18 •• iu/crp-4 Ql/J ANL/LRP-4 LAND RECLAMATION PROGRAM ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY OPERATED FOR U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY UNDER CONTRACT W-31-109-ENG-38 A u«c m usooe The facilities of Argonne National Laboratory are owned by the United States Government. Under the terms of a contract (W-31-109-Eng-38) among the U. S. Department of Energy, Argonne Universities Association and The University of Chicago, the University employs the staff and operates the Laboratory in accordance with policies and pro° rarT,<: fnrmnlatpH annmvpH and reviewed by the Association. 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Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, VA 22161 NTIS price codes Printed copy: A06 Microfiche copy: A01 Distribution Category Coal Mining (UC-88) ANL/LRP-4 ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY 9700 South Cass Avenue Argonne, Illinois 60439 STAUNTON 1 RECLAMATION DEMONSTRATION PROJECT PROGRESS REPORT II Stanley D. Zellmer Site Coordinator ILLINC'j pro? r SURVEY * >y AUG 2G 1SS2 * A? Contributors Jacalyn R. Bernard Anthony J. Dvorak Julie D. Jastrow Mark L. Knight William A. Master Silas W. May R. Michael Miller Barbara K. Mueller Richard D. Olsen Edwin D. Pentecost Peter F. Prodan Jeffrey P. Schubert Andrew A. Sobek William S. Vinikour Michael L. Wilkey Stanley D. Zellmer Land Reclamation Program July 1979 The Land Reclamation Program is a joint effort of the Energy and Environ¬ mental Systems Division and the Division of Environmental Impact Studies at Argonne National Laboratory. This report was prepared for, and the project financially supported by, the following agencies: U.S. Department of Energy, Contract No. W-31-109-Eng-38; Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation Council, State of Illinois (Capital Develop¬ ment Board Project No. 555-090-004); Illinois Institute of Natural Resources, Project No. 80.043. PREFACE This study was performed as a part of the Argonne National Laboratory Land Reclamation Program, which is sponsored by the Department of Energy, Assistant Secretary for Environment, Office of Health and Environmental Research. The program is a joint effort conducted by Argonne's Energy and Environmental Systems Division and Environmental Impact Studies Division. The Land Reclamation Program is addressing the need for coordinated applied and basic research into the physical and ecological problems of land reclamation related to the mining of coal and the development of cost- effective techniques for reclaiming/rehabilitating mined land to productive end uses. The program is conducting integrated research and development projects focused on near- and long-term reclamation problems in all major U.S. coal resource regions, and is coordinating, evaluating, and dissemina¬ ting the results of related studies conducted at other research institu¬ tions. The activities of the Land Reclamation Program involve close cooper¬ ation with industry and the academic community, with the focus on establish¬ ing a comprehensive field and laboratory effort. The program has developed working arrangements with eight coal companies at six research sites throughout the U.S. Coordinated by Stanley D. Zellmer of Argonne's Land Reclamation Program, this project is a multidisciplinary approach to reclamation of an abandoned deep coal mine refuse site in the Midwest. Current investigations are concerned with groundwater and surface water quality, aquatic ecosystems, revegetation, soil characteristics, erosion and runoff, wildlife, soil microbial populations, and economic benefits of the reclamation effort. This project is providing necessary design data for future reclamation efforts. Ralph P. Carter, Director Land Reclamation Program Energy and Environmental Systems Division Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/staunton1reclama00unse TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT . 1 SUMMARY . 1 Stanley D. Zellmer 1 INTRODUCTION . 5 Stanley D. Zellmer 2 GROUNDWATER QUALITY . 13 Jeffrey P. Schubert and Peter F. Prodan 3 SURFACE WATER QUALITY . 23 Richard D. Olsen 4 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS . 31 William S. Vinikour 5 SITE-WIDE REVEGETATION SUCCESS STUDY . 39 William A. Master 6 REVEGETATION RESEARCH PLOTS . 47 Anthony J. Dvorak, Mark J. Knight, Barbara K. Mueller, and Julie D. Jastrow 7 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS. 59 Stanley D. Zellmer and Andrew A. Sobek 8 SLOPE ANGLE AND EROSION RATE. 67 Michael L. Wilkey 9 SOIL MICROBIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS . 73 R. Michael Miller and Silas W. May 10 WILDLIFE INVESTIGATIONS . 81 Edwin D. Pentecost 11 ECONOMIC BENEFITS . 95 Jacalyn R. Bernard 12 SITE MANAGEMENT AND MAINTENANCE. 99 Stanley D. Zellmer V LIST OF FIGURES No. Title ' Page 1.1 Location of the Staunton 1 Site. 6 1.2 Staunton 1 Site after the Development Phase. 10 2.1 Location of Post-Construction Monitoring Wells . 15 3.1 Surface Water Measurement and Quality Sampling Locations. 24 4.1 Aquatic Ecosystem Sampling Locations . 32 5.1 Location of Revegetation Success Study Plots . 40 5.2 Point-Intercept Frame Used to Collect Plant Cover Data. 41 5.3 Total Percent Cover and Percent Cover by Seeded Species . 42 6.1 Location of Revegetation Research Plots . 48 6.2 Revegetation Research Plot Cover Material and Lime Application Rates . 50 6.3 Changes in the Relative Contribution of the Planted Species. 52 6.4 Changes in the Relative Contribution of the Planted Species. 53 7.1 General Soil Sampling and Profile Locations . 60 8.1 Slope-Angle and Erosion-Rate Plots . 68 8.2 Diagram and Arrangement of Runoff Collection Devices and Plots. 70 9.1 Cellulose Decomposition Rates . 9.2 Litter Decomposition Rates . 77 LIST OF TABLES No. Title Page 1.1 Seeding Mixture, Spring 1977 9 1.2 Quantities and Unit Prices for Site Development. 11 2.1 Well Groups, Numbers, and Locations. 16 2.2 Average Pre-Construction Groundwater Quality . 17 2.3 Average Post-Construction Groundwater Quality . 19 3.1 Surface Water Quality, Sampling Location 1 26 3.2 Surface Water Quality, Sampling Location 2 27 3.3 Comparison of Post-Development Water Quality at Sampling Locations 1 and 2. 28 4.1 Mean Percent Composition of Major Taxonomic Groups Collected from the Ponds. 34 4.2 Shannon Diversity Values . 35 6.1 Seed Mixture for Revegetation Research Plots . 49 6.2 Mean Dry Weight/0.5 m^ for All Species, August 1977, and for the Live and Current Years Standing Dead for All Species, August 1978, by Cover Material Depth . 54 6.3 Mean Dry Weight/0.5 m^ for All Live Species, August 1978, by Cover Material Depth . 55 7.1 Soil Characteristics and Mean Percentage Plant Cover . 61 7.2 Profile Description of Minesoil at Site ST-3. 63 7.3 Profile Description of Minesoil at Site ST-8. 64 8.1 Analyses of 4.6-cm Rainfall on Nominal 33% Slopes . 69 9.1 Number of Microorganisms Occurring on July 19, 1978, at Staunton 1 Site Expressed on a Per Gram Dry Weight Basis ... 75 9.2 Relative Frequency of Isolation from Straw Burials of Soil Fungi. 76 9.3 Decomposition Parameters for Each Type of Substrate Under Different Treatments . 78 vii LIST OF TABLES (contd.) No. Title Page 10.1 Mammalian Species Observed . 82 10.2 Small Mammal Capture Data from Live-Trapping . 83 10.3 Age Class Distribution of Small Mammals Captured . 84 10.4 Bird Species and Nesting Activities Observed . 86 10.5 Birds Observed in Typical Old-Field and Forest-Edge Communities Adjacent to Staunton 1 Site . 88 10.6 Reptiles and Amphibians Observed . 90 11.1 Benefits of Staunton 1 Project - Construction Phase . 97 11.2 Staunton 1 Site Development Cost.98 via 1 STAUNTON 1 RECLAMATION DEMONSTRATION PROJECT PROGRESS REPORT II Stanley D. Zellmer, Site Coordinator ABSTRACT The Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project involves an evaluation of the reclamation process on a 13.8-ha abandoned deep coal mine refuse site in south¬ western Illinois. The procedure included collection of preconstruction environmental data, determination of the site's final land use, and development and implemen¬ tation of a detailed site development plan. Approxi¬ mately 9.3 ha of refuse material was recontoured, covered with a minimum of 30 cm of soil obtained on site, and seeded with a mixture of grasses and legumes. Hydrologic investigation indicates some improvement in groundwater quality. Surface water quality also has shown improvement, but development of the aquatic ecosystem in the newly-constructed pond is slow. Revegetation has been successful, and a protective plant cover has been established on most areas of the site. Soil tests indicate that acceptable plant growth media have been constructed; however, continued application of fertilizer and limestone will probably be necessary to maintain the vegetation. The soil microbial community has achieved total numbers equal to those of old fields, but species diversity is low. Small mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians have invaded and are utilizing the site. The economic value of the site and adjacent property has increased substantially, and the area's aesthetic value has been enhanced significantly. The two-year period of intensive monitoring and evaluation has been utilized to develop recommendations for improv¬ ing the designs of future reclamation efforts. SUMMARY The Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project involves an evalua¬ tion of the reclamation process at an abandoned deep coal mine refuse site. A typical abandoned midwestern deep coal mine refuse site was selected, baseline data were collected, final land use was determined, engineering plans were developed and implemented, and a post-construction evaluation was begun. This prqject is a cooperative effort by two state agencies — the Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation Council of Illinois and the Illinois Institute of Natural Resources — and the U.S. Department of Energy, through the Land Reclamation Program at Argonne National Laboratory. 2 A major objective of the Staunton 1 Project is to develop, demon¬ strate, and evaluate methods for reclaiming abandoned coal refuse sites in order to provide maximum benefits at lowest costs. The collection and documentation of detailed information on the various aspects of the reclama¬ tion process is providing design data for federal and state agencies and the coal industry. Additional objectives of the project are common to all reclamation efforts. They are to: (a) reduce the quantity of pollutants entering the environment, (b) increase the economic potential of the area, and (c) improve the aesthetic value of the locality. The Staunton 1 Project is designed to provide data on many aspects of the reclamation process. Individual subprojects are involved with groundwater and surface water quality, aquatic ecosystems, revegetation, soil characteristics, erosion and runoff, wildlife and soil microbial populations, and economic benefits of the reclamation effort. This research is a multidisciplinary approach to the ecosystem-response concept of recla¬ mation. Post-construction evaluation — the final phase of the project — has been under way for two years. Information collected to date indicates that an improvement has been made in the overall environmental quality of the site, and that there has been a reduction in the quantity of acid mine drainage, heavy metals, sediment, and other pollutants entering the environment. Surface water quality at the site has significantly improved in comparison to pre-con¬ struction conditions. The project has had no effect on the quality of water in local residential wells. Groundwater quality has improved greatly in the area of the old slurry pond, but remains poor in the area of the refuse pile. The new pond is a benefit to wildlife at the site. However, as indicated by the low numbers and lack of diversity among benthic macro¬ invertebrates, water quality conditions of the new pond do not warrant fish stocking at this time. Revegetation studies are finding that the amount of vegetation and the proportion of vegetative cover contributed by seeded species is increas¬ ing. High soil temperature and low available soil moisture at some parts of the site have inhibited plant establishment, which in turn allowed erosion of cover soil. Preliminary findings indicate that: (a) birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus ) and blackwell switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum ) were the most successful planted species after two growing seasons; (b) rooting depths on reclaimed gob may be insufficient during periods of drought; (c) better methods of incorporating limestone into refuse material should be determined; and (d) adequate surface drainage must be provided. Studies of soil characteristics reveal that although soil bulk density is high (1.4-2.1 g/cm^), plant root development has not been affected. Soil pH has decreased on slopes subject to erosion, indicating a need for continued site maintenance; however, acceptable stands of plant cover can be maintained on soil with pH 4.7 or higher. Clay mineral analy¬ ses show a high percentage of swelling clays, which inhibit internal soil drainage. Soil-profile descriptions indicate that acceptable vegetative cover can be maintained, but that future land use of some areas of the site (particularly the recontoured gob pile) will be limited. 3 The slope angle and erosion rate subproject is examining the effect of slope angle and cover material depth on erosion rate and runoff water quality and quantity. The results of two years' study indicate that cover material depths of more than 15 cm do not appear to be necessary; however, at least some cover material must be placed over the exposed refuse in order to reduce the amount of runoff and to improve the overall water quality. Since recontouring of the site, the soil microbial community has achieved total numbers equal to those of old-field soils. As measured by species numbers, however, the diversity of the system is much lower. Decomposition rates for cellulose and grass litter were similar, but did not equal those in old-field soils. Wildlife studies were conducted during the summer months of 1977 and 1978. Small mammal species observed in 1977 included the white-footed mouse, house mouse, and meadow vole. In 1978, the prairie vole became established as a common species on the site. Deer, cottontail rabbit, raccoon, opossum, and muskrat have also been observed on site. The mam¬ malian and avian species observed on site are those typical of old-field communities in southern Illinois. Common amphibians observed in the new pond included the American toad, southern leopard frog, bullfrog, and Blanchard's cricket frog. The black rat snake, blue racer, six-lined racerunner, and box turtle have also been observed on the site. Data from the economic-evaluation portion of the project suggest a substantial increase in the economic potential of the site and adjacent properties. Benefits resulting from the construction phase of the Staunton 1 project are in the range of $340,000 to $430,000 over 50 years. These benefits are about one-half to two-thirds of the construction and induced costs of the reclamation. The greatest benefits are derived from water quality improvements and from development of more efficient construction methods that can be used in future reclamation efforts of this type. Work related to site management and maintenance has chiefly been involved with erosion control and reseeding of selected areas. Fertili¬ zation, reseeding, and erosion control will be required until the site has a well established plant cover. Reactions of visitors and local residents to the site indicate that a genuine enhancement of the entire area's aesthetic value has taken place. The Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project, while serving to reclaim this one site, is also providing a much broader benefit to society by furnishing the necessary design data for future reclamation efforts of this type. | *r\ 5 1 INTRODUCTION Stanley D. Zellmer 1.1 BACKGROUND In the past, the methods and sites for disposal of coal-mine refuse were usually determined by convenience and economic considerations. Little or no thought was given to the long-term environmental consequences of such indiscriminate actions. Coarse refuse (gob) was usually dumped near the preparation plant, which often created large, steep-sided piles. Effluent (slurry) from the coal washers was pumped into a nearby impoundment where solids were allowed to settle out. While present day mines are required by law to use disposal methods and sites that minimize environmental damage, many abandoned (pre-regulation era) refuse-disposal sites remain today as serious ecological, economic, and aesthetic problems. When pyritic material, often associated with coal refuse, is exposed to^ the atmosphere, oxidation and hydrolization occur and strong acids are formed. Acidic runoff from the refuse site degrades surface water quality and causes deterioration of the aquatic environment. Water with high concentrations of sulfate and metal ions and low pH may contaminate the local groundwater system. The refuse material becomes acidic and creates adverse conditions for plant establishment and growth. Without a protective vegetative cover, refuse material is easily eroded and the resultant sedi¬ ment is carried onto adjacent areas. This cycle continues as erosion exposes unweathered pyritic material for oxidation. Conceivably, hundreds of years could be required for reclamation of a coal refuse site by natural processes, during which time the environment would continue to be adversely affected . Abandoned mine-refuse areas, i.e., those where no one has direct reclamation responsibilities, in an unreclaimed condition have no real land use or potential economic value. Often these sites become unauthorized dumps which create public health hazards. Generally, refuse areas are unsightly, and the addition of cast-off materials detracts even more from their appearance. These conditions, together with the meager environmental status of the site, create a depressed economic market for adjacent proper- t ies. The areal extent of the land used for disposal of coal refuse is sizable; in Indiana, for example, unreclaimed coal refuse sites occupy some 1300 ha (2), and in Illinois, it is estimated that there are over 3600 ha of abandoned exposed coal refuse (4). The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates that almost 50,000 ha of land were used in Appalachia between 1930 and 1971 for the disposal of deep mine waste materials (5). This area is equivalent to 14% of the land disturbed by surface mining during the same period. The U.S. Department of Energy, through the Land Reclamation Program at Argonne National Laboratory, and two Illinois agencies — the Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation Council and the Institute of Natural Resources — have developed a cooperative project to address the problems associated 6 Fig. 1.1 Location of the Staunton 1 Site with reclaiming an abandoned deep mine refuse site. A major objective of the cooperative project is to develop, demonstrate, and evaluate methods for reclaiming abandoned coal refuse sites in order to provide greater benefits at lower costs. The collection and documen¬ tation of detailed information on the various aspects of the reclama¬ tion process is providing design data for federal and state agencies and the coal industry. Additional objectives of the project are common to all reclamation efforts. They are to: (a) reduce the quantity of pollutants entering the environment, (b) increase the economic potential of the area, and (c) improve the aesthetic value of the locality. 1.2 SITE DESCRIPTION The site selected for the reclamation demonstration project was the abandoned Consolidated Coal Company's Mine No. 14 near Staunton, Illinois (Figure 1.1). The mine was opened in 1904 and operated for approximately 19 years, extracting the Herrin (No. 6) coal through an 85-m-deep vertical shaft. The coal was dry, non-gaseous, and contained about 5% sulfur. Like other mines of the area, Consolidated No. 14 was noted for its good roof, and subsi¬ dence was not a problem. Double¬ entry room and pillar extraction was used, with the coal sorted and loaded by hand underground. An average work force of 500 men extracted as much as 4550 t of coal per day during the period of maximum production. The total site included 13.8 ha, of which 9.3 ha had been affected by the past mining operation and required reclamation. Dramatic evidence of the past mining and cleaning operation existed in the form of the gob pile, a steep-sided refuse heap that rose about 25 m above the natural landscape and covered almost 2 ha. In the 50-odd years the mine had been closed, erosion had cut deep gullies into the face of the gob pile; no vegetation had become established on the gob or in adjacent areas affected by the acid runoff and sediment. A 55-m-high concrete smokestack, a remnant of the mine's power 7 plant, was still standing, but only the foundations of other mine structures remained. The rails from a siding which served the mine had been removed, but the right-of-way was still evident along the southern boundary of the property. The gob pile and the site of the old cleaning plant, tipple, and rail yard occupied about one-third of the total property. Before the mine was opened, a dam had been built across a deep ravine near the site's north boundary. The 4.5-ha impoundment created by the dam provided water for the mine's power plant and coal washing operation, and also served as a sump for the slurry produced by the coal washer. All drainage from the site was into this impoundment, and after the mine was closed the area continued to fill with sediment from the gob pile. This refuse material reached a maximum depth of about 9 m and, due to its acidic nature, prevented vegetation from becoming established. In the early 1940's the dam was breached, resulting in erosion of the old slurry area and gullies as deep as 4.5 m. Acid runoff and sediment from the site were carried down a small stream about 0.8 km to Cahokia Creek. The site had been used as a general dump for many years and was littered with trash and debris. There was evidence that small game used the 4.5 ha of the site that was covered with volunteer shrubs, grasses, and trees. It was also evident that the site had been used by off-road vehicles and as a target range by hunters. 1.3 PLANNING AND DESIGN Before reclamation work could begin, the project staff held discus¬ sions with local officials and regional planners to select a final land use. Suggestions of an industrial park, a commercial center, or a housing development were rejected due to the instability of the refuse material. Since one of the goals of reclamation is the mitigation of off-site pollu¬ tion, the acidic runoff from the refuse material had to be controlled and a vegetative cover was essential to control erosion and reduce runoff. Further investigation determined that the community had a need for additional recreational areas and that this use would be compatible with the conditions at the site. With these considerations in mind, a final land use as a recreational area, wildlife habitat, and ecological education area was selected. Detailed engineering plans and specifications were developed to meet the requirements for this final land use. The planning and design phase was jointly funded by the Illinois Institute of Natural Resources (INR) and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 1.4 BASELINE MONITORING Baseline monitoring was instituted to assess the prereclamation environmental conditions of the area. Monitoring included: (a) determina¬ tion of groundwater and surface water quality; (b) detailed sampling and testing of surface materials to determine the physical properties and chemical characteristics of the refuse material and adjacent soils; (c) a wildlife-use inventory of the site; (d) delineation and evaluation of the aquatic ecosystem of the site's watershed; and (e) a survey of soil microbial populations that are indicative of the fertility of the refuse 8 material and site soils (3). Laboratory growth-chamber studies also were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of various soil amendments and to identify vegetation species that could be used in reclaiming the site (5). The baseline monitoring phase provided data needed to develop plans for the site, and is now providing a means to measure the effectiveness of the reclamation effort. The second phase of the project also was jointly funded by INR and DOE. 1.5 SITE DEVELOPMENT In the late summer of 1976, the State of Illinois Abandoned Mined Land Reclamation Council (AMLRC) purchased the site, and on 15 September 1976 awarded the construction contract to Marie, Inc., of Springfield, Illinois. AMLRC also contracted to have the Land Reclamation Program staff act as resident engineers for the project during the site development phase. Site development began immediately with the removal of the smokestack and mine structure foundations and the disposal of accumulated debris. The borrow pit was opened, and cover material removed and stockpiled. Within six weeks, grading had reduced the gob pile to approximately one- third of its original height. During grading of the slurry area, the contractor experienced problems moving equipment over the saturated slurry material. Application of a neutralizing/stabilizing agent, and the arrival of colder weather that caused the ground to freeze, aided in the recontour¬ ing of the slurry area. As construction progressed, the Staunton area experienced its severest winter on record. Due to the extreme weather conditions, all construction activities stopped for two weeks in February. Grading of the site was completed after construction activities resumed, and the application of neutralizing materials at the refuse/cover- material interface began. The neutralizing agents were incorporated to a minimum depth of 15 cm into the recontoured refuse materials using an industrial disk harrow. Cover material from the borrow pit was then placed on the recontoured refuse material in a 30 cm thick layer. An appli¬ cation of 11.2 t/ha of agricultural limestone, and 135 kg/ha each of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium plant nutrients was made to the recon¬ toured area. These amendments were disked to a minimum depth of 10 cm during seedbed preparation. The area was then planted using an agricultural grain drill with the seed mixture listed in Table 1.1. Species for the seed mixture were chosen for their tolerance to acidic and infertile conditions. The rye was added to provide a quick ground cover. Seeding, fencing of the site perimeter, and final cleanup were completed by the end of April. During site development, the following tasks were accomplished: (a) all slopes were reduced to 5:1 or less; (b) approximately 180,000 of refuse material was relocated; (c) an on-site borrow pit providing nearly 30,500 m-^ of cover material was dug; (d) about 1275 t of neutralizing/ stabilizing agents was applied at the refuse/cover-material interface; (e) all exposed refuse material was covered with 30 cm of cover material; (f) roughly 103 t of soil amendments (fertilizer and limestone) was incorporated 9 Table 1.1. Seeding Mixture Applied to the Site, Spring of 1977 Species kg/ha Reed canarygrass ( Phalaris arundinacea L.) 11.2 Tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) 16.8 Birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus L.) 13.5 Ladino clover ( Trifolium repens L.) 5.6 Cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) 22.A into the surface of the 8.9 ha that was seeded with the mixture of grasses and legumes; (g) placement of about 100 m of culvert pipe and three concrete water flow control structures; (h) excavation of a 0.5-ha retention pond; (i) rebuilding of the old dam; and (j) installation of approximately 2240 m of new fencing around the property. The cost of accomplishing these tasks are listed in Table 1.2; funds were provided by AMLRC through the Illinois Capital Development Board. Figure 1.2 is a map of the site after the development phase. 1.6 POST-CONSTRUCTION EVALUATION The end of the project's development phase coincided with the beginning of the postconstruction evaluation phase. Objectives of this final phase are to: (a) develop, demonstrate, and evaluate needed technolo¬ gies for future reclamation efforts; (b) provide an overall assessment of the reclamation effort in order to determine its environmental effective¬ ness; (c) ameliorate potential environmental problems that may develop at the site; and (d) provide the economic assessment necessary to transfer the most cost-effective reclamation techniques to future projects. These objectives are being met by the establishment and maintenance of a number of interrelated demonstration subprojects. Each subproject covers a specific portion of the reclamation effort, and data gathered by each subproject will contribute to an overall assessment of the project. Funding for the final phase of the project is provided jointly by DOE, INR, and AMLRC. The remainder of this report is a description of these ongoing subprojects with results, conclusions, and recommendations after two years' study. 1.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special acknowledgment and thanks are given to Barry Deist, on-site consultant for this project; without his patience, dedication, and hard work much of the project would not have been possible. The cooperation and assistance by the supporting agencies of the project is gratefully acknowledged. Peter Loquercio, Deputy Director of 10 0 50 100 150 l_I_l_i METERS \ -PROPERTY LINE \ BUILDING ABANDONED ^ RAILROAD SPUR POND QT) marsh - WATERCOURSE _CONTOUR LINE trees • P5 WELL Fig. 2.1. Location of Post-Construction Monitoring Wells 16 Table 2.1. Well Groups, Numbers, and Locations at the Staunton 1 Site Group Well No. Location Pre- Reclamation A. M6,M7,M11-M13 Less than 30 m from N, S, and W side of gob pile. B. Ml, M2 Less than 30 m from E side of gob pile. C. M10, M14-M18 30-60 m SW and W of gob pile. D. M3-M5, M8, M9 60-190 m S of gob pile E. M2 4, M26 In saturated slurry material away from main drainage channel. F. M22, M23 In saturated slurry material near main drainage channel. G. M27 In alluvium downstream of disposal site. H. R1-R13 All residential wells. Post -Reclamation I. P5-P11, P14, P22 In base of gob material. J. P4, P13, P16, P17, P22, P24 In till under or less than 5 m from gob pile . K. P3, P12, P15, P18, P19, P20, P43 5-30 m from gob pile. L. PI, P2, P44 Greater than 30 m W and N of gob pile. M. P27, P28, P31, P32, P36-P41 In saturated slurry material. N. P25, P26, P29, P30, P33-P35, P42, M19 In till around slurry material. 0. P45 In saturated slurry material less than 5 m from main drainage channel. P. M2 7 In alluvium downstream of disposal site. Q. R1-R15 All residential wells. 17 Table 2.2. Average 3 Pre-Construction Groundwater Quality Well Group A B C D E F G H No. of Samples 10 7 5 15 3 3 3 15 Spec . Cond* 5 19921 2489 2847 4249 2956 3954 8373 1696 Median pH 3.10 6.40 5.60 6.50 6.80 4.35 6.85 7.64 Min. pH 2.30 6.20 3.20 4.00 6.70 4.00 6.84 7.10 Ac id it y 4076 37.3 207 67.8 77.0 1784 76 22.3 Max. Acidity 31400 62 660 372 124 2604 105 59.8 Alkalinity 142 131 64 135 376 4.4 435 268 Bicarbonate 173 160 78.4 165 459 5.3 531 327 Sulfate 6330 329 1255 1064 856 3596 1719 433 Calcium c 490 88.5 438 249 304 435 500 137 Magnesium 246 41.9 80.4 108 69.5 149 279 70.1 Sodium 263 61 26.3 120 235 91 117 53.6 Potassium 15.9 0.3 4.0 1.3 14.1 17.2 0.8 3.88 Strontium 1.5 <.5 0.7 0.5 2.9 5.3 0.5 <.5 Aluminum^ 414 <.02 19.4 2.57 <.l 61.7 .06 <.5 Cadmium 1.00 <.01 .09 .01 <.01 .01 <.01 <.01 Chromium .46 <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02 Copper 1.22 <.01 .05 <.02 <.02 <.02 <.02 <•02 Iron 1367 .24 119 2.61 6.89 933 .21 .039 Max. Iron 6010 .77 560 24.9 12.9 1840 .35 .20 Manganese 24.2 .45 9.28 7.26 .55 16.9 .16 vO CM • Max. Mn 62 .74 18.6 51 .80 41.0 .29 1.26 Nickel 1.52 <.02 .25 .094 .03 .81 .03 <.02 Zinc 59.0 .02 6.64 .734 .096 28.4 .097 .192 Max. Zinc 252 .05 23 10.4 .115 40.5 .104 1.95 a All chemical parameters are reported as mean concentrations, except pH which is a median; minimum pH and maximum acidity, iron, manganese, and zinc are also reported for most well groups. ^Specific conductance is reported as ymhos/cm at 25°C, pH in standard units, acidity and alkalinity as mg/L CaC 03 equivalence, and the other parameters are reported in mg/L. c Dissolved cations were analyzed from filtered, acidified samples. ^Minimum detection limits varied during period of analyses. The pH was low, and acidity, concentrations of sulfate, and most metals were extremely high in the immediate vicinity (less than 60 m dis¬ tance) of the gob pile (groups A and C). Concentrations of several metals from some of these wells exceeded recommended drinking water standards by several orders of magnitude. Groundwater on the southeast, south, and west sides of the pile could have been contaminated by groundwater migration from the pile or by infiltration of surface water than ran off the pile and ponded in low-lying areas; the latter is a strong possibility. Water quality in the field east of the pile (group B and well R2) was alkaline with low concentrations of sulfate and most metals (iron and manganese were 18 slightly high). At distances greater than 60 m from the pile on the south¬ east, south, and west sides of the pile (group D), acidity and concentra¬ tions of most dissolved metals were greatly reduced. However, specific conductance, acidity, sulfate, aluminum, iron, manganese, and zinc were relatively high in a few wells at distances up to 200 m from the pile. Groundwater in saturated slurry material exhibited diverse water quality. Water in slurry material adjacent to the drainage channel leading away from the gob pile (group F) had acidity, concentrations of metals, and sulfate similar to acid surface drainage from the pile. Water in well group E, located farther away from the main drainage channel, had lower sulfate and metal concentrations, suggesting that surface water draining the gob pile area was recharging the slurry material along the main channel. Well M27 (group G) in the alluvium of the drainage channel leading away from the site had water with a high specific conductance, high alka¬ linity, and high concentrations of calcium and magnesium relative to the residential wells and relative to the stream water. This suggests that a groundwater discharge area along the streambed was diluting and neutralizing acid water in the stream (8). Water in nearby residential wells (group H) contains primarily calcium, magnesium, sodium, sulfate, and bicarbonate ions (a normal assemb¬ lage for this area) and low concentrations of transition and heavy metals. The presence of zinc in some wells is probably due to the use of galvanized steel pipes in the wells. Chemical analyses of well samples collected in 1978 after site reclamation are summarized in Table 2.3. More wells, a better distribution of wells, and in some cases a greater well depth allowed for a more complete study of the groundwater system following construction. The following paragraphs include some generalizations on post-construction groundwater quality. In the recontoured pile (group I) and in the till less than 5 m from the pile (group J), pH was very low and concentrations of acidity, sulfate, and dissolved metals were very high. Between 5 to 30 m from the pile (group K) the acidity, metals, and sulfate are less than concentrations adjacent to the pile. Some metals, however, (particularly magnesium, aluminum, cadmium, cobalt, iron, manganese, and zinc) are well above ambient groundwater quality (groups N and Q) . Only 3 wells (group L) were located more than 30 m from the reclaimed gob pile on the north and west sides (Table 2.3). Water quality in these wells approach ambient conditions. Water quality in saturated slurry material (group M) has greatly improved, with only sodium, iron, and manganese slightly elevated above ambient levels. The exception is well P45 (group 0) located near the center of the site (Table 2.1) next to the drainage channel. Like that in some of the pre-construction wells (group F), the water quality of this well re¬ flects the acid water chemistry in the channel leading from the pile and indicates that the slurry material is being recharged from the channel. Wells in till surrounding the slurry material (group N) have water quality similar to group M wells in the slurry material, and slightly higher alka¬ linity, concentrations of sulfate, calcium, magnesium, sodium, aluminum, and manganese relative to residential wells. 19 Table 2.3. Average 3 Post-Construction Groundwater Quality Well Group I J K L M N 0 P Q No. of Samples 20 12 15 6 19 17 2 I 29 Spec. Condb 16559 9172 4825 3054 2793 2869 7526 2447 1362 Median pH 4.30 4.94 6.50 6.88 6.93 6.90 5.05 6.90 7.09 Min. pH 2.56 3.22 4.26 6.70 6.38 6.51 6.32 Ac idity 15209 9290 1373 67.7 156 168 3820 74.4 44.2 Max. Acidity 89775 68040 12380 108 443 402 114 Alkalinity 42 203 186 212 498 539 88 484 212 Bicarbonate 51 248 227 259 607 658 108 590 259 Boron 3.86 2.37 .74 .24 1.04 .42 2.87 .80 .68 Chloride 39 24 53 22 59 37 40 69 26 Sulfate 21745 8012 3946 1414 853 1303 5800 475 600 Sil ica 226 64.4 27.3 21.6 18.3 18.7 36.1 10.2 17.9 Calcium 0 421 477 411 376 233 339 468 202 202 Magnesium 919 646 575 205 129 263 469 123 104 Sodium 630 363 192 229 262 172 327 209 80 Potassium 51.3 18.7 3.2 2.79 5.71 5.30 8.03 <.5 3.27 Strontium 1.47 .66 .84 .72 1.37 .79 .50 <.3 .68 Aluminum^ 2104 873 14.6 <.05 .041 .77 62.5 .20 <.10 Arsenic .631 .369 .0047 .0030 .0020 .0008 .018 .0008 <.002 Barium .169 .0477 .0182 .0190 .0265 .0240 .0132 .0215 .0178 Cadmium 3.06 .904 .051 .006 <.005 .006 .021 .008 <.010 Cobalt 1.90 1.06 1.17 .027 .025 .038 .360 .040 .034 Chromium .817 .336 .012 <•01 <.02 <.02 .01 .02 .04 Copper .189 .119 .030 .010 .006 .013 .052 <.01 <.01 Iron 4172 1940 444 .613 6.39 1.74 937 .60 1.20 Max. Iron 14170 11100 4800 2.03 30.1 11.27 12.0 Manganese 82.7 60.1 90.6 2.11 4.59 3.14 30.0 .20 .20 Max. Mn 329 194 645 2.34 10.8 12.6 1.68 Nickel 6.56 3.39 1.26 .04 .02 .06 .97 .06 .01 Lead .393 .254 .125 .070 .045 .093 .130 .030 .042 Z inc 322 136 22.5 .020 .019 .105 34.6 .230 .083 Max. Zinc 1465 825 245 .044 .073 .700 .590 a All chemical parameters are reported as mean concentrations, except pH which is a median; minimum pH and maximum acidity, iron, manganese, and zinc are also reported for most well groups. ^Specific conductance is reported as ymhos/cm at 25°C, pH in standard units, acidity and alkalinity as mg/L CaCC >3 equivalence, and the other parameters are reported in mg/L. c Dissolved cations were analyzed from filtered, acidified samples. ^Minimum detection limits varied during period of analyses. Water quality of residential wells (group Q), although quite hard in some cases, appears not to be affected by either coal refuse disposal or site reclamation. Residential well R1 is closest to the disposal site (Table 2.3) and has only slightly higher concentrations of acidity, boron, sulfate, and calcium relative to other residential wells. 20 Based on only one water sample, monitoring well M27 (group P) located in the channel alluvium downstream from the site has lower concen¬ trations of most constituents relative to prereclamation conditions (group G). This may be due to seasonal effects and time of sample collection (concentrations are lowest at time of high groundwater levels), or it may be due to the reduction of total dissolved solids in the site discharge which is recharging or mixing with groundwater in the alluvium. Approximately 13 to 16 months after ground limestone was spread on the coal refuse surface during site development work, dramatic increases in concentrations of calcium and magnesium occurred in the wells located in the refuse pile. If leachate from the limestone is the source of the increased dissolved calcium and magnesium at the base of the pile, then it took about 13 to 16 months for water to infiltrate into the pile and perco¬ late about 6 m down to the base. This hypothesis is based on only two sample collections and needs further study to be verified. 2.5 CONCLUSIONS Water quality in and directly adjacent to the recontoured gob pile has not improved since recontouring and in some cases, has declined because the gob was spread over a larger area. Although not quantified, it appears that water infiltrating into the top and side terraces of the pile is causing increased flow of acid water seeping from the base of the pile and probably increased recharge of groundwater by the leachate. Concentrations of most metals decrease with distance away from the pile and approach ambient levels at 60 m distance. Sulfate and manganese have possibly traveled greater distances. It appears that overland flow of acid runoff to low-lying areas may be a significant transport mechanism in the spread of contaminants in the groundwater system. Groundwater quality has greatly improved in the graded slurry area (north part of site) because the acid drainage from the gob pile is now diluted and partially neutralized in the pond, creating improved surface water quality in that area. Also, saturation of slurry material may be reducing the subsurface oxidation rate of pyrite in the slurry material. Except for normal seasonal fluctuations of water quality, no apparent changes have taken place due to recontouring of the site. It appears that site development activities have not impaired water quality in the residen¬ tial wells except for possibly a slight elevation of acidity and a few other parameters in well R1. 2.6 RECOMMENDATIONS This subproject has not made a systematic investigation of infiltra¬ tion, moisture movement, or percolation of water through the unreclaimed or reclaimed refuse material. However, it is apparent that, following reclama¬ tion, water was perching on the gob-soil cover interface, probably because of bonding by the limestone applied and textural discontinuities at that interface. The limestone should be mixed more deeply into the gob surface 21 to reduce formation of a caliche layer and to improve drainage of the soil cover. Subsurface movement of water along the interface on the sides of the gob pile may have contributed to sloughing, piping failure, and increased erosion of the soil cover on the hillsides. More research is needed regard¬ ing soil moisture movement in refuse material and how it is affected by various reclamation techniques. The gob pile could have been graded to facilitiate better drainage at the top of the pile. This could reduce the acid seepage from the base of the pile, but could also increase erosion on the sides of the hill. Ter¬ races should be gently sloped so that they are drained into a riprapped channel leading off the pile. At the Staunton 1 site, the terraces only trapped water, thus increasing percolation rates through the pile, and when the ponded water flowed over the edges of the terraces, erosion down the hillside usually occurred — this should be avoided. Although the coal refuse had lain at this site for more than 50 years, the spread of contaminants in the shallow groundwater system has occurred only in an area less than 200 m from the pile and adjacent to the channel carrying surface water from the site. However, in parts of the state where coal refuse has been deposited on sand and gravel (e.g., glacial outwash material, river alluvium) or in areas where bedrock aquifers are exposed at the surface, then the greater permeability of these materials could allow impacts to groundwater systems much more severe than those at the Staunton site. Such cases are of concern and should be investigated further. 2.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS J. E. Edkins and G. M. Kaszynski were of invaluable assistance during the installation of monitoring wells and collection of groundwater samples. Analyses of samples were ably conducted by M. M. Master, M. W. Findlay, and many others. Sincere gratitude is extended to these people by the authors. 2.8 REFERENCES 1. Barthauer, G. L., Z. V. Kosowski, and J. P. Ramsey, Control of Mine Drainage From Coal Mine Mineral Wastes; Phase I — Hydrololgy and Related Experiments, U.S. EPA, Water Pollution Control Research Services, Rept. 14010 DDH 08/71, 148 pp. (August 1971). 2. Good, D. M., V. T. Ricca, and K. S. Shumate, The Relation of Refuse Pile Hydrology to Acid Production , Proc. Third Sypm. on Coal Mine Drainage Research, Mellon Inst., Pittsburgh, Penn., p. 145-151 (May 19-20, 1970). 3. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, unpublished reports and data, 1967-1974. 4. Libicki, J., Impact of Gob and Power-Plant Ash Disposal on Ground Water Quality and Its Control , Proc. Seventh Symp. on Coal Mine Drainage Research, Natl. Coal Assn./BCR, Inc., Louisville, Ky., p. 165-184 (Oct. 18-20, 1977). 22 5. Martin, J. F., Quality of Effluents from Coal Refuse Piles , Proc. First Symp. on Mine and Preparation Plant Refuse Disposal, Natl. Coal Assn./ BCR, Inc., Louisville, KY, p. 26-37 (Oct. 22-24, 1974). 6. Nawrot, J. R., R. J. Haynes, P. L. Purcell, J. R. D'Antuono, R. L. Sullivan, and W. D. Klimstra, Illinois Lands Affected by Underground Mining for Coal, Rept. to Illinois Inst, for Environmental Quality, IIEQ Doc. No. 77/11, 195 pp. (March 1977). 7. Nicholls, G. D., Pollution Affecting Wells in the Bunter Sandstone , in Groundwater Pollution in Europe, J. A. Cole (ed.), Water Information Center, Inc., Port Washington, NY, p. 116-125 (1974). 8. Schubert, J. P., R. D. Olsen, and S. D. Zellmer, Monitoring the Effects of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation on Water Quality in Southwestern Ill inois , Proc. Fourth Joint Conference on Sensing of Environmental Pollutants, Am. Chem. Soc. , New Orleans, held Nov. 6-11, 1977, p. 724-731 (1978). 9. Sukthumrong, A., The Role of Earth Cover Depths and Upward Acid Diffusion on the Survival and Distribution of Vegetation on Coal Refuse Piles , unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana, 126 pp. (1975). 23 3 SURFACE WATER QUALITY Richard D. Olsen 3.1 SUMMARY The reclamation effort at the Staunton 1 site has improved the quality of surface runoff, and by providing retention of surface runoff and subsequent dilution of acidic seepage, the new pond has significantly improved the quality of effluent leaving the site. However, acidic seepage and runoff from exposed refuse continues to adversely affect on-site surface water quality to the extent that environmental conditions lethal to many aquatic biota exist in the new retention pond, and neither pond waters nor effluents meet all state water quality standards. 3.2 INTRODUCTION A preconstruction study in 1976 of surface water quality at the Staunton 1 site and throughout the Cahokia Creek watershed revealed signi¬ ficant environmental degradation resulting from erosion and acidic drainage from numerous abandoned coal refuse disposal sites in the watershed. While the preconstruction survey did not allow precise quantification of the incremental effect on Cahokia Creek of drainage from the Staunton 1 site, it was apparent that effluent from the site adversely affected the creek. During dry periods, the effluent flow rate from the Staunton 1 site was low (e.g., ~ 3.2 L/s) and was neutralized, presumably by alkaline groundwater seepage, as it flowed through the natural drainage channel (approximately 0.8 km in length) between the Staunton 1 site and Cahokia Creek. However, during or following periods of moderate to heavy rainfall, the effluent flow rate was substantially higher (e.g., 19 to 25 L/s) and was not neutralized before discharging into Cahokia Creek. The quality of the effluent at the site during dry as well as wet periods, and at the point of discharge to Cahokia Creek during wet periods, was very poor. The water was very acidic (pH 2.5 to 4.0, with cold acidity > 3500 mg/L), and contained extremely high concentrations of many toxic metals (5,8). It was anticipated that reclamation of the Staunton 1 site during early 1977 would result in an improvement in the quality of effluent leaving the site. The primary objectives of the surface water quality work during 1977 and 1978 were, therefore, to monitor the quantity and quality of site drainage, and to assess the effects of reclamation on the quality of on-site waters and effluents leaving the site. 3.3 DESCRIPTION Creation of the new landform at the site (by regrading the gob pile) during recontouring has modified the flow of surface water. In addition, liming and covering the acidic refuse material, and establishing a vegeta¬ tive cover have affected both the quantity and quality of surface water. Site drainage was impounded by a dam constructed during regrading at the north end of the site (Figure 3.1). Since closure of the dam in early 1977, 24 LOCATION 2 -PROPERTY LINE BUILDING ABANDONED RAILROAD SPUR QT) marsh - WATERCOURSE __CONTOUR LINE (elevations in feet) TREES Fig. 3.1. Surface Water Measurement and Quality Sampling Locations 25 discharge from the site has occurred only in conjunction with significant rainfall. The permanent new pond has a surface area of about 0.5 ha and a maximum depth of about 3.6 m. The impoundment retains site runoff during light rains and modulates peak runoff flows produced by heavy rains. Water level recorders were installed at two weirs on site during construction: one on the main drainage channel that runs toward the pond (location 1 on Figure 3.1) to monitor the amount of runoff and seepage from the recontoured gob pile at the south end of the site; and a second at the dam on the north end of the site (location 2 on Figure 3.1) to record flow rate of the final effluent leaving the site. Water samples were collected monthly at the two weirs during dis¬ charge periods, or from standing water behind the weirs during no-flow periods. Samples were not collected in winter when water ponded behind the weirs was frozen. Water samples were analyzed for pH, specific conductance, alkalinity, acidity, chloride, sulfate, and an array of metals and trace elements. Metals were analyzed on unfiltered-acidified samples, and there¬ fore, are more representative of total, rather than dissolved, concentra¬ tions. Analytical techniques employed followed standard methods (1,2,7). 3.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of water quality analyses for the more environmentally important parameters are summarized in Tables 3.1 and 3.2. Water quality at sampling location 1 was poor during the 1977-1978 monitoring period, but considerable fluctuation in quality was noted. While analyses of precipi¬ tation and flow data are not complete, preliminary results suggest that water quality at sampling location 1 is poorest during dry periods when essentially all of the water consists of groundwater seepage from the base of the recontoured gob pile. The quality of this acidic seepage appear to be much the same as that measured before reclamation (see Table 3.2, Precon¬ struction). The quality of water at location 1 appeared to be best when precipitation was heavy enough to produce surface runoff; this was particu¬ larly evident during the first summer following construction. It is evident that covering and revegetating the recontoured gob pile has resulted in improved quality of runoff water. Runoff water collected from recontoured and covered parts of the site has been found to have reasonable quality (8), unlike preconstruction runoff which was extremely poor quality (5). How¬ ever, the continued seepage of acidic groundwater and erosion through the soil cover has had a significant adverse effect on quality of water draining from the southern portion of the site. In contrast to sampling location 1, water quality at sampling loca¬ tion 2 has shown improvement compared to preconstruction conditions (Table 3.2). Acidity values have decreased from above 3000 to generally less than 100, sulfate has decreased by a factor of approximately 10, and toxic metals have been reduced by as much as 2 to 3 orders of magnitude. The pH measure¬ ments at sampling location 2 fluctuated considerably during 1977 and 1978. Values ranged from less than 4 to greater than 8, with highest values observed during summer months. The significant improvement in water quality 26 27 All values expect pH in mg/L. 28 at this site (and the difference from location 1 as noted in Table 3.3) is due primarily to the existence of the new pond impounded at the north end of the reclaimed area. Most of the water in the pond is derived from good quality surface runoff following precipitation, so that even though acidic seepage and runoff periodically enter the pond (e.g., drainage from the southern end of the site as measured at location 1) retention and dilution in the pond allows maintenance of improved water quality as com¬ pared to preconstruction conditions. Data for sampling locations 1 and 2 in Table 3.3 gives some indication of on the quality of drainage at the Staun¬ ton 1 site. Prior to construction, quality of the effluent leaving the abandoned refuse area was similar to that summarized in Table 3.3 for sampling location 1. Following construction, with retention of site runoff in the new pond and marked improvement in the quality of surface runoff, quality of the final effluent (as summarized in Table 3.3 for sampling location 2) was improved. While reclamation has caused a substantial improvement in the quality of effluent from the Staunton 1 site, the effluent, as well as the water in the new pond, would not consistently meet all water quality standards of the State of Illinois. Additionally, the ecologically-marginal quality of the pond water would limit recreational use of the pond. It was hoped that water quality in the new pond would allow development of a diverse aquatic community and eventual introduction of warm-water game fish for local Table 3.3. Comparison of Post-Development Water Quality at Sampling Locations 1 and 2 Location 1 Location 2 Mean 3 Range Mean 3 Range pH 3.16 2.1-4.3 5.55 3.6-8.4 Alkalinity 0 0 12. 7 0-46 Acidity 7175 72-25920 66.3 0-100 Sulfate 7369 225-19700 720 275-1600 Aluminum 363 7.13-1350 11.9 51.8 Iron 1357 11.9-4724 1.57 < 0.1-7.70 Manganese 36.2 4.24-87.1 5.26 0.64-10.6 Zinc 68.1 1.22-299 3.38 0.02-11.4 Cadmium^ 0.33 < 0.22-1.0 0.05 < 0.01-.22 Copper^ 0.095 < 0.05-.24 < 0.05 < 0.05 All values except pH in mg/L. a n = 10-12. ^Values less than detection limit were averaged as zero. 29 recreational use. Monitoring of water quality in the pond during the past two years has shown that fish would be unlikely to survive due to the low pH and toxic levels of certain metals such as zinc and cadmium. Alumi¬ num and manganese also reached potentially toxic levels on some occasions. Although heavy-metal concentrations were reduced substantially from pre¬ construction levels as pH increased, concentrations of cadmium and zinc in the new pond remained above toxic levels until the pH of the water exceeded 7.0. This pH-solubility relationship is consistent with research data on thermodynamic equilibria reported in other studies (4,6), and suggests that cadmium and zinc may persist at toxic levels in the pond waters unless a pH of at least 7.0 is maintained in the pond. Maintenance of a pH greater than 7.0 would require a substantial reduction in the seepage of highly acidic water and runoff from exposed refuse into the new pond. 3.5 CONCLUSIONS Analysis and interpretation of data collected through the fall of 1978 permits the following tentative conclusions. Regrading and covering of refuse material at the Staunton 1 site has improved quality of surface runoff. By providing retention of surface runoff and subsequent dilution of acidic seepage and runoff from exposed refuse, the new pond has signifi¬ cantly improved the quality of effluent leaving the site compared to pre¬ construction conditions. Despite significant improvement in quality of surface water leaving the site, acidic seepage (mainly from the south end of the site) continues to adversely affect surface water quality on-site. Unless acidic seepage entering the new pond is reduced substantially, environmental conditions lethal to most aquatic biota will probably continue to exist in the pond. Likewise, the quality of water in the pond and that leaving the site will often fail to meet all state water quality standards. 3.6 RECOMMENDATIONS The rigid timetable for the project's site development phase did not allow optimum collection of preconstruction data. It is strongly recommend that at least one full year of preconstruction monitoring be included in plans for any future project of this type. The surface water monitoring should include continuous effluent flow measurements, monthly collection and comprehensive analysis of effluent or drainage samples, and, ideally, continuous measurement of temperature, pH, and specific conductance. For future reclamation projects of this type, it would be advis¬ able to line all major drainage channels and impoundments with coarse limestone riprap. This would provide additional stability for channels and shorelines, and would also provide at least temporary neutralizing capacity for acidic drainage (3). Establishment of dense stands of hydrophilic trees and shrubs (e.g., willow and cottonwood) along major drainages and acid- tolerant aquatic and semiaquatic plants (e.g., Eleocharis acicvlaris ) around permanent ponds could also assist in stabilization, and, perhaps by increas¬ ing transpiration transfer of water, could also decrease drainage flow. Such vegetation would also be beneficial in terms of wildlife habitat and aesthetics. 30 3.7 REFERENCES 1. A.P.H.A. , Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater , 14th Edition (1975). 2. A.S.T.M., Annual Book of ASTM Standards , Part 31 - Water (1977). 3. Pearsons, F. H., and A. J. McDonnell, Evaluation of Prototype Chrushed Limestone Barriers for the Neutralization of Acidic Streams , Pub. No. 80, Inst, for Research on Land and Water Resources, Penn. State Univ. (1974). 4. Rubin, A. J., Aqueous Environmental Chemistry of Metals , Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Mich. (1976). 5. Schubert, J. P., R. D. Olsen, and S. D. Zellmer, Monitoring the Effects of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation on Water Quality in Southwestern Illinois , in Proceedings 4th Joint Conf. on Sensing of Environ. Poll., Am. Chem. Soc., pp. 724-731 (1978). 6. Stumm, W., and J. J. Morgan, Aquatic Chemistry, Wiley Interscience, New York (1970). 7. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes , EPA-625/6-74-003a (1976). 8. Zellmer, S. D., Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project Progress Report for 1977 , Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/LRP-TM-14 (1978). 31 4 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS William S. Vinikour 4.1 SUMMARY Benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled from three on-site ponds. Sampling emphasis was placed upon the new pond (Figure 4.1) created as part of the construction activities. Comparisons of the ponds allowed interpre¬ tations to be made concerning the development of the new pond as a poten¬ tially productive ecosystem. The benthos of the new pond was dominated by Diptera (true flies) larvae. Some species of dragonflies, damselflies, mayflies, and beetles were also present in low numbers. Most collected species were either very tolerant of conditions associated with acid mine drainage, e.g., Chironomus plumosus, or were at least not indicative of pristine environments. Limited fauna, with accompanying lower diversities, in the new pond compared to the established old pond was due to: (a) more degraded water quality conditions, (b) lack of diverse plant fauna, (c) lack of abundant detrital matter, and (d) lack of less mobile colonizing organ¬ isms, e.g., molluscs, in the new pond. The new pond is apparently benefi¬ cial to wildlife in the site vicinity. However, water quality conditions (as indicated by the benthic macroinvertebrates) and physical conditions (topography) of the new pond do not warrant stocking of fish in the new pond. 4.2 INTRODUCTION The aquatic ecosystems subproject involves collection and analysis of the benthic macroinvertebrates in the on-site ponds. The goal of the subproject is to observe the establishment and development of invertebrates in the newly created pond, compare these findings with an established on-site pond, and determine whether an invertebrate community capable of sustaining a healthy fish population existed. The invertebrate investigations were conducted in conjunction with water quality studies. Macroinvertebrates were studied because they can provide long-term indications of water quality conditions, whereas water samples give only the conditions present at the time of collection. Addi¬ tionally, macroinvertebrates are useful as indicator organisms, as they are large enough to be easily captured, show a wide range of tolerance to varying degrees of pollution, are not highly mobile, and have annual (or longer) life cycles. Therefore, their presence or absence can provide information on events during several previous months (4,8). Development of a stable, diverse pond fauna as part of the reclama¬ tion effort would be very beneficial, especially since one of the ultimate goals is creation of a wildlife habitat. Benthic macroinvertebrates serve not only as a source of fish food, but also as food organisms for a variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. The establishment of a produc¬ tive benthic fauna would, therefore, also contribute to the establishment of a stable and diverse terrestrial wildlife community in the site vicinity. 32 OLD POND NEW POND -PROPERTY LINE \ BUILDING ABANDONED RAILROAD SPUR QT) MARSH - WATERCOURSE __CONTOUR LINE trees Fig. 4.1. Aquatic Ecosystem Sampling Locations 33 4.3 DESCRIPTION During 1977 and 1978, benthic macroinvertebrates were collected from three on-site ponds; these ponds were the new pond, the old pond, and the shed pond and their locations are shown on Figure 4.1. Major emphasis was the new pond, which was sampled on all collection dates and had the greatest number of samples collected. The old pond was next in importance, for two reasons. First, it served as a control pond to allow macroinvertebrate composition comparisons of the new pond with an established pond. Second, the old pond was one of several local ponds that could serve as a source of organisms for colonizing the new pond. Knowledge of the invertebrates in the old pond could then provide an indication of the invertebrate composi¬ tion and abundance that could potentially develop in the new pond, assuming chemical, physical, and biological conditions were adequate. The shed pond was sampled because its extremely poor water quality typified acid mine drainage. Knowledge of the invertebrates inhabiting this pond would also function as a control as far as indicating organisms capable of inhabiting worse-case conditions. From comparisons of the three ponds, interpretations could then be drawn to determine if only tolerant organisms were colonizing the new pond or if more sensitive species were becoming established. Benthic samples were taken with a Petite Ponar grab in 1977 and an Ekman grab in 1978 (Table 4.1). The samplers collected a 0.023-m^ section of pond bottom per sample. Most samples were taken along the shoreline at 0.3- to 1.0-m depths. Samples were washed through a #30 mesh sieve with the remaining materials, including organisms, preserved in 70% ethyl alcohol. At the laboratory, the organisms were sorted from the samples, as were all detritus (decaying plant matter) and algae. Benthic invertebrates were counted and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. This was usually to genus, especially for the Diptera. For many immature aquatic insects, adult associations are needed to determine species. Dry weights for detritus and algae were determined. Species lists were then generated for each sample. A mean percent summary based on major taxonomic groups is given in Table 4.1. Shannon diversity indices were also tabulated. Diversity indices provide a method of comparing pond invertebrate communities based both on the number of species and distribution of individuals between the species. Generally, the higher the diversity value, the more complex, developed, and stable a community is thought to be. Comparisons of the data for each pond, as well as supporting litera¬ ture information on life histories and pollution tolerances of the dominant species, would allow conclusions to be drawn regarding benthic community development in the new pond, and would also give long-term indications of the water quality in the new pond. From this, the potential for a produc¬ tive biological system in the new pond could be determined. 4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Macroinvertebrate composition and mean numbers per square meter collected from the on-site ponds for each sampling date were determined. Table 4.1. Mean Percent Composition of Major Taxonomic Groups Collected from the Pond 34 C/) o *3 *3 • a; c o J= o CO o to a. 00 r* ON •—* vO t-* oo \0 cn TJ ^ 3N O CN O P< CM sO CN so vO cn *3 in CN —* O CN 3 c • • • • • o V© ON O O CO •—< Z CL, os r^. o *3 *3 • 0 ) c O JO o CO O CO cu <—M 00 ON r—4 vO m cn ^ so •3 vO CN m h r^. \D >> *3 C • • • • • • 3 o ^ 00 •—• <—« O NO pH X O CL* n© CN co CN O O T5 cO r>« 3 C • • a> o r*^ vO co z Ch on o *3 -3 • V c o oo X O CO o CO Pm H On »h CO pH CO 00 ON O •H •3 «o on .h on o u "3 C a. * O m r>» »-4 ^ o as ^5 < O CL, m CN CN H O 00 CO T3 vO »/> 00 CN 5 C vO • • • 3 c H b o o a j-H UCD4)COO O Du 0 jC •— i no O Ct, JO W*HCCLO ►_} 0 u 0coq6wu3S2 2 z o p-3 H * M X o o 35 Percent composition for the major taxa are summarized in Table 4.1. Apparent from the table is the numerical dominance of Diptera (true flies) in the ponds. Diptera were the only organisms collected from the shed pond, were the most abundant organisms in the new pond on all occasions, and were numerically dominant on all but one occasion in the old pond. Chironomidae (midges) was the most prevalent family of Diptera. Eighteen species of midges were collected from the ponds, with the major species including Chironomus plumosus , Tanypus punctipennis , and Procladius sp. C^_ plumosus was the only species collected in abundance from the shed pond, and was often the dominant species collected from the new pond in the spring collec¬ tions. This was to be expected considering the degraded water quality in the shed pond and the initially low water quality in the new pond. Harp and Campbell (5) found Cj_ plumosus to be the only midge in water with pH < 6.0. Other Diptera regularly collected were the Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) and Chaoboridae (phantom midges). They were common in both the old and new ponds. Mosquito larvae were also observed regularly in the new pond, but were only collected in samples on one occasion. The species was shown to be Aedes vexans , one of the most common mosquitoes in North America and also one of the most annoying pests and fierce biters to be found (3,7,9). In the old pond the fingernail clam, Musculium transversum , and the snail, Physa gyrina , were commonly collected. They were absent or rare in the new pond due to inadequate water quality and/or difficulty in the species' reaching the pond to colonize it. The aquatic worm, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri , was also common in the old pond but absent from the new pond. This was apparently due to the lack of organic matter and mud in the new pond sediments. Various dragonfly, mayfly, and beetle species were common, but in low numbers, in both the new and old ponds. Severely degraded water quality indicative of acid mine drainage in the shed pond limited its Table 4.2. Shannon Diversity Values Based upon Mean Number per Square Meter of Benthic Macroinvertebrates Collected from the Staunton 1 Reclamation Demonstration Project On-Site Ponds a Date New Pond Old Pond Shed Pond 10 May 1977 0.06 0.36 — 28 & 29 June 1977 0.02 — — 16 August 1977 0.90 1.06 — 3 October 1977 1.15 — 0.04 23 & 24 April 1978 0.57 0.95 0.28 23 May 1978 0.75 0.85 0.11 26 June 1978 0.17 0.56 0. 29 a Logarithm base 10. 36 benthic fauna to low numbers of C^_ plumosus and sporadic occurrences of a few other tolerant Diptera, e.g., Erioptera sp. (Tipulidae). The occurrence of Diptera, Odonata, and Coleoptera in the new pond is expected, as these orders contain species that are tolerant to extremes of water quality and/or are so highly mobile that they may enter or leave a body of water at will (10). The Ephemeroptera species present ( Caenis , Callibaetis , and Hexagenia ) are also more resistant to pollution (2). Densities of organisms were generally greater in the old pond than in the other ponds. Lowest densities were always found in the shed pond. In conjunction with this, diversity values were always highest in the old pond, while the shed pond usually had the lowest values (Table 4.2). Higher diversities in the old pond were due to better water quality, devel¬ oped macrophyte flora, and abundance of allochtonous leaf litter; the latter two were sparse in the other ponds. Macrophytes and leaf litter provide diverse habitat and food resources for macroinvertebrates, allowing develop¬ ment of a fauna that encompasses a variety of function feeding groups (shredders, collectors, scrapers, piercers, engulfers, and parasites) and habits (sprawlers, climbers, and burrowers), as based on classification schemes of Cummins (1). Abundant stands of the cattail Typha latifolia were present in the new pond. Though some insects such as Chironomus , mosqui¬ toes, and beetles thrive near the cattails, these plants often exclude shallow areas for growth of higher plants and is itself not a good "ferti¬ lizing" plant (6). 4.5 CONCLUSIONS Findings from the macroinvertebrate investigations, coupled with water quality data, imply that stabilized conditions do not currently exist in the new pond. The results indicate that slight to moderate acid mine drainage conditions are present. These conditions have contributed to the current limited diversity and density of macroinvertebrates in the pond. Contributing to this is the lack of allochtonous matter, macrophytes, and less mobile organisms such as molluscs. Construction activities have obviously created a better aquatic habitat than existed in the slurry area before site development. If the water quality does not fall below levels found during the 1978 field season, the new pond should remain a viable aquatic habitat. The pond also is a net benefit for terrestrial wildlife. It is doubtful, however, that the pond will be productive for fish as long as the water quality and the macroin¬ vertebrate densities remain low. Even if the biota and water quality conditions warranted stocking, the small size of the pond would necessitate intense management. The cost of such management could not be justified because of the limited public fishing that could be done in the pond. 4.6 RECOMMENDATIONS The pond could have been constructed in a manner more desirable for fish stocking (e.g., larger, and with steeper banks). Future reclamation endeavors should incorporate information on the construction and maintenance 37 of fish ponds in the reclamation design. Tree plantings near the pond could improve conditions by serving as a source of allochtonous organic matter for the pond biota, and riprap or sod placed along the waterline of the pond would stabilize the shoreline of the pond and reduce sedimentation into the pond. 4.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank George Dorna and George Brown of Argonne National Laboratory for their aid in the initial sorting of some of the samples. 4.8 REFERENCES 1. Cummins, K. W., Chapter 4. Ecology and Distribution of Aquatic Insects, in R. W. Merritt and K. w"! Cummins (eds.), An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America, Kendall-Hunt Publishing Company, Dubuque, pp. 29-31 (1978). 2. Edmunds, G. F., Jr., S. L. Jensen, and L. Berner, The Mayflies of North and Central America , Univ. Minn. Press, 330 pp. (1976). 3. Gerhardt, R. W., South Dakota Mosquitoes and Their Control , South Dakota State Univ., Agr. Expt. Sta., Bull. 531, 82 pp. (1966). 4. Goodnight, C. J., The Use of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Stream Pollution , Trans. Amer. Microscop. Soc. 92 (1):1—13 (1973). 5. Harp, G. L., and R. S. Campbell, The Distribution of Tendipes plumosus (Linne) in Mineral Acid Water , Limnol. Oceanogr. 12(2):260-263 (1962). 6. Lackey, J. B., Aquatic Life in Waters Polluted by Acid Mine Waste , Public Health Reports 54:740-746 (1939). 7. Nielsen, L. T., and D. M. Rees, An Identification Guide to the Mosquitoes of Utah, Univ. Utah Biol. Ser. Vol. XXII No. 3, 63 pp. (1961). 8. Paine, G. H., Jr., and Gaufin, A. R., Aquatic Diptera as Indicators of Pollution in a Midwestern Stream, Ohio J. Sci. 56(5):291-304 (1956). 9. Rempel, J. G., The Mosquitoes of Saskatchewan, Can. J. Zoo. 31:433-509 (1953). 10. Roback, S. S., Chapter 10. Insects (Arthropoda: Insecta) , in C. W. Hart, Jr. and S. L. H. Fuller (eds.), Pollution Ecology of Freshwater Invertebrates, Academic Press, Inc., New York, pp. 313-376 (1974). * 39 5 SITE-WIDE REVEGETATION SUCCESS STUDY William A. Master 5.1 SUMMARY The objectives of the site-wide revegetation study were to: (1) document the extent of vegetative cover, (2) assess the adequacy of the vegetation in protecting the cover soil from erosion, (3) examine the performance of individual species, and (4) make recommendations for the improvement of the vegetative stand at the Staunton 1 site and for revege¬ tating future reclamation sites. A point-intercept method was used to monitor the vegetation during the first two growing seasons. The amount of vegetation and the proportion of vegetative cover contributed by seeded species was found to be increasing. High soil temperature and low available soil moisture on the south-facing slope of the gob pile are thought to have inhibited plant establishment, which allowed substantial erosion of cover soil. Standing water and sediment accumulation in the wide drainageways adversely affected seeded species establishment. Future evaluation of the vegetation and maintenance of the site will be required. 5.2 INTRODUCTION During the site development phase of the Staunton project, the site was seeded with a mixture of grasses and legumes. Species were selected for this site-wide revegetation effort based on their capability to rapidly stabilize the soil surface and on their tolerance to acidic growth condi¬ tions. The suitability of the selected species for revegetation, under the unique plant growth conditions presented at the reclamation site, was unknown. 5.3 DESCRIPTION A measurement of vegetative cover on an individual species basis was selected to monitor plant establishment. Vegetative cover is defined as the proportion of the soil surface occupied by a perpendicular projection of the aerial vegetation (1). Five areas of the reclamation site, shown in Figure 5.1, were selected for segregated study. Areas A and B consisted of 0.2 ha each, located on the south- and north-facing 18% slopes, respec¬ tively, of the recontoured refuse pile. Areas C and E (0.1 ha) were located in nearly level (1% and 2% slopes, respectively) drainageways in which standing water covered the soil for significant periods of time. Area D (0.2 ha) was located on a gentle (4%), east-facing slope with medium surface runoff characteristics. Areas C, D, and E were underlain by slurry, while Areas A and B were underlain by gob. Permanent quadrats were randomly located within each study area to enable observation of changes in vegetation through time and compilation of a photographic record of these changes. Areas A, B, and D contained 24 quadrats (60 cm x 40 cm), while Areas C and E contained 12 quadrats each. Forty points within each quadrat were examined for vegetation using the 40 r l V ~A \ -PROPERTY LINE \ BUILDING ABANDONED ^ RAILROAD SPUR POND (TQ MARSH - WATERCOURSE _CONTOUR LINE trees WM REVEGETATION-SUCCESS STUDY PLOTS Fig. 5.1. Location of Revegetation Success Study Plots 41 point-intercept frame shown in Figure 5.2. Vegetative cover data were collected in June and August 1977 (the first growing season) and in May and August 1978. The extent of soil erosion or sediment accumulation was also examined during these sampling periods. Vegetative cover data were statis¬ tically compared between study areas using a t test. The results were judged significant at the P < 0.05 level. Soil temperature and moisture potential measurements were collected in the early afternoon, once per week from May through August 1978. The data were obtained from twelve double-junction psychrometers implanted in the cover soil of each area at 7.5 cm and 20 cm. 5.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The total vegetative cover and the portion of cover contributed by seeded species for each of the five study areas is presented in Figure 5.3. The mean percent vegetative cover of the five study areas was 39.0, 70.6, 54.0, and 76.3 for June 1977, August 1977, May 1978, and August 1978, respectively. The mean percent cover value of 76.3 obtained during the summer of the second growing season (1978) compares favorably with the 70% ground cover currently required by federal regulation in the reclamation of small surface-mined sites (2). The ground area covered by seeded species increased from 54% of the total cover in the summer of 1977 to 83% of the total cover in the summer of 1978. The 29% increase in seeded species demonstrates the improving species composition of the vegetation. Fig. 5.2. Point-Intercept Frame Used to Collect Plant Cover Data 42 TOTAL (□ % COVER ) pa i % COVER BY SEEDED SPECIES SAMPLING PERIOD Fig. 5.3. Total Percent Cover and Percent Cover by Seeded Species for the Five Study Areas at Four Sampling Periods, 1977-78 Observations of soil erosion on the five areas indicated that the slopes of the gob pile (Areas A and B) had the greatest erosion, while the gentle sloped area (D) and the nearly level drainageways (Areas C and E) were the least eroded. Statistical analysis of the vegetative cover data showed that Area A had significantly less seeded species cover than the other four study areas throughout the two-year period. Although substantial invading species cover existed on Area 4 during the first year, inadequate early vegetative cover by the nurse crop (cereal rye) and other seeded species allowed cover soil erosion on this south-facing slope. The invading species cover on Area A was substantially reduced by the second growing season, leaving the area unprotected from erosion. By the end of the second growing season, Area A had some large gullies and patches of exposed refuse. By contrast, Area B had only small gullies, many of which were filled in by vegetation, in the summer of the second growing season. Some gob was exposed at the base of the Area B gullies, apparently where cover soil was applied less than 30 cm deep. In June 1977, more than twice the nurse crop cover was observed in this area compared to Area A. The vegetative cover on Area B, which was primarily composed of seeded species, reached 86% by August 1978. This vegetative cover stabilized the majority of the cover A3 soil on this north-facing slope. Area D exhibited only small rills in the cover soil from water erosion at the end of the second growing season. The vegetative cover established in Area D, which reached 93% by August 1978, was adequate to stabilize the soil cover in this gently sloping area. Area C exhibited small eroded channels with sediment accumulation along the channel edges from meandering water flow through this drainageway. This area had significantly greater cover than the other study areas during the first growing season, primarily due to seeded species in June and invading species in August. By August 1978, an 81% vegetative cover was observed in Area C with seeded species contributing slightly more than one-half of the cover. It is thought that the standing water regularly observed in Area C stimulated invading species growth to the detriment of seeded species. Area E, which transported considerably less runoff water than Area C, accumulated large quantities of sediment which eroded from a field lying to the south¬ west. The vegetative cover in this area reached 91% in August 1978 and was composed primarily of seeded species. Due to the nearly level topography of Areas C and E, the established vegetation was sufficient to minimize soil erosion except in the water channel through the center of Area C. The Balbo rye nurse crop supplied the majority of plant cover (aver¬ aging 28%) two months after seeding, but became senescent early in the summer due to droughty conditions. A low rye coverage (9.9%) for Area A, compared to the other four study areas with a mean rye coverage of 32.5%, was observed. Significantly high soil temperatures and low moisture condi¬ tions are thought to have inhibited the establishment of the rye. In addition to providing less soil stabilization, this low nurse crop cover left substantial sections of Area A open to establishment by invading species. The low seeded species cover (3.4%) found in Area A at the end of the second growing season implies that the heavy cover (69.4%) of invading species found in this area during the summer of the first growing season was detrimental to seeded species establishment. The reed canarygrass performed best in the wettest study areas (C and E), which is consistent with the knowledge that wet and poorly-drained areas comprise the natural habitat for this species (3). Area C had significantly greater reed canarygrass cover than the other areas during all sampling periods. The poor success of this species in Area E compared to Area C is likely due to high silt accumulation in Area E, a condition known to inhibit establishment of this species (3). Both birdsfoot trefoil and Ky-31 tall fescue increased dramatically in cover from June 1977 to August 1978. These two species provided the greatest cover for seeded species on the average for the study areas, contributing 43.5% and 24.1% cover, respectively, by the summer of 1978. During both sampling periods in 1978, Areas A and C had significantly less cover from these two species than Areas B, D, and E. Competition between seeded species and invading species, whose coverage was high in Areas A and C, likely inhibited seeded species establishment in these areas. The ladino clover did poorly on the site compared to birdsfoot trefoil, the other legume in the seed mixture. The mean ladino clover cover for the five areas in August 1978 was only 2.4%. No specimens were recorded in Areas A and B (the slopes of the gob pile). Factors which may have inhibited ladino clover establishment include the low pH of the cover soil (pH approximately 5), the poorly drained nature of the cover soil, and the periodic low soil moisture conditions observed during the summers. 5.5 CONCLUSIONS Based on the standard of 70% to 80% vegetative cover used by numerous state and federal agencies, the revegetation of this site can be considered successful. The results show that the amount of vegetation established on the site and the proportion of vegetative cover contributed by seeded species is increasing. Evaluation of the long-term success of the revege¬ tation effort will require periodic observations in subsequent years. Slopes of the refuse pile were subject to water erosion and loss of the cover soil. The higher soil temperatures and lower soil moistures observed on the south-facing slope of the gob pile are thought to have inhibited nurse crop establishment which allowed substantial losses of cover soil. The heavy cover of invading species on this south-facing slope in the summer following seeding likely inhibited subsequent seeded species estab¬ lishment. The plant establishment on the north-facing slope was adequate to protect most of the cover soil from erosion, although additional surface water flow control procedures would have been beneficial. Standing water and sediment accumulation in the wide drainageways of the site were thought to have adversely affected seeded species establish¬ ment. However, dense stands of vegetation composed of seeding and invading species became established in these areas. Of the five seeded species included in the seed mixture, birdsfoot trefoil and Ky-31 tall fescue provided the greatest plant cover on the average. Ladino clover did poorly overall on the reclaimed site. Observa¬ tions during this two year study indicate that a site maintenance program will be required to preserve and improve the established stand of vegeta¬ tion. Required maintenance will include application of cover soil on areas with exposed refuse, periodic liming, fertilizing, and reseeding of certain areas on the site. 5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS Application of straw mulch to the slopes of recontoured, soil covered refuse piles would improve soil moisture and temperature conditions for plant growth and would provide needed soil protection from water erosion. The use of a thicker soil covering on refuse pile slopes, although increas¬ ing site development costs, would provide additional insurance against exposed refuse on the erosion-prone slopes. Compaction of the cover soil should be held to a minimum. Inclusion of additional rapid-growth species (e.g., redtop) in the seed mixture would improve first year soil stabilization. However, heavy seeding of short-lived species should be avoided so that the estab¬ lishment of long-lived species would not be seriously impaired. If invading 45 species establish rapidly on the reclaimed site and threaten seeded species success, the site should be mowed at a height above the seeded vegetation. A surface runoff-water flow control system should be used to carry away precipitation falling on the top of refuse piles to prevent runoff water damage on pile slopes. Water collecting on refuse pile benches should also be removed from the pile with this system. All depressions on the site that are likely to receive and transport runoff water should be carefully channelized to prevent meandering water flow and the resulting cover-soil erosion and vegetation damage. Channels should be lined with a suitable material (riprap) to prevent erosion of the cover soil and exposure of refuse at the channel base. 5.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author extends his sincere appreciation to Stanley Zellmer for his guidance and support throughout this research project. Assistance provided by David Curnock, Walter Clapper, Kevin Murphy, and Leigh Grench for collection of plant cover data is acknowledged. Thanks is extended to Barry Deist for collection soil psychrometer data and to John Reiter and Paul Kalisz for aiding in the computer analysis of the data. 5.8 REFERENCES 1. Goldsmith, F. B., and C. M. Harrison, Description and Analysis of Vegetation , Methods in Plant Ecology, S. B. Chapman (ed.), John Wiley and Sons, New York (1976). 2. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, Surface Coal Mining and Reclamation Operations, Proposed Rules for Permanent Regulatory Program , Section 816:116 in Fed. Register Vol. 43, No. 181, U. S. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (Sept. 18, 1978). 3. Marten, G. C., and M. E. Heath, Reed Canarygrass , in Forages: The Science of Grassland Agriculture, 3rd edition, M. E. Heath, D. S. Metcalfe, and R. F. Barnes (eds.), Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa (1973). 47 6 REVEGETATION RESEARCH PLOTS Anthony J. Dvorak, Mark L. Knight*, Barbara K. Mueller*, and Julie D. Jastrow 6.1 SUMMARY Sixteen research plots designed to compare two lime rates (112 and 224 t/ha) and four cover material depths (0, 15, 30, and 60 cm), were established on the flat area on top of the regraded gob pile (Figures 6.1 and 6.2). All plots were fertilized at the same rate and seeded with a mixture of seven grasses and one legume in April 1977. Plant cover and production were measured in August 1977 and in April, June, July, and August 1978. Soil abiotic parameters were also measured each year. Although plant growth was poor on the plots with zero cover material in both 1977 and 1978, areal plant cover ranging from 89% to 99% was measured for both years on the plots with cover material. In August 1977, foxtail (Setaria spp.) and other invading annuals dominated the planted perennial species, accounting for 84% to 94% of the total plant cover and from 75% to 99% of the total plant production on the plots with cover material. A complete reversal of domi¬ nance occurred in 1978; by August, planted species comprised 74% to 90% of the total cover and 50% to 93% of the total production. Rainfall at the site was below normal during July and August 1978, as was reflected by vegetation development. In late August, live biomass on the plots with 15 and 30 cm of cover material was about half that on the 60 cm plots, which indicated a probable interaction of rooting depth with available soil moisture. On all plots, soil pH values were quite variable. Although surface pH tended to increase from 1977 to 1978, a general decrease in pH was observed for the gob underlying all plots and the cover material 8 cm above the gob. If this trend continues, it may have significant effects on the vegetation. Due to the dynamic changes taking place during the first two growing seasons, it is too early to draw any conclusions. Preliminary findings, however, indicate that (a) Birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus ) and Blackwell switchgrass (Panicum virgatum ) were the most successful planted species after two growing seasons, (b) rooting depths on recontoured refuse can be insufficient and limit available soil moisture during periods of drought, (c) better methods of liming refuse should be determined, and (d) adequate surface drainage should be provided. 6.2 INTRODUCTION Prior to establishing an experimental design for revegetation re¬ search plots at Staunton 1, a series of pot experiments was completed using acidic gob (pH ~ 2.5) from the site. These experiments were designed to determine the plant species and soil amendments most suitable for field testing. All of the tested plants grew well in fertilized gob if the pH was raised to a range of 5.0 to 6.5 with lime. Species planted in gob limed to achieve lower pH also grew, but not as well as at the higher pH. Plant *ESC0R, Inc. 48 -PROPERTY LINE BUILDING ABANDONED RAILROAD SPUR MARSH - WATERCOURSE _CONTOUR LINE <£© TREES REVEGETATION RESEARCH PLOTS Fig. 6.1. Location of Revegetation Research Plots 49 roots could not grow in unamended gob even when a surface layer of soil was applied. In the latter case, roots became misshapen and died upon encoun¬ tering the interface of the soil and gob. The results of these laboratory experiments led to several questions or hypotheses which served as the bases for designing the field experiments: (a) Is a surface application of soil or some other material over lime amended gob necessary?; (b) If so, what is the minimum depth required to maintain self-perpetuating plant populations?; (c) What plant species are best to seed?; and (d) How much lime must be applied to the refuse to maintain a substrate acidity level that would result in acceptable plant growth and development? Collection of data over time from appropriately designed field plots at Staunton 1 should provide answers to these questions. 6.3 DESCRIPTION The 16 research plots, each with differing liming rates and cover material depths, are displayed in Figure 6.2. To construct these plots, lime was applied to the refuse and mixed to a depth of 15 cm; then the varying depths of cover material were applied. Lime, at the rate of 11.2 t/ha, and fertilizer were spread and disked into the upper 15 cm of the cover material. All plots were seeded on 27 April 1977 with a seed mixture of seven grases and one legume (Table 6.1). Plant cover was estimated once, in August, during the 1977 growing season and four times (April, June, July, and August) during the 1978 growing season. Cover data were collected with a randomly placed, 1-m tall point-frame, that was equipped with 10 pins spaced 10 cm apart. Ten frames (100 pins) were "dropped" on each plot that had an application of cover material. Plant density on plots lacking cover material (exposed refuse Table 6.1. Seed Mixture for Revegetation Research Plots Species kg/ha Kentucky 31 tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ) 12.2 Blackwell switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum ) 11.1 Lincoln smooth brome ( Bromus inermis ) 8.3 Orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata ) 8.3 Reed canarygrass ( Phalaris arundinacea ) 6.6 Camper little bluestem ( Andropogon scoparius ) 6.3 Tioga deertongue grass ( Panicum clandestinum ) 4.4 Empire birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus ) 8.3 TOTAL 65.6 50 Fig. 6.2. Revegetation Research Plot Cover Material and Lime Application Rates plots) was so sparse that plant cover was measured only during August of both years. Twenty or more frames (> 200 pins) were needed to provide an estimate of plant cover when sampled in 1978. However, in 1977 when plant density was even less, line transects were required in order to estimate cover on the gob plots. Plant biomass data were obtained at similar sampling times by clipp¬ ing five 0.5 m^ circular quadrats from each plot with surface cover mater¬ ial. Each quadrat clipped during the August 1977 sampling trip was hand- sorted by species in the field, bagged, and returned to the laboratory where dry weight by species was obtained. During 1978, sorting by species was done at the laboratory and expanded to separate out live, current-year standing dead and previous-year standing dead biomass. Soil abiotic parameters included in the sampling design were bulk density, pH, texture, chemical composition, and soil moisture. Only pH will be reported here. Three soil pH samples were taken from each of the plots 51 during October 1977 and June 1978. Up to five soil depths were sampled, depending on the depth of cover material: 0-8 cm, 8-16 cm, 24-32 cm, the 8 cm above the underlying gob, and the upper 8 cm of the underlying gob. 6.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The percent of ground area having plant cover (areal cover) for those plots with cover material ranged from 89% to 99% for the first growing season. A similar range was determined for the second growing season. At the end of the first growing season (August 1977), plant cover consisted primarily of foxtail ( Setaria spp.), fall panicum ( Panicum dichotomifolium ), crabgrass ( Digitaria spp.), and barnyard grass ( Echinochloa spp.). These species and other annual weeds contributed from 84% to 94% of the relative plant cover present on the plots with cover material. During 1978, however, the species comprising the plant cover of these same plots changed drasti¬ cally; the increased contribution of the planted species can be seen in Figures 6.3 and 6.4. Although the planted species contributed no more than 16% of the relative plant cover on any of the plots during 1977, these species provided the majority of plant cover during 1978. Based on the data in Figures 6.3 and 6.4, the planted species appeared to have more difficulty becoming established on plots with the thinnest cover material (15 cm) than on plots with thicker layers. The planted species provided a smaller portion of the relative plant cover on the 15 cm cover material plots than did these species on the other depth plots when estimated in 1977, and throughout the 1978 growing season in areas amended with 112 t/ha lime (Figure 6.3). This relationship also occurred in areas amended with 224 t/ha lime for the first two sampling dates of 1978 (Figure 6.4). Based on cover data from two growing seasons, birdsfoot trefoil ( Lotus corniculatus ) was the most successful of the eight planted species. On the plots with cover material, it provided from 34% and 63% of the relative plant cover in August 1978. On the same sampling date, Blackwell switchgrass ( Panicum virgatum ) was the only planted grass that contributed 10% or more of the relative plant cover. Tioga deertongue ( Panicum clandes- tinum ) did poorly and was nearly non-existent. Total plant cover on the exposed refuse plots improved in 1978 compared to 1977, but was still poor. In August 1978, total plant cover ranged from 13% to 32%, with 67% of the total cover attributed to the planted species. First year (1977) biomass production estimated from the clipping studies ranged from 75 to 334 g/0.5 m^ (Table 6.1). Annual weeds contri¬ buted significantly to the totals of both production and areal cover, as noted above. In 1977, the percent composition of the seeded species on the plots with cover material ranged from 1% to 25%. Separation into functional components of live, current-year standing dead and previous-year standing dead was not necessary for 1977 because it was the initial growing season, the plants were still green, and the annuals were flowering and setting seed. All three were present in the August 1978 samples and, therefore, were determined. <<*■*»<<-. '>-'A - - ; u(Y 52 8-77 9-77 4-78 5-78 6-78 7-78 8-78 9-78 SAMPLING DATES Fig. 6.3. Changes in the Relative Contribution of the Planted Species to Total Plant Cover on Cover Material Over- lying Gob Amended with 112 t/ha Lime The August 1978 plant biomass was lower than that of 1977 in most plots, ranging from 47 to 136 g/0.5 m^ (Table 6.1). The planted species were dominant in 1978, contributing an average of 70% or greater on the plots with cover material and indicating a complete reversal in species composition between the first and second growing seasons. From a qualita¬ tive point of view (to be substantiated later statistically), trefoil was the most dominant plant during the second growing season. Seed production by the annuals, specifically foxtail, during the initial growing season was quite high, which is characteristic of early invaders of disturbed sites. Qualitative observations during the second growing season indicated that foxtail seed germination was very successful and was not the limiting factor responsible for the severely reduced foxtail populations in the second season. Foxtail seedlings formed dense mats under and around the planted perennials but rarely developed to any measurable size or reached reproductive maturity. Precipitation at the site between the July 14 and August 21, 1978 sampling dates, a period of five weeks, was only 5.64 cm. Although rain fell on 10 different days during this interval, only once was the amount sufficient to exceed surface wetting. The contrasting amounts of standing dead vegetation on the plots in August strongly reflected the limited rainfall and resultant lack of available soil moisture. Only the treatments 53 100 80 60 40 20 0 8-77 9-77 4-78 5-78 6-78 7-78 8-78 9-78 SAMPLING DATES - r v —i— - 1 - T 1- 1 - — —a - — / — — — o 15 cm COVER MATERIAL — □ 30 cm COVER MATERIAL - e • 60 cm COVER MATERIAL _ L^v _ 1 _ _ 1_ J_I_1 _ Fig. 6.4. Changes in the Relative Contribution of the Planted Species to Total Plant Cover on Cover Material Over- lying Gob Amended with 224 t/ha Lime with a 60 cm depth of cover material appeared unaffected, or much less affected. This observation is supported by the data on live biomass in August as a function of cover material depth (Table 6.2). The 60 cm depth averaged almost twice the amount of live plant biomass than either the 30 cm or 15 cm depths. It is not presently known if this biomass difference was a result of limited soil moisture or insufficient depth of cover material, or an interaction of the two. One important factor to be determined from this "drought" will be the capability of the different species to recover during the 1979 growing season. Mean pH values of the cover material's upper 8 cm showed a general increase from 1977 to 1978 for all cover material depths. However, the variability encountered during June 1978 was much the same as that found during October 1977. Values at the surface in 1977 ranged from 5.4 to 6.6 on the plots with 60 cm of cover material, 4.9 to 7.3 on those with 30 cm, 5.3 to 7.3 on those with 15 cm, and 2.5 to 6.7 on exposed refuse plots. Values for 1978 ranged from 5.1 to 7.0 on plots with 60 cm of cover material, 4.4 to 7.2 on 30 cm, 6.2 to 7.5 on 15 cm, and 2.3 to 6.9 on exposed refuse plots. No trends in the pH data were apparent for the 8-16 cm or 24-32 cm depths between 1977 and 1978. Samples taken 8 cm above the gob had de¬ creased pH values in 1977 compared to 1978, as did the samples of underlying 54 Table 6.2. Mean Dry Weight/0.5 m 2 (+ Standard Error) for All Species, August 1977, and for the Live and Current Years Standing Dead for All Species, August 1978, by Cover Material Depth Cover Material Depth (cm) Plot August 1977 August 1978 Total Biomass 3 (g/0.5 m 2 ) Relative Composition* 3 (%) Total Biomass 3 (g/0.5 m 2 ) Relative Composition* 3 (%) 60 AI 333.8 + 37.7 1.8 117.2 + 28.7 50.5 All 226.4 + 51.3 1.1 90.8 + 25.8 62.2 El 222.1 + 42.0 6.4 107.1 + 18.6 89.0 Eli 109.4 + 12.7 6.6 111.6 + 14.6 83.7 Avg = 222.9 4.0 Avg = 106.7 71.4 30 BI 142.9 + 29.3 10.8 112.2 + 33.5 88.7 BII 75.2 + 29.7 25.3 91.8 + 21.5 88.4 FI 132.8 + 13.9 12.4 96.4 + 12.8 84.5 FII 206.8 + 34.4 5.0 77.0 + 13.9 70.0 Avg = 139.4 13.4 Avg = 94.4 82.9 15 Cl 167.3 + 24.4 8.1 114.6 + 16.6 85.5 CII 160.0 + 34.5 13.2 97.7 + 28.7 84.4 GI 152.7 + 29.6 4.6 47.2 + 7.0 53.2 GII 122.8 + 35.2 16.6 136.3 + 17.0 93.4 Avg = 150.7 10.6 Avg = 99.0 79.1 a Standard error = s ViT ^Biomass of planted species Total biomass 55 Table 6.3. Mean Dry Weight/0.5 m 2 (+ Standard Error) for All Live Species, August 1978, by Cover Material Depth Cover Material Depth (m) Plot Total Biomass 3 (g/0.5 m 2 ) Relative Composition' 3 (%) 0.6 AI 98.4 + 24.8 54.7 All 81.2 + 25.1 65.7 El 89.3 + 14.8 96.1 Eli 96.1 + 14.2 93.2 Avg = 91.3 77.4 0.3 BI 65.4 + 18.6 95.1 BII 55.8 + 16.8 89.1 FI 45.0 + 9.4 88.7 FII 35.4 + 11.3 79.7 Avg = 50.4 88.2 0.15 Cl 53.2+11.5 89.7 CII 42.7 + 17.7 90.3 GI 29.9 + 5.2 61.3 GII 36.7 + 10.1 94.5 Avg = 40.6 84.0 a Standard error = JL ^Biomass of planted species x 100. Total biomass 56 gob. The pH values of gob were extremely variable during 1977 and 1978, having ranges of 2.3 to 7.2 and 2.2 to 7.1, respectively. Although the 1978 mean pH values were generally higher than the 1977 values, the wide ranges indicate that the mean values may not adequately describe conditions in isolated areas. The mean pH of the exposed refuse plots has increased from 4.1 to 4.6 from 1977 to 1978, but areas still occur in which the pH is below 3.0. The refuse underlying all plots and the cover material 8 cm above the refuse has shown a decrease in pH from 1977 to 1978. 6.5 CONCLUSIONS The data collected to date are inconclusive in anwering the four questions this research effort set out to explore, and, as in most research efforts, has resulted in even more questions. More than two year's data are required to propose conclusionary statements; however, several observations made to date may have some value in considering similar reclamation activi¬ ties. The presence of 15 cm of cover material applied over limed gob allowed initial plant establishment. Comparing the pH values from 1977 to 1978 indicated a general trend of increasing acidity in both the underlying gob and the first 8 cm of substrate directly over the gob. If this trend continues, vegetation could be significantly affected, especially where the cover material is shallow. In this study, attempts to revegetate refuse without applying cover material have been unsuccessful to date. Although the planted perennials contributed little to the first year's plant cover and biomass, the invading species provided adequate protection from soil erosion on plots with cover material. The perennials were well established throughout the second growing season. Birdsfoot trefoil and Blackwell switchgrass were the most successful planted species after two growing seasons. The limited rainfall for five weeks during the peak of the growing season of 1978 appeared to adversely affect vegetation on all plots except those with 60 cm of cover material. 6.6 RECOMMENDATIONS Future research areas should not consist of an expansive flat area without adequate provisions for surface drainage. Several areas on the research plots had intermittent standing water, which hinders development of species that are normally planted during construction. The application and mixing of lime into the refuse should be more uniform and done to a greater depth. Laboratory data, supported by field observations, substantiate that plant roots will not grow in refuse with a pH of 3 or less. In order to increase rooting depth, providing plants additional soil moisture during periods of insufficient precipitation, either the lime must be worked in more deeply, or a greater depth of cover material must be applied. It becomes a question of which method is most cost-effective. Finally, what is an adequate amount of lime? This question remains unanswered. The lime should be applied in both powdered and granu¬ lated forms. Powdered lime is necessary to provide an immediate reaction 57 decreasing the acidity; the granulated lime will provide a long-term neu¬ tralizing capacity. It is premature to recommend plant species that will remain a satisfactory, long-term, self-sustaining primary-producer component of a terrestrial ecosystem. 6.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to acknowledge the following persons for their contributions in either obtaining field samples, data processing and analy¬ sis, or suggestions for and review of this written material: Ray Hinchman, Patrick Mills, Patricia Vance, Charles Hertz, and Dee Wyman. 59 7 SOIL CHARACTERISTICS Stanley D. Zellmer and Andrew A. Sobek 7.1 SUMMARY The establishment of a stable self-sustaining vegetative cover, the improvement of environmental quality, and the choice of land use are all dependent on soil properties. Physical, chemical, mineralogical, and morphological analyses are documenting the characteristics of the new soil at the Staunton site. Bulk density of the surface soil is high (1.4-2.1 g/cnP), but plant root development has not affected. Soil pH on slopes subject to erosion has decreased, indicating the need for continued site maintenance; however, acceptable stands of plant cover are sustained on soil with a pH 4.7 or greater. Clay mineral analyses show a high percentage of swelling clays that result in low permeability of surface soil horizons. Soil-building material must be characterized to determine amendments needed before reconstruction starts. Deeper incorporation of liming material and better blending at the refuse/cover materials interface would benefit water infiltration and root development. 7.2 INTRODUCTION The establishment of a stable and self-sustaining vegetative cover on the reclamation site is directly related to soil characteristics. The recontouring of the refuse material, application of neutralizing agents, and the addition of the suitable cover material have created a new soil on the site. Productivity and fertility are dependent on the new soil's inherent physical and chemical properties and on management practice. Surface and groundwater quality, vegetative cover, and wildlife are all linked directly or indirectly to soil properties. Documentation of the changes that occur in these properties will be useful in planning future reclamation efforts of this type. 7.3 DESCRIPTION Four general soil sampling locations were chosen on the site. They were: a) an 18% slope on the south side of the recontoured refuse pile (1); b) an 18% slope on the north side of the recontoured refuse pile (2); c) a poorly-drained area in the drainageway northwest of the pond (3); and d) a well-drained area west of the pond (4). These general sampling locations are within the site-wide revegetation study areas (Figure 7.1) and data from that subproject is being utilized in the soil characterization subproject. Three points were permanently marked within each of the general sampling locations and samples were collected during 1977 and 1978. Samples were taken at 15-cm intervals to a total depth of 61 cm. Bulk density of the surface was determined using a sand-funnel apparatus (2). Soil pH (3), and lime requirements (6) were determined in the laboratory. 60 N 0 l. 50 L 100 150 L METERS -PROPERTY LINE BUILDING ABANDONED RAILROAD SPUR POND (TT) MARSH - WATERCOURSE _CONTOUR LINE CEO TREES SOIL SAMPLING LOCATIONS Fig. 7.1. General Soil Sampling and Profile Locations 61 The nine minesoil profiles were described and sampled in accordance with the procedures of the USDA-SCS (7). The minesoils were classified according to the proposed modification to Soil Taxonomy (5). Clay mineral analyses were conducted on the < 4- ra fractions of soil samples from the mine soil profiles. Clay-sized fractions were separated by wet sedimentation techniques. Oriented aggregates of the clay minerals were prepared by evaporating portions of the clay-water suspensions onto glass micro-slides for analysis by standard X-ray diffraction procedures. Analy¬ ses included traces for the air-dried material, after solvation with ethe- lyene glycol, and after heating to both 300°C and 550°C. Quantitative esti¬ mations of the clay minerals were made following a procedure of Schultz (4). 7.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results for the 0-15 cm soil samples are shown in Table 7.1. The mean percentage of the soil surface covered by plants is also listed. The three sampling points within each general sampling location are considered Table 7.1. Surface (0-15 cm) Soil Characteristics and Mean Percentage Plant Cover at the Staunton 1 Site Location u a pH Bulk Density ^ Lime Requirement c Mean Plant June Percent Cover August 1977 1978 1977 1978 1978 1977 1978 1-1 3.7 3.1 1.6 1.4 20.6 21 31 1-2 3.5 3.4 1.4 1.5 19.5 1-3 5.8 5.2 1.4 1.6 5.4 2-1 5.9 5.1 1.8 1.9 5.4 25 86 2-2 5.5 4.7 1.5 1.7 10.3 2-3 5.6 5.0 1.6 1.7 7.8 3-1 7.7 7.7 1.6 1.8 — 38 93 3-2 8.0 8.0 1.9 1.9 — 3-3 8.0 8.1 1.9 1.8 — 4-1 7.9 8.0 1.8 2.1 — 34 91 4-2 7.9 5.7 1.9 2.1 6.3 4-3 7.9 8.2 1.9 2.0 — a l:l in water bg/cm^ c t/ha 62 replications. General sampling locations 1 and 2 are on 18% slopes that are subject to erosion and receive acidic runoff water from exposed refuse plots located on the recontoured refuse pile. The erosion of surface soil and acidic runoff have decreased soil pH values with a corresponding in¬ crease in lime requirement. The lowest percentage plant cover was observed at location 1, which also had the lowest soil pH values. Bulk density generally increased at all general sampling locations. This increase, with a corresponding reduction in soil voids, was due to rainfall settling the seedbed after the initial bulk density measurements were taken. Gener¬ ally, sampling locations 3 and 4 had a higher bulk density because of continued erosion at locations 1 and 2, with subsequent exposure of new surface material. The profiles described (Tables 7.2 and 7.3) are two of six different minesoil families identified at the Staunton 1 site. The minesoil (ST-3) on the north end of the site is classified as Typic Udespolent, loamy-skeletal, neutral, mixed, mesic. This soil provides a good medium for plant growth and can tolerate some surface manipulation. Little genetic development has occurred below the 5 cm depth; however, an increase in plant root density will aid soil development and improve internal drainage, ameliorating the effects of the swelling clays found by x-ray analysis. Minesoil (ST-8), located on top of the refuse pile, is a Carbolithic Udespolent, loamy- skeletal, nigric, extremely acid, mesic, neutral weathered topsoil phase. This soil has severe limitations for land uses other than that of a wildlife habitat. The soil matrix is composed of over 40% organic materials, with pH ranges from 2.1 to 3.4 in the control section (25 to 100 cm depth). How¬ ever, it is covered with 26 cm of neutral weathered topsoil (1), which will provide a stable medium for plant growth. The clay mineral assemblage includes vermiculite-chlorite, illite, and a mixed-layer component. Based upon diffraction peak areas, the vermic- ulite and chlorite component appears to make up 25% to 75% of the entire sample. This material shows a moderate to large, diffuse diffraction peak at 14+Angstroms(A) on the air-dried slide. Glycolation shows swelling into the range of 14 to 17+A. Upon heating, this material does not collapse completely back to 10A. At 550°C, a small peak persists at 14A, indi¬ cating a trace of chlorite. A small peak at 7.2A on all but the 550°C heated sample suggests that most of this component is vermiculite. Perhaps it is a vermiculite-chlorite mixed-layer. Illite, identified by a 10A peak on all traces, is 20% to 30% of the sample based on peak intensities. With glycolation, this diffraction peak becomes slightly smaller, suggesting that some of the illite is potassium- deficient, or so-called "degraded," illite. All of the clay suggests that these samples have been chemically weathered to a significant degree. If this is true, perhaps degraded illite-vermiculite occurs as a mixed-layer component. 7.5 CONCLUSIONS Acceptable plant cover can be established and maintained on soils with pH value of 4.7 and higher. Lime requirements for the new soil 63 Table 7.2. Profile Description of Minesoil at Site ST-3 Date: August 1978 Location: Macoupin County, Staunton, Illinois; site Is located In Section 19, Township 7N, Range 6W. In old slurry pond area. Sampled and Described By: A. A. Sobek, P. Nelsius, and D. Carter Vegetation: Good vegetative ground cover (approximately 90%) of birdsfoot trefoil, fescue, and foxtail. Horizons: 1. 0-3 cm 2. 3-27 cm 3. 29-55 cm 4. 55-63 cm Pale yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) with some small light gray (N 7/0) mottles; silty clay loam; weak granular structure; very friable; abundant roots; pH 7.5 and a neutralization potential of 40 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; clear smooth boundary. Black (10YR 2/1) silty clay loam with two pockets (approxi¬ mately 7 cm in diameter) of brownish yellow (10YR 6/6) sandy loam material; no pedogenic structure, but weak subangular blocky structure remnant of parent material; friable, 10% coarse fragments of sandstone, mudstone, and limestone ranging from 1-3 cm in diameter; many roots; pH 7.5 with a neutralization potential of 55 t CaC 03 equiv¬ alent/1000 of material; pockets were pH 7.8 with a neutralization potential of 198 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t material; gradual wavy boundary. Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay with much interculated gray (10YR 5/1) mottles; pocket of high chroma material 10 cm in diameter; silt loam texture; massive; slightly hard to hard; 10% coarse fragments of sandstone and shale; many roots; pH 7.2 with a neutralization potential of 42 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; gradual wavy boundary. Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) sandy clay loam; massive; hard; brick artifact found; many roots; pH 7.0 with a neutralization potential of 8 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; abrupt smooth boundary. 115. 63-69 cm Black (N 2/0); organic horizon; massive; friable; pH 8.1 with 250 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; many roots; gradual smooth boundary; lime streaks present. 116. 69-100 cm Black (N 2/0); organic horizon; massive; friable; pH 3.4 with a negative neutralization potential of 2 t of CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material. Remarks: Climate: Parent Material: Physiography: Relief: Slope: Aspect: Moisture: Classification: Humid temperate Illinolan glacial till over Pennsylvanian Age organic materials derived from coal and organic shales. Till plain Class C slope, concave, single 7Z South-southwest Moderately dry Typic Udispolent, loamy-skeletal, mixed, neutral, mesic. 64 Table 7.3. Profile Description of Minesoil at Site ST-8 Date: November 1978 Location: Macoupin County, Staunton, Illinois; site is located in Section 30, Township 7N, Range 6W. Top of recontoured refuse pile. Sampled and Described By: A. A. Sobek, D. Curnock, and M. Findlay Vegetation: Poor vegetative ground cover (approximately 40%) of birdsfoot trefoil, foxtail, and mosses. Horizons: 1. 0-9 cm 2. 9-26 cm Yellowish brown (10YR 5/6) silty clay; weak granular structure; very friable; many roots; pH 7.5 with a neutrali¬ zation potential of 23.6 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; clear smooth boundary. Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4) silty clay with dark brown (10YR 3/3) coatings on ped exterior and a 10 cm diameter pocket of light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4) silty clay; platy structure inherited from parent materials; structureless massive; few roots concentrated in the pocket at left side of horizon; 1% coarse fragments of coal and rounded quartz; pH 7.5 with neutralization potential of 4.6 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; abrupt smooth boundary outlined by yellowish red (5Y 4/6) material. 113. 26-35 cm Very dark gray (N 3/0) organic shaly material; structureless single grain; friable; no roots; 10% coarse fragments of black shale and coal less than 25.4 mm in diameter; gray (N 5/0) coatings present; pH 2.1 with a negative neutralization potential of 16.4 t CaC 03 equivalent/1000 t of material; abrupt smooth boundary. 114. 35-50 cm Black (N 2/0) organic shaly and coaly material; structure¬ less massive; extremely firm; no roots; 50% coarse fragments of shale and coal ranging up to 20 mm in diameter; some bridging voids; pH 3.4 with negative neutralization potential of 18.1 t CaCOj equivalent/1000 t of material. Remarks: Climate: Humid temperate Parent Material : Glacial till over Pennsylvanian Age organic materials such as coal refuse. Physiography: Till plain Relief: Class A slope, convex, single Slope: < 1% Aspect: West Moisture: Moist Classification: Carbolithic Udispolents, loamy-skeletal, nigric, extremely acid, mesic. 65 indicate a need for continued monitoring and maintenance. Erosion and acidic runoff water from exposed refuse material must be controlled. High soil bulk densities (up to 2.1 g/cm^) have not resulted in a reduction in percent plant cover. Additional plant roots, developed over a period of time, are expected to reduce soil bulk density. The incorporation of neutralizing materials in the top 15 cm of the regraded refuse material before the addition of the weathered topsoil (1) was successful as evidenced by the abundance of roots found in this zone. No roots were found in the untreated portion of the refuse material. The treated zone provides added depth for plant roots to obtain additional nutrients and moisture. Minesoils located on the top of the refuse pile exhibited ponding of water and mini-perched water tables below the weathered topsoil. The ponding effects are a result of both the amount of swelling clays found in the weathered topsoil and the discontinuity of pores between the topsoil and the treated refuse. The perched water table is also a result of the dis¬ continuity between these two dissimilar materials. Both of these effects will be ameliorated as the vegetation increases to provide the root den¬ sities needed to replace organic materials and its beneficial decomposition products. 7.6 RECOMMENDATIONS The first action in any future reclamation project should be charac¬ terization of the physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the refuse materials and the materials to be used as cover materials. This information will ensure that necessary applications of soil amendments (limestone and/or fertilizer) are included in the reclamation plan. Mulch material should be applied areas that are subject to erosion. Mulch mater¬ ial would reduce loss of soil moisture and provide soil protection during the establishment of a plant cover. Blending of materials at the refuse/cover material interface would eliminate textural discontinuities that cause perched water tables and result in seeps. A more uniform and deeper incorporation of neutralizing materials would provide a deeper root zone for plants. A continued soil testing and maintenance program will be required at the project site until soil conditions are stabilized. This should be done every two years until trends are well established. 7.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Valuable consultations and assistance in the area of clay mineralogy by Dr. Robert W. Doehler, Associate Professor of Earth Science at North¬ eastern Illinois University. Grateful acknowledgment is given to analytical personnel and to the student aides of the Land Reclamation Program who have contributed to this subproject. 66 7.8 REFERENCES 1. Ammons, J. T., J. T. Sencindiver, and R. M. Smith, Topsoiling and Land Use , Land Marc, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 17-20 (March 1979). 2. Blake, G. R., Bulk Density , in C. A. Black (ed.), Method of Soil Analysis, Agronomy 9:374-390, Am. Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wise. (1965). 3. Piech, M., Hydrogen-Ion Activity , in C. A. Black (ed.), Methods of Soil Analysis, Agronomy 9:914-926, Am. Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wise. (1965). 4. Schultz, L. G., Quantitative Interpretation of Mineralogical Composition from X-Ray and Chemical Data for the Pierre Shale , U.S.G.S. Professional Paper 391-C, 31 pages (1964). 5. Smith, R. M., A. A. Sobek, T. Arkle, Jr., J. C. Sencindiver, and J. R. Freeman, Extensive Overburden Potentials for Soil and Water Quality , U.S. EPA Report, EPA-600/2-76-184, Cincinnati, Ohio (1976). 6. Sobek, A. A., W. A. Schuller, J. R. Freeman, and R. M. Smith, Field and Laboratory Methods Applicable to Overburdens and Minesoils , U.S EPA Environmental Protection Technology Series, EPA-600/2-78-054, Cincinnati, Ohio, pp. 65-69 (1978). 7. Soil Survey Staff, Soil Survey Manual , Agriculture Handbook 18, USDA-SCS, Washington, D.C., 503 pp. (1951). 67 8 SLOPE ANGLE AND EROSION RATE Michael L. Wilkey 8 .1 SUMMARY The slope angle and erosion rate subproject examines the effect of three slopes, 33.3% (3:1), 20% (5:1), 14.3% (7:1), and three different depths of cover material, 0, 15 cm, and 30 cm, on erosion rate and runoff water quality and quantity. Three replicate plots were installed on each of the slopes and cover-material depths, for a total of nine treatments. The quantity of runoff water from each plot was measured, and water samples and sediment were collected and analyzed in the laboratory following each storm event. The results of two years of testing indicate that a cover- material depth of more than 15 cm does not appear to be significant with regard to runoff water quality; however, at least some cover material must be placed over the bare refuse in order to reduce the amount of runoff, improve the overall water quality, and establish a vegetative cover. 8.2 INTRODUCTION A major problem at the abandoned site was erosion of the steep-sided refuse pile; gullies as deep as 3m or more had been cut into the slope of the pile. In recontouring the pile, nominal slopes of 20% (5:1) or less were included in the final design to minimize erosion. If the slopes could have been steeper than 20 % without significantly increasing erosion, cost savings during the regrading process could have been realized. With this in mind, three different slopes — 33.3% (3:1), 20% (5:1), and 14.3% (7:1) — were incorporated in the final regrading plans (Figure 8.1). In addition, three different depths of cover material were placed over the recontoured refuse material: 0, 15 cm, and 30 cm. This created nine differ¬ ent treatments (three slopes X three cover depths) to be evaluated. 8.3 DESCRIPTION On each of the three slopes, nine runoff collection devices were installed. Each of these devices contained two parts, a plot encompassing 4.05 m^, and a collection system which included a 208 L drum (Figure 8.2). The plots were constructed with sheet metal enclosing three sides; the bottom of each plot was enclosed by a sheet metal collector. The runoff collects at the low end of the plot, flows through tubing into the drum buried approximately 1.5 m beyond the plot itself. After each storm event of 2.5 cm or more, the depth of the runoff water is measured within the barrel, and water and sediment samples are taken back to the laboratory to be analyzed for pH, acidity, alkalinity, HCO 3 , chloride, phosphate, nitrogen, nitrate, sulfate, calcium, potassium, magnesium, manganese, sodium, cadmium, copper, iron, zinc, and aluminum. Runoff water pH was also measured in the field. An additional sample is taken by resuspending the sediment in the runoff water in the drum. In the laboratory this sample is analyzed for both settlable and suspended solids. The actual rainfall 68 0 50 100 150 l_I_I_I METERS - PROPERTY LINE BUILDING ABANDONED RAILROAD SPUR POND (TT> MARSH - WATERCOURSE __CONTOUR LINE <£33) TREES E3 EROSION PLOT Fig. 8.1. Slope-Angle and Erosion-Rate Plots 69 amount of each of the storm events that corresponds to the sampling period is recorded by an on-site weather station. Plots were installed in May 1977 after site development work was completed. Samples for nine events in 1977 and eight during 1978 were collected. 8.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 8.1 shows a typical set of results for a 4.6 cm rainfall on nominal 33.3% slopes. Results indicate no dramatic difference among the three slopes; however, major differences occur between the plots on which cover material was applied and those where the refuse was left exposed. As indicated in the table, the percent runoff and the concentrations of sulfate, acidity, iron, and zinc are significantly less on the plots with cover material. The pH on the covered plots is at least two units higher than on the bare-refuse plots. Improvements can be noted between the 15-cm and 30-cm cover depths, but are not as dramatic as those between the bare refuse and the plots with only 15 cm of cover material. 8.5 CONCLUSIONS If vegetation can be established, slopes in the range of 33.3% to 20% can be incorporated in the final design of reclamation projects of this type. A minimum cover depth of 15 cm is indicated by the results of this subproject. By increasing cover material depth from 15 cm to 30 cm, only a minimum of additional benefit in reduced erosion and improved runoff water quality can be expected. Since heavy construction equipment utilized on this type of project, e.g. , scrapers and tractors, can operate on slopes of 33.3%, increasing the overall slopes from 20% to 33% could reduce the amount of refuse relocation required. Approximately 75% of the construction cost related to this project involved earthmoving, and any reduction here will result in a substantial savings in construction costs. Table 8.1. Analysis of 4.6-cm Rainfall on Nominal 33% Slopes % Slope Cover Depth (m) PH Zinc (ppm) Iron (ppm) Acidity (ppm) Sulfate (ppm) % Runoff 27.1 0 3.3 8.9 103.2 837.5 1454 42.99 25.9 0.15 5.9 1.2 1.3 30.15 179 24. 23 27.6 0.30 5.8 0.4 0.5 8.04 56 22.26 70 TYPICAL PLAN VIEW FOR ONE SLOPE ANGLE 3 = 1 SLOPE 1.22 m T CNJ ro ro 1 H SHEET-METAL SIDES / WEIR ■HOSE COLLECTING DRUM (208 L) -COLLECTING DRUM (208 L) CROSS-SECTION OF SLOPES AND DETAILS OF COLLECTION DEVICE Fig. 8.2. Diagram and Arrangement of Runoff Collection Devices and Plots 71 8.6 RECOMMENDATIONS It is recommended that the nominal slopes on future projects be increased to a minimum of 25%, and perhaps in some areas up to 33.3%. Most maintenance equipment can operate on slopes of up to 25%. Erosion has been caused by surface water accumulating on the top of the refuse pile and running down the slopes, creating channels. Areas where refuse material is exposed have created acidic runoff water, especially on the south side of the pile. It is recommended that exposed refuse plots be installed in a gentle slope of 5% to 10%, crowned at the center and draining off the sides. Some type of surface water control (graded terraces with riprap waterways) is recommended to carry runoff water from recontoured refuse piles. 8.7 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Individuals who should be recognized for their help in this sub- project are: Robert Tober, Emil Misichko, Peter Neisius, and Walter Clap¬ per, for their efforts both in the field and in the area of data reduction; Marilyn Master, Melvin Findlay and Cindy Van Duyne, for their lab analysis work; and Barry Deist for his effort in coordinating the sampling at the site. 73 9 SOIL MICROBIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS R. Michael Miller and Silas W. May* 9.1 SUMMARY The treatment plots of the revegetation study (Figure 6.1) were investigated for decomposition rates and microbial components. Since recontouring of the site, the microbial community has achieved numbers equal to those of old field soils. The diversity of the system, as measured by species numbers, is much lower. Decomposition rates for cellulose and grass litter were determined for old field soil, cover material, and limed gob. The decomposition rates for these treatments were similar, yet none achieved rates equal to those of old field soil. The half-life for litter is approx¬ imately 82 days for old field soils, whereas that of the cover and limed gob treatments ranged from 433 to 578 days. 9.2 INTRODUCTION Significant factors that affect the ability of land to support vege¬ tation and undergo rehabilitation are amounts and periodicity of precipi¬ tation, soil productivity and fertility, and suitability and availability of plant materials. The major aim of this subproject concerns the effect of reclamation on below-ground processes, which in turn influences soil produc¬ tivity and fertility. Thus, a soil ecosystems approach is necessary to assess and identify techniques that are successful in restoring below-ground processes needed for stability and prevention of particle transport during reclamation. The soil microflora constitute an essential element of these processes and are intimately associated with nutrient cycling; they also act as symbionts necessary to the stability of the ecosystem being established. In order to better evaluate the success of particular reclamation techniques, an evaluation of the below-ground processes associated with the resultant newly-formed soil profiles has been undertaken. The experimental design is such that information collected within this subproject can be related to other aspects of the project. The objectives of this subproject are to: 1. Determine and relate shifts in microbial populations with types of cover matrix used on the recontoured gob, e.g., cover material, limed gob. 2. Determine the decomposition rates of various substrates within the different treatments, and use this as a predictor for the "state" of the soil ecosystem. 3. Assess the reestablishment of a viable soil symbiont com¬ munity as expressed with mycorrhiza associations. * Assistant Professor of Microbiology, Indiana University Northwest. 74 9.3 DESCRIPTION During the summer of 1977, sampling sites were established within the revegetation research plots. This enabled both the above- and below-ground ecosystems to be assessed as a unit. At that time, litter bags made of nylon gauze and filled with straw or filter paper were placed 6 cm below the ground surface. Enough bags were placed within each treatment plot for three sampling periods. Samples were collected at 77, 277, and 464 days after placement. Upon collection, the samples were immediately air-dried, and returned to the lab for analysis. At the laboratory, the samples were oven-dried at 105°C for 25 hours, weighed, and ashed at 450°C for 4 hours or until complete combustion had occurred. The percent decomposition was determined by formula and calculated as follows: 0 Q — 0 j. Fraction of material lost = --- u o where: 0 o = original dry weight, i.e., original weight minus original ash weight, and 0 r = ash free weight of retrieved substrate, i.e., where: A = original weight, B = weight of retrieved material and soil, B r = ash weight of retrieved material and soil, C = fraction ash in original material, and S = fraction of soil remaining after ashing, i.e., soil ignition soil weight Microbial numbers and fungal diversity were determined for soils of the different treatments. Bacteria, actinomycetes, and fungal numbers were enumerated by standard spread plate technique. Fungal diversity was deter¬ mined using a baiting technique. The bait consisted of 50 1-cm alfalfa straws contained in nylon gauze and placed in a petri dish, covered with soil, and incubated for one week. Each of the straws was washed in sterile deionized water and placed on carrot agar. Subsequent fungal colonies were identified and recorded. 9.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The microbial ecology of the study site prior to reclamation has been previously reported (1). Prior to reclamation, microbial numbers were low for the heterotrophic populations. The only biologically active group 75 was the chemolithotrophs. Upon recontouring and placement of a suitable cover material, as well as revegetation of the site, the microbial community has become established (Table 9.1). Both cover material and limed gob saprobic functions have been initiated. Currently, the fungal diversity of the different treatments is much lower that of the undisturbed old field soils adjacent to the reclamation site (Table 9.2). At present, the number of species occurring in each of the treatments is much lower in comparison to those of undisturbed soils. Also, the functional capacities of these organisms are not as broad, whereas the undisturbed soils contain decomposing fungi. The decomposition rates for litter and cellulose substrates buried in the undisturbed "old field" soil, cover material, and limed gob are presented in Figures 9.1 and 9.2. At present, the data have not been analyzed for statistical significance, but several trends are evident. Under all treatments, decomposition of cellulose and grass litter has been reestablished. Prior to reclamation, no decomposition was evident for cellulose in gob. Also, undisturbed soil decomposition is much higher than the treatments. This holds true for both substrates. Because litter decomposition is a negative exponential weight loss curve, weight losses were transformed to: In (X t /X 0 ) where: X t = the weight of litter at time t, and X Q = the weight of litter initially. Table 9.1. Number of Microorganisms Occurring on a July 19, 1978, at Staunton 1 Site, Expressed on a Per-Gram Dry Weight Basis Treatment Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi Undisturbed Soils 9.9 X 10 6 8.0 X 10 3 3.6 x 10 3 Cover Material A 1.1 X 107 3.0 X 10 4 6.5 x 10 5 Cover Material B 5.3 X 10 6 5.0 X 10 3 1.0 x 10 6 Limed Gob 9.5 X 10 3 1.0 X 10 5 1.0 x 10 3 Gob - No Amendments 0 0 0 76 Table 9.2. Relative Frequency of Isolation from Straw Burials of Soil Fungi for Different Cover Materials and Undisturbed Soils 3 Isolates Undisturbed Community Soil Cover Material A Cover Material B Limed Gob Chaetomium spp. 54 100 Cunninghamnella sp. 12 Doratomyces sp. 10 Fusarium roseum series 100 Gliocladium pencilloides 60 42 82 Myrothecium sp. 8 38 Penicillium sp. 8 20 Rhizopus sp.. 100 100 100 Stachybotrys sp. 4 16 Trichoderma sp. 10 100 100 Zygorhynchus moelleri 64 a Data based on the following: r_F = number of straws positive for species . ^qq total number of straws The decomposition rate, k, was then calculated as the slope of the linear regression line of In (X t /X Q ) on time from the equations: -kt = (X t /X 0 ) _ k « (x t /x 0 ) t where: k = the decomposition rate, X t = litter weight at time t, X Q = initial litter weight, and t = time. Table 9.3 shows the k values for each of the substrates and treatments. Both the time required for half the litter of a particular type to decompose (half-life, 0.693/k) and the time required for 95% of the litter PERCENT DECOMPOSITION PERCENT DECOMPOSITION 77 TIME IN DAYS Fig. 9.1. Cellulose Decomposition Rates TIME IN DAYS Fig. 9.2. Litter Decomposition Rates 78 Table 9.3. Decomposition Parameters for Each Type of Substrate Under Different Treatments at the Staunton 1 Site k, days r Half-life, days 95% life, days Cellulose Undisturbed Soil 0.0095 -0.682 72.95 315.79 Cover Material A 0.0047 -0.714 147.45 638.30 Cover Material B 0.0042 -0.770 165.00 714.29 Limed Gob 0.0019 -0.632 364.74 1578.95 Litter Undisturbed Soil 0.0085 -0.873 81.53 352.94 Cover Material A 0.0016 -0.542 433.13 1875.00 Cover Material B 0.0012 -0.782 577.50 2500.00 Limed Gob 0.0013 -0.766 533.08 2307.69 to disappear (95%-life, 3/k) can be estimated from k, Table 9.3. These values can be used as indicators of the functional state of the developing soil ecosystem. Even though different microbial communities may be present as in the cover materials and limed gob, decomposition of cellulose and litter proceed at comparable rates, though not yet equal to those of undis¬ turbed soils. In undisturbed soils, 95% of the substrate is decomposed in one year for both cellulose and litter. Two years are necessary for cell¬ ulose in cover material, and more than 4 years in limed gob. The limed gob data are not an underestimate of k. During ashing, we found iron accumula¬ tion in the filter paper, which may explain the lower k value. 9.5 CONCLUSIONS An increase in microbial numbers and species diversity has occurred on the treatment plots. However, none of the treatments have a fungal diversity equal to the old field soil. A predominance of sugar and cellu- lytic fungal forms was evident for the treatment plots. The old field soil also contains lignin-decomposing fungi. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza have become established, thus adding to the stability of the cover material. No mycorrhiza was present in limed gob. Functionally, the different treatment plots have similar decomposition rates. These rates are significantly lower than undisturbed soil. From the data we have collected over the last several years, informa¬ tion indicates that cover material under a proper management regime should 79 allow good establishment of a cover crop. The addition, year after year, of organic material from standing crops should aid to the ameliorative effect. Since decomposition can now occur, an increase in the soil’s buffer capacity should occur, thus adding to the stability of the ecosystem. 9.6 RECOMMENDATIONS To date, decisions as to success of a particular treatment at the site are difficult to make since time is a factor that must be considered. It can be said, however, that the "nature" of the cover material used will greatly influence the outcome. Surface materials are usually more desirable than subsurface soils, and both are more advantageous than amelioration of the refuse with lime. Often, however, surface soil is not available or, if it is so, another site has to be disturbed to acquire it. If time is not of importance, subsurface soils are adequate. 9.7 REFERENCES 1. Miller, R. M., and R. E. Cameron, Microbial Ecology Studies at Two Coal Mine Refuse Sites in Illinois, Argonne National Laboratory Report ANL/LRP-3 (1978). 81 10 WILDLIFE INVESTIGATIONS Edwin D. Pentecost 10.1 SUMMARY Wildlife studies were conducted during the summer months of 1977 and 1978. Standard small mammal live trapping and avian census techniques were employed to determine use of the site by small mammals and birds. Other wildlife species were noted through direct observation or sign (i.e., scats, tracks, dens). The mammalian and avian species observed on site area were typical of those in early old-field communities of southern Illinois. 10.2 INTRODUCTION The wildlife subproject was designed to document use of the site by wildlife, with emphasis on the gathering of qualitative data. The overall hypothesis being tested was that wildlife-species composition of a reclama¬ tion site is typical of that observed on disturbed sites and in early old-field communities of southern Illinois. Documenting wildlife use of the site and how such use compares to that of secondary successional areas is important if we are to predict how successful reclamation has been in creating wildlife habitat, particularly since a major post-reclamation land use of the Staunton site is to be a wildlife sanctuary. The wildlife studies conducted the last two years have been valuable in their contribution to our data base of knowledge on the ecological succession of disturbed sites. Although other researchers have documented the utilization of strip mine spoils by wildlife in the Midwest (1-3,6,7, 11-15,17,18), no studies are known that document wildlife usage of refuse sites undergoing reclamation. 10.3 DESCRIPTION Observations of mammalian species utilizing the site were both qualitative and quantitative. Other documentation was based on direct sighting and by observations of tracks, scats, etc. In the summer of 1977, two 5x5 live-trap grids were set up on the south area of the site to determine kinds and relative abundances of small mammals invading the site during the first growing season following seeding. In 1978, a study was conducted using Sherman live traps arranged in an octagonal pattern over an area of 0.9 ha. Two approaches were used to conduct a bird census of the area. The site periphery and adjacent habitat types were surveyed to establish a baseline necessary to determine which species would be expected to use the site once the appropriate habitat has been developed. The second approach was to conduct a systematic search for nests on the south area. The bird survey in the old field involved walking through a grassland area around the periphery of a sewage treatment pond adjacent to the south 82 area. A distance of approximately 1200 m was walked during each census. All censuses were conducted between 0730 and 0900 hrs, for two days each in May, July, and September 1977, and two days each in April and May 1978. A forest-edge community was surveyed by walking a distance of approximately 600 m along the periphery of a woodlot located immediately adjacent to the south area. In general, the survey of herpetofauna at the site was mostly quali¬ tative. Drift fences were employed -in April and May 1977 to determine populations utilizing the new pond (Fig. 4.1). Direct observations of species' occurrence and location were made throughout other phases of the research. 10.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Ten species were observed during 1977 and 1978 (Table 10.1). The live-trapping study in 1978 and preliminary observations in 1977 indicated that four small mammal species inhabit the site. The two most common species were the prairie vole ( Microtus ochrogaster ) and feral house mouse (Mus musculus). A typical successional pattern of small mammals occurred in 1977 on the south area. The white-footed mouse ( Peromyscus leucopus ) and M. muscu ¬ lus were captured on both of the 5x5 grids; Pj_ leucopus only occurred in the grid adjacent to the small woodlot. These two species also were cap¬ tured in July and September. In September, a pregnant meadow vole (Microtus Table 10.1. Mammalian Species Observed at the Staunton 1 Site 1977 1978 White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) X X Eastern cottontail (Sylvilagus floridanus) - X Prairie vole (Microtus ochrogaster) - X Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) X X House mouse (Mus musculus) X X White-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus) X - Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) - X Raccoon (Procyon lotor) X X Opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) X X Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) X X 83 Table 10.2. Small Mammal Capture Data from Live-Trapping at Staunton 1 Site during 1978 a Species Total Captures* 5 May June July M F M £ M F Microtus ochrogaster 1 5 14 20 19 17 Microtus pennsylvanicus — - 2 3 1 Mus musculus 2 5 9 3 14 7 Species Number of Individuals Marked May June July Total M £ M F M F M F Microtus ochrogaster 1 5 13 8 14 11 28 24 Microtus pennsylvanicus - — 1 3 1 4 1 Mus musculus 1 4 4 2 10 3 15 9 a Captures are based on a trapping effort (trap-nights) of 364 in May, 637 in June, and 436 in July. ^Numbers refer to total captures recorded including both new individuals and recaptures. pennsylvanicus ) was captured in a densely vegetated area adjacent to the south woodlot. The numbers captured throughout 1977 were not sufficient for an analysis of population density for any of the species. Four small mammal species were captured during 1978. Two new species captured included the Norway rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) and prairie vole ( Microtus ochrogaster ). The latter occurred throughout the south area while the Norway rat was taken only on the northwest corner of the trapping area. The white-footed mouse was not captured in 1978. On the basis of total number of individuals marked M^ ochrogaster was the most commonly occurring species, followed by Mus musculus and M. pennsylvanicus . A total of 28 males and 24 females of M^_ ochrogaster were marked during 1437 trap nights of effort from May through July (Table 10.2). An increase in numbers of new individuals occurred in each successive month, with the greatest number of total captures and new individuals of each 84 Table 10.3. Age Class Distribution of Small Mammals Captured at Staunton 1 Site in 1978 Species Number of Individuals Marked May June July A SA J A SA J A SA J Microtus ochrogaster 4 2 18 2 6 22 1 1 Microtus pennsylvanicus - - 1 - - 4 — - Mus musculus 3 2 2 5 - 3 10 — 2 A — Adult SA — Subadult J — Juvenile species recorded in July. Age class distribution by month is provided in Table 10.3. In general, the two most common species, M^_ ochrogaster and Mus musculus , were captured on most of the octagonal trap area. No directional pattern of invasion was observed for ochrogaster . Mus musculus was captured most frequently in distal portions of the two assessment lines radiating northwesterly from the center of the trap area. This may have been due to the proximity of a farm house and barn located approximately 50 m north of the south area which harbored an established population. It was not generally possible to correlate capture success with percent vegetative cover along the various assessment lines or at each trap loca¬ tion. Special mention should be made of trap success along two of the assessment lines. Only three individuals were captured along a line tren¬ ding in a southwesterly direction from the center of the trap area. This line traversed an area either totally devoid of or very sparsely covered by vegetation. Only one individual was captured at the first 10 trap stations along a line trending in a westerly direction from the center of the trap area. This line also crossed an area generally devoid of vegetation. Population density estimates on the 0.9 ha trap area were determined for Mus musculus and Microtus ochrogaster using a Lincoln-Peterson Index. The estimates and 95% confidence intervals for June and July are: M. ochrogaster M. musculus June July 37.5 (17.5-57.5) 189 (27 - 351) 20 (0.6-39.4) 82.5 (<0-181.3) The large confidence intervals are the result of few numbers of recaptures, particularly in July. The relative large number of pregnant females ob¬ served in May, together with immigration probably accounted for the high numbers of new individuals captured in June and July. 85 The results of the 1978 study indicate that breeding populations of Mus musculus have become established within the second growing season after final grading and seeding. The high numbers of new individuals captured in June and July are typical of an expanding population. Low moisture condi¬ tions resulted in poor vegetative growth during May and June of 1977, which hindered invasion by both ochrogaster and M^_ pennsylvanicus . Capture locality data for the two Microtus species is suggestive of habitat segregation. M^_ pennsylvanicus was taken only in areas of dense vegetative cover (> 50%), while M^_ ochrogaster was captured most often in areas of low vegetative cover. This is in agreement with the findings of other researchers (4,10,19). Keller and Krebs (8), however, did not find distinct habitat segregation between pennsylvanicus and ochrogaster in southern Indiana grasslands. Lewin (10) correlated the distribution of the two species with soil moisture in central Illinois and found that M^_ ochro¬ gaster was more abundant than was M. pennsylvanicus in dry habitat. Zimmer¬ man (19) demonstrated a greater abundance of M. pennsylvanicus than M. ochrogaster in fields comprised of 50% grasses and dense vegetative cover in southern Indiana. An increase in herbaceous cover at the Staunton site will afford an opportunity to study interspecific interactions between these species and to determine their ultimate distribution on the site. No population estimates were made of larger mammals inhabiting the site. By mid-summer of 1977, signs of muskrat ( Ondatra zibethica ), raccoon ( Procyon lotor ), and opossum ( Didelphis marsupialis ) were evident around the pond. Cottontail ( Sylvilagus floridanus ), however, appeared not to utilize the site until late in the first growing season. A cottontail nest with five young was observed on the north area in June 1978, in a densely vege¬ tated area of ladino clover, birdsfoot trefoil, and tall fescue. Common burrowing mammals, such as the thirteen-lined ground squirrel ( Spermophilus tridecemlineatus ) and woodchuck ( Marmota monax ), are species expected to invade the site. One area of concern is the response of these species to the acidic refuse material contacted during burrowing. A less intensive mammal monitoring program will be carried out during the next 5 to 8 years to examine this concern and to document future wildlife use of the site. In 1977, 11 bird species were observed on the south area (Table 10.4). Of these species, only the common grackle ( Quiscalus quiscula ) nested on the area. At least three nest sites were observed, all confined to the undisturbed woodlot. Killdeer ( Charadrius vociferus ) frequented the top of the south area but no nests were located. In 1978, the number of species observed on the south area had increased to 18. Of these, four were known to nest on the south area (Table 10.4). The red-winged blackbird ( Agelaius phoeniceus ) was the most common species utilizing grassy vegetation for nesting sites. Dead pigweed ( Amaranthus sp.) plants were used to support two of the three nests observed on the south area. All three nests occurred in a densely vegetated area (> 75% cover visual estimation) of tall fescue ( Festuca arundinacea ), goldenrod ( Solidago sp.), and pigweed ( Amaranthus sp.). Considerable red-winged nesting activity took place in late April and May around the pond on the north area. A killdeer nested on an exposed limed-refuse plot in the revegetation research plots. 86 Table 10.A. Bird Species and Nesting Activities Observed at the Staunton 1 Site 1977 1978 Barn swallow American goldfinch Chimney swift Barn swallow Common grackle Cardinal Eastern kingbird Chimney swift Indigo bunting Chipping sparrow Killdeer Common grackle [4] a Purple martin Crow Red-winged blackbird Field sparrow Robin House sparrow Rough-winged swallow Killdeer [1] Tree swallow Mourning dove Purple martin Red-winged blackbird Robin Rough-winged swallow Song sparrow [1] Starling Tree swallow [3] Unidentified active nests [2] Inactive nests (from 1977?) [1] a Nests counted on 0.9 ha grassland during April-May 1978. A comparison of bird species observed during surveys in 1977 and 1978 on the old-field and forest-edge communities along the periphery of the south area indicates that approximately the same number of species used the areas each year. Although the number of observed species undoubtedly does not represent an exhaustive listing, particularly of migrants, it does provide an indication of species likely to use reclaimed areas as the vegetative structure becomes more complex. The relative abundance of bird species observed in old-field and forest-edge communities during 1977 and 1978 is shown in Table 10.5. The number of nesting species observed on the site in 1978 (3) was comparable to that reported by Karr (7) on a 3-year-old surface mine 87 spoil in Vermillion County, Illinois. Karr also reported nesting by the song sparrow ( Melospiza melodia), killdeer, and red-winged blackbird. In addition, horned larks ( Eremophela alpestcis ) and spotted sandpipers ( Actitis macularia ) were recorded as nesting species. Although nesting habitat was available for these species on the Staunton site, no individuals were observed either as migrants or breeding species. Although not observed as summer residents at the Staunton site, the western and eastern meadowlark are common nesting species of early old-field communities in southern Illinois (3). Bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ), known to nest in grasslands in Williamson County, Illinois, (9) would also be expected to use the site. Bobwhite inhabit forest-edge and grassland communities adjacent to the south area of the site, but were not observed on the site. Densely vegetated areas on the site may provide winter cover for bobwhite, particularly on the south area which is adjacent to an agricultural field. The lack of a developed litter layer during 1977 and 1978 was a major factor contributing to the absence of typical soil arthropods. This fact may limit use of the site by insectivorous bird species. As dead organic matter accumulates, various soil arthropods should invade. The addition of mulch at the time of seeding would have improved the habitat quality for soil fauna. As the vegetative cover takes on a more three-dimensional appearance, the number of bird species will undoubtedly increase. No shrub species have been observed on the site. Dense stands of cottonwood seedlings ( Populus deltoides ) became established on the north area adjacent to the new pond (Fig. 4.1). Black locust seedlings ( Robinia pseudoacacia ) were observed on the south area. Other tree species observed in the north area which may ultimately provide habitat for various passerine species include silver maple ( Acer saccharinum ), slippery elm ( Ulmus rubra ), and sassafras ( Sassa¬ fras albidum). A major concern which warrants study is the growth of tree and shrub species once their root systems have reached the surface material- limed refuse interface. The ability of root systems to tolerate the acidic refuse material below the limed refuse material will be a major factor in long-term plant survival and the creation of a diverse vegetative component in the grassland community. Based on the results of many studies attempting to correlate bird species diversity with foliage height diversity, one can assume that bird species diversity at the Staunton site will increase with an increase in foliage height diversity. A study of the site at intervals of 5, 10, and 15 years would permit a comparison of breeding birds of the site with species typical of old-field communities. The number of reptile and amphibian species observed was essentially the same each year (Table 10.6). The southern leopard frog ( Rana pipiens sphenocephala ), Blanchard's cricket frog ( Acris crepitans blanchardi ), and American toad (Bufo a^_ americanus ) invaded the pond within one month of its formation. Tadpoles and newly metamorphosed _B^_ americanus were observed on the north area in late April and May 1977. This was during a time when little vegetative growth had occurred on the site because of the extremely dry conditions. 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