SFTHt ^ivtKsrryof Chapter XXIV, Vol. 1, 1913 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING BY CHARLES HUGHES JOHNSTON Professor of Secondary Education in the University of Illinois [Reprint from the Report of the Commissioner of Education for the year ended June 30, 1913] 379s:°— 14 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914 JO cT~ . I CHAPTER XXIV. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. By Charles Hughes Johnston, Professor of Secondary Education in the University of Illinois. Co Contents.— I. Introduction. II. Specially equipped schools of education or teachers colleges. III. State universities. IV. Smaller private colleges. V. Normal schools. VI. State departments of edu- cation. VII. City school systems. VIII. Summer schools. I. INTRODUCTION. Even a partial survey of the field of activities in teacher training in the United States reveals a bewildering series of distinguishable activities which may be said to aim at raising the standard of pro- fessional service in the public-school system. It is the purpose of this account to make a rough classification of the persisting older movements and the newly instituted movements which look toward furnishing some definite pedagogical equipment for this work. There are various agencies and organizations whose teacher- training functions may be fairly differentiated. First, there are the private institutions with special equipment, endowment, and organi- zation for independent administration, and unrestricted fields of teaching and investigation, such as Teachers College, Columbia Uni- versity, and the School of Education, University of Chicago. Then come State universities with their peculiar responsibilities and some- what restricted, but more clearly defined, fields of service. Private col- leges, because of their relations to the public schools and in many cases official relations to State systems of education, have also a vital work to do in this same field. Normal schools by virtue of their very ’existence are primarily if not exclusively concerned with this one professional problem. State departments, in the present central- izing tendencies in State systems of education, are increasingly assuming and securing authority in setting standard qualifications for teachers, and are also putting forth corresponding effort in various ways to see that efficient service consistent with such standards is rendered by these “ approved” teachers. City school systems are more than ever before setting systematically about the work of training teachers, and are furnishing to other groups of professional pedagogical workers new points of view as to essential principles and v ■ methods to be observed in this business of training teachers. The whole institution of the summer school — including in this class of professional work (for it is mainly for teachers) the summer sessions A of universities, colleges, and normal schools, and sectional or con- solidated long-term summer institutes, the county institutes, the city institutes, and the high-school summer schools — has assumed proportions in the work of teacher-training whose importance and 499 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. possibilities have not been as yet fully realized or appreciated. The movement looking toward the more general establishment of genuine normal-training curriculums in public high schools has become one of critical importance to the immediate development of such schools and to secondary education generally. Still other organizations are affecting in measurable ways the progress of teacher- training, if we could sense or roughly estimate the summation of influences which various reading circles, 'teachers’ associations, and other corporate expressions of the teachers’ professional consciousness are exerting. No merely quantitative or statistical account — even if it were available — would adequately represent the momentum and extent of this professional work for teachers. This report will contain a quantitative account of what in the movement lends itself to such treatment. With this will be offered, necessarily, some interpreta- tion of these figures and some citation of specific instances of signi- ficant or novel advance. The data upon which most of this account is based were secured through letters of inquiry. Different sorts of letters were addressed to those in charge of many of the agencies of teacher training, some definite questions were put, and a general request was made for reports of any other important items of progress. The replies are all individually valuable, but difficult to summarize in any fashion which will do justice to the variety of ideas and conceptions of the nature of the work which they contain. Because of this personal equation in interpretation, several replies will be quoted in full. It should be kept in mind that these selected replies also serve to suggest how complex our problem really is and how individualistic at present most of the pioneer movements are. The first plan of this report, to exclude from consideration all accounts of significant progress which did not fall strictly within the year just passed, had to be abandoned. Many projects of great interest and importance, in addition to these initiated and completed within the year, are merely continuing well, others are culminating, and still others have been abandoned during this period. For these reasons the survey is broader than a survey of one year’s develop- ments. It can not, however, pretend to be exhaustive, nor to have placed the emphasis properly in each case. A large field of teacher-training is by common consent assigned to the university and college, namely, that of research, extended experi- mental and comparative studies, and the technical preparation of those looking toward professorships in college departments of edu- cation, in normal schools, and departmentalized teaching in high schools, or to superintendencies. Few college or university heads yet view the field clearly. They in most cases make concessions to some sort of vague outside pressure and even encourage developments, although they formulate no constructive program and initiate no distinct and effective type of organization to do this teacher- training PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 501 work. The latter step is as essential as any correct academic or scholarly theory of the professional equipment of teachers. This administrative problem will be discussed later on. The college professor of education has become a factor in our educa- tional development to reckon with. He has ceased merely to derive trite maxims from an academic philosophy; he reaches out into various related fields, psychological, sociologic, economic, or indus- trial, as the case may be, and actually makes various new depart- ments of study; he steadies himself in his emancipated position as coordinate in rank with older academic and professional colleagues, evolving his method and educational philosophy in accordance with new social, industrial, and political conditions; he recruits his teach- ing ranks with men who are of the constructive research order; he plans ahead how to help his intending students to orient themselves in the labyrinths of the general college curriculums planned yet with no reference to intending teachers ; he meets the schoolman in the school- room and handles^without gloves the dusty problems of that atmos- phere. Often his problems are so new that in any particular field he can exhaust his knowledge and the available literature in a one-hour course. His material is still somewhat unsystematized; his nomen- clature is confusing; his courses overlap and are not so easily stand- ardized for “transfer of credits” as those in Latin or mathematics. Some of his colleagues still think of him as an alien. He himself, however, is for the most part so immersed in his own problems, fasci- nating and urgent, as to be immune both to intimations of his real importance and to the attitude of his academic colleague who has ample time for leisurely surveillance of a neighbor’s doings. An examination of all the available university and college cata- logues for the past two years furnished data for the following tabular presentation of the variety of matters bearing somewhat directly on the instructional program of the schools or departments of education. Table I shows the differentiations of fields and of courses, and the varieties of exploitation of new fields, as well as some adaptation to local conditions and to the individual penchants of the professors in charge of the work. Teachers College, Columbia University, and the School of Education, of Chicago University, are not represented in the table, for they are in many ways in a class by themselves and are to be considered separately. EXPLANATION OF TABLE I. This table is the result partly of interpretation of courses. For instance: Child psychology, genetic psychology, and psychology of education are conveniently included under educational psychology. Religious education is listed under moral, not because it is regarded as identical with, but most closely allied to, moral education. Courses on defective children are grouped under abnormal psychology. Wherever the relationship of courses does not seem as close as the foregoing, but still indicates some general kinship, the name of the course is stated in the column more nearly its own. The column “Other topics” includes general courses as well as those which can not reasonably be grouped under other heads. Table I . — Instructional work in education in a number of universities: Courses — Teachers and their degrees — Number of teachers in each course . — Part I . 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 503 CO - 583 O 0m|xjp5oWft M fl 03 •2 | .6 •g e? S gp •2 © a g. 2.2 §Sg5«£ - „ e§ © on a j o - “ &£)—< © © fl C3.G S p-G P +J O 1“ J2 © 03 O fe^ftgo’o g« S . eu m .2 to q .2 tf'o © £3 ©‘G >3 o © f3 T3 <3 TG -< <3 H ^wq sasssas I I o • © • a o 0 5 ft © 'o Pi © 6 o o 2 3,G © G 3 5p 2.g ! 0'S i 2? p 05 5 0^1 **&! 6 §P gi’S's a •»|f ioSg fe«.0.-^ftG_g ©•Hi c/j G'O-fe ■a © ® .a 8 0 .22 .0 sp 0 £ q.2'5 © Sj Pi «3 S’? .•® s-sg gSSig -S3 ° p-2 o w 5 9 » i«i .it- ill 11 s - 1 lsfallfS||!!||I|| l^al. .— i ih m aj pi v. ■ ..x Si *H P<< • 2 G w>o © f i p „ P«0 Jco r/1 ‘H J.Sg888§S < 53 t3 TJ TG .2 O 'H ,114 o *~j ^ JS h — ^ rd 3 P P C/5 o 2 ^ ^ a ^Od o O rt-H o o Q SSstSSSsSSoSS © 2’p'p Hooao o saar Table I . — Instructional work in education in a number of universities: Courses — Teachers and their degrees — Number of teachers in each course . — Part II. 504 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913, Other sub- jects. SI-2I6T •0 w zL'ZLs ' 0 ■ 0 : : 2I-II6I 0 00 000 2, ^0^CM w 00 Educa- tional ideals. si-2161 - - CM 2I-II6I - CM Study. . SI-2161 - 2I-TI6I - - - ; Cur- rent topics. 8I-2I6T - - - CM -- CM 2I-II6I - » - CM Educa- tional re- search. 81-2161 cm - : CM CM - 2I-II6T - - : r *-< .S Xfl &0 SI-2161 - 2T-II6I - — 1 - CM Educational problems. SI-2161 2I-II6I Phi- losophy of edu- cation. SI-2161 CM rH rH CM rH CM H CM - - 2I-II6I CM tH CM CM H rH - CM • Semi- nar. SI-2161 co t us es O CO rH N CM CM C Tdaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas > ■S \B IS !W Maine. . _ . Michigan o.S w V. CU xr. a "S Missouri : 1 Montana Nebraska New Mexico North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma d 5 2 -h b 2 t) w o ofljj B-S.^J^ag fdt3 o.2 WVJ4J w W n -I T? V ^ *H gs Hbl6s.il S o 3 3 >P ti q,*« ® S — < • ’ w a^ Mi O'o,p g-p \M TJ o> ,03 o; W£a ; " g & :§p5 > a ®’i . cn e rO d a Sp. a a o 73 > © 'O 73 fl © a- 3 • ■- 3P ■§•§-< § a f s-o^^p 333 S-g 3 §1^3 §£►£&§ ga§s| jsj^f&ag&aslIS iljigfsgiHftjgijSsf gS§-|S§§|§|^gl^p||^ ^aW go “wworowaoftooo^ H ”", 3'''2' s “ t '® e, 2322 S ,n ® 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913 . This rapid multiplication of educational courses has resulted in an unfortunately confusing nomenclature for courses. There does not seem to be a sharp differentiation between many of these courses. This often results in injustice to students who transfer from one school to another. Courses differently titled appear to be quite similar in content. This confusion in part, with the varying practice with reference to “minimal essentials” as introductory courses, reflects a difference of opinion as to what really constitutes teacher training. It is quite evident that courses in education should be, in many cases at least, as specific as those in law or medicine. A glance at Table I reveals the fact that the only approach to a constant offered is “history of education,” and this can not be judged a constant if such schools as the University of Chicago are included. Here history of education is not required. State boards of education, in the requirements for professional examinations, show the same lack of uniformity. The varying emphasis placed on courses may be due to several causes. Among these is the lack of equipment in the school itself, including the lack of preparation of the instructors in charge, and also the insufficiency of teachers. But other partial causes he deeper than those just named. Is there any fundamental difference between “principles of educa- tion,” “philosophy of education,” and the “ psychology of education,” as they are often actually given ? These titles designate overlapping courses. In fact, the philosophy of education is still vaguely described everywhere. There is no textbook, apparently, that adequately rep- resents what this course should include. Some schools treat prin- ciples of education as an elementary, introductory course; others as one whose prerequisites should be history of education and educa- tional psychology. Each defines its own courses. Each State has its own requirements, with even the statutes specifying the same in terms which are not definite. A cooperative effort should be made to determine what is essential and what may serve as simply electives for undergraduates in similar groups, what as prerequisite for entrance to later graduate work, and what as merely cultural work for those who do not intend to teach, but who as laymen and citizens need some understanding of educational principles and administration. Table I shows that our universities are responding to the increasing demand for more efficient teachers. There is not only a general increase in courses, but there is a more thoroughly trained and selected teaching body giving these courses. - The number of professors with the doctor’s degree indicates more highly specialized work. This is evident in the number of seminars offered and in the greater oppor- tunities for research. See Table II. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 507 Tables I and II also reveal a general tendency to raise the standard of teaching. The tables do not show, of course, how efficiently these courses are taught, but from the descriptions of the courses one senses the advent of the expert and sees evidence of genuine curriculum thinking. The tables are also significant in what they do not record. There are no courses in textbook making, only a few courses on the science and art of study, only a few courses on moral education or religious education, or in educational statistics, or as yet in either industrial education or in higher education. Four institutions report courses offered in the administration and methods of higher education for those definitely preparing for work, administrative or instructional, in normal schools, colleges, and universities. (For typical contents for such a course see Ed. Rev., Nov., 1913, p. 390 ff.) It should be noted that the rate of increase in research in education and in number of doctorates conferred exceeds that in any other field of graduate study. There are only a few courses in experimental education. The technique of teaching — that is, the art of developing lessons in class — is not treated adequately in the secondary subjects. Special methods are taught by college men in charge of these particular departments, but this does not guarantee that an effective technique of teaching is offered. There is a noted recent increase in the number of courses in secondary education, with in many cases a fairly thor- oughgoing differentiation of courses in that field. In addition to the catalogue study of the teacher-training, a general letter was sent to professors of education in universities and a num- ber of the smaller colleges requesting information concerning changes in general policy or advanced steps in administration which have occurred recently, especially during the year 1912. There was a further request for accounts of developments contemplated for the near future. With this was inclosed a list of topics indicative of the kind of information sought, it being made clear that the list was not comprehensive. The list follows (items 1-6 inclusive), with other items added which were furnished by those representing the colleges and universities who replied to our questionnaire : 1. Steps taken looking toward making the work of the professional training of teachers coordinate administratively with other professional work of university grade, such as engineering, medicine, or law. 2. Instances of cooperation in the teacher-training work by other college forces, as, for example, medical schools (medical inspection), agricultural departments, library staffs, department of physical education, etc. 3. Which of the following activities are under the administrative control of the department or school of education? (а) Teacher’s courses in special subjects given by other departments. (б) Physical education for teachers. 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. (c) Recommendation of teachers for positions. ( d ) Inspection of State schools. (e) Extension work for teachers in service. (/) Field work, using city schools as laboratories for advanced students, etc. (g) High-school conferences held on grounds. (h) Summer schools. (i) Education surveys. (j) Technological departments (manual training, domestic science, public-school music, etc.). ( lc ) Graduate work in education. 4. Special requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree in education, differing from requirements for degrees in other branches of study; for example, demonstrated teaching ability, personal traits, moral force, general culture, etc. 5. Changes in entrance requirements to courses in education. 6. Changes in number of hours or in specific subjects as requirements for teachers^ certificates or diplomas. 7 . Prac tic e schools . 8. School clinic. 9. Measurements of efficiency. 10 . N ew b uild mgs . 11. Affiliation with city schools. 12. Degrees in education. 13. Special short curriculums. 14. Follow State board standards in teachers’ certificates or diplomas? 15. Double standard for granting teaching certificates or diplomas? 16. Addition of new courses. Fairly detailed replies were received from 67 institutions. For purposes of comment and interpretation we may group the institu- tions heard from into three classes: A, special universities; B , State universities; C, the smaller colleges. It will be noted that some of the questions relating to administrative problems refer chiefly to the institutions in classes A and B. Most of the items, however, are significant and pertinent for all. The following Tables II and III contain the list of institutions and show roughly the information classified and attributed to proper institutions. Some institutions not reporting upon the chart items in most cases reported other interesting activities. Reports on items 7 to 16 merely show recent happenings or make incidental mention. There are many practice schools and institutions granting degrees, for example, not shown in the table. Table II. — Tabulation of answers to questionnaire. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 509 •p^oj, IT & 05 || II 0 + II 'ft "!■ « t-' A-T A 0 II II II ? 11 a 11 -* ii 0 11 11 0 + + II t- II II >" ^“•c4 II 'ftio'ft’-H II • 2 J> — » d “2 O — ® C-H ® 00 || ..05 || II II co || 0 II w 11 Ah" II A + + + + + 05 || >0 II ft II ft. . ..O ; . . in •? 1 7-- +° + AT C rA Ah" • II A II II II . ►. OA •••*«#. r— | «0 II 1-1 00 C-J 11 ft II 0 II II II d, 4- 4-4- •SuixuoAa\. + + 0 ft + C 5 + : 4- V C > 4 •uisuoosijvv 0 + 0 0 © *ft © 4- 0 c > 4- C > •■biutSii a I S 9A\. 0 + + 0 ft. c > 4 - + c > 4 0 4-0 •uo^3uiqs'B i A + O • + V ^ 4- ft. c > 4 h ++ "biutSita 0 0 ft 0 + + + ; 4- 4- 4- : 4 ■wn + 0 + + + c > 0 4 - 4- ft "x 4 - 4-0 ■SBX 9 J, + + + s-i ft ft* ft. © 4- O ft 4- c > 00 • 98 SS 8 UU 8 X 0 + 0 + 4 - .4- 4- O ^ & c ;° # <8 •uoSaio ft + + + + <= > 0 4 - 4- ft c > 4 4-0 CO u •'euioqBi?[o 0 J + ’ + + 4-4-4- 4- 4- 4- C > 4-0 > 'a *°mo 'ft + 0 0 0 4 - + 4- 4- c 5 C > 4 00 3 0 qpojy[ 0 4- c 3 m •ooixoyi A\ 8 K i i 1 : + •'eu'Bq.uoj^ 0 O 0 0 + "ft + + ft 0 •unossipj + + + + + + -ft ^ ft. ft 4- 4 00 •niosainnjq; + + 4- ^ - 4 - | 4 - 4- J J 'U'egiqotpf 0 O + 0 + + + + 0 c > c > C > 00 •aurept O ft. 0 ft. ft. © + 4 - c > c > c » 4-^ •SBSuex 4 - + 0 0 ^ 4 - + 4- 4- c > 4- G > 00 •■bavoi + + + 0 4- ^ - 4- 4- 0 ft 4- H OO •enpinj + + 4 •srouxiii O 4- 0 0 4- <= > 4- 4- 0 ft 4 c 1 OO •■eiujojn'eo 0 O 0 0 •SBSUBJtJy + 0 0 4- 4- 4- 0 4- 4 - 4 4- + + *I*WL 0 iT II + eo II 0 4 ?" II + •pjojuB^g pu'Bpq ^ , , , ....... . ft • • . '3 3 •'BIU'GA[XSUU 8 g [ + O O 0 0 c > O O 0 c > c 0 0 •uoqSuiqs'e^ - ° 9 D + 0 + 0 4 - 0 > 4- 4- 0 c > O O 0-1- O) ft XJl •[I 9 UJ 00 O + O 0 4- <= 1 0 4- 0 4- 4- 4- 4-o ■(‘0 ‘X) ’erquiniOQ + O + + + 0 O O 4- - . ^ 4 4-^ •I'j’Buuiouro + + + + 4- : + + 4- ; 4- 4 4-4- •o^Boiqo + + + •X ft. ft - ^ 4“ ft ft 4 4 4-4- CO 1 § l. Separate organization of department of education. l. Cooperation with other departments. !. Are these activities under depart- ment of education?— (0) Special subjects in other depart- ments. ( 6 ) Physical education for teachers. (c) Recommendation of teachers for positions. (d) Inspection of State schools ( e ) Extension work for teachers in service. (/) Field-work for advanced studies. (<7) High - school conferences on grounds. (h) Summer schools ! > g 3 .1 0 3 w V C 1 » C 3 P 0 ) "O 0 3 1 0 CD (k) Graduate work in education 1 . Special requirements for master’s or doctor’s degree. 1 1 Key: +=Yes; 0=No; Doubtful interpretation; pr.= Proposed. 2 For full reading of questions, see p. 507. II. — Tabulation of answers to questionnaire. 1 — Continued. 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. State universities. •mol 6 T • . ii 7 ii 7 O II o II CO ic4 r-« r-H rH c4 •SuiuiOiSAV : + ! •uisuoosiav : : + •biui2jta ° ; •uoj3utqsBA\. + + + ~ •biuiSjia + •SBxex o © •aassauuaj, j + + •uo3aao + + + ‘BUIOqBpJO O O + ■°mo o © m-iox : : ++ + + •ooixapf •BUBJUOpi + + •unossipi O O •Bjosaumj^ •uBSiqoipj o o •oujbpj; + + T T + •SBSUB 3 ; o o + ‘BAVOJ o o + •enpauti + •siounil © + 'BIUJOJIJBQ •SBSUB5IJY + Special universities. •mox i-H rH NHH II II II II II ® ® + + + ■"* CO + + •qSinqspqa : : + •pjojaBjg puBpT; ‘BIUBApCSUTOJ 1 i ! •uo;SuiqSBjVV ‘090 1 + + •Iieuaoo | o o ‘CO \L) Biquinpo 1 + + •IlBUUpniO 1 + + •oSBOiqo | + j +++ 1 i 3 0 5 3 ) Jj ■> 0 3 S S c If D r u y Hf 0 l ii ;] n c H fj >a i e* i 3 3 J H 3 3 \ n \ 3 » * » (3 h) PQ *I«»ox t-t 1 o . c s c > : : i 4- : o o •o O + o o © + 4- + o o o o o © o + + : : : + ; 4- 4- : :++ j ^ o V 4- o 4- o 4- + 0 ° + : : 4-4- i + 4- : : : + o + © 4- + o c, Pi o O O : 4- © : : : 4-4- ical education for ;hers. nmendation of teach- for positions, ction of State schools ision work for teach- in service, work for advanced dies. - school conferences grounds. ner schools w & i w 13 a o "3 J> a <-> s c3 T3 ft * • : 3§ : 2 © : h O ; 3 7a • D fH • : 38 : 3 & g c3 a S :I.ao§"E5$g £ Ilf lull g O 0-^73 CQ A < Table IV . — Character of courses in education in certain normal schools. 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913, •uaopirqo ^uaioijaQ ; rH •auaiS^H - - •90IAJ8S JOJIUOp{ - • Aioaqq. ssatnsng; qooqos qq.uqqBg •jaqo'caq jo Ajii^uosiad •H •jjiOAi sxsaqx - •Sui -p^ai jT3uoissajoj c i CO "UOTJ reonpa pfjjsnpuj *oja pire satire j) - - : •suiajqoid quaimo - •uoijbo -ttpa eATjBredtnoo - •sotssbjo noijBonpa -- - •uotj reonpa jo aouatog - h Yes. Yes. Yes. w w w w * in © 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 :223SSS222 •^SojoqoAsj CCNHHr-lNW cc i 1 Conn. — Willimantic ! ! i < i i !c Tdaho — Lewiston J 111. — Carbondale Charleston Maoomb Normal Ind. — Terre Haute Towa. — Cedar Falls TCans. — Emnoria JCv. — Riohmond Me. — Farmineton Mass. — Brideewater Salem Worcester Mich. — Mount Pleasant J a p Minn. — St. Cloud 1 S3 !| 3 > H § T3 ii >.6 fh p CQ b j s •■S ft N. C. — Greensboro Greenville N. Dak. — Allendale. N. J. — Montclair N. Y.— Buffalo Pa. — Clarion Lock Haven Millersville R. I. — Providence S. Dak. — Aberdeen 1 C CO Vt.— Castleton 1 PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING, 513 I J I 1“ ^ : - : : - - CO •i- : : h CO rH^H--l | £ ii \ i i es. Yes. Yes. Yes. (NCCHHHHHC^ O ca HH(N ! : : 25 j £000 ; i0 j : : 04 j' © Va.— Fredericksburg Harrisonburg Wash.— Cheney W. Va. — Fairmont vv 15 . — lviuwiiuKtje River Falls Superior Whitewater Total l 17726 ° — ed 1013 — vol 1 OQ 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913, Before generalizing from these totals secured from such a variety of different institutions some discussion of the particularly significant classes should be emphasized. II. TEACHERS’ COLLEGES IN ENDOWED INSTITUTIONS. The teacher-training work of the institutions styled “ Special universities, group A” differs in character, scope, and method of administration from the work of either of the other groups. The following replies from Teachers College and the School of Education of the University of Chicago are of sufficient general importance to be quoted in full. It will be seen from these typical, but unusually clear, responses to our inquiry that some arbitrary interpretation of answers and comments must be made in order to condense into a statistical summary the main features of the data obtained from all the higher institutions. Teachers College , Columbia University .—The account of the work and proposed changes at Teachers College contains items answering the questionnaire seriatim, especially the policy of markedly raising the admission standards, the significance of which for progress in teacher training will be readily appreciated : (1) The work of Teachers College is already coordinated administratively with the other professional schools of Columbia University. Since its connection with Colum- bia University, Teachers College has ranked as a professional school, taking the same place in the university system as the schools of law, medicine, and applied science. (2) By the organization outlined in paragraph one, Teachers College has its own faculty, the members of which devote their exclusive time to instruction relating to the training of teachers, supervisors, superintendents, and college and normal school professors of education. (3) (a), (6), (c); each of these items is under the control of Teachers College. ( d ) Not Controlled by Teachers College. ( e ) Work in extension teaching is controlled by a separate department of the uni- versity organized for that purpose. (/) Not under control of Teachers College. (g) There are frequent educational meetings at Teachers College, which include high-school associations of teachers. (h) Teachers College has its summer school offering organized as an integral part of its work. Practically all of the faculty of the summer session is selected from the regu- lar faculty of the college. (i) The members of the faculty of Teachers College often take part in education surveys, but such work can not be said to be under the control of this institution. (j) Teachers College has under its control regular departments devoted to instruc- tion in household arts, industrial arts, school music, fine arts, physical education, and nursing and health. (k) Graduate work in education is in charge of the school of education of Teachers College. (4) The requirements for the master’s and doctor’s degrees for candidates specializ- ing in education are outlined fully on pages 24-27 of the announcement of the school of education of Teachers College for 1913-14. (5) Teachers College, in its school of education, has recently made marked changes in its requirements for admission to be in effect after July 1, 1914. The present require- PROGRESS OP TEACHER TRAINING. 515 merits for admission are outlined on page 28 of the announcement of the school of education. The new requirements for admission after July 1, 1914, are outlined on page 29 of the announcement. ,By these changes it will be seen that the school of education of Teachers College will become a graduate school after July 1, 1914, so far as preparation is concerned for teaching in secondary schools such academic subjects as English, history, Latin, French, German, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, or geography. After July 1, 1914, the school of education of Teachers College will receive as students majoring in these subjects only those who hold the bachelor’s degree from an approved institution. This means that after July 1, 1914, all students received with a major in these subjects will matriculate for the master’s or doctor’s degree and diploma. The demands of the secondary schools throughout the country for increased prepara- tion have made this new regulation necessary. The school of education will continue, as heretofore, to receive candidates for the bachelor’s degree specializing in elementary or kindergarten education, or in the teaching of household, industrial, or fine arts. After July 1, 1914, candidates for the bachelor’s degree specializing in elementary or kindergarten education must offer for admission a record of at least two years of successful experience in teaching in addition to the requirements for admission now in force. School of education, University of Chicago . — The report communi- cated from the University of Chicago is likewise illuminating and furnishes also in a concise statement another adequate and very important account of the work of teacher training which is represent- ative of the best in the country. Inasmuch as there was a radical reconstruction in the administration of many aspects of our work from 1909-1911 immediately after Mr. Judd became director of the school of education, there have been relatively few large modifications since. Some of the significant points in Mr. Judd’s administration are the following: 1. For graduate work in the department of education, a prerequisite of two courses in education and one course in a related science was established. The master’s essay has been made essentially a piece of minor research, objective in character and involving the use of three types of technique, namely, experimental, statistical, or historical. 2. For undergraduate students in the college of education the prevailing require- ments of psychology and history of education were abolished and required courses in the principles of education and general methods substituted. These courses are taught by instructors who are versed in psychology and bring in as much of this sub- ject as is needed for explanatory purposes. 3. As far as the history of education is taught, emphasis is placed upon the history of the development of school practice and organization in relation to changing social conditions. Special emphasis is placed on the development of American education in relation to general social changes. The courses along this line are given by a spe- cialist in American history who is a member both of the department of history in the college of arts, literature, and science, and of the department of education. 4. As contrasted with certain other institutions, there exists the most intimate unification of the activities and administration of the college of education and of gen- eral university administration. The college of education conforms to all general university rules and is financially and academically as much an integral part of the university as is the college of arts, literature, and science. Hence, as regards the special activities referred to in paragraph 3 of the questionnaire, one may make the following statements: 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. (a) Teachers’ courses in special subjects are given in the college of education by instructors who are primarily members of its staff, but also in most cases members of the faculty of the college of arts, literature, and science, where they also give courses. (&) Physical education of men and women is a general university function, but some special courses in schoolroom gymnastics are given in the college of education. (c) There is a general university appointment office for placing teachers which cooperates constantly with the offices of the college of education. (d) There is a general university director of the relations with cooperating or accred- ited high schools who is also a professor in the department of education. ( e ) Extension work for teachers is also a general university function. It includes a correspondence study department and a special college which gives down-town extension classes on Saturday and during late afternoon hours. The dean of this college is head of the department of natural science in the college of education. (/) Field work is conducted largely in our own laboratory schools. Our high school numbers 400 students, and there is a similar number in the elementary school. A special industrial class is conducted in the high school; and a residential clinic for the study of psychopathic, retarded, and mentally-deficient children is now in the process of organization. These laboratory schools are regarded by the university in the same way as other laboratories and are supported accordingly. In this connection there is one notable departure instituted by Mr. Judd which is worth mentioning. Most of the so-called experimental schools, from the time of Pestalozzi to the present, have been experimental simply in the sense that they varied the conditions of instruction. They seldom or never took the step of meas- uring adequately the results of the variations which they instituted . In our university high school and elementary school constant endeavors are made to measure the efficiency of the instruction. Upon this basis the efficiency has increased enormously in four years, and great economies have been effected. The most striking of these has been the reduction of the elementary school course to seven years without any elimination of content, thus making the combined elementary and high-school course 11 years instead of 12. ( g ) Conferences of high schools in cooperation with the University of Chicago are held each spring at the university. These are organized by the director mentioned above in “6,” and the proceedings are published in the School Review. Funda- mental questions of adaptation of high-school and college work are discussed. ( h ) The summer school is also a general university function. In this connection one of our chief problems is the organization of real graduate training for students who are doing all their work for the master’s degree in summers. (i) Educational surveys on a small scale are conducted by our graduate students in Chicago and vicinity all the time. These vary from surveys of typical city com- munities to surveys of rural counties. They constitute a favorite topic for master’s essays. (j) The maintenance of departments for training in home economics and household art and in aesthetic and industrial education has been historically one of the chief characteristics of colleges for teachers, and continues to be so in our college of edu- cation. No special training for music teachers is provided here. (Jc) The department of education is a department of the graduate school of arts, literature, and science of the university, and is administered as any other graduate department is. The same criterion for advanced degrees prevails, namely, ability to use scientific methods in the investigation of specialized problems. As stated above, the emphasis is placed on experimental, statistical, and historical technique. The general requirements for the bachelor’s degree in the college of education are the same as in the college of arts, literature, and science. In this connection attention is called to the well-known University of Chicago entrance and junior college requirements which were adopted a. few years ago. Members of the faculty PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 517 of the college of education were among the most influential of the members of the general curriculum committee of the university which formulated these require- ments. In the senior college each student must pursue a major and minor subject known here as long and short sequences. If the student graduates in the college of education, one of these sequences must be taken in the department of education, and includes practice teaching. This makes from one-sixth to one-fourth of his work for the degree of a distinctly professional character. College of Teachers, University of Cincinnati. — Through an inter- esting series of developments from voluntary teacher associations, through city training and normal training stages, on to departmental work in the city university, the work for teacher training in Cincin- nati has this year culminated in the thoroughgoing, far-sighted organi- zation of the college for teachers of the University of Cincinnati. The city board of education pays the salary of the faculty of this teachers’ college, and the university provides a full four-year curricu- lum of well-articulated professional work leading to the degree of B. S. in Education. This full curriculum worked out by Dean Burris and his collaborators seems to set a desirable standard for institutions on similar foundations, and has many features which suggest a basis for mutual development and harmonization of uni- versity and public school interests which in some way any type of higher educational institution may well adopt. Further develop- ments toward differentiated curriculums for elementary and secondary school teachers are in progress. University of Pennsylvania. — The University of Pennsylvania within the year has received a legislative appropriation of $40,000 with which to move systematically toward a complete scheme of teacher training. Two new full professorships were at once created, one in history of education and one in educational administration, and appointments have been made. It is confidently expected that the State’s interest in the better equipment of its teachers thus indicated will be even more marked from year to year. Pennsylvania is a State which can ill afford to delay work of this sort. School of Education, University of Pittsburgh. — Another one of these “ special universities” deserving special mention is the University of Pittsburgh, with its progressive and fully equipped school of educa- tion. The plan for furnishing practice teaching is notable. The report of this work reads: Perhaps the most characteristic thing we are doing is the practice teaching. You will note from our literature that we require daily schoolroom experience throughout our junior and senior years, which counts for one-fourth of the required work of those two years. I feel that our scheme of cooperation, which secures the highest type of practice teaching for us and a large amount of free instruction for the secondary and other schools of the community, is the best kind of practice teaching I have ever seen. We try to go beyond the mere perfunctory requirements of so many hours’ teaching. The teaching is actually of a very high grade. The supervision is first- class and as frequent and as constant as necessary, and in most cases our practice 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. teachers rank close to the best regular teachers of the faculty of the schools in which they teach. This particular plan, developed at Pittsburgh, lias been adopted at F airmount College, Kansas, and elsewhere. The school of education of Pittsburgh also announces the estab- lishment of a new type of high-grade school for little children, called “The school of childhood/’ which is to embody the approved features of the kindergarten, the playground, and the Montessori school. The program is based upon four fundamental instinctive activities, which reach out readily into the subject matter of the elementary school ; (1 ) talking or communicating ; informal conversations are held which lead to stories selected from the best literature, by means of which good habits of speech, are acquired unconsciously; (2) nurtur- ing; indoor and outdoor gardening, birds, an aquarium, and some pets are provided and house plays with dolls are emphasized; (3) constructing ; all modern play materials of educational value are furnished; (4) ex/ploring; carefully planned excursions are made, exploring impulses are met in change and growth in play materials, and the development of the child’s body is noted by himself. Tests and measurements of the child’s physical development are taken. The school is directed by a play leader and a number of trained helpers. There is, it should be noted, an older but equally unique model elementary and kindergarten school well established at the University of Missouri. New developments might be noted and proposals of interest de- scribed at Cornell, Leland Stanford, and other universities of this class. Those noted above are perhaps the most striking and significant. Division of education, Harvard University. — Harvard University reports notable additions to its staff of professors of education, a general increase in number of courses, and a particularly notable expansion of its graduate work; four new graduate seminary courses were added during the year. Since 1912 the division of education and the city of Newton have joined in a unique and important educational enterprise — the maintenance of a fellowship for research in education, the incumbent to be a member of the staff both -at Newton and at Harvard, and to organize and conduct investigations and experiments in the Newton schools and with the active cooperation of the Newton teachers. This fellowship is the Joseph Lee Fellowship for Research in Education. As a result of these advances the division has undertaken several new enterprises ef general educational interest. The first volume of Harvard Studies in Education is to- be published by the Harvard University Press in the course of the year; it will be a study of the social and professional organization of the teachers of Germany. The Harvard-Newton Bulletins are planned as a series to embody the results of the work done in Newton under the Joseph Lee fellowship. The division has made good progress toward the foundation of a school under its own control and administration, as a model institution. L is also engaged, at the invitation of another department of PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 519 the university, in a study in the field ol college education which offers important new opportunities for valuable research. The general opportunity to undertake research and to be of service to the schools and to educational organizations is now, of course, much broader than before. This progress suggests the hope that the division of education at Harvard University may eventually achieve the goal toward which all university departments of education should strive — the establish- ment of the study of education and the training of college-bred teachers in an independent graduate school. III. STATE UNIVERSITIES. Twenty-four State universities responded to our questionnaire, in most cases at some length. It is significant that eight of these report affirmatively on the first and critically important question regarding the administrative status of schools of education in univer- sities. This affirmative response indicates the desire rather than the fact hi some at least of the cases. As a matter of fact, these organi- zations of schools of education are in many cases paper organizations, and not in a genuine way coordinate with other professional schools of the university. Apparently there is not one of them in which the director or dean has administrative authority over the itemized budget of instructional costs for all the instructional and other work of the students registered. A dean or director of a school of educa- tion is presumably responsible for the instruction in his school. Responsibility for instruction and professional interests generally would seem to demand a corresponding authority in budget matters such as engineering schools and medical schools enjoy. Schools of education in most State universities have not, however, reached this stage of differentiation. They “ borrow” from the college of liberal arts or from other professional schools what service they can get. With these pseudoprofessional courses and their own education courses, they patch up a paper curriculum. Teachers’ courses in special branches, as the fifth annual report of the Carnegie Foundation showed, are in most cases merely a relisting of ordinary courses as “courses for the training of teachers” (p. 75). Teachers’ courses “borrowed” in this way are apt to be meaningless and functionless. Dean Russell, of Teachers College, who admits what a separate budget has meant for Teachers College, says that he does not look for any striking and vigorous development of schools of education in State universities until this elemental principle of university administration is observed. There are evidences that progress along this line is imminent. It is significant that 8 of our 24 universities reported “steps looking toward” this important readjustment of administrative responsibility and authority, and one other reports '‘proposed steps pending.” 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. Cooperation with other college departments . — The majority reporting on the question upon this subject state instances of effective coopera- tion of schools of education with other professional schools or semi- independent technological divisions of university work. There are illustrations of this cooperation with all these departments cited in the question, and, in addition, with such departments as home economics, engineering, and fine arts. The most frequent examples of cooperation are with agricultural departments. At the University of Missouri the medical school and the school *of education work very closely together in a course in preventive medi- cine. In the dissemination of this information the school of educa- tion is of the greatest importance. Activities under the control of departments of education. — The signifi- cant fact is that 21 of 24 universities report teachers’ courses. This means that in some way the academic departments are professionally cooperating with schools or departments of education in furnishing to intending teachers the special methods and peculiar technique, as well as more fundamental educational principles and distinctive values of the actual subjects the students will teach when they take positions in the schools. The proper coordination of the university forces contributing to teaching efficiency is the curriculum problem for the immediate future in university administration. At present the solutions are about as numerous as the institutions concerned. The following note with reference to some characterization and standardization of teachers’ courses when properly organized into a professional curriculum for teachers is taken from a bulletin of the University of Kansas school of education: The items enumerated below are suggestive of the kinds of topics with which the following 19 (Kansas University) teachers’ courses in special branches are concerned: 1. A simple statement of the broader aspects of the distinctive field of education, indicating the special adjustment of the moral, aesthetic, social, and practical disci- plines to be reasonably expected from a study of the subject. 2. A brief sketch of the actual history of the subject in the school curriculum, show- ing the gradual change and improvements in the textbook presentations of the sub- ject, and the gradual improvements in other apparatus than textbooks, adopted for use in teaching it. 3. The gradual change in the conception of its educational value and the degree and nature of correlation with other subjects, particularly since the report of the Com- mittee of Ten. 4. The growing refinement of methods for presenting the subject. 5. The grade preparation to be presupposed at present, its present status, as seen from a comparison of typical high-school curriculums, together with the social, psy- chological, and practical obstacles to its attaining its ideal educational aim. 6. The necessary, and also the more ideal, preparation called for in the teacher, academic and professional. 7. References to books and special monographs dealing with the topics of the course, and a suggested list of books desirable for reference for high-school libraries. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 521 Data received in reply to the questions indicate that in many cases the recommendation of teachers for schools, the inspection of schools, and the direction of summer schools are administratively a division of the work of schools of education. In many other cases the work is done by the same men, although organized as a more general university function. A noteworthy fact is the large and rapidly increasing number of institutions whose schools of education maintain high-school conferences and summer schools or conduct education surveys. Of the 28 universities, 21 report graduate work. Psychological clinics and efficiency measurements . — The school of education of the University of North Dakota reports the establish- ment this year of a psychological clinic, which is to be conducted in connection with the psychological laboratory. As Table I indi- cates, a similar organization is under way at Chicago University. From the University of Oklahoma comes news of a new department of “ Measurement of Efficiency and Standardization/ ’ in charge of the school of education. Mr. S. A. Courtis is the “ consulting director.” The special practice teaching regulations reported in full from the University of Oregon are thus summarized: We consider the practice teaching most fundamental. This is supervised by the department of education, hut with the cooperation of the various departments. The actual cooperation of the various departments in their special subjects has been instru- mental in spreading the professional attitude through the faculty which has resulted very profitably and pleasantly to all concerned. Changes in reguirements for admission and for graduation . — The replies to our questionnaires disclose several instances of advance in both admission standards and requirements for certificates, and also one instance of lowered standards by the introduction of a short normal curriculum. Among the items which seem to indicate notable progress the fol- lowing may be quoted from the University of Tennessee: A State law in effect 1914 requires six half-year courses in education for university graduates to entitle them to first-grade professional high-school certificates. Hereto- fore the rule was that only two three-month courses in education must deal specifi- cally with secondary education. From Wyoming is reported the regulation of “25 semester hours in professional work in a four-year course for high-school teachers receiving the B. A. degree in education.” University of Virginia reports, “20 semester hours are required for the State certificate.” Graduate worlc in education . — The Universities of Illinois and Wis- consin report great increase in graduate study in education, and they cite special requirements, which have been worked out with care, specifying how the master’s degree in education may be won partly in absentia. The records from other universities show the same thing. It seems that the master’s degree in education is practical!} 7 a teach- 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. ing degree, sought and won in increasing numbers chiefly by those who have ambitions for special equipment for teaching and adminis- tration, but whose penchant is not for college positions ultimately, and whose professional advancement does not allow or call for the work usually demanded for the doctorate. The problem of properly providing for and adequately directing graduate work in education by study in summer schools only is acute and general. The demand can not be adequately met with present provisions. (See last table.) The University of Washington outlines a policy for this type of advanced graduate work in education during regular and summer sessions which raises the issue: The most unique feature is in the organization of the graduate work in the school of education. We have provided that candidates may plan for a three-year course beginning with the junior year and including a year of graduate work. For these three years of work they would receive the bachelor’s degree in either the college of liberal arts and sciences or the school of education, and the master’s degree in the school of education. The additional year of work required for the master’s degree is designedly not overspecialized. It is intended to be extensive rather than over- intensive. A rigid examination will be required in the work of education, in the academic major, and in the two academic minors, but no thesis will be required. It is not intended to make this year one of specialized, but rather of thorough scholarship in education, and in one academic major subject, supported by two academic minor sub j ects. The intention is to make our school, a genuine professional school on a par with the school of law in the university. Activity in building . — One of the most striking instances of progress in teacher training is the simultaneous erection of buildings for schools of education in seven southern universities, each building being pro- vided from the Peabody fund and each university recipient being under obligation to expend annually upon teacher training a minimum of $10,000. If the institutions carry out faithfully the intention of such beneficence, it is reasonable to expect that the type of teachers in southern high schools will be much better. This impetus to teacher training is also of critical significance to the whole future develop- ment of State universities in the South. These institutions as a rule have not seemed to respond to the call for definite professional service to the State at large as effectually as the western universities have. In this connection should be associated the development of the Peabody Teachers College, which has ambition to become for the South what the Teachers College and Chicago School of Education are to their respective sections of the country. Among the important building and equipment items are to be noted especially the model training high schools which are now under construction at the Universities of Wisconsin and Illinois. The one at Wisconsin is to be known as the Wisconsin High School and will be ready for occupancy by February, 1914. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 523 Other evidences of progress . — Another sign of progress is the enlarge- ment of museum, laboratory, and library equipments and appoint- ments. Typical of the items reported, but exceptional in its unique value, is the report that : The pedagogical' library of the late Prof. Aron has been purchased by the University of Illinois for its school of education. It comprises approximately seven thousand titles and is especially rich in documents relating to German education in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It contains also rare first editions of. the educational classics and a number of valuable manuscripts. There are certain other items of interest from these activities of State universities which should be briefly mentioned. The University of Kansas reports that: There is pending in tho University of Kansas a proposition to organize a course of two years for the training of directors of physical education, superposed on the college work. The proposition is to coordinate theoretical and practical work in such a way as to justify the conferring of the bachelor’s degree in education. There is strong likelihood of a similar development at the Univer- sity of Illinois. Some significant steps in this direction have been taken. With all these interesting items of progress and many more of the same sort, and with the eagerness to maintain a high professional integrity and high ideals on the part of the professors of education, one can not fail to realize, nevertheless, that State universities are not really responding adequately to the great opportunity open to them in this field. A natural academic conservatism is good to fight against, but the opposition to proper equipment and more particu- larly to separate organization for schools of education now appears to denote on the part of many men in college faculties a fear of conflict- ing interests rather than a conviction regarding the function of a State university. IV. THE SMALLER COLLEGES. The smaller colleges in the main administer conservatively the traditional liberal arts curriculum. It should be kept in mind, how- ever, that teacher-training is the only kind of professional work attempted, and that it is only on this basis, or pretext as the case may be, that such institutions maintain a status and secure official recognition by the State in whatever professional preparation of high-school teachers they may do. Many of these institutions report that the majority of their graduating classes are preparing for teach- ing. Many use their annexed academies as practice schools, and it will be noted in the table that many report the development of teach- ers' courses. Few are attempting* graduate work. Dartmouth Col- lege and Dickinson College, of those reporting, seem to be exceptions in minimizing their teacher-training functions. Dickinson reports 1 a single elective” course, and Dartmouth, with a large enrollment 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. and status as a semi-State institution, provides no department or separate instructor in the field of education as a college study. The table shows that the smaller colleges, as a rule, are responding to the modern demands for trained teachers in the same way as the universities. They utilize means of cooperating with other depart- ments, do extension work for teachers, hold school conferences, main- tain summer schools chiefly for teachers, and in a surprising number of instances conduct surveys. It will be noted that six such insti- tutions have effective affiliations with city or village public-school systems and are providing the practice and observational facilities so essential to effective work in educational departments. One other interesting teacher-training activity, which will be mentioned later with reference to normal schools also, is that of an institutional policy of attempting to “ follow up” the work of their alumni as teachers in the schools. In many cases these colleges must be “ standardized ” by the State board before their graduates may be “ certificated to teach” without examination. This relationship brings about, as the answers to question 6 indicate, the policy of conformity to State certificate laws in the teacher-training courses. The result is that the smaller colleges are important professional schools, and many of them could not other- wise exist. This official status as licensed teacher-training institu- tions suggests that the State board might be provided with the proper means to accomplish the much-needed standardization. In Kansas the State board of education has a commission at work on the prepa- ration ot a “manual of college standards,” a guide to the State college visitor in his work of inspecting the State’s higher educational insti- tutions whose teacher- training curriculums must be approved. Such State efforts might well perform local service for the standardizing bodies of wider scope, such as the North Central Association, the Association of American Universities, the National Association of State Universities, and the United States Bureau of Education. Two other items deserve special mention in the teacher-training work of these colleges. Rutgers College seems to be taking its teacher-training function seriously. A part of its report is as follows: Steps looking toward progress in teacher-training taken by the department of education of Rutgers College point along four general lines: 1. The reorganization of the courses in educational subjects into definitely planned curriculums of study designed for the professional training of secondary-school teachers. 2. The establishment of a summer school for teachers. During the summer of 1913 more than 300 New Jersey teachers already in service attended the school, taking professional subjects required by the State for teachers’ certificates. The school was supported by an appropriation of State money. It was organized as a part of a more comprehensive movement in the State in connection with four other summer schools for teachers. 3. The establishment of extension courses at the college and in other centers for the training of teachers already in active service in professional subjects of study. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 525 4. An attempt to cooperate with the work of the State department of public instruc- tion and with the work of the various educational institutions of the State. Swarthmore College reports the following high aim for educational work : The new department is being organized on comprehensive and scientific lines around the central aim of thorough preparation through intelligent participation and experi- mentation in school work. On every hand the aim will be to emphasize the modem empirical and scientific points of view in psychology and education. Therefore, experimental laboratory courses will be given in both these fields in order to make the work concrete, definite, and scientific In order to connect theory and practice and to formulate principles of education, all theoretical and historical courses will be paral- leled by work in school observation and practice teaching and in experimental edu- cation in contemporary school problems. It is perfectly clear from the foregoing that the small colleges, even the denominational ones, particularly in the West, are largely teacher- training institutions; several report that two-thirds of their seniors are looking forward to teaching. The small colleges in Kansas yearly train as many liigh-school teachers as the State university. In all States some of the small colleges are of low grade; some do merely normal-school work in their educational departments; and others are poorly equipped. All this emphasizes the force of the contention that their professional service should be recognized and standardized by the States, at least in respect to teacher- training. V. NORMAL SCHOOLS.. A letter was addressed to presidents of normal schools requesting accounts of recent progress. Sixty-nine very full and satisfactory replies came from 33 different States. One need only read these letters to be persuaded that the cause of teaching is an impelling one and will prosper. The replies contain a bewildering number of items of significance, difficult to classify, and practically impossible to put in tabular form, even the sort employed for data from colleges and universities. Normal schools still are, at least for the different States, individualistic. Perhaps the first impression one gets from these letters is that the normal school leaders are severally at work in entirely different sections of the field. There is a need, if not for some delimitation of function, certainly for some distinguishing stand- ard with which to classify institutions so different, yet bearing alike the name of “ normal school.” It is true, indeed, that some are chang- ing this name and with it the distinctive features of the traditional normal school. “ Normal university,” “ teachers’ college,” or “normal college” would seem to refer to an institution different from the insti- tution whose best descriptive name is still “normal school,” and quite as different in form and function from the school of education of a university or the department of education of a liberal arts college. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. Typical statements of jmogress . — The latter distinction is well made by the following important communication from Teachers’ College, Greely, Colo. The communication has valuable comments on devel- opments in teacher training; the item with reference to graduate work and a graduate degree is particularly significant. 1 . A course in biology and one in sociology has been put in the list of professional courses required of all students, these courses to be regarded as coordinate with psy- chology. We are entering upon the second year of this arrangement. The new courses in biology and sociology that have become required courses are not of the tra- ditional type, but represent selections and organization of subject matter in these fields with special reference, as has been the case with older courses in psychology, to the fact that the students are headed toward the profession of teaching. 2. The idea of the major has been introduced into our professional training. We are now entering the second year of this arrangement, except that there have long been special courses for the training of teachers of kindergarten, manual training, physical education, domestic science, music, and art. The idea of the major is now extended to all departments and is especially fostered in the work of the third and fourth years. Especially significant is the application of this idea of the major to the vocational problem as over against the subject-matter conception of the major. This you will notice especially in our plan for majors in primary teaching, intermediate grade teaching, grammar grade teaching, elementary school supervision, high-school supervision, public-school supervision. In all of these majors actual practice work is required over and above that which is common to all of our students, and this practice is in the specific field indicated by the major; also a higher standard of teaching ability is necessary to earn the designation of major, which carries with it the presumption of higher training in the professional activity indicated. 3. Marked emphasis is placed upon the scientific examination of children in the training school, the work being conducted by an expert trained under Dr. Witmer. Also courses have been developed in clinical psychology, psycho-clinical practice, and mental hygiene — the last so recently differentiated (though not new to our work) that it does not appear in our last catalogue. They will now be offered as distinct courses in the department of psychology. 4. Graduate work in professional lines was begun this year, such work to lead to the degree of master of arts in education and to conform with the usual or standard require- ments for the degree in other colleges. Emphasis "will be laid upon the organization of this graduate work for each candidate for the degree in terms of direct relationship to actual or prospective vocational needs. At the same time there are certain general requirements calculated to insure professional breadth in the fundamentals of biology, psychology, sociology, educational principles, and current educational problems. 5. A start has been made on the difficult problem of education "with reference to sex, some work having been done in the elementary school and in the high school that is more than that of occasional lectures. Methods are investigated of introducing the subject to prospective teachers of children. In the meantime considerable attention is given to the topic in its setting in other courses such as biology, psychology, soci- ology, physical education, hygiene, and education. 6. The museum idea in this institution, though not new, is worthy of special men- tion. We have an abundance of museum material, located where it is of most imme- diate use, i. e., mostly in connection with the classrooms of the various departments. There is here no museum as a curiosity, a place to be visited occasionally, generally under lock and key. A part of the museum idea is pictures and statuary everywhere that appropriate places can be found; also gardens, poultry yards, trees, flowers, shrubbery, beauty of environment. These are all to be used for educative purposes PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 527 and practice teachers are directed and encouraged to draw upon these museum resources. The report from the State Normal University, of Normal, 111., states in even more specific terms the somewhat extended field in which this particular institution proposes to work, notably, the prep- aration of secondary teachers. It is the purpose of this institution to train every sort of teacher needed in the public schools of Illinois from the kindergarten through the high school; lienee the State Normal University is organized in four schools: 1. The teachers’ college, to prepare high-school teachers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents. In this school four-year programs are provided, leading to the professional degree of bachelor of education. 2. The normal school, to prepare teachers for grades, elementary schools, rural schools, and village schools. It provides for high-school graduates programs two years in length for upper-grade teachers, for lower-grade teachers, for kindergarten-primary teachers, and for special teachers of agriculture, art and design, public -school music, manual training, household art, and household science. Programs from three to five years in length are provided for students who are not full high-school graduates. 3. The university high school to serve as a school of observation and training for students in the teachers’ college. 4. The elementary training school, consisting of the kindergarten and eight grades to serve as a model school for observation and training for students in the normal school and teachers’ college. We have also a country school department, in which a two-year program is provided for graduates of the eighth grade who are not less than 16 years of age when admitted. Also a one-year program for graduates of the tenth grade. Upon the completion of these courses these elementary students may obtain a third-grade teachers certificate in the public schools of Illinois, and upon the completion of three years’ additional work may receive the normal-school diploma. In the advancement of this program we have secured as a school of observation and training for the country school department the cooperation of the Walker School, 6 miles south on the trolley line. The school has the best building of all the one-room country schools in McLean County. We have placed in charge Miss Eula Atkinson, of Montgomery, Ala., formerly a teacher in the State Normal School at Jacksonville in that State. The teacher’s salary, $1,200, is paid in almost equal amounts by the local district and the State Normal University. In further development of our agricultural department we have secured an appro- priation of $22,000 for farm buildings and stock for the normal university farm of 95 acres. It is intended to demonstrate upon this farm good farm methods in raising farm crops and care of live stock. The legislature has also provided funds for the opening of a commercial department for the training of teachers of commercial branches for the high schools of Illinois. This school will be opened the summer of 1914. The report from the ‘‘Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti,” gives another account of progressive movements which in several items are similar to those reported above, notably the reorganization into differentiated curriculums of the programs of study offered, and the attempt systematically to deal with the critical and delicate prob- lem of the teaching of sex matters in the public schools. The item, however, which is of the greatest interest is the reference to the legis- 528 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. lative policy of permanent development covering a period of seven years. One feature of the normal college which is worthy of mention is the opportunity which it offers for specialization. About one-half of our 1,500 students are taking what is termed the general course. The other half are what are known as specializing students. Specializing courses give students an opportunity to follow to some extent their individual tastes and to prepare themselves for the special lines of work in a public-school system. The principal departments in which specializing is done are home economics, physical education, kindergarten, primary, music, drawing, manual training, commercial, and secondary education. Under secondary education, stu- dents may specialize in any line of high-school work. In addition to these specializing courses covering two or three years, the college offers courses leading to the B. Pd. , and the A. B. degrees. The former degree is given to those who have done three years of college work and the latter to those who com- plete the full college course. The State Normal College stands second to the Univer- sity of Michigan in the preparation of teachers for Michigan high schools. To meet more fully this increasing demand for high-school teachers, the college expects to place more emphasis on the training of secondary teachers. The college is also experimenting in extension work. Last year the teachers of a city of some thirty thousand requested extension lectures for which credit would be given at the college. A course of lectures was given through the year with very grat- ifying results. Requests from other cities have been received this fall, and it is likely that more than one course will be offered during the present year. During the past few years several movements looking to the welfare of the students have been inaugurated. Most worthy of mention are the creation of the office of dean of women, the employment of a college nurse, and the establishment of a college infir- mary. These have added greatly to the well-being of our students. In order that the opinion of the student body might have an influence in the admin- istration of the college, last year the faculty council authorized the establishment of a student council, to be composed of representatives from the college classes from the Young Men’s Christian Association and the Young Women’s Christian Association, elected by those organizations. The student council has already fully justified its creation. It may be of interest to know that for five years the normal college has offered a course in sex hygiene. This course has been elective for young women, and it is worthy of note that over 800 have elected the course. In almost every class there has been an attendance beyond the reasonable -limit of the classroom, and in many instances more students applied for the course than could be taken care of. Like nearly every educational institution, the physical equipment of the normal college has never been equal to the demands placed upon it. Friends of the institu- tion are greatly cheered by the fact that the Michigan Legislature of 1913 voted an appropriation of $100,009 for seven consecutive years for buildings and grounds. Two accounts of the characteristic developments which may be expected in the typical normal school as distinguished from the exceptional institutions quoted above are given below. The first comes from the Winthrop State Normal and Industrial College of South Carolina. For general training: We have increased the time given to practice teaching fully fivefold. We have organized and conducted under expert supervision a mixed school such as will be found in sparsely settled communities which do not afford enough pupils to PEOGEESS OF TEACHEE TEAINING. 529 justify employment of more than one teacher, or to make it possible to form every grade every year. We have offered courses of study to prepare teachers for community work in rural communities. Teachers taking these courses are fully prepared to take charge of classes in elementary agriculture, in domestic science, and in domestic arts. We offer courses preparing teachers for the high-school business courses, such as stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping. We have organized and conducted with full expert teaching force a school for train- ing in all needs in a country home. Every detail of work needed in the home is made part of the school curriculum. This school is carried on as an independent organiza- tion, not an annex to some other line of work. We are offering to those teachers of the State who have not had an opportunity to secure college training a one-year teachers’ course. Anyone holding a valid county teachers’ certificate is entitled to take this course. Those completing it will receive from the State board of education a certificate good for five years. The course is so arranged that teachers desiring to take it can attend for one term of 12 weeks, if they so desire. This enables them to come without interfering with their work as teachers. The following letter, similar to the above, is likewise representative of the great majority of reports of normal-school progress in teacher- training. These items are from the Millersville State Normal School, of Pennsylvania: First. In classifying students who enter this normal school from high schools, we hold strictly and rigidly to the rule that graduates of recognized third-class high schools may enter the freshman year without examination; that graduates of second-class high schools may enter the sophomore year; and that graduates of first-class high schools may enter the junior year on the same condition. Second. Correlating the high-school course with the normal-school course. Every graduate of a high school of recognized standing is given an application blank to be filled by the high-school principal. Whenever the work done in the high school is equivalent in quantity and quality, as judged by this record, to the academic require- ment in the normal course, full credit is given. In this way graduates of first-class high schools may complete the normal course in two years, graduates of second-class schools in three years, etc. Third. The maximum of 18 or 18f hours of work per week is set by the authority of this school whenever such work requires out-of-class study and preparation. The stu- dent may add some handwork. Fourth. A special course in rural-school methods and rural-school problems will be given for the first time during the school year 1913-14. Fifth. Equipment. For the teaching of the sciences three complete laboratories are ready for use, which were remodeled and equipped during the summer of 1913. Heretofore there was but one laboratory. We designate them the biology laboratory, the chemical laboratory, and the physical laboratory. Sixth. The manual-training department has been modified to include domestic art. The ladies of the school spend at least two-thirds of the school year in manual work, half of which is devoted to handwork for the grades under the head of cardboard con- struction, raffia, etc. ; the other half is given to making garments. Seventh. Financial. For the first time in the history of the school a definite budget system has been adopted by the board of trustees. Eighth. Summer school. For the fir3t time in the history of this normal school a regular summer school was conducted, beginning June 30 and continuing six weeks. Ninety-seven students were registered. The course offered included many of the regular course subjects, as well as several additional branches to suit the varying 17726°— ed ] 91 3 — vol 1 34 530 EDUCATION REPOET, 1913. demands of the students. The school has been particularly helpful to teachers, pro- spective teachers, and students. It has been the means of removing conditions im- posed on many students who are ready to enter the studies of the senior year. After the close of the summer school the board of trustees voted to continue this policy. Coordination in theory and 'practice . — Nine normal schools report an increase in the students’ hours required to be devoted to practice teaching. Fourteen schools report plans just adopted whereby there may be closer affiliation and cooperation between the regular staff of teachers and the practice work. These reports indicate a shifting of emphasis from the scholastic development of pedagogical theory and educational science to the development of that educational theory and science which the instructor can illustrate in the model school. The State Normal School, of Wayne, Nebr., expresses the principle thus: In this institution we are following the plan of having one man as head of the training department, which includes the theoretical as well as the practical phases. All critic or training teachers are under his supervision, and all instruction along the lines of psychology, child study, and history of education is given or directed by him. This brings a unity which can not be had when the theory and practice are not controlled by the same individual. It avoids the embarrassing situation of occa- sionally having the theory and practice at cross purposes. I feel that it is a very decided improvement over the old plan of having a superintendent of practice and two or three heads of the theory department . The principle seems to be so important that an additional citation may be added from the Southwestern State Normal School, Okla- homa: I question the value of the heavy courses in the history and philosophy of educa- tion, as well as the value of much of the alleged pedagogy carried in the curricula of many normal schools. The normal schools need to slough those courses which merely serve the purposes of pedantry. They need to descend to their problem and meet their students on the level of their needs. They need to give the students something which can be used in teaching. Furthermore, I seriously question whether a majority of those teachers who carry the academic work of the normal schools are doing their work in accordance with sound pedagogy. As a corrective for these conditions we have devised in the Oklahoma State normal schools a series of courses known as pedagogy by demonstration. It consists of lessons conducted with classes of chil- dren in the presence of the class in pedagogy by the heads of departments. Some of these gentlemen complain that they are compelled to do a great deal of extra work. Nevertheless, I am pleased to report that this work seems to be the making of some of them, as well as of great practical value to the students. Affiliation with rural schools . — Rural practice and demonstra- tion schools, or schemes for affiliation with near-by farms, seem to be indispensable accessories to a certain type of normal schools. Seven normal schools report this equipment added within the year; one reports a u vocational model school,” and one a reorganized model six-year elementary and three-year intermediate school. The following communication from Iowa State Teachers College suggests the educational significance of these ventures: PROGRESS OE TEACHER TRAINING. 531 The most recent thing that we have done at this institution is to. start the plan of organizing demonstration country schools. One of these schools is in an independent district, and we exercise supervision over the school and pay part of the salary of the teacher. This is used for observation and to demonstrate what is possible in country school work. We expect to secure the cooperation of a whole township near the campus of the teachers’ college in which to make this sort of- development of country school education. It is not our intention to reorganize these schools by consolidation or any other method, but by putting in them well-qualified teachers and giving them expert supervision to prove that there is no better school than a well-managed country school. We have also organized rural school training classes, called normal courses of county certificate standard. Special attention is given to this class of students by a com- mittee of the faculty under the direct management of the professor of rural education. We are also beginning a course of study under the title, vocational normal course. Furthermore, we are organizing centers in which members of the faculty meet the teachers of any township or community and give from two to three lessons each week, such work being done on Saturdays. These centers are to be maintained specially for the benefit of country school teachers, but centers for city school teachers also will be organized. It is not expected that anything more than expenses will be charged these centers for such work. The State Normal and Training School, of Cortland, N. Y., has equally unique and original features: During the past two years this school has developed a curriculum for training teachers of agriculture in secondary schools. The curriculum, which covers a period of two years, requires college preparation for admission, and only young men who have had farm experience are admitted to the course. General work in the theory of agriculture is given in addition to shopwork in wood and iron and in the theory and practice of teaching. The unique feature of the course is that all experimental work in the way of farm crops, fertilizers, dairying, etc., is carried on in accordance with our specifications and for our benefit by neighboring farmers in return for advice and help given them by teachers of the school. The students in this course are in demand as speakers before neighboring granges, and the experience that they get in mixing with prac- tical farmers has proved to be of the greatest service to them in their subsequent experience as teachers, for it is plain that if secondary courses in agriculture are to succeed the teacher must have the support of his farmer neighbors as well as of their sons. All experiments are continued during vacations, and results are checked by a member of the faculty who is employed for 12 months in the year. Graduates go out with courses of study definitely outlined by topics. They know what they should teach to high-school students, what equipment should be purchased with a given amount of money for the installation of courses in agriculture, and where this equipment may be secured to the best advantage. The diploma is a life license to teach agriculture in the schools of the State of New York. In addition to these vigorous forward movements for increasing the efficiency of rural education, it is significant to note that 16 nor- mal schools report recently effected affiliations with near-by school systems to the end that the latter may be used for practice and observation. Eight of these affiliations are with city school systems, and eight are with rural schools; two other normal schools are acquiring school farms and two are systematically utilizing near-by 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. farms for purposes of training teachers for rural schools, a plan strongly advocated by efficient workers in the field of agricultural education, notably Dean Eugene Davenport, of the University of Illinois. The following from the Chico State Normal School, California, suggests a method of affiliations with rural schools: During the past year we have introduced, as a part of the actual experience in our training school, a two weeks’ apprenticeship in the rural schools of this vicinity for every student-teacher. Two student-teachers are assigned to each rural school in the morning and two in the afternoon. They do whatever work is assigned to them by the rural-school teachers, who are in turn directed by our directors of extension work. This relationship has proved of value to the rural schools, and it has supplied to our students the necessary familiarity with the important aspects of rural-school administration, and some experience in dealing with them. We think it is the most valuable two weeks that they spend in the normal school, and we feel that it, or some- thing like it, is a necessary element in the training of any teacher who proposes to take up rural-school work. In addition to the above items specifying progress in teacher training for rural schools, 15 normal-school presid ants and 2 State superintendents of public instruction report recently instituted plans for special courses of study and differentiated currieulums for improving the quality of rural education. Affiliations with city public schools . — A paragraph from the “plan of affiliation” adopted by the Fresno (Cal.) State Normal School will illustrate the city school affiliation plan: By special arrangements with the Fresno city board of education, our practice teaching is done in the public schools. A number of the city teachers are selected for their special fitness, and to each are assigned two cadet-teachers for an hour on every school day. These city teachers are paid from the normal funds .$120 each per annum in addition to their regular salaries. The head of the training department in charge of the upper grade work and his assistant in charge of primary work have general supervision over the training of teachers. Each day they meet the student- teachers in their respective departments, and give an hour’s instruction in theory and methods. They also hold individual conferences with students as occasion uuggests. Each student is required to take the theory and practice for both primary and grammar grades. Several ungraded classes are available for special training in handling schools comprising several grades. In this scheme all theory and methods are given directly in connection with prac- tice teaching, each subject being specially considered at the time the student-teacher is handling it in the classroom. Schools i or observation . — A pedagogical issue is raised by 13 differ- ent normal-school presidents which seems to merit serious thought and well-considered plans for scientific testing. These men write of a change in policy looking toward providing for intending teach- ers better and more distinctively observational or clinical facilities as preferable to mere practice facilities. The report from the Mil- waukee State Normal School represents and well expresses the com- mon sentiment of the 13 wdio comment upon this point: PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 533 The particular step which the Milwaukee Normal School has taken this year has been to change its practice school to a model school. Hereafter, instead of using the school as a place for the normal-school students to do practice teaching, the stu- dents will visit the school by regular assignment, for the purpose of observing methods of instruction and management. Substantially all the work of the school will be done by skilled teachers employed on account of their supposed ability to conduct the daily exercises of a classroom in a manner worthy of the study of young people who are in training for the work of teaching. In certain minor matters assistance will perhaps be rendered to the model teachers by students assigned to them for that pur- pose, and under the direction of the model teacher the students will be permitted to do such work as, in the teacher’s judgment, can safely be intrusted to them. It is planned to show in this department, also, a model curriculum in arrangement of hours and in selection and arrangement of subject matter. Improvements in many directions. — Thirteen replies announce new equipment in buildings, practice schools, dormitories, or other con- siderable addition to the physical plant. Two schools report new kindergarten features with Montessori principles; four describe ad- ditional preparation offered for prospective high-school teachers. Many announce steps taken into the field of training the so-called ‘'special teachers”; 12 have added equipments and arranged special curriculums, not merely additional courses, for domestic science teaching, 16 for teaching of agriculture, 9 for drawing and manual training, 6 for music, 3 for special physical training, 4 for teaching commercial subjects, 3 for teaching the strictly industrial or the so- called “prevocational” work of upper grades, and 3 for teaching “ normal training” work. Two institutions report successful courses for teachers in the problems of sex, and one reports a curriculum and facilities for preparing prospective teachers to deal with exceptional children. Several other institutions announce “ courses” in this general field, though not “curriculums.” This impressive total of institutions reporting some thoroughgoing progress in curriculum- thinking and curriculum-making is one of the most striking advances noted in the whole survey. One might properly add here courses for training in library work, graduate or research work, and corre- spondence courses, all decided extensions of the traditional pro- gramme. There are eight accounts of fundamental changes in policy with reference to prescription and election of courses, and one other school reports the intention of “doing away with electives altogether.” Several begin to doubt the pedagogical soundness of the present type of course in the history of education and in experimental psychology, and are introducing other fundamental courses of sociological, eco- nomic, and ethical character. Many speak in favor of tho plan adopted in Minnesota and Wisconsin for normal schools to supple- ment other State institutions of higher learning by offering two years of college work. The experiment seems to be “working well and not interfering,” according to reports. 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. Eight schools report the inauguration of extension teaching with the policy of establishing at strategic points what are termed “ teach- ing centers.” The following account of the work from the Macomb (111.) Normal School adequately presents the essential elements in this work, and is, moreover, descriptive of probably the most notable instance of extension teaching, although striking instances are numerous : I consider extension work the greatest addition which we have made to our school work. Two years ago we made the experiment of sending one member of our faculty to one of our largest towns in this section, Quincy, to give regular normal school courses to the teachers in the public schools there. About 60 enrolled for this work, and carried two subjects, principles of teaching and psychology. The instructor met the class about 20 times during the year. The work was carefully supervised, and the results were extremely good. The interest was such that many of these teachers were led to enroll in the summer school and they have continued their work since; many have completed our normal school course. The results of this undertaking were entirely satisfactory, and last year arrangements were made to carry on the work on a very much larger scale. A regular member of our faculty was employed as ex- tension director, to give all of his time to such work. Arrangements were made to have classes organized in 10 different centers within the district from which our school draws its support. Outlines were carefully prepared in psychology, principles of teaching, history of education, sociology, and geography. These outlines were placed in the hands of the teachers who enrolled for the work, textbook assignments were made, and supplementary readings were arranged. The main reference work was earned on through the secondary text which treated similar subjects to those treated in the primary text. Each one of the classes was met from 16 to 20 times during the year, beginning in September and closing the last of May or the first of June. At the end of the courses examinations were given. Those teachers who had done satisfactory work and passed satisfactory examinations -were given full normal school credit for each course carried. No teacher was expected to carry more than two such courses; many of them but one. The school officials were enthusiastic about the work and have written many letters complimentary to the undertaking. Another common phase of this extension work is what might be called rural social work. The four institutions reporting it employ some one to spend his entire time in rural institute activities. Certain educational “novelties” in the way of curriculum offerings should be noted. In new curriculums, or in “short courses,” are offered in some schools definite instruction in moral training, special per- sonal hygiene for teachers, social hygiene, use of Montessori material, the various standardized tests for spelling, arithmetic, handwriting, and English composition, and instruction in dancing and in plays and games, as rowing, tennis, walking, and field games, and one attempt at “outdoor school work in a screened pergola.” Educa- tional museums are reported, and several attempts at demonstrations of reorganizations of the grades and of the methods and devices for promotion of pupils are described. The following letter from the Indiana State Normal School shows the immediate response to important State legislation which normal schools make: PROGRESS OP TEACHER TRAINING. 535 A law enacted by our general assembly of 1913, known as “The Vocational Educa- tion Law,” requires the teaching hereafter of industrial and vocational subjects in all the grade and high schools of the State. The work will include vocational subjects, industrial education, domestic science and arts. The general assembly increased very materially the tax for the support of the Indiana State Normal School — the State’s institution for the training of public-school teachers. This increased income will enable the institution to make early provision for training teachers for the new lines of work. We are already planning a large building to be used exclusively for the training of such teachers. Work will begin on this building within a few months, and it is hoped to push it to completion so that it may be ready for use early in the school year of 1914-15. There is at present in Indiana a very great demand for teach- ers of these subjects, and it is impossible to supply this demand. The changes which the new law will bring about in the school system of Indiana are the most important and far-reaching that the State has seen for many years. It will require several years for these new subjects to be well correlated with the old academic subjects and to reduce everything to smooth working order, but we are confident that, by careful study and experiment, the two kinds of work may be carried on together and be made to reinforce and strengthen each other. There are some chafings at legal restraint. A normal school in Pennsylvania for example has not the freedom to make essential changes without the consent of the majority of the 12 other State normal schools. A recent law in Vermont, by allowing recognition to training courses in high schools equal to that accorded to the two normal schools, apparently tends to lower the standard for teaching in that State. The Kansas Legislature recently repealed a law which pro- vided that by 1917 no one not at least a graduate of the normal training course of an approved high school should be allowed to teach in any school of the State. These two laws mark about the only steps noted in this survey which seem to be retrogressive. In con- trast with them is the following note of progress in Maine: The legislature of the State of Maine at its biennial meeting, January, 1913, passed the following law: “No person shall be employed to teach in any school under the supervision and control of any school board of any city, town, or plantation of this city, after September 1 , 1914, who does not hold a (State certificate as herein provided. No person unless he is 17 years of age and has completed a standard high-school or academy course shall be eligible for a certificate.” No school law ever passed in the State of Maine was so drastic as this law; no law ever passed in any State will ever do more for the rural schools than this law will do for the rural schools of Maine. Children without education may no longer teach (?) school in Maine. Indiana reports still higher standards. In Pennsylvania the school code of 1911 provided for the transfer under certain conditions of the property of the normal schools of the State from private ownership to public ownership and complete public control. From other States also come reports of similar change in administrative control, of the adoption of definite budget systems, and of methods of modern “scientific management” generally, not only in finance administra- tion, but also in systems of scholarship records, and of machinery 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. for maintaining announced entrance standards, transfer of credits, and “straight” graduation. On the whole the traditional normal school is tilling its own field, refining its courses, improving its equipment, raising its scholarship standard, and performing a genuine and enthusiastic service in training teachers for the elementary public schools. Many other scattering features of this branch of teacher-training might be cited, but the movements described in the foregoing para- graphs are representative. It should be noted that there are in- stances, as the case cited from New York, of tendencies to extend the school term to cover the whole year. Four additional schools report the beginning of a regular summer session of six or eight weeks, and others are planning to do so. The following paragraphs taken from a bulletin of the State Normal School at Spearfish well delimit the general field in which most of our institutions of this grade are working: The purpose of the State normal school is to train teachers for rural schools, village schools and principalships, city schools, the teaching of special subjects, the county superintendency, and for work in at least the smaller high schools. To do all of this it must be more than a high school, more than an industrial school, more than a commercial school, more than a training school. It must be all of these in one. It must offer the best instruction in all subjects taught in good schools. It must have admirable teachers and admirable equipment. It must do much and strong professional work, and the professional department must have as its laboratory a large and admirably conducted practice school. Organization of subject matter . — The discussion of progress in normal schools has thus far been concerned primarily with administrative items; it seems fitting to close it with an account by Dr. Charles A. McMurry, of a pedagogical policy which, with modifications, might aid college teaching and high-school work, as well as elementary schools, for it is almost if not quite as much needed by them. Dr. McMurry thus describes the work which he is conducting at the Northern Illinois State Normal School: During the past two years in our training school we have been concentrating our effort upon the subject matter of school studies, with a view, first, to selecting the leading central topics in each study and to arranging these so as to get a far simpler and better organized course of study. Second, to carefully working out a full treatment of these important topics as examples of organization and method. We have been trying in this way to put into the hands of young teachers at the beginning of their practice work, in each case, an adequately worked out treatment of whatever topic is to be handled. The problem we have set ourselves is far more difficult than might at first appear. The difficulties to be met may be briefly indicated : First. Our present course of study is too bulky. It is an over accumulation of new and old materials, often not well-organized. We have too many things to teach and all too crowded to get anything well taught. Second. Our textbooks do not furnish full and adequate treatment of topics. In fact they lay no claim to such fullness of concrete detail and illustration as most topics require. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 537 Third. In spite of a good liigh-school training and of a year’s preliminary study in the normal school, students who are entering upon practice teaching are by no means masters of the special topics which they are expected to teach. We may summarize the main features of our plan in the following series of points: 1. We are putting this large collection of knowledge-materials in our present course through a sifting-out process. The result is the selection of a few main topics or units of study, which form the basis for reorganizing and simplifying the course of study. 2. We have set ourselves the task of working out an adequate treatment of these important topics, showing how much concrete, descriptive material — pictures, maps, etc. — is needed in each case to give the topic a completely satisfactory presentation. These full treatments we have reduced to typewritten or printed form, for whatever has been worked out effectively by one teacher may be later used by other teachers who have these topics to handle. * * * 3. We have therefore set our mature and best- trained teachers to work upon these large topics or units of study, to collect and organize this material and to bring it into satisfactory form for use in the classroom. * * * 4. When a young student is called upon to teach one of these topics, we put this complete and well-organized material into his hands with a carefully developed outline or sequence of main points, with a series of further references to library books and pamphlets, and with a few suggestions as to the method of treatment. * * * 5. Our thought is that young students will learn the principles of organization better by dealing with rich, well organized material which thoughtful experienced teachers have already molded into shape, than with miscellaneous reference materials which the young teacher has neither the time nor ability to bring into shape. As soon as he has acquired some notion of what is meant by organization, he may be called upon to do some of this planning and organizing himself. 6. Our young teachers find that they must expend the full measure of time, labor, and ingenuity at their disposal, in mastering these already prepared and organized materials, and in getting the whole subject into good shape for successful classroom treatment. * * * 7. The result of our plan, however, is much better actual teaching of the children. In such a plan as this the children are not much sacrificed to the experimentation of young and ill-prepared teachers. The just criticism against much of our practice teaching can be, to a considerable extent, silenced by this kind of careful forethought in preparation. 8. The planning of daily lessons is much simplified by such a scheme of working out large and important units of study. As a usual thing we do not try to plan each day’s lesson as a unit. The entire topic, or unit of study, may require a half dozen or a dozen recitations to work it out completely. The teacher’s planning directs itself to the entire unit of study. * * * Before allowing a student to teach one of these large units of study we try to give him a test or examination on the topic to see how well-prepared he is before teaching it. Then after the student has taught the series of lessons to a class of children, we frequently give the children a test to see how well the work has been accomplished. We are not trying to lay out a fixed and unchangeable plan and method for hand- ling any particular topic. We hold ourselves free at all times to revise or change the treatment of any or all of our units of study. Every time a particular topic in taught the teacher is free to revise or improve it according to her judgment. Or it may be thrown aside if some better topic is found. In this way we hope to free ourselves from fixed formal and arbitrary routine. In classroom work, we feel that the teacher should remain free to operate according to her own convictions. For analysis of the strictly professional instruction in education offered in a representative number of normal schools see Table IV. 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. VI. STATE DEPARTMENTS OF EDUCATION. In requesting information from State superintendents of education, the following topics were mentioned to indicate the sort of information desired : 1. Extent to which the various colleges of the State that furnish teachers for the public schools are adopting higher standards, academic and professional, for intended teachers. 2. Specific advance steps noticeable in the grade of professional work done by the summer county institutes, and in the administration of these institutes. 3. Improvements in the reading circle as organized in your State ; such, for example, as different departments for high-school and grade teachers. 4. Some reasons for believing that high schools (or county normal schools) are or are not successful in their efforts at teacher-training. 5. Means provided for making teachers’ certificates based upon examination more nearly equivalent to certificates based upon academic and professional work done in the regular curriculums of normal schools or colleges. 6. Specific statutes adopted by your recent legislature providing for teacher- training in high schools. Full replies were received from 20 State departments. In regard to question 1 , practically all replies cite instances of raised standards of teaching. In Kansas the State board of education has recent legal au- thorization for standardizing teacher-training colleges; for over a year a committee from representatives of accredited colleges of the State has been at work preparing a manual of college standards. This docu- ment is expected to fix minimum standards of admission requirements, graduation requirements, training of professors, laboratory and library equipment, equipment of the department of education, etc., and maxi- mum teaching hours per week for instructors. Any State college which can not measure well up to such a standard shall forfeit the right to certify to the State board its graduates as qualified to teach in secondary schools. The reports from many of the small colleges indicate that they are conforming to the requirements of their respective States. This centralization of the standardizing function for teacher-training institutions of a State, though yet not very common, is in the end inevitable. It appears that 27 States now require some professional study of education with college graduation for certain teacher certifi- cates. Others, without legal provision practice this method. The average number of college-credit hours in the professional study of education is now about 1 5 in addition to systematic observation and practice teaching, and there are many reports of increase in this requirement. The number of States with no central system of teacher certifica- tion is less each year; Illinois adopted the central certificating plan in 1913, though with a low requirement. All this indicates the importance of establishing through the central agency of the State PROGRESS OP TEACHER TRAINING. 539 department of education minimum standards for all grades of teach- ing. Until recently the larger cities, those of the first class particu- larly, have not been willing to subject themselves to some minor inconveniences that follow uniform State certification. There are evidences now that ideas of local autonomy will not continue to pre- sent this hindrance to the elevation of the standards of teaching as a profession. Answers to question 2 indicate the importance which the State education departments place upon summer schools of all grades, from those at State universities to the county institutes. A lengthy discussion of the developments in this connection occurs in a later section of this survey. In general, the information received relating to reading circles is significant. More and more that work is centralized under the direction of the State superintendent. Here also one finds greatest interest, and in most cases greatest faith, in the plan of State subsidy of high schools undertaking teacher-training functions. Certificates upon examination . — It may be said that almost all State departments have the right to award certificates upon their own examinations in lieu of graduation after academic and professional study in a higher institution of higher grade. This is a necessary provision, but in its administration it has often resulted in lowered standards. Some of the replies evidence an appreciation of this fact and outline plans for more thoroughgoing tests. Teacher training in high schools . — The answers to the questions indicate the further spread of the movement to make of high schools an important factor in teacher training. That movement is of great significance in the immediate development of secondary education. The normal training now administered not merely as additional courses in the general high-school program, but more and more as full, differentiated, thoroughly worked out curriculums for segregated groups of young candidates for teaching. Although there are some who are strenuously opposed to the movement, State superintendents and normal school presidents generally approve the policy, and look upon it as the only device now available by which we may hope to raise the present low standard of teaching in the rural schools. There is cause for gratification when a State like Indiana can afford to add this professional work to a full four years’ academic high- school work. In most States it is a question of practical import how far the laws can go in requiring academic preparation and profes- sional training without making it impossible to man the country schools. Another bearing this whole matter has upon secondary education is the effect it is already having in adding momentum to the movement to extend the regular work of secondary schools to include two additional years. 540 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1913. GENERAL CONDITIONS IN CERTAIN STATES. Wisconsin . — Most State superintendents are concerned with the larger policies with regard to what might be called the State’s teaching assets. The following report from Wisconsin illustrates the attitude taken by most State superintendents, although that State is unique hi some of the provisions described: Standards of teaching. — In the State university there has been an effort to confine the teaching license to the subjects in which the teacher “majored.” The teachers are not recommended for other lines of work than those in which they have majored, although sometimes practical necessity requires that they teach other things. It is required in late years that an intending teacher shall have had a course in the pedagogy of the subject she is majoring in. There is also a definite requirement of two-fifths of professional work. The other colleges of the State whose work is recognized in the granting of State certificates must come up to the standard of the State university. The normal schools have been making slight advances in their requirements, but no notable advances. Summer normal schools. — In place of the one and two week institutes formerly held in each county, we now require all persons who have never taught to attend a profes- sional school for teachers and to obtain credits in four subjects: Methods in reading and language, methods in geography, methods in arithmetic, and methods in school man- agement. A professional school for teachers is defined as a county training school for teachers, a State normal school, or a school of equivalent rank, offering courses simi- lar to those offered in the State normal schools. By this law all teachers have had at least six weeks of professional training before commencing their work. In addition to the above requirements, county superintendents in all of the counties, by the aid of the State, hold two or more two-day institutes. In counties remote from the train- ing schools and normal schools, superintendents have held one-week institutes. Rural teachers. — The training and normal schools are doing more effective work, owing to the fact that men with more experience in rural conditions have been placed in charge of the professional work. There has been a tendency in the normal schools to offer instruction to the beginning teachers that was better fitted for grade work than for work in rural schools. The difficulty has been to engage instructors for the pro- fessional work in the professional schools who had the ability to teach and manage a one-room rural school. Each professional school is maintaining an ungraded, model department that as far as possible embodies the conditions that will confront teachers in the one-room rural school. This model department is taught by an experienced country school-teacher, and beginning teachers are required to observe the methods of this teacher. Greater attention is paid to the academic proficiency of the would-be teacher. Greater stress is put on the mastery of the subjects taught in the common schools by those who expect to teach. There is not so marked a tendency on the part of the teachers in the classes in methods to neglect country school conditions and emphasize graded school work. The serious problem in methods is to adapt them to the needs of the persons who are to teach in rural schools. This tendency of instructors to keep in mind city conditions is rapidly disappearing. Reading circles. — About two years ago a teachers’ reading circle was organized, but the county was made the unit of effort rather than the State. A committee will report to the meeting of the State teachers’ association next month on desirable changes in the organization and management of teachers’ reading circles in the State. This com- mittee will also report on the advisability of the formation of a State young people’s PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 541 reading circle. The teachers’ reading circle has not concerned itself much with the reading of other teachers than those in the rural schools. Normal courses in high schools. — The legislature of the State, session of 1913, made provision for establishing 27 departments in 27 different high schools for the training of teachers, and for paying the cost of the instructor from State funds. Such training departments can not be established in counties which maintain a county training school for teachers, of which there are 27. The law does not specify how much aid may be given, but the State superintendent has practically decided that no school shall receive more than $1,000 of this aid per year, and in no case more than the salary of the teacher who administers the course. School boards invariably give preference to persons that have completed the course of study offered at a county training school for teachers or at a high school maintaining a similar department. There is no disposition on the part of the county boards of supervisors to abandon county training schools. In fact, these schools are firmly established as part of the educational policy of the State, and the legislature at its last session made provision for the establishment of four more schools. State school inspectors invariably report that they are able to tell without previous knowledge whether or not a teacher in a rural school has had professional training at a high school or at a county training school. School boards are willing to pay a higher salary to teachers that have had this training. In late years the teachers writing for State certificates are expected to produce field and laboratory notebooks showing that they have done work in such subjects as biology and physics as given in the schools and colleges. This usually means the necessity of attending such institutions at least for a time. Connecticut . — The puzzling response from Connecticut is an excep- tion and leads to speculation as to what other thing a State depart- ment may do in this matter of influencing progress in teacher training. None of the questions touch the conditions in this State. At the risk of saying too much in response to your interrogatories I venture the following : 1. None of the colleges of the State furnish teachers for the public schools. 2. There are no summer county institutes. Usually we have a State teachers’ meeting covering four to six weeks. 3. The reading circle is not organized by the State. There is a voluntary reading circle very limited in its scope. 4. High schools do not undertake teacher training. 5. No means have been provided for making teachers’ certificates equivalent to any other certificates. 6. There are no statutes providing for teacher training in high schools. The foregoing does not mean that we fail in training teachers or that our schools are without trained teachers. We have no county organization. We have no State system of higher education. Massachusetts . — A sort of high-giade service of a technical peda- gogical character which a State department can, with great effective- ness and on a large scale, render the schools of an entire State is well typified in the work under the direction of Dr. David Sneddcn, State commissioner of education for Massachusetts. lie distributes to both elementary and high-school workers valuable pamphlets of discriminating advice concerning the principles of curriculum making, 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. the principles of choice of courses of study, and the essential factors of method in distinguishing functions and fundamentals in different courses and in the organization of teaching material, both as to curriculum and daily schedule making. This service stands, among the activities of State superintendents, on a plane with the work of Dr. McMurray in normal schools, which was discussed at some length on a previous page. Alaska . — The conditions in Alaska are exceptional and deserve full treatment, which is not practicable here. The following, however, will convey an idea of the state of affairs : In Alaska there have been no recent changes in the administration of the white schools of the Territory, and there have been few advanced steps. The white schools in Alaska are maintained by direct appropriation for that purpose by Congress, the governor of the Territory being ex officio superintendent of schools. The Territorial legislature has no control over educational affairs in Alaska. That body, however, has memorialized Congress asking that steps be taken to secure a systematic inspec- tion of the schools and the adoption of a uniform course of study in the schools of the Territory. Alaska has no colleges; but in the graded schools, which are confined to the incor- porated towns for the most part, higher standards, academic and professional, are being adopted for teachers employed in these schools. Teachers’ institutes are unknown in the Territory, partly because the distances between towns are so great as to make them practically impossible; for the same reason, there are no reading clubs except, perhaps, in local high schools and among grade teachers. The work done by most of the high schools of Alaska is without doubt thorough, for graduates are admitted to some of the State universities upon their certificates of graduation obtained from the high schools. It is also to be presumed that their efforts at teacher training are more or less successful. While the teachers in the schools of incorporated towns, I believe, are generally required to have certificates from normal schools or colleges before they are employed, in the white schools outside of the towns no examination for teachers’ certificates is required. Teachers, how- ever, must have certificates from some normal school or college, upon presentation of which a license to teach is issued by the ex officio superintendent of education for a period of two years. No statutes were enacted by the recent Territorial legislature providing for teacher training in the high schools for the reason set forth, namely, that the legislature has no control over the Territorial schools. IMPROVEMENT OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE. Not even a partial account of recent progress in teacher training should fail to mention the various policies and plans in operation for the improvement of those teachers already in service. Some of these progressive steps may be mentioned briefly. There are many instances of the provision for professional improve- ment of teachers through more systematic direction of their reading. Virginia, West Virginia, and other States wisely differentiate the requirements for reading for the different classes of teachers, elemen- tary and secondary. Rochester furnishes a well-planned teachers’ professional library and reading room* opened last September. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 543 Of more professional interest, perhaps, are the steps taken by pro- gressive cities in the provision for constructive classroom supervision which follows in a professional spirit some definite mutually under- stood standard of teaching. Illustrative of this is the recently pub- lished “ supervision card " issued by the New York bureau of municipal research, a copy of the Ohio survey card, containing items for re- cording factors in classroom efficiency. Nothing perhaps so defi- nitely marks genuine progress in training for teachers in service as the repeated indorsements and adoptions of such standards by school supervisors. The same may be said of definite graduated scales for the measurement of merit and for the promotion of teachers. Bejmnd these signs of the general development of a teacher's professional conscience, significant administrative recognition is accorded teachers' attempts at self-improvement. Many more school boards than ever before are providing “ visiting day" for teachers, a step toward other and better plans for teacher improvement. More cities are adopting the policy of paying teachers full salaries while attending teachers' meetings; others recognize summer-school attend- ance in their promotion policy; others make definite reimbursements for certain outlays for professional improvement; others encourage leaves of absence for travel or study and make provision for auto- matic reinstatement in position without the formality of reelection. The most advanced cities, Boston, Rochester, Cambridge, and others, make provisions for leaves of absence on salary for such purposes. Another improvement of very great significance is the voluntary organization of teachers of the whole country on a high professional, but avowedly protective basis. The National Council of Education and the National Education Association in its most recent meeting have heard the elaborate plans for guild organization. Several State teacher organizations have made moves in the same direction. VII. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Much should be said in any adequate report of progress in teacher training concerning the constructive, extensive, and in a sense gratuitous or at least self-protective work of preparation of teachers done by city systems of education. Many far-seeing city superin- tendents are adopting Supt. Maxwell's fundamental idea that every school, elementary and high, as well as every city training school, shall contribute in its proper way to the training of teachers. With this conception of the work, many cities are adopting plans by which teachers in training may do practice teaching under the guidance of critic teachers and may observe gifted teachers at their work, while rendering substitute service. Notable among such cities are New York, St. Paul, Rochester, Spokane, Omaha, New Orleans, Paterson, N. J., Louisville, Ky., Kansas City, Mo., Birmingham, Ala-., and 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. others. Almost every one of these cities presents some unique feature either of organization or of educational conviction of the pedagogical principles involved. The following are extracts from letters sent in response to an inquiry: Kansas City, Mo '. — A normal training department has recently been established to prepare teachers for elementary schools. Two years following graduation from the high school are required, the first year in theoretical work, the second as cadet or substitute teacher. During the past year no teachers have been employed who have not received pro- fessional training. We hope in the near future to advance the requirements both in theoretical and in practical work. This year we are placing our cadets under critic teachers at different places within the city. Two of these cadets are placed in charge of rooms having adjoining grades, and under the exclusive care of a critic teacher. They are required to do consecutive work in some specific grade, for at least 12 weeks, after which they are given an opportunity to do practice work in other grades. We feel that very efficient work is done in preparing our best high-school people for places in our elementary schools. Louisville , Ky . — When the graduates of the normal school first become teachers in the public schools they are given the title “substitute teacher” and are paid $45 per month for a half year. At the end of that time, if their work has been satisfactory, they are made “temporary appointees” and receive $50 per month for half a year. At the end of this year, if their work continues to be satisfactory, they are recom- mended as permanent teachers in the Louisville public schools at a salary of $55 per month. Thereafter, advancement depends upon the growth of the teacher and the ability of the board to give special increases in salary. The advantage of this plan is that the normal school graduates do not feel when they receive their diplomas that their preparation for the teaching profession is com- pleted. Now they understand that they must continue to grow in order to receive permanent appointments in the Louisville schools. It is during this first year as teachers that they should be most ready to accept criticism and profit by it. The attitude of these people is quite different from that of the normal school graduate who believes she is going to receive a permanent position the very moment she has com- pleted the two years’ work in a city normal school, and that it is not necessary for her to continue to study and improve her technique. This plan is also followed with the graduates of the Kentucky State normal schools and all persons employed to teach in the city schools. They must spend at least one year on probation before they are given permanent positions. This plan is not very different from the plan followed in other cities, the feature being that the teachers themselves realize that the first year must be a year of growth. After that the most efficient teachers are the ones who receive special increases from year to year. Paterson , N. J . — Training of teachers for city schools requires a different course of professional study and a type of practice school different from those for training teachers for rural schools, because conditions and problems are essentially different. This applies not merely to special method work, special studies, etc., but to the more general studies — psychology, school administration, history of education, etc., in which, while the two classes of teachers may follow the same general direction, the incidence of attention and application will be different. It is an established fact that elementary school teachers and secondary school teachers can not be trained in the same courses; the difference is no greater than that between rural and urban teachers. Yet, in the average normal school, little distinction is made. The city training school is a specialized institution, doing advanced professional work. The practice school is the laboratory of a normal school and should be thoroughly coordinated with it in administration. This is our aim. The starting point is in the PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 545 practice school for the study of psychology, management, class administration, edu- cational sociology, special method courses, general method, and even, in a way, history of education. Young students take hold of these studies with better under- standing of their inner meaning and value, if they approach them through the con- crete: Not only this, but professional study should continue through the course, so that, when practice begins, the student will give part time to observation and practice and part to professional study, with the new light thrown on it by actual participation in school work. During the first stage of professional study, students visit different grades for observation and model lessons. Later they take up actual teaching under supervision for from one-half to two-thirds of each day and make a general study of school conditions, school administration, school methods, and school children, and a special study of particular problems of class administration, par- ticular methods, and particular children. At the same time they continue their study of general professional subjects. This correlation between practice teaching and classroom study of great subjects strengthens and broadens each part of a pro- fessional course and helps the normal teacher to keep his class work in close touch with the everyday work of the schools and adapt it more fully to the practical needs of normal students. Too long have study and practice teaching been separated — thus tending toward the abstract. Our aim, very imperfectly realized at present, has, I believe, great promise in it. New Orleans , La . — There is need that practice teaching should be conducted under conditions very similar to those prevailing in the regular schoolroom. A plan should be provided by which the critic teachers and supervisors of practice teaching in the normal school could follow up the graduates of the normal school during their first and second years of teaching. This follow-up plan is needed, since it frequently hap- pens that the principal under whom the new teacher secures her first experience is not sympathetic toward normal-school training. This causes discouragement to the young teacher, and often results in her- abandoning some of the very best methods taught in the normal school. VIII. SUMMER SCHOOLS. The development of summer schools of all grades has been unparal- leled, and it seems to presage an era of all-the-year-round instruction in higher institutions. Whether or not this will be the outcome, it is certain that summer schools are undergoing radical changes in administration and methods, and are also fast becoming a sub- stantial factor in the educational scheme of the country. The larger universities, like Columbia and Chicago and some State institutions, find it practically impossible to provide teaching facili- ties for the great number of teacher-students who apply. In increas- ing numbers the normal schools are abandoning the Chautauqua idea and conducting regular summer sessions for teachers. In the same way the large district and the smaller county institutes are becoming summer schools and assuming that name, offering in some cases differentiated courses of a strictly professional character for the teacher groups attending. As an instance of this extension of function of the summer county institute may be cited the “summer school’ ’ of Frederick County, Md., under the direction of J. M. Gambrill, “the result of the desire of the public school teachers for 17726°— ed 1913— vol 1 35 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. real professional study.” The purpose of the school for August 18 to September 5, 1913, was thus stated: To displace the old-fashioned ‘‘inspirational” institute in which the whole body of teachers listen to lectures for several days, and to substitute in its stead real school, in which teachers are divided into groups according to the nature of their special problems, are supplied with books and material for serious study, and work coopera- tively with their instructors for a sufficient time to accomplish tangible and practical results. A reference library will be available. The classes will be conducted so as to give opportunity for questions and discussions, and in each course the subject will be treated with special reference to the course of study and particular problems of the respective groups. Each instructor will have conference periods during which the student-teachers may consult him individually. Sessions will be held in the mornings, five days in each week, from Monday to Friday. The afternoons will be left free for the reading assigned by the instructors and for the preparation of prescribed exercises. Work will in all cases begin promptly according to schedule, and attendance records will be kept by all instructors. The plan of organization provides the following groups: (1) Primary: Beginners, chiefly for those of very little or no experience; (2) primary (rural): For teachers of one-room and two-room schools; (3) primary (urban): For teachers in graded schools with three or more teachers; (4) rural (grades 4-7) : For teachers in one-room and two- room schools; (5) urban (grades 4-5); and (6) urban (grades 6-7): For teachers in graded schools with three or more teachers; (7) high school: For teachers of grades 8 - 11 . The extent to which normal schools do already, and wftl to a greater extent, figure in this summer work for teachers is suggested by the following report from the New York State department of education, at Albany: The principal advancement which has been made in this State in the requirements for teachers’ certificates has been in those set for teachers employed in the rural schools. The elementary certificate, the lowest grade issued for the rural schools, has been discontinued. It has also been announced that the academic certificate, one issued to a high-school graduate who has earned a regents’ academic diploma, will not be issued after August 1, 1915, unless the holder of such diploma completes a summer course in a State normal school. The requirement for admission to training- course classes has been advanced so that no student who has not completed at least two years of high-school work may be admitted to one of these classes. The majority of the members of these classes now are high-school graduates. The summer session at the Oneonta State Normal School was continued and it is intended to open all State normal institutions for summer courses. A special rural school course was established in the Brockport State Normal School. The course requires instruction for one year, and the completion of four years’ academic work is set for admission to such course. The number of training classes has been increased from 81 to 114, the maximum limit fixed in the law. These changes are important steps toward a require- ment which shall demand that all rural school teachers shall have completed a four years’ academic course and at least one year of professional training in a course espe- cially adapted for rural schools. A reading course has been established for rural teachers through the cooperation of district superintendents. The present requirement for all other elementary school teachers in this State is the completion of a four years’ academic course and a two years’ professional course in a State normal school or a city training school. The general proportions of summer-school work in universities is indicated in 'the following tables and statistical comparisons: Character of 'professional wort in education offered in summer schools of certain colleges and universities , 1913. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING. 547 Subjects for seminars. Principles of education (graduates). Medical university. 1. Educational psychology (grad- uates); 2. School supervision (grad- uates). Abnormal psychology (advanced students). School administration (graduates). Elementary education. Modern problems. Research (graduates). •UOlQ.'BOnpQ JBIOOS piiB ‘snoiSqoj ‘f'B.iopi •Apnjs oj avojj - l •iSoiouq^a - - ■aouBpinS jooqog - •spunorB -^B{d put? uor jearoaH -aouBpmS jBuoijBao a •STU8JSj£s jooqos aAi'j'BJ'cduioo - - CM •sjBAijsaj jooqog CM 00 -£2o2 -Bpad [Biuoniuadxg; rH CM - j iO •uoijbo -npa jo ^qdosopqd cm - - - •STU8J -qoad [BuoijBonpa - - - - kO •uoxjorujs -ut jo iioisiAjadng rH CM CO •uot jBonpa jBujsnpui - -- CM 1 1 cO [ 00 •uoipsanpa I'eany; CM - i-» CM •SuiqoBaj aaijOBij - - - - - - CM o •sjBupnag - CM CM - •H j - -H l o •auarS^q [ooqog - : - H CM 53 ■ASo qoqo^sd jBuuouqv *o CM •JU8UI82BUBUI ssbjo puB looqog - CM rH rH • • rH CO - CM • Tt< •uoijBJjstmuxpY - - rH CM — — ! 2 •uoij -Bonpajo saidiouuj TH _< rH ^ rH r-l x-. rH ! CM rH i rH - 00 •uoij -Bonpa ^JBpuooag ^ j - rH CM rH rH CM • rH rH i H H o CM •uoij -Bonpa AjBjnama{3[ - ^ » CM rH ^ CO • • 1 Tt« ! • rH LO i CM 00 CM • jfSojoqo -,£sd { BuoijBonpg; CM - • h£ i S : z L 11 ; = x c ! E II i t !l i§ ip 'C < (- > ■J ii IP i.5 II IJs 1 jji 1 11 |i ii d 1 ! | | c c 1 1 < i & > a 152 > It !> : £ ) a d £ : 1 > c 1 X ■■ t ) C ; sz U II ;p ix ) c ilz j i i 1 1 * c !x iC a E c X > d lx >C d C 1 ? ji i 1 ! i i a : p > a <6- Is t p C c ii >> 3.S 1| >.t ■ p c c i ! C v i c ' ? i ^ n }.z ■ r' 3 6 5 £ ii ! % * J -*-‘o Total (282) 1 Social education. 2 Moral and religious education. 3 Moral and social education. 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. Courses of instruction and number and professional training of instructors in education in certain summer schools. Summer schools in 1913. University of California University of Colorado Cornell University Dartmouth College University of Denver Harvard University University of Idaho University of Illinois Johns Hopkins University.. . University of Kansas University of Kentucky University of Michigan University of Minnesota University of Missouri University of Montana University of New Mexico. . . •New York University University of North Carolina University of North Dakota. Ohio University University of Oklahoma University of Pennsyl vania.. University of Tennessee University of U tah University of Vermont University of Virginia University of Washington . . . University of Wisconsin University of Wyoming Total Number of courses. Number of in- structors. Instructors with — Ph. D. A. M. A. B . Other degrees. No de- gree. 7 i 6 3 ! 1 6 5 1 2 / 1 LL. D. \ 1 Litt. D. \ 8 5 2 1 2 / 26 4 1 ( 1 LL. D. ^ 1 Pd. M. 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 B.S. J 5 3 1 1 1 | 6 5 2 1 1 M. S. 1 3 13 6 4 1 1 i 9 &8 6 2 1 1 2 1 1 S. B. 1 4 2 2 11 4 4 1 4 2 1 1 16 9 6 2 1 B.S. 14 8 1 1 6 6 5 ( I * * * * 6 7 8 * * II 12 13 ) 12 8 26 S 1 / 1 B.S. \ 1 Ph. B. } 1 7 4 1 1 / 2 3 1 1 9 7 3 1 2 8 5 2 1 1 1 B.S. 21 io 18 2 1 ii 15 8 11 3 3 1 3 3 / 1 B.S. \ 1 M. E. 1 D.Dd. } 12 1 13 8 4 1 1 1 1 17 14 1 3 / 1 M. Pd. \ 2 B.S. } H6 9 5 3 2 9 6 2 2 / 1 M. L. \ 1 B.L. 1 - - 18 5 1 3 1 282 161 55 31 17 19 24 I Instructors’ names not stated in faculty list. * Six allied courses. Round tables (supervision) one course for graduate work. s Six open for graduate credit; three by vote of graduate faculty. * Demonstration school of seven elementary grades. & Seven given graduate credit; in educational psychology and secondary education, extra work gives extra credits; 30 hours’ graduate credit can be secured during consecutive summer session residence. 6 No degree given. 7 Faculty list not given. 8 Special model school of 100 defective children; work in this school may count toward Pd. D. degree; students in certain courses are exempted from some of the examinations for New York City teachers. 8 Three or four of the courses offered give graduate credit if desired. Ten professors— 9 in school of observation; 8 lecturers; just 3 degrees given. II School hygiene courses taught by men from engineering department; special methods in general subjects. 12 Professor’s name not given in faculty list. 13 Allied courses in elocution; 3-year summer normal course. ii For requirements of teachers of higher grades, see pages 16-21 of summer catalogue; teaching Montessori method— name not on faculty list. PROGRESS OF TEACHER TRAINING, 549 Summer session enrollments at seven of the universities in the Middle West , 1907-1911. UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO. 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 Liberal arts and science: 929 1,120 1,161 1,181 1,261 Women 815 881 947 948 888 Total 1,744 2,001 2, 108 2,129 2, 149 Professional: Divinity — Men 198 211 240 226 193 W omen 23 9 27 21 29 Medicine— Men 93 132 135 131 85 W omen 9 16 8 12 9 Law — Men 122 120 143 139 157 Women 1 1 1 2 1 Education: Men 79 108 125 149 123 Women 423 587 606 636 616 Total 958 1,184 1,285 1,316 1,213 Total registered 2, 702 3,185 3, 393 3,445 3, 362 Duplicates 89 134 129 109 110 Net total 2, 613 3,051 3, 264 3,336 2, 252 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. Men... 333 477 456 463 Women 222 187 175 214 Total. 555 664 631 677 UNIVERSITY OF INDIANA. Total. 721 1,005 1,139 1,337 I 1,069 UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. Literature, science, and arts Department of engineering Medicine and surgery Law 500 335 99 121 558 321 80 119 678 316 108 149 694 340 104 131 645 284 121 153 Homeopathic 3 7 1 Dental surgery 12 Pharmacy 11 15 Total 1,070 1,085 1,224 1,237 1,194 UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI. Columbia: Men W omen Rollo School of Mines: Men Women 222 230 255 253 294 258 24 286 290 20 1 452 508 576 597 507 Total. 550 3 0112 05244013 T EDUCATION REPORT, 1913. Summer session enrollments at seven of the universities in the Middle West 1907- 1 91 1 — Continued . OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS. 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 Summer term 308 ' 26 11 80 453 32 18 592 36 14 639 22 738 28 Lake laboratory Civil engineering Shop work Total 425 503 642 661 766 UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. Literature and science: Graduates 167 368 37 3 73 267 470 51 18 209 313 550 67 15 174 367 627 47 13 138 14 51 6 Undergraduates and teachers Law Engineering: Graduates Undergraduates and artisans Agriculture: Graduates Undergraduates Hairy school 13 ll 9 Total 661 1,026 1, 128 1,263 1,537 Summer session, 1912. Institutions. Courses. Instructors. Undergraduate. Graduate and undergraduate. Graduate. Total. Professors. Associate pro- fessors. Assistant pro- fessors. Others. Total. Proportion of professorial rank. Chicago 203 132 98 333 66 35 29 109 239 Per cent. 54 Illinois 94 12 16 122 13 1 9 42 65 35 Indiana 144 6 5 155 24 14 8 48 94 49 Michigan 226 21 44 291 50 37 78 165 Missouri 59 56 10 125 lo 10 20 45 DO 56 Ohio 87 17 14 118 27 6 13 17 63 73 Wisconsin 154 77 16 249 19 21 28 66 134 51