A small 
 strut communicated the motion of the diaphragm to the ^ring. 
 
 A set of tv;o concentric rings foimed the base to vihich the 
 spring was clamped. These rings could be turned to any de- 
 sired position and clamped, thus giving a range of adjustment 
 of the plane of motion of the indicator mirror to any desired 
 angle. Vertical adjustment was provided for by the use of 
 
60 
 
 long stnds to which the mirror ^ring was clacked. Photo- 
 graphic views of the indicator as remodeled are sho^'m in Pig. 18. 
 
 This instrument proved to he very satisfactory, since 
 it was free from all effects due to vibrations and jars, and 
 had ample opportunity for adjustment. The indicator was cali- 
 brated by compci,rison with a fecial dead v/eight tester con- 
 nected in the air line to the ei^plosion vessel. A high pressure 
 air reservoir, carrying 500 lb. per sq. in., provided a source 
 of high pressures for calibration. The instrument was cali- 
 brated when screwed into place on the explosion vessel, and no 
 adjustment of it was made during any series of experiments. 
 
 The calibration was checked several times during each series, 
 and from the results obtained from the calibrations, it is evi- 
 dent that the instrument retains its adjustment and calibration 
 characteristics for long periods of time. A sample calibra- 
 tion curve is shown in Fig. 19. 
 
 It appears from certain mathematical calculations as 
 to the natural period of vibration of the indicator that the 
 instrument easily followed the most rapid explosion occurring 
 in any of the work done in this investigation. 
 
 The paper motion was also remodeled. The longi- 
 tudinally moving slide was discarded, and a revolving drum 
 11” in circumference was substituted. The drum was driven 
 through a worm gear reduction by a s'mall D. motor, ?/hich w^s 
 capable of being regulated to a ^eed proper for the explosion 
 
 A contact attached on the circumference 
 
 record to be takoi. 
 

 
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51 
 
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 Ner; Indicator. 
 
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53 
 
 of the drum coDi^leted the primary circuit of the induction coil 
 to give ignition at the proper position of the drum. 
 
 This drum notion was much more satisfactory than the 
 slide which was formerly used. The drum could be started 
 some time before making the explosion, the firing switch could 
 then be closed, and the card taken with the drum running at a 
 constant speed. 
 
 The method of measuring the gas to be admitted to 
 the explosion vessel was changed. A 100 cc. gas burette, 
 graduated to 0.1 cc. was connected to the gas line and to the 
 explosion vessel. The volume of gas required to give u,ny 
 desired air-gas ratio was calculated from the volume of the 
 vessel and the piping through which the gas was admitted, and 
 proper corrections were made for c inriges of partial pressure, 
 etc. This method was more accurate than the partial pressure 
 method of securing the desired mixture. Some m.inor changes 
 were also made in the gas and air piping. 
 
 The new apparatus proved to be exceedingly conven- 
 ient and reliable, and the greater part of the results herein 
 given were obtained v/ith it. A photograph of the complete 
 apparatus is sho7/n in Fig. 20 and a detailed photograph of the 
 conical explosion vessel with all connections is shos-m in Fig. 
 21 . 
 
 The gas £md air piping is illustrated in Fig. 22 and 
 the wiring diagram for the ignition system in Fig. 23. 
 
\ 
 
 
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 1 
 
 
Fi/n. 20* General View of Explosion Apparatus 
 
yig*. 21. View of Conical Explosion Vessel 
 
i 
 
IV. PHOCEDUHE lU l/LJCING AN EXPLOSION 
 
 Before sjiy explosions were made in a new series of 
 tests, a considerable amount of gas was blown out through the 
 supply pipes to insure a fresh supply to the vessel. The 
 vessel was then thoroughly sv;ept out with conrcressed air, dur- 
 ing which time the fan was kq) t running. After three or four 
 minutes, the air was shut off, the exhaust valve (E) (Eig. 22) 
 ?/as closed, the vacuum pump started, and the vessel exhausted 
 to abccit 10” of mercury absolute pressure. After shutting off 
 the vacuum pump, the gas was measured in from the burette as 
 desired. When the proper volume of gas had been admitted, the 
 exhaust valve was opened, and air filled the vessel and piping 
 up to atmospheric pressure. The needle valves fN) were then 
 
 closed, and the desired mixtu.re of gas and air in the vessel 
 was ready for explosion. 
 
 In case the partial pressure method of obtaining the 
 desired mixture was employed, the procedure was niodified some- 
 what. The zero reading of the manometer was recorded, and 
 the platinum contact point (P) (Eig. 16) was set, by means of 
 the vernier, at a position to give the desired partial pres- 
 sure of the air. The vessel was then evacuated until the 
 mercury in the manometer fell below the contact point. Air 
 
59 
 
 was permitted to leak in slowly until the buzzer in the man- 
 ometer circuit indicated that the proper partial pressure of 
 the air had been reacaed. The gas valve was then opened, and 
 gas was admitted until atmospheric pressure was obtained in 
 the vessel. 
 
 The fan in the vessel was iirun about 600 rpm. during 
 the admission of the gas (except as specially noted) in order 
 to insure thorough mixing of the charge. It was also run 
 during explosion for certain series of tests. 
 
 after placing the photographic psper on the drum and 
 starting the driving motor, the arc light was started and a 
 zero for atmospheric) pressure line traced on the paper. The 
 tuning fork was then set in vibration, the shutter in front 
 of the pq)er was opened, and the firing switch (P) (Pig. E3) 
 was closed. .-.t the next closing of the contact on the drum, 
 the primary circuit of the induction coil was completed, the 
 spark was passed in the cylinder, and the charge fired. The 
 photographic record was then removed and developed as pre- 
 viously described. 
 
 Determinati on of Maximum Pressure and Time of Explosion . 
 
 Pig, 24 is a reprc due ti on of an actual explosion 
 card, with the necessary lines and dimensions for determining 
 the maximum explosion pressure and the time of explosion. 
 
 The line A-A is the zero, or atmospheric pressure 
 line traced before explosion. OP is a perpendicular to this 
 zero line, passing through the highest point on the pressure 
 
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61 
 
 curve. The distance 0? then represents the maximum pressure 
 developed hy the explosion, and hy reference to the calihration 
 curve (one of which is shown in i’ig. 19) the actual pressure 
 in pounds per square inch may he determined. The dots at the 
 right hand end of the card were produced by the small series 
 spark gap* placed close to the paper. The dot at the left of 
 the grotq! marks the first spark passed in the vessel. A cer- 
 tain distance (obtained by measuren^nt on the drum itself) is 
 laid off from this dot, parallel to the zero pTessure line, 
 giving the point X as the ignition point. The horizontal 
 d1 stance XO is then a measure of the time of explosion. 
 
 The sine wave traced by the tuning fork is situated 
 along the top of the card. The tuning fork used hc.d an c^ctu.al 
 rate of vibration (by calibration) of 98 vibrations per second^ 
 The followi -ng notation is used in connection with 
 the determination of the time of explosion. 
 
 Np = an arbitrary number of vibn.tions, usually 10. 
 
 Ns * number of vibrations of fork per second. 
 
 N = number of vibrations fork contained in the dis- 
 tance L (which is equal to XO) . 
 
 L = XO (representing the time of explosion) . 
 
 Lp = horizontal distance covered hy Np vibrations of the 
 fork. 
 
 T - the time of explosion in seconds. 
 
 Then 
 
 N = TNs and T - 1 
 
 No 
 
 w 
 
62 
 
 L = N 
 
 ITi 
 
 and 
 
 N 
 
 !Then 
 
 ^ - L 
 
 El 
 
 LiNs 
 
 If is taken as 10 Ylbrations and Ns is 98 vibrations per 
 second , 
 
 T = li = 0.102 k 
 W Li Lp 
 
 Hence by measuring- L and Lp, and proceeding vrith the above 
 calculations, the tlL.e of explosion may be determined as 
 accurately as the m^easurement of the various distances can 
 
 be made 
 
! 
 
63 
 
 V. RESULTS 
 
 General . 
 
 All the re sill ts of this investigatio n ?:ere ohteined 
 from explosions made ",7ith illimiinating gas and air. The gas 
 was taken directly from the city mains. Owing to the fact 
 that the experiments on the ”L-head’’ vessel and some experi- 
 ments on the cylindrical vessel were rrade in 1915, and explo- 
 sions were m.ade in the rest of the heads in 1921, a consider- 
 able difference existed between the analyses of the gas used 
 at the two different periods. A set of gas analyses follov^s: 
 
 Analysis October 8, 1915 
 
 C02 
 
 1 . 8 ^ 
 
 2.0 
 
 21.6 
 
 H2 
 
 Illumin&nts . 
 
 ^2 * * * * * * 
 
 . .17.0 
 . .40.9 
 . . 7.5 
 . . 9.2 
 
 1UU7U 
 
 Approximate heating value: 453 Btu. per cu. ft 
 
 * This anti-lysis is approximate only 
 

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64 
 
 Ans,lysis November 15, 1920. 
 
 CO£ . . • 
 
 .... 7.5fo 
 
 02 ... 
 
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 .... S. 4 
 
 C 2 H 4 . . . 
 
 . ... 5.4 
 
 C 6 H 5 . . . 
 
 . ... 6.2 
 
 C 2 H 6 . . . 
 
 . . . .16.6 
 
 CH 4 . . . 
 
 ... .4.7 
 
 Hg . . . 
 
 . . . .23.4 
 
 N 2 . . . 
 
 . . . .23.4 
 
 Approximate heating value: 787 Btu. per cu. ft. 
 
 Prom a comparison of the approximate heating values 
 of the two samples of gas it is evident that a considerable 
 difference may exist between explosions rim ?/i th the different 
 lots of gas. The 1915 gas was much richer in hydrogen than 
 the 1921 gas, and hence had a higher rate of inflammation. 
 
 The gas was stored over water in all cases, and hence was 
 saturated in the the tests made. 
 
 Summary of Results on Different Heads . 
 
 The method of procedure in testing any one of the 
 heads was to run several series of explosions, under various 
 conditions of ignition, turbulence, etc. Each series con- 
 sisted of a number of explosions made ;vi tii different mixtures 
 of gas and air, ranging from the richest to the leanest mix- 
 ture that could be e 2 q)loded. No attenpt v/as made to deter- 
 mine accurately the limits of inflammability of the gas, but 
 the mixtures were varied until the mixture denoted by the 
 next "half unit" higher or lower in the air gas ratio failed 
 
65 
 
 to explode. 
 
 Curves of maximum pressure and time of explosion 
 plotted against air-gas ratio are given for each different 
 head, and under several different conditions for each head. 
 An index of the series of tests follovi^s. 
 
 Series 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 Vessel 
 
 Cylindrical 
 
 L-head 
 
 If 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 If 
 
 Cylindrical 
 
 If 
 
 Conical 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 It 
 
 Eemi spherical 
 
 Eumber 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 IT 
 
 II 
 
 1 
 
 If 
 
 3 
 
 IT 
 
 It 
 
 IT 
 
 4 
 
 Explosions of hydrogen and air were also made in the 
 conical vessel for the purpose of obtaining a check on a 
 method of calculating the explosion pressure. These explo- 
 sions Tdll be discussed separately. 
 
 Series 1 . 
 
 This series was run on the cylindrical head, v;ith 
 ignition at the center and flush with the upper surface of 
 the vessel. The gas was admitted v7ithout stirring and was 
 exploded after standing five or ten minutes. 
 
 The cuives (Fig. 25) are typical of all experiments 
 
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67 
 
 of this sort. The air-gas ratio giving the highest explosion 
 pressure is 2.9 to 1, a value considerably less than the theo- 
 retical ratio (about 6 to 1). This is accounted for by the 
 fact that the large amount of neutral gases present v;hen a 
 6 to 1 mixture is fired keep down the maximum pressure much 
 below the value obtained when insufficient oxygen is present. 
 
 The point at an air-gas ratio of 11.34 is very probably in 
 error on account of the difficulty of measuring the low de- 
 flections of the indicator, and on account of the fact that no 
 well defined maximum pressure occurs for the e 2 q)losion of so 
 lean a mixture. (See Pig. 2). 
 
 The maximum pressure developed in this series was 
 92.5 lb. per sq. in. gage, a value checking rather closely with 
 Clerk's value of 91.0 lb. per sq. in. for an explosion of 
 Oldham gas and air. The time of explosion was practically 
 the same as in the determinat ions of Clerk, namely about 0.05 
 second. 
 
 Series 
 
 This series (Pig. 26) was run on the L-head vessel, 
 with ignition flush with the upper surface of the vessel and 
 at the center of the main chamber. Ho stirring at any time 
 was used. 
 
 As compared v/ith Series 1, in the cylindrical head, 
 the advantage of the former is apparent. The decrease of 
 maximum pressure with the L-head vessel is due to the greater 
 surface exposed to the hot gases during explosion, and to the 
 
 
 
trasasSaiii 
 
 !SB»l833nSS:SHBB3:R:i 
 
 
 
 
69 
 
 fact that the time of explosion is shorter in the cylindrical 
 head by about 0.61 sec., thus reducing the opportunity for 
 heat loss. 
 
 It is possible that complete ccmbuetion does not 
 take piece in the L-head vessel when ignition occurs in the 
 main chamber, as the flame may be checked and cooled consider- 
 ably by passing into the narrov; opening of the valve chamber. 
 Series £ and 3. 
 
 Series 3 (Fig. 27) was run under the same conditions 
 as wieries 2, except that the fan in the vessel was run during 
 explosion. A comparison of Series 2 and 3 is shown in Fig. 28. 
 
 The higher explosion pressures and the shorter 
 times of explosion produced in Series 3 are very noticeable, 
 especially vTith the leaner mixtures. The turbulence occasioned 
 by the fan brings the inflammable gas in contact with the air 
 much more rapidly and thoroughly than in Series 2, where no 
 stirring was employed. The higher rate of inflammation in 
 Series 3 red-uces the heat loss during the time of explosion, 
 and hence a higher maximum pressure is produced. 
 
 ^erie s 4 and £. 
 
 Series 4 and 5 (Figs. 29 and 30) were run on the 
 L-head vessel, ignition occurring at the center of the valve 
 chamber, and flush with the upper surface of the vessel. For 
 Series 4 no stirring of the mixture was used, and for series 
 5 the m.ixture was stirred during explosion. 
 
 An increase of maximum pressure is attained by the 
 
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 use of the fan during explosion, as my be seen from Fig. 31. 
 
 The influance of turbulence of the mixture diming the explosion 
 period in producing a shorter time of e:j5)losion is veiy* evident, 
 especially 7/ith the leaner mixtures. 
 
 Series and 1 _, 
 
 These series V7ere run under the same conditions as 
 Series 4 and 6, except that ignition was produced simultan- 
 eously in the main clmmber and in the valve chamber (the tv;o 
 spark plugs being placed in series). 
 
 The same general form of curves (Figs 3£ and 33) 
 were obtained from this series as from Series 4 and 5. The 
 difference in the times of explosion W'ith and ’Tithout the 
 fan running is very noticeable, especially with the leaner 
 mixtures. This is due to the action of the fan in producing 
 a more intimate mixture of the gas and air molecules. As the 
 mixture approaches more closely the theoretical air-gas ratio 
 (6|- or 8 to 1) the effect of stirring the mixture in producing 
 a more intimate mixture is not so evident, and the times of 
 explosion with and ?/ithout stirring approach each other more 
 closely. The pressure curves also approach each other more 
 closely at mixtures near the theoretical, shov/ing that the 
 
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79 
 
 increase in pressure when the mixture was stirred during ex- 
 plosion was due to the more intimate mixtui-e of the gas and 
 air molecules, rather than to any effect of increasing the 
 velocity of inflammation by turbulence alone. 
 
 Comparison of Serie s 1, 2, 4, and 6. 
 
 A comparison of these series (Pig. 25) shov/s the 
 higher explosion pressure produced with the cylindrical head. 
 This is due to the smaller surface exposed in the cylindrical 
 head as compared with the surface exposed in the L-head. 
 
 Pig. 35 also shows that ignition in the center of the main 
 chamber of the L-head vessel gives the hipest maximum pressure 
 of any of the different ignition schemes employed with the 
 L-head. The curves for ignition at the center and in the 
 valve chamber simultaneously and in the valve chamber alone 
 show conclusively the influence of the narrow valve chamber 
 in cooling the flame immediately after ignition. The time 
 curves also corroborate the above conclusions. 
 
 Series 8 and £. 
 
 Series 8 and 9 (Figs. 36 and 37) were run on the 
 cylindrical head, as in Series 1. Series 8 and 9, however, 
 were run in 1921, and on account of the difference in the 
 characteristics of the gas used, the results differ from the 
 results obtained in 1915, using the same vessel. As no 
 accurate analysis of the gas used in 1915 is available, no 
 actual conparison of the qualities of the gases can be made. 
 Series 8 and 9, run respectively without stirring and with 
 
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 igni tion occurred three inches down from the vertex. This 
 difference occurred only when the mixture was not being 
 stirred during explosion. V/hen the fan was in operation 
 during the explosion, the two pressure curves coincided. It 
 is probable that a pressure wave was started when ignition 
 occurred at the vertex, and that it advanced smoothly dovm 
 the cone, expanding as though through a nozzle. This pressure 
 wave causes higher explosion pressures to exist that if ig- 
 nition occurred three inches dov/n from the vertex, in which 
 case the pressure wave would not be as easily set up, ov^ing 
 to the lack of symmetry of the vessel about the ignition 
 point. The operation of the fan during explosion breaks up 
 any pressure wave, and hence the some explosion pressures 
 were obtained for the two different ignition positions when 
 the fan was rimning during exp^losion. 
 
 It is evident from the time curves that the time of 
 explosion differs considerably for the two positions of ig- 
 nition, especially in the series in wh ich the fan was run 
 during explosion. The maximum pre ssure s, hov/ever , are the 
 same. This would indicate that the heat loss up to the time 
 of maximum pressure is approximately the same in the two 
 series, even thou^ the tines of e^^losion are quite different. 
 It is possible, of course, that some pressure wave effect 
 was set up even wi th the fan running. This would tend to 
 counteract the increased heat loss occasioned by the longer 
 time of explosion. 
 
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 IPhis series was run in the hemispherical head, with 
 ignition occurring at the tcp of the vessel. ITo stirring 
 of the mixture was employed during explosion. The results 
 are plotted in Fig. 46. 
 
 Comp ari son of the Four Heads . (wi thout turbulence) . 
 
 In order to corrpare the L-head series (run in 1915) 
 with the other series {ran in 1921), Series 8 on the cylin- 
 drical head, was taken as the basis. The difference of the 
 pressures between Series 1 and 2 was taken for various air-gas 
 ratios, and laid off from the curve of Series 8 (which was 
 run under the same conditions as Series 1) . This gave an 
 approximte '’equivalent curve" representing the pressures 
 developed if the 1921 gas had been used in the L-head vessel. 
 
 The curves sh cwin g maximum pressure for the four 
 heads, using various air-gas ratios, are given in Fig. 47. 
 
 The series thus compared were all run without any stirring 
 of the mixture during explosion. 
 
 The marked advantage of the hemispherical head in 
 producing high maximum pressures is evident from the curves. 
 
 The maximum explosion pressures produced in the 
 four heads may be ccmpared with the ratio of superficial 
 area to the volume of the respective vessels. 
 
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 curve . 
 
 Cooling after Fncplosion . 
 
 After the attainment of the maximum pressure the 
 mixture cools at a rate depending on 
 
 1) the air-gas ratio. 
 
 2) the character of the walls of the vessel. 
 
 2) the ratio of surface to volume of the vessel. 
 
 In Fig. 49 the cooling curves for mixtures of s^proximat ely 
 2 parts of air to 1 of gas are shown. These curves were 
 constructed directly from the cooling curves on the indicator 
 diagrams taken on the various heads. The initial tenperature 
 in each case was taken as 2912 deg. F. Allowance was made 
 in these calculations for the reduction in volume of the gases 
 after combustion. 
 
 In Fig. 50 are plotted curves of tenperature drop 
 in 0.2 sec. and 0.6 sec. (from the initial tenperature 2912 
 deg. F. ) against the ratio of surface to volume for each of 
 the four vessels used in this investigaticn . It will be 
 noted that three points fall on a straight line. One point 
 
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100 
 
 (derived from the cooling of mixtures in the ccnical head) 
 shows a smaller drcp in temperature than would be expected 
 from the values taken from the other vessels. The inner 
 surface of the concial head was much cleaner and more polished 
 than the other heads used, which were rusted and blackened 
 considerably. It is probable therefore that the conical 
 head reflected a considerable amount of the radiant heat 
 falling on the walls, and hence the mixtures cooled more 
 slowly in this head than in the others. The agreement of 
 the three points on the straight line seems to substantiate 
 the linear relation of temperature drop in a given time to 
 the ratio of surface to volume. 
 
 Hydro gen -Air Explosions 
 
 Mixtures of hydrogen and air v/ere exploded in the 
 conical vessel under a number of different conditions of 
 ignition and turbulence, in order to study the heat loss 
 during the time of explosion. Three mixtures were used, namely 
 
 1) H£ + ^^2 t 
 
 2) H£ + Og + 3.8H£ 
 
 3) Hg 4li0g 5.7112 
 
 For some of the explosions a special ’’six-gap" spark plug 
 was used, which had six gaps of about 0.03" each, sxjaced about 
 one inch apart. This plug, when in place, gave a series of 
 sparks along the axis of the cone, at intervals from the 
 vertex to the base. Very rapid ignition was accomplished by 
 the use of this plug in conjunction with the fan. 
 
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101 
 
 Each of the above mixtures was exploded under the 
 following conditions 
 
 Ignition at vertex 
 
 Pan 
 
 not running. 
 
 TT ft ft 
 
 It 
 
 running. 
 
 " 3 in. down 
 
 It 
 
 not running. 
 
 Tf tf It 
 
 If 
 
 running. 
 
 " with 6-gap plug 
 
 It 
 
 not running. 
 
 n It II It 
 
 II 
 
 runnin g . 
 
 Some further minor variations were made in the ignition con- 
 ditions in special cases. 
 
 A table of the above described results follows on 
 the next page. 
 
l.'I 
 
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 102 
 
 Results of Hydrogen-Air Explosions. 
 
 Test No. Max, Press. 
 
 Lb, per sq. in. 
 
 Time of e3q)losion 
 seconds . 
 
 H£ + ■ 2 O 2 1 • 9Ng 
 
 HI 
 
 76,0 
 
 0.0176 
 
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 78.0 
 
 0.0146 
 
 H4 
 
 86,0 
 
 0.0098 
 
 H5 
 
 77.0 
 
 0.0161 
 
 HE5 
 
 82.6 
 
 0.0126 
 
 E26 
 
 84.8 
 
 0.0096 
 
 H27 
 
 79.2 
 
 0.0148 
 
 O2 ^ S.SNg 
 
 
 
 Hll 
 
 66.0 
 
 0.0077 
 
 H19 
 
 60.8 
 
 0.0251 
 
 H20 
 
 58.3 
 
 0.0148 
 
 H21 
 
 59). 5 
 
 0.0105 
 
 liO£ + 5.7N2 
 
 
 
 H6 
 
 46.3 
 
 0.0970 
 
 H7 
 
 46.3 
 
 0.0920 
 
 H8 
 
 47.3 
 
 0.0227 
 
 H9 
 
 45.3 
 
 0.0544 
 
 HIO 
 
 46.3 
 
 0.0527 
 

 3 C.; ;0.. 
 
 •. •■••■■I 
 
 
 ( 
 
 f 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 0 :: 
 
 r _ 
 
 r • 
 
 
103 
 
 The experiments just described furnish data on the 
 maximum pressures developed uid the times of explosion of 
 mixtures of hydrogen and air, with the mixture in any one of 
 the three series held constant, and ignition and turbulence 
 conditions varied to obtain various times of explosion and 
 corresponding maximum pressures. 
 
 If the maximum pressure is plotted against the time, 
 curves as in Figs. 51, 52, and 53 are obtained. If the line 
 through the series of points in any one of these curves is 
 prolonged to intersect with the axis of pressure, for zero 
 time) the point of intersection will give the theoretical 
 maximum pressure which would be developed if no heat loss to 
 the walls of the vessel occurred. 
 
 Hopkins states that the heat loss varies with the 
 square root of the time from ignition. This statement appears 
 to be ccnfirmed from the shape of the curves in Figs. 51, 
 
 52, and 53. The curve in Fig. 51 is practically a straight 
 line, as the mixture exploded very rapidly. This line c or- 
 re^onds to the first part of the "square root curve" cited 
 by Hopkins on. 
 
 The maximum pressures, assuming no heat loss during 
 explosion, have been calculated (Appendix I) as follows:- 
 
 Mixture with -|02 
 
 " " Oe 
 
 " " 14<>2 
 
 101.1 lb. per sq. in. gage 
 
 M H tT It 
 
 55.4 " " " " " 
 
 The curve through the observed points checks the calculated 
 
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107 
 
 point closely in each case. 
 
 The minimtun loss of pressure due to cooling during 
 explosion is as follcws:- 
 
 are due to the small volume of the vessel used and the rapid 
 cooling, as shown in Fig. 49, as compared with the vessels 
 used by other e3q)eriraenters. 
 
 It is probable that much further data on the heat 
 loss during explosion could be obtained by a study of ex- 
 plosions such as those ^ust discussed. By making the walls 
 of the vessel totally absorbing or partially reflecting the 
 radiation losses might be separated out and a study made of 
 the conduction and radiation losses separately. 
 
 Mixture with ^0^ 
 
 1Z,9% loss . 
 21. S ” 
 
 14.6 
 
 n 
 
 Such large losses are not usually found, but these 
 
108 
 
 r 
 
 VI. CONCLUSIONS 
 
 From the results of this investigation the following 
 conclusions may be drawn. 
 
 1) The conclusions of other experimenters as to the in- 
 fluence of the air-gas ratio on the maximum pressure and 
 the time of explosion have been confirmed. 
 
 S) In general, the effect of turbulence of the mixture 
 during explosion is to bring about an increase of maximum 
 pressure and a decrease of the time of explosion. 
 
 S) The effect of turbulence is largely that of producing 
 a more intimate mixture of the gas and air molecules 
 before combustion, rather than that of projecting the 
 flame into the unbumed parts of the gas mixture. 
 
 4) The position of the spark gap (in vessels patterned 
 after the combustion spaces in use in gas engines) has a 
 considerable influence on the rate of inflammation and 
 on the maximum pressure. 
 
 5) There is evidence in certain cases of the formation 
 of pressure waves (of different character than trues 
 explosions wai’^es) v/hich travel smoothly t'nrough the vessel 
 and produce higher maximum pressures than if inflammation 
 proceeded in the ordinary way. 
 
 6) The maximum pressure and time of explosion are mater- 
 
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 109 
 
 ially affected by the shape of the explosion , vessel , the 
 primary cause of this effect being the varia.tion in the 
 ratio of surface to volume for the different vessels. 
 
 7) The combustion of the gases in any pocket in the vessel 
 (such as the valve chamber in the L-head vessel) is often 
 incomplete, due to the cooling effect of the Wc^lls, v;hich 
 reduces the maximv-m pressure. 
 
 8) The cooling of the mixture in any given time after 
 explosion and maximum pressure varies directly with the 
 ratio of surface to volume for the explosion vessel, 
 other conditions being constant. 
 
 9) Radiation evidently plays an important part in the 
 cooling of the mixture, as a change in the character of 
 the inner surface of the walls of bhe vessel causes a 
 considerable change in the cooling curve. 
 
 10) Hopkinson‘s statem^ent that the heat loss to the walls 
 of the vessel varies as the square root of the tim.e from 
 ignition has been confirmed for the loss during the exp- 
 losion period. 
 
 11) A method of evaluating the loss of heat during explo- 
 sion has been demonstrated. 
 
 IS) Calculations of the maximum pressure, based on the 
 properties of the gas mixture, have been checked by ex- 
 perimental results for the explosions of hydrogen and air. 
 
 mixtures 
 
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TABLE OF RESULTS 
 OF 
 
 EXPLOSIOUS OF ILLUinUATIUG GAS JiMD AIR 
 
110 
 
 Series 1 
 
 Cylindrical head. 
 No stirring. 
 Ignition at top. 
 
 Test No. Air-gas ratio Max. Press. Time of expl. 
 
 
 
 Ih. per sq. in. 
 
 sec . 
 
 48 
 
 3.21 
 
 87.1 
 
 0.0510 
 
 49 
 
 3.77 
 
 92.5 
 
 .0438 
 
 50 
 
 4.06 
 
 92.0 
 
 . 0366 
 
 51 
 
 4.99 
 
 84.1 
 
 .0450 
 
 52 
 
 6.10 
 
 73.4 
 
 .0668 
 
 53 
 
 7.03 
 
 66 .2 
 
 .0999 
 
 54 
 
 8.60 
 
 52.0 
 
 .2390 
 
 55 
 
 9.43 
 
 44.5 
 
 .4010 
 
 56 
 
 11.34 
 
 7.0 
 
 .6260 
 
 57 
 
 3.62 
 
 66.5 
 
 .0314 
 
 58 
 
 4.06 
 
 88 .5 
 
 .0370 
 
 59 
 
 4.59 
 
 • 
 
 CO 
 
 .0363 
 

 \ 
 
Ill 
 
 Series E 
 
 L-head • 
 
 No stirring. 
 Ignition at center. 
 
 Test No. 
 
 Air-gas rat 
 
 62 
 
 3.91 
 
 63 
 
 4.97 
 
 64 
 
 5.79 
 
 65 
 
 7.25 
 
 66 
 
 8.41 
 
 66a 
 
 8.17 
 
 67 
 
 9.71 
 
 68 
 
 10.65 
 
 82 
 
 2.83 
 
 83 
 
 3.26 
 
 84 
 
 3.64 
 
 85 
 
 4.16 
 
 86 
 
 4.87 
 
 87 
 
 5.80 
 
 88 
 
 7.17 
 
 89 
 
 8.49 
 
 90 
 
 10.57 
 
 134 
 
 5.87 
 
 135 
 
 7.52 
 
 168 
 
 8.82 
 
 169 
 
 9.99 
 
 170 
 
 8.09 
 
 171 
 
 9.03 
 
 Max. press. Time 
 
 lb. per sq. in. 
 
 82.0 
 
 76.5 I 
 
 67.5 
 
 57.0 
 
 48.0 
 
 49.1 
 
 36.5 
 
 21.0 
 
 71.0 
 78.8 
 
 82.2 
 
 80.5 
 
 68.0 
 
 57.0 
 
 47.0 
 
 21.0 
 
 68.1 
 
 52.5 
 
 40.1 
 
 21.1 
 
 48.0 
 
 40.1 
 
 of expl. 
 sec . 
 
 *.0471 
 
 .0549 
 
 .3460 
 
 .7220 
 
 *.1830 
 
 .0578 
 
 .0381 
 
 .0433 
 
 .0637 
 
 .1218 
 
 .2163 
 
 .7450 
 
 .0623 
 
 .1455 
 
 .4230 
 
 .7600 
 
 .2070 
 
 .4180 
 
112 
 
 “ 
 
 Series 3 
 
 L-head. 
 
 Stirring 
 
 during explosion. 
 
 
 
 Igniti on 
 
 at center. 
 
 
 
 Test Uo. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 Max. Press. 
 
 Time of expl 
 
 
 
 lb. per B^. in. 
 
 sec . 
 
 118 
 
 3.03 
 
 80.5 
 
 0.1265 
 
 119 
 
 5.31 
 
 83.2 
 
 .0588 
 
 120 
 
 4.20 
 
 87 .0 
 
 .0223 
 
 121 
 
 4. 66 
 
 68.0 
 
 .0187 
 
 122 
 
 4.99 
 
 84.1 
 
 .0204 
 
 123 
 
 6.11 
 
 74.1 
 
 .0286 
 
 124 
 
 7.01 
 
 66.0 
 
 .0371 
 
 125 
 
 8.23 
 
 59 .0 
 
 
 125 
 
 9.40 
 
 50.8 
 
 .1057 
 
 127 
 
 10.27 
 
 48.1 
 
 .1718 
 
 128 
 
 11.87 
 
 — 
 
 
 129 
 
 8.39 
 
 59.0 
 
 .0604 
 
 130 
 
 4. 70 
 
 86.0 
 
 .0178 
 
 132 
 
 11.00 
 
 — 
 
 
 153 
 
 3.23 
 
 80.5 
 
 .0702 
 

 
 
 
 % " 
 
 
 
 • k 
 
 
 5 *..J. 
 
 - J 
 
 5^1 
 
 
113 
 
 Series 4 
 
 l-head. 
 
 No stirring. 
 
 Igniti on in valve chamlDer. 
 
 Test No. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 Max. Press, 
 lb. per sq. in. 
 
 Titiie of e35) 
 sec . 
 
 69 
 
 3.18 
 
 61.5 
 
 0.0776 
 
 70 
 
 3.61 
 
 70.8 
 
 .0557 
 
 71 
 
 4.06 
 
 71.0 
 
 .0474 
 
 7E 
 
 4.96 
 
 73.3 
 
 .0504 
 
 73 
 
 5.68 
 
 66.1 
 
 .0760 
 
 74 
 
 7.06 
 
 55.0 
 
 .1455 
 
 75 
 
 9.26 
 
 41.5 
 
 .3280 
 
 76 
 
 9.54 
 
 35.7 
 
 .5100 
 
 77 
 
 10.81 
 
 12.5 
 
 .7670 
 
 78 
 
 2.91 
 
 58.0 
 
 .3790 
 
 79 
 
 4 . 14 
 
 72.5 
 
 .0450 
 
 80 
 
 6.93 
 
 52.2 
 
 .1179 
 
 82 
 
 4.04 
 
 74.4 
 
 .0431 
 
 91 
 
 6.03 
 
 43.5 
 
 .2970 
 
 92 
 
 9.12 
 
 36.5 
 
 .4620 
 
 93 
 
 10.10 
 
 21.0 
 
 — 
 
 94 
 
 10.20 
 
 22.1 
 
 .8070 
 
 95 
 
 11.03 
 
 6.0 
 
 .6860 
 

 \ 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 i- I' *. 
 
 , o. 
 
 r* 
 
 c . 
 
 
 1 ' 
 
 I > 
 
 ^ 
 
 L i 
 
 
 ■t 
 
 _t, .. 
 
 , 
 
 
 
114 
 
 
 
 Series 5 
 
 
 I-head . 
 
 St Irri ng 
 
 during explosion 
 
 • 
 
 
 Igni ti on 
 
 In valve cham'ter 
 
 • 
 
 
 Test Uo. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 Max. press, 
 lb. per sq. In. 
 
 Tiri)e of exp' 
 sec . 
 
 1S6 
 
 3.06 
 
 74.1 
 
 0.0455 
 
 137 
 
 3.29 
 
 78.7 
 
 . 0347 
 
 138 
 
 4.14 
 
 84.2 
 
 .0196 
 
 139 
 
 4.76 
 
 84.2 
 
 .0204- 
 
 140 
 
 5.05 
 
 85.2 
 
 .0209 
 
 141 
 
 6.04 
 
 74.1 
 
 .0272 
 
 142 
 
 7.35 
 
 65.3 
 
 .0441 
 
 143 
 
 8.32 
 
 57.0 
 
 .0528 
 
 144 
 
 9.46 
 
 51.5 
 
 .0728 
 
 145 
 
 10.44 
 
 49.1 
 
 .0973 
 
 
 
 Series 6 
 
 
 L-head. 
 
 
 
 
 Ho stirring. 
 
 
 
 
 Igniti on i n 
 
 center an'® 
 
 valve ch amber 
 
 
 146 
 
 3.05 
 
 74.1 
 
 0.0638 
 
 147 
 
 3.30 
 
 75.1 
 
 . 0502 
 
 148 
 
 4.05 
 
 76.2 
 
 .0471 
 
 149 
 
 4.75 
 
 81.5 
 
 .0453 
 
 150 
 
 5.13 
 
 74.1 
 
 .0501 
 
 . 151 
 
 6.04 
 
 65 . 3 
 
 .9705 
 
 152 
 
 7.13 
 
 53.5 
 
 .1690 
 
 153 
 
 8.50 
 
 41.0 
 
 .2940 
 
 154 
 
 9.22 
 
 35.7 
 
 .4495 
 
 155 
 
 10.50 
 
 17.5 
 
 .5890 
 
\ 
 
 .. j. . ' J '.■] 
 
 V 
 
 • f .^-4 r 
 
 . 1 
 
 
 A i 
 
 
 S 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 J/ V 
 
 r 
 
 to ■■ 
 
116 
 
 Series 7 
 
 L^head. 
 
 Stirring during explosion. 
 
 Ignition ct center and valve chojnlDer. 
 
 Test No. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 l&z . r re ss . 
 
 Time of expl. 
 
 
 
 Ih. per 34 . in. 
 
 sec . 
 
 156 
 
 3.08 
 
 78 .7 
 
 0.0532 
 
 157 
 
 3.49 
 
 85.1 
 
 .0£24 
 
 158 
 
 4.18 
 
 8810 
 
 .0151 
 
 159 
 
 <t.78 
 
 87 .0 
 
 .0175 
 
 160 
 
 4.70 
 
 67 .0 
 
 .0£££ 
 
 161 
 
 5.£0 
 
 83. £ 
 
 . 0££3 
 
 16S 
 
 6.£1 
 
 7£.5 
 
 .0343 
 
 163 
 
 7.07 
 
 65. £ 
 
 .0390 
 
 164 
 
 8.31 
 
 57.0 
 
 .0548 
 
 165 
 
 9. £8 
 
 51.5 
 
 .0693 
 
 166 
 
 10.40 
 
 45.6 
 
 .1482 
 
 167 
 
 11 .14 
 
 19.5 
 
 .£660 
 
 
 
 Series 8 
 
 
 Cylincri cal 
 
 head. 
 
 
 
 No stirring 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Ignition at 
 
 top center. 
 
 
 
 £06 
 
 4.17 
 
 84.5 
 
 0.030 
 
 £09 
 
 5. £9 
 
 75.5 
 
 .093 
 
 £11 
 
 6. £5 
 
 64.5 
 
 .115 
 
 £1£ 
 
 8.33 
 
 43.5 
 
 .488 
 
 £14 
 
 9.37 
 
 3£.5 
 
 .83£ 
 
 £15 
 
 11.47 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 £16 
 
 £.08 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 £17 
 
 3.65 
 
 81.0 
 
 
 £18 
 
 7. £9 
 
 54.0 
 
 .172 
 
 £19 
 
 £.61 
 
 67.5 
 
 .181 
 
 ££0 
 
 99.0 
 
 £7.0 
 
 .806 
 
 ££1 
 
 £££ 
 
 3, 65 
 3.13 
 
 80.0 
 
 76.5 
 
 .061 
 
 .05ft 
 

 \ 
 
 
 -iL 
 
 I-JO-I't:'-* ■ - - 'C' - >- i. 
 
 .»■•■: . ., V.vJ ^sWZ 
 
 r *, f 
 J.C - 
 
 Jci 
 
 • jcX 
 
 \ 
 
 J J., 
 
 
 
 ' yj 
 
 t ‘ 
 
 P 
 
 -L w A .* ^ »*, 
 
 *••- •V’ ’ T •. r.’' 
 
 M. •« - ^ 1 . 
 
 CJ 
 
 ■»\ 
 
 's> « 
 
 /A • 
 
 1 
 
 ^ m . ^ ■ 
 
 
 -lO « 
 
116 
 
 Series 9 
 
 Cylindrical head. 
 
 Stirring during explosion. 
 Ignition at top center. 
 
 Test No. Air 
 
 -gas ratio 
 
 Max. press, 
 lb. per sq. in. 
 
 Time of e: 
 sec . 
 
 E23 
 
 3.13 
 
 91.0 
 
 0.046 
 
 E25 
 
 4.17 
 
 92.0 
 
 .026 
 
 2E6 
 
 5.E9 
 
 89.0 
 
 .033 
 
 EE7 
 
 6.25 
 
 78.5 
 
 .044 
 
 EE8 
 
 7.29 
 
 65.5 
 
 — 
 
 E20 
 
 9.37 
 
 49.0 
 
 .185 
 
 E31 
 
 10.42 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ESE 
 
 11.47 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ESS 
 
 2.06 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 234 
 
 2.61 
 
 83.5 
 
 .174 
 
 237 
 
 8.53 
 
 60.0 
 
 .093 
 
 258 9.90 
 
 Conical head. 
 
 No stirring. 
 
 Ignition at vertex. 
 
 Series 10 
 
 
 274 
 
 3.13 
 
 83.6 
 
 0*071 
 
 275 
 
 2,61 
 
 80.0 
 
 .095 
 
 E76 
 
 4.17 
 
 78.0 
 
 .083 
 
 E77 
 
 5.21 
 
 66.5 
 
 .139 
 
 278 
 
 6.25 
 
 54.3 
 
 .329 
 
 E79 
 
 7.29 
 
 40.6 
 
 .942 
 
 280 
 
 8.33 
 
 . — ^ 
 
 

117 
 
 Series 11 
 
 Conical head. 
 
 Stirring during explosion. 
 Ignition at vertex. 
 
 Test lo. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 Max. press. 
 Ih. per sq. in. 
 
 Ti'iie of ex; 
 sec . 
 
 329 
 
 2.08 
 
 87.0 
 
 0.0700 
 
 a 30 
 
 2.61 
 
 91.6 
 
 .0280 
 
 331 
 
 3.13 
 
 93.8 
 
 .0390 
 
 332 
 
 3.65 
 
 90.2 
 
 .0380 
 
 333 
 
 4.17 
 
 83.6 
 
 .0516 
 
 334 
 
 5.21 
 
 75.5 
 
 .0496 
 
 235 
 
 6.25 
 
 66.6 
 
 .0810 
 
 336 
 
 7.29 
 
 56.5 
 
 .1360 
 
 327 
 
 8.33 
 
 46.3 
 
 .3440 
 
 Series 12 
 
 Conical head. 
 
 Ho stirring. 
 
 Ignition 2" from vertex. 
 
 306 
 
 2.61 
 
 78.0 
 
 0.040 
 
 307 
 
 4.17 
 
 73.5 
 
 .079 
 
 308 
 
 5.13 
 
 81.6 
 
 .056 
 
 210 
 
 5.21 
 
 65.5 
 
 .132 
 
 311 
 
 6.25 
 
 53.5 
 
 .271 
 
 312 
 
 7.29 
 
 41.2 
 
 .550 
 
 213 
 
 8.33 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 314 
 
 2.08 
 
 60.0 
 
 .136 
 
 315 
 
 7.81 
 
 7.0 
 
 — 
 
118 
 
 Series 12 
 
 Conical head. 
 
 Stirring 
 
 during explosion. 
 
 
 
 Igni tion 
 
 2” from vertex. 
 
 
 
 Test IJo. 
 
 Air-gas ratio 
 
 Max. Press. 
 
 Time of expl 
 
 
 
 Ih. per sq. in. 
 
 sec . 
 
 216 
 
 2.08 
 
 80.2 
 
 0.088 
 
 217 
 
 2.61 
 
 91.5 
 
 .044 
 
 218 
 
 2.12 
 
 92.8 
 
 .026 
 
 219 
 
 2.65 
 
 91.5 
 
 .058 
 
 2ao 
 
 4.17 
 
 87.0 
 
 .054 
 
 222 
 
 7.29 
 
 59.5 . 
 
 .119 
 
 224 
 
 7.81 
 
 52.0 
 
 .167 
 
 225 
 
 8.85 
 
 4^ . 8 
 
 .267 
 
 226 
 
 9.27 
 
 5.0 
 
 — 
 
 22 7 
 
 5.21 
 
 79.0 
 
 .064 
 
 228 
 
 6.25 
 
 68.0 
 
 .088 
 
 Series 14 
 
 Eemi spheric 
 
 al head. 
 
 
 
 No stirring 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Ignition at 
 
 top . 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 2.14 
 
 89.0 
 
 0.0591 
 
 551 
 
 4.20 
 
 90.5 
 
 ,0465 
 
 552 
 
 5.18 
 
 77.5 
 
 .0722 
 
 555 
 
 6.25 
 
 66.2 
 
 .1550 
 
 254 
 
 7.05 
 
 57.8 
 
 .2040 
 
 255 
 
 8.22 
 
 47.2 
 
 .4240 
 
 556 
 
 9.52 
 
 17.0 
 
 — 
 
 557 
 
 2.47 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 558 
 
 4.59 
 
 85.0 
 
 .0442 
 
 559. 
 
 5.76 
 
 88.6 
 
 .0529 
 
 260 
 
 2.88 
 
 84.0 
 
 .0625 
 
" \ 
 
 ■T, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ’ ' r4 - ^ 
 
 — ■ F ,A. • . w. . 
 
 - 'i 'a * ?, 0 . 
 
 ; : - : i !'’"T 
 
 > 5 “.^ 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 CALCULATION OP EXPLOSION PRESSURES 
 OP 
 
 HYDROGEl^ AND AIR MIXTURES 
 
119 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 CALCULATIONS OF EXPLOSION PRESSURES OF HYDROGEN AND AIR 
 
 In the following discussion tlie llieorciica 1 expl- 
 osion pressures developed by mixtures of hydrogen with var- 
 ious amounts of air will be calculated. 
 
 The equations and constants employed in the cal- 
 culations are taken from a thesis by G. T, Felbeck, entitled, 
 "A Mathematical Treatment to Determine the Temperature and 
 Extent of Combustion in the Gas Engine.” The writer is 
 indebted to Mr. Eelbeck for the material taken from his 
 t hes is . 
 
 Tn order to calculate the maximum pressure pro- 
 duced in the explosion of any inflammable gas mixture, it is 
 necessary to take into account three factors: 
 
 1) The heat of combustion of the mixture!. 
 
 2) The variation of the specific heat with temperature. 
 
 3) The dissociation of the products of the combustion 
 into the initial constituents, thus rendering the 
 reaction incomplete. 
 
 The mixture is assumed to be in a state of 
 chemical equilibrium at the instant of attaining maximum 
 pressure . 
 
 The following notation will be used in this 
 
 Disc uss ion : 
 
\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' L 
 
 
 ft; 
 
 
 
 
 
 ►i J ft 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 q '* 
 
 ,. : 
 
 " T 
 
 : ' ’0 : 
 
 -1X5 1''' . 
 
 :M ; 
 
 ■ - 
 
 :uo 
 
 - . *■ ■ ; 
 
 
 ' 
 
 • •■ . ! ' 
 
 \j I . 
 
 
 • 
 
 .. '( '^ i. J 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 ■ f r 
 
 
 ! 
 
 "*0 8 * *T .♦ 
 
 X r r 
 
 Y 
 
 ' ?4t> 
 
 i V ; ** '3 / 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 . r : i i. ! .) 
 
 
 
 ■' ( f r 
 
 , T ; : -> .^ , 
 
 ) If 
 
 091? 
 
 
 , ' * 
 : J 
 
 'it 
 
 l3 • i-r Iq.-? 
 
 
 ) ‘J 
 
 K s t 
 
 V ;! 5 r t £ ' • *“ t ?!'f T 
 
 
 
 
 . ' •• i f-f .5 
 
 .:i^ 
 
 • ■ 
 
 0 i. 
 
 . yf* - 
 
 ■ :» ^ 
 
 It 
 
 ♦ 
 
 " J , e-': 
 
 
 
 ' R i. <j •' 
 
 ' . ■- 
 
 / , •» / 
 
 * 
 
 ^ *y 
 
 "■ * ' ‘1 :3 i 
 
 ■ > ‘. f ’* I • 
 
 
 ni 
 
 
 j ' “ T T Is:*; 
 
 f P. J 
 
 ?»rv 
 
 •B\! 4" 
 
 ’. f 
 
 *T^} 
 
 ; T 
 
 --1T 
 
 
 ; ;•■' 
 
 
 J '1 ■. 
 
 .’0 ■ ■ ■ 3 
 
 
 « 
 
 n^ -j H 
 
 '•» i 
 
 < Tl 
 
 .■3 T 
 
 If ”' *• f 
 
 • • 
 
 •■^ 1 * 
 
 *» 
 
 ■[ 4-' 
 
 j i . ^ •' 0 
 
 * 
 
 ; 
 
 j 0 r r f 
 
 
 ■- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 3.’' aorl i 
 
 — ri ’3 'j 
 
 
 r 
 
 JO Tll^S' 
 
 k ^ ' 
 
 . ' 1 
 
 1 n 1 
 
 . > ' 
 
 
 
 
 - '/ 
 
 .'. :- .1 - 
 
 . - ^ 
 
 fiJ 
 
 y i '^' ■■ r ' 
 
 
 r : 
 
 
 ‘ * . ’ 
 
 otBCf'7'J) •' 
 
 4 j 
 
 
 
 ' ‘ VI i ^ t : f n ^ 'vt » ^ *7 r 3 ? « 
 
 . '‘T ,j f .' ’ a ^ 
 
 ! J '! 0 • ‘ ■ 1 ♦ 2 
 A 
 
 ' dOO’? . 1 " "'.I 
 
 - f 
 
 
 Ct 
 
 cn ■} : •£ -» ■: j-.j ?4 rt i i v* i r 
 
 ‘ ' i'' • ' -' 
 
 "'■ : ‘./.'i, 7i . 
 
 *. : 
 
 0*% 
 
 :iO - i‘ . ’ »J‘J» ' 0 ?'i 1 10 £ i Ckf 
 
 '■'iTj t ': J 
 
 ' O 0 f ^ 
 
 rr\ . 
 
 
 • i 1 ; *? •jtnfl ( ud 
 
 ? ;; > Z } t n ? 
 
 r .. : ; - t 
 
 : : .1 ‘ 
 
 
 
 
 Pt-4 ’JO '>■: ' 3 i; f 
 
 •■ i:-dT 
 
 
 «* 
 
 : i ? v?', “w 
 
lEO 
 
 T = temperature at equilibrium, deg. F. abs. 
 
 X = progress of the reaction. 
 
 P = maximum pressure (at equilibrium) lb. per sq. in. abs. 
 
 ro = initial mixture, raols. 
 
 m' = mixture at equilibrium, mols. 
 
 Y, = mean molar specific heat of diatomic gases. 
 
 Yfi = mean molar specific heat of hydrogen. 
 
 T, = initial temperature of mixture, deg. F. abs. 
 
 = lower heating value of mixture at the temperature 
 T, in Btu. per mol at constant pressure. 
 
 Up = initial energy of mixture. 
 
 U = energy of mixture at equilibrium (or maximum pressure] 
 Kp = equilibrium constant for the reaction, 
 n = number of mols of oxygen present. 
 
 The general method of procedure demands two 
 equations involving the two unknown variables x and T. 
 
 By equating the energies of the mixture befigre 
 'explosion and aife the time of equilibrium, we get 
 
 By inserting the usual expressions for specific heats and 
 such constants as may be determined by the mixture, we get 
 
 By substituting various values of T we may calculate corre- 
 sponding values of x. 
 
 temperature and of x. It is defined in the hydrogen reaction as= 
 
 and 
 
 U,+ = U. 
 
 U - 
 
 X 
 
 (m-l)Y,T + - (m-Dy^Tp - y ^ 
 
 (at T deg.) 
 
 The qquilibrium constant is a function of the 
 
021 
 
 © 
 
 'I'-: I 
 
 J . r: T J 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ - i, !• I i’ .^p's j-t/T--' j ' r ' •■*■ T ’ll 
 
 . ' ' r r aan'; >*!q = ts 
 
 • ■ ; ^ } . : ; :■•**' ' ' ■ •; 1 3 -JTq ^ ' 
 
 . , •« j Jii T Lj: ■ ' r “ 
 
 . -:o‘ . • -r 'j-ju i •: ■'■a' 
 
 4 cl; 1 TJ 5 { ' 1 : Talrrr -t .. • ^ . r -r' , _ 
 
 . • I * « ' ' ‘ ■ ' ^ _ . ■ - 
 
 . ■ . •• . '• I • • ■ TJ J ? ?q(i > J . ’ ' * : .t I ' ^ 
 
 vi j J« *yvlv^x 
 
 , u\ - ir Ic- • 
 
 lo 'C^'- ' f^r J - . r - »•] 
 
 i ' Li >'? 3 f ■: ■=>t». 4 'x:i 3 ‘ Ji 
 
 ^ '. ■> £. j '■ r r ■; ir4 .' j •■‘if • -:i ^ ■ ‘ r>ir. ■’ ** 
 
 ‘ 2 • - j n- Sli ■■ ‘ T ? -■ 3 : 
 
 ! • - 1 - i'jb •- - ry I j . r . 
 
 - 3 >> 0 fi '! ■' ki ■ J ' aM vn r 
 
 / . .:■ ■' ■ ■■' 
 
 . j ■ jv 1 ‘ tfli'pe 
 
 j 's . .. ; 1 3 r 1 i 0 pt> ' '-' <■ i '■ 
 
 - ' i v . 4 * ^ t -^ -' 
 
 . ■ > ' ? •. 
 
 ;: .. 5 ^“ ■ ' fraa 
 
 a« -;3-^'* qiliDijq’j Tol li - ciTi^anc 
 
 • ' - . ^ \*» 
 
 , • •jijfijj ^ K'i MTsJqili />?•• "e ■ «t?’ip3 dwoa j 
 
 r. 
 
 •; :• : ' ^ I I f • ^ " i-f 9 ' ’T ? j 1 .' V •(: u ,*) i T s V - ‘Tf k | 
 
 j . i • . • .' ' ru I ' ^ : I f u r • . J 
 
 1 * 
 
 .cv-* '1 3-'' f ' ,'-1 -'i *■ . ■ '-j *' * Ik'.; 
 
121 
 
 K 
 
 2 
 
 where n is the nuitber of mols of oxygen present in the ori- 
 ginal mixture. Kp may be expressed in terms of x by setting 
 up expressions for the partial pressures of the various gases 
 and substituting them in the above equation. From the re- 
 sults of a number of experimenters' work, K is given as: 
 
 Thus K may be calculated for any given temperature. After 
 substituting the constants as determined by the mixture, and 
 simpl.i f ying, we get 
 
 By substituting values of T we may calculate corresponding 
 values of x. If Equations (1) and (2) are plotted, their 
 point of intersection gives t}ie values of x and T which will 
 satisfy both equations. 
 
 The explosion pressure F may then be determined 
 from T as follows: 
 
 4.578 log Kp 
 
 102100 
 
 T 
 
 - €.2631 log T + 0.000236 T 
 
 + 0.033S-10~« T^ + 1.1 
 
 P 
 
 mT, 
 
 (30 
 
'■*< _ - - . _ i • . . , -’Joi qij 
 
 \ , 
 
 rj.t ^ j . • * ■ : . 2^\.t9 ’ht*^ 
 
 ; ;■ - si , . ■•..3 ‘*9 J ?jL(SM 
 
 
 
 
 ■ • 
 
 
 
 
 r . r ♦ - '■' A > 
 
 1. 
 
 
 M 
 
 ■'_1 
 
 ^zy'f 
 
 i«ei «s¥o -lo ^*s' 
 
 P" ■ it: ! -<j 
 
 rjd 
 
 ■^.' • 2ud : 
 
 ! •: ,■■ ■'' i . i V i.-f * 
 
 ! 1' *-• n t T; t '•’> .! '5 • V . ■ ■; 
 
 ' nor. 
 
 .) 
 
 " r tui-' ftdua 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 , ■ ' ’ 
 
 iWI 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 i " •' i. 
 
 
 
 
 ■ -■ * ' ' 
 
 • 
 
 ^ JOqx -i . * ^ 
 
 . fnf‘J ':••:■ i^'U ^-v 1*' 
 
 «? S * */ 
 
 
 \ ♦ -‘sdxie 
 
 . P V t t 
 
 i •,'ir ba«. ( i ’ Rfj:)' 
 
 
 
 ,•. »0 2rr?i«-.' 
 
 [ L ' .. .i '' ^'1 '“; '?' hn ' 
 
 
 • 
 
 *•< V, 
 
 t -. ; • .. J 
 
 
 • 
 
 '.'•oi-f j.- 
 
 *r> 
 
 ' '• :• • , • ■ 
 
 : * " 'I 1 ? h 3 c ' 
 
 
 t «.?i j/r 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 : “ .' ■{ 3 '! ~(roi.T 
 
122 
 
 The speoifio heat equations for the diatoDiic gases 
 are as follows : 
 
 Y, = 4.51 + C.2778 T 
 = 4.51 + C.25 T 
 
 The lower heating value of hydrogen at constant volume is 
 taken as 1C2930 Btu. per mol. 
 
 Case I. + ^0^ + 1.9N, 
 
 Original mixture 
 
 Mixture at 
 
 equilibrium 
 
 P, 1 mol 
 
 H,0 
 
 X mols 
 
 0, 0.5 " 
 
 E, 
 
 1-x " 
 
 N, 1.9 " 
 
 0, 
 
 0.5x " 
 
 m = 3.4 mols . 
 
 N, 
 
 1.9 " 
 
 
 m ' = 
 
 3.4 - 0.5x mi 
 
 Energy equation^ 
 
 2-4y,T + y.T - 
 
 2.4y,T^ - YsT, 
 
 
 P 
 
 ‘ V 
 
 Substituting values of T, we get 
 
 T 4000 4200 4400 4600 4800 5000 
 
 X .675 .721 .772 .827 .884 .845 
 
 Equilibrium equation= 
 
 ~itr [0.6-0. = lo? Kp* 
 
 Substituting values of T, we get 
 T 4000 4400 4800 5000 
 
 X .988 .975 .954 .939 
 
 Plotting these two sets of values (Fig. 54), the 
 
SI 
 
 ' 1 
 
 
 rSwallol .•«<^ # 
 
 * * ' , a!“ ’l * * ' 
 
 t ^ 13. *. 
 
 ii 9ii<^lo7 ^noltipo ie i->507^!4d In «4t.iO 
 
 . Ipa 10.1 JS» . 15:9 s;0t 8R-^P>lal ■ ; 
 
 fr 
 
 
 
 ’4 
 
 - ii' :''li-55s2 
 
 ft 
 
 iii'jdUif^?^ 4^» 'iitfliiM 
 
 
 's*,;-v 
 
 rlO’ ^ 
 
 •* v3*!5 
 ” o\t 
 
 
 lo» I 
 " 3.0 
 
 D 
 
 uO 
 
 fl.I .,• 
 
 & . it oo X3.1 - ^.'' 
 
 « ' ji 
 
 .tiotf t.'; 
 
 * » 'M 
 
 '• U '' 
 
 t' i f- 
 
 
 
 • _.^ 
 
 ri.’ ' % T 
 
 f»r ~ T,v ^ T^y^.S; ' . « 
 
 — { • 
 
 y *aPi#8cipo ^ 
 
 '■■t: 5, 
 
 V 
 
 * •~'t' • " ^. * "'ii ' • V 
 
 ' ' • ^ ^ 
 
 .T 
 
 X 
 
 0003 f008A- 00^1^’ 000b 
 
 .iba. ^aa. '=’.<?3. 
 
 . -*nox f ftif j?3. 'Muii'i-J tU 
 
 
 IT »ox ♦ .‘,i. 50J • ’>-<>(7?rr7:ijT:r 
 
 »i:<i’'!a 
 
 " ii'j IIL tffc wf 
 "TipW.' 
 
 *^;^ov i»»i . " 'tfo caaXuv E bs'duS. 
 
 tv ' ' ’ ' ^ 
 
 •OOOd O0M‘> 000b ' " ? 
 
 350. ase. 
 
 
 e1i , V .ita) la 8ut.3« amf 04f0di «iari4oX^ 
 
122 
 
 values at the point of intersection are found to be 
 
 X = 0.940 
 T = 4983 ®F. abs. 
 
 From this value of T we calculate P as follows: 
 
 fi, 4-9. 5 -.940 14.4*4983 
 
 P = X 
 
 3.4 535 
 
 = 115.5 lb. per sq. in. abs. 
 
 = 101.1 lb. per sq. in gage. 
 
 Case II. H, + 0, + 3,-8^^ 
 
 From the energy and equilibrium equations we find 
 
 X = 1.000 
 
 T = 3e67®F. abs. 
 
 P = 90.0 lb. per sq. in. abs. 
 
 = 7b. 6 lb. per sq . in. gage. 
 
 III- + 1.50^ + 5.7N% 
 
 From the energy and equilibr :i uiii equations we find 
 
 X = 1.000 
 
 T = 2842® F. abs . 
 
 P = €9.8 lb. per sq. in abs. 
 
 = 55.4 lb. per sq . in gage. 
 
6^ I^uol MTS loj lo / ^r>ftl«v 
 
 nl > 
 
 .fl . Oi^,0 * < 
 
 ■"'.'f'^ "’^ ■' .*<>» .t*-efi8ti'‘ ' 
 
 : i. «•' *I iulnsita iw T »ul«< 
 
 * mM ww 
 
 "iHj; 
 
 *.?I(|VJ 
 
 *] 
 
 I* *''*!■ >i *.'> f»<l , SiJ ^ .45 _ 
 
 ^ ■■ - •., s 1 
 
 3S5 "' ^ ,■» ^ 
 
 '•sgM 
 
 jT^, 
 
 ' 1 ^- ;.. 
 
 ^ .Tt .pif <9« .dl 3.6rl 
 
 .djjAi 1I^ Vp'f .dl |.f0£ '« 
 
 I J 
 
 
 • .'9 ■>'' 
 
 “V,. 
 
 Off arto)^^t’p» ,ak/f^«*ir£n« \4ltnqa .,od) 
 
 * V jiA. • t-' ^ .^DP^Q * 
 
 , QOO . X •* ' -I } ii'' 
 
 VW'I 
 
 
 . * 4 .! 8 » T 
 
 .«t .pj, . 5 ^ .^' Ji 
 
 r 9 .- ♦ p K' • ><j . d f . « X J ^ 
 
 v< ';* * ' jB 
 
 ^ -: •*' '■‘Si*. A«'S 
 
 (I o. 
 
 . 1 <r ■ f"m ■» - 
 
 } ♦ ,03. r Uli*'5»4' 
 
 ? ' ' 3j 
 
 b'<iX> -^w tjioii«iipv 'ft* bj| 7 jfcT jft-a ^ 1 , a q i i 
 
 
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