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NOTICE. 
 
 The attention of those interested in the 
 cultivation of Coffee is particularly invited 
 to the Guanos manufactured by Messrs. J. 
 JENSEN & CO., Limited, of 109, Fenchurch 
 Street, London. Jensen’s Guanos are of 
 great purity and excellence, and their bene- 
 ficial effect upon Coffee has been proved. 
 For further information on this subject see 
 page 36. 
 
COFFEE : 
 
 ITS CULTUEE AND COMMEECE 
 
 IN ALL COUNTRIES. 
 
SIONITII iO U1SU3MH 
 
BRANCH OF COFFEA ARABIC A, WITH BERRIES AND FLOWERS. 
 
 [Frontispiec-' 
 
COFFEE 
 
 ITS CULTUEE AND COMMEECE 
 
 IN ALL COUNTRIES. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 C. Gr. WARNFORD LOCK, F.L.S. 
 
LlSc. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The fragrant berry of the Coffee shrub has become a 
 necessity of everyday life, and the healthy reaction against 
 intoxicating liquors will bring it increasingly into use as a 
 mildly stimulating beverage. Two facts tend to retard the 
 increase in coffee consumption in this country — one is the 
 licensed adulteration with a worthless, if not actually 
 injurious substitute, and the other is the prevalent ignor- 
 ance how to prepare an infusion for drinking. These we 
 may hope to see removed in course of time. But there is no 
 doubt coffee finds in tea a powerful rival. The latter is much 
 more easily made ready for the cup, and affords a cheaper 
 drink. Our Colonial and Indian coffee-planters are not, how- 
 ever, dependent on England alone for buyers; they grow 
 for the whole wide world. Competing in the open market 
 with Brazilian, Central American, and Native growths, 
 always at a great disadvantage in the matter of labour, 
 they mainly command a sale by the quality of their pro- 
 duce. This quality can only be maintained by constant 
 attention and study. Thus it happens that coffee-growing 
 
 ft 
 
ym 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 lias a most respectable literature of its own, which is being 
 constantly added to, and as often run out of print. Despite 
 the grumbling at the state of the coffee trade in some places, 
 new estates are being opened in others, and fresh capital is 
 being invested in this attractive branch of colonial plant- 
 ing. Hence the demand for a handy book dealing with 
 the industry, not simply in local colours, but embracing the 
 experience of cultivators in all parts of the world adapted 
 to the crop. The present little volume is intended to supply 
 that demand. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Plant 1 
 
 The Estate 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 6 
 
 Cultivation 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 21 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Diseases and Enemies 
 
 40 
 
 CHAPTER Y. 
 
 Preparation of the Berry 
 
 95 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Markets and Statistics Ill 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Local Details of Culture and Production 169 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Bibliography 257 
 
 Index 259 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 PLATE 
 
 
 Branch of Coffea arabica 
 
 
 I. 
 
 Planters* Tools 
 
 
 20 
 
 II. 
 
 Shed Booting 
 
 
 21 
 
 III. 
 
 J amaica Plantation 
 
 
 32 
 
 IV. 
 
 Ceylon Plantation 
 
 
 64 
 
 V. 
 
 Ceylon Plantation 
 
 
 80 
 
 VI. 
 
 Estate Buildings 
 
 
 96 
 
 VII. 
 
 Guardiola’s Coffee-drier 
 
 
 104 
 
 VIII. 
 
 Smout’s Combined Peeler and Polisher .. 
 
 
 107 
 
 IX. 
 
 Pulping House 
 
 
 144 
 
 X. 
 
 Interior of Pulping House 
 
 
 176 
 
 XI. 
 
 Drying Floor 
 
 V 
 
 208 
 
 FIGUKES IN TEXT. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Cattie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 13 
 
 2. Quintannie .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. 19 
 
 3. Mammotie .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 19 
 
 4. Alavangoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 
 
 5. Shading for Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 
 
 6. Double Pulper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 
 
 7. Cylinder of Pulper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 
 
 8. Cylinder Pulper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 
 
 9. Gearless Pulper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 
 
 10. Breast Pulper . . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. 100 
 
 11. Fermenting Tanks .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 102 
 
 12. Peeling and Polishing Machine .. .. .. .. .. 107 
 
 13. Smout’s Dry Cherry Huller . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 
 
 14. Separator .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 
 
 15. Improved Separator .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 108 
 
COFFEE 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PLANT. 
 
 Coffee is the fruit of a series of plants belonging to the 
 family Bubiacese. The genus known as Coffea is divided 
 by botanists into some sixty species, of which about 
 twenty-two are referred to America, fifteen to Africa, and 
 seven to Asia. There is abundant reason for supposing, 
 however, that the majority of these so-called species are 
 mere varieties, due to different conditions of soil, climate, 
 and cultivation. For all practical purposes, it will be 
 sufficient to distinguish two species only, Coffea Arabica 
 and C. Liberica ( Liberiana ). 
 
 The former is the well-known coffee-shrub. It attains a 
 height of 15 to 20 ft., and its foliage resembles that of the 
 Portugal laurel ; the small, white blossom is not unlike that 
 of the jessamine in form and scent ; the berries are at first 
 dark-green, changing, as they mature, to yellow, red, and, 
 finally, deep crimson. Beneath the skin of the ripe berry, 
 or “ cherry,” as it is called, is a mucilaginous, saccharine, 
 glutinous “ pulp,” closely enveloping the “ beans,” usually a 
 pair of oval, plano-convex seeds, though sometimes there is 
 but one seed, called, from its shape, “ peaberry ” ; these 
 beans are coated with a cartilaginous membrane, known as 
 “ parchment,” and beneath this by a very delicate, semi- 
 
 B 
 
2 
 
 THE PLANT. 
 
 transparent, closely adhering jacket, termed the “ silver- 
 skin.” 
 
 The range of this species is at elevations of 1000 to 
 4000 ft., between latitudes 15° N. and 15° S., and its culti- 1- 
 vation may be extended to 36° N. and 30° S., in localities 
 where the temperature does not fall below 13° C. (55° F.). 
 Perhaps the most favourable climate would be a temperature 
 ranging from 15° to 27° C. (60° to 80° F.) in the shade ; 
 and as to humidity, there should be no month in the year 
 entirely devoid of rain, the total of which may be 100 to 
 150 in. per annum — absence of extremes of temperature, 
 with a constant supply of moisture. The shrub is culti- 
 vated chiefly in Brazil, Java, Ceylon, India, the Central 
 American Republics, West Indies, Arabia, Natal, and recently 
 in Australasia. It furnishes almost the whole of the coffee 
 of commerce. 
 
 Increasing attention is, however, being devoted to 0. Libe- 
 rica. This species is a native of Liberia, and is distinguished 
 from the ordinary shrub by much more vigorous growth, by 
 affecting flat and coast lands as well as hill-sides, by attaining 
 greater size and age, and by withstanding greater extremes 
 of climate. It possesses additional advantages in that it is 
 capable of improvement by cultivation, and, though as liable • 
 to disease as C. Arabica , seems to be affected in a minor 
 degree. On the other hand, the produce is much coarser 
 flavoured than ordinary coffee, though that is no drawback 
 to its being used for admixture with better sorts, producing 
 a cheap, yet genuine, beverage for the million. From expe- 
 riments tried in Ceylon, great benefits are anticipated from 
 grafting the fine-flavoured G. Arabica on stocks of the hardy 
 C. Liberica . 
 
 Whether the Liberian coffee is or is not really proof against 
 the destructive fungus or “ leaf-disease ” which affects the 
 ordinary varieties of coffee, not only in Ceylon but also in 
 Fiji, Java, the Straits Settlements, Brazil, and other coffee- 
 growing countries, is a disputed point. One planter at least 
 in Fiji asserts that it is not, and planters in Ceylon are not 
 
 
THE PLANT. 
 
 3 
 
 fully agreed that the tree possesses the immunity from this 
 disease, which was one of its principal claims to notice when 
 it first attracted attention. It is evident, however, that the 
 tree is subject to the attacks of another kind of fungoid 
 growth, similar to that which is found in badly- cultivated 
 cocoa and sugar plantations in the West Indies. The experi- 
 mental plantations of Liberian coffee in the Botanical Gardens 
 in Trinidad are, according to Mr. Prestoe, the Government 
 botanist, liable to this parasitic growth. Most of the trees 
 are in perfect health, but some years ago a large Tonga bean- 
 tree, in the prime of life, suddenly died, owing to the attack 
 of the fungoid growth at the roots ; and since then several 
 of the Liberian coffee trees have been seriously affected, two 
 being killed outright. This pest is liable to work its ravages 
 for a long time unnoticed, but sometimes makes known its 
 existence by developing huge spore-bearing plates of great 
 thickness and solidity. Fortunately the pest has not the 
 fecundity of the Hemileia vastatrix , and it is easily detected 
 in the seed-bearing state ; but, if measures for its destruction 
 are not promptly taken whenever found, it may easily 
 increase and multiply, and when once it has established 
 itself in a locality it is difficult to get rid of it. 
 
 “ The immunity enjoyed by Liberian coffee from the 
 attacks of the blight insect ( Cemiostoma eoffeellum ) is of the 
 utmost importance to the welfare of Dominica and the neigh- 
 bouring colonies, both English and French, for there is now 
 nothing to prevent the islands of the Lesser Antilles from 
 being once more large coffee-supplying countries. In Domi- 
 nica the cultivation of coffee may be said to be re-established, 
 although it is only as yet in its infancy, and the productive- 
 ness of the Liberian trees is a matter of astonishment to 
 those of the older residents who remember the coffee estates 
 of forty years ago.” (Nicholls.) 
 
 “ The Arabian coffee may be described as a small shrub ; 
 the Liberian species, on the other hand, would appear to be 
 a small tree , for in Africa it is said to attain a height of over 
 thirty feet. Instead of a single stem, it has five or six stems 
 
 e 2 
 
4 
 
 THE PLANT. 
 
 growing out of tlie ground, and in some instances as many 
 v as ten. This habit has a most important bearing on the 
 cultivation, for when one of the stems becomes old and 
 sterile it may be removed, not only without any injury to 
 the crop, but with actual benefit to the productiveness of the 
 plant. Thus plantations of Liberian coffee may be continu- 
 ally invigorated by the judicious pruning away of some 
 of the main stems ; whereas in removing the main stem of 
 the ordinary coffee a sucker has to be trained up in its place, 
 and one or two crops are lost. The appearance of the 
 Liberian coffee is very unlike that of the Arabian, for, in 
 addition to the subdivisions of the main stem, the leaves are 
 at least twice the size of those of the other species. An 
 average Liberian coffee-leaf is 11 in. long and 4 in. wide in 
 its broadest part ; whilst the measurements of an average leaf 
 of the so-called creole coffee are respectively 5 in. and If in. 
 
 / On examining a young Liberian plant about a year old, 
 23 in. high, with no lateral branches yet formed, and with 
 fourteen pairs of leaves (several of the lower pairs having 
 fallen), I found two of the leaves to have measurements 
 slightly in excess of the above, and the uppermost internode 
 was 4 in. in length.> The leaves of the Liberian coffee bear 
 in size and shape a resemblance to those of the cocoa tree, 
 and the old peasants on first seeing the ‘ new English coffee,’ 
 as they call it, are greatly astonished at the bigness of the 
 plant. The flowering of the Liberian coffee planted in 
 Dominica commences in January or February, and goes on 
 for several months, and consequently the curious sight is 
 seen of flower-buds, flowers, and fruit in all stages of growth 
 on the same branch. To those accustomed to the habit of 
 the c old ’ coffee this appears most curious, and it certainly is 
 a striking peculiarity. As might be imagined from the size 
 of the tree, the flowers, the berries, and the beans are much 
 larger than those of the ordinary coffee. The berries, which 
 are borne in wonderful profusion, are twice the size of those 
 of Coffea Arabica, and the bean itself is of equal proportions. 
 I have counted as many as sixteen berries in the axil of a 
 
THE PLANT. 
 
 5 
 
 leaf, but it is more usual to find from six to ten. An impor- 
 tant distinction between the Arabian and Liberian coffee is 
 that the ripe berries of the latter do not fall from the tree, 
 but remain firmly fixed in their positions for an indefinite 
 time.” (Nicholls.) 
 
 A branch of Coffea arabica with berries and flowers is shown 
 in the Frontispiece. 
 
( 6 ) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 The points which determine the value of a plot for coffee 
 culture are : — 1. Elevation ; 2. Aspect ; 3. Shelter from wind ; 
 4. Shelter from wash ; 5. Temperature; 6. Rainfall ; 7. Prox- 
 imity to a river ; 8. Character and richness of soil. Most of 
 these are necessarily subject to variation according to locality. 
 
 Shelter from wind is perhaps of paramount importance, 
 and should not be sacrificed for richer soil, as the latter can 
 be artificially obtained much quicker than the former. In 
 wooded country, the estate may be laid out in blocks of fifty 
 acres, encircled by natural belts of forest. Flat land must be 
 avoided ; a wet soil is fatal to coffee, and flat lands would 
 entail great expenditure for drainage. Steep slopes, on the 
 other hand, are objectionable, on account of the wash occa- 
 sioned by rains carrying away soil and manure, and exposing 
 the roots of the shrubs. The surface soil must be fairly 
 good ; the subsoil may be poor, but must never be stiff clay ; 
 the shrub is essentially a lateral feeder. 
 
 As a general rule, virgin forest land has been found most 
 suitable to break up for coffee estates ; it has become 
 naturally enriched by decayed vegetable matters, and the 
 burning to which it is subjected frees it from insects and 
 from weeds. Exceptional patches of land that has once been 
 under cultivation and then allowed to run wild have formed 
 good properties ; but the soil is rarely rich, is generally ex- 
 posed, and always entails great trouble and expense to keep 
 down the weeds. A temperate climate within the tropics is 
 to be preferred on all scores ; a certain degree of warmth and 
 humidity combined is essential. An atmosphere resembling 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 7 
 
 that of an English hot-honse produces the finest crops, 
 perhaps ; but it is inimical to the planter, and favourable to 
 weeds. The most suitable climate is precisely that which 
 Europeans prefer. Frost, even though it be only at night, 
 and for a short period, is fatal. The presence of water, pre- 
 ferably a perennial stream, is essential for watering the 
 young plants, and for the “ pulping ” process. 
 
 Hull observes that “ great warmth of climate is not abso- 
 lutely essential to the mere existence of the plant ; our object, 
 however, goes much further than this, being to cultivate it 
 in a climate where it will not only live , but flourish and 
 bring forth fruit abundantly, and experience has clearly 
 shown that this is only to be found within the tropics. It 
 is not, however, to be understood that a high temperature is 
 required in order that the most favourable conditions may be 
 brought about. What is necessary is a climate characterised 
 by neither extreme of heat or cold, and possessing a fair 
 amount of humidity' all the year round. To be more precise 
 I would specify 60° and 80° F. in the shade as the limits of 
 temperature ; and with regard to humidity, I would stipulate 
 that there should be no month in the year entirely without 
 rainfall, and that from 100 to 150 inches should be distri- 
 buted throughout the twelve. 
 
 “ At an elevation of between 4000 and 5000 feet above 
 sea-level, in Ceylon, one sees, supposing the situation to be 
 not unduly exposed to wind, fields of dark, ever-green, 
 luxuriaut coffee-trees, so well clothed with foliage that not a 
 square yard of bare ground is visible for acres. Such situa- 
 tions have what may fairly be called an exceedingly humid 
 climate : probably hardly a week passes without rainfall, 
 while at certain seasons this occurs without intermission for 
 weeks together; even after a fair bright noon-day a dense 
 white mist will frequently settle down towards evening 
 wrapping all in obscurity, and saturating vegetation with 
 moisture. The temperature here will probably seldom rise 
 above 70° in the shade, at other times falling as low as 
 50°. The general result is, that although the trees have 
 
8 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 a gloriously healthy appearance, they hear hardly any 
 crop. 
 
 “ Turn from this picture to the Wynaad, say to an estate 
 some few miles inland from the Ghauts, with an aspect facing 
 eastward towards the -Mysore plateau, and at an elevation of 
 something less than 3000 feet. Here will he found a climate 
 possessing great heat, and entirely deprived of rainfall during 
 a considerable part of the year. True, there are showers in 
 the spring months, while a perfect deluge may he looked for 
 while the monsoon lasts, during the months from June to 
 August inclusive, hut it is strictly correct to say that there 
 are several months every year during which not a drop of 
 rain falls — droughts of four or even five months being not 
 unusual. The effect of this ordeal upon the coffee is at once 
 apparent; the plant, although not by nature deciduous, 
 beginning first to droop, and finally losing nearly all or much 
 of its foliage year after year, until eventually it falls a prey 
 to the effects of exhaustion in one form or other. 
 
 “ The foregoing have been brought forward as two opposite 
 representatives of climate ; the first being characterised by 
 too great a degree of humidity for successful coffee cultiva- 
 tion, as is shown by the fact that although the plants produce 
 a redundance of wood and foliage, their productiveness ends 
 there, the crop being at all times nearly absent, or very defi- 
 cient; while, in the second case, the long dry season tends 
 ultimately, though gradually, to kill the plants. It would, 
 therefore, seem natural to infer that somewhere between the 
 two we shall meet with the exact climate most conducive to 
 the growth, productiveness, and longevity of the coffee plant ; 
 and this appears to be fully borne out by experience. 
 
 “ The favourite and most fruitful coffee districts in Ceylon 
 some years ago were, and probably still are, those situated at 
 an elevation ranging from 2500 to 3500 feet, although there 
 are coffee estates under cultivation at all elevations, from 
 about 500 to over 5000 feet, while native gardens may be 
 met with, sometimes bearing good crops, along the coast 
 actually at sea-level. In these cases, however, the plants 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 9 
 
 will invariably be found growing under the shade of the 
 jack, coconut, or other suitable trees, without which pro- 
 tection all chance of their thriving permanently would be 
 out of the question. These native gardens are, moreover, 
 limited in extent, and are generally richly manured, and 
 often well watered during the dry season. 
 
 “ Coffee can always bear a considerable warmth of climate, 
 provided the humidity be proportionate ; indeed a hot 
 climate will probably produce the heaviest crops, provided it 
 be sufficiently humid. Such a climate, however, will probably 
 prove very malarious and inimical to the health of the 
 planter and his labourers — a drawback not to be disregarded ; 
 while the growth of weeds will also probably be so rapid as 
 to cause a considerable increase of outlay in cultivation and 
 abnormal deterioration of the soil. So great is the influence 
 of climate upon the growth of weeds, that while in some 
 districts two monthly weedings will be found necessary, in 
 other and colder situations one such operation every five or 
 six weeks will be found sufficient. 
 
 “ High, wet situations, again, prove in many instances 
 strongholds of the blight known as 4 black bug,’ which may 
 probably be taken as some indication that the trees are de- 
 ficient in healthy tone and vigour. 
 
 “from the foregoing, it will be seen that the questions of 
 elevation and climate are so intimately connected that it is 
 impossible to treat them apart ; elevation alone being capable 
 of rendering cool and temperate a climate within the 4 torrid 
 zone ’ or tropics — and a temperate climate within the tropics 
 being indispensable to the successful cultivation of coffee. 
 This is so far fortunate for those engaged in the pursuit, and 
 is no doubt one of the principal reasons of its being so 
 favourably regarded by young Britons on the look-out for a 
 sphere of enterprise abroad. In fact, the climate which is 
 most favourable for coffee, is that in which an Englishman 
 will find little to complain of, except in some cases 
 malariousness. 
 
 44 Many drawbacks it may become a necessity to submit to, 
 
10 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 but there is one which must be sedulously avoided, i.e. a 
 bleak and exposed aspect, this being one of those evils that 
 can neither be mitigated nor remedied. The monsoons which 
 blow incessantly for three or four months together, are 
 assailants which coffee bushes cannot withstand. Not un- 
 frequently large fields of wind-blown coffee have had event- 
 ually to be abandoned in despair, after years of persevering 
 and expensive culture. Wind injures the plants in various 
 ways. Sometimes its effects are at once recognisable in the 
 pinched, stunted, and almost frost-bitten look both of the 
 wood and leaves, the former being hard and small, the latter 
 crumpled, dwarfed, and tipped with yellow. In other cases, 
 the trees will be found denuded of leaves, on the side on 
 which they are assailed, forming on the opposite one a growth 
 somewhat like that of boxwood. In situations where the 
 soil is soft and yielding, the wind, even if failing to strip the 
 trees of leaves, does equal mischief by working the stems in 
 the ground, so that in a short time a funnel is formed round 
 the neck of the plant, and this being continually chafed, in 
 process of time the bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, 
 and the plant dies. A plant thus affected is said to be 
 ‘ wind-wrung.’ Should it, however, be rescued before the 
 bark is entirely worn off, the plant will sometimes recover, 
 though its growth will of course have been seriously inter- 
 fered ^vith, and it will be extremely liable to be attacked by 
 4 bug,’ c worm,’ or any other blight prevalent in the locality. 
 
 “ In wind-blown situations, however, if the mischief is not 
 too pronounced, partially remedial measures may be adopted. 
 This is the more fortunate, that when a block of forest is far 
 inland it is not always easy to ascertain from its aspect how 
 far it may be sheltered from certain prevailing winds ; 
 indeed, a very small clearance of forest lying adjacent, will 
 occasionally alter the direction of the wind so much, that it 
 will only remain to remedy as far as possible what could not 
 have been anticipated. Thus, an estate which for many 
 years may have remained quite sheltered, has been known 
 suddenly to become seriously affected by a belt of jungle 
 
 * 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 11 
 
 having been cleared on a neighbouring estate, or by a new 
 estate having been opened in the neighbourhood. That wind 
 should prove an enemy to the coffee plant is hardly sur- 
 prising, it being inimical to every species of vegetation. 
 The only exception I ever heard of to the general rule, is the 
 Doombegas-tree of the Ceylon forests, which is said to flourish 
 most luxuriantly in situations where the atmosphere is 
 habitually the most boisterous; the abundance of this tree 
 may, if this be so, possibly be some criterion as to the degree 
 of shelter enjoyed by any particular locality. As the 
 strongest and most continuous wind comes from the south- 
 west, it will be evident that this aspect is the worst that can 
 be chosen ; neither would it be wise to select one directly 
 opposite, this being exposed for some months of the year to 
 the north-east monsoon. Northerly or easterly facings are 
 perhaps the best, not being directly exposed to violent wind 
 for any lengthened period, the latter also getting the benefit 
 of the morning sun , a circumstance to which experience 
 attaches much importance. 
 
 44 The next point to be considered is what is technically 
 termed the 4 lay 5 of the land. That there are estates 
 situated on surfaces greatly differing in character, yet all 
 apparently yielding results equally satisfactory, might at 
 first sight appear to argue this subject as unimportant ; but 
 similarly an inference might be drawn that elevation was of 
 slight consequence, from the fact that some estates situated 
 at 1000 feet above the sea and others situated at 5000 appear 
 to be equally profitable, which, however, simply arises from 
 one drawback being often compensated for by some equiva- 
 lent advantage of another description. 
 
 44 Among the many different dispositions which the un- 
 even, ever-varying surface of a mountain district presents, I 
 will describe some which appear to be the most favourable 
 for a coffee estate. Slopes are, of course, more or less the 
 general feature observable, and they are to be recommended 
 owing to their incapacity to retain sufficient moisture to 
 render the soil stiff or sour. They are also favourable, owing 
 
12 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 to the soil having become enriched by the deposit of decayed 
 vegetable matter which the rains must have left on their 
 surface from the hills above ; though once the land has been 
 cleared this liability to 6 wash 9 becomes a drawback, as 
 matter that might have been retained while the surface was 
 covered with a close and minute vegetation, or by a layer of 
 decayed leaves, is in danger of being floated off, once the soil 
 is bare and disturbed. A level plain lying at the base of 
 high hills, will be likely to contain a rich surface soil, more 
 especially if the hills which command it have been clothed 
 with forest vegetation, as the product of the decayed leaves, 
 &c., falling during ages, will have been partially at least 
 washed down and deposited on it, forming in course of time 
 a deep rich loam. There is also the advantage that the 
 soil thus made is retained, while should there be sufficient 
 declivity to admit of the superfluous moisture escaping, 
 nothing will remain to be desired. One will sometimes come 
 upon a tolerably level stretch of land along the banks of 
 some mountain stream, and this would be a particularly 
 desirable formation, any danger of stiffness of soil arising 
 from want of drainage being thus obviated. Marshy land is 
 quite fatal to the coffee plant, while a soil stiff and heavy in 
 wet weather will be hard and impervious in the dry season, 
 either condition being equally unfavourable. An estate 
 formed by the opposite sides of a gently sloping valley, 
 provided the outlets are not towards the unfavourable aspects 
 before described, would promise well, as each side would 
 shelter the other, and the stream, which would in all 
 probability flow down the centre, might be made available 
 for curing operations. 
 
 “ To sum up, from my own experience I would recommend 
 a preference, when practicable, for moderately gentle slopes 
 towards the base of a hill range, intersected by numerous 
 ravines, or 6 nullahs,’ with running streams, and facing as 
 much as possible in an easterly or northerly direction. Such 
 a lay as this will not only be found entirely suitable, but, 
 fortunately, is one generally not difficult to meet with in 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 13 
 
 countries whose scenery is mountainous. Steep slopes are to 
 be avoided, in consequence of the great difficulty at all times 
 of entirely preventing the soil being washed away by the 
 rains. Gradual slopes on the other hand are preferable to 
 
 flats. 
 
 “ The question of soil is one which admits of a good deal 
 of discussion, though this need not be made a primary 
 difficulty of by any one about to open an estate of ordinary 
 dimensions. Commonly speaking, when the soil is dark in 
 colour, loose, and full of roots, it is rich in organic matter, 
 and therefore good for coffee, which is a hardy plant not on 
 the whole difficult to please in this particular. Planters 
 whose estates yield heavy crops, and at the same time 
 happen to have a light red or yellowish soil, will probably 
 argue in favour of that particular colour, others may have 
 seen the best results in conjunction with a chocolate- 
 coloured soil, others again with black. The best criterion, 
 however, as to the quality of the soil is the luxuriousness or 
 otherwise of the vegetation it produces in its original state. 
 For instance, in forests which, in addition to a large growth 
 of timber, have a dense close underwood, and which abound 
 in creepers, mosses, ferns, &c., it may be safely concluded the 
 soil is good. 
 
 “ In making an excavation in land, it will be generally 
 noticed that the first stratum is of a dark colour, and that the 
 shade lightens as we proceed in depth, until it gradually 
 becomes a yellowish composition of sand, gravel, or clay, as 
 the case may be ; the thickness, then, of the upper stratum, 
 which is the real soil , is the gauge of 
 the probable productiveness of the 
 land.” (Hull.) 
 
 Clearing and Burning . — When forest 
 land is taken into cultivation, the 
 first step is to effectually clear it of 
 timber and underwood. The latter 
 is first cut, by means of the “ cattie,” shown in Fig. 1 ; the 
 large trees are then felled on the top, and their branches are 
 
14 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 lopped off, so as to compact the pile, otherwise the burn 
 will be only partial. A fine day, after the night’s dew has 
 evaporated, is chosen for putting fire to the prostrate mass. 
 The advantages of a thorough burn are, that subsequent 
 operations are greatly facilitated, and that weeds and insects 
 are destroyed; the disadvantage is that the upper soil is 
 burnt, and rendered unfit for filling into the holes. This 
 injury might, to a great extent, be obviated by “ lining ” 
 and “ pitting ” the land beforehand. By this means, the 
 surface soil would be mostly covered over with the earth 
 taken out of the pits, and thus protected from the fire. 
 
 On the other hand, of course, the lines could not be marked 
 out with accuracy or regularity, and the estate would 
 subsequently suffer to some extent in appearance, though 
 it is a question how far this drawback is worth considering, 
 in comparison with the advantage gained. When there is 
 not sufficient timber to make a good burn, the bush is felled, 
 and burnt in heaps, after which the ground is carefully gone 
 over for the purpose of rooting up the tree-stumps which 
 remain. These are sometimes so difficult to eradicate that 
 they are left to decay, care being taken to knock off shoots 
 as fast as they appear. It is, however, a bad plan, and one 
 seldom followed, as the rotting stumps harbour vermin of 
 all kinds. After burning, the wood ashes should be scattered 
 evenly over the ground as a manure. 
 
 To secure a gang of coolies is not always by any means 
 an easy matter ; indeed 44 the labour difficulty ” is one of the 
 most serious problems the planter has to encounter. It is a 
 constant source of anxiety in whatever coffee district he finds 
 himself, and fortunate will he be if at any time during his 
 career he is able to secure the exact number of men he wants 
 at the time he wants them. Hence the great importance of 
 having an estate of moderate size, and the immense advantage 
 of a mixed system of culture, combining other crops demand- 
 ing less labour for their production with the coffee crop. 
 Better a small estate worked well than a large one neglected 
 for want of workers. 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 15 
 
 Dwellings . — Having secured coolies, and furnished them 
 with tools, “ the first undertaking,” says Hull, “ will he the 
 erection of dwellings for the planter and his people; and, 
 for this purpose, a small piece of land should he specially 
 cleared in the first instance. This spot should be chosen 
 with the greatest care and deliberation. It should be in a 
 dry, healthful, and tolerably-elevated situation, be provided 
 with a good supply of pure, wholesome water, and be con- 
 veniently placed with regard to the future estate and the 
 nearest public road. 
 
 “ To make the clearing, a party of men or boys, provided 
 with bill-hooks, should be first sent in to cut down all the 
 underwood and saplings, these being followed the day after 
 by men with axes to fell the heavy timber. In felling trees, 
 it should never be forgotten that though two or three men 
 with axes can, in a few hours, bring down a monarch of the 
 forest, the growth of many centuries, the act, should it after- 
 wards prove to have been ill-advised, though it may' be 
 regretted, can never be remedied or repaired. This is a con- 
 sideration of the greatest importance, and the more so that 
 an opinion is now beginning to be generally adopted that in 
 certain districts the wholesale felling of the forest has been 
 altogether a mistake from the cultivator’s point of view, 
 and that plantations now become extinct would have been 
 flourishing to this day had the forest shade been at least 
 partially retained, instead of having been ruthlessly done 
 away with by means of axe and fire. As a matter of health, 
 comfort, and taste also, it is most desirable to leave, at any 
 rate, some of the more picturesque and symmetrically-formed 
 trees standing about the spot chosen for the planter’s 
 bungalow and coolie lines. 
 
 “ Five or six weeks after the felling and lopping, that is, 
 as soon as sufficiently dry, the debris should be set on fire, so 
 as to get the ground clear. The 4 coolie lines ’ may be run 
 up in a very short time, from the natural materials abun- 
 dantly at hand on all sides. It is very important to provide 
 the coolies with proper shelter and accommodation, and the 
 
16 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 planter should remember that although he may be willing 
 to undergo hardship and to 4 rough it/ the coolies should be 
 made as comfortable as possible according to their accus- 
 tomed mode of life. The great thing is to guard against 
 sickness and keep the gang in good heart from the outset. 
 They will then give the estate a good name, say it is luchy , 
 and labour difficulties will subsequently be much diminished. 
 It is not, however, necessary to put up coolie huts of any 
 expensive or even permanent character at this period. The 
 great object is to have well-drained and well- ventilated 
 dwellings, capable of keeping out any amount of wind and 
 rain. 
 
 44 In localities where the bamboo flourishes, the erection of 
 a house is a simple and expeditious matter. The process 
 would surprise a European artisan, inasmuch as no nails are 
 required, nor indeed anything in the way of material but 
 such as the adjacent jungle affords. Bamboos are seldom 
 used for the principal supports for the house, owing to their 
 liability to destruction by minute borers; though, indeed, 
 bamboo posts, if cut down near the roots , and previously left 
 to soak some time in water, will be found exceedingly strong 
 and durable. The natives always cut bamboos for building 
 purposes when the moon is on the wane, as they then contain 
 less sap, and are, consequently, less liable to early decay. The 
 walls of native houses in bamboo districts are made of 
 bamboo laths some two inches wide, interwoven basket- 
 fashion, the interstices being afterwards plastered up with 
 mud. In every jungle there are different fibres or 4 jungle 
 ropes’ to be procured (and which are well known to the 
 natives), with which all fastenings can be effected ; while 
 grass will no doubt be found in the neighbourhood for 
 thatching purposes. 
 
 44 Coolie lines are usually in the form of one long building 
 partitioned off into different apartments; each apartment 
 being 10 or 12 ft. square, opening into the general verandah, 
 which should be 5 or 6 ft. in width, and extend along the 
 entire building. Two or more persons will generally occupy 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 17 
 
 one room of the above dimensions, provided they are of the 
 same caste ; it is much the best plan, however, to leave the 
 coolies to make these little dispositions and arrangements 
 among themselves. Each married couple should of course be 
 allowed to appropriate a room to themselves. 
 
 “A temporary bungalow for the superintendent will be 
 the next undertaking. This will probably be no more than 
 a simple parallelogram partitioned off into three rooms, or 
 perhaps only into two, with a verandah along the front, a 
 portion of which at each end can be enclosed to serve as 
 store-room, or pantry and bath-room. A porch may be added 
 as a finishing touch, giving architectural effect to the struc- 
 ture ! A building of this kind may be made comfortable 
 enough with a little care and ingenuity, and if good stout 
 posts are used, and the walls are kept well plastered with 
 mud, and afterwards (as also the clay floors) regularly washed 
 with liquefied cow-dung, will stand for many years. This 
 is a consideration, inasmuch as when the 4 pucka ’ bungalow 
 is subsequently put up, the original one can still be utilised 
 as a stable, store, or out-house. 
 
 “In districts where the felling and clearing can be done 
 by contract, the manager will be in a position to employ his 
 permanent gang of coolies in the erection of the above 
 buildings, while the contractors are proceeding with their 
 operations.” (Hull.) 
 
 Lining . — Soon after the burn, the estate is 44 lined out ” for 
 the reception of the plants. The two following methods are 
 in vogue : — 
 
 (1) A base line is laid down, as nearly as possible straight 
 up and down the slope ; across line is set off exactly at right 
 angles ; on this line, stakes are driven into the ground at the 
 distances determined upon for the position of the plants ; to 
 each stake, a rope is fixed, and stretched parallel with the 
 base line and as straight as possible; small stakes are 
 provided along these lines ; a rope is finally held across 
 them at succeeding stages of equal width, as guided by 
 measuring poles, and the small stakes are put in where the 
 
 o 
 
18 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 movable rope crosses the fixed ones, each stake indicating 
 the site for a plant. 
 
 (2) A rope is furnished with bits of scarlet rag at the 
 distances fixed upon between the plants; it is stretched 
 across the plot, and stakes are inserted at each rag ; the rope 
 is then moved forward a stage at a time, gauged by measuring 
 rods. The first plan is the better, especially in broken 
 ground, but is more laborious ; the second is available on 
 even grass land, but the stretch of the rope must be esti- 
 mated and allowed for. The great object sought is to have 
 the lines perfectly regular; and, instead of making any 
 deviation where stumps or other obstacles occur, the rope is 
 laid over them, and the corresponding plant is omitted. 
 Yet another method of holing is that known as “quin- 
 cunxing,” i.e. placing the plants so that alternate lines are 
 opposite ; it was recommended by Laborie, but is open to 
 several objections, and is quite out of favour. 
 
 Distances of the Plants . — Scarcely any two planters are 
 agreed as to the best distance to allow between the plants. 
 The question is governed in some measure by the richness 
 of the soil and by the climate. The object in view is that 
 with the greatest convenient number of trees in a given 
 space, none shall incommode its neighbour. In cold or 
 exposed situations, where the plants cannot attain any great 
 size, close planting is necessary ; the reverse being the case 
 where the climate is warm and humid and the soil is produc- t 
 tive, and consequently likely to produce large bushes. In j 
 the West Indies and Java, the space is often 10 to 12 ft., but 
 other crops are there usually planted with the coffee. In 
 Ceylon and Southern India, distances vary from 4 ft. each 
 way to 8 ft., the best being, perhaps, 7 ft. between the rows 
 and 6 ft. between the plants. The number of trees contained 
 in an acre planted 6 ft. X 7 ft. will be 1037 ; 6 X 6 , 1210 ; 
 6x5, 1452 ; 5 X 5, 1742 ; 5 X 4, 2178 ; 4 x 4, 2722. Advan- 
 tages in wide planting are that field labour is facilitated, 
 and the shrubs grow larger; a disadvantage is that more 
 room is left for weeds. 
 
THE ESTATE. 
 
 19 
 
 TTnlina o r Pitting . — Around or beside each stake, a hole is 
 dug, its size depending much upon the kind of soil. In 
 stiff, poor land, 2 ft. each way is not too large; in good 
 light ground, 18 in. will suffice. They had better be too 
 deep than not deep enough. The implements commonly 
 used by coolies for this purpose 
 are : the qnintannie , or grubbing 
 hoe, Fig. 2 ; the mammotie , 
 
 Fig. 3 ; and the alavangoe , or 
 spade-bar, Fig. 4. The earth 
 thrown out is left to mellow 
 until just before planting. The 
 hole is then “ filled in” with 
 the best of the mould, which 
 has been carefully freed from 
 stones, roots, &c., and mixed 
 with a little manure. The 
 filling in must be done very 
 lightly, and the loose earth 
 should rise in a heap above the 
 hole. The operation is best 
 performed while the ground is 
 moist ; it is also a good plan 
 to break down the sides of the hole somewhat, especially if 
 they are hardened. 
 
 Boads. — Efficient roads not only greatly facilitate the 
 working of a plantation, but they should be so laid out as 
 to serve the additional purpose of drainage. A cart road 
 should pass through the centre of the estate, wherever it 
 is possible to avoid a steeper gradient than 1 in 15, emerg- 
 ing upon the main highway. From this, branch roads 
 should be cut at right angles, with as easy gradients as 
 possible, and not more than 100 to 150 ft. apart. These branch 
 roads should cross the lay of the ground, so as to check, to 
 the fullest extent, the effects of waste. A boundary path 
 encircling the estate is useful for many reasons. The main 
 central road should be set out before pitting and planting. 
 
 o 2 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Mammotie. 
 
 Alavangoe. 
 
20 
 
 THE ESTATE. 
 
 Wire tramways commend themselves as eminently suited to 
 minimise labour on coffee estates. An excess of road accom- 
 modation, as regards both the number and the width of the 
 paths, is far preferable to insufficient roading, despite the 
 extra first outlay. If the ground be rich, it may cost a good 
 deal to keep the roads clean and free from weeds. This, 
 however, may be greatly lessened by ploughing them up and 
 planting them with an annual crop, until the land is 
 exhausted ; not only will the roads be rounded by the 
 ploughing, but weeds will not so readily grow. 
 
 Brains . — Nothing is more important than the thorough 
 draining of a coffee estate, in order to carry away the excess 
 of moisture during heavy rains, without allowing the surface 
 soil to be washed away. Continuous open trenches are cut 
 in parallel lines across the face of the slope, and at 10 to 15 
 yards apart ; their gradient should never exceed 1 in 12, and 
 1 in 20, or even 30, will be better ; their width may be 
 15 to 18 in. ; and their depth, not less than 1 ft. at the lower 
 side. They need constant cleaning out and repair, especially 
 after a heavy shower. They must in all cases empty into a 
 natural or artificial channel amply capable of carrying off 
 the water ; if furnished with breaks to catch the suspended 
 soil, so much the better, as the latter can then be collected 
 . and returned to the estate as a dressing. 
 
 Plate I. shows a set of planter’s tools, as made by Brooker, 
 Dore, & Co., 4 Corbet Court, E.C. ; they comprise : 1 and 3, 
 galvanised buckets ; 2, mammotie ; 4, cattie ; 5, pruning 
 knife ; 6, pickaxe ; 7, sledge hammer ; 8, double-faced sledge 
 hammer; 9, crowbar ; 10, quintannie ; 11, spade; 12, Ceylon 
 roundeye felling axe ; 13, planting bar (alavangoe). 
 
PLATE I. — PLANTERS’ TOOLS. 
 
 [ To face p. 20 . 
 
PLATE II. 
 
 Galvanised corrugated sheet iron is used largely on estates 
 for building sheds and warehouses, and is the cheapest and 
 most durable kind of roofing. It is supplied in a good make 
 by Brooker, Dore, and Co., 4 Corbet Court, London, E.C., 
 who have works at Blackwall. Below is given the approxi- 
 mate number of sheets that go to the ton in 20 to 24 
 gauge : — 
 
 Size. 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 7 ft. 
 
 8 ft. 
 
 9 ft. 
 
 10 ft. 
 
 20 B.G. 8/3" flutes .. .. 
 
 104 
 
 88 
 
 76 
 
 68 
 
 61 
 
 54 
 
 „ 10/3" „ .. .. 
 
 88 
 
 72 
 
 64 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 22 B.G. 8/3" „ .. .. 
 
 133 
 
 108 
 
 94 
 
 81 
 
 73 
 
 66 
 
 CO 
 
 rH 
 
 112 
 
 90 
 
 77 
 
 67 
 
 58 
 
 55 
 
 24 B.G. 8/3" „ .. .. 
 
 160 
 
 140 
 
 120 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 „ 10/3" „ .. .. 
 
 131 
 
 112 
 
 94 
 
 80 
 
 73 
 
 64 
 
 Galvanised ridging is also used with the sheets for the 
 apex of roofs. It is usually made in 6 feet lengths by 15 
 and 18 inches girth. Galvanised screws or nails are also 
 required for fixing the sheets to the wood framing. 
 
 [To face p. 21 . 
 
( 21 ) 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 The following remarks refer to the commonly cultivated 
 varieties of G. Arabica. The main principles are subject to 
 but slight modifications, which will be noticed presently 
 under the head of each coffee-growing country. Fuller 
 details concerning C. Liberica will be found under Liberia. 
 
 Nurseries . — For this purpose, should be selected a patch of 
 gently sloping virgin soil, w T arm and dry, but close to water, 
 soft, and not richer than that to which the plants will be 
 subsequently transferred. The seed-beds may be somewhat 
 shaded, but not so as to entirely exclude the sun, nor so that 
 the shading tree gathers rain and sends it in streams upon 
 the bed. The seed-bed is cleared of all but the largest 
 stumps, thoroughly dug to a depth of 9 to 12 in., and made 
 very friable. The beds are slightly raised to promote 
 drainage, and are divided by paths into narrow strips. A 
 deep trench is cut above the 
 bed, in an oblique direction, to 
 prevent damage by rain and 
 wash. 
 
 The seeds are sown in rows 
 6 to 9 in. apart, and about 2 in. 
 deep. The seeds are strewn 
 about 1 in. apart, lightly 
 covered with mould, and 
 shaded ; a cheap and efficient 
 shading may be secured by laying branches across a light 
 framework, as shown in Fig. 5. Watering must be done in 
 the morning, or towards sunset. A bushel of seed should 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Shading for Seeds. 
 
22 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 give 20,000 to 30,000 plants ; the best is “ parchment ” 
 coffee, picked when fully ripe, pulped by hand, unfermented, 
 unwashed, and dried in the shade. The nurseries proper are 
 prepared in much the same way, but not shaded*. When the 
 plants have two to four leaves (exclusive of the seeddeaves), 
 they are carefully loosened, and transplanted, in damp, cloudy 
 weather, from the seed-beds to the nurseries, and placed 
 9 to 12 in. apart. Care must be taken not to double up the\ 
 tap-root, and not to leave a space for water to accumulate N 
 and rot the roots. If the tap-root is very long, it is best 
 shortened by an oblique cut, and it soon shoots again. 
 
 When transplanting from seed-beds to nurseries is not 
 practised, the plants are left in the seed-bed until larger ; 
 but Stainbank and others strongly recommend the former 
 plan, as, by checking the growth, the young wood becomes 
 hardened, and better able, when finally planted out, to resist 
 insects and unfavourable weather. A practical suggestion 
 for preventing young seedlings being eaten off at the surface 
 of the ground by grubs, is to lightly wrap round a piece of 
 paper about 3 in. broad, where the stem joins the root, on 
 planting. The risk of having young seedlings burnt up just 
 after planting, is guarded against by various simple measures 
 for shading them. In about a year, the plants are ready for 
 transfer to the permanent estate, which is meantime being 
 prepared for their reception. 
 
 It is remarked by Hull that “ in Ceylon, abundant supplies 
 of coffee plants of all sizes are generally to be found growing 
 wild in the forest, in the vicinity of old estates — the product ; 
 of seed pillaged and subsequently sown by tribes of monkeys, 
 wild cats, squirrels, &c. These plants having grown up in 
 the shade, are generally lanky and straggling, and conse- 
 quently require, before being planted out on the estate, to be 
 ‘ stumped,’ i.e. cut down to within some six inches above the 
 roots. These stumps are then very independent, and usually 
 come on well, throwing out shoots within three or four weeks 
 from the time they are put into the ground. The best size 
 of stump is the thickness of a common pencil; these throw 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 23 
 
 ont shoots and take root more quickly than larger plants, 
 while those that are younger and thinner are more liable to 
 be burnt up by the sun, should the season be more than 
 usually dry. 
 
 “ Where wild plants, however, are not to be had merely for 
 the trouble of collecting, others can frequently be got from 
 native gardens at a trifling rate per thousand. When plants 
 are obtainable in sufficient numbers in either of these ways, 
 a nursery is but little required ; but in case the planter 
 should not be so fortunate as to find his wants thus supplied, 
 it will be advisable to begin making a nursery at once. The 
 best time of year for this is the end of October, when a few 
 bushels of fresh coffee seed of the new crop can be obtained 
 from some neighbouring old estate. A bushel contains about 
 40,000 berries of cherry coffee, and as most berries contain 
 two beans, the number of seeds will be not far from 80,000 ; 
 but allowing 10 per cent, for peaberries and imperfect beans, 
 we ought to get about 70,000 plants in the nursery from one 
 bushel of parchment. Seeds should be carefully selected, as 
 far as possible from healthy trees only, and should not be 
 picked until fully ripe. They should be pulped by hand, so 
 as to avoid the injury which would be incurred by a certain 
 percentage in being passed through the pulping machine. 
 The seeds are better not washed, but may be shaken up with 
 wood ashes, to dissolve the saccharine pulp adhering to them, 
 and thus prevent fermentation. They should then be slightly 
 dried, when they will be ready for the nursery. 
 
 “ The seed-beds should be dug up to the depth of a foot, all 
 roots and stones being picked out. The surface must then be 
 nicely smoothed over, when the beans may be placed in 
 straight drills and at equal distances from each other, being 
 then lightly covered over with fine mould. Over this a 
 layer of rotten leaves may be spread two inches thick, the 
 bed being then well watered at least once every three days, 
 if the weather be dry, until germination takes place. In 
 about six weeks the seeds will begin to force their way 
 above ground, and to send a root downwards, and the 
 
24 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 layer of decayed leaves may then be gently and carefully 
 removed. 
 
 “ Where the nursery is made in virgin soil, manure will be 
 unnecessary, and indeed is better dispensed with, as being 
 calculated to introduce grubs likely to prey upon the seeds ; 
 but in old nurseries, after the first year or two, manure will 
 be required. This should be given in the form of compost, 
 or the produce of the stable or cattle shed, old and well-rotted , 
 and a moderate quantity will suffice if thoroughly broken up 
 and dug in. Watering should be done in the morning or 
 towards sunset, and not during the heat of the day, as wetting 
 the plants during sunshine will prove fatal. The seeds may 
 be put in about one inch apart at first ; the plants being 
 afterwards, as they increase in size, thinned out. The beds 
 should not be more than 3J or 4 ft. wide, so that a person 
 standing on either side may be able easily to reach the centre, 
 without stepping off the footpath. Weeds can thus be easily 
 pulled out, and the beds watered without any mischief being 
 done. They may be either raised above the level of the 
 surrounding paths, or the reverse, each method having its 
 advantages in different localities. In damp situations the 
 beds should be raised for dryness, while in very hot localities 
 they should be depressed in order that they may retain as 
 much as possible of the moisture they receive. Some 
 planters prefer nursery-beds made after the fashion of paddy- 
 fields, that is to say, perfectly level and surrounded by raised 
 borders or c bunds/ to admit of their being irrigated at 
 pleasure. The drawbacks to this method, however, are, that 
 the rush of water when it is let in carries the seeds in a heap 
 before it, and also that the water after subsiding is apt to 
 leave the ground hard and stiff. Once the plants have taken 
 root and are well above ground, irrigation is the cheapest 
 and most expeditious method of supplying them with 
 moisture, and is not so objectionable except where the soil 
 is inclined to be stiff and clayey. 
 
 “ If the plants are intended to remain in the nursery for 
 a second or third season, they should be allowed space, 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 25 
 
 and be at least 3 or 4 in. apart. If grown in straight 
 rows at right angles, it will always be easy to ascertain the 
 number of plants in each bed by simple measurement. Thus 
 a bed 3J ft. wide by 28 in length, with plants at 4 in. apart, 
 would contain about 1200, or sufficient to cover an acre 
 planted at 6 ft. by 6 ft. 
 
 “ In order to keep up the nursery from year to year, 
 seedlings can be raised in fresh beds, and then transplanted 
 into it, after it has been well dug up and enriched with a 
 little rotten dung or compost. The soil of the nursery is 
 just as well not to be too rich , otherwise the plants will be apt 
 to suffer from the change if put out into one of poorer quality. 
 Some planters are strongly of opinion that the seedlings 
 should be brought up in the same soil as that in which they 
 are afterwards to dwell, and that, consequently, plants 
 brought from a distance are less promising than those raised 
 on the spot.” (Hull.) 
 
 Planting . — When the holes have been duly prepared, the 
 young plants are removed from the nurseries with the same 
 care as they were transplanted to the nurseries from the 
 .seed-beds. For taking up the plants, an ordinary prong is 
 much superior to the spade-bar ; hand-pulling must be rigidly 
 guarded against. The fibrous roots of each plant, as taken 
 up, are carefully pruned off to about 4 in., so that they may 
 not be doubled up in the planting ; the tap-root is also 
 shortened to about 9 in. by a clean sloping cut, for the same 
 reason. A ball of earth should surround the roots ; and if 
 the plants are exposed to the air for more than a few minutes, 
 the roots should be covered with wet moss, or some other 
 damp material. 
 
 A dull cloudy day should be chosen whenever possible; 
 in bright sunshine, the plants would all be burnt up. The 
 plants are carried in batches on trays to the estate. They 
 are placed in the ready prepared holes by hand, great care 
 being taken that no roots are doubled up, that the plants are 
 upright, and that they are no deeper in the ground than they 
 were before. In treading the earth down round the plant, 
 
26 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 every precaution is necessary to prevent leaving holes for the 
 accumulation of water round the roots. The surface should 
 he made firm and as level as possible. On a steep slope, the 
 outer edge may be made slightly higher than the inner, to 
 check the effect of wash ; but in subsequent weeding, it will 
 be necessary to guard against exposing the lateral roots. 
 
 There is some diversity of opinion as to the size and age 
 most suitable for putting out nursery plants. When dull 
 rainy weather can be depended on ibr some little time, 
 nursery plants of the second year are the most satisfactory. 
 Plants of one season only are too tender for the operation. 
 Under ordinary conditions, and with due care, no serious loss 
 of plants should be incurred in this way. A novel plan, 
 which may be advantageously adopted in small plantations, 
 is one resembling the method of planting cinchona. A 
 number of calabashes are deprived of their small end and 
 emjffied of their contents; into these, the seedlings are 
 placed, gradually exposed to the sun as they grow, and finally 
 planted in the calabashes ; the latter soon rot, and form 
 manure for the plants. 
 
 A plan that has been much followed is the substitution of 
 “ stumps ” for nursery plants. Plants that have been in the 
 nursery for about three years are dug up and pruned back, 
 leaving only about 6 to 8 in. of stem. They are hardier and 
 safer in a general way than whole plants, more especially in 
 uncertain weather. They will strike readily, even without 
 rainfall for some little time after being put in, provided the 
 ground has become sufficiently moist to prevent their being 
 burnt up ; but they cannot be used with success in districts 
 where a long period of drought may be expected to succeed 
 the wet season. The planting is performed in the usual way. 
 The plants send up several shoots from the parent stem; of 
 these, the finest is retained to form the future tree, and the 
 rest are pulled off carefully. The shoot that is left grows 
 rapidly ; but, from the way it springs from the stem, it is 
 liable to be accidentally broken off, either by a high wind or 
 by the weeders. The crookedness of the stems of stumps 
 
 ■ 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 27 
 
 from native grown seed renders them very inferior. The 
 best size for stumps is the thickness of a common pencil. 
 
 Dibbling . — Where the land is very rich and friable, holing 
 may be replaced by the less expensive plan called “ dibbling.’’ 
 It is performed in two ways : — (1) By the aid of the spade- 
 bar is made a sufficiently deep hole, into which the plant is 
 dropped, and secured by treading the earth lightly round ; 
 (2) A patch of ground measuring about 1 ft. each way is 
 thoroughly loosened, without the soil being taken out ; in 
 the disturbed earth a hole is made with the hand, the plant 
 is inserted, and trodden round as before. The latter method 
 is preferable. Dibbling is only practicable in exceptional 
 cases. It is, moreover, open to objection, as a hole is often 
 left, in which water may accumulate and rot the plant ; and 
 the roots are more liable to injury than in ordinary planting. 
 On the other hand, very much labour is saved. 
 
 Staking . — When the plants are exposed to wind, they 
 should be provided with supports as soon as they are 10 to 
 12 in. high, and present a resisting surface. For first season’s 
 plants, lining pegs may be used ; but larger plants will need 
 strong, inflexible stakes, 3 to 3^ ft. long, entering the ground 
 on the windward side, at about 6 in. distant, and at such an 
 angle as to meet the stem at about its middle. The plant is 
 attached to the stake by a broad loop of some vegetable 
 fibre, firmly tied to the stake, but loose around the stem. 
 If the plants have already been worked by the wind, they 
 will need earthing up 5 to 6 in. as well. The ties may be 
 brushed with coal-tar, as a protection against theft, insects, 
 and decay. 
 
 “Belts of jungle are sometimes left standing in likely 
 situations, to protect the coffee from the wind, but opinions 
 differ as to the probable advantage of this course, some 
 planters holding that more harm is likely to result than good, 
 the wind being thus frequently concentrated into eddies or 
 whirlwinds, instead of taking its natural and more equable 
 course. This, however, is a question which can only be 
 decided by local circumstances in each case. It is not un- 
 
28 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 common in Europe, when plantations have been made in 
 exposed situations, to put in hedges, or rows of some hardy 
 quick-growing shrub, to protect the plants during the first 
 few years ; and I remember a case in which a Ceylon planter 
 constructed a wall or barrier of posts and brushwood, some 
 8 ft. high, along the most exposed part of his estate, with 
 the same object. All operations of this kind, however, are 
 costly and laborious, and seldom productive of much per- 
 manent benefit ; and as the result of experience, I believe it 
 will probably be wiser not to plant land where they are required . 
 At the most they can only mitigate the evil complained of. 
 In moderately sheltered situations, staking combined with 
 low topping ought to be sufficient to secure the stability of 
 the plant ; where they are not, the situation has little to 
 recommend it for coffee culture.” (Hull.) 
 
 Supplying Vacancies . — Every precaution should be taken 
 to guard against failures, as “ supplies,” as they are called, 
 will seldom, if ever, do as well as young plants put into 
 virgin soil. In new land, failures can be almost entirely 
 guarded against by care. Their number may subsequently 
 be limited by keeping the ground free from weeds, and by 
 good draining, manuring, and pruning. A certain number 
 of vacancies, however, will occur from time to time, and they 
 must be filled up in the following manner : — The original 
 pit, having been re-emptied, should be enlarged an inch or 
 two all round, and especially in depth. This should be done 
 in dry weather, the pit being left open for some time, and 
 only filled in when the time for planting has arrived. In 
 most cases, it will be desirable to refill the pit with the soil 
 which has been taken out of it. 
 
 Where the vacancy is in the midst of old trees, a large pit 
 is necessary, to protect the new plant from being interfered 
 with by their roots, and it is well to isolate the young 
 plant by surrounding it with a ring trench, 6 to 8 in. wide, 
 and 1 ft. deep. It is also desirable to put a basketful or so 
 of new soil from the forest into the pit, near the top ; where 
 this cannot be managed, a few handfuls of manure should 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 29 
 
 be mixed with the surface mould. Only strong, healthy 
 plants may be used for this purpose. Stumps are often 
 considered more suitable than nursery plants, as being 
 hardier ; they throw out three or four “ suckers,” the best 
 of which is selected when they have attained a height of 
 6 to 9 in., the others being carefully pulled off. Well-formed 
 nursery plants, with three or four pairs of primaries, and 
 about 12 to 15 in. high, put in just as they come from the 
 beds, with a good ball round the roots, are to be preferred 
 when steady wet weather can be calculated on for some 
 time. In any case, supplies ought to be put in early in the 
 wet season, so as to give them every advantage. They 
 should always be marked by a tall stake ; and should be 
 allowed to bear a maiden crop before being topped. 
 
 Shelter . — The worst enemy of the coffee shrub is wind. Its 
 effects become apparent in pinched and stunted growth, or 
 in lack of foliage. In situations where the soil is soft and 
 yielding, it does equal mischief by working the stems in the 
 ground, so that in a short time a funnel is formed round the 
 neck of the plant, and this being continually chafed, the 
 bark is worn off, the roots are loosened, and the plant dies 
 “ wind- wrung.” Should it be rescued before the bark is 
 entirely worn off, the plant may live; but it will be ex- 
 tremely liable to attacks from “ bug,” 44 worm,” or any other 
 blight prevalent in the locality. Belts of jungle are some- 
 times left standing, as a protection ; but opinions differ as to 
 the advantage of this plan, some planters holding that more 
 harm is likely to result from the wind being concentrated 
 into eddies, instead of taking its natural and more equable 
 
 course. This question can only be decided by the local 1 1 — 
 
 circumstances of each case. Such belts, being sure to form 
 nurseries for weeds and vermin, are not intended to be 
 permanent, and should gradually give way to fruit or other 
 useful trees. Sometimes artificial shelter is erected, but it 
 is too costly to find general favour. Indeed, in moderately 
 sheltered situations, staking, combined with low topping, 
 ought to be sufficient to secure the stability of the plant. 
 
30 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 Shade . — This is a consideration of great importance, and 
 the opinion now generally adopted is, that the wholesale 
 felling of the forest in some places has been altogether a 
 mistake, and that plantations which are now extinct might 
 still be flourishing, had the forest shade been at least 
 partially retained. The history of coffee cultivation in the 
 East proves that, in hot climates, and where prolonged 
 seasons of drought may recur, coffee will not flourish per- 
 manently, except under shade. In a state of nature, the 
 plant almost universally affects shade ; this is the more 
 remarkable, that the seeds are deposited by wild animals 
 and birds as freely on open grass lands as in forests. A 
 suspicion that the borer, leaf-disease, and other immediate 
 causes of decay, are only induced by the weakened state of 
 the shrubs, consequent upon their exposure to lengthened 
 periods of drought, is supported by the fact that where 
 shade trees are found standing upon an abandoned estate, 
 they are surrounded by a surviving remnant of coffee 
 bushes. 
 
 The question as to where shade is necessary is one of 
 climate ; it is not universally beneficial. The advantages 
 to be derived from it, in very hot climates, are: — Diminished 
 exhaustion, and consequently increased longevity of the 
 plant ; reduced cost of cultivation ; a conservation of the 
 nutritious properties of the soil, and an actual increase of 
 them, as the cover given to the ground causes the surface 
 vegetable matter to decay more rapidly; and, provided^the 
 shade-furnishing tree be a subsoil feeder, the shedding of 
 its leaves will yield a positive gain of surface matter, which 
 the roots of the coffee would otherwise never have reached. 
 In addition to this, there is to be considered the direct value 
 of the timber grown. The only drawback to shade would 
 seem to be a diminished yield of coffee ; but this is atoned for 
 by the increased longevity of the plant. The most suitable 
 trees for affording shade will be alluded to in Chapter VII. * 
 as the same kind of tree is not to be found in all the countries 
 where coffee is grown. 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 31 
 
 Catch- Crops . — Much has been said both for and against 
 the growing of other crops among the coffee shrubs. In the 
 West Indies, the culture of plantains, yams, cocoa, &c., was 
 carried to such an extreme that the coffee became, in fact, 
 of secondary importance, or was even killed out. In Ceylon, 
 too, catch-crops were long in vogue ; but they seem now to 
 have gone out of fashion, as they exhausted the soil, and 
 produced too much shade. There is nothing to object to in 
 the simultaneous cultivation of several crops so long as each 
 has due space, and sufficient manure, and the plants are not 
 antagonistic to each other, as the failure of one crop may be 
 compensated for by the success of another. 
 
 Eice and tobacco have been found to yield good returns as 
 catch-crops, but they possess a disadvantage in not affording 
 any shade to the young coffee plants. Cocoa, yams, and 
 plantains are, perhaps, even less advisable ; and similar 
 attempts with cotton have proved altogether failures. 
 Maize, on the other hand, is highly spoken of by Stainbank, 
 from experiences in Natal. It should be planted thinly in 
 three rows, 18 in. apart, between the coffee rows, and two 
 plants in the coffee rows between the coffee plants. The 
 seed should be sown immediately after the coffee is planted. 
 It grows very quickly, and should early be thinned out to 
 18 in. apart in the rows ; it will soon be high enough to 
 completely shelter and partially shade the coffee, which will 
 grow all the faster in consequence. The latter will also be 
 benefited by the extra working of the ground. In the 
 autumn, a dressing of manure is applied, and the ground is 
 ploughed, or deeply hoed, preferably the former. The crop 
 may be repeated in the following spring, reducing it, how- 
 ever, to two rows and one plant, and repeating the manuring 
 and ploughing or hoeing ; this time the choice between 
 plough and hoe will be governed by the size of the coffee 
 shrubs; the same manure will suit both coffee and maize. 
 
 Weeding . — By “ weeding ” is meant the eradication of 
 every plant which is not being intentionally cultivated. 
 The operation is performed in different ways, according to 
 
32 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 the nature of the soil. On light soils, and sloping situations, 
 hand weeding is much the best. The labourer is provided 
 with a pointed stick, to help in getting up obstinate roots, 
 and carries at his waist a small bag, into which the weeds 
 are at once thrust. They are turned out of the bags into 
 pits dug at convenient intervals, or are heaped up in the 
 roads, and are finally buried or burned, the latter being the 
 surer way to destroy them. By weeding early, and repeat- 
 ing as often as necessary, the ground may be kept clean by 
 hand. When hand weeding will not suffice, recourse must 
 be had to “ scraping ” the ground, which is attended with a 
 serious drawback, viz. : — that the first inch or more of the 
 best surface mould is removed at the same time, thus robbing 
 the plants of food, and exposing the earth to the full effects 
 of wash. On stiff clay soils, on level plantations, and in 
 damp, cool climates, on the other hand, hoeing is not only 
 necessary for the perfect eradication of the weeds, but is of 
 itself exceedingly beneficial to the soil, and, except during 
 the dry season, should be regularly done whether weeds are 
 present or not. When scraping or hoeing, it is imperative 
 that the operation should be conducted from the outside 
 towards the tree, so that the roots may be kept well covered, 
 and the wash may easily escape into the gutters. 
 
 “ By beginning to weed early,” says Hull, “ much subse- 
 quent loss and expense will be avoided, and the work should 
 be systematically and carefully pursued once a month, or 
 oftener if necessary. Unfortunately, however, this is not 
 always practicable, owing to scarcity of labour, and hence 
 it is estates are often seen so deplorably overrun. Within 
 the first month or two after a clean burn, on forest land, 
 the number of weeds should be so small as almost to 
 admit of their being counted; one springing up here and 
 there, but each isolated and independent. If, then, these are 
 taken up before they have run to seed , and if the whole estate 
 is subsequently gone over in the same way, once a month 
 unfailingly , it can easily be kept permanently clean at a very 
 trifling expense ; but , once allow the isolated weed-plant to 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 33 
 
 ran to seed, and for every one , soon a hundred will appear ; 
 and if these hundred go also to seed, then we may expect for 
 every hundred, ten thousand more ; and so on until the sur- 
 face is covered so closely that not an inch of soil is to he 
 seen. In bamboo districts, where the prevailing weed-pest 
 takes the form of grass, matters are even worse, this being 
 propagated from the roots as much as from seed; and within 
 an incredibly short space of time, unless great care is taken, 
 the planter will find, to his dismay, his estate turned into a 
 luxuriant hayfield, the coffee steadily waning away under 
 the influence of the irrepressible invader. And here it may 
 be remarked, that seldom will finer hay crops be met with 
 than are sometimes to be seen covering estates in the dis- 
 tricts alluded to. The thing to be regretted is their being 
 so entirely in the icrong place. 
 
 “A not uncommon, and in many respects a most advan- 
 tageous, practice is to give out weeding contracts to canganies, 
 or native overseers, at so much per acre per month. In 
 these cases the contractor has to provide and pay his own 
 labourers, and is usually bound to weed over the land let 
 out to him once a month. On clean forest land, where this 
 system has been in vogue from the first, the cost is even as 
 low as from one to two shillings an acre ; but on old estates, 
 which have been allowed at one time or other to get weedy, 
 and are consequently more or less stocked with seed, it will 
 be as much, sometimes, as 4s. an acre monthly. The great 
 advantages of contract-weeding are, that a special gang 
 being permanently devoted to the work, there is less risk 
 of its being at any time interrupted ; also that the onus of 
 providing this part of the labour gang is taken off the 
 shoulders of the superintendent ; thirdly, that the latter is 
 saved the labour and anxiety of supervision ; and, finally, 
 that the cost is less than would be the case under a system 
 of day-work.” (Hull.) 
 
 Pruning .— 1 The kind of pruning first required by coffee 
 bushes is that known as “ topping.” The age and height at 
 which this operation is performed, depend in a great measure 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 upon local circumstances ; the question is also a much- 
 debated one. The object of “ topping,” or removing the top 
 of the bush, is to restrain its upward growth within con- 
 venient limits, and, as a natural consequence, to strengthen 
 and concentrate its lateral growth. According to Sabona- 
 diere, topping is commenced, in Ceylon, at the age of 12-18 
 months, the maximum ordinary height being 4 ft., sometimes 
 reduced to 2 ft. He prefers to postpone the operation till 
 the shrubs have borne the maiden crop, even though extra 
 staking is required to withstand the wind. His plan is to 
 remove the two primaries at the required height, by a sloping 
 outward cut close to the stem, and then to remove the top by 
 an oblique cut, so that the stumps resemble a cross, and a 
 firm natural knot remains to guard against the stem splitting 
 down. 
 
 Hull (Ceylon) contends that the plants should be topped 
 as soon as they have reached the required height, when the 
 soft wood is easily severed by a pinch between the finger and 
 thumb. In Natal, the shrubs are topped either at their full 
 height — 4^-5 ft. — or at 3 ft., allowing a sucker to grow up 
 on the weather side to complete the height. The latter 
 plan is preferred. There is much advantage gained in 
 limiting the height to 5 ft.; not only is the crop gathered 
 more easily and without damage to the tree, but it is actually 
 heavier, and the shrubs are more readily made to cover the 
 ground. 
 
 The first result of topping is to induce the growth of a 
 number of shoots, the removal of which is termed “ handling ” 
 or “ searching.” The first to appear are vertical suckers or 
 “ gormandisers,” from under the primary boughs ; these are 
 immediately rubbed off without injuring the bark. From 
 the primaries, spring secondary branches, in pairs, and at 
 very short intervals. All such appearing within 6 in. of the 
 main stem are removed at once, so that a passage of at least 
 a foot is left in the centre of the tree, for the admission of 
 air and sun. The object of pruning is to divert the energies 
 of the tree from forming wood, and to concentrate them upon 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 35 
 
 forming fruit. The fruit of the coffee tree is borne by young 
 wood ; and, as the secondaries are reproduced when removed, 
 they are cut off as soon as they have borne, and a constant 
 succession of young wood is thus secured. In order that this 
 may be regular, and to avoid weakening the shrub, the 
 secondaries that grow outside of the foot space are left on 
 alternate sides of the primary, their opposites being removed 
 each year in turn ; thus one is growing while the other is 
 bearing. 
 
 The one point in view must be the equal development of 
 the tree, and the yearly growth of as much as it will bear, 
 but no more. Branches must not be allowed to grow into or 
 cross eacn other ; if two or more secondaries spring from one 
 spot, the strongest only must be retained ; where a gap 
 occurs, tertiaries may be trained to fill it, in the same way. 
 When practicable, the bushes should be handled twice before 
 the crop ; and the pruning should be commenced imme- 
 diately after the crop, and finished before the blossom comes 
 out. Should that be impossible, it must be suspended during 
 the 3 or 4 days of blossom-time, and then be carried to com- 
 pletion. When it is evident that the crop on a tree will 
 exhaust it if allowed to mature, a portion of it must be sacri- 
 ficed by pruning. The loss thus occasioned is more apparent 
 than real. In very prolific seasons, much fruit is wasted for 
 lack of labour, and the trees are unnecessarily overtaxed, and 
 bear poorly for some time afterwards. Everything should 
 be done to ensure regular and even crops. The cuttings 
 should be trenched in as manure. No branch should be 
 allowed to bear more than two or three crops before removal. 
 Regular and systematic pruning is one of the first essentials 
 to successful coffee culture ; where plantations have been 
 neglected on this score, they must be very gradually reduced 
 to proper condition, by sawing out the cross branches, and 
 opening up the centre of the trees, in the first year ; and 
 thinning out half the remaining wood, in the second year. 
 
 Manuring . — It is commonly said that coffee is an unusually 
 exhaustive crop ; but the exhaustion of the soil consequent 
 
 d 2 
 
36 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 upon coffee culture is a result of the peculiar conditions 
 under which it is prosecuted, rather than of the nature of 
 the plant itself. Better than any amount of artificial 
 manuring is the retention of the naturally rich surface soil, 
 by the effective prevention of wash. As a secondary adjunct, 
 however, judicious manuring will not only be highly bene- 
 ficial, but necessary, in almost all cases after the first year or 
 two. It is impossible to lay down any hard-and-fast rules for 
 manuring; the most that can be done is to indicate the 
 elements or ingredients necessary to fertilise coffee soils, the 
 various sources from which they may be obtained, and the 
 best methods of applying them. As is well known to those 
 who have studied the matter, every growth, whatever its 
 character, requires, in suitable proportions, nitrogen, phos- 
 phoric acid, potash, and lime. Coffee soils, in addition to 
 these, appear to contain about 15 per cent, of combined 
 iron, and alumina : the iron, if as red oxide, may amount to 
 20 or even 30 per cent., being a good absorbent of fertilising 
 constituents; but the alumina should not exceed 10 percent. 
 These are the necessary ingredients ; the sources from which 
 they are obtainable may be considered under three heads : 
 (1) Manures obtainable close at hand, whether animal or 
 vegetable in their nature, such as dung, coffee pulp, 
 prunings, &c. ; (2) manures and compounds purely chemical 
 in their origin ; and (3) manures or guanos which are 
 organic in their nature, but are imported, such as Peruvian, 
 Ohlendorff’s, and Jensen’s Guanos. 
 
 1. The best average local manure for supplying nitrogen 
 and potash is well-rotted dung ; but its frequent application 
 should be accompanied by a little lime, unless the soil is 
 already very rich in that constituent ; without the presence 
 of lime, the shrubs will not receive the full benefit of the 
 nitrogenous principles, but its use in a tropical climate must 
 be governed by caution. Thoroughly fermented coffee pulp 
 is only half as valuable as dung, and costs more to apply. 
 It should be kept covered as it is produced, and is best 
 mixed with fermenting dung, failing which, it should be 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 37 
 
 well limed. Alone it is of small benefit, but forms a good 
 vehicle for concentrated fertilisers. Both these manures 
 have one drawback, viz. lack of concentration, and con- 
 sequent extra expense in haulage and manipulation. 
 
 2. Manures of purely chemical origin are useful as stimu- 
 lants, and when applied with organic fertilisers ; but they 
 are generally considered to exhaust the soil, and are not 
 advisable for coffee. Lime and potash salts, which are 
 absolutely necessary, are exempted from this category. 
 
 3. The third heading above named includes the fertilisers 
 to which the coffee-grower must give his attention. An 
 organic manure, in a highly concentrated form, containing 
 the four ingredients previously referred to, is at once the 
 most effective and economical food. It is necessary above 
 all things to apply a manure which is a sustenant, as well as 
 a stimulant, one which will feed the plant until the time of 
 harvest. This desideratum is only obtained in an organic 
 substance, and, when that organic matter is concentrated, 
 a great saving is effected. Ohlendorff ’s and J ensen’s Guanos, 
 manufactured respectively by the Anglo-Continental Guano 
 Company, 15 Leadenhall Street, and by Messrs. J. Jensen and 
 Co., of 109 Fenchurch Street, London, answer these require- 
 ments, and planters cannot do better than communicate 
 with these firms. Generally speaking, the great object of 
 manuring is to supply all the constituents required in an 
 available form. In tropical climates, all manures are best 
 applied frequently and in small quantities. Regular 
 manuring after each crop and before rain (except in the 
 case of soluble chemicals, such as sulphate of ammonia and 
 nitrate of soda) would doubtless be most generally econo- 
 mical and advantageous. Dung may be applied at any 
 time. Potash seldom requires to be directly applied, but is 
 advantageous after attacks of leaf-disease. Magnesia seems 
 to be a necessary constituent (from 0*5 to 2*0 per cent.) of 
 all good coffee soils ; when wanting, dolomite may be applied. 
 
 The manner of applying manures is not the same in all 
 cases. No manure should be put more than 1 ft. below the 
 
38 
 
 CULTIVATION. 
 
 surface of the ground, nor less than 18 in. from the stem of 
 the coffee bush. On flat land, where there is no danger of 
 wash, the manure may be spread over the surface, and hoed 
 in to a depth of 9-12 in., or a square hole may be cut between 
 each four shrubs, and the manure buried in it. On slopes, it 
 is usual to dig a hole above each bush. For bulky manures, 
 it may be 2 ft. long, 1 \ ft. wide, and 1 ft. deep ; for concen- 
 trated manures, its dimensions will be reduced. The holes 
 should be filled up with any prunings or other vegetable 
 matter at hand, and covered down firmly with the loose top 
 soil ; the new earth from the hole should be spread around 
 the stem of the neighbouring tree to protect its roots. 
 
 Ordinary manuring is sometimes supplemented by other 
 methods of improving the soil. One of these is to loosen it, 
 by driving a long bar or a manure-fork deeply into the 
 ground, and then prizing up the earth, without turning it 
 over. A second operation is that known as “ mulching,” or 
 “ ground-thatching,” which consists in covering the ground 
 under the bushes with a layer, 6-9 in. thick, of hard long 
 grass. The effect of this, in cold, wet soils, is to keep the 
 ground warm, and to throw off excessive moisture ; in hot* 
 dry situations, it is equally useful to retain moisture. In 
 any case, weeds are kept down, and wash is quite prevented. 
 When rotten, the grass may be hoed or dug in as manure. 
 This thatching has been found a perfect cure for black bug. 
 
 A third operation is called “ trenching,” or “ waterholing.” 
 The trenches are made across the slope, and may be either 
 open or closed. In the former case, holes, 3-4 ft. long, 
 12-15 in. broad, and 15-18 in. deep, are cut between each 
 four trees ; the soil taken from them is spread over the roots 
 of the trees, while the holes are left open to act as catch- 
 drains, and as receptacles for wash, weeds, prunings, and 
 other vegetable matters, being emptied twice a year, and 
 their contents spread around the roots of the shrubs. Closed 
 trenches are ditches cut across the entire length of the coffee 
 rows, 2 ft. wide and deep, and filled with any vegetable 
 rubbish at hand ; they are then covered with earth, and well 
 
CULTIVATION. 
 
 39 
 
 trodden down, while the remaining soil is spread under the 
 trees. The benefit of trenching is greatest in stiff soils. 
 The refuse matter in the trenches should be limed, to hill 
 grubs and other vermin for which it will form a nursery. 
 
 Harvesting . — The clusters of buds which duly make their 
 appearance are, at first, little, dark-green spikes; as they 
 grow, they become straw-coloured, then, under the influence 
 of a few showers, almost white, and finally burst into snowy 
 blossoms. After a day or two, the flowers turn brown and 
 fade away, the more gradually the better. While the bloom 
 is out, rainfall is unwelcome ; but after it has " set,” a shower 
 is beneficial. The pistils of the flowers soon assume the form 
 of berries, gradually growing, and changing their colour from 
 dark-green to light-yellow, which finally deepens to red. As 
 soon as a sprinkling of red berries is seen, picking should 
 begin ; it will continue as long as any berries ripen, say 
 1 to 3 months. The berries, or rather cherries, must not be 
 picked until fully ripe, as indicated by a deep purplish- 
 crimson colour. 
 
 As the crop rarely or never ripens all at once, two or three 
 pickings are required, the second being the principal one, 
 while the others are rather gleanings. Each mature cherry 
 should be picked separately off its stalk, and never stripped 
 off ; the cherries as picked are dropped into a small bag — say 
 18 in. square — suspended from the neck; these bags are 
 emptied into lj- or 2-bushel sacks placed at intervals on 
 the paths. If allowed to get overripe, in wet weather, the 
 cherries are liable to burst and drop the beans, or to fall off 
 bodily ; on clean ground, much may be recovered. In hot 
 weather, the cherries are more likely to dry up and hold on 
 to the trees. In order to convey the cherries to the curing- 
 houses, a great saving is effected, in long distances, by 
 running them with water down galvanised iron spouting, 
 made in 8-ft. lengths, laid with even gradients and curves, 
 and duly secured. The cherries are despatched from cisterns, 
 to which the due proportion of water is admitted ; provision 
 is made for collecting and utilising the latter at the works. 
 
( 40 ) 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 Besides peculiar conditions of climate, aspect, drainage, 
 shade, shelter, &c., already alluded to, particular attention 
 must he paid to the prevention or cure of certain maladies to 
 which the coffee shrub is specially liable. The number of 
 these insectiform and fungoid pests is considerable ; but the 
 only ones of sufficient importance to merit description are 
 leaf- blight, fly, borer, bug, and canker. 
 
 Leaf -blight . — The leaf-blight of Ceylon and Southern India 
 was first noticed in the former country about 1869, and in 
 India two years later; by 1875, it had devastated whole 
 districts, and since then it has been found in Sumatra and 
 Java. Its existence at a distance from the Indian Ocean has 
 not yet been proved, though there is some suspicion that an 
 allied disease is indigenous to Western Africa. It is a 
 fungus, known as Hemileia vastatrix , and allied to the 
 moulds. It is present in some form or other all the year 
 round, and first attacks the under side of the leaves, causing 
 spots or blotches, at first yellow, but subsequently turning 
 black. These blotches are covered with a pale orange- 
 coloured dust or powder, which easily rubs off ; they 
 gradually increase in size, until at last they have spread 
 over the leaves, which then drop off, leaving the trees unable 
 to produce crop, or to bring to maturity that which may 
 have already been produced. 
 
 In districts affected by the south-west monsoon, during 
 December to February, the fungus generally exists as an 
 external parasite, in the form of long filamentous threads, 
 covering every part of the bark and leaves, but so minute as 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 41 
 
 to be invisible to tlie naked eye. The disease was made the 
 subject of an official inquiry, by Daniel Morris, of the 
 Peradineya Botanic Gardens, from whose report it appears 
 that a successful mode of treatment has been found. Of the 
 many materials experimented with, one only is invariably 
 effective, viz. a mixture of best-quality flowers of sulphur 
 with caustic lime, in the proportions of 1 part (by weight or 
 measure) of the former with three parts of the latter — 1 : 2 
 gives much better results at increased cost — and thoroughly 
 incorporating them before use. 
 
 When small areas only are to be treated, sulphur blowers 
 may be used for applying the powder ; but it can be as 
 effectively spread by hand, taking care that it is thrown 
 upwards into the tree, and that the stem and branches 
 become well coated. Sufficient will generally fall to the 
 ground to disinfect the vegetable matter lying there ; but 
 under large and leafy bushes, a few extra handfuls may be 
 sprinkled. This will especially apply when “ mulching,” or 
 open trenching, is carried on. When once the mycelium , or 
 vegetative part of the fungus, has penetrated the tissues of 
 the leaves, no remedy can be used which will not also destroy 
 the leaf. The only opportunity for combating the disease 
 is while it is in the invisible filamentous state, on the 
 exterior of the bark and leaves. At this time (December to 
 February), each tree should be treated with about 5 oz. of 
 the mixture, not omitting to disinfect the ground and what- 
 ever encumbers it. 
 
 It. has been observed that the treatment produces marked 
 beneficial effects upon the trees in other ways ; their ap- 
 pearance becomes more vigorous and healthy, the foliage 
 improves in texture and colour, the wood matures and bears 
 earlier, the blossom sets better, and the crop is heavier. The 
 measure is preventive only. The disease being infectious, 
 and the spores of the fungus easily distributed by wind, every 
 precaution should be taken to eradicate it from abandoned 
 coffpe patches, and stray wild trees. Such had better be 
 bui jut, and the ground occupied by other produce. The cost 
 
42 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 per acre of the treatment is estimated as follows : — Flowers 
 of sulphur, 1 cwt., E. 10; coral lime, 3 cwt., E. 5*25; hand 
 spreading, E. 1*25; total, E. 16*50. In hardly any case 
 would it exceed E. 18-20 an acre, without transport. 
 
 Following is a summary of a most important paper on the 
 life-history of Hemileia vastatrix , by H. Marshall Ward, late 
 on special duty as Cryptogamist to the Government of 
 Ce3 7 lon. 
 
 The economic aspect of “leaf-disease,” as affecting the 
 coffee-plant and the production of a large staple, he does not 
 comment upon ; for the proper appreciation of the facts and 
 their bearings, however, he states shortly some peculiarities 
 of climate, &c., under which coffee is cultivated in a tropical 
 island such as Ceylon. 
 
 “If we confine our attention to the coffee growing, for ex- 
 ample, on the hilly slopes of the great south-western coffee- 
 districts, the following general statements are true. The 
 trees are arranged in rows on the hill-sides, the stems some 
 5 to 6 feet apart and under 5 feet high : the branches and 
 main stem of each tree are so pruned and trained that they 
 form a thick shrubby head of leafy shoots, touching or 
 nearly so, the corresponding branches and twigs of each 
 nearest tree. Apart from changes produced by social 
 causes, the normal course of phenomena on a mass oftrees 
 such as has been sketched during the year would prD&bly 
 be, shortly put, somewhat as follows : — 
 
 “ During the dry hot season from January to Marc few 
 young leaves are formed, but the foliage already o the 
 branches is actively at work, under a blazing sun, suppdng 
 materials for the flowers, which succeed one anothl in 
 clusters during this time, and for the future demands of he 
 trees ; occasional showers or rainy days supply nece&ry 
 moisture to the roots, but little or no dew forms durii the 
 dry nights towards the end of the period. The wind ( nch 
 during the early part of the year may be plentiful, "fc is 
 commonly slight later) is dry, and comes chiefly stdity 
 from the north-east. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 43 
 
 “ Some time near the beginning of what we may term the 
 second three months (April to June), the rainy weather sets 
 in, and the hitherto dry atmosphere becomes more or less 
 saturated with moisture. An obvious consequence of these 
 changes is the renewal of growth on the part of the trees, 
 and new leaves and shoots are rapidly formed in the early 
 portion of this period, while the fertilised flowers produce 
 young fruit in the successive clusters. During the showery 
 weather, or at periods more or less alternating, the wind is 
 frequently gusty and heavy. On the whole, however, while 
 the dry and often drooping coffee of February and March has 
 to depend on occasional rains to bring out its numerous 
 flower-buds, the April and May rains fill out the young fruits 
 and force new leaves from the buds, and a general state of 
 turgescence is enjoyed by the tissues of the plant. The 
 warm cloudy days and nights prevent dangerous evaporation 
 or radiation, though boisterous winds may injure the tender 
 shoots mechanically. 
 
 “ About the end of the last or beginning of the next of our 
 arbitrary periods, i.e. July to September, the south-west mon- 
 soon sets in, accompanied by continuous and heavy rains and 
 winds ; J uly and August are frequently characterised by fine 
 hot weather, with alternate showery and cloudy intervals, 
 the south-west wind becoming more gentle and continuous; 
 while September commonly ushers in another warm damp 
 period, when moulds and mildew luxuriate in the steamy 
 atmosphere. 
 
 “ In the fine weather, which usually characterises great 
 part of the next three months, the ‘ picking of crop ’ is 
 carried on ; the trees become weary, so to speak, as their 
 last fruit ripens, and little more growth is noticeable after 
 November; the leaves formed in September have attained 
 their full size and normal dark colour and leathery texture, 
 and a state of comparative rest is characteristic of December 
 and January. 
 
 “ Having premised these facts, the importance of which 
 will be more evident as we proceed, I may sketch in a 
 
44 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 similarly general manner tlie phases of the malady known as 
 6 Coffee-leaf disease 5 as they commonly occur in the districts 
 named. From the middle of January to the end of March 
 the orange-red 6 rust 5 spots, so characteristic of this disease, 
 are either altogether absent or rare ; during April and May 
 the spots occur here and there, chiefly on the older leaves 
 and very rarely on the young ones. In June and July the 
 great and disastrous annual 4 attack of disease ’ usually 
 becomes manifested by the myriads of yellow spots breaking 
 forth from the leaves in all stages, each producing its masses 
 of orange-red 4 rust ’ ; and from this time forwards, until the 
 dry weather is again fairly set in, the disease is constantly 
 present, fluctuating in intensity according to circumstances. 
 It generally happens, indeed, that another severe ‘attack of 
 the disease’ occurs about December or January ; and in rare 
 cases, as in wet ravines, the disease-spots do not completely 
 disappear all the year round. 
 
 4 4 It became an important part of my duty to ascertain 
 clearly what conditions influenced the rise and fall, so to 
 speak, in the virulence of the disease; it was therefore 
 necessary to obtain an accurate knowledge of all the circum- 
 stances affecting the life of the fungus causing the latter. 
 
 “ Having ascertained that the spore (‘ uredospore ’) of 
 Hemileia , germinating on the damp under surface of the 
 coffee-leaf, emits a short, delicate tube which sends a pro- 
 longation through a stoma, and that the further development 
 of this results in the production of the intercellular 
 mycelium, a point of departure for further investigation 
 was established. 
 
 44 The presumption was fair, considering the analogies 
 discovered between Hemileia and other parasitic fungi, that 
 this ingrowth of the germinal tube is the true ‘infective’ 
 act ; and I proceeded to ascertain if leaves on which spores 
 were thus sown developed disease-spots, while others did 
 not. Experiments made during the latter part of 1880 and 
 the early months of 1881 established conclusively that this 
 was the case. Having selected a number of seedlings which 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 45 
 
 had been carefully grown under cover, from washed seeds, in 
 baked earth, and which had presented no signs of disease, 
 spores were sown on certain leaves of sixteen of the plants. 
 
 “ The sowing in each case was performed as follows : — A 
 large drop of water was caused to adhere to the under surface 
 of the leaf, and in this suspended drop a number of the 
 orange-coloured spores of Hemileia were carefully placed 
 with a needle. A small glass chamber (formed by a glass 
 ring, covered by an ordinary 4 cover,’ and a piece of bibulous 
 paper with a hole punched through the centre) was then 
 clipped over the drop, and kept moist by means of blotting- 
 paper on which a siphon was allowed to play slowly. All 
 the plants were kept in a well*- lighted, thoroughly ventilated 
 room, of which the average temperature was 78° Fahr. At 
 various intervals, spores were carefully removed from one of 
 the damp chambers and examined ; the details of germination 
 have been fully described elsewhere.* 
 
 “All the plants were watched day after day, and the leaves 
 examined to see if any 4 disease-spots ’ appeared. At length 
 ‘ disease-spots,’ or yellow patches, were seen to have arisen 
 one after another, until fifteen of the infected plants had 
 developed these normal symptoms of the malady. After 
 carefully examining the w^hole experiment, and allowing a 
 considerable time to elapse after the appearance of the first 
 spot, I was driven to the following conclusion : — 
 
 44 The 4 disease-spot ’ was only developed on those leaves 
 and plants whereon sowings of the fungus-spores were 
 made ; moreover, the yellow spot made its appearance only 
 in the immediate area where the spores were sown, and 
 nowhere else on the plant, even when the latter was subse- 
 quently kept for several weeks. During the same period I 
 further made numerous isolated experiments, none of which 
 contradicted the above conclusions. I need not dwell upon 
 the agreement between these results and those obtained 
 from the anatomy of the fungus, nor is it necessary to point 
 out the analogy between the phenomena of Hemileia infec- 
 * Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci., January 1882. 
 
46 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 tions and those obtained for Uredinons fungi.* The possible 
 reply, that I had induced special conditions within the glass 
 chambers, not realised on the various check-plants, led me to 
 alter the details of the experiments by using damp bell- 
 glasses ; and I found that, provided every care was taken to 
 ensure the absence of spores, even very damp plants did not 
 become infected. 
 
 “ Here, then, in the results of experiments looked at in the 
 light of the anatomical facts, was proof that the act of infec- 
 tion consisted in the emission of something from the spore, 
 which made its way into the leaf and caused the disease. 
 The microscopical examination of spores and leaves proved 
 that this ‘ something 5 is a germinal tube — a direct out- 
 growth from the spore. 
 
 64 1 next proceeded to inquire if any constancy is evinced in 
 the periods necessary for (1) complete germination, (2) com- 
 plete infection and the formation of the internal mycelium, 
 (3) the formation of the yellow spot and 4 rust/ and (4) in 
 the duration of the activity of the spot. 
 
 44 With respect to the germination of the spore, the follow- 
 ing facts have been established by numerous experiments 
 and observations. Germination can only occur if the spore 
 be in contact with water for a sufficiently long period. If 
 the spore has been completely desiccated for some time, as 
 is the case with spores which have been formed at the 
 commencement of the dry season, several days may be 
 required for the successful formation of the germinal tubes ; 
 but with quite fresh ripe spores, produced in the moist 
 atmosphere of the south-west monsoon, the changes are 
 effected much more rapidly. In from twelve to twenty-four 
 hours after the removal of the ripe spore from its mycelium, 
 the tubes sometimes commence to form, and, as a rule, the 
 whole cycle of germination (i.e. the formation of a complete 
 germinal tube, the end of which has commenced to block up 
 the orifice of a stoma) has been gone through. 
 
 44 From the facts that spores may remain dormant on the 
 
 * Vide De Bary, Monatsber. d. Berl. Akad. 1865, and lit. quoted. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 47 
 
 leaves during dry weather, and that they may retain their 
 capacity for germination for several weeks if gathered dry 
 and kept in cool, dry, sealed glass-tubes, the proof that 
 moisture is necessary for their germination becomes 
 strengthened ; and this is, of course, in accordance with what 
 we know of other similar germinating bodies.* 
 
 “ That oxygen is also necessary may be demonstrated : 
 germination is delayed or prevented if the spores be immersed 
 in small air-tight chambers. Too low a temperature, as on 
 flat open spaces, chilled by radiation to near the freezing- 
 point, as well as artificially high temperature, kill the spores. 
 Their rapid and vigorous germination at or near the tem- 
 perature of 75° Fahr. is sufficiently established by numerous 
 successful experiments. 
 
 “ I demonstrated on several occasions the fact that the 
 uredospore germinates well in the open on young vigorous 
 coffee-leaves in the warm, damp atmosphere of the south-west 
 monsoon, and also showed that spores germinate under such 
 conditions on the soil, in the meshes of exposed canvas-cloth, 
 and on glass, &c. ; whence it may safely be inferred that, 
 given the conditions for germination, any spore may throw 
 out germinal tubes. If this occurs on the under surface of 
 the coffee-leaf, the chances are infinitely in favour of the leaf 
 becoming 4 infected ’ through its stomata. 
 
 “ Complete infection may be taken to mean the successful 
 establishment of the mycelium (derived from the germinal 
 tube passing through the stoma) in the intercellular passage 
 1 of the leaf. By cutting sections of the coffee-leaf at various 
 periods after the spores were sown as above, it was shown 
 that on or about the third day after the formation of the 
 ; germinal tubes, the diverticula sent through the stomata 
 were becoming established within the leaf as branching 
 mycelial structures ; while further comparisons demon- 
 
 * Note added August Sth . — Spores of Hemileia, received by post from 
 the Royal Garden, Kew, in July 1882, were successfully germinated 
 in Strassburg on July 18— 20th. ; these specimens came from the island 
 ' of Reunion. 
 
 
48 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 strated that during the second week after the sowing a well- 
 branched and vigorous mycelium occupies that part of the 
 leaf coloured by the area on which the spores were sown. So 
 constant are these phenomena that one could depend upon 
 having preparations in a given stage for each three or four 
 days after infection. 
 
 “From further observations it became clear that when the 
 intercellular mycelium has attained a certain development, 
 its branches have blocked up many of the lacunae, and having 
 sent haustoria into the cells bounding them, the tissues of the 
 affected area become paler in hue, the contents of the cells 
 are disorganised, and a yellowish discoloration becomes 
 visible on the exterior of the leaf. This discoloration (the 
 incipient 4 disease-spot ’) is readily detected after a little 
 experience, though during the first or second day it may be 
 but slightly perceptible. 
 
 “ This stage, the first evidence of the presence of disease to 
 the unaided eye, may be looked upon as a distinct one in the 
 cycle of development of the fungus ; and I will give one or 
 two examples to show how constant and well-defined is the 
 period at which a vigorous mycelium may be known to be ■ 
 present, as evinced by the yellowish incipient 4 disease-spot ’ 
 seen from without. 
 
 44 a. Spores were sown in the manner described on the 
 living coffee-leaf on July 24th ; the pale spot appeared on 
 August 7th, i.e. 14 days after. 
 
 “ (3. Spores were sown on January 30th; the spot appeared j 
 on February 13th, also 14 days after. 
 
 44 y. Spores were sown as above on October 20th ; spot first 
 visible November 3rd, also 14 days after. 
 
 44 Hence we see that a certain constancy appears observable 
 in the rate at which the mycelium proceeds in its work of 
 destruction. These examples, chosen simply to illustrate 
 this fact, might be multiplied. However, it is not true that 
 the 4 disease-spot ’ always appears on the 14th day ; as will 
 be shown, it may happen that one or two days more or less 
 are required, according to circumstances to be examined ; an 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 49 
 
 average of nearly 14 days is very common, however, as shown 
 by the following Table (I.), which summarises shortly a 
 number of experiments, selected from a large series, made to 
 determine (1) the time occupied in the germination of a spore, 
 (2) how soon afterwards the 4 disease-spot ’ appears on the 
 leaf, and (3) how long the mycelium may continue to pro- 
 duce spores. In each case a vigorous young plant was 
 selected which had been grown for some months in a sheltered 
 situation, and was clean and healthy. On a recently formed 
 leaf a sowing of spores was made, kept moist for 24 to 28 
 hours, and then (the damp cell having been removed) placed 
 in a carefully cleaned Wardian case, well lighted, sheltered, 
 and kept at an average temperature of about 78° Fahr. In 
 all cases the spores were found to germinate in 24 hours, and 
 the tubes had commenced to block up the stomata within 
 48 hours. For all examples, also, the following holds good : 
 the 4 disease-spots 5 appeared on the leaf on which the sowing 
 was made, and within the area of sowing, and nowhere else on 
 the 'plant . Moreover, no more 4 disease ’ appeared on the 
 same plant, even after keeping it for several (six to eight) 
 months, unless a fresh sowing was made and kept moist for 
 24 to 48 hours as before. 
 
 “ These facts prove (1) that the 6 disease-spots ’ and 4 rust ’ 
 result from the tubes and mycelium traced by the micro- 
 scope from the spore ; (2) that the fungus corresponds in area 
 with the disease-spot ; (3) that even if spores be present on 
 the leaf, no 4 disease ’ results unless the conditions (moisture, 
 &c.) for germination be also present. Finally, taken in con- 
 junction with the results of microscopic analysis, they prove 
 that the disease-spot is due to the action of an organism 
 derived from without, which passes through definite changes 
 and has a limited term of life. 
 
 44 It is therefore true that a certain approach to constancy 
 is exhibited by the successive phases above described ; and 
 it is abundantly proved that the yellow 4 disease-spot ’ is the 
 outward sign of internal injuries caused by the mycelium, 
 and co-extensive with it. 
 
 E 
 
Table I. 
 
 50 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 Time during 
 which spores 
 were conti- 
 nuously- 
 produced. 
 
 Weeks. 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 Time occu- 
 pied in 
 forming 
 ‘ disease- 
 spot.’ 
 
 £.X 
 
 ci i— 1 rH r-H i— 1 i— l r— 1 i— 1 rH •— • i— 1 
 
 ft 
 
 Approximate 
 date on which 
 spores ceased 
 to form. 
 
 May 1 
 April 1 
 Mar. 31 
 April 1 
 May 1 
 April 20 
 
 A 
 
 • • 
 
 Approximate 
 date on w r hich 
 spot turned 
 black in 
 centre. 
 
 April 25 
 Mar. 11 
 » 10 
 „ 12 
 April 2 
 Mar. 30 
 
 Mar. 20 
 
 Approximate 
 date of 
 greatest 
 vigour. 
 
 rH O CO ^ O rH O 
 
 >“H r - 1 rH <M iM 
 
 r© i ft % : tO 1 : : 
 
 h h pd <J 
 
 Date on 
 which spores 
 were first 
 seen. 
 
 OIOCOOOOOOOOIOCO 
 I-H (M CO 1— CM 
 
 r© d ft 3 d tD ft 3 
 
 0 ~ 3 0 £ s d d ft © ft 
 
 Pd ~ ►? Pd ^ Pd 
 
 Date on 
 which the 
 ‘disease- 
 spot ’ 
 appeared. 
 
 -+<CO>OTHCOw)TjHC0I>t>COCO 
 rH CM CM rH 
 
 ft P ft 3 d ft 
 
 0 S S ® • r 5 ^ AS ^ ft © ft 
 
 Pd t-o> Pd *"0 ^ Pd 
 
 Date on 
 which spores 
 were sown. 
 
 I>0-HCO<MGO(Mi— 1 rH ~i O 
 
 CNCOi— ((MCMi-HCMt— l(M CM CM 
 
 d ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 >-0 ^ < »-3 
 
 ^pjop’apidtiiH^s 
 
 ►>> Cd 
 
 > 
 
 a 8 
 
 p* 
 
 GOcpJ 
 
 © O 
 
 ^3 W) 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 ft>53 
 
 ft! d 
 •r © 
 fe: 0 
 
 s-g 
 
 .a p* 
 © 
 &c~ 
 
 d ** 
 
 *3 § 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 O 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 51 
 
 As soon as tlie yellow ‘ disease-spot ’ lias become obvious, 
 the reproduction of the fungus takes place, as described else- 
 where ;* and the first appearance of orange-coloured ‘ rust ’ 
 or spores occurs on the outside. The outcome of all the 
 observations shows that this takes place, on the average, 
 about the third day after the first external signs of the yellow 
 spot are evident. 
 
 Is ow it is plain that, as the above facts became established , 
 one could predict, more or less accurately, when and where a 
 disease-spot would appear on a given leaf on which spores 
 had been sown and kept moist. 
 
 “To illustrate this important point more fully, a few more 
 experiments, as carried out, may be quoted. 
 
 “ Spores were sown, as described above, on a leaf of Coffea 
 arabica on Oct. 15. From the known data, the disease-spot 
 due to the action of the produced mycelium should be visible 
 on or about Oct. 29-30, assuming rapid germination: the 
 spot actually became visible on Oct. 29, in the area of the 
 sowing, and nowhere else on the plant. Several other 
 experiments gave similar results. 
 
 On Dec. 12 I treated six seedlings in the same manner, 
 sowing spores on the young leaves of five and on the cotyle- 
 don of the sixth specimen. All the seedlings were grown in 
 the same pot and soil, and may be considered equal in all 
 essential respects. A very faint spot appeared on each of 
 the leaves of four specimens on Dec. 21st; a similarly indis- 
 tinct spot was developed next day on the. leaf of the fifth- 
 but the spot on the cotyledon did not become visible till the 
 
 “ Here, therefore, appeared a less successful attempt to 
 predict the rate of development of the ‘disease-spot’; 
 whereas I had expected at least 14 days to be occupied in the 
 
 :*7 r °r’ tiei '°. Were ’ ln fact > only 9-10 and 11 days 
 respectively so occupied. One more example J 
 
 leaf n? n°£ 25 \ SOwin Z was made a large, dark, tough 
 leaf of Coffea arabica treated as usual. According to ealeu- 
 
 * Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci., January 1882. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 lation, I searched for the c disease-spot ’ on Nov. 8 and 9 ; 
 hut no spot appeared, and no trace could be discovered till 
 the morning of Nov. 11, when the yellow spot appeared as 
 usual Here about 16 days had been occupied in the forma- 
 tion of tJie given mycelium and spot. 
 
 “ In Table II. are summarised the results of further 
 experiments of the same nature ; these should be compared 
 with those already published in the Third Report to the 
 Ceylon Government (Sessional Paper xvii. 1881). 
 
 “ Although in the above-cited examples, which have been 
 purposely selected to illustrate all the chief points, it is 
 evident that an absolutely accurate prediction did not always 
 occur, some stress should be laid on the fact that the time 
 allowed for the production of the c disease- spot ’ (viz. 
 14 days) proved correct in a majority of experiments. 
 
 “It is now time to inquire if any explanation of the 
 differences is forthcoming. During the progress of the in- 
 vestigation it became clear, as already stated, that spores 
 which had been matured some time and become quite dry 
 took longer to germinate than fresh spores which had just 
 ripened : experiment also showed that spores which were 
 produced during the moist weather could be made to germi- 
 nate in a few hours, and might produce a normal and com- 
 plete germinal tube within 12 hours from the moment of 
 sowing. I had indeed found the uredospores germinating 
 while still on the damp parent rust-patch ; and the teleuto- 
 spores commonly do so. 
 
 “ Apart from accidents during the formation of the ger- 
 minal tube,* therefore, it is clear that in a given experiment 
 the act of infection by any one tube may be delayed or 
 hastened according to the previous state of the spore as re- 
 gards moisture, &c. The outcome of my observations in this 
 connection is, that while the act of infection or entry of the 
 germinal tube through the stoma may commence in 12 hours 
 after the sowing of the uredospore, it may require 3 days or 
 
 * Such as non-contact with a stoma, the attacks of insects, fungi, &c. 
 
‘ Table II . — Infection Experiments, 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 53 
 
54 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 more. Nevertheless 40 to 48 hours is a very common period 
 for the completion of this process. 
 
 “ Having taken this into account, however, and made ex- 
 periments nnder such circumstances that the germinal tubes 
 are found to be completely formed and entering the stomata 
 during the second day, I find that several other factors com- 
 plicate the question as to the period occupied in forming the 
 spots. Not only does the vigour of the mycelium depend 
 upon the amount of food and moisture present in the leaf, 
 but also on the ease with which the proper materials can be 
 obtained and assimilated. It is therefore clear that the age 
 and condition of the coffee-leaf may influence the rate of de- 
 velopment of the parasitic mycelium within it. (N.B. — This 
 has nothing to do with the infection itself ; the difference is 
 important.) We have seen that the period at which the 
 yellow ‘ disease-spot ’ makes its appearance depends upon 
 the progress made by the mycelium in its work of destruc- 
 tion of the tissues: this may be affected by the thickness 
 of the walls of the cells which are to be invaded, and also 
 by their number in a given area of the leaf. The connec- 
 tion between all these facts and the general healthiness and 
 activity of the tree are obvious, whence must be inferred 
 that anything affecting the one may indirectly affect the 
 other. 
 
 “ I will now describe a further series of experiments show- 
 ing the kind of evidence which exists in fact for the above 
 views. In October 1881 I commenced two series of experi- 
 ments as follows : — 
 
 “ A. A number of plants of Coffea arabica were selected, which 
 had been obtained from Samarang in a Wardian case, and 
 had been two months in a cool, carefully ventilated room. 
 These plants were one year old, still retained their early 
 leaves, were healthy, dark green, producing new shoots and 
 leaves. They had been removed wdthout disturbing the 
 rootlets, in each case a large cube of the original soil having 
 been retained. There was no reason to suppose these plants 
 other than fair subjects for experiment. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 55 
 
 “ A sowing of spores was made on the under side of a chosen 
 leaf on nine different days from October 5 to 25, in the 
 manner already described, with fresh, ripe, moist spores ; and 
 a slowly dropping siphon played on the damp chamber for 
 four days. On the fifth day the damp chamber was removed 
 in each case, and, with a perfectly clean sponge filled with 
 pure water, the adhering spores, &c., were then washed off — 
 the detection of the yonng ‘ disease-spot ’ at its earliest 
 appearance being thus rendered easier. The leaves were 
 closely examined daily, and the following Table (III.) gives 
 the summary of observations. 
 
 “B. Nine young seedlings of C. arabica were selected 
 which had been raised in pots in a closed Wardian case, and 
 in soil dug from a depth with great care. Each seedling 
 possessed its cotyledons, and one pair of thin, apple-green, 
 succulent, and healthy leaves of a fortnight’s growth ; the 
 second pair of leaves were just appearing. The sowings, &c., 
 were made exactly as before ; and all circumstances were the 
 same, except that the Wardian case in which these experi- 
 ments were conducted stood in another room. I have no 
 reason, however, to believe that the very small differences in 
 the amount of light, air, &c., which may have existed could 
 materially influence the results. The temperature of both 
 rooms was nearly the same, viz. 75°-78° Fahr. on the average. 
 The results are appended in Table IY. 
 
 “ It appears impossible to avoid the conclusion that, 
 generally speaking, the thinner and more tender the leaf, 
 the more rapidly does the ‘disease-spot’ appear. If it be 
 objected that the older plants, having travelled from 
 Samarang some months before, were not fairly compared with 
 the Ceylon seedlings, it may be justly remarked that the 
 young and tender leaves on these plants also developed the 
 spots more rapidly. 
 
 “ If, in the above instances, we take the average number 
 of days occupied in producing the spots on the old leaves and 
 compare with the time occupied in the case of the young 
 ones, however, the difference is very striking : the numbers 
 
“ Table III.— Experimental Series A. 
 
 56 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
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 * Spot * 
 old and 
 becoming 
 exhausted 
 (approxi- 
 mate only.) 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Dec. 6 
 
 Before 
 
 Dec. 
 
 ‘ Disease- 
 spot * in 
 full vigour 
 (approxi- 
 mate). 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Nov. 7 
 Nov. 10 
 
 Dec. 5 
 Nov. 15 
 
 Dec. 16 
 
 Dec. 17 
 Dec. 13 
 
 Discolora- 
 
 tion 
 
 extended 
 through 
 the whole 
 thickness 
 of leaf. 
 
 Oct. 30 
 
 Oct. 30 
 Nov. 2 
 
 Nov. 22 
 
 Dec. 7 
 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Dec. 5 
 Dec. 5 
 
 Time 
 
 occupied 
 
 in 
 
 produc- 
 ing the 
 ‘ spot/ 
 
 *s #N#V 
 
 h 3 
 
 Cd CD CO 1—1 t+H 
 
 Date on < 
 which new 
 spores first 
 appeared. 
 
 Oct. 23 
 
 Oct. 25 
 Oct. 26 
 
 Oct. 27 
 Oct. 31 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Nov. 7 
 
 Nov, 9 
 Nov. 16 
 
 Date on 
 which 
 ‘ disease- 
 spot * first 
 appeared. 
 
 Ocfc. 21 
 
 Oct. 23 
 Oct. 23 
 
 Oct. 24 
 Oct. 29 
 
 Oct. 31 
 
 Nov. 3 
 
 Nov. 4 
 Nov. 11 
 
 Date on 
 which 
 spores 
 were 
 sown. 
 
 Oct. 5 
 
 Oct. 7 
 Oct. 10 
 
 Oct. 13 
 , Oct. 15 
 
 ■ Oct. 17 
 
 , Oct. 20 
 
 Oct. 23 
 , Oct. 25 
 
 O .a 
 
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 o’ r> oo’p 
 
 
“ Table IV. — Experimental Series B. 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 57 
 
58 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 are °g° = 15 days, against 1 1 ^ = 10§- days, for the old and 
 young leaves respectively. 
 
 “ I do not imagine that the differences in the rate of de- 
 velopment of the spots in the above cases were due simply 
 to differences in the rate of infection. It has already been 
 stated that freshly ripened spores produced in the moist 
 season germinate rapidly ; and it will be noted that slowly 
 dropping siphons were used in all cases, a method which 
 almost ensures immediate and successful germination, as had 
 been largely experienced with other sowings. 
 
 “ Nor do I think that slight differences in the soil, affecting 
 the supply of food and water to the plant, unduly influenced 
 the two sets of experiments. Nevertheless, while insisting 
 on the fact that the great difference between the leaves in 
 which the mycelium produced the spots in 10 days or so and 
 those in which it required 15 days on the average, was that 
 in the former the cell-walls were thin and soft and less 
 numerous, yet it must be allowed so far that slight differences 
 in the circumstances (light, air, and possibly temperature 
 and moisture) existed, while unknown differences may have 
 been presented in the quality and quantity of food and water 
 absorbed by the roots, in the vigour of the plants generally, 
 and (though experiments do not support this idea) in the 
 rapidity of actual infection — all of which might more or less, 
 though very slightly in the individual cases, affect the 
 physiological activity of the mycelium, and therefore the 
 accuracy of the conclusions. 
 
 “ Passing to the consideration of the question, how long 
 may a 4 disease-spot ’ continue to produce spores ? I may 
 refer for details to the tables and to results already published. 
 These were obtained by (1) marking certain leaves in the 
 open, and noting when the development of spores ceased; 
 and (2) making experimental sowings as above detailed, and 
 watching the progress of the spots. By these means it was 
 shown that the spores may be continuously produced for 
 from 7 to 11 weeks; and there can be no doubt that the 
 extreme limits are not here stated. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 59 
 
 “ One interesting and important observation may be 
 recorded. On a ‘ disease-spot/ produced on the leaf of a 
 protected plant in a Wardian case, the successively developed 
 spores hung in clusters in the perfectly still, moist air. From 
 certain known data as to the number and length of these 
 clusters, and the average size of the single spore, I was able 
 to estimate the quantity of spores present ; these were pro- 
 bably more than 150,000. Now, since 127 disease-spots have 
 been counted on one pair of leaves, some idea of the enormous 
 quantity of spores produced may be readily obtained. 
 
 “ The slightest shake causes these spores to fall ; and it 
 may be proved directly that others are formed very rapidly 
 by the same spore-heads. By gently brushing off the spores 
 with a camel-hair pencil no injury is done, and in a few 
 hours others are found to have been formed in the moist 
 atmosphere. The development of new spores may also be 
 shown to proceed on leaves which have fallen to the ground, 
 and in which a supply of food and moisture is still afforded 
 to the spore-producing mycelium. 
 
 “ The time during which the production of disease-patches 
 and spores on a leaf may continue must necessarily depend 
 upon a number of circumstances. Where one disease- spot 
 only occurs on a coffee-plant, it may go on forming spores 
 for many weeks. In given cases I have observed this pro- 
 cess for from ten to sixteen weeks and longer ; but if several 
 spots form on the same leaf, their period of activity is 
 shortened by the premature fall of the leaf. It may well be, 
 also (though I have no direct proof of this) that in the latter 
 case each spot produces fewer spores in a given time ; since, 
 v r here there is a struggle for food-supplies among several 
 independent mycelia, it is unlikely that all are as*abundantly 
 supplied as one would be. 
 
 “ The following Table (Y.) summarises the results of 
 observations made to determine (1) how long a time is 
 occupied by the coffee-plant in forming a complete pair of 
 leaves, (2) at what period they become attacked by the 
 fungus, and (3) how long they survive the ravages of the 
 
Table 
 
 60 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES- 
 
 Time 
 during 
 which the 
 ‘ disease * 
 was visible 
 (approxi- 
 mate). 
 
 We» ks. 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 5 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Total life 
 of un- 
 folded leaf 
 (approxi- 
 mate). 
 
 Weeks. 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 G 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1G 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 Date oil. 
 which the 
 leaf fell. 
 
 Dec. 22 
 „ 20 
 „ 5 
 
 „ 30 
 
 Jan. 1 
 » 1 
 June 29 
 Aug. 3 
 July 6 
 Aug. 10 
 
 Date on 
 which the 
 spots were 
 brown. 
 
 H IO <M <M <M lO 
 
 M M M t-i 
 
 d * d o >-» o o 
 
 n q ^ 
 
 Date on 
 which the 
 leaf was 
 badly 
 ‘ diseased.’ 
 
 Nov. 18 
 Dec. 5 
 Nov. 23 
 „ 30 
 
 Dec. 5 
 „ 22 
 0 
 
 June 29 
 0 
 0 
 
 Date on 
 which the 
 spores 
 were first 
 noticed. 
 
 Oct. 29 
 Nov. 8 
 » 7 
 
 „ 18 
 » 3 
 
 Dec. 5 
 0 
 
 May 25 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Date on 
 which the 
 ‘ disease- 
 spots * 
 were first 
 noticed. 
 
 o i— i co,— irocsoo CD 
 
 CM <-> CM CM 
 
 O ft S ^ 1-5 
 
 Last date 
 on which 
 leaves 
 appeared 
 quite clean. 
 
 Oct. 16 
 „ 29 
 
 Sept. 30 
 Nov. 15 
 Oct. 29 
 Nov. 18 
 Mar. 14 
 April 25 
 May 8 
 June 26 
 
 Date on 
 which 
 leaves 
 may be 
 considered 
 adult. 
 
 Sept. 30 
 » 30 
 
 „ 30 
 
 Nov. 15 
 Oct. 16 
 Nov. 15 
 Feb. 27 
 „ 27 
 
 Mar. 14 
 
 » io 
 
 Date on 
 which un- 
 folding of 
 leaves had 
 begun. 
 
 Aug. 30 
 » 30 
 Sept. 17 
 Oct. 20 
 Aug. 26 
 Oct. 16 
 Feb. 1 
 » 1 
 „ 10 
 5 
 
 Date on which tv e bud 
 was first noticed. 
 
 A. Aug. 27 
 
 B. „ 29 
 
 C. Sept. 14 
 
 D. „ 30 
 
 E. Aug. 20 
 
 F. Sept. 6 
 
 G. * Oct. 29 
 
 H. „ 30 
 
 I. * Jan. 30 
 
 K.* „ 30 
 
 N.B. — In the examples marked (*) the leaf never became badly diseased, but at most one or two ‘spots’ appeared and 
 produced no spores at all ; and it is doubtful if the mycelium of the fungus was ever present to any large extent. 
 In all the other cases about 10 to 15 “ disease-spots ” appeared on each leaf, and produced spores as described. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 61 
 
 pest. In all the specimens selected there were several of the 
 disease-spots on each leaf ; hut, of course, no absolute standard 
 of the damage done is given. The following example will 
 illustrate the mode of reading the columns. Taking the 
 specimen F, the minute terminal bud evident so early as 
 September 6th, 1880, remained quiescent during forty days 
 (till October 16th), and then commenced to swell and unfold 
 its pair of leaves. In about a month’s time (November 15th) 
 the leaves were completely formed and in full activity, and 
 apparently clean and healthy. November 18th was the last 
 date on which no trace of disease was visible to the naked 
 eye ; but it is evident, from what is known of the periods in 
 the life-history of Hemileia , that the germinal tubes had 
 already entered the stomata, and formed mycelia ; for on 
 November 23rd the yellow spots were apparent, and had 
 developed spores before December 5th. The formation of 
 spores continued, and the leaf was badly diseased with 
 ‘ rust-patches ’ before December 22nd, when the spots were 
 already old and turned brown. On January 1st, 1881, the 
 leaf had fallen ; and an examination of the last two columns 
 shows that, out of months’ term of life, the leaf was 
 obviously pestered with the fungus half the time. More- 
 over, we must recollect that nearly a month (October 16th 
 to November 15th) was occupied in bringing this leaf into 
 full activity, and probably a fortnight must be added to 
 the last column, during which time the mycelium was 
 forming. How little of the total life and powers of such a 
 leaf benefited the tree will be evident on comparing these 
 results. 
 
 “ The method adopted in arriving at these conclusions 
 was to mark a given vigorous twig, and note the progress of 
 the bud, fungus, &c., at intervals of a few days. No other 
 conclusions than those for which the tables are designed are 
 intended to be drawn : e.g. in the example given, the date 
 December 5th (in the 6th column) does not mean that the 
 first spore formed on that day , but that, taking notes of the 
 progress of events on December 5th, I found spores were 
 
62 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 already formed by the spots in some quantity , whereas they were 
 not present when notes were taken some days earlier. 
 
 44 To take another example (K), we find a very different 
 series of events when no mycelium or only an odd spot 
 appears : here the bud of January 30th began to unfold in 
 February, and reached its full development as a pair of 
 leaves about March 10th. Up to June 26th no signs of 
 disease had appeared ; and we notice that the traces of spots 
 noted on July 6th never came to anything, as signified by 
 4 0 ’ in the column. The leaf fell on August 10th, after a 
 total life of twenty-one weeks or so. In such a case we may 
 safely assume that its work was chiefly devoted to the benefit 
 of the tree. 
 
 44 I shall have occasion shortly to point out the importance 
 of the fact that one or two 4 disease-spots 5 do not suffice to 
 destroy the leaves : a luxuriant tree may support a certain 
 amount of fungus, as well as a large quantity of fruit. 
 Meanwhile attention may be directed to some experiments 
 showing that the greater the quantity of mycelium (and 
 therefore of 4 disease-spots ’ ) the sooner the leaf falls 
 (Table VI.). 
 
 u To take an example (F) : on December 20tli the leaf was 
 adult and in full working order. It retained its green, 
 bright colour until April 2nd, when a few faint yellowish 
 cloudy patches were observable, the signs of approaching 
 dissolution. 
 
 44 On April 25th the leaf had become yellow, like an 
 autumnal leaf in Europe, and fell soon after, about May 3rd, 
 having done its work for the tree, but having escaped the 
 ravages of the mycelium of Remileia . 
 
 44 An instructive series of observations were made to obtain 
 an answer to the question, how long will the leaf remain on 
 the tree when not attacked by Remileia , and when only one 
 or two small and barren disease-spots appear ? 
 
 44 It was shown that leaves on which no disease-spots 
 appeared commonly remained on the tree for eighteen to 
 twenty weeks and longer ; whereas leaves on which 
 
Table VI. 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 63 
 
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64 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 numerous spots were developed fell in six to eleven weeks, or 
 even sooner, after the unfolding of the buds. It may be 
 imagined how differently two trees must be affected, if the 
 leaves of one escape the ravages of Hemileict , and are 
 permitted to work for the good of the tree during eighteen 
 to twenty weeks ; while those of the other have to work (so 
 to speak) for the benefit of the fungus as well, and yet 
 persist but six or eight weeks in all. Every degree of 
 difference in these relations occurs in masses of diseased 
 coffee. 
 
 “ Having thus examined more or less in detail what occurs 
 in laboratory experiments, and having drawn certain conclu- 
 sions as to the behaviour of Hemileia when the chief circum- 
 stances are under control, we may pass to the description of 
 its behaviour in a state of nature, in the open, and see how 
 far this is explained by the known facts. 
 
 “ In proof that a ‘ disease-spot 5 is formed exactly as before 
 on coffee exposed naturally, I may cite the following experi- 
 ment, which will also serve to illustrate other points of 
 importance : — 
 
 “ On December 23rd, 1881, a Wardian case was received 
 from Jamaica, in which were eight living coffee-plants in 
 bamboos containing Jamaican soil ; in this rich dark mould 
 flourished a dense mass of healthy roots, and each plant 
 possessed a fair supply of vigorous leaves. 
 
 “ Two of these plants were transferred to the open ground, 
 being plunged into the soil without any disturbance of their 
 roots or soil ; these may be called A and B respectively. 
 
 “ Two (C and D) were placed undisturbed in a cool 
 shaded room, from which draughts of wind were carefully 
 excluded. 
 
 “ Two others (E and F) were placed untouched in another 
 room, more exposed to light and air, and, like the rest, were 
 watered regularly. 
 
 “ A seventh specimen (Gr) was placed also untouched in a 
 closed but light and well- ventilated Wardian case. 
 
 “ The eighth plant (H) was placed in the same room as E 
 
PLATE IV.— COFFEE DISTRICT, NEAR PUSELAWA, CEYLON. 
 

 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 65 
 
 and F, and nndei similar conditions. On the exposed plants 
 A and B spores were scattered from a neighbouring 
 ‘diseased 5 tree, the leaves being already wetted by a 
 drizzling rain ; one leaf was then marked on each plant, and 
 spores carefully placed on each in drops of water on the 
 under surface. 
 
 “ On one leaf of plant C a sowing was made, under the 
 siphon, &c., as usual ; D remained untouched. 
 
 “ E and F remained untouched, as also did G-. One leaf 
 of H was infected under a siphon as usual. All this took 
 place on December 23rd. 
 
 “ On January 3rd, 1882, several leaves from both the 
 exposed plants (A and B) had been torn off by wind, &c. On 
 several of the younger leaves were distinct, though small 
 disease-spots : these were particularly noticed on the marked 
 areas. During the following week the spots increased in 
 number and vigour, and there could be no reasonable doubt 
 that the plants had been infected as described earlier, and 
 that eleven days (December 23 to January 3) had been 
 occupied in the process. 
 
 “ On January 4th a 4 disease-spot 5 appeared on the leaf of 
 the plant C, where spores had been sown twelve days pre- 
 viously; no trace existed on D, however, either then or 
 later. 
 
 44 The plants E, F, and Gr remained without a trace of 
 disease up to January 12th, and no reason existed for 
 supposing that any mycelium or 4 disease 5 was imminent. 
 
 44 The plant H, at the spot where spores had been sown 
 thirteen days before, developed a ‘disease-spot 5 on January 6th 
 on which spores appeared on January 10th. 
 
 “ Now this experiment, the latest which I performed in 
 Ceylon, appears in some respects the most instructive and 
 conclusive which has yet been offered. 
 
 “ It seems clearly to prove, 1st, that the nature of the soil, 
 coffee-plant, and past circumstances, &c., have nothing to do 
 with the possibility of infection ; 2nd, that previous experi- 
 ments had conclusively established the normal course of the 
 
66 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 ‘ disease ’ ; and 3rd, that, provided the plants are kept 
 sheltered from the fungus-spores, there is no fear of their 
 incurring the inroads of the pest. 
 
 “ For additional evidence on these points the reader is 
 referred to my previous Reports. 
 
 “ With regard to the exposed plants A and B, it may be 
 asked, how was the moisture necessary for germination 
 supplied, since no siphon was used? The answer is given 
 by my diary of the weather. The week before was cloudy 
 and showery, and the spores employed were already prepared 
 for rapid germination. Then : — 
 
 “ December 23rd. Drizzling rain ; cloudy afternoon ; 
 rainy night. 
 
 “ December 24th. Cloudy, with sunny breaks. Cool. 
 No rain. 
 
 “ December 25th. Sunny and hot, with cloudy intervals. 
 
 “ The germination must have occurred in these intervals. 
 
 “At various times experiments had been made to deter- 
 mine how the spores, which were observed germinating 
 naturally on the coffee, arrived at their proper positions on 
 the leaf. Careful observations on diseased coffee, made 
 during gentle showers and steady breezes, convinced me of 
 the following facts. Bearing in mind what an enormous 
 quantity of orange ‘rust,’ each grain of which is a spore 
 capable of reproducing a ‘ disease-spot’ in less than three 
 weeks, may be produced by one spot, and remembering also 
 how easily these spores are detached, it seemed probable that 
 the disease-spots produced later on a leaf might arise from 
 spores shaken or washed from the earlier spots. 
 
 “ If a perfectly clean glass slip, 3 in. by 1 in., be clipped 
 on to a branch of coffee in the position of a leaf, in moist 
 weather, two facts appear : — (1) spores, not only of Hemileia , 
 but also of Sphaeriae, Lichens, &c., may be observed on the 
 slip in the course of several hours; (2) these and other 
 small bodies tend to accumulate at the lower edges or tip of 
 the glass, and even to travel to the lower surface and become 
 suspended in the moisture pendent therefrom. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 67 
 
 “ That the spores, &c., are washed, shaken, and blown into 
 snch positions aided by the action of gravitation cannot be 
 doubted; and this view explains why the earlier disease- 
 spots on coffee-leaves, which have not been violently shaken, 
 frequently appear at the edges and tips, subsequent spots 
 appearing in the other regions of the leaf. These causes, 
 combined with violent shakings during gusty and rainy 
 weather, must contribute largely to distribute spores from a 
 diseased spot to a healthy part of a leaf, from one leaf to 
 another, and even from tree to tree. But other observations 
 prove that the wind conveys the spores of Hemileia through 
 longer distances than the above. By exposing slips of glass, 
 smeared with a thin layer of glycerine, in various positions 
 in the neighbourhood of diseased coffee, it was shown that 
 spores of Hemileia became entrapped in the glycerine ; in one 
 remarkable experiment the glass slips were exposed for 
 twelve hours in a vertical position (the side smeared with 
 glycerine facing the coffee) during a very high wind. The 
 glass slip was 5 ft. from the ground, and 18 ft. in a direct 
 line from the nearest coffee-trees ; on these trees the spores 
 forming c disease-spots 5 were abundant and active, and spores 
 were being plentifully shaken from them. At the end of the 
 twelve hours I found no less than 117 spores of Hemileia 
 embedded in the glycerine. Many other experiments con- 
 firmed the conclusion that the wind conveys the spores over 
 considerable distances ; innumerable spores, in all stages of 
 freshness and decay, were observed in the meshes of some 
 canvas exposed among the coffee for several months. 
 
 “ How far the agency of man and insects, &c., is respon- 
 sible for distributing the spores has not been directly 
 determined ; but it is fair to assume that this also comes into 
 play. 
 
 “ Hence it is certain that the spores of Hemileia , passive 
 though they are, become plentifully distributed among the 
 coffee on estates. If, as in the highest degree probable,* the 
 
 * For evidence of this cf. Third Keport, &c. 
 
 f 2 
 
68 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 fungus became conveyed to the cultivated coffee from the 
 surrounding forests, it is easy to understand how its spread 
 would be at first slow (since many spores are known to fail in 
 obtaining a suitable starting-point) ; but we may also as 
 easily comprehend that a large stock of spores having become 
 formed in a favourable damp and warm season, the rapid 
 spread over a wide area of coffee-trees would be but a matter 
 of time. That this has occurred during the last fifteen years 
 in Ceylon is only too evident. 
 
 “ Table VII. 
 
 Month. 
 
 State of the 
 Disease, 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Distance 
 of glass 
 slip from 
 Coffee. 
 
 Distance 
 of glass 
 slip from 
 ground. 
 
 Method of 
 exposure 
 of the 
 slip. 
 
 Length 
 
 of 
 
 exposure. 
 
 No. of H. 
 vastatrix 
 spores 
 found. 
 
 June 3 
 
 A few spots 
 of 4 rust ’ 
 here and 
 there. 
 
 High. 
 
 12 feet 
 
 On the 
 grass. 
 
 Flat. 
 
 8 hours 
 
 7 
 
 July 8 
 
 Bad. 
 
 Very 
 
 high. 
 
 25 „ 
 
 4 feet 
 
 Vertical. 
 
 12 „ 
 
 21 
 
 July 9 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 4 „ 
 
 
 2 „ 
 
 8 
 
 5> 
 
 
 
 12 „ 
 
 5 » 
 
 5? 
 
 2 „ 
 
 13 
 
 “ The spores of Hemileia , then, can become spread over the 
 coffee ; the necessary conditions for their germination are 
 known to recur naturally at frequent intervals ; and experi- \ 
 ments have conclusively shown that within three weeks from 
 the successful sowing of any spore on a coffee-leaf the j 
 mycelium reproduces spores again, to go through the same 
 cycle. 
 
 “ Moreover, evidence has been brought to show that any 
 kind of coffee may become infected, though of two given 
 leaves the younger and thinner one usually shows the 
 c disease spots 9 more rapidly. IIow far do these and 
 similar facts explain what occurs on masses of coffee ? 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 69 
 
 “ I have shown in detail elsewhere* that in the districts 
 chosen for illustration, young coffee-leaves are formed most 
 rapidly during the c growing weather 5 of April to August, 
 and that, practically, the quickest development of new 
 leaves occurs during May and June. On the contrary, very 
 few leaves are produced during the hot dry season of February 
 and March. Alternations of rapid and Flow growth occur 
 during the rest of the year, depending on the variations of 
 climate experienced ; but it commonly happens that a rapid 
 renewal of growth occurs towards the end of the year, in 
 October and November. 
 
 “ To determine as far as possible the rate of growth and 
 other changes in leaf-buds and leaves at Peradeniya, certain 
 trees were selected in August 1880, and watched during the 
 following twelve months, notes being made at short intervals 
 as to the conditions of the buds and leaves on twigs around 
 which coloured ribbons had been loosely tied. 
 
 “ The shortest time in which a pair of leaves was developed 
 in my experiments was about 4 weeks, when the bud first 
 exposed on April 10th became an adult pair of leaves by 
 May 8th; and the longest period occupied by the same pro- 
 cess was (excluding a very abnormal example, where 171- 
 weeks were occupied in the process) 13 weeks, when a bud 
 which first appeared free on October 29th did not begin to 
 open until the following January, and its leaves were not 
 fully formed before February 27th. 
 
 “ During the very dry weather experienced in Peradeniya 
 from December to March, there is, on the whole, much less 
 activity displayed in the formation of leaf-buds and leaves 
 than during the period from April to August ; and this is in 
 accordance with the general experience of planters on the 
 Kandy side of Nuwara Eliya. Of course there are differ- 
 ences in the rate of development of leaves, dependent on 
 circumstances other than the weather, since the time at 
 which pruning, manuring, &c., are done affects these and 
 
 Appendix to Third Report. 
 
Table YIII. Branch A. (Tree not pruned.) 
 
 70 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
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 On this branch, therefore, eight pairs of leaves were completely formed during the 12 months (August 1, 1880, to 
 August 1,1881), the period of slowest growth being September to February; that of quickest growth, April to 
 August. The pair of leaves which developed most rapidly was formed in June to July ; that which developed most 
 slowly, in January to February. 
 
Table IX. Branch B. (Not Pruned.) 
 
 
 DISEASES 
 
 Whole period of 
 development 
 (approximate). 
 
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 Time occupied in 
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 Date on which leaves 
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 February 25 
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 July 6 
 
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72 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 other phenomena; moreover, since the buds are slower in 
 development where wind or a general low temperature 
 prevails than where the air is quiet and warm, it will be 
 evident that elevation affects this as other processes of 
 growth. The trees on which my observations were made 
 suffer much from leaf-disease, and bear little crop, circum- 
 stances which must also be taken into account. 
 
 “ Let us now suppose, for the sake of argument, that a 
 quantity of spores of Hemileia are scattered about the above- 
 named districts in January, after the dry season has fairly 
 set in ; many of these spores may be imagined on the rocks, 
 ground, tree-stumps, &c., around, while others are on the 
 leaves of the coffee. The air is so dry that, except on the 
 banks of sheltered streams and in damp shady places, those 
 spores cannot germinate ; the wind is not high, and even in 
 cases where sudden gusts raise spores from dead and 
 c diseased ’ leaves on the ground, there are comparatively few 
 leaves on the trees, and the chances of many spores attaching 
 themselves to their dry surfaces are not great. 
 
 “With the April rains and gusty winds there come in 
 conditions which distinctly alter the circumstances of these 
 spores : a few of these spores on the leaves germinate, in- 
 fect the leaves, and in three weeks reproduce their kind in 
 the normal manner. By the time that the May leaves are 
 becoming formed, a somewhat larger stock of Hemileia - spores 
 exists on the trees than before ; and these newly formed 
 spores are better placed for distribution — every shower of 
 rain and puff of wind must scatter some of these spores. 
 
 “ During May and June the weather is not unfavourable 
 to the germination of the above-named spores ; by the time 
 that this second generation has gone through its cycle, the 
 older spots are still producing vigorous spores in the moist 
 atmosphere, while the wind may successfully place others 
 from the original sources of infection. 
 
 “ It must be remembered that the trees are by June be- 
 coming densely clothed with young, succulent foliage, and 
 that the spores from the more recently developed spots are 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 7 o 
 
 ( o 
 
 more likely to be deposited on the leaves, since they are more 
 numerous. The life-cycle of these later spores may be more 
 rapid by several days in the tender young leaves, in the 
 moist, warm atmosphere. 
 
 “If the above be correct, it should follow that July, or 
 thereabouts, would show a wide-spread and sudden outbreak 
 of the yellow disease-spots ; and we know that such is the 
 fact. 
 
 “ In August the leaves, destroyed by the abundant myce- 
 lium, fall in showers, the trees becoming in many cases 
 almost stripped. 
 
 “ One set of observations may be recorded as typical of all 
 the others.* A coloured ribbon having been loosely tied on 
 •a twig of the growing coffee, the development of the buds 
 and leaves was carefully watched, and notes made of the 
 changes which occurred from time to time as the latter 
 passed from their earliest stages to adult age, and finally 
 died off. 
 
 “ In the case which I will here cite, the terminal bud com- 
 menced to open about March 21st, and in a few days had 
 developed a pair of shining, dark green, tightly opposed 
 young leaves about \ in. long. 
 
 “ During the first three weeks in March, a continuance of 
 dry, hot days caused all quick growth to cease ; but the 
 -opening of the bud commenced at once after the showers 
 which set in towards the end of March, and continued for 
 the most part throughout April. 
 
 “ On April 2nd, in fact, after a week of showery growing 
 weather, the swollen bud had burst, and presented two 
 leaves each £ in. long ; and by April 25th these were fully 
 formed, handsome bright-green structures, about 4^ in. long 
 by 2£ in. broad in the middle. On or about this date the 
 leaves ceased to enlarge, and may be considered adult and in 
 full working order. 
 
 “ During the last week in April and the first week in May 
 
 * For further evidence cf. Third Report. 
 
74 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 much rain fell in heavy showers ; but from May 8th to 
 May 25th a hot period intervened, the mornings being fre- 
 quently close and steamy, however. At this time a few spots 
 of ‘leaf-disease’ were observable here and there on sur- 
 rounding coffee-trees. 
 
 “ Now, from April 25th, the period at which we may con- 
 sider the leaves adult, to June 1st no trace of Hemileia w~as 
 discovered on either of the leaves ; but on June 1st a distinct 
 though small 4 pin-spot ’ was seen on one of the leaves, which 
 I shall call the left-hand leaf ; and on June 3rd a few spores 
 were seen proceeding from this. On the latter date also I 
 found a minute yellow 4 pin-spot ’ on the right-hand leaf of 
 the pair. 
 
 44 The question is, what connection had the weather, the 
 presence of spores, and other circumstances with this definite 
 appearance of two 4 leaf disease-spots ’ on leaves which had 
 been to all appearance perfectly healthy from April 25th to 
 June 1st, i.e. during some five weeks? It may first be stated 
 that the weather from May 25th commenced to indicate the 
 wet usually associated with the incoming of the south-west 
 monsoon ; and wind and rain prevailed more or less up to 
 the end of June, June 20th to 26th, however, being fine. 
 
 44 The disease was first noticed on June 1st : if the 4 pin- 
 spot ’ arose from the germination of a spore as I have de- 
 scribed, this spore probably commenced its action within 
 three weeks or so previously. On comparing the notes made 
 about the requisite period, two points are clear : — 1st, there 
 were spores being shaken and blown about at that time ; 
 2nd, it rained heavily up to May 8th, and a series of hot, 
 close, steamy mornings occurred thereabouts; and it also 
 rained during the week preceding the discovery of the spot 
 It is evident, in fact, that an odd spore of Hemileia germi- 
 nated (probably in the dew) on each leaf on or about the 
 16th-18th of May, and sent its tube into the leaf to form 
 the mycelium of which the presence was discovered on June 
 lst-3rd. 
 
 44 On June 15th the spot on the left-hand leaf was large 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 75 
 
 and producing abundance of orange spores, which were being 
 widely distributed by the high winds (from June 3rd to 15th), 
 as well on surrounding trees and leaves as on other portions 
 of the same leaf-surface. 
 
 “ On June 29 th many more disease-spots were apparent 
 for the first time : these rapidly came to produce spores, and 
 on July 1st numbered 35 new patches, each pouring forth 
 hundreds of spores to be distributed as usual. The spores 
 which produced these probably germinated about June 15th, 
 in the showers so prevalent during the month. By this 
 time, also, the disease was bad all over the tree. I think it 
 highly probable that the 35 new spots arose from spores 
 detached from the one spot of June 3rd. 
 
 “ By July 6th the leaf was badly diseased — the one older 
 spot (of July 3rd) beginning to turn brown in centre, but 
 still active in spores ; the others, which might be termed the 
 second generation, shining through above with an orange 
 hue. 
 
 “ On July 15tli there appeared about 12 new spots, evi- 
 dently from spores which germinated during the wet week 
 preceding July 1st. Each series of spots on the left-hand 
 leaf could now be distinguished as follows : — One large and 
 old spot, with a black patch in the centre, and few spores — 
 that of June 3rd. A number (35) of very active spots which 
 are just commencing to become brown in the centre — those 
 of June 29th. A smaller number (12) of new active spots, 
 and only just tinged yellow above — those of July 15th. 
 
 “ On July 23rd the leaf was evidently becoming destroyed 
 by the numerous (48) virulent spots draining it, and curious 
 green rings around the spots of June 29th alone represented 
 the normal colour of the leaf ; by July 26th these had faded, 
 and the leaf was quite yellow and exhausted, and it fell 
 during the night of that date. 
 
 “As to the right-hand leaf, its history is very similar. 
 On June 15th there were two IIemileia-sj)ots on it, a new one 
 having appeared in addition to that of June 3rd ; on the 
 29th June appeared 57 new ones, which spread rapidly, and 
 
76 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 covered the greater part of the leaf by the 6th July ; on 
 July 15th were 13 still newer spots: the three generations 
 were quite evident on July 27th, when the leaf was yellow. 
 Before the last day of July this leaf also had fallen. 
 
 “It is clear from the foregoing that what the planters 
 term an 4 attack 5 of leaf-disease, i.e. a sudden outburst of the 
 4 rust,’ results from the coming to maturity at or about the 
 same time of a series of mycelia which have been formed 
 from the successful sowing of a certain number of spores; 
 and since all were exposed to similar conditions, we must 
 look for the origin of the rust to the conditions previously 
 present. It is clear, however, that we cannot say exactly 
 when a given disease-spot commenced to form ; we can only 
 argue from the known data. I do not think that any myce- 
 lium takes less than one week, or more than three weeks to 
 form, as a rule, however ; and hence the above argument 
 may be widely applied. 
 
 44 Here appears direct proof of the cumulative power of the 
 fungus. We cannot well doubt that the earliest spots on the 
 leaves arose from odd spores blown by the wind from fallen 
 leaves or other coffee-trees, and that these sowed their spores 
 in turn to produce spots in June, while further spores from 
 the last-formed spots produced the July outbreak, and so on. 
 
 44 The above-recorded history of a pair of coffee-leaves may 
 be summarised thus : — 
 
 “ About one month was occupied in forming the new 
 leaves, a period during which they cannot be looked upon as 
 very useful to the tree. During the next five weeks or so 
 the leaves may be considered as normally active, i.e. they 
 would during this period elaborate much material not used 
 in constructing their own tissues, which would be passed 
 down into the tree for the benefit of other portions. 
 
 44 After this, however, the disease-spots appeared ; and the 
 increasing mycelium would consume more and more of the 
 elaborated materials until the leaf became exhausted and fell. 
 This latter period must be one of struggle between the leaf- 
 eells and the fungus-cells, and, especially towards the end of 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 77 
 
 the time, the tree cannot derive much benefit from the devas- 
 tated leaf-tissues. As here shown for a pair of leaves so 
 with a whole tree — in proportion as the amount of fungus- 
 mycelium increases the lease of life enjoyed by the leaves 
 decreases, other things being, generally speaking, equal. 
 This also I have proved by actual experiment and observa- 
 tion, by marking certain young trees and watching the 
 restdts as they became badly affected with the disease. 
 
 “ Young trees were chosen because on such the develop- 
 ment of the leaves takes place very nearly equally at all the 
 branch-tips; hence one can be certain of comparing struc- 
 tures of equal value. Some healthy plants of Coffea arabicci 
 were two years old in June, when they were planted in the 
 open in a sheltered hollow, at equal distances apart ; at this 
 time they had no disease, were not developing new leaves* 
 and had lost but few. During August and September a 
 typical plant was watched more particularly; and the 
 following facts are true, especially for it, generally for the 
 rest, since all the plants were equal and developed very 
 similarly : — 
 
 “ On September 8 there were ten pairs of primary branches ; 
 a bud from the axil of each topmost leaf represented the 
 eleventh primary. The foliage was dark green, fine, and 
 healthy. Neighbouring coffee (to leeward) had lately suffered 
 from virulent leaf-disease, and was still badly affected; but 
 very few spots were apparent here. 
 
 “ The total number of leaves presented on this plant at 
 the date given was 243 ; the number of cicatrices whence 
 leaves had fallen amounted to 85. The terminal buds of the 
 11 branches represented 22 leaves in posse, and that of the 
 main stem of course = 2 leaves more, 24 in all. It is there- 
 fore clear that such a two-year-old plant would possess about 
 350 leaves, if all were present. From data obtained by 
 counting the leaves on a one-year-old plant, I find about 
 66 a common number, and on two-year-old plants about 
 250 to 260. 
 
 “ On September 23 I carefully examined the young tree 
 
78 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 once more. 15 leaves present on September 8 bad now 
 fallen, most of them diseased, and all among the oldest ; and 
 the terminal buds of the latter date had each produced its 
 pair of leaves, which were still small however. We may 
 therefore consider that the manufacturing capacity of the 
 tree was little altered, if at all, by the replacement of 15 
 old leaves by 22 young ones ; for although the latter could 
 do little at present for the tree, the former could not be 
 looked at as of much use either. 
 
 44 On October 15 the tree, like its neighbours, was 
 becoming badly 4 diseased/ the yellow spots appearing on 
 the leaves at all points. The actual number of leaves 
 present — 274; and of these 70 were young, and had been 
 formed in the interval September 23 to October 15, while 
 46 leaves had fallen under the devastating action of Hemi - 
 leia . Nevertheless, we may here well imagine that the 70 
 new leaves largely compensated the loss of 46 older ones ; 
 only, in comparing this remark with the statement before 
 made, we must keep two facts before us — 1st, the destroyed 
 leaves in this case were more directly destroyed by the 
 fungus ; and 2nd, many spots, that is, masses of mycelium, 
 were now present on the foliage yet on the tree. 
 
 4 4 On November 9 there were 254 leaves present; of these 
 46 were newly formed since October 15. In the interval 
 66 leaves had fallen, badly diseased. 
 
 44 On December 25 the disease had gained the mastery to a 
 terrible extent ; only 50 new leaves had been formed, whilst 
 107 had fallen victims. The actual number of leaves on the 
 whole tree = 197. Thus after little more than three months, 
 during which period the tree had formed no less than 188 
 new leaves and lost 234, the total number of leaves present 
 was fewer than at the commencement, although the 'possible 
 leaf-bearing area was, of course, much increased during the 
 interval. Moreover, these fewer leaves were to a great extent 
 badly diseased. The experiment does not, contradict what 
 has been said as regards the seasons, since the trees were only 
 planted out (and exposed to the wind-blown spores) in June. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 79 
 
 44 Other facts come out if the above records be carefully 
 studied. It will be noted that the largest production of new 
 leaves occurred in the interval September 23 to October 15 : 
 this corresponds to a period of rapid vegetative growth which 
 then took place during moist, cloudy, and warm weather. 
 After this, the rapidity of growth ceased as the air became 
 drier towards the end of the year. 
 
 44 The greatest development of 4 leaf-disease, 5 however, did 
 not take place until the interval November 9 to December 25, 
 i.e. about a month or six weeks later. This is in accordance 
 with what is already known of the behaviour of the fungus, 
 as, indeed, are all the details of this experiment. 
 
 44 It is now possible to understand the explanation of some 
 difficulties which have been raised in objection to the 
 generalisations presented in this and preceding publications 
 on this subject. 
 
 44 One of the commonest popular difficulties freely expressed 
 in connection with the^history of this and similar diseases of 
 plants may be stated somewhat as follows : — It being proved 
 that the fungus in the [leaves causes the disease-spots to 
 appear and the leaves to fall, how can such huge effects arise 
 from such apparently small causes ? The complete reply to 
 this question would be a lengthy summary of our knowledge 
 of the physiology of the leaf and its connection with the life 
 of the tree. It must be remembered that the mycelium of 
 Hemileia not only robs the leaf of valuable materials, on the 
 manufacture of which^ a large expenditure of energy was 
 required, but it diverts the flow of nutritive substances. 
 Moreover, in occupying space in the tissues of the plant, it 
 prevents these tissues from fulfilling functions of service to 
 the coffee-tree. To replace the damage done, the leaves 
 would require either to do more work in a given time, or to 
 have a longer lease of life to work in ; whereas they have 
 less opportunity of doing either. When the fungus is 
 present in quantity there is less available substance sent 
 down to the tree for the support of crop ; and the life of the 
 leaf is shortened. Hence the amount of fruit matured by 
 
80 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 the tree must be diminished unless one of two things happens 
 — unless (1) more leaves are quickly formed and enabled to 
 work for the benefit of the tree ; or (2) more food substances 
 can be sent into the leaves and elaborated in the time 
 allowed, so to speak, by the voracious pest. I have directly 
 proved that the coffee-tree cannot produce crop if the leaves 
 be stripped from its branches — a fact in accordance with 
 what we otherwise know of similar cases. 
 
 “ By cultivation and proper manuring, it is conceivable that 
 one of the above-named effects could be produced; and, as a 
 matter of experience, coffee-trees in richer soil, or better 
 treated than others, may support more crop. This has given 
 rise to another popular error with regard to 4 leaf-disease/ 
 that manuring, &c., diminish or cure it. 
 
 “I have elsewhere* discussed this at some length, and 
 shown that the reason that manured or favourably situated 
 coffee supports more crop is due to no direct action on the 
 fungus at all (it is clear that circumstances w-hicli favour the 
 host must rather benefit the parasite than otherwise), but 
 that such trees support more crop because they can spare 
 more food for that crop after paying the tax demanded by 
 the fungus. Nay, it is certain that many trees support more 
 crop and more fungus-mycelium at the same time than do 
 others with which they are compared. 
 
 “ Closely connected with the above fallacy is another — that 
 certain trees are 4 predisposed ’ to the disease or to infection. 
 A refutation of this view has been matter of experiment : I 
 have purposely waived all arguments from analogy, and 
 tried to infect every description of plant — young and old, 
 West-Indian and East-Indian, Coffea arabica and C. lib erica ; 
 and there is no ground for supposing one more easily infected 
 than another. This has nothing to do with the rapidity with 
 which the mycelium produces the yellow spot. We have 
 seen that a tender young leaf may succumb more rapidly 
 (as a whole) than an older and more leathery one ; and it 
 
 * Third Deport, 1881. 
 
PLATE V.— COFFEE PLANTATION, NEAR NEURA-ELLIA, CEYLON. 
 
v 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 81 
 
 must be evident that moisture, temperature, and other simple 
 events may affect this. 
 
 “We here face another difficulty, viz. Why do some trees 
 suffer more than their neighbours ? Let us shortly examine 
 how complicated are the causes which aid in determining the 
 amount of fungus-mycelium, &c., on a coffee-tree. We may 
 do this by assuming that two trees, side by side, are equally 
 diseased. This involves one or the other of two compre- 
 hensive assumptions : — 
 
 “ Either (a) that the two trees were at the outset equal in 
 all respects, that their root-masses, areas of leaf-surface, &c., 
 were alike in extent and exposure, and that the relations of 
 these to the soil, moisture, air, and light, &c., were equal in 
 all respects — that equal quantities of food-materials were 
 present in each, and that the expenditure and income con- 
 nected with these remained equal in each case. It must be 
 further assumed that each tree received at the outset the 
 same quotum of disease-producing spores, which developed 
 with equal energy and effect, and were equally related, 
 actively and passively, in both examples. 
 
 “Or (6), if the above formidable details and their con- 
 sequences be not assumed, it must be admitted that the 
 various complex relations between coffee and its surroundings 
 on the one hand, and Hemileia and its environment on the 
 other, though differing in details in all possible degrees, 
 amounted to the same final result in the two cases selected 
 — that, although both trees were dissimilarly related in mass, 
 vigour, &c., and in their quantitative and other relations to 
 earth, air, light, and the fungus, &c., yet they became 
 * diseased ’ in the end to the same extent. 
 
 “ Either of the above assumptions would be rash in the 
 extreme ; and no argument in favour of the view that some 
 trees are predisposed to the attacks of Hemileia can be 
 logically based upon them. 
 
 “As a summary of the foregoing, it may be fairly con- 
 sidered proved that 6 leaf-disease 9 here, as in so many other 
 cases now known, is not antecedent to the fungus (Hemileia), 
 
 o 
 
82 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 but is consequent upon the injurious action of the mycelium ; 
 the 4 rust ’ and 4 disease-spots ’ are not mere signs of ill-health, 
 due to obscure causes, but are preparatory stages in the 
 spread of the disease-producing parasite. This being so, no 
 ground exists for considering the fungus as a 4 product of 
 vitiated plant-life,’ or 4 of the sap 5 ; and just as little reason 
 is there for the view that a sickly plant is prone to infection. 
 Nay, experiments prove conclusively that a vigorous and 
 healthy West-Indian tree is as easily infected as one from 
 Ceylon; and it has also been shown that such a vigorous 
 plant may produce more vigorous mycelium and spore-groups, 
 i. e. it may disseminate more of the disease-producing fungus 
 in a given period. 
 
 44 Those who have the necessary knowledge of the 
 physiology of such a plant as coffee, and can appreciate the 
 changes produced by a disturbing agent such as the parasite, 
 will not fail to see a vera causa for 4 coffee-leaf disease ’ in the 
 action of the fungus at many points for a long period. 
 
 44 It may be asked, 4 How came the rapid spread of this 
 fungus ? ’ The answer appears simply, having provided 
 immense quantities of suitable food, carefully protected and 
 preserved, man unconsciously offered just such conditions for 
 the increase of this fungus as favour the multiplication of 
 any organism whatever. Whether any natural check to the 
 further progress of this pest will arise is at present problem- 
 atical, much as it may be desired from an economical point 
 of view. 
 
 44 It may be remarked that, although careful trials have 
 been repeatedly made, I have utterly failed to infect either 
 the coffee-leaf or any other plant with the small 4 sporidia 9 
 produced by the germination of the teleutospore of Hemileia ; 
 no evidence exists for doubting that the reproduction of the 
 fungus on coffee-estates takes place wholly by means of the 
 innumerable uredosjpores , as described. 
 
 44 Several JEcidia (notably those on Emilia , Tabernsemontana , 
 and Pavetta) have been experimented with, to observe 
 whether their spores can be made to infect coffee. In no case 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 83 
 
 has any positive result been obtained ; and the obverse is 
 also true — the teleutosjpores of Hemileia did not infect the 
 plants named. I hope that further trials will be made, 
 however, with Pavetta indica and P. angustifolia : two JEcidia 
 (2E. flacidum and 2E. Pavettse) have been described* on these 
 hosts ; and it is remarkable that the genus Pavetta stands 
 somewhat closely allied to Coffea . As to the original source 
 of this fungus, there can be no reasonable doubt of its anti- 
 quity.f Whether Hemileia vastatrix is more than a form of 
 H. Canthii , moreover, must be considered at present un- 
 decided.” ( Journ . Linn . Soc .) 
 
 A disease known as “ leaf-rot,” rather prevalent in Mysore, 
 is distinguished from the above, and is referred to a fungus 
 named Pellicularia Koleroga , by Dr. M. C. Cooke. It appears 
 about July, when the leaves of affected shrubs become 
 covered with slimy, gelatinous matter, turn black, and drop 
 off ; clusters of berries also rot and fall. There is every pro- 
 bability that the sulphur and lime treatment would be 
 effective in this case also. The shed leaves and fruit should 
 be collected and burned. 
 
 Fly. — This disease has been known for many years in 
 Dominica and Brazil; it has also spread to Venezuela, the 
 Antilles, Porto Rico, Martinique, Trinidad, and all down the 
 Atlantic coast of South America. It is caused by the larvae 
 of a moth, scarcely ^ in. long, named Cemiostoma coffeellum. 
 The colour of the insect is dull-white or pale-grey, with a 
 bar of black across the posterior end when quiet ; its motions 
 are very active, and it readily takes alarm. The female is 
 either provided with an ovipositor of sufficient strength to 
 pierce the cuticle of the leaf, beneath which the egg is de- 
 posited, or it deposits the egg in some irregularity on the 
 surface of the leaf, leaving the future caterpillar to find its 
 own way into the tissue. In either case, a caterpillar de- 
 velops from the egg, and feeds on the cell tissue of the leaf, 
 in all directions, between the two cuticles. The insect 
 
 * Messrs. Berkeley and Broome, in Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot. vol. xiv. 
 
 t As first suggested, I believe, by Mr. Thiselton Dyer. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 prefers young and delicate leaves, and is most active about 
 the commencement of the wet season, when, doubtless, the 
 majority of the eggs are deposited. It is dormant during the 
 wet season— say from March to May. 
 
 Of the varieties of coffee met with in Dominica, the 
 Mocha is most subject to the attacks of this moth, its leaves 
 being the most delicate. Stronger leaved varieties, when 
 fairly healthy, are scarcely attacked ; but when existing 
 under unfavourable conditions, such as to induce flaccidity 
 of texture, they are sometimes much affected. The disease 
 manifests itself by the appearance of large discoloured 
 blotches on the leaves, causing their decay and fall. It has 
 been stated that, by picking the leaves at such a time as to 
 take the greatest number of the larvse when about two 
 weeks old, it would be easy to destroy the pest, as the size of 
 the blotches would then easily distinguish the diseased 
 foliage. The insect is very susceptible to the effects of wood 
 smoke, and may easily be driven off or destroyed by the 
 smoke of ordinary wood or grass fires. At present it does 
 not exist in the West Indies to such an extent as to injuriously 
 affect the fruitfulness of the trees, and is markedly less 
 numerous where insectivorous birds abound. 
 
 Borer . — This pest, formerly known as the “worm” and 
 “ coffee-fly,” is most troublesome in Southern India, especially 
 in Coorg and the Wynaad, where, in 1865-6, it destroyed 
 whole estates. Beetles with similar boring habits infest the 
 coffee bushes on the West Coast of Africa, and in Zanzibar, 
 and are occasionally troublesome in Jamaica. The Indian 
 borer has been identified as the Xylotrechus quadrujpes. In 
 its complete stage, the insect appears as a winged beetle ; it 
 is \ to f in. in length ; rather finer in shape than a wasp ; 
 with a hard, shiny coat ; in colour, red and black, or, in other 
 cases, yellow and black, in alternate transverse lines. It 
 bores a passage into the stem of the coffee-tree, usually at 
 some few inches above the ground. This passage, at first 
 horizontal, soon takes an upward spiral direction, and pro- 
 ceeds until a safe retreat is found, in which the larva may be 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 85 
 
 deposited. The tree soon droops, and dies down to the point 
 at which the entry has been effected, and where it can "be 
 easily broken off by a sharp pnll at the upper part. The 
 only course is to break off the tree in this manner, and then 
 to burn the stem, with the larva secreted in its centre. 
 Young shoots will proceed from the stump (if the perforation 
 has not begun too near the roots), and one of these may be 
 trained to succeed the original stem. There is a growing 
 impression that the borer can be kept out of estates in hot, 
 dry situations only by providing shade, and perhaps irriga- 
 tion. Its ravages have always been worst on weedy planta- 
 tions and new clearings. 
 
 Bug . — The coffee tree is attacked by various species of 
 Coccidse in most countries, where they are known by different 
 names. Ceylon has been, perhaps, the worst sufferer in this 
 respect ; but careful cultivation has greatly reduced the evil. 
 There are two distinct species of bug found in Ceylon, and 
 called respectively “ black,” or “ scaly,” and “ white,” or 
 “ mealy.” The former, Lecanium coffese, is a minute insect, 
 which attaches itself to the tenderest shoots of the plant ; the 
 females have the appearance of small scollop shells, of a brown 
 colour, and adhere to the leaf or twig in the same manner as 
 the scollop shell to a rock. Each of these contains several 
 hundred eggs undergoing incubation ; and in a short time, the 
 whole of the green wood of the tree will become covered with 
 the young insects, and coated with a black soot-like powder, 
 which renders the tree easily discernible at a distance. 
 
 The bug will soon spread over whole estates, entirely 
 checking the growth of the trees; the fresh young shoots 
 are always first attacked, and such wood as is allowed to 
 mature produces hardly any crop. The berries, moreover, 
 are, in their earliest stage, destroyed by these insects, which 
 cut them off at the stalk. The measures recommended for 
 checking this scourge are to dust the brushes with a mixture 
 of pounded saltpetre and quicklime, in equal parts; or to 
 brush or sponge the affected parts with a mixture of soft- 
 soap, tar, tobacco, and spirits of turpentine, in about equal 
 
86 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 quantities. A coolie, with a bucket and a piece of rag, can 
 perform the office effectually. This species affects elevated 
 (above 3000 ft.), cold, damp, close localities, where it is found 
 in all stages of development all the year round, the propaga- 
 tion being continuous. It generally makes its first appear- 
 ance under the shelter of a large rock, near a belt of forest, 
 or at the bottom of a nullah. 
 
 White bug is a distinct species of insect, known as 
 Pseudococcus Adonidum. It is small, flat, oval, about in. 
 long, covered with a white down or fur, and having parallel 
 ridges running across its back from side to side, like the 
 wood-louse, though on a much smaller scale. It is found in 
 various stages of development all the year round, and takes 
 up its quarters on the roots of the trees to about 1 ft. 
 beneath the surface, at the axils of the leaves, and among the 
 stalks of the crop clusters, which it cuts off wholesale, either 
 during the blossom stage, or just after the young berries 
 have been formed; in the latter case, its operations may 
 easily be recognised, by the large quantities of young green 
 berries with which the ground beneath the trees will be 
 strewn. It is also easily discovered by a white, flour-like 
 excretion which it deposits around the axil nooks where it 
 has made its abode. The prescriptions above recommended 
 for black bug will be here found equally efficacious. In 
 either case, probably, a decoction of common tobacco might 
 be sufficient, while much more easily prepared. The white 
 bug has a decided preference for hot, dry situations, and 
 generally disappears in the wet season ; too often, however, 
 only to return as soon as the blossom has set. 
 
 Canker . — A disease which has created great havoc in Natal, 
 and which causes an annual loss of about 1 per cent, of the 
 trees in Jamaica, is “ canker” or “bark disease.” The first 
 symptom is the withering of a tertiary or secondary branch, 
 when it will be found that the bark under the primary 
 branches is decayed and blue mouldy; the blue mould 
 gradually extends downwards over the wdiole stem ; a tree 
 once attacked never recovers, but dies in a few months. All 
 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 87 
 
 soils and situations seem liable to tlie disease, the trees 
 beginning to suffer when about six years old. Though the 
 mould is the proximate cause of death, the ultimate cause is 
 evidently due to some unfavourable external condition. The 
 opinions of experienced persons as to what this may be are 
 various ; it is attributed to neglect of cultivation, to unsuita- 
 bility of climate, and to want of depth of subsoil. All may 
 be partially right ; but the last seems most probable, and is 
 the reason given for it in Jamaica. 
 
 Bot , Grubs, Bats , Squirrels , & c. — “ Rot,” or the blackening 
 and withering of the young leaves and shoots, is due to wet 
 and cold, and may be cured by good drainage and mulching. 
 Grubs of a large yellow kind destroy the tap-roots of the 
 plants; cattle manure is a fertile source of them, and should 
 be well limed. Rats, squirrels, grasshoppers, ants and 
 spiders collectively do considerable mischief, and should be 
 exterminated whenever possible. In Java, a fungus attacks 
 the stems, giving them a white appearance, and producing 
 death in all the parts above. In Venezuela, occurs a minute 
 fungus named Depazea maculosa , which causes the so-called 
 “ iron-stain,” circular or elliptical blotches of an ochreish- 
 yellow colour. The same appears to be in Jamaica also. 
 
 Black rot. — The following paper was read by M. C. Cooke 
 before the Linnean Society on the Coffee Disease of South 
 America. 
 
 4 4 In the coffee-plantations of Mysore occurs a form of 
 disease known as the Koleroga, or black rot, also of fungoid 
 origin, and apparently unknown in Ceylon. It was this 
 disease which I examined and reported upon to the Govern- 
 ment of India in 1876 under the name of Pellicular ia Koleroga.* 
 The fungus is entirely superficial, spreading over the leaves 
 in a compact filamentous film, somewhat like the mycelium 
 of an Erysiplie in external appearance, but quite different in 
 its internal structure when seen under the microscope. The 
 felted threads bear their own proper spores, reminding one 
 
 * 1 Grevillea/ iv. p. 116 . 
 
88 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 somewhat of the genus Zygodesmus ; hut the film is so super- 
 ficial that when it is moistened it can he removed in flakes 
 from the surface of the leaves without resistance. With the 
 majority, prohahly all, of the species of Erysiphe and its allies 
 the mycelium cannot he thus removed, on account of the 
 processes which enter the substance of the leaves through 
 the stomata. Until recently it was not known that this 
 disease had made its appearance on the coffee-plant outside of 
 Southern India. 
 
 44 The existence of destructive parasites on coffee in South 
 America was intimated as long ago as 1876, the same year in 
 which the Mysore fungus was investigated. The first com- 
 munication was from Venezuela,* which stated that the 
 coffee-disease there known was called 4 Candelillo ’ or 4 Mancha 
 de hierro 5 (iron stain) ; and specimens of the leaves were sent 
 for examination with the following note, drawn up hy 
 Sehor Saenz, Professor of Botany in the University of Bogota. 
 The disease, he says, 4 consists of circular or elliptical blotches 
 of an ochreish-yellow colour, in which are to he observed 
 hard knots in the centre, round which are formed concentric 
 hands. The salient knots are to be easily distinguished on 
 each side of the leaf ; hut on the one side only are to he 
 found small fungi of a yellow colour (orange), formed of a 
 very delicate pedicle crowned hy a small sheaf of fibres, in 
 which are an abundance of oval corpuscles of a darker colour, 
 approaching to green, and of * 003 millim. in diameter.’ 
 
 44 The specimens which accompanied this note were sub- 
 mitted to the Bev. M. J. Berkeley, who reported that the 
 spots were occupied hy a minute fungus which he called 
 Depazea maculosa , Berk., having fusiform spores *0008 in. 
 long (or • 02 millim.) with about seven nuclei. 
 
 44 It may he remarked here that the old genus Depazea of 
 Fries was characterised chiefly hy the presence of small peri- 
 thecia seated on discoloured spots, the structure of the peri- 
 thecia and their contents not being taken into account. 
 
 Kew Gardens Beport for 1876, p. 21. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 89 
 
 Hence some of the species of Depazea had perithecia which 
 contained only stylospores, others asci with sporidia. When 
 microscopic fungi had to be revised, as a consequence of 
 improvement in the microscope, the genus Depazea was 
 divided into two parts : those containing stylospores in the 
 perithecia were denominated Septoria , and those in which the 
 perithecia contained asci were relegated to Sphserella , and 
 the old name of Depazea became practically obsolete. The 
 species above noted as Depazea maculosa would therefore now 
 be denominated Septoria maculosa. Experience has demon- 
 strated that in some cases the Septoria is only an imperfect 
 condition of an ascigerous Sphserella , which makes its appear- 
 ance on the same or upon contiguous spots on the same 
 leaves. The relevancy of these observations will be apparent 
 hereafter. 
 
 44 Subsequently, further specimens were sent to Kew 
 Gardens* from Dr. Ernst of Caracas, which demonstrated 
 that the names of 4 Candelillo 5 and 4 Mancha de hierro ’ were 
 not applicable to the same disease, and also that destruction 
 was caused, and some of the leaf-spots produced, by an insect 
 named Cemiostoma coffeellum. At this time (1877) it became 
 manifest that three parasites had attacked the coffee-plant in 
 South America, namely, the Cemiostoma , the 4 Candelillo 
 and the 4 Mancha de hierro .’ 
 
 4k In a memoir published by Dr. Ernst in Spanish he 
 described the Candelillo somewhat fully, and applied to the 
 fungus which produced it the name of Erysiphe scandens. 
 The felted mycelium which overspread the leaves seemed to 
 him to be the mycelium of an Erysiphe; and he believed 
 that he discovered also some cysts similar to the pycnidia of 
 Erysiphe . It was never assumed that the conceptacles of an 
 Erysiphe had been found ; but the name was applied to the 
 imperfect mycelium on account of its supposed resemblance 
 to that of some Erysiphe. 
 
 44 During the past year I received some coffee-leaves from 
 
 * Kew Gardens Keport for 1877, p. 28. 
 
90 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 Dr. Ernst bearing the 4 Candelillo ,’ or supposed Erysiphe ; 
 and these leaves I examined carefully without finding 
 pycnidia, but with somewhat of surprise that it was the 
 identical 4 black rot’ or ‘Koleroga’ of Mysore, and that the 
 fungus was none other than that which I had described as 
 Pellicularia Koleroga, This fact was clearly demonstrated by 
 finding the globose echinulate spores, that the 4 Candelillo ’ of 
 Venezuela is the 4 Koleroga 9 of Mysore, and the Erysiphe 
 scandens , Ernst, a synonym of Pellicularia Koleroga , Cooke. 
 
 44 The 4 Mancha de hierro 5 differs most distinctly from the 
 4 Candelillo 9 in forming discoloured orbicular spots on the 
 leaves ; and it is therefore to that which reference is made in 
 the note by Professor Saenz, and also in a further communi- 
 cation from the Commissioner of Agriculture at Bogata to 
 Dr. Ernst, published in July 1880.* The Commissioner 
 writes : — 4 At first there appear on the leaves small spots of 
 a light greenish colour, which in two or three days turn 
 brownish, and then appears on each of them a fungus divided 
 in three or more greenish-yellow branches. This fungus is 
 said to be phosphorescent at night ; and in places where it is 
 very common a phosphoric smell is noted. After some days 
 the diseased leaves fall off, the fruits, which also are attacked 
 by the parasite, follow very soon, and the trees are left quite 
 bare. They form, however, new leaves after some months ; 
 but these are again attacked by the fungus. The disease is 
 reported to be more frequent in damp places than in dry 
 ones, its ravages being greatest in plantations where the 
 trees are planted rather close. The fungus has also attacked 
 the shade-trees, especially the Guamos ( Inga sp.).’ 
 
 44 Other communications which I have received, accom- 
 panied by specimens, demonstrate that the same disease is 
 spreading widely through the coffee-districts of Costa Eica 
 and other parts of Central America, New Granada, and 
 Venezuela, and causing considerable alarm. 
 
 44 The leaves and unripe berries are marked by distinct 
 
 * ‘Nature,’ July 29th, 1880. 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 91 
 
 pale spots, nearly orbicular, with a regular well-defined 
 outline, and in the leaves quite perfect on both surfaces, from 
 about a quarter to nearly half an inch in diameter, from two 
 or three to five or six or more spots on the same leaf. These 
 spots are often quite smooth, uniform in colour, and without 
 any external evidence of the presence of a fungus. In these 
 instances they seem as if they might as well have originated 
 with an insect as with a fungus. Others of these pale spots 
 are occupied by a few minute dark-brown perithecia, so 
 minute as not to exceed the puncture of a pin. These peri- 
 thecia, seated on pale orbicular spots, constitute the Depazea 
 maculosa of Berkeley ; but as I have found in all of them 
 which I have examined perfect asci and sporidia, they were 
 named and described as Sphserella coffeicola .* At that time I 
 had not seen the specimens w r hich Berkeley determined as 
 Depazea maculosa ; but as he found no asci, and characterised it 
 as a Septoria, the Sphserella may be treated as a distinct 
 fungus, although, in my own opinion, it is only the perfect 
 or ascigerous condition of the same parasite. 
 
 4 4 The question would rises at once as to the general 
 character of Septoria and also of Sphserella , and whether they 
 are likely to be productive of such a disease as that of the 
 South-American coffee. There are no very distinct records 
 of species destructive in this manner and to this extent ; 
 but there is, on the other hand, no reason why either 
 Septoria or Sphserella may not be destructive. This may be 
 affirmed more strongly of Sphserella ; since within the past 
 two years Sphserella Taxi has undoubtedly proved very 
 destructive to yew-trees in Cornwall ; and as for Septoria , 
 some species have, to a limited extent, appeared as a destruc- 
 tive pest. Under any circumstances, if this really proves to 
 be the cause and not a consequence of the coffee-disease in 
 South America, it has the merit of being more truly devastat- 
 ing than any of its predecessors. It must be remembered 
 that the perithecia are never numerous on the spots, and that 
 
 * 4 Grevillea,’ ix. p. 10 (1880). 
 
92 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 at least half the discoloured spots are wholly without them. 
 The spots are present, but there are no external evidences of 
 fungi; and in some of these naked spots which were 
 examined internally I failed to trace any mycelium. 
 
 “ There is, however, still another feature in connection 
 with these discoloured spots, that upon some of them, some- 
 times on the upper and sometimes on the under surface, 
 another and very different kind of fungus flourishes. A 
 pocket-lens will be sufficient to detect on some of the spots 
 small, erect, slender, yellow threads with a globose head, 
 five or six of them upon one discoloured spot. Sometimes 
 they will be found on the same spots as the perithecia of the 
 Sphserella , and sometimes on spots in which no perithecia can 
 be detected. This Stilbum, which has been named Stilbum 
 flavidum* has, like all other species, a compound stem 
 formed of a bundle of slender filaments, parallel to each 
 other, fused into a common stem, terminated by a globose 
 head, composed of the free ends of the component filaments, 
 subdivided and terminated by minute subglobose spores, 
 scarce -0015 millim. in diameter. This corresponds very 
 closely with the description of the parasite as described by 
 Professor Saenz, who indicated ‘the circular or elliptical 
 blotches of an ochreish-yellow colour 5 and the ‘ hard knots 
 in the centre,’ which are the perithecia of the Sjpliserella , and 
 the 4 small fungi of a yellow colour, formed of a very delicate 
 pedicle crowned by a small sheaf of fibres, in which are an 
 abundance of oval corpuscles.’ The only difference appears 
 to be that his measurement of the corpuscles is about double 
 that of mine, his being *003 millim., and my own *0015 
 millim. for the spores of the Stilbum , a discrepancy not so 
 very extraordinary when the minute size of the bodies is 
 taken into account. 
 
 “ The Commissioner of Agriculture at Bogota also 
 undoubtedly saw the same fungus, although his description 
 is less exact and accurate. Whether there is any foundation 
 for the belief that this little fungus is phosphorescent or 
 * ‘Grevillea,’ ix. p. 11 (1880). 
 
DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 93 
 
 emits an odour of phosphorus, cannot he affirmed, as^he 
 evidently mentions it with some reservation. 
 
 “ I have now demonstrated that the coloured spots may be 
 without any visible fungus upon them, and exhibit no trace 
 of mycelium in the tissues, or they may nourish a Septoria , 
 as seen by the Bev. M. J. Berkeley, or a Sphserella , as found 
 by myself ; or, finally, a species of Stilbum , as seen by myself 
 and by Professor Saenz. Further, the Stilbum may occur on 
 the same spot as the perithecia of the Sphserella, or both 
 perithecia and Stilbum (the one without the other) may be 
 found occupying different spots. All these points are 
 worthy of consideration in searching for the source of the 
 disease. 
 
 “I cannot forbear noticing incidentally that Sphserella 
 isariphora , Desm., a small species of Sphserella common on the 
 leaves of some species of Stellaria, owes its name to the fact 
 that it is sometimes found associated with a minute species 
 of Isaria, a mould closely allied to Stilbum , although the 
 Sphserella is often found without the Isaria. 
 
 “On unripe coffee-berries from Costa Bica, as well as 
 from Venezuela, the same orbicular spots occur, usually 
 one spot only on each berry ; and on some of these spots I 
 have seen the Stilbum , but hitherto have not observed the 
 Sphserella. 
 
 “ These observations are communicated to the Society as a 
 summary of all that at present has been determined respect- 
 ing the coffee-disease of South America. I venture to think 
 that the disease seems to be a complicated one ; and for the 
 present I am not prepared to affirm that either the Septoria , 
 or Sphserella , or the Stilbum , or all together, is the cause of the 
 disease. At the same time I cannot but think it possible 
 that none of the three forms of fungus is autonomous, and 
 that all may be related to each other as forms or conditions 
 of the same fungus, of which the Sphserella is the highest and 
 most perfect manifestation. 
 
 “ Since the foregoing was written, I have been permitted 
 by the Bev. M. J. Berkeley to examine some diseased coffee- 
 
94 
 
 DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 
 
 leaves * from the island of Jamaica. The same discoloured 
 spots are present, although smaller in size, and little dark 
 specks or points (visible under a lens) on these at once 
 suggested a Septoria or Sphxrella ; but microscopical examina- 
 tion showed that the dark points were not perithecia, but 
 tufts of short-jointed olive threads, with hyaline bacillary 
 spores growing at the apex. This apparently new species of 
 Cercospora has been called Cercospora coffeicola , Berk, and 
 Cooke. Nearly all the species of this genus occur on living 
 or fading leaves, and many of them grow on discoloured 
 spots. The septate threads generally grow in tufts ; and the 
 habit is somewhat that of a small Cladosporium , to which the 
 genus is closely allied. It is noteworthy that we have here, 
 in another locality, an entirely different species, genus, and 
 order of fungi growing upon almost identical pallid spots on 
 coffee-leaves. It renders still more difficult an answer to the 
 question, ‘ What is the cause of this form of coffee-disease ? 5 ” 
 
 * [The leaves in question were sent by Mr. Morris, Government Botanist 
 at Jamaica, accompanied by a sketch of the Cercospora ; but neither Mr. 
 Morris nor Mr. Berkeley could find spores ; and Dr. Cooke found them only 
 after long and patient examination. Mr. Berkeley thinks that the 
 Cercospora is possibly the same with Cladosporium stenospora , B. & 
 Curtis.— M. J. B.] 
 
( 95 ) 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PREPARATION OP THE BERRY. 
 
 The preparation of the coffee necessitates the erection of 
 extensive buildings and machinery: for these no specific 
 plan can be given, because much depends upon the size and 
 situation of the estate, and much upon the kind and degree 
 of preparation contemplated. The site chosen for the works 
 should be as near the centre of the plantation as is compa- 
 tible with securing a patch of open airy ground, to which a 
 good stream of water can be brought. The first requisite 
 building is the “ pulping house,” comprising three floors — the 
 cherry loft, the pulping platform, and the cisterns. When- 
 ever possible, it should be built against a shallow cliff or 
 embankment, so that the cherry-coffee may be delivered into 
 the loft without being borne upstairs. The cherry loft is 
 usually immediately over the pulping platform. 
 
 Pulping . — The operation known as “ pulping ” consists in 
 liberating the coffee beans from the pulp in which they are en- 
 veloped. With ripe cherries, this is most easily and effectively 
 accomplished immediately after picking, and efforts are usually 
 made to complete the^pulping of a day’s picking during the 
 same evening ; if over ripe and shrivelled, but still compara- 
 tively moist inside, the cherries should first be soaked in 
 water for a few hours. A number of machines have been 
 invented for this purpose, the object in all cases being to 
 pulp rapidly, thoroughly, and without injury to the bean ; 
 if the inner skin of the bean be broken, the latter is wasted. 
 The most simple form of pulping machine is the “ di§c_pulper,” 
 in which the separation oFthe bean and the pulp is effected 
 by means of rotating discs, covered with a thin sheet of 
 
96 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 copper, whose surface has been “ knobbed,” or raised into rows 
 of oval knobs, by the application of a blind punch. 
 
 Pulpers of this class, being portable and cheap, are often 
 used in the opening of distant estates, and commonly in 
 India and Java. The “ single ” form is very light ; driven by 
 three coolies, it will pulp 20-25 bush, cherry an hour. The 
 “double” form, shown in Fig. 6, has two discs, and is 
 furnished with a feeding roller inside the hopper. It 
 requires four to six coolies to pulp 40 bush, an hour ; but 
 
 Fig. G. 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 Double Pulper. 
 
 driven by power, it will do 70—80 bush. The discs are 
 placed between “ cushions ” of smooth iron, set at such a j 
 distance that the cherries cannot pass without being bruised ; j 
 
 the cushions rest on a movable bed of iron, set so that no 
 bean can pass downwards. When the disc revolves, the 
 cherries are driven forward, and squeezed ; the corrugations 
 then catch the skins, and drag them between the disc and 
 bed. These small pulpers have an advantage over the larger 
 ones, in that each can be set to suit the size of a portion of 
 tlie crop — which always varies ; and with a number of 
 machines, there is less likelihood of complete stoppage in 
 

 PLATE VI.— COFFEE ESTATE BUILDINGS IN 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 97 
 
 case of an accident. One disc pulper to every 30-40 acres — 
 say three to 100 acres : two to he set alike, and one for smaller 
 cherries — should he ample. 
 
 The cc cylinder pulper” is an older invention than the 
 preceding, and has heen subjected to numerous modifications. 
 The principle is illustrated in Fig. 7 ; a is a cylinder of 
 various diameter, revolving in the direction of the arrow. 
 The cherries and water are guided between the cylinder and 
 a piece of iron, called a “ chop,” b , set at such a distance that 
 the smallest cherry is bruised while the largest bean is not 
 damaged. The teeth of the cylinder catch in the pulp and 
 drag it within the second chop c, which 
 is made sharp at the top and is set 
 so that while admitting the pulp it 
 rejects the beans, which fall into the 
 trough d; the pulp passes into the 
 trough e. The cylinder is furnished 
 with a toothed surface, by means of 
 a sheet of copper pierced with a 
 number of partial perforations, so as 
 to resemble a magnified grater. Some- 
 times the punching is effected in such 
 a manner as to produce three-cornered 
 points, the apex of the triangle being 
 at the top ; in other cases a “ half- 
 moon ” punch is used, and this is 
 said to reduce the percentage of 
 pricked beans. In any case, it is essential that the teeth 
 shall be equally raised. Care must be taken to retain a 
 bold working edge on the lower chop, as when it becomes 
 worn and rounded, small and dry beans are liable to be 
 caught and broken. 
 
 A very handy form of cylinder pulper is seen in Fig. 8. 
 The pulping parts consist of an iron cylinder a, 24 in. by 
 15 in., covered with punched copper, and a pair of iron chops 
 set to the breast of the cylinder. Below the cylinder is a 
 sieve b , provided with circular motion, for separating the 
 
 Fia. 7. 
 
98 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 clean pulped beans or parchment from the pnlp and imper- 
 fectly pulped cherry. The parchment is carried by a spout 
 to the cistern; the unpulped cherry is returned to the 
 hopper c , and again passed through. Worked by six coolies, 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 it will pulp 80-40 bush, cherry an hour ; by power, 50-60 
 bush. 
 
 Fig. 9 represents a “ gearless ” pulper. It has two pulping 
 cylinders, two pairs of chops, hopper and feed-boxes of gal- 
 vanised iron, a large sieve with circular motion, and a set of 
 elevator buckets. It easily pulps 100 bush, cherry an hour, 
 and can be made to do 150-160 bush. ; for effective speed, it 
 requires a 16 ft. water-wheel, or a 3 h.-p. engine. The 
 cherry is dropped into the central hopper a , whence it passes 
 laterally into the two side hoppers b ; from these, it drops on 
 to the sides of the cylinders, and the pulping is effected at 
 the chops under c. The pulp is floated away. The beans, 
 together with some pulp and unpulped cherry, fall into a 
 sieve d , through which the beans pass nearly clean, and are 
 carried by spouts e to the cisterns. The pulp and unpulped 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 99 
 
 cherry are delivered into a well /, whence they are returned, 
 by the elevator g , to a, to be again passed through with fresh 
 cherry. 
 
 The use of chops is now often superseded by a breast. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Gearless Pulper. 
 
 This arrangement is shown in Fig. 10. The breast a is 
 pushed by hand against the barrel b , and adjusted by the 
 nut c and the screws d , which bear on the ends e of the 
 breast by means of wooden wedges /; it is thus kept tightly 
 in its place, as close as possible to the barrel without being 
 in actual contact. The part g of the hopper h forms a water- 
 box, to prevent stones from entering the machine. The 
 cherry descends from the loft, through a trap-door, into the 
 
 h 2 
 
100 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 perpendicular spout i , reaching nearly to the bottom of the 
 water-box. A continual influx of water carries the cherries 
 gradually over the lip of the box into the hopper ; the supply 
 thus depends upon the rate at which the water is fed. 
 When purchasing pulpers, care should be taken to obtain 
 clear directions for setting them up, such as are issued by the 
 makers, J. Gordon and Co., 9, New Broad Street, London, 
 E.C. 
 
 There are three points which need attention in all pulpers 
 — (1) regular feeding ; (2) exact adjustment of the pulping 
 parts ; (3) suitable sieves. The first condition is best 
 ensured by the arrangement shown in Fig. 10 ; the second 
 will depend in a great measure upon keeping the parts 
 quite clean, and watching their wear ; the third consists in 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Breast Pulper. 
 
 providing a circular mesh of such a size as to stop the 
 smallest cherry, while admitting the largest parchment bean. 
 It is common to have sieves with two meshes, the smaller 
 part being at the back, where the coffee comes down with 
 force, the larger at the front, where it merely passes forward. 
 This latter part should permit the largest beans to pass. In 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 101 
 
 some seasons, there will he but little saccharine matter 
 between the pulp and the parchment, so that they will 
 adhere so strongly as to render pulping a difficulty. Instead 
 of reducing the grade of the pulper, it is much better to 
 leave it at the full size for ripe cherry, and to pass the coffee 
 through several times, the pulp gradually becoming separated 
 without damage to the bean. 
 
 The pulpers above described comprise those most commonly 
 in use ; a few others demand passing notice. The “ bevel- 
 gear ” pulper is made with three pulping cylinders, or with 
 two cylinders and a crusher. The office of the latter is to 
 squeeze the cherries with sufficient force to effect the 
 separation of the beans and the pulp of the larger cherries, 
 while rendering the smaller ones more easily acted on by the 
 pulper ; it consists of a cylinder covered with overlapping 
 steel plates, and does not get rid of the pulp, but sends every- 
 thing forward into a sieve, whence all, except the proportion 
 of pulped beans, is passed to the pulpers. It works well, but 
 is somewhat complicated. The “ double pulper and crusher ” 
 has two pulping cylinders and a fluted crushing roller, which 
 latter is sometimes replaced by a third pulping cylinder. 
 The “ spur-gear ” is cheaper than the gearless, or the bevel- 
 gear, and will pulp 90-120 bush, an hour. “Butler’s” con- 
 sisted of two cylinders covered with grooved metal, revolving 
 inversely ; it worked well with uniform coffee. 
 
 Fermenting . — The “ p archme nt,” coffee, as it comes from the 
 pulpers, is next submitted to a fermentation process, to 
 remove the saccharine matter, without which the beans 
 would not dry. This operation is performed in a series of 
 tanks whose capacity will vary with the size of the estate, 
 and which may be arranged as shown in Fig. 11. The 
 pulpers are placed on a platform G, above the tanks, and in 
 such a position that the pulped coffee can be run by water 
 into the tanks, which must also be so situated that the coffee 
 will always advance by the aid of running water, and may 
 finally be conveniently conveyed to the drying ground, while 
 the water and refuse run off. The amount of cistern accom- 
 
102 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 modation necessary for an estate may be based on the~allow- 
 ance of 1 cnb. ft. for each bushel of cherry picked in one day. 
 The tanks are seldom less than three in number — two re- 
 ceiving cisterns, each large enough for the greatest possible 
 daily pick, and a third for washing the parchment, nearly as 
 large, superficially, as the other two combined. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 f 7 
 
 A 
 
 C 
 
 . / 
 
 TZ 
 
 ] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 V 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 ff 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 F 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fermenting Tanks. 
 
 In the figure, A B are the washing tanks, 12 ft. 6 in. by 
 17 ft. 2 in. by 2 ft. deep, separated by a causeway 3^ ft. wide ; 
 CDEF, the fermenting tanks, each 8 ft. by 18 ft. 9 in. by 
 2J ft. deep. These tanks are usually of brickwork, lined 
 with cement or asphalt ; but wood is much better, because 
 less cold. They all have a slight incline, to assist the 
 drainage. The receiving tanks are provided at the lowest 
 corner with a good-sized outlet fitted with a plug, and with 
 a movable sieve of perforated zinc or woven wire, fine enough 
 to keep back the coffee when draining off the water, but not 
 so fine as to choke with the saccharine scum. The receiving 
 cisterns are used alternately. All the coffee pulped in one 
 day is allowed to remain in the receiving cistern until a 
 
PBEPABATION OF THE BEBBY. 
 
 103 
 
 slight fermentation has set in ; this occurs in twelve to 
 eighteen hours in mild weather, but in cold weather it may 
 take thirty to forty hours, or even more. 
 
 There are two ways of conducting the fermentation — the 
 dry, and the wet. The former consists in allowing the 
 pulped berries to lie without water, the bottom of the tank 
 being perforated, so as to drain off the liquid ; by the latter, 
 the tank remains full of water. The dry system is the better, 
 as long as care is taken to turn the mass, so that the fermen- 
 tation shall be equal throughout ; the presence of water 
 equalises the fermentation, but retards it, and slightly 
 injures the quality of the coffee. When the fermentation is 
 not sufficiently prolonged, the beans will assume a yellowish 
 colour — called “ blanketty ” — and will be difficult to dry, and 
 liable to absorb moisture. When properly fermented, the 
 separation of the saccharine matters is easily effected in the 
 washing tanks, to which the beans and a good supply of 
 water are admitted. The washing cistern is provided with 
 a sluice door J at the lowest corner. This door commonly 
 measures 6 in. wide by 3 in. deep. The coffee is constantly 
 agitated by a wooden scraper or rake, by which the light 
 coffee and refuse matters float, and may be skimmed off. 
 The dirty water flows off through a tail-cistern, provided 
 with a grating to catch the skins and any stray parchment. 
 The sound berries are placed in draining boxes to remove the 
 excess of moisture, and are then transferred to the drying 
 ground, with the least possible delay. 
 
 Should the climate be uncertain, it will be necessary to 
 provide for the emergency of a succession of wet days, when 
 drying cannot be proceeded with. Parchment coffee may be 
 kept undried for a fortnight, without injury, by placing it in 
 a cistern exposed to a continuous flow of cold water. 
 
 Drying . — The berries to be dried are spread out on a flat 
 surface exposed to the heat of the sun. The material forming 
 the drying ground, 4 4 patio,” or 44 barbecue,” varies greatly. 
 Very commonly, the ground is levelled, and covered with a 
 kind of concrete. Sometimes asphalte is laid down ; but, 
 
/< 
 
 V 
 
 104 PEE PAR ATION OF THE BEERY. 
 
 besides being expensive, it is not sure to withstand the heat, 
 and such surfaces are liable to crack and give way, if not 
 very carefully drained. A very good plan is to lay down 
 coir matting, on ground which has simply been made smooth 
 and hard ; the advantages of this plan are its cheapness, the 
 ease with which extra ground can be requisitioned in case 
 of need, and the use of the matting as a temporary covering 
 in the event of a shower. Modifications of this method are 
 to stretch coir or gunny cloth across wooden frames, or 
 across trays wdth or without wheels. Shed accommodation 
 must always be provided ready for the reception of the 
 coffee at any moment. The beans must be constantly turned 
 over, either by light rakes or by coolies’ feet. The drying 
 must be rendered equable, and must not proceed so rapidly 
 as to crack the parchment before the bean is quite dry ; for 
 this reason, the coffee should not be exposed too long to a 
 strong sun for the first day or so. During the drying, it is 
 gathered in each day while the sun is still hot, and will then 
 continue to dry under cover. Every care must be taken to 
 prevent heating, which may happen by prolonged drying in 
 mild weather ; rather than permit this, the coffee should 
 be returned to a tank, and kept washed with running 
 water. 
 
 If artificial drying can be effected, so much the better. 
 An easy means of applying artificial heat is by passing an 
 iron pipe, open at both ends, through a fire outside the store 
 and below the level of the floor, continuing it into the store 
 just beneath the floor. The heated air, passing upwards 
 through the coffee, will carry off much of the damp. Revol- 
 ving drying machines are also in the market. One of the 
 best of these is Guardiola’s, made by J. Gordon & Co., of 
 New Broad Street, and shown in Plate VII. The coffee 
 is fed equally into the four compartments of the cylinder ; 
 the cylinder and blower are set in motion, and the furnace 
 is then lit. The coffee is kept in continual motion during 
 drying, the temperature being carefully regulated. Very 
 little attention is necessary, and the machine may well 
 
A, drying cylinder. 
 
 B, heater. 
 
 C, blower. 
 
 D, receiving box. 
 
 E, foot-board. 
 
 H, air-pipes. 
 
 L, doors. 
 
 N, feed-hopper. 
 
 PLATE VII. — GLFARDIOLA’S COFFEE DRYER. 
 
 [ To face p. 104 . 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 105 
 
 replace the ordinary “ patio 15 or “ barbecue,” being equally 
 adapted for drying other plantation products. 
 
 Three days’ thorough sunning usually suffices to render the 
 coffee quite dry and brittle, in which condition it is known 
 as “ parchment.” As a rule, it is sent to port in this state, 
 its further curing being left to the shippers ; for not only is 
 considerable expenditure on buildings and machinery neces- 
 sary for the purpose, but the experience gained in manipu- 
 lating various parcels of coffee will enable those who make 
 the subject a special study to bring the sample up to the 
 best standard of appearance and keeping properties. Coffee 
 is said to retain its colour better, if allowed to remain for 
 several weeks in the parchment ; and its quality is said to con- 
 tinue to improve for months, and even years, the process being 
 known as “ curing.” As, however, protracted curing causes 
 
 ( some difficulty in removing the silver skin, coffee is seldom 
 kept in the parchment longer than is compulsory. 
 
 Stores . — Though there is no necessity for curing the coffee, 
 and it may be hulled at once, if desired, the exigencies of 
 climate render a properly constructed store one of the greatest 
 desiderata. The characteristic of the store must be dryness 
 combined with security, hence galvanised iron forms the 
 best material. It is generally of two storeys ; the lower 
 floor is sometimes boarded or asphalted, but the upper is 
 always so made as to admit of free circulation of air through 
 the coffee placed on it. This object may be attained by 
 laying wire gauze, or coir matting, over reepers about 1 in. 
 apart. Abundant ventilation must be provided. It will be 
 necessary to watch for any signs of heating ; and immediately 
 on their appearance, the coffee must be turned over thoroughly. 
 
 An improved form of store is that built on the Clerichew 
 principle. The floor of the upper storey, constructed as in 
 the former case, rests on joists running lengthwise of the 
 building. A ceiling is provided for the lower storey, by 
 tacking to the joists, cloth which has been well soaked in 
 boiled rice-water and whitewash, to render it air-tight ; con- 
 tinuous air passages are thus made beneath the floor. About 
 
106 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 10 ft. of one end of the lower apartment is partitioned off, and 
 its sides are made as nearly as possible air-tight. It has no 
 ceiling other than the floor above, so that the passages all 
 open into it. In an opening in the wall of this chamber, a 
 pair of large revolving fans are placed. Their rapid revo- 
 lution draws a continuous current of air from the inside, and 
 therefore through the coffee itself. In this way, dried 
 parchment can be kept in perfect condition, without any 
 turning over. By using heated air on the same principle, 
 coffee may be housed while still only partially dry, and yet 
 not suffer fermentation. 
 
 Hulling , or Peeling . — This operation consists in the re- 
 moval of the “ parchment ” and the “ silver-skin.” The 
 beans must be again exposed to the sun, for a period which 
 it is difficult to define. Some say that they should be dried 
 till they resist the pressure of the thumb-nail ; but there is 
 really no infallible test, as no two samples are exactly alike. 
 It needs much experience to prevent loss of weight by over- 
 drying, or of colour by under-drying. They peel best while 
 still warm. A variety of hullers have been tried ; but pre- 
 ference is commonly given to the old-fashioned edge-runner 
 mill, composed of a circular trough with two large wheels 
 revolving in it, and suspended about 2 in. from the bottom. 
 The trough is one-half to two-thirds filled with beans, which 
 remain until the grinding action of the revolving wheels has 
 separated their skins, when they are let out by a lateral 
 aperture. A trough 15 ft. in diameter should turn out 
 cwt. market coffee an hour; 4^ bush, good parchment 
 coffee should give 1 cwt. clean coffee. The appearance of the 
 coffee immediately after hulling is very light-coloured ; but 
 it soon assumes a horn-green tint, which it will retain unless 
 exposed to damp, when it becomes dingy or mottled grey, 
 and is classed as “ country damaged.” 
 
 An apparatus for peeling and polishing parchment coffee, 
 combined with one for hulling dry cherry coffee, is shown in 
 Fig. 12. The two parts may be disengaged and worked 
 separately. Smout’s patent machine for hulling coffee which 
 has been dried in the cherry, is shown in Fig. 13. The 
 

i 
 
 PLATE VIII.— SMOUT’S COMBINED PEELER AND POLISHER. 
 
 This machine works without noise, creates no dust, and 
 
 J 
 
 never breaks the coffee. Its working is remarkably simple. 
 With the fan attached, as shown, the coffee is delivered quite 
 clean and ready for the separator. 
 
 {To face p. 107 , 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 107 
 
 shells should afterwards be removed by means of a fan. 
 Smout’s combined peeler and polisher is shown in Plate VIII. 
 
 Winnowing . — The peeled coffee, as it comes from the huller, 
 in company with the detached skins, is submitted to the in- 
 fluence of a fan, whose force must be so adjusted that it will 
 effectually remove the skins without carrying off any coffee. 
 
 Sizing . —When the coffee has been cleaned from the skins. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fig 13. 
 
 Peeling and Polishing Machine. 
 
 Smout’s Huller. 
 
 it is necessary to separate it into various sizes for market, 
 chiefly with the object of rendering the subsequent roasting 
 process more equable in its effect. Formerly, the sizing was 
 performed by hand garbling or picking ; but it is now the 
 custom to employ a “ separator,” as shown in Fig. 14. It 
 consists of a horizontal, revolving, cylindrical sieve c, formed 
 of perforated sheet iron, or steel wires, and divided into 
 
108 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY, 
 
 sections of different meshes. The coffee is fed in at the 
 "hopper a , which is furnished with a regulator and an 
 internal worm, for the purpose of distributing it equally, 
 while a revolving brush b prevents the meshes being choked. 
 Sand and dust pass through the first section, and fall into 
 the space d, small and broken beans are delivered at e, sound 
 coffee escapes into /, the best and largest beans are caught at g 9 
 and the pea-berry rolls freely out at the end h . A greatly im- 
 proved separator, also made by Gordon, is shown in Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Oiler Methods of Preparation . — There are times when it is 
 impossible to pulp the coffee ; the pulpers may get out of 
 repair, or the weather may be so untoward that the cherry 
 does’ not ripen sufficiently, or becomes too dry for pulping. 
 
PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 109 
 
 In these cases, the cherry must first he fermented ; the best 
 way to do this is to place it in one of the tanks, or, if the 
 quantity is too small to nearly fill a tank, in an old box or 
 cask, and cover it with sacks or grass, or both. Here it is 
 left until it acquires a good warmth. When the cherry, on 
 squeezing, is no longer slippery, it may be taken out and 
 spread in the sun to dry. For two or three nights, it need not 
 be housed, nor will rain hurt it. When dry, it may be stored for 
 curing, like parchment coffee, but must not be mixed with it. 
 
 To ferment the cherry by leaving it in a heap on the 
 ground is a bad plan, for two reasons : first, because when 
 fermented it becomes very wet, and collects dirt, which, in 
 the after treatment, will affect the colour of the coffee ; 
 second, because in a heap, the fermentation cannot be equal 
 throughout the sample. Pulping is performed whenever 
 possible, as the increased trouble entailed by the other 
 process is not compensated for by the alleged improvement 
 of the flavour, and no better price is got in the market. 
 
 The native coffee of the East Indies is dried in the cherry ; 
 the dried pulp is then removed by pounding in common 
 paddy-pounders, and the refuse is winnowed away in native 
 baskets. Besides being tedious, ineffective, and expensive, 
 the process gives a large proportion of damaged beans, and 
 does not secure a regularity of colour. 
 
 “ Wherever coffee has been found indigenous, it has been 
 observed that the natives pick it and dry it in the cherry, or 
 outer skin, and it is well known that this improves the 
 quality, and the flavour is better retained, even for years.” 
 (Christy.) 
 
 In many places merchants can command supplies of 
 coffee in the form of “ dry cherry,” or in the “ parchment.” 
 The system of husking coffee in London has considerable 
 advantages. Growers, by shipping their produce in parch- 
 ment, are enabled to forward the same for disposal without 
 delay ; and coffee sent forward in parchment and worked in 
 London has had a higher value in European markets than 
 that which has been worked abroad. 
 
 Messrs. Major & Field, the proprietors of Ked Lion and 
 
110 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE BERRY. 
 
 Three Cranes Wharf, Upper Thames Street, were the first to 
 recognise the importance of the scheme, and have, after some 
 years of labour, and considerable expense, established a com- 
 plete husking mill, using the latest and most approved 
 machines for the various processes, and, from their experi- 
 ence of the many different growths of coffee, they are en- 
 abled to adapt the machinery to the requirements of the 
 coffee that has to be dealt with. 
 
 There are two most important points to be observed in the 
 preparation of coffee; one is the drying after pulping, it 
 being most essential that the coffee should be properly dried, 
 otherwise it loses the brilliant bloom natural to the berry, 
 and no artificial drying is so efficient as sun heat in the 
 countries of production. The second point is, that after 
 being properly dried, any pod coffee that may be mixed with 
 the parchment should be sorted out, as generally such pod 
 consists of the most unripe berries, which have escaped the 
 action of the pulper, and such berries being of inferior quality 
 would, if passed through the mills with the clean parchment, 
 materially detract from the good appearance of the bulk. 
 
 Packing and Shipment . — As soon as the coffee has been 
 sized and garbled, it is ready for the market. It is best 
 packed in air-tight casks, made from wood which is not 
 likely to taint the coffee in any way. Bags are sometimes 
 used double, but are inferior to casks. In shipping coffee, 
 great care is required to prevent its coming into contact with 
 other merchandise which may communicate to it a flavour 
 or odour. Vessels carrying coffee should have perforated 
 ventilating tubes from the bottom of the hold, passing 
 through the cargo, and allowing the escape of the steam and 
 gases generated during transit. Without this, the beans 
 will be discoloured, and classed as “ country damaged,” an 
 accident which cannot be covered by insurance. In well- 
 ventilated ships, coffee loses about J per cent, in weight, but 
 gains in quality ; under bad ventilation, there will be a gain 
 of \ per cent, in weight, but a loss of colour, and consequent 
 depreciation in value. 
 
( 111 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 Market Varieties and Values. — The following list is intended 
 to show the comparative prices (in shillings per cwt.) of the 
 principal brands of coffee brought into the home market : — 
 Jamaica — good mid. to fine, 99-110, 103-126 ; low mid., 
 84-98, 92-102; fine ord. 60^-83, 71^-90; g ood ord.. 58-6 0. 
 68-71 ; ord. and triage, 50-56, 63-7. Ceylon (Native) — bold, 
 66-72, 75-80 ; good and fine ord. 63-4, 70-4; small and ord., 
 50-61, 62-9 ; (Plantation) — fine, 102J-112, 109-17 ; fine 
 mid., 100-2, 106-8J ; good mid. 96J-9^, 103-5J ; mid. 93-6, 
 100-2J; fi ne ord. _JtnJfixw mid., 82-92^, 84-99jr ; mixed and 
 triage, 62-81, 68-83. Other East India — fine and sup., 
 106^-15, 110-28; good to fine, 101J-5, 107-9J; mid. to 
 good mid., 92-101, 100-6J; fine ord. to low mid., 77-91J-, 
 84-99; ord., 70-6^, 72-82; Native, 68-72. Mocha — fine 
 yellow, 102-10; mid, to good, 93-1 00. 9 6-100 : ungarbled, 
 80-2. Java — yellow, 77-94, 90-100; pale and^muxed, 
 
 63 -76^,75-89^ Manilla— 54-65, 62-76. Singapore— 50351, 
 58-75. African— 50-3, 52-7. Bio and Santos— washed, 
 77-97, 83-101 ; fine ord. and sup., 56-70, 64-80 ; jgood ord., 
 54-5, 61-3 ; ord., 45-53, 48-60. La Guayra— 62-90, 76-97. 
 CostaTBica — fine, 91-100, 92-100; mid., 84-90, 86-91 ; ord,. 
 to fine ord. T 68-834, 66-85 . Guatemala — 68-83, 70-85 ; mid. 
 to fine, 84-97, 86-98. New Granada — 70-98,80-107. Porto 
 Bico — 75-100, 86-102. Also, occasionally, San Domingo — 
 60-75. Mexican — 65-84. Savanilla — plantation, 80-105 ; 
 native, 62-78. 
 
 The commercial value of coffee depends upon the form, 
 size, colour, smell, flavour, age, and uniformity of the beans; 
 
112 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 and on the presence or absence of stones, stems, and other 
 foreign matters. The source is only partially valuable as 
 an index of quality. Form is not a sure guide as to source, 
 as it varies in the same sample ; there are, however, three 
 typical forms : — Mocha, small rounded (pea-berry) ; pointed 
 Bourbon, medium sized, elongated, and pointed ; and 
 Martinique, large and flattened, Brazil, Martinique and 
 Java coffees are of fairly regular size; but those of San 
 Domingo and Mocha are very irregular. As a rule, medium 
 sized beans have the best flavour. Colour depends entirely 
 upon local peculiarities of growth and preparation ; generally 
 speaking, the coffees of the Old World are inclined to yellow, 
 those of the New, to green. Weight decreases by keeping. 
 Odour is a distinctive test, but requires long experience : — 
 green Mocha resembles tea ; Martinique and J amaica, pure 
 and pleasant ; Porto Rico, less agreeable ; Brazil, strong, 
 varying in Rio and Santos ; Java and Sumatra, sharp ; 
 Manilla, very pronounced. Flavour is another good test: — 
 Mocha is best ; Martinique, very agreeable ; Guadaloupe and 
 Porto Rico, less so ; Padang, inferior to Java ; Sumatra, 
 slightly bitter. As to impurities : — San Domingo is usually 
 very dirty ; Ceylon, East India, Rio, Santos, Martinique, 
 and Java, generally well prepared and clean. The nutritive 
 or stimulating value of the sample depends upon the per- 
 centage of caffeine, which can only be ascertained by analysis. 
 
 Caffeine . — “ Having recently had occasion to determine the 
 amount of caffeine in several samples of coffee, for the purpose 
 of comparison, it became necessary in the first place to make 
 some experiments in order to ascertain what method could 
 be relied upon for furnishing uniform and constant results. 
 By extracting the beans with boiling water, completely preci- 
 pitating the clear liquid with subacetate of lead, then removing 
 any excess of lead from the filtrate and evaporating to a 
 small bulk, the caffeine may be obtained in a crystalline con- 
 dition ; but it is still very impure, and the recrystallisation, 
 after pressing between bibulous paper, so readily gives rise 
 to loss that this method cannot be relied upon to give accu- 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 113 
 
 rate results. It is, moreover, extremely tedious and trouble- 
 some. Dr. James Bell* recommends as a better method the 
 extraction of coffee beans mixed with magnesia by boiling 
 with strong alcohol, evaporating off the spirit and treating 
 the residue with water to dissolve the caffeine. In this way 
 a considerable portion of the colouring material is separated 
 by the magnesia, and a further quantity is got rid of by eva- 
 porating the aqueous solution to dryness with a further 
 quantity of magnesia, and then dissolving the caffeine in hot 
 benzol. We have not, however, found this method to give 
 more satisfactory results than the previous one, and one 
 circumstance that greatly interferes with its application to 
 coffee is the considerable amount of fat present in the bean. 
 After several attempts to modify these methods of treatment 
 for the determination of caffeine in coffee beans we had 
 recourse to the use of lime as a means of separating the 
 tannic acid while dissolving out the caffeine by boiling with 
 alcohol. For this purpose it is advisable to mix the finely 
 powdered coffee with moist lime and then to extract the 
 mixture in a continuous percolator of the kind described by 
 Waitt in the ‘Pharmaceutical Journal’ (vol. xiv., p. 376). 
 The alcohol is then evaporated off and the dry residue is 
 mixed with some water and a few drops of dilute sulphuric 
 acid, the addition of which has the effect of separating the 
 fat and clarifying the solution by converting a small quan- 
 tity of soluble lime salt into calcium sulphate. After 
 filtering the cooled liquid it is quite free from fat, and may 
 then be evaporated to obtain the caffeine in a crystalline 
 state. A better plan, however, is to extract the caffeine from 
 the solution by shaking it with chloroform, in which it is 
 freely enough soluble to be readily taken up, and on evapo- 
 rating off the chloroform caffeine will be obtained in a 
 condition fit for weighing. The principal points to be 
 observed in carrying out this operation are the acidification 
 of the water solution from the spirit extract and the shaking 
 with chloroform, but with proper care very uniform results 
 * ‘ Analysis and Adulteration of Foods,’ Part I., p. 1G. 
 
 I 
 
114 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 can thus "be obtained. We have hitherto been in the habit 
 of operating npon 50 grams of coffee beans in each experi- 
 ment, but after confidence in the method has been obtained 
 and experience in operating a much smaller quantity might 
 be taken. 
 
 “ On applying this method to the determination of caffeine 
 in various samples of coffee we were at first somewhat per- 
 plexed by the great discrepancy of the published statements 
 as to the amount of this constituent that is present, as will 
 be seen from the following quotations : — 
 
 Robiquet 
 
 Liebig 
 
 Zenneck 
 
 Graham, Campbell and Stenhouse 
 
 Dragendorff 
 
 Squibb 
 
 Bell 
 
 Allen 
 
 Caffeine in raw coffee 
 beans per cent. 
 
 O' 32 to 0-61 
 0-23 to 0-46 
 0-75 
 
 0-88 to 1-00 
 
 0- 99 to 1-22 
 
 1- 00 to 1-03 
 1-08 to 1-11 
 0-50 to 2-00 
 
 “ The discrepancy between the data given as applying to 
 roasted coffee is still greater, and in the Allgemeine Kctffee - 
 Zeitung for 1884 the amount of caffeine in roasted coffee is 
 stated to range from 2*00 to 3*64 per cent. 
 
 “ The first result with which we were struck on carrying 
 out a number of experiments with several different samples 
 of raw coffee beans was the very narrow range within which 
 the amount of caffeine appeared to vary. Instead of being a 
 varying amount, it was more nearly a constant quantity in 
 those kinds of coffee beans we had an opportunity of exami- 
 ning, which were the following : — 
 
 Caffeine 
 per cent. 
 
 Coorg 1*10 
 
 Guatemala 1*18 
 
 Travancore 1*1G 
 
 Liberian 1*20 
 
 “ In making these determinations the raw coffee berries 
 were not dried, but taken just as they came to hand and 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 115 
 
 powdered. A difference in the amount of water might 
 therefore have altered the amount of caffeine in the dry 
 material, hut there is not much reason for expecting that the 
 foregoing data would have thus been materially affected. It 
 would be desirable to extend these determinations of caffeine 
 to a number of other samples of coffee from various sources, 
 and it is to a great extent with the hope of obtaining samples 
 for examination that we now make known the results that 
 have been so far arrived at. In a future communication we 
 propose to deal with the determination of some of the other 
 constituents of coffee. 
 
 “ The above determinations were all made with unroasted 
 coffee, and it may be added that in experiments with roasted 
 coffee we found a similar uniformity in the results obtained, 
 so that a determination of the amount of this constituent may 
 probably furnish a means of detecting the adulteration that 
 is now so largely practised in the sale of ground coffee 
 according to the custom that is general in this country. It 
 has been stated that in the ordinary roasting of coffee the 
 caffeine is to a great extent volatilised and lost. We have 
 strong feason for believing that this statement is entirely 
 incorrect, for in a number of experiments made by roasting 
 coffee beans in which the amount of caffeine had been pre- 
 viously determined in the raw state we ascertained that there 
 was an increase in the amount of caffeine in the roasted 
 coffee and that this increase was uniformly proportionate to 
 the loss of weight experienced by the coffee in roasting. As 
 a general rule the amount of caffeine in pure roasted coffee is 
 about 1 * 3 per cent. This may be more or less to some slight 
 extent, according as the coffee is slightly or highly roasted, 
 but there did not appear to be any evidence of the volatilisation 
 of caffeine during roasting.” (B. H. Paul and A. J. Cownley.) 
 
 Coffee-leaves . — A decoction made from the leaves of the 
 coffee shrub has long been used in the Eastern Archipelago, 
 and has more recently been introduced to the coolies in 
 Southern India. A few years since, it attracted considerable 
 notice, and was recommended as a new article of import, 
 
 i 2 
 
116 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 to become a cheap substitute for tea. There seems to be no 
 doubt that coffee-leaves contain the principle caffeine in 
 sufficient abundance to make a valuable beverage, but the 
 jiresence of an unpleasant senna-like odour would militate 
 greatly against its popularity. As regards price, it is said 
 that coffee-leaves could be prepared (like tea) and shipped at 
 2d. a lb., as against teas at 6d. to 1 Od. There exists, how- 
 ever, the difficulty that depriving the tree of its foliage 
 damages the crop of berries, and injures the tree itself; on 
 berry-producing trees, therefore, only the leaves obtained in 
 the ordinary pruning operations would be available, and these 
 would seem to yield so small a supply as not to be worth the 
 cost of collection. Growing the shrubs for leaf alone would 
 be a very questionable undertaking ; but there appears to be 
 no valid reason why, in the event of the berry crop failing, 
 a portion at least of the leaves might not be gathered and 
 prepared, if any means can be found for removing the objec- 
 tionable odour. It has been urged that the product would 
 chiefly be employed to adulterate tea ; but, even if such were 
 the case, it is manifestly better than many of the adulterants 
 now in common use, and it is very doubtful whether the 
 supply or the price would meet the requirements of the case. 
 
 Adulterants and Substitutes . — Scarcely any dietetic article is 
 so persistently adulterated. Its sophistication by means of 
 chicory seems to be a recognised custom. Eecently, a sub- 
 stitute for chicory has been introduced, under the name of 
 “ mochara,” which is said to consist simply of ripe figs, 
 roasted and pulverised. The preparation is stated to have 
 been for some time in use on the Continent ; but its intro- 
 duction to English markets was, till now, rendered 
 impossible by Customs restrictions. It is sold at about half 
 the price of coffee. Another illustration of the modern 
 craze for replacing every genuine article by an inferior 
 substitute is to be found in the formation of a company 
 (since come to the end it deserved) to work Henley’s patent 
 for making coffee out of dates ! In New Zealand, the berries 
 of Coprosma Baueriana have been proposed as a coffee substi- 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 117 
 
 tute. The seeds of Cassia occidentalis have been imported 
 into Liverpool from the river Gambia, under the name of 
 “ negro coffee,” and are said to be nsed to some extent in 
 Dominica. 
 
 Consumption and Prospects . — The following figures, taken 
 from official returns, show the total consumption (in millions 
 of lbs.) of coffee in the chief countries where it is used, and 
 the estimated consumption per head of the population ; the 
 figures in brackets indicate the estimated per capita con- 
 sumption in 1873: — United States, 310:6*5(7-6); German 
 
 Empire, 218^ : 5*0 ( ); France, 120 : 3*25 (2*73); 
 
 Holland, 70:18*0 (21*0); Belgium, 50:10*0 (13*48); 
 Austro-Hungary, 36 f : 1*0 (2*13); United Kingdom, 
 
 34|:1*0(1*0); Italy, 28:1*0 (1*0); Sweden, 25 : 5*0 (6* 11) ; 
 Switzerland, 18:6*0 (7*0); Norway, 13 J : 7 * 0 (9 * 8) ; Eussia, 
 10-J- : 0 * 15 (0 * 19) ; Denmark, 9 : 4 * 5 (13 * 89) ; Greece, If : 1 * 0 
 (1 * 42). From this, it would seem that the consumption of 
 coffee does not increase at the same rate as the population, 
 at least in the non-producing countries. In the East, on the 
 other hand, it is said to be daily gaining favour with the 
 natives. The comparatively trifling consumption in the 
 United Kingdom may probably be ascribed to three causes ; — 
 the competition experienced from cocoa and good cheap 
 tea ; the comparative ease with which these are prepared ; 
 and the extent to which coffee is adulterated. The 
 spread of the coffee-house movement, and education of the 
 people in the preparation of the beverage, should effect a 
 revival. Meantime there is abundant scope in foreign 
 markets ; and if the Ceylon planters will only make a real 
 and combined effort to stamp out the leaf disease, they may 
 reap a double benefit, while Brazil, their great rival, is 
 struggling against a disturbed labour market. 
 
 The subjoined figures are from a report on the coffee trade 
 of the world by United States Consul General Merritt, of 
 London, dated March 26, 1883. 
 
 “ There are no reliable data wherefrom a complete estimate 
 can be formed of the total produce of coffee in all parts of the 
 
118 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 globe. Tbe fluctuations of tbe annual output are great, and 
 the distances far and wide apart in respect to the countries 
 where coffee is cultivated. Admitting this, it may be 
 asserted, however, with certainty that with the exception of 
 the island of Ceylon there has been more coffee produced in 
 all countries during the past five years 1 than at any previous 
 period. This growth has been in sympathy with an increased 
 demand for home consumption in Europe and in the United 
 States. In British India coffee growing has made progress, 
 though on a small scale. (See Table K.) 
 
 44 No continuity of shipments can be tabulated from either 
 Singapore or Manilla. Those from Java and Sumatra are, 
 as far as Europe is interested, embodied in the statistics 
 under the head of the Netherlands. The retrograde move- 
 ment in Ceylon becomes apparent by the table marked K. 
 Tea and quinine are now under cultivation there in lieu of 
 coffee over large tracts of land. 
 
 “Asa rough estimate of the entire production of the berry, 
 the following table may be given, showing average of one 
 year in two quinquennial periods : — 
 
 Where produced. 
 
 1873-77. 
 
 1878-82. 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Brazil 
 
 200,000 
 
 290,000 
 
 Java and Sumatra 
 
 50,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 40,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 British India and Africa 
 
 24,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 1,800 
 
 2,000 
 
 Cuba and Porto Rico 
 
 2,500 
 
 3,000 
 
 “ The statistics of production of Domingo and Hayti, Costa 
 Bica, Venezuela, Guatemala, and Colombia are not at hand 
 for comparison. As bearing on the probable production of 
 Brazil it may be said that the exports in 1881, on consular 
 authority, were 4,139,419 bags, of which about 50 per cent, 
 went to the United States. 
 
 “On a basis of 145,000,000 population of Europe in 186G, 
 exclusive of Bussia, where coffee is not in general use, it has 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 119 
 
 been ascertained from official sources that the consump- 
 tion of coffee was 443,000,000 lb., or a fraction over 3 lb. 
 per capita. In 1881, the total consumption had increased 
 within the same radius to 763,636,000 lb., and the popu- 
 lation to about 175,000,000, and the average per capita 
 consumption to about 4*40 lb. The total supply of 
 coffee to the United States was in 1866, 174,281,000 lb.; 
 in 1881, 455,190,000 lb. Deducting a limited quantity 
 for re-exportation, the average consumption per capita in 
 the United States: 1866, 5*60 lb.; 1881, 9*10 lb. 
 
 “ In other words, the United States average per head is 
 nearly double that of Europe, and is constantly increasing. 
 
 “ Table A. — Summary of detailed statements showing the supply of coffee , in number 
 of pounds avoirdupois , received for domestic consumption in various countries 
 during sixteen years. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1866. 
 
 1867. 
 
 1868. 
 
 1869. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 France 
 
 98,650,000 
 
 103,988,000 
 
 105,066,000 
 
 110,721,000 
 
 Germany 
 
 90,915,700 
 
 120,187,300 
 
 138,851,700 
 
 148,918,000 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 27,841,000 
 
 45,918,000 
 
 48,314,000 
 
 47,146,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 42,598,000 
 
 47,282,000 
 
 51,917,500 
 
 45,170,000 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 9,608,500 
 
 9,842,000 
 
 13,804,400 
 
 4,790,700 
 
 Norway 
 
 12,781,700 
 
 13,352,500 
 
 12,600,400 
 
 12,739,300 
 
 Sweden 
 
 14,142,900 
 
 17,470,400 
 
 14,818,400 
 
 15,757,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 12,377,300 
 
 14,658,900 
 
 11,445,200 
 
 16,799,900 
 
 Austria 
 
 42,508,000 
 
 46,595,200 
 
 51,523,800 
 
 52,606,100 
 
 Italy 
 
 27,629,600 
 
 25,498,200 
 
 27,105,100 
 
 30,195,400 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 16,267,700 
 
 17,833,700 
 
 19,256,200 
 
 17,680,500 
 
 Spain, Portugal, > 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey, Greece, 1 
 and Balkan [ 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 [• States .. ,.J 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total .. .. 
 
 399,320,400 
 
 466,626,200 
 
 499,702,500 
 
 507,523,900 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 33,658,344 
 
 40,224,856 
 
 38,836,224 
 
 45,283,680 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 432,978,744 
 
 506,851,056 
 
 538,538,724 
 
 552,807,580 
 
 United States .. 
 
 174,281,000 
 
 187,237,000 
 
 208,984,000 
 
 264,161,500 
 
120 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 Table A. — Summary of detailed statements showing the supply of Coffee , &c. — cont. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 1873. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 France 
 
 107,322,600 
 
 88,293,600 
 
 36,757,800 
 
 98,636,800 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 119,453,400 
 
 38,557,000 
 
 159,974,000 
 
 204,090,000 
 
 216,208,000 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 438,872,000 
 
 22,743,000 
 
 78,395,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 49,368,000 
 
 51,546,000 
 
 49,020,000 
 
 49,748,000 
 
 Denmark .. 
 
 6,783,000 
 
 12,487,800 
 
 6,344,400 
 
 16,266,400 
 
 Norway 
 
 11,847,400 
 
 13,995,000 
 
 14,664,400 
 
 17,123,600 
 
 Sweden 
 
 17,471,500 
 
 19,245,400 
 
 17,982,800 
 
 24,695,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 15,856,600 
 
 17,716,800 
 
 16,110,500 
 
 14,740,900 
 
 Austria 
 
 58,193,300 
 
 67,612,900 
 
 70,737,400 
 
 75,503,600 
 
 Italy 
 
 27,753,000 
 
 28,847,500 
 
 27,218,900 
 
 28,511,600 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 14,882,500 
 
 20,641,900 
 
 16,860,300 
 
 18,444,400 
 
 Spain, Portugal, 
 
 ] 
 
 
 Turkey, Greece, 
 
 1 5,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 & Balkan States 
 
 
 
 
 Total .. 
 
 532,488,300 
 
 530,222,900 
 
 487,535,400 
 
 644,273,200 
 
 Great Britain . . 
 
 35,080,624 
 
 19,343,056 
 
 7,599,312 
 
 28,908,392 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 567,568,924 
 
 549,565,956 
 
 495,135,712 
 
 673,176,592 
 
 United States .. 
 
 235,257,200 
 
 317,992,000 
 
 298,806,000 
 
 293,883,900 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 France 
 
 85,159,600 
 
 105,628,800 
 
 117,671,400 
 
 105,184,200 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 198,091,000 
 
 221,683,000 
 
 93,365,000 
 
 234,080,000 
 
 210,793,000 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 52,396,000 
 
 23,205,000 
 
 75,374,000 
 
 Belgium 
 
 41,848,000 
 
 48,162,000 
 
 58,240,000 
 
 44,849,000 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 5,202,700 
 
 9,544,600 
 
 9,193,200 
 
 8,221,500 
 
 Norway 
 
 10,751,600 
 
 15,070,000 
 
 15,895,500 
 
 24,738,000 
 
 16,373,400 
 
 Sweden 
 
 19,853,000 
 
 21,851,000 
 
 23,885,700 
 
 Russia 
 
 16,467,300 
 
 18,021,000 
 
 69,784,000 
 
 18,021,200 
 
 10,333,400 
 
 Austria 
 
 71,689,800 
 
 71,944,900 
 
 74,475,700 
 
 Italy 
 
 23,529,000 
 
 29,876,100 
 
 32,720,000 
 
 27,764,000 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 14,497,700 
 
 20,659,300 
 
 21,924,200 
 
 17,131,600 
 
 Spain, Portugal, 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 Turkey, Greece, 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 & Balkan States 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 Total . . 
 
 545,485,900 
 
 660,376,200 
 
 633,633,800 
 
 621,385,500 
 
 Great Britain .. 
 
 38,415,568 
 
 72,775,840 
 
 15,327,648 
 
 55,622,128 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 583,901,468 
 
 733,152,240 
 
 648,961,448 
 
 677,007,628 
 
 United States .. 
 
 285,271,700 
 
 321,970,800 
 
 341,089,200 
 
 331,639,000 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 121 
 
 Table A.— Summary of detailed statements showing the supply of Coffee , &c.—cont. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 ms. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1881i 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Norway 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Russia 
 
 Austria 
 
 Italy 
 
 Switzerland 
 Spain, Portugal, 
 Turkey, Greece, 
 and Balkan 
 
 States 
 
 lb. 
 
 119.031.000 
 
 218.713.000 
 
 85.209.000 
 
 50.773.000 
 8,236,700 
 
 13.422.000 
 
 23.485.200 
 16,049,900 
 87,788,600 
 27,933,400 
 
 18.332.200 
 
 | 7,000,000 
 
 lb. 
 
 125,017,200 
 
 248,266,000 
 
 52.079.000 
 
 54.916.000 
 10,705,900 
 15,903,500 
 23,830,300 
 
 17.008.200 
 
 42.479.200 
 
 34.089.000 
 21,191,700 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 lb. 
 
 127,012,600 
 
 207,284,000 
 
 65.975.000 
 
 50.061.000 
 9,615,700 
 
 15,969,400 
 
 25.168.000 
 18,362,300 
 
 69.519.100 
 
 23.480.000 
 
 18.547.100 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 lb. 
 
 142.331.000 
 
 229.141.000 
 
 73.022.000 
 
 52.500.000 
 9,000,000 
 
 16.725.000 
 
 24.000. 000 
 
 18.000. 400 
 
 78.562.000 
 
 31.103.000 
 21,523,500 
 
 10.000. 000 
 
 Total 
 
 Great Britain . . 
 
 675,974,400 
 
 27,368,544 
 
 653,486,900 
 
 35,514,304 
 
 639,994,300 
 
 40,015,114 
 
 705,907,900 
 
 57,728,000 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 703,342,944 
 
 689,001,200 
 
 680,009,414 
 
 763,635,900 
 
 United States .. 
 
 309,882,000 
 
 377,848,000 
 
 446,851,000 
 
 455,190,000 
 
 “ Great Britain. 
 
 “ Table Bbas the tendency to show the difference between 
 the relative consumption of tea and coffee. While the first- 
 named article commands an average of 4^ lb. per head of 
 population, the consumption of coffee is confined to a rate 
 less than 1 lb. 
 
 64 The tables marked C and D show, respectively, the 
 imports from British possessions and foreign countries. The 
 table marked E explains the uses of the trade, while in 
 Table E the re-export of surplus import is illustrated. 
 
 “ The total results are summarised in the table marked G, 
 and are designed to show the actual consumption throughout 
 Europe ; while another compilation, marked H, explains the 
 position which obtains between Europe and the United 
 States relative to production. 
 
122 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “ Table B . — The consumption in Great Britain of Coffee, Cocoa , and Tea , 
 distinguishing the number of pounds entered for home consumption on 
 which duties have been collected. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 1841 
 
 lb. 
 
 28,370,857 
 
 lb. 
 
 1,938,847 
 
 lb. 
 
 36,675,667 
 
 1842 
 
 28,519,646 
 
 2,246,569 
 
 37,355,911 
 
 1843 
 
 30,979,404 
 
 2,547,034 
 
 40,293,393 
 
 1844 
 
 31,352,332 
 
 2,589,977 
 
 41,363,770 
 
 1845 
 
 34,293,190 
 
 36,754,554 
 
 2,579,407 
 
 44,193,433 
 
 1846 
 
 2,951,206 
 
 46,740,344 
 
 1847 
 
 37,441,373 
 
 3,079,198 
 
 46,314,821 
 
 1848 
 
 37,077,646 
 
 2,919,591 
 
 48,734,789 
 
 1849 
 
 34,399,374 
 
 3,206,746 
 
 50,021,576 
 
 1850 
 
 31,161,358 
 
 3,080,641 
 
 51,179,302 
 
 1851 
 
 32,501,545 
 
 2,978,344 
 
 53,949,059 
 
 1852 
 
 34,978,432 
 
 3,228,627 
 
 54,713,054 
 
 1853 
 
 36,983,122 
 
 3,997,108 
 
 58,834,087 
 
 1854 
 
 37,350,934 
 
 4,452,529 
 
 61,953,041 
 
 1855 
 
 35,764,564 
 
 4,383,023 
 
 63,429,286 
 
 1856 
 
 34,995,944 
 
 3,634,155 
 
 63,278,212 
 
 1857 
 
 34,353,133 
 
 2,647,470 
 
 69,132,101 
 
 73,195,685 
 
 1858 
 
 35,208,932 
 
 2,860,034 
 
 1859 
 
 34,328,876 
 
 2,015,859 
 
 76,863,661 
 
 1860 
 
 35,497,960 
 
 3,230,978 
 
 76,816,394 
 
 77,927,750 
 
 1861 
 
 35,202,040 
 
 3,407,672 
 
 1862 
 
 34,451,700 
 
 3,622,433 
 
 78,793,977 
 
 1863 
 
 32,763,095 
 
 3,712,231 
 
 3,862,273 
 
 85,183,280 
 
 1864 
 
 31,360,450 
 
 88,590,235 
 
 97,834,874 
 
 1865 
 
 30,511,109 
 
 3,826,425 
 
 1866 
 
 30,630,236 
 
 4,053,133 
 
 102,265,531 
 
 1867 
 
 31,282,023 
 
 4,228,554 
 
 110,988,209 
 
 1868 
 
 30,356,818 
 
 5,115,766 
 
 106,815,262 
 
 1869 
 
 28,839,100 
 
 5,701,880 
 
 111,726,491 
 
 1870 
 
 30,330,572 
 
 6,153,983 
 
 117,551,152 
 
 1871 
 
 30,662,023 
 
 7,252,035 
 
 123,401,889 
 
 1872 
 
 31,173,555 
 
 7,771,763 
 
 127,661,360 
 
 1873 
 
 31,791,332 
 
 8,284,260 
 
 131,881,470 
 
 1874 
 
 31,249,368 
 
 8,854,690 
 
 137,279,891 
 
 1875 
 
 32,078,018 
 
 9,957,610 
 
 145,327,432 
 
 1876 
 
 32,894,400 
 
 10,399,522 
 
 149,104,194 
 
 1877 .. .. c. 
 
 32,286,016 
 
 10,043,605 
 
 151,114,886 
 
 1878 
 
 32,835,552 
 
 9,996,290 
 
 10,076,504 
 
 157,396,661 
 
 1879 
 
 34,072,032 
 
 160,432,284 
 
 158,570,842 
 
 1880 
 
 31,868,480 
 
 10,566,150 
 
 1881 
 
 31,208,240 
 
 10,897,795 
 
 160,225,911 
 
 165,079,881 
 
 1882 
 
 31,178,560 
 
 11,996,850 
 
{l Table C . — Coffee imports from, British possessions . 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 123 
 
Table D . — Coffee imports from foreign countries into Great Britain. 
 
 124 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 
 
 iba and Porto 
 Kico. 
 
 OO(NlCOCOO0^^COHM^(»?O(MfflCDO^OOO?OO 
 
 CO<M05THCOCDOCOOOHlO(NOCD(N05l>a)QOQO^OOlOHOO 
 
 ,CDIM(N(NOHC005OOONOO10HtH(NOO©C0OON 
 
 HiCOHH ?— 1 CO CO (M D- 00 i— 1 IQ (MCOWiOiO(MiOt> 
 
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 Dutch West 
 Indies. 
 
 lb. 
 
 2,741 
 
 49*280 
 
 16,128 
 
 lyti and Saint 
 Domingo. 
 
 lb. 
 
 672,819 
 
 553,372 
 
 390,880 
 
 492,561 
 
 111,452 
 
 102,835 
 
 335,695 
 
 ,469,929 
 
 952,987 
 
 ,736,213 
 
 ,223,177 
 
 ,262,111 
 
 720,045 
 
 ,013,854 
 
 ,270,672 
 
 ,448,592 
 
 ,365,008 
 
 ,555,312 
 
 ,676,608 
 
 ,654,688 
 
 ,763,616 
 
 ,806,544 
 
 ,866,416 
 
 787,360 
 
 961,968 
 
 M 
 
 CO r-l CO H CO ^ CO t> JO lO 00 l> CO C4 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 O^COC5iOCOQOr-(iOi^COCOCOiOCOCOCO<MOCOrHOO^COtO-M 
 
 ^HlOOK5lO(MOOCOHC!NCOI^i-iO>0(M*OTH'^OC5CqO 
 
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 TtICOCOTjs OSTtHTH 
 
 Cqi-ir-i CM i—i i— 1 rH H 00 (M (M (M lO (M 
 
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 ew Granada. 
 
 lb. 
 
 502*594 
 
 65,904 
 
 373,751 
 
 ,574,439 
 
 997,372 
 
 ,580,452 
 
 ,981,816 
 
 ,829,459 
 
 ,295,386 
 
 ,215,396 
 
 ,592,672 
 
 ,660,448 
 
 ,031,168 
 
 ,888,992 
 
 ,433,088 
 
 ,640,352 
 
 ,265,920 
 
 ,330,000 
 
 ,827,840 
 
 ,261,952 
 
 ,918,113 
 
 
 i-i <MCM^COCOOO<MCOn-i(MrHCOHH(MH 
 
 c3 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 t— lO CM 'H 00 IO C5O^C|>C5COCO(MOCOOCOCOrHCOOO*^0 
 t>iO^OOCOOOHrHOOCOiOTHOHCDC5^iOrH-HOCO(NH 
 COOHCO0C5O5H(OCOCOCOHt^HlOOCD(MCOCOOOiOOOO 
 
 < 
 
 'g 
 
 ^NOCOiOG5(NCDo"r-iCOOC<lWOiOTiHCOTfHC105iOC5 1>a!'^ 
 S(NCDHHOCOHCOOl>0OOO^(M^(N^h(NCOOrH|>iO 
 COiOt>t>'=f(MO(Ml>(Mr-HCOHCOOlOOiHCOCOCOCOrHHrtH 
 
 "S 
 
 O 
 
 CO rjT r-T r-T CO C0~ Co" C0~ IQ t> t> © C<T tj7 oT Co" CO Co" r}7 lO <£ CO 
 
 r— I r tHHr— t(Mi— l(MH<Mr— ItMCM 
 
 Years. 
 
 COMXMJlOr- KMCOrHiOCDt-OOCiO- 1 (M CO W CO t- CO O O 
 
 lOiOiO»OCDCOCDOCD0CDOOOt^t^l>t^^t^l>l>C»t^GO 
 OOaOGOCOOOOOOOGGCOOOCOGOGOCOGOOOCOQOOOGOaOGOCOaOCO 
 
 H rl H rH rlHrlrirlHrlHrlrlHH i— 1 H H rl H H rl H rH 
 
Table D. — Coffee imports from foreign countries into Great Britain — continued. 
 
 F 1 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 125 
 
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 ^I^COI^OHO0(Nai(N»OCO(MiOO5COT}H^H^COt^iMt> 
 
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 Java. 
 
 IflCOOWCOOdHIM COCO^HGO-fCMCDCO<M'<+iOOCO<MCO 
 
 COiOCOOdt^^rHCO COdCO^dNiOOJCOCO^iOD'CO 
 
 <MO5<MO5C0CMTJHC0<M OCDOOdOOddO^dCOO 
 
 *2 CM 05** i-T : : 00 r-T r-T TtT 05*" CO rH -H*" tjT CM*" 
 
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 rH r}H l> CO 05 i— IOOt>(M^COOT^TfHC<lOOCO(M'^CMOO 
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 5 
 
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 (MI>05C0hH^hi 005 05<MO(MOC0OCMC0C0^H-H 
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 £ 
 
 CO rH*' r-i r-T r-T r-T CO*" i-T of rH*" *cT 
 
 Chili. 
 
 lb. 
 
 118,394 
 
 68 
 
 22,714 
 
 288 
 
 131,766 
 
 o 
 
 O O -H O CO 
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 iOC0OO05C0l>(M(MO05(MO>C05O^C0Q0OC0(M0000?0 
 
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 CDl>C005OrH(MC0TtUf0C0r^C005OrH(MC0TH»OC0l>C005O 
 
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 COCOCOOOOOCOCOOOCOCOCOOCCOCOCOCOCX)COCO(X)COCOOOQOCO 
 
 HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 
 
126 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “ Total imports and exports of Coffee into and from Great Britain. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1856 
 
 56,992,116 
 
 27,602,836 
 
 1,498,108 
 
 712,212 
 
 1857 
 
 58,892,726 
 
 15,782,710 
 
 1,720,465 
 
 466,894 
 
 1858 
 
 60,697,265 
 
 25,761,314 
 
 1,742,252 
 
 785,175 
 
 1859 
 
 65,353,030 
 
 29,586,054 
 
 1,955,592 
 
 877,295 
 
 1860 
 
 82,797,746 
 
 45,661,520 
 
 2,543,307 
 
 1,440,089 
 
 1861 
 
 83,532,425 
 
 46,800,365 
 
 2,628,776 1 
 
 1,461,278 
 
 1862 
 
 94,041,883 
 
 56,899,830 
 
 3,303,387 
 
 1,967,730 
 
 1863 
 
 117,354,217 
 
 70,385,233 
 
 4,153,330 
 
 2,530,684 
 
 1864 
 
 109,277,382 
 
 71,309,279 
 
 3,606,286 
 
 2,590,427 
 
 1865 
 
 137,997,440 
 
 79,884,182 
 
 4,600,887 
 
 3,249,534 
 
 1866 
 
 127,044,818 
 
 99,655,344 
 
 4,098,329 
 
 3,060,577 
 
 1867 
 
 137,729,760 
 
 94,595,904 
 
 4,362,760 
 
 3,035,267 
 
 1868 
 
 173,902,512 
 
 135,066,288 
 
 4,858,107 
 
 3,740,373 
 
 1869 
 
 173,416,320 
 
 128,152,640 
 
 4,927,805 
 
 3,644,055 
 
 1870 
 
 179,901,904 
 
 144,821,264 
 
 4,942,769 
 
 3,936,268 
 
 1871 
 
 191,992,304 
 
 172,648,896 
 
 5,394,511 
 
 4,682,332 
 
 1872 
 
 166,269,040 
 
 158,669,728 
 
 5.257,403 
 
 4,606,674 
 
 1873 
 
 183,402,576 
 
 154,499,184 
 
 7,230,351 
 
 5,822,333 
 
 1874 
 
 157,351,376 
 
 120,935,808 
 
 7,064,788 
 
 5,233,684 
 
 1875 
 
 178,049,984 
 
 135,274,944 
 
 7,513,053 
 
 5,690,117 
 
 1876 
 
 152,503,904 
 
 137,176,256 
 
 6,377,829 
 
 5,791,656 
 
 1877 
 
 180,127,584 
 
 124,506,256 
 
 7,768,928 
 
 5,200,814 
 
 1878 
 
 142,203,824 
 
 114,835,380 
 
 5,918,481 
 
 4,732,210 
 
 1879 
 
 180,251,232 
 
 144,736,928 
 
 7,089,100 
 
 5,830,092 
 
 1880 
 
 173,202,512 
 
 133,187,488 
 
 6,861,130 
 
 5,258,446 
 
 1881 
 
 137,648,396 
 
 108,163,785 
 
 4,761,369 
 
 4,081,045 
 
 1882 
 
 152,204,391 
 
 111,621,972 
 
 5,188,947 
 
 3,905,775 
 
 “ Quantities imported , exported , and retained for home consumption during 
 each quinquennial period. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Stock and consump- 
 tion. 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1851- 
 
 -1855 
 
 294,242,740 
 
 122,662,948 
 
 177,578,587 
 
 1856- 
 
 -1860 
 
 324,732,883 
 
 147,394,434 
 
 174,384,835 
 
 1861- 
 
 -1865 
 
 542,203,407 
 
 354,278,889 
 
 164,288,394 
 
 1866- 
 
 -1870 
 
 791,995,304 
 
 600,291,440 
 
 151,338,749 
 
 1871- 
 
 -1875 
 
 877,865,728 
 
 742,028,560 
 
 156,954,294 
 
 1876- 
 
 -1880 
 
 828,259,056 
 
 654,442,208 
 
 163,956,970 
 
 1881 
 
 
 137,648,336 
 
 108,164,784 
 
 29,473,552 
 
 1882 
 
 
 153,324,192 
 
 (?) 
 
 (*) 
 
 * The quantity taken for home consumption in 1882, and on which 
 duty has been paid, was 31,962,780 lb. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 127 
 
 “ Redistribution of Imported Coffee. 
 
 “ Table F . — Statement of the export of Coffee from Great Britain to other 
 European countries showing the progress of 25 years , 
 
 Years. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 lb. 
 
 5,461,457 
 
 lb. 
 
 42,109,221 
 
 lb. 
 
 35,094,688 
 
 lb. 
 
 11,537,767 
 
 lb. 
 
 5,333,491 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 54,234,468 
 
 80,729,903 
 
 100,460,763 
 
 22,909,298 
 
 7,445,574 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 94,315,523 
 
 114,816,603 
 
 218,374,198 
 
 41,578,081 
 
 23,379,414 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 58,103,585 
 
 172,074,896 
 
 254,783,796 
 
 59,273,984 
 
 50,702,018 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 47,344,640 
 
 154,649,086 
 
 203,304,752 
 
 63,063,840 
 
 57,823,032 
 
 1881 
 
 4,762,352 
 
 26,456,220 
 
 31,840,480 
 
 8,163,680 
 
 11,292,452 
 
 1882* 
 
 - 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 Years. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Turkey, Greece, 
 Roumania. 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 15,632,142 
 
 •• 
 
 .. 
 
 .. 
 
 .. 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 27,387,748 
 
 7,880,878 
 
 11,426,438 
 
 8,282,492 
 
 .. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 38,695,490 
 
 12,871,487 
 
 14,587,430 
 
 5,707,118 
 
 .. 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 48,890,688 
 
 18,107,152 
 
 25,723,152 
 
 8,233,792 
 
 2,439,472 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 29,067,024 
 
 15,099,992 
 
 20,211,743 
 
 9,415,792 
 
 2,208,528 
 
 1881 
 
 4,762,352 
 
 5,465,152 
 
 3,390,576 
 
 1,647,744 
 
 .. 
 
 1882* 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 - 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 Not yet recorded. 
 
128 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “The Consumption op Coffee in Europe. 
 
 “ Table G. — Statement of the average annual consumption of Coffee as supplied to 
 the undermentioned countries , distinguishing the average total number of pounds' 
 weight and the proportion per head of population. 
 
 
 1867 to 1871. 
 
 1872 to 1876. 
 
 1877 to 1881. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Average of 
 five years. 
 
 Propor- 
 tion per 
 head of 
 popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Average of 
 five years. 
 
 Per 
 
 head of 
 popula- 
 tion. 
 
 Average of 
 five years. 
 
 Per 
 
 head of 
 popula- 
 tion. 
 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lib. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 France 
 
 
 117,058,000 
 
 3-01 
 
 88,760,000 
 
 2-47 
 
 123,715,000 
 
 3-25 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 
 140,000,000 
 
 4-87 
 
 214,818,000 
 
 5-20 
 
 222,239,000 
 
 4-94 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 74,807,000 
 
 13*56 
 
 67,802,400 
 
 15-50 
 
 69,045,200 
 
 16-33 
 
 Belgium 
 
 
 45,263,500 
 
 9-43 
 
 48,069,400 
 
 9-62 
 
 51,767,800 
 
 9-41 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 12,862,300 
 
 7-56 
 
 14,706,900 
 
 •• 
 
 15,618,400 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 15,931,600 
 
 4-14 
 
 20,472,700 
 
 4 99 
 
 24,011,400 
 
 5-30 
 
 Denmark . . 
 
 
 8,159,600 
 
 • • 
 
 9,969,200 
 
 
 9,194,600 
 
 
 .Russia 
 
 
 14,227,600 
 
 
 16,342,400 
 
 
 15,995,000 
 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 
 18,059,000 
 
 7-00 
 
 18,477,100 
 
 6-10 
 
 19,345,300 
 
 6-98 
 
 Italy .. 
 
 
 27,859,900 
 
 1-11 
 
 28,371,200 
 
 1*07 
 
 29,874,200 
 
 1-06 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 •Spain, Portugal,] 
 Turkey, Greece, > 
 and Balkan . . ) 
 
 55,303,400 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 1-73 
 
 71,931,900 
 
 5,800,000 
 
 2-00 
 
 70,578,200 
 
 8,200,000 
 
 1-90 
 
 Total .. 
 
 #. 
 
 534,531,900 
 
 3-70 
 
 605,525,200 
 
 3-90 
 
 659,584,100 
 
 3-88 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 
 30,266,774 
 
 1-00 
 
 31,390,859 
 
 0*94 
 
 32,791,394 
 
 0-93 
 
 Total Europe 
 
 554,798,674 
 
 3-16 
 
 636,916,059 
 
 3-41 
 
 692,375,494 
 
 3-37 
 
 United States 
 America .. 
 
 ?'} 
 
 250,726,500 
 
 7-90 
 
 307,886,360 
 
 7-69 
 
 384,283,800 
 
 7-01 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 129 
 
 a Table H. — Statement showing the relative proportion of consumption of Coffee in 
 Great Britain and other European countries compared with the United States of 
 America. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1866-1870. 
 
 1871-1875. 
 
 1876-1880. 
 
 Great Britain : 
 
 Imports 
 
 lb. 
 
 791,995,300 
 
 600,291,400 
 
 lb. 
 
 877,065,728 
 
 742,028,560 
 
 lb. 
 
 828,289,000 
 
 654,442,200 
 
 Re-exports 
 
 
 Retained for consump- ) 
 tion J 
 
 191,703,900 
 
 135,037,200 
 
 173,846,800 
 
 The European countries, 
 except Russia, Spain, 
 Portugal, and Turkey : 
 Details as per tables in'! 
 
 round numbers . . . . / 
 
 Average per annum 
 United States of America : 
 
 Total import 
 
 Average per annum each | 
 five years / 
 
 2,660,000,000 
 
 532,000,000 
 
 1,253,631,700 
 
 250,726,530 
 
 2,900,000,000 
 
 580,000,000 
 
 1,539,431,800 
 
 307,886,360 
 
 3,150,000,000 
 
 630,000,000 
 
 1,921,419,000 
 
 384,283,100 
 
 “ Table I. — The consumption of coffee in Europe and the United States of America , 
 distinguishing the totals and the percentage of supply during sixteen years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Europe. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Proportion 
 to Europe. 
 
 Proportion 
 to United 
 States. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 1866 
 
 432,978,744 
 
 174,281,000 
 
 
 607,279,744 
 
 71*3 
 
 28*7 
 
 1867 
 
 501,851,056 
 
 187,237,000 
 
 
 693,188,0 56 
 
 73*0 
 
 27*0 
 
 1868 
 
 358,538,724 
 
 208,984,000 
 
 
 747,522,724 
 
 72*0 
 
 28*0 
 
 1869 
 
 552,807,580 
 
 264,164,000 
 
 
 816,969,080 
 
 67*6 
 
 32*4 
 
 1870 
 
 567,568,924 
 
 235,257,500 
 
 
 802,826,124 
 
 70-7 
 
 29*3 
 
 1871 
 
 549,565,956 
 
 317,992,200 
 
 
 867,557,956 
 
 63*3 
 
 36-7 
 
 1872 
 
 495,135,700 
 
 298,806,000 
 
 
 793,941,700 
 
 62-0 
 
 38*0 
 
 1873 
 
 673,176,592 
 
 293,883,900 
 
 
 967,060,492 
 
 70-0 
 
 30*0 
 
 1874 
 
 583,901,468 
 
 285,271,700 
 
 
 879,173,168 
 
 67*4 
 
 32-6 
 
 1875 
 
 733,152,240 
 
 321,970,800 
 
 1 , 
 
 ,055,122,040 
 
 70-0 
 
 30*0 
 
 1876 
 
 648,961,448 
 
 341,809,200 
 
 
 990,050,648 
 
 65*5 
 
 34*5 
 
 1877 
 
 677,007,628 
 
 331,639,000 
 
 1 . 
 
 ,008,646,628 
 
 67*0 
 
 33*0 
 
 1878 
 
 703,342,944 
 
 309,882,300 
 
 1 
 
 ,014,225,144 
 
 69*3 
 
 30*5 
 
 1879 
 
 689,001,200 
 
 377,848,000 
 
 1 
 
 ,066,849,200 
 
 64*6 
 
 35*4 
 
 1880 
 
 680,009,400 
 
 446,851,000 
 
 1 . 
 
 ,126,860,400 
 
 60*5 
 
 39*5 
 
 1881 
 
 763,635,900 
 
 455,190,000 
 
 1 . 
 
 ,218,826,000 
 
 62*6 
 
 37*4 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 MAKKETS AND STATISTICS 
 
 “ Jamaica, 
 
 “ Table J. — Exports of Coffee from Jamaica . 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in English 
 money. 
 
 Value in American 
 money. 
 
 1850 
 
 lb. 
 
 6 , 264,472 
 
 £ 
 
 118,603 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 593,015 
 
 1851 
 
 5 , 594,585 
 
 102,252 
 
 511,260 
 
 1852 
 
 5 , 584,573 
 
 98,026 
 
 490,130 
 
 1853 
 
 4 , 822,651 
 
 80,519 
 
 402,595 
 
 1854 
 
 6 , 122,866 
 
 109,553 
 
 547,765 
 
 1855 
 
 5 , 666,202 
 
 96,191 
 
 480,955 
 
 1856 
 
 3 , 721,720 
 
 83,021 
 
 415,125 
 
 1857 
 
 6 , 761,075 
 
 5 , 943,708 
 
 146,162 
 
 730,810 
 
 1858 
 
 97,257 
 
 486,258 
 
 1859 
 
 5 , 055,089 
 
 91,514 
 
 457,570 
 
 1860 
 
 6 , 176,598 
 
 113,848 
 
 151,061 
 
 569,240 
 
 1861 
 
 6 , 715,500 
 
 755,305 
 
 1862 
 
 5 , 467,302 
 
 162,727 
 
 813,635 
 
 1863 
 
 8 , 184,849 
 
 177,839 
 
 889,195 
 
 1864 
 
 4 , 141,903 
 
 111,748 
 
 558,740 
 
 1865 
 
 6 , 229,712 
 
 159,499 
 
 799,995 
 
 1866 
 
 8 , 513,532 
 
 188,864 
 
 944,320 
 
 1867 
 
 6 , 264,861 
 
 172,816 
 
 864,080 
 
 848,870 
 
 1868 
 
 7 , 855,488 
 
 169,774 
 
 1869 
 
 5 , 501,887 
 
 129,984 
 
 649.920 
 
 1870 
 
 9 , 671,564 
 
 237,990 
 
 1 , 189,950 
 
 1871 
 
 5 , 611,245 
 
 150,301 
 
 751,505 
 
 1872 
 
 9 , 510,739 
 
 252,358 
 
 1 , 261,790 
 
 1873 
 
 7 , 199,144 
 
 214,055 
 
 1 , 070,275 
 
 1874 
 
 10 , 351,570 
 
 338,165 
 
 1 , 690,825 
 
 1875 
 
 7 , 136,327 
 
 219,092 
 
 1 , 095,460 
 
 1876 
 
 8 , 707,552 
 
 270,066 
 
 1 , 350,330 
 
 1877 
 
 9 , 532,887 
 
 270,960 
 
 1 , 354,800 
 
 1878 
 
 9 , 572,714 
 
 274,676 
 
 1 , 373,380 
 
 1879 
 
 10 , 833,867 
 
 249,175 
 
 1 , 245,875 
 
 1880 
 
 10 , 188,397 
 
 254,722 
 
 1 , 273,610 
 
 “ Decapsulation. 
 
 1851-1855 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 27 , 790,877 
 
 27 , 658,190 
 
 80 , 739,266 
 
 37 , 807,332 
 
 39 , 808,425 
 
 48 , 835,917 
 
 486,541 
 
 531,806 
 
 763,374 
 
 899,428 
 
 1 , 173,971 
 
 1 , 219,599 
 
 2 , 432,705 
 
 1 , 659,030 
 
 3 , 816,870 
 
 4 , 497,140 
 
 5 , 869,855 
 
 6 , 597,995 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 131 
 
 “Table J . — Exports of Coffee from Jamaica — continued . 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in English 
 money. 
 
 Value in American 
 money. 
 
 1851-1855 
 
 lb. 
 
 5,558,175 
 
 £ 
 
 97,308 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 486,541 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 5,531,638 
 
 106,361 
 
 531,806 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 6,147,853 
 
 152,675 
 
 763,374 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 7,561,466 
 
 179,885 
 
 899,428 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 7,961,686 
 
 234,794 
 
 263,920 
 
 1,173,911 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 9,767,183 
 
 1,319,599 
 
 “ Ceylon. 
 
 “ Table K . — Statement of the shipment of Coffee , the produce of the island of 
 Ceylon , distinguishing the decrease in both plantation and native produce. 
 
 
 Plantation. 
 
 Native. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1850 
 
 
 279,112 
 
 
 
 
 
 1851 
 
 . , 
 
 350,585 
 
 
 
 
 
 1852 
 
 
 374,031 
 
 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 
 328,972 
 
 
 
 
 
 1854 
 
 . . 
 
 408,895 
 
 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 , , 
 
 506,732 
 
 
 
 
 
 1856 
 
 312,435 
 
 725,809 
 
 133,135 
 
 266,584 
 
 445,570 
 
 4,95*8,965 
 
 1857 
 
 431,241 
 
 1,127,299 
 
 172,204 
 
 372,837 
 
 603,415 
 
 7,500,670 
 
 1858 
 
 354,567 
 
 957,330 
 
 190,068 
 
 380,136 
 
 544,635 
 
 6,687,330 
 
 1859 
 
 411,562 
 
 1,111,221 
 
 178,436 
 
 356,872 
 
 590,000 
 
 7,340,460 
 
 1860 
 
 477,606 
 
 1,289,537 
 
 154,843 
 
 309,687 
 
 632,449 
 
 7,997,120 
 
 1861 
 
 517,499 
 
 1,397,248 
 
 132,818 
 
 265,626 
 
 650,317 
 
 8,314,370 
 
 1862 
 
 478,634 
 
 1,292,312 
 
 127,075 
 
 254,149 
 
 605,709 
 
 7,732,305 
 
 1863 
 
 670,068 
 
 1,809,186 
 
 158,517 
 
 317,034 
 
 828,585 
 
 10,631,100 
 
 1864 
 
 576,315 
 
 1,555,513 
 
 95,548 
 
 190,897 
 
 671,863 
 
 8,732,050 
 
 1865 
 
 695,934 
 
 1,874,012 
 
 233,268 
 
 468,044 
 
 929,202 
 
 11,735,280 
 
 K 2 
 
132 
 
 MAKKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 “ Table K . — Statement of the shipment of Coffee , &c. — continued . 
 
 
 Plantation. 
 
 Native. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1866 
 
 701,189 
 
 1 
 
 901 
 
 309 
 
 195,291 
 
 390,583 
 
 896,490 
 
 11,459,460 
 
 1867 
 
 776,218 
 
 2. 
 
 ,095. 
 
 ,788 
 
 167,374 
 
 334,748 
 
 943,592 
 
 12,152,680 
 
 1868 
 
 784,889 
 
 2 : 
 
 » 119; 
 
 ,202 
 
 222,590 
 
 445,181 
 
 1,007,479 
 
 12,821,915 
 
 1869 
 
 792,569 
 
 2. 
 
 ,139; 
 
 ,987 
 
 127,643 
 
 254,286 
 
 920,212 
 
 11,971,345 
 
 1870 
 
 921,506 
 
 2. 
 
 ,488. 
 
 ,082 
 
 132,524 
 
 264,923 
 
 1,054,030 
 
 13,765,025 
 
 1871 
 
 775,454 
 
 2. 
 
 ,093. 
 
 ,667 
 
 170,396 
 
 338,760 
 
 945,850 
 
 12,157,135 
 
 1872 
 
 582,432 
 
 1 . 
 
 ,572; 
 
 ,468 
 
 140,623 
 
 281,246 
 
 723,055 
 
 9,26S,570 
 
 1873 
 
 830,261 
 
 3. 
 
 ,736; 
 
 ,176 
 
 122,077 
 
 488,311 
 
 952,333 
 
 21,122,435 
 
 1874 
 
 635,983 
 
 2. 
 
 ,683. 
 
 ,055 
 
 97,020 
 
 341,088 
 
 733,003 
 
 15,120,715 
 
 1875 
 
 813,401 
 
 3. 
 
 ,812; 
 
 ,817 
 
 115,205 
 
 430,021 
 
 928,606 
 
 21,214,190 
 
 1876 
 
 586,580 
 
 2. 
 
 ,914; 
 
 ,573 
 
 80,585 
 
 302,194 
 
 667,165 
 
 16,083,835 
 
 1877 
 
 896,534 
 
 4! 
 
 ,370; 
 
 ,603 
 
 82,281 
 
 316,268 
 
 978,815 
 
 23,434,355 
 
 1878 
 
 586,917 
 
 3. 
 
 ,026. 
 
 ,292 
 
 46,237 
 
 164,719 
 
 633,154 
 
 15,955,055 
 
 1879 
 
 725,325 
 
 3. 
 
 ,603. 
 
 ,958 
 
 54,414 
 
 173,445 
 
 779,739 
 
 18,887,015 
 
 1880 
 
 611,842 
 
 2. 
 
 ,982; 
 
 ,938 
 
 45,753 
 
 142,650 
 
 657,595 
 
 15,641,940 
 
 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Plantation coffee. 
 
 Native coffee. 
 
 Total quantity. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 
 cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 1,987,381 
 
 828,686 
 
 2,816,067 
 
 34,483,560 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 2,938,450 
 
 747,226 
 
 3,685,676 
 
 47,145,105 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 3,976,371 
 
 845,423 
 
 4,321,793 
 
 62,170,425 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 3,657,531 
 
 645,315 
 
 4,302,846 
 
 78,883,045 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 3,407,198 
 
 309,270 
 
 3,716,468 
 
 90,002,200 
 
 a Average for eacli year. 
 
 1856-1860 
 
 397,476 
 
 165,737 
 
 149,445 
 
 568,213 
 
 6,896,712 
 
 1861-1865 
 
 587,690 
 
 737,135 
 
 9,429,021 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 795,274 
 
 169,084 
 
 964,359 
 
 12,434,085 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 531,526 
 
 129,063 
 
 860,569 
 
 15,770,609 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 681,440 
 
 61,854 
 
 743,294 
 
 18,000,440 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 133 
 
 “ British India. 
 
 “ Table L. — Exports of Coffee from British India . 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Yalue in English 
 money. 
 
 Yalue in American 
 money. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 £ 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1852 
 
 8,714,500 
 
 48,307 
 
 241,537 
 
 1853 
 
 7,865,600 
 
 47,485 
 
 237,425 
 
 1851 
 
 7,737,800 
 
 109,762 
 
 548,810 
 
 1855 
 
 7,111,900 
 
 82,804 
 
 414,020 
 
 1856 
 
 9,206,100 
 
 120,201 
 
 501,005 
 
 1857 
 
 10,117,000 
 
 132,819 
 
 664,095 
 
 1858 
 
 6,123,800 
 
 99,727 
 
 498,635 
 
 1859 
 
 11,693,200 
 
 135,036 
 
 675,180 
 
 1860 
 
 14,345,800 
 
 188,532 
 
 942,660 
 
 1861 
 
 19,119,000 
 
 332,485 
 
 1,662,475 
 
 1862 
 
 21,505,100 
 
 467,991 
 
 2,339,955 
 
 1863 
 
 21,045,700 
 
 513,257 
 
 2,566,285 
 
 1861 
 
 26,752,900 
 
 657,672 
 
 3,288,360 
 
 1965 
 
 32,287,900 
 
 801,908 
 
 4,009,540 
 
 1866 
 
 34,700,200 
 
 788,102 
 
 3,940,510 
 
 1867 
 
 17,641,100 
 
 414,217 
 
 2,071,085 
 
 1868 
 
 31,812,300 
 
 761,395 
 
 3,806,975 
 
 1869 
 
 48,036,800 
 
 1,121,032 
 
 5,605,160 
 
 1870 
 
 36,493,100 
 
 870,189 
 
 4,350,945 
 
 1871 
 
 33,816,700 
 
 809,701 
 
 4,048,505 
 
 1872 
 
 56,817,200 
 
 1,380,410 
 
 6,902,050 
 
 1873 
 
 42,099,300 
 
 1,146,219 
 
 5,731,095 
 
 1871 
 
 41,118,800 
 
 1,499,498 
 
 7,497,490 
 
 1875 
 
 35,041,900 
 
 1,307,919 
 
 6,539,590 
 
 1876 
 
 41,831,900 
 
 1,633,395 
 
 8,166,693 
 
 1877 
 
 34,065,700 
 
 1,353,588 
 
 6,767,940 
 
 1878 
 
 33,446,100 
 
 1,394,638 
 
 6,973,190 
 
 1879 
 
 38,234,900 
 
 1,548,481 
 
 7,742,405 
 
 1880 
 
 40,436,900 
 
 1,633,032 
 
 8,165,160 
 
 1881 
 
 41,519,200 
 
 1,602,594 
 
 8,012,995 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1852-1856 
 
 40,935,900 
 
 408,559 
 
 2,042,775 
 
 1857-1861 
 
 61,398,800 
 
 888,599 
 
 4,442,945 
 
 1862-1866 
 
 136,291,800 
 
 3,228,930 
 
 16,149,650 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 167,800,000 
 
 3,976,534 
 
 19,882,670 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 216,909,100 
 
 6,967,441 
 
 34,837,205 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 187,697,600 
 
 7,532,343 
 
 37,661,690 
 
134 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 “ Table L. — Exports of Coffee from British India — continued. 
 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 Value in English 
 money. 
 
 Value in American 
 money. 
 
 1852-1856 
 
 lb. 
 
 8,187,180 
 
 £ 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 408,555 
 
 1857-1861 
 
 12,879,760 
 
 
 885,589 
 
 1862-1866 
 
 27,258,360 
 
 
 3,229,930 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 33,560,000 
 
 
 6,976,534 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 43,381,820 
 
 
 7,532,343 
 
 1877-1880 
 
 37,539,520 
 
 
 “ The United States. 
 
 “ Table M. — Imports of Coffee into the United States . 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1866 
 
 174,281,000 
 
 19,729,281 
 
 1867 
 
 187,237,000 
 
 20,696,259 
 
 1868 
 
 248,984,000 
 
 25,288,451 
 
 1869 
 
 264,161,500 
 
 24,531,743 
 
 1870 
 
 235,257,200 
 
 24,234,879 
 
 1871 
 
 317,992,000 
 
 30,992,869 
 
 1872 
 
 298,806,000 
 
 37,942,225 
 
 1873 
 
 293,293,000 
 
 44,103,814 
 
 1874 
 
 285,271,700 
 
 55,040,965 
 
 1875 
 
 321.970,800 
 
 50,591,488 
 
 1876 
 
 340,089,000 
 
 56,788,997 
 
 1877 
 
 331,639,000 
 
 53,634,991 
 
 1878 
 
 309,882,000 
 
 51,914,000 
 
 1879 
 
 377,848,000 
 
 47,357,000 
 
 1880 
 
 446,851,000 
 
 60,361,000 
 
 1881 
 
 455,190,000 
 
 56,784,000 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1,253,631,700 
 
 125,744,201 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1,539,431,800 
 
 244,467,484 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 1,921,419,000 
 
 270,050,991 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 135 
 
 “ Table M. — Imports of Coffee into the United States — continued . 
 “ Average during each year. 
 
 Years. 1 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 lb. 
 
 250,726,530 
 
 307,886,360 
 
 384,283,800 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 125,744,201 
 
 244,467,484 
 
 270,050,991 
 
 “ Average percentage per head of population. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 7*90 
 
 3-30*9 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 7-69 
 
 6-11-2 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 7-01 
 
 5-40-0 
 
 “ France. 
 
 “ The fluctuations in regard to the consumption of coffee 
 have been somewhat violent in consequence of the war, but 
 now the old rate per capita has again been resumed, namely, 
 a fraction over 3 lb. 
 
 “Table No. 1. — Imports of Coffee into France for home consumption. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1861 
 
 37,580,000 
 
 82,676,000 
 
 68,200,000 
 
 13,640,000 
 
 1862 
 
 27,791,000 
 
 83,140,200 
 
 76,000,000 
 
 16,200,000 
 
 1863 
 
 39,701,000 
 
 87,392,000 
 
 79,800,000 
 
 15,960,000 
 
 1864 
 
 40,457,000 
 
 89,005,000 
 
 83,400,000 
 
 16,680,000 
 
 1865 
 
 43,501,000 
 
 95,703,200 
 
 85,400,000 
 
 17,080,000 
 
 1866 
 
 44,841,000 
 
 98,650,000 
 
 79,100,000 
 
 15,520,000 
 
 1867 
 
 47,261,000 
 
 103,985,000 
 
 71,600,000 
 
 14,320,000 
 
 1868 
 
 52,303,000 
 
 115,066,600 
 
 73,900,000 
 
 14,780,000 
 
 1869 
 
 50,328,000 
 
 110,721,600 
 
 73,700,000 
 
 14,740,000 
 
 1870 
 
 76,010,000 
 
 167,223,600 
 
 105,000,000 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 1871 
 
 40,129,000 
 
 88,293,800 
 
 64,700,000 
 
 12,940,000 
 
 1872 
 
 16,708,000 
 
 36,757,000 
 
 31,400,000 
 
 6,280,000 
 
 1873 
 
 44,834,000 
 
 98,686,000 
 
 99,500,000 
 
 19,909,000 
 
 1874 
 
 38,709,000 
 
 85,159,000 
 
 88,256,000 
 
 17,651,000 
 
 1875 
 
 48,013,000 
 
 105,628,000 
 
 105,159,000 
 
 21,029,000 
 
 1876 
 
 53,487,000 
 
 117,671,000 
 
 108,000,000 
 
 21,600,000 
 
 1877 
 
 47,811,000 
 
 105,184,000 
 
 99,000,000 
 
 19,600,000 
 
 1878 
 
 54,105,000 
 
 119,031,000 
 
 101,176,000 
 
 20,235,000 
 
 1879 
 
 56,526,000 
 
 125,017,000 
 
 101,150,000 
 
 20,230,000 
 
 1880 
 
 57,733,000 
 
 127,012,000 
 
 97,569,000 
 
 19,513,800 
 
 1881 
 
 64,696,000 
 
 142,331,000 
 
 97,691,000 
 
 19,338,200 
 
136 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 “ Table No. 1 . — Imports of Coffee in France , dec. — continued. 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1861-1866 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 453.840.000 
 
 585.290.000 
 
 443.822.000 
 
 618.576.000 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 80.744.000 
 
 79.780.000 
 
 86.461.000 
 
 97.317.000 
 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 1861-1866 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 90.768.000 
 
 117.058.000 
 
 88.764.000 
 
 123.715.000 
 
 16,140,800 
 
 15,956,000 
 
 17,292,200 
 
 19,863,400 
 
 “ Proportion per head of population. 
 
 1861-1866 
 
 
 2-42 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 43-15 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 
 3*01 
 
 
 43-84 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 
 2-47 
 
 
 48-01 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 •• 
 
 3*25 
 
 
 52-10 
 
 “ Germany. 
 
 46 There are no statistics available prior to the date of the 
 present empire. As the free city of Hamburg is the central 
 depot for the coffee trade of Germany and Central Europe, a 
 special table of her imports is given. Despite competition, 
 caused by increased railway facilities between other shipping 
 ports along the North Sea, Hamburg has not only held her 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 137 
 
 former position, but lias considerably augmented her opera- 
 tions in coffee, chiefly with Brazil and some of the West 
 Indian possessions. 
 
 “ Imports of Coffee into Germany for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1872 
 
 Centners. 
 
 1,855,367 
 
 lb. 
 
 204,090,000 
 
 Marks. 
 
 136,500,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 34,125,000 
 
 1873 
 
 1,965,261 
 
 216,178,700 
 
 177,000,000 
 
 44,250,000 
 
 1874 
 
 1,800,830 
 
 198,091,300 
 
 167,400,000 
 
 41,850,000 
 
 1875 
 
 2,015,000 
 
 221,650,000 
 
 199,000,000 
 
 49,750,000 
 
 1876 
 
 2,128,000 
 
 234,080,000 
 
 192,000,000 
 
 48,000,000 
 
 1877 
 
 1,916,300 
 
 210,793,000 
 
 172.000. 000 
 
 169.000. 000 
 
 43,000,000 
 
 1878 
 
 1,988,300 
 
 218,713,000 
 
 42.250.000 
 
 47.500.000 
 
 1879 
 
 2,229,700 
 
 245,267,000 
 
 190,000,000 
 
 1880 
 
 1,884,400 
 
 207,284,000 
 
 159,750,000 
 
 37,687,500 
 
 1881 
 
 2,083,100 
 
 229,141,000 
 
 135,400,000 
 
 33,850,000 
 
 u Recapitulation. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1,074,090,000 
 
 217,975,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 1,111,198,000 
 
 204,287,000 
 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 214,818,000 
 
 43,595,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 202,239,600 
 
 40,857,400 
 
 “ Proportion per head of population. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 5*24 
 
 106-2 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 4-94 
 
 90-9 
 
138 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “ Table No. 2. — Imports of Coffee into Hamburg. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 
 Centners. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Marks. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1866 
 
 
 826,961 
 
 90 
 
 915,700 
 
 50,355,000 
 
 12,571,000 
 
 1867 
 
 1 
 
 ,092,612 
 
 120 
 
 187,300 
 
 59,553,000 
 
 14,888,250 
 
 1868 
 
 1 
 
 ,262,277 
 
 138 
 
 851,700 
 
 60,891,000 
 
 15,222,750 
 
 1869 
 
 1 
 
 ,353,807 
 
 148! 
 
 ,918,000 
 
 70,050,000 
 
 17,512,500 
 
 1870 
 
 1 
 
 ,085,948 
 
 119, 
 
 ,453,400 
 
 54,606,000 
 
 13,651,500 
 
 1871 
 
 1 
 
 ,454,309 
 
 159. 
 
 ,974,000 
 
 81,264,000 
 
 20,316,000 
 
 1872 
 
 1 
 
 ,276,325 
 
 140. 
 
 ,393,000 
 
 93,320,000 
 
 23,330,000 
 
 1873 
 
 1 
 
 ,595,678 
 
 175. 
 
 ,524,000 
 
 141,524,000 
 
 35,381,000 
 
 1874 
 
 1 
 
 ,563,000 
 
 171. 
 
 ,930,000 
 
 145,416,000 
 
 36,354,000 
 
 1875 
 
 1 
 
 ,737,000 
 
 191. 
 
 ,070,000 
 
 156,897,000 
 
 39,224,250 
 
 1876 
 
 1 
 
 ,761,000 
 
 193. 
 
 ,710,000 
 
 140,650,000 
 
 36,662,500 
 
 1877 
 
 1 
 
 ,825,000 
 
 201. 
 
 ,850,000 
 
 157,938,000 
 
 39,434,500 
 
 1878 
 
 1 
 
 ,881,000 
 
 206, 
 
 ,910,000 
 
 140,512,000 
 
 35,128,000 
 
 1879 
 
 2, 
 
 ,052,000 
 
 225, 
 
 ,720,000 
 
 139,751,000 
 
 34,437,500 
 
 1880 
 
 2. 
 
 ,027,000 
 
 222, 
 
 ,970,000 
 
 145,066,000 
 
 36,266,500 
 
 1881 
 
 2 3 
 
 ,338,000 
 
 357, 
 
 ,180,000 
 
 145,492,000 
 
 36,373,000 
 
 u Recapitulation. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 673,384,400 
 
 81,591,000 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 872,627,000 
 
 170,951,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 1,114,630,000 
 
 182,189,000 
 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 134,671,658 
 
 16,318,200 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 174,525,400 
 
 34,190,200 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 222,926,000 
 
 36,437,800 
 
 “ Netherlands. 
 
 “ The tables distinguish the values and quantities respec- 
 tively of imports and exports and the stock available for 
 consumption. The estimate per capita must be taken with 
 some degree of consideration. It has not really gone into 
 consumption, but large quantities are kept in bond at the 
 disposal of speculators. Nevertheless, as the inhabitants are 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 139 
 
 interested in the coffee trade of Java, there is comparatively 
 a larger quantity consnmed than in other European 
 countries. 
 
 “ Import and export of Coffee, Netherlands. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Import. 
 
 Export. 
 
 Stock and consumption. 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1863 
 
 69,885,000 
 
 56,141,000 
 
 13,745,000 
 
 . , 
 
 1864 
 
 82,043,000 
 
 66,919,000 
 
 15,129,000 
 
 m , 
 
 1865 
 
 78,061,000 
 
 70,683,000 
 
 7,376,000 
 
 . . 
 
 1866 
 
 85,097,000 
 
 72,442,000 
 
 12,655,000 
 
 
 1867 
 
 91,954,000 
 
 71,088,000 
 
 20,873,000 
 
 45,9:18,000 
 
 1868 
 
 96,584,000 
 
 74,623,000 
 
 21,961,000 
 
 48,314,000 
 
 1869 
 
 86,863,000 
 
 64,933,000 
 
 21,430,000 
 
 47,146,000 
 
 1870 
 
 97,110,000 
 
 79,584,000 
 
 17,526,000 
 
 38,557,000 
 
 1871 
 
 103,754,000 
 
 83,813,000 
 
 19,942,000 
 
 43,872,000 
 
 1872 
 
 78,870,000 
 
 68,532,000 
 
 10,538,000 
 
 22,746,400 
 
 1873 
 
 104,892,000 
 
 68,803,000 
 
 36,089,000 
 
 79,395,600 
 
 1874 
 
 83,958,000 
 
 60,187,000 
 
 23,771,000 
 
 52,296,800 
 
 1875 
 
 110,037,000 
 
 67,598,000 
 
 42,439,000 
 
 93,365,200 
 
 1876 
 
 84,540,000 
 
 73,992,000 
 
 10,548,000 
 
 23,205,800 
 
 1877 
 
 110,620,000 
 
 76,368,000 
 
 34,261,000 
 
 75,374,200 
 
 1878 
 
 93,465,000 
 
 68,373,000 
 
 25,945,000 
 
 55,202,900 
 
 1879 
 
 95,935,000 
 
 69,990,000 
 
 25,092,000 
 
 52,079,000 
 
 1880 
 
 96,583,000 
 
 66,594,000 
 
 29,989,000 
 
 65,975,800 
 
 1881 
 
 94,094,000 
 
 61,902,000 
 
 32,192,000 
 
 73,022,400 
 
 “ Recapitulation.* 
 
 
 Export. 
 
 Stock and consumption. 
 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 374,035,000 
 
 223,807,000 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 339,012,000 
 
 271,010,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 345,237,000 
 
 326,654,000 
 
 “ Proportion of supply per capita. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 
 13-56 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 
 15-50 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 
 16-33 
 
140 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 “ Table No. 3 . — Imports of Coffee into the Netherlands , by value • 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Stock and consumption. 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1872 
 
 34,703,000 
 
 30,154,000 
 
 4,549,000 
 
 18,955,000 
 
 1873 
 
 46,153,000 
 
 30,273,000 
 
 15,880,000 
 
 66,165,000 
 
 1874 
 
 36,941,000 
 
 26,482,000 
 
 10,459,000 
 
 43,575,000 
 
 1875 
 
 48,416,000 
 
 29,743,000 
 
 18,673,000 
 
 77,805,000 
 
 1876 
 
 37,198,000 
 
 32,557,000 
 
 4,641,000 
 
 19,385,000 
 
 1877 
 
 48,677,000 
 
 33,602,000 
 
 15,075,000 
 
 62,810,000 
 
 1878 
 
 41,125,000 
 
 30,084,000 
 
 11,041,000 
 
 46,005,000 
 
 1879 
 
 42,211,000 
 
 30,796,000 
 
 11,415,000 
 
 47,562,000 
 
 1880 
 
 42,497,000 
 
 29,301,000 
 
 13,196,000 
 
 54,993,000 
 
 1881 
 
 41,401,000 
 
 27,237,000 
 
 14,164,000 
 
 59,010,000 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 
 149,209,000 
 
 
 225,845,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 - 
 
 151,030,000 
 
 •• 
 
 270,380,000 
 
 li Average during each of the five years. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 
 29. 
 
 , 841, 800 
 
 
 45,169,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 *• 
 
 30, 
 
 , 206, 000 
 
 •• 
 
 54,076,000 
 
 1872-1876 : — Proportion of money value, $12*54. 
 1877-1881 : — Expended on coffee per capita, $13*54. 
 
 tc Belgium. 
 
 “ This country has a large consumption of coffee. Still, 
 the rate per capita is not necessarily used by the inhabitants, 
 as the border localities of Germany, France, and Holland are 
 largely supplied by the Belgian grocers. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 141 
 
 “ Table No. 4. — Imports of Coffee into Belgium for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1863 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1864 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 19,354,000 
 
 42,578,800 
 
 33,038,000 
 
 6,607,600 
 
 1867 
 
 21,492,000 
 
 47,382,400 
 
 36,609,000 
 
 7,321,800 
 
 1868 
 
 23,599.000 
 
 51,917,800 
 
 32.178.000 
 
 27.918.000 
 
 6,435,600 
 
 1869 
 
 20,532,000 
 
 45,170,400 
 
 5,583,600 
 
 1870 
 
 22,440,000 
 
 49,368,000 
 
 31,174,000 
 
 6,234,800 
 
 1871 
 
 23,430,000 
 
 51,546,000 
 
 38,336,000 
 
 7,667,200 
 
 1872 
 
 22,282,000 
 
 49,020,000 
 
 42,642,000 
 
 8,528,400 
 
 1873 
 
 22,623,000 
 
 49,770,000 
 
 54,214,000 
 
 10,842,800 
 
 1874 
 
 19,022,000 
 
 41,848,000 
 
 45,183,000 
 
 9,036,600 
 
 1875 
 
 21,822,000 
 
 48,162,000 
 
 53,681,000 
 
 10,736,200 
 
 1876 
 
 26,473,000 
 
 58,240,000 
 
 61,516,000 
 
 12,303,200 
 
 1877 
 
 20,386,000 
 
 44,849,000 
 
 48,835,000 
 
 9,767,400 
 
 1878 
 
 23,079,000 
 
 50,773,000 
 
 48,143,000 
 
 9,628,600 
 
 1879 
 
 24,962,000 
 
 54,916,000 
 
 45,097,000 
 
 9,019,400 
 
 1880 
 
 22,755,000 
 
 50,061,000 
 
 45,323,000 
 
 9,064,600 
 
 8,715,200 
 
 1881 
 
 23,864,000 
 
 52,500,000 
 
 43,576,000 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 107.417.000 
 
 109.247.000 
 
 117.655.000 
 
 226,317,400 
 
 240.347.000 
 
 258.839.000 
 
 161.917.000 
 
 234.056.000 
 
 248.914.000 
 
 32,383,400 
 
 46,811,200 
 
 49,782,800 
 
 “ Average total for each year. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 21.483.400 
 
 21.849.400 
 23,531,000 
 
 45,263,500 
 
 48,069,400 
 
 51,767,800 
 
 32,383,400 
 
 46,811,200 
 
 49,782,800 
 
 6,476,680 
 
 9,362,240 
 
 9,956,560 
 
 “ Proportion per cent, per head of population. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 lb. 
 
 9*430 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 . m 
 
 9-620 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 
 9-410 
 
142 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “ Denmark. 
 
 “ There are no statistics issued in Denmark stating the 
 values of imports. There is a small export trade from 
 Denmark, probably confined to the colonies in the Arctic 
 regions. The pro rata consumption is larger in Denmark in 
 sympathy with all Scandinavian states than elsewhere on 
 the continent of Europe. 
 
 “ Table No. 5. — Imports and exports of Coffee , Denmark. 
 
 [Quantities only.] 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Stock and consumption. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1866 
 
 14,998,577 
 
 5,770,077 
 
 8,728,500 
 
 1867 
 
 14,299,123 
 
 5,290,690 
 
 8,998,154 
 
 1868 
 
 17,035,055 
 
 4,483,825 
 
 12,549,350 
 
 1869 
 
 10,080,170 
 
 5,724,968 
 
 4,350,202 
 
 1870 
 
 13,425,885 
 
 7,258,920 
 
 6,166,965 
 
 1871 
 
 13,281,400 
 
 5,993,559 
 
 12,487,841 
 
 1872 
 
 14,866,000 
 
 7,671,639 
 
 6,344,361 
 
 1873 
 
 23,668,000 
 
 7,401,679 
 
 16,266,321 
 
 1874 
 
 14,354,500 
 
 9,151,786 
 
 5,202,714 
 
 1875 
 
 15,907,100 
 
 6,362,384 
 
 9,544,716 
 
 1876 
 
 15,966,500 
 
 6,767,341 
 
 9,193,159 
 
 1877 
 
 15,122,900 
 
 6,901,378 
 
 8,221,585 
 
 1878 
 
 13,162,038 
 
 4,925,262 
 
 8,236,776 
 
 1879 
 
 14,738,400 
 
 4,032,428 
 
 10,705,999 
 
 1880 
 
 13,264,126 
 
 3,648,398 
 
 9,615,728 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 69,336,810 
 
 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 86,227,000 
 
 31,381,000 
 
 49,845,900 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 72,247,000 
 
 26,274,800 
 
 45,973,200 
 
 “ Average for each year. 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 13,867,300 
 
 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 17,245,400 
 
 6,276,200 
 
 9,969,200 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 14,459,400 
 
 5,254,500 
 
 9,194,600 
 
 1871-1875 : 6*16 lb. per head of population. 
 1876-1880 : 5 ’25 lb. per head of population. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 143 
 
 “ Norway. 
 
 “ Table No. 6. — Imports of Coffee into Norway for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1863 
 
 Centners. 
 
 108,926 
 
 lb. 
 
 Kroner. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1864 
 
 86,107 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 1865 
 
 109,672 
 
 . . 
 
 
 
 1866 
 
 116,197 
 
 
 
 
 1867 
 
 122,491 
 
 13,352,500 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 115,594 
 
 12,600,400 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 107,701 
 
 11,739,300 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 115,855 
 
 12,627,400 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 128,381 
 
 13,995,000 
 
 
 
 1872 
 
 124,536 
 
 14,664,400 
 
 9,509,000 
 
 2,641,950 
 
 1873 
 
 157,465 
 
 17,123,600 
 
 12,597,000 
 
 3,493,510 
 
 1874 
 
 89,786 
 
 10,751,600 
 
 8,493,000 
 
 2,414,500 
 
 1875 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 6,850,000 
 
 15,070,000 
 
 11,752,000 
 
 3,172,750 
 
 1876 
 
 7,225,000 
 
 15,895,000 
 
 11,532,000 
 
 2,204,350 
 
 1877 
 
 7,392,000 
 
 16,273,000 
 
 12,575,000 
 
 3,493,050 
 
 1878 
 
 6,101,000 
 
 13,422,000 
 
 8,663,000 
 
 2,406,400 
 
 1879 
 
 7,229,000 
 
 15,903,500 
 
 9,398,000 
 
 2,610,555 
 
 1880 
 
 7,167,000 
 
 16,767,400 
 
 8,815,000 
 
 2,448,600 
 
 1881 
 
 7,603,000 
 
 16,725,600 
 
 7,983,000 
 
 2,217,500 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 - 
 
 64,313 
 
 72,706 
 
 78,091 
 
 .. 
 
 14,927,080 
 
 13,176,700 
 
 “ Average of year. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 •• 
 
 12,862,300 
 
 14,706,920 
 
 15,618,380 
 
 
 2,985,412 
 
 2,652,734 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 
 Per Capita. 
 7*56 
 
 
 Per Capita. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 . . 
 
 8*17 
 
 
 160 cents. 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 •• 
 
 8*21 
 
 
 139 „ 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 144 
 
 “ Sweden. 
 
 “ Table 7. — Imports of Coffee into Sweden for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1866 
 
 Skalpund. 
 
 15,207,400 
 
 lb. 
 
 14,142,900 
 
 Kroner. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1867 
 
 18,677,700 
 
 17,470,400 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 15,933,400 
 
 14,818,400 
 
 
 
 1869 
 
 16,983,100 
 
 15,757,000 
 
 
 
 1870 
 
 18,611,300 
 
 17,471,500 
 
 
 
 1871 
 
 21,693,700 
 
 19,245,400 
 
 10,553,000 
 
 2,932,100 
 
 1872 
 
 19,336,000 
 
 17,982,800 
 
 11,214,000 
 
 3,115,000 
 
 1873 
 
 26,555,200 
 
 24,695,500 
 
 20,447,000 
 
 5,680,000 
 
 1874 
 
 21,455,900 
 
 19,853,300 
 
 15,018,000 
 
 4,170,800 
 
 1875 
 
 23,337,000 
 
 21,586,800 
 
 17,502,000 
 
 4,861,550 
 
 1876 
 
 26,600,800 
 
 24,738,000 
 
 18,620,000 
 
 5,167,000 
 
 1877 
 
 25,439,200 
 
 23,885,700 
 
 16,535,000 
 
 4,591,600 
 
 1878 
 
 24,920,400 
 
 23,485,200 
 
 14,952,000 
 
 4,153,300 
 
 1879 
 
 24,235,900 
 
 23,830,300 
 
 14,056,000 
 
 3,404,500 
 
 1880 
 
 21,604,700 
 
 25,168,000 
 
 14,367,000 
 
 3,999,100 
 
 u Recapitulation. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Total for 
 consumption. 
 
 Valued at — 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 lb.l 
 
 79,659,200 
 
 102,363,400 
 
 120,057,200 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 20,759,500 
 
 21,807,300 
 
 a Average of each year. 
 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 15,931,840 
 
 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 20,472,680 
 
 4,151,900 
 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 24,011,400 
 
 5,361,400 
 
 “ The proportion calculated per head has "been therefore as 
 follows : 
 
 1866-1870, average of each year, 4*14 lb. per capita 
 1871-1875, „ „ 4*99 „ 
 
 1876-1880, „ „ 5*33 „ 
 
 109 *3 cents. 
 119*0 „ 
 
PLATE IX.— EXTERIOR VIEW OF PULPING HOUSE, CEYLON. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 145 
 
 “ Eussia. 
 
 “No calculations can be made in regard to consumption, 
 there being probably few coffee-drinkers outside the greater 
 cities, as Moscow, Eiga, and others, in addition to St. Peters- 
 burg. The pood is taken at 36 lb. avoirdupois. The 
 rouble value varies, but as the customs dues are paid in gold 
 there is no criterion for a proper comparison with other 
 countries. 
 
 “ Table No. 8. — Imports of Coffee into Bussia for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1866 
 
 Poods. 
 
 343,815 
 
 lb. 
 
 12 , 377,340 
 
 Roubles. 
 
 3 , 781,977 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 598,813 
 
 1867 
 
 407,193 
 
 14 , 658,948 
 
 4 , 479,128 
 
 708,778 
 
 1868 
 
 317,928 
 
 11 , 445,308 
 
 3 , 497,195 
 
 554,223 
 
 1869 
 
 466,664 
 
 16 , 799,904 
 
 5 , 133,297 
 
 812,770 
 
 1870 
 
 440,461 
 
 15 , 856,596 
 
 4 , 845,082 
 
 767,137 
 
 1871 
 
 492,132 
 
 17 , 716,752 
 
 5 , 413,458 
 
 4 , 970,866 
 
 857,630 
 
 1872 
 
 447,680 
 
 16 , 116,480 
 
 787,054 
 
 1873 
 
 409,470 
 
 14 , 740,920 
 
 5 , 034,264 
 
 796,793 
 
 1874 
 
 443,065 
 
 16 , 670,340 
 
 5 , 415,598 
 
 857,465 
 
 1875 
 
 457,396 
 
 16 , 467,256 
 
 5 , 638,110 
 
 892,703 
 
 1876 
 
 500,589 
 
 18 , 021,200 
 
 5 , 617,074 
 
 889,370 
 
 1877 
 
 287,038 
 
 10 , 333,368 
 
 3 , 211,317 
 
 508,858 
 
 1878 
 
 447,227 
 
 472,448 
 
 16 , 049,956 
 
 5 , 704,782 
 
 903,265 
 
 1879 
 
 17 , 008,128 
 
 6 , 840,401 
 
 1 , 083,610 
 
 1880 
 
 510,064 
 
 18 , 362,304 
 
 7 , 129,000 
 
 1 , 125,750 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 “ Average of each year. 
 
 lb. 
 
 14 , 227,619 
 
 16 , 322,349 
 
 15 , 953,390 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 lb. 
 
 71 , 138,096 
 
 81 , 711,048 
 
 79 , 974,956 
 
 1866-1870 
 
 1871-1875 
 
 1876-1880 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 “ Austria-Hungary. 
 
 “ The Austrian capital, Vienna, enjoys a great reputation in 
 supplying most excellent coffee. The country is provided 
 mostly with Java coffee from Amsterdam. Latterly Trieste 
 has paid more attention to imports from Brazil, hut the 
 development of railroads favours the competition of German 
 ports, notably Hamburg. Again there is an increased con- 
 sumption of chicory, largely imported from Germany, but 
 this drug is likely to be placed on the shelf, since strenuous 
 efforts are made to cultivate a trade with South American 
 states, whither large exports of Hungarian dour are shipped, 
 despite that a nearer supply could be had from the United 
 States. 
 
 “ Population, 38,500,000 in 1880, against 31,000,000 in 
 1865. 
 
 “ Table No. 9 . — Imports of Coffee into Austria-Hungary for home use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1867 
 
 Metric Centners. 
 211,705 
 
 lb. 
 
 46,595,200 
 
 Gulden. 
 
 16,130,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 8,065,000 
 
 1868 
 
 234,199 
 
 51,523,200 
 
 14,681,000 
 
 7,365,500 
 
 1869 
 
 239,164 
 
 52,606,100 
 
 17,707,000 
 
 8,858,500 
 
 1870 
 
 264,515 
 
 58,193,300 
 
 17,859,000 
 
 8,929,500 
 
 1871 
 
 307,355 
 
 67,612,900 
 
 19,575,000 
 
 9,787,500 
 
 1872 
 
 321,531 
 
 70,737,400 
 
 23,468,000 
 
 11,734,000 
 
 1873 
 
 343,199 
 
 75,503,600 
 
 24,889,000 
 
 12,444,500 
 
 1874 
 
 327,859 
 
 71,689,800 
 
 23,250,000 
 
 11,625,000 
 
 1875 
 
 317,201 
 
 69,784,000 
 
 34,904,000 
 
 17,450,000 
 
 1876 
 
 327,022 
 
 71,944,900 
 
 74,475,700 
 
 35,976,000 
 
 17,988,000 
 
 1877 
 
 338,526 
 
 37,240,000 
 
 18,620,000 
 
 18,955,000 
 
 1878 
 
 399,040 
 
 87,788,800 
 
 37,911,000 
 
 1879 
 
 193,087 
 
 42,499,200 
 
 17.378.000 
 
 27.801.000 
 
 8,689,000 
 
 1880 
 
 215,996 
 
 69,519,100 
 
 13,900,500 
 
 1881 
 
 357,100 
 
 78,567,000 
 
 30,997,000 
 
 15,498,000 
 
 61 Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1,256,908 
 
 276,516,900 
 
 86,412,000 
 
 43,206,000 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1,636,800 
 
 359,659,700 
 
 142.484.000 
 
 151.327.000 
 
 71,242,000 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 1,604,700 
 
 352,880,800 
 
 75,663,500 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 147 
 
 “ Table No. 9. — Imports of Coffee into Austria-Hungary , &c. — continued. 
 “ Average total during each year. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 Metric Centners. 
 
 lb. 
 
 55,803,380 
 
 71,931,940 
 
 70,578,160 
 
 Gulden. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 8,641,200 
 
 14,248,400 
 
 15,132,700 
 
 “ Proportion per cent, per head of population. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 
 1,728 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 27*0 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 . . 
 
 2,000 
 
 . . 
 
 39*6 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 *’• 
 
 1,900 
 
 •• 
 
 39*3 
 
 “ Italy. 
 
 “ The consumption of coffee is limited to a fraction over 
 one pound per head of population. The shipments, how- 
 ever, show a fair increase, commensurate with influx of 
 population and the changes brought since specie payment 
 was resumed. The population has increased from 22,000,000 
 in 1865 to 28,400,000 in 1881. 
 
 “ Table No. 10. — Imports of Coffee into Italy for domestic use. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1863 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 10,842,000 
 
 lb. 
 
 Lire. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1864 
 
 14,642,000 
 
 . . 
 
 
 . , 
 
 1865 
 
 7,577,000 
 
 . . 
 
 . . 
 
 , # 
 
 1866 
 
 12,559,000 
 
 
 . . 
 
 . , 
 
 1867 
 
 11,590,091 
 
 25,498,200 
 
 20,398,200 
 
 4,079,620 
 
 1868 
 
 12,320,815 
 
 27,105,800 
 
 21,684,900 
 
 4,336,980 
 
 1869 
 
 13,679,731 
 
 30,195,400 
 
 22,316,400 
 
 4,463,280 
 
 1870 
 
 12,615,023 
 
 27,753,000 
 
 22,262,800 
 
 4,452,560 
 
 1871 
 
 13,112,400 
 
 28,847,500 
 
 23,077,200 
 
 4,613,120 
 
 1872 
 
 12,372,200 
 
 27,218,000 
 
 24,125,900 
 
 4,825,180 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 “ Table No. 10 . — Imports of Coffee into Italy , &c. — continued. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quantities. 
 
 Values. 
 
 1873 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 12,959,800 
 
 lb. 
 
 28,511,000 
 
 Lire. 
 
 32,399,000 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 6,479,800 
 
 1874 
 
 10,695,000 
 
 23,529,000 
 
 27,806,000 
 
 5,561,200 
 
 1875 
 
 13,580,000 
 
 29,876,000 
 
 33.949.000 
 
 32.721.000 
 
 6, 789,800 
 
 1876 
 
 14,873,000 
 
 32,720,000 
 
 6,546,200 
 
 1877 
 
 12,620,000 
 
 27,764,000 
 
 29,329,000 
 
 5,865,800 
 
 1878 
 
 12,697,000 
 
 27,933,000 
 
 27,398,000 
 
 5,479,400 
 
 1879 
 
 15,495,000 
 
 34,089,400 
 
 33,314,000 
 
 6,662,800 
 
 1880 
 
 10,673,000 
 
 23,480,000 
 
 32,947,000 
 
 6,589,400 
 
 1881 
 
 14,135,000 
 
 31,103,000 
 
 26,863,000 
 
 5,372,600 
 
 16 Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 63,318,400 
 
 64.480.000 
 
 65.623.000 
 
 139,299,900 
 
 141,855,500 
 
 149,370,700 
 
 109,740,100 
 
 151,851,900 
 
 149,591,000 
 
 21,948,140 
 
 30,200,018 
 
 29,970,200 
 
 “Average total during each year. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 12.663.600 
 12,896,000 
 
 13.124.600 
 
 27,859,900 
 
 28.371.200 
 
 29.874.200 
 
 21,948,000 
 
 30,370,380 
 
 29,918,200 
 
 4,389,628 
 
 6,040,000 
 
 5,999,404 
 
 “ Proportion per cent, per head of population. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 
 l-ll 
 
 
 Cents. 
 
 17*5 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 
 1-07 
 
 . . 
 
 210 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 
 1*06 
 
 *• 
 
 21-2 
 
 “ Switzerland. 
 
 “ The customs returns give the imports in quantities only 
 without reference to a declared value. The metric centner is 
 equal to 220 lb. avoirdupois. Supply and consumption 
 fluctuate according to the change in season and consequent 
 influx of visits of strangers. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 149 
 
 Table No. 11 . — Imports of Coffee into Switzerland for domestic use, 
 [No returns of values published.] 
 
 Years. 
 
 Metric Centners. 
 
 lb. 
 
 1865 
 
 75,132 
 
 
 1866 
 
 73,944 
 
 . f 
 
 1867 
 
 81,063 
 
 17,833,750 
 
 1868 
 
 87,528 
 
 19,256,160 
 
 1869 
 
 80,361 
 
 17,680,520 
 
 1870 
 
 67,648 
 
 14,882,560 
 
 1871 
 
 93,827 
 
 20,641,940 
 
 1872 
 
 76,651 
 
 16,860,320 
 
 1873 
 
 83,838 
 
 18,444,360 
 
 1874 
 
 65,892 
 
 14,497,780 
 
 1875 
 
 93,902 
 
 20,659,320 
 
 1876 
 
 99,655 
 
 21,924,200 
 
 1877 
 
 77,871 
 
 17,131,600 
 
 1878 
 
 83,329 
 
 18,332,200 
 
 1879 
 
 96,325 
 
 21,191,700 
 
 1880 
 
 84,305 
 
 18,547,100 
 
 1881 
 
 97,834 
 
 21,523,500 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 lb. 
 
 90,294,940 
 
 92,383,480 
 
 96,726,100 
 
 “ Average of each year. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 18,058,988 
 
 18,477,096 
 
 19,345,220 
 
 “ Proportion per cent, of per capita. 
 
 1867-1871 7*20 
 
 1872-1876 7*10 
 
 1877-1881* 6*98 
 
 “ Portugal. 
 
 “ The port of Lisbon has, during late years, made some 
 progress and established a coffee market. The imports from 
 Portuguese settlements in Africa are now on a somewhat 
 larger scale, and enabled a re-export, as shown in the table 
 
150 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS- 
 
 marked B. These exports comprise about 50 per cent, of the 
 total of Portuguese imports from Africa, while the remaining 
 50 per cent, are retained for home consumption. In addition 
 thereto a small quantity is imported from Brazil, and 
 European ports, the total of which is enumerated in the table 
 marked B. The quantities show the weight on which duty 
 has been paid, and consequently leave to infer that the con- 
 sumption per capita is now a fraction over 1 lb., the 
 population of Portugal numbering 4,300,000. 
 
 “Table No. 12. — Imports of Coffee into Portugal for domestic use . 
 
 Years. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Milreis. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1871 
 
 892,691 
 
 495,692 
 
 1,962,876 
 
 550,217 
 
 1872 
 
 1,576,227 
 
 380,828 
 
 3,465,704 
 
 422,567 
 
 1873 
 
 1,582,414 
 
 491,290 
 
 3,181,310 
 
 545,831 
 
 1874 
 
 1,547,741 
 
 520,064 
 
 3,405,030 
 
 577,270 
 
 1875 
 
 1,691,107 
 
 518,184 
 
 3,720,424 
 
 575,186 
 
 1876 
 
 1,776,906 
 
 531,268 
 
 3,909,312 
 
 595,706 
 
 1877 
 
 1,702,271 
 
 511,443 
 
 3,744,996 
 
 567,701 
 
 1878 
 
 2,074,896 
 
 278,863 
 
 4,564,771 
 
 309,537 
 
 1879 
 
 2,097,699 
 
 535,719 
 
 4,614,940 
 
 594,647 
 
 1880 
 
 1,919,295 
 
 473,879 
 
 4,222,450 
 
 526,004 
 
 1881 
 
 2,096,487 
 
 489,004 
 
 4,601,127 
 
 542,792 
 
 “ Recapitulation. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 *• 
 
 
 17,981,776 
 
 21,718,284 
 
 2,716,560 
 
 2,540,681 
 
 “ Average of each year. 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 •« 
 
 - 
 
 2,596,355 
 
 4,349,657 
 
 543,312 
 
 508,136 
 
 “ Proportion per head of population. 
 
 1872-1876 0 * 90 lb. per capita. 
 
 1877-1881 1*10 „ „ 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 151 
 
 “ Re-export of produce of Portuguese possessions in Africa. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Milreis. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Dollars. 
 
 1861 
 
 52,808 
 
 12,628,000 
 
 115,739 
 
 14,017 
 
 1865 
 
 739,419 
 
 141,891,900 
 
 1,626,721 
 
 157,498 
 
 1866 
 
 634,513 
 
 144,109,800 
 
 1,395,938 
 
 160,810 
 
 1867 
 
 759,443 
 
 166,954,000 
 
 1,666,379 
 
 185,318 
 
 1868 
 
 1,006,938 
 
 193,370,000 
 
 2,215,263 
 
 214,840 
 
 1869 
 
 1,533,612 
 
 273,323,000 
 
 2,372,046 
 
 263,296 
 
 1870 
 
 443,185 
 
 30,843,000 
 
 975,007 
 
 34,235 
 
 1871 
 
 1,627,749 
 
 318,900,000 
 
 3,581,000 
 
 358,760 
 
 1872 
 
 1,971,253 
 
 492,485,000 
 
 4,347,600 
 
 554,060 
 
 1873 
 
 1,938,210 
 
 561,769,000 
 
 4,264,100 
 
 631,915 
 
 1874 
 
 2,730,945 
 
 801,719,000 
 
 6,000,848 
 
 901,590 
 
 1875 
 
 2,597,110 
 
 582,162,000 
 
 5,713,620 
 
 654,860 
 
 1876 
 
 1,661,785 
 
 894,807,000 
 
 3,655,960 
 
 555,750 
 
 1877 
 
 2,089,292 
 
 626,813,000 
 
 4,596,460 
 
 705,150 
 
 1878 
 
 1,067,500 
 
 324,731,000 
 
 2,348,500 
 
 365,290 
 
 1879 
 
 1,230,080 
 
 369,978,000 
 
 2,706,200 
 
 415,125 
 
 1880 
 
 1,905,559 
 
 506,046,000 
 
 4,192,300 
 
 569,250 
 
 1881 
 
 1,062,099 
 
 259,223,000 
 
 2,363,600 
 
 300,200 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 5,370,929 
 
 10,899,303 
 
 7,354,440 
 
 . . 
 
 10,809,700 
 
 23,982,100 
 
 16,206,060 
 
 1,056,450 
 
 3,298,175 
 
 2,355,015 
 
 “ Average each year. 
 
 1867-1871 
 
 1872-1876 
 
 1877-1881 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 2,161,940 
 
 4,786,420 
 
 3,241,212 
 
 213,290 
 
 659,635 
 
 471,003 
 
 The following report by Henry Pasteur, on the coffees 
 shown at the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, published in 
 the Planters’ Gazette, June 1st, 1887, is full of interest. 
 
 “ The total production of coffee in the world is roughly 
 estimated at about 600,000 tons to 650,000 tons, of which 
 Brazil alone produces between 310,000 and 380,000 tons 
 
152 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 and Java 60,000 tons to 90,000 tons, the proportion of 
 British-grown coffee being only about 35,000 tons, of which 
 India contributes 15,000 to 18,000 tons, Ceylon 10,000 to 
 12,000 tons, and Jamaica 4000 to 5000. Although 
 numerically very small, the productions of our Colonies and 
 of India occupy the front rank, owing to their excellence. 
 Nowhere is finer coffee grown than in India and Jamaica, 
 and its value, as well as that of Ceylon, is firmly established 
 above that of all other kinds, even of Mocha, which at one 
 time stood above all others. 
 
 “ A considerable amount of work and preparation has to 
 be expended on coffee, from the moment it is picked from 
 the trees until it is in a fit state to be sent to market. The 
 berries, as may be seen from the numerous samples exhibited 
 at South Kensington, are enveloped in an outer, coarse, 
 thick, fleshy substance, the cherry, and an inner loose 
 envelope of thin, hard skin, called parchment, from its 
 resemblance to that substance. When allowed to grow to 
 complete maturity on the trees, as in the case of Mocha, the 
 cherry withers and dries, and is then easily removed by 
 crushing or pounding, the berry inside having by that time 
 become of a pale greenish or yellowish colour. The usual 
 course, however, is to pick the cherry before complete 
 maturity, when it is of a deep red or cherry colour, the 
 berry inside being then found to be of a fine dark green or 
 bluish-green, which it is the endeavour of the planter to 
 preserve as carefully as possible, the value of his coffee 
 depending chiefly on the depth and brightness of the colour. 
 
 “ On gardens and plantations cultivated by Europeans, the 
 cherry is removed as quickly as possible after being picked, 
 being put through pulpers, and undergoing a very careful 
 and delicate process of mashing and washing, until the 
 berries are left with their parchment envelope perfectly 
 clean. In many cases, however, there are neither appli- 
 ances, nor time or labour, to put the fresh gathered fruit 
 through this process, and under a tropical sun the cherry 
 dries quickly, and has then to be pounded, to the great 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 153 
 
 detriment of the colour, as well as the quality of the "bean ; 
 hence the difference bet weed unwashed or ordinary pale, and 
 washed or coloured or plantation coffee, the taste of the 
 icashed coffee being, as a rule, much more delicate, and free 
 from the earthiness and common rough flavour of the 
 unwashed. A large portion of the crops from Brazil, Java, 
 St. Domingo, to a less extent Central America and Guatemala, 
 in fact fully three-fourths of the world’s production, are 
 prepared as unwashed or pale coffee ; whilst nearly the whole 
 of the Ceylon crop, three-fourths of the Indian, and one- 
 fourth to one- third of the Java, are prepared as washed or 
 green coffee. The clean parchment has to be dried with 
 the utmost care, and taken to the curing mills on or near the 
 estate, or more generally at the port of shipment ; it is then 
 put through the peelers, which break the parchment, and 
 remove as much as possible of the thin silver-skin adherent 
 to the bean itself ; then through sizers, which divide the 
 berries into the various sizes, and after being handpicked by 
 a number of women and children, who remove the defective, 
 broken, black, or light beans, the coffee is ready for packing 
 in bags or casks for shipment. All those various operations 
 require to be carried out with the utmost care and nicety, 
 the slightest neglect or mistake in any one of them being 
 liable to injure the quality to the extent of 5, 10, or even 
 20 per cent. 
 
 “ The above remarks, to some extent, explain the reasons 
 for the superiority of British-grown coffee over that of most 
 other countries, and also the great variety existing in the 
 appearance, quality, and value of the sample, exhibited by 
 our various colonies and dependencies. 
 
 “India. — India now stands first and foremost amongst 
 British possessions, both for the quantity and quali ty of its 
 production. The samples prepared by the Indian Coffee 
 Planters’ Committee have been carefully selected in London 
 from the earlier arrivals of the crop of 1885-6, and represent 
 the produce of British plantations in the four chief districts 
 of Mysore, Coorg, Neilgherry and Wynaad, as well as the less 
 
154 
 
 MAKKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 important one of Travancore. The exhibits from the first- 
 named districts are remarkable for their high average 
 excellence, and for the presence of many of the points which, 
 in the eyes of connoisseurs, constitute the nearest approach 
 to perfection, viz. size, colour, smoothness, plumpness, and 
 weight of the berries. These coffees have always been, and 
 are likely to continue, in high favour with the buyers for 
 home consumption. Next to them come the Wynaad 
 exhibits, which, if they lack some of the weight and fine 
 shape of the others, are nearly equal in size, colour, and 
 smoothness, and find favour with home as well as export 
 buyers. Travancore is a comparatively new district where 
 plantations are generally at a lower elevation ; it has suffered 
 much of late years from repeated attacks of leaf-disease, 
 which has destroyed many estates and weakened the trees 
 on most others, and the result is seen in a small crop, 
 deficient in colour, size, and quality. Leaf-disease has like- 
 wise been raging in the other districts of India, to the seiious 
 detriment of crops, both in extent and quality ; fortunately 
 the severity of its attacks has greatly diminished during the 
 past few years, and it has almost disappeared in many parts 
 of the country. It has, however, in many places affected the 
 vitality and shaken the strength of the trees, so that they 
 have been less able to resist periods of drought or of heavy 
 monsoon weather, and small and irregular crops have been 
 the consequence. It would seem, however, as if plantations 
 were gradually recovering their former strength, and with 
 good cultivation and manuring and fair seasons India may 
 hope to maintain its position as our largest and best field for 
 the production of fine coffee. A hopeful sign for the future 
 may be gathered from the superior average quality of the 
 crop of 1885-6 over that of the two or three previous ones. 
 
 “Among the samples of Wynaad coffee, those from the 
 Eva. Estate deserve special attention, one half of that crop 
 having been despatched in parchment, to be peeled and 
 sized in London. The experiment has proved quite success- 
 ful, the coffee represented by the sizes 1st, 2nd and Pea- 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 155 
 
 berry, being fully equal in colour and appearance to the 
 corresponding sizes prepared in India. The whole was sold 
 at the same public auction, the London cured realising a 
 rather better price than the other half. Similar and more 
 recent experiments, made with some shipments from Costa 
 Eica, Guatemala, and New Grenada, have shown startling 
 results, the portion prepared in London having realised 
 from 10s. to 14s. per cwt. more than that cured in Central 
 America. These experiments would tend to show that the 
 parchment preserves in a remarkable degree the colour and 
 the quality of the berry against the incidents or accidents 
 of a land and sea transport. 
 
 “ In the case of the Costa Rica and New Grenada ship- 
 ments cured in London, the berries seemed fuller and of 
 better shape and weight than the others, as if (which is by 
 no means improbable) the parchment, left for two or three 
 months longer than mual around the berries, had acted as a 
 kind of natural preserver, inside of which the berry had 
 time, as it were, to mature more completely than when de- 
 prived of its outer and inner coating almost immediately 
 after being picked. The curing requires machinery, motive 
 power, drying grounds, delicate manipulation, and constant 
 supervision; where any of these requisites fail, the coffee 
 suffers in appearance, and consequently in value. Suitable 
 machinery for treating parchment has been erected at two 
 of the London wharves ; and there is every reason to hope 
 that this is only the beginning of a new and profitable home 
 industry. Growers will not be slow to perceive that the 
 small increase of freight which they have to pay on parch- 
 ment, is more than compensated by the enhanced price 
 which the improvement in the quality of their coffee will 
 enable them to obtain. 
 
 “ In addition to the produce of British Plantations, India 
 grows native coffee, chiefly in the districts of Coorg, Mysore, 
 and Wynaad. Of late years the greater part has found its 
 way to the French markets, where it is much appreciated, 
 and latterly also to Trieste. It is a matter for regret that 
 
156 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 shippers from the Malabar coast have not sent any specimens 
 of those kinds to the Exhibition ; they are quite suitable for 
 our home consumption, and form an important item of the 
 Indian production. 
 
 “ Mysore is represented by 105 samples from twenty-seven 
 estates ; four samples — viz. large size , bulk, small size , and 
 Peaberry — being in most cases shown from each estate. 
 Rather less than one-half appears to be of the true, rounded, 
 heavy silvered-skin Mysore berry, the remainder partaking 
 more of the character of the large, flat, deep-coloured Coorg 
 type. This is the result of the extensive planting of Coorg 
 seed, the old chick or Mysore having become weak and 
 unable to bear fruit or to be propagated as easily as formerly ; 
 the hardier Coorg plants grow more quickly and yield 
 larger crops, although not of such fine quality as the real 
 Mysore plant. It would seem, however, as if the produce 
 of the Coorg trees, on getting better acclimatised, showed 
 some tendency to assimilate to the old Mysore, the finest 
 and most esteemed of the Indian types. Of Neilgherry 
 there are twenty-four samples from seven estates : of Coorg, 
 forty-five samples from thirteen estates; of Wynaad, nine- 
 teen samples from five estates ; and from Travancore, eight 
 samples from three estates ; a total of 201 samples from 
 fifty-five estates, besides twenty-eight samples in parchment 
 or cherry. 
 
 “ Taking 90s. per cwt. as the average value of the bulk 
 from the estates of true Mysore type, the Coorg Mysore 
 estates would be worth 80s. for bulk, the Neilgherry 83s., 
 the Coorg 82s., Wynaad 78s., and Travancore 70s. per cwt. ; 
 while native Mysore of average quality would be worth 
 63s., and native Coorg or Wynaad 60s. per cwt. The finest 
 qualities of Mysore range in value from 100s. to 135s. per 
 cwt. 
 
 “ The export of coffee from India in 1885 amounted to 
 328,317 cwt. 
 
 “ Ceylon. — When looking at the fine samples which were 
 exhibited in the Ceylon Court in the neat barrels prepared 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 157 
 
 under the direction of the Planters’ Association, one could 
 not avoid a feeling of sadness and regret at the thought that 
 they represented only the fast vanishing remains of what 
 was but nine years ago the most extensive and flourishing 
 of the coffee crops raised on British soil by British enter- 
 prise and capital. The production which in 1873 amounted 
 to - nearly 1,000,000 cwt., declined to 665,000 cwt. in 1876, 
 312,000 cwt. in 1884, and 230,000 cwt. in 1885. The 
 scourge of leaf-disease, a fungus (the Hemileia vastatrix ) 
 which first made its appearance in 1869, has gradually 
 swept over the wdiole island, weakening the trees, under- 
 mining the crop capabilities, and leading to the gradual 
 extinction of the plantations over many of the best districts. 
 Coffee, however, has been able to maintain its ground in 
 some parts, notably in Haputale, Badulla, Ac., wdiich are 
 more favourably situated as regards soil and rainfall, and 
 crops of from 150,000 to 200,000 cwt. may fairly be looked 
 for for a few years to come, though it is not probable that 
 cultivation can again extend in the island, as there is but 
 little suitable forest land remaining unopened. 
 
 4 4 The variety known as Liberian coffee, which was planted 
 extensively in the low country some years ago, under the 
 belief that it would resist leaf-disease, has succumbed to it ; 
 besides which the quality is not appreciated in the home 
 markets, on account of its coarseness, oily taste, and want 
 of strength and aroma ; and the prices realised for this sort 
 are not likely to give a fair return to the growers. 
 
 44 Twenty-seven barrels exhibited by the Planters’ Associ- 
 ation of Ceylon, the produce of eight different estates, showed 
 to what degree of excellence the preparation of coffee has 
 attained in the curing establishments of Colombo. Three 
 specimens from each mark — large size, bulk and Peaberry, 
 were shown, the former ranging in value from 90s. to 105s., 
 and the latter from 87s. to 95s. The samples of bulk range 
 from 75 s. to 85s., averaging 80s. per cwt., according to the 
 depth and brightness of the colour, smoothness and size, and 
 weight and hardness of the berries ; these latter character- 
 
158 
 
 MAKKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 istics vary according to the soil and height of the estates, 
 high-grown coffee being the most esteemed in the English 
 market. Eonr barrels were shown of low grown, the produce 
 of native gardens, cured and prepared like estate coffee, a 
 very good and useful quality, though inferior in appearance 
 and value to the produce of European plantations. Five 
 samples were shown of pale or native coffee, extremely well 
 sized and picked, and of an average value of 58s. per cwt. 
 There were, further, five samples from two European planta- 
 tions, and one of Liberian sort, of very large bean, smooth 
 and well picked, worth 60s. per cwt., or about 8s. to 10s. per 
 cwt. more than the average Liberian quality. 
 
 “ Straits Settlements. — Coffee does not appear to grow in 
 the British Settlements of Singapore, Penang, and Malacca, 
 except in gardens on a very small scale ; but in the three 
 Native States of Perak, Sunjei-Ujong, and Selangor, taken 
 under our protection in 1874, its cultivation has been intro- 
 duced, and some interesting exhibits from Perak testify to 
 the adaptability of the soil and climate for its production. 
 
 “ In Perak, where mountain ranges, reaching to 7000 feet, 
 occupy a large portion of a well-watered country, a con- 
 siderable acreage, above 1000 feet elevation, is reported to be 
 suitable for coffee cultivation, whilst the Liberian sort thrives 
 on the lower slopes and the plains. In Selangor, planting 
 has only been introduced during the last few years, whilst 
 in Sunjei-Ujong estates have been established on the slopes 
 of the Berumbun range, which rises to a height of 3000 to 
 4000 feet, and the cultivation of Liberian has been introduced 
 on the lowlands. Of the fourteen exhibits from Perak, five 
 are from the experimental hill gardens opened by Govern- 
 ment ; the sample marked Hill-garden is strong and full 
 flavoured, and worth 90s. ; those marked Waterloo and 
 Hermitage have probably suffered somewhat in drying, being 
 coarse and musty in the cup, and worth 70s. and 76s. 
 
 “ Such kinds, if purposely prepared on the spot, or in 
 London, should the necessary appliances not exist at the 
 plantations, and if perfectly sweet and clean, would supply 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 159 
 
 an extremely good quality, suitable for borne consumption 
 as well as export, the coffee being, for size, colour, and 
 general appearance, on a par with good Ceylon plantation. 
 The climate, soil, and rainfall are all that can be wished on 
 the Perak hills, but the great drawback hitherto has been 
 the cost of labour, which, however, has now been arranged 
 satisfactorily, and the difficulty of transport. One sample 
 of large pale berries, very smooth, but out of condition and 
 mildewed, would be worth 60s. if sound ; two of Liberian, 
 viz. Lindurn Estate, in Sungei-Ujong, and Waterloo were 
 very large, and worth 53s. to 55 s. ; and three of ordinary 
 Liberian quality, 48s. to 52s. per cwt. ; the remainder con- 
 sisted of parchment and cherry. 
 
 “ The growth of Liberian is not to be encouraged, for the 
 reasons stated above under the head of Ceylon. 
 
 “ Samples of Bali, Bonthyne, and Philippine coffee, ex- 
 hibited in the division of Straits Settlements, were probably 
 not British-grown, but the produce of some of the Dutch 
 islands in the neighbourhood of the Straits. 
 
 “ Queensland. — The climate and soil of this Colony appear 
 to be well suited to the growth of coffee, which is found 
 growing in various parts without any special care other than 
 weeding. It is cultivated on some farms, but only as an 
 adjunct to other crops, and the eight specimens shown in 
 the Exhibition are such as should encourage its extension. 
 A sample from Stanmore, Yatala, although not properly 
 picked, showed a fair greenish quality, worth, as it is, 63s. 
 per cwt., and which might probably be improved by cultiva- 
 tion and careful preparation. A sample from Buderum 
 Mountain Mooloolah, was still better in quality. 
 
 “Fiji. — A considerable portion of the interior of the 
 islands of Yiti Levu, Yanua Levu, and Taviuni, appears to 
 be well adapted for the cultivation of coffee. There is an 
 abundance of rich soil, and favourable conditions of climate, 
 moisture, &c. ; the plant grows quickly and yields good 
 crops. The pest of leaf-disease, which visited the islands 
 four or five years ago, led to the destruction or abandon- 
 
160 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 ment of several estates, but now that it has disappeared, 
 growers anticipate a prosperous future and increasing 
 production. 
 
 “ Of fourteen samples exhibited, one showed a good quality 
 of washed or plantation coffee, well grown and of large bean, 
 but deficient in colour, and worth about 68s. per cwt. ; one 
 Peaberry, worth 75s. ; one sound though rather rough and 
 discoloured, 63s. per cwt. ; they were all three of strong, 
 clean, good roasting quality. The remainder in parchment 
 were somewhat similar, though mostly of a dark blackish 
 colour, owing probably to insufficient drying. 
 
 “ Natal. — Judging from the exhibits of Natal coffee, eleven 
 in number, it would appear that the soil and climate of some 
 portions of the Colony are eminently suited to its growth. 
 The samples from Umzinto and Umzimkulu, to the south 
 and extreme south of Durban, were of excellent quality, well 
 prepared, heavy, round berries of good size and colour, and 
 not unlike Coorg in appearance ; such qualities would find a 
 ready sale here for home consumption and export, and are 
 worth from 73s. to 83s. per cwt. The samples from Tongaat 
 and Eiet Yalley, in Victoria county, north of Durban, were 
 also of useful quality, hard, greyish, roasting and tasting 
 well, though not so well picked and prepared as the others, 
 and rather deficient in colour ; their value was from 60s. to 
 65s. per cwt. 
 
 “ The Natal plantations are mostly in the valleys, and on 
 the hill-slopes along the sea-coast. The cultivation began 
 some thirty years ago, had assumed rather large proportions 
 in 1870 (there were then upwards of 4000 acres planted, and 
 the annual production amounted to 12,000 cwt.) ; but 
 disease of the trees and failure of crops have since led to the 
 gradual abandonment of the plantations, and the produce 
 now is not estimated at much more than 2000 cwt. 
 annually. 
 
 “ In a country which can produce such fine coffee as that 
 exhibited from Natal, there ought to be a promising field for 
 future success open to the planter who devotes care and 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 161 
 
 intelligence to the choice of the land, the quality of the seed, 
 the growth and. cultivation of his fields, and. the preparation 
 of his crop. 
 
 “West Africa Settlements — Mauritius. — The exhibits 
 from Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and Gambia were few in 
 number and of poor quality, consisting chiefly of Liberian 
 and of the small brown Casenga kind ; the former worth 
 48s. to 50s., and the latter 42s. to 45s. per cwt. One sample 
 from the Gold Coast raised at the Bali Mission at Akropong, 
 showed rather better quality of pale brownish native kind, 
 worth 53 s. per cwt. From the appearance of the samples, 
 coffee seems to be cultivated in a very primitive way, and 
 on a small scale only, and the varieties grown are those of 
 lowest commercial value in the European markets. 
 
 “ From Mauritius, one sample of good yellow Liberian was 
 shown, and from the Andaman Islands also one sample of 
 Liberian of large size, both worth about 54s. per cwt. 
 
 “West Indies — Jamaica. — Coffee is grown in almost every 
 one of the West India Islands, but Jamaica is the only one 
 where the cultivation is carried out on an extensive scale, 
 the quantity exported in 1885 amounting to 80,600 cwt., and 
 occupying the third rank in value of the products exported 
 from the island. From 8000 to 10,000 cwt. are produced 
 annually on plantations situated on the high lands of the 
 Blue Mountains, which have long been known as one of the 
 finest coffee-growing districts in the world, thanks to a fine 
 rich soil and a favourable climate, combined with all the 
 care and intelligence which the means of European planters 
 can command. The coffee from those favoured localities is 
 all consumed in this country, and realises almost the highest 
 prices in the market — say from 90s. to 140s. per cwt. The 
 remaining 60,000 to 70,000 cwt. are grown in various parts 
 of the island ; some in the Manchester district is of medium 
 quality and well prepared, but the portion is cultivated in 
 small patches or gardens by settlers and small proprietors 
 who do not possess the knowledge or the means of preparing 
 their crops properly, or in the low country, where an inferior 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 quality is raised ; lienee the great difference in prices 
 between fine mountain and the ordinary Jamaica. 
 
 “ The want of proper curing establishments is much felt in 
 many parts ; it is probable, too, that the plants are not raised 
 from good seed, and that better cultivation and manuring 
 are needed. But even this will not suffice to ensure the good 
 quality of the crop, unless due attention is paid to picking 
 at the right moment, and to immediate pulping and through 
 drying of the parchment. This should ensure the proper 
 colour, but, in the absence of the necessary appliances, the 
 planter would best consult his interests by sending his 
 parchment to be peeled, &c., at the nearest works, or better 
 still by shipping it to London for treatment. Ordinary 
 Jamaica coffee is now selling here at 50s. to 53s. per cwt., and 
 there is every reason to believe that with better care in 
 picking and curing, and with quick despatch of the parch- 
 ment to London, the grower might obtain from 10s. to 12s. 
 per cwt. more than he does at present. There does not seem 
 to be any good reason why, in a country where the highest 
 priced coffee is grown, the bulk of the production should 
 rank on a par with common Brazil or the lowest known 
 qualities. 
 
 “ The extensive planting of the Liberian variety, which 
 appears to be going on in Jamaica and other places, will 
 most probably lead to disappointment; the quality is so 
 poor, so deficient in strength and aroma, and so little appre- 
 ciated in the home markets, that any material increase in the 
 supply must inevitably lead to a lower range of prices which 
 will fail to repay the outlay. 
 
 “ The Jamaica plantations appear to have been so far quite 
 free from leaf disease, bug, or other enemies of the coffee- 
 tree, and there is an abundance of forest lands of proper 
 elevation in the St. Ann and Clarendon districts and the 
 northern slopes of the Blue Mountains, suitable for extending 
 the cultivation of the finer classes, which ought to give hand- 
 some returns for the capital so invested. 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 163 
 
 “ Of the sixty-nine samples exhibited in the Jamaica 
 Court, sixteen were parchment and cherry; nine from the 
 finest estates were worth from 110s. to 140s. per cwt., aver- 
 aging 120s. to 125s. ; eight average 90s. per cwt. ; eight more 
 75s. per cwt.; eight were worth from 54s. to 65s. ; and two 
 about 47s. There were also twelve samples of pea-berry 
 from 70s. for the lowest to 105s. for the best; and two 
 samples of Liberian worth 56s. and 50s. per cwt. 
 
 “ In addition to the above, ten samples were shown in the 
 Indian Court, mostly duplicates of some of the finest estates, 
 and twenty-seven jars of average samples, also from the finer 
 marks of extremely good quality, and of a value not less than 
 120s. per cwt. 
 
 “ Proceeding from Jamaica in a south-easterly direction 
 towards the continent of South America, I found amongst the 
 British West India Islands which have sent specimens of 
 coffee to the Exhibition : — 
 
 “ St. Kitts and Nevis, with two samples of nice palish 
 green, soft quality, worth 60s. 
 
 “ Antigua. — Two samples of pale greyish, somewhat un- 
 even, worth 54s. 
 
 “ Montserrat. — One sample ordinary native kind, 50s., and 
 one greenish, of good size, 58s. 
 
 “ Dominica. — Coffee was at the beginning of this century 
 the leading article of export from this island, and it was then 
 considered one of the best kinds produced in the West Indies. 
 The trees, however, were attacked some forty years ago by an 
 insect blight which spread devastation among the planta- 
 tions, and destroyed the greater portion of them, so reducing 
 the production that at the present time it is hardly equal to 
 the consumption of the island. Cultivation is now reviving 
 to some extent, and it appears that the blight, although still 
 in existence, is comparatively harmless at high elevations. 
 The Liberian variety has also been introduced. There is an 
 abundance of fine forest land and rich soil on the slopes of 
 the bold mountains which cover the country, with plenty 
 
 m 2 
 
164 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 of moisture, conditions which are eminently favourable to 
 the growth of coffee. 
 
 “ Of the ten samples exhibited, two were of a very small, 
 hard, heavy, greenish bean worth about 70s. per cwt., one 
 pale native kind 50s., one Liberian 52s. ; the remainder were 
 of good size, greenish to rather good green colour, and if 
 properly picked and prepared, would be worth from 63s. to 
 76s. per cwt. As it is, they were of a very indifferent 
 quality in the cup, and not worth more than from 56s. to 68s. 
 
 “St. Lucia. — One sample, small close brownish, native 
 kind, 52s. 
 
 “ Barbados. — One sample, ordinary pale uneven native 
 sort, 52s., and one small of very well prepared good bluish 
 plantation, of even size, though a little rough, worth 80s. 
 per cwt. 
 
 “ Grenada. — One sample, large pale greenish, useful 
 quality, 54s. 
 
 “ Tobago. — Two samples of dull greenish and brownish 
 Creole coffee, not sized, but good of its kind, worth 56s. to 
 58s. per cwt. 
 
 “ Trinidad. — Ten samples were exhibited : two of them 
 consisted of very common dull brown and red badly pre- 
 pared coffee, worth 47s.; four were Creole or pale native 
 kind, of a useful quality, ranging in value from 52s. to 54s. ; 
 the others were better, and with more care in their pre- 
 paration might be turned into good coffee, worth probably 
 60s. or 70s. ; but being imperfectly picked and of a brownish 
 colour, their value was reduced to 58s. to 60s. per cwt. 
 
 “ There appears to be a good deal of land suitable for 
 opening into coffee gardens or plantations, and planting has 
 been carried on lately on a larger scale. It is to be hoped 
 that the Botanic Gardens, which supply plants from their 
 nurseries, will endeavour to provide none but those grown 
 from the best seed of Coffea arabica, which can easily be pro- 
 cured from Jamaica or from New Grenada. In an island 
 where the cultivation and preparation of cocoa has been 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 165 
 
 brought to such a degree of perfection, there ought to be no 
 lack of skilled labour to prepare coffee much better than is 
 apparent from the samples exhibited. The shape and size of 
 the berries show that the soil and climate are favourable, and 
 that it is only labour, care, and skill which are required to 
 give the coffee its proper value. 
 
 “ British Guiana. — British Guiana, situated on the north- 
 east coast of South America, comprises the Colonies of Esse- 
 quibo, Demerara, and Berbice, the two latter well known 
 some forty or fifty years ago as producing coffee of esteemed 
 quality. The cultivation, however, diminished steadily, until 
 in recent years, of Demerara or Berbice coffee the name alone 
 remained. The decrease is ascribed more to the cost and 
 want of labour than to climate or soil, which are both favour- 
 able ; and the few samples shown, from plantations which have 
 again been started in the last fe w years, tend to prove that 
 excellent coffee can be grown in the colony. The cultivated 
 part of the country is a flat alluvial plain of forty miles 
 extent, between the sea and the rising ground, at and even 
 below the sea-level, and traversed by large rivers ; cultiva- 
 tion is restricted to the river banks and the coast. 
 
 “ Of the six samples exhibited, three of extremely useful 
 pale bean, very well prepared, would be worth 58 s. to 63s. 
 per cwt., if perfectly clean and sweet and unaffected by 
 sugar, which is not the case with the samples shown ; one 
 was pea-berry and two Liberian, of average sort, valued at 
 about 45s. to 52s. per cwt. 
 
 “ British Honduras. — Coffee cultivation does not appear to 
 have begun until within the last four or five years, when one 
 or two plantations were established. Probably not more 
 than a few hundred acres are planted; but Coffea arabica 
 grows wild in some parts. Two bags were exhi bited of very 
 good pale greenish native kind, strong and roasting well, 
 worth 63s. per cwt., and one sample of parchment. The 
 adjoining state of Guatemala is gradually becoming one of 
 the leading coffee-growing countries, and British Honduras 
 
166 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 should be a very suitable place for a more extended cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 “ In concluding this report it is difficult to avoid alluding 
 to the extraordinary treatment to which coffee is subjected 
 at the hands of the British Government. Had it had ex- 
 tended to it the same amount of fair play and protection 
 against fraud as is accorded to tea, it is probable that the 
 greater portion of the 35,000 tons of British-grown coffee 
 would be retained for home consumption, instead of a paltry 
 14,000 tons, or at the rate of about 15 oz. per head of popu- 
 lation per annum, against 2| lb. per head in France, 5 lb. 
 in Germany, lb. in the United States, &c. It would 
 almost seem as if the Treasury, which is directly responsible 
 for the legislation on the subject, was bent upon discouraging 
 by every means in its power the use of one of the most 
 delicious and beneficent of the non-alcoholic drinks, by the 
 sanction which it gives to its adulteration with any vege- 
 table matter; it is impossible to recognise coffee in the 
 wretched mixtures which are sold in every shop or store, or 
 in the thick dark liquid which is served under that name in 
 many of the coffee palaces and temperance houses throughout 
 the kingdom. No wonder that consumption decreases year 
 by year, not of coffee alone, but even of chicory and mixtures. 
 The Local Government Board and the Board of H.M.’s 
 Customs join, in their annual reports, in ascribing the 
 diminishing revenue from coffee and chicory to adulteration, 
 and in condemning the present state of legislation on the 
 subject. Surely those who are engaged in the cultivation, 
 importation, and trade in coffee, ought to make an effort to 
 obtain redress for what is acknowledged almost on all hands 
 to be a crying injustice.” — (H. Pasteur.) 
 
MARKETS AND STATISTICS, 
 
 167 
 
 Our imports of coffee in 1884 were as follows : — 
 
 From 
 
 Central America 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay and Scinde 
 
 West Africa (foreign) 
 
 United States 
 
 France 
 
 United States of Colombia 
 
 Aden 
 
 Germany 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 British South Africa 
 
 Holland 
 
 Philippines 
 
 Belgium 
 
 China and Hong Kong 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Straits Settlements 
 
 Ecuador 
 
 Hayti 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Spanish West Indies 
 
 Malta 
 
 Bengal and Burma 
 
 Other countries 
 
 cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 285,358 
 
 908,714 
 
 251,148 
 
 975,816 
 
 189,476 
 
 489,814 
 
 174,392 
 
 646,687 
 
 50,585 
 
 186,392 
 
 35,194 
 
 64,463 
 
 26,382 
 
 76,501 
 
 19,092 
 
 56,357 
 
 17,129 
 
 57,750 
 
 17,091 
 
 72,512 
 
 13,915 
 
 41,853 
 
 12,315 
 
 37,223 
 
 7,678 
 
 21,793 
 
 7,421 
 
 25,606 
 
 6,991 
 
 19,990 
 
 4,122 
 
 13,537 
 
 3,026 
 
 8,082 
 
 3,014 
 
 7,165 
 
 '2,650 
 
 7,185 
 
 2,485 
 
 9,518 
 
 1,732 
 
 3,944 
 
 1,470 
 
 4,441 
 
 1,364 
 
 4,805 
 
 1,315 
 
 3,185 
 
 251 
 
 592 
 
 2,059 
 
 6,488 
 
 1,137,655 
 
 3,750,413 
 
168 
 
 MARKETS AND STATISTICS. 
 
 Our exports of coffee in 1884 were : — 
 
 To 
 
 cwt. 
 
 £ 
 
 Holland 
 
 214,498 
 
 792,373 
 
 Germany 
 
 188,360 
 
 706,441 
 
 Sweden 
 
 83,610 
 
 239,549 
 
 Belgium 
 
 69,556 
 
 224,308 
 
 Austria 
 
 65,822 
 
 241,561 
 
 Russia 
 
 63,982 
 
 209,213 
 
 France 
 
 62,193 
 
 214,950 
 
 Turkey 
 
 54,847 
 
 145,090 
 
 Italy 
 
 50,777 
 
 148,499 
 
 Norway 
 
 28,698 
 
 79,551 
 
 United States 
 
 24,460 
 
 68,615 
 
 Denmark 
 
 12,992 
 
 35,142 
 
 Egypt 
 
 12,239 
 
 33,216 
 
 Greece 
 
 8,030 
 
 19,896 
 
 Malta 
 
 5,818 
 
 14,759 
 
 Bulgaria 
 
 4,943 
 
 12,480 
 
 British North America 
 
 4,942 
 
 16,736 
 
 Other countries 
 
 17,237 
 
 49,505 
 
 
 973,004 
 
 3,251,884 
 
( 169 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 The chief details of the local variations from the general 
 modes of cultivation and preparation described above, 
 together with special remarks on the peculiarities of soil and 
 climate, and the latest available returns of the production, of 
 the principal coffee-growing countries, are as follow : — 
 Arabia . — The culture of coffee in Arabia is almost confined 
 to the district of Yemen, and is seen to greatest perfection in 
 the Wady Nejran and the neighbourhood of Mecca. It is 
 generally grown on terraces, up to an altitude of 3000 ft. on 
 the slopes of the hills ; but some is cultivated on lower 
 ground, surrounded by large shade trees. The soil is kept 
 moist by irrigation. The harvest is gathered at three 
 periods of the year, the principal being May. Cloths are 
 spread under the trees, which latter are shaken, that the 
 ripe fruit may drop. The cherries are then collected, and 
 exposed on mats to dry in the sun. A heavy roller is after- 
 wards passed over them to break the envelopes, and the 
 parchment is winnowed away with a fan. They are further 
 dried before being stored. The pulp is thus shrivelled up, 
 and constitutes about 20 per cent, of the mass of prepared 
 coffee. This method is peculiar to Arabia, and the produce 
 is known by a distinct name — Kishr, — a decoction of which is 
 the common beverage of the Arabs. The coffee is said to be 
 improved by this way of curing ; but the plan is possible 
 only in a very dry climate. Most of the Arabian coffee is 
 pea-berry. The high reputation it long held in European 
 markets is not to be ascribed to superior cultivation or 
 improved stock, but to the fact that the coffee was first 
 
170 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 shipped to India, and thence by round-about ways to Europe, 
 so that it was generally two to three years old when it 
 reached its destination ; — it has already been remarked how 
 much coffee improves by keeping. Nowadays, genuine 
 “ Mocha,” or Yemen, coffee is never seen westward of Con- 
 stantinople ; two-thirds of the total yield is consumed in 
 Arabia, Syria, and Egypt, and the remainder in Turkey and 
 Armenia. Even in Arabia itself, the bales undergo so much 
 sifting and picking en route , that the quality deteriorates 
 perceptibly as one leaves the centre of production. At the 
 port of shipment, it is systematically adulterated or replaced 
 by Abyssinian and other growths. The modern “ Mocha ” 
 of the English market is principally contributed by the 
 East Indies, and in a minor degree by South American States. 
 
 In reputation, Mocha coffee has always undoubtedly stood 
 high, and is one of the choicest kinds grown in any part of 
 the globe — in short, the palm for excellence in unroasted 
 coffee may be said to lie between yellow Mocha (short or 
 long berry), finest Blue Mountain (Jamaica), and Cannon’s 
 East India plantation Mysore. Neilgherry Hill, Naidoobatum, 
 and plantation Ceylon coffees may be classed next for weight 
 and boldness of bean, and washed Bio, Costa Bica, Guatemala, 
 and other Central American sorts are also much liked by the 
 home and export trade here for being of good colour and 
 closely made ; but none has ever gained the name that Mocha 
 has, and singular to add, none has sunk into such obscurity 
 as Mocha has in Europe for many years past. As far back 
 as 1864, the year’s imports, deliveries, and stocks of that 
 description were of small extent. The figures for the first 
 forty-one weeks of 1880-1-2 were as under : — 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Home 
 
 Consumption. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Stock. 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 1882 
 
 170 
 
 480 
 
 200 
 
 265 
 
 1881 
 
 430 
 
 210 
 
 260 
 
 140 
 
 1SS0 
 
 550 
 
 290 
 
 500 
 
 220 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 171 
 
 This statement shows more clearly than any argument 
 how insignificant a position Mocha coffee occupies as com- 
 pared with other kinds, and also how undue an amount of 
 interest has been directed to an article that has become 
 almost entirely neglected and out of date in the United 
 Kingdom. Mocha coffee is seldom or never drunk by itself, 
 its scarcity and dearness here standing in the way of that, 
 and it is principally used for blending with other grades that 
 require greater strength and fulness of aroma and flavour. 
 When skilfully mixed with fine East India plantation 
 growths, it is pronounced by experts to be the perfection of 
 coffee. From the scanty supply that comes in from abroad, 
 it can easily be understood that the consumption of pure 
 Mocha coffee by the general population is an impossibility, 
 without reckoning the almost prohibitory prices now ruling, 
 which are, as they mostly have been in years gone by, much 
 higher than those current for other descriptions. 
 
 Australia— The mountain ranges on the northern coast of 
 Australia, from Moreton Bay to Torres Straits, and other 
 parts, are recommended for coffee cultivation. In Queensland, 
 the plant has long been successfully grown ; but it has not 
 yet become an article of export, and the plantations 
 have recently suffered much from disease. Though 
 it thrives well in the neighbourhood of Brisbane, Cardwell 
 and the northern districts, especially the sheltered ridges of 
 the Herbert and Endeavour rivers, offer the most favourable 
 conditions. C. Liberica is doing well. 
 
 Bolivia . — Coffee of several varieties is grown throughout 
 the whole of the Yungas district, and the best produce is 
 reckoned not inferior to “ Mocha.” That cultivated in the 
 plains yields the larger berries, but of inferior flavour ; that 
 on the hills gives smaller fruit, but of improved quality. 
 Y ery superior coffee grows at El Chaco ; but it does not 
 appear to be be largely cultivated, owing, doubtless, to the 
 greater profit yielded by coca. 
 
 Borneo . — Coffee has been tried here in the gardens of the 
 Europeans, and thrives remarkably well, producing a fine 
 
172 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 and well-flavoured “berry. The Malays say that it is grown 
 by the Dyaks of the Pontianak River, for the use of that 
 settlement ; but its cultivation on an extensive and syste- 
 matic scale has not been encouraged, the Government 
 probably not wishing to create a competition with Java, 
 which so largely produces this berry. The hills on the 
 mainland, opposite Labuan, would be well adapted for the 
 cultivation, since here coffee might be grown without the 
 trouble and expense of raising trees amongst the plantations, 
 to protect the bushes from the sun, as is done in Java. On 
 the lowlands, Liberian coffee has been introduced, and is 
 doing well. 
 
 Bourbon . — The coffee grown on this island once enjoyed a 
 European reputation, and was the mainstay of local pro- 
 sperity ; but hurricanes, the decay of the trees used for shade, 
 and the preference now given to sugar cultivation, have 
 caused a great decline in the production of coffee. In 1817, 
 the crop exceeded 7,250,000 lb., but in 1875, only 467,500 lb. 
 were shipped. The land under cultivation with coffee is 
 but about 5000 acres. Five varieties of the coffee shrub are 
 distinguished by the natives, viz. : — 1. Mocha, the first 
 introduced into the island, superior to all others, easy to 
 grow, but requiring shade trees for shelter ; 2. Leroy, the 
 Sierra Leone species, a hardy kind, growing readily without 
 shade, having a seed of inferior quality, pointed at one end ; 
 3. Myrtle, a Mocha variety, especially remarkable for 
 longevity, and abundant crops ; 4. Aden, with small regular 
 berries, and a peculiar aroma, cultivated in very small 
 quantities ; 5. Marron, an indigenous variety, common in the 
 forests of the elevated interior, with a curious pointed berry, 
 of so strong and bitter flavour that it cannot be used 
 alone. 
 
 Brazil . — Brazil produces about as much coffee as all the 
 remainder of the world. In 1874, it was calculated that 
 nearly 1^ million acres were under coffee, and that the trees 
 numbered about 530 million. The provinces where the 
 culture is mainly followed are Rio de Janeiro, Sao 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 173 
 
 Paulo, and Bahia ; the ports are Eio, Santos, Pernambuco, 
 and Bahia. More recently, the industry has assumed con- 
 siderable proportions in Minas Geraes and in Ceara, notably 
 in the hills of Maranguape, Aratana, Batunte, Ararife, 
 Machada, and Uraburotama. The total exports, besides 
 a very large home consumption in 1878, were about 500 
 million lb. 
 
 Coffee flourishes in most parts of Brazil, even where 
 exposed to cold ; but in the latter case, its fruitfulness 
 diminishes, and becomes too irregular to repay for cultivation. 
 The ground is prepared by clearing and burning, or leaving 
 the felled timber to rot, which it does in a year or two. The 
 young plants are usually procured from old plantations, and 
 are put out at two years. Corn and mandioca are grown 
 between the rows till the fourth year, when the trees are 
 about 6 ft. high, and bear the maiden crop. At six years, 
 they bear fully, the crop reaching 1 J lb. a tree, on poor land ; 
 3 lb. on medium land ; and lb. on superior land. An 
 acre contains about 350 trees. The duration of an estate, 
 even under the best circumstances, very seldom exceeds 
 thirty years, and where the soil is light, eight to ten years is 
 the common limit. Five to 10 per cent, of the trees are 
 annually destroyed by fungoid pests ; and planters have now 
 to contend against a rising labour market, and want of hands. 
 Owing to carelessness, little more than half the crop is really 
 harvested. Foreign cultivators adopt the usual pulping and 
 other machinery for the preparation of the coffee ; but the 
 Brazilians generally follow another plan : — The cherry coffee 
 is spread on terreiros , large, smooth concrete pavements, or on 
 bamboo frames, to dry in the sun. The berries become 
 black and crisp ; at this stage, they are rubbed, to remove 
 the pulp, and are then washed. The pea-berries are care- 
 fully separated, to be employed in the adulteration of Mocha 
 coffee. Much of the remainder is sent into Europe under the 
 name of Java, Ceylon, Martinique, and St. Domingo. It is 
 also said that in Italy, Santos and Rio growths, especially the 
 former, are largely imported for admixture with the more 
 
174 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 expensive Porto Eico. In France, it is becoming a formidable 
 rival to Malabar, Java, and St. Domingo. From its strong 
 flavour, due probably to the mode of preparation, Brazilian 
 coffee improves more than any other by keeping. 
 
 Following is a report on the Brazilian coffee trade, by 
 Consul-General Andrews, for the year 1882. 
 
 “ The present remarkable cheapness of Brazilian coffee 
 makes it of interest to consider the economical situation of 
 the trade. 
 
 “ The price, including freight to New York, of ‘ good-first 5 
 coffee in this market now is 40s. for 112 pounds, which is 
 equivalent to 8 J cents, per pound ; the price of good-second 
 being 6^ cents, a pound. It has not been so low since the 
 year 1857. It gradually rose after that year to be worth 
 17 cents a pound for ‘ good-first 5 in 1864, then declined and 
 remained for several years at about 11 cents a pound, after 
 which it rose to 17 cents in 1871-1872, and to 28 cents in 
 1873-1874, a period when the crop was light. 
 
 “ The crop of this year was about 800,000,000 pounds, and 
 nothing has yet occurred to indicate that the crop of next 
 year will be less. 
 
 “ Fortunately there is no disposition here to speculate in 
 this staple, it being considered unwise to attempt anything 
 of the sort with an article so large in quantity and which can 
 be had from so many and so extensive sources. 
 
 “ The main causes of the low price now are the extremely 
 large production, the large quantity on hand, and the 
 medium quality of the coffee itself. The one remarkable 
 fact in regard to the crop of the season just past was the 
 absence of superior qualities, such as are termed ‘prime 
 good-first. 5 The lack of these qualities — and they are 
 scarcely to be had— is probably owing to a lack of labour in 
 cultivating, and to the planter undertaking to do too 
 much. 
 
 “The profit to the planter has become so small that he 
 thinks the crop is not worth spending money on. 
 
 “ The number of hands on the plantations is yearly grow- 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 175 
 
 ing less and also growing worse. Many of the lower 
 qualities of coffee do not now pay expenses. 
 
 “I regret here to state that the practice obtains among 
 some dealers of applying artificial colour to coffee. This is 
 done by mixing a relatively very small quantity of black- 
 lead with coffee of a light colour to give it a somewhat 
 dark-green colour, the coffee being finally brushed to 
 brighten it up. 
 
 “ The process of counterfeiting is all done by machinery, 
 and raises the price of the counterfeit goods 10 per cent. 
 
 “ Although Brazil stands at the head of coffee-producing 
 countries, its culture therein does not enjoy the benefits 
 either of small farms or of free labour. 
 
 “ The plantations are very extensive, and are worked 
 almost wholly by slaves. The bulk of the crop is grown in 
 the province of Rio de Janeiro and the adjoining provinces of 
 San Paulo and Minas Geraes, and mostly on hillsides. 
 
 “ The soil is tolerably well hoed, but not manured. The 
 first blossoming of the coffee tree occurs in September and 
 a second one in November. Harvesting commences about 
 April or May, and the crop begins to arrive in the market in 
 June or July. It is sometimes injured by being left too 
 long a time on the ground after it has been picked. 
 
 “ What is known in the market as 6 washed ’ coffee, being, 
 however, but a small proportion, is that which has been 
 picked before fully ripe and while the fruit has a red and 
 cherry-like appearance, and then put into water and the 
 kernels separated from the hull by washing. 
 
 “ In the market it has an almost polished and silvery 
 appearance, and is a fancy article. But usually coffee is 
 hulled or threshed — and mechanically — after it is ripe and 
 dry. From the plantation it is taken in coarse sacks, which 
 bear the planter’s name, and are afterwards returned to him, 
 on mules or in ox-carts to the nearest railway station, whence 
 it is carried on the government railroad at very high rates of 
 transportation to the seaport. 
 
 “ Arrived at the market, it has before shipment to go 
 
176 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 through several hands, each taking a liberal profit. First, 
 into the hands of the planter’s agent, generally the creditor 
 of the planter, and whom he charges from 6 to 12 per cent, 
 interest for loans. 
 
 16 The agent sells the coffee to the 4 dealer ’ and charges 
 the planter 3 per cent, of the price for his services. 
 
 “The ‘dealer’ manipulates the coffee, mixing different 
 sorts together, and puts it into bags. He sells to the 
 exporter through a broker, who receives 50 reis (at present, 
 a little over 2 cents) from the dealer and a like amount from 
 the exporter on each bag. 
 
 “ The broker’s charge has by law been reduced to one-fifth 
 per cent, of the value of the coffee, but as yet the regulation 
 is not complied with. Besides these several charges there 
 are heavy expenses for cartage. 
 
 “ After the coffee arrives here it is conveyed from the rail- 
 way station to the agent’s store ; afterwards to the dealer’s 
 store, and from thence to the docks or place of shipment, 
 being transported each time through narrow streets by mule 
 power and handled by costly labour. 
 
 “ In all the various cartages from the time it leaves the 
 plantation, there is considerable wastage. 
 
 “ Actual experiments have shown that the soil and climate 
 of this country are favourable to the growth of jute. Still 
 the material of which coffee bags are made is brought from 
 a great distance. 
 
 “ The jute is grown in India, then carried to Dundee, 
 Scotland, where it is spun and woven, and from there 
 imported into Brazil in the web. 
 
 “ Here, too, an import duty is charged on it of 240 reis per 
 kilo, amounting fully to 3 cents per bag. 
 
 “The manufacture of the bags is rather a monopoly 
 enjoyed by the ‘ dealers,’ who exact a profit of 20 cents on 
 each bag. 
 
 “ An export duty on coffee has to be paid into the treasury 
 of Brazil. For a considerable period this tax remained at 
 13 per cent, on an average valuation fixed by the govern- 
 
PLATE X.— INTERIOR VIEW OF PULPING HOUSE, CEYLON. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 177 
 
 ment, but was reduced the 6th of November, 1882, to 11 per 
 cent. During the year ending June 30, 1881, the total 
 export of coffee from Brazil was 546,401,964 pounds, on 
 which the total export duty was $4,186,635. 
 
 “ Sixty and one-half per cent, of the total export, namely, 
 330,938,634 pounds, went to the United States, and on that 
 quantity there was paid into the treasury of Brazil export 
 duties amounting to $2,532,000, which probably fell about 
 equally on the American consumer and the Brazilian 
 producer. 
 
 “ The policy of the United States in admitting coffee free 
 of duty is different from that of probably every other 
 country. The duty collected per pound on raw coffee in 
 several European countries is as follows, namely : Belgium, 
 1^ cents ; Denmark, 2 cents ; Great Britain, 3 cents ; 
 Sweden, 3 cents ; Bussia, 3^ cents ; Germany, 4^ cents ; 
 Norway, 5 cents ; Austria-Hungary, 7 cents ; Italy, 10 cents ; 
 and France, 14 cents. 
 
 “ While the United States have for ten years been admit- 
 ting Brazil’s great staple free of duty, the latter country has 
 been steadily increasing her duty on imports, including 
 those from the United States. 
 
 “ A fresh increase of 10 per cent, on all imports took effect 
 the 6th instant.” 
 
 Annexed is a report on the coffee trade of Santos, by 
 Consul Wright, for the same year. 
 
 “ The production of coffee was ^already fast outstripping 
 consumption when, early in 1880, the Brazilian Government 
 saw fit to become an exporter of the article, with the view of 
 placing funds abroad to meet its obligations, instead of, as 
 hitherto, making remittances in bills of exchange; thus 
 entering the Bio market as a buyer in competition with 
 legitimate exporters, and upsetting for the time being all 
 calculations as to exchanges, not only preventing the then 
 natural decline of prices out here, but really causing an 
 advance to a point relatively above the simultaneous market 
 value abroad, and depressing all foreign markets by throwing 
 
 N 
 
178 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 their shipments almost in toto upon one, New York, espe- 
 cially at that time, when a combination was endeavouring to 
 4 corner ’ coffee, thereby causing greater caution on the part 
 of the general trade and anxiety in Europe that New York 
 might be compelled to ship part of her stocks thither. 
 
 44 The operation of the government resulted in a loss 
 stated to amount to at least 800,000 milreis, to say nothing 
 of its consequences upon legitimate mercantile trade. As a 
 matter of course, I would not allude thus to this transaction 
 had it not been so freely discussed in and out of Parliament, 
 and in commercial circles everywhere for some time past, as 
 to place it beyond the pale of official reserve. 
 
 44 Looking at the then tremulous state of the coffee trade 
 (so often before afflicted by speculative rings which resulted 
 disastrously), owing to the visible and increasing over pro- 
 duction everywhere as compared with consumption, it is 
 considered to have been unwise on the part of the govern- 
 ment to have struck the first blow at the downward tendency, 
 because if left to merchants regularly and legitimately in 
 the trade, they would have known how to have met the 
 anticipated natural changes. But even this was denied them 
 by the public assertion of the successor to the minister of 
 finance who executed the commercial measure alluded to, 
 that he approved of the course of his predecessor, and would 
 repeat the operation if he saw fit, whilst the operation has 
 lately been defended in the Imperial House of Kepresenta- 
 tives, although ably contested. All this causes nervousness 
 in the trade now, as for some time past, lest such an operation 
 might suddenly be predicated. 
 
 “ There are those who believe that the Brazilian Govern- 
 ment is interested in the great Havre ring, but I am not one 
 of them, however plausible their deductions drawn from the 
 past may appear. It may be that the operation I have 
 alluded to may have given birth to the hope of these wealthy 
 French speculators that it might be repeated either wholly 
 or on account with them, but they have apparently been 
 left to carry their own burden. They may have been and 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 179 
 
 may still "be influenced "by the hope that the reported negotia- 
 tions between Brazil and France may result in a commercial 
 treaty, resulting in a diminution of the exorbitant French 
 duty on coffee, amounting to more than the invoice cost, with 
 freight and marine insurance added, so as to offset some 
 recompense on this side for the importation of real French 
 wines, instead of the Hamburg concoctions imported and 
 sold as French. 
 
 “In my No. 66, dated January 16, I spoke of the Havre 
 ring, with its enormous coffee stock hanging as an incubus 
 over the trade, and so it has continued. In September its 
 Havre stocks were represented to have cost 3,000,000/. 
 sterling, against the market estimated value 2,000,000Z. ster- 
 ling, or a straight loss of 1,000,000Z. sterling, not including 
 expenses of c carrying/ previous losses, &c. 
 
 “ Several large failures also have occurred there ; yet a 
 reinforced concern seems to have been organised, and are 
 apparently determined to continue the same course. Why 
 Santos and Santos coffee should have been alone selected for 
 these speculative operations is puzzling, but so it is. Certain 
 is it also that the Brazilian coffee trade has changed, assumed 
 a new form ; for whereas formerly the large importers sent 
 out orders and letters of credit for purchases of large parcels 
 and cargoes for sale there to jobbers, nowadays these very 
 jobbers have become importers, and to such an extent that the 
 old importers are almost driven from the field. Nearly all 
 the firms in Santos and Bio have head or branch 
 houses, or partners, or agents abroad, through whom they 
 offer to sell for immediate or future shipment a given quan- 
 tity of coffee, quality as per type sample there shown, at a 
 fixed price in foreign money, this price including invoice 
 cost on board and freight. This enables the jobbers and 
 retailers to buy out here instead of there, where they were 
 so often in the meshes of speculative cliques. Now they know 
 that on a certain day they will have their supply and its 
 cost, they running no risk except the loss of the vessel, and 
 hence their expected supply, all other risks falling upon the 
 
 n 2 
 
180 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 vendor here. They obtain letters of credit just as others do, 
 and settle for the draughts drawn in virtue thereof payable at 
 ninety days after sight in London, Paris, Frankfort, &c., just 
 as readily as if they made the purchase in warehouse at New 
 York, Havre, Antwerp, Hamburg, &c., on sixty days’ credit, 
 to be paid for in cash as 6 taken from store, with discount.’ But 
 the system is a bad one, and may yet result seriously, and 
 this seems to be the opinion of many who shun such, on a 
 principle well founded. The risks run by the party out here 
 are many and serious ; amongst them, quality sold not 
 obtainable, prices advanced, exchange rates advanced, rates 
 of freight advanced, absence of steamers and vessels, rainy 
 weather preventing shipments wuthin specified time, fires, 
 &c. If all these are to be feared in contracting for shipping 
 4 short,’ how much more for 4 long ’ delivery ? 
 
 4C I am informed that coffee has been sold to Havre, 
 quality and price agreed upon, for shipment here all along 
 up to end of March 1883. Coffee is therefore sold which 
 may not exist, as myriads of pods or dried berries are still on 
 the bushes, and may or may not inclose beans or burnt, 
 oilless kernels. Then again, this is a rainy climate, and the 
 main stem of our railroad system may again be damaged on 
 the Serra and traffic interrupted, as we have often seen 
 before, thus stopping supplies, which would of course inter- 
 fere with the fulfilment of these future delivery contracts. 
 Nothing can show more plainly how the trade has been cut 
 up than Table V., in my despatch No. 84, made up from the 
 invoice book of this consulate, containing the number of 
 invoices certified to. The number for 1882 would have been 
 greater had not a large buyer in New York, for its roasting 
 purposes, opened branch houses at Bio and here and ship 
 their coffees in large invoices. The small invoices then 
 point to the fact that the consignees are many, and perhaps a 
 number of them are in our interior cities and towns. 
 
 “ Laying aside the Havre operations, the same is the case 
 with Europe, where it seems many cities and towns have 
 their respective little combinations for importation and 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 181 
 
 division amongst individual members thereof. A house here 
 not long ago shipped per steamer to Hamburg 2000 bags, 
 divided or cut up into fifteen invoices for delivery all over 
 Germany, at different points. I was told that the largest 
 invoice was for 1000 bags. This house is one of the oldest, 
 wealthiest, and most reliable import and export firms here, 
 able to do what they wish, but nothing with type samples, 
 futures, or speculation as now conducted. You will thus 
 see that the Brazilian coffee trade has been brought down 
 nearly to a Ceylon writer’s notion of 4 plantation to cup. 5 
 
 44 The prices of coffee here are very low as compared with 
 former years, and much is being said and written about it 
 both here and abroad, and the Government and associations 
 are engaged in promoting the display of samples in Europe 
 and the United States, with the view of bringing Brazilian, 
 especially Santos, coffee better before consumers. If an 
 exportation of 1,500,000 bags cannot show what Santos 
 coffee really is, I fail to see how a few finger-picked samples, 
 showing what it can and ought to be, but representing what 
 cannot be had, can have any good effect. Ear better would 
 it be to have an exhibition of samples of coffee from other 
 producing countries at some central point in the province, 
 where the planters might go and see that planters in those 
 countries send to consuming markets for sale the same coffee 
 that their own cooks, after picking and washing out stones, 
 chaff, &c., roast and prepare for the table. No one can or 
 will deny that the flavour of Santos coffee is not equal to any 
 other, but it hurts the planter to see it quoted so much below 
 others abroad, and to be told that it is mixed with and sold 
 as some other hind at the quoted market price for such kind. 
 Nothing more reasonable than this, for if the planter deems 
 it more to his interest to send down for sale his crop contain- 
 ing one-fourth stones, dirt, unsightly, valueless, black, and 
 ashy beans and husk, he ought to expect it to be sold at a 
 price here which will allow some margin for cleaning it 
 abroad and putting it into the same condition for roasting 
 and drinking as he himself uses. 
 
182 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 “ Too many coffee trees have been planted, and hence the 
 fruit not properly harvested and prepared for market, and 
 planters are reported as confessing this. Well-prepared 
 coffees are sent down and fetch relatively high prices, both 
 here and abroad, but being exceptions, are not generally 
 quoted. And if the actual low prices here leave a loss to 
 the planter, which, however, I do not believe, he must blame 
 himself in tacitly protecting the high and exorbitant railroad 
 freight charges. These railroads pay dividends at the rate of 
 ten to fourteen per centum -per annum. All but one are 
 native enterprises, in many instances many planters being 
 large shareholders, who grumble at low coffee prices, but not 
 at their railroad dividends. The railroad freight and charges 
 average 5 milreis on every bag of coffee sent to Santos ; the 
 average sale price to-day is about 17 milreis per bag (60 kilo- 
 grams or 132 pounds), not including very ordinary and 
 triage, of which there is a large quantity in store, not worth 
 on an average over 9 or 10 milreis per bag, which, deducting 
 all other charges, will leave little or nothing for the planter. 
 The planter must now clean his crop very much better so as 
 to send down a better quality, send down a smaller quantity, 
 and obtain comparatively higher prices, paying, or rather not 
 paying freight on unsent trash, and cause railroads to be 
 satisfied with less income and smaller dividends ; otherwise 
 Mexico may teach them a severe lesson.” 
 
 Cayenne . — Coffee was at one time an important staple of 
 this country, the variety grown being Mocha, for the culti- 
 vation of which the country is especially adapted ; it is now 
 chiefly grown as a shade tree for cocoa, annatto, and other 
 crops, though a few Government plantations are maintained. 
 The average production is scarcely 100,000 lb. a year ; the 
 shipments, in 1875, were but 752 lb. The product is not 
 however, quite lost; although temporarily abandoned, the 
 trees continue to thrive in a wild state, and may be reclaimed 
 hereafter. They attain a height of about 15-16 ft., with a 
 trunk 30 in. round at a few feet from the ground ; they are 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 183 
 
 rich, in foliage, but do not flower; they also appear to be safe 
 from the ravages of insects. 
 
 Celebes . — The Minahassa district produces a very superior 
 coffee ; the kernels, instead of being opaque, and having a 
 tinge of bronze, are translucent, and of a greenish-blue colour. 
 The best are those which have these characters, and, at the 
 same time, are very hard ; this coffee commands a much 
 higher price than that of Java, and is superior to any raised 
 in the Archipelago, unless it may be some that comes from 
 the highlands in the interior of Sumatra. The general 
 character of the produce, however, is not good, too little care 
 being bestowed upon its preparation. The crop is subject 
 to some variation, but the average yield of the Government 
 gardens is never less than 5,000,000 lb. The whole number 
 of trees belonging to the Government is over 6 million ; but 
 a large proportion of these are young, and therefore bear 
 little or no fruit. Several private individuals also own large 
 plantations. The trees are found to thrive best above an 
 elevation of 1000 ft. In some districts, the produce amounts 
 to 2-4 lb. a tree, while in others it is only lb. It is 
 packed in bags on the plantations, and is transported from 
 the small storehouses in the interior to the large ones at 
 Menado, where it is put on board vessels either directly for 
 foreign ports, or to be taken to Macassar, and thence be 
 reshipped to Europe. 
 
 Ceylon . — This island is now by far the most important 
 coffee producer of all the British possessions, occupying the 
 rank once held by the West Indies. In 1877, it was esti 
 mated that the capital invested in Ceylon coffee culture was 
 nearly 14,000,000Z., and a notable increase has taken place 
 since. The hill region, covering an area of about 4000 
 square miles, is somewhat circular in form, and its most 
 elevated parts rise to 8280 ft. above the level of the sea. 
 Systematic coffee cultivation is almost exclusively confined 
 to these hills, although irregular native garden plantations 
 are found everywhere in the south-western portion of the 
 
184 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 island, even close to the sea beach. The favourite and most 
 fruitful elevation is between 3000 and 4500 ft. ; but, in a few 
 exceptional cases, estates descend almost to the foot of the 
 hills, whilst others are situated at 5500 ft., and even higher. 
 Native gardens, sometimes bearing good crops, may be met 
 with along the coast actually at sea-level. In these cases, 
 however, the plants will invariably be found growing under 
 the shade of suitable trees, without which protection all 
 chance of their thriving permanently would be out of the 
 question. These native gardens are, moreover, limited in 
 extent, and are generally richly manured, and often well- 
 watered during the dry season. These conclusions are borne 
 out in those districts where coffee cultivation has been 
 attempted below 1000 ft. elevation, abandoned properties on 
 every side bearing evidence that humidity and rainfall have 
 been insufficient to neutralise the high temperature. In the 
 neighbourhood of Kandy, there are properties which, even at 
 1800 ft., seem to owe their present existence chiefly to shade 
 and irrigation. In fact, the climate which is most favour- 
 able for coffee, is that in which an Englishman will find 
 little to complain of, except occasional malaria. 
 
 There are now some forty districts in which the cultiva- 
 tion is carried on, containing in all about 1400 properties, of 
 which over 1200 are in course of cultivation ; these have a 
 total area of about 300,000 acres. The average crop per 
 acre of land in bearing has ranged, during the twenty years 
 from 1856 to 1875, from 5*07 cwt. an acre (in 1868), to 
 2*75 cwt. (in 1874) — the general average for the twenty 
 years being rather under 4*25 cwt. an acre. In 1856, the 
 production, taking the average of two years (a good and a 
 bad season), was 5 cwt. an acre ; in 1877, this had dwindled 
 down to 3*43 cwt. At the average yield of twenty years 
 ago, the island should, in 1877, have exported 1,120,000 cwt. 
 of plantation coffee, whereas it fell short by 30 per cent. 
 This reduced production per acre is greatly due to disease, 
 but also to inefficient transport accommodation. With these 
 remedied, the standard of 4 cwt. an acre all round could 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 185 
 
 doubtless be maintained. The native cultivation of coffee 
 has usually been calculated to extend over 50,000 acres ; 
 but it varies very much, according to the character of 
 the season, the prices of produce, and the cheapness of 
 money. 
 
 The most suitable soil is that which grows soft timber, 
 and is dark chocolate-coloured, mixed with small stones, and 
 dotted with granite boulders. As the strongest and most 
 continuous wind comes from the south-west, it will be 
 evident that this aspect is the worst that can be chosen ; 
 neither would it be wise to select one directly opposite, this 
 being exposed for some months of the year to the north-east 
 monsoon. A bleak and exposed aspect is one of those evils 
 that can neither be mitigated nor remedied. The monsoons, 
 blowing incessantly for three or four months together, are 
 assailants which coffee bushes cannot withstand. Northerly 
 or easterly facings are perhaps the best, not being directly 
 exposed to violent wind for any lengthened period ; the 
 latter also gets the benefit of the morning sun. The season 
 for beginning agricultural operations is October, or the early 
 part of November, while the buildings should be finished by 
 the middle of January. Felling is usually commenced in 
 October to November, and the felled timber is left for fully 
 six or eight weeks to dry. The best time for firing is 1st 
 to 15th of February, when the prevalent dry weather and 
 not too violent north-east wind are favourable. Pitting 
 should begin as soon as possible after the land has been 
 cleared, say in January or February, and may be continued 
 up to the end of June, or until the rainy season sets in. 
 This wet season, extending more or less through June, July, 
 and August, is the only safe time for putting out the plants. 
 Abundant supplies of plants of all sizes are generally to be 
 found growing wild in the forest, in the vicinity of old 
 estates. These, having grown up in the shade, are generally 
 lanky and straggling, and consequently require, before being 
 planted out in the estate, to be “ stumped ” ; they are then 
 very independent, and usually come on well. Where wild 
 
186 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 plants are not to be had, others can frequently be got from 
 native gardens at a trifling rate per thousand. When plants 
 in sufficient number are obtainable in either of these ways, 
 a nursery is but little required ; but in case the planter 
 should not find his wants thus supplied, it will be advisable 
 to begin making a nursery. The nursery is usually made 
 in May to June, and should yield plants fit for putting out 
 at the same time in the following year. The best time to 
 obtain seed is the end of October, when a few bushels of 
 fresh berries of the new crop can be obtained from neigh- 
 bouring estates. Over the planted seeds, a layer of rotten 
 leaves may be spread two inches thick, the bed being then 
 well watered at least once every three days, if the weather 
 be dry, until germination takes place. In about six weeks, 
 the seeds will begin to force their way above ground, and to 
 send a root downwards, when the layer of decayed leaves 
 may be gently and carefully removed. If it is intended to 
 put out plants that have grown for three years in the 
 nursery, Hull recommends their being cut down to stumps 
 in the beds in the December or January before the planting 
 season; they will then throw out suckers, which, by July, 
 will be 9-10 in. high. When these plants are put out, a 
 couple of the most promising suckers may be selected, the 
 rest being pulled off. These two (being those nearest the 
 roots) may then grow together for a month, after which the 
 weaker of the two is taken off, the other being left to develop 
 into the tree. By this plan he was able, in one case, to pick 
 a maiden crop of 2-3 cwt. an acre off plants that had been 
 hardly eighteen months in the ground. Once the rains 
 commence, the sooner the plants are in their places the 
 better. Early planting is most desirable, as upon it a 
 maiden crop may often depend. When the climate is hot, 
 it will be necessary to erect a “ pandall,” or awning, to pro- 
 tect the young plants from the sun during the dry months. 
 The shade must, however, be removed on the approach of 
 the rainy season, otherwise the drip will prove injurious to 
 the plants, which, moreover, will be strengthened by such 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 187 
 
 sun and air as they are likely to get at this time of year. 
 Staking should be performed by the middle of May, before 
 the commencement of the south-west monsoon. The blossom 
 generally bursts forth in March, under the influence of the 
 showers which usually fall in that month. About October, 
 every preparation ought to be complete for gathering in the 
 crop. The berries begin to ripen in October or early 
 November, and continue to come on until the middle or end 
 of January. In some low-lying districts, however, the crop 
 ripens more rapidly, and all must be got in within about a 
 month or six weeks. The labourers employed on the planta- 
 tions are largely drawn from Southern India, chiefly from 
 the districts of Madura, Tinnevelly, Tanjore, and Trichi- 
 nopoly, though Mysore furnishes a considerable contingent. 
 These coolies are brought over by Kanganies , or native 
 “ gangers,” who receive advances from the estate managers, 
 to enable them to furnish funds for preliminary expenses, 
 to each cooly who enrols himself. The usual time for their 
 arrival in Ceylon is between May and October ; and for their 
 return home, after the harvest. Local labour is also avail- 
 able for carpenters’ and similar work. 
 
 The advantage of providing coffee with shade trees, at any 
 elevation less than 2000 ft., is gradually being appreciated, 
 and, in 1877, it was estimated that about 3000 acres of 
 plantation coffee were growing under shade. It is evident, 
 however, from experience gained at Hantane, Nilambie and 
 Matale, that success depends much upon the kind of tree, 
 and that the natural forest will seldom do, the coffee not 
 prospering, and the falling trees doing much damage in some 
 cases. In Dumbara, cocoa has been planted among the coffee, 
 profiting by the shade of the latter for some years, and then 
 expanding sufficiently to return the favour. It is said that 
 under this shade some of the worst weeds do not flourish ; 
 but, remembering how very necessary is shade to cocoa itself 
 at all stages of its growth, it is difficult to see what ultimate 
 good can arise. Cocoa and coffee do not prosper on the same 
 ground elsewhere, e.g. Central America, West Indies, Natal. 
 
188 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 In Lower Matale, coffee growing under coco-nut palms is 
 doing well up to the age of six years, and the coco-nuts are 
 flourishing. More worthy of encouragement is the growth of 
 shade-giving timber trees, especially subsoil feeders. Perhaps 
 the best adapted for this purpose in Ceylon is the native 
 jack ( Artocarjpus integrifolia ), which attains a large size, and 
 resembles, and belongs to the same family as the bread-fruit 
 tree. Its presence seems to be actually beneficial to the 
 coffee-plant, it is a subsoil feeder, it produces a fruit much 
 valued as fruit by the natives, its timber is valuable for 
 cabinet-making and building purposes, and it flourishes best 
 precisely in those situations where its shade is most required. 
 As it will not bear transplanting, a few seeds must be placed, 
 a couple of inches below the surface, in each spot where a 
 tree is required to grow, the strongest sapling being retained. 
 The loquat tree is planted along the roadsides on many 
 estates, and coffee appears to thrive well under it ; it yields 
 a useful fruit, but its timber is not apparently of much a due. 
 The castor-oil plant, which grows 6-10 ft. high in a year, 
 bearing a crop in the first year, might perhaps be found 
 useful in some cases, as it requires little care in cultivation, 
 but it cannot be strongly recommended for growth with 
 coffee, being apparently a surface-feeder. Plantains or 
 bananas, as planted for shade in St. Domingo, will not injure 
 the coffee ; perhaps, for the first few years, till the jacks have 
 had time to grow, they might be useful. Trees for shade 
 should not be so near each other as to prevent a free circula- 
 tion of air, nor entirely to exclude the sun’s rays. They 
 may, however, in hot situations, be grown tolerably close at 
 first, it being easy to thin them out afterwards. In order to 
 make the trees throw out wide leafy heads, they should be 
 trained to single stems till 10-12 ft. high, all lateral 
 branches being kept off. This will also tend to produce 
 large straight timber. 
 
 Estimates. — In the following estimates for the purchase of 
 300 A. forest land, and 200 A. grass land, bringing 200 of 
 the former into cultivation and full bearing, the price of the 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 189 
 
 former is calculated at 10Z. an acre, the latter at 4Z., and 
 labour at 9 d. a day, including Kanganies’ wages : — 
 
 First year : 1st October to 30th September following : — 
 Land, 3,800Z, ; felling, burning, and clearing 50 A. at 45s., 
 112Z. 10s.; tools, 35Z. ; coolie lines, 80Z. ; conductor’s house, 
 &c., 50Z. ; temporary bungalow, 50Z. ; nursery for second 
 year’s extension (100,000 plants), 37Z. 10s. ; roads, 34Z. 10s. ; 
 lining out 50 A. at 5s., 12Z. 10s. ; holing 50 A. at 5 ft. X 6 ft. 
 = 1452 holes per A. at 25 for 9 d., 108Z. 15s. : filling in, at 
 120 holes for 9 d, 22Z. 13s. 9 d . ; 75,000 plants at 10s. per 1000, 
 37Z. 10s. ; planting 72,600, at 200 for 9 cZ., 13Z. 12s. 3cZ. ; 
 cleaning up and weeding 50 A. at 10s., 25Z. ; superintendent, 
 120Z. ; allowances, 12Z. ; conductor, 45Z. 12s. ; contingencies, 
 50Z. ; = total, 4647Z. 3s. 
 
 Second year (cultivation, 50 A., and extension, 50 A.) : — 
 weeding, 50Z. ; supplying vacancies, 10Z. 8s. 6d. ; repairing 
 buildings, 20Z. ; roads and trenching, 15Z. ; replanting 
 nursery, 20Z. ; additional lines, 50Z. ; tools, 25Z. ; felling, 
 clearing, lining, holing, filling in, and planting as before, 
 270 Z. Is.; roads, 1 mile, 12Z. ; cleaning and weeding as 
 before, 25Z. ; superintendent, 182Z. ; horse, 40Z. ; conductor, 
 51Z, 12s. ; contingencies, 50 Z. ; = total, 821Z. Is. 6cZ. 
 
 Third year (cultivation, 100 A., and extension 50 A.) : — 
 weeding, 100Z. ; supplying vacancies, 15Z. 13s. ; repairing 
 buildings, 30Z. ; roads and trenching, 22Z. 10s. ; replanting 
 and manuring nurseries, 25Z. ; topping and handling 50 A., at 
 7s. 6cZ., 18Z. 15s. ; additional lines, 50Z. ; tools, 25Z. ; felling, 
 &c., 50 A., as before, 270Z. Is.; roads, 1 mile, 12Z. ; cleaning 
 and weeding, 25Z. ; pulping house, machinery and store, 400Z. ; 
 picking 850 boxes (125 cwt.) cherry, at 7cZ. a box, 24Z. 15s.; 
 curing, at Is. a cwt., 6Z. 5s. ; carriage at Is. a bush, parchment, 
 31Z. 5s.; superintendent, 262Z. ; conductor, 57Z. 12s.; contin- 
 gencies, 50Z. ; = total, 1425Z. 16s. 
 
 Fourth year (cultivation 150 A., and extension, 50 A.) : — 
 weeding, 150Z. ; filling up vacancies, 19Z. 10s. 3d. ; repairing 
 buildings, 40Z. ; roads and trenching, 33Z. 15s. ; partially 
 replanting nursery, 12Z. 10s. ; topping and handling 50 A., 
 
190 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 
 18Z. 15 s. ; pruning 50 A., at 15s., 37 Z. 10s. ; completing store, 
 
 &c., 400Z. ; picking 2850 boxes (425 cwt.) cherry, 83Z. 2s. 6 d.; 
 curing, 21Z. 5s. ; carriage, 106Z. 5s. ; additional coolie lines, 
 50Z.; tools, 25Z.; felling, &c., as before, 270Z. Is.; roads, 12Z.; 
 cleaning and weeding, 25Z. ; permanent cattle sheds, 100Z. ; 
 cattle, 75 head, at 61., 225 Z ; keepers, &c., (6 men), 
 
 53Z. 12s. ; superintendent, 312Z. ; conductor, 63Z. 12s. ; 
 contingencies, 50Z. ; = total, 2108 Z. 17s. 9 d. 
 
 Fifth year (cultivation, 200 A.) weeding, 200Z. ; filling up 
 \ acancies, 23Z. 9s. 6 d . ; repairing buildings, 50Z. ; trenching 
 and roads, 42Z. 10s. ; nurseries, 12Z. 10s. ; topping and 
 handling 50 A., 18Z. 15s. ; pruning and handling 100 A., 75 Z. ; 
 manuring 40 A., at 5Z., 200Z. ; picking 4850 boxes (725 cwt.) 
 cherry, 141Z. 9s. ; curing, 36Z. 5s. ; carriage, 181Z. 5s. ; per- 
 manent bungalow, 500Z. ; stock (25 head), 75Z.; keep of 
 ditto, 53Z. 12s. ; superintendent, 362Z. ; conductor, 69Z. 12s ; 
 contingencies, 50Z. ; = total, 2091Z. 7s. 6 d. 
 
 Sixth year : — weeding, 250Z. ; filling up vacancies, 25Z. ; ; 
 
 keeping up buildings, 50Z. ; trenching and roads, 40 Z. ; 
 nurseries, 12Z. 10s. ; pruning and handling 150 A.atlZ., 1501. ; 
 ditto, 50 at 15s., 37 Z. 10s. ; manuring 40 A., at 6Z., 240Z. ; ! 
 
 picking 6850 boxes (1025 cwt.) cherry, 199Z. 6s. 6 d . ; curing, 
 
 51Z. 5s. ; carriage, 257 Z. 10s. ; stock, 150Z. ; management, 
 431Z. 12s. ; contingencies, 50Z. ; = total, 1944Z. 13s. 6 d. 
 
 Seventh year : — weeding, supplying vacancies, maintenance 
 of buildings and roads, trenching, nurseries, and manure, as 5 
 before, 617Z. 10s. ; pruning, at 1Z. an A., 200Z. ; picking, curing, j 
 and despatching 1200 cwt. crop, 593Z. 6s. 8 d . ; stock, man- ' 
 agement, and contingencies, 613Z. 12s. ; = total, 2024Z. 8s. 8 d. 
 
 The balance sheet will then stand as under : — 
 
 £ s. d. £ S ' 
 
 1st year: — To expenses.. 4647 3 0 By balance 4647 3 0 
 
 2nd year : — „ balance . . 4647 3 0 
 
 „ expenses .. 821 1 6 „ „ 546S 4 6 
 
 5468 4 6 546S 4 6 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 191 
 
 £ s. cl. £ 5. cl. 
 
 3rd year: — To balance .. 5168 4 6 By 125 cwt. crop, at 90s. net 562 10 0 
 
 „ expenses .. 1425 16 0 „ balance 6331 10 6 
 
 6894 0 6 6894 0 6 
 
 4th year: — To balance .. 6331 10 6 By 425 cwt. crop, at 90s. . . 1912 10 0 
 
 „ expenses .. 2108 17 0 ,, balance 6527 17 6 
 
 8440 7 6 8440 7 6 
 
 5th year : — To balance .. 6527 17 6 By 725 cwt. crop, at 90s. . . 3262 10 0 
 
 „ expenses . . 2091 7 6 „ balance 5356 15 0 
 
 8619 5 0 8619 5 0 
 
 6th year To balance .. 5356 15 0 By 1025 cwt. crop, at 90s. 4612 10 0 
 
 „ expenses .. 1944 13 6 „ balance 2688 18 6 
 
 7301 8 6 7301 8 G 
 
 7th year: — To balance .. 2688 18 6 By 1200 cwt. crop, at 90s. 5400 0 0 
 „ expenses .. 2024 8 8 
 „ balance .. 686 12 10 
 
 5400 0 0 5400 0 0 
 
 Subsequent years : — ex- 
 penses 2000 0 0 By 1200 cwt. crop, at 90s. 5400 0 0 
 
 The yield of the crop is based on a first harvest of cwt. 
 an acre, followed annually afterwards by one of 6 cwt. an 
 acre ; these figures are now manifestly too high. As to the 
 longevity of coffee estates, there appears to be no necessary 
 limit to the life of the plant in its natural state, and, under 
 suitable conditions of climate, soil, and culture, it may live 
 indefinitely. In native gardens in Ceylon, there are many 
 trees far above half a century old, and several of the earliest 
 European plantations still thrive and yield at upwards of 40 
 years of age. The price of land has risen considerably since 
 the introduction of Liberian coffee ; low-lying plots that ten 
 years since were not worth 4 K. an acre now sell at 20Z. No 
 export duty is levied in Ceylon. The exports were, in 1874, 
 
192 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 plantation, 635,935 cwt, native, 97,020; 1875, 813,401 and 
 115,205; 1876, 586,580 and 80,585; 1877, 896,534 and 
 82,281. 
 
 Colombia .— According to Consul Mallet, tlie department of 
 Chiriqui, in the interior of Colombia, offers a fine field for 
 coffee culture. Planting has already been introduced, but 
 only in a small way as yet. The fine lands lying along the 
 slopes of the mountain ranges are said to be admirably 
 adapted for the purpose. Land costs nothing, the climate is 
 favourable, transport and labour are efficient and cheap. In 
 other departments of the state, coffee culture is of old 
 standing, the produce, especially from Ocama and Ambalima, 
 being of excellent quality ; it is, however, limited in quantity, 
 and chiefly consumed in the country. 
 
 Costa Bica . — Coffee raised on the highlands of Costa Eica 
 and Nicaragua is said to be unsurpassed in strength, and to 
 possess an aromatic flavour unknown to the best Eastern 
 growths ; that grown at medium elevations is of good quality 
 and though without the plump form and bluish tint of the 
 upland produce, it compares favourably with Javan or 
 Moluccan coffee. The cultivation suffers much from want of 
 labour. The quantities exported in the years 1875-8 
 respectively were about 23^ million, 10 \ million, 24J million, 
 and 18 million pounds. The principal -consumers appear to 
 be Great Britain, California, and France. 
 
 Ecuador . — Increasing attention is being given to coffee 
 cultivation in Ecuador, and the produce is of good quality. 
 The exports from Guayaquil during the years 1873-8 
 respectively were about 700,000; 1,000,000; 1,000,000; 
 800,000 ; 1,000,000; and 100,000 pounds. The crop of 1878 
 was completely spoilt by heavy rains ; the yield was very 
 inferior in quality, and so low in quantity as not to suffice for 
 local needs. 
 
 Guatemala . — One of the principal coffee districts has 
 suffered largely from Indian disturbances, exhaustion of the 
 soil, and, perhaps, inadaptability of climate ; but for every 
 tree abandoned in this section, 100 have been planted in new 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 193 
 
 and better lands. Probably there have been 2,000,000 new 
 trees planted, consequently the crop of 1880-81 should 
 exhibit a marked increase over that of any previous season. 
 The Yera Paz or Coban district, which Has its outlet on the 
 Atlantic, via Yzabal and Belize, has been specially sought 
 after by Germans and Americans, and is being industriously 
 developed in its coffee-bearing qualities. The land and 
 labour are cheaper than on the Pacific slope ; but the yield 
 per tree is very much less, being an average of 1 lb., while on 
 the Pacific slope it reaches 3 lb., and even 5 lb. in some 
 specially favoured localities. Nevertheless it is questionable 
 which section will, in the end, produce the better results. 
 Boddam-Whetham points out the existence of several disad- 
 vantages in the country, viz. : — the want of good roads, and 
 the liability of losing most of the labourers at a moment’s 
 notice, in the event of their being required for military 
 service ; on some plantations, too, water has to be conveyed in 
 flumes from a distance. The advantages are that the climate 
 is pleasant, as the plantations are situated between 2000 and 
 4500 ft. above the sea-level, and that hitherto there has been 
 no disease, all the conditions for good crops being favourable. 
 Coban coffee has a peculiar delicate flavour, and the fine 
 plantations that are gradually arising, point to a prosperous 
 future for this section of Yera Paz. The crop of 1878 was 
 exported principally to the following countries : — California, 
 about 7,500,000 lb. ; England, 6,300,000 ; Germany, 2,800,000 ; 
 France, 2,500,000; Belize (chiefly for England), 800,000; 
 New York, 400,000 ; Belgium, 200,000 ; South America, 
 170,000. It was valued at 16 c. (100 c. = 4s.) a lb. at the 
 port, but was barely worth 13 c. In the lower districts, the 
 beans are dried by being spread on a patio ; at higher altitudes, 
 they are placed in shallow trays with perforated bottoms, and 
 a current of warm, dry air is made to circulate through the 
 building. The coffee is transported mostly on Indians’ backs, 
 a bag (100 lb.) is a load, and 18-24 miles constitutes a day’s 
 journey, the pay for which is 9 d. 
 
 Guiana . — Coffee culture in this colony seems to have been 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 at its height in 1803, when nearly 10 million ponnds were 
 shipped. Since then it has gradually declined, and, in 1874, 
 the exports were but 40,000 lb. 
 
 Honduras . — The soil in favoured spots is very fertile, and in 
 the gardens of Machaquila and Peten Stik, are coffee-trees 
 yielding 7 and 8 lb. of berries. In the neighbourhood of the 
 Belize Eiver, Indian labour is available, and this side of the 
 continent is much preferable to the Pacific slope, where much 
 coffee is grown, on account of soil and climate, and more 
 particularly as regards the effect of the sun, for it is more or 
 less cloudy here throughout the year, affording the requisite 
 shade to the plant. The lands here at 500-2000 feet above 
 sea-level, are better than the hills in the interior, if for no 
 other reason on account of the facility of transport. 
 
 India . — Coffee cultivation in some parts of Southern India 
 has remarkably increased of late. The following concise 
 statement from official sources shows the condition of the 
 culture in the three provinces of Madras, Mysore, and Coorg, 
 in the season 1876-7 : — 
 
 Madras. — Under mature plants, 49,350 acres ; under 
 immature plants, 15,711 acres; total yield about 13£ million 
 pounds ; average yield per acre of mature plants, 268 lb. 
 
 Mysore. — Under cultivation, 115,315 acres; total yield, 
 about 6J million pounds ; yield varies from 1 \ to 103 lb. per 
 acre. 
 
 Coorg. — Under mature plants, 35,150 acres; under imma- 
 ture plants, 9000 acres ; total yield, about 12 million pounds, 
 average yield per acre of mature plants, 339 lb. 
 
 Large reserves fit for coffee-growing still exist in the 
 Nilgiri Hills ; but the Government is unwilling to encourage 
 further deforestation. In the Wynaad district, there are 
 reckoned to remain 200,000 acres of reserve suitable for coffee. 
 The chief seats of the culture are the Wynaad, the Nilgiris, 
 Mysore, Coorg, and the Shervaroy Hills. The Wynaad, 
 officially divided into north, south, and south-east, is a district 
 in the collectorate of Malabar, about 70 miles by 25. Its 
 coffee is conveyed to the coast for curing and shipment, that 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 195 
 
 from the northern division to Tellicherry and that from the 
 south to Calient, principally on pack bullocks. The Nilgiris 
 are a spur of the Western Ghat range, running eastward, and 
 form a bold and lofty group of mountains, containing the 
 culminating elevation of this part of India, at upwards of 
 8000 ft. above the sea-level. The slopes adjacent to the 
 approaches to Ootacamund are covered with coffee plantations 
 on every side. Labour is not over-abundant, the climate 
 being found rather too cold and wet for the natives of the 
 low countries ; but many advantages of soil and climate 
 render the district eminently suited for coffee cultivation. 
 Some of the plantations are situated as high as 6000 ft. The 
 port of shipment is Calicut, to which the crops are conveyed 
 for a considerable distance by water. The Shervaroy Hills 
 are situated in the centre of the Madras Presidency. Coffee 
 cultivation has not made great progress so far, nor is the 
 yield large. Possibly these hills are situated too far from 
 the sea-coast, the climate being thus too dry; but by the 
 judicious use of shade, such, for instance, as that of the jack- 
 tree, this difficulty might be overcome. The district possesses 
 great advantages in connection with labour supply and cheap 
 transport, being tapped by the Madras and Beypoor Railway. 
 In Mysore, the principal districts where coffee culture is 
 carried on are Munzerabad and Nugger. The slopes of the 
 hills that rise on the plateau of Mysore are thickly clothed 
 with plantations; and on the Bababuden range, there is 
 hardly a spot fit for coffee raising left unoccupied. The 
 produce fetches the highest price in the London market. The 
 port of shipment is Mangalore. This district furnishes 
 labour to Coorg, and the Wynaad. The district of Coorg is 
 some 60 miles in diameter, and its estates may be divided into 
 three classes, each having peculiar advantages and draw- 
 backs — the Mercara, the Ghat, and the Bamboo districts. 
 The Mercara plateau varies in elevation from 3500 to 4000 
 ft., and is equally exposed to monsoon rains and dry easterly 
 winds. It is well watered, the rainfall reaching 121 in., and 
 being equally distributed throughout the year. Great 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 precautions are needed against wash ; shade is not usually 
 required. The Ghat district was originally covered with 
 thick forest, thus yielding a rich soil, whose fertility was 
 increased by abundant humidity of climate. The estates 
 have, however, been much injured by constant deforestation, 
 by wash, and latterly by drought, and its attendant evils. 
 The Bamboo district has an elevation of 3000-3300 ft., and 
 an annual rainfall of about 65 in., gentle and seasonable. 
 The ground is undulating, and the soil is very rich, not 
 being exposed to wash. Shade is essential. 
 
 The seasons and operations in Southern India resemble in 
 general those of Ceylon, but possess some peculiarities worth 
 alluding to. There are distinct zones within which coffee 
 will succeed ; this is especially the case in Mysore, as has 
 been admirably illustrated by Lewis Bice, in his exhaustive 
 work on these regions. The raising of nursery plants is 
 much more difficult on account of long drought and dry winds ; 
 abundance of water is, therefore, of vital importance. A 
 northern aspect is best, being most moist during the dry 
 season, and possessing the most uniform temperature : but it 
 will be modified either eastwards or westwards, according to 
 the locality, so as to suit the prevailing wind. On the 
 western slopes of the coast ranges, the south-west monsoon 
 bursts with such force that coffee cannot withstand it ; in that 
 situation, therefore, an easterly tendency of aspect is impera- 
 tive. Further inland, the drier and hotter climate will 
 compel a westerly deviation, so as to catch as much as possible 
 of the monsoon rains. In the western or wetter districts, 
 shade is inadmissible ; in the eastern or drier districts, it 
 becomes a necessity. The plan of leaving individual trees 
 when the forest is cleared, is an objectionable and obsolete 
 way of securing shade. With the first rains after the burn* 
 there springs up an abundant of saplings of the charcoal 
 tree ( Sponia Wiglitii ). In two years, it forms an ample 
 shade for the coffee plants ; but as it grows older, the foliage 
 becomes thin ; the tree, moreover, is but short-lived, and its 
 timber is soft and watery. While, therefore, it affords an 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 197 
 
 excellent temporary shade, it must not he relied upon for 
 permanent shade, hut he replaced hy other growths ; being 
 extremely light, its removal need not damage the coffee. It 
 must be cut down while still living, as its death is said to kill 
 the coffee under it. For permanent shade, preference seems 
 to he given to the jack-tree, as in Ceylon ; hut the Bauhinia , 
 Poinciana regia , mango, and others have their admirers. 
 In Mysore, all coffee grown is subject to an excise tax of 
 4 annas (6<L) a maund (25 lb.) ; in Coorg, there is no excise 
 tax, hut a land tax as follows : — for the first four years, nil ; 
 5th-9th year, 1 rupee (2s.) an acre ; thenceforth, 2 rupees an 
 acre. 
 
 The following estimates (in rupees) for coffee cultivation 
 in Southern India are based on the purchase of 300 A. of 
 forest lands at 50 R., and 200 A. grass land at 25 R., bringing 
 200 A. of the former into full bearing; labour, 4 annas a 
 day, exclusive of maistries’ wages : — 
 
 First year : — Land, 20,000 ; tools, 350 ; felling and clear- 
 ing, 50 A. at 20 R., 1000 ; coolie lines and bungalows, 1203 ; 
 nursery containing say 1 lac of plants, for 2nd year’s exten- 
 sion, 250 ; roads, to the estate and on the clearing, 230 ; 
 lining out 50 A. at 3 R., 150 ; pitting, 50 A. at 5 ft. X 6 ft., 
 say 1452 pits per acre at 4 as. for 20, 907 ; filling in pits, 
 151 ; plants, 75,000 at 7^ R. per 1000, 562 ; planting, 50 A., 
 90 ; cleaning and weeding, till 30th Sept., 50 A. at 6 R., 
 300 ; superintendent, 1320 ; writer, 360 ; maistries, 10 per 
 cent, on coolie labour, 417 ; contingencies, 500 ; = total, 
 27,790 R. 
 
 Second year (cultivation, 50 A., extension, 50 A.): weed- 
 ing, 900 ; filling up vacancies, 69 ; repairing buildings, 150 ; 
 roads and trenching, 100; re-planting nursery, 133; addi- 
 tional lines, 350 ; tools, 250 ; felling, clearing, lining, pitting, 
 filling, planting, cleaning up and weeding 50 A. at last 
 year’s rate, 2599 ; roads and trenching, 120 ; superintendent, 
 1800; horse, 400; writer, 420; maistries, 408; contin- 
 gencies, 500; = total, 8199 R. 
 
 Third year (cultivation, 100 A., extension, 50 A.) : — weed- 
 
198 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 ing 1800 ; filling np vacancies, 10 per cent, on 50 A., 69 ; 
 and 5 per cent, on 50 A., 34 ; repairing buildings, 225 
 trenching and repairing roads, 150 ; re-planting nursery, 
 &c., 166 ; topping and handling 50 A., 125 ; additional 
 coolie lines, tools, and roads, as before, 720; felling, &c., &c., 
 50 A., as before, 2599; pulping-house, store, and pulpers, 
 4000 ; gathering 1250 bushels cherry (say 125 cwt.), at 4 as., 
 312 ; curing at 8 as., per cwt., 62 ; despatching to coast, at 
 10 as. per bushel parchment, 390 ; superintendent, 2620 ; 
 writer, 480 ; maistries, 559 ; contingencies, 500 ; = total, 
 14,811 E. 
 
 Fourth year (cultivation, 150 A., extension, 50 A.) : — 
 weeding, 2700 ; filling up vacancies, 139 ; repairing build- 
 ings, 400 ; roads and trenching, 250 ; nursery, 100 ; topping, 
 handling, and pruning, 425 ; additional coolie lines, tools, 
 and roads, as before, 720; felling, &c., &c., 50 A., as before, 
 2599 ; completing store and pulping-house, 2000; gathering 
 4250 bushels cherry (say 425 cwt.), 1062 ; curing, 212 ; 
 despatching to coast, 1328 ; superintendent, 3120 ; writer, 
 540; maistries, 789; cattle-shed, 1000; cattle (75 head), at 
 30 E., 2250 ; keepers, &c. (6 men), 432 ; contingencies, 500 ; 
 = total, 20,566 E. 
 
 Fifth year (cultivation, 200 A.) : — weeding, 3600 ; filling 
 up vacancies, 173; repairing buildings, 500; roads and 
 trenching, 400 ; nursery, 100 ; topping, handling, and prun- 
 ing, 850; manuring 50 A. at 40 E., 2000; gathering 7250 
 bushels cherry (725 cwt.), 1812; curing, 362; despatching 
 to coast, 2265 ; permanent bungalow, &c., 5000 ; cattle 
 (25 head), 750; keepers (6 men), 432; superintendent, 3620; 
 writer, 600 ; maistries, 981 ; contingencies, 500 ; = total, 
 23,945 E. 
 
 Sixth year : — weeding, 3600 ; filling up vacancies, 175 ; 
 buildings, 500 ; roads and trenching, 500 ; nursery, 100 ; 
 pruning and handling, 2000; manuring, 2500; gathering 
 10,250 bushels, 2563 ; curing and despatching, 3715 ; stock, 
 1200; superintendent and writer, 4220; maistries, 1000; 
 contingencies, 500 ; = total, 22,573 E. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 199 
 
 Seventh year: — cultivation, 9375; gathering, 12,000 
 
 bushels cherry (1200 cwt.), full crop, 3000 ; curing and 
 
 despatching, 4350 ; stock, 1200 ; management, 5220 ; con- 
 tingencies, 500 ; = total, 23,645 E. 
 
 The balance-sheet will then stand as under : — 
 
 Rupees. Rupees. 
 
 1st year: — To expenses.. 27,790 By balance 27,790 
 
 2nd year: — To balance .. 27,790 By balance 35,989 
 
 „ expenses .. 8,199 
 
 35,989 35,989 
 
 3rd year: — To balance .. 35,989 By 125 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 5,625 
 
 „ expenses .. 14,811 „ balance 45,175 
 
 50,800 50,800 
 
 4th year: — To balance .. 45,175 By 425 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 19,125 
 
 „ expenses .. 20,566 „ balance 46,617 
 
 65,742 65,742 
 
 5th year : — To balance .. 46,617 By 725 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 32,625 
 
 „ expenses .. 23,945 „ balance 37,937 
 
 70,562 70,562 
 
 6th year: — To balance .. 37,937 By 1025 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 4b, 125 
 
 „ expenses .. 22,573 „ balance 14,386 
 
 60,511 60,511 
 
 7th year: — To balance .. 14,386 By 1200 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 54,000 
 
 „ expenses .. 23,645 
 
 „ balance .. 15,969 
 
 54,000 54,000 
 
 Subsequent years : — To ex- 
 penses 23,645 By 1200 cwt. crop, at 45 R. 54,000 
 
 Among other Indian districts where coffee cultivation has 
 been tried, it is reported from Chittagong that it yields 9, 
 
200 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 and even 12 cwt. an acre, and that thousands of acres of 
 excellent land can he got near navigable rivers, and where 
 manure and labour are abundant. The joint culture of 
 coffee and tea is strongly recommended in this district, 
 labour being available for each in its season. It has been 
 tried, but with little success, in the neighbourhood of 
 Darjeeling. It seems very doubtful whether occasional 
 cold will not always be a bar to the general spread of coffee 
 in N. India. 
 
 The quantities and values of the coffee exports from 
 British India (excluding Ceylon), for the last five years of 
 which statistics have been issued, were respectively : — 
 1874, 40,815,040 lb. ; value, 1,487,411Z. ; 1875, 34,925,072 lb. ; 
 value, 1,305,335Z. ; 1876, 41,662,432 lb. ; value, 1,627,027Z. ; 
 1877, 33,872,768 lb.; value, 1,345, 882Z. ; 1878, 33,300,6241b. 
 value, 1,338,499Z. 
 
 The drought of 1877-8 affected the coffee plantations, and 
 would of itself sufficiently account for diminished exports, if 
 the leaf disease and the borer did not help to keep down the 
 yield. The average value per cwt. was a little higher than 
 in 1876-77, having been just over 45 rupees as compared 
 with 44 • 4. The United Kingdom and France are the two 
 largest consumers of Indian coffee, although in both 
 countries it is subject to excessively heavy duties. The 
 Australian colonies consume large quantities of tea and 
 coffee; but they take neither the one nor the other from 
 India. Producers in India have hitherto found a ready 
 market in Europe for their whole production, and have had 
 no inducement to essay the opening of a trade with Austra- 
 lia. Nevertheless the trade would certainly become a source 
 of considerable profit to India, and it would be well 
 worth while to direct attention to the matter. The exhibi- 
 tions at Sydney and Melbourne offer excellent opportunities 
 for introducing these staples to the notice of the colonists. 
 
 Following is an abstract of a paper on Indian coffee read 
 by Frederick Clifford before the Society of Arts on 
 March 25, 1887. 
 
CULTUEE AND PEODUCTION. 
 
 201 
 
 “ At the outset we are confronted with the fact that since 
 
 1880-1, from various causes, the export of coffee frem India, 
 and therefore its production there, has almost continuously 
 declined. In 1885-6, indeed, the quantity shipped was the 
 largest on record, amounting to 43,000 cwt. in excess of 
 1884-5, hut this was a result due to unusually heavy crops, 
 and not to extended cultivation. When the figures for 
 1886-7 come to he published, the season’s crop will, I fear, he 
 found the smallest during the previous decennial period, 
 showing a fall of not less than one-third in the quantity 
 exported, for the short crops which are reported in Brazil 
 and other countries have their counterpart throughout 
 India, and especially in Mysore, to which my own informa- 
 tion especially applies. Here are the returns of coffee 
 exported from India during the last ten years : — 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1876- 7 302,489 
 
 1877- 8 297,327 
 
 1878- 9 341,186 
 
 1879- 80 .. .. 359,313 
 
 1880- 1 369-357 
 
 cwt. 
 
 1881- 2 346,361 
 
 1882- 3 353,324 
 
 1883- 4 340,025 
 
 1884- 5 328,317 
 
 1885- 6 371,027 
 
 “ Allowing for last year’s exceptional crop, these figures do 
 not show satisfactory results. But, considering the draw- 
 hacks with which planters have everywhere had to contend 
 it is perhaps something that in Southern India they have 
 been able to hold their own. As it is, placing the principal 
 exports of 1885-6 from India in order according to their 
 estimated value, coffee stands tenth on the list, thus : — 
 
 Lacs of rupees. 
 
 1. Grain and pulse 1760*81 
 
 2. Cotton, raw 1077*72 
 
 3. Opium 1073*55 
 
 4. Seeds 994-83 
 
 5. Hides and skins 533*46 
 
 6. Jute, raw 435*53 
 
 7. Tea 430*61 
 
 8. Indigo 378*31 
 
 9. Cotton twist and manufactures 363*55 
 
 10. Coffee 134*84 
 
202 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 “ Tea-growing, though a younger industry in India, now 
 stands seventh in the list, and during the same ten years the 
 exports of tea have progressively increased as follows : — 
 
 lb. 
 
 1876- 7 .. .. 27,784,124 
 
 1877- 8 .. .. 33,459,075 
 
 1878- 9 .. .. 34,432,573 
 
 1879- 80.. .. 38,173,521 
 
 1880- 1 .. .. 46,413,510 
 
 lb. 
 
 1881- 2 .. .. 48,691,725 
 
 1882- 3 .. .. 57,766,225 
 
 1883- 4 .. .. 59,911,703 
 
 1884- 5 .. .. 64,162,055 
 
 1885- 6 .. .. 68,784,249 
 
 “Indian coffee-planters cannot, unfortunately, point to a 
 similar ever-increasing demand in England for their special 
 products. 
 
 4 4 Area under cultivation for coffee. In the Statistical 
 Tables for British India, compiled by the Department of 
 Finance and Commerce, and published at Calcutta in 1886, 
 187,541 acres in Southern India are reported as under 
 coffee cultivation with mature plants in the year 1884. 
 Divided into districts, the following results are shown : — 
 
 acres. 
 
 Mysore 82 , 462 
 
 Madras 56,247 
 
 Coorg 42,300 
 
 acres. 
 
 Travancore .. .. 4,305 
 
 Cochin 2,211 
 
 44 The Madras returns include the Nilgiri Hills and the 
 Wynaad, important homes of coffee. Only nine acres are 
 grown in Bengal. These figures do not show the whole area 
 under coffee cultivation, but only that occupied by mature 
 plants. Unfortunately, the figures are so defective that the 
 official compiler himself admits that it is not possible to 
 make any useful comparison with former years. 
 
 44 It will be of interest to compare these figures with the 
 fuller and far more satisfactory details furnished in this 
 valuable volume as to the growth of tea-growing industry in 
 India. In 1875-6, the first year of the series supplied, 
 124,836 acres were under tea cultivation ; in 1884, the acre- 
 age was 267,710. Thus, within these ten years, the acreage 
 under tea in India increased by 115 per cent., while the out- 
 turn increased by nearly 149 per cent. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 203 
 
 “ Outside Mysore, the acreage under coffee seems to have 
 "been considerably reduced. For example, 263 plantations in 
 Malabar have been abandoned since 1877. In many cases 
 this land was unsuitable for the growth of coffee through too 
 great rainfall and exposure to the south-west monsoon, and 
 other causes. In Coorg, the area appears likewise to have 
 diminished through disease and unprofitable crops. On the 
 Nilgiris, and in Travancore, the planters have turned their 
 attention to tea ; in 1884, 5550 acres were under tea culti- 
 vation in those districts. 
 
 “ Besides the area occupied by mature coffee plants, the 
 returns show approximately, during the three years 1881-3, 
 the acreage under immature plants, and that taken up for 
 planting, but not yet planted, throughout Southern India. 
 The total area occupied by coffee in all stages of growth, and 
 of land taken up for coffee, is as follows : — 
 
 Acres. 
 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 1884. 
 
 Mysore 
 
 Madras (including Malabarl 
 and the Nilgiris .. 
 
 Coorg 
 
 Cochin 
 
 Travancore 
 
 166,369 
 
 133,591 
 
 77,474 
 
 7,702 
 
 14,645 
 
 144,736 
 
 111,468 
 
 75,922 
 
 8,251 
 
 12,894 
 
 141,215 
 
 108,358 
 
 74,074 
 
 8,251 
 
 11,386 
 
 141,716 
 
 110,328 
 
 73,199 
 
 7,819 
 
 13,361 
 
 399,794 
 
 353,286 
 
 343,346 
 
 346,432 
 
 “ In 1885, the return shows in Madras, in round numbers, 
 a total area under cultivation of 65,000 acres, giving an 
 approximate yield of 12,241,544 lb., and an average yield 
 per acre from mature plants of 218 lb. In Mysore, there 
 was an area of 104,500 acres, yielding 4,892,987 lb., or an 
 average crop from mature plants of 59 lb. per acre! In 
 Coorg, the total yield from 49,300 acres is returned at 
 8,975,680 lb., or an average yield of 212 lb. per acre; 
 
204 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 while Cochin shows an average yield of 414 lb. per acre 
 from 2650 acres, with a total outturn of 920,000 lb. ; and 
 Travancore 262 lb. an acre from 4800 acres, with a total 
 crop of 1,129,480 lb. I cannot say upon what basis the 
 estimates of crop rest, but in Mysore half a cwt. per acre is 
 a wholly inadequate yield : six or seven times that quantity 
 would not be too high an average produce. 
 
 “ Distribution of Exports from India. — Owing to the 
 reduced or stationary consumption at home, efforts have 
 recently been made by Indian planters to open up fresh 
 markets abroad. Some of my own crop last year was, for 
 the first time, consigned to Marseilles, and I know that 
 planters have visited Genoa, Alexandria, Cairo, and other 
 places, in order to establish, if possible, commercial relations 
 there. For many years Indian coffee has been in demand at 
 Mangalore, Calicut, and other ports on the West Coast, for 
 export to Arabia. Native dealers visit the various estates 
 in my own districts (Sullabile and Bali-Honur), buy what 
 is termed ‘native’ coffee, and send it by bullock- waggons to 
 the coast, where it is re-purchased by Arab merchants, and 
 shipped in their dhows to ports in the Persian Gulf. Here 
 it is treated, and I believe that a good deal of it ultimately 
 finds its way into the English and other markets as Mocha 
 coffee. Thus the Arab traders have little to learn from 
 those of more civilised countries in the art of making the 
 most of their opportunities. 
 
 “ As little seems to be known in England of the extent 
 to which Indian coffee finds its way direct into foreign 
 markets, I will give here a table showing the quantity ex- 
 ported from British India during nine months of 1886 (from 
 April 1 to December 31), compared with the corresponding 
 periods in 1884 and 1885. These figures are taken from the 
 last report issued by the Government of India (Department 
 of Finance and Commerce), and published by order of the 
 Governor-General in Council : — 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 205 
 
 
 1884. 
 
 1885. 
 
 1886. 
 
 To United Kingdom 
 
 cwt. 
 
 55,679 
 
 cwt. 
 
 55,903 
 
 517 
 
 cwt. 
 
 81,611 
 
 „ Austria 
 
 586 
 
 2,875 
 
 „ France 
 
 101,452 
 
 78,205 
 
 92,024 
 
 „ Egypt 
 
 3,904 
 
 6,647 
 
 9,420 
 
 „ Arabia 
 
 6,429 
 
 11,760 
 
 7,325 
 
 „ Persia 
 
 8,469 
 
 9,809 
 
 6,624 
 
 „ Turkey in Asia 
 
 5,800 
 
 6,860 
 
 5,343 
 
 „ Other countries . . 
 
 1,700 
 
 8,988 
 
 10,120 
 
 
 184,019 
 
 178,689 
 
 215,342 
 
 “ This table does not include the three months, January, 
 February, and March, in which coffee is chiefly shipped to 
 England. It shows, therefore, the apparent anomaly that 
 France receives more than the United Kingdom, a result 
 probably due to the fact that the later shipments consist, to 
 an unusually large extent, of inferior qualities, picked late 
 in the season, or kept apart from the home supply. England 
 and France take the bulk of the exports. In 1884-5 about 
 34,000 cwt. were sent to Persia, Asiatic Turkey, Arabia, 
 Egypt, and the East African coast. 
 
 “ It is disappointing to find that the United States make 
 no separate appearance in this return, although they contain 
 a population who are said to drink eight times more coffee 
 than tea. Indian producers may be pardoned for the belief 
 that, in restricting consumption mainly to Brazilian and 
 South American qualities, drinkers of coffee in the United 
 States deny themselves the enjoyment of its more delicate 
 and aromatic properties. But it is difficult to turn the 
 accustomed course of trade, or oust a commodity with which 
 the national palate has become familiar. Three or four 
 years ago a strenuous attempt was made by Indian tea- 
 planters to stimulate a demand for their product in Australia 
 and the United States, but I believe the result has not 
 answered expectations. It will be seen, on the other hand, 
 that Mahomedan drinkers of coffee value Indian growths, 
 
206 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 and that an appreciable proportion of onr exports finds its 
 way to Asiatic Turkey, Egypt, Arabia, and Persia. 
 
 “Native Coffee. — Probably the larger part of this con- 
 sumption consists of the cherry or native coffee before 
 mentioned. This term is not necessarily, as might be sup- 
 posed, limited to coffee grown by natives, but comprises 
 berries from immature trees, or berries which drop from the 
 trees, and are not sent to the pulping-house. Having no 
 proper appliances for stripping these berries of their pulp, 
 the natives expose it in the sun for about a month, until it 
 is thoroughly dry. The same method is adopted in European 
 plantations when the coffee is not thought good enough for 
 the English market. On a young plantation of my own, in 
 the Bali-Honur district of Mysore, the whole crop of five tons 
 has been so treated this season, and sold to native dealers. 
 The natives use a primitive process, called ‘ pounding-out,’ 
 for separating this dried pulp from the bean. A small heap 
 of the dried berry (or cherry coffee, as the planters call it, 
 from its resemblance when picked to the black-heart English 
 cherry) is placed in a hole scooped in the ground. A man, 
 or sometimes a woman, pounds this with a pole, until the 
 beans, or the greater number of them, are extracted from 
 their outermost covering, when a fresh lot is taken. The 
 result is a substance resembling chaff, or bran, mixed with 
 coffee-beans. These are separated by women, in a light 
 bamboo tray, shaped not unlike a housemaid’s dustpan. By 
 a peculiar action of the hand, difficult to describe, the tray 
 is jerked forward, so that the light refuse-husks approach 
 the front, or lip of the tray. These are then pushed out, the 
 beans are heaped together, and successive trays-full are 
 similarly dealt with, until at length the whole crop is dis- 
 posed of. Not having seen the process mentioned in any of 
 the planters’ books, I give this description of it, sent by one 
 of my sons. In rural districts the natives excel in this 
 method of separating the pulp and bean, as they clean their 
 rice in the same fashion, pounding the grain to free it from 
 the husk. Little of this native or cherry coffee reaches 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 207 
 
 Mincing-lane from India, except, perhaps, in the guise of 
 Mocha, or mixed with Mocha, but it finds a ready market 
 among Mahomedans outside India, and is also shipped to 
 Trieste and Marseilles. 
 
 “ Land Tenure. — In British territory, where coffee is 
 grown an acreage tax is always levied. In Coorg this tax is 
 two rupees an acre, but is not paid until twelve years after 
 the land is taken up, so that the planter may have a crop 
 out of which to meet this outgoing. Mysore, as a native 
 State, maintained, until 1885, an Excise duty upon both 
 coffee and cardamoms. On coffee this duty was one rupee 
 per cwt., which, upon a crop of four cwt. per acre, amounted 
 to an onerous tax, and was felt to discourage good cultivation. 
 On the other hand, the Government derived no revenue 
 until crops were yielded* Jungle lands were, therefore, 
 taken up for coffee as a speculation, and often remained long 
 uncleared in the hope that such lands would rise in value, 
 and with a view to re-sale. Thus a tax upon the producer, 
 besides being difficult to collect, diminished the receipts of 
 the Government, and was not in the interests of bona-fide 
 planting. 
 
 “ Coffee land in Mysore may now be held either on a per- 
 petual settlement, subject to an average tax of a rupee and 
 a half per acre, or on a thirty years’ settlement, with an 
 average duty of one rupee. Grass land not suitable for 
 cultivation, but held along with coffee land for feeding 
 purposes, pays at a lower rate. In grants of jungle, the 
 Government reserve the right to seven timber trees, includ- 
 ing sandal, teak, and blackwood ; but the occupier may fell, 
 free of charge, any such timber, except sandal, if for his own 
 bond fide use. He may also buy all these reserved trees upon 
 the estate, except sandal, at a fair valuation, paying the 
 purchase money by instalments. Or, again excepting sandal, 
 he may fell these trees for sale upon paying a royalty or 
 seignorage. The Government likewise reserve the right to 
 precious stones, gold and other mineral, including coal, but 
 upon re-entry in the exercise of this right full compensation 
 
208 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 must be given to the occupier for all damage done. When 
 lands are held in perpetuity upon the full average assessment, 
 the owner has a preferential right to work any mines on 
 paying a royalty of not more than 5 per cent, upon the gross 
 proceeds of any gold or other minerals, and of not more than 
 10 per cent, on the value of any precious stones. On the 
 whole, this Settlement of March 24, 1885, has fairly pro- 
 tected the interests of British planters in this important 
 coffee centre of Southern India, and their tenure is practically 
 as secure as that of their fellow planters in the neighbouring 
 Presidency. 
 
 “ Supply of Labour. — A difficulty in obtaining labour would 
 not be expected amidst a teeming population like that of 
 India. But this difficulty exists in some districts. Near 
 villages the problem is simple enough. There you can 
 generally have as many hands — men, women, and children 
 — as you want, and when they are wanted. In the jungle, 
 however, where new coffee lands are generally opened, 
 labour has to be attracted from considerable distances. As 
 there are no villages in which coolies can be received, the 
 planter has to begin by building coolie ‘ lines,’ as they are 
 called. Money is well spent in making these abodes com- 
 fortable and healthy. Bamboo, easily procured, is chiefly 
 used, and is an excellent material for such buildings. The 
 walls are plaited bamboo, over which clay is plastered till it 
 looks like a wall ; the roof is grass-thatched. The coolies 
 cater for themselves at the nearest market or bazaar, but it 
 is necessary for planters to keep a stock of grain in store. 
 In times of scarcity or famine, the people are driven from 
 their villages to seek work, and labour is plentiful enough. 
 At such times, European capital and enterprise, scattered all 
 over India, save thousands of lives, by means far more 
 prompt and certain than any relief camps or other machinery 
 within the reach of Government. If for this beneficent 
 result alone, British investors in India should receive every 
 encouragement. 
 
 “ When there is no particular stress upon them to work 
 
PLATE XI.— DRYING FLOOR, CEYLON 
 
 [7o face jj. 2uy. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 209 
 
 outside their own village land, the natives, like people in the 
 same condition of life, or, indeed, in every condition of life, 
 all the world over, have no particular inclination to go far 
 afield for employment. But labour must be had, or crops 
 would neither be raised nor gathered. The planter must 
 either himself beat up for recruits, or employ intermediaries 
 to do so. He naturally chooses the latter alternative. Then 
 his troubles begin. His agents cannot act without advances 
 to meet their own expenses. The coolies they engage must 
 be able to leave some rupees behind them to support their 
 families in their absence. These advances at once beget 
 temptation, both among the coolies and the ‘ maistries ’ who 
 engage them. Defaulting maistries and runaway coolies vex 
 the souls of most planters. If you pursue them, for example’s 
 sake, time and temper are sorely tried, in a dilatory legal 
 process, before a native court, and you get small satisfaction, 
 often none ; restitution, hardly ever. 
 
 “ It is a vicious system. Planters cry out against it, and 
 have tried to dispense with it, but with little success. The 
 advance account on my own estate books, and probably those 
 of most owners, tells a dismal story of bad debts wiped off, 
 and doubtful debts carried to suspense. In a correspondence 
 with the British Resident at Mysore last year, Mr. Buchanan, 
 Honorary Secretary of the North Mysore Planters’ Associa- 
 tion, stated that he had ascertained that the amounts then 
 outstanding against defaulting labour contractors made a 
 total of over 50,000 rupees in the Kadur district alone ; and 
 he added that, under the existing laws, planters were quite 
 unable to recover this money, as no proceedings could be 
 taken against the contractors in question outside Mysore 
 territory ; they were safe by just crossing the boundary into 
 Madras. We all protest against the system of advances, but 
 it flourishes in spite of protests. Its worst feature perhaps 
 is that a planter can never feel sure how much, if any, of the 
 advance has reached his coolies. Maistries sometimes exact 
 heavy interest upon money lent by them to coolies, though 
 the money really belongs to the planter. This extortion 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 goes on, of course, without the planter’s knowledge, though 
 the coolies are made to believe that he demands and receives 
 the interest. If a planter does not speak Canarese, the local 
 dialect, he is almost at the mercy of roguish maistries and 
 overseers, and cannot protect his workpeople from injustice 
 and robbery. 
 
 “ We will assume that there is no fraud in the first hiring 
 and the advances made on account of it, and that each 
 maistry starts with his gang of coolies to fulfil their engage- 
 ments. For police or sanitary purposes, or both, these gangs 
 are stopped on their march at each police-station along the 
 road, and toll is sometimes demanded here before they are 
 allowed to proceed. On reaching the estate, they may find 
 the damper, colder climate in the hills unsuitable to their 
 constitutions. In Balihonur, for example, the thermometer 
 in the early morning is at 52°; at 2 p.m. it may stand 
 at 94°. Natives, again, are quite as liable as Europeans are 
 to attacks from dysentery or jungle fever. They take fright 
 and desert if fever or cholera carries off any of their number ; 
 or if, through accident in felling the jungle trees, they think 
 an estate unlucky, and haunted by the wood demons in whom 
 they believe. 
 
 “No doubt it must often happen that coolies are deceived 
 by false representations made to them by maistries as to work 
 or wages, or they become home-sick, or anxious about their 
 kith and kin left behind. Supposing that they have worked 
 out their advances, small blame to them if, in some of these 
 cases, they decamp with a few rupees of earnings. A coolie, 
 it is said, can easily feed and clothe himself on one-third his 
 earnings upon a coffee estate in Southern India. Like the 
 negro, he seldom works for the sake of saving money ; but 
 here, again, human nature is very much the same in Europe 
 as in India. 
 
 “ While many excuses can be made for natives who repent 
 their bat gains and wish to go home, the planter is probably 
 in despair for want of labour to clear or weed his land, make 
 or mend his roads, attend his nursery, or pick his ripening 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 211 
 
 berries. In a letter received by this week’s mail from one 
 estate, the manager says : — ‘ All my Ghaut labourers are 
 leaving me through illness, and I don’t know where to turn 
 for more. The labour question is most wearying.’ With a 
 view to avoid some of the existing difficulties, the Mysore 
 planters are trying to arrange for a regular supply of Tamil 
 coolies from Tanjore, Tinnevelly, Madura, and other districts 
 in the extreme south of the Madras Presidency which send 
 labour to Ceylon. Although you cannot rely upon the 
 Canarese for labour just when it is wanted, they have many 
 good qualities if their idiosyncrasies are studied, and they 
 are kindly and considerately treated. They seem to work 
 best with their own tools in their own fashion. Some of you 
 may have seen a sketch of three natives toiling at one 
 English shovel. A bare-footed coolie cannot force it into the 
 ground, so in the sketch three of them are struggling with 
 the shovel, one with a rope to haul it over or on the ground. 
 The picture represents, truly enough, no doubt, the failure 
 of many attempts to make natives use model European 
 implements. 
 
 “But it is unjust to represent the natives of India as 
 obstinately opposed to all novelties. When they clearly see 
 an advantage from new inventions, they are not slow to adopt 
 them. For example, kerosene oil from the United States is 
 now used everywhere in India, in towns at least, for illumi- 
 nating purposes, and has largely displaced the vegetable oils 
 formerly employed by natives. In 1885-6, over 20,000,000 
 gallons of mineral oil were imported from the United States ; 
 in the previous year, 26,000,000 gallons. The bazaars are 
 full of cheap glass lamps for burning this mineral oil. 
 Lucifer matches, in value over 20 lacs of rupees, are now im- 
 ported annually (chiefly, I am sorry to say, the cheap Swedish 
 matches), and have quite displaced the old sulphur-tipped 
 sticks, which required the application of fire to light them. 
 
 “ Apologising for this little digression, I now return to 
 our coolies. That they shirk work unless well looked after 
 is a failing not confined to Canarese workpeople. 4 An 
 
212 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 Englishman chafes/ says one of my estate letters, 4 to see 
 them potter over a job, leave it for no known cause, begin 
 again, and break off again, with endless delays -and impotent 
 excuses. Hindoo, or Mussulman, it is always the same ; he 
 cannot finish his work straight away. 4 Never do to-day 
 what you can by any pretext put off till to-morrow/ is a 
 maxim he has learned from his earliest youth, and has in- 
 herited in practice from countless generations of ancestors. 
 He is sick ; it is a festival ; something has gone wrong — it is 
 an unlucky day ; he wants two or three rupees on account 
 for marketing. Mild and amenable as he seems, you will 
 not, either by kindness or righteous wrath, overcome this 
 ingrained procrastination. The monsoon is at hand, and you 
 are in a fidget to get the tiles or other roof-covering on to 
 your new store or bungalow. At last a beginning is made, 
 and now you hope for steady work. Alas, no ! There comes 
 a messenger from the village of your best artisans. Some- 
 body’s daughter is going to be married, with great rejoicing. 
 Somebody else’s mother-in-law is dead. An old uncle has 
 tumbled down a well ; or fifty other events delay your work 
 once more.’ 
 
 44 It will be gathered that, in his dealings with workpeople, 
 a coffee-planter’s lot is not entirely a happy one. Patience 
 and forbearance, with firmness, are, in fact, essential. But 
 his reward must be great if he can gain the respect and 
 goodwill of a docile, temperate, and even too submissive 
 people, and if at crop-time he can see men, women, and 
 children earning wages for themselves and bringing fair 
 profit to him. They are paid for each bushel of berries 
 picked, and are thus under a stimulus to do their best. The 
 work is easy ; and the women and children with their agile 
 fingers can generally reach the topmost branches and earn 
 nearly as much as the men. It is a harvest in all senses ; 
 healthy work, cheerfully performed and fairly paid, bringing 
 comfort and plenty to many hundred native homes. This is 
 piece-work ; the ordinary rate of wages on a coffee estate is 
 four annas a day for men and two for women. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 213 
 
 “ Crops. — Upon a virgin soil, during favourable seasons, 
 crops are recorded, in Southern India, as well as Ceylon, 
 which fill the younger generation of planters with wonder 
 and envy. Mr. Hull tells us that 25 years ago, before leaf 
 disease blighted the prospects of coffee-planting in Ceylon, 
 one estate there yielded a crop of 22 cwt. an acre, and 13 cwt. 
 the year after. I have been told by a planter in Guatemala, 
 that upon the wonderfully deep and rich soil there, 18 cwt. 
 or 20 cwt. per acre can be grown, without manure, almost 
 continuously, and that the planter can count upon a sufficient 
 profit if he obtains an average price of 40s. per cwt. In 
 Southern India, planters have learned, by sad experience, 
 that coffee land may be soon exhausted, and requires a liberal 
 return in manure. Another lesson is, that the coffee-plant, 
 which is, we must remember, an exotic in India, requires 
 protection, and flourishes best under shade. It is forced, 
 indeed, into unnatural activity when exposed in the open, 
 and for a time yields more than when grown under shelter, 
 but seems to be soon exhausted, and then, naturally, falls an 
 easier prey to insect plagues and disease. In Mysore, and 
 most other districts in India, the coffee bush alluded to grows 
 to a height of four or five feet, and is protected by such 
 forest trees as are found to be congenial neighbours. Some 
 trees do, and some do not, answer this description, and 
 whether given trees are harmful or beneficial in the shade 
 they give is a point to be studied. When coffee is grown 
 under shade, and so kept from being over-stimulated by 
 sunshine, planters have to be content with an average yield 
 of from three to five cwt. per acre, depending upon soil, 
 situation, and a free or stinted use of manures. A bumper 
 crop is invariably followed by reaction and diminished pro- 
 duction ; the tree has given up its normal strength in 
 making this effort, and next season requires rest for a fresh 
 departure. Even five cwt. are a sad 4 come down ’ from the 
 glorious crops of old. But according to the proverb, ‘he 
 laughs best who laughs last;’ and a cultivation to be suc- 
 cessful must be based on conditions which promise permanence. 
 
214 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 “ Effect of low rate of exchange upon production. — It is 
 hardly possible to discuss any economical question concerning 
 India without referring to the depreciated currency. Has a 
 low exchange benefited Indian planters? Speaking from 
 individual experience, I answer 4 Yes.’ Persons who are 
 paid in rupees, and must remit home rupees, find a low ex- 
 change disastrous. A planter, on the other hand, sends 
 home not silver but produce, which he sells for gold. With 
 the proceeds he buys rupees at the rate, say, of Is. 6d., and 
 sends them to defray the cost of cultivation. On his chief 
 expenditure, labour, the rupee goes very nearly as far as 
 ever it did. It seems to follow that a planter in India gains 
 largely from a low exchange. For instance, 75 Z. in gold 
 purchase silver which used to cost 100Z. ; and the equivalent 
 thousand rupees have a purchasing power in India not very 
 appreciably less than when the rupee stood at two shillings. 
 The result must surely be that growers and importers of 
 Indian produce are better able ’to meet competition in 
 European markets, and that production must also be stimu- 
 lated in India. Another result of a low exchange, in my 
 case and probably in other cases, has been to lead to the 
 opening out of fresh land for cultivation. Investors naturally 
 think that a time when rupees are so cheap is a favourable 
 time to buy them, and convert them into bits of jungle, 
 materials, and labour, in a country where rupees for such 
 purposes stand nearly at their old value. Hence, fresh 
 capital has been attracted for investment in India, new em- 
 ployment has been found for native labour, and increased 
 produce grown there for European consumption. 
 
 “ Authorities entitled to respect declare, however, that 
 this reasoning is unsound, and leaves out of sight important 
 factors which affect trade in a greater degree than exchange. 
 Indian exporters, it is contended, do not really receive a 
 larger rupee return for their produce than they received 
 when exchange was higher, because prices of this produce in 
 the home market have fallen in a proportion sometimes even 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 215 
 
 greater tlian the fall in the exhange. Thus, the average rate 
 of exchange in 1872-3 was 22*18d., in 1885-6 it was 18*25d., 
 or a difference of about twenty per cent. During the same 
 period prices in London fell as follows : — 
 
 Coffee .. 42*4 per cent. 
 
 Wheat .. 33*7 „ 
 
 Tea .. .. 34*0 „ 
 
 Cotton . . 38*6 per cent. 
 
 Rice (Bengal) 18*4 „ 
 
 Jute .. .. 17 • 4 „ 
 
 46 Any of my hearers who wish to enter more fully into 
 this field of inquiry or speculation, will find ample materials 
 in an able essay by Mr. J. E. O’Conor, Assistant Secretary to 
 the Government of India in the Department of Finance and 
 Commerce, published in a Blue-book of 1887, upon the trade 
 of British India. Mr. O’ Conor’s conclusions are that any 
 benefits resulting to Indian producers from the fall of ex- 
 change have been neutralised by a still heavier fall in prices 
 brought about by the appreciation of gold. It may be that 
 the price of coffee has fallen, in part, through the apprecia- 
 tion of gold. But I think the chief cause of this fall has 
 been an enlarged area of cultivation in many parts of the 
 world, and increased production, relatively, to consumption. 
 In the essay under notice this factor is ignored. 
 
 44 Meanwhile, India is, year by year, adding to the appre- 
 ciation of gold by withdrawing it from the circulation of the 
 world, although Mysore is doing something to restore the 
 balance, by extracting further supplies from its gold mines. 
 In 1885-6, the net imports of gold fell off considerably, but 
 in the previous six years twenty million pounds sterling in 
 gold were absorbed in India, to be hoarded by native pro- 
 ducers there. 
 
 “ Decreased Consumption in the United Kingdom. — I now 
 come to a part of my subject which causes great regret to all 
 producers and importers of coffee, a regret which should be 
 equally shared by all who appreciate this delicious beverage 
 for itself or as a substitute for alcoholic stimulants. First, 
 the total imports of coffee into the United Kingdom have 
 
216 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 largely diminished, as the figures for the last eight years 
 prove : — 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 1879 .. 80,900 .. 64,400 
 
 1880 .. 77,800 .. 58,700 
 
 1881 .. 60,600 .. 47,700 
 
 1882 .. 67,900 .. 49,800 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Tons. Tons. 
 
 1883 .. 69,900 .. 48,700 
 
 1884 .. 56,700 .. 48,100 
 
 1885 .. 51,800 .. 36,800 
 
 1886 .. 51,400 .. 38,600 
 
 “ These figures, taken from the returns of the Board of 
 Trade, prove, first, that much coffee which used to come to 
 this country for reshipment now finds its way directly to its 
 place of final destination. A still more serious fact is a 
 stationary or decreasing consumption in the United Kingdom 
 itself. During the foregoing eight years the quantity of 
 coffee taken out of bond for home consumption has been in 
 round numbers : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1879 .. , 
 
 .. .. 15. 
 
 ,500 
 
 1880 .. , 
 
 .. .. 14. 
 
 ,500 
 
 1881 .. , 
 
 .. .. 14. 
 
 ,300 
 
 1882 .. . 
 
 .. .. 14; 
 
 ,300 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1883 .. , 
 
 .. .. 14,500 
 
 1884 .. , 
 
 .. .. 14,700 
 
 1885 .. , 
 
 .. .. 14,900 
 
 1886 .. . 
 
 .. .. 14,400 
 
 “ During January and February of the present year, the 
 Board of Trade returns tell the same tale. The deliveries 
 from bond for consumption during these two months, in 
 1885, were 53,458 cwt. ; in 1886, 52,498 cwt. ; and in 1887 
 they fell to 46,608 cwt. 
 
 “ Notwithstanding the increase of population, therefore, 
 less coffee is consumed year by year in the United Kingdom, 
 a fact which is even more striking when our retrospect is 
 extended. 
 
 “In the year 1874, Mr. W. P. Branson read a paper before 
 this Society, in which he showed that, down to the year 
 1840, when mixtures of coffee with chicory were for the first 
 time allowed, coffee held an equal place with tea in public 
 estimation, and their consumption was relatively equal. 
 Since then, coffee has rapidly declined in favour, 4 strangled,’ 
 as Mr. Branson tersely put it, 4 by its unholy alliance with 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 217 
 
 chicory.’ I may appropriately quote here his Table showing 
 the diminished consumption of coffee from 1847 to 1873 : — 
 
 
 Duty paid on. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Average consumption 
 per head. 
 
 
 lb. 
 
 
 oz. 
 
 1847 
 
 37,441,373 
 
 27,105,000 
 
 22 
 
 1857 
 
 34,352,123 
 
 28,278,000 
 
 19 
 
 1867 
 
 31,567,760 
 
 30,151,084 
 
 16J 
 
 1869 
 
 29,109,113 
 
 30,541,606 
 
 15£ 
 
 1873 
 
 32,329,920 
 
 •• 
 
 15f 
 
 “ Another calculation from a different source, but in sub- 
 stantially the same form, brings down the figures to a later 
 date, and shows the average annual consumption of coffee, 
 per head, of the total population, compared with the con- 
 sumption of its more prosperous rivals : — 
 
 
 I860. 
 
 1870. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1883. 
 
 Coffee (lb.) .. 
 
 1-23 
 
 0-98 
 
 0*92 
 
 0*89 
 
 Tea „ 
 
 2-67 
 
 3-81 
 
 4-59 
 
 4*80 
 
 Cocoa ., 
 
 0*11 
 
 0*20 
 
 0-31 
 
 0-36 
 
 “ Causes of diminished consumption. Use of Adulterants. — 
 You may easily suppose that all growers of coffee in India 
 and the Colonies, and all persons interested in the import and 
 sale of coffee, are much dissatisfied with this state of things, 
 and ask to what causes it is due. That tea should increase 
 in favour we can all understand. It is easily made ; it is 
 much cheaper than it used to be; and, perhaps, it goes 
 further than coffee of the same value. We do not in the 
 least grudge to tea its wonderful success, but there is room 
 enough for both these refreshing, stimulating beverages. 
 And when every allowance has been made for the natural 
 advantages of tea, we ask, how it is that England is probably 
 the only civilised country in the world in which the con- 
 
218 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 sumption of coffee does not increase with its increase of 
 population ? 
 
 44 One answer to this question is, that in the United Kingdom 
 the adulteration of coffee is sanctioned by the Legislature. 
 The Sale of Food and Drugs Act, 1875, on the one hand punishes 
 dealers for adulteration, but, on the other hand, protects 
 them if they sell adulterated coffee bearing a label 4 to the 
 effect that the same is mixed (section 8). As regards coffee, 
 the consequences have been disastrous. Coffee mixtures have 
 supplanted pure coffee so largely that, to quote a leaflet 
 distributed to visitors by the Indian Coffee Committee, 
 during the late Exhibition, — 
 
 44 4 Large classes of the population hardly know the flavour 
 of genuine coffee. Chicory is the chief ingredient in the 
 cheap mixtures, because it soon makes hot water black, 
 thick, and bitter, and so gives apparent strength to what may 
 contain little of the coffee berry. Among numerous other 
 substances used to adulterate coffee are burnt sugar, roasted 
 and ground roots of dandelion, carrot, and parsnip, together 
 with beans, lupins, and other seeds. 5 
 
 44 According to the same authority, — 
 
 44 4 An analysis of 43 samples of coffee and coffee mixtures 
 purchased in London during March and April, 1886, showed 
 an average proportion of coffee in these samples of just 50 
 per cent., added to 50 per cent, of burnt sugar and various 
 vegetable substances. Twenty-two of the samples bore a 
 label very commonly used ; and nine of those contained from 
 62 to 93 per cent, of chicory, &c., averaging 70 per cent, of 
 other substances than coffee. These mixtures are sold at 
 prices ranging from 10^. up to Is. 4 d. per pound. Upon a 
 moderate calculation, the vendors of many of the wretched 
 compounds just mentioned must be realising profits of 
 something like 100 per cent., and the worse the mixture, the 
 greater the profit. 5 
 
 44 Similarly, the annual reports of the Local Government 
 Board show that coffee is one of the chief subjects of adulter- 
 ation with which the inspectors under the Food and Drugs 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 219 
 
 Act have to deal. We are told by the Board, in their report 
 for 1884-5, that 4 it is no rare thing for so-called 4 coffee ’ to 
 be sold, which proves on analysis to be composed of one- 
 fourth part of coffee, added to three-fourths of chicory,’ and 
 as chicory only costs 3d. or 4 d. per pound, the sale of such 
 mixtures is very profitable. 
 
 44 Mincing-lane is at one with the growers of coffee in the 
 wish to promote consumption by checking what are really 
 more or less fraudulent practices, and an Association has 
 recently been formed with a view to urge the Government to 
 interfere. Chicory, as you know, bears the same duty, 14s. a 
 cwt., or 1 ±d. a lb., as is levied on coffee. As far as fiscal 
 arrangements can do so, it is thus raised to the same dignity 
 as coffee, though it does little more than blacken the water 
 and destroy the true aroma of genuine coffee. I will not 
 weary you by entering at length into this vexed question. 
 Some gentlemen in the City are of opinion that our Coffee 
 Association should only ask for legislation requiring all 
 dealers and retailers to declare on their labels the proportions 
 of chicory or other adulterant used. In the view of the 
 majority of its members, however, the Association should ask 
 the Government to prohibit any mixture of other articles 
 with coffee for purposes of sale, leaving the public to buy 
 chicory, if they want it, and mix for themselves, a process 
 perfectly simple and easy. They would then pay for chicory 
 exactly what it is worth for infusion as a beverage, and that 
 is very little. They would gain greatly in pocket by this 
 separation ; they would also become accustomed to the taste 
 of genuine coffee ; and we hope and believe that, under these 
 combined influences, coffee would recover some of its lost 
 ground. At all events, it would not then be handicapped as 
 it now is, by a hateful union with inferior ingredients ; a 
 union which, as magistrates’ cases all over the country show, 
 opens the door for innumerable frauds, practised chiefly upon 
 poor consumers, while it depraves the public palate, 
 destroys the aroma and fragrance of genuine coffee, and 
 discredits it as a national beverage. 
 
220 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 “ Prices and Prospects. — In 1883, average Mysore coffee, of 
 No. 1 quality, fetched, in Mincing-lane, from 90s. to 105s. per 
 cwt. Since then, whether from appreciation of gold, or from 
 an enlarged area of production outside India, prices have had 
 a lamentable drop, realising no more than from 70s. to 85s. 
 I omit exceptional brands of Mysore which have an excep- 
 tional reputation, and the price of which has undergone 
 hardly any variation. Short crops in 1886-7 have given a 
 welcome fillip to prices, and last week’s [sales of Indian 
 coffee approached nearly to the old level. With prudent 
 management, if a planter is able to avoid loans at high 
 interest, I believe that coffee estates in Southern India will 
 give a good return for the capital invested in them. Fortu- 
 nately, the quality of Indian coffee, and the care used in 
 picking and curing it, give it a far better position in the 
 home market than the produce of foreign countries. Fluctu- 
 ations in prices, as in 1879, and prices per cwt. of Ceylon 
 coffee, relatively to those of coffee grown elsewhere, will be 
 seen from the following Table, taken from a trade cir- 
 cular : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Prices 31st December. 
 
 Middling. 
 
 Plantation 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Good ordinary 
 Foxy. 
 
 Guatemala. 
 
 Good 
 
 ordinary. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Good 
 
 Channel. 
 
 Rio. 
 
 Good 
 
 average. 
 
 Santos. 
 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 Shillings. 
 
 1879 
 
 101 
 
 71 
 
 48 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 1880 
 
 84 
 
 59 
 
 38 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 1881 
 
 75 
 
 50 
 
 33J 
 
 42 
 
 44 
 
 1882 
 
 70 
 
 41 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 1883 
 
 75 
 
 53 
 
 35J 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 1884 
 
 65 
 
 47 
 
 28 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 1885 
 
 62 
 
 40 
 
 25J 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 1886 
 
 80 
 
 65 
 
 39J 
 
 •• 
 
 •• 
 
 “ It is somewhat comforting to find that British grown 
 coffee is worth twice that of the inferior coffee grown else- 
 where. Compared with the bulk of foreign coffee, British 
 production and home consumption are but as drops in the 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 221 
 
 bucket. For example, the estimate of the world’s crop of 
 coffee in 1885-6 was as under : — 
 
 Tons. 
 
 British India 17,000 
 
 Ceylon 11,000 
 
 Dutch India ** 59,000 
 
 Africa, Mocha, and Manilla 14,000 
 
 St. Domingo, Port Rico, and Jamaica 50,000 
 
 Costa Rica, Venezuela, New Grenada, La Guayra, 
 Maracaibo, Guatemala, Salvador, Honduras, &c. 66,000 
 
 Brazil 370,000 
 
 Total 587,000 
 
 “Or a reduction of 61,000 tons upon the actual crop of 
 1884-5. 
 
 “ It is more than a little galling to Indian planters to be 
 told, as they are, that their coffee is so good, that it is com- 
 paratively seldom drunk by itself, being chiefly used to keep 
 up the flavour of coffee mixtures which would otherwise be 
 weighed down by the proportion of adulterants, and would 
 possess little flavour of coffee. Eightly or wrongly, we 
 believe, without underrating the claims of tea, that coffee of 
 good quality, carefully made, and with a sufficient quantity 
 for infusion, is, to quote the leaflet already mentioned, c the 
 most delicious and refreshing of all non-alcoholic beverages ; ’ 
 that 6 it produces a buoyancy and exhilaration, followed by 
 no reaction or subsequent depression ; 5 that 4 it acts as a 
 stimulus to the mental powers, lightens fatigue, sustains the 
 strength, whether under mental or physical exertion, and 
 contains medicinal and restorative properties long recognised 
 as of the highest value. 5 To preserve the purity and restore 
 the popularity of such a beverage is surely worth a joint 
 effort, alike by producers, by consumers, and by all of us who 
 wish to promote temperance in drinking. 55 
 
 In the discussion that followed, Mr. Shuttleworth Brown 
 said he had been much struck with some of Mr. Clifford’s 
 remarks, especially those in which he called attention to the 
 direct importation of coffee from India to European destina- 
 tions other than England. Some years ago, he hinted that in 
 
222 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 Mincing-lane there was great indifference as to whether 
 coffee was consumed in England or not, it being considered 
 that the broker got his brokerage whether the coffee were re- 
 exported or whether it were consumed in the country, and 
 that perhaps led to some indifference as to adulteration on the 
 part of those who ought to be interested in the subject. He 
 had no Indian experience whatever, but the value of coffee 
 as a beverage was a matter to which he had paid a good deal 
 of attention, and he might point out, in confirmation of what 
 had been already said, as to how the quantity of coffee con- 
 sumed seemed to have decreased, that this was principally 
 due to the effect of adulteration. There were four Govern- 
 ment departments, which dealt with coffee — the Board of 
 Trade, the Inland Revenue, the Customs, and the Local 
 Government Board. Several of these were in favour of 
 purifying coffee, but one was quite indifferent about it ; he 
 hoped, however, they might all be won over in time. The 
 beaurocratic aim was to make the most of the revenue, and 
 the beaurocratic view was that pure coffee would do it. The 
 sole question which the Chancellor of the Exchequer had to 
 consider in such matters was the revenue, and he was afraid of 
 making changes for fear of meeting with a loss ; but if the 
 unnatural insignificance of the total amount of revenue from 
 coffee were properly brought before him, and still more, the 
 despicable amount derived from chicory, he did not think they 
 need fear much opposition on his part. Of course, Government 
 officials must always be affected by considerations as to how 
 their action would be looked upon by the constituents of the 
 members who put them in office. Those who chiefly profited 
 by adulteration were the shopkeepers, and since each average 
 shopkeeper must have at least 100 customers, it would be 
 much better for the Government to overlook the craving of 
 shopkeepers for illicit profits, and to consider rather the 
 legitimate interests of the consumer. He had always looked 
 upon the word “ Coffee ” as the trade mark of the planter, and 
 as such his legitimate property, and considered that if coffee 
 were asked for it ought to be obtainable. With regard to 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 223 
 
 the value of chicory and coffee as sources of revenue, he 
 would submit the following figures : — In 1880, the imports 
 of chicory were 16,276,000 lb., the value being set down as 
 94,600Z. ; coffee, 1,546,000 cwt., and its value 6,861,130Z., so 
 that the value of the coffee imported was exactly 72i times 
 that of the chicory, or the value of the chicory was only 1L 
 per cent, of that of the coffee. The exports in 1880 
 were : chicory, 2,388,295 lb., value 26,303Z. ; coffee, 1,189,174 
 cwt., value 5,258,446Z. Thus, the value of coffee exported 
 was exactly 202 times that of the chicory, or the value of the 
 chicory was less than J per cent, of the value of the coffee. 
 The import and export trade together in coffee was over 
 1 2,000, 000Z. sterling, whilst the total trade in chicory was 
 only 120,000Z., an absurdly insignificant amount, making a 
 total of 1 per cent, only of the trade done in coffee, and that 
 in an article that was only employed to deceive, and as a 
 source of illegitimate profit. At the same time, three half- 
 pennyworth of foreign chicory shut out what might be 
 ninepenny worth of Indian or Colonial coffee, and this affected 
 seriously the interests of the coffee planters ; and they were 
 so important a body as compared with those who profited by 
 dealing in chicory, that it seemed very unjust that their 
 representations had not received more serious consideration. 
 The consumption of coffee in England, in 1880, was 284,540 
 cwt., or • 92 lb. per head, but the consumption of tea was 
 4*59 lb. per head, or five times as much. The consump- 
 tion in the navy of coffee, tea, and cocoa was practically 
 equal, being nearly 1,000,000 lb. of each per annum. The 
 proportion in which chicory was mixed with coffee might be 
 gauged by their relative consumption, chiefly by shopkeepers. 
 Of chicory the consumption was, in 1882, 100,000 cwt.; in 
 1883, 103,000 cwt. ; in 1884, 98,000 cwt. Of coffee, in 1882, 
 285,380 cwt. ; in 1883, 289,715 cwt. ; in 1884, 294,788 cwt. 
 Thus, in 1882, rather more than one- third chicory was added 
 to the coffee, which was gradually reduced to exactly one- 
 third in 1884. Every one knew what he wanted when he 
 asked or sent for coffee, viz. a stimulant — not colouring 
 
224 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 matter — whether he got coffee or chicory, or a mixture of the 
 two, but the demand for coffee had diminished, and the taste 
 had become debased, because of the mixture being so com- 
 monly supplied. The net produce to the customs for the 
 year ending March 31, 1884, was from chicory, 68,050/. ; 
 from coffee, 194,192/. 68,000/., therefore, was the whole 
 
 question the Chancellor of the Exchequer had to consider, but 
 the public had to consider that the value of the chicory, on 
 which they paid to the Chancellor of the Exchequer 68,000/. 
 for duty, was only 69,000/. ; and then they had to consider 
 what they paid for being cheated by it — how many times its 
 commercial value. The remark had been made by Mr. 
 Clifford that chicory was raised to the dignity of coffee by 
 having the same duty placed upon it, but that was not the 
 case in other countries where they are coffee drinkers. In 
 France, coffee paid a duty of 3/. 3s. 5 d. per cwt. (as against 
 14s. in England), and chicory, in the dried state, 4| d. only- 
 In England, when roasted, it paid 13s. 3rZ., almost the same 
 as coffee ; in France, roasted chicory paid Is. 7Jd. In Italy, 
 coffee paid 100 francs per 100 kilos ; chicory 5 francs if 
 coming from a country with the most favoured nation clause ; 
 if no convention, 20 francs. In Germany, coffee paid 1/. per 
 cwt. ; chicory only 2s. In Austria, coffee paid 40 florins per 
 100 kilos; chicory, 15 florins. He thought no duty should 
 be drawn from chicory, since it tended to legitimise its use, 
 because it made adulteration to be no offence against the 
 revenue and legalised this offence against the consumer ; 
 and he believed that if the duty (which only came to 68,000/.) 
 were taken off, not a farthing would be lost to the revenue, 
 because if it were made illegal to sell coffee mixed with 
 chicory, or chicory otherwise than by itself, coffee would be sold 
 in far greater quantity. The purpose of chicory was merely 
 to make the coffee look strong, but its effect was to deprive 
 it of all its refinement of taste, and less coffee was used than 
 if there was no chicory, and people were deceived by their 
 eyes. The amount of revenue derived from chicory was so 
 small that he thought there should be no hesitation in making 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 225 
 
 a change in the law which would give people confidence in 
 coffee, by enabling them to buy it unadulterated. 
 
 The Chairman remarked that it was very startling to see 
 the enormous cultivation of chicory. He should like to 
 know where it came from. 
 
 Mr. Shuttleworth-Brown said it came almost entirely from 
 Belgium. It used to be cultivated a good deal in Yorkshire, 
 but within the last ten years it had almost ceased to be 
 cultivated there. 
 
 Mr. W. P. Branson said the price of coffee in London de- 
 pended really on the Brazil market. Brazil supplied nearly 
 two-thirds of the total consumption of the world, and though 
 it was mostly of a common quality, the quantity was so 
 immense that, whether the crop were short or otherwise, it 
 made a difference to the price all over the world. If he were 
 a planter, he should not care two straws about the consump- 
 tion in the United Kingdom so far as his own profits were 
 concerned ; the consumption here being only about 1 lb. per 
 head per annum, it was utterly unimportant. In Brazil 
 there had been an extensive system of slavery, which was 
 now coming to an end, the number of slaves not being more 
 than a million at present, and probably in a few years there 
 would be none. The future of Brazil coffee, therefore, was 
 very uncertain, and if the production should fall off, the 
 Indian and other planters would no doubt benefit. The 
 coffee market had shown a considerable rise during the last 
 six months, and although the whole rise might not be 
 sustained, it was probable that a great proportion of it would, 
 and if it held for this year, it probably would for the next 
 four or five years. The coffee market was very peculiar, its 
 fluctuations spreading over a period of eight or nine years, 
 and being mainly affected by wars and money panics, chiefly 
 the former. The greatest depression was the result of the 
 American and German wars, which followed one another ; it 
 threw plantations out of cultivation by wholesale, and he 
 believed this was the principal cause of letting in the coffee- 
 leaf disease. Some very strong remarks had been made about 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 dishonesty and adulteration, which reminded him of what 
 was once said by a cabinet minister: — “Don’t talk to me 
 about adulteration; it is all a question of price.” The 
 Government had been appealed to again and again during 
 the last thirty or forty years, but everything they did only 
 made matters worse. By recent legislation they not only 
 allowed chicory but anything else if a twopenny label were 
 put on the pound packet. Government did not care whether 
 people drank potato-spirit for whisky, or saccharine for malt, 
 or chicory for coffee, and it seemed to be hopeless to expect 
 any improvement otherwise ; the only sensible thing would 
 eem to be to require the percentage to be stated on every- 
 thing sold as a mixture. In foreign countries, where the 
 duty on chicory was much lower than on coffee, the mixture 
 of coffee and chicory was not allowed to be sold. The 
 Government were no doubt in fault and so were the traders, 
 but after all, those most in fault were the English people 
 themselves ; they were generally very ignorant and negligent 
 in all matters connected with the purchase and preparation 
 of food, but especially so in the case of coffee. No one with 
 any sense would waste money on buying ground coffee ; you 
 might as well buy a vintage claret in a quart pot. Chemistry 
 had done very little for coffee ; amongst other fallacies, it 
 had been said that the volatile aroma of coffee was an 
 essential oil ; if it were, it would be bad enough to grind it 
 up, but from many years’ experience in dealing with coffee, 
 he was satisfied that the aroma was something far more 
 subtle than an essential oil ; it was an ether, which was 
 difficult enough to retain even in the whole berry, and he 
 would not give much for coffee which had been roasted more 
 than a week, but when it was ground up of course it deteri- 
 orated much more rapidly. A one-pound packet of coffee was 
 enough to scent a whole railway carriage, but the scent given 
 off was simply the goodness of the coffee, and by the time it 
 got home it was almost worthless ; then it was often put 
 into a tin canister, which made it ten times worse, and the 
 result was, stale coffee for breakfast, which was worse even 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 227 
 
 than chicory. He believed that was why chicory was used 
 to improve the flavour of stale coffee. The practice of mixing 
 was now about fifty years old, and it had got people into the 
 way of buying their coffee ready ground instead of buying a 
 Is. 6d. mill and grinding it themselves. If they would only 
 do that they need not appeal to Government, and would 
 soon find grocers who would supply them with coffee freshly 
 roasted every day. If people could be taught this, England 
 would soon become a coffee-drinking nation, which would be 
 an immense blessing to it. 
 
 Mr. Tolputt congratulated Mr. Clifford on his very able 
 paper, in which there was only one point on which he would 
 venture to correct him. That was with regard to 44 cherry ” 
 coffee, which he seemed to think was sold for Mocha. The 
 latter, however, was generally the best native Mysore ; cherry 
 coffee was simply sold locally, and was prepared in the way 
 described, because it was grown by small cultivators, who 
 could not afford a “ pulper ” and “ peeler.” He believed coffee 
 had a grand future before it. They had suffered during the 
 last two or three years from short crops, caused mainly by 
 unfavourable seasons, and to some extent by undue exhaus- 
 tion of old plantations. If coffee was to pay the planter, it 
 must be treated on the principles of modern scientific agricul- 
 ture, and as be claimed to have been the pioneer of the modern 
 system of manuring as applied to coffee, he might say that 
 the results were in every way satisfactory. He would point 
 particularly to the Cochin District, not Cochin proper, but 
 a small outlying district to which reference had been made, 
 where there were some estates of which Mr. Lester Arnold 
 had written. He had applied there the manuring system, 
 and had found the result from the commencement to average 
 5 cwt. an acre, taking good and bad years together. The 
 great difficulty was in dealing with men who had not 
 followed the enormous improvements which had taken place 
 in agriculture all over Europe. It was almost impossible 
 to get the idea into their heads that a small quantity of care- 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 fully made manure would have as much effect as a basketful 
 of muck; they bad still much the same notion as many 
 British farmers, that nothing could he manure which did not 
 stink. He agreed with everything Mr. Clifford had said 
 about adulteration, and would even go farther. If it were a 
 crime, legally, to put sloe leaves into tea, why should it not 
 be a crime to put chicory roots into coffee ? But there were 
 many worse things than chicory used. He was told by an 
 analyst that in one sample he found a large quantity of 
 animal matter and sugar, and he could not imagine where it 
 came from. He said he could tell him ; it came from 
 maggoty figs and diseased dates. Some time ago he had 
 occasion to pull up a man who manufactured large quantities 
 of mixed coffee for pirating one of his coffee marks. He took 
 the opportunity of learning a little about the manufacture, 
 and he found that one of the ingredients used was roasted 
 bullock’s liver. These things ought to be generally known, 
 for it could hardly be legitimate to poison the British public 
 with roasted cat’s meat under the name of coffee mixture. 
 Why should not coffee be sold pure as tea was, and a Govern- 
 ment officer be authorised to seize and destroy adulterated 
 coffee just the same as adulterated tea ? He feared they owed 
 their last defeat in Parliament to an idea on the part of Mr. 
 Gladstone that coffee was all the better for having chicory 
 mixed with it. It was mainly owing to his opposition and 
 that of Manchester merchants — who believed that Chinamen 
 and Hindoos preferred to buy chalk instead of cotton in 
 their goods — and to the late hour at which Mr. Cavendish 
 Bentinck brought on the motion, that it was lost ; but he 
 hoped on the next occasion they would be more fortunate. 
 Coffee growers ought to be grateful to a number of philan- 
 thropists who had endeavoured to deal with this question 
 practically, by forming a company to sell pure coffee at the 
 same price as the grocers sold it adulterated. It was no 
 secret that a number of gentlemen put down 1000/. a-piece 
 to form the Whole Berry Coffee Company, to see if they 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 229 
 
 could not beat the grocers with their own weapons. He had 
 no interest in it himself, but he knew they supplied pure 
 coffee at a fair price. 
 
 Mr. W. Storr remarked that, if coffee planters desired to 
 put down the sale of adulterated coffee, they might find a 
 precedent in the prosecution of a great number of publicans 
 recently for putting water into their beer. Only a year or 
 two ago the Brewers’ Association, finding the character of 
 their beer was being damaged by the addition of water to it 
 after it left therbreweries, joined together, made an appeal to 
 Parliament, and succeeded in passing a Bill without the 
 publicans knowing anything at all about it, and when the 
 law was put into operation, they were altogether taken by 
 surprise. The public were learning through the heavy 
 penalties which were being inflicted that it was an offence to 
 put even water into beer after the brewer had delivered it. 
 He did not see why the addition of chicory to coffee should 
 not be treated in the same way. 
 
 Mr. Hyde Clarke said his business with the coffee planters 
 of India was as honorary agent for the planters of Western 
 India, in 1857-8-9. Those were the early, struggling days 
 of coffee-planting, and the first adventurers suffered much 
 from the difficulties attendant on obtaining land. He 
 brought their case before the Committee on English Settle- 
 ments in India, which he obtained from the House of 
 Commons, through Mr. William Ewart, and which published 
 reports in 1857-8. The Board of Control affirmed against 
 him that ten acres fit for cultivation by Englishmen could 
 not be found on the higher waste lands, but the agitation 
 resulted in obtaining the requisite facilities, and in promoting 
 the enterprise of the large body of Englishmen, who were 
 doing a great work for the benefit of the Empire, and of the 
 people of India. In supporting the valuable and practical 
 paper of Mr. Clifford, he would point out to^feim that the 
 imports to Marseilles and Trieste, being mostly in bond, 
 were re-shipped to Constantinople and Turkish ports, in 
 displacement of the former shipments from London. As Mr. 
 
230 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 Clifford had stated, there was very little genuine Mocha 
 coffee in Turkey, and that so-called was chiefly Indian coffee 
 passing through the Eed Sea. The direct supply to the 
 northern parts of Turkey was formerly “ English ” coffee. 
 The coffee was roasted daily, and powdered more frequently 
 than ground, so as to produce a coarse fracture instead of the 
 fine powder sought for here. The goodness of the coffee in 
 Turkey consisted in its freshness and preparation ; there was 
 no chicory or any adulteration. He concurred with Mr. 
 Clifford that it was desirable for India to keep the Turkish 
 markets, and for that purpose they should look after them. 
 They could send through the Suez Canal, and then tranship, 
 which they could afford, as coffee was transhipped at 
 Marseilles and Trieste. The Constantinople market was 
 worth looking after, as the highest qualities could be sold 
 there. It would be well to have the packages made up with 
 Turkish or Persian wrappers or descriptions. The main 
 remedy against the maistri was, as Mr. Clifford said, a know- 
 ledge of the native languages, and Englishmen who could 
 not learn in t wo years should be got rid of. The maistri 
 would make deductions from the coolies under the manager’s 
 eyes. The worst part of the system of frauds was that the 
 coolie did not always get the full wages paid by the 
 employer, and the stimulus of which should bring in recruits. 
 The manager must learn all about feasts, fairs, native super- 
 stitions, and lucky and unlucky days. The unlucky days 
 were known all over India, and were to be found in the 
 almanac, and they affected the whole community. European 
 tools were often unsuitable, as hafts were un suited for small 
 hands, or stout shoes were required which should be supplied 
 with the tools. Combinations of the planters in labour 
 arrangements are essential for the protection of the individual. 
 Mr. Clifford had stated the case well with regard to depressed 
 prices and exchange. The depression of prices is in no 
 degree owing to short supply of gold, but to the effective 
 reduction of the cost of production. So, in the case of Brazil, 
 the rich natural coffee lands were reached by steel railways, 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 231 
 
 made cheaply by the labour-saving inventions of Heath, 
 Bessemer, and Siemens. Thus abundant crops were brought 
 down at a cheaper rate, and in less time than by mules. On 
 reaching the port, the coffee was brought to London at a low 
 freight by the same cheap steel made into the hulls and 
 machinery of the ships. Therefore, the effective cost of 
 producing Brazilian coffee was reduced, and whatever 
 the speculative movements which may from time to time 
 influence the market, he agreed with Mr. Branson that 
 Brazilian crops will govern the market, as constituting the 
 main supply. He considered that Mr. Clifford had well 
 stated the case of the Indian planter under the low price of 
 silver, but he would observe that this recent depression had 
 arrested the rise of wages and commodities, which railway 
 transport had for many years set in operation. Further, the 
 coffee producer was benefited by the lower freights, and 
 thereby he obtained a larger proportion of the market price, 
 which had been reduced, for the freight had to be reckoned 
 off the old price. As to silver, he (Mr. Clarke) had shown 
 that a great reduction had taken place in the cost of pro- 
 ducing silver, and that there was no reason the rupee should 
 not go to one shilling or lower. The proposition to re- 
 habilitate silver at a standard was a fallacy; gold was being 
 taken for ornaments now. He (Mr. Clarke) remembered 
 when coffee was consumed in this country, in France, and 
 elsewhere on the Continent. There was no chicory here, 
 and Orater Hunt’s roasted corn was sold as roasted corn. 
 Every respectable house had its coffee mill, a higher standard 
 for coffee prevailed, and there were West Indians enough 
 who knew what good coffee was. There was no difficulty in 
 working a trade in genuine coffee. Chicory was grown on 
 the Continent, and was introduced during the great Con- 
 tinental war as a substitute for coffee, and an adulterant. 
 It did not seem to strike his friends that their statistics of 
 the importation of coffee did not touch the real state of affairs, 
 nor did they show what was the amount paid by the popu- 
 lation for coffee. The statistics need be carried a step 
 
232 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 further, and it need he calculated out what the people pay 
 on a full coffee price, receiving in return only half coffee, for 
 the average adulteration need he taken at 50 per cent. If 
 the people were supplied with coffee, as they have paid for 
 it, then double the actual amount of coffee would he consumed. 
 When coffee was sold here, the wealthier or working classes 
 never thought of buying bullocks’ liver, olive kernels, or any 
 other kind of refuse to mix with it. There was no doctrine 
 of political science, of economics, or political economy, or of 
 free trade, which authorised, or justified, the frauds now 
 committed, or the supply of the population with insufficient, 
 noxious, and deleterious food. The precepts of political 
 science justified and required the punishment of the evil- 
 doers concerned in such nefarious practices. Great light was 
 thrown on the coffee frauds by the recent action of the 
 brewers in promoting the punishment of their fraudulent 
 publicans. The brewers, it may be, cared little for the 
 people, but they cared for themselves ; they might not have 
 cared for the consumer being defrauded, but they cared much 
 for the brewer being defrauded. If in a public-house 
 belonging to a brewer 20,000 gallons of beer were sold, out 
 of which 5000 gallons represented water, then the publican 
 would get money for 20,000 gallons, and only pay his brewer 
 for 15,000 gallons. It might be that the more beer was sold 
 (i. e. beer and water), the less beer was brewed by the 
 brewers. A true state may be that the grocers are selling 
 more coffee, i. e. coffee and bullockS 5 liver, and yet the im- 
 portation of coffee appears to decline. This must be so, 
 because the decrease in the quantity of coffee imported is not 
 equal to the progress of adulteration. The grocer who 
 adulterates to 30 per cent, displaces that percentage of coffee, 
 the adulterator of 60 per cent, displaces 60, and the bold 
 operator who supplies 90 per cent, of bullocks’ liver, chicory, 
 &c., displaces 90 per cent, of coffee. The lesson from Mr. 
 Clifford’s paper was for the grocer and the trade to take firm 
 action, and to try back. 
 
 Mr. Martin Wood had been much interested in the paper, 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 233 
 
 and was particularly pleased with the way in which Mr. 
 Clifford dealt with two questions, first, the coolies, whose 
 peculiar habits and failings were no doubt prominent enough, 
 but, as pointed out, if these were duly considered they made 
 good labourers ; second, that of the land tenures granted to 
 the planters, which, it was admitted, are fairly liberal. He 
 should like to know what was the kind of coffee chiefly grown 
 in India. He had been told that Jamaica coffee was used as 
 seed in Ceylon, and from that the so-called plantation coffee 
 was taken, though various names were given to it in India. 
 Perhaps Mr. Clifford could say whence these names were 
 derived, and which kind proved most satisfactory. It had 
 been said that coffee would not thrive under 2000 ft. above 
 the sea-level, and perhaps that might account for the failure 
 of some attempts which had been made. He remembered on 
 one occasion that efforts were made in the Goa territory to 
 cultivate coffee, but believed they failed. Most people would 
 agree with the remarks which had been made about adulter- 
 ation, but it must be remembered that chicory was no more 
 harmful than water in beer. There were ample provisions 
 in law for dealing with the admixture of noxious or dele- 
 terious substances even in coffee ; it only required a little 
 more attention to ferret out such abominable nuisances. 
 
 Mr. Clifford, in reply, said there was a theory current in 
 Mysore that good coffee could not be grown at a less altitude 
 than 3000 ft. above sea-level, and that was about the height 
 at which his ^states lay ; but it was grown at a considerably 
 greater altitude than that in other parts. The peculiarity 
 was that the higher you got, the better was the quality of 
 the coffee, but the smaller the crop. Pie held it was a mis- 
 take to suppose that coffee could not be grown except at that 
 altitude, but whether it could to commercial advantage he 
 could not say. As to the origin of coffee, it was generally 
 conceded that the beans were first brought from Arabia, 
 which was the true home of the shrub ; that they were first 
 taken to Ceylon, and thence to Mysore. It was said that 
 coffee was first grown in Ceylon for the sake of the blossoms, 
 
234 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 which were very beautiful and fragrant, and were used for 
 the decoration of the temples. The plant flourished in 
 Mysore, and some of the finest coffee in the world was now 
 from there ; in fact, he could scarcely venture to quote the 
 price of some of the exceptional brands. Those who did not 
 possess these rare kinds did not quite understand it, and 
 looked with some envy on the enormous prices they fetched 
 in Mincing-lane. He thought Mr. Branson was somewhat 
 in error in saying that Brazilian coffee would always rule the 
 price of Indian. So far as Indian, Jamaica, and Ceylon 
 coffee were concerned, he thought they would always fetch a 
 good price in the English market, because it was of a quality 
 which Brazil could not, or at any rate did not, produce. The 
 English consumers would always have the best coffee, and, 
 fortunately, India supplied the best brands. The recent de- 
 pression had hardly been felt by the best coffee ; even at the 
 worst period it maintained its price. He hoped that was 
 an augury for the future, and that Indian coffee would also 
 command the market in England, where people would have 
 the best quality of everything. He agreed with Mr. Branson 
 that a good deal of blame for bad coffee lay at the door of the 
 consumer, who would not even take the trouble to ask for 
 pure coffee. Under the 6 Adulteration of Food and Drugs 
 Act,’ if a person asked for coffee the grocer was bound to 
 supply it, or if he sold him a mixture, to tell him of it, or to 
 point to the label. Unfortunately, the existing law opened 
 the door to fraud, because in poor neighbourhoods there was 
 no guarantee that pure coffee would be supplied even if it 
 were asked for; they knew that this kind of fraud was 
 habitual, and that not one case in a hundred was ever 
 brought home. The consumption of coffee was appreciably 
 hindered by the adulteration which took place, and the taste 
 for coffee suffered because what was supplied was an inferior 
 article, adulterated to the extent of perhaps 50, 60, or 70 per 
 cent. Under such a system coffee never could have a fair 
 field, which all producers and importers, as well as all true 
 ranee, had great cause to complain of. 
 
CULTUEE AND PEODUCTION. 
 
 235 
 
 Mr. Branson said he did not intend to convey the im- 
 pression that the price of fine East India coffee depended 
 upon that of Brazil, but that the price of Brazil had a con- 
 siderable effect on the whole market. Thus there was a rise 
 of 20s. a ton in East India some time ago simply because 
 Brazil had gone up. 
 
 The Chairman said, — It has been a great pleasure to me 
 to preside on this occasion, and we must all feel greatly in- 
 debted, I am sure, to Mr. Clifford for the very interesting 
 paper he has just read to us. He has not only given us a 
 mass of information, but has put forward facts which cannot 
 fail to be of great value to persons who have already invested 
 capital, or who are thinking of investing it, in coffee planting. 
 Mr. Clifford’s paper has been peculiarly interesting to me, 
 because although I have never had any direct interest in 
 coffee plantations myself, I have watched coffee planting, as 
 I have forestry, in India from its very birth, and have seen 
 a great deal of the growth and development of the industry 
 in Southern India, and have had a wide acquaintance among 
 planters. The only plantations I have ever had to do with 
 personally were teak belonging to the State, and they lay 
 among the coffee tracts. It is just forty years since the 
 Madras Government did me the honour of entrusting me 
 with the organisation of the first scheme of forest conservancy 
 for India, and my avocations then led me through all the 
 districts about which Mr. Clifford has just told us. In those 
 days (I am speaking of about 1848) a few energetic men 
 whose names are well remembered in Southern India — 
 Ouchterlony, Staines, Godfrey, Cannan, Green, and a few 
 others — were struggling with the difficulties which usually 
 beset pioneers, and the whole length of the Western Ghats, 
 from North Canara to Cape Comorin, could only show a few 
 tiny clearings for coffee. Throughout North Mysore, 
 Munzerabad, Coorg, Wynaad, the slopes of the Nilghiris 
 and Annamullays, Cochin, Travancore, Tinnevelly, and 
 Madura, the coffee planter, if heard of at all, was looked on 
 as a speculative man who was risking his money and his 
 
236 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 health in a very dubious undertaking. Forty years have 
 seen a vast change. All through the provinces I have just 
 named, the planting community has grown into a large 
 and recognised body. They have their beautiful estates, 
 comfortable houses, churches, dispensaries, clubs, social 
 gatherings, race and polo meetings, &c., and are, in most 
 instances, not only making a living, but turning their forest 
 land into valuable property. They have brought an im- 
 mense amount of capital and European energy into India, 
 and have effected great changes for the better among the 
 people around them. The presence of such men in the 
 country cannot but be a material strength to the State. The 
 Government on their part have not been slow to recognise 
 the importance and value of the planting community. Much 
 3?as been done for them, although naturally they ask for 
 more. They now work with secure land tenures and good 
 police protection. Many hundreds of miles of roads and 
 passes have been made by which their crops go to the sea- 
 coast or to the railways. Laws have been enacted in their 
 interests, and under certain wholesome restrictions forest 
 land is made easily available for planting, wherever the 
 Government can spare it. Under such circumstances the 
 coffee industry has, as you have just heard, made great 
 progress — it has its ups and downs of course — but I think we 
 all heartily wish it increased success, and this will certainly 
 be aided by publicity, and the circulation of such valuable 
 papers as that which we have just heard read. 
 
 Java . — Java is the second largest coffee-producing country, 
 nine-tenths of the culture being in the hands of the Govern- 
 ment, and effected by forced labour. Around the estates a 
 fence is planted, about 12 ft. from the outer row of the 
 plants, generally of the jar ale, or castor-oil plant (PaZma 
 Christi ), intermixed with the dadap , or the silk-cotton tree ; 
 and, in low situations, outside of this a ditch is dug, to carry 
 off the water. These operations commence in August or 
 September, and by the time the ground is in perfect readi- 
 ness for planting, the heavy rains are nearly over. The 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 237 
 
 plants are either raised from seed in nurseries, or the estates 
 are supplied with 4 4 stumps ” from wild or casual seedlings. 
 Nursery plants are generally removed at six months, when 
 they are about 12 in. high ; their after growth is so rapid, 
 that in nine months they attain to 2 to 3 ft. in height, and 
 at twenty months are 6 to 8 ft. high, and capable of bearing 
 f lb. prepared coffee per tree. The trouble and expense of 
 nurseries in so hot a climate are, however, very great, and 
 the second plan is often adopted. In this case, the plants 
 grow more slowly : but they become more lasting and hardy 
 trees. The plantations are generally laid out in squares. 
 The distance between the plants varies according to the 
 fertility of the soil ; in a soil not considered fertile, a 
 distance of 6 ft. is preserved ; but in a rich soil, where the 
 plant grows more luxuriantly, 8 ft. by 4 ft. is the scale 
 hitherto commonly used. Now, these distances are deemed 
 too small, and new estates are being laid out at 10 ft. by 9 ft., 
 and 9 ft. by 9 ft. At all altitudes below 2500 ft., shade 
 seems necessary, especially during the early growth of the 
 coffee-bushes. The tree almost universally employed for 
 this purpose is the dadap ( Erythrina ), of which several 
 varieties are abundant throughout the island, the serap , the 
 don, and the warn ; the first is preferred as affording the 
 greatest shade. It is propagated by cuttings ; and in select- 
 ing them for the coffee plantations, care is had that they are 
 taken from trees at least two or three years old, and that they 
 are 3 to 4 ft. long, of which 1 ft. at least must be buried in 
 the ground. After the dadaps are planted, holes are dug, 
 1J to 2 ft. deep, for the reception of the coffee plants. It is 
 a common saying that where the dadap flourishes, there also 
 will coffee grow ; but they are not always constant or 
 necessary companions, for many gardens in high lands 
 contain few dadaps. It is probable that in future these trees 
 will be largely replaced by Acacia Julibrissin ( Albizzia 
 Moluccana), which grows very fast, and is superior for 
 several reasons. Indigo is frequently planted among the 
 young coffee, chiefly in order to keep down the weeds, but 
 
238 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 also to be used as manure. As the tree waxes, no attempt is 
 made to train it, and it grows up with several stems as a 
 native tree. It is pruned only when branches show signs of 
 decay, or when the borer, which is very destructive, compels 
 the planter to cut down the attacked stems. The weeds are 
 dug up with mammoties, to a depth of 6 in., and piled in 
 rows between the shade trees parallel to the lines of coffee. 
 These weeds, among which is the alang-alang, and other 
 fodder grasses, furnish valuable cattle food. When an estate 
 shows signs of decay, the coffee trees are all cut down, the 
 dadap trees being either felled or ringed near the roots, so 
 that they may decay gradually and fall piecemeal to the 
 ground ; the process of replanting is then repeated in the 
 same manner as before. Thus the land may be replanted 
 several times, and so rich is it that the last garden will be 
 better than the first. On the other hand, the climate is as a 
 rule far too forcing for permanent culture. The average 
 crop is very light ; and after 12 to 14 years, the yield is so 
 small as not to repay the cost of harvesting. On estates 
 below 1000 ft., the trees bear earlier and produce more, but 
 do not last beyond ten years ; at altitudes of 3000 to 4000 ft., 
 they may last 30 to 40 years. On many of the elevated 
 plantations, the trees grow to a height of 30 to 40 ft., necessi- 
 tating the use of ladders to gather the crop. Such trees are 
 grown 25 ft. by 25 ft. apart, on terraces 25 ft. wide, planted 
 with grass at the edge, or all over, to prevent wash. These 
 trees yield 6 to 7 lb. prepared coffee. The average produce 
 of the Government plantations is reckoned, by Jagor, at only 
 A lb. a tree ; that of the few private estates at 1 lb. a tree ; 
 the difference is attributed to the ill effect of forced labour. 
 The methods of cultivation adopted by the private planters 
 vary considerably ; in some instances, the trees are topped at 
 4 to 5 ft., and pruning is attempted, but the results are not 
 satisfactory. The condition of the Government culture has 
 remained stationary during the last forty years. The season 
 affords what are termed three crops ; the first is but small, 
 the second is most abundant, and the third is rather a 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 239 
 
 gleaning. Owing to the scarcity of water, the labourers 
 convey the cherry coffee to their own homes, where they 
 pulp and wash it with wooden pestles. 
 
 Attached to every principal village, near which there are 
 coffee plantations of any extent, there is a drying-house, to 
 which the pulped coffee is brought ; it is there placed on 
 hurdles, about 4 ft. from the floor, under which a slow wood 
 fire is kept up during the night. The roof of the drying- 
 liouse is opened at morning and evening to admit the air, 
 and the berries are frequently stirred to prevent fermenta- 
 tion. As the direct heat of the sun is considered prejudicial, 
 the roof of the house is closed during the day. This opera- 
 tion is repeated till the parchment is quite dry. The berries 
 dried in this way are small, of a sea-green or greyish colour, 
 and are supposed to acquire a peculiar flavour from the 
 smoke, although it does not appear that any particular kind 
 of wood is used for fuel. When dried in the sun, the bean 
 becomes of a pale bleached oolour, is larger, specifically 
 lighter, and more insipid to the taste than the former. Ac- 
 cording to Jagor, a period of five to six weeks is required. 
 The most common mode of freeing the bean from the parch- 
 ment is to pound the berries, when dry, in a bag of buffalo- 
 hide, great care being taken not to bruise the beans. A mill 
 of simple construction is sometimes used, but is not found to 
 answer so well. The coffee beans are then put into bags or 
 baskets, kept on raised platforms till the season of delivery, 
 when they are carried down to the store-house, sometimes by 
 men, but generally on the backs of buffaloes and mares, in 
 strings of 1500 to 2000 at a time. In some instances, how- 
 ever, improved machinery has been erected for pulping 
 and curing the coffee on the West Indian plan. The crop of 
 1878 was estimated to be 20 per cent, below the average, 
 chiefly owing to the drought of 1877. The finer descriptions 
 of Samarang (West Indian preparation), Buitenzorg (ordinary 
 preparation), Government Preanger, and Government Pa- 
 dang, commanded high figures : nearly the whole of the 
 two latter brands was bought up for the United States at 
 
240 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 very advanced figures. Further large importations of 
 Liberian coffee seeds and plants took place during the year ; 
 but from the short period of its trial, no reliable opinion can 
 yet be formed as to its suitability. These importations were 
 effected from or through English houses, Ceylon growths 
 being prohibited on account of the leaf disease. The exports 
 of Java coffee, from 1st July, 1877, to 30th June, 1878, stated 
 in piculs of 122 lb., were, to Holland, 1,096,372; France, 
 14,767 ; Port Said, for orders, 6943 ; Italy, 5775; Singapore, 
 5079 ; America, 3993 ; Australia, 1107 ; Channel, for orders, 
 102 . 
 
 Liberia . — The Guinea Coast of Africa, and more especially 
 the republic of Liberia, is remarkable among coffee-producing 
 countries as the home of a peculiar species of coffee, formerly 
 known as C. microcarpa , but now finally designated C. Libe- 
 rica. It is distinguished from C. Arabica by much more 
 robust habit ; it attains a greater height, and both leaves 
 and fruit are larger and less delicate ; it also prefers low 
 elevations. In its native country, this species grows as well 
 near the sea (100 yds., or less distant), as thirty miles inland, 
 and the wild plant is found even yet further towards the 
 interior. The general temperature of the coast districts 
 ranges between 22° and 31° (72° and 88° F.) in the shade, 
 the maximum being 33° (91° F.) and the minimum 17° 
 (62° F.) ; away from the sea, the temperatures decline 
 1° to 2° F., principally owing to the rise of the land. The 
 limits of elevation are from sea-level on the coast to 550 ft. 
 inland. It is as much at home on flat land as on hill slopes, 
 provided always that the land is drained. 
 
 Though the cultivation of this plant in its native soil was 
 started by the late President Koberts, and is extending every 
 year, attention has principally been paid to its acclimatisa- 
 tion in other countries. In Ceylon and Southern India, some 
 hundreds of acres are already planted with it, and the move- 
 ment is still extending. A point greatly in favour of the 
 plant is the low altitude at which it flourishes, thus per- 
 mitting the utilisation of land otherwise unproductive* 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 241 
 
 At the elevations where C. Arabica is best cultivated, this 
 species refuses to grow, and perhaps the highest successful 
 plantation is at about 1500 ft., at which height it was found 
 beneficial to leave some of the forest trees as shade ; probably 
 the planting of coco-nut trees would be better. The young 
 plants require careful protection from wind and extreme 
 heat ; but soon become hardy. The size of the trees is such 
 that an acre will not conveniently contain more than 450, 
 At a greater elevation than 800 ft., difficulty is experienced 
 in ripening the fruit. Planters are sanguine that a hybrid 
 between the Arabian and Liberian species would flourish in 
 the zone of 1000 to 3000 ft. The hope that the new species 
 would be proof against leaf-disease has been somewhat 
 disappointed; nevertheless, the trees are very much less 
 affected than the common shrub. The trees appear also to 
 demand less rain and to withstand greater heat. On the 
 score of longevity, there appears to be little difference 
 between the two kinds. They mature early, and bear 
 heavily ; one estate in Ceylon had trees yielding a ton an 
 acre at 4 years old ; and 7 cwt. an acre is said to be an 
 average crop. The idea of its entirely replacing the longer 
 known variety is fanciful, yet by cultivation and preparation 
 much may be done to improve the inferior flavour and coarse- 
 ness of the berry, which now prevent its being used alone. 
 
 The plant has been largely introduced into other of our 
 Colonies, into Brazil, and by the Dutch into Java. In the 
 West Indies it grows exceedingly well, and bids defiance to 
 the blight ( Cemiostoma coffeellum ) ; it has a further advantage 
 in this case that the ripened berries remain so long on the 
 trees as to enable the crop to be gathered by few hands. It 
 flourishes best on the “ heavy bottom ” lands, and in poor 
 moist lands, and is recommended as particularly valuable for 
 planting on cocoa estates. By grafting or inarching the 
 Arabian species on stems of Liberica , an increased growth is 
 obtained. 
 
 A writer in the ‘ Journal of the Society of Arts ’ gives the 
 following information. 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 “ In Liberia tbe coffee tree is grown in all varieties of soil, 
 and prospers most in those of a loose nature, such as the 
 sandy and loamy soils, especially if these are strengthened 
 by the addition of rocks. There are two species of sandy 
 soil in Liberia ; one has been the bed of the sea, and this has 
 not been enriched by decayed vegetable matter, its sub- 
 stratum of clay or other earth is at too great a depth to be 
 of service to it, and hence it is barren, or nearly so. The 
 other sandy soil has been somewhat enriched by decayed 
 vegetable and other matter, and has near the surface a sub- 
 stratum of clay. This serves as a reservoir, to hold the 
 surplus water, which, rising through the sand by capillary 
 attraction, keeps plants growing, even in dry weather. This 
 soil is particularly suited to coffee, which grows rapidly in 
 it. The United States Consul at Monrovia says that the 
 method of cultivation practised in Liberia is similar to that 
 adopted in the East Indies. The forests are cleared in the 
 same manner ; the undergrowth is first cut, then the large 
 trees are felled, lopped, and when sufficiently dry, the whole 
 is set on fire. The stumps of the trees are, as a rule, 
 immediately removed. The entire ground is not ploughed, 
 but' holes are dug at proper intervals for the reception of the 
 plants. These are generally not less than 12 ft. apart, and 
 are dug in straight parallel lines. Ploughing, by loosening 
 the soil, would, on sloping land, render it liable to be washed 
 away by the heavy rains. The plants are taken from the 
 nursery when from a year to two years old, and in planting, 
 the cherry hull is removed, and the seeds are deposited in 
 rows from two to three feet apart. The seeds are inserted 
 in the ground at a depth of about one inch, if the showers 
 be regular, but at a depth of two inches if the weather is dry. 
 The transplanting is generally done at the beginning of the 
 rainy season, in May or June. The trees are topped at the 
 height of 5 ft., but this rule is not observed by all farmers. 
 After the trees are topped, they shoot out a number of 
 suckers from the trunk ; these are generally pulled out by 
 hand, and no secondary shoots are allowed to grow on the 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 213 
 
 branches nearer to the trunk than 18 in. This would 
 give an open space of 3 ft. in diameter, in the centre of the 
 tree, for the penetration of sunshine, and the circulation of 
 air. The Liberian coffee tree does not produce all its flowers 
 at one blooming ; the time of blossoming depends upon the 
 occasional showers that fall in the dry season, for although 
 the buds may stand out prominently, they will remain with- 
 out opening for a space of two months, or until there falls a 
 shower of rain sufficient to saturate the soil ; a light shower 
 which does not soak into the ground will not cause them to 
 open. In December, a slight blossom appears, and the 
 fullest blooms occur in January and February. There is 
 only one full crop, and this is gathered during the months 
 of December, January, February, and March. Surface 
 manuring is the best suited to Liberia coffee trees, as these 
 belong to the class of forest trees whose feeders keep near the 
 surface. Even when the manure is placed in trenches, the 
 fibrous roots or feeders penetrate it and seek the surface long 
 before the manure is consumed. Coffee pulp, mixed with 
 other ingredients, guano, ashes, and clay from the hills of 
 the 4 Termites ’ are also extensively used as manures to pro- 
 mote the growth of the coffee tree. Two systems of hulling 
 the coffee are practised in Liberia ; one consists in taking off 
 the cherry hull when fresh from the tree, drying the bean, 
 and then denuding it of its parchment hull ; the other in 
 drying the entire berry, and taking off both hulls by one 
 manipulation. The former method is the more expeditious, 
 but by the latter there is an improvement in the quality of 
 the coffee, as the beans having been thoroughly dried in both 
 hulls, the aroma is prevented from escaping, and it is also 
 said that there is a gain in the weight of the bean. The 
 Liberian coffee tree is not subject to so many diseases as is 
 that of other countries ; there are, however, sometimes 
 observable on the leaves of some trees, small yellow spots, 
 which, in the opinion of many Ceylon planters, was the 
 Hemileia vastatrix , that pestilence so destructive to coffee 
 plantations in the East Indies. But these spots were found 
 
 R 2 
 
244 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 always of the same colour, and did not turn black, nor did 
 the leaves drop off, as in the case of the above-named disease, 
 and the trees bore their usual quantity of fruit. The borer 
 only occasionally attacks the coffee tree in Liberia ; this is 
 the larva of a fly or winged beetle, now identified as the 
 Xylotrechus quadrupes. It generally attacks the tree some 
 inches above the ground by boring. There is a disease also 
 which affects the bark of the coffee tree, and this is caused by 
 grubs attacking the roots of the tree. The disease, however, 
 does not always begin at the root ; sometimes it appears in 
 one of the branches, at others it is to be found in a long line 
 on one side of the tree, while the bark in all other directions 
 is perfectly sound and healthy. In no case, however, where 
 diseases similar to those in other countries attack the Liberian 
 coffee tree, are the effects so general or so disastrous. 
 Different estimates have been given of the production of the 
 Liberian coffee trees. It has been stated that, if properly 
 cultivated, they ought to average 3 lbs. when ten or 
 twelve years old, but the trees, owing to lack of means to 
 give them the high cultivation which they require, do not 
 produce on an average one- third of the quantity they are 
 capable of producing. Consul Smyth states that a Ceylon 
 coffee planter of thirty years’ experience in coffee growing, 
 estimated that the production of an acre of Liberian coffee 
 would, under favourable circumstances, equal that of ten 
 acres of Ceylon coffee. The cost of cultivation per acre may 
 be roughly estimated as follows : — Clearing the land, 2 1. ; 
 cost of plants, 24s. ; planting, 13s. Weeding, the first year, 
 if the ground is thoroughly cleared and burned at first, will 
 be only half the cost of subsequent years. The cost of 
 weeding, after the first year, may be estimated at 22s. an 
 acre, when weeding is done after the Liberian method 
 generally, that is two weedings a year. There will be no 
 cost for topping or pruning the first year ; about the third 
 year, however, after the trees are planted, there will be an 
 expense of about 6s. an acre for topping, and in subsequent 
 years the cost of pruning, amounting to about 6s., must be 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 245 
 
 added to this. The expense of tools, machinery, or superin- 
 tendence, is not included in the above estimates. Consul 
 Smyth, in conclusion, states that the Liberian coffee industry 
 is attaining very considerable importance, and the quantity 
 exported largely increasing every year.” 
 
 Madagascar . — Coffee grows well in most parts of Mada- 
 gascar ; in recent years large plantations have been formed 
 along the banks of the rivers on the eastern side of the 
 island. These are chiefly managed by Creole traders, who 
 employ slave labour. Coffee already promises to become a 
 very important article of export. 
 
 Mexico . — Though Mexico scarcely figures in the coffee- 
 producing countries, its capacity and adaptability have been 
 tested by successful cultivation. The productive regions are 
 found on the sea slope of the mountains : on the Pacific side, 
 from Guatemala, for more than a thousand miles to the north, 
 till reaching a line of occasional frost in the State of Sinaloa ; 
 and on the Gulf coast, from Yucatan into Tamaulipas, for 
 more than a thousand miles. In addition, it flourishes in 
 the valleys of the interior, wherever the table-land is de- 
 pressed to the level of tropical and semi-tropical vegetation. 
 The elevation above the sea, at which it is cultivated, varies 
 from 4500 ft., and even higher, down to nearly sea-level in 
 many localities on both coasts. The production need only be 
 limited by the extent of land brought under cultivation. 
 Mexico as a coffee-producing country has been tested by more 
 than fifty years of experience. That coffee has not assumed 
 the first place in exportation is to be attributed to the same 
 causes which have retarded all development of the country. 
 Hitherto, the production has been mostly consumed by the 
 home demand, which is quite large, as coffee is in very 
 general use by all classes ; but during the past few years, 
 the cultivation has increased, so that a small exportation has 
 commenced. The statistics of the port of Yera Cruz indi- 
 cate a steady development of the export, which ought in a 
 few years to become considerable: — 1871, 672,588 lb. ; 1872, 
 1,912,020; 1873,3,909,446; 1874,4,204,446; 1875,5,375,678. 
 
246 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 The young plants are transplanted from the nurseries at 
 twelve to eighteen months, to the fields, which are prepared 
 in open forests, and on mountain sides affording shade. In 
 open fields, a growing shade must he created, usually by 
 planting bananas ; but the best cultivators set out cinchona 
 and valuable timber trees, as oak, walnut, &c. The second 
 year after planting gives a very slight yield of coffee ; the third 
 year, about a half crop ; and the fourth year (or when the 
 plant is five years old), a full crop. The plants are set out 
 usually about three yards apart each way, though often 
 closer. The cultivation consists in keeping the fields clean, 
 and ploughing ; in certain localities, irrigation is necessary ; 
 the best planters prune carefully, keeping the height at 
 6 to 8 ft. The first flowering is sometimes as early as 
 December; the second, in February; the third and most 
 abundant, in March and April. The berries are dried by 
 exposure to the sun, when they shrivel, and change to a 
 black colour. They are then put into a mortar, and the 
 beans are hulled or beaten out with a pestle, and are then 
 separated from the parchment by the crude process of 
 winnowing, though sometimes a fan-mill is used. So far, 
 no disease of plant or berry has appeared ; and although 
 great drought may diminish the crop, it does not destroy it. 
 The flower, when in full bloom, is sometimes broken off by 
 severe winds ; but this seldom diminishes the yield. 
 
 The trees continue bearing for twenty to twenty-five 
 years. There are, however, trees sixty to seventy years old, 
 which are yielding a fine crop. The average yield per tree 
 is about 1J lb., though with intelligent pruning and 
 manuring, it may be increased to 3 lb. a tree. It is not un- 
 common to find trees yielding 5 to 7 lb., and in very exceptional 
 cases, 25 to 50 lb. each. After the plants begin to bear a full 
 crop, the annual cost of cultivation, up to sale in local 
 market, is 6 to 7 cents a pound. The above remarks refer 
 especially to the region around Cordova, which is at present 
 the greatest producer of the republic, and the most accessible 
 to the American market ; but several other localities are 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 247 
 
 assuming some importance. One of these is the district of 
 Soconusco, in the State of Chiapas, immediately upon the 
 borders of the republic of Guatemala. Several foreigners and 
 a number of resident proprietors have embarked in the culti- 
 vation. The special advantages presented here are cheapness 
 of land and labour ; the chief impediment is the fact that 
 this district is disputed territory, claimed by both Mexico 
 and Guatemala, and the tenure and protection of property 
 are insecure. The valley of Uruapan, in the State of 
 Michoacan, has great celebrity for its superior quality of 
 coffee. But the most noted region is the State of Colima, on 
 the Pacific coast ; its product is so highly esteemed that it 
 commands a fabulous price in the City of Mexico, and more 
 distant places in the republic. The favourable report on 
 sample lots sent to Europe in 1873 gave an impetus to the 
 cultivation. Since that year, over one million plants have 
 been set out, and are now beginning to bear ; planting 
 continues to increase, and coffee promises to become the 
 principal article of export. The demand is so great that 
 large lots fetch 27 \ cents per pound at the plantation, 
 mainly for consumption in the interior, a small portion only 
 being shipped to Germany by resident German merchants, 
 on private orders. Colima, and some other States, have 
 passed liberal laws for the encouragement of coffee cultiva- 
 tion, offering premiums for the largest crop produced, and 
 exempting coffee lands from all taxes. 
 
 Natal . — Coffee culture in this colony seems to be strug- 
 gling against adverse conditions, notably the disastrous 
 spread of the bark disease, for which no cure has been found. 
 This is the more to be regretted as the quality of the beans 
 is very fair, and the demand for the article is always grow- 
 ing. The causes of the disease do not seem to have yet been 
 sufficiently investigated, and without this there is little 
 good in making suggestions as to shade, manuring, pruning, 
 &c., as remedies. The evidence in favour of partial shade 
 in many localities is strong ; for this purpose, local varieties 
 
248 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 of Erytlirina might he used, as in Java, &c. One planter 
 expresses himself very strongly on the subject of topping : 
 he condemns the adoption of a universal standard of height, 
 and recommends for the coast lands a height of 6 to 8 ft. ; 
 and for the higher lands, ranging from Fields’ Hill upwards, 
 about 5 ft. Unlike Ceylon, elevation seems but little to 
 affect the value of Natal estates ; but river-beds, and low, 
 damp places, being liable to frost, must be avoided. Too 
 little attention, perhaps, has been given to irrigation in the 
 dry season. The best months for making seed-beds are 
 September or February : when the former is chosen, the 
 seedlings should be ready for the nursery at the time of 
 the autumn rains (March) ; when the latter, the spring 
 rains (September to October). A safeguard against the 
 young plants being scorched is found in large castor-oil 
 leaves ; they are cut with about 9 in. of stalk, and are stuck 
 into the ground between each plant and the sun, soon 
 drooping, and forming sun-shades. The plants are said to 
 begin bearing in eighteen months after transplanting, the 
 yield gradually increasing till the 7th or 8th year, when 
 they should give full crops. A fair average crop is put down 
 at 1 lb. a tree all round. Nearly all the crop is used in the 
 colony or neighbouring republics, consequently the Customs 
 returns only show a very small proportion of the annual 
 yield ; it is impossible, however, that the entire yield of the 
 colony has ever exceeded 20,000 cwt. The exports were, in 
 1874, 680 cwt.; 1875, 363; 1876, 179; 1877, 91. 
 
 Nicaragua . — A few coffee estates exist ; but the export is 
 very trifling — some 400 to 500 lb. annually. 
 
 Pacific Islands . — Coffee has been successfully introduced 
 into the Fiji and the Friendly Islands, and in the course of 
 a few years it will probably form an important export. 
 Trees raised from seed bear fruit in the fourth year. In the 
 Sandwich Islands, the cultivation is also progressing, large 
 plantations having been laid out with a view' to supplying 
 the markets of Sydney, California, and Chili. Almost the 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 249 
 
 whole of the produce goes at 'present to the United States, 
 the small remainder being taken by China and Germany. 
 The total export, in 1878, was 127,963 lb. 
 
 Peru . — Coffee grows luxuriantly on the mountain slopes, 
 the crops often being so heavy as to necessitate artificial 
 supports for the branches. Nevertheless, the export from 
 Mollendo, the second port of the republic, amounted only to 
 about 140 cwt., in 1878. 
 
 Philippines , &c . — Coffee thrives remarkably in the Philip- 
 pines, and the berry possesses a peculiar flavour which is 
 highly esteemed on the Continent, so that though it is by no 
 means well prepared or nice looking, the worst brands fetch 
 a higher price than Java growth, and the value on the spot 
 far exceeds the current rate of the London markets. There 
 are two kinds of coffee, viz. “ Manilla ” and “ Zamboanga.’ 1 
 The former is grown in the islands of Batangas, Indan, 
 Laguna, and Cavite; its price in place, in 1878, varied 
 between 191? dol. and 22 dol. (dol. = 4s. 2d .) a picul 
 (139 J lb.) ; the beans are medium-sized, and pale-green in 
 colour. The latter variety comes from Mindanao, and the 
 southern islands generally. The beans are larger than the 
 " Manilla,” but yellowish- white in colour, and flabby in 
 texture ; samples also always contain much rubbish ; local 
 prices, in 1878, fluctuated from 17^ to 21 dol. a picul. The 
 exports of all kinds from Manilla were, in 1877, 3843 tons, 
 value 245,980?. ; and in 1878, 2306 tons, value 147,560?. 
 The proportion sent to Great Britain, in the latter year, was 
 only 160 tons, and to British Colonies, 242 tons; the re- 
 mainder was taken by Continental Europe. Shipment is 
 effected in bags of 150 lb., or in cases of 200-300 lb. In the 
 islands of Cebu and Bohol, the natives have planted patches 
 of coffee, and small parcels of 4 6 parchment ” were offered in 
 1878. The quality is excellent, and the price stood at 14 
 to 16 dol. a picul. Small quantities, of inferior growth, from 
 Yligan in Mindanao were offered at 12 to 13 dol. a picul. In 
 Timor, the Portuguese are extending the cultivation among 
 the natives ; the trees mature early, 1^ cwt. of coffee being 
 
250 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 obtained from fifty trees in 4 to 5 years. In Amboy n a, also, 
 a number of trees have been planted. 
 
 Siam . — In the hilly districts of the East Coast of the 
 Gulf of Siam the cultivation is carried on to a limited 
 extent. Some fine samples were shown at the Exhibition of 
 1862. 
 
 Straits Settlements . — After a fair trial, it seems that coffee 
 planting in Penang has not been a success. During the first 
 12 to 18 months, the plants grow well, and are strong; but 
 the effort of bearing fruit, under the influence of long-con- 
 tinued drought, weakens them so that they lose foliage and 
 fall a prey to disease. Under shade, on the plains, they 
 stand better ; but the crop is very light, and often fails 
 altogether. On the Great Hill, the plants bear better ; but 
 the plantations are restricted to narrow limits. Liberian 
 plants have been introduced into Singapore and Sarawak, 
 and promise well. 
 
 Sumatra . — Among the Eastern Archipelago, this island 
 ranks next after Java in the quantity of its produce, the 
 cultivation having been largely adopted by the natives. 
 The quality of the berry varies much ; the dark -yellow or 
 brown are the best, the black are inferior. The annual crop 
 may perhaps reach 20 million lb. 
 
 Surinam . — A century ago this colony produced 7J million 
 kilo, of coffee ; this enormous quantity has gradually 
 dwindled down to insignificance: — In 1875 the production 
 was 37,357 kilo.; the export, 644 kilo.; in 1876 the figures 
 were 12,412, and 325 ; in 1867, 6179, and 159. In this last 
 year there was one estate planted with coffee and cocoa, and 
 four with coffee and plantains. 
 
 United States . — The Department of Agriculture, at Wash- 
 ington, has recently issued a circular relative to the possi- 
 bility of coffee culture in some of the States, and is led 
 to believe that the conditions of climate and soil will be 
 found suitable in Florida, Lower California, and part of 
 Texas. It is stated, indeed, that in the two former is found 
 an abundance of wild coffee. In California, seed obtained 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 251 
 
 from Costa Eica lias been planted, and tlie results bitlierto 
 are satisfactory. 
 
 Venezuela . — The annual production is about \ million cwt., 
 the best being grown in the cooler portion of the State. The 
 crop is gathered in October ; the cherries are spread on 
 hurdles exposed to the sun, where they ferment for 14 to 20 
 days, and then dry. Pulping is performed by machinery, 
 and the parchment is winnowed away. The average crop 
 is generally placed at J lb. a tree, which in some localities is 
 reduced to \ lb. 
 
 West Indies . — The decline of coffee culture in the British 
 West Indies since the emancipation of the negroes almost 
 amounts to abandonment. It is commonly attributed in 
 great measure to the ravages of the blight already described ; 
 but it is evidently traceable rather to social influences and 
 a faulty system of agriculture. Serious attempts are now 
 being made to restore the industry to some of its former 
 importance, so that a sketch of the principal conditions of 
 successful culture may be opportunely given. The best soil 
 is an open, dark-brown or reddish loam, 1-2 ft. thick, resting 
 on finely disintegrated but undecomposed volcanic rock. 
 Some of the finest ground exists on declivities which can be 
 traversed only by planting the feet at the base of the coffee 
 stems. On some hills of this character are now to be found 
 trees 60 to 70 years old, which have been uprooted and have 
 re-established themselves. In the face of this fact, the reno- 
 vation of the existing abandoned plantations should be an 
 easy matter. The trees should be relieved of the mass of 
 bush, weeds, and ‘‘provisions” which now smothers them, 
 and should undergo a judicious pruning, extended over 
 three years if necessary. In this climate, shade and shelter 
 are undoubtedly beneficial. On old, overgrown plantations, 
 natural shade may be left when clearing, taking care to 
 select trees of small foliage for the purpose. When laying 
 out new estates, greater choice will be possible. 
 
 In many instances, cocoa has been planted amongst the 
 coffee, probably with a view of getting crops of both from the 
 
252 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 same ground. It is quite possible to grow them profitably 
 on the same field ; but each must have its own sufficient 
 space, and thus there is no gain ; besides, their habits of 
 growth are un suited to the arrangement. 
 
 For the purpose of shelter, there is, perhaps, nothing 
 better than the joois-doux tree, especially on inferior soils and 
 in exposed situations ; hedges of it planted as a break- vreather 
 are to be found on every abandoned estate. The pimento is 
 equally suitable, but is of slower growth. Neither is of 
 any value as a shade-giving tree. Of all indigenous plants, 
 the Moricypre ( Byrsonina spicata ) appears to be the most 
 suitable as a protection against both sun and wind ; it is a 
 small-leaved, fast-growing, medium-sized tree, and common 
 everywhere. The distance from tree to tree will depend on 
 the variety of coffee grown, and the character of soil and of 
 situation ; but it is indicated by the principle of each plant 
 being so far from its neighbour, that when all have grown to 
 their fullest size, they do not touch by about 1 ft. Thus the 
 distance may vary from 4 to 8 ft., or even more. A very 
 important factor in the sum of influences which have brought 
 the culture to its present low ebb is to be found in the 
 greatly diminished moisture of the climate occasioned by the 
 wholesale destruction of the forests. This is especially the 
 case with plantations on steep hillsides ; and it remains to 
 be seen what art can do to combat the difficulty. 
 
 Cuba. — In 1847 there were over 2000 coffee estates, 
 yielding nearly 50 million lb. annually; in 1851 sugar and 
 tobacco had so far replaced coffee that the production fell to 
 13 million lb. ; and now Cuba imports coffee from Porto Rico. 
 
 Dominica. — From an annual production of over 2 million lb., 
 Dominica has fallen to nil. The effects of the negro emanci- 
 pation and the coffee blight were, perhaps, felt more severely 
 here than in the other islands. The export tariff is 13 a 
 cwt. 
 
 Grenada. — At one time, Grenada coffee was one of the only 
 three brands known in the London markets ; cocoa has now 
 taken its place. 
 
CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 253 
 
 Guadaloupe. — A century ago, this French colony exported 
 7h million lb. of coffee ; in 1874 the exports were 625,200 lb. 
 It nearly all goes to France as of Martinique growth. In 
 1873 there were 3588 hectares under coffee, yielding about 
 1000 lb. a hectare (= nearly 2J acres). 
 
 Hayti. — Hayti has fallen from a production of 80 million lb., 
 in 1789, to 54^ million in 1874, chiefly owing to disastrous 
 hurricanes. The exports in 1878 were, to Italy, 83,000 lb. ; 
 Spain, 17,000 ; West Indies, 11,000 ; France, 3000 ; United 
 States, 2000 ; Great Britain, 1400. 
 
 Jamaica. — This hilly island used to produce large crops of 
 fine quality. The average annual shipment in 1805-7 was 
 28J million lb. ; this fell to 4 million in 1864 ; but increased 
 to over 10 million in 1874. The export, in 1875, was 
 7,136,327 lb. ; 1876, 8,707,552 ; 1877, 9,532,887. An export 
 duty of 6s. a tierce is levied. Benewed efforts are being 
 made to extend the cultivation, and what appear to be rather 
 extravagant hopes are being based upon the introduction of 
 Liberian coffee. Some plants of this variety, introduced in 
 1874, were placed in cinchona propagating houses, and then 
 distributed to planters at all altitudes ; those put out at the 
 lower elevations attained the greatest success. In Jamaica, 
 common coffee is cultivated at all heights, from the sea-level 
 up to 5000 ft. The superior qualities, however, are only 
 produced at heights ranging above 2000 ft., beneath which 
 altitude the quality decreases in value as it approaches the 
 level of the sea. As the peasantry, who are now the largest 
 producers, almost exclusively cultivate their coffee below 
 2000 ft., the acquisition of a species adapted to the climate of 
 the lowlands is a matter of great importance. A gradual 
 diminution in the area of plantation coffee is taking place. 
 The soil of the Port Eoyal Mountains, in which the best 
 coffee is grown, is becoming more impoverished from year to 
 year, and all the land adjacent to these plantations has been 
 in a great measure exhausted by coffee cultivation, so that 
 there is very little available land in their immediate proxi- 
 mity. These fields are confined to the southern slopes of the 
 
254 
 
 LOCAL DETAILS OF 
 
 Blue Mountain range. The northern slopes, except near the 
 sea, are covered with dense primeval forest, no attempts at 
 cultivation having been made here, though these lands are 
 the most valuable in Jamaica for coffee cultivation. It is 
 important, however, to bear in mind that the conditions of 
 humidity differ on the northern and on the southern slopes. 
 On the latter side the destruction of the forest has materi- 
 ally lessened the moisture, thus rendering the climate com- 
 paratively dry. The area of unoccupied land favourable for 
 coffee, including forest on the eastern prolongation of the 
 southern slopes, may be roughly estimated at 60,000 to 80,000 
 acres, nearly all of which belongs to government. The total 
 area in the island now under coffee cultivation, much at 
 unsuitable elevations, is 22,000 acres. 
 
 Martinique. — Here also coffee culture is declining, in spite 
 of new lands being taken up. The acreage probably amounts 
 to about 1400, the yield being reckoned at 600 to 1000 lb. a 
 hectare (2J acres); the total production in 1873 was 210,000 
 kilo. ; it is mostly consumed in the island, France taking the 
 little that is exported. 
 
 Porto Rico. — Coffee cultivation might be extended here on 
 now unproductive land. Considerable quantities are grown 
 in the province of Ponce, and minor quantities in Mayaguez, 
 Arecibo, and Aguadilla. The quality is excellent, and 
 though not well known in England, it is valued in Latin 
 Europe. Shade is provided according to the needs of each 
 plant. The beans are garbled for market, and those intended 
 for the Mediterranean are polished in a mill, with the 
 addition of a little colouring matter when necessary. The 
 exports in quintals (of 101J lb.) were, in 1874, 199,488; 
 1875, 256,485; 1876,306,526; 1877,137,140; 1878,151,204. 
 The destinations of the export of 1878, were: Spain, 16,771 ; 
 Italy, 15,406 ; France, 5908 ; Great Britain and Provinces, 
 5472; Germany, 4279; United States, 34; other countries 
 (principally Cuba), 103,334. 
 
 Trinidad. — The coffee export reaches about 25,000 lb. 
 yearly. There is said to be scarcely any part of the island 
 
CULTUEE AND PEODUCTION. 255 
 
 where coffee culture may not be profitably undertaken; but 
 the districts of Maracas, Aripo, and North Oroponche are re- 
 garded as possessing conditions not to be surpassed. The 
 export duty is 11 \d. a cwt. The' island possesses a fine 
 Botanic Garden, in which are grown some ten varieties, or 
 sub-varieties, of coffee. Some notes concerning their peculi- 
 arities may be of interest : — (1) Liberian coffee seems to be 
 regarded as a means of reviving coffee culture in the Western 
 Tropics. The plants thrive well in the ordinary red gravelly 
 loam of the northern part of the island. From the nature of 
 its growth, it must be planted widely, and topping is recom- 
 mended at 7 ft. Prestoe advises an interval of 1 6 ft. between 
 the trees, the space to be temporarily occupied by common 
 creole coffee, which would benefit by the shade, and afford a 
 quicker return ; the latter are to be removed as soon as the 
 Liberian plants require room, say at the 6th to 7th year. (2) 
 A narrow-leaved coffee received from Java seems well adapted 
 for poor, rocky soils. It resists drought, is very prolific, and 
 has a large bean ; but it is slow of development. Its peculiar 
 foliage enables it to withstand heat and drought, and renders 
 it unliable to attack from insects and fungi. It should be 
 planted at 6 ft. ; its sturdy but stunted growth is said to 
 obviate the necessity for topping and pruning. (3) Souffriere 
 coffee has been so named from its occurrence on the Souffriere 
 Hills of Dominica, where the plants remained uniformly 
 fruitful and healthy, while surrounded by creole and Mocha 
 trees all affected by blight and drought. The texture of the 
 foliage makes it proof against insects ; the natural habit of 
 growth is trichotomous ; and the bean is large. It seems 
 suited for steep and barren hill-sides, and though less hardy 
 than (2), it develops more quickly. (4) The Mocha variety 
 is subdivided into major and minor ; the former attains a 
 height of 7 ft. ; the latter, formerly cultivated in the 
 Maraval, St. Ann’s, and Laventille valleys, does not exceed 
 4 to 5 ft., yields a smaller bean, and is less prolific. The 
 northern hills and valleys of Trinidad might grow both sub- 
 varieties, major in the low ground, and minor on the hills. 
 
256 LOCAL DETAILS OF CULTURE AND PRODUCTION. 
 
 Prestoe says that as a rule they would become most prolific 
 under full exposure (presumably to the sun), after being 
 established by the shade afforded by such crops as pigeon- 
 peas, &c. Even such a scorching as to cause a partial 
 shedding of the leaves he considers beneficial. (5) Bengal 
 coffee differs from the others, in a very compact growth, small 
 and long bean, and a preference for dense shade. Its pecu- 
 liarly-shaped bean places it among second-class coffees as 
 regards market price ; but it is recommended for plant- 
 ing with cocoa, when this system of double cropping is 
 practised. 
 
( 257 ) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 J. B. A. Chevalier. 
 
 Du Cafe Paris: 1862. 
 
 W. G. Mclvor. 
 
 Laborie’s ‘ Coffee-planter of St. Domingo.’ 
 
 Madras : 1863. 
 
 P. L. Simmonds. 
 
 Coffee and Chicory. London : 1864. 
 
 A. R. W. Lascelles. 
 
 Nature and Cultivation of Coffee. London : 1865. 
 
 C. E. A. Le Comte. 
 
 Culture et Production du Cafe dans les Colonies. 
 
 Paris: 1865. 
 
 W. H. Middleton. 
 
 Manual of Coffee-planting. Natal : 1866. 
 
 W. Sabonadiere. 
 
 Coffee-planter cf Ceylon. London: 1870. 
 
 R. H. Elliott. 
 
 Planter in Mysore. London : 1871. 
 
 Moreira. 
 
 Breves Consideragoes sobre a Historia e Cultura do 
 Cafeiro. Rio de Janeiro : 1873. 
 
 P. H. F. B. d’Orli. 
 
 Culture du Cafe, &c. Paris : 1874. 
 
 H. E. Stainbank. 
 
 Coffee in Natal. London : 1874. 
 
 H. Prestoe. 
 
 Report on Coffee in Dominica. Trinidad: 1875 
 
 A. Riant. 
 
 Le Cafe, &c. Paris : 1875. 
 
 s 
 
258 
 
 BIBLIOGKAPHY. 
 
 W. P. Hiern. 
 
 African Species of Coffea. Jour. Lin. Soc. : 1876. 
 
 R. Hanson. 
 
 Culture and Commerce of Coffee. London: 1877. 
 
 E. C. P. Hull. 
 
 Coffee-planting in S. India and Ceylon. 
 
 P. L. Simmonds. 
 
 London : 1877. 
 
 Tropical Agriculture. 
 L. Rice. 
 
 London: 1877. 
 
 Mysore and Coorg. 
 G. Pennetier. 
 
 Bangalore : 1877-8. 
 
 Le Cafe. 
 R. B. Tytler. 
 
 Paris : 1878. 
 
 Prospects of Coffee Production. 
 T. Christy. 
 
 Aberdeen: 1878. 
 
 New Commercial Plants. 
 G. Anderson. 
 
 London : 1878 — . 
 
 Coffee Culture in Mysore. 
 J. Hughes. 
 
 Bangalore: 1879. 
 
 Ceylon Coffee Soils and Manures. 
 H. A. A. Nicholls. 
 
 London : 1879. 
 
 Cultivation of Liberian Coffee in 
 R. C. Haldane. 
 
 the West Indies. 
 
 London: 1881. 
 
 Subtropical Cultivations and Climates. London : 1886. 
 A. M. and J. Ferguson. 
 
 Planting Directory. 
 Hon. M. Romero. 
 
 Colombo : at intervals. 
 
 Cultivo del Cafe en la Costa Meridional de Chiapas. 
 
 Neitner. 
 
 
 Enemies of the Coffee-tree. 
 E. L. Arnold. 
 
 Colombo: Fergusson. 
 
 Coffee : its Cultivation and Profit. 
 Liberian Coffee : its History, &c. 
 
 London: 1886. 
 
(’ 259 ) 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Acacia shade, 237 
 Acre, number of plants in, 18 
 Adulterants, 116, 217 
 Alavangoe, 19 
 Albizzia shade, 237 
 Alumina in soils, 36 
 Ants, 87 
 
 Arabian coffee, 169 
 
 shrub, 1 
 
 Asphalt patio, 103 
 Atmosphere, 6 
 Australia, 171 
 Austrian trade, 146 
 
 Bamboo huts, 16 
 Bananas, 188 
 Barbecue, 103 
 Bark disease, 86 
 Bauhinia, 197 
 Beans, 1 
 Beetles, 84 
 Belgian trade, 140 
 Berries, fallen, 39 
 
 forming, 39 
 
 Berry, 1 
 
 , preparation, 95-110 
 
 Bevel-gear pul per, 101 
 Bibliography, 257 
 Bill-hook, 13 
 Black bug, 38, 85 
 
 rot, 83, 87 
 
 Blanketty beans, 103 
 Blight, 3, 83, 241 
 Blossom, 1 
 Blossoming, 39 
 Bolivia, 171 
 Bones as manure, 37 
 Books, 257 
 Borer, 84 
 Borneo, 171 
 
 Boundary path, 19 
 Bourbon, 172 
 Branch roads, 19 
 Brazil, 172 
 Breast pulper, 100 
 British exports, 168 
 
 Guiana coffee, 165 
 
 Honduras coffee, 165 
 
 imports, 167 
 
 Bug, 38, 85 
 
 Bungalow, temporary, 17 
 Burning jungle, 13 
 Bushel of seed, plants in, 22 
 
 , seeds in, 23 
 
 Byrsonina spicata shade, 252 
 
 Caffeine, 112 
 Calabashes, planting in, 26 
 Candelillo, 88, 89 
 Canker, 86 
 Cart roads, 19 
 Cassia occidentalis, 117 
 Castor oil fence, 236 
 
 plant, 188 
 
 Catch crops, 31, 187 
 Cattie, 13 
 Cayenne, 182 
 Celebes, 183 
 
 Cemiostoma coffeellum, 3, 83, 89, 
 241 
 
 Cercospora coffeicola, 94 
 Ceylon climate, 42 
 
 coffee, 156, 184 
 
 trade, 131 
 
 Charcoal tree, 196 
 Cherry, 1 
 
 , conveying to curing-house, 39 
 
 , dry, shipping, 109 
 
 , fermenting, 108 
 
 huller, 106 
 
 I picking, 39 
 
260 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Clay, 6 
 
 Clearing land, IB 
 Clerichew stores, 105 
 Climate, 2, 6 
 
 of Ceylon coffee districts, 42 
 
 Cocoa with coffee, 31, 187 
 Coir matting for patio, 104 
 Colombia, 192 
 Colour of beans, 112 
 Commerce, 117 
 Concrete patio, 103 
 Consumption, 117 
 Contract weeding, 33 
 Coolie apartments, 16 
 
 ■ lines, 15 
 
 Coprosma baueriana, 116 
 Costa Rica coffee, 155, 192 
 Cotton with coffee, 31 
 Country damaged, 106, 110 
 Cuba, 252 
 Cultivation, 21-39 
 Curing, 105 
 Cutting jungle, 13 
 Cuttings, disposal, 35 
 Cylinder pulper, 97 
 
 Dadap fence, 236 
 
 shade, 237 
 
 Danish trade, 142 
 
 Date coffee, 116 
 
 Depazea maculosa, 87, 89 
 
 Dibbling, 27 
 
 Diseases, 40-94 
 
 Distances between plants, 18 
 
 Dolomite as manure, 37 
 
 Dominica coffee, 163, 252 
 
 Doombegas tree, 1 1 
 
 Dori shade, 237 
 
 Drains, 20 
 
 Dried cherry huller, 106 
 Drought, 8 
 
 Dry cherry, shipping, 109 
 Drying berries, 103, 193 
 
 , essentials, 110 
 
 machine, 104 
 
 sheds, 104 
 
 Dung, 36 
 Dutch trade, 138 
 Dwellings, bamboo, 16 
 
 for labourers, 15 
 
 , site, 15 
 
 Dwelling, superintendent’s, 17 
 
 Ecuador, 192 
 Edge-runner mill, 106 
 Elevation, 8, 11 
 Enemies, 40-94 
 Erysiphe scandens, 88, 89 
 Erythrina fence, 236 
 
 shade, 237 
 
 Estate, 6-20 
 
 -, size, 14 
 
 Estimates, 188, 197, 244 
 European consumption, 128 
 Experiments on leaf disease, 50 
 Exports, British, 168 
 
 F ailed plants, replacing, 28 
 Fallen berries, 39 
 Felling jungle, 13 
 Fences, 236 
 
 Fermenting cherry, 108 
 
 parchment, 101 
 
 tanks, 102 
 
 Fijian coffee, 159 
 Filling gaps, 28 
 Flat land, 6, 12 
 Flavour of beans, 112 
 Fly, 83 
 Foliage, 1 
 Forest, natural, 6 
 
 shelter, 10 
 
 , virgin, 6 
 
 Form of beans, 112 
 French Guiana, 182 
 
 trade, 135 
 
 Frost, 7 
 Fruit, 1 
 
 , fallen, 39 
 
 Fruiting, 39 
 
 Gaps, filling, 28 
 
 Garbling, 108 
 Gas lime as manure, 37 
 Gearless pulper, 98 
 German trade, 136 
 Gordon’s pulpers, 100 
 Gormandisers, removing, 34 
 Gradients of roads, 19 
 Grasshoppers, 87 
 Grenada, 252 
 Ground thatching, 38 
 Growth, controlling, 35 
 
INDEX, 
 
 261 
 
 Grubbing boo, 19 
 Grubs, 87 
 
 and seedlings, 22 
 
 Guadaloupe, 253 
 
 Guardiola’s drying machine, 104 
 
 Guatemala coflee, 155, 192 
 
 Guiana, 193 
 
 Gypsum as manure, 37 
 
 Handling, 34 
 Harvesting, 39 
 Hayti, 253 
 
 Hemileia vastatrix, 2, 40 
 Hoe, grubbing, 19 
 Holing, 19 
 
 Honduras coffee, 165, 194 
 Hulling, 806 
 Hungarian trade, 146 
 
 Imports, British, 167 
 Impurities, 112 
 India, 153, 194 
 Indian crops, 213 
 
 labour, 208 
 
 land tenure, 207 
 
 native coffee, 206 
 
 trade, 133 
 
 Intervals for plants, 18 
 Iron in soils, 36 
 
 stain, 87, 89 
 
 Italian trade, 146 
 
 O ack tree, 188 
 Jamaica, 161, 253 
 
 trade, 130 
 
 Jarak fence, 236 
 Java coffee, 236 
 Jungle shelter, 10, 27, 29 
 
 Hishr, 169 
 Koleroga, 83, 87 
 
 Labour, 187, 208 
 
 difficulty, 14 
 
 Labourers’ apartments, 16 
 
 dwellings, 15 
 
 health, 16 
 
 Land, flat, 6 
 
 Land, lay, 11 
 
 , old cultivated, 6 
 
 , virgin forest, 6 
 
 Lay of land, 11 
 Leaf disease, 2, 37, 40 
 
 rot, 83, 87 
 
 Leaves as a beverage, 115 
 Lecanium coffese, 85 
 Level plain, 12 
 Liberian and blight, 3 
 
 ^grafting, 2 
 
 in leaf-disease, 2 
 
 , pruning, 4 
 
 , quality, 2 
 
 shrub, 2, 240 
 
 Life-history of leaf-disease, 42 
 Lime and sulphur for leaf-disease, 41 
 
 in soils, 36 
 
 in trenches, 39 
 
 Lining out, 17 
 Literature, 257 
 Local details, 169-256 
 Longevity of estates, 191 
 Loosening soil, 38 
 Loquat tree, 188 
 Loss in shipping, 110 
 
 ]\Iachine makers, 100 
 Madagascar, 245 
 Magnesia in soils, 37 
 Maize with coffee, 31 
 Major and Field’s treatment of im- 
 ported parchment, 109 
 Makers of coffee machinery, 100 
 Mammotie, 19 
 Mancha de hierro, 88 
 Mango, 197 
 
 Manure for seed bed, 24 
 Manures, applying, 37 
 Manuring, 36 
 
 Market varieties and values, 111 
 
 Markets, 111-168 
 
 Marshy land, 12 
 
 Martinique, 254 
 
 Mauritius coffee, 161 
 
 Mealy bug, 85 
 
 Mexico, 245 
 
 Mochara, 116 
 
 Moisture, 2, 6, 7 
 
 Monsoon winds, 1 0 
 
 Moricypre shade and shelter, 252 
 
 Mulching, 38 
 
INDEX. 
 
 262 
 
 IN atal coffee, 160, 247 
 Native reared seedlings, 23 
 Negro coffee, 117 
 Netherlands trade, 138 
 New Grenada coffee, 155 
 Nicaragua, 248 
 Nitrogenous manures, 37 
 Norwegian trade, 143 
 Nurseries, 21 
 
 , soil, 25 
 
 , time to make, 23 
 
 Odour of beans, 112 
 Open trenches, 20 
 Organic matter in soils, 36 
 
 acific Islands, 248 
 Packing, 110 
 Pandall, 186 
 Parchment, 1 
 
 , fermenting, 101 
 
 seed, 22 
 
 , shipping, 109 
 
 Pasteur’s report, 151 
 Paths, 19 
 Patio, 103 
 Peaberry, 1 
 
 Peeler and polisher combined, 107 
 Peeling, 106 
 
 Pellicularia koleroga, 83, 87 
 Period of development of leaf 
 disease, 48 
 Peru, 249 
 Philippines, 249 
 Phosphates, 37 
 Picking, 39 
 Pitting, 19 
 Plain land, 12 
 PJant, 1 
 
 Plantains with coffee, 31, 188 
 
 Planting, 19, 25 
 
 Plants, distances between, 18 
 
 • in a bushel of seed, 22 
 
 in an acre, 18 
 
 , taking up, 25 
 
 Pod coffee, removing, 110 
 Poinciana regia, 197 
 Pois-doux shelter, 252 
 Porto Rico, 254 
 Portuguese trade, 149 
 
 Potash as manure, 37 
 Preparation of berry, 95-110 
 Prices, 111, 220 
 Prospects, 117, 220 
 Pruning, 4, 34 
 Pseudococcus adonidum, 88 
 Pulp, 1 
 
 as manure, 36 
 
 Pulping, 95 
 
 Queensland coffee, 159 
 Quincunxing, 18 
 Quintannie, 19 
 
 XI AINFALL, 2, 6, 7 
 Range, 2 
 Rats, 87 
 Reunion, 172 
 Rice with coffee, 31 
 Ripening, 39 
 Riverside land, 12 
 Roads, 19 
 Rot, 87 
 
 Russian trade, 145 
 Rust spots, 41 
 
 Scaly bug, 85 
 Searching, 34 
 Sea carriage, 110 
 Seed beds, 21 
 
 , depressed, 24 
 
 — : , irrigating, 24 
 
 , width, 24 
 
 in a bushel, 23 
 
 , selecting, 23 
 
 Seedlings burnt up, preventing, 22 
 
 eaten off, preventing, 22 
 
 , hardening, 22 
 
 , native reared, 23 
 
 , spaces, 24 
 
 , wild, 22 
 
 Seeds, distance apart, 21 
 
 , preparing, 23 
 
 Self-sown plants, 22 
 Separating, 107 
 Septoria maculosa, 87, 89 
 Serap shade, 237 
 Setting out plants, 19 
 Shade, 15, 30, 186, 196, 252 
 giving trees, 188, 237 
 
INDEX. 
 
 263 
 
 Shading seeds, 21 
 
 Shelter from wind, 6, 27, 29, 252 
 
 Ship ventilation, 110 
 
 Shipment, 110 
 
 Shipping dry cherry, 109 
 
 parchment, 109 
 
 Shoots, removing, 34 
 Shrub, 1 
 Siam, 250 
 
 Sickness among labourers, 16 
 Sifter, 107 
 
 Silk-cotton tree fence, 236 
 
 Silver skin, 2 
 
 Site of dwellings, 15 
 
 Size of estate, 14 
 
 Sizing, 107 
 
 Slopes, 6, 11 
 
 Smout’s cherry huller, 106 
 
 peeler and polisher, 107 
 
 Soil, 13 
 
 as manure, 36 
 
 , clay, 6 
 
 , elements essential, 36 
 
 , loosening, 38 
 
 , nursery, 25 
 
 , subsoil, 6 
 
 , surface, 6 
 
 , wet, 6 
 
 South-west wind, 1 1 
 Sowing seeds, 21 
 Space between plants, 18 
 Spacing out, 17 
 Spade-bar, 19 
 Species, 1 
 
 Sphserella coffeicola, 91 
 Spiders, 87 
 Sponia Wightii, 196 
 Squirrels, 87 
 Staking, 27 
 
 out, 1 7 
 
 Statistics, 111-168 
 Stilbum flavidum, 92 
 Stores, 105 
 
 Straits cotfee, 158, 250 
 Streams, 7 
 
 Stumping self-sown plants, 22 
 Stumps, 237 
 
 , planting, 26 
 
 Subsoil, 6 
 
 Substitutes, 116 
 
 Suckers, removing, 34 
 
 Sulphur and lime for leaf-disease, 41 
 
 Sumatra, 250 
 
 Sun-drying, 110 
 Sunning, 105 
 
 Superintendent’s dwelling, 17 
 Superphosphate, 37 
 Supply, 117 
 
 Supplying vacancies, 28 
 Surface soil, 6 
 Surinam, 250 
 Swedish trade, 144 
 Swiss trade, 148 
 
 Tanks, fermenting, 102 
 Tap-root, cutting, 22 
 Temperature, 2, 6, 7 
 Thatching ground, 38 
 Tobacco with coffee, 31 
 Tools, 13, 19, 20 
 Topping, 34 
 Trade, 117 
 Training, 35 
 Tramways, 20 
 
 Transplanting to nurseries, 22 
 Transporting cherry, 39 
 Tree shade, 15 
 
 stumps, 14 
 
 Trees, big, 15 
 Trenching, 38 
 Triage, 108 
 Trimming, 34 
 Trinidad coffee, 164, 254 
 
 nited States trade, 134, 250 
 
 "V" acancies, supplying, 28 
 Varieties, 1, 111 
 Values, 111 
 Venezuela, 251 
 
 ake’s experiments on leaf- 
 disease, 42-83 
 Waru shade, 237 
 Wash of slopes, 12 
 Water- holing, 38 
 Watering seeds, 21, 24 
 Water supply, 7 
 
 transport for cherry, 39 
 
 Weeding, 31 
 
 contracts, 33 
 
 seed-bed, 24 
 
INDEX, 
 
 264 
 
 Weeds, 6, 9 
 
 on roads, 20 
 
 Weight of beans, 112 
 West African coffee, 161 
 
 Indian coffee, 161, 251 
 
 Wet soil, 6 
 White bug, 85 
 Wild plants, 22 
 Wind, monsoons, 10 
 shelter, 6, 27, 29, 252 
 
 Wind- wrung shrubs, 10 
 Winnowing, 107 
 Wire tramways, 20 
 Worm, 84 
 
 Xylotrechus quadrupes, 81, 244 
 Yams with coffee, 31 
 
 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, 
 STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
/